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LIBRARY OF THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

PRINCETON, N. J.

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HINDU LITERATURE;

21 1933

THE AHCIEHT BOOKS OF HSTDIA.

✓

ELIZABETH A. REED,

Member of tue Philosophical Society of Great Britain.

CHICAGO:

S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY.
1 S 9 1„

BY S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY.

PRESS OP

KNIGHT & LEONARD CO., CHIC

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

HINDU LITERATURE; OR, THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

CHAPTER I.

niNDU LITERATURE.

PAGES.

WHAT IS THE VEDA ? — THE AGE OF THE VEDAS —

WHEN WRITTEN — THE RIG-VEDA, . . 1-27

CHAPTER II.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN THE MYTHOLOGIES
OF INDIA AND GREECE — AGNI — SURYA —

— VARUNA — YAMA — USHAS — MARUTS —

HYMNS OF EXECRATION — INCONSISTENT THE-
ORIES— INDRA — SIMILARITY OF NORTHERN
MYTHS, 28-49

CHAPTER III.

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

MULTIPLICATION OF DEITIES — ANALOGY BE-
TWEEN INDIAN AND GREEK GODS — MODERN
DEITIES — BRAHMA, VISHNU, AND SIVA —
INCARNATIONS OF VISHNU — GARUDA —
lii

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

RECOVERY OF TIIE LOST NECTAR OF THE
GODS — SIVA, 50-65

CHAPTER IV.

THE VEDAS AND THE SUTTEE.

LITERARY IMPORTANCE — DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN
EUROPEAN AND NATIVE SCHOLARS — COLE-
brooke’s TRANSLATION OF DISPUTED TEXT —
MUTILATION OF THE TEXT — TESTIMONY OF
RAJA RADHAKANT DEB — THE RITE NOT
ADVOCATED IN THE RIG-VEDA — DISGRACE
OF AVOIDING THE SUTTEE — INSTANCE OF
ESCAPE — ENTHUSIASM OF NATIVE POETS —

LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK, .... 66-73

CHAPTER V.

THE BRAHMANAS.

THE SECOND GRAND DIVISION OF VEDIC LITER-
ATURE— AGE OF THE BRAHMANAS — BURDEN
OF CEREMONIES — PENANCE FOR BAD DREAMS
— SACRIFICES — EXTRACT FROM THE FOURTH
BRAHMANA — TIIE STORY OF SUNAHSEPA —

A HUMAN SACRIFICE — TRADITION OF THE
FLOOD AS FOUND IN THE SATAPATHA-BRAH-

MANA, 74-87

CHAPTER VI.

TIIE CODE OF MANU.

THE DATE OF THE CODE — THE TRIBE OR SCHOOL
OF MANAVAS — THE CODE A MEANS OF PER-
PETUATING THE RULES OF CASTE — DIVINE

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ORIGIN CLAIMED FOR THE LAWS OF MANU —

CASTE — DIVINE RIGHTS OF BRAHMANS —

THE KSHATRIYA — THE VAISYA— THE SUDRA
— MARRIAGE A PURIFYING RITE — RULES
FOR CHOOSING A WIFE — MARRIAGE — WOMAN’S
RIGHTS — PENANCES — CRIMINAL CODE — FU-
NERAL CEREMONIES, 88-98

CHAPTER VII.

THE UPANISHADS.

THE THIRD GRAND DIVISION OF VEDIC LITER-
ATURE— THE UPANISHADS — THE DOCTRINAL
PORTION OF THE VEDA — DERIVATION — RAM-
MOHUN ROY — NUMBER OF THE UPANISHADS
— PLACE IN VEDIC CHRONOLOGY — SRIITI OR
REVEALED KNOWLEDGE — CHANDOGYA UPA-
NISHAD — IMPORTANCE OF OM — EXTRACTS
FROM THE CHANDOGYA — THE KENA UPA-
NISHAD — EXTRACT FROM THE KENA — THE
KATHA UPANISHAD — THE AITAREYA UPA-
NISHAD — EXTRACT FROM THE AITAREYA —

THE IiAUSHlTAKI BRAHMANA UPANISHAD —
DISCOURSE UPON FUTURE LIFE— THE YAJA-
SANEYI-SATOHITA UPANISHAD — EXTRACT
FROM THE VA JASANEYI — THE ISA UPA-
NISHAD— THE COMPLETION OF REVELATION, 99-113

CHAPTER VIII.

THE MONOTHEISM OP THE UPANISHADS.

PANTHEISM — CONFESSION OF FAITH — DEATH
OF THEIR SUPREME GOD — DESCRIPTIONS OF

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

BRAHMA — THE FEET OF BRAHMAN — VISHNU
AS THE SUPREME GOD — THE SVETASVATARA-
UPANISHAD — PANTHEISM THE CREED OF
VEDIC LITERATURE, .....

CHAPTER IX.

COSMOGONY.

ABSURD THEORIES — EXTRACT FROM CIIANDOGYA
UPANISHAD — COSMOGONY OF MANU — A DAY
OF BRAHMA — SLEEP OF BRAHMA AND ITS
RESULTS— RE-CREATION — LENGTH OF BRAH-
MAN LIFE — THE SERPENT SESIIA — THE NAGAS
OR SERPENT DEMONS — DEATH OF BRAHMA —
REPEATED CREATIONS — THE WILL OF BRAH-
MA-INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF MATTER — EVO-
LUTION AND PANTHEISM — COSMOGRAPHY OF
THE MAHA-BHARATA AND THE PURANAS —
THE LENGTH OF A KALPA — TEACHING OF
THE RAMAYANA — CREATION BY VISHNU —
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE COSMOGONY’ OF
THE VEDAS AND OTHER ANCIENT WRITINGS
— TESTIMONY OF BARON VON HUMBOLDT —
MOSAIC COSMOGONY’,

CHAPTER X.

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

DESCENT OF MAN FROM A SINGLE PAIR — THE
EARTHLY AND HEAVENLY’ PART OF MAN —
RECONSTRUCTION OF MEN AT THE END OF
EACH KALPA — CREATION OF ANIMALS —
DIFFERENT CHARACTERS AND RACES OF MEN
— RUDRA — DEVOLUTION — EXTRACT, .

114-120

121-130

131-138

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

Vll

CHAPTER XI.

METEMPSYCHOSIS.

TRANSMIGRATION NOT TAUGHT IN THE RIG-
YEDA — THE TRIPLE SYSTEM OF TRANSMI-
GRATION— THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHAN-
DOGYA — DANGER DURING TRANSMIGRATION
— DISTINCTION BETWEEN ASCENDING AND
DESCENDING SOULS — HINDU EXPLANATION
OF INEQUALITIES OF FORTUNE— SINS AGAINST
CASTE RECEIVE THE GREATEST PUNISHMENT
— NO CRIME BECOMES A SIN IF THE WORDS
OF THE RIG-VEDA BE REMEMBERED, . . 139-145

CHAPTER XII.

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.

IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL — HEAVEN ONLY A
STEPPING-STONE TO HAPPINESS — EXPE-
RIENCE OF THE FAITHFUL HINDU — THE
HEAVEN OF INDRA — THE HEAVEN OF VISH-
NU — FUTURE PUNISHMENT — TWENTY-ONE
HELLS — VICTIMS SEE THE INHABITANTS OF
HEAVEN — TRANSMIGRATION OF SINNERS, . 140-152

CHAPTER XIII.

THE RAM A YANA.

ONE OF THE SACRED EPICS OF INDIA — THE
LAND OF THE HINDU — THE RAMA YANA
AND THE ILIAD — HELEN AND SITA — HECTOR
CHAINED TO THE CHARIOT WHEEL — FU-
NERAL HONORS PAID TO RAYANA — AGE OF

Vlll

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

THE RAMAYANA — THE SANCTITY OF THE
POEM — AUTHOR OF THE WORK — BASIS OF
THE POEM — LENGTH OF THE RAMAYANA, . 153-160

CHAPTER XIV.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

AYODHYA — DASARATIIA AND THE ASVA-MEDHA

— THE CONCLAVE OF THE GODS — PLEA MADE
TO BRAHMA — REFERRED TO VISHNU — HIS
HOME IN THE SEA OF MILK — REQUEST
GRANTED — THE BIRTH OF RAMA — THE BOW
OF SIVA — MARRIAGE OF RAMA — RAMA AP-
POINTED YUVA-RAJA — KAIKEYl — KAUSALYA

— SlTA — THE FAREWELLS — THE DEATH OF

THE RAJA — BIIARATA, . ... 161-203

CHAPTER XV.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA, CONTINUED.

LEAVING THE ATTENDANTS — THE GANGES —
CITRA-KUTA — LIFE IN EXILE — BHARATA’S
ARRIVAL — THE INTERVIEW — A WARNING
AND DEPARTURE — ATRI AND ANASUYA —

THE NEW HOME — SURPA-NAKHA — HAVANA
— THE ABDUCTION— THE SEARCH — SUGRlVA
THE MONKEY KING — EXPEDITION OF THE
MONKEY GENERAL HANGMAN — LANKA —

THE PALACE OF HAVANA — THE ASOKA GROVE
— INTERVIEW BETWEEN HANGMAN AND
SlTA — HANUMAN DESTROYS THE MANGO
GROVE — THE BURNING OF LANKA — HANU-
MAN REJOINS THE MONKEY ARMY, . . 204-247

TABLE OF CONTEXTS,

CHAPTER XVI.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA, CONCLUDED.

THE MONKEY EXPEDITION AGAINST LANKA —

THE SOUTHERN SEA — THE OCEAN BRIDGE
— INVASION OF LANKA — RAVANA AND
RAMA IN SINGLE COMBAT — THE DEATH OF
RAVANA — RESTORATION OF SITA — SITA’s
TRIAL AND VINDICATION — TRIUMPHANT
RETURN TO AYODHYA — THE BANISHMENT
OF SITA — THE SONS OF SITA — THE DEPART-

CHAPTER XVII.

THE MAHA-BHARATA.

THE COMPANION OF THE RAMAYANA — A COLOS-
SAL POEM — DERIVATION OF THE NAME —
HISTORICAL VALUE OF THE MAHA-BHARATA
— THE RELIGION OF THE GREAT EPIC —
LITERARY STYLE — THE AGE OF THE MAHA-
BHARATA — TRANSLATION OF THE WORK, . 272-282

CHAPTER XVIII.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA — THE GREAT WAR.

THE KAURAVAS AND PANDAVAS — THE TOUR-
NAMENT— THE S V A Y A?72 - V AR A — THE HOME
COMING — DRAUPADl MARRIES FIVE HUS-
BANDS— THE COUNCILS OF WAR — PREPAR-
ATIONS FOR THE GREAT WAR — THE CHAL-
LENGE GIVEN AND ACCEPTED — RULES OF
WARFARE, 283-303

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA— THE GREAT WAR,
CONCLUDED.

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA — THE ATTACK AND RE-
PULSE OF THE KAURAVAS — THE THIRD DAY
— FALL OF BHlSHMA — A NIGHT SCENE —

WAR OF EXTERMINATION — RAJA YUDHI-
SHTIIIRA — DESTRUCTION OF THE TRIBE OF
YADAVAS — DEATH OF KRISHNA — ABDICA-
TION AND PILGRIMAGE OF THE RAJA —
ASCENSION, 304-326

CHAPTER XX.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA, CONCLUDED.

savitr! and satyavan.

THE king’s DAUGHTER — SAVITRl’s CHOICE —

THE MARRIAGE — LOVE CONQUERS DEATH, . 327-341

CHAPTER XXI.

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.

EVIDENTLY AN INTERPOLATION — AGE OF THE
GITA — ITS ORIGIN — “ THE DIVINE SONG ” —
SELF-ADULATION OF KRISHNA — DIVINE FORM
OF KRISHNA, 342-352

CHAPTER XXII.

THE PURANAS.

EXTENT OF THE PURANAS — SIGNIFICATION OF
THE NAME — THEIR TEACHING — COMPARA-
TIVELY MODERN ORIGIN — THE HARI-VANSA

TABLE OF CONTEXTS,

— THE BRAHMA PUR AM A — THE PADMA OR
GOLDEN LOTUS — THE VAISH NAVA OR VISH-
NU— BIRTH OF KRISHNA — WIVES AND
CHILDREN OF KRISHNA — DEATH OF KRISH-
NA— THE SAIVA — SRI BHAGAVATA — THE
MARKANDEl'A — THE AGNI — THE VAYU —

THE BHAVISHYA — THE BRAHMA YAIYARTA —

THE LINGA — THE VAR AHA — THE SKANIIA
— THE YAMANA — THE KURMA — THE MATSYA
— THE GARUDA — THE BRAHMANDA, . . 353-375

CHAPTER XXIII.

KRISHNA.

A MULTITUDE OF PERSONS NAMED KRISHNA —

LIFE OF KRISHNA, SON OF VASU-DEVA —

DEATH OF KRISHNA — RESEMBLANCES TO
CHRISTIAN HISTORY' VERY' SLIGHT — WOR-
SHIP OF THE “DARK GOD ” — SUMMARY, . 376-393

CHAPTER XXIV.

CONCLUSION.

HINDU LITERATURE — HINDUISM — TEACHINGS
— THE RIG-YEDA — THE UPANISHADS — THE
EPIC POEMS — THE PURANAS — YEDIC WOR-
SHIP BETTER THAN IDOLATRY, . . . 394-400

PREFACE.

HE ancient books of India comprise such an

enormous mass of literature that the labor of a
single lifetime would not suffice for the mastery of
their contents and a solution of the problems which
they present ; yet such has been the progress of Ori-
ental philology during the last decade, that an intel-
ligent survey of this great field of research is quite
possible to the student.

A careful study of the Puranas alone in the origi-
nal Sanskrit would occupy half a century, but a
valuable series of extracts and analyses can be found
in twenty-six large folio volumes of manuscripts in the
library of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and a year of
patient work devoted to Professor Wilson’s translations
gives one an intelligible idea of their contents.

Colonel Colin Mackenzie occupied his leisure time
for years in collecting and arranging' thirty-four large
folio volumes of manuscripts, and his careful methods
were of great value to scholars who came after him.

Historical students have also been greatly aided by
the pioneer work of those who have examined and
compared genealogical lists, deciphered inscriptions, and
discovered the sites of ancient cities. The Vedas

xiii

XIV

PREFACE.

themselves have been carefully copied and translated,
and, indeed, all of the most important portions of
Indian lore are now available to the English reader.
Still, the books themselves, with their commentaries
and the works connected with their history and
philology, constitute so large a library that the busy
people of modern times cannot afford to spend their
years in sifting the contents of these colossal works
in order to find the gems of thought which they may
contain.

In a field so vast it is only by a division of labor
that satisfactory results can be accomplished, and hence
an effort has been made in the present volume, to give
the chronology of these ancient books, showing where
they belong in the world’s history, together with a re-
sume of their teachings and specimens of their literary
style. The work has been done as briefly as was con-
sistent with accuracy, in the belief that an intelligible
idea of Hindu literature in a condensed form would be
acceptable to many readers.

Beginning with the earliest composition of the Ary-
an race, the current of Brfihmanic thought has been
traced down through their most important works,
which have been considered in chronological order from
the earliest songs of the Rig-veda to the fanciful con-
ceits of the latest Puranas.

The primary object of the work has been accuracy
of statement ; therefore the quotations from Hindu
works have been carefully chosen from the best avail-

PREFACE.

able translations, and no historical or chronological
statement lias been made without the concurrence of
the highest authorities.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge one's indebtedness
to such rare scholars as Professor F. Max Muller, the
late Horace 1 layman Wilson, a distinguished foreign
member of the French Academy, and of the Imperial
Academy of St. Petersburg, and Sir M. Monier- Williams,
K. C. I. E., the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford
University, who has devoted fifty years of his life to
the study of Sanskrit literature and to a solution of
the problems of India.

Although many other Orientalists have been con-
sulted, and credit duly given where the quotations are
made, yet the author is especially indebted to Professor
F. Max Muller and Sir M. Monier- Williams, for assist-
ance derived from their personal letters, and particu-
larly desires to acknowledge their great kindness in
examining portions of the work.

The manuscript of the chapter entitled “Krishna”
has been carefully revised by Sir M. Monier-Williams,
who has also added valuable foot-notes, while other
portions of the copy have been revised by Professor
F. Max Muller.

In giving a brief synopsis of the great Indian
Epics, the main lines of thought and incident in
the original poems as given by Wheeler, Griffiths, and
others, have been carefully followed. It has been
deemed best, howTever, to present these classic gems in

XVI

PREFACE.

simpler forms of narration and description than can
be found in literal translation.

The work has been prepared in the hope that it
may attract the attention of the general reader to the
beauties of Hindu literature, and be of real service to
careful students in this field of thought. To their
interests it is commended by

THE AUTHOR.

PRONUNCIATION.

A LITTLE attention to the diacritical points will
enable the reader to pronounce correctly the
musical names of the Hindus.

In the present volume Sir M. Monier- Williams’ method
of transliteration, as presented in his Sanskrit Grammar,
has been chiefly used ; the nasal m, however, is repre-
sented here as in the works of Prof. Max Muller by the
italic letter; n, as pronounced in “singe,” is also indi-
cated by the italic.

Diacritical points are omitted from the foot-notes, the
system of pronunciation being clearly presented in the
body of the work.

A — a is

pronounced

as in

rural.

A — a

tar, father, etc.

I — i

Ml.

I — i

6 6

police.

IT— u

6 6

fall.

U— u

6 6

rade.

Ei— ri

6 6

merrily.

El — ri

6 6

marine.

E— e

6 6

prey.

Ai — ai

6 6

aisle.

Au — au

Haas (German).

N — n sounded like n in the French mo/i.

IN’ — n “ as in none (nun).

m (italic) has a nasal sound,
h is a Visarga, or a distinctly audible aspirate.

xvij

XV111

PRONUNCIATION.

Kh — Ich sounded like ch in church.
Kh — kh pronounced as in inMorn.

G— g

gun or doy.

Gh — gh

lo^-7iut.

C— 6

dolce (in music) = English ch
in church.

Ch— ch

churcMill.

T— t

/rue.

Th— th

an/ /all.

D — d

£6

drum.

Dh— dh

repaired (red /mired).

Th — th

nu//iook, though more dental.

Dh— dh

ndliure, though more dental.

S— s

sure, sessions.

S— s

sir or miss.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

CHAPTER I.

HINDU LITERATURE.

WHAT IS THE VEDA — THE AGE OF THE VEDAS — WHEN
WRITTEN — THE RIG-VEDA.

A MOST fascinating field for research is to be
found in the ancient literary productions of the
Hindus. These gems of antiquity belong to that region
where the peaks of the Himalayas lift their icy brows
to the morning light, and where in the groves at their
feet were chanted the early Vedic hymns.

India is the land of the cocoanut and the palm, of
the feathery tamarind and the stately mango tree. The
brightest birds from the southern isles come to feast in
her spicy groves and linger among her flowers. Her
sacred Ganges is indeed “the gift of heaven.” Find-
ing a birthplace in the snow fields between the moun-
tain peaks, the pure current rushes down the rocky
pathway in a long cascade, bringing life and hope to
the green valleys below.

The literature born in this dream-land of beauty and
fragrance bears within its bosom the eloquence of poe-
try and the rhythm of song ; but India’s ancient books
are so colossal in their proportions that European

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

scholars looked upon them for years in dismay. Life
is too short to enable any one student to obtain a
complete knowledge of Oriental philology, language, and
history.

The late. Horace Hayman Wilson devoted his vast
learning and many years of arduous labor to the trans-
lation of a portion of the ancient books of India, while
Prof. Max Muller has given twenty of the best years of
his life to the Veda alone.

It was not until our own generation that Indian lit-
erature was properly classified and published, even in
the Sanskrit tongue. Hitherto the veil of antiquity
and mysticism had hidden these works from investi-
gation. The Vedas were chanted for ages before they
were ever written, being handed down orally from one
generation to the next. The years which were devoted
to education by the better class of Hindus were largely
occupied in learning the Veda from the lips of the
teacher.1 The fact that these books for a long time
existed only in the living volumes of memory gave them
a weird influence over the European as well as the
Hindu, and when we consider that the Veda occupies
nearly the same position in Sanskrit that the Old Tes-
tament holds in Hebrew literature, that it is as sacred
to the Hindu as our own Scriptures are to the Chris-
tian, we cannot wonder that it has attracted the atten-
tion of scholars and antiquarians in every part of the
world.

After a time the Veda was committed to writ-
ing, but still it existed only in manuscript, and when
the directors of the East India Company invited the

i Origin and Growth of Religion, page 148.

IIIJfDU LITERATURE.

Pandits, or Hindu professors, to publish a complete
edition of their own sacred books, it became apparent
that there was not a single Brahman in Bengal who
could edit or supervise such an edition. The work
therefore devolved entirely upon European scholars, and
bravely they have accomplished their formidable task.
Prof. Max Muller patiently copied the entire text of
the Rig-Veda and also the commentary upon it. And
thus it came to pass that the whole of the work was
first published, not on the banks of the sacred Ganges,
but under the shadow of an English university. In
restoring these old manuscripts and placing their
thoughts in permanent form, our scholars have pre-
served relics more ancient than the ruins of Hine-
veh and Babylon ; more fascinating to the student of
literature than the foundation stones of Thebes or
Memphis.

The Sanskrit edition was translated by the inde-
fatigable Wilson, and this ancient literary monu-
ment of India became tbe property of the English-
speaking world. The work of restoring and translat-
ing Hindu works was greatly facilitated by Colin
Mackenzie, the enthusiastic collector of Indian MSS. ;
but to such men as Sir William Jones, II. T. Cole-
brook, Horace Wilson, and Max Muller, the world
owes a debt which it can never pay.

Orientalists were at first unable to resist the temp-
tation of giving to the public the gems only, which
they recovered from masses of almost worthless lit-
erature, and it is evident that much harm has been
done by this partial work at the hands of enthusiastic
translators who have given us, unintentionally, no

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

doubt, far more exalted ideas of the general char-
acter of these books than are justified by impartial
views of even one complete section. The time has
come when the Yedas must be treated with more
candor, even though with less enthusiasm ; when
they must receive honest criticism and impartial repre-
sentation at the hands of scholars. Later translators,
feeling that fancy must yield to fact, and imagination
give place to fair investigation, have sought to make
their task a faithful one. Paragraphs which are
too gross for translation have been appended in
the original text, so that the critical historian may
decipher even these if necessary. A fair estimate of
these books can, of course, be obtained only from
complete translations, and one of the grandest results
of the life-work of Max Muller is the service he has
rendered in the translation of these large volumes
of The Sacred Books of the East into the English
tongue. He has been assisted in this arduous and
discouraging work by such distinguished scholars
as Beal, West, Buhler, Palmer, Cowell, Darme-
steter, Rhys Davids, Eggeling, Jacobi, Jolly, Kern,
Legge, Oldenberg, each one of whom is found in the
front rank of his own special department of Oriental
literature.

The scholarship and character of these men place
the integrity of their translations beyond question,
and they have opened before us a most- fascinating
field for investigation. When we add to this valuable
series, the Rig-veda Sanhita, the Vishnu Parana
and other translations by Prof. Wilson, the Rama-
yana by Griffiths, the digest of the two great epics

HINDU LITERATURE.

by J. Talboys Wheeler, and the various partial trans-
lations of the Maha-bharata by different scholars,
besides a multitude of translations from Hindu drama
and romance, the collection of Indian works now avail-
able to the English reader is a very extensive one.

According to Max Muller, the Pandits were seriously
opposed to the publication of the Veda in Sanskrit by
English scholars, for although they are honest enough
to admit that the edition is complete and authentic,
its publication has taken from them their principal
weapon against Christian missionaries. In former times
the Brahmans claimed that there was no commandment
in the Old Testament, no precept in the New, which
had not been anticipated in the Veda, and if the in-
credulous missionary called for the manuscript he was
coolly informed that so sacred a book must not be pro-
faned by the touch of an unbeliever. But Hindu as-
sumptions are now discredited by the publication of the
Veda in both Sanskrit and English. It was also claimed
that the Veda was thousands of years older than the
Old Testament, and that the historic portions of the
Hebrew Scriptures were borrowed largely from Hindu
sources. Many honest men, and even scholars, who
should have been more careful in their statements, in-
dorsed this theory, the novice with loud and confident
assertion— in which some of them still indulge — the
scholar with more reserve.

Lieut. Wilford, who was an honest enthusiast, de-
termined, with praiseworthy zeal, to find out the truth
of the statements which were being freely made by a
certain class of critics. With this object in view, he
interviewed Hindu scholars, but without obtaining any

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

information. Becoming more explicit, he related the
stories of Adam and Eve, of Abraham and Sarah, and
assured them that they would find these narratives in
their sacred books. To stimulate their zeal, he offered
ample rewards if they would find in their ancient man-
uscripts the stories he had told them. The reserve of
the Pandits was fully conquered by the hope of gain,
and ere long Lieut. Wilford was delighted to have
placed in his hands Sanskrit manuscripts containing
the very proofs he sought. Great was the enthusiasm
in Calcutta, London, Paris, and throughout the uni-
versities of Germany when these manuscripts were pro-
nounced genuine by such experts as Sir William Jones
and others. At last, however, the coincidences became
so numerous, and the supply corresponded so exactly
to the financial reward, that the manuscripts were
again carefully examined, when it was found that
clever forgeries had been committed ; that leaves had
been carefully inserted in ancient manuscripts, and on
them had been written in Sanskrit the Bible stories
which the Hindus had learned from the lips of the
enthusiastic Wilford.

Lieut. Wilford, to his honor be it said, did not for
a moment hesitate to acknowledge that he had been
imposed upon.1 But in the meantime, his essays had
been widely read, and they are still quoted by men who
have never heard of his public confession.

The literature of the Vedas is not logical in its
construction. There is no page of lucid reasoning or
convincing argument in all its ancient lore. It is not
scientific ; its theories of cosmogony and anthropology

l Chips, Vol. V., pp. 102-109.

HINDU LITERATURE.

are wild and fanciful in the extreme, and though of
great historic value in many ways, it is in no sense
whatever the production of historians. The dreamy
sons of the Southland had very little taste for historic
facts, and much of the literary value of their writings
is found in their poetry. It is true that many of
their hymns and songs are childish or vulgar — in the
language of Max Muller, they are “tedious, low and
commonplace.” But amidst masses of literary rubbish
we find poetic gems which are worthy of any age or
clime.

Some of the songs of the Veda are entitled to high
rank, and in many points the great epics of India will
compare favorably with the immortal productions of
Homer. The imagination of the Hindu is as luxuriant
as his own tropical forests. His mighty rivers come
pouring down from the gi’andest mountain ranges of
the world, where amid the lightnings that flash around
their peaks, Sublimity holds her court. Poetry lives in
the very atmosphere of the Himalayas — it haunts the
rich verdure at their feet, and kisses their snowy brows
in the crimson light of the setting sun. The romance
of India’s people is as irresistible as the current of her
Indus or the musical waves of her Ganges.

The exploration of this labyrinth of thought is like
wandering through a tropical forest, where the grandeur
of towering trees alternates with sunny glades of vine-
wreathed beauty and fragrant flowers ; but the student
must not gather the roses of romance and avoid the
sterner work of careful analysis ; it is the province of
fair investigation to examine every tree and floral vine
in this wilderness of literature, and to keep carefully

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

along the path of honest criticism even in the Indian
land of enchantment.

WHAT IS THE VEDA ?

The word Veda means knowledge and is the term
applied to divine unwritten knowledge. In the Hindu
world it is not only the earliest literary production,
but the acknowledged standard of authority referred to
in all their important works, both sacred and profane.
The Veda is quoted or alluded to in philosophical,
grammatical, lexicographical and metrical, as well as
theological treatises. Indeed, this important work may
be said to form the background of the whole literary
world of India, and upon all subjects it is considered
the best and highest authority, from which there is no
appeal.

The name Veda is applied by the Brahmans to the
whole body of their sacred writings. The earliest col-
lection of Vedic literature may be classed in three
grand divisions :

1. Mantra, or the Hymns of Prayer and Praise,
as found in the Rig-veda. By this is meant the col-
lection of hymns and invocations, which were doubt-
less composed by a succession of poets in very early
times, and which, while they are of unequal poetical
merit and contain many foolish repetitions, are still
important as embodying the earliest forms of relig-
ious conception known in the history of this strange
people.

2. The Braiimana, or the ritualistic precepts and
illustrations which are intended to direct the priests
in the performance of their religious ceremonies. They

HINDU LITERATURE.

also give long and tedious explanations of the origin
and meaning of the sacrifices themselves.

3. The Upaxisiiads, which are supposed to teach
the doctrines of the Vedas, although it would be a
difficult task to deduce any system either of faith or
practice from this labyrinth of confused philosophy and
fanciful conceits.

The later important divisions of Hindu literature
are :

1. The Ramayana and the Maha-bharata. These co-
lossal epic poems1 of themselves form a grand division
of literature and reflect the romance and poetry of
the Hindu people. They present the most brilliant
pictures of Oriental coloring, and the most gorgeous
scenes of Eastern magnificence to be found upon the
pages of fancy.

2. The Puranas, which are confessedly the latest of
all productions in Hindu sacred literature; they claim
to have been written by a generous sage in order to
simplify the doctrines of the Veda for the benefit of
women and others who might not aspire to the reading
or comprehension of the earlier works. Although they
do not, critically speaking, belong to the Vedic age,
they contain Vedic legends which have been worked up
in more modern form, showing that these works were
finally given to the world at a time when “the world
of the Veda,” in its strictest sense, was living only
in tradition.

The Vedas proper are only four in number, viz. : the
Rig-veda, which is the book of praise, and of whose

iProf. Williams speaks of the great epics as being “the bible of the
mythological phase of Brahmanism.”

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

hymns there is but one genuine collection. The Sama-
veda is merely an extract from the older work ; the
Yajur-veda is another manual of extracts intended for
the use of the priests ; and the fourth, or Atharva-
veda,1 is of much later origin, and of inferior literary
value. Therefore the Rig-veda is the primary work of
its class, and the only one of importance.

Each of the Vedas is an unarranged and promis-
cuous mass of hymns, prayers, exhortations, and dog-
mas, without either system or harmony.

According to the teaching of the Hindu priests,
the Vedas were coeval with the creation, being simul-
taneous with the first breath of Brahma — the creative
power — or, at all events, Brahma was their author
and they were among the first things created.

In the Chandogya Upanishad, 17th A'Aanda and 4th
PraptUAaka, it is said of the productions of the Ve-
das, “ Prayapati {the Creator ) brooded over the worlds,
and from them, thus brooded on, he squeezed out the
essences, Agni (fire) from the earth, Vayu (air) from
the sky, Aditya (the sun) from heaven.

“ lie brooded over these three deities, and from them,
thus brooded over, he squeezed out the essences — the

i The Atharva veda, which has been ably edited by Professors Roth and
Whitney, is confessedly the most modern of the four, and was not recog-
nized as a fourth Veda until a much later period, according to some au-
thorities, not until after Manu.

Says Prof. Whitney, “The most prominent characteristic feature of the
Atharvan is the multitude of incantations which it contains; . . they are
directed to the procuring of the greatest variety of desirable ends; most
frequently, perhaps, long life or recovery from grievous sickness is the ob-
ject sought; in that case a talisman, such as a necklace, is sometimes given,
or in numerous instances, some plant endowed with marvelous virtues is
to be the immediate external means of cure; further, the attainment of
wealth or power is aimed at, the downfall of enemies, success in love or
in play, the removal of petty pests, and so on, even down to the growth of
hair on a bald pate.’' — Oriental and Lin. Studies, Vol. 1, page 20.

HINDU LITERATURE.

Rik verses from Agni; the Yayus verses from Vayu;
the Saman verses from Aditya.

“He brooded over the three-fold knowledge (the three
Vedas), and from it, thus brooded over, he squeezed
out the essences, the sacred interjection Bhus from the
Rik verses, the sacred interjection Bhuvas from the
Yayus verses, and the sacred interjection Svar from
the Saman verses. ”

Each Yedic hymn is said to have its Rishi — the sage
or philosopher by whom it was first communicated —
some of whom were members of the military, and others
of the Brahmanical order. Each Veda consists of two
parts, called the Mantra and the Brahmana, or pray-
ers and precepts. The complete collection of hymns,
prayers, and invocations belonging to one Veda is called
its Sanhita.

AGE OF THE VEDAS.

The Sanskrit language is antique in form and per-
fect in structure ; it has the refinement of the Greek
and the fluency of the Latin, while it bears a strong
affinity to both. This classical language of the Hindus
held the same position in India which was accorded to
the Greek at Alexandria, and its importance was equal
to that of the Latin during the Middle Ages. But
the Sanskrit tongue does not disclose the origin of the
races that first spoke it,1 and the power of historic
narration is entirely wanting in its earliest writers.

Klaproth, Kennedy, and others, claim that at a re-
mote period the tribes which were descended from Ja-
pheth, the third son of Koah, came from the northwest

i It had ceased to be a spoken language at least 300 B. C.—Sci. of Lang.,
p. lil.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

and settled in the plains of Hindustan, bringing with
them their own language, which was the stock of the
Sanskrit. This position is apparently endorsed by
Adelung,1 but the data concerning the first peopling of
India is not entirely satisfactory. The Sanskrit fur-
nishes no key with which to unlock the vaults of
its own historic treasures. From the first hymn of
the Vedas to the last fable of the Puranas — a period
extending over three thousand years — there is no page
of clear historic fact ; no biographical account that
is not so mixed with legend as to make it unintel-
ligible.2

The Vedas are confessedly the oldest of the Hindu
scriptures. But their age has been greatly overesti-
mated. It has been customary for a certain class of
writers to ascribe to them an antiquity greater by thous-
ands of years than they can justly claim. So long
as the question of their age was purely guess-work
and the wish was father to the thought, a few thous-
ands, or even a million of years could be added with-
out scruple, and as Sir William Jones remarked, “The
comprehensive mind of an Indian chronologist has no
limits.” History, however, is taking the place of specu-
lation in this, as well as other departments. Says Max
Muller, “It will be difficult to settle whether the Veda
is the oldest of books, and whether some portions of the
Old Testament may not be traced back to the same,
or even an earlier date than the oldest hymns of the

1 Hist. Sans. Lit., p. 1.

2 The one reliable date which we have for Indian history before Christ
is the mention by Greek historians of an Indian prince (Sandrokottos).
He was a contemporary of the early successors of Alexander. ... He
was the founder of a new dynasty upon the Ganges, and his grandson
A*oka was the Constantine of Buddhism.— Whitney.

HINDU LITERATURE.

Yecla/’1 We have no Yedic manuscripts which extend
back further than 1200 or 1500 years after Christ, but
their contents have been handed down orally from the
time of their earliest composition until they were
committed to writing, at a comparatively modern date.

In the face of these facts it is no wonder that the
eminent Orientalist remarks that “ It is not very easy
to bridge over this gulf of three thousand years.”
And again, “It is by no means certain that a further
study of Sanskrit will not deprive many a book of
its claims to any high antiquity. Certain portions of
the Yeda even, which, as far as our knowledge goes
at present, we are perfectly justified in referring to
the tenth or twelfth century before our era, may
dwindle down from their high estate, and those who
have believed in their extreme antiquity will then be
held up to blame or ridicule.”2

There is very little historic data on which to form
an opinion concerning the time when the Veda began
to be written. Max Muller says, “We shall not be
able to trace the Indian alphabet much beyond Alexan-
der’s invasion. It existed, however, before Alexander.”
And again, “The Sanskrit alphabet has always been
suspected of being derived from a Semitic source and
has not certainly been traced back to a Greek source.”3
He argues that while the alphabet itself existed earlier,
the practice of writing came in “ toward the latter
part of the Sutra period,” and was probably at that
time applied to the preservation of the Yedic hymns
and other forms of Brahmanic literature. The MalnT-

1 Chips, Vol. 1, p. 5.

2 Int. Sci. of Rel., p. 301.

3 Hist. Sans, Lit., pp. 516 and 521.

TIIE AXCIEXT BOOKS OF IXDIA.

bharata says, however, that “ Those who sell the Vedas,
and even those who write them, shall go to hell,” show-
ing that although writing was in nse at the time of
the compilation of the Malia-bharata, it was by no
means popular as the medium of communication for the
Vedas. The fact that there are no Brahmanic inscrip-
tions earlier than the third century before Christ shows
the comparatively late date of the art of writing in
India, and Max Muller maintains that until the latter
part of the Sutra period “the collection of hymns and
the immense mass of Brahmanic literature were pre-
served by means of oral tradition only.”1

The Sutra period here alluded to was about 500 B.
C.; it was an era of remarkable activity in the intel-
lectual world. In India it marked the formulation of
Brahmanism by. her priesthood as shown in her system
of jurisprudence collated by Manu, and witnessed the
reformation of Buddha, who led the reaction against
her recognized code. It is looked upon, too, as the ap-
proximate date for the beginnings of her great epics.
Greece had then her Pythagoras, and according to
Mitford, “no Grecian state had its laws put into writ-
ing until about the same period”2 (the reign of Cyrus,
king of Persia.) Persia at this important epoch had
not only her Cyrus, but also her Zoroaster. The He-
brews had their Daniel, and China’s intellectual horizon
was illumined by her Confucius.

Vedic literature is classified by Prof. Max Muller in
four strata :

1st. Sutra Period, 500 B. C.

2d. Brahmana Period, 600-800 B. C.

i Hist. Sans. Lit., p. 524.

2 Hist, of Greece, Vol. I., p. 129.

HINDU LITERATURE.

3d. Mantra Period, 800-1000 B. 0. ( To this pe-

riod he ascribes the collection and systematic arrange-
ment of the Vedic hymns and formulas.)

4th. AAandas Period, 1000 B. C. (“Representing
the free growth of sacred poetry/’) There are but few
hymns, however, belonging to the earliest or AVumdas
period.

Close investigation has greatly reduced the supposed
antiquity of the Vedas, and is very likely to reduce it
still further. But in the light of their present knowl-
edge, Prof. Max Muller and Sir Monier Williams agree
in assigning the original composition of the early hymns
to the time between 1000 and 1500 B. C.1 Kennedy
places the period “ at which they began to be com-
posed” at 1100 to 1200 B. C. Stevenson, Wilson,
Wheeler, and Barthelemy St. Hilaire express similar
opinions. Thus it will be seen that the ablest Orien-
talists assign to these books an origin which is far this
side of Abraham ; indeed, the extreme limit sanctioned
by modern scholars scarcely reaches back to the birth
of Moses.

The Vedas furnish no chronology save their fabulous
millions of years. In the whole of their literature
there is not a single reliable date by which any event
or series of events may be assigned to its proper place
in the world’s chronology.

Still, the fact remains that these early hymns and
songs are hoary with the frost of centuries. Reaching
back in the world’s history almost to the birth of
Moses, they were chanted in the sacred groves of India
long before the Persian conqueror crossed the Indus.

* Chips, Vol. I., p. 13; also Brah. and Hin., p. 7.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

Since their musical numbers were first breathed upon
the air, cities have risen and fallen, and the earth has
been swept by successive storms of conquest. The
palaces of Nineveh and the temples of Babylon have
slept for ages in the long night of time, but the simple
hymns of the Veda still live in the hearts of men.
They belong to the realm of song, and thought must
live though monarchs die and thrones decay.

THE RIG-VEDA.

This is by far the most important, as well as the
most primitive of the collection, the others comprising
little more than extracts from it, together with a variety
of incantations, charms, and formulas for different cere-
monies. The Rig-veda means the hymns of praise, or
hymns to celebrate praises. Some of them are written
in metre, and others in prose. They are dedicated to
a variety of gods, and some of them are beautiful com-
positions. The gods are constantly invoked to protect
their worshipers, to grant them food, large flocks, large
families, and a long life, for all of which they are to
be rewarded with praises and sacrifices, offered day after
day, or at certain seasons of the year.

Sanskrit literature without this book would be like
Greek without the works of Homer. The Rig-veda
belongs to universal history as well as to the history of
India, and fills a place in the Aryan world of letters
that can be supplied by no other book. This venera-
ble work, which is the fountain head of Yedic litera-
ture, is composed of about one thousand and twenty-
eight hymns, each hymn containing an average of ten
verses each. In the language of Muller, “Large num-

HINDU LITERATURE.

bers of the Vedic hymns are childish in the extreme.”
Translations of these compositions, even when en-
riched by all the graces of modern scholarship, are
often marked with tedious repetitions and offensive
epithets. They sometimes pass abruptly from sound
wisdom to childish foolishness, and from high culture
to the lowest grade of morality, while sudden transi-
tions from the sublime to the ridiculous are not at all
infrequent.1 The Eig-veda does not teach idolatry,
although there is no doubt that multitudes of the
Brahman devotees are now veritable idol worshipers.
The worship of images is declared to be an act of
inferior merit, and it is claimed that in reality even
the idolators worship only one God, who is manifested
in various forms, and that their images of stone and
clay are used merely to represent him. This is done
upon the principle that the ignorant classes cannot
raise their conceptions to abstract deity, but need some
tangible object to which their devotions may be ad-
dressed. It is said that “The vulgar look for their
gods in the water ; men of more extended knowledge,
in the celestial bodies : the ignorant, in wood, brick,
and stone.” Another theory is that in the beginning
there was only one God — but that he made many others,
and hence all the phenomena of nature were personi-
fied and worshiped. The greater number of the prayers
and invocations are mjdhologieal and unmeaning, some
of them claiming that the gods are all equal, as in the
stanza, “ Among you, 0 gods, there are none that are

i Sir Monier Williams says, “Although the majority of the Hindus believe
that the four Vedas contain all that is good, great and divine, yet these com-
positions 'null be found, when taken as a whole, to abound more in puerile
ideas than in lofty conceptions.’’— Brah. and Bin., p. 18.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

small, none that are young — you are all great indeed.”
Still, the hymns addressed to individual deities are
very liable to claim supremacy for the god addressed,
while others claim that there is but one, as in the
following :

“ In the beginning there arose a golden child ;

He was the one born Lord of all that is ;

He established the earth and this sky.

Who is the God to whom we offer sacrifices.

“ He who gives life, he who gives strength.

Whose command all the bright gods revere ;

Whose shadow is immortality, whose shadow is death.
Who is the God to whom we shall offer our
sacrifice.

“ He whose greatness these snowy mountains,

Whose greatness the sea proclaims with the distant
river,

He whose these regions are, as it were his two arms.
Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice.

“ He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by
his will.

Look up tremblingly, inwardly.

He over whom the rising sun stands forth,

Who is the God to whom we shall offer sacrifices.

“ He who by his might looked even over the water
clouds —

The clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice,
He who alone is God, above all gods.

Who is the God to whom we shall offer sacrifice.”1

i R.-v., 10-12, Muller’s trans.

HINDU LITERATURE.

But what we sometimes regard as monotheism is in
reality pantheism, or the belief that the creation and
Creator are identical with each other. Brahman in the
neuter form means simply infinite being — the only
eternal essence, which, when it passes into actual
manifested existence, is called Brahma, and develops
itself in various forms. The creed of many of the
Hindus at the present day asserts that there is only
one real being in existence, and that he constitutes the
universe. While some of the hymns seem to teach
monotheism, there are allusions in the Rig-veda to
thirty-three gods.1

One hymn assigns all the phenomena of nature to
one first cause, while another attributes them to several
causes operating independently, and still another argues
that the whole visible creation is animated by one uni-
versal, all-pervading spirit.

As the Semitic races relapsed occasionally into poly-
theism, so the Hindus have sometimes returned to mono-
theism, but says Prof. Muller, “ In both cases these
changes were not the result of a gradual and regular
progress, but of individual impulses and peculiar in-
fluences. The mere occurrence of monotheistic ideas is
not sufficient to stamp any class of hymns as of modern
date.”2 The religion of the Rig-veda was either poly-
theism, monotheism, tritheism, or pantheism, according
to the individual preference of the worshiper, but it
was not yet idolatry. The forces of nature were spoken
of as being under the control of divine personages, but

l Max Muller says, 'No doubt if we must employ technical terms, the
religion of the Veda is polytheism, not monotheism.”— Chips, Vol. i,
p. 27.

^ Hist. Sans. Lit., p. 559.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

they were not as yet represented by images and wor-
shiped.

A beautiful hymn in the Veda is addressed to the sky
god, Vanina, as follows :

“ The mighty Varuna who rules above, looks down
Upon the worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand.
When men imagine they do aught by stealth, he knows it.
No one can stand, or walk, or softly glide along,

Or hide in dark recesses, or lurk in secret cell,

But Varuna detects him, and his movements spies ;
Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting,
And think themselves alone ; but he, the king, is there,
A third, and sees it all. . . . His messengers descend
Countless from his abode, forever traversing
This world, and scanning with a thousand eyes its in-
mates,

Whate’er within this earth and all within the sky ;

Yea, all that is beyond. King Varuna perceives.

The winkings of men’s eyes are numbered all by him ;
He wields the universe as gamesters handle dice.”1

Another gem is found in the hymn of adoration to
the sun god (Siirya):

“ Behold, the rays of dawn like heralds lead on high
The Bun, that men may see the great, all-knowing God.
The stars slink off like thieves in company with Night,
Before the all-seeing eyes whose beams reveal his
presence,

Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation.

1 Atharva-veda, IV., 16, Williams’ trans.

HINDU LITERATURE.

Surya, with flaming locks, clear-sighted god of day.
Thy seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car.

With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of
thy chariot,

Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb
Beyond this lower gloom, and upward to the light.
Would we ascend, 0 Sun, thou god among the gods.”1

These are representatives of the finest poetry of early
Yedic literature. There are others like the following
“ Purusha hymn of the Rig-veda,” which is remarkable
for its peculiar theological combination, and seems to
teach monotheism and polytheism, as well as pantheism
and the institution of caste, which has been the bane
of India for more than two thousand years :

“ The embodied spirit has a thousand heads,

A thousand eyes, a thousand feet, around
On every side enveloping the earth.

Yet filling space no larger than a span.

He is himself this very universe ;

He is whatever is, has been, and shall be ;

He is the Lord of immortality.

All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths
Are that which is immortal in the sky.

Prom him called Purusha was born Viraj,

And from Viraj was Purusha produced.

Whom gods and holy men made their oblation.
With Purusha as victim, they performed
A sacrifice. When they divided him.

How did they cut him up ? What was his mouth P

i Williams’ trans.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

What were his arms ? and what his thighs and feet ?

The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier

Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs.

The servile Sudra issued from his feet.”1

Viraj was a secondary creator, considered sometimes
of the feminine and sometimes of the masculine gender.
Mann says that Purusha, the first male, was called
Brahma and was produced from the supreme self-ex-
istent spirit.

It is easy to see how the system of caste was fos-
tered by a hymn which declares that the priestly class
issued from Purusha’s mouth, the soldier from his
arms, the husbandman from his thighs, and the slave
from his feet.

The hymns of the Veda too often descend to bac-
chanalian songs in honor of the god Soma,2 the Bac-
chus of India, and the whole of the ninth book of the
Rig-veda is devoted to his praise. The soma is a plant
said to have been brought “ by a fair winged falcon
from afar” and planted in India. It is a creeper with
succulent leafless stems, bearing the botanical name of
Asclepias Acida. The juice, after being expressed by
stones and mixed with milk or barley juice, became a
strong intoxicant with whose exhilarating properties the
Aryans were so infatuated that they supposed it was
endowed with its wonderful powers by a god. The
soma became to them the king of plants, and its juice
was largely used in offerings to their gods, some of
whom were supposed to have a peculiar weakness for

i R.-v. (Man. 10-90), Williams’ trails.

nin later times the name of Soma was also applied to the moon.

HINDU LITERATURE.

the intoxicating draught. Therefore not only the one
hundred and fourteen hymns of the ninth book of the
Rig-veda are devoted to the praise of the Hindu Bac-
chus, but there are many others in different parts of
the work, as well as frequent references to his favorite
beverage in those songs which are not entirely devoted
to its glory. The following is a sample of the hymns
to Soma :

“ Oh, soma drunk by us, be bliss to our hearts as
a father is indulgent to a son. May these glory-con-
ferring, protecting soma streams knit together my
joints as cows draw together a chariot falling in pieces ;
may they keep us from a loosely knit worship ; 1 may
they deliver me from sickness.”2

The various gods to whom the soma juice is offered
in sacrifice are represented as partaking of it even to
drunkenness. For instance, “ When bright Maruts
(the storm gods) you harness to your car over the
mountain, then you exhilarate yourselves with the soma
juice.”3 And again, “ Drinker of the pure soma,
Yayu, come to us. I offer thee the exhilarating food
of which thou hast the prior drinking.”4 Also the
following, to be chanted when offering soma to Mitra
and Varuna, both names being often applied to the
sun, although Varuna is generally spoken of as the god
of the firmament, or sky god :

i When the soma is drunk the worship becomes consolidated.

2R.-y. San. Vol. V. p. 93, Wilson’s trans. In a recent letter to the author
Prof. Max Muller says of Wilson’s translation, “ It professes to give the
traditional rendering of the hymns according to Sayarea’s commentary, and
as such it will always retain a place of honor.”

3 Vol VI., p. 349. 4 ibid, Vol. IV., p. 185.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

“ May this soma libation be gratifying to Mitra and
Varuna, to be enjoyed by them as they drink of it in-
clining downwards. A divine beverage, fit to be en-
joyed by the gods, may all the gods well pleased to-day
accept it.”1

The intoxicating liquid was presented in ladles to
the deities invoked, and in all cases, says Wilson, “the
residue of the liquor was taken by the assistants.” The
condition of the worshipers after the rites were ac-
complished may be better imagined than described.

One of the favorite gods of the Rig-veda was Indra,
who was the Jupiter of the Aryan race. lie is re-
peatedly referred to as the “ rain god,” “ the air-born
Indra,” “the thunderer.” In the earliest age he is
represented as inhabiting the sky between the earth and
the sun, riding upon the clouds and pouring forth the
rain, hurling the forked lightning upon the earth, and
speaking to men in the awful tones of thunder. But
Indra’s special weakness is for soma juice, which he
quaffs in fabulous quantities, and thus invigorated be-
comes invincible, and hastens away to vanquish the hos-
tile powers of the atmosphere which are withholding
the rain from the parched earth.

“ Indra, animated by the soma juice, thou didst en-
gage in battle. . . Exhilarated by the soma, thou hast
expelled the waters from the clouds. . . In thee, Indra,
is all vigor fully concentrated. Thy will delights to
drink the soma juice.”3

1 Vol. II., p. 58.

2 Indra will be treated more fully in the following chapter.

3 R.-v., San., Vol. I., p. 137.

HINDU LITERATURE.

Again lie is addressed as follows :

“Lord of steeds! Thou art exhilarated when the
sacred soma juice has been imbibed by thee. . . It is
exhilarating, inebriating, invigorating, and the yielder
of delight, satisfying as food, and the giver of a thou-
sand pleasures. May the soma libation reach you, for
it is exhilarating, invigorating, inebriating, most pre-
cious. It is companionable, Indra, enjoyable, the over-
thrower of hosts — immortal. Thine inebriety is most

intense, nevertheless thine acts are most beneficent.
Thou desirest, bountiful giver of horses, that both thy
inebriety and thy beneficence should be the means of
destroying enemies and distributing riches.”1

Indra is also repeatedly invoked as “Voracious
drinker of the soma,” “ Indra with the handsome
chin . . . drinker of the soma, showerer of blessings,”
etc. He is also repeatedly hymned as “Handsome-
jawed Indra,” and it is said “ The exhilarating soma
juices flew toward the shining Indra as milch kine
hasten to their calves,”2 and again, “ The stomach of
Indra is as capacious a receptacle of soma as a lake,
for he has partaken of it at many sacrifices, and inas-
much as he has eaten the first viands he has been the
slayer of Vritra and has shared the soma juice with
the gods.”3 The condition of the inferior deities who
shared Indra’s generosity is perhaps best illustrated in
the following verse :

“Swift is the excessive and girth-distending inebria-
tion of Yajata and Mayin. By drinking these juices

1 Vol. II., p. 170. 2 R.-V. San., Vol. V., p. 307. 3 yol. III., p. 60.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

they urge one another to drink. They find the copi-
ous draught the prompt giver of intoxication.”1 2

The hymn from which the above is an extract also
represents the wife of a great sage as joining in the
convivialities of the occasion, while at another festive
scene the gods and sages are represented as “ screaming
like swans ” when exhilarated by the flowing bowl.

The doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration
of souls, which afterward became a cardinal doctrine of
Hindu faith, finds no place in the Rig-veda, which is
also free from the crime of child marriage, the barbar-
ous customs of caste, and the idolatry of modern times.
The people were then rich in flocks and herds ; they
practiced the art of agriculture, and to a certain
extent that of architecture. Polygamy existed, but was
not the rule of life. They killed animals and ate ani-
mal food, not even objecting to the flesh of cows.
Their vices were sensuality and gambling, as well as
drunkenness.

Hymns of a still more indelicate nature than the
foregoing might be cited, but it is pleasanter to close
these extracts from the Rig-veda with the following-
beautiful “Hymn to Uslias” (the Dawn).

1. “She shines upon us like a young wife, rousing
every living being to go to his work. When the fire
had to be kindled by men, she made the light by strik-
ing down darkness.

2. “ She rose up spreading far and wide, and moving
everywhere. She grew in brightness wearing her bril-

l Ibid, Vol. III., p. 311.

HINDU LITERATURE.

liant garment. The mother of the cows (the mornings),
the leader of the days, she shone gold-colored, lovely
to behold.

3. “ She, the fortunate who brings the eye of the

gods, who leads the white and lovely steeds (of the

sun), the Dawn, was seen revealed by her rays, with

brilliant treasures following every one.

4. “Thou art a blessing where thou art near. Drive
far away the unfriendly ; make the pasture wide ; give
us safety ! Scatter the enemy, bring riches ! Raise up
wealth to the worshiper, thou mighty Dawn.”1

This vision of the dawn personified as a pure and
lovely woman is fair enough to atone for many a sin
against rhythm and measure. Wearing her garments of
silver and tinted pearl, she comes leading the white
steeds of the sun. With her fair brow flushed with
the gold and crimson light of the morning, she appears
as the “leader of the days,” and marshals her host in
golden splendor before the sons of men. Wearing the
hallowed crown of maternity, she becomes in Sanskrit
poetry “ the mother of the mornings,” and the infant
days begin the journey of life amidst the tinted
clouds of rose and amber that float around the morning
sun.

The Rig-veda is a book of startling contrasts.
Amidst coarse bacchanalian songs we find such poetic
gems as “ The Golden Child,” the eloquent pleas to
Varuna and Agni, and this Yedic vision of the morn-
ing, with many others of equal beauty.

l R,-v., 7, 77, Muller's trans.

CHAPTER II.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN THE MYTHOLOGIES OF INDIA
AND GREECE — AGNI — SURYA — VARUNA — YAMA
— USHAS — MARUTS — HYMNS OF EXECRATION — IN-
CONSISTENT THEORIES — INDRA — SIMILARITY OF
NORTHERN MYTHS.

t I HIE mythology of India is as fascinating as that
of Greece. The storm-swept peaks of her Hima-
layas are grander than the heights of Olympus, and
the golden eagle that floats on burnished wing beneath
her solemn sky is dearer to the hearts of her peo-
ple than was the imperial bird of Jove to the dwell-
ers by the AEgean sea.

India is the home of the beryl and the amethyst ;
her sunlight flashes in her diamonds, and her moon-
light gleams amidst her pearls. Hence, her dreamy
sons have invested the heavens of their gods with the
splendor of her gems and the fragrance of her roses.
Their loveliest flowers are said to bloom only in Para-
dise, and Vishnu sits upon a throne of lotus blossoms,
while the pillars of 1 ndra’s heaven are enwreathed with
rose-colored flowers. 1

The many striking similarities between the gods of
the Hindu and Grecian mythology suggest the common

i The Camalata or Love’s Creeper.
28

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

origin of these early myths. It is a well-attested his-
toric fact that in the early days of the Aryan races
they dwelt together in a common country. The va-
rious tribes which left this central home to settle in
different parts of the world carried with them a lan-
guage which was the stock of their later tongues,1 and
also a common mythology. In India, Greece, Persia,
and even in Northern Europe, the similarities between
the various myths are so striking that they continu-
ally remind the reader of the common origin of the
Aryan nations. The character of Indra, especially, so
strongly resembles that of Jove that the similarity
cannot be considered accidental.

In the earliest Yedic hymns there appears to be no
regular system either of religion or mythology. The
worship which they prescribe is generally of a domes-
tic nature, consisting of oblations to fire, prayers to
the god of fire, of the firmament, of the winds, of the
seasons, or to the sun and the moon. The Brahman
who offers the sacrifice, or the priest who offers it for
those who are not Brahmans, invites these deities to
be present and accept the offering, which often con-
sists of melted butter or the juice of the soma. In
return for these gifts the gods are supplicated to con-
fer life, wealth, and prosperity upon the worshiper.
The myths exhibit no settled genealogy, the same name
being sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes
as a noun. The same goddess is addressed in one hymn
as the mother, in another as the wife. The brother is

i Says Max Miiller, “ English, together with all the Teutonic dialects of the
Continent, belongs to that large family of speech which comprises besides
the Teutonic, the Latin, Greek, Slavonic, Celtic, and the Oriental languages
of India and Persia.” (See Chips, Vol. II., p. 221.)

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

spoken of now as husband and again as son, while
each god in his turn is supplicated and praised as
superior to all the others.

The most prominent and sacred deities of the early
Hindus are Agni, Surya, Indra, Varuna, Yama, Ushas,
and Maruts.

AGNI,

the god of fire, is addressed as the supreme god who
created all things; he is represented by the light of
the sun, the flashing lightning, and the clear flame of
the domestic hearthstone. He is the guardian of the
home, the minister of the sacrifice, and comprehends
within himself a multitude of other deities, as the cir-
cumference of a wheel embraces its spokes. He is one
of the eight guardians of the world, his special prov-
ince being the southeast quarter.

As the protector of mankind and the guardian of
the home, his presence is invoked at the nuptial cere-
mony, and indeed upon all solemn domestic occasions.

From his body1 issue seven streams of glory, and in
his right hand he holds a spear, while a tongue of
forked fire issues from his mouth. As a symbol of
social union and the guardian of the domestic hearth-
stone, his mission is almost identical with that of the
Grecian goddess Hestia, who was the daughter of Sat-
urn and Rhea. In the Prytaneum of every Grecian
city stood the hearth on which the sacred fire flamed,
and where the offerings were made to Hestia. In like

• He is usually described as having two faces, three legs and seven
arms, and riding upon a sheep. But he is sometimes represented as a
corpulent man of ruddy complexion, with eyes, eyebrows, and hair of a
tawny color, and appears riding on a goat. — See Garrett's Clas. Die. Ind.,
page 15.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

manner the sacred fire was kept alive in every Hindu
home, and oblations of butter and rice were offered to
the god of the flames. It will also be remembered that
die early Romans worshiped at the shrine of Vesta,
who like the Greek Hestia presided over the public and
private hearths. A sacred fire, watched over by six vir-
gin priestesses called Vestals, burned in her temple at
Rome, and upon the continual preservation of this fire
the safety of the city depended. If it went out it must
be lighted only from the sun, the great fountain of
light. Among the Hindus, Agni is invoked as father,
mother, brother, and son. He presides at the marriage
sendee, receives the offerings upon the domestic altar,
and at the death of his worshipers, takes their bodies
to his bosom, and bears the “unborn part” away to
the unseen world.

HYMH TO AGNI,

1. “Agni, accept this log which I am about to offer
thee, accept this my service, listen well to these my
songs.

2. “With this log, 0 Agni, may we worship thee,
thou son of strength, conqueror of horses ; and with
this hymn, thou high born.

3. “May we thy servants serve thee with songs, 0
granter of riches, thou who lovest songs and delight-
est in riches.

4. “Thou Lord of wealth and giver of wealth, be
thou wise and powerful, drive away from us the ene-
mies.

5. “He gives us rain from heaven. He gives us in-
vincible strength, he gives food a thousand-fold.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

6. “ Youngest of the gods, their messenger, their
invoker most deserving of worship, come at our praise
to him who worships thee and longs for thy help.

7. “ For thou, 0 sage, goest wisely between these
two creations (heaven and earth, gods and men) like
a friendly messenger between two hamlets.

8. “ Thou art wise, and thou hast been pleased ;
perform, thou intelligent Agni, the sacrifice without
interruption.”1

SURYA, THE SUN.

One of the first objects to attract the Yedic wor-
shiper was the god of day. He was adored under
various names, being addressed sometimes as Arvat, or
even Varuna, and again as Aditya or Mitra. Coming
out of the chambers of the east, with their draperies of
scarlet and purple, this monarch of the day received
the early oblation of his worshipers. As his golden
chariot swept across the heavens they fancied they saw
the milk-white steeds that drew the car of the king.
At evening as he rolled away in a sea of splendor,
leaving his crimson mantle upon the mountain peaks,
the devotee knelt again to receive his parting blessing.
After a time, when the pearly tints of morning again
announced his coming, he w’as hailed with joyous songs:

TO SURYA.

1. “The wonderful host of rays has risen; the eye
of Mitra, Varuna, and Agni the sun, the soul of all
that moves or is immovable, has filled ( with his glory)
the heaven, the earth, and the firmament.

i R.-v., 2-0, Muller’s trans.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

2. “ The sun follows the divine and brilliant Ushas
as a man follows a young and elegant woman, at which
season pious men perform the ceremonies established
for ages, worshiping the auspicious sun for the sake of
good reward.

3. “ The auspicious, swift horses of the sun, well-
limbed, road-traversing, who merit to be pleased with
praise, reverenced by us, have ascended to the summits
of the sky, and quickly circumambulate earth and
heaven.

4. “ Such is the divinity, such is the majesty of the
sun that, when he has set, he has withdrawn (into
himself) the diffused (light which had been shed)
upon the unfinished task. When he has unyoked his
coursers from the car, then night extends the veiling
darkness over all.

5. “ The sun in the sight of Mitra and Varuna dis-
plays his form (of brightness) in the middle of the
heavens, and his rays extend, on one hand, his infinite
and brilliant power, or on the other (by their depart-
ure), bring on the blackness of night.

6. “ This day, gods, with the rising of the sun,
deliver us from heinous sin ! and may Mitra, Varuna,
Aditya, ocean, earth, and heaven, be favorable to this our
prayer.”1

VARUNA, THE GOD OF THE FIRMAMENT AND OF THE
OCEAN.

Varuna is derived from the root Var (to cover).
In the Veda it is used as a name for the firmament,
but only in connection with the night, being opposed

iR.-v., Vol. I., page 304, Wilson's trans.

34 THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

to Mitra (the day). It will be remembered that
Hesiod uses the name of Uranos for the sky, and it is
repeatedly said that Uranos, or Ouranos, covers every-
thing, and that when he brings the night he is
stretched out everywhere embracing the earth. But
the Indian Varuna is the god of the sky, as well as
the sky itself. It is said that “Varuna stemmed as-
under the wide firmaments ; he lifted on high the
bright and glorious heaven ; he stretched out apart the
starry sky and the earth. ”l Like the other gods,

Varuna is hymned as the Supreme Being :

“ Thou art lord of all, of heaven and earth ; thou
art the king of all, of those who are gods and of those
who are men.”

He dwells in all worlds as their sovereign ; he made
the sun to shine in the firmament, and the moaning
winds are but his breath. He formed the channels of
the rivers which flow by his command into the sea
which they can never fill. He knows the pathway of
the birds through the blue ether, and the trackless
course of the ships upon the wide ocean. He witnesses
the truth or falsehood of men, and nothing escapes his
countless eyes.

The two oceans ( aerial and terrestrial ) are Varuna’s
stomachs, and the stars of night are his all-seeing eyes.

Varuna is not only the Uranos, or Ouranos, of the
Greeks, but he is their Neptune as well, being the
“god of the raging main” and “monarch of the
deep.” It was Varuna who supplied the sage Bicika

iR.-v., 7, 861, Muller’s trans.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

with a thousand fleet horses, an allusion which is sug-
gestive of the production of the horse by Neptune in
his fabled contest with Minerva for the right of nam-
ing the city of Athens. Indeed, the horse in Greek
mythology was sacred to Neptune and the rivers, and
Homer represents the “monarch of the watery main”
as whirling over the crystal chambers of the deep in
his chariot drawn by “ brass-hoofed steeds,” while

“The parting waves before his coursers fly.

The wondering waters leave his axle dry.”

Even so Vanina rides upon the waters or hides in
caves beneath a rocky strand ; but he also fills the
halls of night with his presence and draws near to his
worshiper in the cooling touch of evening, and when
the veil of darkness covers them he comes to the hearts
of men with the blessed peace and calm of evening
rest.

YAMA

Is the king of death and the judge of the dead. He
is the Pluto of Hindu mythology, and like him he is
the lord of the world from whose dominion there is
no return. The regions of Pluto were guarded by the
three-headed dog Cerberus,1 who watched at the en-
trance, but Yama has two terrible dogs of the “four-

i There is a diversity of expression among classic authors in relation to
the famous dog of hades. The first mention of him is by Hesiod, who
describes the furious creature as having fifty heads. Sophocles, however,
speaks of him as the three-headed dog of Pluto, and the Latin poets
generally agree with this author. Horace, however, calls the dog hundred-
headed. Champollion traces a strong analogy between the Egyptian and
Grecian mythology in relation to the dog of hades. — ( See Anthon's Clas.
Diet,)

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

eyed tawny breed of Sarama.” This “ King of Death ”
is the first of men who died, and he guides the spirits
of other men to their destination in heaven or hell. In
the later mythology he is represented as the judge of
the dead, /but not in the Vedas. • The region over which
Pluto presides is represented in the Iliad and in
Hesiod’s Theogony as being within the earth, while in
the Odyssey it is placed in the dark region beyond the
stream of ocean.1 But Yama himself dwells in celestial
light, and in one place he is represented as taking
part with other gods in a festive scene beneath a tree.

The following fine poetic tribute is paid to the
King of Death in the Rig-veda :

HYMN TO YAMA.

“To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid.
He was the first of men that died ; the first to brave
Death’s rapid rushing stream, the first to point the
road

To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode.
No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee ;
Oh king, we come ! the born must die, must tread the
path

That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of
men

In long succession, and our fathers too, have passed.
Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road —
The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone;
Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers,
Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the
guards —

1 Od. 10, 508.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

The four-eyed brindled dogs — that watch for the de-
parted.

Return unto thy home, 0 soul ! Thy sin and shame
Leave thou behind on earth; assume a shining form —
Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set
free.”1

USHAS.

Perhaps the most beautiful and poetic of all the
Vedic deities is Ushas, the dawn. This radiant god-
dess is the Aurora, or Eos, of the Greeks.

“ Now fair Aurora lifts her golden ray.

And all the ruddy Orient flames with day.”

Even so does the Hindu goddess light up the east-
ern sky with the tints of opal and morning gray She
lives in their poetry as a beautiful woman pursued by
her devoted lover, the sun, who at length overwhelms
her with his ardent kisses. She is borne onward
through the sky in a gleaming chariot drawn by ruddy
horses, dispelling darkness, waking the birds, and illum-
ining the world. Sometimes she is hymned as a beau-
tiful maiden, sometimes adored as a wife and mother
(see page 27) ; sometimes she is pictured as deso-
late and deserted by the sun, who disappears in the
western skies, leaving only the clouds of crimson and
gold to comfort his dying bride. But she is always
young, for she is born every morning with the crown
of immortal youth. Like Aurora, she wears a golden
robe and comes out of her cloud-curtained palace to
ascend her triumphal car The gates of the morning

i Williams’ trails. 2 odyssey, Bk. 8, 1.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

are opened by her rosy fingers, and her fair brow is
crowned with the morning star. She is addressed as the
“daughter of the sky,” the “ kinswoman of Varuna.”

In one passage the moon is said to be born again,
and ever new to go before Ushas as the herald of the
day. In the Rig-veda the early morn is saluted thus :

“ Ilail, Ushas, daughter of the sky,

Who, borne upon thy shining car
By ruddy steeds from realms afar
And ever lightening, drawest nigh —

Thou sweetly smilest, goddess fair,

Disclosing all thy youthful grace,

Thy bosom fair, thy radiant face.

And luster of thy golden hair.

“ So shines the fond and winning bride
Who robes her form in brilliant guise.

And to her lord’s admiring eyes
Displays her charms with conscious pride.

Or virgin by her mother decked.

Who, glorying in her beauty, shows
In every glance her power ; she knows
All eyes to fix, all hearts subject.

“ But closely by the amorous sun

Pursued and vanquished in the race.

Thou soon art locked in his embrace.

And with him blendest into one.

Fair Ushas! though through years untold
Thou hast lived on, yet thou art born
Anew on each succeeding morn,

And so thou art both young and old.”1

i Dr. Muir’s trails.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

MARUTS OR RUDRAS.

Maruts or Rudras is the god, or, rather, the gods,
of wind and storm, to whom the people prayed for
protection for themselves, and for the destruction of
their enemies. They were addressed as “ shakers of
the earth,” and besought to tear in pieces whatever
fiends might be aroused to attack the people. They
dash through the heavens in chariots drawn by dap-
pled deer ; they are termed “ worshipful and wise,”
and implored to come with their whole help “ as
quickly as lightnings come after rain.” Rudra was
afterwards the god of destruction — Siva, the world
dissolver.

The following hymn in praise of the storm gods is
one of the most vivid conceptions of Hindu poetry
that can be found upon the pages of the Rig-veda. It
is radiant with life and strength through all its elo-
quent periods :

HYMN TO THE MARUTS.

1. “The active, the strong, the singers, the never
flinching, the immovable, the wild, the most beloved
and most manly, they have shown themselves with
their glittering ornaments, a few only like the heavens
with the stars.

2. “When you see your way through the clefts,
you are like birds, 0 Maruts, on whatever road it be.
The clouds drop (rain) on your chariots everywhere,
pour out the honey like fat for him who praises you.

3. “At their ravings the earth shakes as if broken,
when on the (heavenly) paths they harness their deer
for victory. They the sportive, the roaring, with

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

bright spears, the shakers of the clouds, have them-
selves praised their greatness.

4. “ That youthful company (of the Maruts) with
their spotted horses, moves by itself, hence it exercises
lordship and is invested with powers. . . . Therefore
thou the strong hast, and thou wilt cherish this prayer.

5. “ We speak after the kind of our old father ; our
tongue goes forth at the sight of the soma ; when the
shouting Maruts had joined Indra in the work, then
only they received sacrificial honors.

6. “For their glory these well-equipped Maruts ob-
tained splendors ; they obtained rays and men to praise
them ; nay, these well-armed, nimble, and fearless be-
ings found the beloved home of the Maruts. On your
bodies there are daggers for beauty ; may they stir up
our minds as they stir up the forests.

7. “For your sake, 0 well-born Maruts, you who
are full of vigor, they have shaken the stone for dis-
tilling soma. Days went round you and came back,
O Maruts, back to this prayer, and to this sacred
rite — the Gotamas making prayer with songs have
pushed up the lid of the well (the cloud) to drink.

8. “No such hymn was ever known as this which
Gotama sounded for you, 0 Maruts, when he saw you
on golden wheels — wild boars, rushing about with iron
tusks. This refreshing draught of soma rushes toward
you like the voice of a suppliant — it rushes freely
from our hands, as. these libations are wont to do.”1

The hymns of the Veda are not all of them hymns
of praise. The denunciations of their priests were

> R.-v„ Vol. I„ pp. 143-153, Muller’s trans.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE YEDAS. 41

poured out upon the people, and even upon each other,
in the breath of these poets. For instance :

“No, by heaven! no, by earth! I do not approve
of this; no, by the sacrifice! No, by these rites!
May the mighty mountains crush him ! May the
priest of Atiya^a perish ! ”

“Whosoever, 0 Maruts, weans himself above us, or
scoffs at the prayer (Brahma) which we have made,
may hot plagues come upon him ; may the sky burn
up that hater of Brahmans/’

“ Did they not call thee Soma, the guardian of
Brahmans ? Did they not say that thou didst shield
us against curses ? Why dost thou look on when
we are scoffed at ? Hurl against the hater of the
Brahmans the fiery spear.”1

And again, “ Indra and Soma, burn the devils ; de-
stroy them ; throw them down, ye two bulls, the peo-
ple that groan in darkness ! Hew down the madmen,
suffocate them, kill them ; hurl them away, and slay
the voracious. Indra and Soma, up together against
the cursing demon ! May he burn and hiss like an
oblation in the fire ! Put your everlastiug hatred
upon the villain who hates the Brahman, who eats
flesh, and whose look is abominable. Indra and Soma,
hurl the evil-doer into the pit, even into unfathomable
darkness ! May your strength be full of wrath to hold
out that no one may come out again.”2

The numerous deities are fully described and mul-
tiplied to a certain extent, even in the early songs ;

l R.-v., VI., 52.

2 Muller's trans.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

for instance, instead of the one god of storms, we have
many. Yet, although hymns and prayers to the various
gods abound in the Vedas, it is declared in some texts
that there are but three deities — the air, the sun, and
fire — and their places are the earth, the middle region
(between heaven and earth), and heaven. There are
also repeated texts which claim that there is but one
deity — the supreme spirit. “ He who from the univer-
sal world proceeds, who is Lord of the earth, and
whose work is the universe, is the Supreme Being.”1

It is fortunate that our translators have not under-
taken the task of reconciling the Vedas with them-
selves. They have simply tried to give us a faithful
reproduction of these books, with all their contradic-
tions and inconsistencies. Although the pages of the
Rig-veda abound with incongruities and absurdities,
they are free from the grosser immoralities which pol-
lute the later literature of the Brahmans. There is

no account in the Rig-veda of such characters as Siva
and Kali ; no trace of the miraculous stories concern-
ing Vishnu. These, with the descriptions of the licen-
tious Krishna, were reserved for the later fables of that
romantic clime.

INDRA.

This was, perhaps, the most popular of all the early
Vedic deities. Like Agni, his brother, he is hymned
as the Supreme Being, superior to all the other gods
of the pantheon. Though sometimes called the sun-
light, he is looked upon as the watery atmosphere,
ever seeking to dispense his dewy treasures (indu), and

l Religion of Hin., Vol. II., p. 51.

MYTHOLOGY OF TIIE VEDAS

constantly opposed by a spirit of evil called Vritra.
He is also styled the “ thunder-bearer,” or god of bat-
tles. He was the Hindu ideal of a hero, who was
always fighting and was never conquered. He was the
Jove of early Indian mythology, and the favorite deity
of a people who were fighting for new homes and
rich herds of cattle. Hence the great number of
prayers and hymns addressed to him. He is repre-
sented as “the king of heaven,” as “the showerer of
blessings,” and as “the thunderer.” Many passages
suggest the scene upon Olympus

“ Where far apart the Thunderer fills his throne.

O’er all the gods superior and alone.”

Like Jove, he has supreme control of the elements ;
he rides upon the storm cloud and flashes his light-
nings across the darkened sky. He is the archer who
uses the rainbow as his weapon, whose quiver is filled
with lightnings, while his wrath is like that of the
Grecian god to whose will Vulcan counsels submis-
sion,

“ Lest roused to rage he shake the bless’d abodes.

Launch the red lightning and dethrone the gods.”

Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt, may also be
compared to the German Donar, the Saxon Thunar,
and the Thor of the ancient Norseman.

Indra is the king of the Devas, or millions of ce-
lestials who belong especially to his own Paradise. He
is represented with four arms and hands, with two of
which he holds a lance, while a third carries a thun-

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

derbolt. His reign is to continue one hundred years
of the gods, after which another may, by great sacri-
fices, usurp his position. One hundred successful Asva-
medhas, or horse sacrifices, are said to qualify the
devotee for becoming the successor of Indra, therefore
the god usually sends one of his celestial atten-
dants to steal away the horse before the sacrifice can
be performed.

The reign of this popular deity extends from the
early Yedic period down to the Puranic age, when his
star declines before the supremacy of more modern gods.
Still, he is a chieftain among inferior deities and is
always at war with the giants and demons, by whom he
was at one time deposed. Indra’s partiality for the
intoxicating draught has been discussed in the previous
chapter, and in this, too, he resembles the Grecian
Jove, as well as Bacchus. It will lie remembered that
in the First Book of the Iliad Vulcan stayed the quar-
rel between Jove and his angry queen by counseling his
“goddess mother” to submit to the imperial will, and
then

“ Rising with a bound

The double bowl with sparkling nectar crowned,”

he passed to all the deities in the assembled conclave,
and they drank freely of its contents, while

“ Vulcan with awkward grace his office plies,

And unextinguished laughter shakes the skies.”

The frequent offerings of the intoxicating beverage
made to Indra in the Vedic age were accompanied by
the chanting of hymns urging him to drink, that he

MYTHOLOGY OF TIIE VEDAS.

might become “ invigorated ” and able to cope with his
enemies. These copious offerings of soma so frequently
made to the “king of heaven” suggest that classic
scene where the Greek and Trojan powers were feast-
ing through the night, the troops of Greece upon the
field, -and those of Troy within her towers:

“ But Jove adverse, the signs of wrath displayed,

And shot red lightnings through the gloomy shade.
Humbled they stood, pale horror seized on all,

While the deep thunder shook the aerial hall.

Each poured to Jove before the bowl was crowned,
And large libations drenched the thirsty ground.”

The heroes of northern mythology also share in this
weakness of the Indian and Grecian deities. Odin, the
chieftain of the North and the father of Thor, lived
exclusively upon wine or beer, giving the food which
was set before him to the two wolves that lay at his
feet.

Indra is represented as swiftly obeying the summons
of his worshipers when the soma is poured out in floods
for the gratification of his palate and the exhilaration
of his whole being. It is claimed that he receives
strength from this beverage to such an extent that he
not only vanquishes his foes, but supports the earth
and sky. Heaven and earth tremble with fear at the
crash of his thunder ; his enemies are pierced and
shattered by his arrows of lightning, and the waters
descend in torrents to the earth, filling the rivers which
rush in rolling floods toward the sea.

The following hymn to Indra is a sample of the
songs which are chanted in his praise :

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

“ Let no one, not even those who worship thee,
delay thee far from ns ! Even from afar come to our
feast ! Or, if thou art here, listen to us. For these
here who make prayers to thee sit together near the
libation, like Hies round the honey. The worshipers
anxious for wealth have placed their desire upon In-
dia, as we put our foot upon a chariot. Desirous of
riches, I call him who holds the thunderbolt with
his arm, and who is a good giver, like as a son calls
his father. These libations of soma mixed with milk
have been prepared for Indra. Thou, armed with the
thunderbolt, come with the steeds and drink of them
for thy delight — come to the house .

“He who prepares for thee, 0 Vritra killer, deep
libations and pours them out before thee, that hero
thrives with Indra, never scorned of men.

“Offer soma to the drinker of soma — to Indra, the
lord of the thunderbolt ; roast roasts ; make him to
protect us. Indra, the giver, is a blessing to him who
gives oblations.

“Do not grudge, ye givers of soma; give strength
to the great god, make him to give wealth. He who
alone preserves, conquers, abides, and flourishes; the
gods are not to be trifled with.

“No one surrounds the chariot of the liberal wor-
shiper, no one stops it. He whom Indra protects and
the Maruts, he will come with stables full of cattle.

“A mortal does not get riches by scant praise — no
wealth comes to the grudger.

“ The strong man it is, 0 mighty ! who in the day

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

of battle is a precious gift to thee like as to me.
We call to thee, 0 hero, like cows that have not been
milked ; we praise thee as ruler of all that moves, 0
Indra — as ruler of all that is immovable.

“There is no one like thee in heaven or earth;
he is not now and will not be born. 0 mighty In-
dra ! we call upon thee as we go fighting for cows
and horses. Let not evil-disposed wretches and un-
hallowed tread us down. Through thy help, 0 hero,
let us step over the rushing eternal waters.”1

Food is provided for the horses of Indra by the
worshiper who pours out libations of soma to the mas-
ter, for “the king of heaven” is lepeatedly represented
as driving furiously through the sky in his chariot
drawn by tawny steeds. So in Book Eighth of the Iliad
the sire of the gods

“ Called his coursers, and his chariot took.

The steadfast firmament beneath them shook ;

Rapt by the ethereal steeds the chariot roll’d.

Brass were their hoofs, their curling manes of gold.”

His fleet-footed horses rush along between the ex-
tended earth and sky until they reach the top of Mount
Ida, when

“From his radiant car the sacred sire

Of gods and men released the steeds of fire.”

These numerous and startling coincidences between
the early Vedic deities and the gods of Greece point

i R.-v., II., 32, Wilson’s trans.

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to the common origin of these Aryan myths, espe-
cially in view of the fact that the Iliad itself has been
traced by Grote and Buckley to 776 B. C. Herodo-
tus gives still earlier dates, for he places Ilomer with
Hesiod, 400 years before his own time. The figures
given by Herodotus (who wrote 444 B. C.) are cor-
roborated by the arguments of Wood1 and Haller,2 and
also of Mitford, who makes a strong argument for the
historic value of Homer’s works.3 These authorities
place Homer about the middle of the ninth century
B. C., while the Arundelian marbles assign him to 907
B. C. When we consider that the myths of Greece
existed long before her epic poems, we must refer them
back almost to the early songs of the Veda.

The mythology of Northern Europe also bears un-
mistakable evidence of having been brought from the
common home of the Aryan race, although it has been
developed in harmony with the temperament of the
Northern people. Even amidst these rugged rocks and
icebergs we find almost a counterpart of Indra and of
Jove in the descriptions of the gigantic Thor, before
whom the mountains burst and the earth blazed.
Sleipnir, the fleet-footed horse of Odin, compares favor-
ably with the “tawny steeds” of Indra, or the flying
coursers of Jove. If Neptune’s “ brass-hoof’d steeds”
were

“Fleet as the winds and deck’d with golden manes,”
the famous horse of the Northern god cleared the gates

i Essay on the Original Genius of Homer.

: i Heyne, Excurs. 4 ad. II., 84. 3 History of Greece, pp. 81 and 139.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE VEDAS.

of Hel1 at a single bound, while his speed rivaled that
of the winds, and the golden bridge of Gyoll trembled
more beneath his tread than when five bands of dead
men rode over its solemn arches. Ty, or Tyr, the son
of Odin, is the god of war — the Mars of Northern Eu-
rope— who rides fearlessly into the thickest of the fight.
Gerd, the beautiful maiden with shining arms, resisting
the advances of Frey, the god of rain and sunshine,
represents Ushas, the fair goddess of the morning, flee-
ing from the kisses of the sun. GCgir is the storm god
of the ocean — the Neptune of the Northern seas — before
whose trident the angry billows roll upon the helpless
shore.

Loki, the god of fire, bears to the Northmen the
relation that Agni holds to India. His servants are
the subterranean forces which, even though chained in
darkness, throw from throbbing mountains their burn-
ing breath and liquid fires.

These are only a few of the many parallels which
might be cited. The Persian myths could also be
shown to belong to the same common stock ; but the
illustrations already given are sufficient to prove that it
was in the early days of the Aryan race, when the
people dwelt in a common home and used a common
language, that their myths were either born from the
realms of fancy or builded upon the fragments of his-
tory.

i Hel is derived from at helja, signifying to hide. It is used in the Edda
to denote the kingdom of death, and all who died, whether saints or
sinners, hastened to this dark region, or concealed place— the world of
the tomb. It is said that Hermod, or Hermodhr, the son of Odin, rode
the fleet horse Sleipnir for nine days and nights before he came to the
barred gates of Hel, hoping to recover his brother Balder.

CHAPTER III.

MYTHOLOGY OP LATER HINDU WORKS.

MULTIPLICATION OF DEITIES — ANALOGY BETWEEN IN-
DIAN AND GREEK GODS — MODERN DEITIES — BRAHMA,
VISHNU AND SIVA — INCARNATIONS OF VISHNU —
GARUDA — RECOVERY OF THE LOST NECTAR OF THE
GODS — SIVA.

IP ROM the foregoing examination of the early Vedic
T deities it has been seen that Yedism was little
more than reverent love for the forces of nature, and
a desire to propitiate them in order to receive temporal
blessings at their hands. No one can examine the
Vedic hymns without being struck with the great num-
ber of prayers offered for cattle and horses, for rain
and abundant food, as well as for vengeance upon
enemies. The gods were at first few in number and
simple in form, but these early deities were soon multi-
plied a thousand-fold, and at length the Hindu pan-
theon contained three hundred and thirty millions of
gods. Out of this vast number it is impossible to do
more than glance at the most prominent characters of
Indian mythology. Strong points of analogy might
also be shoivn between the Grecian deities and the later
forms of Hindu myth. For instance, the goddess
Durga, the wife of Siva, may be said to represent Juno,
the imperious queen of Jove. Sri might also be com-
pared with the Latin Ceres —

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

“ As when on Ceres’ sacred floor, the swain

Spreads the wide fan to clean the golden grain,

And the light chaff before the breezes borne.
Ascends in clouds from off the heapy corn.”1

Sarasvati, the goddess of speech and of the arts, rep-
resents Minerva, who was born from the head of Jove,
and who taught Epeus to frame the wooden horse
which caused the downfall of Troy. Kama, the god of
love, is the Cupid of the Hindus, while Rati, his wife,
may be compared to “the silver-footed dame” of the
Iliad. Karttikeya, the god of war, was, like Mars,

“With slaughter red, and raging round the field.”

Karada was the inventor of the lute in Indian my-
thology, while Mercury of the Greeks invented the lyre.
Vayu, the god of the wind, represents the Grecian
iEolus, who tied up all the winds (except Zephyrus) in
a bag of ox-hide for the benefit of Ulysses, that he
might have a favorable passage homeward. Ganesa, who
presided over the beginning of all undertakings, repre-
sents Janus, the two-faced deity of the Latins, who was
invoked at “the commencement of campaigns.”

BRAHMA, VISHNU, AND SIVA

are the most popular deities in modern times. In
the Middle Ages bitter rivalries sprang up between the
advocates of the various theological systems, the Puranas
being divided in their allegiance to these gods. But
at the present time a more tolerant spirit prevails, and
the names of Brahma Vishnu, and Siva, are by many

i Iliad. V., 500.

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regarded merely as manifestations of one Supreme Be-
ing. Brahma is confessedly the most difficult deity in
the Hindu pantheon to locate intelligently. The dif-
ficulty arises from the fact that the word brahman
originally meant force, will, or wish ; it was imper-
sonal, but came to be considered as the creative force
in the universe, even before it was endowed with per-
sonality, and while it existed only in a neuter form.
Brahman (neuter) in the sense of a creative principle
does not occur in the Rig-veda. It does occur, however,
in the later productions, the earliest of which is the
Atharva-veda. In the Brahmanas this Brahman is
called “ the first-born, the self-existing, the best of
the gods,” etc. The word Brahmana is derived from
Brahman, which is afterward developed into a per-
sonal deity. In Manu (whose code dates from about
500 B. C.) Brahman is represented as evolving his
essence in the form of Brahma, the creator. In one
of the Upanishads there is an account of the creation
of all things by this deity, which will be examined in
a future chapter, under the head of Cosmogony. The
word Brahma is the nominative case, of the neuter
Brahman. When Brahma decided to create the universe
he assumed the quality of activity and became a male
deity, Brahma. He also willed to invest himself with
preserving power, and thus became Vishnu, the pre-
server ; then wishing to obtain the destructive power,
he became also Siva, the destroyer. This doctrine
of the triple development of the previously neuter
form does not occur, however, until we reach the
Brahmanized version of the Indian Epics. These three
manifestations of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva exhibit

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

the principal forms of Hinduism as expressed in the
epic poems, and stronger still in the later Puranas. 1
And yet Brahma, who in his later form is the creator
of all things, is said to have been born in the lotus
blossom that sprang from Vishnu, and is described as
having four faces. In the Vishnu -purana, which dates
from about the eleventh century of the Christian era,
Brahma is said to live one hundred years, each day
of which consists of 4,320,000,000 of the years of
mortals. During the nights of Brahma the universe
ceases to exist, but it is reproduced at the beginning
of the next day. Like other prominent gods of the
Hindus, he is repeatedly praised as the Supreme Being
and the creator of all the others. But the myth grew
slowly, for in the Maha-bharata, a work hundreds of
years subsequent to the Atharva-veda, Maha-deva is
represented as the creator of Brahma. “From his right
side he produced Brahma, the originator of worlds ;
from his left side. Vishnu, the preserver of the universe,
and when the end of the age had arrived the mighty
god created Rudra” (afterward Siva).2

VISHNU.

There is mention of a god Vishnu in the Rig-veda,
but he is there spoken of as a manifestation of solar
energy, or rather as a form of the sun. He is repre-
sented as stepping over the heavens in three paces, sym-
bolizing the sun’s rising, his passage across the meri-
dian, and his setting. Afterwards Vishnu takes his
place among the twelve Adityas, or twelve phases of
the sun during the twelve months of the year. Later,

i Ind. Wis., pp. 324-327.

- Muir's Sans. Texts, pp. 156-162.

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in the Brahmanas, he is identified with sacrifice. It
was the Vedic Vishnu who afterward became the world
preserver, while Rudra (connected with Indra and the
Maruts), the god of tempests, became the world dis-
solver, Siva. There is no trace of Vishnu in the In-
stitutes of Manu, unless the allusions to inferior gods
may apply to him. In the Maha-bharata he is some-
times regarded as the most exalted deity, and again
he is represented as paying homage to Siva and recog-
nizing the superiority of that deity over himself. He
is quite prominent in the Ramayana, but it is in the
Puranas that the most wonderful exploits and the
greatest glory are assigned to him. From the begin-
ning of the Christian era to the Puranas there were
from six to eight centuries, during which Vishnu was
growing in importance, till in the lltli century A. D.
he was glorified in the most extravagant terms in the
voluminous Vishnu-purana. The writer of this work
exhausts the resources of language in extolling the deity
who has reached the zenith of his popularity only in
medheval times. No exploit is too great, no descrip-
tions too wild, no mythology too fabulous to be applied
to the god who is here claimed to be the conqueror
of Indra and the creator of Brahma. He is alluded
to in various forms in these later books (the Puranas),
as it is claimed that he had ten avatars, or incarna-
tions.

The doctrine of the avatars of Vishnu is not fully
developed until we come down to the Puranas, about
the middle of the Christian era. It is true that the
legends of the fish, the boar, and the tortoise are found
in the Satapatha-brahmana, hut it is only in the

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HIKDU WORKS.

much later Paninas that they are described as incarna-
tions of Vishnu.1

1. Matsya, or fish/ in which character he saved
the seventh man, the progenitor of the human race,
from the deluge. (This story is graphically told in
the Satapatha-brahmana, and is repeated in the Maha-
bharata.)

2. Kurma, the tortoise, In this form he descended
to aid in recovering certain valuable articles lost in
the deluge.

3. Varaha, the boar. Having assumed this form,
lie descended to deliver the world from the power of
the golden-eyed demon, who had seized it and car-
ried it down to the depths of the sea. Vishnu as a
boar dived into the abyss, and after a contest of a
thousand years he slew the monster and raised the
earth. In other legends the universe is represented as
a mass of water, and the earth, being submerged, was
upheaved by the tusks of the divine boar. “ It is a
noticeable fact,” says Sir Monier Williams, “that the
first three incarnations of Vishnu are all connected
with the tradition of a universal deluge.”

4. Nara-sinha, the man lion. He assumed this

shape to deliver the world from the tyranny of a
demon, who had obtained from Brahma the promise
that he should not be slain either by a god, a man,
or an animal. (These four incarnations are said to

i Trans. Vie. Inst., Vol. XXI., p. 1G7.

2The first incarnation of this god as a fish is suggestive of Janus, the
two-faced deity of Roman mythology, who, with his wife and his sister
Camasane is often represented as half fish and half human. Compare
also the avatar as a fish with the Babylonian legend of Oannes and the
Syrian goddess Atergatis, who was worshiped at Ilierapolis, having a
woman's figure, the lower part of which was a fish.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

have taken place in the Satya, or first age of the
world. )

5. Vamana, the dwarf, which character he assumed
to deprive the demon Bali of the dominion of the
three worlds. Vishnu presented himself as a very di-
minutive man, and solicited as much land as he could
step over in three paces. When this request was
granted he strided over heaven and earth, but in
compassion to the demon he left hell in his posses-
sion.

6. Parasu-rama, Rama with the ax ; in this char-
acter Vishnu is said to have cleared the earth twenty-
one times of the Kshatriya, or military class.

7. Rama-canbra, hero of the epic poem Ramayana.

8. Krishna, the dark god, which form he assumes
at the end of the Davapara, or third age of the world.
Krishna was the younger brother of Bala-rama, “ the
strong Rama,” who has sometimes been called the
eighth avatar of Vishnu. But in later times Krishna
appears to have supplanted his brother as the eighth
incarnation.1 As Krishna worship is nowhere mentioned
in the early Vedic writings, this god will be treated in
connection with the later forms of Hindu literature,
where he chronologically belongs.2

9. Buddha. According to the Brahmans, Vishnu
assumed this form to delude the demons into neglect-
ing the worship of the gods, and thus exposing them-
selves to destruction.

It appears that Buddha was canonized, so to speak,
by receiving the rank of the ninth avatar of Vishnu
after the expulsion of Buddhism as a sect from India.

i Traus. Vic. lust., Vol. XXI., p. 177.

2 Chap. 23.

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

10. Kalki, or Kalkin, who is yet to appear at the
close of the fourth age, when the world has become
wholly depraved, for the final destruction of the wicked,
the re-establishment of righteousness upon the earth, the
renovation of all the earth, and the return to a new age
of purity. According to some, he will be seen in the sky,
seated on a white horse, with a drawn sword in his hand,
blazing like a comet. This last picture — taken in con-
nection with the well-established fact of the modern char-
acter of the Puranas — seems to have been drawn from
Revelation xix: 11 and 15: “And I saw heaven opened,

and behold a white horse, and he that sat upon him was
called Faithful and True, and in righteousness he doth
judge and make war. . . . And out of his mouth goeth
a sharp sword, that with it he should smite the nations,
and he shall rule them with a rod of iron. And he
treadeth the wine-press of the fierceness and wrath of
Almighty God.”

Some works give twenty-four avatars, and some call
them numberless, but the generally received mythol-
ogy accords to Vishnu only the ten which are here
spoken of.

Vishnu is represented as riding upon Garuda, a crea-
ture which is half man and half eagle. This is the king
of birds and the fearless enemy of the serpent tribe. The
intrepid Garuda of the Hindus is represented in Persia
by the Simurgh,1 that ancient bird which has seen the

i The golden-pinioned Simurgh is a fabulous bird that is said to live in the
Caucasian mountains, and Prof. Eastwick supposes that the idea was derived
from the Jewish tradition of a huge bird mentioned in the Talmud under the
name of Yukhush. A picture of the Simurgh, which was taken from a Per-
sian drawing, represents him as flying with an elephant in his beak and
another in each of his talons.

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great cycle of seven thousand years twelve times, and
twelve times beheld an unjieopled earth. He finds a
parallel in the fabled Anka of Arabia which is said

to be “known in name and unknown in body,” the

Eorosh of the Zend, and the Kerkes of the Turks.

The Japanese also have their Kirni, while China rejoices
in her nondescript dragon, a combination of bird and
reptile.

The Hindu Garucla suggests, too, the Griffin of Chiv-
alry,1 the fabulous monster, half bird and half lion, that
protected the gold of the Hyperborean regions from the
one-eyed Arimaspians, and the Phoenix of Egyptian
fable — the bird of gold and crimson plumage that is

burned upon her nest of spices every thousand years,
and as often springs to life from her ashes. To these
wonderful parallels we might add the ancient bird in
Scandinavian mythology which sits in the branches
of Yggdrasil, the great ash tree, which is the most
sacred place of the gods, and where they daily sit in
judgment.2

1 In the Second Book of “Paradise Lost” Milton makes a comparison with
the Griffin as follows:

“As when a Gryphon through the wilderness
With winged course, o’er hill and moory dale,

Pursues the Arimaspiau who by stealth
Hath from his wakeful custody purloined
His guarded gold,” etc.

2 The branches of the Yggdrasil spread themselves over the whole world
and tower far above the heavens. It has three roots, and various theories
are given as to their exact location; but according to the prose Edda, the
first root reaches to the middle of the world ; the second to the frost giants^
and the third is constantly gnawed by the great serpent Nidhogg. Under the
first root is the sacred fountain of Urd, where the gods sit in judgment, and
a fair hall, from which go forth three maidens, the past, the present, aud the
future. In the branches of the tree sits an eagle that knows many
things. Between his eyes sits the hawk. The squirrel runs up and down
the tree and carries bitter messages between the eagle and the serpent,
while four harts run among the boughs and bite the buds of the tree.

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS. 59

RECOVERY OF THE LOST NECTAR OF THE GODS.

One of the most interesting exploits of Vishnu is his
recovery of the lost nectar of the gods. In this beautiful
legend the gods' are represented as having been conquered
in battle by demons and robbed of their strength, where-
upon Vishnu gives orders to have the ocean churned into
a nectar for the gods, declaring that this nectar will at
once restore their supernatural power and enable them to
destroy their enemies. For this purpose the gods are
ordered to collect all plants and herbs and cast them into
the sea, taking the mountain Mandara for a churning
stick and Vasuki, the serpent, for a rope, while Vishnu
himself, in the form of a tortoise, becomes a resting-place
for the mountain. Then they churn the ocean until they
have produced the ambrosial food of immortality.

“Straightway they gathered herbs, and cast them
Into the waters; then they took the mountain
To serve as a churning staff, and next the snake
To serve as cord, and in the ocean’s midst
Hari (Vishnu) himself present, in tortoise form,

Became a pivot for the churning staff.

Then they did churn the sea of milk,1 and first
Out of the waters rose the sacred cow,

God-worshiped Surabhi — eternal fountain
Of milk and offerings of butter; next, . . .

With eyes all rolling, Varuni uprose.

Goddess of wine. Then from the whirlpool sprang
Fair Parijata, tree of Paradise, delight
Of heavenly maidens, with its fragrant blossoms
Perfuming the whole world.

i The sixth circumambient ocean of the world, according to Indian cos-
mogony.

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<( . . . Then seated on a lotus
Beauty’s bright goddess, peerless Sri,1 arose
Out of the waves; and with her, robed in white,

Came forth Dhanvantari, the gods’ physician.

High in his hand he bore the cup of nectar —
Life-giving draught — longed for by gods and demons.
Then had the demons forcibly borne off
And drained the precious beverage,

Had not the mighty Vishnu interposed.

Bewildering them, he gave it to the gods;

Whereat incensed, the demon troops assailed
The hosts of heaven. But they with strength renewed
Quaffing the draught, struck down their foes, who fell
Headlong through space to lowest depths of hell.”

This poetic legend is given in the beautiful transla-
tion of Sir Monier Williams. The dark and turbid
waters of Oriental literature became gradually purified
as they flowed through the poetical natures of some of
our translators. The vulgarity and meaningless repe-
tition which we often find in the works of native schol-
ars gives place in other hands to expressions of high
poetic beauty. Their own literary style is so refined
that, unconsciously perhaps to themselves, English schol-
ars have elevated Hindu poetry to a rank which it
never could have occupied without them. The con-
trast is never more forcible than when comparing their
work with the translations of the Pandits. Boldness
then gives place to beauty ; vulgarity yields to refine-

i According to Ilesiod Venus was bora from the foam of the sea (Hes.
Theog. 188 seq.) and Homer speaks of Thetis as rising from the ocean:
“When like the morning mist in early day
Rose from the flood the daughter of the sea.”

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

ment ancl delicacy; while crude ideas are so clad in the
graceful drapery of language as to seem like the mas-
terpieces of thought.

The modern triad of Hindu theology is completed by
SIVA, THE GOD OF DESTRUCTION.

Says Max Muller, “ The stories of Siva, Kali,
Krishna, etc., are of late growth, indigenous to India,
and full of wild and fanciful conceptions.”

In the form of Siva, Brahma is supposed to pass
from the work of creation and preservation to that of
destruction. Even the god of dissolution was repre-
sented by the human form. Hence, he was said to be
living in the Himalaya Mountains, together with his
wife Parvati, the daughter of the mountain. She was
worshiped in Bengal under the name of Durga.

The name Siva means “auspicious;” like the other

deities, he is represented as the Supreme God, though

having over a thousand names, such as “ The Lord of

the Universe,” “ The Destroyer,” “ The Reproducer,”

“The Conqueror of Life and Death,” etc., etc. His

especial worshipers are called Saivas, who exalt him to
the highest place in the heavens ; he is represented as
Time, Justice, Fire, Water, The Sun, as also the Cre-
ator and the Destroyer. His personal appearance must
be rather striking, as his throat is dark blue and his
hair light red, thickly matted together on the top of
his head. He is well supplied with hands, the number
varying with different authorities from four to eight or
ten. He has five faces, in one of which is a third eye
situated in the centre of the forehead, and pointing up
and down. These three eyes are said to denote his

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

view of the three divisions of time — past, present,
and future, lie holds a trident in his hand, to denote
that the three great attributes of Creator, Destroyer,
and Regenerator are combined in him.

He wears a tiger’s skin for a garment, while his neck
is encircled with two necklaces, one made of human
skulls and the other of serpents, which twist their hor-
rid forms around his body and neck. The shield of
Jove is described as

“ Dire, black, tremendous ! Round the margin roll’d
A fringe of serpents, hissing, guards the gold.”

In like manner this Hindu deity bristles everywhere
with snakes. They are bound in his hair, they twine
around his neck, their slimy forms encircle his wrists,
his arms, and his legs. He wears them as rings
about his fingers ; they hang like mammoth pendants
from his ears, until he is like

“ Gorgon rising from the infernal lakes,

With horrors armed, and curls of hissing snakes.”
/ /

According to Wilson, Sveta (white), Svetasva (white-
horsed), Sveta-sikha (white-haired), and Sveta-lohita
(white-blooded), were the names of four disciples of
Siva. Prof. Wreber thinks that this form of myth has
grown from the teachings of Syrian Christians, and
claims that both the Upanishad and the Gita — the lat-
ter especially — may have borrowed ideas from Chris-
tianity.

The ideal Hindu deity taxes the imaginative mind
of the worshiper to the utmost, and the grotesque is

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS.

everywhere mingled with the beautiful. For instance,
Indra is represented as having a thousand eyes, and
Agni two faces, three legs and seven arms, with eyes,
eyebrows, and hair of a tawny color. He is sometimes
represented as riding a ram, and again he appears on
the back of a goat, and still later in a gleaming chariot
drawn by “tawny steeds.” Varuna has two stomachs,
each of which contains an ocean. Ushas, the beauti-
ful woman who personifies the dawn, is said to be the
“mother of cows or mornings.”

Karttikeya, the god of Avar, and also the god of
thieves, is a handsome young man with six faces.

Havana, the demon king of Ceylon, has ten heads,
twenty arms, copper-colored eyes, and a heavy beard
composed of the shining bodies of black serpents.
Brahma is described as having four faces, golden tusks,
and wonderfully complicated feet. Ganesa has the
body of a man and the head of an elephant, on which
he wears a crown. His ears are adorned with jewels
and his forehead is sprinkled with sacred ashes. He
has four arms, two of which being elevated hold a rope
and an elephant goad ; the other two grasp respect-
ively an elephant’s tooth and a pancake. He is said
to be very fond of pancakes, and his image stands in
almost every house, where he is worshiped by men and
women at the beginning of any important event. In-
deed, the whole pantheon teems with horrible and
grotesque creations, half man and half god.

In the Indian Epics, trooqts of deities and semi-
divine personages are constantly appearing, while gods,
animals, and men keep changing places. The gods
often look to mortals for their daily sustenance. They

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

are represented as actually living on the sacrifices
which are offered them by human beings, and are sup-
posed to gather in hungry troops at every sacrificial
ceremony to feed on the oblations. It is supposed
that the gods would starve to death but for these
offerings.

They are also represented as being dependent upon
animals and plants for the means of conveyance. Brah-
ma is carried on a swan, sometimes on a lotus. Lakshml
is seated on a lotus, or carries one in her hand. Siva
rides a white bull, which is his companion. Karttikeya,
the god of war and of thieves, appears astride a peacock.
Indra is borne on an elephant ; Yama, the god of
death, appears mounted on a buffalo. Kama, the god
of love, rides either a parrot or a fish. Ganesa is as-
sociated with a rat, a symbol of great sagacity; Varuna
with a fish. Durga, the wife of Siva, rides a tiger,
though she is sometimes represented as being on the
bull with Siva and his countless serpents.

Vishnu is represented as the Supreme Being sleep-
ing on a thousand-headed seiqient called Sesha, and
Sesha in his turn is the chief of a race of Nil gas, or
semi-divine beings, half serpents and half men, their
heads being human, and their bociies snake-like.1 The
simple faith of the Hindu accepts the most incongruous
fiction without a .doubt or a question. There is ap-
parently no demand for history in their literature.
The Oriental imagination craves the most impossible
creations, and worships with simple devotion at the
shrine of the most rejmlsive combinations.

It has been shown that the Aryan people at one

l Ind. Wis., p. 429.

MYTHOLOGY OF LATER HINDU WORKS. 65

time shared a common home, and that when the various
families migrated to different countries they carried
with them a language which became the stock of the
modern languages of Europe, and also the germs of
their later mythologies. But in those early days when
their worship was simp® adoration of the forces of
nature, their faith was purer and their lives consequently
better than when in later centuries their pantheon con-
tained millions of deities, and the worship of painted
idols was mingled with the adoration of the host of
heaven.

CHAPTER IV.

THE VEDAS AND THE SUTTEE.

LITERARY IMPORTANCE — DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN EURO-
PEAN AND NATIVE SCHOLARS — COLEBROOKE’s TRANS-
LATION OF DISPUTED TEXT — MUTILATION OF THE
TEXT — TESTIMONY OF RAJA RADHAKANT DEB — THE
RITE NOT ADVOCATED IN THE R1G-VEDA — DISGRACE
OF AVOIDING THE SUTTEE— INSTANCE OF ESCAPE —
ENTHUSIASM OF NATIVE POETS — LORD WILLIAM
BENTINCK.

AN examination of the historic suttee is peculiarly in-
teresting in connection with the teaching of the
Vedas, as the question became purely a literary one. The
English government had pledged itself not to inter-
fere with Hindu religion ; therefore, if the Vedas
proper, really sanctioned the horrible crime of burning
a living woman with her dead husband, the govern-
ment would be powerless to prevent it.

For many years an animated discussion was carried
on between our own scholars and natives of high posi-
tion and learning in relation to the teaching of the
Vedas upon this subject.1 When the English govern-
ment proposed to prohibit the terrible custom the na-
tives appealed at ouce to the official pledge that they

i While this question was being discussed the number of women burned
alive varied from three hundred to eight hundred per year.

THE VEDAS AXD THE SUTTEE.

should not be deterred from the exercise of their relig-
ious rites. For a time the country was threatened with
a fanatical rebellion in consequence of the agitation
of this question. Raghu-nandana and other learned
natives quoted the Rig-veda in support of their claim
for the suttee, and II. T. Colebrooke, a Sanskrit scholar
of world-wide fame, translated this passage in harmony
with their views:

“ Om : Let these women not be widowed, good

wives adorned with collyrium, holding clarified butter,
consign themselves to the fire. Immortal, not childless,
not husbandless, well adorned with gems, let them pass
into the fire, whose original element is water.” It has
been claimed that the natives mutilated this text by
changing the word “ agre ” into “ agneh,” but no one
was then able to detect this literary outrage, and women
continued to be offered as living sacrifices upon the
dead bodies of their husbands. In India, where human
life was so lightly esteemed, these human sacrifices
. failed to inspire the horror that they would have aroused
in the early history of the Jewish people, whose laws
were so emphatically against such practices.

The first Oriental scholar to discover the imposition
which had been practiced upon the people by the cor-
ruption of the text, was Prof. Horace Hayman Wilson,
who makes an elaborate argument to prove that the
Rig-veda teaches no such thing as the natives claim.
Max Muller stands faithfully by Wilson, and claims
that the true rendering of the mutilated passage should
be : “ May these women who are not widows, but have

good hucbands, draw near with oil and butter. Those
who are mothers may go up first to the altar without

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tears, without sorrow, but decked with fine jewels/’
He also claims that the verse which the Brahmans have
mutilated in the support of their claim is followed by
these words, which are addressed to the wife of the
dead man : “ Rise, woman, come to the world of life;
thou sleepest nigh unto him whose life is gone. Come
to us, thus hast thou fulfilled thy duties of a wife
to the husband who once took thee by the hand and
made thee a mother.”1 In J. H. Bushby’s valuable
work on this subject, he claims that the weight of evi-
dence, from both native and European Orientalists, is
in favor of the humane exposition of the Veda. But
on the other side we have the testimony of the most
distinguished scholar of Calcutta, Raja Radhakant Deb,
who occupied a foremost place amongst the Sanskrit
scholars of the world, and whose literary encyclopedia
of the Sanskrit language in seven quarto volumes occu-
pies a prominent place in Europe, as well as India.

Prof. Wilson says that “ any opinion coming from
him on subjects connected with the ancient literature
of this country is entitled to the greatest deference.”
His views in relation to the suttee were fully expressed
to his friend, Dr. Wilson, in a cordial letter. This
communication was written after the abolition of the
hideous practice in the Indian territories belonging to
the English government. The question having been
legally settled, its discussion was looked upon by the
learned Hindu as being of interest to the historian
only, and that merely from a literary point of view.
This being the case, his most strenuous opponents
could hardly accuse him of literary dishonesty or mis-
representation.

l Chips, Vol. II., pp. 33-37.

THE VEDAS AND THE SUTTEE.

It is a noteworthy fact that lie does not base his
opinion upon the text, which, Prof. Wilson confidently
stated, had been mutilated by the natives. Raja Rad-
hakant Deb claimed that the most explicit authority
for the burning of a widow with her deceased hus-
band was to be found in one of the Upani shads, and
he gave the following literal translation of the extract:

1. “ 0 Agni, of all Vratas,1 thou art the Vratapati,2
I will observe the vow (Vrata) of following the husband.
Do thou enable me to accomplish it.

2. “ Here (in this rite) to thee, 0 Agni, I offer

salutation : I enter into thee : (wherefore) this day

satisfied with the clarified butter (offered by me) in-
spire me with courage, and take me to my lord.”
“Agreeably to this Vaidic instruction, the Sutrakaras
direct that the widow, like the sacrificial utensils,
should be made to lie upon the funeral pile of her
husband. To the widow placed beside the lifeless body
of her husband, a certain part of the Mantras are to
be addressed by her husband’s brother or fellow stu-
dent.”3 This eminent authority also cites extracts from
various sacred books, from which the rules and directions
of the cruel rite have been derived.

Radhakant Deb admits that there is some variance
among the sacred works upon this subject, and says :
“Where there are two authorities of a contradictory
character, but of equal cogency, an alternative must
be supposed to be allowed. The Sutrakaras upon the
Medic authority above set forth direct that the widow
as well as the sacrificial utensils of the deceased Brah-

i Vowed or voluntary observances.

3 Works of II. H. Wilson, Vol. II., p. 296.

2 Lord ofVratras.

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man be placed upon his funeral pile ; but as the
widow has a will of her own, she cannot be disposed
of like the inert utensils. The Rig-veda, therefore,
gives her the option of sacrificing herself or not, ac-
cording as she may or may not, have courage. When
the widow lies on the funeral pile, it is presumed that
she is inclined to immolate herself, and a verse is
then addressed to her, which is designed to test her
resolution, and to induce her to retire if she will.”
It is also declared, in view of such a contingency, that
although the Sati who retires from the funeral pile com-
mits a highly sinful act, it may nevertheless be exjfi-
ated by performing the Prajapatya penance — that is, she
must for three days eat only in the morning ; for three
days only in the evening ; for three days she must par-
take of food which is given unsolicited, and during the
last three days she must eat nothing at all.

It is true that the Hindu woman was allowed to
choose between being burned alive and leading the life
of a widow, but if she chose the latter, she was con-
sidered a dishonor to her relatives, and the disgraced
family lost no opportunity of visiting penalties upon
the cause of their reproach. They made her life so
intolerable that in most instances the woman preferred
to be burned alive rather than lead a life of contin-
ual torture and disgrace. Instances are also on rec-
ord where women, horribly burned, have been driven
by their agonies from the funeral pile, only to be
captured and thrown back again by their loving (?)
relatives. Dr. Massie relates several instances of this
kind. In one case the poor victim was driven by her
sufferings from the flames, upon which some gentle-

THE VEDAS AND THE SUTTEE.

men who were spectators immediately plunged her into
the river. She retained her senses, and complained
that the funeral pile was so badly constructed that it
burned slowly, and with wonderful heroism expressed
her willingness to go back into the flames if they
would change its construction, so that her sufferings
would be sooner at an end. This the cruel natives
refused to do, and taking their suffering relative by
the head and feet they held her in the fire until
driven away themselves by the heat, when they threw
her into the blazing pile ; but she again made her
escape, and going toward the river, ran into the arms
of a European gentleman, and cried to him to save
her. The writer says : “ I arrived at the grounds as
they (the natives) were bringing her a second time
from the river, and I cannot describe to you the hor-
ror I felt on seeing the mangled condition she was in/’
(Here follows a description too revolting for repetition.)
She was rescued by the Europeans, lingered in agony
about twenty hours, and then died.1

Men who had kept at a safe distance from the fire
were sometimes very eloquent on the beauties (?) of
this ceremony. Boyses translates from a poet of about
two thousand years ago the following eulogy upon the
horrible custom, and the extract is quoted by Raja Rad-
hakant Deb in his celebrated letter to Dr. Wilson :

“ Happy the laws that in those climes obtain,

Where the bright morning reddens all the main.
There whensoe’er the happy husband dies,

And on the funeral couch extended lies.

l Uncivilized Races, p, 1409.

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His faithful wives around the scene appear,

With pompous dress and with triumphant air,

For partnership in death ambitious strive.

And dread the shameful fortune to survive.

Adorned with flowers the lovely victims stand,

With smiles ascend the pile and light the brand,
Grasp their dear partners with unaltered faith.

And yield exulting to the fragrant death.”

Raja Radhakant Deb also argues with great force
that the custom must be derived from Vedic authority,
from the fact of its having prevailed in India in very
remote times — when Vedic rites only were in vogue.
He claims that it was practiced during the lives of
their early kings and sages, who were imbued with
Vedic learning and devoted to the observance of Vedic
rituals. It appears, therefore, from the evidence of
the best Orientalists, both European and native, that
although the early mythological songs of the Rig-veda
do not teach that a living woman must be burned
upon the dead body of her husband, the Vedic teach-
ers have not prevented it. The Rig-veda is not a
ritual ; the directions for performing this horrible rite
of human sacrifice and self-immolation are found,
however, in other ancient and sacred books of the
Hindus — all of which are classed by the Brahmans
under the general name of Vedas. Certain it is that
this terrible custom prevailed in India for more than
two thousand years, and it would doubtless be prac-
ticed even now if that country had not been pene-
trated by the advancing light of Christian civilization.

At the close of the last century seventy widows were

THE VEDAS AXD THE SUTTEE.

burned alive with the body of one of the rajas. When
Lord Wm. Bentinck was appointed Governor-General of
India, he determined that this terrible crime should
cease, and the Hindu dignitaries were astonished by a
sudden decree, which they found it impossible to repeal
or modify. Under the wise administration of Lord
Bentinck the suttee was abolished in 1830, and the
beautiful Ganges flowed to the sea with her waves un-
stained with blood.

Marshman accuses Prof. Wilson of being an advocate
of non-interference with this barbarous rite, but we
must remember that we are indebted to this very
scholar for the detection of the mutilated text, by
the aid of which the natives long held the English
government at bay, under the promise of the latter that
their religion was not to be interfered with. Lord
Bentinck and others who have been brought into daily
contact with the practical cruelty of this people are far
less enthusiastic over the race than is the European
scholar who studies the finest specimens of Hindu
poetry in the quiet seclusion of his own library.

CHAPTER Y.

THE BRAHMANAS.

THE SECOND GRAND DIVISION OF VEDIC LITERATURE —
AGE OF THE BRAHMANAS — BURDEN OF CEREMONIES
— PENANCE FOR BAD DREAMS — SACRIFICES — EX-
TRACT FROM FOURTH BRAHMANA — THE STORY OF
SUNAHSEPA — A HUMAN SACRIFICE — TRADITION OF
THE FLOOD AS FOUND IN SATAPATIIA-BRAHMANA.

t I HIE second grand division of Vedic literature is
devoted almost entirely to directions and rules for
the various rites and ceremonies. The oldest of them,
according to leading Sanskrit scholars,1 was written
seven or eight centuries before Christ, or from twelve
to fourteen hundred years after Abraham. Their com-
position is rambling and unsystematic, and full of repe-
tition and trivial detail.

Brahmana means originally the sayings of Brahmans
or priests. It is a name applicable not only to books,
but to the old prose traditions, whether contained in
the Sanhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the
Upanishads, or even, in some cases, the Sutras. (See
Wilson. ) At the conclusion of his long and exhaustive
labors, Julius Eggeling, the faithful translator of the
Satapatha-brahmana, sjieaks of his thankless task as
follows : “ The translator of the Satapatha-brahmana

> Prof. II. H. Wilson, Sir Monier Williams, and others.

THE BKAH-MANAS.

can be under no illusion as to the reception his pro-
duction is likely to meet with at the hand of the
general reader. In the whole range of literature, few
works are probably less calculated to excite the inter-
est of any, outside the very limited number of special-
ists, than the ancient theological writings of the Hindus,
known by the name of Brahmanas. For wearisome pro-
lixity of exposition, characterized by dogmatic asser-
tion, and a flimsy symbolism, rather than by serious
reasoning, these works are perhaps not equalled
anywhere.”

Still they represent the period in the history of that
country when the priests had succeeded in transform-
ing the primitive worship of the powers of nature into
a highly artificial system of rites, ceremonies and sacri-
fices. Human nature appears to be much the same
in all ages of the world, and the Hindu priests did
not fail to avail themselves of the religious instincts of
a naturally devout race ; they were always intent upon
deepening their hold on the minds of the people, by
surrounding their own vocation with the halo of sanc-
tity and divine inspiration. With them it was a mat-
ter of position, of influence, and of money to urge the
necessity of frequent and liberal offerings to the gods,
and to invoke worldly blessings upon the devotee.
The priestly bard often pleaded his own cause, as well
as that of his employer. For instance, Kanva sings
in the Rig-veda, “ Let him be rich, let him be fore-
most, the bard of the rich, of so illustrious a magha-
ven, (wealthy patron of priests,) as thou, 0 Lord of
the bay steeds, ” 1

l Int., pp. 9-11.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

Hence the people were loaded down with rites and
ceremonies upon all possible occasions. The devout
Brahman must have spent nearly all his time in un-
meaning rites, penances and oblations. For instance,
if a man dreams of being killed by a black man with
black teeth, or of being killed by a boar, or if he
dreams that a monkey jumps upon him, that the wind
carries him along quickly, or that having swallowed gold
he spits it out ; if he dreams of eating honey, of chew-
ing stalks, of carrying a red lotus, of wearing a wreath
of red flowers, or of driving a black cow, with a black
calf, facing the south, he must fast, and cook a pot
of milk and sacrifice it, accompanying each oblation
with a verse of the Rig-veda, and then, after having
feasted the priest (with other food prepared at his
house) he must eat all of the oblation himself.

The method by which man arrived at the knowledge
of the virtues of sacrifices is thus explained in the
Aitareya-brahmana.

“ The gods killed a man for their victim, but from
him thus killed the part which was fit for a sacrifice
went out and entered a horse. Hence the horse be-
came an animal fit for being sacrificed. The gods then
killed the horse, but the part that was fit for being-
sacrificed went out of it and entered a sheep. Thence
it entered a goat. The sacrificial part remained for
the longest time in the goat, then the goat became
pre-eminently fit for being sacrificed. The gods went
up to heaven by means of offerings. They were afraid
that men and sages, after having seen their ceremo-
nies, might inquire how they could obtain some knowl-
edge of sacrificial rites, and follow them. They there-

THE BRAHMAIs AS.

fore debarred them, by means of the Yupa (or post to
which the victim was fastened), turning its point down-
wards. Thereupon, the men and sages dug the post
out, and turned its point upwards. Thus they became
aware of the sacrifice and reached the heavenly world.”1

Besides the daily devotional acts, there were two
semi-monthly sacrifices enjoined upon every Brahmani-
cal householder, each of which lasted two days. This
must be continued during the first thirty years of
housekeeping, and according to some authorities it
must be kept up through life. The ceremonies began
with a preparation of the sacrificial fires. The fire-
places were thrice swept, thrice besmeared with gomaya,
three lines being drawn across them from west to east,
or from south to north, with a wooden sword, after
which the dust was removed from the lines with the
thumb and ring finger, and the lines sprinkled thrice
with water, etc. Many pages are filled with minute
instructions in relation to these long ceremonies, and
with a description of the vegetables and clarified butter,
which the Brahman and his wife were to eat before
finally taking a vow.

Many pages are devoted to the washing or the
brushing of the sjwons, and to the particular method
of laying the sacrificial grass upon the altar, for the
numerous periodical oblations and for sacrifices in gen-
eral. The instructions in relation to making the offer-
ings to Agni (fire) are also both minute and multitu-
dinous. A very brief extract upon this subject will
satisfy the reader, as it is a fair sample of the literary
style of hundreds of pages:

iBook 2: (Haug. 1-8.)

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

FOURTH BRAHMANA.

1. “They (the sticks for the sacrificial fire) should
be green, for that is their living element — by that
they are vigorous, by that possessed of strength, for
this reason they should be green.

2. “The middle sticks he lays down first on the
west side of the fire, with the text ‘ May the Gand-
harva Visvasu lay thee around for the security of the
all. Thou art a fence to the sacrificer. Thou art
Agni, invoked and worthy of invocation.’

3. “ lie then lays down the southern one, with the
text ‘ Thou art Indra’s arm for the security of the all.
Thou art a fence to the sacrificer, thou Agni, invoked
and worthy of invocation.’

4. “He then lays down the northern one with the
text * May the Mitra Varuna lay thee around in the
north with firm law for the security of the all. Thou
art a fence to the sacrificer, thou Agni, invoked and
worthy of invocation.’”

Thereupon he puts on the fire a kindling stick ; he
first touches with it the middle inclosing stick ; there-
by he first kindles those (three Agnis). After that he
puts it on the fire — thereby he kindles the visible fire.

This, however, is only the beginning of intermina-
ble pages of description, as to the meaning of each
stick, each motion, and each mumbled invocation on
the part of the sacrificer. While the Brahmanas are
almost exclusively devoted to the formulas of domestic
sacrifice, and the almost endless succession of petty
details, they also contain some legends on other
subjects.

THE BRAHATAXAS. 79

One of these represents the gods and demons in a
mighty warfare, in which the evil demons formed the
earth into an iron citadel, changed the air into a sil-
ver fortress, and the sky into a fort of gold. Where-
upon the gods said, “We will build other worlds in
opposition to these.” Then they constructed sacrifi-
cial palaces, where they made a triple burnt oblation.
By the first sacrifice they drove the demons out of
their earthly fortresses, by the second they expelled
them from the air, and by the third they routed them
from the sky. Thus were the evil spirits chased by
the gods in triumph from the world.1

THE STORY OF SUXAHSEPA.

The Aitareya-brahmana, written about 600 B. C.,
contains also the story of Sunahsepa, in which the
doctrine of human sacrifice is introduced, and a father
is represented as selling his son to be offered to
Varuna.

As the story goes. King Hariscandra had no son.
He therefore went to the god Varuna and promised
that deity that if he would grant him a son he would
sacrifice the child to him. A son was then born to
him and was named Roliita. At last the royal father
told his son that he was devoted to sacrifice and must
prepare for it. But the boy refused to comply with
his father’s demands, and taking his bow he left his
home and took up his abode in the forest, whereupon
Varuna afflicted the king with dropsy for failing to
fulfill his pledge.

After a time Rohita found in the forest a half-

! Aitareya-brah.. Haug'sEd., 1-23.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

starved hermit who had three sons. The young prince
purchased one of the boys for a hundred cows and
took him to his father. The god Vanina accepted the
substitute, and the sacrificial post was made ready; but
no one was found who was willing to bind the victim.
The father of Sunahsepa then came forward and said:

“‘Ctive me a hundred cows and 1 will bind him.'
They gave them to him and he bound the boy.

But now no person would consent to kill him.

Then said the father, ‘ Give me yet again
Another hundred cows and I will slay him/

Once more they gave him a hundred and the father
Whetted the knife to sacrifice his son.

Then said the boy, ‘ Let me implore the gods ;
Haply they will deliver me from death.’

So Sunahsepa prayed to all the gods

With verses from the Veda, and they heard him.

Thus was the boy released from sacrifice,

And Hariseandra was restored to health.”1

THE FLOOD.

In common with other nations and peoples, the an-
cient Hindus possessed their tradition of a universal
deluge. Concerning this great historic event the
same voice comes to us from the archives of Babylon,
from the clay tablets of old Assyria, from the hiero-
glyphs of Egypt, from the annals of Greece,2 from
the parchments of China, and from the pages of the

i Haug’s Ed., 7-13, Williams’ trans.

a According to the Greek tradition of a general deluge, every living being
was destroyed except those who escaped in a boat, and these repeo-
pled the earth after the flood subsided, as in the traditions of many other

THE BRAHMAXAS.

Satapatha-brahmana. This Indo-Aryan tradition of the
deluge, which has existed for so many generations in
India, represents the ark as being saved by Vishnu in
his character as a fish, which is his first incarnation.
It reads as follows :

“ There lived in ancient time a holy man
Called Mann, who by penances and prayer
Had won the favor of the Lord of heaven.

One day they brought him water for ablution;

Then as he washed his hands a little fish
Appeared, and spoke in human accents thus :

‘Take care of me and I will be thy saviour.’

‘ From what wilt thou preserve me ? ’ Manu asked.
The fish replied, ‘ A flood will sweep away
All creatures. I will rescue thee from that.’

‘ But how shall I preserve thee ? ’ Manu said.

The fish rejoined, ‘So long as we are small.

We are in constant danger of destruction.

For fish eat fish. So keep me in a jar ;

When I outgrow the jar, then dig a trench
And place me there ; when I outgrow the trench.
Then take me to the ocean ; I shall then
Be out of reach of danger.’ Having thus
Instructed Manu, straightway rapidly
The fish grew larger. Then he spoke again,

‘ In such and such a year the flood will come ;
Therefore construct a ship and pay me homage ;
When the flood rises enter thou the ship

nations. The principal personage thus saved, according to Greek tradition,
was Deukalion, the ruler of Thessaly and the son of Prometheus. His father
had told him to build a ship and furnish it with provisions, and when the
flood came he and his wife Pyrrha were the only people who escaped. — Sci.
of Eel., p. 63.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

And I will rescue thee.’ So Manu did
As he was ordered, and preserved the fish.

Then carried it in safety to the ocean.

And in the very year the fish enjoined
He built a ship, and paid the fish respect.

And there took refuge when the flood arose.

Soon near him swam the fish, and to its horn
Manu made fast the cable of his vessel.

Thus drawn along the waters, Manu passed
Beyond the northern mountain ; then the fish
Addressing Manu said, ‘ I have preserved thee.
Quickly attach the ship to yonder tree,

But lest the waters sink from under thee,

As fast as they subside, so fast shalt thou
Descend the mountain gently after them.’

Thus he descended from the northern mountain.

The flood had swept away all living creatures ;
Manu was left alone. Wishing for offspring,

He earnestly performed a sacrifice.

In a year’s time a female was produced ;

She came to Manu, then he said to her,

‘Who art thou?’ She replied, ‘I am thy daughter.’
He said, ‘ How, lovely lady, can that be ? ’

‘I came forth,’ she rejoined, ‘from thine oblations
Cast upon the waters ; thou wilt find in me
A blessing ; use me in the sacrifice.’

With her he worshiped, and with toilsome zeal
Performed religious rites, hoping for offspring.

Thus were created men called sons of Manu.

Whatever benediction he implored

With her, was thus vouchsafed in full abundance.”1

l Williams’ trails., Iud. Wis„ p. 32.

THE BRAHMAXAS.

This legend in the Satapatha-brahmana is after-
wards repeated in the Maha-bharata. The Brahmanas
have more allusions to a future life, and contain stronger
statements on that subject than can be found in the
earlier vein of Hindu literature, but the doctrine of
the transmigration of souls appears not to be fully de-
veloped until we reached the Code of Manu and the
Upanishads,

CHAPTER VI.

THE CODE OF MANU.

THE DATE OF THE CODE — THE TRIBE OR SCHOOL OF
MANAVAS — THE CODE A MEANS OF PERPETUATING
THE RULES OF CASTE — DIVINE ORIGIN CLAIMED FOR
THE LAWS OF MANU — CASTE — DIVINE RIGHTS OF
BRAHMANS — THE KSHATRIYA — THE VAISYA — THE
SUDRA — MARRIAGE A PURIFYING RITE — RULES FOR
CHOOSING A WIFE — MARRIAGE — WOMAN’S RIGHTS
— PENANCES — CRIMINAL CODE — FUNERAL CERE-
MONIES.

NTIMATELY connected with the ceremonies of the

Vedas, we find the Code of Mann, which in its present
form dates back to about the fifth century before Christ.
Some parts of it were doubtless current at a considerably
earlier date, as the gods mentioned are principally Vedic.
Originally, it merely represented certain rules and precepts,
probably by different authors, which were observed by a
particular tribe or school of Brahmans called Manavas.
This tribe appears to have been adherents of the Black
Yajur-veda, and their Mantras and Brahmana are still
extant. Ultimately, however, the code was accepted by
the Hindu people generally, and received a reverence
which was second only to that which was accorded to
the Vedas. It became also the chief authority in
Hindu jurisprudence.

THE CODE OF MANU.

The Laws of Mann plainly reveal the strenuous rules by
which the Brahmans sought to perpetuate an organized
system of caste which should definitely define and main-
tain their own superiority. They were drawn largely
from earlier authorities, but the real compiler and pro-
mulgator of them is unknown. In common with other
Hindu works, the code claims a divine origin.

A sage named Mann is represented as saying: “ The

god Brahma having formed this system of laws himself,
taught it fully to me in the beginning. I then taught it
to Marici and the nine other sages, my offspring. Of
these (my sons) Blirigu is deputed by me to declare the
code to you (Rishis), for he has learned from me to recite
the whole of it.” 1

CASTE.

The Hindu theory of caste is that the gods created one
class of men superior to another — that there is as much
difference between the various classes of men as between
the different kinds of birds and animals. The creation of
this great distinction is thus accounted for in one of the
latest hymns of the Rig-veda: 2

“ The embodied spirit has a thousand heads,

A thousand eyes, a thousand feet around
On every side enveloping the earth.

Yet filling space no larger than a span.

He is himself this very universe.

He is, whatever is, has been and shall be.

He is the Lord of Immortality.

1 Ind. Wis., pp. 212-215.

2 As the whole of this celebrated hymn has been given in the first chapter
a brief quotation here will suffice.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

“ How did they cut him up? What was his mouth?
What were his arms? and what his thighs and feet?
The Brahman was his mouth — the kingly soldier
Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs,

The servile Sudra1 issued from his feet.”2

Hence, the divine order of caste seems to be :

1. The Brahman, who is supposed to issue from the
mouth of Brahma.

2. Kshatriya, or “kingly soldier,” who issues from
the arms.

3. The husbandman, or Yaisya caste, who comes from
the thighs.

4. The servile Sudra, who issues from his feet.

It is therefore claimed that the divine right of kings
is emphasized and exaggerated in the divine right of
priests; that a Brahman is such by virtue of his birth;
and that he was created with special reference to his po-
sition as the head of all mankind.

It is said that “Since the Brahman sprang from
the most excellent part (the mouth of Brahma), since
he has the priority arising from primogeniture, and
since he possesses the Veda, he is by right the Lord
of this whole creation,” and again, “Even when Brah-
mans employ themselves in all sorts of inferior occu-
pations, they must under all circumstances be honored,
for they are to be regarded as supreme divinities.”
“From his high birth alone, a Brahman is regarded
as a divinity, even by the gods. His teaching must
be accepted by the rest of the world as an infallible
authority.”

Slave or lowest caste.

* See Man. 10-90, William:.’ trans.

THE CODE OF MANTT.

He is also declared to possess power which is in per-
fect harmony with his divine position and character.
In Book 9, pp. 813-314, it is said, “Let not a king,
although fallen into the greatest distress, provoke Brah-
mans to anger (by taking revenue from them), for they,
if once enraged, could instantly (by pronouncing curses
and mystical texts) destroy him with all his army and
retinue.”1

THE KSHATRIYA,

or military and kingly caste, ranked next to the Brah-
mans in position and influence. They introduced into
India the scepticisms of philosophical speculation, but
with the natural adhesiveness peculiar to monopolies,
Brahmanism and rationalism soon made a compromise to
the effect that however inconsistent with each other,
neither should denounce the other as a false guide, and
thereafter they co-operated with each other in retaining
their ascendency over the lower classes.

THE VAISYA,

or agricultural class, forms the third rank, an 1 they, as
well as the Brahmans and Kshatriyas, claim to be “ twice
born.”

THE SUDRA,

or servile class, is only once born, and forms the low-
est rank. But they are just as particular as their supe-
riors to retain their proper position and caste. They
would not intermarry with a higher order, and if they
oid their children would not be even Sudras. All the
rules of caste are sacred as ordinances of their religion ;

i Ind. Wis., pp. 240, 241.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

hence, the man who dresses hair would not clean clothes,
neither could a table waiter be induced to carry an
umbrella.1

MARRIAGE OF A BRAHMAN.

The most elaborate and tedious details are given for
the endless ceremonies connected with all the minutiae
of a Brahman’s life. Sometimes a great sacrifice lasts
for weeks or months, or even years. The ceremonies
and purifications connected with his student life are as
long as his course of study, which comprises a knowl-
edge of the three Vedas. He must go through twelve
“ purificatory rites,” and it is a noticeable fact that
the last of these is marriage, which is, in the language
of Williams, “a religious duty, incumbent upon all
completing the purification and regeneration of the
twice born.”

He also receives explicit directions in relation to

THE CHOICE OF A WIFE,
in the following words;

“Let him not marry a girl with reddish hair, nor
one with a superfluity of limbs (as, for instance, one
with six fingers), nor one who is sickly, nor one with
either too little or too much hair ; nor one who talks
too much ; nor one who is red-eyed ; nor one named
after a constellation, a tree, or a river ; nor one with a
barbarous name, or the name of a mountain, a bird, a
snake, a slave, or any frightful object. But let him
marry a woman without defective or deformed limbs,
having an agreeable name, whose gait is like that of a

i Ind. Wis., XXV.

THE CODE OF MANU.

flamingo or elephant, whose teeth and hair are moderate
in quantity, and whose whole body is soft.”1

The marriage rites in Mauu’s Code are evidently
taken from older works. The following is quoted by
Prof. Williams as the

MARRIAGE CEREMONY.

“West of the sacred fire a stone is placed, and
northeast a water jar. The bridegroom offers an obla-
tion standing, looking toward the west, and taking
hold of the bride’s hands, while she sits and looks
toward the east. If he wishes only for sons, he clasps
her thumbs, and says, ‘I clasp thy hands for the sake
of good fortune;’ the fingers alone if he wishes for
daughters ; the hairy side of the hand, along with the
thumbs, if he wishes for both sons and daughters.
Then, whilst he leads her toward the right three times
around the fire and around the water jar, he says in
a low tone, ‘ I am he, thou art she ; thou art she, I
am he. I am the heaven, thou art the earth. Come,
let us marry; let us possess offspring. United in affec-
tion, illustrious, well disposed toward each other, let
us live a hundred years.’ Every time he leads her
around, he makes her ascend the mill-stone, and says,
‘ Ascend thou this stone — be thou firm as a stone.’
Then the bride’s brother, after spreading melted butter
on the joined palms of her hands, scatters parched
grains of rice on them twice and after pouring the
oblation of butter on the fire, some Vedic texts are re-
cited. Then the bridegroom loosens the two braided
tresses of hair — one on each side of the top of the

i Book 3, 3-10.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

bride’s head — repeating the Vedic text, ‘ I loose thee
from the fetters of Vanina, with which the very aus-
picious Savitri has bound thee.’ He now causes her
to step seven steps towards the northeast quarter, say-
ing to her, ‘ Take thou one step for the acquirement
of sap-like energy ; take thou two steps for strength ;
take thou three steps for the increase of wealth; take
thou four steps for well being ; take thou five steps
for otfspring ; take thou six steps for the season ; take
thou seven steps as a friend. Be faithfully devoted to
me. May we obtain many sons ; may they attain to
a good old age.’ Then bringing both their heads into
close juxtaposition, some one sprinkles them with water
from the jar. lie should remain for that night in the
house of an old Brahman woman whose husband and
children are alive. When the bride sees the polar
star and Arundhati and the seven Rishis, let her break
silence and say, ‘May my husband live, and may I
obtain children.’ When he (the bridegroom) has com-
pleted the marriage ceremonial, he should give the
bride’s dress to one who knows the Surya-sukta, and
food to the Brahmans. Then he should make them
pronounce a blessing upon him.”

The marriage ceremony once completed, the bride-
groom at once enters upon the endless round of cere-
monies which are enjoined upon the householder — the
sacred fire, the daily ablutions, etc., etc. Five chap-
ters are devoted to domestic ceremonies connected with
the birth and treatment of children, and still others
to the investiture with the sacred thread, which
the Brahman child receives in his eighth year, the
Kshatriya, in his eleventh, and the Vaisya in his twelfth.

THE CODE OF MANU.

As this rite is supposed to confer the second or spiritual
birth, the Sudra child does not receive it at all, only
the three upper classes being “twice born.”1

woman’s rights.

So far as the woman’s position in the household is
concerned, it is one of complete subordination to the
will of the “lord of the manor.” Still, great respect
is paid to the mother by her children, and it is
claimed that the seclusion of Hindu wives was largely
the result of the introduction of Moslem customs,
when the Mohammedans invaded India. The following
extracts will give an intelligible idea of the Hindu law
upon this point :

“Day and night must women be made to feel their
dependence on their husbands. But if they are fond
of worldly amusements, let them be allowed to follow
their own inclinations.”2

“Let not a husband eat with his wife, nor look at
her eating.”3

“Women have no business to repeat texts of the
Veda — thus is the law established.”

“Domestic rites are to be performed in common
with the wife — so it is ordained in the Veda.”4

“As far as a wife obeys her husband, so far is she
exalted in heaven. A husband must be continually
revered as a god by a virtuous wife.”5

With the lapse of time civilization appears to be
having some effect upon the unmitigated despotism of

1 Book 1, 7. 3 Book 4, 4-3. 5 Book 5, 154-160.

2 Book 9, 2. 4 Book 9, 18-96,

THE ANCIENT 15'OOKS OF INDIA.

the Hindu householder towards his wife. The Maha-
bharata, some parts of which it is claimed were written
during the Christian era, contains the following tribute
to the faithful wife :

“ A wife is half the man, his truest friend.

A loving wife is a perpetual spring
Of virtue, pleasure, wealth. A faithful wife
Is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss.

A sweetly speaking wife is a companion
In solitude ; a father in advice ;

A mother in all seasons of distress ;

A rest in passing through life's wilderness.”1

That such sentiments live upon the pages of their
own sacred literature must be a great source of strength
to the missionaries who are trying to educate and ele-
vate the womanhood of India. Still, it must be con-
fessed, that it is only in countries which are illumined
by the teachings of Christianity that woman takes
her true position at her husband’s side, and works
with him for the elevation of the human race.

PENANCES.

Lying is pronounced sometimes justifiable : “ In

certain cases a man stating a fact falsely from a pious
motive, even though he knows the truth, is not excluded
from heaven — such a statement they call divine speech.”
Yet severe penances are required for trivial sins of
omission, or for the performance of any act causing
loss of caste.

If a Brahman receives a present from a wicked per-

i Maha. I, 302S, William's trans.

THE CODE OF MANU.

son, he must repeat the Savitrl1 “ three thousand times,
with a collected mind,” and drink milk for one month in
a cow house. If he has eaten improper food, he is
absolved by repeating for three days certain texts in
the Rig-veda. If a twice-born man, through infatua-
tion, should drink intoxicating liquor, he might drink
of the same liquor boiling hot, and if his body is com-
pletely scalded by the process he is absolved from
guilt.

“ A Brahman performing the penance called hot
and severe, must swallow hot water, hot milk, hot
clarified butter, and hot air, each for three days suc-
cessively, after bathing, and keeping his organs of sense
all restrained.”2

Many others are prescribed, some of them being of
the most loathsome nature, and entirely unfit for pub-
lication ; for instance, the penance called Santapana.3

CRIMINAL CODE.

The civil and religious code is strangely combined
in the laws of Manu. Sometimes the criminal seems
to be under the jurisdiction of a purely civil law, and
again he is threatened with the most terrible punish-
ments in various forms, through which his soul must
pass after leaving the body.

As future punishment will be treated in its proper
place, under the doctrinal teachings of the Upanishads,
we distinguish here between the civil punishment bestowed
upon the criminal, and that with which he is threatened

1 A sacred text which is said to have been milked out of the Vedas.

2 Book II, 214. 3 Book II, 212.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

in the world to come. Sir Wm. Jones says that “The
cruel mutilations practiced by the native powers are
shocking to humanity/’ and Sir Monier Williams de-
clares that “ The three most conspicuous features of
Manu’s penal laws were severity, inconsistency, and a
belief in the supposed justice of lex talionis.” This
learned Orientalist made a careful study of this partic-
ular form of legislation, and to him we are indebted
for much valuable information. In the light of the fol-
lowing extracts, we cannot wonder that he considered
the “punishment unjustifiably disproportionate to the
offences committed, and sometimes barbarously cruel.”

“ With whatever member of the body a low-born
man may injure a superior, that very member of his
body must be mutilated.” 1

“ A once-born man insulting twice-born men with
abusive language must have his tongue cut out.”

“ Should he mention their name and caste with in-
sulting expressions, a red-hot iron spike, ten fingers
long, is to be thrust into his mouth.”

“ Thieves are to have their hands cut off, and then
to be impaled on a sharp stick.”2

“A goldsmith detected in committing frauds is to
have his body cut to pieces with razors.”3

We can hardly imagine any form of humanity suffi-
ciently low and cruel to inflict these horrible punish-
ments, even upon the vilest of criminals, neither could
the legal student believe that such enactments had
ever been made, if they were not actually present in
the record.

i Book VIII, 279.

2 Book IX, 276.

3 Book IX, 292.

THE CODE OF MAKE.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES.

The rules for disposing of the dead were evidently
derived from the Grihya-sutras, an authority on domes-
tic rites, which was extant in India before the laws of
Manu were compiled. The most explicit directions
are given as to the washing of the body, the trimming
of the nails, hair, and beard. It is enjoined also that
a piece of ground must be dug southeast or southwest
of the place where the man lived and died. It
should be in length as long as the man with his
arms raised, a fathom wide, and a span in depth.

The burning and burying ground should be open
on all sides, rich in shrubs, particularly of thorny and
milky plants, and elevated in such a manner that
water would run down on every side. If the deceased
happened to die in the midst of a sacrifice (which is
very liable to be the case among a people the greater
part of whose time is occupied with religious ceremo-
nies), his relations take his three sacred fires and his
sacrificial implements and carry them to the place of
cremation. Behind follow the old men, without their
wives, carrying the corpse. Their number should not
be even. In some places, however, the corpse is car-
ried on a wheel cart, drawn by an ox or some other
animal. Either a cow or a black kid, or a kid of
any one color, is led behind by a rope tied to its left
leg. This animal is to be slain and afterwards strewn
over the corpse and burnt with it.

After the procession has reached the ground, he who
has to perform the sacrifice steps forth, walks three
times around the place towards the left, sprinkles it

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

with water from the branch of a tree, and repeats a
verse from the Veda.

The fires are placed on the borders of a pit, accord-
ing to the following formula : The Ahavaniya fire

is placed to the southeast, the Garhapatya to the
northwest and the Dakshina to the southwest. The
dead body must be placed with its feet toward the
Garhapatya fire and the head towards the Ahavaniya.
If the Ahavaniya fire reaches the dead man first, his
spirit is borne to heaven ; if the Garhapatya reaches
him first, then his spirit is taken to the middle region ;
if the Dakshina, then it remains in the world of mor-
tals. When all three of these fires reach him at the
same time, it is the most auspicious omen of all. The
wooden pile is properly laid in the midst of these
fires, sacrificial grass is then strewn upon the pile, and
the skin of a black antelope, with the fur on the out-
side, is placed over it. The wife is made to lie down
to the north of her husband, and if he be a Kshatriya,
a bone is also placed there. If the wife is not to be
immolated, she is then led away, and the animal is
brought. The fat of the animal is cut out, and put
like a cover over the face of the dead, while the fol-
lowing verse from the I\ig-veda is recited :

“ Put on this armor (taken) from the cows to pro-
tect thee against Agni, and cover thyself with fat,
that he, the wild one, who delights in flames, the
hero, may not embrace thee, wishing to consume
thee.” 1

The kidneys, also, are taken out and put into the

l K-v. 8. 16-17.

THE CODE OF JIANU.

hands of the dead, while the following quotation is re-
peated: “Escape on the right path the two dogs, the

four-eyed, tawny breed of Sarama, then approach the
wise fathers, who, happy with Yama, enjoy happiness.”1

The heart of the animal is laid on the heart of the
corpse, and after considerable ceremony the antelope
skin is covered over the whole and various oblations
are offered, each accompanied with a text from the
Veda. After this the fire is lighted, and they walk
away without looking back, at the same time reciting a
verse from the Veda.

This is the briefest possible sketch of an almost in-
terminable ceremony, after which all parties concerned
must go through with the long ceremonies of purifica-
tion. The ashes and bones are gathered and buried,
with as much ceremony as attended the burning, and
again all parties must go through the process of purifi-
cation. The medical advice is equally complicated, and
the patient is compelled to perform for himself the most
exhaustive rites; if he recovers, there are a multitude
of sacrifices and oblations demanded of him. Thus the
whole life of the patient Hindu, from the cradle to the
grave, is burdened with ceaseless rites and offerings to
the various gods of the pantheon. _

The extracts here given will serve to give an intelli-
gible idea of the voluminous law books of Manu, about
twenty of which are still in existence. This collection
of laws is one of the most sacred portions of Sanskrit
literature. It presents an early picture of the moral
and intellectual condition of the people, fully illustrat-
ing the severity with which the priestly class enforced

1R.-V, 10. 10-14.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

the rules of caste, and their own superiority even over
kings and princes.

It is a compilation of rules which had been handed
down orally, perhaps for many generations, and were at
last gathered and arranged in a systematic collection.
They soon reached a position where they were held to be
infallible, and Mann says, “By Sruti is meant the Veda,
and by Smriti the books of the law; the contents of these
must never he questioned hy reason .” “Nevertheless,”
says Williams, “in almost every place where the Man-
tras of the Rig-veda are alluded to by Manu, errors
disfigure the text and commentary.”

CHAPTER VIL

THE UPANISHADS.

THE THIRD GRAND DIVISION OF VEDIC LITERATURE —
THE UPANISHADS — THE DOCTRINAL PORTION OF THE
VEDA — DERIVATION — RAMMOHUN ROY — NUMBER OF
THE UPANISHADS — PLACE IN VEDIC CHRONOLOGY
— SRUTI OR REVEALED KNOWLEDGE — CHANDOGYA
UPANISHAD — IMPORTANCE OF OM — EXTRACTS FROM
THE CHANDOGYA — THE KENA UPANISHAD — EX-
TRACT FROM THE KENA - — THE KATHA UPANISHAD —
THE AITAREYA UPANISHAD — EXTRACT FROM THE
AITAREYA — THE KAUSHITAKI-BRAHMAN A UPANI-
SHAD— DISCOURSE UPON FUTURE LIFE — THE VAJ-
ASANEYI-SAmHITA UPANISHAD — EXTRACT FROM THE
VAJASANEYI — THE ISA — THE COMPLETION OF REV-
ELATION.

WE now come to the third grand division of the
Vedas, called the Upanishads or mystical doc-
trine.

As has been stated, the earliest hymns of the Vedas
are mostly in praise of the various gods of the earth,
sky, or air, and include invocations to their deities for
food, rich herds, large families, and long life, for which
blessings the gods are to be rewarded with sacrifices
and oblations of clarified butter, or of the soma juice,

100

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

offered in their sacred groves.1 The speculative, or the-
ological portion of the Vedas is explained in separate
books, called Upanishads. These are therefore the doc-
trinal portions of the Vedas.

This word, derived from the root sad (to sit),
preceded by the two prepositions ni (down) and upa
(near), expresses the idea of a number of pupils sit-
ting down near their teacher to listen to his instruc-
tions. It also implies something which underlies the
surface, and the doctrine contained in these treatises
does, in fact, underlie the whole system of Hindu
teaching.

These books are of later origin than the Rig-
veda,2 but they were called by Eammolnin Roy, “the
kernel of the Vedas.” This distinguished native
scholar translated several of the books at his own
expense.

The number of Upanishads has been variously es-
timated, but a list of about one hundred and fifty has
been obtained by Europeans, many of them bearing dis-
tinctive titles, which are almost unpronounceable by
any one except the natives.

1 The worship of Baal consisted of the planting of groves, and of
offerings to the sun and moon, and all the host of heaven; this was
the form of idolatry for which the children of Israel were repeatedly
punished. “The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire,
and the women knead their dough to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven,
and to pour out drink offerings unto other gods.” — Jer. vii: 18. The
great difference between the Sabeanism of the Chaldeans and that of the
Hindus is that the Chaldeans made the stars prominent in their worship,
while the Hindus adored principally the sun and moon.

2 Prof. Wilson, Dr. Will, and other Orientalists at last succeeded in con-
vincing the most learned natives that the Upanishads belonged to a later
age than the early hymns of the Veda. This is only one of many in-
stances in which European scholars have been able to give information
to the Hindus concerning their own sacred books.

THE UPA NISH ADS.

101

AGE OF THE UPANISHADS.

According to the chronology usually received by
Sanskrit scholars, the most ancient of these books
must have slightly preceded the rise of Buddhism (000

B. C.). Sir Monier Williams, however, assigns 500 B.

C. as the utmost limit of their antiquity. But, accord-
ing to Max Muller, the germs of the doctrines taught
in the Upanishads may be found in the early period of
Vedic literature, which has been provisionally fixed at
from 800 to 1000 B. 0.

There are many whose exact chronology it is almost
impossible to determine, although it is easy to see that
they belong to very different periods of Hindu thought,
and some of them must be quite modern, as mention
is even made of an Allah Upanishad.

Several Upanishads occur in the later Brahmanas,
but the recognized place for the most ancient of these
works is in connection with the Aranyakas1 (or forest
books), which generally form an appendix to the
Brahmanas, but are also sometimes included under the
general name of Brahmana.

The Upanishads belong to what the Hindus call the
Sruti, or revealed literature, in opposition to Smriti, or
traditional literature, which is supposed to be founded
upon the former, and therefore can claim only a second-
ary importance and authority. The first in the list is

THE CHAN DOG YA UPANISHAD.2

This work belongs to the Sama-veda, and is one of

1 These works, as well as the Upanishads, are so obscure that it is said to
be necessary to read them in the loneliness of the forest.

2 Prof. Max Muller, the translator, gives “AViandogya” as the orthog
raphy of this Upanishad and this is of course absolutely correct, but, if

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the most important contributions to the orthodox phil-
osophy of India, viz., the Vedanta. This important
Upanishad purports to give a full account of the sylla-
ble Om. The opening sentence is “Let a man medi-
tate on the syllable Om — called the udgitha, for the
udgitha (a portion of the Sama-veda) is sung begin-
ning with Om.”

This sacred syllable has been the source of no little
trouble and perplexity on the part of European scholars,
as it had to be pronounced at the beginning of each
Veda, and at every recitation of Vedic hymns. As
connected with the Sama-veda, Om is called udgitha.
Muller says that the syllable originally meant “that” or
“yes,” but it is also considered the symbol of all
speech and of all life. It is also the name for all
physical and mental powers ; also the principle of life,
or living spirit, which is identified with the spirit in
the sun. Therefore, he who meditates upon Om,
meditates on the spirit in man as identical with the
spirit in nature, or in the sun, and thus he is supposed
to be led to a recognition of the self in man as identi-
cal with the highest self, or Brahman.

Meditation on that syllable is supposed to mean the
long-continued repetition of it, until the mind is drawn
away from all other subjects and concentrated upon
a higher object of thought, which is symbolized by the
sacred syllable. The exposition of Om, or of udgitha,
as given by this Upanishad, is as follows: “The full

this method of transliteration is followed, the first two letters must always
be italicized or else the K will be pronounced like the English K, whereas it
should be pronounced like eh in church. Many scholars therefore prefer
to write the name “Chandogya,” as it is more liable to be correctly pro-
nounced by the English reader.

THE UPANISHADS.

103

account, however, of Om is this : The essence of all
beings is the earth ; the essence of the earth is water ;
the essence of water, the plants ; the essence of plants,
man; the essence of man, speech; the essence of speech,
the Rig-veda ; the essence of the Rig-veda, the Sama-
veda ; the essence of the Sama-veda, the udgitha,
(which is Om). That udgitha (Om) is the best of all
essences, the highest, deserving the highest place, the
eighth. ... By that syllable does the threefold
knowledge (the sacrifice, more particularly the Sama-
sacrifice, as founded on the three Vedas) proceed.
When the Adhvaryu priest gives an order, he says Om.
When the Hotri priest recites, he says Om. When the
Udgatri priest sings, he says Om — all for the glory of
that syllable.

“The threefold knowledge (the sacrifice) proceeds
by the greatness of that syllable (the vital breaths), and
by its essence (the oblations). Now, therefore, it
would seem to follow that both he who knows this (the
true meaning of the syllable Om) and he who does
not, perform the same sacrifice ; but this is not so,
for knowledge and ignorance are different. The sacri-
fice which a man performs with knowledge, faith, and
the Upanishad, is more powerful. This is the full ac-
count of the syllable Om.”1

There were three classes of priests engaged in the
soma sacrifices, and each one was obliged to begin his
part of the ceremonial with Om, therefore the whole
sacrifice was said to be dependent on that syllable,

i 1st Prap. — 1st Khan.

The quotations from the Upanishads, unless otherwise indicated, are
from Muller's translations.

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and for the glory of that syllable as an emblem of the
Highest Self, the knowledge of whom is the indirect
result of all sacrifices. The great importance of this
syllable is expressed by the vital breaths of the priest,
the sacrificer and his wife.

The essence of the syllable is supposed to be many
things : for instance, the rice and corn and other arti-
cles used in the oblation. The sacrifice which is de-
pendent upon the syllable Om is supposed to ascend
to the sun, and as the sun sends rain, and rain pro-
duces food, and food produces life, breath and food
are due to the syllable Om. This syllable seems to have
been used on all occasions, both in sacrifice and in
fables, sometimes apparently without meaning, as in
the 12th Khanda of the 1st Prapaf/mka.

1. “Now follows the udgitha of the dogs. Vaka

Dillbhya . . . went out to repeat the Veda in a

quiet place.

2. “A white dog appeared before him, and other dogs
gathered around him (the white dog), and said to him,
‘Sir, sing and get us food, we are hungry.’

3. “The white dog said to them, ‘Come to me to-
morrow morning.’ Vaka Dillbhya watched.

4. “The dogs came on, holding together, each dog
keeping the tail of the preceding dog in his mouth,
as the priests do (hold each other’s garments) when
they are going to sing praises with the Vahish-pavamana
hymns. After they had settled down, they began to
say Hin.

5. “ Om let us eat. Om let us drink. Om may
the divine V ar u na-p ra^apat i Savitri bring us food.
Lord of food, bring hither food, bring it Om.”

THE UPASTISHADS.

105

Here it is represented as being used by dogs in
order to obtain their food, but the Manda closes as
abruptly as it began and gives no information as to
whether they received the food or not. The allusion
to the priests in the fourth verse applies to the cere-
mony where the priests have to walk in procession,
each holding the gown of his predecessor. Varuna
(the sky) and Praydpati (year), alluded to in verse 5,
are explained as different appellations of Savitri (the
sun), meaning rain-giver and man-protector. The sylla-
ble Om is elsewhere explained as representing all the
deities of the earth, the air, and the sky.

THE KENA UPANISHAD.

The Kena or Talavakara was one of the Upanishads
published in English by Rammohun Roy. It was also
published in Germany, and has been more or less in-
vestigated by many scholars. The prominence given
to this important Upanishad botli by native and
European scholars, would seem to justify the quotation
of the 1st Manda :

1. “The pupil asks: ‘At whose wish does the mind
sent forth proceed on its errand ? At whose command
does the first breath go forth ? At whose wish do we
utter this speech ? What god directs the eye or the
ear?’

2. “ The teacher replies : ‘ It is the ear of the ear
— the mind of the mind — the speech of the speech —
the breath of the breath — and the eye of the eye.
When freed (from the senses) the wise on departing
from this world become immortal.

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3. “The eye does not go thither, nor speech, nor
mind. We do not know, we do not understand, how
any one can teach it.

4. “It is different from the known; it is also above
the unknown. Thus have we heard from those of old,
who taught us this.

5. “ That which is not expressed by speech, and by
which speech is expressed, that alone, known as Brah-
man, not that which people here adore.

G. “That which does not think by mind, and by
which they say mind is thought, that alone, known as
Brahman, not that which people here adore.

7. “That which does not see by the eye, and by
which one sees (the work of) the eyes, that alone,
known as Brahman, not that which people here adore.

8. “That which does not hear by the ear, and by
which the ear is heard, that alone, known as Brahman,
not that which people here adore.

9. “ That which does not breathe by breath, and by
which breath is drawn, that alone, known as Brahman,
not that which people here adore/’

This peculiar metaphysical work closes with the de-
claration that “The feet upon which the Upanishad
stands are penance — restraint — sacrifice. The YTedas
are all its limbs. The True is its abode.

“He who knows this Upanishad, and has shaken off
all evil, stands in the endless unconquerable world of
heaven — yea, in the world of heaven.”

THE KATHA UPANISHAD.

This is one of the oldest and most important of
these books, and is quite familiar to European students

THE UPANISHAHS.

107

of Sanskrit. It formed part of the Persian translation,
was rendered into English by Rammohun Roy, and has
been quoted by many scholars as one of the most per-
fect specimens of the mystic philosophy and poetry of
the ancient Hindus.

This document opens with the story of Naciketas.
The father of this unfortunate youth had given all of
his property to the priests and devoted his son to
death.

Naciketas is represented as going to the abode of
Yama, the King of Death, by whom he is kindly re-
ceived. He is requested to choose three boons. For
the first boon, the boy chose that he might be restored
to life and see his reconciled father once more; for
the second that he might know the fire by which heaven
is gained; for the third he requested the King of Death
to teach him whether or not the soul existed after
death. Yama entreated him to choose any other boon
than this, but the youth persisting in his demand to
be enlightened upon this subject, Yama finally explained
the matter to him in the following language:

“The good, the pleasant — these are separate ends —
The one or the other all mankind pursues ;

But those who seek the good alone are blest;

Who choose the pleasant miss man’s highest aim.
The sage the truth discerns — not so the fool.

But thou, my son, with wisdom hath abandoned
The fatal road of wealth that leads to death.

Two other roads there are, all wide apart,

Ending in widely different goals — the one
Called ignorance, the other knowledge — this,

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0 Naciketas, thou dost well to choose.

The foolish follow ignorance, but think

They tread the road of wisdom, circling round

With erring steps — like blind men led by blind.

The careless youth, by lust of gain deceived,

Knows but one world, one life; to him the Kow
Alone exists, the Future is a dream.

The highest aim of knowledge is the soul.

This is a miracle beyond the ken
Of common mortals, thought of though it be,

And variously explained by skilful teachers.

Who gains this knowledge is a marvel, too.
lie lives above the cares — the griefs and joys
Of time and sense — seeking to penetrate
The fathomless unborn, and eternal essence.

The slayer thinks he slays, the slain
Believes himself destroyed; the thoughts of both
Are false, the soul survives, nor kills, nor dies;

’Tis subtler than the subtlest, greater than
The greatest — infinitely small, yet vast.

Asleep, yet restless, moving everywhere
Among the bodies — ever bodiless.

Think not to grasp it by the reasoning mind,

The wicked ne’er can know it. Soul alone
Knows soul; to none but soul is soul revealed.”1

Tims is the immortality of the soul distinctly taught
in this Upanishad; but the soul is represented as being
asleep, yet moving restlessly everywhere. It is also
stated that the “wicked ne’er can know it,” thereby
broadly hinting that only the good are immortal; it

l Williams’ trails., Iud. Wis., p. 43.

THE UPAXISHADS.

109

is perhaps as lucid an explanation of a future life as
we could expect to receive from Yam a, the King of
Death.

THE AITAEEYA UPAXISHAD.

This Upanishad which was translated for the ‘‘Bib-
liotheca Indica” by Dr. Boer, appears to be almost hope-
lessly mixed with the Aranyakas or forest books, and
the first chapter is simply a continuation of the Aita-
reya-brahmana.

Sayana speaks of the Aitareya-aranyaka as a part of
the Brahmana, and Sankara, who is a still earlier au-
thority, conveys the idea that both the Upanishad and
the Aranyaka may be classed as Brahmana.

In this Upanishad we find much repetition of mat-
ter which, even at first, was useless and absurd. For
instance, in relation to men and deities, it is said: “By
repeating the first verse three times they (men) become
twenty-five. The trunk is the twenty-fifth, and Pray-
apati (the year) is the twenty-fifth. There are ten fin-
gers on his hands, ten toes on his feet; two legs, two
arms and the trunk, the twenty-fifth. Xow this day
consists of twenty-five, and the stoma hymn of that day
consists of twenty-five. It becomes the same through
the same. Therefore, the two, the day and the hymn,
are twenty-five. This is the twenty-fifth with regard
to the body. Xext, with regard to the deities: The

eye, the ear, the mind, the speech and breath — these
five deities (powers) — have entered into that person
(purusha), and that person entered into the five dei-
ties. He is wholly pervaded there with his limbs to
the very hairs and nails. Therefore, all beings, to the

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very insects, are born as pervaded (by the deities or
senses).”1

THE KAUSHITAKI-B RAHMAN A UPANISHAD.

This Upanishad discourses upon the future life and
teaches that all who leave this world (or this body) go
to the moon. Those who reach the light half of the
moon meet with a glad reception, for “ the moon de-
lights in their spirits,” while those who reach the dark
half are not joyously received, hut are sent on to be
born again. The moon is represented as the door to
the heavenly world. If a man objects to her, she
sets him free ; but if the man does not object, she
sends him down as rain upon the earth. His next
birth is favorable or otherwise, in direct proportion to
his virtue and wisdom ; he may be born as a worm or
an insect ; as a fish or a bird ; as a lion, or a boar, or a
serpent. He may assume the shape of a tiger or a
man. He may happen to be in favorable or unfavor-
able localities, and he is as likely to be found in hell
as anywhere else. If, upon returning to the earth in
any of these forms, any one asks him from whence he
came, he is to reply: “From the wise moon, who or-
ders the seasons — when it is born consisting of fifteen
parts — from the moon who is the home of our ances-
tors. . . Therefore, 0 ye seasons, grant that I may attain
immortality (knowledge of Brahman), by this my true
saying, by this my toil. I am like a season, and the
child of the seasons. ‘Who art thou ?’ the sage asks

1 1st Aran., 3 Adhy., 8 Khan.

2 This work was translated for the “Bibliotheca Indica” by Prof. Cowell
of Cambridge.

THE ri’AXISIIADS.

Ill

again. ‘ I am thou/ lie replies. Then he sets him
free to proceed onward/’1

THE VAJASANEYI SAWHITA UPAKISHAD.

The peculiar character of this book appears to be
the recognition of the necessity of good works as a
preparation for the reception of the highest knowledge.
The doctrine that the moment a man is enlightened
he becomes free, as taught in the other Upanishads,
led (according to Muller) to a rejection of all disci-
pline and a condemnation of all sacrifices, which could
hardly have been tolerated in the last chapter of the
Yajur-veda Samhita.

In this Upanishad Brahman is called Is, or lord ; it
treats of the demoniacal and sunless worlds, to which
all go who have lost their identity. It is said that
“ All who worship what is not true cause enter into
blind darkness. Those who delight in true cause enter,
as it were, into greater darkness.”

“ One thing they say is obtained from (knowledge
of) the cause, another, they say, from (knowledge of)
what is not the cause. . . He who knows at the same
time both the cause and the destruction (the perisha-
ble body) overcomes death by destruction (the perisha-
ble body), and obtains immortality through (knowledge
of) the true cause. . . Breath to air and to the immortal.
Then this my body ends in ashes, Om ! Mind, remem-
ber ! Remember thy deeds ! Mind, remember ! Remem-
ber thy deeds ! ”

1 1st Adhy., 2.

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THE ISA.

This is a very short Upanishad which has been
translated by Max Mil Her, and also by Sir Wm. Jones
and Dr. Roer, but we here give the poetical rendering
by Sir Monier Williams of about half the work.

“ Whatever exists within this universe
Is all to be regarded as enveloped
By the great Lord, as if wrapped in a vesture.
Renounce, 0 man, the world, and covet not
Another’s wealth, so shalt thou save thy soul.
Perform religious works, so mayst thou wish
To live a hundred years ; in this way only
Mayst thou engage in worldly acts untainted.

To worlds immersed in darkness, tenanted
By evil spirits shall they go at death
Who in this life are killers of their souls.

There is one only Being who exists
Unmoved, yet moving swifter than the mind ;

Who far outstrips the senses, though as gods
They strive to reach him ; Avho himself at rest
Transcends the fleetest flight of other beings;

Who like the air, supports all vital action,
lie moves, yet moves not ; he is far, yet near ;
lie is within this universe, and yet
Outside this universe ; whoe’er beholds
All living creatures as in him, and him —

The universal spirit — as in all.

Henceforth regards no creature with contempt.

The man who understands that every creature
Exists in God alone, and thus perceives
The unity of being, has no grief

THE UPANISHADS.

113

And no illusion. He, the all-pervading,

Is brilliant, without body, sinewless,

Invulnerable, pure, and undefiled
By taint of sin ; he also is all-wise.

The Ruler of the mind, above all beings.

The Self-existent. He created all things
Just as they are from all eternity.”1

There are many other Upanishads, but an examina-
tion of these extracts will give an idea of their general
literary character, and the tenor of their teachings, as a
whole.

These treatises were considered the completion of
revelation ; they were held to be a very important
portion of the Veda, or knowledge, and in the esti-
mation of their best thinkers, like Rammohun Roy,
they were by far the most important portion, being
the grandest and noblest utterances of the Veda —
the point to which all previous revelation tended.

The three grand divisions of Vedic literature which
have been discussed under the heads of Mantra, Brah-
mana and Upanishad, all come under the head of
Sruti — that which is directly heard or revealed. The
voice of divine knowledge heard by the Rishis, or
sages, and by them either orally transmitted or written
down exactly as heard.

We shall now consider the teaching of these oracles
upon the most important doctrinal points of the Hindu
faith. Too much care and discrimination cannot be
used in the examination of this subject, in view of the
fact that they are considered the most vital portion of
the Veda.

i Ind. Wis., p. 3$.

CHAPTER VIII.

TIIE MONOTHEISM OF THE UPANISHADS.

PANTHEISM — CONFESSION OF FAITH — DEATH OF THEIR
SUPREME GOD — DESCRIPTIONS OF BRAHMA — THE
FEET OF BRAHMAN — VISHNU AS THE SUPREME GOD
— THE SVETASV ATARA UPANISHAD — PANTHEISM TIIE
CREED OF VEDIC LITERATURE.

IT has been claimed by some that the Upanishads
are devoted to the worship of the one God — the
Supreme — who bears the name of the Highest Self —
Brahman. But here again, as in other portions of the
Vedas, the monotheism, upon closer examination, seems
to be simple pantheism. In other words, there is only
one Being in the universe, and that is the universe
itself. This being is also thought of as the one Uni-
versal Soul, with which all existing material substances
are identified, and into which the souls must be ulti-
mately merged.

“This,” says Williams, “is the pantheistic doctrine,

everywhere traceable in some of the more ancient

Upanishads. It is often wrapped up in mystic lan-

guage and fantastic allegory, but in the Chandogya
Upanishad is found the following simple

CONFESSION OF FAITH.

“ ‘All this universe indeed is Brahma; from him does

THE MONOTHEISM OF THE UPAXISHADS.

115

it proceed; into him it is dissolved; in him it breathes,
so let every one adore him calmly.’”1

It is also taught that “ This whole is Brahma, from
Brahma to a clod of earth. Brahma is both the effi-
cient and the material cause of the world. He is the
potter by whom the vase is formed; he is the clay from
which it is fabricated. Everything proceeds from him,
without waste or diminution of the source, as light ra-
diates from the sun. Everything merges into him
again, as bubbles bursting mingle with the air — as
rivers fall into the ocean. Everything proceeds from
and returns to him, as the web of the spider is emit-
ted from and retracted into itself.” 2

DEATH OF THEIR SUPREME GOD.

Brahma, as the Supreme God, is represented as dy-
ing, and in strict accordance with the pantheistic creed
so generally taught, the whole universe expires with him,
to be reorganized again when the Supreme God comes
again from the death state

The Devas, or deities, are also frequently mentioned,
and many of the descriptions of God are so absurd that
the student of Yedic literature wonders what kind of
a conception the writer could have had of an Infinite
Creator. He is sometimes represented as being the
guardian of the world — having swallowed the others.
It is also claimed that he is the self of the Devas (or
gods), the creator of all. He is represented as having
golden tusks; he is called “the eater,” and is said to
be “not without intelligence.” “His greatness is said

■ Chan. Upa., 3-14, Williams' trans. 2 Wilson, Vol. IT, p. 95.

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to be great indeed, because without being eaten, he eats
even what is not food.”1 It is claimed that though
mortals see him not, he sees and knows them. He is
the god who, as Vayu, swallows all the gods, but pro-
duces them again, and who swallows during sleep all
senses, but produces them again at the time of waking.

THE FEET OF BRAHMAN.

Satyakama, a religious student, is said to have re-
ceived the following expositions of the feet of Brah-
man2 from a bull, from fire (Agni), from a flamingo,
and from a diver bird, respectively. “The bull of
the herd said to him ‘ . . . I will declare to

you one foot of Brahman . . . The eastern

region is one quarter, the western region is one quar-
ter, the southern region is one quarter, the northern
region is one quarter. This is the foot of Brahman
and called Prakasavat (endowed with splendor). lie
who knows this and meditates on the foot of Brah-
man consisting of four quarters, by the name of Prak-
asavat, becomes endowed with splendor in this world,
lie conquers the resplendent worlds, whoever knows
this and meditates on the foot of Brahman consisting
of four quarters by the name of Prakasavat.’

“After these words of the bull, Satyakama on the
morrow drove the cows toward the house of the teacher,
and when they came towards the evening he lighted
a fire, penned the cows, and sat down behind the fire,
looking toward the east. Then Agni (the fire) said

iChan. Upa, 4-3.

2 In the Code of Manu the name of Brahman is applied to the su-
preme Being, while Brahma is called the creator of the universe— Brah
man (the Highest Self) being the neuter form.

THE MONOTHEISM OF THE UPANISHADS.

117

to him, ‘ . . . I will declare unto you one loot

of Brahman . . . The earth is one quarter,

the sky is one quarter, the heaven is one quarter,
the ocean is one quarter. This is the foot of Brah-
man, consisting of 'four quarters, and called Ananta-
vat (endless). He who knows this and meditates on
the foot of Brahman by the name of Anantavat, be-
comes endless in this world. He conquers endless
worlds, whoever knows this and meditates on the foot
of Brahman consisting of four quarters, by the name
of Anantavat.’

“After these words of Agni, Satyakama on the morrow
drove the cows onward, and when they came towards
the evening, he lighted a fire, penned the cows

and sat down behind the fire, looking toward
the east. Then a Hamasa (flamingo, meant for the
sun), flew near and said to him ;••••! will
declare unto you one foot of Brahman
Fire is one quarter, the sun is one quarter, the moon
is one quarter, lightning is one quarter. This is the
foot of Brahman consisting of four quarters, called
Gyotishmat (full of light). He who knows this and
meditates on the foot of Brahman consisting of four
quarters, by the name of Gyotishmat, becomes full of
light in this world. He conquers worlds which are
full of light, whoever knows this and meditates on
the foot of Brahman consisting of four quarters, by the
name of Gyotishmat.’

“After these words of the Hawiasa, Satyakama on
the morrow drove the cows onward, and when they
came towards evening he lighted a fire, penned the cows,
and sat down behind the fire, looking toward the east.

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Then a diver (bird) flew near and said to him, ‘ • •

. . I will declare unto you one foot of Braliman

Breath is one quarter, the eye is one quarter,
the ear is one quarter, the wind is one quarter. This
is the foot of Brahman, consisting of four quarters and
called Ayatanavat (having a home). He who knows
this and meditates on the foot of Brahman, consisting
of four quarters, by the name of Ayatanavat, becomes
possessed of a home in this world. lie conquers the
worlds which offer a home, whoever knows this and
meditates on the foot of Brahman, consisting of four
quarters, by the name of Ayatanavat/

VISHNU AS THE SUPREME GOD.

Vishnu, especially in the Puranas, is often addressed
as the Supreme God, who is described under all the
different forms of this deity. Only a few years since,
one of the finest literary men in India commenced a
paper with an earnest invocation to the “ Heavenly
Boar.” In this form it said that his feet were the
Vedas, his tusks the sacrificial stakes ; his teeth were
the offerings ; his mouth was the pyre ; his tongue was
the fire ; his hair was the sacrificial grass ; the sacred
texts were his head ; his eyes were day and night ; his
ears were the two bundles of Kusa grass ; his earrings
were the two ends of those two bundles of Kusa grass ;
his nose the clarified butter; his snout was the ladle of
oblations. . . . The Lord, the Creator, the great

Yogin2 — plunging into the one ocean from love of the
world — raised up by the edge of his tusks the earth

l Chan. Upa., 4th Prap., 5-8 Khan.

2 In the character of “lord of abstract meditation” <Siva is called Yogin,

THE MONOTHEISM OF THE UPANISHADS.

119

bounded by the sea, together with its mountains, for-
ests, and groves, which was immersed in the water of
the one ocean, and created the universe anew.

THE SVETASVATARA UPANISHAD.

One of the most modern Upanishads (the Svetas-
vatara)1 represents the Supreme God as having a thou-
sand heads, and also describes the hydra-headed deity
as having a thousand eyes and a thousand feet — one
eye and one foot for each head. The quotation is as
follows :

“The perfect spirit with a thousand heads,

A thousand eyes, a thousand feet, the ruler
Of all that is, that was, that is to be.

Diffused through endless space, yet of the measure
Of a man’s thumb, abiding in the heart,

Known only by the heart. Whoever knows him
Gains everlasting peace and deathlessness.”2

Although the Supreme Being is here represented
as having a superfluity of heads and feet, he is des-
cribed in another TTpanishad as being entirely without
body or mind, as in the following extract :

“That heavenly Person is ivithout body, icithout
breath and without mind — pure, higher than the high
Imperishable. From him, (when entering on creation),
is born breath, mind, and all organs of sense; ether,
air, light, water, and the earth, the support of all.

l The word signifies “white mule,” and as mules have been known and
prized in India from the earliest time, the name is not considered inap-
propriate for either a Upauishad or a person.

i* Williams’ trans.

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Fire (the sky) is his head; his eyes, the sun and moon;
the quarters, his ears ; his speech, the Vedas disclosed ;
the wind, his breath ; his heart, the universe ; from his

feet came the earth Brahman the highest

immortal. He who knows this, 0 friend, scatters
the knot of ignorance here on earth.”1

PANTHEISM THE CREED OF VEDIC LITERATURE.

It appears, therefore, that the monotheism of the
Upanishads represents the Supreme Being in the most
repellent forms, and also that the great underlying
principle of TTpanishad theology is one of the cardinal
doctrines of Hindu teaching, viz., pure pantheism.

“As golden bracelets are in substance one
With gold, so are all visible appearances.

And each distinct existence one with Brahma.”

This pantheistic creed is traceable even in the Rig-
veda, and it gathers force all the way down the stream
of Hindu literature. The Upanishads, both ancient
and modern, teach the same doctrine. It is re-echoed
by both of the great epic poems, and finally presented
in the strongest colors, amidst the endless mythologies
and theogonies of the Puranas. Thus the Yedic creed
upon this subject is simplified into a belief in the unity
of all existing beings. But while this doctrine is
everywhere traceable in Hindu literature, we find side
by side with it in all their later works a pantheon
containing three hundred and thirty millions of deities,
many of them engaged in the most terrible conflicts
with one another.

i MuniZaka Upa., 1st Khan.

CHAPTER IX.

COSMOGONY.

ABSURD THEORIES — EXTRACT FROM C'HANDOGYA UPAN-
ISHAD — COSMOGONY OF MANU — A DAY OF BRAHMA
— SLEEP OF BRAHMA AND ITS RESULTS — RE-CREA-
TION— LENGTH OF BRAHMA’S LIFE — THE SERPENT
SESHA — THE NAGAS OR SERPENT DEMONS — DEATH
OF BRAHMA — REPEATED CREATIONS — THE WILL OF
BRAHMA — INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF MATTER — EVOLU-
TION AND PANTHEISM — COSMOGRAPHY OF THE MA-
HA-BHARATA AND THE PURANAS — THE LENGTH OF A
KALPA — TEACHING OF THE RAMAYANA — CREATION
BY VISHNU — COMPARISON BETWEEN COSMOGONY OF
THE VEDAS AND OTHER ANCIENT WRITINGS — TES-
TIMONY OF BARON VON HUMBOLDT — MOSAIC
COSMOGONY.

rpHE various cosmogonies of the Hindus are so absurd
-L in their theories, and so contradictory in themselves,
that the historian shrinks from the repetition of them.
But justice has no choice ; her decisions are inevitable,
and the only fair verdict that can be rendered must
come from an examination of the books themselves.
Hence, we give

AN EXTRACT FROM THE C'HANDOGYA UPANISHAD,

in relation to the theory of the sun’s origin :

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

1. “Aditya (the sun) is Brahman; this is the doc-
trine, and this is the fuller account of it : In the begin-
ning this was non-existent. It became existent — it grew.
It turned into an egg ; the egg lay for the time of
a year ; the egg broke open. The two halves were
one of silver, the other of gold.

2. “ The silver one became this earth ; the golden
one, the sky ; the thick membrane (of the white), the
mountains ; the thin membrane (of the yolk), the
mist with the clouds ; the small veins, the rivers ; the
fluid, the sea.

3. “ And what was born from it ? That was
Aditya, the sun. When he was born shouts of hurrah
arose, and all beings arose, and all things which they
desired. Therefore, whenever the sun rises and sets,
shouts of hurrah arise, and all beings arise, and all
things which they desire.”1

COSMOGONY OF MANU.

This mundane egg is a little differently presented
by Manu.

The collected wisdom found in his laws represents
the universe as first existing in darkness, as if immersed
in sleep. Then the Self-existent, having ivilled to
produce various beings from his own substance, first
with a thought created the waters and placed upon
them a productive seed, or egg. Then he himself was
born in that egg, in the form of Brahma. Xext, he
caused the egg to divide itself, and out of its two
divisions formed the heaven above and the earth be-
neath. Afterwards, having divided his own substance.

14th Prap., 1 Khan.

COSMOGONY.

123

lie became half male and half female, and that female
produced Viraj, from whom was created Manu, the
secondary progenitor of all things.1

In the Vishnu-purana we learn that there is a
great multitude of these cosmic eggs, and it is said
that the boundless cause of all things — the Supreme
Prakriti — is “the cause of all mundane eggs, of which
there are thousands, and tens of thousands, and mill-
ions, and tens of millions.”2

The elements of the primary forms thus developed
from these cosmic eggs are supposed to remain un-
changed during a single

DAY OF BRAHMA,

which consists of two billion, one hundred and sixty
millions of years. At the end of this time Brahma
is represented as sleeping. The contents of this
world and also of the other spheres of the universe
are consumed by fire during his sleep. The fire is
then extinguished by such heavy and long-continued
rains that a universal cataclysm is produced, and
a shoreless ocean engulfs all life, except the sages and
the gods, who have managed to escape the fire and
the deluge.

RE-CREATION.

Brahma finds, however, that the elements still
exist, and by skilful combinations of these he soon
creates anew the earth and its inhabitants. For some
unexplained reason, it is found necessary for Brahma
to repeat this creation every day during the hundred

i For a further elucidation of this cosmic egg see Chap. XXII of this
volume. 2 Vish. Pur., Vol. II, p. 232, Wilson's trans.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

years of his life, the sum total of his existence being
311,400,000,000,000 years, a number quite beyond the
ordinary comprehension. During these intervals of
creation he is supported on the thousand heads of

THE SERPENT SESHA.

For this reason the Nagas, or serpent demons are
held sacred in India. A particular day is devoted to
them, and a festival is kept in their honor about the
end of July. The lower regions are supposed to be
peopled with serpents, all of them having jewels in
their heads. The never-failing imagination of the
Hindu has furnished names for all the chiefs of the
serpent tribe, and these are supposed to rule over the
snakes on the earth as well as those in the lower
regions.

DEATH OF BRAHMA.

At the close of the enormous periods presented as
the sum of the hundred years of Brahma’s life, Brahma
himself expires, and with him the other gods, when
every form of the world has been resolved back to pri-
mary matter, or primary spirit, according to the differ-
ent theories of various philosophies.

REPEATED CREATIONS.

But the Hindu mystic is not long left without a
world. Similar causes again produce similar results
and the whole programme of creation is repeated. Thus
the whole universe fluctuates between existence and
non-existence throughout the ages of eternity.

In the (Jhandogya Upanishad it is said that “In

COSMOGONY.

125

the beginning there was the mere state of being — only
one without a second. . . It willed, ‘l shall multi-

ply and be born/ It created water. The water willed,
‘ I shall multiply and be born.’ It created aliment.
Therefore, whenever rain falls much aliment is pro-
duced. That deity willed, ‘ Entering these three divin-
ities I shall develop name and form.’”1

THE WILL OF BRAHMA. •

An explanation of the mode in which the will of
Brahma operates, seems never to have been attempted.
He wills creation to be, and it is ; still, various schools
of India seem to unite in according to matter the
property of eternal existence, and also claim that it is
indestructible — the most of the Hindu sages having
advocated the doctrine of ex niliilo nihil. All of these
schools agree in advocating the infinity and eternal
succession of creation, and the periodical dissolution
and reorganization of the world.

EVOLUTION AND PANTHEISM.

At times these books teach instead of a creation, a
system of evolution in its clearest type. First, there
was simple matter, then being sprang out of non-being,
and finally Brahma became the universe. Says Prof.
Duncker, Brahma, according to the Vedanta, “ is the
one eternal self-existent essence, unutterable and un-
changeable. It develops into the world and is thus
creative and created. As milk curdles, as water be-
comes snow and ice, Brahma congeals with matter.” 2

l Chan. Upa., 6-2, Williams’ trans. 2 Hist, of Antiq., Vol. IV, p. 300.

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THE A XT'I EXT BOOKS OF INDIA.

COSMOGRAPHY OF THE MAHA-BHARATA AXD THE
PURAXAS.

The cosmography which is taught in the Maha-bha-
rata, and afterwards adopted by the Pur anas, divides
the earth into seven concentric circles or rings, each
of which is surrounded by a circumambient ocean or
belt, which separates it from the next annular continent.
The first oceai* is a sea of salt water ; the second is
composed of the juice of the sugar cane ; the third, of
wine ; the fourth, of clarified butter ; the fifth, of
curdled milk; the sixth, of sweet milk; and the seventh,
of fresh water. In the center of this vast annular sys-
tem a mountain called Meru rises to the height of sixty-
four thousand miles.1

These seven circumambient worlds are supposed to
rest on the thousand heads of the serpent Sesha, which
support the Supreme Being in the intervals between
the creative acts, and which also support the worlds
which are created at the commencement of each
Kalpa, or two billion, one hundred and sixty millions
of years.

It is claimed in the Ramayana that the earth is
supported on the heads and backs of sixteen immense
elephants ; eight of these are males and eight are
females. In order to be explicit, the names of the ele-
phants are given2 and it is said that when one of them
shakes his body the motion produces earthquakes.
Hence, it is fair to suppose that if they all happened
to shake their bodies at the same time, a universal
earthquake would he the result.

i Vish. Pur., Wilson's trans., p. 166.

2 Ind. WTis., p. 430.

COSMOGONY.

127

CREATION BY VISHNU.

There are almost as many creations in Hindu litera-
ture as there are gods in the pantheon, the most of them
being represented as creators ; for as the Hindus have
the past eternity filled with successive creative acts,
there is time enough for each deity to assume the part
of Brahma in the work of creation. The Vishnu-purana
gives an eloquent description of the process of recon-
struction by Vishnu. This deity, who is repeatedly
addressed as the Supreme Being, is described as a huge
boar, a thousand yojanas (forty-five hundred miles) in
height, and ten yojanas (forty-five miles) in breadth.
He had the color of a dark cloud ; his roar was like
thunder ; his bulk vast as a mountain ; his tusks white,
sharp, aud fearful. Fire flashed from his eyes like
lightning, and he was radiant as the sun. His should-
ers were round, fat, and large, and he strode along
like a powerful lion.

This “auspicious supporter of the world,” whose
eyes were like the lotus after receiving hymns of praises,
emitted a low murmuring sound, like the chanting of the
Sama-veda, and uplifted the earth from the lower regions
by means of his ample tusks. As he raised his enormous
head from the water the drops which fell therefrom
purified the great sages, Sanandana, and others resid-
ing in the sphere of the saints. Through the indenta-
tions made with his hoofs, the water rushed into the
lower worlds with a thundering noise, while the Munis
sought for shelter among his sacred bristles as he rose
up supporting the earth and dripping with moisture.
Then the great sages were inspired with delight, and

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

bowing lowly they praised the stern-eyed upholder of
the earth.1

COMPARISON BETWEEN HINDU COSMOGONIES AND
OTHER ANCIENT WRITINGS.

These wild theories and cosmogonies illustrating
the absurdities of the human imagination, present a
startling contrast to the books of Genesis and Job,
which were written at a much earlier date. In direct
proportion to the development of science the admira-
tion of scientists has been challenged for these primi-
tive works. The wonderful accuracy of Job’s allusions
to physical laws made a powerful impression upon the
mind of Baron Von Humboldt, who expresses himself
as follows :

TESTIMONY OF BARON VON HUMBOLDT.

“ Similar vieivs of the Cosmos occur repeatedly in
the Psalms and most fully perhaps in the 37th chapter
of the ancient, if not ante-Mosiac, book of Job. The
meteorological processes which take place in the atmos-
phere, the formation and solution of vapor according
to the changing direction of the wind, the play of its
colors, the generation of hail, and the rolling thunder,
are all described with individualizing accuracy. And
many questions are propounded which we, in the pres-
ent state of physical knowledge, may indeed be able
to express under more scientific definitions, but scarcely
to answer satisfactorily. In all the modern languages
into which the book of Job has been translated, its
images drawn from the natural scenery of the East

i Vish.-Pur., Wilson’s trans., p. 63.

COSMOGONY.

129

leave a deep impression upon the mind. ‘ The Lord
walketh on the height of the waters ; on the ridges of
the waves towering high beneath the face of the
wind/ . . . And we see the pure ether spread during
the scorching heat of the south wind as a melted
mirror over the parched desert.”1

MOSAIC COSMOGONY.

The Mosiac description of creation has been the
marvel of Science ever since she has been able to com-
prehend it. With a few bold outlines and graceful
touches, the historian has given with fearless hand a
cosmogony that has endured for ages the most search-
ing light of investigation. It was written in a primi-
tive age, when the crudest ideas were entertained in
regard to nature’s laws and general ignorance prevailed
with reference to their cause and interpretation. For
three thousand years it has been exposed to attack at
every point and has been tested by every discovery of
man. It has been challenged by the revelations of
geology, chronology, and history. It has been ques-
tioned by fossils from the depths of the earth and by
the stars which gleam in the midnight heavens. But
the record stands to-day unimpeached in the estima-
tion of the grandest minds of earth. We find in
the past the testimonies of her Kepler, Bacon, and
Newton, of her Priestley and Brewster, of her Dana,
Von Bitter, Mitchell, and a host of others, while the
ablest scientists of to-day are found in the same ranks,
bringing glad tributes to the same great truth.

The cosmogonies of India and Egypt, of Assyria and

i Cosmos, Vol. II, pp. 56-59, Otte’s trans.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

Persia, of Greece ancl Rome, and of the isles of the
seas, have been canvassed in vain for satisfactory expo-
sitions of physical law.

The sublime sentence “In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth ” stands forever with-
out a rival in literature. It is the closed gateway be-
tween the illimitable past and the long aisles of earthly
time. In the dim vista beyond it lies a silence as pro-
found as the primeval darkness that rested on the face
of the deep. In a few brief sentences is given a
graphic description of the great cycles of time, during
which the stars were lighted and the earth was born.
“And the earth was without form and void.” How
long ? The question is rolled backward through the
halls of time, but its echoes bring no answer. Chro-
nology has tried in vain to measure these cycles, and
geology has opened her rock-bound pages, but her
clear-cut inscriptions tell not of “ the beginning.” God
wrought alone in those grand periods, but tide and tor-
rent, restless surge and burning mountain, were His
agents. At last, through the unvarying laws of na-
ture’s God, a finished globe, with sunlit vales and snow-
crowned mountains, with silvery streams and peaceful
hills rolled in its orbit, while the morning stars sang
together and all the sons of God shouted for joy.

CHAPTER X.

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

DESCENT OF MAN FROM A SINGLE PAIR — THE EARTHLY
AND HEAVENLY PART OF MAN — RECONSTRUCTION OF
MEN AT THE END OF EACH KALPA— CREATION OF
ANIMALS — DIFFERENT CHARACTERS AND RACES OF
MEN — RUDRA — DEVOLUTION — EXTRACT.

THE philosophical systems of India seem to take
little notice of man except in the abstract. It is
easy, however, to detect through all the embellishments
of Hindu literature, the tradition of the descent of
mankind from a single pair.

Brahma is repeatedly fabled to have divided himself
into two creatures — one male and the other female —
and from the union of these two one man and one
woman were born, from whom came not mankind
alone, but all other living creatures as well. This gen-
eral outline is found in the Vedas themselves, but it
has been changed, remodeled, and repeated in a variety
of shapes.

The origin of the human species is sometimes
strangely mixed up with the creation of the world.
For instance, in the Upanishads we find the following
expositions :

“ Adoration to the highest self, Hari, Om.

131

132

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

“1. Verily in the beginning all this was self — one
only there was; nothing else blinking (living) what-
soever.

“ 2. He thought, * Shall I send forth worlds ? ’
He sent forth these worlds :

“3. Ambhas (water), mar Hi (light), and mara
(mortal).

“4. That Ambhas (water) is above the heaven; and
it is heaven, the support. The mar His (the lights),
are the sky. The Mara (mortal) is the earth, and the
waters under the earth are the Ap (world).

“5. He thought, ‘There are these worlds; shall I
send forth guardians of the worlds?’ He then formed
the Purusha (the person) taking him forth from the
water.

“G. He brooded on him, and when that person had
thus been brooded on, a mouth burst forth like an
egg. From the mouth proceeded speech; from speech,
Agni (fire).

“Nostrils burst forth; from the nostrils proceeded
scent ; from scent, air.

“Eyes burst forth; from the eyes proceeded sight;
from sight, Aditya (sun).

“ Ears burst forth ; from the ears proceeded hear-
ing; from hearing the Dis (quarters of the world).

“Skin burst forth; from the skin proceeded hairs;
from the hairs, shrubs and trees. The heart burst forth;
from the heart proceeded mind, etc. • He

thought, “ There are the worlds and the guardians of
the worlds. Let me send forth food for them.’ He
brooded over water. From the water thus brooded on,
matter was born • • • that verily was food.

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

133

When this food had been sent forth it wished to flee,
crying and turning away. He (the subject) tried to
grasp it by speech. If he had grasped it by speech,
man would be satisfied by naming food. He tried to
grasp it by scent. If he had grasped it by scent,
man would have been satisfied by smelling food. He
tried to grasp it by the eye ... If he had grasped
it with the eye, man would have been satisfied by
seeing food. He tried to grasp it with the ear

If he had grasped it with the ear, man would
have been satisfied by hearing food. He tried to grasp
it by the skin ... If he had grasped it by the
skin, man would be satisfied by touching food. He tried
to grasp it by the mind ... If he had grasped
it by the mind, man would have been satisfied by
thinking of food. He tried to grasp it by the down
breathing breath, which helps to swallow food by breath-
ing through the mouth . . . He got it.” Hence

man is satisfied only by the eating of food.1

These endless vagaries are pursued through a wilder-
ness of literature, apparently without thought or purpose.
Vayu, the getter, is then represented assaying: “How
can all this be without me?” and then he thought
“ By what way shall I get there?” Then opening the
suture of the skull he got in by that door and found
there were three dwelling places for him, viz. : the eye,
the throat, and the heart.

“When born (that is, when the Highest Self had
entered the body), he looked through all things in or-
der to see whether anything wished to proclaim here

i Aitareya Aran., II, 4, 2-3.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

another (Self). He saw this person only (himself) as
the widely spread Brahman.” This verse is under-
stood to mean that the Self looked carefully around
in order to learn what there was which might pro-
claim another self ; and when he saw there was noth-
ing which did not come from himself, he recognized
the fact that the person which he had created was the
developed Brahman, the Atman — in other words, him-
self. Again, we are taught that “ Every man is in-
deed like an egg; there are two halves of him. This
half is the earth ; that half, heaven. And there be-
tween them is the ether (the space of the mouth) like
the ether between heaven and earth. In this ether
there (in the mouth) the breath is fixed, as in that
other ether the air is fixed. And as there are those
luminaries (in heaven) there are these luminaries in
man. As there is that sun in heaven, there is this eye
in the head. As there is that lightning in the sky,
there is this heart in the body.”1 The half of man
which represents the earth is that part from the feet
to the lower jaw, and the part which represents heaven
is the intellectual part found between the upper jaw
and the skull.

RECONSTRUCTION OF MEN AT THE END OF EACH KALPA.

Created beings, although destroyed in their individ-
ual forms, are never exempted from the consecpiences
of their acts ; for whenever Brahma creates the world
anew they are at the mercy of his will, either as gods,
men, animals, or inanimate things. Brahma being de-
sirous at one of these periods of creating gods, de-

i Aitareya, 2, 4-1.

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

135

mons, progenitors and men, collected his mind into it-
self. Whilst thus concentrated, the quality of dark-
ness pervaded his body, and the demons were born first,
issuing from his thigh. Brahma then abandoned the
form he had used, and the form thus abandoned became
night. Then from his mouth proceeded gods, and the
form which he then abandoned became day, for good-
ness predominated in it. He next adopted another
form, and the progenitors (the pitnis) were born from
his side, and the body which he then abandoned be-
came the evening twilight. Brahma then assumed
another body pervaded by foulness, and from this men
were born, and the body thus abandoned became the
morning twilight

Thus gods, men, demons and progenitors were re-
constructed from previous forms, and the bodies which
Brahma abandoned became day, night, dawn and even-
ing. Afterward the hairs of Brahma which were shriv-
eled up, fell from his head and became serpents. The
creator of the world, being incensed by the loss of his
hair, created fierce beings who were denominated gob-
lins ; they were malignant fiends and eaters of flesh.
The divine Brahma then created birds from his own
vitality, sheep from his breast, goats from his mouth,
cows from his sides, horses, elephants, and other
animals from his feet, whilst from the hairs of his
body grew herbs, roots, and plants.

THE DIFFERENT CHARACTERS AND RACES OF MEN

are accounted for in the Yishnu-purana by the following
legend of Rudra : The mind-engendered progeny of

Brahma were inspired with holy wisdom, and being

136

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

estranged from the world, they were not desirous of prog-
eny. When Brahma perceived this “ lie was filled with
wrath capable of consuming the three worlds ; the
flame of his anger invested like a garland heaven,
earth, and hell. Then from his forehead, darkened with
angry frowns, sprang Rudra, radiant as the noontide sun,
tierce and of vast bulk, and of a figure which was half
male and half female. ‘ Separate yourself,’ commanded
Brahma. Obedient to the command, Rudra imme-
diately disjoined his two natures and became twofold.
His male being he again divided into eleven persons,
of whom some were agreeable and some were hideous ;
some were fierce and some were mild of disposition.
He also multiplied his female nature manifold, some of
them being of fair complexion and others very dark,
or even black.”1

DEVOLUTION.

The Upauishads also teach that the lower animals
are descended from man, and seem to claim that degen-
eracy is easier than improvement. The doctrine that
the lower animals are the direct descendants of man is
taught in the fourth Brahmana and also in the Upan-
ishads, from which we tjuote as follows :

“In the beginning there was Self alone in the
shape of a person (purusha), and looking around he saw
nothing but his Self. He wished for a second. He
then made this his Self to fall in two, and thence arose
husband and wife.”

Then men were born, and afterward the brute cre-

i Vish-Pur., Wilson’s trans., p. 50.

THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

137

ation, whose origin from degenerate man is expressed in
the most explicit terms. “ She became a cow

hence cows were born. They then became one-
hoofed animals . . . and one-hoofed animals

were born . . . They became goats, and goats

were born . . . They became sheep

and sheep were born . . . and thus he

created everything that exists in pairs, even down to
the ants.” In this quotation the universal doc-
trine of pantheism is presented in the following words :
“ He knew I, indeed, am this creation, for I created
all this. Hence he became the creation, and he who
knows this lives in his creation.”1

In intimate connection with this doctrine of devolu-
tion, we find Prof. Wilson quoting the statement of the
Commentator Madhwa, who asserts that in the compil-
ation of his own work he consulted eight other com-
mentaries, one of which was written by a monkey, and
Prof. Wilson’s comment upon the statement is that
“ While the Hindu disputant may believe in the reality
of such a compilation, yet we may receive its citation
as a proof that Madhwa was not very scrupulous ?n
the verification of his authorities.”2

There is a story in Hindu literature of a great drama
in fourteen acts, composed by the monkey chief Han-
uman, but it is claimed that this was not preserved,
because Valmika feared that it would cast his poem
(Bamayana) into the shade. Therefore the generous ape
who wrote it threw it into the sea.

We read, too, in the Kamayana of the ourang-outang

1 Upanishads, Part 2, pp. 85, 86

2 Wilson, Vol. AM, p. 49 of Int.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

who lived on the banks of Lake Pampa. He is Su-
griva, the king of the monkeys, with whom Rama
makes an alliance. Several of the monkey generals
are mentioned, and a wonderful feat in bridge building
by the privates of this strange army is recorded.

If the Hindus believed that the monkeys wrote com-
mentaries in the days of Madhwa and dramatic poems
in the time of Valmika, that they commanded armies
and built bridges, as recorded in the Ramayana, we
cannot wonder that they feel that the theory of evolu-
tion is working the other way — that degeneracy and
not development is the law of nature, so far at least as
the quadrumanous family is concerned ; and yet we find
a certain class of the natives of India advocating the
claims of the Sankhya philosophy.

CHAPTER XI.

METEMPSYCHOSIS.

TRANSMIGRATION NOT TAUGHT IN THE RIG-VEDA — THE
TRIPLE SYSTEM OF TRANSMIGRATION — THE DOCTRINE
OF THE CHANDOGYA — GREATEST DANGER DURING
TRANSMIGRATION — DISTINCTION BETWEEN ASCEND-
ING AND DESCENDING SOULS — HINDU EXPLANATION
OF INEQUALITIES OF FORTUNE — SINS AGAINST CASTE
RECEIVE THE GREATEST PUNISHMENT — NO CRIME
BECOMES A SIN IF THE WORDS OF THE RIG-VEDA BE
REMEMBERED.

rpHE Kig-veda, not being a doctrinal work, does not
teach the theory of metempsychosis in any decided
way. But there are frequent allusions to the immortality
of the soul, and one of the hymns in the last Mandala is
addressed to the spirits of departed ancestors, who have
attained to a state of heavenly bliss and are supposed
to occupy three stages of blessedness, the highest inhab-
iting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate air, and
the lowest the regions of the atmosphere near the earth.

THE TRIPLE SYSTEM OF TRANSMIGRATION.

A most elaborate theory, however, of the transmi-
gration of the souls of men through plants, animals,
and gods, was inculcated in the Code of Manu, which,
dates back to about 500 years B. C. According to

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

Manu (12:3), every act and every thought produces
either good or evil fruit, and the various transmigra-
tions of men are the result of their conduct upon
earth. A threefold alternative is presented to the soul :
it may pass through deities, through men, or through
beasts and plants. It will go through deities if good-
ness predominates in its nature ; through men if it is
ruled by passion ; through beasts and plants if it dwells
still lower in the moral scale. Each of these three
degrees of transmigration has three sub-degrees. The
highest and first is Brahma himself, and the lowest is
either a vegetable or a mineral. But souls in these
latter forms may ascend through various insects, fish,
reptiles, snakes, tortoises, etc.1 “Let the man who
has renounced the world reflect on the transmigration
of men caused by their acts ; on their downfall into
hell and their torments in the abode of Yama ; on
their formation again in the womb and the glidings of
the soul through ten millions of other wombs.”2

A passage in the Satapatha-brahmana is quoted by
Weber and Dr. Muir, asserting that in a future state
animals and plants will revenge upon men the injuries
and death received here. The absence of all memory
of wrong done, and indeed of all consciousness of a
former existence, does not appear to the Hindu as
any objection to this creed which has been handed down
to him through so many generations, although mythol-
ogy claims to record cases where men were gifted with
the power of remembering former existences.

The Upanishads which contain the doctrinal teach-
ings of the Vedas have not by any means neglected the

i Manu, 1 : 240.

26: 61-63.

METEMPSYCHOSIS.

141

doctrine of metempsychosis, which forms so important
a part of the Hindu faith. This doctrine is found and
most enthusiastically taught in the very first of the
series.

DOCTRINE OF THE CHANDOGYA UPANISHAD.

This book, belonging to the Yajur-veda, has sup-
plied the most important materials for what is called
the Vedanta, which is the end, the purpose, and the
highest object of the Veda.

This Upanishad teaches that after various changes,
the bodies of those who have performed good works
are turned to water ; so that when a man is dead and
his body burned, the water from the body rises upward
with the smoke and carries him to the moon, where he
enjoys the fruit of his good works as long as they last.
When, like the oil in the lamp, they are consumed, he
is obliged to return to a new round of existences.

“When born he (man) lives whatever the length
of his life may be. When he has departed his friends
carry him as appointed to the fire, from whence he
came and from whence he sprang.”1

1. “ Those who know this, and those who in the
forest follow faith and austerities go to light ; from
light to day, from day to the light half of the moon ;
from the light half of the moon to the six months
when the sun goes to the north ; from the six months
when the sun goes to the north, to the year ; from the
year to the sun ; from the sun to the moon ; from the
moon to the lightning. There is a person not human.

i 5th Prap., 9th Khan.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

142

2. “ He leads them to Brahman ; this is the path
of the Devas.

3. “ But they who living in a village practice
sacrifices, works of public utility, and alms, they go to
the smoke ; from smoke to night ; from night to the
dark half of the moon ; from the dark half of the
moon to the six months when the sun goes to the
south ; hut they do not reach the year.

4. “ From the months they go to the world of the
fathers ; from the world of the fathers to the ether ;
from the ether to the moon. That is Soma, the king.
Here they are loved (eaten) by the Devas ; yes, the
Devas love (eat) them.

5. “ Having dwelt there till their good works are
consumed, they return again the way they came to the
ether ; from the ether to the air. Then the sacrificer
having become air, he becomes smoke. Having become
smoke, he becomes mist.

6. ‘‘Having become mist, he becomes a cloud;
having become a cloud, he rains down. Then he is
born as rice and corn, herbs, and trees, and beans.
From thence the escape is beset with most difficul-
ties, for whoever the persons may be who eat the
food and beget offspring, he henceforth becomes like
unto them.

7. “Those whose conduct has been good will
quickly attain to some good birth. But those whose
conduct has been evil will quickly attain to an evil
birth — the birth of a dog, or a hog.

8. “ On neither of these two ways those small creat-
ures (flies and worms) are continually returning, of
whom it may be said, they live and die. Theirs is a

METEMPSYCHOSIS.

143

third place. Therefore, that world never becomes
full. Hence, let a man take care to himself.”1

TIME OF GREATEST DANGER DURING TRANSMIGRATION.

In these stages of transmigration, the greatest danger
is incurred after the man has been changed into rain.
For if the rain should fall into the sea it might be
swallowed up by the fishes ; if it should fall upon a
desert it might be swallowed by serpents or other rep-
tiles ; so that it would require an almost endless round
of existences to reach any comfortable degree either of
intelligence or dignity. But even if the rain is fortu-
nate enough to be absorbed by the rice, the corn, and
the beans, these products might be eaten by a man
who has foresworn marriage, in which case the victim
of unfortunate circumstances would lose the opportu-
nity of a new and more desirable birth. There are also
perils arising from the uncertain character of the man
who eats the rice and corn, who thus becomes a new
seed, and still another danger that even if he is good
himself, he may marry a wicked wife, and make her
the mother of this wandering soul. All these dangers
must be safely passed before a new birth as a Brahman,
Kshatriya, or Vaisya can be secured.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN ASCENDING AND DESCENDING

SOULS.

Another peculiar distinction is made by Sankara
. in his commentary. There are some, he says, who
assume the form of rice and corn, etc., not in their
descent from a higher world, as described in the Upani-

l 5th Prap., 14th Khan,

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shad, but as a definite punishment for certain evil
deeds which they have committed. They remain in
that state until the consequences of their evil deeds
are past, when they assume a new body, like caterpil-
lars. These guilty ones retain a consciousness of these
states and of the acts which caused them to assume
the particular body which they wear.

This is not the case with those who, in their de-
scent from the moon, pass through the same vegetable
forms ; for while in their ascent to the moon they are
conscious, they lose this consciousness in coming down.
Otherwise, a man who by his good works deserved re-
wards in the moon would suffer while corn is being
ground the very tortures of hell, and the object of
good works, as taught by the Veda, would be defeated.
As a man who is made unconscious by a severe blow,
so it is with souls in their descent, until they are
born again as men and thus get a new start toward
the highest Brahman.1

HINDU EXPLANATION OF INEQUALITIES OF FORTUNE.

The popular theory is that every being must pass
through eighty-four lakhs of births, a lakh being one
hundred thousand, making a grand total of eight mill-
lion, four hundred thousand births for every human
being. By this doctrine the Hindus easily explain
all inequalities of fortune and all diversities of char-
acter. The fortunate are supposed to be enjoying the
benefits of their good deeds in a former life, while
the unfortunate man, however virtuous he may be, is
being punished for former misdeeds. Even intellect-

l Upanisbads, Pt. I, pp. 81-83.

METEMPSYCHOSIS.

145

ual strength or ability in any given direction is sup-
posed to have been acquired by careful training in some
previous form of existence, and to have been cultivated
through millions of previous bodies. Disease is looked
upon as a legitimate punishment, not for disobedience
to nature’s laws, but for some sin committed in a pre-
vious state — a murder, or the omission of some pen-
ance, or some act of disrespect toward the priesthood.

SINS AGAINST CASTE OR THE PRIESTHOOD RECEIVE THE
GREATEST PUNISHMENT.

It is noticeable, however, that the ecclesiastical sins
and offenses against caste are more severely punished
than the crimes against morality. For instance, if a
man steals grain, he will be born a mouse ; if he steals
brass, he will be born a gander ; but if a Brahman neg-
lects his own appointed caste, he will be born a vomit-
eating demon. If a Kshatriya violates the rules of his
caste, he will be born a demon, feeding on excrement and
dead bodies. If a Yaisya is guilty of the same offense,
he will become a demon, feeding on putrid carrion.

NO CRIME BECOMES A SIN TO A BRAHMAN IF THE
WORDS OF THE RIG-VEDA BE REMEMBERED.

But there is no crime so heinous that it cannot be
forgiven, provided only the criminal is a priest and re-
tains his caste remembering the sacred text. Hence,
it is said in the Code of Mann, “ A Brahman by re-
taining the Big-veda in his memory incurs no guilt
though he should destroy the inhabitants of the three
worlds, and even eat food from the foulest hands.”1

i Book II, 26.

CHAPTER XII.

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.

IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL — HEAVEN ONLY A STEI’-
PING-STONE TO HAPPINESS — EXPERIENCE OF THE
FAITHFUL HINDU — THE HEAVEN OF INDRA — THE
HEAVEN OF VISHNU — FUTURE PUNISHMENT — TWEN-
TY-ONE HELLS — VICTIMS SEE THE INHABITANTS OF
HEAVEN — TRANSMIGRATION OF SINNERS.

HE survival of the soul after the death of the

body is everywhere implied ; but Mann’s doctrine
is that if a man has been wicked the soul is clothed
in a body composed of coarse and impure elements,
which goes with it into hell ; whereas, if he has been
virtuous, the soul is invested with a luminous and
ethereal body, composed of the purer elements of air
and fire, and this body goes with the righteous soul
into heaven.

A place of reward and punishment is indeed very
necessary for the proper compensation of man’s conduct,
but neither the reward of heaven nor the punishment
of hell, according to the Hindu theology, is full, ef-
fectual, or final.

HEAVEN ONLY A STEPPING-STONE TO HAPPINESS.

The heavens of the Hindu system are only steps on
the road to complete happiness, and the hells, though

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REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.

147

places of terrible torture, are merely temporary purga-
tions.

The soul must leave both heaven and hell, and re-
turn to corporeal existence, migrating into higher, in-
termediate and lower forms, according to its degrees of
guilt or virtue, and passing in its progress towards
emancipation from separate existence, through the four
stages of bliss, called saloka (living in the same heaven
with God) ; samipya (nearness to God) ; sarupya (as-
similation to the likeness of God), and sayujva, when
a complete union with the Supreme is attained.

EXPERIENCE OF THE FAITHFUL HINDU.

The faithful Hindu after death soon reaches the
path of the gods and comes to the world of fire and
air — to the world of Indra and Brahma. Here is the
beautiful river of eternal youth, whose banks are
crowned with majestic trees, and by whose side stands
the city and the palace of “the unconquerable.” Here
is the magnificent hall of Brahman, with the imperial
throne and luxurious couch of splendor. Here also
are the crystal streams which lead to the knowledge
of Brahman. When the devotee approaches, Brahman
orders his servants to run and meet him, and to render
him the same homage which they yield to their lord.
Then five hundred celestial nymphs approach him.
One hundred of them bring him beautiful garlands of
flowers ; one hundred bear precious ointments ; one
hundred come laden with choice perfumes ; one hun-
dred are burdened with rich and luxurious garments for
his apparel, and one hundred bring the choicest fruits
for his enjoyment, and adorn him like Brahman himself.

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TIIE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

In the beautiful waves of the ageless river lie shakes
off his good and evil deeds, and receives the crown
of eternal youth. The good deeds here disposed of are
bequeathed to his beloved relatives, who are to receive
the benefits arising from them, while his unfortunate
relatives, who are not beloved, receive the full value of
his transgressions.

He approaches the beautiful tree Ilya, and the odor
of Brahman reaches him. He approaches the great
city, and finds there the flavor of Brahman. He then
approaches the magnificent palace, and the splendor of
Brahman greets him. He approaches the spacious
hall, and the glory of Brahman meets his eyes. He
finally comes to the great throne and the royal couch,
where he finds Brahman himself, who catechises him
very carefully and, his answers being satisfactory, be-
stows the whole Brahman world upon him.1

HEAVEN OF IXDRA.

The beautiful heaven of Indra is supposed to be sit-
uated upon the very summit of Mount Meru, which is
the centre of the earth and many thousand miles in
height. Here the heavenly gardens are found planted
with luxuriant trees, which are burdened with delicious
fruits. The fragrant groves are haunted with fairy
nymphs, whose faces and forms are visions of loveliness.
Low, sweet strains of music are borne upon the air.
The city of Indra is eight hundred miles in circumfer-
ence and forty miles high. Its pillars are of diamonds
and its palaces are of pure gold. The air is laden with
the rich perfume of the rose-colored flowers of the

i Kaushitaki Upanisbad, 1-3.

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.

149

Camalata, the beauty of which has brought it the name
of Love's Creeper ; by this delicate flower all wishes are
granted to the inmates of Indra’s heaven.

THE HEAVEN OF VISHNU.

The home of Vishnu is built entirely of gold and is
much larger than Indra’s, being eighty thousand miles
in circumference. The crystal waters of the Ganges
fall from the higher heavens upon the head of Siva,
and from there into the hair of the seven sages, from
which they descend to the earth and form a river. On
a throne of white lotus blossoms sits Vishnu, and his
wife Lakshml beside him. She is radiant with the splen-
dor of precious stones, and the sweet perfume of her
body extends eight hundred miles.

FUTURE PUNISHMENT.

Realizing that this is a subject which attracts uni-
versal interest, the Hindu philosophers have elabor-
ated it very extensively. They have provided ample
accommodations for sinners of all classes and degrees, in
twenty-one hells of various descriptions, each of which
is provided with an unpi'onounceable name in addition
to other horrors.

The names and number of these places of pun-
ishment vary with different authors, the Vishnu-
purana and also the Bhagavata giving a list of
twenty-eight instead of twenty-one. The names of
these places of punishment as translated are : 1st,

darkness; 2d, complete darkness; 3d, place of
howling ; 4th, place of much howling ; 5th, thread
of time or death ; 6th, great hell ; 7th, restoring

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to life ; 8th, waveless ; 9th, burning ; 10th, parching ;
11th, pressing together ; 12th, ravens ; 13th, bud ;
14th, stinking clay ; 15th, iron spiked ; 16th, frying-
pan ; 17tli, rough or uneven roads ; 18th, thorny sal-
rnali tree ; 19tli, flame river, which has a fearful odor
and is full of blood (it is a torrent of hot water car-
rying bones, hair, and other refuse in its course) ;
20th, the sword-leaved forest ; 21st, iron fetters.

This enumeration is from the institutes of Vishnu.
The Purana has also the following details: “Men
when they die are hound with cords by the servants of
King Tartarus, and beaten with sticks, and have then
to encounter the fierce aspect of Yama, and the hor-
rors of their terrible route. In the different hells there
are various intolerable tortures, with burning sand, fire,
machines, and weapons. Some are severed with saws,
some roasted in forges, some are chopped with axes,
some buried in the ground, some are mounted on
stakes, some cast to wild beasts to be devoured, some
are gnawed by vultures, some torn by tigers, some are
boiled in oil, some rolled in caustic slime, some are
preci]ntated from great heights, some are tossed
upwards by engines. The number of punishments
inflicted in hell, is infinite.’’1 There is also a descrip-
tion of the Krishna, a black hell, a red-hot iron hell
which appears to have been prepared expressly for trai-
tors and horse dealers, a swine hell which is provided
for wdne drinkers and for those who associate with
them, and the “hell of pincers” for those who violate
vows or break the rules of their order. “ These hells,”
say the Purana, and indeed “hundreds and thousands of

i Vis. Pur., Wilson’s trans., p. 640.

rewards and PUNISHMENTS.

151

others are the places in which sinners pay the penalty
of their crimes. As numerous as the offences which
men commit are the hells in which they are
punished.”1

VICTIMS SEE THE INHABITANTS OF HEAVEN.

The inhabitants of heaven are beheld by the suffer-
ers in hell as they move with their heads inverted,
whilst the gods, as they cast their eyes downward,
behold the sufferings of those in hell. This arrange-
ment has a twofold purpose. It serves to enhance
the sufferings of the wicked and to temper the enjoy-
ment of the righteous, who are thereby reminded that
even the happiness of heaven is but temporary in its
duration ; for when they have received their due pro-
portion of reward, they, too, must be born again as
stones or plants, or must gradually migrate through
the inferior conditions until they again become human.
After this their future is in their own hands, and
their future births are in direct proportion to their
merit.

The time to be spent in hell is a kalpa (two bill-
ions and one hundred and sixty millions of years). The
criminal then reaches the stage of metempsychosis,
when he is relieved from the acute sufferings and has
an opportunity to ascend to a higher mode of exist-
ence through the bodies of worms, reptiles, or demons.
For instance, a gold stealer must pass a thousand
times into the bodies of spiders, snakes and noxious
demons ; a spirit drinker becomes a worm, insect, or
moth.

l Vish. Pur., Wilson's trails., p. 209.

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In these various changes there is sometimes a curi-
ous consistency. For instance, a man who has stolen
perfumery becomes a musk-rat ; one who has stolen
grain becomes a rat ; one who has stolen water becomes
a water-fowl ; one who has stolen honey becomes a
gad-fly ; one who has stolen meat becomes a vulture ;
one who has stolen oil becomes a cockroach ; one who
has stolen linen becomes a frog, etc., etc., etc.

When the evil-doers have undergone all these trans-
migrations and passed through various animal bodies,
they are born as human beings, with the following
marks indicating their crime : A criminal of the high-
est degree has leprosy ; a killer of Brahmans, pulmon-
ary consumption ; a drinker of spirits, black teeth ; a
malignant informer, an offensive breath ; a stealer of
food, dyspepsia ; the breaker of a convention, a bald
head. After these changes and a multitude of others
follows a list of penances comprising many pages.1

Having briefly presented the character and teaching
of the Upanishads with correlative testimony from other
works, we shall now consider a much more fascinating
department of Sanskrit literature. Following the Upan-
ishads chronologically come the Epics of the Hindus, a
very important division of their literature. The Ka-
mayana and the Maha-bharata are the two great poems
of India and, although by no means historical from a
European point of view, they comprise nearly all of
history that we have from Hindu sources.

i Institutes of Vish., pp. 140-149.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE RAMAYANA.

ONE OF THE SACRED EPICS OF INDIA — THE LAND OF
THE HINDU — THE RAMAYAXA AND THE ILIAD —
HELEN AND SlTA — HECTOR CHAINED TO THE CHAR-
IOT WHEEL — FUNERAL HONORS PAID TO RAVANA —
AGE OF THE RAMAYANA — THE SANCTITY OF THE
POEM — AUTHOR OF THE WORK — BASIS OF THE POEM
— LENGTH OF THE RAMAYANA.

r I HIE land of the Hindu is the natural birthplace of
poetry and song. The great Himalayas, with rai-
ment of cloud and robe of sunlight, seem to commune
with the stars that crown with radiance their snowy
brows ; in their wild crags are the silvery fountains of
the rivers which flash and sparkle through forest and
vale. The Ganges, the “ bride of the heavens,” receives
in her crystal tide the sins of her people and bears
them away between her flowery banks. The wild swans
float amid the lotus blossoms upon her bosom, and the
gazelles come down to slake their thirst at her sacred
brink.

The tropical forest is darkened with the shade of
lofty trees and perfumed with the odor of a thousand
blossoms. The long, deep grass and feathery ferns are
kissed here and there by the stray sunbeams that And
their way between the glossy leaves of dense thickets,

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and the dreamy song of the kokila is borne on the
air.

The wide plains are illumined with the dazzling
flowers of the cactus and the snowy wreath of jessa-
mine blossoms, while here and there the sweet lime-tree
and feathery acacia wave their delicate boughs in the
sunlight, and the orange groves unfold their pearly cups
of rich perfume.

Delicate butterflies float slowly away on the fragrant
air, and golden bees nestle amid the rose petals and
revel in life and beauty.

Down by the gleaming shores of the ever sounding
sea, the white-crested waves come marching in ; with
song and psalm and chanted praise they come, and the
children of the wildwood hear in their waves the song
of the sea-nymphs, and see in coral groves the home
of the ocean queen. So they bring oblations to the
fair goddess of the sea, who is robed in azure and pearl,
with garlands of scarlet flowers in her heavy hair and
her snowy hands gleaming amidst the darkling waves.

Above the mountain crest and beyond the silvery
sea is the changeful sky of crimson and gold — of ame-
thyst and azure — which is to them the “Mantle of
Indra.” Whether this radiant mantle is tinted with
the rosy light of morning, or gilded with the golden
glory of noon, or flashing with diamonds in the halls of
night, it receives the earnest adoration of the worship-
ers. They bring their oblations to the morning light,
their songs of praise to the god of day, and their rever-
ent thanksgiving to the silvery soma that illumines
the night. The imagination of the Hindu has long
been cultivated by the beautiful scenes around him.

155

THE RAMAYANA.

and the results are manifested, not only in the songs
of the Vedas, but also in the great Hindu Epics.

The two colossal poems of Sanskrit literature, the
Ramayana and the Maha-bharata, have been called
“ The Iliad and the Odyssey of the Hindus.”

THE RAMAYANA AND THE ILIAD.

The Ramayana has been beautifully termed “ The
Iliad of the East,” and in some respects this great In-
dian production does resemble the Grecian classic.

The subject of both Epics is a war undertaken to
recover the wife of one of the warriors, who was car-
ried off by the hero on the other side. In this respect
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, corresponds to Men-
elaus, while in others he more nearly represents
Achilles. Ayodhya may be compared to Sparta and
Lanka to Troy. But it would be unjust to compare
Sita, the chaste and beautiful wife of Rama, with the
treacherous Helen. The Indian princess, pleading
eloquently to be allowed to follow her husband into
exile, is a loyal, loving woman, while the beautiful
Helen is a faithless, fickle wife, utterly unworthy of
the life-blood of an honest man.

The desertions of Ayodhya and of Lanka imply
greater luxury and a higher degree of refinement than
those of Sparta and Troy. But so far as art and har-
mony are concerned the Asiatic poems cannot com-
pete with those of Greece. The Ramayana and Maha-
bharata are burdened with description and simile, with
wearisome repetition and amplification, while the Iliad
and Odyssey have the polish and the rounded propor-
tions of Grecian sculpture.

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The Indian Epics sometimes lay aside all delicacy
and give the most revolting particulars of ancient leg-
ends, but the Kamayana shows far more humanity to a
fallen foe than does the Iliad.

The duty of returning good for evil, which had been
so clearly taught in a previous age,1 is well illustrated in
the character of Rama, who ordered elaborate funeral
honors to be paid to his conquered foe.

In striking contrast with this scene is the barbarous
picture so vividly described in the Iliad when the dying
Hector pleaded with his foe :

“ By thy own soul, by those who gave thee breath,
By all the sacred prevalence of prayer,

Ah, leave me not for Grecian dogs to tear!

The common rites of sepulture bestow,

To soothe a father’s and a mother’s woe.

Let their large gift procure an urn, at least,

And Hector’s ashes in his country rest.”

But the furious Greek, who is almost glorified by
Homer, degrades his own manhood and taunts the dying
man with insult :

“ No, Avretch accursed, relentless he replies,

(Flames as he spoke shot flashing from His eyes),

Not those who gave me breath should bid me spare.
Nor all the sacred prevalence of prayer ;

Could I myself the bloody banquet join.

No — to the dogs that carcass I resign.

Should Troy, to bribe me, bring forth all her store,
And giving thousands, offer thousands more,

lEx. xxiii: 4, 5; 2d Sam. xvi: 12; Prov. xxv: 21, 22.

THE RAMAYANA.

157

Should Dardon Priam and his weeping dame,

Drain their whole realm to buy one funeral flame,
Their Hector on the pile they should not see,

Nor rob the vultures of one limb of thee.”

The funeral pyre of Havana was adorned with
wreaths of flowers and costly jewels at the command
of the victor, while the body of the gallant Hector
was chained to the chariot wheel of Achilles and
dragged around the walls of Troy, in full view of his
aged father and broken-hearted mother.

“ Purple the ground and streak the sable sand,
Defamed, dishonored in his native land.

And the whole city wears one face of woe,

No less than if the rage of hostile fires.

From the foundations curling to her spires.

O’er the proud citadel at length should rise.

And the last blaze send Ilion to the skies.”

AGE OF THE RAMAYANA.

Quite a difference of opinion prevails among schol-
ars in relation to the age of this work. Dowson and
Sir Monier 'Williams claim its earliest origin to be about
500 B. C., and Williams speaks of “the beginning of
the third century B. C.” as the time of the first orderly
completion of the work in its briihmanized form. He
also assigns a portion of it to the early centuries of
our own era.

Prof. Weber claims that it belongs to the begin-

i Ind. Wis., pp. 319, 330.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

ning of the Christian era “after the operation of Creek
influence upon India had already set in.”1

The noted Indian scholar, Kashinath Trimbak Te-
lang, in a note on the Ramayana says, “ The received
chronology refuses to allow to the bulk of classical
literature an antiquity of more than eighteen centuries,
if so much.”2

But while there is a variety of opinion on the sub-
ject, it seems to be well established that the work be-
longs to an age subsequent to the Iliad, and this fact
in connection with the striking similarities of the two
poems certainly gives some weight to the opinion of
Prof. Weber that the Indian poets really borrowed ideas
from Homer.

THE SACREDNESS OF THE POEM.

The Ramayana is held to be one of the most sacred
of all the Hindu productions.3 Like other works of
the same class, it boldly lays claim to supernatural
powers, declaring that “ Whoever reads or hears the
Ramayana will be freed from all sin Those

who read or hear it for the sake of riches will cer-
tainly acquire wealth. . . . The Ramayana heals

diseases, removes all fear of enemies, compensates for
the loss of wealth or fame, prevents loss of life, and
secures all that is desired. The mere utterance of the
name of Rama is equal in religious merit to the giv-
ing of a hundred ornamented cows to a Brahman, or

l Sans. Lit., p. 194. 2 ind. Ant., Vol. iii, p. 287.

3 The Hindus, who are the devoted followers of Rama, acknowledge
two bihles in two different versions of the great Epic, the one by Val-
miki and the other by Tulasi-dasa.

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THE BAMAYAXA.

the performance of an Asva-medha.1 A follower of
Rama enjoys happiness in this world, and in the next
is absorbed into Rama in the heaven of Vishnu. " Rama
is still faithfully worshiped in India, and devotees will
sit for days and nights together upon the sacred banks
of the Ganges or beneath the stately pipal trees re-
peating in low monotonous tones, “ Ram, Ram. Rama.'*’
The mere utterance of the words without any con-
ception of the ideas accompanving them will secure

a birth into a higher life either to men, birds, or
animals.

AUTHOR OF THE WORK.

The plot and unity of the poem show it to have
been originally the work of one man ; but his name is
lost to the historian, and there are three different ver-
sions now in existence. The one best known and

most popular among Europeans is ascribed to Yal-
mlki ; another to Tulasl-dasa, who was born A. D.
1544, and is said to have written in A. D. 15 75, two
copies of whose work, claimed to be in his own hand-
writing, are still preserved in India ; while the third is
ascribed to Yyasa (the editor or arranger). These
authors took a crude legend which had for generations
been repeated from father to son, and remodeled and
finished it, each in his own peculiar style. Wilkins
and some other Oriental scholars claim that the pas-
sages in the Hindu Epics which speak of Rama as an
incarnation of Vishnu are among the interpolations of
a much later date than the original.

i The great horse sacrifice, which required a year of preparation. A
hundred of these offerings entitled the saerificer to the throne of Indra.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

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BASIS OF THE RAMAYANA.

Prof. Williams and J; Tallboys Wheeler think that
it may have some foundation in fact ; that at some
early period soon after the settlement of the Aryan
races in the plains of the Ganges, a body of invaders
headed by a bold leader may have attempted to force
their way into the peninsula of India, in which case
the heroic exploits of the chief would naturally become
the theme of song and the hero himself would be de-
ified. Prof. Weber claims that the work is purely al-
legorical, being based upon the single historical fact
of the spread of Aryan civilization toward the south
and the feuds connected therewith. Be this as it may,
we have in the Ramayana a mass of literature which,
although radiant with Oriental coloring, is a wilderness
of myths and extravagant fables.

LENGTH OF THE POEM.

This interminable Indian Epic consists of twenty-
four thousand slokas, or verses, but even this state-
ment ’ does not give us an intelligible idea of the
formidable volumes through which it leisurely wan-
ders. Its literary value would be greatly increased by
condensation. Few busy people of modern times would
find time to read it in its present form, even if it
possessed the marvelous properties which are ascribed
to it. We therefore give briefly in the following
chapters the principal story of the poem, which is
here presented in a simple style of narration.

CHAPTER XIY.

TIIE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA.

AYODHYA — DASARATHA AND THE ASVA-MEDHA — THE
COXCLAVE OF THE GODS — PLEA MADE TO BRAHMA —
REFERRED TO VISHXU — HIS HOME IX THE SEA OF
MILK — REQUEST GRAXTED — THE BIRTH OF RAMA
— THE BOW OF SIVA — MARRIAGE OF RAMA — RAMA
APPOIXTED YUVA-RAJA — KAIKEYI — KAUSALYA —
SITA — THE FAREWELLS — THE DEATH OF THE RAJA
— BHARATA.

rpHE opening scene of this fascinating Indian
romance is laid in the ancient city of Ayodhya,
which in modern times is called Oude. Beautifully
situated upon the banks of the river Sarayu, Ayodhya
was in olden times one of the most magnificent cities
of Hindustan. But the great scythe of time has swept
her glories away, leaving only a pitiful scene of ruin.
Even the name of her river has been changed, which
now sweeps along its course under the name of Gogra.
She was the capital of the great raj of Ivosala, which ex-
tended from the Gogra to the banks of the Ganges.
But little is now known of this fertile kingdom. The
rajas who governed it claimed to be descendants of
the sun, and hence they were called the solar kings.

History claims that the ancient Ayodhya was a city
of considerable importance, but the vivid imagination

181

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of the Hindu poet has made it a dream of fairyland.
In the Ramayana it is represented as being built en-
tirely of large and well-arranged houses, while the
streets were continually cooled with streams of running
water. Its temples were richly decorated with gold
and gems, and its stately palaces lifted their great
domes toward the heavens, like the crowns of the dis-
tant mountain tops.

Its parks were filled with tropical flowers and
shaded here and there with massive trees. Birds of
bright plumage darted like flames through the heavy
foliage. Crystal fountains sparkled in the air, and on
the (piiet pools below them the white lotus blossoms,
fair daughters of the moon, raised their fragrant cups
in rich profusion. On the banks of the great river
the stately plantain trees drooped with golden fruit,
and the magnolias loaded the air with the rich odor of
their creamy blossoms.

The whole city shone in splendor and waved its
gorgeous banners on the fragrant breeze, and strains
of richest music mingled with the twanging of bow-
strings and the low chanting of Vedic hymns.

The city was encompassed with great walls, which
were set Avith jewels, and her towers and the porti-
coes above her gates were filled with archers. Every
part of the city was guarded by heroes, who were as
strong as the eight gods that rule the unHerse, and
vigilant as the many-headed serpents Avho Avatcli at
the entrance of the regions below.

There Avas no poverty within her gates, but every
merchant owned storehouses, which Avere filled with
jeAvels. There were no misers, nor thieves, nor liars

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAHA.

inside her beautiful walls, and no one lived less than a
thousand years. Men loved their own wives only, none
of whom was without a marriage crown, or rich laces
and jewels. Their clothing never became soiled ; their
gold w7as never tarnished. All the women were beau-
tiful, witty, and wise, for there was no disease or un-
happiness in the favored city.

“ In bygone ages built and planned
By sainted Mann’s princely hand,

Imperial seat ! her walls extend
Twelve measured leagues from end to end ;
Three in width, from side to side
With square and palace beautified.

Her gates at even distance stand,

Her ample roads are wisely planned.

Right glorious is her royal street,

Where streams allay her dust and heat.

On level ground in even row
Her houses rise in goodly show.

Terrace and palace, arch and gate
The queenly city decorate.

High are her ramparts, strong and vast,

By ways at even distance passed,

With circling moat both deep and wide.

And store of weapons fortified.” 1

In the midst of the wonderful city was the magni-
ficent palace of the raja, encompassed by walls so high
that the birds could not fly above them, while over
the massive gateways, strains of music floated by day

i The poetical extracts in this story, unless otherwise indicated, are from
Griffiths’ translation.

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and by night. In the midst of the palace was the
throne, which was set with precious stones. The palace
itself was guarded by thousands of warriors, who were
as fierce as flames of fire and as watchful as the lions
which guard their mountain dens.

DASARATHA AND TIIE ASVA-JIEDHA.

In the midst of all this magnificence there lived a
childless king, Dasaratha. Although descended from
the sun, his line threatened to become extinct, for
there was no heir to his royal throne, his beautiful
city, and his fertile kingdom. He was a perfect
charioteer, a royal sage, and famous throughout the
three worlds for his virtues and his magnificence. His
kingdom was inspected by his spies as the sun in-
spected it by its rays, hut the great Dasaratha found
in it all no disloyalty or disobedience. The raja re-
solved to perform the great Asva-medha 1 sacrifice in
order to propitiate the gods and obtain a son. So the
long ceremony was begun and the rajas from all the
surrounding kingdoms came to attend the sacrifice.
Thousands of priests were feasted by themselves, the
most delicious viands were served to them in dishes of
gold and silver, and their attendants were the warriors
of the kingdom. Eighteen sacrificial pits were pre-

i The horse for this sacrifice was turned out to wander at his will for a
year, followed by a faithful priest or perhaps a large body of attendants.
If no one touched him during the year of preparation, he was considered fit
for the sacrifice, but if he had been caught another had to be turned loose
and the ceremonies postponed. If the first horse proved fit for the offering,
when the year was completed and the long preliminary arrangements were
finished, the sacrifice was performed with almost endless ceremonies, which
were purposely made very difficult and tedious. No one could perform
them except Brahmans, who received enormous gifts in return for their

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pared in the form of the bird Garuda, and the pits
which represented the wings of the bird were lined
with bricks of gold. The king gave to the priests
a million cows, one hundred million pieces of gold
and four hundred million pieces of silver, besides gen-
erous presents to the whole multitude. Then the
horse and the birds and the animals were duly sacri-
ficed, and the presiding priests proclaimed to Dasaratha
the welcome news:

“ Four sons, 0 monarch, shall be thine,
Upholders of the royal line.”

THE CONCLAVE OF THE GODS.

The gods assembled at the sacrifice in obedience
to the summons of the priests, who slowly chanted :

“ For you has Dasaratha slain
The votive steed, a son to gain.

Stern penance rites the king has tried,

And in firm faith on you relied.”

Having partaken of the food furnished them by the
offering, and being pleased with the sacrifice, they went
in a body to Brahma to intercede with him on behalf
of the raja, and to present a petition of their own.

The whole body of deities, with the glorious Indra
at their head, presented themselves at the heaven of
Brahma, and there beneath the golden dome and be-
fore the throne of white lotus blossoms they pleaded
with their sovereign to grant the petition of Dasara-
tha and also to rid the world of the hideous ten-
headed demon, Havana, who had long persecuted the

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gods and the priests, destroying the sacrifices and
violating every law of virtue and every principle of
right.

The celestial band stood before Brahma in all their
beauty and brightness, surrounded on every side by a
host of joyous storm gods, and with joined hands
chanted their petition :

“ 0, Brahma, mighty by thy grace,

Bavan, who rules the giant race.

Torments us with his senseless pride,

And penance-loving saints beside.

For thou, well pleased in days of old,

Gavest the boon that makes him bold.

That gods nor demons ere should kill
His charmed life, for so thy will.

We honoring that high behest,

Bear all his rage, though sore distrest.

That lord of giants, fierce and fell.

Scourges the earth and heaven and hell.

Mad with thy boon, his impious rage
Smites saint and bard and god and sage.

The sun himself withholds his glow ;

The wind, in fear, forgets to blow ;

The fire restrains his wonted heat
Where stands the dreaded Ravan’s feet ;

And necklaced with tho wandering wave,

The sea before him fears to rave,

Kuvera’s self in sad defeat
Is driven from his blissful seat.

We see, we feel the giant’s might.

And woe comes o’er us and affright.

THE STORY OF THE EAMAYAXA. 167

To thee, 0 lord, thy suppliants pray
To find some cure this plague to stay.”

Ravana had secured from Brahma the promise
that he should not be slain by gods or demons or
genii. This assurance had been gained by a long pen-
ance on the part of Ravana, during which he had
stood upon his head in the midst of five fires for ten
thousand years. In addition to this wonderful boon
he had thereby gained a gratuity of nine additional
heads, with a full complement of eyes, ears, noses,
and other features, besides eighteen additional arms and
hands. Brahma having bestowed these gifts upon
Ravana, found himself in a dilemma. He therefore
replies :

“ One only way I find
To slay this fiend of evil mind.

He prayed me once his life to guard
From demon, god, and heavenly bard.

And spirits of the earth and air.

And I, consenting, heard his prayer.

But the proud giant in his scorn
Recked not of man of woman born.

None else may take his life away.

And only man the fiend can slay.”

Brahma then conducted them to the home of Vish-
nu, on an island in the sea of milk, which is the
sixth circumambient ocean of the world. When they
arrived at the gorgeous court of Vishnu, the god was
not to be seen. They began, however, to sing his
praises, and soon the glorious lord of the world ap-

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peared, arrayed in garments of golden texture and
riding upon his eagle steed (Garuda). In his four
hands were the symbols of his power — the shell, the
mace, the eakra, and the lotus, while his beautiful
wife, Lakshmi, sat upon his lap. Then the assem-
bled gods fell upon their knees before him and im-
plored him to deliver them from the fatal power of
Ravana. The great Vishnu was gracious to his noble
petitioners, arid answered : “ Be no longer alarmed ;

your foe shall fall before my feet. Ravana in his
pride of power did not ask Brahma to preserve him
from men or from monkeys, for he deemed them be-
neath his notice. But I will take advantage of this
omission, and cause his destruction by the very means
which he despises. I will myself be born as the son
of Dasaratha, you shall assist me by assuming the
form of monkeys, and together we will overthrow this
terrible enemy of gods and men.” Then the gods re-
joiced and sang the praises of Vishnu as they went
away to do his bidding, and were borne to their homes
across the creamy billows of the sea of milk.

RAMA.

Soon after the conclave of the gods had received
from Vishnu a favorable answer to their petition, the
principal wives of Dasaratha bore him four sons.
Kausalya was the mother of Rama, and Kaikeyi the
mother of Bharata, while Sumitra became the mother
of two sons, Lakshmana, who was always the firm
friend of Rama, and Satru-ghna, who was equally
attached to Bharata.

It is claimed that when Rama was born he wore a

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THE STORY OF THE RAJIAYANA.

crown set with jewels. In his ears were rings in the
form of crocodiles. He had four arms, and in each
hand he held one of the symbols of Vishnu. A string
of rubies Avas around his neck, and a million suns and
moons would hide their faces at the sight of his coun-
tenance. After explaining to his mother his reason for
assuming a human form, he concealed his four arms,
and in the form of a human babe began to cry. When
it was announced in the streets of Ayodhya that four
heirs were born to the raja, the great city was filled
with rejoicing. The happy father distributed gener-
ous gifts among the people, and received in return
their congratulations and praises. From every gate of
the city the joyful notes of music rang out upon the
clear air, and the houses were decorated with the
blossom-laden branches of the mango tree. Rama, the
beautiful boy,1 grew rapidly toward manhood, and even
in his childhood became an expert archer. In early
youth he was the best shot in the kingdom, and his
strength was such that everything he touched yielded
to the power of his hands.

THE BOW OF SIT A.

The raja Janaka, who ruled over a neighboring
province, was the possessor of the wonderful bow of
Siva. This was said to be the veritable bow with
which Siva had destroyed the gods, when he overturned
the altars and tore up the groves of Dakslia, because

i Each nation has an undoubted right to its own ideal, but the per-
sonal appearance which is ascribed to Rama hardly accords with mod-
ern ideas of beauty. lie is represented as being of “a beautiful color
like green grass, with fine glossy hair and a large head. His nose was
like that of the green parrot, his legs resembled plantain trees, and his
feet were red as the rising sun.”

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Daksha, having prepared a great sacrifice, invited all
the gods to the festival except Siva and his wife. But
no man could handle the great bow or the heavy ar-
rows of the vindictive god. Janaka therefore issued
a proclamation that he who could bend the bow of
Siva should receive in marriage his beautiful daughter,
Sita.1 The loveliness of this young girl had at-
tracted rajas from all parts of the country to enter
the contest for her hand, but they had gone home in
dismay when they saw the mammoth bow. The fame
of Sita’s beauty had also reached the city of Ayodhya,
and Rama determined to test his strength and win,
if possible, the lovely princess. One beautiful morn-
ing he started with Lakshmana, who was ever his de-
voted companion, to the city of Mithila, where the
raja Janaka lived.

When they arrived and the raja saw them, he in-
quired of his attendants, “ Who are those two young
men who are as majestic as elephants, as heroic as
tigers, and as beautiful as the two Asvins?”2 And
they answered, “ They are the sons of Maharaja Dasa-
ratha, and they come hither to inquire about the great
bow.” Then the raja exhibited to his royal guests
the great bow with which Siva destroyed the gods at the
sacrifice of Daksha, and which had ever since been
preserved in the royal house of Mithila, and wor-
shiped by devotees.

1 It is claimed that Sita was born of the earth and not of woman.
Janaka said that one day while he was ploughing, the ploughshare
struck a silver vessel, and taking it out of the ground he opened it
and found a beautiful babe therein, whom he adopted as his own
daughter.

2 Two deities, ever young and beautiful, who riding in a golden cur
announced the coming of Ushas (the dawn). They are also called di-
vine physicians.

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THE STORY OF THE RAM A YANA.

When the bow was brought into the royal presence
it lay in a great car, which moved upon eight wheels
and was drawn by five thousand strong men. Then
said raja Janaka to the young princes, “ I have prom-
ised to give my beautiful daughter Sita to the raja
who shall succeed in bending the bow, and all the ra-
jas of the earth have come hither ; but no one has been
strong enough even to lift it from its resting-place.”
No sooner had he uttered these words then Rama stepped
forth in his magnificent strength and took the bow
from the car with his right hand, while the multitude
around him were hushed with amazement and expec-
tation. Then, taking the other hand he bent the bow
nearly double, so that it broke with a crash, like one
of the thunder-bolts of Indra. The people were stunned
as if a mountain had fallen into the sea, and many of
them were thrown to the ground. Raja Janaka turned
to his attendants and said, “ This deed of Rama’s is
without a parallel, and he shall receive my daughter
Sita in marriage. Let messengers be mounted upon
swift horses, and let them carry this joyful news to
the raja Dasaratha, and bring him to this city.”

MARRIAGE OF RAMA.

When the messengers arrived at the palace of Da-
saratha the king was rejoiced to learn of the prowess
of his son, and also that the two royal lines were to be
joined by the marriage of Rama with the lovely prin-
cess Sita.

Early the next morning the raja set out with a
magnificent train of attendants upon the four days’
journey to the city of Mithila. In his splendid reti-

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nue a large corps of royal archers rode upon swift
horses, and the priests of the royal household were
mounted upon elephants with rich trappings and dec-
orations. All the treasures of the king were also car-
ried in a long line of chests, which were drawn by
elephants. The raja and his household were mounted
upon white elephants and attended by dancing girls
and musicians. The great procession moved gaily out
of the city, amidst the rejoicing of the people, and
wound its way slowly along to the city of Mithila. It
was joyfully received, the raja Janaka and his court
coming out to meet his royal guest, whom he saluted,
saying to Dasaratha, “Happy am I this day and de-
livered from all distress, for by this alliance with your
royal line my family will be honored and purified.”

On the morrow when the two kings with their
priests and other attendants were assembled, the great
sage Vasishtha recited to raja Janaka the names of all
the ancestors of Dasaratha, and Janaka repeated to his
guest the long list of his own progenitors. Thus the
two royal lines were compared and the marriage was
decided upon. Then Dasaratha retired from the scene
and performed the great ceremony of Sraddha, or offer-
ing, to the ghosts of his ancestors, giving a great
number of cows to the officiating priests. Each cow
had horns of pure gold.

When the ceremonial night had passed away, Dasa-
ratha, attended by his four sons, all richly adorned
with jewels, went again to the raja of Mithila. When
they reached the chamber of the gods where the cere-
mony was to be performed, they found it draped on
every side with the richest flowers of the tropics.

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THE STORY OF THE RAMA YANA.

There Avere great vases filled Avitli the branches of
magnolias, whose white blossoms loaded the air Avitli
their fragrance. The pearly floAvers of the orange tree
surrounded its golden fruit, contrasting Avitli the rich
green of its foliage. The floor Avas carpeted with the
sacred kusa grass, and the sacred fire Avas lighted upon
the altar, where the honia, consecrated Avitli mantras,
was placed upon the flame. While Kama stood upon
the eastern side of the altar, Janaka led his peerless
daughter to the other side. Costly jeAvels studded the
folds of her Avliite robe and glittered in the braids of
her dark hair. Then raja Janaka placed her hand in
that of Kama and said to him, “ This is my daughter
Sita, endowed Avitli every virtue. Take her hand in
yours, 0 son of Dasaratha, and she will ever attend
you like a shadow. Maintain her for life, and be not
offended if she commits a fault.” The bride Avas
consecrated Avitli holy Avater, the trumpets sounded, and
Rama led her three times around the sacred fire upon
the altar and performed all the ceremonies according
to the Hindu laAv. Then a shower of blossoms fell
upon them from the heavens, and celestial music Avas
heard in the sky, as the Gandharvas, or celestial
musicians, played a SAveet and solemn wedding hymn.

After Rama and his bride were taken to an inner
room, her veil Avas removed, and he looked for the first
time upon her lovely face. Her large dark eyes Avere
veiled Avith heavy lashes and cast down in the presence
of her lord, Avhile her crimson blushes lighted up Avith
neAv beauty her soft golden complexion. As Rama
took his trembling bride in his arms and gazed upon
her girlish form, a great love Avas born in his heart for

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the woman upon whom he now looked for the first time.
Iler ruby lips were pressed with a warm and eager
kiss, which was at once a lover’s tribute and a hus-
band’s offering. And she, the timid girl, felt the brave
heart of her husband beating against her own, and
nestled in his bosom, like a trembling bird that has
found a refuge from the storm.

The next morning after the marriage of Rama, the
raja Dasaratha and his family took leave of Janaka,
who caressed his daughter Sita and loaded her elephant
with valuable presents. The splendid troops of archers
and the great retinue of horses and elephants with their
rich trappings were made ready, and amidst the strains
of joyous music the procession set out for the capital
city of Dasaratha. Couriers had announced their
approach, and upon their arrival they found Ayodhyii
adorned with banners and decorated with flowers. The
air was filled with the clangor of trumpets, and thou-
sands of people thronged the gates to welcome their
king, the heir apparent, and his beautiful bride. After
a great feast to the musicians and the warriors, the
dancers and the singers, the priests and the kinsmen,
they were dismissed with rich presents, and the royal
party entered their own apartments within the beautiful
palace.

KAMA APPOINTED YUVA-RAJA.

It was the custom for the heir to the throne to re-
ceive the appointment of Yuva-raja, that he might
assist in the management of the affairs of state, even
during the life of the raja. This arrangement intro-
duced the young prince to his life work, and at the

175

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

same time lightened the burdens of the reigning king,
while it effectually prevented any dispute as to the
proper successor when the death of the raja occurred.
Therefore, the ministers and counselors went to the pal-
ace and entreated Dasaratha to appoint Rama as the
Yuva-raja, for all the people loved the young heir and
were anxious to see him share in the honors of the
government. The ministers said to Dasaratha, “ 0
Maha-raja, listen to the voice of your people. You are
the raja of rajas. You are the greatest among men.
At a great sacrifice of your happiness you have gov-
erned us for nine thousand years, and under your rule
every one has been happy and no one has dreamed of
misfortune. Now it is the wish of all that Rama

should also be placed upon the throne.”

So Dasaratha called together all of his ministers
and counselors, and the chieftains and officers of the
army, and all the people of the city to hear his pro-
clamation. Then from the throne of the Council Hall
the raja addressed them as follows : “ To-day I am the
happiest of men, and I cannot reward you sufficiently
for the joy which your proposal has given me. I have
long been desirous of placing Rama upon the throne,
but have waited to know your wishes. Therefore, let
there be no further delay. I have constantly pre-
served my subjects to the utmost of my power, but
this frame of mine has grown old under the shadow
of the royal canopy. I am worn out with the weight
of my duties, and desire rest. My excellent son I
wish to appoint Yuva-raja. To him I commit the
government of the raj. This delightful month, Caitra,
in which the forests are adorned with flowers, is sacred

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and auspicious ; prepare all things for the installation
of Rama as Yuva-raja.” Then all the chieftains and
the people rejoiced and great shouts went up from
the assembled multitude. But the raja turned to
Vasishtha and said, “ 0 chief of sages, it is proper
for you to say what ceremonies shall be per-
formed at the installation of Rama..*’ And Vasish-
tha said to the servants of the king, “ Prepare the
gold and the jewels and the purifying bath of the
gods, the incense, the garlands of white flowers, the
parched grain, the honey, the clarified butter, the
insignia of royalty, and all things necessary for the
installation of the Yuva-raja, and place them in the
house set apart for the sacred fire. Provide, also,
abundance of food, with curds and milk for one hun-
dred thousand priests, and fill the golden pots with
water from the sacred rivers. Let the Brahmans be
invited to attend and the throne be prepared and the
banners be elevated, and let the musicians and beauti-
ful dancing girls gaily adorned, fill the inner court
of the royal palace, and let garlands of flowers be
placed in all the temples and beneath the sacred
trees.”

Then Dasaratha said to his chosen counselor
Sumantra, “Bring hither the accomplished Rama.”
So Rama was brought to the great council hall of
the palace, and descending from his royal chariot went
into the presence of his father and bowed himself at
his feet. But the raja clasped both the hands of his
son and drew him toward him, and commanded a
lofty throne set with jewels to be placed before the
heir apparent. Then addressing his son he said.

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“ All men owe three great debts : the first to the
gods, the second to the Rishis, and the third to their
ancestors. The first I have paid with sacrifices and
ceremonies ; the second, by learning the Vedas, and
your birth has freed me from the third. I have now
one wish remaining, which you must not refuse. You
are my eldest son, born of my first wife, and all my
chieftains, counselors, and subjects are anxious to see
you upon the throne. I wish you, therefore, to comply
with their request. Do not hesitate because I am
alive, for it has always been the rule of my race for
the raja to hike his son to the throne when he grows
old. To-morrow is auspicious ; therefore, to-morrow I
will install you as Yuva-raja.” And Rama bowed his
head to the king and went away to the apartments
of his devoted mother to inform her of his good for-
tune, before he began the ceremonies which were to
purify him for the morrow.

KAIKEYI.

The youngest and most beautiful wife of Dasaratha
was Kaikeyl, the mother of Bharata. Her heart had
been burning with jealous rage ever since the joy and
feasting over RannVs marriage began. The magnifi-
cent presents and the beautiful wife of the heir appar-
ent had filled her with envy, and now the great prepa-
rations to install him as Yuva-raja made her resolve to
defeat him if possible. She therefore retired to her
own apartments to work out her wicked scheme. She
remembered that some years before, when the raja was
wounded in battle, she had nursed him tenderly, and
in his gratitude he had promised her any two boons

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that she might ask. A promise of this kind is pecu-
liarly sacred in the East, and as she had never yet
claimed its fulfilment, she felt that she now held the
key to the situation.

When the preparatory ceremonies were over, the
king hastened to the apartments of his beloved Kaikeyl,
to give her the joyful tidings and receive her congratu-
lations upon the accession of his son. He hurried
along the hall, which was decorated with peacocks and
made vocal with the songs of birds, where beautiful
vines and flowers twined around the marble pillars, fill-
ing the air with their fragrance. With a joyful heart he
entered a magnificent room, which was as bright as the
southern sky beneath a mantle of fleecy cloud. But he
saw only the magnificent appointments of the room ; the
beautiful creature who had hitherto met him with her
smiles was not there. Then his heart sank within him,
for he longed to see her. But the doorkeeper said,
“ Oh, raja of rajas, the rani is in a great rage, and she
has fled to the chamber of displeasure.”

Puzzled and grieved, the king hurried to the cham-
ber of displeasure, and beheld his beautiful rani lying
upon the floor, in sordid garments He caressed her
and tried to arouse her, like one who awakens a sleep-
ing serpent that will surely cause his death. “ Why,
my beloved, are you in the chamber of displeasfire?
Why are you without ornaments, and why do you
weep? Surely I have never offended you by night or
by day. Say if you are ill, that I may send for the
most eminent physicians, or if any one has offended
you, that I may punish him according to your pleasure.
I will do whatever you command ; I will slay the inno-

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cent or release the guilty, for I am a raja of rajas. I
will give you whatever you request, even if it be my
own life.” And he clasped the evil creature in his arms,
even as men will sometimes take a serpent to their
bosoms.

Seeing that he was still infatuated with her, Kaikeyi
told him of the boons he had promised and that the
time had come when he must grant them, if, indeed, he
really loved her.

“Now pledge thy word if thou incline
To listen to this prayer of mine.

If thou refuse thy promise sworn
I die despised before the morn.”

Then the foolish raja smiled upon her and said,
“ Know, beautiful one, that no one is more beloved
than you except my son Kama, and by Kama, who is
dearer than my life, I swear that I will perform your
request, whatsoever it may be. May I lose all the merit
of every good deed that I have done upon earth if I
fail to perform your request.”

Then the evil creature demanded of him, “Grant
me the boon, even as thou hast sworn. Let all the
gods, with Indra at their head, and all the regents of
the universe bear witness to the promise of the illus-
trious, the upright, the faithful Maha-raja.” Then
putting her arms around him, she entreated him to
remember the two favors which he had promised
when she had saved his life by her care, and which
she now claimed. “The first favor is that my son
Bharata be installed this day instead of Rama, and the
second is that Kama may be banished to the forest of

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Dandaka,1 to lead the life of a hermit, and to clothe
himself in deerskins and in the bark of trees for four-
teen years.”

When the raja heard these fatal words, he fell upon
the floor in his anguish, like a majestic plantain tree
that has been prostrated by the wind.

Then Kaikeyl said to herself, “After he has installed
Bharata I shall not be sorry for his death, but now I
must bring him to his senses, for if he dies Rama will
surely receive the kingdom.” So she called her attend-
ants to apply restoratives, and at last he became again
sensible of his pain and exclaimed, “ Am I tormented
with demons or have I lost my reason?” When he fully
remembered all that she had said, he quivered in pain
like an antelope in the grasp of a tigress, but he felt as
powerless in her vile presence as a bird in the face of a
serpent that has charmed it. At last he recovered him-
self enough to exclaim, “Oh, cruel wretch! what has Rama
done to you? He has always yielded to you the same
reverence that he pays to his own mother ; why, then,
are you bent upon his ruin? You, the daughter of a
raja, have crept into my house like a venomous serpent
in order to destroy me. Oh, Kaikeyl! have pity upon an
old man, who humbly supplicates you. Save my life by
relinquishing your evil purpose. Take jewels instead —
take a thousand, cities, or anything else that will satisfy
you,” and he fell at her feet while he pleaded. But the
cold-hearted woman replied, “I am in possession of my
senses. People call you truthful, and it is said that
you always adhere to your promise. The time has

This forest is described as a terrible wilderness infested with wild ani-
mals and inhabited by savages or demons.

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come for you to grant me the two favors that you
swore should be mine.” She was met with a torrent
of indignant reproach, to which she angrily replied by
accusing him of falsehood.

He remembered his oath, and bitterly exclaimed :
“ Oh, Kaikeyl ! in what evil hour have I entered your
room ? I have been entrapped by my love for you as
a mouse is entrapped by a bait. The race that lias
descended from the sun has hitherto been without
stain ; and I am the first to pollute it. Never before
was it heard that a father sent his eldest son into exile
in order to gratify a capricious woman. Be the con-
sequence what it may, I shall place Rama upon the
throne as soon as it is morning. But I fear lest Rama
should hear of my promise. Then he would volun-
tarily go into exile rather than send his father to a
liar’s hell.1 Oh, Ivaikeyi ! relinquish this cruel wish !
What will the rajas say when I tell them that, tortured
by you, I have given the kingdom to Bharata and sent
Rama into the jungle ? The whole world will abhor
me for the sake of the female who sends my beloved
son into the forest. Oh, Kaikeyl ! I fall at your feet ;
be gracious to me.” But the evil creature replied, “ I
have three times repeated my requests, and your
promises must be fulfilled or I will take poison in your
presence.” Then answered the raja, “ I reject you for-
ever, and your son Bharata I reject with you, although

i J. Talboys Wheeler remarks that the “great stress which is here laid
upon the performance of a promise is somewhat remarkable, from the fact
that it scarcely tallies with the charges which have been so frequently
brought forward against the truthfulness of Hindus.” Neither is it quite
consistent with the teaching of their sacred Code of Mann, that lying is some-
times justifiable. (See Manu VIII, 103, 104.) A similar precept occurs in
another ancient code, but an expiation is there prescribed.

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lie is my son as well as yours.” While the king still
lingered in this chamber of torture darkness came
down upon him and he passed a terrible night of
agony, a helpless raja within his palace walls.

REVELATION TO RAMA.

The morning dawned clear and beautiful. Bright
banners and garlands of flowers saluted the rising sun,
and all was made ready for the great installation of the
heir to the kingdom. The golden throne was set up
and covered with the white canopy, which was the
symbol of royalty. The sacred tiger’s skin, the bow
and the cimeter, and the sacrificial fire, with the ele-
phants and the chariots and horses were at hand. The
golden pots were filled with water from the sacred
Ganges, and surrounded with the fruits and gorgeous
flowers of the favored clime. There, too, were the
priests, and the eight beautiful damsels to rub tumeric
on the body of the raja ; there was the great white
bull, girded with a golden rope, and the shaggy lion,
and a multitude of musicians, and thousands of people,
besides the beautiful dancing girls.

At the rising of the sun the magnificent procession
filled the street leading to the palace, and there the
patient people waited for the coming of the raja and
the excellent Rama. Vasishtlia requested Sumantra to
go and hasten the Maha-raja, “so that Rama may re-
ceive the raj as the moon enters the mansion of Push-
ya.” Sumantra joyfully entered the palace, and ap-
proaching the curtain of the door he remained outside
of the apartment and saluted the raja thus: “As the

ocean when illumined by the rising sun gives pleasure

183

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA.

to the beholders, so a great raja by his benign presence
diffuses happiness around him. As the charioteer of
Indra aroused the mighty god before he went forth,
so do I arouse you. As the moon awakens the earth,
permit me this day to awaken you. The god of day
rises propitious from his couch ; may he and all the
gods command that success attend you. Oh, Maha-raja,
all is ready for the installation of Kama. As an army
without a commander, as the night without the moon,
so is a country when the Maha-raja does not appear.”
These joyous words fell upon the ear of a monarch who
was speechless with anguish : but the heartless Kaikeyi
responded, “ Go you, Sumantra, and bring Rama
hither, for the raja has something of great importance
to tell him.”

Then Sumantra went out of the palace and has-
tened to the home of Rama, which was as resplendent
as the palace of Indra. In the lovely grounds the deer
were feeding in fearless serenity, and the gay peacocks
displayed their gorgeous feathers in the morning sun-
light. Sumantra passed the brilliant militia guard at
the door, and going toward the inner apartments, he
ordered the attendant to inform Rama immediately that
Sumantra waited for an audience.

When Rama heard that his father’s chosen counselor
had come, he directed that the guest should be con-
ducted at once to his presence. When the great coun-
selor entered the room he beheld Rama sitting on a
golden couch, tastefully draped with the richest fabrics
of the Indian looms. The air of the room was fragrant
with the odor of sandalwood and rich masses of tropi-
cal flowers. The beautiful Sita stood by her lord fan-

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ning him with peacock’s feathers, while her young face
was lighted with love and happiness. Then Sumantra
delivered his message, and Rama turned to Sita with
the words, “Oh, divine one ! I will go at once to the
Maha-raja, and you may remain here and amuse your-
self with your maids.” The dark-eyed wife followed
her lord to the door saying, “ May the gods of all the
four quarters of the universe protect you. May Indra
who wields the thunderbolt, Yama the judge of the
dead, Varuna, god of the waters, and Kuvera, the lord
of wealth, guard you from harm.” Then Rama went
gaily out with Sumantra, and they ascended Rama’s
bright chariot, lined with tiger skins, adorned with
gold and gems, and drawn by magnificent horses.
Lakshmana, his younger brother, attended the crown
prince, standing behind him in the chariot.

His appearance on the street was greeted with
shouts and cheers and the great multitude pressed
around his chariot, while thousands of horses and
trained elephants followed and the brightly uniformed
militia guarded the line of his approach. Thus amidst
the strains of music and the triumphal acclamations
of the multitude he was escorted to his father’s palace,
where he was met with garlands of flowers, the palace
itself appearing as resplendent as the milk-white cars
of the gods. Having passed through the five outer
courts he ordered his people to halt, while with his
brother only he entered his father’s presence.

The whole multitude waited without in joyous antici-
pation, while a terrible scene was enacted within the
palace walls. Rama beheld his wretched father sitting
by the side of Kaikeyi on a magnificent couch, with

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THE STORY OF THE RAM A YAK A.

his whole face and form withered and blasted by the
terrible hand of sorrow. Rama knelt at his feet, but
the eyes of the raja were overflowing with tears. Sob-
bing with anguish, he could only exclaim, “Oh, Rama!
Rama ! ” The young heir shrank from the presence of
Kaikeyi as if he had been touched by a loathsome
serpent, for his father was convulsed with grief, like
an ocean which is swept by a tempest.

But Kaikeyi displayed neither grief nor shame. She
coolly said, “Rama, the Maha-raja is not angry, neither
is he in distress ; but he has something on his mind
which he forbears to tell you, though it is necessary
that you should know it. The Maha-raja has made
me two solemn promises and confirmed them with an
oath ; but he now repents of it like one of low caste.
In former times when I saved his life he offered me
two boons and swore to perform them. I have now
requested that my son Bharata may be installed as
coadjutor with the Maha-raja, and that you may be
sent into exile in the wilderness of Dandaka for four-
teen years. If, therefore, you desire that your father
shall act according to his oath, you will go out of
the city this day and return not for fourteen
years.”

She coolly uttered this merciless speech, well know-
ing that it was a dagger which pierced the hearts of
both father and son. The Maha-raja was overcome
with grief, but Rama bravely replied : “ Be it so. I
will depart into the forest that the Maha-raja may ful-
fil the promise he has made. Let messengers be sent
upon swift horses to bring Bharata here from the city
of Giriv-raja, and I will hasten to the forest of Dan-

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daka and abide there fourteen years.” And Kaikeyl
replied, “ So let it be. Let not your father’s shame af-
fect you, but depart immediately, for your father will
neither eat nor bathe until you are out of the city.”
Although goaded thus by her merciless tongue, he qui-
etly answered, “I obey the will of the Maha-raja, for
there is no act of virtue greater than that of obeying
the command of a father and fulfilling his engagements.
But I go first to take leave of my loving mother,
Kausalya, and to comfort my beautiful Sita.” And
bowing himself again at the feet of his wretched
father, he left the apartment, followed by Lakshmana,
who had witnessed the whole interview.

KAUSALYA.

When Rama entered the elegant rooms of his devo-
ted mother, he saw that she was propitiating the gods
in his behalf. She was even then fanning the sacrifi-
cial fire, while around her lay the curds, the rice, the
sweetmeats, the white garlands, the sacrificial wood, and
the jars of holy water. She joyfully arose and em-
braced her son, saying, “ May you attain the age, the
renown, and the virtue which are worthy of your race,
oh, .Rama, for even this day you are to be installed in
the office of coadjutor of the raj, according to your
father’s promise.” Then Rama saluted her, and said,
“ Oh, mother ! Are you unacquainted with the heavy
calamity now pending ? It is Bharata who is to be
installed, and as for me, I am to go for fourteen
years into the forest of Dandaka and live upon roots
and fruits.”

When Kausalya heard these terrible words she fell

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAHA. 187

in the agony of her grief to the floor. But her son
raised her up and tenderly comforted her. At last
she exclaimed : “ Oh, Kama ! Oh, my son ! If you had
never been born I should have been saved this bitter
sorrow. A barren woman has only the grief of being
childless ; she knows not what it is to lose a son.
Oh, Rama ! I am the chief rani, the first and the
rightful wife ; I am the mother of the heir to the
throne, and yet even whilst you are here I have been
supplanted and am insulted by the very servants of
my rival, and now even my own servants will see
Kaikevi’s son installed in the raj 1 You, too, will be
doomed to hunger and fatigue and all the horrors of
exile. Surely there is no room in the mansions of
Yama, or death would have seized upon me this day,
like a lion springing upon a trembling doe. The Maha-
raja is the victim of a bad woman ; he has brought
contempt upon himself by becoming the slave of his
mistress. Oh, Rama ! Before this thing is made pub-
lic you ought to assume the reins of government. You
can now do so without the aid of the old raja, who
has sunk into his second childhood and is the slave of
Kaikeyi.” “You are right, mother,” exclaimed
Lakshmana. “ You have spoken what I had in my
own mind. I long to see Rama upon the throne, and
should anyone oppose him, I swear to you that he
shall soon behold the mansions of Yama.” But Rama
answered, “ I can not transgress the commands of my
father. I therefore entreat your permission, oh, my
mother, to depart into the forest. Xo one is degraded
by obedience to his father, and having promised to
obey him, I can not make my promise void.”

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SITA.

Still another terrible trial awaited the loyal heart of
Rama. Taking tender leave of his mother he went to
his own home, where his loving wife awaited his com-
ing. Seeing that he was sorrowful, Slta inquired, “Why
is it, Rama, that you are not yet installed ? Has the
moon not yet entered the palace of Pushya ?” He
then repeated to her the sad story he had already told
his mother and added, “By the command of my
venerable father I go this day into the forest. It will
therefore become you to devote yourself to my aged
mother, who is wasted with grief. Oh, beloved one !
I must depart to the great forest and you must remain
here, obedient to the commands of raja Bharata.” But
the brave wife answered, “ Oh, Rama ! What words
are these ? A wife must share the fortunes of her
husband, and if you go to the forest, I must go with
you and smooth away the thorns. Wherever the hus-
band may be, the wife must dwell in his shadow. I
shall live with you in the jungle, and we shall
be happy together in the fragrant woods. I am
not afraid, and I long to roam through the forest
with my husband ; but if you leave me, oh, Rama !
I shall die.” And a flood of hot tears filled her eyes at
the thought of separation, although banishment from
home and throne, with the man she loved, had no power
to bring them forth.

Taking his brave young wife into his arms, Rama
said, ■ “ Oh, Slta ! The forest is not always pleasant ;
indeed, it is dangerous. You are the delicate daughter
of a raja. You have never braved even the hot sun

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

of the city streets ; how then could you live iu the
wilderness ? Your feet are as delicate as the petals of

a lily ; how could you walk on the cruel thorns of

the wood ? There are terrible serpents and crocodiles
and tigers. The rank weeds conceal snakes so veno-

mous that even their breath will kill a man. Some-
times you would have to live upon bitter roots and

fruits. You would thirst when you could have no
water. For garments you would have to wear the
bark of trees and the skin of an antelope, and at night
sleep upon grass or the bare earth. Reptiles, mosqui-
toes, flies, and scorpions would bite and sting you in
your sleep. Fearful Rakshasas1 (demons) infest the
wilderness, and they will eat a man at a single
meal. Besides, you would be without friends, and how
can that be endured by a woman ? You are dearer to
me than my own life, and I cannot take you into the
wilderness and expose you to these terrible perils. You
will always be in my thoughts, but you must remain
here, where I can at least know that you are safe
and comfortable.” But she only nestled closer in his
arms, and answered :

“ A wife must share her husband’s fate. My duty
is to follow thee

Where’er thou goest. Apart from thee I would not
dwell in heaven itself !

i These Rakshasas are elsewhere described as shapeless and cruel monsters
who perpetrate terrible outrages, changing their forms at pleasure. They are
represented as hiding in the thickets, casting away the ladles and sacrificial
vessels of the devotees, and defiling their offerings with blood. The most
revolting descriptions are given of their natural appearance, although it is
claimed that they can at will assume the most fascinating features. The
myth has probably grown from exaggerated descriptions of the aboriginal
tribes found in the jungles of India.

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Deserted by her lord, a wife is like a miserable
corpse.

Close as thy shadow would I cling to thee in this
life, and hereafter.

Thou art my king, my guide, my only refuge, my
divinity.

It is my fixed resolve to follow thee. If thou must
wander forth

Through thorny, trackless forests, I will go before
thee, treading down

The prickly brambles to make smooth thy path.
Walking before thee I

Shall feel no weariness. The forest thorns will seem
like silken robes ;

The bed of leaves, a couch of down. To me the
shelter of thy presence

Is better far than stately palaces, and Paradise itself.

Protected by thy arm, gods, demons, men, shall have
no power to harm me.

With thee I’ll live contentedly on roots and fruits.
Sweet or not sweet,

If given by thy hand, they will to me be like the
food of life.

Roaming with thee in desert wastes, a thousand years
will be a day.

Dwelling with thee, e’en hell itself would be to me
a heaven of bliss.”1

But Rama yielded not to her pleadings, and seeing
her tears he bowed his head in sadness. Then she
drew her form up to its full height, and with her dark

l Williams’ trails. Ind Wis., p. 366.

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THE STORY OF THE RAM A YANA.

eyes flashing through her tears, she exclaimed, “ Shame
oil my father for giving me to a man who has no spirit!
They say that Rama is brave and courageous, but lie
is too effeminate to protect even his own wife in the
wilderness. Surely the Maha-raja has acted wisely in
not giving the kingdom into the hands of such a cow-
ard ! After having married me and pretended to love
me, he is willing to desert me and leave me in deso-
lation and loneliness for fourteen years.” But her
love was stronger than her indignation, and breaking
down in the midst of her upbraiding, she said, “If
I have done wrong, oh, my husband, forgive me ! I
can bear anything but separation from you. I entreat
j’ou to take me with you. Do not refuse me, oh,

Rama ! ” and weeping bitterly she threw herself at his
feet.

Rama could no longer withstand her pitiful plead-
ing. Taking her in his arms, he said, “ Why do you
blame me, beloved, without understanding me ? My
heart’s desire is always to remain with you. I would
not care for the throne of Brahma without you. But
when I thought of your delicate frame, I felt that I
could not take you into the wilderness. Still, if you
are determined to go, take leave of your friends, for
you shall accompany me.” Situ, overjoyed, hastened
to arrange for their departure. Then Lakshmana ap-
proached his brother and entreated that he might be
allowed to accompany them. Rama gladly consented ;
whereupon they took off all their jewels and orna-
ments, and even their shoes, and went after the man-
ner of devotees to the palace to take leave of Dasara-
tha.

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THE FAREWELLS.

A rumor had spread through the city that instead
of the installation, Rama and his wife Sltii, and his
half-brother Lakshmana, were to be sent as exiles into
the forest of Dandaka. The people loved Rama as
they loved no one else, and the terrible news fell upon
Ayodhya like a funeral pall. The gorgeous procession
gradually separated, and mournful crowds with tear-
stained faces took its place.

At last the two princes and the wife of Rama were
seen walking with bare feet toward the palace of the
Maha-raja. The indignation of the populace could not
longer be suppressed and bitter denunciations were
mingled with wailings. The Maha-raja was bitterly
denounced, some declaring that he must be possessed
of demons or he could not do so cruel a thing. Oth-
ers sneered at his weakness in being controlled by a
wicked woman, and others still proposed that all the
inhabitants and their families should take their wealth
and follow Rama into tlve wilderness, leaving a de-
serted city for Bharata and his heartless mother to
rule over.

While the people were lamenting, the little party
approached the palace, and Counselor Sumantra made
known to Dasaratha that Rama was at the door. The
Maha-raja had summoned all the inmates of the pal-
ace, and in their presence was still cursing Kaikeyi
when Rama and Slta and Lakshmana entered the room.
The Maha-raja arose from his seat to receive them,
but overcome with grief he sank back again. Rama
and Lakshmana took him up in their arms and laid

193

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA.

him upon the royal couch, while the cries of the
women, mingled with the clanging of their ornaments,
filled the palace. Then Rama with joined hands said,
“ I entreat you, oh, Maha-raja, to look with a pro-
pitious eye upon me who am ready to depart to the
wilderness of Dandaka. Permit also Lakshmana and
Slta to accompany me to the forest.”

Then the Maha-raja answered, “ Oh, Rama ! I have
been infatuated with this wicked woman — set aside my
command — become this day the raja of Kosala.” But
Rama replied, “ My lord, the Maha-raja has yet a thou-
sand years to live upon the earth, and I will abide
in the forest fourteen years, but when I have com-
pleted the vow I will again embrace the feet of my
father.”

“ Go, then, beloved son,” returned the Maha-raja,
“ but go in a safe and good road, and go not away
to-day. Spend this night with your mother and me,
and to-morrow do as you think best. Oh, Rama !
I have been deceived by a vile woman, who has cov-
ered her evil designs as a fire is covered with ashes.”

But Rama persisted in going immediately as he had
promised. All the women of the palace wept bitterly
except the remorseless Kaikeyi. The chief counselor
also mingled his tears with theirs, but his indignation
overcame his grief, and turning with fierce denuncia-
tions upon Kaikeyi, he accused her of murdering the
raja and his family, and uttered the threat which the
people were making — that they would with one accord
desert the raj and leave her and her son in a deso-
late city.

Then the Maha-raja gave the following command to

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Sumantra : “ Order the troops to make ready at once

to accompany Rama. Let beautiful dancing girls and
musicians and rich merchants adorn the train of my
son. Let the warlike engines follow Rama, and the
citizens also. Let all my storehouses of grain and
treasure accompany my children that they may dwell
happily in the wilderness.” But Rama supplicated the
Maha-raja to countermand the order, declaring he had
no use for soldiers or followers. So with many lov-
ing words to the Maha-raja and tender caresses to Kau-
salya, the exiled trio left the palace. But the raja
declared that Rama should not go away on foot ; if
he must go, he should at least travel in a style befit-
ting the great prince that he was. The royal chariot
was ordered, and Rama and Slta and Lakshmana were
seated therein, while the chief counselor himself took
the reins, and guided the willing steeds as they moved
proudly away.

The whole city was now in a state of excitement,
and the afflicted people ran after the chariot or hastily
mounted horses to accompany it. Every carriage that
happened to be ready was pressed into service, and a
great crowd of people followed them. Even the Ma-
ha-raja and Kausalya came after them and cried to
Sumantra to rein in the horses that they might once
more look into the face of Rama. But the young
prince commanded his charioteer to drive on and
said, “ When the Maha-raja asks you why you did not
obey him, tell him that you did not hear his order.
My deep distress has driven me to this falsehood.”

And so the great chariot went out of the city, fol-
lowed by a vast concourse of mourning people ; while

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAHA.

those who were left behind were overcome with grief.
The black pall of sorrow rested upon the great city.

DEATH OF THE RAJA.

The Maha-raja entered the palace with a breaking-
heart, and said to his attendants, “ Carry me at once to
the apartments of Kausalya, the mother of Rama, for
only with her can I find rest for my tortured heart.”
They carried him in and laid him upon a gorgeous
couch, from which he never arose. As the city watch-
man called the hour of midnight, he said, “ Oh, excel-
lent Kausalya, take my hand while I confess to you the
great sin of my youth — the sin for which the gods are
now sending this terrible woe upon me.” And holding
the hand of his faithful wife he confessed that he had
years before accidentally caused the death of an only
child, and that the father in cursing the author of his
suffering, had declared that sorrow for a child should
one day bring the wanton prince to his grave. Said
the heart-broken king :

“ One day when rains refreshed the earth and caused
my heart to swell with joy,

When after scorching with his rays the parched
ground, the summer sun

Had passed toward the south ; when cooling breezes
chased away the heat,

And grateful clouds arose ; when frogs and pea-fowl
sported, and the deer

Seemed drunk with glee, and all the winged creation,
dripping as if drowned.

Plumed their dank feathers on the tops of wind-rocked
trees, and falling showers

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Covered the mountains till they looked like watery
heaps, and torrents poured

Down their sides, filled with loose stones, and red as
dawn with mineral earth.

Winding like serpents in their course ; then at that
charming season, I,

Longing to breathe the air, went forth, with bow and
arrow in my hand,

To seek for game, if haply by the riverside a
buffalo,

Or elephant, or other animal, might cross at eve, my
path,

Coming to drink. Then in the dusk I heard the
sound of gurgling water ;

Quickly I took my bow and, aiming toward the sound,
shot off the dart.

A cry of mortal agony came from the spot, — a human
voice

Was heard, and a poor hermit’s son fell pierced and
bleeding in the stream.

‘All, wherefore then/ he cried, ‘am I, a harmless her-
mit’s son, struck down ?

Hither to this lone brook I came at eve to fill my
water jar.

By whom have I been smitten ? whom have I offended ?
Oh, I grieve

Not for myself or my own fate, but for my parents,
old and blind.

Who perish in my death. Ah ! what will be the end
of that loved pair,

Long guided and supported by my hand ? This barbed
dart hath pierced

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA. 197

Both me and them/ Hearing that piteous voice, I,
Dasaratha,

Who meant no harm to any human creature, young or
old, became

Palsied with fear ; my bow and arrows dropped from
my senseless hands.

And I approached the place in horror ; there with dis-
may I saw.

Stretched on the bank, an innocent hermit-boy, writh-
ing in pain and smeared

With dust and blood, his knotted hair disheveled, and
a broken jar

Lying beside him. I stood petrified and speechless.
He on me

Fixed full his eyes, and then, as if to burn my inmost
soul, he said :

‘ How have I wronged thee, monarch ? that thy cruel
hand has smitten me —

Me, a poor hermit’s son, born in the forest. Father,
mother, child

Hast thou transfixed with this one arrow ; they, my
parents, sit at home

Expecting my return, and long will cherish hope, — a
prey to thirst

And agonizing fears. Go to my father — tell him of
my fate.

Lest his dread curse consume thee, as the flame
devours the withered wood.

But first in pity draw thou forth the shaft that pierces
to my heart.

And checks the gushing life-blood, as the bank
obstructs the bounding stream.’

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He ceased, and as he rolled his eyes in agony, and
quivering writhed

Upon the ground, I slowly drew the arrow from the
poor boy’s side.

Then with a piteous look, his features set in terror, he
expired.

Distracted at the grievous crime, wrought by my hand
unwittingly.

Sadly I thought within myself how best I might repair
the wrong,

Then took the way he had directed me toward the
hermitage.

There I beheld his parents, old and blind ; like two
clipped, wingless birds

Sitting forlorn, without their guide, awaiting his arrival
anxiously,

And to beguile their weariness, conversing of him
tenderly.

Quickly they caught the sound of footsteps, and I
heard the old man say

With chiding voice, ‘ A liy hast thou lingered, child ?
Quick, give us both to drink

A little water. Long forgetful of us, in the cooling
stream

Hast thou disported ; come in — for thy mother yearneth
for her son :

If she or I in aught have caused thee pain, or spoken
hasty words.

Think on thy hermit’s duty of forgiveness ; bear them
not in mind.

Thou art the refuge of us refugeless — the eyes of thy
blind sire.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA. 199

Why art thou silent ? Speak ! Bound up in thee are
both thy parents’ lives.’

He ceased, and I stood paralyzed — till by an effort res-
olutely

Collecting all my powers of utterance, with faltering
voice I said,

‘ Pious and noble hermit, I am not thy son ; I am the
king ;

Wandering with bow and arrow by • a stream, seeking
for game, I pierced.

Unknowingly, thy child. The rest I need not tell. Be
gracious unto me.’

Hearing my pitiless words, announcing his bereavement,
he remained

Senseless awhile ; then drawing a deep sigh, his face all
bathed in tears,

He spake to me as I approached him suppliantly, and
slowly said,

1 Had’st thou not come thyself to tell the awful tale,
its load of guilt

Had crushed thy head into ten thousand fragments.
This ill-fated deed

Was wrought by thee unwittingly, 0, king, else had
thou not been spared.

And all the race of Raghavas had perished. Lead us
to the place :

All bloody though he be, and lifeless, we must look
upon our son

For the last time and clasp him in our arms.’ Then
weeping bitterly,

The pair led by my hand came to the spot and fell
upon their son.

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Thrilled by the touch, the father cried, ‘ My child,
hast thou no greeting for us P

No word of recognition ? Wherefore liest thou here
upon the ground ?

Art thou offended ? or am I no longer loved by thee,
my son ?

See here thy mother. Thou wert ever dutiful towards
us both.

Why wilt thou not embrace me ? Speak one tender
word. Whom shall I hear

Reading again the sacred Sastra in the early morning
hours ?

Who now will bring me roots and fruits to feed me like
a cherished guest ?

How, weak and blind, can I support thy aged mother
pining for her son ?

Stay ! Go not yet to Death’s abode — stay with thy pa-
rents yet one day.

To-morrow we will both go with thee on the dreary way.
Forlorn

And sad, deserted by our child, without protector in
the wood,

Soon shall we both depart toward the mansions of the
King of Death.’

Thus bitterly lamenting, he performed the funeral rites ;
then turning

Towards me thus addressed me, standing reverently
near — ‘ I had

But this one child, and thou hast made me childless.
Now strike down

The father. I shall feel no pain in death. But thy
requital be

THE STORY OF THE RAJIAYAXA.

201

That sorrow for a child shall one day bring thee also to
the grave.’”1

When he had finished the sad recital, the king fell
back exhausted, but rallied under the influence of restor-
atives applied by the physicians around his bed, and
taking her hand again he drew his stricken wife more
closely to him, saying in pitiful, heart-broken tones,
“ Come nearer, my wife, let me feel your loving arms. I
cannot see you — my sight has gone after Rama.” There
was darkness in the city, but the darkness of grief lay
like a pall upon the palace where the faithful watchers
stood around the dying king. Soon the throbbing pulse
was still, the tortured heart had ceased to beat, and
the fainting wife was carried away by her attendants.

BHARATA.

The prince, who had been summoned, came with joy
to attend, as he supposed, the installation of Rama, the
rightful heir to the throne. He went first, however, to
his mother Kaikeyi, who told him in exulting tones all
that had taken place. But instead of receiving his
gratitude and congratulations, she was overwhelmed
with his reproaches and denunciations for her wicked-
ness.2 “Have you come into this family,” he demand-
ed, “to destroy it as darkness destroys the universe ?
My father, the Maha-raja, who suspected no evil, has
embraced burning coals, and met with his death through
you ! Oh, you are bent upon evil ! This family has
been forever robbed of happiness through your infatua-

1 Williams' trans. Ind. Wis., pp. 350-352.

2 It is stated in the original that the guiltless Bharata was pained by
his mother's conduct as by a tumor that had been opened with a knife.

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tion. The eldest among the sons of a raja is always
appointed to the raj. This is the rule amongst all
rajas, and especially those of our race. But I will bring
back Rama from the wilderness of Dandaka. I will
bring the young heir from the forest and install him
upon his rightful throne.”

Bharata’s half-brother, Satru-ghna, heard his words
and applauded the position he had taken, and leaving
Kaikeyi overwhelmed with shame and confusion the
two brothers went together to the apartments of Kau-
salya with the glad news that her beloved son was to
be brought back from exile and seated upon the throne
which was his rightful inheritance.

On the fourteenth day after the funeral obsequies
of the Maha-raja, the official time for mourning
having passed by, the great council convened in the
court hall of the royal palace, and the counselors for-
mally offered the throne to Bharata. But he replied,
“ Oh, excellent men ! in our family the raj has
ever been considered the inheritance of the eldest son,
and it is right that my eldest brother, Rama, should
become your raja, and that I should reside fourteen
years in the forest. Therefore, prepare a large army
and I will lead them into the forest and restore the
rightful heir. We will go forth with a splendid
retinue of troops with horses and elephants, bearing
all the sacred utensils necessary for his installation,
and he shall return to his throne and kingdom.”
These generous words were received with shouts and
cheers, even from the high officials, and as the news
spread through the city, the people took up the glad re-
frain, and their mourning was turned to joy. Happy

203

THE STORY OF THE RAM A YANA.

songs and laughter again sounded in the streets which
had for days been oppressed with a pall of sadness.
Strains of joyous music again floated upon the air,
gorgeous banners were once more flung to the breeze,
and the very trees and flowers seemed to share in the
general rejoicing.

CHAPTER XY.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA, CONTINUED.

LEAVING THE ATTENDANTS — THE GANGES — CITRA-
KUTA — LIFE IN EXILE — BIIARATA’S ARRIVAL —
THE INTERVIEW — A WARNING AND DEPARTURE —
ATRI AND ANASUYA — THE NEW HOME — SURPA-NAK-
HA — HAVANA — THE ABDUCTION — THE SEARCH — SU-
GRlVA, THE MONKEY KING — EXPEDITION OF THE
MONKEY GENERAL — HANUMAN — LANKA — THE PAL-
ACE OF RAVANA — THE ASOKA GROVE — INTERVIEW
BETWEEN HANUMAN AND SITA — HANUMAN DESTROYS
THE MANGO GROVE — THE BURNING OF LANKA — HAN-
UMAN REJOINS THE MONKEY ARMY.

rpiIE people continued to follow the chariot of Rama
T even after the Maha-raja had been carried back to
the palace. Determined to share in his fortunes and
hardships, the great procession continued almost un-
broken until they reached the banks of the beautiful
river Tamasa, where it was determined to encamp for
the night. So the horses were loosed and allowed to
drink from the clear flood before being tethered for the
night, 'while the people ate of the wild fruits, and
making beds of the forest leaves lay down to sleep
beneath the great trees.

In the. early morning Rama awakened Sumantra
and his brother and said to them, “These devoted

204

205

THE STORY OE THE RAM A YANA.

people have vowed to take us back, and they will
never leave us while their lives remain. Let us there-
fore quietly mount the chariot and depart while they
are still asleep/’ Then Sumantra harnessed the horses
as quietly as possible, and Rama with his wife and
brother entered the chariot. The charioteer, in com-
pliance with Rama’s request, drove the horses slowly
backward over the route by which they came, that the
people might not be able to follow their track, and then
turning took a different direction into the wilderness.

When the people awoke and found that the chariot
had gone, they followed its backward track until it
was lost in a multitude of others ; then they returned
with sad hearts to the city of mourning.

CROSSING THE GANGES.

In the meantime the chariot of Rama pursued its
way to the sacred shores of the Ganges. The deep,
cool waters were dashing between the green banks in
a rapid current, then rolling away into the quiet pools
below, where the creamy lotus blossoms raised their
heads above the bright surface and loaded the air with
their fragrant breath. Just above them the fair river
gleamed like a stream of silver against the golden
sands upon the shore, and around them were massive
trees, some of which were laden with flowers, and
others bending low beneath a weight of golden fruit.
Here they paused to pay their tribute of devotion to
the beautiful river by chanting the musical Hindu
name of Ganga ! Ganga !

Then the fair goddess of the stream raised their
chariot in her hands and bore it in the air above the

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waters to the other side. This was the river which fell
to earth from the divine feet of Vishnu.1 Ganga was
the eldest daughter of Himavat, “Lord of the Moun-
tains,” but the beautiful river flowed only through the
fields of heaven.

Sagara, an early king of Ayodhya, had sixty thou-
sand sons, and he sent them out one day to recover a
horse which had been designed for the Asva-medha
sacrifice, but had been stolen by a Kakshasa. The
gigantic sons of the solar race having searched the
earth unsuccessfully, proceeded to dig through into
the lower regions ; they found many wonderful things
in the course of their excavations, and at last met a
living sage, Kapila. They promptly accused him of
having stolen the horse, when he responded to their
accusation by reducing them all to ashes. The grand-
son of Sagara attempted to perform the funeral rites,
bnt was told that the Ganga must water the ashes
with her sacred stream. Bhagiratha, the great-grand-
son of Sagara, then performed severe penances to
induce the gods to send down the celestial river. He
was told that his recpiest should be granted, but he
must secure the intervention of Siva, or the earth
would be destroyed by the force of the torrent.

“As thou prayest it shall be.

Ganga, whose waves in heaven flow,

Is daughter of the Lord of Snow.

Win Siva that his aid be lent
To hold her in her mid descent.

For earth alone will never bear
These torrents from the upper air.”

i The fountain of the Ganges is said to be in the great toe of this god.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA. 207

lie therefore propitiated Siva, who at last consented
to stand beneath the descending torrent and break its

fall.

“ On Siva’s head descending first,

A rest the torrents found.

Then down in all their might they burst
And roared along the ground;

On countless glittering scales the beam
Of rosy morning flashed.

Where fish and dolphins through the stream
Fallen and falling dashed.

Then bards who chant celestial lays.

And nymphs of heavenly birth.

Flocked round upon that flood to gaze
That streamed from sky to earth.

The gods themselves from every sphere.
Incomparably bright.

Borne in their golden cars drew near
To see the wondrous sight.

The cloudless sky was all aflame
With the light of a hundred suns
Where’er the shining chariots came
That bore these holy ones.

So flashed the air with crested snakes
And fish of every hue
As when the lightning’s glory breaks
Through fields of summer blue.

And white foam-clouds and silver spray
Were wildly tossed on high,

Like swans that urge their homeward way
Across the autumn sky.”1

i Griffith’s trails., Vol I, p. 194,

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Thus flowing down the long coils of Siva’s hair, the
fearful torrent reached the earth and fell into Vindu
Lake,1 whence proceed the seven sacred streams of In-
dia. Immediately after crossing the Ganges, Kama dis-
missed Sumantra, sending him back to Ayodhya with
the chariot and with admonitions to be careful of the
feelings of the Maha-raja, and thoughtful for the hap-
piness of his mother, Kausalya. lie also sent kind
salutations to Bharata, as the ruler of the raj. In vain
the faithful Sumantra pleaded to he allowed to spend
the fourteen years of exile with them and carry them
home in the chariot. lie was kindly but firmly sent
back to the city without them.

CITKA-KUTA.

“ Lakshmana, ” said Kama, “my poor Sita will now
be obliged to endure the privations of forest life, and
the fear of lions and tigers and other wild animals.
We will protect her as far as lies in our power. You
may go on before and I will follow behind her, that
she may be shielded on all sides.” Then taking
their bows and arrows in their hands they walked
bravely into the forest. They traveled slowly and
carefully, with occasional rests on account of Slta’s
tender feet, until they came near to the beautiful moun-
tain of Citra-kuta.

A fair green slope which lay at its feet was cov-
ered with flowering trees, in whose fragrant blossoms
the wild bees drowsily hummed as they gathered the
honey from the tinted cups and stored it away in the

i No such lake is known, anti of the seven sacred streams men-
tioned in the legend only two (the Ganges and the Indus) are known
to geographers.

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THE STORY OF THE RAMA Y AKA.

great combs hanging beneath the shelving rocks. In
the crevice of the cliff the crystal springs formed cas-
cades that went dashing down the mountain-side and
poured their cool waters into the river MandakinI as
it swept around the base of the slope and rolled away
in the distance. Beyond the flowering trees and just
at the foot of the mountain stood a group of lofty
pipals, whose trunks were enwreathed with flowering
vines, like garlands festooned upon the columns of
some fair temple. AVhile they looked a gazelle, which
had never been startled by man, walked carelessly out
of the shade and went down to the river to drink of
its clear waters.

Enchanted with the scene, Kama turned to his
brother with the words, “ This shall be our wildwood
home ; we will build a cot beneath those trees, and in
the shade of the sacred mountain we will spend the
years of our exile.” Then turning to Sita, he put his
arm around her and said :

“ Look round thee, dear ; each flowery tree
Touched with the fire of morning see.

The Kinsuk,1 now the frosts are fled.

How glorious with his wreaths of red !

The bel trees see, so loved of men,

Hanging their boughs in every glen,

O’erburdened with their fruits and flowers !

A plenteous store of food is ours.

See, Lakshman ! in the lofty trees.

Where’er they make their home,

Down hangs the work of laboring bees.

The ponderous honey-comb !

i The bulea frondosa, which has gorgeous red blossoms.

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In the fair wood before us spread
The startled wild cock cries.

Hark, where the flowers are soft to tread
The peacock’s voice replies !

Where elephants are roaming free.

And sweet birds’ songs are loud,

The glorious Citra-kuta see,

His peaks are in the cloud.

On fair, smooth ground he stands displayed.

Begirt by many a tree.

01), brother, in that holy shade
How happy we shall be ! ” 1

LIFE IN EXILE.

Beneath the dense foliage of the tropical trees
Lakshmana built a tent with graceful branches and
entwined it with the gigantic flowering vines that grew
around it, forming a bower of beauty and fragrance.
Free from the cares of state, the young prince gave
himself up to the offering of sacrificial rites and to the
company of his beautiful wife.

To Kama and Slta every tree and flower were glori-
fied by the divine light of love. Hand in hand they
wandered through the long aisles of woodland beauty
and gathered the rich fruits and fragrant flowers of the
forest.

Luxury can never taste of happiness, if it is not
offered by the hand of affection ; but love can be su-
premely happy even in the home of poverty, for priva-
tion has no power to break the chain which gilds even
her own ruggedness with beauty.

l Book 2, Canto 56.

211

THE STORY OF TIIE RAMAYANA.

As each day was ushered in by the golden light of
morning, which touched the sacred peak with fire, it
brought a new crown of peace and happiness to the
inmates of the leafy cot in the shade of the
mountain.

bharata’s arrival.

At the close of a peaceful day the exiles stood in
the balmy air making their oblation to the setting sun,
as he passed through the crimson gates of evening,
when they were startled by a group of wild elephants
that dashed in terror through the waves of the Manda-
kinl and rushed into the jungle beyond. In another
moment a herd of frightened deer ran by the mountain,
and the birds flew over their heads in wild confusion.
“ My brother,” said Rama, “ do you hear this ominous
roar, deep and terrible as thunder ? It sounds like the
approach of a hostile army, but it may be that the
animals and birds are terrified by lions that have come
into the jungle.” Then Lakshmana hastily ascended
an eminence and looking far away into the distance
beheld the approaching army of Bharata. No wonder
that the denizens of the forest had fled in wild affright,
for there in the light of the setting sun were nine
thousand elephants richly caparisoned, sixty thousand
chariots with archers, a hundred thousand horsemen,
and a multitude of footmen, the whole city having
followed Bharata upon his journey into the wilderness.
There were the ladies of the royal household, with
Kausalya, the royal widow, at their head. There were
the priests and the royal counselors in chariots vying
in splendor with the chariot of the sun. There were

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musicians and dancing girls, gaily appareled in brilliant
colors.

Lakshmana gazed for a moment in silence upon the
gorgeous pageant ; then he said to his brother, “ Oh,
chief of men ! This must be the army of Bharata,
the son of Kaikeyi. Jealous even of exiles in the
wilderness, he is coming to destroy us both. I see his
flag upon the chariot ; he comes like a destroying
king.”

But Rama answered, “ Perhaps Bharata has come
hither for affection only, or to surrender the raj to
me. Why do you speak so harshly of him ?”

Lakshmana replied, “ Possibly the Maha-raja has
come to see you, and will take us home again. I
see the great imperial elephant marching at the head
of the army, but I cannot see the white canopy of
our royal father.”

When the procession came near the mountain, Bha-
rata ordered a halt, that only himself and his brother.
Satru-ghna, with the chief counselor, Sumantra, should
first approach the exiled prince.

THE INTERVIEW.

The three men approached the mountain and came
toward the large and pleasant tent. Above the door
of the outer room was placed an enormous bow, gleam-
ing with gold, like the bow of Indra, and beside it
rested a great quiver of arrows, as bright as the rays
of the sun and as keen as the face of a serpent. Be-
fore the door of the tent Bharata saw bis elder brother,
dressed in the garb of a devotee, and near him Lak-
shmana, also wearing garments of bark, while the beau-

213

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAKA.

tiful Sifcil was nestling close to her husband, her great
dark eyes dilated with wonder and fear.

Then Bharata bowed himself in tears at the feet of
Rama, saying, “This is my elder brother, who once
had thousands of suits of apparel, who is now wearing
vestments of bark. The body of that excellent one,
which was formerly perfumed with costly sandalwood,
is covered with the dust of the forest. Rama, who
is worthy of all happiness, has undergone all of these
privations because of me ! ”

But Rama embraced his brother, saying, “ Oh, be-
loved brother! where is our father Dasaratha that you
have come to this forest ? Is the Maha-raja alive, or
has he departed from this life?’ Bharata replied with
joined hands, “ Oh, excellent one ! my valiant father,
having sent you into exile at the instance of my mother
Kaikeyi, has departed to heaven, overwhelmed with
grief.” At the announcement of this terrible news,
which fell upon Rama like a thunderbolt from Indra,
the prince sank upon the ground, like a lofty tree that
has been felled with the ax.

It was a pitiful scene of mourning at the foot of
the silent mountain, when the gallant brothers mingled
their tears together over the memory of their dead
father. Then Rama and his brothers walked down
to the river Mandakini, and descending into the stream
performed the funeral oblations for their father. As
the prince sprinkled the water toward the regions of
Yama, he exclaimed, “ Oh, raja of rajas ! may this
pure water given to you by me always quench your
thirst in the spirit-land.” Then holding the hands of
his brothers he led them again to the door of the tent.

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The troops now advanced, bringing Kausalya and
the ladies of the royal household, including the hu-
miliated Kaikeyl. Rama fell down at the lotus-like feet
of his mother, who wiped the dust from his hair wTith
her soft caressing hands ; then twining her arms around
him as he arose to his feet, she wept for joy in the
arms of her manly son.

At length Bharata addressed Rama in the presence
of the troops and the attendants with the words, “My
mother Kaikeyl having given the raj to me is satis-
fied, and now I give it to you. Oh, Rama ! with
bowed head I entreat you to wipe off the guilt of my
mother’s anger and deliver my father from sin. But
if you turn your back upon me and persist in going
farther into the forest, I will surely go with you.”
But Rama answered him, “Nay, Bharata, you must
be the raja of men, and I will be the raja of wild
beasts. The royal canopy shall shade your head from
the sun, while mine shall be shaded by the trees of
the wood.”

In this useless pleading the night wore away. "When

the morning sun again illumined the peaks of Citra-
kuta, Bharata brought to the prince a pair of sandals
embroidered with gold and besought him to put them
on. Rama did so and returned them to his brother,

who bowed low before them, saying, “ For fourteen

years I will wear the garb of a devotee and live upon
roots and fruits. I will reside without the city, await-
ing your return, and I will commit the management

of the raj to your sandals. If you do not return to
Ayodhya within five days after the completion of the
fourteenth year, I will enter my pyre,”

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THE STORY OF THE RAMlYANA.

Bharata then embraced his two brothers, and plac-
ing the sandals upon his head, mounted his chariot,
and with all of his attendants, both horse and foot,
returned to Ayodhya. But the deserted city was trav-
ersed by bats and owls ; it was bereft of music and
song. It was like a necklace from which the jewels
have been taken, or a star which has fallen to the
earth. Bharata refused to enter its walls. The grand
procession swept slowly and sorrowfully in, while Bha-
rata stayed at Nandi-grama, just outside the city.
Here he assumed the garb and matted hair of a de-
votee, and here he was installed, while he himself
held the royal canopy over the sandals of Rama. All
the affairs of the government were transacted under
the authority of the sandals, and Bharata, while rul-
ing the raj, paid homage to them. All the presents
and offerings which were brought to the sovereign
were laid before the sandals, and all matters of state
were first presented there and afterward adjusted by
Bharata.

A WARNING AND DEPARTURE.

After the departure of Bharata and his army, the
quiet life at the foot of Citra-kuta flowed on in its
peaceful channel. The seasons came and went, bring-
ing new glory with every change. The outside world
rushed on, wearing its cares and bearing its burdens,
but they came not to the woodland home of the ex-
iles. Situ had made friends with the wild gazelles,
that came down to drink from the cool waves of the
Mandakini, and as she approached them they raised
their beautiful eyes and looked fearlessly into her own.

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The birds made their nests in the trees above her head
and fluttered down to the door of her leafy home to
find the food which she never failed to furnish them.

But a great sage who lived in a hermitage not far
away, came to them one day and bade them beware
of the Rakshasas who infested the great jungle be-
yond them. The Rakshasas were demons who fed
upon living men and changed their own forms at
pleasure. Of late they had become more abundant
and obtrusive, and the hermits had all decided to
leave the dangerous region. The sage besought Rama,
also, to heed the warning and go.

So they bade farewell to the bright bower beneath
the massive trees and went forth again into the wilder-
ness.

ATRI AND ANASUYA.

At the close of the second day of their journey they
arrived at the hermitage of a holy sage named Atri, who
lived in the wild forest with his excellent wife, Anasuya,
and had sanctified his life by long penance. lie gave
them a cordial welcome, for even the birds seemed
to have heard the story of the illustrious Rama. He
introduced his wife to the exiled prince, saying : “Oh,
sinless one ! This, my wife, is a Brahmani, renowned
for her vows and the constant performance of pious
deeds. By the power of her austerities rain was
brought and fruits and flowers were produced during
a ten years’ dearth, and the holy Ganga was brought
near our dwelling. If she ask of the gods any boon
it will be granted her. I beseech you to let your beau-
tiful Sita go into her presence.” Then Rama said to

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his wife, “Do you hear the words of the sage? You
may go now into the presence of Anasuya.” Then
Sita approached with reverent mien the aged woman
and bowed at her feet. The venerable matron said
to her, “Oh, honorable Slta, ! You have abandoned your
relatives aud friends to follow your brave husband
into exile. The woman who loves her lord will ob-
tain a great reward hereafter.”

Sita replied : “ It is true that a woman should love her
husband, even though he be poor and wicked, but how
much more must she reverence him when he is the
embodiment of virtue and kindness.” The aged woman
then drew the fair face of Sita toward her, and im-
pressed a reverent kiss upon her forehead, saying, “ I am
greatly pleased with thee, beautiful one, and I wish to
confer a blessing upon thee. Thou shalt ever wear thy
youthful beauty, and thy silken raiment shall never
become soiled or frayed — thou shalt always remain thy
beautiful self. Time cannot tarnish thy beauty nor
soil thv fair robes.”

On receiving the crown of eternal youth and beauty,
Sita thought only of Kama and the pleasure that it
would bring to his heart. “I shall be more beautiful
in his sight,” she whispered. “ Oh, pearl amongst wo-
men ! Thou hast filled my heart with gladness.” When
Rama and Lakshmana heard that Sita was to retain
her youthful beauty through all the coming years, they
rejoiced with her that she was thus favored above all
others.

They were cordially tendered the modest hospitali-
ties of the hermitage for the night, and in the morn-
ing inquired of the devotees where they could find a

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pleasant home in the forest. But they were told that
the whole wilderness of Dandaka was infested with
the terrible Rakshasas, whom it was hoped Prince
Rama would be able to destroy, or stop their depreda-
tions.

THE NEW HOME.

The morning sunlight was crowning the distant
mountain tops with glory and piercing with its rays
the dense foliage of the tropical forest, when the
homeless ones again set out to find a resting-place.
The air was perfumed with the breath of the blossom-
laden mango trees ; the tall tamarinds lifted their
feathery plumes in the distance ; flowering creepers of
gigantic size and gorgeous colors festooned the jungle ;
and water lilies rested their pearly caps upon the
bosom of every pool.

They wandered through the beautiful scene with the
enthusiasm of children, for the changeful face of nature
never wearies her faithful lovers, and this was the flow-
ery forest of Pawcavatl.

“ Here is beauty and happiness,” exclaimed Rama.
“ Let us seek a place for our hermitage in some pleas-
ant thicket, where the sacrificial wood may be obtained,
and near a flowing stream whose banks are covered
with flowers and kusa grass.”

They found the place they sought in a beautiful
spot on the shores of the bright river Godavari, whose
gentle current sang in a musical monotone as the
clear waters wandered away. Near it, gleaming like a
gem in the sunshine, was a lake, which fed the stream
and made the breezes fragrant with the breath of its
white lilies.

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Their hermitage was built of the flexible bamboos,
and the rooms were tapestried with branches of broad-
leaved evergreens and beautified with floral vines and
bunches of golden fruit. When Lakshmana had
finished his task he went down to the shores of the
lake to gather fruits and water lilies. He made
an oblation of the flowers to the god of dwellings and
sprinkled water, according to the ordinance, to secure
peace to the new habitation. There in their leafy
home the exiles dwelt happily for many days ; but
even amidst the fruits and flowers of Pa/mavati they
were still in the doleful wilderness of Dandaka. Loath-
some serpents were coiled in the flower- wreathed jun-
gle and the Rakshasas roamed the woods, unseen by
mortal eye.

SURPA-NAKHA.

One of the Rakshasas was a female demon, who
often watched Rama and Sita as they sat beneath the
plantain trees or gathered lilies from the clear surface
of the lake. Their innocent love and happiness was
gall and bitterness to her vile nature, and as evil crea-
tures cannot witness domestic happiness without wish-
ing to destroy it, Surpa-nakha began to plot for their
ruin. As she gazed upon the noble form and rich
complexion1 of Rama, she became enamored of his
manly beauty, which formed so strong a contrast to her
own repulsive features ; for while he was pure, noble,
and chaste, she was so vile that she failed to win the
respect even of the low creatures with whom she lived.

i Rama is frequently represented as having a complexion which is of a
bright green “like new grass,’’ although as an incarnation of Vishnu his
color should be dark blue.

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“ She, grim of eye and foul of face.

Loved his sweet glance and forehead's grace —

She, whose foul wig uncleanly hung,

Him, whose dark locks on high brows clung.”

Day after day she haunted their footsteps, becoming
more and more infatuated with Rama, and more deter-
mined to destroy their happiness and ruin this pure
man by polluting him with her vile associations. She
saw him chaste and true, and longed to degrade him
to her own level by bringing him under her vile influ-
ence. What a grand chief he would make for a
Rakslnisas tribe, if she could but decoy him into their
camp and use his noble life for her own base
service !

She loved Rama, if it be lawful to call that love,
which was only the passion of a degraded creature seek-
ing to pollute and destroy her victim, if, then, she
could steal from Sita the loving heart of her husband
and rob them of their leafy home, both her lust and her
avarice would be gratified. As she lingered one day
gazing upon them, she turned green with envy and
ground her teeth in her rage. Rut she could assume
other forms at her pleasure, and she muttered, “I, too,
can wear the face and form of beauty ; I, too, can as-
sume the manners of an innocent woman, and 1 will
show her that she cannot stand between me and my
wishes.”

So saying, she sjirang to her feet and assumed a
form of beauty and grace. Then going out into the
thicket she uttered a piercing shriek of distress to lure
Rama from the side of his wife. He gallantly rushed

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA.

221

into the forest to rescue a woman in distress and be-
held the beautiful creature, who appealed to his sym-
pathies so effectually that he could not at once tear
himself away from her. She approached him and with
pleading eyes besought him to flee from the terrible
Rakshasas of the wood, while her own loveliness and ap-
parent helplessness appealed to him for protection.
Drawing nearer and holding her beautiful face up to-
ward his own she poured forth a passionate story of her
love for him. Flattered by the approaches of the siren
he addressed her with winning compliments, but at last
explained that he was already bound by the marriage
tie, and she would not wish to share his caresses with
a rival. “There shall be no rival between me and
Rama!” she screamed ; “ I will destroy this odious
Sit a.” She ran towards the tent ; but Lakshmana
divined her cruel purpose and with a drawn sword cut
off her nose and ears, whereupon she rushed into the
woods, making the echoes ring with her shrieks and
vowing vengeance upon the mortals who had thus
thwarted and disfigured her. She cast off her disguise
and wore a personal appearance corresponding to her
moral depravity ; her claw-like hands returned, and
demon that she was she bounded through the forest,
howling with rage and pain, and rushed into the pres-
ence of her brother Khara.

Seeing his sister covered with blood and almost ex-
hausted with fury, he exclaimed, “Who has done this?
Who is there, who even in sport would vex with his
finger a black serpent full of venom ? Who would take
the rope of death and tie it around his own neck ? Yet
the man who lias done this has drunk of the deadly
poison.”

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Then Siirpa-nakha told her story in her own way,
and the enraged brother, calling fourteen powerful
Rakshasas, commanded them to go with his sister and
bring the three exiles to him as prisoners. Wild with
rage and filling the air with their maledictions the
Rakshasas fell upon the hermitage, but only to receive
from the bow of Rama fourteen bright arrows, which
sjied through the air like meteors, piercing their black
hearts and carrying them to the regions of Yaina.

Surpa-nakha gave one piercing shriek and fled to
Khara with the tidings that his bravest warriors were
slain. He replied in a voice like thunder, “ Wipe away
your tears end shake off your terror, for this day I will
send these mortals to the abode of Yama.” Then turn-
ing to his brother Dushana, he said, “ Equip fourteen
thousand Rakshasas who are dreadful as a thunder-
bolt and valiant as tigers. Bring also my chariot, my
bows, and my arrows. I myself will go to the front
and drink the life-blood of- Rama.”

When Rama heard the demon troops approaching
with loud beating of drums and terrible war cries,
he commanded Lakshmana to carry Sita for safety
to a cave in the mountains, while he prepared to
meet the foe alone. The black horde came on with
screams and yells and peals of hideous laughter. They
poured down upon Rama like a black, raging sea, but
he received their missiles as the ocean receives her
rivers, and drawing his bow in a circle sent his death-
dealing arrows into their ranks until the conquered
army lay in slaughtered heaps ujion the plain. Khara
then rushed toward Rama in his own chariot, but
Rama seized the bow of Vishnu and discharged a

223

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

flaming arrow, which laid the demon dead at his
feet.

The contest being over, Lakashmana and Slta came
out of the cave. The young wife joyfully embraced
her brave husband, and as he took her into his arms
he appeared to his adoring brother as glorious as Indra
in his heaven of the golden dome.

HAVANA.

On the beautiful island of Lanka, where the wealth
of art had vied with the luxuriance of nature, stood
the palace of Havana, the demon king of Ceylon. He
was the enemy of gods and men. There were ten
hideous heads upon his colossal form, and twenty
strong arms bade defiance to his foes. His immense
black body was as smooth as polished ivory, but it bore
the marks of his terrible contests. The lightning bolts
had scorched him and a monstrous elephant had torn
him with his tusks, while on his broad chest was a
great scar that had been left from a wound made with
the shield of Vishnu. His ten necks were ornamented
with ten huge golden necklaces set with flashing gems,
and on his twenty wrists gleamed costly bracelets of
gold and jewels. Each frightful head wore a golden
serpent as a crown. He was taller than the Himalayas,
and reaching upward lie could stop the stars in their
courses. He could shake the sea with his fearful
strides, and with his mighty arms rend asunder the
tops of mountains. This was he who went to Bhoga-
vatT, the city of resplendent serpents, and conquering
Vasuki, carried away the beloved wife of the glittering

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snake Takshaka.1 Such was the fear he inspired, that
every living thing shuddered and shrunk out of sight
upon his approach. Even the winds crept silently by,
and the angry sea forgot to rave and only moaned in
terror when he looked upon her billows. “The courage
of the Three Worlds,” as he was often called, sat upon
the golden throne in the great council hall of his
palace, surrounded by his chieftains and counselors.

On either side of the languid demon were great

masses of fragrant flowers which had been gathered and

brought to him as offerings, while at his feet were

piles of gold and jewels which he had extorted as

tributes from his terror-stricken subjects. Over his

numerous heads his attendants in misty Oriental garb

waved fans whose handles were of pearl and set with

diamonds. As they moved them gracefully to and fro

they kept time to a dreamy musical measure, which

floated through the air. But while the demon sat

holding council with his chiefs, he was disturbed by a

confusion among his courtiers outside the palace, and

in a moment, to his angry astonishment, his sister, the
/

terrible Surpa-nakha, dashed into the room. Iler gar-
ments were torn, her long hair was disheveled, and
her mangled face was covered with blood.

The dreadful Havana sprang to his feet, and shouted,
“ Speak ! who has dared to molest the sister of Havana,
the victor of the gods?” “Who has dared, indeed!”
burst from the lips of the vindictive female fiend.
“Here I find you surrounded by luxury and fanned to

i Vasuki and Takshaka are leading Nagas, to whom a separate dominion
over a portion of the serpent race is sometimes assigned. In company
with .Stesha, they rule over snakes in general and their dominion is in the
lower regions,

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THE STORY OF THE KAMAYANA.

sleep by the perfumed breath of flowers, while I come
bleeding from the battle-field, where the vultures are
feeding upon our warriors who perished in trying to
aveuge my wrongs. And who is the cause of all this ?
— a mortal,” she screamed, “ a man by the name of
Rama ; a mere youth who has been exiled from his
father’s court ! But he carries a bow like a rainbow,
and from it he sends forth blazing arrows, which are fatal
as the poison of serpents. I saw the army falling before
him like a crop of grain that is smitten by the rains of
Indra. Oli Havana ! this Rama has a beautiful wife
of charming face and lovely form, and her com-
plexion is bright as molten gold. Oh, my brother !
It was because I wanted to bring this beautiful woman
away to be your wife, that I was disfigured by the
cruel Lakshmana. 0 raja of the Rakshasas, avenge
the death of your brothers upon Rama and Lakshmana,
and take the beautiful Sita to be your wife !”

Bending down the haughty demon laid his hand
caressingly upon the rough head of Surpa-nahka, and
answered in tones of thunder, “I will indeed avenge
my fallen brothers, and I will bring this dainty
beauty to my own court.”

Then ordering his golden chariot, which moved
through the air at the will of the charioteer, he called
one of his courtiers to accompany him, and while they
moved on their way he gave his orders. He was met
with expostulations and warnings, but he only replied :
“The sovereign of the world is not to be contradicted.
I did not ask your advice ; I only commanded your
assistance. You must assume the form of a golden
deer, and going into the presence of Sita you must

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attract her attention. Having done this, you are at
liberty to go where you please, for I shall have no fur-
ther need of you.

“ Doubt not the lady, when she sees
This wondrous deer among the trees.

Will bid her lord and Lakshman take
The creature for its beauty’s sake.

Thy life, if thou the task essay.

In jeopardy may stand.

Oppose me, and this very day
Thou diest by this hand.”

THE ABDUCTION.

It was evening in the wilderness of Dandaka. The
day with her sandals dipped in dew was passing
through the golden gates of the west, and the cres-
cent moon and the evening star had come forth to hid
her good-night. Kama and his young wife stood at
the door of their leafy tent looking in silence upon
the glories of the western sky, when a beautiful fawn
came out of the thicket aud entered the plantain grove,
which had been cleared of its undergrowth. In the
evening light he shone like burnished gold flecked
with spots of silver, and his tiny horns seemed to be
tipped with sapphire, while his delicate mouth and fine
nostrils were like the red lotus blossoms, and his dark
eyes looked fearlessly into the face of the princess.

Slta was delighted with his beauty, and appealed to
Kama to capture him for her. “ We could keep it,”
said she, “in our leafy dwelling, and when our term of
exile is finished we could take it with us to Ayodhya.

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

But if you cannot capture it alive, bring at least its
beautiful coat as a covering for our couch.” The will-
ing husband acceded to her request, hut Lakshmana
offered a word of warning : “ Do you not know, my

brother, there was never a fawn of such brilliant hues ?
Surely it is an illusion furnished by demons. Be not
so rash, oh prince, as to pursue it.” But Rama an-
swered, “ Be not alarmed — even if it proves to be a de-
mon I will slay it, and bring the skin to the daughter
of Janaka. During all the time she has been in this
forest she has made only this one request. Do you think
I will fail to comply with it ? Stay with her, my bro-
ther, and guard her from all harm until I return.”
Then throwing his golden bow over his shoulder, he
started in pursuit of the beautiful fawn. But grace-
fully eluding his grasp the pretty creature bounded
into the thicket, cautiously pursued by Rama. It often
seemed to be upon the point of capture, but as often
it evaded the hunter’s touch and fled farther toward
the inaccessible hills in the distance.

It was now growing dark beneath the trees, although
it was still light above them, and at last the fawn
paused as if wearied, while its little mouth quivered
and foamed, seemingly with exhaustion. “Xow,” thought
Rama, “ my game is secure,” and again he attempted to
lay his hand upon its graceful neck ; but there was an-
other bound, and this time it was far beyond the hunt-
er’s reach. Dismayed and out of patience and already
far from home Rama drew his bow and sent his un-
failing arrow through the side of his victim. The
fawn fell to the earth with a human shriek, and in
the very tones of Rama it called upon Lakshmana for

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aid. The distant cry was heard by the listening pair
at the door of the hermitage, and Sita besought Laksh-
mana to fly to her husband’s aid. In vain he argued
that it was a deceitful cry — that Rama’s power was such
that he needed no aid ; she would not listen to a re-
fusal, and at last taunted him with cowardice and
with motives which were even more unworthy. Stung
by her severity he darted into the forest, leaving the
beautiful princess alone amidst the rapidly falling shades
of night.

A feeling of loneliness and terror came over her at
once, but she would not call him back, and she was
soon comforted by seeing a humble priest approach-
ing her little dwelling. In one hand he bore a staff
and in the other a scrip. On his forehead was a
straight mark and on his fingers were large rings of
sacred grass. His body was emaciated and his feet
only partially covered by his torn sandals. He meekly
approached her, asking for food, and supposing him to
be a true hermit she paid him lowly reverence and
gladly invited him to enter her little home and rest
until her husband returned. “ Beautiful lady,” he said,
“your smile is entrancing, and your radiant eyes illum-
ine with brightness even the approaching darkness.
How came so beautiful a gem to be in this rough set-
ting ? Why should so fair a lady be found in this
gloomy forest?” Sita innocently told him the story of
their exile, when the mighty raja of the Rakshasas
said to her, “ I am Havana, the terror of the world
I have assumed this lowly form only to gain admission
to your presence, for my power is known throughout
the universe. Your beauty, oh, radiant one, eclipses

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

in my eyes the beauty of all my own wives ! Will
you not be my rani — the chief of them all ? Lanka,
my beautiful city, is on an island of the sea. Built
of palaces and filled with glories, it is as renowned as
the city of Indra. There, 0 Sita, you shall walk with
me among the groves and feel no wish to return to
this forest. You shall be the chief of all my wives,
and five thousand beautiful handmaids shall attend
you.”

But she indignantly replied, “ Know that I am the
daughter of raja Janaka, and my husband is my deity.
As a lioness attends a strong lion, so am I the con-
stant attendant of the majestic Rama ! Do you, a pit-
iful jackal, wish to obtain a lioness, who is to you like
a ray of the sun to a firefly ?”

Then the demon was enraged, and he exclaimed,
“ Infatuated as you are, oh, Sita, you cannot know of
my power. I can torment the sun and pierce the earth
through with my arrows. I can slay the King of Death
himself in single-handed combat. Behold me in my
own form.” And assuming his own personality, he
seemed as vast as a mountain and as terrible as Yama.
His red eyes glared upon her, and his enormous body
seemed to be covered with bristles of fire, and great
earrings of molten gold gleamed in all his ears. With
his ten horrible heads and twenty terrible arms he stood
before her, like a black, angry cloud flashing with light-
nings. With one pitiful cry of “ Rama ! Rama ! ”
she fainted at his feet. Then with a fiendish laugh
he lifted her from the ground and calling for his
chariot he entered it, bearing his beautiful prey in his

arms.

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THE SEARCH.

The grass and ferns were heavy with the evening
dew when Rama turned from the Rakshasa that had in
death revealed his true character, and started with a
heavy heart toward his home. Soon he saw his brother
hastening toward him, and upbraided him bitterly for
leaving Sit ii alone. Lakshmana explained that he came
only in obedience to the command of Slta, who felt
that her husband was in danger. Then they knew they
were the victims of a plot, and hurrying in silence to
the hermitage their fears were realized ; for the beau-
tiful Sita was not to be found. They searched around
the little tent and down by the crystal stream that
went murmuring by, singing in its dreams, all uncon-
scious of their agony. Then their lamentations were
pitiful to hear. Rama bewailed the cruel losses of his
life, which had culminated in the loss of her who was
dearer far than life itself.

“Tossing his mighty arms on high,

He sought her with an eager cry.

From spot to spot he wildly ran,

Each corner of his home to scan.

He looked, but Slta was not there,

His cot was desolate and bare,

Like streamlet in the winter frost.

The glory of her lilies lost.

With leafy tears the sad trees wept
As a wild wind their branches swept.

Mourned bird and deer ; and every flower
Drooped fainting round the lovely bower.

The sylvan deities had fled

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

The spot where all the light was dead,
lie saw and maddened by his pain
Cried in lament again, again,

‘Where is she ? dead or torn away ?

Lost, or some hungry giant’s prey ?

Or did my darling chance to rove
For fruit and blossoms through the grove P
Or has she sought the pool or rill
Her pitcher from the wave to fill ? ’

Ilis eager eyes on fire with pain.

He roamed about with maddened brain.

Each grove and glade he searched with care.

He sought, but found no Slta there.”1

Then beneath the dark foliage of the sandal trees
the brothers swore by the stars of night to find their
beloved Slta and to slay him who had carried her
away, whether he proved to be a man, a god, or a
demon. In his own terrible agony Rama requested
his brother to direct the search, and taking only his
bow with his quiver of arrows, among which was the
wonderful arrow that Brahma had given him to be
used only in a dire emergency, he followed Lakshmana.
Neither of them thought of sleep. Through the dark
and pathless forest they sought a charmed cavern in
the depths of the wood, whose inmates, they thought,
might give them the information they sought. At the
foot of a mountain they found the entrance to the
cave ; day was now breaking, and there, resting upon
the thick foliage of a laurel bush, lay a delicate wreath
which Slta had worn in her hair. Rama caught up

i Book III, Canto 01.

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THE AKCIEHT BOOKS OF IHDIA.

the half-withered flowers, and while he pressed them
to his lips his eye caught sight of a friendly vulture.
The vulture told them that Havana, the demon king,
had hurried by a short time before, bearing a beauti-
ful woman in his arms, and pointed out the way he
had gone. They stayed for a few questions, and then
performed the funeral rites of the vulture, who died
before their eyes, having received a death wound from
Havana, in consequence of his vain attempts to rescue
Slta from the grasp of the fiend. Having performed
this labor of love for their lost friend and thereby as-
sured to him a higher birth and an entrance to heaven,
they hastened onward.

SUGRIVA, THE MOKKEY KIHG.

After a long and wearisome journey, Rama and
Lakshmana came to the beautiful lake of Pampa, with
its wealth of water lilies and lotus blossoms. The
sweet breath of the flowers mingled with the rich odor
of the sandal trees, and multitudes of water birds with
radiant plumage stood upon the green bank of the lake
or hovered joyously over its crystal surface. Amidst the
dense foliage on the other shore the wild cotton tree
of India lifted here and there its leafless branches,
glowing with heavy crimson blossoms, and over all the
peaceful scene rested the benediction of the parting
day. Here they remained through the night, the
faithful Lakshmana making a bed of lotus for his
brother and bringing water from the lake to bathe his
weary feet.

Rising early in the morning, they performed their
customary ablutions in the clear waters of the lake.

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and pressed forward toward tlie mountain Riskya-
nmkha, where lived the monkey raja, Sugrlva.1

Sugriva and his monkey counselors beheld their ap-
proach from a fort on the top of the mountain, and
the raja said, “There are two men coming from the
Pampa ; they are dressed like devotees, but they carry
arms. I fear they are enemies.”

But Hanuman, who was the chief among his coun-
selors, answered, “ Be of good cheer, oh Sugrlva, for
these are the sons of a raja, and they have come for
our deliverance.” Then Hanuman descended the moun-
tain to meet the travelers, and escorted them into the
presence of his king.

Rama told his story to Sugriva, and the monkey
king replied, “'Some days ago I was sitting here with
my counselors, when a fearful darkness came over the
whole mountain, and looking upward we saw the
terrible Ravana passing over us. In his arms he held
a beautiful woman, who was calling upon the trees and
the sun to rescue her, and who, as they passed us,
threw down her ornaments and her veil, which we
have kept, hoping to identify her by them.”

i In the southern i>art of India there are multitudes of monkeys of great
intelligence and shrewdness. Their successful trips over almost impassable
barriers and their apparent organization have made a strong impression
upon the superstitious natives, who seem to regard them as creatures half
human and half divine. In the “Conclave of the Gods,” when Vishau
promised to overthrow the demon, he commanded the other deities to
assume the form of monkeys and come to his assistance. It is very proba-
ble, however, that the monkeys of Southern India have been confounded
with a race of aboriginal natives who worshiped this animal as a god. In a
recent letter to the author on this subject Sir Monier Williams says, “ The
monkeys of the great Epics are really the aboriginal tribes of India, who
belong to a lower type of humanity, and were in ancient times very like
monkeys or apes in appearance (as they are even now where the aboriginal
type is preserved). In the same way, the powerful Dravidians, who con-
quered the aborigines and were a terror to the Aryan invaders, are called
demons."

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Sugriva then sent for the ornaments and handed
them to Rama. He took the little silver bells that
had tinkled round her graceful ankles and raised them
to his lips amidst a flood of tears ; the delicate veil he
kissed over and over again, while all around him were
deeply affected by the scene.

Hanuman built a fire, and Rama and Sugriva made
a covenant of mutual friendship before it. Then the
monkey king told the story of his own grievance as
follows : “ I am the younger son of a great monkey

raja. One day, going out to hunt with my brother
Bali, who had just ascended the throne, we found a
demon, who fled into a cave. Bali directed me to
stand at the mouth of the cave while he went in and
killed the demon. I stood there until I saw a stream
of blood issuing from the cavern. Still my brother
came not out. So, supposing that the demon had
slain him, I stopped up the mouth of the cave with a
rock and went back to the city. The monkeys accepted
me as their raja. In a few days, however, my brother
returned, and was very angry with me for supplanting
him in the raj. He took my wife to be his own and
banished me to this mountain, where I have no raj, as
you may see, but only a few faithful followers, who
chose to share my exile.”

Then said Rama, “ Cast aside, my friend, all fear
of Bali ; I promise to make you free. Put on your
war dress and go to the gates of the palace and chal-
lenge your brother to single combat, and when he comes
out against you I will slay him.”

Then Sugriva set out for the monkey city, accom-
panied by Rama and Lakshmana. When they arrived.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

235

the two brothers concealed themselves in the forest,
while Sugriva went forward and in tones of thunder
challenged Bali to single combat. __ Tara, the wife
of Bali, tried to prevent him from going out, but
maddened by the repeated challenge of his brother
he finally flung himself upon him, and they struggled
until Rama, seeing that the battle was going against
Sugriva, sent an arrow through Bali and killed him.
All of the monkeys set up pitiful cries and howls of
rage when they saw that their king was slain, and the
moans of the female monkeys were piteous to hear.
But Sugriva was beside himself with joy when he
learned that his brother had fallen before the arrow of
Rama.

The chosen monkeys placed the dead body of Bali
upon a litter and taking it upon their shoulders car-
ried it to the burning pyre, followed by the other mon-
keys, crying bitterly. The hypocritical Sugriva occu-
pied a prominent place among the mourners. After
the funeral rites were completed, Sugriva took again
his own wife, Ruma, and also appropriated Tara, the
widow of Bali. It was agreed by all the monkeys
that Sugriva should be their raja, and that Angada,
the son of Bali, should be installed as the Yuva-raja.
Sugriva was therefore installed as the raja of the
whole kingdom of monkeys,1 and as the rainy season

i J. Talboys Wheeler says, in his “History of India,” “The narra-
tive of Rama's alliance with the monkeys exercises a weird influence
upon the imagination. . . . The mind is called upon to deal with

nondescript beings, half monkey and half man ; having long tails and
walking upon all fours, and yet performing funeral rites for a deceased
raja, and installing a successor upon the throne, with all the form and
ceremony of human beings. It was a monkey raja, surrounded by his
monkey counselors, who beheld the approach of Rama and his brother
from the bastion of their fort on the mountain. The combats between

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had now commenced, Hama told Sugriva to enjoy him-
self in his new capital until the rains were over, and
then go with him in search of Sita.

EXPEDITION OF THE MONKEY GENERAL, HANUMAN.

When the rainy season closed, and the land of India
was luxuriant with the glories of her new foliage and
delicate blossoms, a large force of monkeys was gath-
ered together and sent out in search of Sitii. The
troops were under the command of Hanuman, who
was the shrewdest and most powerful of all the mon-
key generals. When he departed he asked of Rama
some token which he could give to Sita if he found
her, as a proof that he was indeed a messenger sent
from her husband. Hama gave him a ring which he
had received on his wedding day from Janaka, the
father of Sita.

The expedition moved to the southward and searched
the country in every direction without finding any
clew to the location of the fair captive. After a
month spent in this way they were returning to
Sugrlva, discouraged and disconsolate, when one
evening, as they had composed their weary limbs for
the night, they saw upon a distant crag the chief of
vultures, Sampati. One of the monkeys ventured to
climb up the crag where he was sitting and inquired

Sugriva ami Bali are the combats of monkeys. As regards the narra-
tive, it certainly seems to refer to some real event among the aborigi-
nal tribes : viz., the quarrel between an elder and a younger brother
for the possession of a raj, and the subsequent alliance of Rama with
the younger brother. It is somewhat remarkable that Rama appears to
l ave formed an alliance with the wrong party, for the right of Bali
was evidently superior to that of Sugriva, and it is especially worthy
of note that Rama compassed the death of Bali by an act contrary to
all the rules of fair fighting.” (See Yol. II, pp. 323-334.)

237

THE STORY OF TIIE RAJIAYANA.

reverently of him if he remembered having seen
the demon king rushing through the air during the
last few months. “Indeed,” answered the vulture, “I
remember it well, for I was upon the wing in search
of food, and not a living creature was in sight. A

terrible horror seemed to fill the very air, and not

even a mouse ventured forth that I might appease
my hunger. As I searched everywhere in vain I
noticed that the sky was growing dark, as if a tem-
pest were hovering above us, and glancing upward I
saw the terrible Havana. His fiery eyes glared upon
me ; but his attention was diverted from me by a pit-
iful cry from a beautiful woman whom he held in

his arms, and hurrying into a thicket I escaped with
my life.” “That beautiful woman is the object of
our search,” said the monkey. “ Can you tell me which
way the demon went ? ”

“ Yes, he went toward the island of Ceylon, and
it is doubtless in his palace in the city of Lanka that
you will find his captive,” responded Sampati, as he
smoothed his feathers and began to make himself com-
fortable for the night. “ 1 have often soared above it,
and it is the finest city in this part of the world ;
but the Rakshasas who inhabit it are even more dan-
gerous and terrible then men are, and I would advise
you monkeys to stay away and let them alone.” Hut
the adventurous messenger, overjoyed at the reception
of the tidings, hastened to his commander with the
information. As soon as the morning dawned Ilanu-
mau awoke his followers, and after a hasty breakfast
of fruit and leaves in the branches of the trees the
little fellows started bravely for the sea coast. But

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they beheld the island they sought fully sixty miles
from the shore, nor were there boats or bridges to en-
able them to make the hazardous passage.

Hanuman called for volunteers to go to the island
and obtain the desired information, but not one of the
dismayed little soldiers raised a hand. At last Hanu-
man said, “ As none of you dare to undertake it, I
will go myself. But I shall jump all the way across
these great billows, and land upon the island.” Then
there was a great cheering and chattering, for besides
the admiration felt for their brave commander, every
ape was greatly relieved to know that he would not
be compelled to undertake the task. Hanuman then
distended his form until it was as large as a moun-
tain, and his body glittered like gold in the sunlight,

while his face was as red as rubies. Ilis arms were

extended like the wings of a great dragon, and his

tail was so long that the end of it could not be seen.
He took his position upon the mountain Mandara (the
fabled center of the earth) and cried in a voice of
thunder,

“ Swift as a shaft from Rama’s bow
To Ravan’s city I will go.”

Then extending his long arms he drew in his neck,
erected his ears, and raising himself upon the moun-
tain sprang toward the south and alighted upon the
island of Ceylon with a bound that made the island
tremble. The demon king sent for his counselors and
demanded of them why the earth was quivering beneath
his capital city. They answered that it was an earth-
quake, but one who was bolder than the others vent-

239

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

ured to hint that the earthquake had been sent by
the gods on account of the detention of Sita, and ad-
vised that she he restored to her friends before the
island was entirely destroyed. But the haughty king
replied that lie had not sent for them because he
needed any advice, and angrily dismissed his coun-
selors.

LANKA.

Hanuman had alighted upon the summit of the Sa-
bula mountain, and stood looking down upon the city
of Lanka, which was a hundred miles in length and
thirty in breadth. It was completely surrounded by
numerous walls and canals, one within another. Inside
of the great outer canal was a broad belt of thick for-
est, which was infested with wild animals. Inside of
that was an impenetrable wall of iron, with a gate on
each of the four sides, guarded by hundreds of Eak-
shasas. Lanka itself was beautified with lakes and
parks and palaces of Oriental magnificence. In the
center of the city rose the lofty domes of the palace of
Havana, and every parapet was crowded with armed
demons, whose duty it was to guard their king, whether
he was asleep or awake.

In order to reconnoiter without alarming the foe,
Hanuman assumed the form of a cat. In this shape
he slipped by the guards and through the gates with
perfect impunity. The broad streets were set with
gems, but such was the discipline of Ravana that no
one dared to pick one up, even if it became loosened
in its setting. The magnificent houses were open to
receive the cool air of the evening, and within them he

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saw hideous Rakshasas, of every shape and form.
Some of them were as tall as the trees and others were
dwarfs. Some of them had only two legs, while others
had three or four. Some had heads like serpents,
others wore the features of donkeys. Some had heads
like horses, while the faces of others were decorated
with trunks like elephants.

While the monkey general in the shape of a cat was
carefully observing these things, the shades of night
settled down upon the city and the streets were
deserted.

TIIE PALACE OF RAVANA.

After the demons had fallen asleep, the strange
scout slipped quietly into the palace of raja Ravana.
This resplendent mansion was surrounded on all sides
with a canal, from whose clear waters rose the green
leaves and bright blossoms of the lotus, while the even-
ing air was laden with their fragrance. Within this
watery barrier the golden walls arose to such a height
that the birds could not fly above them, and the pil-
lars on each side of the gates were made of black
crystal. The gates were guarded by thousands of
Rakshasas, and over the walls floated the soft strains
of music. “Surely,” thought the little spy, “this raja
Ravana must have been a very virtuous man in his
former life, and for this reason he enjoys so much
wealth now.” Then he slipped through the gate and
into the inner apartments of the palace, where he
found fountains and pools of clear water, with masses
of gorgeous tropical flowers around them.

The sleeping room of Ravana presented a scene of

241

THE STORY OF THE RAMA YANA.

barbaric splendor. The walls were blazing with gold
and gems, while the floor was inlaid with black crys-
tal. The royal couch was as beautiful as art could
make it. The draperies were as soft and white as
waves of milk. Golden jars filled with water stood in
the corners of the room, and lamps of precious stones
were hung from the ceiling. Hundreds of beautiful
women were sleeping in various parts of the great
room, and the demon king lay upon his royal bed, a
crown of gold upon each black and terrible head, and his
twenty hands laden with heavy jeweled rings. While
he slept, Hanuman looked carefully around the room,
but among all the beautiful women there he found no
one that answered to the description of Slta. Leaving
the palace, he entered a luxuriant

ASOKA GROVE.

He hastily climbed into the branches of one of the
trees1 and looking around him saw not far away a
beautiful woman, whose eyes were red with constant
weeping. She was sitting sadly upon the ground sur-
rounded by hideous Rakshasa women. The fair girl
reminded him of a beautiful doe surrounded by tigresses,
which were ready at any moment to feed upon her
delicate flesh. Her attendants were pleading with her
to become the wife of Ravana, but she only replied
by chanting in a sweet minor key the name of
“ Rama ! ” “ Rama ! ”

While Hanuman still looked, the demon king him-
self appeared, attended by all the women of his court.

i The Jonesia A«oka is one of the loveliest trees of that tropical clime, its
foliage being crowned, with a profusion of gorgeous red blossoms.

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The little spy then crept along the branches nearer to
Sltii. When Havana with his attendants came into the
grove, she started and shivered with terror. The raja
appealed to her to wipe away her tears and enjoy the
luxuries of his court. “ Do not fear me,” he said, “for
I am your slave and you need have no fear of being
discovered by others, for no man can enter my palace.
Let me send for women who will wash you with water
and costly perfumes ; who will dress your beautiful
hair and adorn your lovely form with magnificent robes
and the richest jewels of the east. You shall be the
mistress of all my other wives and the queen of my
heart.”

But Sita answered, “ Oh, lord of Lanka, you are
renowned throughout the world for your wealth, strength,
and valor. Do not, I implore you, soil your reputa-
tion by wickedness. Restore me, I pray you, to my
husband, Rama, and entreat his forgiveness. My hus-
band is my wealth, lie is more to me than all the
riches at your command.”

He continued to plead with her until she turned
upon him and threatened him with the anger of her
husband. “Oh, wicked Ravana,” she cried, “you have
not long to live. Your golden Lanka will soon be a
heap of ashes and your numberless army shall fall like
ripened grain before the arrows of Rama. There is as
much difference between you and him as there is be-
tween a mouse and a lion, or a mosquito and a hawk.
You are only a glow-worm, but he is the noonday sun.
You are a grain of sand, but he is a precious
stone.”

Stung by her taunts, the demon’s eyes flashed fire.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA. 243

“ Thy language/’ said he, “ is more like that of a

master than of a creature who is helpless in my hands.

I will give thee, however, two months in which to

decide the matter, and if at the end of that time

thou consent not to become my wife,

“ My cooks shall mince thy limbs with steel.

And serve thee for my morning meal.”

He turned haughtily away and with his attendants
returned to his palace.

INTERVIEW BETWEEN HANUMAN AND SITA.

At last she was left alone with her agony and ter-
ror ; but while she moaned aloud in her suffering, she
heard a voice in the trees above her sweetly chanting
the name of “ Rama.” Looking upward she saw only
a diminutive monkey and concluded that the voice
was an illusion. But the monkey said, “I am the
slave of Rama, and I have been sent by him to dis-
cover his bride ; ” then coming quickly down from the
tree and bowing himself before her he proved his
claim by presenting her with Rama’s signet ring. At
the sight of the ring she wept for joy and catching
hold of the precious jewel pressed it to her lips, then
placed it upon her head in token of his sovereignty
and afterwards clasped it to her heart. Hanuman
proposed to carry her away upon his back, but she
answered that so small a monkey could not carry her
across the ocean. Thereupon he increased his size to
more than giant proportions, and while she looked at
him in wonder she said, “I do believe you could carry
me; but I will never willingly touch the form of

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any man except my husband. Besides, if you took me
away by stealth, the world would say that Rama is a
coward and is unable to punish Havana.” So she
dismissed him with loving messages for her husband
and with an admonition for him to hasten to her re-
lief, as only two months remained for her to live
unless he came. She sent to Rama the only ring she
still possessed and placed his upon her own finger,
begging Hanuman to hasten his departure with her
messages.

IIANUMAN DESTROYS THE MANGO GROVE.

But Rama’s messenger was not content to leave the
beautiful island without avenging in some way Sltil’s
wrong upon the demon king ; so in the form of an
immense baboon he rushed into a beautiful grove of
mango trees, and tore off the rich fruit and foliage,
breaking the branches until he destroyed every tree in
the grove. The guards of Rakshasas were awakened
by the noise, and instead of stopping to do battle
with the invader, they rushed off and informed the
king that a huge monkey had entered Lanka and was
destroying all his trees.

When Havana heard of this, he ordered an army of
eighty thousand Rakshasas to capture the invader and
bring him in chains before the king. But the valiant
monkey after a short conflict sent the whole body of
troops to the regions of Yama. When the king heard
that his soldiers were all slain, he sent the giants of
his army, but they too met the same fate. At last a
shrewd Rakshasa captured the marauder with a pow-
erful noose, and he was led into the council hall of
Ravana.

245

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAHA.

Hanuman then defied the king to his face and de-
claring himself to be the ambassador of Rama de-
manded the restoration of Sita. But the king arose
from his throne in a terrible rage and ordered that
the monkey should be beheaded. His chief counselor,
however, declared that they had no right to kill an
ambassador, although, according to the Sastras, they
could mutilate him in one of three ways. He might
be disfigured, or beaten with stripes, or his head
might he shaved.

Then said Havana, “I will not kill this monkey,
but he shall not go unpunished ; and as his tail is his
principal ornament, I shall have it set on fire and
burned.”

THE BTTRXIXG OF LAXKA.

The king’s orders were quickly obeyed, and the
monkey’s tail was wrapped with inflammable fabrics,
which were soaked with oil and set on fire. But Han-
uman immediately reduced his body to a diminutive
size and, slipping quickly out of the noose, sprang
upon a wall, and before they could recapture him was
lashing the roof with his flaming tail.

“ He scaled the palaces, and spread
The conflagration where he sped.

From house to house he hurried on.

And the wild flames behind him shone.

Each mansion of the foe he scaled,

And furious fire its roof assailed,

Till all the common ruin shared.

YibhlshanV house alone was spared.

i The counselor who had saved his life.

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

246

From blazing pile to pile lie sprang,

And loud his shout of triumph rang.

Loud was the roar the demons raised
’Mid walls that split and beams that blazed,

As each with vain endeavor strove
To stay the flames in house or grove.

He saw the flames ascend and curl
Round turkis, diamond, and pearl,

While silver floods and molten gold
From ruined wall and lattice rolled
As fire grows fiercer as it feeds
On wood and grass and crackling weeds.

So Hanuman the ruin eyed,

With fury still unsatisfied.”

HANUMAN REJOINS THE MONKEY ARMY.

Leaving the blazing city to be cared for by its ter-
ror-stricken inhabitants, Hanuman rushed to the sea-
shore and with a mighty leap landed in the midst of
his own troops and triumphantly related the story of
his exploits in Lanka. The army was placed in

marching order and joyfully set out to carry the glad
tidings to raja Sugriva, chanting as they advanced the
name of Rama. When they arrived at the court

Hanuman advanced into the royal presence, bowing
himself before the monkey raja and also before Rama,
to whom he told the story of his adventures. He

placed in Rama’s hand the ring which Sita had given

him, and delivered her messages, saying that unless
she could be rescued within two months, Ravana would
surely accomplish his murderous threat. Rama received

24 H

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAtfA.

the jewel with great emotion and made a solemn vow
that within two months the demon king should pay
the penalty of his fearful crime.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA, CONCLUDED.

THE MONKEY EXPEDITION AGAINST LANKA — THE
SOUTHERN SEA — THE OCEAN BRIDGE — INVASION
OF LANKA — HAVANA AND RAMA IN SINGLE COM-
BAT— THE DEATH OF HAVANA — RESTORATION OF
SlTA — SlTl’S TRIAL AND VINDICATION — TRIUM-
PHANT RETURN TO AYODHYA — THE BANISHMENT
OF SlTA — THE SONS OF SITA — THE DEPARTURE.

ONE bright morning the tropical sun looked down
upon an innumerable host of monkeys ready to
march upon Lanka at the word of command. The raja
had given the control of his troops into the hands of
Kama, who was the commander general of the expe-
dition, while Lakshmana and Sugrlva were his chiefs
of staff. The vast army extended in length a thou-
sand miles. When they were all arrayed in military
order, the heroic monkeys sounded their conch shells,
and the earth trembled beneath their exultant screams
and the lashing of their tails.1 The innumerable host
poured over the mountains and through the great for-
ests, and living upon the fruits and leaves of the

i See the Adhyatma version which is divided into seven books bear-
ing the same titles as Valmiki's version. Its object is to show that
Rama is a representation of the Supreme Spirit, and that Sita is a type
of Nature.

248

249

THE STORY OF THE RAHATAXA.

trees they desolated the land like an army of locusts,
leaving not even a flower in their track. They swept
like a torrent over the fertile fields and flowery vales,
until they reached the fair shores of

THE SOUTHERX SEA.

Here they called a halt, for before them the wild
billows foamed with rage and the dark tide came
sweeping in closer and closer to their feet with every
throbbing pulse from the great heart of the ocean.
Lanka lay in safety far beyond their sight, entrenched
behind the pathless billows. While the chiefs were
gathered in counsel upon the shore, another night came
down upon them and the starlight touched with sil-
ver the heads of the dashing waves.

Wearied by the rapid march and perplexed by the
hopeless situation, Rama left the council of his chiefs
and with his head bared to the cool night air walked
slowly to the water’s edge. As the dark breakers
came rolling in he bent above them, invoking the aid
of the fair goddess of the sea, when suddenly in the
coral chambers beneath the surf there flashed a phos-
phorescent light, which slowly formed itself into a
beautiful woman. Her white shoulders gleamed like
pearl beneath the tide and her crimson lips were wet
with the kisses of Neptune. Her heavy hair was bound
with delicate sprays of the seaweed and her shell-
tinted robe was fastened with branches of coral. In
gentle tones she asked, ‘“'What wilt thou, Rama, that
I shall do for thee ? ” “ Fair goddess of the sea,” he

cried, “ a demon has stolen my wife away and crushed
my heart beneath his feet. My beautiful bride is a

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prisoner on yonder isle — help me to bridge this path-
less deep and avenge her wrongs with my gallant
troops.”

Again her silvery voice was heard amid the roaring
of the surf : “ Say to Nala that he shall build a

bridge, and every stone he touches shall float upon my
waves.” Then turning away she waved her graceful
hand, and the dark drapery of the waves hid her from
his sight.

THE OCEAN BRIDGE.

As soon as the crimson light of morning kissed
the mountain peaks and crowned the ocean waves with
light, Rama sounded upon his conch shell the call of
“Attention.” Promptly his troops were gathered at
his feet, and he sent for Nala, the shrewdest general
in his army. After giving him a few directions he
turned to the rank and file and ordered them to bring
to Nala all the material they could find, with which
to build a bridge to the fair island of Ceylon, that
they might march in triumph to its capital city. All
the weariness of the long march was forgotten, and
the order was received with screams and shouts of ex-
ultation. In a few minutes thousands of monkeys
were running in every direction, and bringing to Nala
rocks and the trunks of trees, with which to build
the great bridge. Even mountains were torn up and
hurled upon the waters, where beneath the magic touch
of Xala every tree and stone and the great masses of
earth floated together into one unyielding mass.

In the meantime the mother of Ravana began to
see evil omens on every side, and calling to her other

251

THE STORY OF THE KAMIYAM.

son, Yibhishana, she begged of him to advise Havana
to restore Slta to her husband. But Havana was so
vain and self-conceited that he would receive no advice
from his friends, and only abused his brother for in-
terfering with his affairs. The bridge was at last com-
pleted, and one night the strange army marched over
it and encamped on the island of Lanka, near the
Sabula Mountain. Yibhishana, the brother of Havana,
deserted his people and went over to the camp of
Rama ; whereupon the commanding general ordered
water to be brought from the sea, and pouring it upon
the head of Yibhishana declared him to be the raja
of Lanka instead of his brother Ravana.

INVASION' OF LANKA.

Ravana sat in state in his council hall upon a
throne set with precious stones. Ten crowns of pearls
and jewels were upon his ten heads and thousands of
giants surrounded his court. A rich canopy of strung
pearls was suspended over his throne and he held a
wine cup in his hand, while beautiful girls amused him
with dance and song.

But his counselors entered his chamber and in-
formed him that Hama had landed his troops and was
preparing to attack the city. He immediately sent for
the commander-in-chief of his armies and told him to
gather the hosts of the Rakshasas and make ready for
battle. At the sound of the bugle they were drawn
up in military array before the demon king, who or-
dered them to meet the invaders at the gates of the
city and bring him the heads of their chiefs. The
army of demons marched out of the fortress to the

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strains of discordant music. Their cavalry was mounted
on buffaloes, camels, lions, hyenas, wolves, and even
hogs. Their arms consisted of swords, clubs, bows and
arrows, spears, and many nondescript weapons.

In the meantime Kama, having marshaled the ranks
of the monkeys, placed himself at their head, and led
them to the attack. Some of them had torn up the
trunks of trees for weapons and some carried immense
rocks in their arms, while others depended upon their
teeth and nails, which they had sharpened like swords.
They were drawn up in long lines of battle, with ten
million monkeys in each line. Sounding their shells
they marched to the fray shouting, “ Victory to
Rama!” The fight was long and the issue doubtful,
when Sugriva, seizing a large tree, tore it up by the
roots and hurled it upon Indrajit, the famous son of
Havana, who had once conquered Indra. The tree
crushed his chariot and killed his horses and charioteer.
The demon retreated and offered a sacrifice to Agni,
when suddenly out of the fire came a golden chariot
drawn by four horses, and Indrajit, seating himself
within it, became invisible and discharged his arrows at
Kama and Lakshmana, who could not see whence they
came. At last he threw a noose made of serpents over
the two brothers and caught them in its meshes. But
Garuda, the bird upon which Vishnu rides, came to the
rescue, and when the serpents saw him they fled,
leaving the brothers unharmed.

Finding that the tide of battle was going against
his troops Havana marched to the field in person at
the head of powerful re-enforcements. His ten faces
were black with rage and his heads appeared like

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THE STORY OF THE IUJIAYANA,

rough mountains. His twenty eyes gleamed like fiery
furnaces and his eyebrows and whiskers were com-
posed of the shining bodies of black serpents. As the
terrible conllict continued, Kama and Havana came
face to face in the fight and were soon engaged in

SINGLE COMBAT.

The god Indra looked down from heaven, and seeing
that Kama was without a chariot, sent him his own,
with armor and weapons, and also his charioteer. As
the terrible duel progressed, growing more and more
desperate every hour, the gods became so absorbed in
the fight that they could not refrain from joining in
the fray, even as the gods of Greece took part in the
siege of Troy.

“ When the powers descending swelled the fight
Then tumult rose ; fierce rage and pale affright
Varied each face; then Discord sounds alarms.
Earth echoes, and the nations rush to arms.

Now through the trembling shores Minerva calls.
And now she thunders from the Grecian walls.
Mars, hovering o’er his Troy, his terror shrouds
In gloomy tempest and a night of clouds.”1

Vishnu and Indra with all their allies took sides
with Rama, while the evil spirits joined their forces
with Havana. The demon king rode in a magic car
which was drawn by horses having human faces. The
armies on both sides soon stopped fighting, for the
whole interest of the troops was concentrated upon the
terrible conflict between Rama and Havana, in which the

l II., Book XX.

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gods themselves took part. The demon king was at
last driven from the field by his charioteer, but lie furi-
ously commanded him to return to the fight. The
battle raged with undiminished fury for seven days
and nights. Again and again Havana was borne down
by the missiles of Kama, and his charioteer drove his
master in a fainting condition to the walls of his castle.
As soon as lie recovered, however, be angrily bade him
return to the contest.

“ With wondrous power and mighty skill
The giant fought with Kama still.

Each at his foe his chariot drove.

And still for death or victory strove.

The warriors’ steeds together dashed.

And pole with pole re-echoing clashed.

Dense clouds of arrows Kama shot
With that strong arm that rested not ;

And spear and mace and club and brand
Fell in dire rain from Ravan’s hand.

The storm of missiles fiercely cast
Stirred up the oceans with its blast.

And serpent-gods and fiends who dwell
Below were troubled by the swell.

The earth with hill and plain and brook
And grove and garden reeled and shook ;

The very sun grew cold and pale,

And horror stilled the rising gale.”

As the fight grew more and more desperate, the
combatants drew closer, and at last an arrow hissing
from Rama’s bow cut off one of Ravana’s heads; but
like the hydra whose heads were severed by Hercules,

THE STORY OF THE RAMA YANA.

255

another immediately grew in its place. Again and
again lie cut a head from the demon, only to see it re-
newed by the time he could draw his bow again.

“ Then to his deadly string, the pride
Of Raghu’s race1 a shaft applied.

Sharp as a serpent's venomed fang.

Straight to its mark the arrow sprang
And from the giant’s body shred
With trenchant steel the monstrous head.

There might the triple world behold
That severed head adorned with gold ;

But when all eyes were bent to view.

Swift in its stead another grew.

Again the shaft was pointed well,

Again the head divided fell ;

But still as each to earth was cast.

Another head succeeded fast.

A hundred bright with fiery flame
Fell low before the victor’s aim.

Yet B fivan by no sign betrayed

That death was near or strength decayed ;

The doubtful fight he still maintained
And on his foe his missiles rained.

In air, on earth, on plain, on hill,

With awful might he battled still.

And through the hours of night and day
The conflict knew no pause or stay.”

Rama, however, had the charmed arrow which had
been given to him by Brahma to use only as a last
resort.

i Raghu was the great-grandfather of Rama.

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25<i

Havana’s death.

“ Then Miltali to Rama cried,

‘ Let other arms the day decide ;

Launch at the foe thy dart whose tire
Was kindled by the Almighty Sire.’

He ceased, and Raglm’s son obeyed.

Upon his string the hero laid
An arrow like a snake that hissed,

Whose fiery flight had never missed.

By Brahma’s self on him bestowed
When forth to fight. Lord Indra rode.

lie laid it on the trusted cord

And turned the point at Lanka’s lord ;

And swift the limb-dividing dart
Pierced the huge chest and cleft the heart,
And dead he fell upon the plain.

Like Vritra1 by the Thunderer slain.

The Rakshas host when Ravan fell,

Sent forth a wild, terrific yell,

Then turned and fled, all hope resigned,
Through Lanka’s gates, nor looked behind.
His voice each joyous Vanar raised.

And ‘ Rama, conquering Rama,’ praised.
Soft from celestial minstrels came
The sound of music and acclaim ;

Soft, fresh, and cool, a rising breeze
Brought odors from the heavenly trees ;
And, ravishing the sight and smell,

A wondrous rain of blossoms fell ;

i The spirit of evil who was slain by Indra, “ the Thunderer.”

THE STORY OF THE BAifAYANA. 257

And voices breathed round Raghu’s son,
‘Champion of gods, well done, well done.’”

Ere long the cry that the monarch had fallen was
borne to his palace, and all his wives came out with
disheveled hair and went to the battle-field, uttering
bitter cries as they passed through the terror-stricken
throng in the streets. When they came to the dead
body of the demon, some of them fainted and others
caressed the hideous creature as if he were still alive.
Kama was touched by their sorrow, and ordered Vib-
hishana to take the women back to the inner apart-
ments of the palace and perform the funeral rites for
his brother Havana.

The dead raja was buried with elaborate ceremonies
and all the pomp appropriate to an imperial funeral.
As soon as the days of mourning were ended, Yiblil-
shana was installed as raja of Lanka.

THE RESTORATION OF SITA.

When all the rites had been performed, Rama for-
mally demanded of the new raja the return of his wife.
Vibhishana immediately ordered that a multitude of
maids should attend upon Slta ; that they should dress
her hair and adorn her person in a way that befitted
her queenly estate. She had received the crown of
youth from the aged devotee in the forest and was
beautiful as a dream. Xeither tears nor suffering had
power to mar her bright face or change the delicate
lines of her beautiful mouth.

His lovely queen was brought in imperial state to
Rama, attended by a long procession of musicians and
dancing girls, her palanquin well-nigh covered with

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flowers. Kama ordered the carriage to be opened and
bade his wife descend, that her great beauty might be
seen by the troops who had so valiantly fought for her
rescue. Although this order was a violation of Hindu
etiquette, which did not allow a wife to be seen un-
veiled, the loving Slta obeyed without hesitation and
stepped out in full view of the multitude. A low
murmur of admiration passed through the throng as
the beautiful vision dawned upon them. STta stood in
the presence of her lord, with her loving eyes upon the
ground, while with joined hands she reverently waited
his summons to fly into his arms. The thought of his
loving welcome had been her only comfort in the ter-
rible hours of her captivity, and her loyal heart hun-
gered for the warm love and caresses which had been
her life in the years that were gone.

But no word of affection, no look of love, greeted
the restored captive. With folded arms and stony eyes
he thus addressed her :

“ Lady, at length my task is done.

And thou, the prize of war, art won.

If from my home my queen was reft,

This arm hath well avenged the theft ;

And in the field has washed away
The blot that on my honor lay.

But, lady, Twas not love for thee
That led mine army o’er the sea.

I battled to avenge the cause
Of honor and insulted laws.

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THE STORY OF THE EAMAYAXA.

My love is fled, for on thy fame
Lies the dark blot of sin and shame.

And thou -art hateful as the light
That flashes on the injured sight ;

The world is all before thee ; flee !

Go where thou wilt, but not with me.

For Ravan bore thee through the sky.

And fixed on thine his evil eye ;

About thy waist his arm he threw.

Close to his breast his captive drew,

And kept thee, vassal of his power.

An inmate of his ladies’ bower.”

At these cruel words the smooth cheek paled with
agony, the beautiful eyes filled with tears, and the
delicate frame quivered beneath his scorn like an aspen
leaf swept by a terrible tempest.

sIta’s trial and vindication.

The beautiful woman stood trembling in the pres-
ence of the man she had so long worshiped, and who
had chosen to reward her devotion by public humilia-
tion and accusation. At last amidst her sobs she
answered :

“ Canst thou, a high-born prince, dismiss
A high-born dame with speech like this ?

Such words befit the meanest kind.

Not princely birth and generous mind.

By all my virtuous life I swear
I am not what thy words declare.

If some are faithless, wilt thou find

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THE AXCIENT BOOKS OF IXDIA.

No love or truth in womankind ?

Doubt others if thou wilt, but own
The truth which all my life has shown.

If when the giant seized his prey
Within his hated arms I lay
And felt the grasp I dreaded, blame
Fate and the robber, not thy dame.

What could a helpless woman do ?

My heart was thine and still was true.”

Then turning to his brother Lakshmana, who had
always been her loyal friend, she commanded him to
prepare for her a funeral pile, declaring that its fire
was her only refuge in her dark despair. Said she,
“ I will not live beneath the weight of the shame and
injustice which have been heaped upon me ; I will
end my woes by entering the fire, and thou, my
brother, in preparing it for me wilt prove my best
and truest friend.”

“ His mournful eyes the hero raised
And wistfully on Rama gazed.

In whose stern look no ruth was seen,

No mercy for the weeping queen.

No chieftain dared to meet those eyes,

To pray, to question, or advise.

The word was passed, the wood was piled,

And fain to die stood Janak’s child.

She slowly paced around her lord.

The gods with reverent act adored.

Then, raising suppliant hands, the dame
Prayed humbly to the lord of flame :

• As this fond heart by virtue swayed

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THE STORY OF THE RAMAYANA.

From Raghu’s son lias never strayed.

So universal witness, fire.

Protect my body on the pyre.

As Raghu’s son has idly laid
This charge on Sita, hear and aid.'

She ceased and, fearless to the last.

Within the flames’ wild fury passed.’’

Lakshmana and others looked anxiously at Rama,
expecting to see some sign of relenting in his stony
face ; but he was the victim of his own false ideas
concerning woman’s purity and honor and stood look-
ing on with folded arms, while the flames wreathed
the fair form of his wife. The beautiful victim quiv-
ered in anguish, and cries of reproach came from the
troops. When it was too late to save her from her
fate, Rama seemed to relent, and he cried, “Alas!
I have reproached her for nothing— I shall never find
so faithful a wife again.” But the cruel pyre blazed
on amidst the cries and lamentations of the multitude,
when lo ! the god of fire came forth from the flames,
bearing Sita in his arms, a beautiful living queen.

“ Fair as the morning was her sheen,

And gold and gems adorned the queen.

Her form in crimson robes arrayed.

Her hair was bound in glossy braid.”

Giving her to Rama Agni said : “ Take her as

your wife. She is without a stain. I know the
hearts of all, and had she the shadow of a stain upon
her chastity she could never have passed in safety from
me.” Then Rama placed his arm around her, and

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ashamed to confess the great wrong that he had done
her, complacently said, “ I knew my beloved Sltil was
chaste and true, but 1 put her to the test of the fire,
lest men should blame me. Now I am free from all
censure.’’ Ilis troops applauded him, and Sita, with
that womanly forgiveness which is so nearly akin to
the divine, nestled again in her husband’s bosom.

TRIUMPHANT RETURN TO AYODHYA.

The time of his exile was now drawing to a close, and
Rama ordered that the great golden chariot1 which
had been used by Ravana should be made ready for
their triumphal departure. But Sugriva and all of
the monkeys, and Vibhishana, and even the inhabi-
tants of Lanka, begged that they might be allowed to
witness his inauguration at Ayodhya. Rama therefore
commanded that all of the monkeys and all of the
Rakshasas should enter the golden chariot. Then the
great car, laden with millions of monkeys and demons,
with Rama and Sita in the seat of honor, arose in the
air and flew rapidly to the northward. When they
arrived at the beautiful mountain of Citra-kuta, Rama
sent Ilanuman to the city in order to inform his
brother Bharata of his approach.

When the younger brother received the glad news
he summoned his counselors together and issued a joy-
ful proclamation to the people : “Cast aside all sorrow
and grief and prepare to receive Rama. Let the whole
city be adorned and let worship be offered to every
god. Let every horse and elephant and chariot be

i This was the self-moving car Pushpaka, which the demon king had stolen
from the god of wealth.

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THE STORY OF THE RAM A YANA.

gotten ready, and let every man go ont to meet Rama
on his return to Ayodhya.”

When the people heard that Rama was indeed re-
turning, the whole city rejoiced and began to array
itself for the festival. The streets were swept and
sprinkled with perfumed waters and strewn with flow-
ers. At the foot of every tree was placed a golden jar
of sacred water, filled with the beautiful branches of
the mango tree or sprays of the feathery tamarind
and wreathed with tropical flowers. The houses were
also decorated with floral designs and with flags. Then
the great procession was formed, and with flying ban-
ners and strains of music the whole army went out to
greet Rama. Upon his head Bharata carried his
brother’s golden sandals, above which was held the
royal canopy. Two men attended the sandals, fanning
them with snow-white fans. Bharata was surrounded
by all the ministers and counselors of the raj and by
a multitude of people from the city. When Rama
and his attendants met them, the forest resounded
with shouts of welcome. The two brothers embraced
each other affectionately, and through the long lines
rang the shout of “ Victory to Rama ! ”

Rama bowed at the feet of Kausalya, and the glad
mother took her son once more in her arms and
blessed him with her warm caresses. Rama dismissed
the chariot Pushpaka, and bade it return to its right-
ful owner, Kuvera, (the god of wealth) from whom it
had been taken by Ravana. Then Rama and his
brothers were bathed with perfumed waters and an-
ointed with fragrant oils, and laying aside their de-
votee’s dress of bark put on a costume of yellow silk.

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with many jewels. The ladies of the court attended
to the toilet of Sita, and she, too, was arrayed in ex-
quisite garments.

The great procession then started to return to
Ayodhya, and Rama directed the monkeys to choose
whatever conveyance they pleased. Some of them,
therefore, mounted the chariots or suspended them-
selves from the edge above the wheels, and others
curled their tails around the tusks of the elephants
and rocked to the swaying motion of the animals,
while others still clung to the manes of the horses.
When all was ready the strains of music again pealed
through the forest, and the great procession went
back to the capital city.

Rama was installed as the raja amid the great re-
joicing of the people, and the city wore its gala robes,
while the streets resounded with glad music for many
days and nights. “Long live Maha-raja Rama,” was
the joyous cry that rang through the air at all hours
of the night, and “ Long live Maha-raja Rama,” was
the glad refrain that greeted the light of the morn-
ing. Day after day musicians haunted the windows
of the palace, chanting the praises of the imperial
pair, and the years went softly by, wearing the
sandals of peace and the bright robes of happiness.

“ No widow mourned her murdered mate,

No house was ever desolate ;

The happy land no murrain knew.

The flocks and herds increased and grew.

The earth her kindly fruits supplied ;

No harvest failed — no children died.

2 Go

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA.

Unknown were want, disease and crime,

So calm, so happy was the time.”

BAXISHMENT OF SITA.

At last, however, it began to he whispered in the
capital that a woman who had spent months of her
life at the court of the demon king was unfit to be
the queen of Ayodhya. One of his ministers who was
bolder than the others found courage to say to Rama,
“ There is poverty among your subjects, oh, Maha-
raja ! because of your sin in taking Sita back.” The
cloud of discontent continued to gather around the
royal pair, and occasionally the rumors were brought to
the ears of the king. He knew that his wife was as
pure as the snow upon the distant peak of the Hima-
laya ; he knew that she was as far above immorality as
that icy coronal was above the dust in the vale at its
feet. The god of fire had brought her out of the
flames because of her unconquerable chastity, and had
presented her to him as pure gold is brought from
the crucible. But this divine Rama, the mere chant-
ing of whose name is still supposed to bring absolu-
tion from all sin, had not the manliness to stand by
his loyal wife in the hour of her greatest need.

She had gladly left a court of luxury to follow in
his exile the man she worshiped. For his sake she
had bravely met the terrors of the jungle, and but
for her loyal love to him she would not have been ex-
posed to the terrible hand of the demon king. But
his danger was passed ; prosperity now flowed upon
Rama in one broad golden river, and his vanity craved
even a stronger adulation from his subjects.

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He was the model of all the Hindu divinities, the
noblest and bravest of all the gods of their mythol-
ogy ; but he turned treacherously against the brave
woman whose life had been one long scene of devo-
tion to him. She was soon to become a mother —
soon to give him an heir to the throne ; but without
deigning to give her any explanation, he sent her
away to face the dangers of the jungle, under the pre-
tense that she was to visit the sages there. She was
accompanied only by Lakshmana, who was ordered to
explain the situation to her and then leave her alone
in a thicket which was near the mountain of Oitra-
kuta. 1

Here came the banished wife and paused in terri-
ble agony not far from the cot which she had made

so happy for her exiled prince. Her faithful brother
had wept bitterly when he told her of the cruel orders
of her husband, and besought her to try to reach the
hermitage of Valmlki. But she knew not which way
to turn to find the humble home of the devotees.
Overwhelmed with suffering she wandered over a sandy
plain, on which the tropical sun blazed like a fiery
furnace. Her tender feet were torn with thorns and
burned to blisters, while ever and anon her frame quiv-
ered with a new, strange agony that she had never

known before. Physical suffering is hard enough to
bear, but cannot be compared with the sufferings of a
loyal heart which is being trampled to death by the

l There is also a legend to the effect that Rama sent his faithful
brother into exile, and J. Talboys Wheeler remarks that “We might
almost infer from the current of national tradition that Rama as he ad-
vanced in years became jealous and peevish, like Henry the Eighth.”—
(Hist, of Ind., Vol. II, p. 405.)

THE STORY OF THE RAMAYAXA. 267

object of its worship. But she had given him so much
of tenderness, and Rama knew the faithful love of
his wife so well, that he was not afraid to outrage
her purest and most sacred feelings, assured that the
wounded heart would gladly creep back to his, when-
ever in his own royal pleasure he saw fit to treat her
decently. The exiled wife still struggled on her un-
known way, her throat parched with thirst and her
delicate skin scorched by the blazing sun, until the
birds in pity dipped their pinions in the waters of
the Ganges and fanned her feverish face, that she
might not faint with the heat. The royal tiger,
ashamed of the cowardice and treachery of Rama, left
his cool bed in the jungle and walked beside her to
protect her from the hungry wolves in the wilderness.
But at last she fell fainting by the way and was found
in a swoon by Valmiki the sage, who lifting her ten-
derly in his arms carried her to his hermitage, and
gave her into the care of his noble wife.

THE SONS OF SITA.

The very night that she was taken into the humble
home of the devotees, Sita gave birth to two beautiful
boys whom she named Lava and Kusa. But no word of
inquiry was sent from Rama to learn the fate of his
wife. Living in luxurious splendor himself, he did
not ask whether Sita had found a place of refuge or
had been devoured by the wild beasts of the jungle.

The two sons of Sita, were carefully educated by
Valmiki. Before they were twenty years of age they
had attained to physical and mental manhood. The
devoted mother lived in her noble boys and poured

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208

upon them the wealth of affection which had been so
cruelly despised by Rama. They in return almost wor-
shiped their beautiful mother, doing everything in
their power for her comfort and happiness.

As the years passed by Rama began to feel uneasy,
not on account of his cruelty to Slta, but because he
had slain Ravana, who was the son of a Brahman. To
slay a Brahman was a grievous sin to the Hindus, he
therefore resolved to perform the horse sacrifice and
thereby obtain absolution for his crime, in order that
he might not forfeit any of the rewards in future
births.

The horse was procured and given his liberty with

the usual ceremonies, and Rama’s younger brother

Satru-ghna followed him with an army. As he wan-

✓

dered away without control he at last came to Citra-
kuta, where the sons of Slta were hunting. Lava had
just sent his unfailing arrow through the heart of an
antelope, when his eyes fell upon a magnificent horse
which appeared to be entirely uncontrolled. lie cap-
tured the beautiful animal and was leading it away,
when he was attacked by the whole army. Turning
upon them, however, he called his brother, who was
a little further in the jungle, and the two gallant boys
soon put the whole army to flight. When Rama heard
what had occurred, he angrily ordered Lakshmana to
go out with another body of men and recover the
horse. But his troops also were defeated by the won-
derful prowess of Lava and Kusa, and he himself was
left for dead upon the field.

At last Rama went in person at the head of an
army, determined to conquer an enemy who threatened

269

THE STORY OF THE RAMA YANA.

to become invincible. Having reached the place of the
former defeat he went alone to meet the two young
men, and ascertain if possible who they were. Soon he
saw two splendid specimens of manhood coming toward
him with a fearless step and an imperial bearing, which
told him they were of royal birth. The youths bowed
reverently before him, and Rama inquired of them
whose sons they were. “ Our mother’s name,” an-
swered Lava, “is Sita, but we do not know who our
father is. We have been brought up and educated by
the good sage Valmlki, who lives near us.”

When Rama realized that his own sons stood before
him, he was overcome with emotion and before he
could speak Valmlki appeared upon the scene and
begged of him to be reconciled to his wife.

He then stated to Valmlki that he knew Slta to be
the soul of purity and was rejoiced to find that his
sons had become such noble men. “ But,” said
he, “it is necessary to prove the chastity of Slta,” and
turning to his assembled troops, which had been
brought forward by his command, he complacently an-
nounced to them that Slta would again demonstrate
her innocence by undergoing the fiery ordeal, and
ordered Valmlki to bring his wife into his presence.

THE DEPARTURE OF SITA.

But the grandest and purest devotion that ever lived
in the heart of woman may be murdered by persistent
outrage. Rama had by his own conduct deliberately
killed the great love which his faithful wife had borne
for him so many years. For the first time in her life
Sita refused to obey his call, declaring that she had

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no wish to look upon his face again. But her old
friend Valmlki, who had been a father to her in her
time of need, urged her to lay aside her personal feel-
ings in the matter, and for the sake of her children to
forgive their father. Unable to resist the entreaties
of Valmlki and his noble wife, she at last con-
sented. Bathing herself in perfumed waters and wear-
ing silken garments, she was brought to the place of
sacrifice.

She still wore the crown of eternal youth which had
been given her in the forest, and the mother of these
stalwart sons appeared before her husband in all the
youth and beauty of the bride whom he had won so
many years before. Exclamations of wonder and ad-
miration passed from lip to lip, and Rama gazed as if
spellbound upon this vision of loveliness, which en-
tranced his senses as in bygone days. She heard again
his voice, but her murdered heart could not leap again
for joy. She stood before him again with downcast
eyes, which she would not raise toward her treacherous
husband. But instead of invoking the god of fire, as
before, she said, “ Oh, Earth, if I have never turned
my thoughts toward any man but Rama ; if my truth
and purity are known to thee; I beseech of thee to
open a passage for me and receive me into thy bosom,
for I will never again behold the face of any living
creature.”1 On hearing these terrible words, a thrill
of horror ran through the multitude, and they waited
spellbound for the last scene in the great drama. The
earth thus appealed to slowly heaved and opened,
while the terror-stricken throng looked on in breathless

l See the Adhyatma version.

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THE STORY OF THE R AMAYA FT A.

silence. Out of the newly formed abyss arose a splendid
throne, adorned with gold and studded with gems ; it
was set with pearls and rubies and supported by four
of the sacred serpents. Then the beautiful goddess of
the earth came from the chasm, wearing a robe of mol-
ten silver, and taking Sita by the hand she said, “I
come, Sita, in obedience to thy command. Thou art
worthy of the purest affection of immortals. I have
brought this throne for thy conveyance to the regions
of happiness.” Having thus spoken she led Sita to
the throne, and took a seat beside her ; the glad earth
swallowed them up, and the gods sang the praises of
Sita and threw masses of beautiful flowers upon the
spot where she had disappeared. But the terror-
stricken spectators, turning their eyes upon Rama, be-
held him groveling upon the ground in agony. At
length the aged and heart-broken king returned to the
palace, taking his sons with him. But the virtues and
sorrows of Sita will be sung in the beautiful land of
the Hindu by lips which are yet unborn, and the notes
of the song will echo through the crags of the Himalayas
and be borne to the sea upon the musical waves of the
Ganges.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE MAHA-BHARATA.

THE COMPANION OF THE RAMAYANA — A COLOSSAL
POEM — DERIVATION OF THE NAME — HISTORICAL
VALUE OF THE MAIIA-BHARATA — THE RELIGION OF
THE GREAT EPIC — LITERARY STYLE — THE AGE OF
THE MAIIA-BHARATA — TRANSLATION OF THE WORK.

A KOTIIER Indian Epic of colossal proportions is
^ V the Maha-bharata. It is the companion piece
of the Eamayana, and naturally follows it in the
arrangement of Sanskrit literature. Although some
portions of it were doubtless written before the other
poem, it was probably completed a hundred years later
than the Eamayana.

The Maha-bharata is the most gigantic poetical
work known to literature. It consists of two hundred
and twenty thousand lines, while the Iliad and Odyssey
combined contain only about thirty thousand. It is
divided into eighteen Parvans, or sections, nearly every
one of which would make a large volume.

It is claimed in the introduction that the word
Maha-bharata is “derived from its large size and great
weight, because the poem is described as outweighing
all the four Vedas and the mystical writings taken
together. ”

The word, however, really comes from maha, mean-
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THE MAHA-BHARATA. 273

ing great, and bharata, relating to Bharata, and the
title of the poem signifies “The Great War of Bha-
rata.”

THE HISTORICAL VALUE OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

Some historians claim that the legends .of the Maha-
bharata are but little better for historical purposes
than the dreams of a madman, but it must be admit-
ted that even the wildest fictions illustrate the ideas
and the moral standards of the times in which they
were produced. The literature of the Hindus is
largely found in their two great epic poems, the
Ramayana and Maha-bharata.

These masses of tradition and fable are the national
treasuries from which their bards have borrowed the
themes for their ballads, and their genealogists have
taken the materials for their so-called histories. Hindu
art is indebted to them for her subjects, and the
Hindu drama constantly illustrates the characters of
the two poems. Much of the matter of the Puranas
has been taken from these storehouses of literature,
and the later Brahmans have also drawn from them
the subjects, and largely the matter, of their religious
discourses. To reject these stories, then, as unfit to
serve in any way the purpose of the historian would
be to lose valuable hints concerning the inner life of
this ancient people. It is, indeed, questionable how far
they represent the real facts of the period to which
they refer, but they certainly must reflect to a consid-
erable degree the feeling and the judgment of the age
in which they were composed.

The mass of Oriental literature found in these two

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great Epics comprises all that their own writers have
left us of the social, political, and religious history of
India. A familiarity with these two poems, therefore,
is indispensable to a knowledge of the Hindus, as
their influence upon the peojde is stronger and more
universal than Europeans and Americans can fully ap-
preciate. They are held sacred as the repositories of
their faith, and are cherished as the treasures of the
historian.

We might have expected that the traditions of the
royal house of Bharata would throw some direct light
upon the Aryan conquest of India ; but the attention
of the earlier warrior bards seems to have been concen-
trated upon the fratricidal contest between the two
rival branches of the royal family. Legends have
indeed been preserved concerning the early rajas, but
the Kshatriya bards declared that the rajas of Bharata
were descended from the moon, and that one of them
had conquered Indra, the ruler of the gods. The
Brahmanical compilers of these stories promptly admit-
ted both statements, but in order to establish the
superiority of their own caste they asserted that the
moon itself was begotten by a Brahmanical sage, and
that the raja conquered Indra with the assistance of
the Brahmans.

It is with such material as this that the historian
has to deal. Nevertheless, there is an apparently
authentic tradition to the effect that the Kauravas,
who were the sons of the blind raja Dhrita-rashtra,
engaged in a long and bitter rivalry with their cous-
ins, the Pandavas, who were the sons of raja Pandu,
and that it was this rivalry between the two branches

THE MAHA-BHARATA. 275

of the royal house that led to the great war from
which the Maha-bharata derives its name. The in-
struction which was given to these princes throws con-
siderable light upon the so-called education of that
age, and the whole story illustrates the relations that
existed between Aryan settlers and the original inhabi-
tants.

This Epic contains vivid pictures of the social posi-
tion of the Hindu woman before the Mohammedan
conquest. The habit of seclusion, and the acknowl-
edged inferiority of their wives are to a certain extent
natural to the Eastern nations, and prevailed even in
the earliest times. Still, there are passages in both
Epics which clearly establish the fact that the women
of India were under less social restraint in former days
than at present and enjoyed considerable liberty, of
which they have been deprived by the influence of
Mohammedanism.

These strange traditions are not to be accepted, of
course, as literal narratives, but they are to be studied
carefully, that we may catch the historic value of
their pictures, the meaning of their allusions, the sig-
nificance of their surroundings, and, above all, the
spirit of the individual and national life which they
depict.

THE RELIGION OF THE GREAT EPIC

is in the main a spiritualistic pantheism, in which
one spirit is represented as peopling heaven under
various personifications and becoming incarnate upon
the earth in a multitude of different characters. But
the work of compilation covered so long a period that

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276

the poem exhibits almost all of the multitudinous
forms of Hinduism ; at times its heroes are models
of strictness in their adherence to the rules of priest-
craft, and again they display the greatest laxity of
conduct and a marked opposition to the ritual of the
ecclesiastics. But upon one point at least it is always
a unit, and that is the assertion of its own sanctity.

Vyasa, the supposed author or compiler, says, in his
exordium to the work: “The reading of the Bluirata
is sacred ; all the sins of him who reads but a portion
of it shall he obliterated without exception. . . lie

who in faith shall persevere in listening to the recital
of this sacred book shall obtain a long life, great
renown, and the way to heaven.” To this day it is
devoutly believed that only to listen to portions of
either poem is a deed of such merit that it will insure
prosperity in this world and happiness hereafter ; that
it will bring wealth to the poverty-stricken and chil-
dren to the barren woman. Patriotism, as well as
religion, has shed a halo of sanctity over these great
Epics, which are regarded by the Hindu as a national
possession and cherished by him as the peculiar heritage
of his race.

LITERARY STYLE.

The Maha-bharata, unlike the Ramayana, is not a
single poem ; it is an immense collection of Hindu
mythology, legend and philosophy. The main narra-
tive is merely a thread connecting a vast number of
traditions and myths, the arrangement of which resem-
bles somewhat that of the Arabian Nights.

In consequence of its miscellaneous origin and the

THE MAHA-BHARATA.

277

protracted period of its composition, the style of the
work is exceedingly varied ; but the language is usu-
ally simple and natural in its construction. The progress
of the story is checked by no limitations either of time,
space, or numbers ; it is full of fabulous chronological
and historical details, and its assertions are generally
of the wildest character. Space is measured by mill-
ions of miles, and time by millions of years. In the
descriptions of battle scenes, horses, men, and elephants
are all said to number millions. Yet the fictions of
the two Epics are still essential to the religious creed
of the Hindus. It is true that the educated classes
look upon the more extravagant myths as allegorical,
but the great mass of the people receive them as liter-
ally true.

The speeches which have been preserved in the
Maha-bharata are not characterized by the fiery elo-
quence which breathes from the lips of Homer's heroes ;
on the contrary, they often seem childish and puerile.
Still, there are occasional scenes which are character-
ized by vigorous and dignified thought. Homer’s
heroes, however assisted by their tutelar deities, are
always men ; but in the Indian Epics every great man
is a god, and his foes are demons.

The deification of their heroes is supposed to be
largely the work of Brfihmanical compilers, who sought
by this means to bring into their own ranks the most
distinguished men of the Kshatriya class. The regard
of the Indian soldiery for their favorite commanders
still finds expression in an act of worship. The gal-
lant John Nicholson was revered by his men as a demi-
god, and was even compelled to punish them for their

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superstitious devotion. Therefore, it is natural that in
the Indian Epics the boundaries between the divine
and the human should be quite indefinite. Deities or
semi-divine persons are constantly appearing upon the
scene, while gods, animals, and men are liable at any
time to change places.

In the Iliad and Odyssey the supernatural is per-
haps almost as prevalent, but it is introduced and
maintained with more consistency, and hence adds to
the sublimity of those poems, instead of detracting
from them, as is frequently the case with the Hindu
Epics. But in portraying scenes of domestic love and
loyalty, the Sanskrit writings cannot be surpassed, even
by the eloquence of the Grecian classics. Human
nature is world-wide, and the warm heart of the Hindu
pours out his love in the luxuriant poetry of his own
tropical clime. We also find the highest portrayal of
woman’s truth and purity, even though she is often
held in a position entirely unworthy of her great devo-
tion. The sacredness of love and the holiness of do-
mestic ties are as beautiful in the lines of the Hindu
poet as in the grander numbers of Homer.

THE AGE OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

This work appears to have been the slow growth of
three or' four centuries. It is supposed that the ear-
liest part of it was written before the Ramayana ; for
it describes a conflict between rude colonists at a time
which is nearer to the earliest settlements of the
Aryans, while the Ramayana represents a more ad-
vanced civilization. But the principal narrative of the
Maha-bharata is so completely covered by later addi-

THE MAHA-EHARATA.

279

tions that it is hardly possible to analyze critically the
chronology of the composition. When the story of
the great war had become a national tradition, subse-
quent compilers did not hesitate to insert in the text
the legends of the later wars waged by the Aryans
against the aborigines during their progress toward the
southeast.

There are evidences of at least three compilations
or collections of these scattered legends and songs of
India. They were gathered and arranged by different
authors at various times during a period covering three
or four hundred years. Sir Monier Williams assigns
the first orderly completion of the Maha-bharata in its
Brahmanized form to about the second century B. C.1
But he points out the fact that Avhile many of the
legends are Yedic and of great antiquity, many others
are comparatively modern and have probably found a
place in this collection during the Christian era. The
primitive elements of the text seem to belong to early
times ; but its comparatively modern form and other
indications have induced scholars to assign portions of
the work to the early centuries of our own era.

Weber and Lassen agree in their interpretation of
a passage in the Maha-bharata to the effect that early
in the Christian era three Brahmans visited a com-
munity of Christians, and that on their return “ they
were enabled to introduce improvements into the
hereditary creed, and more especially to make the wor-
ship of Krishna Vasudeva the most prominent feature
of their system.”2 If these Orientalists are correct in

1 See Ind. Wis., p. 319.

2 Hardwick, Vol. I, p. 189. See also Notes from Weber and Lassen.

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their rendering of this passage, it proves beyond a
doubt that some parts of the Maha-bharata were writ-
ten during the Christian era. Prof. Weber, also, who
is a man of critical judgment and profound scholarship,
says, “The final redaction of the work in its present
shape .... must have been some centuries after
the commencement of our era.”1

We may also cite the testimony of the distinguished
native scholar, Kashinath Trimbak Telang, M. A., who
states that “ we have reason to believe some parts . . .
of the Maha-bharata to have been in existence prior to
tbe sixth century after Christ, and that some parts of
the thirty-seventh chapter were probably extant in the
time of Patawjali ; viz., the second century before
Christ.”2

J. Talboys AVheeler claims that a part of the story
of Duryodhana was “ borrowed from the Koran of the
Mussulmans.” If he is correct in this supposition, it
brings some portions of the Maha-bharata down into
the Christian era at least as far as the seventh cen-
tury.

TRANSLATION OF THE WORK.

We have not as yet a complete translation of this
great treasury of Hindu literature, but many portions
of it have been given to the English-speaking world
and some of them have been repeatedly translated.
The task of analyzing and fairly representing the work
as a whole by European scholars has been greatly facili-
tated by the discovery of a manuscript translation of

1 Hist. Ind. Lit. p. 188.

2 See Bhagavad-gita, p. 110. The time of Pataajali is still a debated ques-
tion, but Prof. Max Muller places him after the third century of the Chris-
tian era.

THE MAHA-BHARATA.

281

the more important portions, which was probably made
by the late Prof. H. II. Wilson. This valuable docu-
ment was placed some years ago in the Calcutta library,
under the head of Bhagavad-gTta, but it was at last
found to contain the bulk of the Maha-bharata. The
discovery was made by J. Talboys Wheeler, who pre-
pared a critical and valuable digest of the whole paper,
consisting of nine folio volumes.

Sir Monier Williams, Pr. Muir, Rev. II. Milman,
and others have also made careful translations of some
portions of it, and other parts have been rendered into
English by a prominent native scholar. We have,
besides, more than one careful analysis of the whole
poem.

In the two following chapters we shall give as briefly
as possible the principal story of the Maha-bharata. A
full translation of the whole of this colossal poem
would fill about seventeen volumes, but we shall present
merely an outline of what purports to be the historical
portion.

The events here recorded are represented as taking
place in an age previous to the one in which the poet
wrote, the heroes of the great war having lived and
died perhaps a thousand years before their deeds were
placed upon record. These events, which took place (if
at all) in the early Vedic period of Indian history,
have been very much colored and changed by the
opinions of the succeeding age. The religion which
flourished at the time of the great war had to a great
extent passed away, and a new one had been estab-
lished before the poems were composed. Hence, the
heroes of the Maha-bharata are more or less deified by

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the fancy of the Brahmanical compilers, and the stu-
dent of modern times Can only guess at the amount
of historical fact which may have been transmitted
orally from one generation to another during this long
period.

CHAPTER XVIII.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA. THE GREAT WAR.

THE KAURAVAS AND PANDAVAS — THE TOURNAMENT —
THE SVAYAmVARA — THE HOME-COMING — DRAUPADI
MARRIES EIVE HUSBANDS — THE COUNCILS OF WAR —
PREPARATIONS FOR THE GREAT WAR — THE CHAL-
LENGE GIVEN AND ACCEPTED — RULES OF WARFARE.

TN early times the royal house of Bharata was rep-
resented by two rajas, who were brothers. Baja
Pandu was a mighty warrior, the hero of many con-
quests, and his kingdom, the raj of Hastinapur, was as
great and glorious as it had been under the reign of
raja Bharata. He was the father of five princely sons,
who were called the Panda vas. The name of the eldest
was Yudhi-shthira. Bhima, the second son, was dis-
tinguished for his voracious appetite, it being the fam-
ily custom to serve as much food to him as was eaten
by his four brothers. The next was gallant Arjuna,
tall, handsome, and kingly in his bearing. The two
youngest sons were Xakula and Sahadeva. The royal
brother of raja Pandu was the blind king Dlirita-
rashtra, who was the father of a family called Kaura-
vas, after their ancestor Kura.1 The eldest son was
named Duryodhana, but the bravest was Duhsasana.

i It is said that Gandhari, the wife of the blind raja, once hospitably en-
tertained a great sage, whereupon he offered her any boon that she might

283

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Raja Panda died while yet comparatively young,
and the blind king took the surviving widow of his
brother and her five sons into his own palace. lie
tried to nurture in the young princes a genuine re-
sjiect and affection for each other, but a spirit of
rivalry and jealousy seemed to exist between them from
the first hour in which they shared the same home.
A famous preceptor named Drona was engaged to edu-
cate them in the use of arms, but he was so indis-
creet as to exhibit a preference for the Paudavas, es-
pecially in the case of Arjuna, who was evidently his
favorite. This manifest preference of the preceptor
added fuel to the flames of jealousy, and Duryodhana,
the eldest of the Kauravas, was especially vindictive
against Arjuna, who under the instruction of Drona
became the most famous archer of his time.

THE TOURNAMENT.

After years of careful instruction and faithful prac-
tice, the royal pupils were all experts in the depart-
ments they had chosen. Bhima, the young man of
the voracious appetite, applied his herculean strength
to the dexterous use of the club, Nakula was master
of the art of taming and managing horses, and the
others had been taught to handle skilfully the sword
and spear.

Drona then approached his royal patron and said to
him, “Your own sons and the sons of your brother
Pandu are now expert in the use of weapons, and they

choose, and she requested that she might become the mother of a hundred
sons. Accordingly she gave birth to a lump of flesh, which the sage divided
into a hundred and one small pieces, placing each piece in a jar, where
they ultimately became children.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

285

are prepared to meet any foe upon the battle-field.”
The Malm-raja replied, “ Let a place be prepared on
the great plain outside the city where your pupils may
engage in a mock combat and display their skill before
all the chiefs and the people of the raj.” So Drona
ordered that preparations be made for a great tourna-
ment without the city, and had the vast space assigned
for the sport protected by barriers. On one side of
the ground galleries were built for the Malm-raja and
his chieftains ; on the other were placed galleries for
all the ladies of the royal house of Hastinapur.

The morning of the tournament dawned without
clouds. The great trees in the amphitheater stood
like tall columns supporting the heavy roof of foliage
above them, and were decorated with bright flags.
Long garlands of rich tropical flowers were festooned
around the galleries, loading the air with their fragrant
breath. At an early hour the populace from all parts
of the raj filled the great plain, pressing as closely as
possible around the barriers of the amphitheater.
Soon the blind raja was led in and escorted to his
place on a throne which had been erected for him and
covered with the fairest blossoms of the land. At his
right hand sat his faithful uncle, Bhishma, who man-
aged the affairs of the raj for the king, who had been
his care from childhood. On the left of the Malm-raja
sat Yidura, his half-brother, who was appointed to ex-
plain to him the scenes that took place on the plain
below them. The ladies of the royal house occupied
the other galleries, which were bright with the sheen
of silken garments and the radiant light of jewels
flashing amidst the flowers. But the most highly

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286

favored of the ladies were Gandharl, the mother of the
Kauravas, and KuntI, the mother of the Pandavas.
Their womanly hearts were throbbing with joyous an-
ticipation over the gallant deeds of their princely sons,
and they waited anxiously for the opening of the tour-
nament.

When all was ready Drona, the preceptor, entered
the arena clad in garments of the purest white and
offered the incense of praise to their gods. Then came
the princes lightly girded for exercise and bearing
their bows in their hands. Bowing low at the feet of
their preceptor they awaited his commands. As they
stood there in the glory of their young manhood, a
loud cheer went up from the multitude, for their
training had developed every muscle, and their fine
physiques and princely bearing won the hearts of the
people. Their skill was tested in shooting arrows — first
on foot ; then galloping around the amphitheater on
horses they still struck the mark with wondrous pre-
cision. Afterward they exhibited their archery from
chariots or the backs of elephants, always winning loud
huzzas from the spectators. Then there were brilliant
mock fights with the sword and buckler.

Drona at last called upon his favorite pupil, Arjuna,
and the young chieftain stepped forth as stalwart and
handsome as one of the gods. He entered the arena
clad in golden mail and gracefully bearing in his hand
a bow inlaid with pearl. The multitude greeted him
as another Indra, and the glad heart of his mother
who sat in the gallery above him throbbed with exul-
tation. There had been set up the figure of an iron
boar, and Arjuna sent five arrows into its mouth at

LEGENDS OF THE MAH A-BHARATA.

287

one bending of the bow. Then mounting his chariot
he was driven swiftly along, while he shot his arrows
with such marvelous rapidity and dexterity as to be-
wilder the cheering spectators. In his sword-play the
weapon flashed so rapidly in the sun that men fancied
the lightnings were playing around him. Then arm-
ing himself with a noose, he threw it so dexter-
ously that every horse or deer at which it was hurled
was brought down. At last, having finished his exer-
cises, he gracefully saluted his preceptor, who em-
braced him amidst the wild applause of the multitude.

The Pandavas, of course, had been exulting in the
triumph of their brother; but Duryodhana was wild
with jealous rage, and when they came to the exercise
of clubs the fighting became real, and the scene was
terrible. These young athletes gave a practical exhi-
bition of their envy and jealousy, and the blood flowed
freely on both sides. At one end of the great arena
Duryodhana engaged with Bhlma, and the contestants
rushed furiously upon each other.

“With ponderous mace they waged the daring fight.
As for a tender mate two rival elephants
Engage with frantic fury, so the youths
Encountered, and amidst the rapid sphere
Of fire their whirling weapons clashing wove
Their persons vanished from the anxious eye.

Still more and more incensed their combat grew.

And life hung doubtful on the desperate conflict ;
With awe the crowd beheld the fierce encounter
And amidst hope and fear suspended tossed.

Like ocean shaken by conflicting winds.”

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The glad cheers of the multitude gave way to cries
of horror, but some of the spectators caught the spirit
of the fray and ran wildly to and fro, shouting each for
his favorite in the fight. Drona sent his son to separate
the combatants, but no one heeded him ; then Drona
hastened to them, but his words had no influence, and
he was compelled to lay hands upon them and separate
them by main force, and send them to their home.
The multitude went away in sorrow ; the flowers
drooped and wilted in sadness, and the loving mothers
grieved in solitude, for blood had been shed in anger.
This tournament which had opened so joyously was the
beginning of those long feuds and terrible contests
which stained for many years the escutcheon of the
noble house of Bharata.

The blind king, thinking to dispel the ill will be-
tween the two factions, at last divided his raj and gave
to the Pandavas the most distant portion of it. So
the Pandavas took leave of their beloved preceptor,
Drona, and bidding farewell to their kindred took their
mother with them and went into a strange land. On
the banks of the beautiful river, Jumna, they built a
fort and collected their subjects together under the
rule of the eldest brother Yudhi-shthira. The new
raja soon won the hearts of his people by his wisdom
and kindness. He promptly punished evil-doers, and
those who had been wronged went to him for aid, as
children go to a loving father. His fame as a wise
and beneficent ruler extended throughout India, and he
built a fair city called Indra-prastha. But before it
was finished the brothers attended the Svayamvara of
the princess Draupadi, which proved to be one of the
most important events of their lives.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA,

289

THE SVAYAmVARA.

One of the institutions of India in early times
was the Svayamvara ; it resembled the tournament
of the Middle Ages, wherein the victor was crowned
with the laurel wreath by the Queen of Love and
Beauty. But in the Hindu contests the prize was a
lovely bride — usually the daughter of a royal house.

The raja Draupada, who reigned over the kingdom
of Pane ala, was blessed with a beautiful daughter.
The fair princess was as radiant and graceful as if she
were descended from the gods. Her dark eyes beamed
with intelligence, and her cheeks glowed with the rich
crimson blood of her race. The fame of her love-
liness spread even beyond that of her father’s name,
and the rajas of the neighboring kingdom came to ask
her hand in marriage. But her proud father deter-
mined that no ordinary ruler should win his beautiful
solitaire ; therefore, when she came to a marriageable
age he announced a great Svayamvara, in which the
neighboring rajas were invited to take part, and an-
nounced that the prince who performed the greatest
feats of archery should be rewarded with the lady’s
hand. It was said that all the rajas from the four
quarters of the earth would be present to compete for
the hand of the lovely princess Draupadl. The five
Pandavas had been greatly interested in the accounts
they had heard of the lady’s beauty and decided to
join the illustrious throng of competitors ; but they dis-
guised themselves as Brahmans and appeared upon the
brilliant scene in the garments of the priesthood.
"When they reached the city they found a vast number

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of rajas encamped there with their hosts of troops and
attendants, and a multitude of horses and elephants.
There were also Brahmans., Kshatriyas, traveling mer-
chants, and a great throng of spectators.

Outside of the city a great plain had been enclosed
with barriers and supplied with glittering pavilions for
the benefit of the most distinguished guests, and the
long galleries were draped with bright flags and decor-
ated with masses of flowers. At one end of the amphi-
theater stood a tall pole which upheld a golden fish,
and just below the fish a large wheel was rapidly re-
volving, so that any arrow striking the fish must first
pass through the spaces in the revolving wheel.

The rule of the Svayaravara was that whoever dis-
charged an arrow through the wheel at the first shot
and struck the eye of the golden fish should be the
husband of the princess DraupadT.

The assembled throng spent many days in sporting
and feasting before the time arrived for the contest,
but at last the memorable morning dawned upon the
fair city of Kampilya.

At the rising of the sun the whole city was awak-
ened by the joyous strains of martial music. At an
early hour the great galleries and vast pavilions of the
amphitheater were thronged with distinguished guests,
while the multitude gathered in dense masses around
the inclosure.

“ Without the barriers pressed the countless crowd.
Skirting the distance multitudes beheld
The field from golden lattices, or thronged
The high housetops, whose towering summits touched

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291

The clouds, and like a mountain of the gods
The sparkling peaks streamed radiant through the air.
A thousand trumpets brayed, and slow the breeze
With incense laden wafted perfume round.”

The well-armed troops of the raja maintained per-
fect order, and the people were entertained with the
preliminary exercises of dancers, jugglers, actors, ath-
letes, wrestlers, and swordsmen.

Delicate refreshments were served to the guests and
cup-bearers sprinkled the throng with the choicest
perfumes of the East. At last the beautiful princess
was led to the floral throne in the arena, the soft sheen
of her rich garments mingling with the blaze of her
jewels. But richer than her costly robes was the crim-
son of her lips, and brighter than her gems was the
light of her beautiful eyes, as she held in one graceful
hand the garland of flowers destined for the victor.
Low murmurs of admiration rang through the vast
throng, and choirs of Brahmans chanted her praises in
softly modulated notes. In the deep silence that fol-
lowed the strains of the song the brother of the
princess announced that lie who sent the arrow through
the flying wheel and struck the eye of the golden fish
should have the princess for his wife, and he invited
the rajas and great chieftains who were present to
come forward and try their skill.

“Quick from their gorgeous thrones the kings uprose.
Descending to the conflict, and around
The lovely DraupadI contending pressed,

Like the bright gods round Siva’s mountain bride.
Love lodged his viewless arrows in their hearts,

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And jealous hatred swelled their haughty minds.

Each on his rivals bent a lowering glance,

And, friends till now, they met as deadliest foes.”

The rajas looked in dismay at the golden fish beyond
the flying wheel and then at the huge bow and heavy
arrow that was to be used. The more prudent suitors
retired from the field, but at last one raja who was
braver than the others stepped forward and lifting the
bow tried to bend it, but failed in the attempt and
retired at last amidst the derisive laughter of the spec-
tators. One after another the great rajas then made
the attempt, but no one of them succeeded.

“ No hand the stubborn bow could bend — they strained
Fruitless each nerve, and many on the field
Recumbent fell, whilst laughter pealed around.

In vain they cast aside their royal robes
And diamond chains and glittering diadems.

And with unfettered arm and ample chest
Put forth their fullest strength — the bow defied
Each chief, nor left the hope he might succeed.”

At last a young man of princely bearing, wearing
the garb of a priest, came forward. As he lifted the
great bow the eyes of the princess brightened, for she
had seen his handsome face and admired his godlike
form.

A cry of astonishment rang through the assembly
upon seeing a Brahman enter the competitive list at
a Svayamvara. The Brahmans feared that such an
act would offend the rajas so that they would not be-
stow the customary gifts, and they pleaded with him

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

293

to withdraw from the contest. But the new competi-
tor was Arjuna, the hero of the Pandavas, and heed-
less alike of praise or blame

“He grasped the ponderous weapon in his hand
And with one vigorous effort braced the string.
Quickly the shafts were aimed ; swiftly they flew ;
The mark fell pierced ; a shout of victory
Rang through the vast arena ; from the sky
Garlands of flowers crowned the hero’s head.

Ten thousand fluttering scarfs waved in the air.

And drum and trumpet sounded forth his triumph.”1

The beautiful princess came gladly forward and
crowned the handsome victor with the garland she
held in her hand, and permitted him to lead her away,
according to the rules of the Svayamvara. The cheer-
ing of the multitude, however, was quickly drowned
by the voices of discontent that came from the dis-
comfited rajas. “ Is raja Draupada to invite us to a
Svayamvara and then give his daughter to a Brah-
man?” they cried. “Down with the guilty race of
Draupada!” and they gathered angrily around the
king with naked swords and threatened to burn the
princess alive unless she chose a Kshatriya for a hus-
band. But at the first onset upon the raja Draupada
they were met by the Pandavas. The herculean Bhima
tore up a tree, using it effectively as a club. Arjuna,
too, rushed upon his foes like a wild elephant, and

i Williams’ trails. This description reminds one of the scene in the
Odyssey where Ulysses

“Then notched the shaft, released, and gave it wing ;

The whizzing arrow vanished from the string,

Sung on direct, and threaded every ring.” (Book 21.)

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the royal suitors, vanquished in archery and conquered
in fight, were glad to leave the fair princess in the
hands of the gallant youth who had fairly won her
and retire from the field in sullen anger.

THE HOME-COMING.

At evening the Pandavas arrived at their home, ac-
companied by Arjuna’s beautiful prize, and one of the
sons hastened to his mother’s apartment exclaiming,
“We have made a fine acquisition to-day.” The moth-
er supposing they had brought home some trophies of
war answered, “Share it equally among yourselves, my
sons.” Then Yudhi-shthira exclaimed, “Oh, mother,
what have you said ? Arjuna has to-day won a beau-
tiful damsel at the Svayamvara.” Arjuna led the fair
princess into his mother’s presence, but the whole
family were in grievous trouble ; for the words of a
parent thus spoken could not be set aside without
bringing sad misfortune. The five brothers, it is true,
were all in love with Draupadi, but Yudhi-shthira
said to Arjuna, “ You have fairly won her, and we will
marry her to you according to law.” Arjuna mod-
estly replied, “You are the eldest brother; to you be-
long the trophies of war, and this damsel is worthy
of being espoused by you.”

Then the eldest brother said, “It is the raja Drau-
pada who has the disposal of his own daughter, and
we will leave the matter to him.”

DRAUPADI MARRIES FIVE HUSBANDS.

In the meantime, the raja had been greatly troubled
with the thought that his daughter had been won by

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

295

a Brahman ; but learning that the young men were
the sons of the raja Pandu, he was much pleased
with the thought of being allied to the royal house of
Bharata. He therefore invited the Pandava princes to
a great feast, and after the festivities were over he
asked Yudhi-shthira if it was his will as the elder
brother of the family that the princess should be mar-
ried to Arjuna, who had fairly won her at the Svay-
awvara. The young prince answered that he thought
it would be proper to ask the counsel of the great sage
Vyasa.

The sage being summoned to the council had the
matter presented to him, whereupon he gravely re-
plied, “ Many years ago there lived a maiden lady who
besought the gods to send her a good husband, and at
last the god Siva ayipeared to her and announced that
she could have no husband in that life, but in her
next transmigration she should have five husbands.
But the lady replied, ‘ I do not want five husbands,
I want only one/ ‘I cannot help it/ answered Siva,
‘you have petitioned me five different times for a
good husband, and each time your petition has been
answered by a decree that you should have one hus-
band, therefore in the next life you shall have five good
husbands/ Time passed on and the maiden lady died,
but only to be born again as DraupadI, the beautiful
Hindu princess, who is the only daughter of the raja
Draupada. The gods have therefore decreed that the
princess shall wed all of the brothers.”

Yudhi-shthira replied, “ What Vyasa has said is just,
and, moreover, we hold our mother’s word to be right
and true when she commanded that we should all

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share the prize which Arjuna had won.” The raja
then gave his consent to this strange union. The
princess was therefore arrayed in the richest fabrics of
the Eastern looms, and adorned with many jewels.
She was first married to the eldest brother and then to
each of the others in the order of their ages.1 The
ceremony was celebrated with all the pomp and mag-
nificence pertaining to royalty, and both families were
greatly strengthened by the alliance.

THE COUNCILS OF WAR.

A long mythical account is given of the feuds and
adventures of the following years. Yudhi-shthira was
invited to visit the Kauravas, and while there played
dice with an accomplished gambler and lost all of his
wealth, his kingdom, his brothers, his wife, and finally
bis own liberty. Draupadi was finally restored to them,
but by the terms of the game they were all banished
to the jungle for a series of years. Their exploits and
adventures are interminable, even the stories told by
them during their exile being given ; a part of the
Ram ay ana is recited ; the story of the deluge as found
in the Satapatha-brahmana (see page 81) is also re-
peated and many other digressions are made.

After the years of their banishment had expired, a
council of princes was called by Virata and a consul-

1 Polyandry is still practiced among the hill-tribes in the Himalaya range
near Simla; it also prevails among the Todas and the Nayar tribes in Mala-
bar, and among some of the tribes of the Pacific islands, Africa and Aus-
tralia. Caesar charges the ancient Britons with the same practice. (See De
Bello Gallico, V, 14.)

The custom of polyandry must also have existed in very early times
among the Vedic Aryans, there being a hymn in the Rig-veda which repre-
sents a maiden as the prize of a chariot race, which was won by the two
Asvins. (See R.-v., Mand. I, Hymn 119, Verse 5.)

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

297

tation was held as to what course the Pandavas ought
to pursue. Having honorably complied with their
agreement, they were entitled to their portion of the raj,
which had been held during their exile by the Kaura-
vas, but Duryodhana, who had become the virtual
master of his blind and aged father, refused to give
it up.

To this council Krishna was invited also their
father-in-law, the raja Draupada, and indeed all the
allies of the Pandavas. The courtly company was
gathered in the magnificent council hall of raja
Virata, whose daughter had just been wedded to the
son of Arjuna. The great hall was transformed into
a floral bower, and the rich perfume of tropical blos-
soms filled the gorgeous room.

When all the chieftains were seated, the situation
was freely discussed, and it was decided to send the
family priest of raja Draupada to Hastinapur as a
messenger of peace, demanding, however, that the
Kauravas make a fair treaty and restore to the Pan-
davas their own territory. Having little faith in the
success of their ambassador, the Pandavas and their
allies proposed to make war in case of a refusal.

But even before the priest had started, Duryodhana
,had determined to go to war rather than relinquish
his ill-gotten territory. With this purpose in view
he visited Krishna, “ the rude and amorous warrior of
the Yadava tribe,” in order to gain his assistance.
Arriving at his residence, he was told that Krishna

i J. Talboys Wheeler says, “ The great mass of details which associate
him (Krishna) with the Pandavas bears every trace of being a series of
mythical interpolations of the Brahmanical compilers, who sought to deify
the hero.” (Hist, of Ind., Yol. I, p. 246.)

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was asleep, but the haughty raja of the provinces did
not stand upon courtesy ; entering Krishna’s sleeping
room he took a seat at the head of his bed to await his
awakening. Before the chief of the tribe awoke,
however, Arjuna entered the room with the same ob-
ject in view, modestly taking his seat at the foot of
the bed. On awakening, therefore, the eyes of Krish-
na rested first on Arjuna. But Duryodhana pressed
his own claim as being paramount, on the ground
that it was he who first entered the room. At last
Krishna said to them, “ I will put myself alone into
one scale and all the warriors of my army into the
other, and you can choose between the two ; but if
you choose me, remember I shall not fight, though I
will give counsel.” Arjuna at once decided to take
Krishna alone, and Duryodhana was pleased to receive
all the warriors of Krishna’s army, though the chief
himself Avas on the side of the foe.1 Duryodhana re-
turned to Hastinapur in time to receive the Brahman
envoy from raja Draupada.

The blind Maha-raja called a council to listen to
the message, and when the chieftains were gathered
together the Brahman spoke as follows: “An envoy

is the tongue of the party by whom he is sent, and
if he fails in the discharge of his trust, he is guilty of
an act of treachery. Have I, therefore, your permis-
sion to repeat the message sent by the Pandavas ? ”
The assembled chieftains answered with one accord,

i Wheeler points out the impossibility of any such interview taking place,
ilastinapur being seven hundred miles in a direct line from Dvaraka, and
shows the mythical character of the interpolation, which was evidently in-
serted to promote “ the worship of Krishna as a deity.’’ (Hist, of Ind., Vol. I,
pp. 246-348.)

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA. 299

“ Speak plainly the words of the Pandavas, without
extenuation and without aggravation.” Then said the
Brahman, “The Pandavas send their salutations and
speak thus : ‘ Baja Dhrita-rashtra and raja Pandu were

brothers, as all men know. Why then should the sons
of Dhrita-rashtra inherit the whole raj, while the sons
of Pandu are shut out ? You, Duryodhana, from the
time of your childhood up to this day have taken
every opportunity to injure us. You caused false dice
to be made and then invited us to a gambling match ;
by foul play you dispossessed us of all we had and
compelled us to wander like vagabonds for twelve years.
We have fulfilled the conditions, and if you now re-
store to us our rightful share of the raj, we are ready
to forget the wrongs we have endured ; but if you re-
ject our rightful claims, the blood of all the slain will
be upon your head, and rest assured that Arjuna alone
will devour your armies as a fowl devours grain. ’ ”

Bhlshma replied in effect: “All you have said may

be just and reasonable, but in boasting of the valor of
Arjuna you have said too much. He may indeed be
worthy of all your praises, but I warn you not to repeat
them in our presence.”

The fiery Karna then bounded to his feet and re-
buked the aged Bhlshma for admitting that there was
anything reasonable in the demands of the Pandavas,
and declared that not a foot of land would be yielded
up. There were animated discussions of both sides of
the question, and a number of envoys were sent to and
fro between the contending parties. But Duryodhana
remained obdurate, and disdaining the counsel of his
aged father furiously demanded war, and at the

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final council closed a defiant speech with the words :
“ What, then, are all the beggarly Pandavas that yon
should think to frighten me with them ? Never will
I stoop and humble myself to them, say what you
will.”

PREPARATIONS FOR THE GREAT WAR.

Duryodhana called another council of war immedi-
ately after the departure of the last envoy of the Pan-
davas, and required the members of his council to
make a solemn covenant with him that they would
never yield to the foe, but would fight as long as life
lasted. He then summoned his whole army and
marched to the plain of Kuru-kshetra,' where he fired
their hearts with vindictive speeches, and drew up his
battle line with barbaric pomp and magnificence. He
stationed his army behind a beautiful lake in the cen-
ter of the plain, and dug a dee]) trench on the flank
of His troops, fortifying it with towers, upon which he
placed great jars filled with poisonous serpents and
scorpions, and reservoirs of burning sand and boiling
oil. The venerable Bhishma was enthroned with elab-
orate ceremonies as the generalissimo of all his armies,
and was brought into the field wearing the robes of
royalty, with the sacred canopy held over his head.

The Pandavas also marshalled their forces, choosing
for their commander-in-chief Dhrishta-dyumna, the
brother of their wife DraupadI, and marched with

t In modern times, this ]>lain (now called Panipat) is celebrated as having
been the scene of three decisive battles which sealed the fate of upper India:
in 1526 when Baber on his invasion of India completely defeated the impe-
rial forces; in 1556 when his grandson, Akbar, on the same battle-field con-
quered Hemu, the Hindu commander, and finally on the 7th of January, in
1761, when the sovereign of Cabul shattered the unity of the Mahratta power,
thereby preparing the way for British rule.

LEGENDS OF THE MAH A-BHARATA.

301

strains of martial music to the beautiful plain, as yet
unstained with blood. They were drawn up in solid
phalanxes on the western side of the clear waters of
the lake, while the hosts of the Kauravas were en-
camped upon the eastern shore. The tropical sun
looked down upon the gay trappings of horses and
men, upon glittering spears and burnished shields.
The richly caparisoned elephants were mounted by
chieftains clad in brilliant armor and holding conch
shells, upon which they sounded the signal of advance.
Beside the camp of the Pandavas the river Sara-swati
flowed gently along between banks bordered with
coroneted palms, while the many-colored lotuses rising
above its bosom burdened the air with their fragrance.

THE CHALLENGE GIVEN AND ACCEPTED.

When the troops on both sides were ready for bat-
tle, Duryodhana called one of his kinsmen and ordered
him to carry a challenge into the other camp. He was
received by the Pandavas according to the courtesies
of war, and addressed them as follows : “ You have

sworn, oh, Pandavas, that when your exile was ended
you would wage a war against us, and the time has
come for you to fulfill your oath. You have been
deprived of your raj ; your wife DraupadI has been
grievously insulted, and you have been driven into
exile. Why then do you sit unconcerned when you
ought to rush into battle with your hearts on fire ?

“ Where is the sleepy Bhlma, who threatened to
drink the blood of Duhsasana, who waits for him here ?
We are assured that whoever comes out to battle
against us, be he man or elephant, will never escape with

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his life, and though you are our brethren, you know no
more of our power than the frog who lives in a river
knows of the caves beneath it. In order to obtain a
raj, men should have good fortune as well as strength.
Of what use was the bow of Arjuna at the gambling
match where you staked yourselves to become our
slaves ? ”

This sjieech elicited an angry response and eager
acceptance ; but before the two armies were hurled
against each other the following rules of warfare were
agreed upon :

1. There shall be no strategy or treachery.

2. When we are not fighting there may be free and
friendly intercourse between the two camps.

3. The fugitives, the suppliants, and the charioteers
shall not be slain.

4. Horsemen shall fight only with horsemen and
footmen with footmen.

5. When warriors are fighting with words only, no
one shall take up arms against them.

0. No man shall take up arms against another with-
out giving him warning.

7. When two combatants are engaged with each
other no third man shall inteifere.1

The rules of warfare being decided upon, night
came down upon the plain and wrapped the expectant
armies in a sleep which was lighted by dreams of vic-
tory. But when the moon came out in the troubled

i These peculiar rules of warfare are evidently an interpolation of later
date. The great war was not fought upon these principles, and they are
at variance with the barbarous character of those times, as well as with
the fierce hatred which prevailed between the parties. It is probable,
therefore, that the first onset between the two armies took place imme-
diately after the insulting challenge of Duryodhana had been accepted.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHABATA.

303

sky her pale face was stained with blood, and the low
roll of distant thunder was heard. Dark clouds wept
over the coming contest, and their tears were tears of
blood.

But the fearful omens vanished before the rays of
the morning sun. Drums were beaten, trumpets and
war shells were sounded, and gorgeous banners waved
upon the air. The rajas on either side wore golden
armor and stood in their chariots radiant with the
gems which gleamed on their hands or flashed in the
setting of their golden mail. On the one side the
troops were drawn up in the form of a crescent, while
on the other they stood awaiting the battle in the
shape of an enormous bird with outstretched wings.
Elephants, cavalry, and endless hosts of infantry1
swayed to and fro like the rushing waves of a bound-
less sea. The chieftains arranged their magical arrows
in their quivers, and everything was ready for the
attack.

lit is claimed that princes from the remotest parts of India were gath-
ered under these banners. The troops employed are said to have num-
bered millions, billions, trillions, and even more reckless figures are ad-
vanced. If all the present inhabitants of the earth were multiplied a
thousand times over they would still fall short of the fabulous numbers
which the Hindus claim were engaged in this “ Great War.” Even the
elephants and chariots are counted by tens of millions. Chariots are
said to have been broken or burned by an arrow, and the great war ele-
phants are represented as being conquered and killed by a single blow
from the hand of any one of the warriors.

CHAPTER XIX.

LEGENDS OF THE M AHA-B H A RATA. THE GREAT WAR,
CONCLUDED.

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA — THE ATTACK AND REPULSE OF
THE KAURAVAS — THE THIRD DAY — FALL OF BHISH-
MA — A NIGHT SCENE — AVAR OF EXTERMINATION —
RAJA Y U I) Ili-SIIT 1 1 1 R A — THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
TRIBE OF YADAVAS — DEATH OF KRISHNA — ABDI-
CATION AND PILGRIMAGE OF THE RAJA — ASCENSION.

r I HIE great plain glittered with radiant armor and
the bright trappings of war horses, while the
impatient armies awaited the signals of their chief-
tains and a terrible conflict was momentarily expected.
At this point in the account a later hand has interpo-
lated a long series of discourses bv Krishna, called the
Bhagavad-gita, which will be treated in another chap-
ter. According to some writers the foe consider-
ately waited until this ‘“Divine Song” was finished,
and then the attack Avas made by Bhlslima, avIio ad-
vanced with the troops of the Kauravas.

The mighty host poured over the plain Avith their
lances gleaming in the sunlight and gorgeous banners
waving above them. The gallant Karna led his faith-
ful bands close behind the battalion of his commander.
The monarch, in golden armor, rode upon his great
Avar elephant, Avhose gorgeous trappings Avere in liar-

304

LEGEXDS OF THE MAHA-BH ARATA.

305

mony with the glittering uniform of the king. As
they marched to the front the war shell of Bhishma
sounded its defiant challenge above the strains of mar-
tial music and the whole army was hurled upon the
foe.

“ The sons of Pandu marked the coming storm
And swift arrayed their force. The chief divine
And Arjuna at the king’s request
Raised in the van the ape-emblazoned banner,1
The host’s conducting star, the guiding light
That cheered the bravest heart, and as it swept
The air, it warmed each breast with martial fires.”

Arjuna led his battalion in person. Standing in his
chariot, covered with gleaming mail and sternly grasp-
ing his massive bow, Gandiva, he was looked upon by
his men as the messenger of fate.

“Now, as on either hand the hosts advanced,

A sudden tumult filled the sky ; earth shook
Chafed by the winds, the sands upcurled to heaven
And spread a veil before the sun.

And ever and anon the thunder roared.

And angry lightnings flashed across the gloom,

Or blazing meteors fearful shot to earth.

Regardless of these awful signs, the chiefs
Pressed on to mutual slaughter, and the peal
Of shouting hosts commingling shook the world.”

i Arjuna had entreated the monkey demigod Ilanuman to lend him his
aid, but Hanuman replied that if he would put a picture of a monkey on
his banner it would answer every purpose.

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The battle became general at the first attack and
in a moment the air was thick with whizzing arrows,
while the whole plain resounded to the beating of the
drums, the sounding of the war shells, the neighing
of the horses, and the roaring of elephants. In the
first terrible charge it seemed as if heaven and earth
had come together. Swords and spears flashed like
lightnings in the sunlight, and every stroke was fol-
lowed with blood, which stained the gleaming armor
before it reached the sod of the plain. A cloud of
dust soon dimmed the light of the sun, and beneath
its pall the shouting combatants struggled in deadly
conflict.

At last the son of Arjuna, seeing that the battle
was going against the Pandavas, made a personal at-
tack upon Bhlshma and his staff. He succeeded in
cutting down the ensign on his chariot, and in his
reckless charge left many a foe helpless upon the
field. But the night came down upon the fearful
scene, and the warriors retired to their camps without
any decisive gain to either side. The next day, how-
ever, after many hours of hard fighting, the Pandavas
were victorious, Arjuna in a brilliant charge driving
the foe from the field. Rising still higher in his
chariot he exclaimed :

“ ‘ Fear not, my friends, still, still your fame maintain !’
So sjieaking, on he dashed with whirling wheel
Through the deep streams of* blood, with carcasses
And shattered weapons choked, and thundering drove
Against the Kuril ranks. Around his course
In clouds the arrows flew, and darkened earth

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

307

And heaven, and hid the combatants from sight.
Precursor of nocturnal shades ; for now
The sun behind the western mountain sunk.

And gloom profound ensued, nor friend nor foe
Could longer be distinguished. Drona then
Commanded conflict cease, and Arjuna
Restrained his now re-animated troops.

Each to his tent withdrew. Amidst his peers

The glorious Arjuna unrivaled shone

As gleams the moon amongst the stars of heaven.”

THE THIRD DAY

dawned bright and beautiful upon the blood-stained
field. The Pandavas drew up their army in the form
of a half moon, and attacked at once the center and
both flanks of the foe, throwing them into complete dis-
order, then rapidly re-formed and charged again.
The slaughter of the day was terrible ; the plain was
strewn with heaps of dead and weapons of every
description. There were headless bodies1 and riderless
horses, and the dust of the plain was laid with blood ;
but the Pandavas again put to flight the Kauravas, who
fled before them like frightened deer. Duryodhana
at last reproached his commander-in-chief, Bhlshma,
with his repeated disasters, and complained that he was
indifferent to the great slaughter of his own troops.
The furious chieftain responded to his complaints with
the defiant sounding of shells and the braying of trum-
pets. His disheartened followers responded bravely to
his call, and in a fiercely fought battle the Pandavas

i In the original it is stated that the bodies of the slain rose up without
their heads and gave battle to each other.

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were repulsed. They rallied, however, under the “ape-
emblazoned banner” of Arjuna, and the Kauravas were
again defeated, while shouts of victory and the tri-
umphant notes of shell and bugle arose from the hosts
of Pandu.

FALL OF BIlISHMA.

Five days longer the terrible contest went on with
varying result, but the advantage was mainly with the
Pandavas.1 At last, stung by the reproaches of his
king, and receiving an intimation that the resignation
of his command would be acceptable, Bhlshma declared
that upon the morrow he would either be victorious or
would be left dead upon the field. On the tenth day
of the war, therefore, he challenged Arjuna to single
combat, and after many hours of desperate fighting he
received a mortal wound from the hand of his favorite
pupil.2 Drona was then given the position of com-
mander-in-chief, and the fighting became, if possible,
more desperate.

“ Forgot his years — the veteran chieftain fired
With rage, the energy of youth resumed ;

Amidst the Pandu ranks he smote resistless,

And many a headless corse and mangled limb

l The wildest descriptions are given of the victories of these warriors.
Arjuna is described as killing five hundred warriors at once; as covering the
plain with dead and filling the rivers with blood. Bhima is represented
as annihilating with a single blow of his club a monstrous elephant with all
the officers mounted upon it, and many foot soldiers beside, while the
younger Pandavas, from their chariots, were cutting off thousands of heads
and sowing them like seed upon the ground.

•2 Bhishma is said to have been so evenly pierced in every part of his body
by the arrows of Arjuna. that when he fell mortally wounded from his char
iot, he rested upon the points of the arrows and lay thus for many weeks.
The whole episode is probably an interpolation.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

309

And car deserted marked the warrior’s path.

Fast flew his arrows with unerring aim.

And heaven loud echoed to his rattling bow.

The soil was saddened with the crimson stream
Of the vast numbers, men and steeds and elephants,
Whom Drona’s shafts to Yama’s halls consigned.”

The fight between Dhrishta-dyumna and Drona was a
long and doubtful conflict. At length Krishna sug-
gested that if Yudhi-shthira would assure Drona that
his son, Asvatthaman, was dead, the old warrior would
lose all heart and become an easy prey to his oppo-
nent. Yudhi-shtliira, however, refused to tell the base
falsehood required of him. Krishna then directed the
Pandavas to kill an elephant that was named Asvatt-
haman, and Drona was told that Asvatthaman was
dead. Not believing it he fought fiercely, and his
fatal blows fell with terrible effect upon both the cav-
alry and infantry of the foe.1 Feeling anxious, how-
ever, about his son. he called to Yudhi-shthira to know
if he were indeed dead. Yudhi-shthira answered :
“Asvatthaman is dead — not the man, but the elephant.”
Knowing that he was about to tell the whole truth,
Krishna and Arjuna sounded their war shells furiously
as soon as the first words were uttered, so that Drona
heard only the message of death. Believing that his
son had indeed fallen, he laid down his arms and
willingly received the fatal blow. The death of the
great commander was the turning-point in the terrible
conflict.

i The original stales that the infuriated commander slew ten thousand
cavalry and twenty thousand infantry at this critical juncture, and would
have destroyed the whole army of the enemy had he not been restrained by
the gods, who reminded him that he was a Brahman.

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310

A NIGHT SCENE.

The days went by with blood-stained feet, and mul-
titudes of brave men had been lost on both sides.
The gallant son of Arjuna — a mere stripling — had
fallen while fighting bravely against a cordon of Kuru
chieftains. His grief-stricken father had sworn ven-
geance upon the slayers of his son, and the terrible
conflict grew more and more desperate. And now at
set of sun there was no stay to the spilling of blood,
as heretofore. The troops fought on while darkness
gathered around them. Friends instead of foes some-
times fell beneath the strokes of the warriors, but still
no trumpet called retreat. The pale moon came up
and looked upon the awful scene, but as her light sil-
vered the spears and helmets, it lighted up also dark
pools of blood and the headless forms of the slain.
Then she grew paler still and shuddering with horror
drew back her face behind the clouds of night.

But the furious avenger of the fallen boy ordered
lighted torches to be brought, and soon every war-
rior was carrying a gleaming flambeau in one hand and
his sword in the other, while the chariots of the com-
manders fairly blazed with lurid light. The whole plain
was illumined with the fitful fire, and the golden armor
of the rajas shone in the light that fell upon the living
and the dead. Their jeweled arms sparkled beneath
the glare as if in mockery of the groans of dying men,
and their swords gleamed in the firelight as they drank
the blood of the foe. Hour after hour passed away in
the terrible work, until midnight hushed the voices
of anger and Arjuna called his wearied troops to rest.

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LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

Then the exhausted horseman laid his tired head upon
his steed and slept upon the field ; the foeman lay
upon his arms, and the riders of elephants reposed
upon their faithful bearers.

A WAR OF EXTERMINATION.

Now that their commander-in-chief, the venerable
Drona, was numbered with the dead, the tide of battle
went steadily against the Kauravas, but they bravely
gathered their shattered troops and made a gallant
x'ally under the leadership of Kama. The fighting was
again desperate, but after leading the armies of the
Kauravas for two days the new commander was slain
in single combat with Arjuna, his death being caused
by the dishonorable conduct of his opponent, who acted
under the advice of Krishna. On the evening of the
seventeenth day of the great contest Salya was placed
in command. The eighteenth and last morning of the
great war dawned bright and clear above the field,
whose blood-stained soil was rough with the bodies
of her dead. The brave Kauravas once more charged
upon their triumphant foe, but the charioteer of Salya
was slain, and his death was quickly followed by a
single combat between Bhima and Salya. They fought
with jeweled maces, while the remnants of both armies
anxiously waited for the result.

“ Soon as he saw his charioteer struck down.
Straightway the Madra monarch grasped his mace
And like a mountain firm and motionless
Awaited the attack. The warrior’s form
Was awful as the world-consuming fire,

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Or as the noose-armed god of death, or as
The peaked Kailasa, or the Thunderer
Himself, or as the trident-bearing god.

Or as a maddened forest elephant.

Him to defy did Bhima hastily
Advance, wielding aloft his massive club.

A thousand conchs and trumpets and a shout,
Firing each champion’s ardor, rent the air.

From either host, spectators of the fight.

Burst forth applauding cheers : ‘ The Madra King
Alone,’ they cried, ‘can bear the rush of Bhima ;
None but heroic Bhima can sustain
The force of Salya.’ Now like two fierce bulls
Sprang they towards each other, mace in hand,
And first as cautiously they circled round.

Whirling their weapons as in sport, the pair
Seemed matched in equal combat. Balya’s club,

Set with red fillets, glittered as with flame,

While that of Bhima gleamed like flashing light-
ning.

Anon the clashing iron met and scattered round
A fiery shower ; then fierce as elephants.

Or butting bulls they battered each the other.

Thick fell the blows, and soon each stalwart frame.
Spattered with gore, glowed like the Kinsuka,
Bedecked with scarlet blossoms ; yet beneath
The rain of strokes, unshaken as a rock,

Bhima sustained the mace of Salya, he
With equal firmness bore the other’s blows.

Now like the roar of crashing thunder-clouds
Sounded the clashing iron ; then, their clubs
Brandished aloft, eight paces they retired.

LEGEXDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

313

And swift again advancing to the fight

Alet in the midst, like two huge mountain crags

Hurled into contact. Kor could either bear

The other’s shock ; together down they rolled

Mangled and crushed, like two tall standards fallen. ”*

The Kauravas after continual reverses rallied their
scattered forces for a final charge, which led to a com-
plete rout and general slaughter. Only three or four
of their chiefs remained alive, and not a single soldier
of their eleven armies had survived the campaign.
The victors in the fight were but little better off ; at
the end of the terrible contest only the five Pandavas
and two of their adherents still lived. Of the many
millions said to have been engaged only eleven war-
riors survived the contest.

RAJA YUDHI-SHTHIRA.

The elder brother of the Pandavas wTas duly crowned
as king of the entire raj. Great pomp and magnifi-
cence attended the ceremony, but the willow was
entwined with the laurel, and the cypress of death
wras wreathed with the roses of victory. The aged
Dhrita-rashtra mourned his fallen sons, and the new
raja was sad at heart. In the triumphal processions
in his honor the low wrail of suffering was mingled
with the strains of martial music ; for his victory had
been won at a fearful cost, and the royal canopy above
his head seemed draped with mourning. But he sub-
mitted to the splendors of the ceremony, and sat upon
the royal tiger’s skin before the sacrificial fire with

i William’ trans. Ind. Wis., p. 406.

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Draupadi, the wife of all the Pandavas. With no sign
either of sorrow or joy he distributed the usual gifts,
and in his public address lie announced that he lived
only for his people and to promote the happiness of
the blind king, whose sons had been slain in battle.
The days went by amid splendid pageantry whose royal
magnificence was often disturbed by the requiems for
the dead. At last the new raja, with a retinue of
attendants, sought the counsel of the aged Bhishma,
who still lay upon his arrowy bed on the forsaken
battle-field. (See note to page 308.)

Passing over the broken arrows, wrecked chariots, and
unburied forms of their kinsmen, they found the suf-
fering patriarch patiently awaiting his release. He
delivered a long discourse to Yudhi-shthira on his duties
toward the living, and then bade them farewell. The
arrows left his body, his skull divided, and his spirit,
bright as a meteor, ascended through the top of his
head to the skies. Then they covered him with beau-
tiful garlands of flowers, and carried him to the sacred
waves of the Ganges. The purifying waters were
sprinkled over his silent form, and the oblations for
the dead wTere done.

Returning to his kingdom, the raja resumed the
duties of his government, but the splendors of his
position brought no rest to his burdened heart — no
peace to his troubled spirit. When he slept the hor-
rors of the battle-field intruded upon his vision, and in
his waking hours his hands seemed stained with blood.
At last he determined upon the performance of an
Asva-medha, the greatest and most difficult rite that
a raja can perform, by the accomplishment of which

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHAR ATA. 315

lie was believed to have asserted his sovereignty over
the whole earth.

In deference to his age, the blind Dhrita-rashtra
was placed upon a throne of gold above the one occu-
pied by Yudhi-shthira, but the old king conkl not
forget his slain sons, nor did he wish to share the
honors of the government with their murderers, even
though they treated him with the deference which
was due to his years and infirmity. The aged mon-
arch therefore left the kingdom, taking his faithful
wife and a few other friends with him, and estab-
lished a modest home on the banks of the Ganges.
The soft monotone of the sacred waves was the sweet-
est of music to the blind raja. Afar from the cares
of government and away from the haunts of men, he
sat upon the green banks of the river and listened
hour after hour to the musical murmur of the waters
as they hurried by.

In after years the Pandavas, with DraupadI, made a
visit to the aged king, and gathered there upon the
sacred river they talked in low, sad tones of the hor-
rors of the war and the brave men lost. The sage
Vyasa then said to them: “Go all of you into the

river and bathe, and each shall behold the kinsman
for whom lie has been sorrowing.” So they all went
down to the beautiful stream and chose a bathing place
for themselves and their families.

At eventime, when the sun was floating slowly away
in a sea of gold and crimson light, they entered the
clear waters of the river. Then the waves beat higher,
and the foam-crested billows rolled like an angry sea
in a storm. The last rose-tinted rays faded from the

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western sky and darkness settled down upon the foam-
ing river, when from the restless bosom of the tide
arose living knights in armor. Bhishma and Drona
appeared in their chariots, and the starlight gleamed
softly upon their golden armor. Then came the heroic
son of Arjuna and the five sons of DraupadI ; after
them, all the heroes of the war, mounted upon horses
or chariots and carrying their banners and weapons.
But peace rested upon the ensign of the risen host,
and voices were heard chanting their praises. The

glad wife embraced her restored husband ; the mother
sought her boys ; sisters rejoiced over their brothers,
and in the glad hour of reunion the fifteen years of
loneliness and pain were forgotten. 1 The night passed
away in the fulness of joy, but when the morning
dawned the risen warriors mounted their horses and
chariots and rode away in the gray light of the coming
day, and the loyal widows went down and drowned
themselves in the river that they might join their
husbands in the land beyond the tomb.

Then the raja and his brothers and their wife Drau-
padI took leave of the blind king on the shores of the
Ganges, and returned to the capital city. They never
saw his face again, for in a few days the news came
that there had been a terrible fire in the jungle and
that Dhrita-rashtra and all of his family had perished
in the flames.

i For many centuries the sacred books of the Hindus had steadily taught
the transmigration of the soul, and this sudden change to the very opposite,
viz. : the doctrine of the resurrection, is additional proof that portions of the
Maha-bharata were written after the story of the risen Christ had penetrated
India. The author is supported in this opinion by Richard Collins, M. A.,
of the Philosophical Society of Great Britain.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

317

DESTRUCTION OF THE TRIBE OF YADAVAS.

The burning of the jungle with its fatal results
brought terror to the hearts of the Pandavas, for they
looked upon it as a bad omen for the future — the be-
ginning of horrors. In a short time sad tidings came
from Dvaraka, the capital of Krishna, who was the
chief of the tribe of Yadavas. The fair city was situated
upon the ocean shores and the vine-laden valleys around
it were beautiful as a poet’s dream. But the rich
clusters of fruit were perverted from their legitimate
use and the fermented juice of the grape became the
curse of the city by the sea. Krishna and his brother
Bala-rama are spoken of in the Maha-bharata as “the
wine-loving Bala-rama and the amorous Krishna.”

The capital was often the scene of disgraceful dis-
sipation, for the tribe of Yadavas (cow-herds) were
never noted for their morality. Dvaraka was visited,
it is said, by a fearful apparition, which showed itself
at the doors of all the houses. The people declared
that it was death in human form, for its color was
black and yellow, and its head was shorn, and all of
its limbs were distorted. They who saw it were para-
lyzed with fear or convulsed with trembling. Then
a great wind arose and trees were uprooted and car-
ried away by the power of the tempest, while the ter-
rified rats swarmed into the houses by thousands and
even gnawed the hair and beards of the sleeping in-
mates. The frightened owls also sought the compan-
ionship of men and crowded into their habitations,
while other birds cried in terror during the long hours
of the night.

At last Krishna issued a proclamation that on the

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morrow all the people of the city should go down to
the seashore and pay their devotions to the deity of
Dvaraka. But as if in defiance of this proclamation
the apparition of a black woman, clothed in black gar-
ments, walked slowly into the streets. From house to
house she wandered, looking in at the windows and
grinning at the inmates, her great yellow teeth pro-
jecting beyond her distorted lips. If any one attempted
to seize her she vanished out of his hands with a
low mocking laugh and showed her hideous head far
away. Then the charioteer of Krishna harnessed his
master’s horses, but they bounded into the air and bore
the chariot far out over the foaming sea, where they
disappeared forever from sight.

Hoping to put an end to these terrible omens and
avert further disaster, the people gathered upon the
shores of the sea to propitiate the god of Dvaraka.
Some took up their abode in tents upon the sand,
while others sought the shelter of trees ; but they car-
ried with their provisions a great abundance of wine,
and the expedition which was intended as an act of
devotion became a scene of disgraceful revelry. All
the chieftains of the Yadavas were there, and the wine
flowed freely. Soon insults began to take the place of
jesting ; angry words were followed by angry blows.

At last Krishna ordered a friend to repeat a story
which represented one of the chieftains as a thief and
a murderer, whereupon the insulted chief drew his
sword, and calling upon his friends to aid him they
slew the man who told the story and also a son of
Krishna, with many other warriors. The melee now
became general, for Krishna sprang into the fight and

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BH ARATA.

319

slew the murderers of his son. But the combatants
were all so frantic with anger and with wine that they
fell indiscriminately upon each other, striking blindly
at friend and foe alike. Drunken fathers slew their
sons ; brothers fought together until one was slain,
when the survivor sought a fresh victim. The strife
went on until the whole tribe of Yadavas were killed
except Bala-rama and Krishna and one other chieftain,
the sons and grandsons of Krishna being amongst the
slain. Ilis charioteer came presently to his master and
told him that his brother, Bala-rama, had gone out of
the crowd at the beginning of the trouble ; the chief
therefore with his one surviving friend went to find
him.

They found him sitting in the dense shade of a
banyan tree, whose gnarled roots were reaching hungrily
down from the branches to find nourishment in the
earth. Krishna commanded his charioteer to go hastily
to Hastinapur and tell the Pandavas of the trouble,
and request the raja Yudhi-shthira to send Arjuna with
all speed to Dvaraka. He also ordered his compan-
ion to go immediately to Dvaraka and to save the
women and children from the hands of the drunken
populace. The chieftain started upon his errand of
mercy, but he was attacked by a drunken fisherman,
who slew him on his way.

THE DEATH OF KRISHNA.

When Krishna approached his brother, who was sit-
ting with closed eyes and leaning against the trunk of
the banyan tree, he found that he was already dead,
and exclaiming, “I saw all the Kauravas perish, and

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now I have seen all of the Yadavas slain,” the mourner
sat down near the dead body of his brother and gave
himself up to troubled thoughts. But a hunter pass-
ing near saw him and mistaking him for a wild ani-
mal shot him. killing him instantly. “Thus died the
mighty Krishna.”

The city of Dvaraka was now a city of widows and
orphans ; the wail of wondering children was mingled
with the lamentations of the women.

Each one of the sixteen thousand wives of Krishna
appeared to think that her wifely duty consisted in
making louder demonstrations of grief than the others,
and when Arjuna entered the city he was distracted
with the terrible bowlings within her walls ; for the
mourning wives came to meet him with disheveled hair
and violent outcries. As soon as Arjuna could com-
mand himself, he went to the scene of the drunken
melee where the Yadavas had slain each other. With
the assistance of the Brahmans who had survived the
disaster he gathered a great quantity of fuel and
burned the bodies of the dead, not neglecting the usual
funeral oblations. Then he sent parties out in various
directions to search for the bodies of Bala-rama and
Krishna, which when found he caused to be burned
“ with much precious odors ” and “ sprinkled water
for their souls.” Four of Krishna’s widows burned
themselves upon the funeral pile, and all the others
assumed the dress of devotees and retired to the jun-
gle.1 Arjuna took the treasures of the city and the

■ The number of his wives is elsewhere given definitely as sixteen
thousand one hundred and nine. It is also stated that his wives bore him
one hundred and eighty thousand sons, but in this immediate connection
nothing is said of this large family of fatherless children, except that his
sons and grandsons were killed in the drunken melee.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

321

remnant of her people — a few Brahmans and a multi-
tude of women and children — home with him, and
settled them in Indra-prastha. Scarcely had they left
the scene of revelry and crime, when the waves of the
sea arose and swept the devoted city down into her
bosom. Fishes swam through the gilded saloons of
Dvaraka, and the sea mosses twined around cornice
and pillar, while the moaning waves sang the requiem
of fallen splendor and the billows chanted the dirge
for the dead.

ABDICATION.

The reign of Yudhi-shthira was one long drama of
sorrow — one dark scene of tragedy. The stain of fra-
ternal blood was on his ivory throne and on the costly
draperies of his palace. Even with the strains of
martial music were mingled the minor chords of
grief, and the drum-beats seemed muffled as for a fun-
eral dirge. For thirty-six years he struggled bravely
to overcome the disaster and gloom that met him on
every side, but at last he decided to abdicate the
throne which had been obtained at such fearful cost,
and make a pilgrimage to India’s heaven, in the rocky
heights of Mount Morn.1 When his loyal brothers
heard of this high resolve, they determined to share

i The mournful grandeur of the raja amidst the magnificence of his
court suggests the touching scene in Book XIII of the Odyssey, when
Ulysses after ten years of war and ten years more of wandering reaches
the goal of his ambition upon the shores of Ithaca. Bitterly the hero be-
wails his disappointment:

“ Then on the sands he ranged his wealthy store,

The gold, the vests, the tripods numbered o’er;

All these he found, but still in error lost
Disconsolate he wanders on the coast,

Sighs for his country and laments again
To the deaf rocks and hoarse-resounding main.”

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his fate, and with Draupadi followed him to the great
wilderness. The people pressed after, remonstrat-
ing and pleading with the raja to return, but finding
him immovable they bade the wanderers farewell
and returned to the city. llis wife and brothers and
a faithful dog were now his only courtiers. The im-
perial canopy was the blue heaven above him and his
kingdom the wilderness around him.

“ Then the high-minded sons of Pandu and the noble
Draupadi

Roamed onwards, fasting, with their faces towards the
east ; their hearts

Yearning for union with the Infinite, bent on abandon-
ment

Of worldly things. They wandered on to many coun-
tries, many a sea

And river. Yudhi-shthira walked in front, and next to
him came Bliima ;

And Arjuna came after him, and then, in order, the
twin brothers.

And last of all came Draupadi, with her dark skin and
lotus eyes —

The faithful Draupadi, loveliest of women, best of noble
wives —

Behind them walked the only living thing that shared
their pilgrimage —

The dog. And by degrees they reached the briny sea; . .
They reached the northern region and beheld with
heaven-aspiring hearts

The mighty mountain Himavat.1 Beyond its lofty peak
they passed

i Himalaya.

LEGENDS OF THE HAHA-BHARATA.

323

Towards a sea of sand, and saw at last the rocky Meru,
king

Of mountains. As with eager steps they hastened on,
their souls intent

On union with the Eternal, Draupadi lost hold of her
high hope.

And faltering fell upon the earth.”1

One by one the others fell, leaving only Bhima,
Yudhi-shthira, and the dog. The eldest walked on un-
moved by the fate of the others, with his calm, inflexi-
ble face fixed toward the summit, but Bhima ques-
tioned him as to the reason of their fall. He answered
that it was because of their sinful thoughts. That
Draupadi fell because of her excessive love for Arjuna ;
the others on account of pride or vanity. At last
Bhima fell also and was told that he suffered death
on account of his selfishness.

ASCENSION.

Only Yudhi-shthira was now left, and he walked per-
sistently onward still followed by the faithful dog.
At last he was met by Indra, who hailed him as a
prince and invited him to ascend to heaven. Then
the king looked back upon his fallen brothers and
pleaded,

“ Let my brothers here

Come with me. Without them, 0 god of gods, I would
not wish to enter

E’en heaven ; and yonder princess Draupadi, the faith-
ful wife

William's trans. Iud. Wis., p. 412.

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Worthy of endless bliss, let her, too, come. In mercy
hear my prayer.”

Indra replied that the spirits of DraupadI and his
brothers were already in heaven, and that only the
king himself could be permitted to ascend in his
bodily form. Yudhi-shthira then implored that his dog
might be permitted to go with him to Paradise, but
Indra indignantly asserted that “ Heaven was no place
for men accompanied by dogs.” The king, however,
firmly refused to go into the radiant home of Indra
unless his dog could bear him company. “You have
abandoned DraupadI and your brothers, why not for-
sake your dog?” the god demanded. To this the
king replied : “ I had no power to bring them back

to life; how can I abandon those who no longer live?”

Finding that Yudhi-shtira was determined not to
leave him, the dog, who had been the king’s father
in a former birth, assumed his human form and the
two went together into Paradise. There beneath the
golden dome and amidst the jeweled thrones he found
Duryodhana and all the Kauravas, but neither his
brothers nor DraupadI were present. Addressing In-
dra he declared that he could not stay in heaven
without the presence of those he loved, and besought
the god that he might share their fate in hell. A
radiant messenger was therefore sent from the throne
of Indra to conduct the king to the lower regions.

He entered a dense forest composed of trees which
bore terrible thorns and swords instead of leaves.
With naked feet lie walked over pavements made of
razors with the edges upturned to meet the culprit.

LEGENDS OF TIIE MAHA-BHARATA.

325

He passed over the foul and mutilated bodies of those
who had preceded him, while hideous shapes flitted
through the darkness and hovered with outstretched
hands above him. Onward, still onward, he urged
his way with cut and mangled feet, until he came to
the place of burning, where the forms of his brothers
were seen in the pitiless flames with multitudes of
others.

Draupadi turned her suffering eyes to him and
reaching out her burning hands she pleaded with him
to save her. The beseeching voices of his brothers,
also, were borne to his ear, and in a moment the
heroic heart had chosen to share their pain. Turning
to his angel guide, he bade* him go and leave him
there with those he loved. Brave soul ! It was the
last trial of his loyal heart, and the terrible illusion
vanished.

He was bidden to go and bathe in the sacred waters
of the Ganges, and as he entered the cooling waves
heaven was opened above him, and there in the land
of undying flowers lie was greeted by the gentle
Draupadi. Advancing from curtains of azure, with
her dark eyes gleaming with light and love, she gave
him one delicate hand and led him to a royal throne
gleaming with jewels and draped with flowers. On

beyond a floral grove he saw the glad faces of his
brothers amid the roses, and turning he made a joy-
ful salutation to Indra, the god of battles.

Beside the main story of the Maha-bharata which
we have here given, there is an interminable mass of
myth and legend, consisting mainly of fairy tales of
little or no literary value. For instance, in the orig-

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inal poem there are hundreds of pages devoted to the
adventures of the horse which Yudhi-shthira allowed to
wander at his will during the prescribed year of prepa-
ration for the Asva-medha sacrifice.

But there is occasionally a gem of sentiment which
ought to be preserved, such as the victory of love
over death in the beautiful legend of Savitri and
Satyavan. This little poem is well worthy of the
attention which has been given it by various scholars.
Of all the myths of the Maha-bharata it is perhaps
the purest and most touching. We give a prose ver-
sion of it in the following pages.

CHAPTER XX.

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA, CONCLUDED.

SAVITRI AND SATYAVAN.

THE KING'S DAUGHTER — SAYITRl’S CHOICE — THE MAR-
RIAGE— LOVE CONQUERS DEATH.

T OXG- years ago there lived in palace halls the
-1— ' mighty king of Kekaya. Gallant and brave in
person, just and beneficent in the administration of
the laws of his realm, he was the hero of his people
and they rendered to him a loyal obedience.

But King Asva-pati carried a desolate heart amidst
the magnificence which surrounded him, for the gods
had written him childless. Through long years of
faithful fasting and penance his prayers had been unan-
swered. But one glad day the goddess of the sun
arose from his sacrificial fire ; beautiful and bright she
came in the form of glorious womanhood, and rising
through the crimson flame stepped into the royal pres-
ence, saying : “ What wilt thou, mighty raja, that

I shall do for thee ? I have listened to thy prayers ;
I have watched thy penance, and seen the bounty of
thine offerings. During all the years of thy reign
the poor have found in thee a valued friend, and
now, oh, king ! I wait to do thy bidding ; tell me
now the dearest wish of thy heart.” And Asva-pati
answered : “ Oh, beautiful goddess, ’tis for my barreu

32?

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line that I do penance and have performed my vows
lo ! these many years. Give me an heir for my throne
and kingdom ; give me children to grace my royal
hearthstone.” Then the radiant goddess smiling said :
“ I knew thy wish, oh king, and there shall be born
a daughter unto thee — not a son, but a fair girl —
the loveliest that the stars have ever shone upon
and, smiling still, the beauteous vision vanished in the
sacrificial flame.

Time passed on with flying feet, and ere long a
child was given to the royal house and courtiers
brought their praise unto the palace gates, while the
streets of the city were ringing with joyous music
and everywhere the glad news went that the queen
had borne a daughter — a babe of loveliest mould.
The child was named SavitrT and the happy father
made a royal birthday feast ; the poor were fed and
the city was decorated with bright flags and long fes-
toons of flowers. Every porch and pillar was made
bright and fragrant with floral vines, and the great
vases in front of the palace were filled with branches
of orange and mango trees.

The little one who met with such a royal welcome
grew more beautiful as the years went by, and when
she reached the fair heights of womanhood she was a
vision of grace and loveliness. The lithe figure of this
Indian maid was like a dream of beauty and grace,
and the rosy light of health flashed through the olive
shades of her face. The crimson lips 'smiled over
pearly teeth and the great dark eyes were luminous
with light and love. But still no raja dared to ask the
hand of the princess in marriage. Her loveliness and

LEGENDS OP THE HAHA-BHARATA.

329

truth, her queenly independence had awed them into
silence.

At last her father gave to her a princess’ right to
choose for herself a lord, and gave his royal word that
the man she chose should be welcomed by her sire.
A royal train moved through the provinces and visited
every court, for Savitrl with her ministers and maidens
would take the air and travel for the princess’ health.
They received everywhere a royal welcome, but she
loved best the trees and groves ; hence, they wandered
through the fragrant woods and gathered fruits and
flowers there.

One day they found a hermit, aged and blind, who
with his faithful wife sat in the dense shade of a teak
tree, whose abundant leaves gleamed in the sunshine
above them and protected them from its heat. The
gentle princess stayed to give them a few kindly words
and enjoy the wild flowers around the hermitage.
While she listened to their story a young man came
from the thicket bearing the sacred wood to be used
in the evening sacrifice. He stopped in wonder and
admiration before Savitrl, and her eyes rested a mo-
ment upon his manly form and honest face. It was
Satyavan, the hermit’s son, who stayed to serve his
aged parents in their banishment. The princess had
dawned upon his vision like a dream of heaven, and
like a dream she vanished from his woodland home,
leaving her memory to haunt his steps and make his
loneliness more terrible. In the still hours of the night
he heard her voice and saw the lovely face which had
become part of his being.

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SAVITRl’S CHOICE.

One day the Maha-raja sat in his council hall with
the sage Niirada. They were talking in low tones of
the affairs of state when the king’s daughter was an-
nounced. With her dark eyes glowing with light and
hajipiness she stepped into the royal presence and
bowed meekly before her father, who laid his hand
lovingly upon her dark hair, as he bent down and
caressed his child. Niirada looked in admiration upon
the princess and said to the king, “ Thy daughter is
very fair. Thou shouldst give her in marriage to the
raja of some goodly kingdom.” “For this purpose she
has been abroad,” replied the king. Then turning to
his daughter he said, “My child, hast thou chosen
thy lord ?” But she answered not. Standing before
the sage with her face crimsoned with blushes, her
eyes mutely appealed to her father to stay his ques-
tions. Reading her wish, he said, “ Fear not, my
child, to speak before the sage Narada ; he is thy
father’s best and truest friend ; but tell me if thou
hast found the object of thy search.” Then she
answered : “ Father, I have been long away ; I have

visited the courts of princes ; I have offered sacrifice
in the sacred groves, and I have found in one of these
the banished king of Clialva, who lost his throne and
kingdom because of blindness. An usurper reigns upon
his throne, and his faithful queen stays with him in
the woodland cot. Their loyal son ministers to their
wants ; he brings them fruit and game for food ; he
feeds their sacrificial fire and pulls the sacred kusa
grass to make their couch both soft and warm ; he

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331

brings fresh water from the passing brook and gives
them love and tenderness in their daily need. Father,
I have chosen him, this banished prince, to be my
lord.”

Then said Xarada, “ Xot he, my child,— thou canst
not choose the banished Satyavan. He is both brave
and noble ; a grander youth ne’er trod a kingly court,
but o’er his head there hangs a fearful fate. He is
doomed to die, and in a year the gods decide that he
must go.” Her blushes fled and her cheeks grew
strangely pale as she answered : “ Whether he live long

or die to day, whether he be full of grace and wisdom,
or graceless stand before me, my heart hath chosen
once — it chooseth not again, and I have my father’s
royal pledge that lie will ratify my decision.”

Then said the king. Remember, child, the sad lot
of Hindu widowhood, and choose again. The noblest
raja in the land would gladly call thee wife. Let not
this banished youth who has only a year to live take
my peerless Indian gem into his rough woodland
home.”

The dark eyes were raised again to his and in their
liquid depths he read her answer even before her lips
replied, “A loyal heart can choose but once, and a loyal
sire will not revoke his promise.”

Then the raja sighed, “ As thou wilt, dear child,
but for thine own sake I would have had thee make a
wiser choice.” One quick look of gratitude flashed
from the wondrous eyes, then bending her blushing
face to kiss her father’s hand and reverently bidding
the sage farewell, she left the council hall.

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THE MARRIAGE.

Having given his royal sanction to his daughter’s
choice, the king ordered that preparations should be
made for the coming nuptials. Though the bride
should dwell in a lonely hermitage she would still be
a king’s daughter, and her robes even in the woodland
should befit her noble birth. It was an imperial
pageant that went forth to the humble dwelling of
the hermit. There were the priests and sages and
courtiers, and the royal family, mounted upon the war
elephants with their costly trappings.

Amid the strains of martial music the train went
forth from the palace gates. No courier had been
sent to give warning of their coming ; therefore the
king ordered a halt when near the hermitage, and he
himself went forward to hold council with the blind
lord of the humble home. Courteous salutations were
passed between them, and after extending the modest
hospitalities that still were his, the blind king asked
what brought the Maha-raja to his door. “ I have
come,” said he, “to ask of you that you will ratify my
daughter’s choice ; she hath chosen your son Satyavan
to be her lord.”

Then answered the banished king, “In the days of
my proud position it was my ambition to link my house
with yours by ties of blood, oh, noble king ! but now
that my kingdom is lost and I am hut a dethroned
and banished sovereign, I could not take the lovely
princess from her palace home to share our humble
fate.”

But the raja replied, “ You and I are both too old

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHAKATA.

333

to think that happiness is dependent upon luxury. We
know that love can hold her sylvan court in humblest
bower, and your son is the lady’s choice. She has
chosen to dwell in modest guise with him she loves
rather than share the splendors of another. Shall we
deny her wish?” “Nay, never,” said the banished
king. “ Her gracious wish is mine, and great honor
she brings to our fallen house. May the blessings
of Indra rest upon her beauteous head ! ” and calling
Satyavan he told him why the raja came. The be-
wildered prince could scarcely believe the lovely prin-
cess had chosen him. II is words were few ; but his
eyes were eloquent with the joy his lips refused to
voice.

Then the royal train was ordered into view, and
there beneath the massive trees were gathered priest
and sage with golden jars filled from the waves of the
sacred Ganges. Beyond the great trees where the
hermitage stood Avere thickets of rose laurel, whose
fragrance filled the air ; on the other side a silver
brook was hastening by to find rest in the bosom of
a clear lake, beneath the fragrant cups of lotus
blossoms and white lilies. Here in Nature’s temple,
beneath her shining dome and beside her sacred pools,
with legal rites the two were bound in holy marriage ;
and Love stayed by and held his court where the royal
lovers pledged their faith.

The raja and his queen bade their child a fond
farewell, and when they passed from sight the princess
took from her hands and arms the costly jewels that
she wore and laid aside her silken robes ; then on her
delicate form she placed the rough garments that be-

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fitted her new station as a hermit’s wife. Thus she
proved the great love that brought her here ; she could
not wear a finer robe than he ; she could not see her
little hands decked with gold and gems while his were
roughened with honest toil. She had chosen to share
the fortune of the man she loved, and no ray of bar-
baric splendor should suggest to him that she cared
for things he could not furnish. The gray-haired
mother looked smilingly on and loved the loyal wife,
whose gracious ways and loving words soon won the
heart of the banished king as well.

The little family dwelt in their forest home in sweet
content and the days went by on silver feet. To Satya-
van it seemed that life’s ills all were done, and he rested
in the heaven of his happiness feeling that the gods
could do no more. But Savitrl carried in her loving
heart a fearful dread — a counting of the days when
the death decree should be fulfilled. When the sun
went down in the sea and the soft folds of night
cooled the fevered earth she knew that one day less
remained to Satyavan.

LOVE CONQUERS DEATH.

At last the days had nearly fled — the little wife grew
strangely still ; her gentle, loving deeds were still her
own, but her songs were hushed in tearful prayers.
When the time was nearly come she sat beneath a great
tree like a beautiful statue and neither ate nor drank.
For three long days and nights she sat thus, mutely
imploring the gods to save from death's decree the man
she loved. During all the year she had carried the
fatal secret in her own faithful heart. She could not

LEGEXDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

335

pain the others with the weight of her terrible woe,
and they wondered now at the severity of her penance ;
but they thought she craved some great gift of the gods,
and they could not deny her wish.

The fateful day dawned at last and found her weak
and faint, but she would not taste of food. Only one
plea she made — that she might go with Satyavan when
he went out into the forest to cut the sacred wood for
the evening sacrifice.

Tenderly he remonstrated, “ The way is rough and
thy little feet are tender ; the mother’s side is a safer
place for thee.” But still she pleaded, “I cannot let
thee go unless I am with thee,” and Satyavan looked
down into the depths of her tearful eyes, that looked
back love and tenderness into his own. Then said he,
“ Surely thou shalt go and make the dark wood glad
with thy sweet presence.”

Cheerily he set out ax in hand through the wilder-
ness, making a path for the little feet that patiently
followed his own. The morning was wondrously bright ;
flower-laden trees stood here and there along the path-
way ; gigantic climbers grew in the thickets in great
profusion, interlacing the smaller trees and even piling
their gorgeous blossoms upon their heads. The sunlight
lay upon the surface of the little lake near their home,
and bright water birds hovered above the reeds and
rushes, or settled down amidst the white lilies and fra-
grant lotus cups near the water’s edge. Away in the
distance the Himalayas lifted their snowy brows into
the blue heavens and reflected the sun’s rays from their
icy peaks. “ Is it not beautiful ? ” said Satyavan,
pointing to the landscape around him, or directing her

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attention to the strange wild flowers springing from the
mosses at their feet. And smiling the little wife re-
plied, even while the fearful dread around her heart
almost stayed its beating.

Afar from home, they gathered fruits and flowers
for the evening sacrifice, and all the while the anxious
wife watched with aching heart every look and motion
of her lord. He struck the tree to gather sacred wood,
and blow after blow of his ax echoed through the forest.
At last he reeled in sudden pain and cried, “ I cannot
work ; ” then falling at her feet he fainted there.
Quickly the beloved head was laid upon her lap, and
eagerly she strove by chafing the temples and tired
hands to bring the life tide back. She knew it was
the day of fate, but still she could not yield.

Suddenly at her side she saw a fearful shape, that
was neither god nor man — tall and dark with visage
grim, he looked down pitilessly upon them both. His
garments were crimson as if with blood ; his cruel eyes
glowed like burning coals in their deep sockets. In
one hand he bore a long black noose and bent over
Satyavan. As the spectre leaned above her husband,
the trembling princess laid the head tenderly upon the
ground, and springing up reverently folded her hands
in supplication, and prayed to know who he was and
why he came. He answered, “ I am Yama, the god of
death, and I am come to bear away the soul of Satya-
van.” “But,” pleaded the wife, “ ’tis thy messengers
that bear away the souls of men. Why is it, mighty
chief, that thou hast come?” “Because Prince Satya-
van was the grandest, noblest of his race,” replied the
god, “ and none save Yama’s self was worthy to bear

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA. 337

his soul away/’ and bending lower still he fitted the
dreadful noose and drew out the soul of Satyavfm
then silently he strode away toward the southland
with his prize, leaving the poor body pale and cold,
with life and grace and beauty gone.

But the stricken princess followed him. With her
hands folded in supplication she hastened on behind
this fearful King of Death. At last he turned. “ Go
back,” said he, “why dost thou follow in my steps?
No mortal e’er has dared to come whither I shall go.
Go back and perform the funeral rites for thy dead
lord.”

But she replied : “ Wherever my lord is borne,

there I shall surely go ; he is my life, my all ; I cannot
leave him, and I must go with thee. By reason of my
wifely love thou wilt let me come.” And still she fol-
lowed on until the King of Death himself felt pity for
the faithful wife, and turning back he said : “ Return,

my child, to life and health. Thy wifely love is good,
but the kingdom of Yama is not the place for thee.
Still, I will grant thee any boon that thou dost crave,
except this life that I am bearing away.” Then said
Savitri, “ Let the blind and banished king, my hus-
band’s father, have both his sight and throne restored.”
“ It shall be so,” returned the god. “ I grant thee
this because of thy purity and fidelity ; but now turn
back ; our way is long and dark, thy little feet are
already weary, and thou wilt die upon the road.”

“ I am not weary,” said Savitri, “ I cannot tire

i According to Hindu theology the soul of a dead man is about the
size of the human thumb. At death a hole should be dug northeastward
of the fire where the soul can wait until the gross body is burned, and
then emerging be carried with the smoke to heaven.

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while I am near to Satyavan. Wherever he is borne,
there the loyal wife must go.” And the tireless feet
toiled patiently on behind the King of Death until he
turned again and said : “ Darkness is coming on, soon

thou canst not find thy way alone. I will give to thee
another boon — anything except this life, and then thou
must return.” Quickly the princess thought of her
own sire, whose only child now followed Death —
thought of his lonely home and coming age, and she
said, “Give to my father princely sons to bear his
royal name. This is the boon I crave, oh, mighty
one.” “So shall it be,” returned the king, “and now
I have granted thy wishes, go back to life and light.”
But she only answered plaintively, “ I cannot go, great
king. I cannot leave my lord. Thou hast taken him
and my heart is in thy hand. I must surely come
with thee.”

Darkness came slowly down in the dense forest, and
her tender feet were torn with thorns and cut with the
sharp stones of the rugged path. Hungry wolves
and jackals pressed around her, while night birds
spread their black wings above her and startled the
silence with their cries. Trembling with terror and
faint with grief and hunger, she still pursued her way.
Her tear-blinded eyes could no longer see the terrible
shape she followed, but she heard his footfalls and
almost felt his fearful strides, for it seemed that every
step came down upon her bleeding heart.

At last they came to a cavern, dark and damp as
death itself, and here again Yama turned upon the
pitiful figure in the darkness behind him, and this
time he fiercely demanded, “ Art thou still upon my

LEGEXDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA. 339

track ? If thou wert not so true and good, I would
take thee in my arms, and my worms should feed upon
thy beauty ; but thou art truth itself, and I will give
to thee, poor child, one more boon. In pity for thy
grief I will give thee anything thou wilt — except this
life within my hand.” Then answered Savitrl, “ Give
me children — the sons of Satyavan. Let me bear to
him brave, loyal heirs of his goodness and his truth.”

Death grimly smiled. Should he be conquered yet
by this little Hindu wife ? But he answered : “Yama
hath promised thee, and I must grant thee even this.”
Then with rapid strides he entered the great vault of
the cavern, while the startled bats and owls flapped
their dark wings and made the place more hideous
with their cries. But still he heard the patter of
patient feet behind him, and his burning eyeballs
blazed in the darkness upon poor Savitrl.

“Go back,” he said. “Thou shalt return; I will
bear no longer with thy persistent following!” “I
would go back, oh, mighty Yama, if I could,” wailed
the weary wife, “ but in your hands you carry my own
life. ’Tis only my helpless frame that follows thee,
and now I am so weak with grief and fear that I
must come nearer to Satyavan ; ” and the tired head
drooped upon the dark, cold hand of Death, close to
the life she craved. The pitiless king felt the soft
touch of tear-wet cheeks and clinging hair, and again
his cruel heart was softened by her faithful love.
“Thou art innocence itself, and tenderness and truth,”
said Yama. “ Thou hast taught me lessons new of
woman’s fidelity. Ask any boon thou wilt, and it
shall be thine.”

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Then at his feet she fell in grateful joy ancl ten-
derly caressed them. “ This time, oh, king,” she cried,
“thou hast excepted nothing, and I ask not wealth, nor
throne, nor heaven itself. I crave my heart, my life —
give me my Satyavan ! ” The fire in his eyes beamed
more softly, and the light in them was almost tender
as he said : “ Fair queen, thou art the brightest gem

of womankind. Here, take thy Satyavan. Saved by
his peerless wife, he long shall live and reign with
her, and his line shall be upheld by princely sons who
shall call thee mother. Go now, my child, time hasteth,
and long hast thou been with me.” Then turning
gloomily away, he went down — down into the darkness
of the cavern. But the glad wife, holding her precious
treasure close to her heart, retraced her steps back
through the darkness of cavern and wood, her torn feet
climbing the ascending pathway, fearing nothing, know-
ing nothing, save that in her arms she carried her be-
loved.

It was dark in the forest, where the dense foliage
almost shut out the light of noontime, but it was
lighter here where only little groves of sacred fig trees
and thickets of flowering shrubs obscured the vision,
and traces of gold and crimson still lingered round the
setting sun. Thankful for the light, she hastened to
where the body lay, and raising the head pressed it
tenderly again to her bosom, and gently wooed the
life tide back to heart and pulse. Soft and warm his
hand became, and his lips moved to speak a tender
word that had died upon them when Yama came.
The evening light was gone, and darkness came down
with velvet touch around them, but the glorious stars

LEGENDS OF THE MAHA-BHARATA.

341

came out and the southern constellations flashed like
crown jewels above the living prince and his loyal
wife.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE BHAGAYAD-GITA.

EVIDENTLY AN INTERPOLATION — AGE OF THE GITA — ITS
ORIGIN — “THE DIVINE SONG ”— ! SELF-ADULATION OF
KRISHNA — DIVINE FORM OF KRISHNA.

T EAYIXGr the Maha-bharata proper, we will now
' turn our attention to the Bhagavad-glta, which
although it now forms a part of the great Epic is inde-
jiendent of it.

While the armies of the great war were drawn up
in close proximity to each other, impatiently awaiting
the order to charge, Krishna is represented as deliver-
ing to Arjuna a long philosophical and religious dis-
course, called the Bhagavad-glta, or “Divine Song.”

It is clearly an interpolation, like many others1
which have been placed in the Maha-bharata by the
more modern compilers, and scholars can only wonder
why the Brahmans who placed it in the text could not
see the impropriety of throwing in a long discourse of

i The charioteer of the blind Maha-raja is represented as entertaining his
master during the exciting battle— not by a description of the fight, but with
a long dissertation upon the geography of the earth, and especially of India.
The venerable Bhishma, after receiving a mortal wound, is not permitted to
die, but must lie for many weeks upon the points of upturned arrows, in
order to deliver to the king a lengthy speech on the duties of rajas, etc.
No effort has been spared by the later compilers to convert the story of the
great war into a medium for Brahmanical teaching, and sometimes their
interpolations are so skilfully interwoven with the older text that it is almost
impossible to separate them.

342

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eighteen chapters on the very eve of an exciting battle.
Only the vivid imagination of a Hindu would guess
that any man, god, or demon would, when drawn up
in his chariot, between the combatants, spend the en-
tire day in philosophical discourse when his impatient
troops were marshaled in battle array, with drums beat-
ing, banners flying, and soldiers shouting, while even
the horses were apparently eager for the fray, and,
indeed, according to Telang, after the signal had been
given and the battle had actually begun.

AGE OF THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.

The author of this work is unknown, but he was
evidently a Brahman, and nominally a Vaishnava. It
was inserted into the Maha-bharata at a comparatively
early period, but there is considerable discussion among
scholars in reference to its exact age. Dr. Burr says
that “at the time of its first translation into English
an immense antiquity was claimed for the Bhagavad-
gitii, but it is now generally admitted to he an inter-
polation into the Maha-bharata, and to have been pro-
duced subsequently to the rise, not only of Christianity,
but of Krishnaism itself.” Richard Collins, in a paper
read before the Philosophical Society of Great Britain,
takes the position that the Bhagavad-gita was written
after the third century of the Christian era. Prof.
Max Muller places it in what he terms the “Renais-
sance period of Indian Literature,” the commencement
of which he gives at about A. D. 300, while Sir
Monier Williams speaks of it as being “a compara-
tively modern episode of the Maha-bharata,” and
assigns the author to one of the early centuries of

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the Christian era. We might also quote Prof. Weber,
of Berlin, Prof. Lassen, and Dr. Lorinser, who as-
sign it to about the third century A. 1). ; but a
repetition of authorities is useless, as it is abun-
dantly proved to belong to the Christian era.

ORIGIN OF TIIE GITA.

This work appears to belong in Sanskrit literature
to the family of Upanishads. Its philosophy, its
strong pantheism and radical doctrines of transmigra-
tion, and its literary style all point to the one conclu-
sion that it has been derived largely from the Upan-
ishads. This view is well supported by the version of
the Cfita which was published in Bombay in 1782.
There is a stanza in this edition which says : “ The

Upanishads are the cows ; Krishna, the milkman ; Ar-
juna, the calf; and the milk is the nectar-like Gita.”
This statement sufficiently illustrates the tradition
among the Hindus that the work is derived largely
from the ancient Upanishads, and contains the essence
of their teaching.1

THE “ DIVINE SONG”

begins with the regrets of Arjuna at seeing his breth-
ren arrayed in lines of battle, waiting the word of
command to enter upon a fratricidal war. Addressing
his charioteer, Krishna, he says :

“ Beholding these my relatives arrayed
Before my eyes in serried line of battle

l The native scholar Kashinath Trimbak Telang is naturally inclined to
think that the Gita may have been a part of the original Maha-bharata,
although he says “it is with a feeling of painful diffidence that we express
ourselves regarding the soundness of any conclusion whatever.” (Int.
Bhagavad-gita, p. 5.)

THE BHAGAYAD-GITA.

345

Preparing for the deadly fray, my limbs
Are all relaxed, my blood dries up, a tremor
Palsies my frame, the hairs upon my skin
Bristle with horror. All my body burns
As if with fever, and my mind whirls round
So that I cannot stand upright nor hold
The bow, Gandiva, slipping from my hand.

I cannot — will not — fight. 0 mighty Krishna,

I seek not victory, I seek no kingdom.

What shall we do with royal pomp and power,

What with enjoyments or with life itself.

When we have slaughtered all our kindred here?”1

Krishna makes a long reply to this, in which he
exhorts Arjuna to do his duty as a soldier, regardless
of results. He repeatedly urges him to fight without
wasting regret over the necessary slaughter of his rela-
tives.

“ Better to do the duty of one’s caste.

Though bad and ill-performed and fraught with evil.
Than undertake the business of another.

However good it be. For better far

Abandon life at once than not fulfil

One’s own appointed work ; another’s duty

Brings danger to the man who meddles with it.

Perfection is alone attained by him

Who swerves not from the business of his caste.”2

The imperative duty of loyalty to one’s caste, which
is here inculcated, is repeated in various portions of
the poem.

l Williams’ trans. Ind. Wis., p. 139.

2Ind. Wis. p., 140.

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The first section of the Bhagavad-gita, or Divine
Song, dwells chiefly on the Yoga system, or intense
concentration of the mind upon one subject, claiming
that the end and aim of asceticism is to enable man
to embrace the doctrine of pantheism and realize that
God is everything and everything is God.

Arjuna is exhorted to fulfil the duties of his war-
rior caste, and proceed to kill his relatives, on the
ground that death is merely a transmigration from one
form to another.

“ The wise grieve not for the departed, nor for those
who yet survive.

Ne’er was the time when I was not, nor thou, nor
yonder chiefs, and ne’er

Shall be the time when all of us shall be not. As the
embodied soul

In this corporeal frame moves swiftly on through boy-
hood, youth, and age.

So will it pass through other forms hereafter — be not
grieved thereat.

The man whom pain and pleasure, heat and cold af-
fect not, he is fit

For immortality. Whatever is not cannot be ; what-
ever is

Can never cease to be. . . . Know this — the Being
that spread this universe

Is indestructible. Who can destroy the Indestructible ?
These bodies that enclose the everlasting soul, inscrut-
able.

Immortal, Dave an end ; but he who thinks the soul
can be destroyed.

THE BHAGAYAD-GlTA.

347

And lie who deems it a destroyer, are alike mistaken ;
it

Kills not, and is not killed ; it is not born, nor doth
it ever die ;

It has no past nor future — unproduced, unchanging,
infinite ; he

Who knows it fixed, unborn, imperishable, indissoluble.
How can that man destroy another, or extinguish
aught below ?

As men abandon old and threadbare clothes to put on
others new.

So casts the embodied soul its worn-out frame to enter
other forms.

No dart can pierce it ; flame cannot consume it ; water
wets it not.

Nor scorching breezes dry it — indestructible, incapable
Of heat or moisture or aridity, eternal, all-pervading,
Steadfast, immovable, perpetual, yet imperceptible.
Incomprehensible, unfading, deathless, unimaginable.”1

The transmigration of souls is here clearly taught.
Krishna in another paragraph charges Arjuna with
cowardice, and asks: “How comes it that this delu-

sion which excludes from heaven and occasions infamy,
has overtaken you in this place of peril P Be not
effeminate .... It is not worthy of you. Cast
off this base weakness of heart and arise.”

Arjuna still pleading the humane side of the ques-
tion, Krishna repeatedly teaches that the slaying of
his relatives is an innocent act, from the fact that the
soul cannot die. “ The destruction of that inexhaust-

Ind. Wis., p. 141.

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ible principle none can bring about, therefore, do en-
gage in battle, 0 son of Bharata .... for to
one that is born death is certain, and to one that dies
birth is certain .... therefore you ought not
to grieve for any being. You ought not to falter, for
there is nothing better for one of the warrior caste
than a righteous battle — an open door to heaven. But
if you will not fight this righteous battle, then you
will have abandoned your own duty and your fame,
and will incur sin. All beings, too, will tell of your
everlasting infamy, and to one who has been honored
infamy is a greater evil than death.”1

SELF-ADULATION OF KRISHNA.

The second division of the poem teaches the pan-
theistic doctrines of the Vedanta more directly,
Krishna in the plainest language claiming adoration
as being one with the great universal spirit pervad-
ing, and also constituting, the universe. For the
twofold purpose of enforcing his arguments and com-
pelling Arjuna to fight, and also to glorify himself,
Krishna proceeds as follows: “I have passed through

many births, 0 Arjuna ! and you also. I know them
all, but you do not know them. Even though I am
unborn and inexhaustible in my essence ; even though
I am lord of all beings, still I take up the control
of my own nature and am born by means of my
delusive power. Whensoever piety languishes and im-
piety is in the ascendant, I create myself. I am
born age after age for the protection of the good ;
for the destruction of evil-doers and the establishment

l See Bhagavadgita, Telang’s trails., p. 46.

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.

349

of piety .... I am the sacred verse. I, too,
am the sacrificial butter, and I the fire, I the offering.
I am the father of this universe ; the mother, the
creator, the grandsire ; the tiling to be known, the
means of sanctification, the syllable Om ; 1 . . . the

goal, the sustainer, the lord, the supervisor, residence,
the asylum, the friend, the source, receptacle, and
the inexhaustible seed I am the thun-

derbolt among weapons ; the wish-giving cow among

cows Among serpents I am Vasuki ; among

Naga snakes I am Ananta Among demons,

too, I am Pralhada I am the wind among

those that blow.”2 There are many pages of the
wildest self-praise, after which Krishna informs Arjuna
that “there is no end to my divine emanations,” the
extent of which has been only partially described.

DIVINE FORM OF KRISHNA.

He then exhibited himself in his divine form, hav-
ing many eyes and mouths and faces and weapons.
Arjuna stood before him with bowed head, his hair
standing on end, and with joined hands he said :
“ Oh, god ! I see your body, the gods, as also all the
groups of various beings : and the lord Brahman
seated on his lotus seat, and all the sages and celes-
tial snakes, I see you, who are of countless forms,
possessed of many arms, stomachs, mouths, and eyes
on all sides. And, oh, lord of the universe ! oh, you
of all forms ! I do not see your end, or middle, or
beginning.

1 The syllable Om is said to comprise all the deities of heaven, earth, and
sky.

2 Bhagavad gita, Telang's trans., pp. 58-89.

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TIIE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

“ I see you bearing a coronet and a mace and a
discus — a mass of glory, brilliant on all sides, diffi-
cult to look at, having on all sides the effulgence of

a blazing tire or sun, and indefinable I

see you void of beginning, middle, end — of infinite
power ; of unnumbered arms, having the sun and
moon for eyes ; having a mouth like a blazing fire,
and heating the universe with your radiance. For
this space between heaven and earth, and all the
quarters are pervaded by you alone. Looking at
this wonderful and terrible form of yours, oh, higli-
souled one! the three worlds are affrighted. For here

these groups of gods are entering into you

Seeing your mighty form, with many mouths and
eyes ; with many arms, thighs, and feet ; with many
stomachs, and fearful with many jaws, all people, and
I likewise, are much alarmed, oh, you of mighty arms !
Seeing you, oh, Vishnu ! touching the skies, radiant,
possessed of many hues, with a gaping mouth and
with large blazing eyes, I am much alarmed in my
inmost self, and feel no courage, no tranquillity.

“ Seeing your mouths, terrible by reason of the
jaws and resembling the fire of destruction, I cannot
recognize the various directions ; I feel no comfort.
Be gracious, oh, lord of gods ! who pervadest the uni-
verse. And all these sons of Dhrita-rashtra, together
with all the bands of kings and Brahmans, and Drona,
and this charioteer’s son likewise, together with our
principal warriors also, are rapidly entering your
mouths, fearful and horrified by reason of the rug-
gedness and distortion of your face and jaws. And
some with their heads smashed are seen to be stuck

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.

351

in the spaces between the teeth. As the many rapid
currents of a river’s waters run towards the sea alone,
so do these heroes of the human world enter your
mouths blazing all around. As butterflies with in-
creased velocity enter a blazing fire to their destruc-
tion, so, too, do these people enter your mouths, with
increased velocity only to their destruction. Swallow-
ing all these people, you are licking them over and
over again from all sides witli your blazing mouths.
Your fierce splendors, oh, Vishnu ! filling the whole
universe with their effulgence, are heating it. Tell

me who you are in this fierce form Be

gracious ! I wish to know you, primeval one, for I
do not understand your actions.”

Then Krishna said : “ I am death, the destroyer

of worlds, fully developed, and I am now active about
the overthrow of the worlds. Even without you, the
warriors standing in the adverse hosts shall cease to
be. Therefore, be up ; obtain glory, and, vanquish-
ing your foes, enjoy a prosperous kingdom. All these
have been already killed by me. Be only the instru-
ment. Drona and Bhishma and other valiant war-
riors whom I have killed do you kill. Be not alarmed.
Do fight, and in the battle you will conquer your
foes.”1

Arjuna stood in his chariot, clad in golden armor
and wearing the bright coronet which had been given
him by the god Indra, On either side of him were
the opposing armies, while arrows were flying through
the air. But the hero of the great war, “trembling,
with joined hands, bowed down and sorely afraid, and

i Bhagavad-gita, Telang’s trans., pp. 93-130.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

with throat choked up again spoke to Krishna after
saluting him.” He still pleaded the humane side of
the question, but in vain.

Then follow many pages of questions and long dis-
courses on the spiritual phases of Brahmanical teach-
ing, at the end of which Arjuna decides to fight and
declares that he is ready to do the bidding of Krishna,
and thereupon enters the battle.

Thus it will be seen that the “Divine Song” is
quite foreign to the style and also to the subject mat-
ter of the Maha-bharata, so much So, indeed, that Sir
Monier Williams claims that its proper place in the
arrangement of Sanskrit literature would be at the
close of the subject of philosophy. It contains many
sentiments which have evidently been borrowed from
the Upanishads, and like some of the more modern
writings of this class the Bhagavad-glta is largely an
effort to reconcile the various systems of philosophy
by combining them with one another.

The next important division of Sanskrit literature
which claims our attention, is the Puranas. These
works are still later and belong to mediaeval times, but
they are important as showing the development of
Krishna worship. It is claimed that they were de-
signed to teach the doctrines of Hinduism in their
simplest form.

CHAPTER XXII.

THE PURANAS.

EXTENT OF THE PURANAS — SIGNIFICATION OF THE
NAME — THEIR TEACHING — COMPARATIVELY MODERN
ORIGIN — THE HARIVANSA — THE BRAHMA PURANA —
THE PADMA OR GOLDEN LOTUS — THE VAISHNAVA OR
VISHNU— BIRTH OF KRISHNA — WIVES AND CHILDREN
OF KRISHNA — DEATH OF KRISHNA — THE SAIVA — SRI
BHAGAVATA — THE MARKANDEYA — THE AGNI — THE
VAYU — THE BIIAVISHYA — THE BRAHMA VAIVARTA — -
THE LINGA — THE VAR AH A — THE SKANDA — THE VAM-
ANA — THE KURMA — THE MATSYA — THE GARUDA —
THE BRAHMANDA.

MONG the later forms of Hindu literature are

the Puranas, which present a comparatively
modern field for investigation. They are eighteen in
number, besides several smaller productions of a sim-
ilar kind called Upa or Minor Puranas, the general
character of which is very much like the larger works.

The Maha or principal Puranas contain about six-
teen hundred thousand lines, and when we consider
that each minor work also contains many chapters, we
realize something of the labor required to examine,
index, and translate this enormous mass of literature.

The Hindus themselves claim (in the Padma Pa-
rana), that these books “ consisted originally of one

353

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thousand million stanzas, but four hundred thousand
of them were thought sufficient for the instruction of
man, the rest being preserved by the gods.” These
four hundred thousand stanzas, however, are equal to
sixteen hundred thousand lines, and the student cer-
tainly has reason to be grateful that the gods kept the
greater portion of this literature for their own private
benefit.

The theology and cosmogony of these books are
largely drawn from the earlier writings ; the doctrines
which they teach, the institutions which they describe,
and a part of the legends which they relate belong
to a period long prior to their own compilation.

SIGNIFICATION OF THE NAME, AND OBJECT OF THEIR
COMPILATION.

The name Pur ana signifies old traditional story.
These narratives are said to have been compiled by
Krishna-dvaipayana (the dark-colored and island born),
the arranger of the Vedas and the Maha-bharata.
The object of their compilation seems to have been
the checking of the tide of Buddhism by stimulating
the worship of Vishnu and Siva. In the Maha-bha-
rata these deities had been regarded as but little more
than great heroes, while in the Puranas they are rep-
resented as rival gods.

This department of Sanskrit literature claims to
teach mythology and cosmogony, geography and as-
tronomy, chronology and grammar, and sometimes
even anatomy and medicine, as well as to give the
genealogies of kings ; but the main object is evidently
the exaltation of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, in their

THE PURANAS. 355

various manifestations. The Puranas are sometimes
called a fifth Veda, having been designed to teach the
Vedic doctrines to women and the lower caste men,
who cannot understand the more complicated works.

THEIR TEACHING.

The pantheism of the Puranas is one of their in-
variable characteristics, but the particular divinity who
is at once the source, the substance and the absorber
of all things, varies according to the individual choice
of the worshiper. According to Sanskrit writers, these
books treat of the “creation and renovation of the
universe, the division of time, the institutes of law
and religion, the genealogy of the patriarchal families,
and the dynasties of kings.” The historians were
eager, therefore, to learn their contents.

Sir William Jones and others began the Herculean
task by the employment of Hindu professors, or pan-
dits, to extract such passages as seemed most likely
to give the information sought ; but the pandits
themselves were not very familiar with the Puranas,
and the extracts being necessarily left to their choice,
European scholars had no means of knowing whether
they had made wise selections or not. Another diffi-
culty was the tendency on the part of the pandits to
furnish the matter which was described and paid for,
whether it could be found in their sacred books or
not.

A good illustration of the risk incurred by Euro-
pean scholars in this kind of second-hand study is the
well-known case of Lieut. Wilford, who was so cun-
ningly deceived by the pandits (see page 5), and the

356

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

most charitable conclusion that one can come to in
the matter is that M. Jacolliot was victimized in the
same way. Our translators soon recognized the fact
that there was only one way to arrive at the truth,
and the close, earnest work of many years has been
productive of magnificent results.

It is true that so far as chronology and direct his-
torical statements are concerned the Puranas are of
little or no value, but their myths and legends form
correct pictures of the times to which they belong.
They give us a view of the mythology and religion of
this peculiar people, and indirectly reveal much of
their true history. They were probably at first the
traditionary tales of the poets, who were at once the
eulogists and historians of the family. But with the
genealogies many myths were blended, and these ma-
terials were woven into connected form by later writ-
ers. To the mythology, also, systems of cosmogony,
geography and astronomy were added. After this the
contending sects added to them a mass of absurd fic-
tions, calculated to glorify Krishna, Siva, or any other
deity who happened to be the favorite of the writer.

COMPARATIVELY MODERN ORIGIN.

The Puranas are the work of different generations
and of varied circumstances, the nature of which must
be conjectured from internal evidence. Probably none
of them assumed the form in which we find them
earlier than the time of Sankara Acarya, who flour-
ished about the eighth or ninth century. Of the
Vaishnava teachers, Ramanuja lived in the twelfth
century, Madhwacharya in the thirteenth, and Yal-

THE PURAXAS.

35?

labha in the sixteenth, and the different Puranas
seem to have accompanied or followed the innovations
of these men, and to have advocated the doctrines
they taught. 1

They are acknowledged by all scholars to be the
most modern of the sacred books. Says Wilson: “I

believe the oldest of them not to be anterior to the
eighth or ninth century of our era, and the most re-
cent of them to be not more than three or four cen-
turies old.” 2 Sir Monier Williams says: “ The oldest
we possess can scarcely date from a period more re-
mote than the sixtli or seventh century of our era.”3

THE HARI-VAXSA

is a voluminous work, consisting of sixteen thousand
three hundred ^and seventy-four stanzas, or more than
the Iliad and Odyssey combined. It is a supplement to
tbe Maha-bharata. “But,” says Wilson, “it may be
more accurately ranked with the Puranic compilations
of least authenticity and latest origin.” It is chiefly
occupied with the adventures of Krishna, but it
records the particulars of the creation of the world
and the dynasties of kings. The compilation is care-
less and inaccurate, but has been carefully translated
into French by M. A. Langlois. It represents Krishna
as frightening away all the inhabitants of Yraja by
converting the hairs of his body into hundreds of
wolves to harass and alarm them.

It recounts the story of the protection of the cow-
herds in a storm bv Krishna, who lifted a mountain

iVish. Pur. Int., p. 10.

2Rel. of Hin . Vol. II, p. 68.

3 Ind. Wis., p. 403.

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and held it over their heads until the storm passed
over. This narrative is repeated with some variations
in several of the Puranas. In the Blnigavata he is rep-
resented as protecting the gopis from the wrath of
Indra by holding the elevated mountain on his finger.
It appears from this Purana that Indra was enraged
with the gopis and tried to destroy them with a
deluge on account of their love for Krishna, who
spent his time with them and finally married a
thousand of them.

The Hari-vansa also contains an epitome of the
Ramayana and many other legends, which are repeated
with more or less variation in the different Puranas.1

THE BRAHMA-PURANA.

The greater portion of this work is devoted to
legendary and local descriptions of the greatness and
sanctity of particular temples and individual deities.
It treats especially of the holiness of Utkala, the
country which includes the low range of sand hills,
where stands the celebrated temple of Jagan-nath.
It also gives due honor to the worship of the sun
and of Mahades.

The adoration of Vishnu as Jagan-nath began to
flourish in its greatest vigor after the twelfth cen-
tury of the Christian era. The worship of the sun
is also comparatively modern, the great temple known
as the Black Pagoda being built A. D. 1241. The
internal evidence which the work presents therefore
makes it very probable that the Brahma-purana was

i Unless otherwise indicated extracts from these works will be made from
Wilson’s translations.

THE PURANAS.

359

composed in the fourteenth or fifteenth century after
Christ. It must have been after the worship of
Jagan-nath predominated, and before Siva and the
worship of the sun had fallen into disrepute.

THE PADMA-PURANA.

“ That which contains an account of the time
when the world was a golden lotus (padrna) and of
all the occurrences of that time is therefore called
Padma by the wise.” It treats of the primary crea-
tion by means of the cosmic egg, as in Manu ; the
fanciful formation and divisions of the earth ; the
genealogies of princes ; it also explains the means by
which moksha, or final emancipation from conscious
existence, may be attained. All of these subjects are
mingled with myths and legends innumerable, be-
sides an opitome of the Ram ay ana, and many other
stories belonging to the earlier Hindu literature.

It admonishes the worship of Bali on the first of
the moon’s increase. It inculcates the worship of
Krishna as Gopala, the cowherd. Considerable space
is also devoted to Radlia, the favorite mistress of
Krishna, and the holiness of the forest which was the
favorite haunt of Krishna and Radha. According to
Wilson, the fifteenth century of the Christian era is
the highest antiquity that this work can claim.

THE VAISHHAVA OR VISHNU-PURANA.

This work contains only about seven thousand
stanzas, although it is claimed to be much larger.
There are at least seven copies of it extant, and in
none of them is there anything to indicate that any

360

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

portion is wanting. It was evidently written after
the Gupta kings, who reigned in the seventh cen-
tury, as it makes an historical mention of them.
It also alludes to the Bauddhas, who were in existence
as late as the twelfth century.

These and other facts prove the compilation of
this work to have taken place somewhere between
the seventh and twelfth centuries, and the approxi-
mate date is placed by Wilson at A. D. 1045.
Being devoted to Vishnu, it represents him as the
Supreme God. He is spoken of as purusha (spirit),
pradhana (crude matter), and vyakta (visible form).

The course of elementary creation in the Vishnu-
purana, as well as in the others, appears to be taken
largely from the Sankhya philosophy, which was
the doctrine of evolution as believed and taught by
a certain school of Hindu philosophers more than
two thousand years ago. This system claims that
pure spirit cannot originate in impure matter, and
denies that anything can be produced out of nothing.

The following aphorisms contain a brief exposition
of its doctrines. “ There cannot be the production of
something out of nothing, that which is not cannot be
developed into that which is. The production of what
does not already exist (potentially) is impossible, as a
horn on a man ; because there must of necessity be a
material out of which a product is developed ; and
because everything cannot occur everywhere at all
times, and because anything possible must be pro-
duced from something competent to produce it.1 Thus

i This Sankhya creed is highly suggestive of the doctrines of Epi-
curus, as expounded by Lucretius, who argues that the world and other

THE PURANAS.

361

curds come from milk, not water. A potter pro-
duces a jar from clay, not from cloth. Production

is only a manifestation of what previously existed.”1
But in the Puranas the agency operating on passive
matter is confusedly exhibited in consequence of the
all prevailing doctrine of pantheism and the partial
adoption of the Vedanta philosophy which is based

upon pure pantheism. Its creed is simply stated
/

in the Chandogya Upanishad as follows: “All this

universe indeed is Brahma; from him does it pro-
ceed; into him it is dissolved.” The Vedanta system
has some similarities to the idealism of Plato, and
indeed the Hindu Vediintist fought the Sankhya
theory of evolution very much as did the Grecian
philosopher. It is in strict accordance with the Ve-
danta philosophy and the Puranic doctrine of pan-
theism that Vishnu is represented as being “the cause
of creation, existence, and end of this world ; who is
the root of the world and consists of the world.”
The creation is referred to, as in the other Puranas,
as coming from the egg which rested upon the bosom
of the waters. This is a widely diffused opinion of
antiquity,2 and it is supposed by Bryant and Faber that
the cosmic egg so often alluded to represented the
ark floating upon the water. The Vishnu-purana also

material objects were formed by the coalescing of atoms and primordial
seeds. The Epicurean theory was severely criticised by Cicero, who
claimed that if a concourse of atoms could produce a world, it ought
also to produce temples, houses, cities, and other things which are formed
much more easily than worlds. (See De Natura Deorum. II, 37.)

1 Ind. Wis„ p. 89.

2 Traces of this theory occur amongst the Syrians, Persians, and Egyp-
tians; besides the Orphic egg amongst the Greeks and that described by
Aristophanes, a part of the ceremony in the Dionysiaea consisted of the
consecration of an egg, which according to Porphyry signified the world.

362

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

speaks of the successive creations so often alluded to,
and the repose of the Supreme God during the in-
tervals upon his mighty serpent couch in the midst
of the deep. It also presents the raising of the earth
from the water by the tusks of the great boar, and
the churning of the sea of milk for the recovery of
the lost ambrosia. It describes at great length the
various worlds, heavens, hells, and planetary spheres,
and gives the same description of the seven circular
continents and concentric oceans that is found in the
Maha-bharata.

It describes also the arrangement of the Vedas
and Puranas by Vyasa, and gives the rules of caste,
in which the Purana follows to a great extent the
Code of Manu. Book IV. of this immense volume is
occupied with lists of kings and dynasties. Book V.
corresponds with Book X. of the Bhagavata-purana,
and is devoted to a life of Krishna. Krishna is rep-
resented as the eighth child of his mother (the first
six having been the offspring of a demon) and as orig-
inating in a black hair taken from the head of Vishnu.
Ilis mission is to destroy the demon Kansa, who tries
to forestall him by killing him in his infancy. This
is prevented, however, by his father, who carries him
away in the night and exchanges him for another
child. Book VI. describes the gradual deterioration of
mankind during the four ages and the destruction of
the world by fire and water at the end of a Kalpa.

BIRTH OF KRISHNA.

On the day of his birth the horizon was radiant
with light and happiness, and the waves of the sea joined

THE PURANAS.

363

their music with the songs of the spirits and nymphs
of heaven, who danced with joy. The gods walking
through the sky showered down flowers upon the earth
and the holy fires glowed with gentler flame.

As soon as the child was born, with the complexion
of lotus leaves, having four arms and the mystic mark
upon his breast, his father and mother implored him
as a god to forego his four-armed shape, lest Kansa
should know of his descent and slay him.

Vasu-deva, taking the child, went out the same
night into the darkness and rain and carried him to
a place of safety, while Sesha, the many-headed ser-
pent, followed the father, and spreading his hoods
over them protected the infant from the rain. When
they passed through the river, with its dangerous
rapids and swift current, the waters were stilled and
rose not above the knee of Vasu-deva. Coming to
the bed of a sleeping mother, who had just been
delivered of a daughter, he cpiickly exchanged the chil-
dren, and taking the little girl hastened homeward.
When the mother, Yasoda, awoke and found her child
(as she supposed) was a son as black as the dark
leaves of the lotus, she was greatly rejoiced.

The female infant was placed in the bed of DevakI,
and the demon Kansa destroyed it, thereby releasing
the goddess who had been born as the babe. Taunting
him with his helplessness, and decorating herself with
heavenly garlands, she vanished from his sight. King
Kansa being greatly troubled, called his chiefs together,
and issued a decree that every male child in whom
were found signs of unusual vigor should be destroyed.

Krishna is afterward represented as plunging boldly

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TIIE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

into the lake of the serpent king, and conquering him
by setting his foot upon the terrible head which had
hitherto been unbended. The dying serpent feebly
pleads for mercy, and Krishna allows him to live,
but commands him to depart immediately with all
his family and followers into the sea. It will be ob-
served that there are some resemblances to the gospels
in this Parana, which dates from the eleventh century
of the Christian era.

THE WIVES AND CHILDREN OF KRISHNA.

According to this authority the first wife of Krishna
was Rad ha ; afterward he married Jamba vati, the
daughter of a bear. This marriage was the result of
a terrible contest with the father of the bride. Krishna
fought the bear twenty-one days and at last conquered
him. The bear then exclaimed, “Thou, mighty being,
art surely invincible by all the demons and by the
spirits of heaven, earth, and hell. Much less art thou
to be vanquished by creatures in human shape, and
still less bi/ such as we who are horn of the brute crea-
tion Then humbly prostrating himself at the feet of
his conqueror, he presented to Krishna his daughter
Jambavati as an offering suitable to a guest, and the
bridegroom led her away in triumph.1 Krishna then
married three beautiful girls, find afterward espoused
the two daughters of the king of Magadha. He also
seized and carried off by violence the beautiful princess
RukminikL

In Hindu mythology Havana, the demon king of
Ceylon, was born again as Sisu-pala, one of the char-

l Visb. Pur., p. 427.

THE PUR AN AS.

3G5

acters of the Maha-bharata. He was betrothed to
RuminikI, but Krishna forcibly carried away the bride
and made her his own. Afterward Bhishma declared
that the usual prize awarded to the greatest and strong-
est of their number was due to Krishna ; but Sisu-pala
publicly objected to having the award made to a cow-
herd, who was also a murderer, and after some bitter
language on both sides Krishna “whirled his cakra

o o • •

furiously at Sisu-pala and severed his head from his
body.” He afterward married not only RuminikI, but
also still later sixteen thousand and one hundred other
wives at a single ceremony. We quote from the
Vishnu-purana: “Sixteen thousand and one hundred
was the number of the maidens (included in the last
marriage), and into so many forms did the foe of
Madhu (Krishna) multiply himself that every one of
the damsels thought that he had wedded her in his
single person, and the creator of the world — the as-
sumer of universal shape — abode severally in the dwell-
ing of each of these, his wives.”1 It is declared that
these wives bore to Krishna one hundred and eighty
thousand sons, and the Bhagavata-purana gives the
names of about eighty members of this numerous
family.

DEATH OF KRISHNA.

The Vishnu-purana agrees with the Maha-bharata
concerning the principal incidents connected with the
death of Krishna. The destruction of his tribe is re-
counted, and also the particulars of the drunken melee
in which the fratricidal Yadavas slew each other. It
is here again declared that Krishna was slain bv the

l Yish. Pur., p. 528.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

arrow of a hunter who mistook him for a wild animal,
hut an additional incident is given to the effect that
Krishna was sitting with one foot resting upon his
knee, and the arrow entered the sole of his foot, which
was the only vulnerable spot upon his body.

This Purana enumerates twenty-eight hells, one of
them being called the Krishna, or black hell, which
is reserved for sinners who live by fraud, or who tres-
pass upon other people’s lands. The book closes with a
prophecy of the Kali age, when all evil shall be de-
stroyed.

SAIVA.

Saiva gives the genealogies of the patriarchs and
descriptions of the universe, mingled with praises of
Siva and the myths and legends of which he is the
hero. It also teaches the efficacy of Yoga1 and the
glories of Siva-pura, or the dwelling of Siva, with whom
the yogi, or devotee, is to be united.

SRl BIIAGAVATA

is a work of powerful influence in India, controlling
the opinions and feelings of the people more than any
other of the Puranas. It is called Bhagavata, on ac-
count of its being devoted to the glorification of
Bhagavat or Vishnu. It gives a cosmogony which,

i The Yoga is considered a branch of the Sankhya system of philoso-
phy, but it appears really to be a sort of penance for the purpose of con-
centrating thought with the greatest intensity upon the syllable Om, which
is sometimes defined to be Brahma, and again, as the representative of all
the gods of earth, air, and sky. The most unnatural and painful postures
are assumed by devotees, and sometimes persisted in for years. It also
includes twistings and contortions of the limbs, suppressions of the breath,
and utter absence of mind. The variety and intensity of the various
forms of suffering which are self-inflicted upon the devotees, would sur-
pass all credibility if they were not attested by trustworthy evidence.

THE PURANAS.

367

although in most respects similar to that of the other
Puranas, is more largely mixed with allegory and mys-
ticism, deriving its tone more from the Vedanta than
the Sankhya philosophy. It contains a variety of
legends of a miscellaneous description intended to
illustrate the merit of worshiping Vishnu. There is
also an account of the deluge, in which Vishnu is
represented as descending in the form of a fish to
guide the ark.

It narrates the history of Krishna in much the
same way that the Vishnu-purana does, and acknowl-
edges its indebtedness to that work, showing conclusively
that it is subsequent to the Vishnu-purana. The
Bhagavata closes with a series of encomiums on its
own sanctity and efficacy to salvation. Mr. Colebrooke
says of the work: “ I am inclined to adopt an opin-

ion supported by many learned Hindus, who consider
the celebrated Sri Bhagavata as the work of a gram-
marian (Vopadeva) supposed to have lived six hun-
dred years ago.” 1 Prof. Wilson and other Orientalists
agree with Colebrook in ascribing the Bhagavata to
Vopadeva.

THE MARKANDEYA,

containing nine thousand verses, is “ That Purana in
which, commencing with the story of the birds that
were acquainted with right and wrong, everything is
narrated fully by Markandeya as it is explained by
the holy sages in reply to the questions of Muni.”
The celestial birds (who were Brahmans in a previous
birth), are represented as answering the following

1 As. Res., Vol. 3, p. 467,

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

questions: “ Why was Yasu-deva born as a mortal?”

“ How is it that Draupadi became the wife of the five
Pandus ? ” “Why did Baladeva do penance for Brah-
manicide? ” and “Why were the children of Draupadi
destroyed when they had Krishna and Arjuna to de-
fend them?” The account of the creation is also
repeated by the birds. This Purana is not easily
placed with any degree of certainty, but is supposed to
belong to the ninth or tenth century.

TIIE AGNI.

The Agni or Agneya treats of primitive and subse-
quent creations, the genealogies of demigods and
kings, the reigns of the Manus, the histories of the
royal dynasties, and other matters of a very different
character. As it is evidently a compilation, its date is
of very little importance. It is not unlikely, however,
that chapters have been arbitrarily supplied during the
last few centuries. For the Agni an ancient Purana
called the Vayu is often substituted.

THE VAYU.

The Vayujpurana is so named in consequence, it
is said, of having been communicated by Vayu, the
deity of the wind', to the assembled sages. It treats
of the families of sages and kings, followed by a cos-
mogony terminating with the destruction of the world
at the end of each Kaljm. While it teaches the doc-
trine of pantheism, it also allows to the Suyireme Be-
ing an existence separate from his works, although he
appears to be without attributes. The astronomy of
this Purana presents the relative sizes and situations

THE PURANAS.

369

of the planets, with their cars and steeds and other
appurtenances, revolving around the pole (to which
they are attached by cords of air) as the wheel turns
on its pivot. Little information concerning its exact
age is to be derived from internal evidence, but it is
supposed to be one of the oldest of the Puranas.

THE BHAVISHYA,

containing fourteen thousand five hundred stanzas,
treats of the creation, repeating almost the very words
of the first chapter of Manu, the rest of the work be-
ing purely a manual of religious rites and ceremonials,
although a few legends enliven the series of precepts.
It is not very properly called a Parana, and was prob-
ably written prior to the Mohammedan concpiest.

BRAHMA YAIVARTA.

This is decidedly a sectarian work, and appears to
have no other reason for its existence than to induce
faith in Krishna and Radha. It is of little value as
collateral authority, and the most of its stories are too
absurd for repetition. Krishna is here spoken of as
“the sole existent and eternal being — the center of a
luminous sphere of immeasurable extent and inconceiva-
ble splendor.” Vishnu is represented as coming from
his right side and Siva from his left. Brahma, who is
often spoken of as the Supreme God, is represented as
springing from Krishna. All the gods and goddesses
proceed from different parts of his person, and each
of them at birth recites a short hymn or prayer in his
honor. Brahma is represented as saying:

“ I adore Krishna, who is free from the three qual-

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

ities, the one imperishable Goviuda, who is invisible
and void of form; who is visible and assumed the
shape of a cowherd .... the lord of the mystic
dance, and its performer, and the delighter in the
graces of its evolutions.” Radha, his favorite wife,
proceeds from his heart ; from the pores of her skin
proceed three hundred million gopls or nymphs, while
a like number of gopas, the swains of the nymphs,
proceed from the pores of Krishna’s skin, and the
cows which these swains are to attend also issue from
the pores of Krishna’s skin.

The twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth chapters are
devoted to a description of Goloka, the heaven of
Krishna. It is a sphere of light tenanted by gopls,
gopas and cows, the only human beings admitted be-
ing the votaries of Krishna. The author sometimes
describes Goloka as being round, and again speaks of
it as a square. In one passage he gives it a diameter
of thirty millions of yojanas, and in another he ex-
tends its circumference to a thousand millions. In-
deed, the compiler seems to have paid very little
attention to the consistency of the narrative, assigning
various origins to the same god or goddess. Thus,
Sarasvatl, the goddess of speech, is said in one para-
graph to come out of the mouth of Krishna, and in
another is represented as one of the subdivisions of
Prakriti, and again is spoken of as issuing from the
tongue of LakshmI. These incoherencies are quite
characteristic of this Parana, which is full of contra-
dictory repetitions.

According to this work the original and only cause
of Krishna’s incarnation was his love for Radha, and

THE PURAHAS. 371

he came down to the world to be her lover. The in-
cidents of Krishna’s birth, as the eighth child of Vasu-
deva and DevakI, are narrated in the usual manner ;
his infant exploits are also recited, and his marriage
with Radha is said to have been celebrated by the
distribution of viands and treasures in large quantities.
The incompatibility of such profusion with the finan-
cial condition of his foster father Xanda, the cowherd,
is apparently not noticed by the author, although the
hero of the festivities is represented in the next chap-
ter as stealing the curds, for which he is tied to a tree
and whipped by his foster mother, Yasoda. Krishna is
also represented as carrying off and hiding the clothes
of the nymphs while they were bathing in the river.

It is claimed in this Purana that when Yishnu
boasted of being lord of all, he was swallowed by
Krishna, all but his head, but was restored on recov-
ering his senses. Krishna’s marriage with other wives
is also narrated. The circumstances of his death by
a wound from a hunter, the destruction of his tribe,
and the submersion of Dvaraka are also alluded to.
This Purana is said to be so sacred that the attentive
hearing of one quarter of a verse is equal in merit to
the gift of the heaven of Krishna. Although it is
differently classified it appears to be one of the last
of the Puranas from its own avowal that it was in-
tended to “clear up the discrepancies observable in
these works.” That it was compiled after the Moham-
medan invasion is evident from the allusion that it
makes to the supremacy of the Mleccha rulers, and
the particular branch of the Hindu system which it
advocates makes it very probable that it emanated

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

from a sect which originated about four centuries ago
with the Gosains.

THE LINGA

consists of eleven thousand stanzas, and is said to have
been originally composed by Brahma. In the account
of creation as given by this Parana, Brahma and Vishnu
are represented as fighting for the supremacy during
the intervals of creation, but the great fiery Linga
suddenly springs up and puts them both to shame, as
after traveling upwards and downwards for a thousand
years neither of them could find its beginning or
ending. Upon the Linga the sacred syllable Om is
visible, by which Brahma and Vishnu become en-
lightened and acknowledge and eulogize the superior
/ t / t

glory of Siva. Siva repeats the story of his incarna-
tions (twenty-eight in number), intended doubtless to
exceed in number the incarnations of Vishnu. The
work is assigned to about the eighth or ninth century.

THE VARAHA

is narrated by Vishnu, as Varaha (the boar), to the
personified earth. Like the Linga-purana, this is a
religious manual almost wholly occupied with forms
of prayer and rules for devotional observances ad-
dressed to Vishnu. There is no leaning to the par-
ticular adoration of Krishna, and there are other indi-
cations of its belonging to an earlier stage of Vishnu
worship.

THE SKANDA

is ‘‘that in which the six-faced deity (Skanda) has
related the events of the Tatapursha Kalpa enlarged

THE PUR ANAS. 373

with many tales.” It is said to contain eighty-one
thousand and one hundred stanzas. This Parana has
no existence in a collected form, and the fragments
in various parts of India which are affirmed to be
portions of it aggregate a mass of stanzas even more
formidable than has been enumerated. They contain
minute descriptions of the temple of Siva, and a vast
number of legends illustrating the holiness of Kasi.
Other portions are devoted to the holiness of Urissa
and other localities and temples. It is doubtful what
proportion of these fragments properly belongs to the
Skanda-purana.

THE YAMAHA

contains an account of the dwarf incarnation of Vish-
nu and includes about seven thousand stanzas. It is
largely devoted to the worship of the Linga and to
the illustration of the sanctity of certain holy places.
In the words of a distinguished Orientalist (Wilson)
“ Its compilation may have amused the leisure of some
Brahman of Benares three or four centuries ago.”

THE KURMA

is “ that in which Janarddana in the form of a tor-
toise in the regions under the earth exjdained the ob-
jects of life, duty, wealth, pleasure, and liberation.”
The greater part of it inculcates the worship of Siva
and Durga, although it is rej^resented as being given
by one of the incarnations of Vishnu. Its date can-
not be very early, for it is avowedly posterior to the
establishment of the Tantrika, the Satka and the Jain
sects, and these were not known in the early centuries
of our era.

374

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

THE MATSYA.

This Purana, after the usual prologue, opens with
the account of how the Matsya, or fish avatar of
Vishnu, preserved a king named Manu with the seeds
of all things in an ark from the waters of the great
inundation, the story of the flood which was told in
one of the Brahmanas, and later in the Maha-bha-
rata, being substantially repeated here. The gen-

ealogical chapters are much the same as those of the
Vishnu-purana. The work has drawn largely from
the Maha-bharata ; it also quotes the Padma-purana,
and is therefore subsequent to that work.

THE GARUDA.

The greater part of this document is devoted to the
description of Vratas, or vows of self-restraint, of hol-
idays, of sacred places dedicated to the sun, and to
prayers addressed to the sun, to Siva, and to Vishnu.
It contains also treatises on astrology, palmistry, and
precious stones, and one still more extensive on medi-
cine. There is nothing in this work to justify the
name. Garuda is the eagle bird (half man) on which
Vishnu rides, and it is possible that there is no genu-
ine Garuda-purana in existence.

THE BRAHMANDA.

“That which has declared in twelve thousand two
hundred verses the magnificence of the egg of Brahmii,
and in wdiich an account of the future Kalpas is con-
tained, is called the Bralimanda-purana, and was re-
vealed by Brahma.” This Purana, like the Skanda, is

THE PURAXAS.

375

no longer procurable in a collected form, but is repre-
sented by a variety of iTAandas professed to be derived
from it. The facility which this state of things affords
for imposition is very great, and the Skanda and the
Brahmanda have for this reason sometimes been called
“the Puranas of thieves and impostors.”

The mythology of the Puranas is much more devel-
oped than that of the Maha-bharata, in which Vishnu
and Siva are apparently regarded merely as great heroes,
not having as yet developed into rival gods. Krishna,
who was afterward made so prominent, is not even the
hero of the Maha-bharata, although he appears as a
great chieftain ; but as Prof. Lassen has shown, “ The
real worship of Krishna is not found before the fifth
or sixth century.” In mediaeval times there was much
sectarian feeling between the worshipers of Brahma,
Vishnu, and Siva, each sect being jealous of its favor-
ite system and devoted to its favorite god. Hence,
the Puranas which were compiled about this time were
each of them devoted to the exaltation of the partic-
ular deity who happened to be the favorite of the
compiler. In modern times Siva is the most popular
object of worship with Brahmans, while Krishna is
the favorite god of the lower classes. We have here
given the briefest possible resume of the contents and
teachings of these productions of mediaeval times, and
will now consider the mythological hero of the Pur-
anas— the god Krishna.

CHAPTER XXIII.

KRISHNA.

A MULTITUDE OF PERSONS NAMED KRISHNA — LIFE OF
KRISHNA, THE SON OF VASU-DEVA — DEATH OF
KRISHNA — RESEMBLANCES TO CHRISTIAN HISTORY
VERY' SLIGHT — WORSHIP OF THE “ DARK GOD ” —
SUMMARY.

TNTIMATELY connected with the Puranas is their
hero, Krishna. The meaning of the word is
“dark” or “black,” and the frequency with which
the name occurs in Hindu literature would seem
to indicate that whenever a male child was born
with a complexion unusually dark he was named
Krishna, or that in later times he was named for the
popular god of the Puranas.

The earliest mention of the name in the Rig-veda
is where a hymn of adoration to Indra praises that
god for having slain the wives of Krishna.1

Afterward the same god is said to have slain fifty

i Wilson’s trans. Rig-veda Sanhita, Vol. I, page 260.

Sanhita sometimes means collection, and the Rig-veda Sanhita con-
taining one thousand and seventeen hymns, is the oldest and most im-
portant collection of the early prayers, invocations and hymns of the
Hindus. Sanhita may also mean the words of the Veda euphonically
combined instead of separated as in the Puda text. Prof. Wilson’s
translation is based upon the commentary of the native scholar Sayana.
It represents the long line of Vaidic tradition which the Hindus have pre-
served, and shows the English reader what the natives suppose the Rig-
veda to mean. See note to page 23.

376

KRISHNA.

377

thousand Krishnas,1 all of whom were Rakshasas or
demons. Indra is represented as the great protector
of his votaries in battle. He defended his Aryan
worshipers in all their conflicts y he also punished for
the benefit of man those who neglected religious
rites. He (Indra) tore off the black skin of the ag-
gressor as if burning with flame ; he utterly consumes
him who delights in cruelty.1

“ Allusion, ” says the translator, “ is here made to
the legend that an Asura, named Krishna the black,
advanced with ten thousand followers to the banks
of the Amsumati river, where he committed fearful
devastation until he was defeated by Indra, who
stripped him of his skin.” “The swift moving Krish-
na with ten thousand demons stood on the Amsumati ;
by his might Indra caught him snorting in the water.
He (Indra) smote his malicious bands. I have seen
the swift moving demon lurking in an inaccessible
place in the depths of the river. Indra with his ally
smote the godless host as they drew near.”2

Krishna, a Rishi of Angira, is also spoken of in
the Rig-veda Sanhita. In the Maha-bharata the name
Krishna3 is an epithet applied to the princess Drau-
padi who married the five Pandavas. Krishna-dvai-
payana (the dark-colored, island-born man) was the
grandfather of the Kauravas who bore so important
a part in the great war, and he is also said to be the
arranger or editor of the Maha-bharata and the com-
piler of the Puranas, the oldest of which are ascribed

1 There is no mention in the Rig-veda of any god by this name.

2 Vol. V, p. 192.

3 The long mark on the final a, indicates the feminine form of the
word.

378

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

to the sixth or seventh century of the Christian era.
The Hindus have an easy method, however, of dispos-
ing of little chronological difficulties of a few centuries
by asserting that their heroes are born again as men
whenever their services are needed upon the earth.
In the Chandogya Upanishad we find a Krishna who
was the son of Devakiputra, but of him nothing is
known except that he was a pupil of Ghara. The
name was also borne by a son of Havird-hana and by
one of the Andhra princes.

In the later forms of Hindu literature we find
Krishna, the son of Vasu-deva1 and Devaki, who
figured as a great chieftain in the Maha-bharata, and
during a large part of the Christian era has had divine
honors paid to him. Krishna was also one of the
names of Arjuna. In the Maha-bharata where the son
of Drona is said to have entered the camp of the Pan-
davas at night to avenge his father’s death, his pro-
gress was arrested at the gate by the gigantic form of
Siva. This god of destruction was robed in a tiger’s
skin, while his long arms were adorned with bracelets
of serpents. His body glowed like the sun, and “ hun-
dreds and thousands of Krishnas were manifested from
the light issuing from his person.” Krishna-tarka-
lawkara, a commentator, flourished somewhat later, and
Krishna-misra, the dramatic author, is supposed to have
lived in the twelfth century of the Christian era.
Krishna Bahadur was the name of a publisher in Cal-
cutta in 1840. Thus we find that in Hindu literature,
the name Krishna is applied to sixty thousand beings
who were demons, “hundreds and thousands” more

i There are nine Vasu-devas in Indian literature.

KRISHNA.

379

who issued from the god of destruction, as well as
to the wife of the five Pandu princes, and in later
times to princes, sages, commentators, editors, pub-
lishers, and others too numerous to mention ; indeed,
it is now the custom to name children for popular
gods. The native professor or pandit who lived for
five years with Sir Monier Williams in India was named
Krishna-varma.

LIFE OF KRISHNA, THE SON OF VASU-DEVA.

Of this great multitude named “ dark colored,” the
Krishna who commands the greatest attention is the
eighth son of Vasu-deva and Devaki. Of his life
there is little or no authentic history, but in later
times a vast amount of myth and legend has been
built around it.

He belonged to a tribe well known in Ilindii history
as the Yadavas. These nomadic descendants of Yadu
migrated to different localities, grazing their cattle and
raising butter for sale to the people around them. It
is not known when they first entered Hindustan, but
at the time of Krishna’s birth they appear to have
settled near the city of Mathura (afterwards called
Muttra) on the banks of the river Jumna, about one
hundred and twenty miles south of the city of Hast-
inapur.

At one time during his early manhood, Krishna
and his companions left their encampment at a rural
village near by and paid a visit to the city of Mathura,
where it appears that they conducted themselves in a
manner entirely consistent with their rough characters,
breaking through the royal gate and committing other

380

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

depredations. It was during a great festival which
was attended by raja Kansa the usurper, who was
bitterly hated by his subjects. During the festivities
a wrestling match degenerated into a disgraceful fight,
in which Krishna and his older brother, Bala-rama,
bore a prominent part. Many men were slain and at
last the unpopular raja himself was killed by Krishna.
The rude cowherd became popular from having re-
lieved the city of a tyrant, and an effort was made
to ennoble his birth by representing him to have been
in reality the son of a chieftain of the tribe.1

He eventually became a chief, and is represented
as a successful warrior, although rather unscrupulous
as to the means employed for the attainment of his
ends. For instance, the Great War of the Maha-
bharata seems to have turned upon the death of Drona,
the venerable commander-in-chief of the Kauravas.
lie had nearly vanquished the Pandavas by the slaugh-
ter of their troops, but Krishna, knowing of his great
love for his gallant son, suggested that word be sent
him that his son was slain. The cruel falsehood
pierced the brave heart of the father, although the
arrows of the foe had failed to reach it, and laying
down his arms, he became an easy prey to the Piin-
davas. Again, in the desperate single combat be-
tween Arjuna and Karna, when Arjuna was badly
wounded and nearly defeated, an accident to the wheel
of his chariot compelled Karna to cease fighting,
and laying down his arms, he called to his opponent
saying, “ Hold your hand for a moment, and give me
a chance to recover my wheel, for it is no mark of

l Wheeler's Hist, of Ind., Vol. 1, p. 459.

KRISHNA.

381

manhood to strike at me whilst I am in this extremity.”
Arjuna temporarily stayed his hand, but being insti-
gated by Krishna, he severed the head of Karna from
his body, while the victim was engaged upon the
wheel of his chariot.1 The Maha-bharata records
still another instance in which Krishna advised a blow
so cowardly that it brought upon the man who gave
it the bitter reproaches of his own brother. But
the rude and amorous warrior was the Apollo of the
cowherds. Handsome, dashing, and vain, this univer-
sal lover appealed to the admiration of feeble-minded
women everywhere, and around the very slight frame-
work which history furnishes, masses of myth and leg-
end have grown. He is represented as the husband
of sixteen thousand wives, and the father of one hun-
dred and eighty thousand sons, while his military ex-
ploits have been repeated with wonderful exaggerations
and mythical additions.

THE DEATH OF KRISHNA.

The incidents connected with the death of Krishna
are as well attested as anything concerning which we
are entirely dependent upon Hindu sources for infor-
mation. The Maha-bharata relates the story in care-
ful detail, and it is repeated and corroborated by the
Vishnu-purana and also endorsed by the Brahma-
vai varta-pu r ana.

According to these and other Hindu authorities,
Krishna and the people of his capital city Dvaraka,
encamped at a place of pilgrimage upon the sea-shore,

i This chapter being somewhat of the nature of a summary necessarily
includes a few incidents previously alluded to.

382

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

ostensibly for the purpose of paying their devotions to
the deity of Dvarakfi ; but they carried an abundance
of wine with their other stores, and feasting and
drinking became their chief occupation. There were
jugglers, musicians, dancers and actors to furnish en-
tertainment, but the chief attractions were the great
jars of wine, and the warriors of the tribe sat down
in groups around them. Laughing and jesting being
followed by taunts and bitter words, the scene of rev-
elry became a drunken melee, in which the intoxi-
cated men fought each other blindly until the whole
tribe was exterminated except Krishna and one or two
others who were not injured themselves, although
they had slain their full share of victims. After
the disgraceful fight was over, Krishna found his
older brother dead beneath a banyan tree, and going
into a thicket near by he sat down in troubled med-
itation upon the loss of his kindred and the destruc-
tion of his tribe. While thus absorbed in his own
sad thoughts, he was seen by a passing hunter, who,
mistaking him for a wild animal, discharged an arrow
and slew him upon the spot.

The Maha-bharata gives a description of the funeral
rites and pictures the grief of his sixteen thousand
widows, five of whom Avere burned alive upon
Krishna’s funeral pile. The story of his death has
been repeatedly endorsed by Hindu authorities, as
late as the eleventh century of the Christian era.
It cannot, however, be received as history in our
sense of the word, as there is really no authentic his-
tory in connection with this strange character. The
idea that Krishna was crucified is an extravagant

KRISHNA.

383

myth of exceedingly modern and quite untrustworthy
manufacture.1

The Vishnu-purana, which dates from the elev-
enth century of the Christian era, states explicitly
that “the arrow entered the sole of his foot, which
was the oidy vulnerable part of his body.”2 Hence
he was not even transfixed.

RESEMBLANCES TO CHRISTIAN HISTORY VERY SLIGHT.

Very early in the Christian era the story of the
cross penetrated India, and Pantamus, who lived about
A. D. 180, found there the gospel of Matthew, which
had been left with the people by still earlier mis-
sionaries.3

The royal grants to early Christians, inscribed on
copper plates and containing signatures in Pahlavl char-
acters, are still in existence, showing that Christianity
had attained a position of some importance there, even
during the earlier centuries of the Christian era.

Not only was the story of the Christ carried into
India by the early missionaries, but according to Prof.
Weber’s version of a paragraph in the Maha-bharata,
it was brought home by the Brahmans themselves.
Both Weber and Lassen interpret a passage in the
Maha-bharata to the effect that early in the Christian
era three Brahmans visited a community of Christians,
and that on their return “they were enabled to intro-

i In liis foot notes to this chapter Sir Monier Williams writes : “7 know

nothing of this absurd myth," showing that it has never reached the higher
circles of scholarship. It is, however, freely circulated in America in the
writings of Madame Blavatzky and others. See “ Isis Unveiled,” etc.

- Possibly this idea may have been borrowed from the vulnerable heel of
Achilles.

3 Eusebius, Book V, Chap. 9, p. 10.

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THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

duce improvements into the hereditary creed, and more
especially to make the worship of Krishna Vasu-deva
the most prominent feature of their system.”1 In
addition to the testimony of these celebrated Oriental-
ists we have much internal evidence in the Maha-bha-
rata that “improvements” have been introduced in
favor of Krishna, for the primitive work has been
incrusted and overlaid with legends and myths which
have his glory for their sole object. It is so evident
that these are interpolations of a later date that J.
Talboys Wheeler says : “ The compilers of the Maha-
bharata have so frequently tampered ivith the text for
the purpose of associating Krishna and his family
with the Pandavas that it is difficult to accept state-
ments that have this object in view.”2

The Brahmanical compilers, in their anxiety to con-
nect him with the heroes of the Great War, have
ignored even the geographical position, and represent
the Pandavas as visiting the Yadava chieftain in his
bed-chamber, while he takes a part in their councils
as frequently as if he lived in the same city, whereas
Krishna’s residence at Dvaraka was on the western
coast of the peninsula of Gujarat, at least seven hun-
dred miles in a direct line from the city of Hastina-
pur. But they could only interpolate incidents and
overlay the primitive poem with stories of his marvel-
ous power ; they could not make him the hero of the
Maha-bharata, but only an erratic chieftain who indeed
poses sometimes as a god, but whose assumption of di-
vinity is greatly at variance with his personal character.

After the history of Christ had been in the world

l Page 279. this volume.

2 Hist, of Ind., Vol. I. p. 68.

KRISHNA.

385

for hundreds of years, the Puranas, as the Hindus
now have them, made their appearance, and here we
find the wildest growth of fancy combined with slight
imitations of historical facts. Those which are espe-
cially devoted to the exaltation of Krishna are the
Vishnu, which dates from A. D. 1045, the Bhagavata,
supposed to have been written by Vopadeva, in the
twelfth century, the Brahma-vaivarta, which appears
to have emanated from a sect called Gosains, about
four centuries ago, and the Padma-purana of the fif-
teenth century.

In these works of the mediaeval times, Krishna’s
birth is surrounded by wonderful phenomena. The
sky is luminous above his head, and the nymphs of
heaven sing with joy over the birth of the four-armed
child. Raja Kansa appears in the character of King
Herod and slays the first six children of Devaki, the
mother of Krishna ; the seventh son, Bala-rama, escapes
his hand only by a miracle. Therefore the father takes
the infant Krishna as soon as he is born and carries
him away to a place of safety. He is followed by the
many-headed serpent Sesha, and the snake protects
the babe from the rain by spreading his hoods over
him, until the child is exchanged for the daughter of
Yasoda, who is carried back and placed in the arms
of Devaki. Krishna is afterwards represented as con-
quering the serpent, and in answer to his plea for
mercy allows him to live, but commands him to depart
with all of his followers into the sea.

The resemblances to Christian history in the life
of Krishna are, however, very slight, even in the most
recent forms of Hindu literature ; but it must be con-

386

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

fessed that others have been added in modern times
by men who cannot read a word of Sanskrit. His
name has been spelled Chrishna, or even Christna, ap-
parently for the purpose of confounding the two. He
has also been called Yezeus, and sometimes Jezeus for
the same reason. But the dishonesty of this course
(provided always it is not the result of ignorance) is
unpardonable.

The name of Yezeus as an appellation of Krishna
was invented, according to Max Muller, by a fanciful
Frenchman, 1 and Richard Collins, in his address be-
fore the Philosophical Society of Great Britain, says :
“ The addition of the name Jezeus to Krishna has no
warrant from any Hindu book that I am acquainted
with. It bears no resemblance to any of the many
names by which Krishna is commonly denoted in
India, and it is not possible for it to be a translitera-
tion of any imaginable combination of letters, either
in Sanskrit or in any of the dialects of South India.”2

The statement that Krishna was born in a cave,
that his herald was a star and his presents gold and
frankincense, etc., are all the productions of a vivid
imagination in very modern times. The idea that he
was born of a virgin cannot be entertained for a mo-
ment by any one who is at all acquainted with the
subject, in view of the great prominence given to
Krishna’s older brother in Hindu literature.

i Prof. Muller writes: “The name Yezeus was invented, I believe, by
Jacolliot, and is a mere corruption of Yadu. I answered Jacolliot once (Int.
to Sci. of Rel. page 24), but these books hardly deserve notice.” (Trans. Vic.
Inst., Vol. xxi, page 179.) Sir Monier Williams and Prof. E. B. Cowell of Cam
bridge think that the name Jezeus may be a corruption of the word Isa,
which properly belongs as a title to Siva.

i Trans. Vic. Inst., Vol. XXI, p. 174.

KRISHNA.

387

In their standard works the statement is repeatedly
made, that Krishna was the eighth child of his
mother, and the Vishnu-purana informs us that her
first six children were the offspring of the demon,
Hiranyakasipu.1

Dr. Leitner, Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Punjab, writes that “ Krishna is a half historical
character, and the coincidences of his life and that
of Christ are too vague to justify the least connec-
tion with the narrative regarding Christ, or vice
versa.” 2

WORSHIP OF THE “ DARK GOD.”

In the later forms of Hindu literature, it is claimed
that Krishna came down from heaven to be the lover
of Radha, and it is in this form that he is most pop-
ular, unless we except his wayward childhood. Ac-
cording to the Vishnu-purana, Vishnu pulled two hairs
out of his head, the one being white and the other
black, and the white one developed into the son of
Rohina, while the black one entered into DevakI (also
a woman of the Yadava tribe) and developed into
Krishna. It is said in the Bhagavata-purana that
“When Krishna and his elder brother Bala-rama be-
gan to grow, they were dressed in frocks of blue and
yellow, and their hair was trimmed like the wings of
a crow, and wooden ornaments were hung from their
necks, and they had playthings in their hands. One
day Yasoda (his foster mother) was very angry with
Krishna because he would eat dirt, and she took a
stick to beat him, but when she came to him he

i Vish. Pur., p. 498.

2 Trans. Vic. Inst., Vol. XXI, p. 179.

388

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

opened his mouth, and she looked in and saw three
worlds, and she marveled greatly for a while and
then remembered it no more.” The picture of Krish-
na as the boy thief stealing butter and curds from
the cowherds, or carrying off the garments of the
bathers, has an irresistible attraction for his wor-
shipers.

Some of his later adventures are too gross for repe-
tition, but they illustrate the low origin of the cow-
herd, and the disorder and violence which prevailed
in his tribe. He is also connected with the horrible
rites of Jagan-nath, and in the festivities of this god
the images of Krishna and his elder brother, Bala-rama,
and also of his sister, Subhadra, are brought prom-
inently forward.1 The Padma-purana gives a list of
one hundred and eight names of Krishna to be re-
peated by the devotee every morning, and the reader will
recall that in the Bhagavad-glta he reveals himself in
his glory to Arjuna, whereupon the frightened warrior
exclaims, “ 0 god, I see your body, I see you are of
countless forms, possessed of many arms, stomachs,
mouths, and eyes, on all sides. I see you void of be-
ginning, middle, end. Of infinite power, of un-
numbered arms, having the sun and moon for eyes,
having a mouth like blazing fire, and heating the
universe with your radiance. The three worlds are
affrighted, for these groups of gods are entering into
you ; seeing your mighty form with many mouths and
eyes, with many arms, thighs, and feet, with many

i Major General Cunningham, who so ably conducted the Archeological
Survey of India, has demonstrated that the images of this god and his
brother and sister in the Jagan-nath temple at Puri were derived from the
three combined emblems of the Buddhist Trinatra.

KRISHNA.

389

stomachs and many jaws, all people are much alarmed.
And all the bands of kings, together with our principal
warriors, are rapidly entering your mouths, fearful and
horrified by reason of your jaws. And some of their
heads are seen stuck in the spaces between the teeth.
As a river’s waters run towards the sea, so do these
heroes enter your mouths. As butterflies enter a blaz-
ing fire, so do these people enter your mouths only to
their destruction. Swallowing all these people, you are
licking them over and over again from all sides with
your blazing mouths.” 1

It is impossible to imagine a greater contrast than
that between this description and the simple story of
the Christ ; but the tedious and unmeaning ceremonies
still performed in the presence of the idol are equally
suggestive of this contrast. Sir Monier W illiams, dur-
ing a recent visit to India, was allowed to witness the
early morning service in a Vaishnava temple, at Poona,
and we give his graphic description of the scene in his
own words.

“ The idol of the god Krishna first underwent a
process of being aroused from its supposed nocturnal
slumbers by the attendant priest, who invoked the
deity by name. Then a respectful offering of water in
a boat-shaped vessel was made to it. Xext the whole
idol was bathed in holy water poured over it from a
small perforated metal lota. Then the attendant priest
standing near, applied sandal paste with his finger to

i Bhagavad-gita. Telang's trails., pp 93-95.

In a previous chapter (page 601 attention has been called to the dif-
ference in the translations furnished by native and English scholars.
The native scholars are inclined to use coarser language than that re-
fined English which conies to 11s from the pens of such men as Prof.
Williams, Max Muller, Ur. Mliir, and others.

390

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

the idol’s forehead and limbs, and taking a brush
painted the face with a bright coloring substance, prob-
ably saffron. Next, the idol was dressed and decorated
with costly clothes and ornaments. Then the priest
burnt camphor and incense and moved the lights be-
fore the image, at the same time ringing a bell. Then
flowers and the leaves of the sacred tulasl plant, were
offered, followed by an oblation of food, consisting of
cooked rice and sugar. Next, water was taken out of a
small metal vessel with a spoon and presented for sipping.
The god was supposed to consume the food or feast upon
its aroma, receiving at the end of every meal an offering
of betel for the supposed cleansing of his mouth, and
a spoonful more of water for a second sipping.

“ Finally the priest prostrated himself before the
idol, and terminated the whole ceremony by putting
the god to sleep for the day.

“While he was going through these ceremonial acts
he appeared to be mattering texts, and during the
whole service a Brahman was seated on the ground
not far off, who intoned portions of the tenth book of
the Bhagavata-purana, descriptive of the life of Krish-
na, reading from a copy of the work placed before
him. At the same time a band of musicians outside
the temple played a discordant accompaniment with
tom-toms, fifes, and drums.

“ In the evening the process of waking, undressing
and redressing the image was repeated, but without
bathing. Flowers and food were again offered, prayers
and texts were intoned, a musical service was per-
formed and the idol was put to sleep once more.” 1

i Brah. and Hin„ p. 144.

KRISHNA.

391

The fairest estimate of any book or religion is ob-
tained by an examination of its influence upon the
lives of men, and it is easy to see that this foolish
round of ceremonies before the idol morning and even-
ing can only have a degrading effect both upon priest
and people. Indeed, this senseless adoration of the
image of Krishna prevents all moral and intellectual
development in his devotees. But far more injurious
than idolatry is the worship of an immoral god, and
the influence of the boy thief, the dishonorable warrior,
or the licentious lover is far more degrading to the
people of India than a lifetime spent in dressing and
undressing, washing and painting an idol. “ Among
the Hindus,” says Wilson, “entire dependence upon
Krishna or any other favorite deity, not only obviates the
necessity of virtue, but it sanctifies vice. Conduct is
wholly immaterial. It matters not how atrocious a sin-
ner a man may be, if he paints his face, his arms, with
certain sectarial marks ; or if he die with the word
Hari or Rama or Krishna on his lips, he may have
lived a monster of iniquity, he is certaiu of heaven.” 1

SUMMARY.

In looking over the facts here gathered together,
we learn, 1st: That Krishna worship is nowhere found
in the early Yedic writings ; that, although sixty
thousand Krishnas are mentioned in Wilson’s transla-
tion of the ljig-veda, they are all the names of black
demons whose mission is depredation and devastation.

2d. That in the Malni-bharata we have the men-
tion of “hundreds and thousands” more which issued

l Rel. of Hin., Vol. II, p. 75.

392

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

from Siva, the god of destruction, and in the whole
dark multitude of persons who bear this name, we
find represented gods and demons, men and devils,
warriors and princes, sages and commentators, editors
and publishers.

3d. That the light thrown upon the real life of
the warrior who was afterwards deified by his admirers,
reveals a very unscrupulous character.

4th. That the resemblances to the facts of Chris-
tian history are very slight and evidently introduced
into Hindu literature in later times.

5th. That the effort to show a similarity between
two names of such entirely opposite signification as
Christ and Krishna is of very modern origin, and re-
pudiated by all scholars.

6th. That the revelation of Krishna’s character
which was made to Arjuna, is as far from divine sym
metry as his conduct was from decent morality.

7th. That the idolatry of the boy thief, the dis-
honorable warrior, and the licentious lover is utterly
degrading to the people of India.

8th. That the fairest estimate of any hook or relig-
ion is an examination of its influence upon the lives
of men, and the worship of this deity with his six-
teen thousand wives has not elevated or improved the
morals of his devotees. It is certain that much of the
pollution and degradation attendant upon Krishna
worship is utterly unfit for description.

Far over and above the worship of the Hindu stands
the ever-living Son of God. From His stainless life
and cruel cross has been horn the hope of the world.
One glory-lit sentence from His divine lips, if lived

KRISHNA.

393

out in the lives of men, banishes forever the pages of
wrong and cruelty from the blood-stained earth. One
touch of His hand has broken the cold seal of the
death angel and brought immortality to light through
the gospel. One mark of His footstep left in earth’s
tomb illumines its portals with the golden promise of
life. One word from His lips will lead His risen host
to the fountain of living waters, where the waves of
the beautiful river flow from the foot of the throne.

He is the “ Captain of our Salvation,” leading on
to victory ; He is the “ Morning Star,” shining in
brightness beyond the night; He is the “Sun of
Righteousness,” flooding with golden light the coming

ages.

CHAPTER XXIV.

CONCLUSION.

HINDU LITERATURE — HINDUISM — TEACHING — THE
EPIC POEMS — THE PURANAS — VEDIC WORSHIP BET-
TER THAN IDOLATRY.

TTTE have now followed the principal line of Hindu
’ ’ literature from its earliest beginnings in the
hymns of the Rig-veda down to the Puranas of the
Middle Ages. Having examined the liturgy of the Brah-
manas, the mystical philosophy of the Upanishads and
the legal code of the Hindus; having wandered through
the tropical luxuriance of their epic poetry and the fan-
ciful cosmogonies of their Puranas ; having studied the
character of their gods from the beginning of their
mythology down to Siva and Krishna, their most
modern deities, we are prepared to appreciate not
only the beauties of their literature, but the relative
value of their teachings.

HINDUISM.

The term Hinduism is applied to the complex sys-
tem of faith which characterizes the modern Hindu
thought, and which appears to be a union of Brah-
manism and Buddhism ; of theism and polytheism — a
system which, although influenced to a certain extent
by a purer principle, scruples not to worship still the

394

conclusion-.

395

serpent power, or to mingle the adoration of the fish
or the boar with that of the living God.

Nearly two hundred millions of the people of India
are bewildered with the strange tenets of a creed
which combines the teachings of monotheism with the
worship of a multitude of idols — which declares in
one paragraph that there is but one god, and still
inculcates on every page the veneration of some of
the millions of deities in the Hindu pantheon.

The word Hinduism may also be used to indicate
the ritualism of that people in its various phases of
development from its birthplace in the highlands
around the sources of the Oxus river down to the
idol temples of to-day, where the modern deities, Siva
and Krishna, are supposed to hold their court.

Hinduism as the appellation of all their religious
thought was born in the early hymns of the Rig-veda,
those simple pastoral songs, reaching back nearly to
the birth of Moses, and living still in the literature
of men. The ages which have come and gone since
their musical numbers were first breathed upon the
still air have enhanced rather than diminished their
beauty. The great heart of humanity has ever hun-
gered for the loving touch of the Infinite. Away
back in the ages, so near to the morning of time, the
children of men sawr the sun as he moved on his tri-
umphal march through the heavens, or floated away
at evening on a sea of gold and crimson splendor,
and they sang the glories of Mitra, the god of day.

When the tropical sun poured down his noonday
heat, and the flowers wilted beneath his touch ; when
the earth wTas parched and her sands were barren ;

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

396

when her rivers were low and famine was abroad in
the laud ; then the clouds were gathered in a dark
canopy before the sun, and showers were poured upon
the thirsting earth, while the sons of the Southland
looked upward again and brought their offerings of
praise to Indra, the rain god.

When the soft wind passed through the heated air
and came laden with the fragrant breath of the orange
and mango blossoms they praised the bright Maruts,
the breezes with their “ dappled steeds” that brought
healing unto man.

When night came down and cooled the fevered
landscape with her gentle touch, and kissed with her
cool breath the burning brow of her worshiper, then
he sang of Varuna, the sky god, whose countless eyes
look down upon the deeds of men.

When the shadows of night fled away before the
gray light of morning, the imaginative Hindu dreamed
that the dawn was a beautiful woman wearing a robe
of silvery cloud and a diadem of tinted pearl. When
the crimson sunlight flushed the eastern sky he fancied
that her pure face was blushing beneath the kisses of
the god of day, and Ushas, the goddess of the morn-
ing, wearing her crown of golden light, received his
homage.

Thus the early hymns of the Veda were chanted
prayer and praise, and Hinduism was brightest and
purest at its fountain head. But this simple nature
worship multiplied itself in a thousand forms. It
was burdened with the liturgy and priestcraft of the
Brahmanas, the mystical teachings of the Upanishads,
and the cruelty of the Code of Manu. Altars were

CONCLUSION.

397

stained with human blood, and for two thousand years
living women were burned upon the dead bodies of
their husbands, while innocent babes were thrown to
the sacred crocodiles of the Ganges. Beginning with
the adoration of the sun and stars, Hinduism sank
lower and lower until in the Puranas of mediaeval times
even the conduct of Krishna is eulogized, and licen-
tiousness becomes a feature of public worship.

TEACHINGS.

We have seen that the earliest hymns of the Kig-
veda are beautiful songs of praise to the forces and
glories of nature, which, however, soon degenerate into
the rambling, wearisome liturgy of the Brahmanas
with their burden of priestly rule and their cardinal
doctrine of pantheism, which claims that God is
everything and everything is God ; that the gods
are nourished by the food which is offered in sacri-
fice, and without which their deities would perish with
hunger.

We have found the Hpanishads to be the doctrinal
portion of the Veda — a wilderness of mystical specula-
tion with fanciful cosmogonies and theories concern-
ing the origin of man. The main object of the
Upanishads appears to be the discovery of some method
of escaping from the endless round of transmigration
and of resting in the arms of oblivion. To this end is
inculcated the virtue of absolute inaction of body and
mind. Man is taught that he must neither love nor
hate, hope nor fear, for the most complete mental and
physical idleness, the utmost freedom from all emo-
tion, is the nearest approach to the heavenly state of

398

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

complete and eternal unconsciousness, which is the
highest spiritual ambition of Hinduism.

It is claimed that he who would attain this per-
fected state must go through six successive courses of
penance, each course to be continued for twelve years,
and that during these seventy-two years he must do
absolutely nothing except to meditate upon Brahma.
If he does not do this in the present life he may
perform the necessary penance in some future condi-
tion induced by transmigration.

Sir Monier Williams speaks of two devotees whom
he saw in India, the one at Gaya and the other at
Benares. The arm of the first was entirely withered
by inaction, while his motionless fist was so tightly
clenched that the nails were growing through the
back of his hand. The other “looked like a piece of
sculpture, sitting in a niche of the Anna-purna tem-
ple, perfectly motionless and impassive, with naked
body smeared all over with white ashes, matted hair,
and the forefinger of the upraised hand pointing to
the heaven to which in imagination he seemed to be
already transporting himself.” 1

The epic poems of India, the Ramayana and the
Maha-bharata, also teach the philosophy of self-dis-
cipline and mortification until a condition of complete
apathy is attained.

There is a constant round of ceremonies, sacrifices,
and oblations. There is the worship of monkeys and
seqients, of birds and tigers, of elephants and parrots,
of the turtle, the crocodile, and a multitude of other
animals, as well as trees, plants, and stones. Indeed,

l Brah, and Hin , p. 87.

CONCLUSION.

399

the worship of the women of India at the present day
consists largely in walking hundreds of times around
a tulasi plant, which is supposed to represent the wife
of Vishnu, or Sita, the devoted wife of Kama. Yet,
as compared with the endless round of ceremonies, a
few years of austerities or enforced idleness is the work
which of all others bestows the greatest merit. A con-
dition of entire mental vacuity is represented as being
the nearest to complete identification with the one
universal spirit, which involves liberation from all per-
sonality and consciousness.1

The Puranas, which claim to be direct revelations
from deity, constitute the bible of one of the most
modern forms of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, or the
worship of Vishnu, and the form in which this sect
now shows itself principally is in the worship of Krishna,
one of the latest incarnations of Vishnu. Vaishnavism
is perhaps the most composite of all the religions of
India. It seems to teach all forms of Hinduism, re-
gardless of their opposite characteristics : it advocates
the claims of one god and also of a multitude ; it
teaches pantheism and penance, self-mortification and
self-indulgence, virtue and licentiousness.

It often advocates monotheism, and at times sets
aside all other gods than Vishnu. The Hindu theist
claims that there is but one god, one Being in millions
of forms. To this universal spirit, devotion may be

i The universal testimony of Hinduism is that the spirit or soul is im-
mortal, hut says Prof, Williams, “It is generally better to translate the
philosophical terms Atman, Brahman, and Purusha by ■ spirit ’ rather
than by soul, because the expression 1 soul ’ is liable to convey the idea
of thinking and feeling, whereas pure Atman, Brahman and Purusha
neither ' think, nor feel, nor are conscious.’ ” (Brah. and Hin., note to
page 27.)

400

THE ANCIENT BOOKS OF INDIA.

rendered through thousands of inferior gods; through
the ghosts of dead ancestors ; through living heroes,
animals, and plants ; through mountains and stones ;
through the stars of heaven or the painted idols of
earth. Hence, he asserts that whenever any one of
the millions of gods in the Hindu pantheon is pro-
pitiated by sacrifice or oblations, the Supreme Lord is
gratified. But instead of believing “that there is one
mediator between God and man,” he holds that there
are thousands, nay, millions, of mediators, any one of
which may be a tiger or a cow, a fish or a serpent, a
crocodile or a baboon.

The early Yedic worshiper paid his homage to the
sun and moon, but the modern Hindu adores the
crocodile, which hides amidst the weeds of' the Ganges.

How is the mind of the worshiper fallen, when,
instead of offering his praises to the icy brow of the
Himalaya, flushed with the rays of the setting sun,
he brings his oblation to the serpents that infest the
rocks at her feet ?

Far better than modern idolatry was their primitive
worship of mountain and storm ; better than the con-
fused medley of their creeds were the oblations down
by the shores of the crested sea ; better than warrior
worship, their songs of praise to the stars that sweep
around the midnight throne ; better than the idol
temples of to-day were the sacred groves on the foot-
hills of the Himalayas, where the golden eagle circled
above the highest crags, and the goddess of the morn-
ing, with tinted robe and crown of pearl, smiled
down upon her worshiper.

INDEX.

Abraham, 6, 15, 74, 79.

Achilles, 155, 157.

Adam, 6.

Adelung, 12.

Adhvatma Ramayana, n 248.
Aditya, 10, 32, 33, 53, 122.
iEolus, 51.

Agni, 10, 30, 63, 69, 96, 116, 132,
261; hymn to, 31.

Agni-purana, 368.

Aitareya Aranyaka, n 133.
Aitareya Brahmana, 76. 79, 109.
Aitareya Upanishad, 109.

Akbar, n 300.

Alexander, n 12, 13.

Alexandria, 11.

Allah Upanishad, 101.

Amethyst, 28.

Amsumati river, 377.

Analogy, between myths, Chaps.
II, III.

Anasuya, wife of Atn, 216.
Ancient books, 1, 2, 12, 15.
Angada, son of Bali, 235.
Animals, creation of, 131, 135,
137.

Animal sacrifices, 44, 76, 95.
Anka, of Arabia, 58.

Anantavat, 117.

Anna-purna temple, 398.
Antelope, in sacrifice, 96.
Arawyakas, 74, 101, 109.
Arimaspians, 58.

Arjuna, 283. 344, 351, 392; de-
scription of, 286; triumph of,
293 ; at Dvaraka, 320.
Arundelian marbles, 48.
Arundhatl, 90.

Aryan inaders, n 233 ; myths, 48 ;
race, 24, 29, 48, 49, 64, 160,
279.

Asclepias acida, 22.

Asoka, a tree, 241.

Asoka, the Constantine of Buddh-
ism, n 12.

Asva-medha, 44, 159, 164, 206,
314, 326.

Asva-pati, king of Kekaya, 327.
Asvatthaman, 309.

Asvins, 170.

Atergatis, Syrian goddess, n 55.
Atharva-veda, 10, 53.

Athens, 35.

Atman, 134, n 399
: Atri, the sage, 216.

Avatars, 57.

Ayodhya (Oude), 155, 161, et seq.

ft.

Baal, n 100.

Baber, n 300.

Babylon, 80.

Babylonian legend, n 55.

Bacchus, 22.

Bala-deva, 368.

Bala-rama, 56, 317, 380, 388.
Balder, n 49.

Bali, 56, 234, 235, 359.

Bauddhas, 360.

Beal, 4.

Benares, 373, 398.

Bentinck, Lord Wm., 73.
Bhagavad-glta, n 280, 281, 304;
age of, 343 ; origin of, 344 ; ex-
tracts from, 344, 346.
Bhagavata-punma, 358, 362. 365,
385, 390.

401

402

INDEX.

Bhaglratha, 206.

Bharata, 177, et seq.

Bhavishya-purana, 369.

Bhlma, 283, 293, 301, 323.

Bhlshma, 299, 300, 308, 314, 365.

Bhogavati, capital of serpent city,
223.

Bhus, sacred interjection, 11.

Bhuvas, sacred interjection, 11.

Bible, 6, n 158;

Bibliotheca Indica, 109, n 110.

Blavatzskv, Madame, n 383.

Births, number of, 144.

Boar, heavenly, 118, 127.

Body, without, 113, 119.

Boyses, 71.

Brahma, prayer, 41 ; universal
spii’it, 52, 114, 115, 120, 131, n
399.

Brahma, creator, 10, 22, 50, 51,
52, 85, 134; day of, 123; descent
of animals from, 135; death of,
115, 124.

Brahman, Supreme Spirit, 134,
147; feet of, 116.

Brahmans, priests, 5, 8, 41, 42,
56, 74, 85, 88; divine right of,
75, 84, 86, 97.

Brahmanas, part of the Veda, 8,
11, 54, 74, 78, 101, 113, 396.

Brahmana period, 14.

BrahmSwI, 216.

Brahma-purSna, 358.

Brahma-vaivarta, 369, 385.

Brahmanism, n 9; origin of, 75,
86; formulation of, 14; tyranny
of, 85, 92.

Brahmanism and Hinduism, n 15,
n 17, n 390, n 398.

Brahmanical compilers, 277, 282.

Brahman da-purana, 374.

Bridge, ocean, 250.

Brighu, 85.

Bryant, 361.

Buddha, 14, 56.

Buddhism, 101, 354.

Buckley, 48.

Bushby, J. H., 68.

Biihler, 4.

Burr, Dr., 343.

Cabul, n 300.

Caesar, n 296.

Caitra, month of, 175.

<7akra, 168, 365.

Calcutta, 6, 68, 281, 378.
Camalata, love’s creeper, n 28,
149.

Camasane, n 55.

Caste, 21, 85, 87 ; sins against,
145.

Caucasian mountains, n 57.

Celtic, n 29.

Cerberus, 35.

Ceremonies, 76, 78, 84, 88, 97;
burden of, 74, 90, 97; funeral,
84; marriage, 84, 89.

Ceres, 50, 51.

Ceylon, 223, 237, 250, 364.
Chaldeans, n 100.

Chalva, king of, 330.
Champollion, n 35.

Chandogya Upanishad, 101, 124,
141, 361 ; extract from, 104, 121,
378.

Child, golden, 18, 27; hymn to,
18.

China, 14, 80: dragon of, 58.
Chips from a German Workshop,
n 6, n 13, n 15, n 19, n 29.
Christ, 383, 387.

Christian era, 54, 92, 158, 378,

382, 383.

Christian history, resemblances to,

383, 385, 392.'

Christianity, 62, 92.

Christians, Syrian, 62.
Chronology, 158, 277, 356.
Citra-kufa, 214, 262, 266, 268;

description of, 208.

Colebrook, H. T., 3. 67, 367.
Collins, Richard, n 316, 343, 386.
Confucius, 14.

Cosmogony, 6,52, 59; Hindi!, 121,
122, 128; Mosaic, 129.
Cosmography, 126.

Cosmos, 128, n 129.

Councils of war, 296.

Cow, sacred, 23, 76, 95.

Cowell, Prof. E. B., 4, n 110, n
386.

INDEX.

403

Crimes, 93, 145; penalty for, 152.
Crown of youth, 217, 257, 209.
Cunningham, Maj-Gen., n 388.
Cyrus, king of Persia, 14.

Daksha, 169, 170.

Dakshma, 96.

DancZaka, forest, 180, 185, 192,
202, 218, 219, 226.

Daniel, 14.

Darmesteter, 4.

Dasaratha, raja, 164, 165, 172;
march of, 172, 174; confession
of, 195; death of, 201, 213.
Death, king of, 36, 107, 200.

De Bello Gallieo, n 296.

Deer, golden, 225.

Deukalion, ruler of Thessaly, n81.
Devas, deities, 115, 142.

DevakI, 363, 371 , 378, 379, 385, 387.
Devolution, 136.

Dhanvantari, physician of the
gods, 60.

Dhrita-rashfra, 274,283; retires to
the jungle, 315; death of, 316.
Divine song, 342, 344, 352.
Division of raj, 288.

Donar, German, 43.

Domestic ritae, 76, 91, 95, 97.
Dowson, 157.

Draupada, raja, 289. 293.
DraupadI, 289, et stq. ; beauty of,
289, 291 ; marries five husbands,
294, 296, 368, 377.

Dreams, penance for, 76.

Droraa, 288, 308, 309, 350, 351,
378, 380,

DuAsasana, 283, 301.

Durga, wife of (Siva, 50, 61, 64.
Duryodhana, 280, 283 ; combat
with Bhlma, 287.

Dushana, 222.

Duncker, Prof., 125.

Dvapara, third age, 56.

Dvaraka, 317, 381, 382; destruc-
tion of, 321,371.

Eagle, of the Yggdrasil, 58.
Eagle, golden, 28, 400.

Earth, Sita’s invocation to, 270;

goddess of, 271.

East India Co., 2.

Eastwick, Prof., n 57.

Edda, n 49, n 58.

Egg, cosmic, 122, 123, 359, 361,
374.

Eggling, Julius, 4, 74.

Egypt, 80.

Egyptian fable, 58; mythology, n
35.

English government, 66, 68.
Eorosh, Zend, 58.

Eos, 37.

Epeus, 51.

Epics, 4, 9, 48, 52, 152, 155, n

158, 159, 160, 272, 277, 394.
Epicurus, n 360.

European orientalists, 68; schol-
ars, 1, 3, 105, 280, 355.
Eusebius, n 383.

Evolution and pantheism, 125.
Execration, hymns of, 41.
Extermination, war of, 311.

Faber, 361.

Faith, confession of, 114.

Fires, sacred or sacrificial, 30, 77,
78, 182 ; funeral, 95, 96.

Flood, tradition of, 80, 367,374.
Fortune, explanation of varied,
144.

Frey, Northern god of rain and
sunshine, 49.

Gandhari, n 283, 286.

Gandharvas, celestial musicians,
173.

Gandharva Visvasu, 78.

GawcZiva, 305, 345.

Ga?iesa, the Janus of India, 51, 64;

description of, 63.

Gang;!, 206, 216.

Ganges, 1, 3, 7, 73, 149, 153,

159, 160, 161, 182, 204, 271,
325, 397, 400; crossing the, 205;
story of, 206.

Garhapatya fire, 96.

404

INDEX.

Garuda, Vishnu’s bird, 57, 58,
165, 168, 252.

GarucZa-purana, 374.

Genesis, 128.

Germany, 6, 105.

Gerd, 40,

Girav-raja, 185.

Gods, conclave of, 165, n 233.
Godavari river, 218.

Goloka, 370.

Gopala, 359.

Gopas, 370.

Gogra, river, 161.

Gopls, 358, 370.

Gospels, resemblances to, 364.
Gosains, 372, 385.

Gotama, 40.

Great War, 273, 283; prepara-
tions for, 300.

Greek, n 29.

Greece, gods of, 43, 45, 47, 50,
253.

Grecian laws, 14.

Griffin of chivalry, 58.

Griffiths, 4, n 163.

Grote, 48.

Groves, sacred, 1, 15, 100.

Gupta kings, 360.

Gujarat, 384.

ii.

Hanuman, 233, 236, n 305; in-
terview with Slta, 243; capture
of, 244.

I lawasa, flamingo, 117.
Hardwick, n 279.

Hari, 131.

Hariscandra, king, 79.
Hari-vansa, 358.

HastinSpur, ancient Delhi, 283.
Ilaug, Prof., n 77, n 79.

Heaven of Brahma, 147, 165; of
Indra, 148; temporary, 146; of
Vishnu, 149; inhabitants of,
151.

Hebrews, 14.

Hector, 157.

Hel, place of the dead, 49.

Hells, number of, 149, 366 ; va-
riety of, 150.

Helen, 155.

Henry the Eighth, n 266.
Hercules, 254.

Hermit, 180, 196, 216.

Hermit’s son, death of, 197, 200.
Hormod, n 49.

Herodotus, 48.

Hesiod, 34, n 60.

Hestia, 30.

Heyne, n 48.
llieropolis, n 55.

Himalayas, 1, 7, 153, 223.
nimavat, 206, 322.

Hindu, deities, 62, 64, 266; the-
ology, 146, n 337 ; law, 84, et
seq. ; literature, divisions of, 8,
74, 99, 152; scriptures, 12; wo-
men, 91, 275.

Hinduism, 394, 396.

History, of India, n 235: of San-
skrit literature, n 12, n 13, n
14, n 19.

nomer, 7, 48, 158, 277, 278.
Humboldt, Baron Von, 128.

Idolatrv, 17, 26, 400.

Iliad, 36, 44, 47, 48, 155, 158, 278,
357.

Incarnations of Vishnu, 159.
India, 1.

Indian epics, 9, 152.

Indra, 24, 29, 42, 54, 64, 396;
hymn to, 25, 46; horses of, 47,
48.

Indrajit, son of Ravana, 252.
Indra-prastha, 288.

Inscriptions, 14.

Interpolations, 159, 279, 200, n
297, n 302, 343, 384.

Isa Upanishad, 112.

/s-lord, 111.

Israel, children of, n 100.

Jacobi, 4.

.Jacolliot, M., 356.

Jagan-nath, 358, 359, 388.
Jambavati, 364.

Janaka, raja, 169.

Janaka, daughter of, 170.

Janus, 51, n 55.

INDEX.

405

Japanese, 58.

Japheth, 11.

Jessamine, 154.

Job, 128.

Jolly, 4.

Jones, Sir Win., 3, 6, 12, 94, 112,
355

Jove, 29, 43, 44, 45.

Jumna river, 288, 379.

Kaikeyl, wife of raja, 177, et seq.
Kali, 42, 61.

Kalpa, period of time, 126, 134,
151, 372.

Kama, god of love, 51.

Kansa, king, 362, 380, 385.
Kanva, 75.

Kapila, sage, 206.

Kama, 299, 311.

Kartti-keya, god of war, 51, 63, 64.
Kashinath Trimbak Telang, 158,
280, n 344.

Ka-sl, 373.

Kafha Upanishad, 106.

Kauravas, 274, 283, 304.
Kausalya, queen, 168, 186.
Kaushltaki-brahmana Upanishad,
110.

Kekaya, king of, 327.

Kena Upanishad, 105.

Kerkes, of the Turks, 58, 375.
A7ianda, 10.

AT/iandas period, 15.

A7tandogya, n 101.

Khara, brother of *STirpa-naka,
221, et seq.

Kinsuka, tree, 209, 312.

Kirni, 58.

Klaproth, 11.

Ko.sala, raj, 161, 193.

Krishna, 56,61, 279, 297, 309, 317,
376; birth of, 362, 371; wives of,
n 320, 364 ; description of, 342,
349 ; self-adulation of, 348 ;
worship of, 387; death of, 319,
365, 381.

Krishna Bahadur, 378.

Krishna, a Rishi of Angira, 377.
Krishna, son of Devakiputra, 378.
Krishna DraupadI, 377, 379.

Krishna Dvaipayana, 354, 377.
Krishna-mi.sra, 378.
Krishna-tarkrtlankara, 378.
Krishna-varma, 379.

Kshatriya, 56, 86, 87, 90, 96.
Kura, 283.

Kurina, tortoise, 55, 59.
Kurma-purana, 373.
Kuru-kshetra, 300.

Ivusa, son of Rama, 267, 268.
Kusa or sacred grass, 77, 96, 118,
218.

Kuvera, god of wealth, 166, 184,
263.

I..

Lakshmana, 168.

Lakshml, wife of Vishnu, 149,
370.

Langlois, M. A., 357.

Lanka, 155, 239. 245, 251.

Lassen, Prof., 279,344, 375.
Latin, 11, n 29.

Latin poets, n 35.

Lava, son of Rama, 267.

Legge, 4.

Leitner, Dr., 387.

Life in exile, 210, 215, 218.
Linga-purana, 372.

Loki, northern god of fire, 49.
Lorinser, Dr., 344.

Love conquers death, 334, 340.
Lucretius, n 360.

Lying justifiable, 92, 181.

Mackenzie, Collin, 3.

Madhwa, commentator, 137, 138.
Madhwacharya, 356.

Magadha, 364.

Maha-bharata, 5, 9, 13, 14, 53,
55, 83, 152, 155, 272, 325, 342,
354, 357, 362, 378; age of, 278;
derivation of, 272 ; historical val-
ue of, 273, 275; religion of, 275 :
sanctity of, 274, 276; transla-
tion of, 280; legends of, 283,
304.

Mahades, 358.

Maha-deva, 53.

Maghaven, 75.

406

INDEX.

Mahratta, n 300.

Man, origin of, 131.

Man, reconstruction of, 134.
Manavas, a school of Brahmans,
84.

MawcZakinI river, 209.

MancZala, 139.

Mandara mountain, 59, 238.
Mantra, portion of Veda, 8, 11.
Mantras texts, 69, 84, 98.

Mann, 10, 14, 81, 85.

Manu’s code, 83, 84, 52, 54, 145,
362; infallibility of, 98; date of
84, 139; cruelty of, 93, 94.
Manuscripts, 3 ; Vedie, 13; forged,
6.

Markandeya-purSwa, 367.
Marriage, child, 26; of a Brah-
man, 88; of Kama and Slta,171 ;
of Satyavan and Savitrl, 332.
Mars, 49,51.

Marshman, 73.

Maruts, storm gods, 23, 30, 39, 54,
396; hymn to, 39.

Massie, I)r., 70.

Matali, 256.

Mathura, 379.

Matsya, fish, 55.

Matsya-purana, 374.

Menelaus, 155.

Mercury, 51.

Meru, Mount, 126, 148, 321 .
Metempsychosis, 26, 110, 139.
Middle Ages, 11, 51, 289.

Mill, Dr., n 100.

Milman, Dean, 281.

Minerva, 51.

Mitford, 14, 48.

Mithila, 170.

Mitra, 23, 24, 32, 34, 78, 395.
Mohammedan invasion, 371.
Monkeys, 137, 168, 248, 250, 262.
Monkey expedition, 248.
Monotheism, 19, 21.

Muir, Dr., n 38, n 53, 281, n 389.
Muller, Prof. Max, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7,
12, 13, 14, n 19, 101, 102, 112,
n 280, 343, 386, n 389.
Mutilated text, 67.

Mythology of Vedas, 28 ; of Greece,
30, 35, 48, 51; of Egypt, n 35;

of Persia, 29; of Northern Eu-
rope, 29, 45, 48, 49, 58 ; of later
Hindu works, 50; Roman, n 55.

Naciketas, 107.

Nagas, serpent demons, 124, n
224, 349.

Nakula, 283.

Nala, monkey general, 250.
Nandi-grama, 215.

Narada, 330, 331.

Nara-sinha, 55.

Nectar, recovery of, 59.

Neptune, 34, 35, 49.

Nicholson, John, 277.

Nidhogg, serpent, n 58.

Night scene, 310.

Nymphs, celestial, 147.

Oannes, n 55.

Odin, 45.

Odyssey, 36, 278, n293, n 321.
(Egir, 49.

Oldenberg, 4.

Om, sacred syllable, 67, 102, 131,
n 349, 372.

Omens, 96, 317, 318.

Orientalists, 3, 15, 72, 159.

Oude, 161.

Oxus river, 395.

i».

Pada, text, n 376.

Padma-purami, 353, 359, 385,
388.

Pagoda, black, 358.

Pahlavl, 383.

Palmer, 4.

Pampa lake, 232.

ParuZavas, 274, 283.

Pandits, or Hindu professors, 3,
5, 6, 60.

PawcZu, 283.

Panipat, n 300.

Pantamus, 383.

Pantheism, 19, 21, 114, 125, 137,
355, 361.

Parasu-rama, 56.

Parijata, 59.

INDEX.

407

Pai' vat I, wife of *Siva, 61.
Patanjali, 280.

Penance, 92.

Persia, 14, 57.

Persian, n 29; myths, 49; trans-
lation, 107 ; drawing, n 57.
Philosophical Society of Great
Britain, 343.

Phoenix, Egytian fable, 58.

Plato, 361.

Plutp, 35, 36.

Poetry, 1, 7, 15, 37.

Polyandry, n 296.

Polygamy, 26.

Polytheism, 19, 21.

Prar/apati, creator, 10; year, 105.
Prajapatya penance, 70.
PrakriO,"l23, 370.

Pralhada, 349.

Priestly class, 40, 75, 86, 97.
Privileges of Brahmans, 75, 86.
PrapafXaka, 10.

Punishment, future, 149.

Pur anas, 12, 57, 118, 273, 352,
399 ; signification of name, 354 :
origin of, 356 ; age of, 357.
Puranic age, 44.

Puri, n 388.

Purusha, 22, 109, 132, 136, 360, n
399.

Purusha hymn, 21, 85.

Pushpaka, n 262, 263.

Pushya, 182, 188.

Pyrtaneum, 30.

Pyrrha, wife of Deukalion, n 81.
Pythagoras, 14.

Rad ha, wife of Krishna, 359, 369.

Radhakant Deb, Raja, 68, 69, 71,
72.

Riighavas, 199.

Raghu, 261.

Raghu-nandana, 67.

Rakshasas, 189, 216, 237, 240. :

Rama, 156, 159; birth of, 168;
marriage of, 171 ; installation
of, 176, 264; escort of, 184, 194,
262; banishment of, 185; the
farewells, 186, 192; treachery
of, 262, 267.

Rama and Slta, 208, 210, 217, 219.

Rama Candra, 56.

Ramayana, 4, 9, 54, 126, 137,
152, 156, 160, 276, 278; age of,
157; author of, 159; length of,
160; story of, 161; teaching of,
126.

Rammohun Roy, 100, 105, 107,
113.

Ravana, demon king, 63, 157,
167, 364.

Ravana, description of, 223, 229,
252; palace of, 224, 240; his
pyre, 157, 257.

Repeated creations, 123, 124.

Resurrection, 315, 316.

Rewards, 146.

Rhys, Davids. 4.

i?ig-veda, 1, 3, 10, 16, 24, 27, 36,
38, 42, 52, 67, 75.

B ig-veda Sanhita, Wilson’s trans-
lation, 4, n 23.

Rights of women, 91.

2?ishi, sage, 11, 85, 90.

i?ishis, 113.

/tishyamuka, mountain, 233.

Roer, Dr., 109, 112.

Roth, Prof., n 10.

Rudra, 135.

Rudras, 39, 53, 54.

Ruminikl, 364, 365.

Sabeanism, n 100.

Sabula, mountain, 251.

Sacred books of the east, 4.
Sacrifice, 29, 44, 67, 72, 76, 78.

80, 82, 88, 95, 99, 103.

Sagara, 206.

Sahadeva, 283.

Shiva-purana, 366.
iSaiva-pura, 366.

Saloka, 147.

Salya, king, 311, 312.

Sanaa- veda, 10, 101, 102, 103.
Saman- verses, 11.

Sampati, vulture, 236.

Sandals, Rama’s golden, 214, 215,
263.

Sanaudana, sage, 127.
Sandrokottos, Indian prince, n 12.

408

INDEX.

Sanhita, 4, n 376.

(Sankara Acarya, 109, 356.

Sankhya philosophy, 138, 360, n
366, 367.

Sanskrit language, 2, 5, 11, 12,
13, 68.

Sanskrit scholars, 67, 74, 101.

Sanskrit literature, 16, 97, 152,
155, 352, 354.

Sarah, wife of Abraham, 6.

Sarama, 36, 97.

Sarasvati, goddess of speech, 51.

Sarayu river, 161.

(Siistra, 200, 245.

iSatapatha-bralunana, 54, 55, 81,
83, 140, 296.

(Satru-glina, 168, 212, 268.

Saturn, 30.

Satya, first age, 56.

Satyakama, 116, 117.

Satya van , prince, 326.

Savitrl, princess, 326; a sacred
text, 70, 93.

Sayawa, n 23, 109, n 376.

Scriptures, Hebrew, 2, 5.

Sea, goddess of, 154, 249.

Sea of milk, 126, 161, 167, 168.

Self, highest, 114, 133, 136.

Semitic languages, 13.

Semitic races, 19.

(Stesha, serpent, 64, n 224, 363.

Similarity of myths, 28, 29, 31,
48.

Simurgh, of Persian mythology,
57.

(Sisu-piila, 365.

Sits, 155, 170; petition of, 191;
abduction of, 226; search for,
230, 236; replies to Hanuman,
243; replies to Ravana, 228,
242; trial and vindication, 259;
banishment of, 265; sons of,
267 ; departure of, 269.

(Siva, god of destruction, 39, 42,
50, 51, 52, 54,61, 64, 149, 169,
171, 291, 354, 366; receiving
the Ganges, 206, 208.

Skanda-purana, 372, 375.

Sleipnir, Odin’s horse, 48.

Smriti, 98, 101.

Soma, the god, 22, 41 ; hymn to,

23; juice, 23, 24, 40, 99; the
moon, n 22, 142; plant, 22.
Sophocles, n 35.

Soul, immortality of, 108, 146.
Soul, of the wicked, 146.

Soul, of the faithful, 147.

Spirit, destination of, 113, 141.
Squirrel of Yggdrasil, n 58.
(Sraddha, 172.

(Sri, 60.

(Sri Bhagavata, 366.

(Sruti, divinely revealed knowl-
edge, 98, 101, 113.

Stevenson, 15.

St. Ililiare, 15.

Stoma hymn, 109.

Subhadra, sister of Krishna, 388.
(Sudra, 22, 86, 87.

Sugrlva, 138,204, 232, 262; story
of, 234; installation of, 235.
Sumantra, counselor, 176.
Sumitra, 168.

(Suna/tsepa, story of, 79.

Supreme being, 53, 64.

Surabhi, sacred cow, 59.
(Surpa-nakha, 219.

Surya, 20, 30, 32.

Surya sukta, 90.

Sutra, 74.

Sutra period, 13, 14.

Sutrakaras, 69.

Suttee, 66; disgrace of avoiding,
70; eulogy of, 71; instance of
escape from, 70; not taught in
^ig-veda, 66, 70, 72.

Svar, sacred interjection, 11.
Svaya/n-vara, 289.

(Svctasvatara Upanishad, 119.
.Sveta, 62.

Syrian goddess, n 55.

Talmud, n 57.

Tartarus, king, 150.

Testament, old, 2, 5, 12.
Testament, new, 5.

Teutonic language, n 29.
Theogony, Hesiod’s, 36.

Thetis, n 60.

Thieving, penalty for, 94,

Thor, 43, 45, 48.

INDEX.

409

Thunar, Saxon, 43.

Tiger’s skin, sacred, 182, 313;
worn by »Siva, 62.

Todas, n 296.

Tournament, 284.

Troops, disposition of, 301, 303,
307.

Translators, 3, 4.

Transmigration, 346, 347, 348,
397; triple system of, 139; dan-
gers of, 143; of sinners, 146;
difficulties of, 142.

Triad, 51, 52.

Troy, 155,

TulasI dasa, n 158, 159.

Tyr, northern god of war, 49.

TJ.

Udgatri, priest, 103.

Udgitha, 102, 103, 104.

Ulysses, 51, n 293, n 321.

Universities, 6.

Upanisliads, 9, 52, 69, 74, 83, 93,
99, 344, 352, 396 : derivation of,
100; age of, 101; monotheism
of, 114; teaching of, 113, 121,
131, 136, 140; number of, 100.

Urd, judgment hall, n 58.

Urissa, 373.

Ushas, the dawn, 26, 27, 30, 33,
37, 49, 63, 396.

Utkala, 358.

Vahish-pavamana, 104.

Vaisya, 86, 87.

Vajasaneyi Upanishad, 111.

Vaka Dalbhya, 104.

Vallabha, 356.

Valmlka, 137, 138, n 158, 159,
266, 269.

Vamana, dwarf, 56.

Vamana-purana, 373.

Varaha, the boar, 54, 55.

Varaha-purana, 372.

Varuna, sky god, 23, 24, 30, 33,
34, 38, 63, 64, 78, 396.

Vasishfha, sage, 176, 182.

Yasu-deva, 363, 368.

Vasu-devas, nine, n 378.

Vasuki, serpent, 59, 223, n224, 349.

Vayu air, 10, 23, 51.

Vayu, the god, 116.

Vayu-purana, 368.

Veda, 1, 5, 8, 16; antiquity of, 5,
11 ; doctrinal portion of, 99.

Vedas, 9, 14, 36, 42, 177.

Vedas and Suttee, 66.

Vedanta, 102, 125, 141, 348, 361,
367.

Vedic age, 9, 44; deities, 37, 42,
47,50; songs or hymns, 1, 7, 11,
13, 15, 29, 46, 48, 50, 155, 162;
authority, 8, 69, 72; literature,
6, 16, ‘101, 113. 115, 120;

worship, 400.

Venus, n 60.

Vestals, 31.

Vibhlshana, brother of Ravana,
251.

Vidura, 285.

Vindu, lake, 208.

Viraj, secondary creator, 22, 123.

Virafa, king, 296, 297.

Vishnu, 28, 50, 56, 57, 59, 64, 81,
351, 354; shield of, 223; crea-
tion by, 127; as the supreme
god, 118; institutes of, 150;
incarnations of, 54.

Vishnu-purana, 53, 123, 127, 135,
149, 359, 367, 383, 385, 387.

Vopadeva, 367.

Vraja, 357.

Vritra, evil spirit, 43, 256.

Vulcan, 43, 44.

Vyasa, 159, 295, 362.

War, council of, 296.

Warfare, rules of, 302.

Weber, Prof., 62, 140, 158, 160,
279, 280, 344, 383.

West, 4.

Wheeler, J. Talboys, 5, 15, n 181,
n 235, n 266, 281, n 297, 384.

Whitney, Prof. W. D., n 10, n 12.

Wife, directions for choosing, 88.

Wilford, Lieut., 5, 355.

Wilkins, 159.

Williams, Sir Monier, n 9, 15, n
17, 60, 88, 94, 98, 101, 157, 160,
233, 279, 281, 343, 352, 357,

•410

INDEX.

379, n 383, n 386, n 389, 398, n
399.

Wilson, Prof. H. FI., 2, 3, 4, 15,
24, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 137, 281,
357, 360.

Wilson’s translation, R-v. San-
hita, n 23, n 358, n 376, 391.

Wives, duties of, 69, 77, 90, 91,
96.

Wives of Krishna, 320, 364, 392.

Wives of Ravana, 229, 241, 257.

Wood, 48.

World, destruction of, 123, 124.

Yadavas, 297.

Yadavas, destruction of, 317.

Yadu, n 386.

Yagus, verses, 11.

Yama, 35, 64, 107, 150.

Yama, abode of, 36, 140; dogs of,
35, 37; hymn to, 36; bearing

away the soul of Satyavan,
336.

Yaina’s boons to Savitrl, 338.

Yasoda, 363, 385.

Yezeus, 386.

Yggdrasil, 58.

Yoga, 346, 366.

Yogin, n 118.

Yojana, a measure, 127, 370.

Yudhi-shfira, 283, 296; corona-
tion of, 313; abdication of, 321,
pilgrimage of, 322; ascension
of, 323 ; in hell, 324 ; in heaven,
325.

Yukhush, fabled bird of the Tal-
mud, n 57.

Yupa-post, used in sacrifice, 77.

Yuva-raja, 174, 235.

Zephyrus, 51.

Zoroaster, 14.

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