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HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS

00MPBI8IKO

ADVICE TO THOSE WHO, WHILE YET AT SCHOOL, ABE DE8TINBD T<

THE PBOFESSION

TO SUCH AS, HAVINGPASSEDTHEIRPUPILAGE, ABE ABOUT TO TBAVE]

AND TO THOSE WHO, HAVING COMPLETED THEIB EDUCATION,

ABE ABOUT TO PEACTISE

TOOHTHBS WITH

A MODEL SPECIFICATION

INVOLVING A GKEAT .VAEIETT OF INSTBUCTIVE AND SUGGBBTIVI

MATTEB

By GEORGE WIGHTWICK, Architect

AUTHOB OF "tHB PALACE OF ABCHXTBCTUIIE," ETO., ETC.

^ ^rtu (£bitix)n
bevised and considerably enlarged

compbising tbeatises on the pbinciples op constbuction

and design

By G. HUSKISSON GUILLAUME, Abohiiect

lUTHOB OF "the TUBOBT OF ABT," "OBSZaK, CONSTBUGTIVB AKD JI6THBTIC,'' BTO. BTG

Gi*'\V'» . MAR TS

LONDON

CEOSBY LOOKWOOB A"S^"a CQ.

r, BTATIONESS' HALL COTJET, li'O'DQiL'Sa TOaA.

1880

loni>on:

minted by virtue and co., limiied,

citt road*

AUTHOE'S PEEFACE,

The Antlior lias been frequently asked, ** What ehoold be
the later school education of a youth intended for the
architectural profession?'' In answer to this he would
refer to the earlier pages of his work as in themselves alone
of much importance, in aiding the parents of such a youth to
form some judgment as to his fitness, and the proper studies
for his last year at school ; while to him the entire book is
useful in affording a general idea of those numerous acquire-
ments, and of that untiring study, which may happily disabuse
his mind of the notion that a mere aptitude for drawing is all
that is required of him. This book will enable the parent
to test the son's earnestness in reference to the scientific and
arithmetical, necessities of the practising architect, too
frequently regarded with distasteful impatience by pupils
when they come to the study of construction and the
drudgery of cross-multiplication, the composition of a sp6<»-
fication, and the computation of an estimate.

In fine, to the young man who is an architect, the practical
portions of this work must needs be of much value, in at
least directing his attention, and methodizing the process of
his labours ; while the general perusal of it will either con-
firm a youth in his determination for the profession, or serve
to dissuade him from what might occasion only loss of time
and useless cost to his parents.

PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION.

Another edition of this enlarged and highly appreciated
work having heen called for, my aim has heen to make it
more worthy of the acceptance of the student and young
architect, and of the favourahle opinions that were expressed
when the last edition was issued. In matters of fact few
alterations have heen rendered necessary: my attention
therefore has been given to modify any crude expressions
as far as the condensation necessary permitted. A note or
two have heen added on the change in architectural taste,
and new matter substituted here and there in the Sanitary
section. Parts IV., V., and VI. have, I need hardly remind
the reader, been entirely added to the original work as left
by Mr. Wightwick, and comprise those principles of science,
construction, and architectural design with which the young
architect should be familiar, and which it is hoped will lead
him to pursue their study in other works of a more special
kind. The new matter introduced in the original text is dis-
tinguished by being enclosed within brackets, thus [ ] > or made
as foot-notes. The model specification has been thoroughly
revised, and considerable additions have been made to it.
At the particular desire of many readers, and with the object
of rendermg the book more complete, I have appended a
form of Conditions of Contract to the specification, which
will be found to contain all necessary clauses. In its pre-
paration I have consulted the forms approved by the master
builders and council of the Royal Institute of British
Architects and other authorities. Of course, special circum-
stances in every case will dictate to the architect modifica-
tions cither in matter or phraseology.

G. H. a.

CONTENTS.

PART I.— SCHOOL STUDIES.

X Inclinations 1

CATicAL Studies 2

ra 4

ON OP Habits 6

I School Studies — ^Wmting 7

38 OP Drawing 9

3 OP Study 11

ON FoBM Delineation 12

ctitb 1*

crrvB Projection 16

)N Perspective 21

AND Shadows 19

HADOWS ...•••...• 18

mc Projection 25

cal Studies 23

lEMENT OF Builder's Work 29

c AND Latin 30

sibility 31

Remarks on Education 32

?LES OP Study 33

ro Pupils during Pupilage 87

PAKT II.— STUDIES ABROAD.

r Gothic • <ft

ccupiED IN Travel ...•••• ^^

to AnCHITECTURAL ToURISTS .,%••* ^^

nr Francs • * ^^

VIU CONTENTS.

PART III.— EAELY PRACTICE.

PAOB

HiNTg oy Plannino 68

Reference op Plan to Elevation 60

Adyantaoes op Perspectivb 61

Angulab PEBSPEtrrrvE . . - 63

Solids and Voids 60

Junction op House and Oppioes 67

Chimneys 68

Connection in Composition 69

Position op Watek-closets 70

Plumbebs' Wobk 71

Dbains 72

Views op Employebs 73

Ocular Impbessions 74

Value op Cobnices 76

Windows 76

Abchitect's Duties 79

Clebk op Wobks 80

Details 81

Hints on Comfobt and Conybnience — ^Double Doobs . . 83

Position op Fibeplace 84

Wabming and Ventilation 85

Kitchen and Oppices 85

Stabling 88

Lodges 92

Building Committees 93

Altebations and Additions ....... 94

Quantities .......... 95

Drawing up Contracts 95

FoBiki OP Agbeement ......... 96

Giving Cbbtificates 97

Abchitect's Position .07

PART IV.— PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.

Section I. — Equilibbium op Fobces • . . . .99

Moments .......... 104

Pbinciple op the Lever 106

Centbb of Gravity . 108

Section II. — Balance and Stability op Structures . .110

Stability op Walls, &c Ill

Modes of Failure 113

The Line of Resistance 115

-PitssevuB OF Wind • • ^^^

FsESeVBI OF WlTBB UO

Bbtainiho Walls 116

Buck and Bxovb Ascbis IIS

ABtrTMEHTS 122

DOKBB 123

gTBKXaTH IKD StABIUTT OF BeA»B .... 123

£lFIOT OF FoBinoH 12fi

Fbahbs and Tbdsseb 126

TUIAKQULAB FqAMBS 127

EoaF Tiiu/^sEs 128

Arcued I(iit3 130

Etiies-gtu of TiMBEn 133

JorNTS A>D FisrEsmaa 133

Wbioht or Peamiso 136

LOAOS ON BOOFS 13Q

StBBNOTH of MaTSRIAU — TlMBBB AND IllON BbAKB , 136

Dbfihitioks

TeMBIOH AMD CoUFBESBlOX 133

Ijono Pni-AJis . . ' . I3S

ItESlSTAHCB TO CrOSB StUAIN 140

SriFFKUa OF BSAMS 140

Stkbhgih of Bbame 112

Flooks anu Buofs H2

Ilui.ia iOR SCANTLIMOB 113

StCTIOK m. — InON-CoKSTBHCTlOS 141

Oast-Ikon Beams 14S

WnOVGJIT-IjtOS 3)E4513 14U

ROLLED-IUON BbAUS 140

8TEE1. 14S

PAET V.-SAN1TART COKSTEUCTIOK.
Section I. — Waumino

FlBBFLACEB

CoNSBBVATIOH OF HeaT

Hollow Walls .

WmDOWB

Sktion II. — Vbntilation

ClBCTILATlOH OP AlB

Bktioh III. — HocsD Bjuixaob

8Bw*BAae Oases

SEXBDnia ...

X CONTENTS.

PAoa

YXNTILATINO TrAPS, &C 165

Closbt Appliances 170

Sanitabt CoNDinoMB OP HovBE Construction . .171

PART VI.— DESIGN.

Sfction I. — Arch i t e c'X' uk al Taste 173

Section II. — Principles of Design 179

Laws op Design 181

Mechanical Principles 181

Materials and their Functions 184

Iron and Timber 186

Wood-work 187

Plastic Substances 188

Cast Metal Work 189

Beauty op Form 190

Proportion — ^Unity — Variety — Contrast— Optical Re-
finement — ^Expression — Colour 196

Addenda on Construction 197

PART Vn.— MODEL SPECIFICATION.

Index to Model Specification 203

Model Specification 213

Conditions of Contract 310

Miboellaneoub Hints and Cautions 313

General Index . • . • 325

HINTS

YOTJNG ARCHITECTS.

PART L

SCHOOL STUDIES.

It is my object to supply a course of hints which
may prove serviceable^ in the first instance^ to the
youth who is destined for the profession ; and, in the
second, to the young man who is about to enter upon
the practice of it on his own account.

[Natural Inclinations. — The direction of a young
man's natural bent at so critical a period of his career
as the last few years of his schooling, must in a great
measure depend on a variety of considerations which a
wise, parent or guardian should well ponder. A young
man's first choice is not always to be regarded as the
right one. It may, as it often does, proceed from
youthful aspirations which after-reflection shatters ;
from tastes which are based on mere sentiment; or
from a notion prevalent among school-boys that some
professions are exempt from application, hardship, or
drudgery, — or that they open easy means of gaining a
livelihood. The writer has frequently foimd the motive
of choice to have been this hastily conceived uotloTL^
which eahsequent knowledge or expeiieivcQ ^^^soj^ ^\&-

2 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

pelled, or whicli a due and careful consideration at the
onset would have corrected.]

Mathematical Studies. — ^And, first, for the mere
candidate who has yet to complete the last two years
of his school studies. We presume that he has
achieved a certain i-espectable quantum of classical
attainment, with, at least, such a knowledge of the
French language as it is now usual to afford in all
well-ordered schools. Still cultivating these, it now
becomes essential that peculiar care be given to the
promotion of practical mathematics, geometrical draw-
ing, and perspective. By the former we mean all that
relates to the formation and measurement of superficial
and soKd figures, and those parts of arithmetic which
have reference to square and cubical estimate and
valuation ; plane trigonometry, essential to the opera-
tions of the surveyor ; and mechanics, necessary to
compute the strength and strain of materials. By
geometrical drawing is meant the free use of the com-
passes and steel pen, the drawing-board and T square,
the camel-hair brush and Indian ink : this to be
followed by an industrious application to linear per-
spective.

[The branches of mathematics more essentially ne-
cessary to the yoimg architect, and which he should
assiduously cultivate at school, are the following,—
arithmetic as ordinarily taught, especially proportion,
vulgar and decimal fractions, duodecimals, problems
relating to square and cubical measurement, mensura-
tion of lines, surfaces, and solids ; geometry, or so much
of Euclid as will give the student facility in construct-
ing geometrical figures, erecting perpendiculars, setting
off angles with or without the aid of instruments,
besides a general knowledge of the more important
theorems of£luclid ; plane trigonometry, or the science

HATHEHATICAL SXTDIES. 3

of the relations sabsistmg between the sides and angles
of triangles^ a study of very wide application^ applic-
able to all questions connected with constructive science
as well as to surveying ; and we may add an acquaint*
ance with algebra, at least as far as the solution of
simple equations. Among the branches of mixed
mathematics the student should study mechanics ; the
principles known as the "Parallelogram of Forces/*
"Moments," and the "Lever," being particularly
important and useful in the subsequent studies of
an architect, as upon them the most elementary con-
structions in masonry, timber or ironwork depend.
The elements of hydrostatics, hydraulics, and pneu-
matics should also be known, as many subsidiary
questions involving such knowledge continually occur
in the practice of an architect.*]

* To afford the student who is in quest of suitable works on the
above subject a selection of some of the most desirable, we append the
following list : —

Geometry. — "Geometry and Conic Sections,'* by Hann (Weale's
Series). Todhunter's " EucHd/' " Descriptive Geometry," by
Heather : Lockwood & Co.

Trigonometry. — " Plane Trigonometry," by Hann (Weale's Series).
"Trigonometry for Beginners," by Todhunter: Macmillan & Co.
Griffin's "Algebra and Trigonometiy : " Longmans.

Algebra, — ^Haddon's "Algebra" ("Weale's Series). Todhunter's
" Algebra for Beginners : " Macmillan. Griffin's " Algebra : " Long-
mans. *<Integr{d. Calculus," Budiments of, by Cox: Lockwood & Co.

Mensuration. — " Mensuration," by T. Baker, published in Weale's
Series: Lockwood & Co. ; also "Land and Engmeering Surveying,"
by same author: Lockwood & Co. Todhunter's "Mensuration for
Beginners : " Macmillan & Co.

Mechanics, — " Rudimentary Mechanics," by Tomlinson : Lockwood
& Co. For an elementary introduction, "Statics," by H. Good-
win, D.D., Dean of Ely (published in the Cambridge School Text
Series), is recommended ; or Todhunter's " Mechanics for Beginners."
As advanced works on the subject, the student is recommended
Twisden's " Practical Mechanics," Professor Eankine's " Mechanical
Text Book ; " " A Text Book of Applied Science," by G. H. Guillaume.

For students who require advanced Text Books on the above
subjects, Gregory's " Mathematics for Practical Men " ^ TLock-
woodj, edited by Mr. Lawj or Professor Eankine's "Applied Me-
chanics " (Griffin & Co.), are highly valuable handbooks, as containing
a digest of those parb oi mixed mathemaUcd QS^^n^AxiX V^ *C^^
practitioner. \\x!l

4 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Nothing is more common than for a young gentle-
man to enter an architect's office incapable of striking
a circle without, at least, two ends ; or of describing
an octagon with any two sides alike ; equally ignorant
of cross multiplication — that leading essential of valua-
tion practice, and bugbear of indolent reluctance ; with
no knowledge whatever of the use of the theodolite or
spirit level ; and having no idea that mechanics have
any immediate reference to the permanent adaptation
of stone and timber. A superficial reading of Euclid,
and a course of algebra, may have gained a silver
medal to be worn triumphantly on the last " breaking-
up day ; " but the peculiar application of the study to
such matters as especiaUy concern the architect wiU
not have been thought of; and a thousand facilities,
which might have been readily afforded before the day
of apprenticeship, have been omitted to the great pre-
judice of subsequent pursuit. The self-flattering notion
of manhood, natural to the emancipated youth, no
longer a school-boy, is disgustingly corrected by the
necessary incipient drudgery which makes him feel a
child again — or leaves him the alternative of thinking
himself too much a man for "task work'' so elementary.

Drav^^ing. — His knowledge of drawing is illustrated
by a series of rather free copies of very picturesque

In the subjects of Construction, Materials, &c., the student is referred
to "Rudiments of Art of Building," by Dobson; the "Elementary
Principles of Carpentiy and Joinery," deduced from the works of
Robinson and IVedgold; "Construction of Roofs," "Masonry and
Stone- cutting," by E. Dobson; "Arches, Piers, and Buttresses,"
by W. Bland, in same series; "Limes, Cements, Mortars, &c.,"
by G. R. Bumell, C.E. ; Humber's " Handy-Book for the Calculation
of Strains in Girders," "Barlow on the Strength of Materials,"
edited by his Sons and W. Humber; "A Complete and Practical
Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," by W.
Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., " The Application of Iron to the Construc-
tion of Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c.," by Francis Campin, C.E., &c.
Tbe above works are published by Lockwood & Co., Stationers' Hall

DRAWING. D

origmals, in which there is but little of the formality
of Yertical or horizontal lines, and still less of lines
perspectively convergent. Significations of trees, cot-
tages, cows, and ploughmen home returning, all beau-
tiftdly mounted, with gold lines ruled around, are
exhibited to his future master, as proofs of certain
removes from nature without any approach towards
art. If he have any artistical feeling for landscape, the
chances are he will not be architecturally inclined. If
architecturally given, it is not imlikely that his "draw-
ing-master " will have done his best to counteract the
impulse. His geometrical drawing has been probably
confined to a clumsy imitation of the figures of his
Euclid, with letters that are capital only in a typo-
graphical sense. His writing: — ah, there indeed he
flourishes! Words stretching out like race-horses,
with long heads and tails raking into the lines above
and below, so as to preserve a perplexing connection
between whole sentences, past, present, and to come I

[We may add here, that a prevalent idea exists that
"a taste for drawing '' is the ultimatum or chief con-
sideration iu deciding on the architectural profession as
the fixture calling of a youth. Greatly as it may afibrd
faciKties for the expression of ideas as the vehicle of
design, it not unf requently leads to a habit of cribbing
prejudicial to that thorough independence of thought
so necessary to the art of conceiving and working out
the structural problems which engage the architect. A
mere aptness for copying originals, drawing landscape
and figures, while it may make an artist in the Imita-
tive arts, must not be confounded with the creative
function necessary to adapt various kinds of material
for special purposes. It must not be forgotten that
design, not drawing, is the main object, tTaa rniud T\a\
less tiian the hand being required .^

b HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Precision of Habits. — Now, whatever may be
necessary to other professions, or to any other branch
of science or art, unquestionably there is no one which
has more decidedly among its first principles the im-
perative law of precision than that of an architect,
whether it regards the operations of the mind or the
hand. The responsibilities which attach to him who
may have to erect a large and important edifice, in
which the economy of construction is to afford giant
strength with graceful lightness, are such as should be
considered from the very first moment of his architec-
tural aspiration. Precision, then, in advancing, step
by step, through all the gradations of initiatory study,
demands the closest care. Architectural beauty is, in
fact, the result of constructive perfection ; and this can
only be secured by laying down the first stone with a
caution anticipating the pride that will attend the ele-
vation of the crowning pinnacle. Each intermediate
grade of operation will be also fulfilled with prospective
and retrospective reference to all the others. The pur-
pose and beauty of a building are indeed important;
but the " very life of the building " is the foundation —
most important, though afterwards to remain unseen.
Many are the young architects who, on getting into
practice, have had suddenly to make good with hasty,
anxious, and health-destroying application, the omis-
sions of their student years; and all, we maintain, from
the early disregard of that precision of habit which, ia
the mind, means close and systematic study, and which
indicates itself in the neatness and care of the hand.

But, while the young aspirant is not expected to have
an intuitive sense of all this, neither is it to be sup-
posed that he can, unaided, duly weigh its importance ;
and we therefore, through him, address those who have
^Iie care of his school studies after his ^jrofession may

WRITING. 7

have been suggested. It will, at least, be unsafe,
whether reasonable or not, to reckon upon any especial
personal supervision at the hands of his professional
master. His premium will be paid for the opportunities
which he will have of learning — as his master learned
before' him ; and in consideration of his ultimately
securing to himself some of that remunerative practice
which will be consequently forfeited by the senior pro-
fessor. Moreover, it will assuredly be an all-sufficient
answer for those who expect personal instruction, to
say that all existing practitioners of any note have do-
pended on their own employment of the mere oppor-
tunity for self-tuition.

It is, therefore, in regard to the duty which the
student owes to himself (for he may, to a sufficient
extent, do his master's business, and yet neglect his
own) that we emphasise the necessity of a certain
amount of school training preparatory to the deed" of
apprenticeship. During the term of his articles, we
presume not to meddle with him further than to call
on him to do his best, as he may rest well assured tho
more he serves his master the more he will serve him-
self. After that, we shall venture to take him up
again; for circumstances may prevent his gathering
from his more competent adviser those extra-official in-
structions which it will be our hope to affi)rd him.

Closing Sc^lool Studies, Writing. — To recur, then,
to his closing school studies. We begin with the most
simple.

The writing-master is first in request. The hand
which usually wins the silver pen is about the worst
that can be cultivated. We were ourselves nearly suc-
cessful in the trial, and the mortification we expe-
fenced in having afterwards to curtail our caijitala and
mtrol the comet-like eccentricitiea ot owx^^'^V^^sA

8 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

P'b is not forgotten to this day. It was long before we
could achieve the credit of being competent to write
out the " fair copy " of a " specification ;'' and many
were the plans we rendered slovenly by a want of neat-
ness and clearness in our figurings. The desire to give
an ojficial-like character to a "detailed estimate'' was
frustrated during almost the whole of our apprentice-
ship ; and as to *^ printing '' the titles of the fair draw-
ings with the relative designation of the plans, ekva-
tions, and sections, there was a charity-school office-boy
who ever maintained in this particular an envied ascen-
dancy. Our good master used truly to say, that the
writing and lettering would make respectable an indif-
ferent drawing, and spoil a good one.*

The acquirement of a neat, close, and uniform
character of writing, with practical ability in the
several modes of lettering employed on drawings, is
of immediate and of no unimportant use in an archi-
tect's office. The student, thus prepared, comes inta
the instant participation of advantages which otherwise
he must wait for. The perfecting of his penmanship
may be fully acquired at school, and he might there
also so practise it as to make it still more essentially
serviceable by copying out, for instance, a compendious
architectural glossary, and giving to each leading word
the particular letter which typographically expresses it.
Thus, terms having exclusive application to classical
architecture might be in the Eoman character ; those
exclusively coi^ned to gothic architecture in the
@3ir§ (B|[(S2!f|SP ; and all others of common meaning
in ITALICS: the description being of course appended
in the best kind of Sflunmng SfCand. As a further

• We improved, however, marvellously, in our ordinary hand-
writing, and it was the mere penmanship of a letter of solicitation that
a few years after obtained employment for as in the office of the late
Sir John Soane,

• METHODS OF DRAWING. 9

exercise in tlie latter character, it wonld be well to
copy out a dictionary of the technical terms of ma-
sonry, carpentry, &c. ; the whole of which form no
Tery lengthy operation, and would leave the practical
illustrations of the office to be in their turn more
interesting, because more readily comprehended.*

Methods of Drawing. — The drawing-master comes
next. What may be now his practice in schools we
know not ; but, in our own time, he did but very little
in the promotion of artistical truth, and nothing at all
in the way of practical utility. If the intended archi-
tect have — as indeed he should have — a feeling for the
pictorial of art, it will not ultimately suffer und6r the
requirement of its more anatomical and geometrical
necessities. A decision of hand in outline delineation
is the very first desideratum in an architectural
draughtsman. This applies not less to curved than to

[* While we fully concur in the above suggestions, we may casually
notice that the lettering now employed in most architects' offices has
' somewhat deteriorated in respect of the correctness and precision
adyocated by our author. In some offices, drawings are only written
to in an ordinary hand; in others, a kind of fancy text is employed — a
modified kind of German or Mediaeval style, ^e append a few
specimens : —

aHQRccH I DO use :

Longitudinal Section 3 — ^

In ground plans, sections, and general drawings, an intelUgiblo
Hock letter or plain italic lettering is recommeixdeaL aa mot^ ^^Titosw^
to clcamesB ana appearance than any ornamental ot ^\fi»njQ»a^V3^

B 3 ^

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

direct lines ; nor can a better study be suggested than
tbat of the human figure, beginning with the skeleton,
combined with the representation of plain solids of
regular form, without (in the first instance) any shad-
ing or attempt at effect.

When the hand has acquired some independent
precision and firmness, the use of the mathematical
instruments, drawing board, T square, and parallel
ruler should be carefully attended to ; and all this will
be sufficiently induced in the study of perspective. The
pupil will first draw the plan of his subject,
then the elevation,
and finally work out
its perspective ap-
pearance under cer-
tain prescribed con-
ditions.

Plan. Elevation.

View.

.•vw^e^Ti*'

a.v

His previously required precision of hand is now regu-
lated by the knowledge of rule; and both will work
together to make a correct and ready sketcher. The
study of the finished human figure (which should
alternate with the more formal process), while in itself

We may remark here the strong feeling for or affectation of MedisBval
character shown in the above specimens — a tendency which appears
*''' approach the ridiculous in some instances, and la Yo "b^ «vq\\^^,'\

METHODS OF DRAWING. 11

most valuable in respect to statuesque architecture
will equally facilitate the drawing of mouldings and
their enrichments; and we may here add^ that a
careM copying of the leading frieze ornaments, Greek
and Boman and Gothic, will be infinitely more to the
purpose than any attempts at that mediocrity in
picture which never afterwards aspires to more than
a place in my lady's album.

[Method of Study. — Since our author's remarks
were first published, the Governmental schools of
art which have sprung into existence have materiaUy
improved the mode of instruction in drawing. Our
author's drawing-master, no doubt a veritable reci-
pient of art patronage in the past, has, happily for
the advancement of art, given place to teaching, or
rather a system that promotes the training of art
faculty in contradistinction to the mere penmanship
of the art. Instead of a series of pencil sketches
or crayon drawings of landscape or the human
figure being thrust upon the young beginner, he is
taught by a graduated system of instruction to acquire
a decision of hand in copying the simplest outlines
and geometrical forms before he proceeds to the repre-
sentation of the concrete picture in its complete detail
and expression. He is thus, by a rational process, led
to represent form and solidity under their varied
phases of complexity and perspective appearance, and
so to grasp intellectually and ocularly the changes
which objects undergo in Nature by their relative
position, and the efiects of light and shadow. By these
means the student really learns not only how to copy
Nature perfectly, but how to present her to the best
effect. "We would suggest here to the student who
is pursuing this branch of his education to trust more
to his eye and mind than to his imagmaliOTi* ^^ ^^^

12 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

thus learn never to draw a line unless lie understands
its effect, nor to make a touch where it is not needed.
Copies from drawings are to be steadfastly withheld,
until facility in expressing the simplest outlines and
solid forms is acquired. We would earnestly recom-
mend the following method of study : —

1. Take the easiest and least tedious forms first, e.g.
lines vertically, obliquely, and horizontally drawn ;
trinngles, squares, parallelograms, and polygons;
curvilinear figures, circles, ovals, ellipses. These
representations should be made first as planes.

2. The efiects of position in relation to the eye
should next be studied as a preliminary and tentative
to scientific perspective.

3. The solids — as cubes, pyraniids, prisms of various
bases, cylinders, cones, and polyhedrons, may follow.
These should first be drawn geometrically with regard
to the eye, and afterwards in different obHque positions
and levels, perspectively.

4. The effects of light should next be carefully
studied, the cast shadows being drawn in outline, and
then the varied gradations of shading and reflected light
upon solids, as octahedrons, cylinders, spheres, cones, &c.

5. Plain shading in pencil, Indian ink, or sepia
may be succeeded by flat washes of colour, artistic
accessories and finishes. In a word, begin with the
simple and proceed to the compkx, the abstract and then
the concrete. Model drawing or construction, or real
object delineation, should always precede or be combined
with the generalised efiects of Nature, or the complete
picture. Sketching directly from Nature, however
crude the first attempts may be, is recommended the
student in preference to any course of fiat cppies.

Hints on Form Delineation. — We . ofier a few
^/a^s on the delineation of those forma which puzzle

DELINEATION OF FORM.

the begiimer in drawing, and which are of perpetual
recurrence in architectural design. To assist the eye
and hand, the student should endeavour to grasp the
proposed form constructively, ue. to reduce it if pos-
sible to a simpler outline ; thus a circle generally per-
plexes the novice, and few even expert draughtsmen
can draw a perfect circle merely by the hand without
aid. The eye requires some means of judging dis-
tances and boundaries, and hence it is easier to in-
scribe a circle within a square than without such help.
Let it be required to draw a circle of a certain dia-
meter. Denote the centre by a point. Through this
point draw two diameters crossing each other at right
angles, and mark by the eye as nearly as possible the
required radius on each from the centre; if further
aid be wanted, the four equal right angles may be

Fig. 2.

bisected by two other lines, and radii marked as before
(see fig. 1). The hand can now trace the curve. A
circumscribing square is
another good plan, as in
fig. 2. When a circle has
to touch a certain bound-
ary, as in the circle of a
traceried window, imite
the points of contact by
diameters, as in fig. 3. To
draw a polygon by the
eye : If it contain a regular nuinber o5 ^vSia^, ^% wl

Fig. 3.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

octagon, draw four intersecting diameters as for a
circle, and mark equidistant poiats from centre.

Then draw at riffht

7~\

angles through each
poiat or extremity
the respective side ;
another plan is to
form a circumscrib-
ing square, cutting

Fig. 5.

Kg. 4.

off equal distances by the eye (fig. 4),

Curves. — Segments of circles and curvilinear forms
frequently perplex. In these cases fix by the eye the

limits of space or
chord line and the
rise (fig. 5), or circum-
scribe the boimdaries
by rectangular lines.
(For fiirther remarks
on curved lines, see section on Design.)

Eye Perspective. — To draw forms perspectively by
the eye. Consider the level and position of the eye in
respect to it. Draw a horizontal line to denote the
former, and a point in it for the latter ; from the boun-
daries of the form draw convergent lines to the point of
sight. Thus, to put a circle in perspective, either hori-
zontally or vertically, draw the converging lines and
set off the width as nearly as can be judged by the eye,
thus forming a perspective square. Draw the curve
touching the centres of the respective sides, as in
fig. 6.

An octagon is drawn also by cuttiug off the angles

of a perspective square (fig. 7). Cylinders and other

solids are drawn by first forming the circumscribent

parallelopidedon by combining six perspective squares,

Mad then forming the required solid by the rules given

SKETCHING IN PERSPECTIVB.

above. Bemember that circles become ellipses^ and
squares oblongs in perspective.

-^r

—• ^

'^-^H^.

Xevel of

\ \ ^

\ s

\ \

FsZ!

vM /

m I,

Fig. 6.

These hints are simply in reference to eye drawing
or sketching, and assume no instrumental aid ; but of

Fig. 7.

course the student destined for the profession should
acquire from suitable treatises the Bystemat\fi'5'nsi^^^^'ek
o! geometrical drawing, Projection and PeT«g^Oi\N^»

16 HTNTS TO TODNG ARCHITECTS.

Perspective pROJBCnoH, — Perspective is a word
which excites a dread or despair in some minds, but
without just ground. It is nothing more than a know-
ledge of form in its relation to the sense of sight, or of
the visible effects of lines and planes in different posi-
tions, and the means of representing them on flat sur-
faces, as paper. Many young students are inclined to
halt at what they imagine requires great trouble and
mathematical skill. The eSects of Perspective are
either linear or aerial, the first depending upon position
and distance, the latter upon distance or atmospheric
agencies. It is necessary the student should remember
that all receding surfaces are modified both in shape
and tint, or diminish by the laws of perspective to
certain points in the horizon opposite the eye called
the points of sight and distance, and also that as they
recede they fall into a half-shade.

Lights and Shadows. — The parts of surfaces nearest
the illuminating power receive the light, and thence
graduate through a series of half-tints to the opposite
or farthest side which falls into shadow. It is to be
noticed, however, that these extreme shadows are
modified considerably by refiected light from objects
near, and therefore it must be observed that the
extreme ontlinesof an object seldom receive the brightest
light or the deepest shade (see fig. 8). All unpolished
surfaces as they recede become darker,
or Ml into "half -tint," thus retiring
surfaces are indicated pictorially by
shadow. To illustrate these principles :
Horizontal planes recede more from the
eye than many vertical surfaces, though
they generally receive greater illnmi-
■^' *' nating effect, and must therefore he
modiSed accordingly. But when, the -vi^ipftt ftvofese of

LIGHTS AND SHADOWS.

, building, receive i

an object is nearly level witb the eye, it will recede
more rapidly than the front retires from the light, and
the latter should be made ,,

lightest (fig. 9),

Receding vertical faces fall -
into half-tint or shade still
more by receding both from
the light and from the spec-
tator (fig. 10). Surfecee in-
clined to the light, aa the
side of a roof or front of b

light directly than any other sides, and the contrast
between the lighted and shaded sides, as when an
angle is presented to
the spectator, pro-
duces a stronger
shade nearest the
angle between them,
a8m(ag. 11). This
18 chiefly due to the
effect of contrasted
light and shade, and

is useful in producing architectural effect.
which are perpendicular, as walls, and recede, will be
lightest at the upper comer nearest the spectator,
graduating thence into half-tint,
and if in shadow, the neai'est edge |
will be the darkest.

Cylindrical surfaces, as columns, |
receivereflectedlightontheshaded |
aide and close to its boundary, and
the highest light at a correspond-
ing position on the opposite side, ^'
the deepest shade being attained 'between.-, ^;»&ss».'»Si%
in delicute tinta to the extremes (see &£■ ^'^^

HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHTTECTS.

surfaces, as niches, domical ceilings, &c., are to be
treated similarly, except that the light and shaded
sides are reversed, the deepest shade being nearest
the light, the haK-tints and reflected lights being
graduated between ; the extreme edges receiving either
a delicate half-tint or reflection. The reflections on a
concave surface are stronger than on convex surfaces.

Cast Shadows are shadows thrown by objects in-
teccepting the light in the direction opposite to that of
the light. Cast shadows are modified variously by
reflection, atmospheric refraction, source of light,
opacity or transparency of the objects casting them,
surface upon which they fall, &c. When the light
proceeds from a lamp or flame of a candle, the shadow
is strong and defined ; but when it is from the sun the
shadow is modified by refiected light. Again, the
shadow is stronger in proportion to the nearness of the

object to the source of
light, and is more defined
upon that portion of the
ground or surface upon
which it falls which ig
nearest to the object.
Shadows are modified in
intensity by their contrast
with the lighted surface
or ground. They are
deepest and most defined
when in contact with the
brightest light, or that
part of surface which re-
ceives the greatest light.
Cast shadows par-

/ Plan/

FJg. 12.

TAKE OF THE FORM OF THE SURFACE UPON WHICH

^H^F ARE THJKOWN. — ^Flat surfecea teeeive the form

CAST SHA3X)WS.

Fig. 13.

parts which are not

of the object, modified only according to the angle which
the rays of light make with the plane. Thus, when
the plsuae is perpendicular to the
rays of light, and the object in-
terposed also perpendicular or
parallel to the plane, the shadow
resembles the shape of the object,
and when cast by the- sun, also
in size. When the plane is in-
clined, or the object is obliquely
situated in regard to the plan,
the shadow is increased in pro-
portion to such obliquity (see
fig. 12).

Upon convex surfaces, the
directly perpendicular
to the rays or the re- ^
ceding portions, pro- "vp
duce an exaggerated
shadow, as the shadow
cast by the abacus of a
column upon the cir-
cular shaft which as-
sumes a concave or
elliptical outline, un- -
less the rays of light
and the eye of the spec- J^<^ '^
tator are coincident
(figs. 13,14). The cur-
vature of the shadow
will be greater or less
as the angle formed by '
the rays of. light are ^^^^
more or less oblique. Fig. 14.

In concave surfacea these effects axo xe^^'Wfcdi^ ^^i'^

20 HINTS TO TOTJNG ABCHXTBCTS.

deepest part of the shadow being cast upon the extr&me
depth of the concavity.

Upon irregular surfaces made »ip of projecting and
receding planes, convexities and hollows, the form of
the shadow partakes of the varied surfaces (see fig. 15).

It must be observed that the value of cast shadows is
to give relief and express the surfaces upon which they
are thrown. As a rule, it is preferable that they should
follow the projections and irregularitiea of the surfaces

Fig. 16.

simply, and thus become expressive of ground or other
surroundings of the objects. In cast shadows of towers,
pinnacles, chimney-stacks, &c., upon the iacUned sur-
faces of roofs, this rule becomes of much value, as afford-
ing evidence of proj ection and depth ; though of course
regard should bIbo be had to the shape of the objects
themBelves, Sometimes, in the cases of curved or
moulded BoirSaceB, the only evidence oi deeciiption of

HINTS ON PERSPECTIVE. 21

snch parts can be given by bearing in mind the above
rule, and hence for architectural reasons it is to be
preferred. This kind of projection and relief becomes,
when adentificalhj employed, a valuable accessory to the
architect, though it is too frequently, from ignorance
or carelessness, or what is more censurable, a love of
deception, misemployed, or worse than useless.

Hints on Perspective. — Wq do not propose here
to write a treatise on the art of Perspective, but simply
to aid the student in his comprehension of it, and to
lay down a few rules.

Linear Perspective has for its object the determina-
tion of various points and lines of given objects upon
a plane surface, and is purely a geometrical projection.
It is really the projection of the section of a pyramid
whose vertex and base are given — the first being the
eye of the spectator, the latter the boundaries and sur-
faces of the objects to be placed in perspective ; the
cutting plane is the picture.

If in fig. 16, A, B, c, D, E, be the plan or horizontal
plane of projection of a pyramid of which a", b, c, d, e,
is the vertical projection ; and if t" t t' be the traces
of the vertical plane of the picture in these respective
planes ; let it be required to find the position on the
picture of any point as a, or a, these being the points
where the vertex a of pyramid cuts the traces of the
picture plane t" t t'.

Fix on the picture two lines as axes x x and y y to
which to refer all other points, these axes being fixed
also on the planes of projection. Let them be chosen
to pass through the eye, or as representing two planes
drawn through the eye, one horizontal and the other
vertical, and both perpendicular to the picture as o x,
o Y. These lines mil cut the picture planes in x and y
respectiyelj* Then ednce these axes ate di»\^Tii^<^

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

both on the picture and on the planes of projection, it
is easy to detennine the position of d both horizontally ^
namely, y «, which will give the vertical for the vertex of

pyramid; and verti-
cally also, since x a
gives the distance
from the axis x x on
the picture. Thus
the distances from the
respective axes x x
and Y Y are deter-
mined and the point
a" fixed. Any other
Fig' 16. point may be deter-

mined in the same manner, and the pyramid completed.
Theory of Lines and Planes. — ^The perspective re-
presentation o£ a straight line is a straight line in

HINTS ON PERSPECmVE. 23

eyery position, and it is sufi^cient to determine the
perspective positions of two points in it and join them.

Plams or lines parallel to the plane of picture have no
vanishing points, or are assumed to have none.

Planes or lines inclined to the picture plane vanish in
that point where a parallel line, drawn from the eye,
would meet the same plane.

All planes and lines parallel to each other hut not to
the picture plane have a common vanishing point.

The perspective representation of all vertical lines
will be parallel and vertical.

The centre of the picture is the vanishing point of all
lines perpendicular to the picture plane, and is always
where a perpendicular line from the plane would pro-
ject and touch the eye, or where a line drawn from the
eye perpendicular to picture plane meets it, and is
called the " point of sight/'

The distance of the point of sight or station point ^row
the picture when placed on either side upon the hori-
zontal line, is the vanishing point of all lines inclined
to the picture at an angle of 45^.

The line drawn from the eye of a spectator to the
plane of projection, gives a vanishing point, and is
always parallel to the plane of the object for which it
is the vanishing point. All parallel sections produce
similar figures ; thus all circles situated in vertical
or horizontal planes (not parallel to the picture plane)
are ellipses; all squares so situated become oblongs,
diminishing in width in proportion to the acuteness
of the angle they make with the line of sight.

Spheres, — The perspective representation of a sphere
is an ellipse, except when the line of sight coincides
with the centre of the sphere, when it is a circle. This
is evident from considering the definition of perspec-
tive before laid down, namely, that tb.e coiv^ oi t^^^

24 HINTS TO y6unq architects.

proceeding from tlie outKne of any object as a globe if
cut by a plane (as the picture plane) obliquely, the
section produced will be an ellipse. A globe thus pre-
sents its longest diameter in a direct line to the eye if
the rays are cut obliquely.

Columns standing in a line parallel to the plane of
picture, will, according to the rules of perspective, be of
equal heights, but their diameters will appear greater
on the said plane as they recede from the eye to the
right or left.

The two latter theorems appear paradoxical, though
by the arbitrary definition of perspective, which
supposes lines parallel to the pi nne of delineation not
to vanish as they recede froni the station or point of
sight however distant, are quite correct. Fe\^ artists
would, moreover, think of making such a row of columns
present larger diameters as they receded ; nor would
they tolerate making globular forms spheroidal. A
little consideration, however, will convince the student
that such an assumption is purely conventional, and
made for simplicity's sake. It is evident distances,
whether vertical or horizontal, must equally diminish
as they recede from the eye of the spectator, whether
they be geometrically presented or not. Perspective, as
we have said, assumes planes and lines parallel to the
picture to be unaffected or not to vanish, and conse-
quently cannot take cognizance of exceptions ; but, cor-
rectly and theoretically, the assumption is erroneous,
as all distances, and of course diameters of cylinders
and globes, must imexceptionally obey the law of dimi-
nution which perspective teaches.* This is certainly

* If we suppose the cutting plane or picture plane to be equidistant
from the eye of the spectator everywhere, or the concave surface of a
hollow sphere instead of a plane, all distances would be correctly

represented on it, as the visual rays would always be cut at right-

an^les instead of obliquely.

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. 25

an inconsistency in tlie theory of perspective as usually
practised, though the practical inconveniences resulting
may be small. Correctly also, by the same law, vertical
lines, as the lines of towers and lofty buildings, must
vanish upwards to a point perpendicularly above the
point of sight, and long fa9ades should for the like
reason diminish laterally, even when they are parallel
to the plane of picture. The latter theory implies a
flat catenary or hyperbola, or certain points in tho
horizontal lines in the vertical plane of the eye where
the convergence begins. Such considerations, however,
are not practically of much value.

The problem presented by perspective reduces itself
to this ; namely, the construction or determination on
the picture plane of the point in which the visual ray
drawn from the eye to a particular point of the object
meets it. It is for the draughtsman to use in each par-
ticular instance the least troublesome means of resolv-
ing it, which may be considered as follows : —

Conceive two different planes drawn through the
proposed point to be put in perspective and the eye,
the visual ray being their intersection ; if these planes
or their lines of intersection with the picture plane be
drawn, then the point of intersection of the visual ray
with the plane of picture will be obtained also. Tho
draughtsman can choose those planes which can most
readily be drawn through the eye and the point to bo
placed in perspective.

Isometric Projection. — One of the most useful and
elegant systems of projection applicable in an especial
manner to architectural constructions andgroupa^ may
be noticed here, though seldom used by the architect to
the extent its value merits. The principle of this system,
called isometric projection, invented by the late Pro-
fessor Farish, of Cambridge, consists m ae\^\»\X!L%l^\ ^^

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

plane of projection a plane equally inclined to three prin-
cipal axes at riglit angles to each other. These are called
the isometric axes, and all lines and planes parallel to
them are representable to the same scale. The lines are
called isometric lines, and the planes the isometric planes^
The isometric projection of a cube will convey the
principles of this system.

Let A B^ A c^ A D be the isometric axes^ and a the
"regulating point/' or origin of the axes; then the
plane of projection makes equal angles with them^ as

also with the other edges paral-
lel to these, and is perpendicular
to A F, the diagonal of cube ; the
projection of this diagonal being
the point a, the projections of
the edges of the cube will be
equal lines. Also the edges or
axes A B, A c, A D being equally
inclined, the angles between them
are equal, being each equal to
120°.

Moreover the projections of
all the diagonals from the points
A and F are coincident with the
projections of the cubical edges ;
and the points b, c, d being
equally distant from the plane,
the diagonals joining these points
are parallel to the plane of pro-
jection, and their projections are
consequently equal to the diago-
nals. It is evident also that the
angles which the projected edges
make with the diagonals of each of the three projected
■^es of the cube are each equal to 30°,

Fig. 17.

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. 27

To construct the projection of a cube isometrlcally.
Let F £ D H be the face of the cube and h e its diago-
nal. Frcmi e and h draw e c' and h b'^ making angles
of 80° with H E. These lines will meet in f'. Tben
complete the upper face of the cube f e' d' h'. Pro-
duce a diagonal v! f' to a', making it equal to one of the
axes f' e*, f' d' or f' h', complete the adjacent sides of
the parallelograms^ and the projected sides of the cube
are completed. The projections of the farther edges of
the cube are coincident with the diagonals already drawn.

Along the isometric axes may be set off by any given
scale the dimensions to be represented in the directions
of those axes. Thus distances can be set off along all
isometric lines as required.

If the length of an edge of the cube be 1, the
diagonal of a face is represented by V 2 and the
diagonal of the cube by >/3. Then since af : f d : :
A D : A M (diagram 2, fig. 17) ; am the isometric pro-
jection of an edge of the cube = — j^ — = i \/6

= -81649.

The student is recommended to practise himself in
this useful kind of projection by putting the blocks of
any buildings into isometric perspective ; for designs
of unions, hospitals, prisons, coUeges, and other assem-
blages of detached buildings, it offers many advantages
of delineation, enabling a better idea to be formed of
enclosed spaces and areas, and answering the double
purpose of a block and roof plan. It is sometimes
called " bird's eye " perspective.*]

* The student should study Jopling's *' Isometric Perspective."
Descriptiye geometry should also be carefully studied, as aiding him
in adopting the easiest and most practical methods of projecting solids
iqx>n flat surfaces. The chapters on << Stereography,'* in Newland'a
** Carpenters* and Joinera' Assistant," afford also eVooiQSiV^ >ssiss^-
iedge.

28 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

A certain advance being thus made in linear draw-
ings (which, by the way, haying been first carefully
pencilled, should then be more carefully perpetuated
with the steel or reed pen in Indian ink), the camel-
hair brush will be introduced. To produce a smooth
and imiform tint, accurately terminating with the
boundary lines, is the first step : to practise the
" softening ofE " necessary to give effect to a circular
pillar or a sphere, the next. The distinctions between
positive and reflected light, shade and shadow, will
succeed ; and then will follow the leading rules by
which shadows are accurately projected. After this, it
will be time to indulge in the charms of colour ; and
when the student has mastered the means of dealing
with superficies and solids, his drawing-master may
then do his best to make an artist of him.

[The late Mr. Peter Nicholson's, and the many other
treatises on architectural drawing, projection and the
mechanical principles of architecture, have placed within
the reach of school tutors means of instructing pupils
destined for this profession, which, if neglected for the
dead languages, betrays on the part of the tutors a
want of discernment, and becomes a serious hindrance
to their pupils.]

Technical and Mechanical Studies. As a mere
act of mental discipline, a course of the classics will be
of equal value with mechanics ; but the practical value
of the latter will be at once apparent when it is con-
sidered that the means of constructing every building
involve the use of all the mechanical powers, and that
a knowledge of the properties of the simplest of these —
the lever — is of the utmost importance as affecting the
laws of the resistance of timber, the composition and
resolution of forces. The construction of roofs, over-
hanging partition framings, and truaaed teaxas^ becomes

TECHNICAL STUDIES. 29

a matter of prominent interest when the mechanical
principles on which it depends are understood ; and all
we contemplate, in speaking of the young architect in
embryo, is the guidance of his mind into that train of
practical thought which the obvious utility of his early
studies will promote. There is nothing to prevent a
school-boy jErom mastering such brief elementary articles
as those of Mr. Gwilt on " the Equilibrium of Arches "
and the necessary magnitude of their piers ; or such as
Mr. Bartholomew's Chapters on Gravity, "the source
of all principle and defect in architectural construc-
tion ; '* nor can we resist an allusion to the articles on
masonry and carpentry published in a separate form
from the " Encyclopaedia Britannica.*'*

Measurement of Builders' Work.— Allusion has
been made to the arithmetical and mathematical
studies of the intended architect. It is most due to
the value of his time when he first enters the office of
his professional master, that he should be already fully
practised in all that relates to square and cube measure;
quick and sure in the working of cross multiplication,
and in carrying out the sums, or what is termed the
"moneying '* of quantities at difEerent prices. It will
not be his business, until he is apprenticed, to learn the
different ways in which the differing branches of arti-
ficers' work are measured ; or their value per yard, per
foot, per rod, or per perch, superficial or cube ; but he
ought to have at his finger ends the mere calculative
process, so that his attention may be given, from the
first day of his entering an office, to acquiring a know-
ledge of the nature and value of labour and materials,
and of the varied way in which the mason, bricklayer,
plasterer, carpenter and joiner, plumber and painter,

• The student is referred to Part IV. of thifl "woxk iot IYl^ ^eoii^TiJuKrj
principJesf of the above Buhjecta ; and tlie Tudimeulox^ \ltQ»^3i&^ ^"i^
"Carpentry, Masonry," &c. (Lock wood and Co.")

30 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

compute their perfected operations. All the ordinary
rules of arithmetic are of course of absolute necessity.
We only speak of those in reference to which the
utmost practical readiness is immediately required. He
who can square the greatest number of dimensions in
the least possible time, in like maimer multiply quan-
tities by prices, and " add up " a foot long of closely
written poimds, shillings, and pence, has received, as it
were, an impetus which will carry him upwards on the
ascent of early practice, and vastly alleviate the tedium
of this most imperatiye drudgery.

His mathematical studies should in the same degree
facilitate the construction, with his compasses and steel
pen, of circles, squares, triangles, pentagons, octagons,
and so on to polygons, divided and subdivided, — of
parallels that have no chance of meeting, and truncated
isosceles triangles that have their apex in some unat-
tainable point beyond the other end of the school-room.
Trigonometrical practice, too, might be carried on at
least so far as to produce a map of the play-ground,
including "the duck-pond and three elm-trees beyond,'*
with the respective levels of the several angle points.
He should be enabled to raise a perpendicular line with-
out his drawing board and T square, and to draw a
raking line at any required angle. Of the many things
which are generally only touched upon at schools, such
leading ones as we have mentioned should be fairly
grasped. A three years' term would be thereby ren-
dered equal to the usual five ; and, at the end of the
five, a salary might be commanded, where a mere inter-
val of anxious incompetency is the common instigation
to forfeit more time, in making good the loss of time
X)ast.

French and Latin. — ^We have spoken of some
knowledge of French as usually afforded at schools.

JlESPOiJSlBtLiTY. 31

The more of it that can be there attained, without
injury to the immediate essentials before onimiorated,
the better ; because, in conjunction with Latin, it pro-
motes those facilities of travel of which we sincerely
hope our intended yoimg architect may be enabled to
avail himself. At all events, then, what can be learned
at school should not afterwards be forgotten ; and this
prompts us to make the only reference in which we
shall indulge as to the duty of the student during his
apprenticeship. After Latin and French, Italian is
easily acquired. The study of this simple and beautiM
language (speaking of it as a medium of communica-
tion, and plain literary instruction) will prove a mere
pastime. The writer of these hints (though naturally
slow at languages) learned sufficiently, by two months'
excltisive application, to read simple prose readily, and
to make his way through Italy tolerably well.

Responsibility. — ^Lastly, we would impress upon the
young aspirant to architectural honours, our repetition
of the respomibilities which will attach to him from the
first hour of his unaided practice. It may be some
time before he will be enabled to purchase assistance ;
and during that state of individual probation, he will
have — if he have employment— duties relatively more
arduous and more harassing than when commissions
shall thereafter pour upon him to the hoped-for ad-
vancement of his fame and fortime. He must be for a
time " grand master,'' assistant surveyor, and drudgery
clerk, of his own establishment : at once designer art-
istical, constructor practical, copying draughtsman,
measurer, valuer, and more— with which we would
not frighten him. He must cultivate resolution on
the groimd of knowledge, endurance on that of patience,
and modesty in the full assurance, that, when, he ehall
hare practised to the last day of his occu"gat\ssvi^\xa ^^rfiSt

32 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

have learned the more to know how much he has yet to
learn. His profession is a noble one, based on palpable
science, and beautified by the poetry of art. It is most
gratifying in respect to the society to which it may
lead, and the rank it may confer. It is more especially
so in regard to the pride which an architect cannot but
feel in contemplating the material and enduring majesty
of the structures he may have to raise. Paintings must
be sought in the gallery ; statues may indeed preside
in the open square ; but it is architecture only which
towers into the sky — alike commanding, far or near;
and combining the graces of form, proportion, and
decoration, with picturesque charm and massive gran-
deur.

We now take leave of our school student, to meet him
again some five years hence.

[Some Remabks on Education.

We cannot pass from this initial stage of the student's
career without offering a few observations. If our school
training in some respects has imdergone a change for the
better since our author's time, it has also a great deal more
to accomplish, in theway of rejecting anunnatural system
of education, iand helping the spontaneous development
of the mental faculties. From some experience in the
teaching of young men, and the observation and reflec-
tion which have been the result, as well as the study we
have given to this subject, we offer these remarks. An
able and philosophic writer observes the maxim of the
school has been, "believe, and ask no questions.'*
Spontaneous activity of mind has been too much checked
in llie past, and parents ^nd teachers are beginning to
understand that the tastes and inclinations of pupils
must, to a hrger extent than suppoaeA, -^x^siSL^ o^«t

HniTB ON educahok. 33

and determine the fatnre, as well as the studies and
kind of training, of each mind. In its restrictions and
dogmatic notions, the old rigime of education and
society have been exactly counterparts. It is true,
also, our modem ideas of culture haye changed with
our religious and political ideas. The grammar-school
routine of half a century back placed implicit fedth in
authority and classical oracles ; and a fictitious reyerence
for the gods of fable and history asserted a supremacy
oyer all the more natural instincts and Acuities of the
scholar. The decline of such tutorial authority is the
natural result of that slow rebellion of intellect which
has lately giyen rise, in its turn, to new systems, and
the accumulation of methods. Such a diyersity of
methods and systems cannot fail by a general law tc
approximate towards a truer course. Let us briefly
revert to the errors of our forefathers in this important
subject, and lay down the principles of a more rational
method of study which the architectural student espe-
cially should be led to follow.

Principles op Study. — 1. The reciprocal action of
mind and body. — ^It has been truly observed by our
greatest physiologists and psychologists* that body
and mind must be both cared for and sustained to
their mutual help. The old school rigime notably
was one*sided in this respect, giving an undue pro-
minence to book-learning without perceiving the
necessary co-operation of the physical and mental
powers; hence we find the reaction of one leading
to extravagance in the opposite direction. The old
method of " forcing '' and rote-learning, the mechanical
way of teaching languages by mere rule and repetition ;
the absence of technical instruction^ and the substi-

» See Dr. Spnrzheim on "Education;" Herlwrt B^«w»t'«s wA
Professor "Bmnfa work on **Body and Mind/' &0.

C 3

34 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECrrS.

tution of mere formulsD and symbols, are now happily
beginning to be superseded. Sign-knowledge instead
of facts, and correct literalism instead of understanding,
were evils which led to a neglect of essentials both in
literature and the arts. Montaigne has said, S^avoir
par cceur n'est pa% sgavoir. The mind absorbed by the
mere symbols of knowledge cannot attend to the things
signified. Herbert Spencer aptly says, "Between a
mind of rules and a mind of principles there exists a
difference as that between a confused heap of materials
and the same materials organised into a complete and
compact whole.'* We cannot impress this too forcibly
upon the student of architecture, whose school-taught
rules avail him little when confronting the actual facts
of practice, when the special requirements of each case
demand a wider and more generalised knowledge. A
mind limited to rules is at sea in emergencies.

One phase of the question especially concerns
young architects. It is that the mere symbolism of
art-knowledge — " styles " or modes of art expression-
has been the wreck of architecture during the last four
centuries. Instead of studying principles, architects
have been studying rules and forms ad nameam, the
eonsequence being they have been obliged to copy and
repeat the past. In one word, the mind requires
experimental acquaintance, or the senses to go hand
in hand with the mind. This leads us to our second
principle.

2. Particulars should precede generalisation.

The substitution of principles for rules is now admitted
to be the right course.

The inquiry and independent thought of the pupil
is awakened by the calling up of experiences and
facts. The mere verbal envelope of ideas is of Kttle
use uzdeaa accompanied by previous experiences

HINTS ON EDUCATION. 35

learnt througli the senses. The scientific formula
mnst follow the attainment of simple facts; in other
words^ the particulars should be learnt before the
general truth. Science is, in fact, a collection of
rules, the result of induction and comparison of facts.
Neither nations nor individuals arrive at science first.
Hence the absurdity of making the grammar and
syntax of language precede the acquirement of ideas
and words. The young pupil - should thus get an
accurate knowledge of the visible and tangible pro-
perties of form, quantity, weight, &c., before his infer-
ences can become just or methodical. Especially is
this the case in the learning of mathematics, geometry,
mechanics, and the like. With the artist no less than
the physicist, the old d priori method of enquiry
should give place to intuitive notions of form, number,
and a correct diagnosis. The relationships of scientific
facts should be discovered experimentally by models or
objects; and thus, in teaching geometry and me-
chanics, the facts should first be taught experimentally
by the use of models and apparatus before the demon-
strative proofs are given. Knowledge is thus rendered
attractive and pleasurable instead of irksome.

The routine of school hours might be broken by
lectures on physics, experimental instruction, and excur-
sions into the fields of ITature. The method of Nature
should be closely followed, and vigorous thought will
be the certain reward.

These principles lead to what we have before recom-
mended in speaking of drawing. Children prefer
colouring pictures to copying lines; more advanced
pupils prefer landscapes to drawing geometrical forms.
Now the only reasonable course of following this
natural bent of mind is to impart such instruction
through the instrumentality of modeh and. real objecUi

36 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

instead of copies, or a dry analysis of elements, which
in the case of languages has been condemned. Thus,
geometrical definitions of lines, points and angles,
should be taught after a sufficient practical knowledge
of form in the concrete. In no other way can some
pupils acquire this branch of education. Cubes and
solids should be presented before planes ; the construc-
tion of pasteboard models of the solids should be
encouraged, as the cube, pyramid, octahedron, &c., in
all cases proceeding from simple to complex forms.
Thus, by a course of empirical geometry, constructive
art of the most useful kind may be learnt by a series
of tentative efforts, employing both the intellect and
interest of the pupil. It is also better before learning
Euclid demonstratively, that the pupil accustom himself
to bisect lines and angles, to describe squares and
polygons. The same remarks extend to perspective ;
and trigonometry and conic sections become both enter-
taining and valuable in exercising the inventive
capacity of the young pupil, if pursued in a like
manner. Thus habituated to contemplate relationships
of form, quantity, weight, and other abstract ideas, the
pupil will at once estimate the value of demonstration
when he begins, and will regard it as supplementary to
the practical problems he has learnt. We are led to
the third great principle.

3. Self-discipline and technical training.

It the young pupil were earlier taught to Investigate
and discover for himself as much as possible, there
would be fewer mediocrities, and less of that slavish
adherence to precedent which hampers often the finest
intellect. By the tentative processes we have incul-
cated, the pupil is led by degrees to discover relation-
ships, and to test the correctness of his eye, and other
perceptions. By cutting out paper forms, and forming

STUDUSS BUBINO FUPILAOB. 37

solids^ the scientific conceptions of the pupil become
clearer, and evince a desire to substitute something
more rational for his ocular guesses ; hence he proceeds
from indefinite to definite ideas, he progresses from the
concrete to the abstract ; and eventually attains, by a
natural order of induction, that power of generalisation
which should be the great end and aim of his school
studies and the direction of his professional skill.

Auguste Comte has shown conclusively that the
process of historical evolution is precisely that of the
development of the faculties of the individual, and the
progress of knowledge from the initial to the positive
stage of science ; in other words, that the order and
subordination of study should follow the same course
as the evolution of mankind, " every science having been
evolved out of its corresponding art."

Hints to Pupils during their Term of Article-
ship. — Our pupil during his three or five years of
office training will have occasional opportunities
afforded by slackness of business, as well as the leisure
hours of his daily work, to devote himself to such
studies as he may have neglected or only partially
acquired at school. We have pointed out those most
essential to his future vocation ; they may be summed
up as mathematical and general knowledge. He may
alternate his reading in these important subjects by
acquiring a general knowledge of chemistry, geology,
light, acoustics, heat, and other physical laws bearing
upon his profession. Fergusson^s " Handbook of Archi-
tecture," Eickman^s, Sharpens, Scott's and other works
on Gothic architecture may also be studied now to
advantage. They will enable him to keep pace with the
more mechaoical routine of his daily work by informing
his mind upon the historical development and vicissitudes
of his art^ and thus making far more iixteie&tvQL^ tk<^

38 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECXS.

otherwise irksome routine of his labours. Too often
the pupil neglects these opportunities of collateral
study ; he fancies his office work too laborious to devote
any of his evenings or leisure to such reading, forgetftd
that it enhances the interest of his work, and imparts
pleasure and attractiveness to what he regards with
distaste. His indoor gratification or amusement may
also be promoted by procuring a set of tools, and
exercising his ingenuity in forming models of a con-
structive kind, such as frames, roof-trusses; or in
making sections of the cone, and other solids, in wood ;
forming in cardboard the coverings of solids, especially
those which are of most interest in domical and roof
construction-..^, the hemisphere, and various forms of
pendentive, pyramids, truncated solids, &c. The sections
produced by planes, cutting cylinders, prisms, and
other solids, will enable him to intelligibly understand
the principles of vaulting, groining, and domical con-
struction, and the intersections of various forms of roof,
far better than a course of reading unaccompanied by
such practical illustrations. His mind will get habi-
tuated to grasp the geometrical difficulties of sections,
and the working drawings of such constructions he
may be entrusted with, while the aid afforded will lend
a zest to his studies at the office. As a rule there is a
sad deficiency of this practical discernment among
young men in architects* offices, especially those who,
confined in London offices, seldom have opportunities
of seeing for themselves actual works in progress ; and
hence the need for such an alliance of the practical and
theoretical.

But his leisure hours may be frequently relieved,
especially in the summer months, by rambles out of
doors, excursions into the country for the purpose both
of pleasure and profit. His sketching-book, pencil, fsiid

CrrUDIBS DURING PUFILAGB. 39

rule should be his inyariable companions. The remains
of any ancient building shonld be examined^ and those
parts measured and sketched which seem to afford any
new idea or mode of constmction. Details and mould-
ings are generally of more value to the student of
mediaeval remains than their arrangements as a whole.
They may be carefully measured and drawn, and notes
appended explaining any particular part. The student
is particularly recommended to observe closely nud prac-
ticalfy, not with the eye of ~an artist or sketcher only ;
he should observe and take notes of the material, stone,
&c., used ; the age and state of preservation of the
work ; the joints and mode of construction being care-
fully noted and drawn. Mere sketches and shaded
drawings are of little value for reference ; free illustra-
tions hj plan and section should invariably accompany
the notes. But while he may spend his holidays in these
rambles over the tenantless monastery, mediaeval church,
or ruined abbey, they should not entirely engross his
attention ; his profession is one of ceaseless progress —
he has to meet modern not ancient requirements ; hence
the zeal and ardent enthusiasm of the connoisseur and
archaeologist should be carefully kept in check. To
this end our student should study modern buildings of
merit more sedulously than ancient shrines ; he should
take as much pains with and as careAilly take notes and
sketches of the commonest things, the arrangement of
cottages, the fitting and contrivances of joiners' work,
framing of roofs, construction of floors of iron and
wood, window-sashes, casements, and all details which
are of everyday use, and upon which the health and
comfort of occupiers depend, as he would in drawing
the most elaborate piece of architecture. If he have
facilities, as those afforded by the visiting and sketching
classes of the Architectural Association) ioi ^iL^TQis^\i%

40 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHTTECrrS.

buildings and works in progress, he should be par-
ticularly observing; and note all he sees. Details of
masonry, plumbing, and ironwork, no less than the
finishing trades, should be carefully studied. In all his
out-of-door studies let the useful take precedence of the
ornamental: ornamental accessories maybe learnt from
books and copies, but constructive art only can be
acquired by a course of practical and theoretical train-
ing. Schools of art aflPbrd ample means to the young
student in perfecting his freehand drawing. The ex-
cellent lectures of the London University, and other
colleges, and the societies of architectural and engi-
neering bodies, afford also the means for acquiring a
thorough knowledge of the theoretical principles of
architecture and its allied branches.*

We would also recommend the young pupil one very
necessary aid to self-improvement for which the majority
of architects' oflBces do not afford the time or means —
to make notes of any difficulty or question that arises
in the course of each day's work, and to solve or
endeavour to master the subject at home. Never be
above asking questions of your companions ; they, like
you, benefit by the inquiry. One word more : keep a
note-book as well as a sketch-book, and jot down under
proper heads every passing thought that ^occurs and is
worth retaining, and every valuable fact or principle
you acquire in reading and study ;— -while it aids the
memory, it also serves to give your ideas clearness and
precision.]

* The lectures and classes of Univenity or King's College are
valuable to the student as preparatory to habits of thought and obser-
vation, and enable him to take the full advantages of practice. Such
courses of study are also afforded at Liverpool, Manchester, South-
ampton, and elsewhere, and in the technical classes in connection with
architectural societies and provincial schools.

PART 11.

STUDIES ABROAD.

Our quondam school-boy is now> in reality, a " young
architect." He has " served his time '* in the office of
some established professor and practitioner, and we
haye only to hope that his time has served him.
Presuming that it has done so, even to a greater degree
than is usual, he must still consider, not only that he
has much to learn, but something to t^nleam ; for
the manimHsma of his master have, most likely, a
present influence upon him to the prevention of the
due development of his native taste and feeling. He
must consider that he has been hitherto exercised only
in those particular styles of the art which his tutor
has been called upon to practise, and that he (the
pupil) may have, in his future career, to deal with
other styles, and even with the same styles in a novel
manner. He may have not only new combinations to
effect, but also original, or hitherto imrevived, features
to study. He has to get the wheels of his mind out of
the ruts of habitual office practice, and to drive the
coursers of his imagination over the free common
ground of varied and speculative design. He has, no
doubt, acquired much artistical knowledge that is true,
and muchjfrac^fea/attAinmejit that is valwfl^Aft ^'W* *Oaa

42 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

very conditions of his pupilage have enforced an
obedience, which, though most wholesome in respect to
discipline, has yet trammelled his invention and checked
his fancy. Young architects will be generally found
to criticize the works of others by the standard of their
master's ; and, by the way, they are usually much given
to criticism, with a greater aptitude for censure than
eulogy — the natural result of limited knowledge bear-
ing upon comprehensive variety.

Travel. — Now, to get rid of the mere bonds of habit,
there is, unquestionably, nothing so certainly efiGicacious
as travel.

** Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.
I rather would entreat thy company
To see the wonders of the world abroad ;
For it may be impeachment to thy age
In having known no travel in thy youth.
Experience is by industry achieved,
And perfected by the swift course of time ;
Nor can he hope to be a perfect man,
Not being tried nor tutor d in the world."

Submissive obedience has been already sufficiently
practised. A lively and acute observation has now to
be cultivated. What is sterling in the range of former
acquirement will not be lost nor diminished. The ever
fresh air of changing scenes and differing countries,

*' Puffing at all, winnows the light away,
And what haUi mass, or matter, by itself
Lies rich in virtue, and unmingled."

Corrective in respect to past studies, travel will prove
also highly suggestive in regard to the studies which
are to follow ; and the young artist, instead of remain-
ing a critic over others, will find enough to do in criti-
cizing himself.

Nor let it be supposed that the benefits of travel

are less than they formerly were, because books have

multiplied to us the labouiB of former travellers.

TRAVEL. 43

The object of travel^ it is true, is not so elementary
as it was, ere Stuart and Revett, Denon, Taylor,
Cresy, and others, had afforded all necessary infor-
mation as to the details of Oreek, Egyptian, and
Roman design; but it is, as ever, important in
expanding the taste for the beautiful and picturesque,
and in stimulating that professional enthusiasm which
can only be excited by beholding the actual realities
whose distant features we have previously learned to
appreciate.

Apart from the more professional and technical
matters of a yoimg architect's travel, are others of a
moral and social kind not less to be considered. It has
been said that '^ manners make the man," and in no
case is the saying worthier than in that of an architect
who depends not more on his ability to answer the
duties of employment than on the address and conduct
necessary to form and secure a connection. Of all men
engaged in the polite arts, he is the most frequently
and continuously in personal commimication with his
patron. The sources of conversation which travel
affords, and the polish which it may be reasonably
expected to occasion, are obviously of no mean value to
one who may be constantly the table guest and resident
visitor of his employer. An accomplished architect is
necessarily a man competent to talk at least, if not to
evince in some measure a practical attainment, of Art
in general. A feeling for elegant literature is also a
natural concomitant of the critical refinement which
his reading should have secured to him. The know-
ledge of the continental languages will not have been
acquired without some acquaintance with the leading
authors who have employed them ; and an experience
of continental society will not have been effected with-
out an improvement in hia behaviour. M-aTi"^ ^x^ ^^

44 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

instances of young men haying formed those intimacies
among their own countrymen abroad^ which have
subsequently proved most productive at homo ; and
certain it is, that he who has enriched his portfolio
with evidences of his industry in Rome, Florence, and
Venice, will find an advantage in its mere possession as a
credential, though otherwise it may serve him but little.

[The studies of the architectural tourist whose means
are limited may now be more profitably directed to the
northern side of the Alps. The exhaustive works and
photographs published illustrative of Roman art ; and
the doubtful value of Italian Gothic, which has recently
received an undue impetus, and has been so profusely
illustrated, render a trans-alpine study of less impor-
tance to the student who would confine himself to the
more direct and practical advantages of travel.]

The truth is, there is no longer any occasion for him
to risk his neck in clambering the arcades of the Coli-
seum, or to spend his time in measuring the portico
of the Pantheon. So far, at least, as it regards the
details of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Gothic, Moorish,
and Byzantine architecture, his work is already done
for him. If he cannot possess himself of the books
themselves, he may have ready access to libraries in
which every important feature of these varieties of
design is elaborately and truthfully delineated. It
is his sketch and note book, rather than his measur-
ing-rod, which should occupy his foremost attention.
He requires less to fill his paper with dimensions
than his mind with ideas. He now wants feelings
rather than facts [it would be juster to say the
student wants principks rather than facts] ; correc-
tives rather than corroborations ; motives rather than
materials ; speculative freedom rather than academi-
cs/ precision. This is the time tot \x\m to o>alt\yatQ

TRAVEL. 46

the poetry of his art, ever attentive to those high
and catholic principles of design, which, though the
same in essence, develop themselves in different forms
suitable to the climate, the manners, the religious or
social state of the different countries through which he
successively passes. He will by no means confine him-
self, as was the case formerly, to antiquity. He will
take observant cognizance of the numerous illustrations
of medisBval modification ; and still more of all examples
of more modem excellence. In two instances only will
he remain exclusive in his devotion ; viz., to ancient
sculpture and the old masters of historical art. Let him
remember, that Architecture raises the temple which
Painting and Sculpture are to occupy as their own
loved home ; and that, as he may have to co-operate
with the painter and sculptor in the production of
"one entire and perfect" work, it is a duty he owes
to his fellow-labourers to cultivate an adequate feeling
for their respective portions of it. He alone, who is
in some degree a painter and sculptor (t.^. critically),
can be competent to the honour of their copartnership.
K the yoimg architect be inclined to carry it further
than criticism, the period of his travel is the time for
his operations. Then may he well vary his pursuits
with drawings from the antique and with sketches from
the grand frescoes of Raphael and Buonarotti ; but,
especially, with exercises in water colour from Italy's
own Nature, in her combinations with architectural
forms. Highly advantageous is it for every architect
to become a correct and ready sketcher, a master of
eye-perspective, and a creditable performer with his
brush and colours. The fascinations of smart and
lightly managed effects of sun, shadow, and tint, will
some day " teU " in his favour ; and he may now be
engaged in preparing for his future Aiwmi^-xSiQffiL

46 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECTS.

pictorial decorations^ wliicli sliall also be of important ser*
vice to him as so many official insignia, '* flags and signs "
of the love he bears to the profession he has adopted.

[Though our author^s advice was well intended at a
time when academical precision absorbed so much of
the young architect's mind, it is less needM at the
present day when the various and practical demands
made upon the profession necessitate on the young
practitioner's part some abatement of his taste for the
antique and merely archaeologicaL]

His more practical drawing will be well applied to
choice selections from the architectural fragments which
may excite his admiration in the several great Italian
museums, all of which are prodigal in the exhibition of
decorative art. The experience already acquired at
home will teach him where such things may be here-
after suitable for application ; and his employer will
not be the less pleased on learning that the vase on his
balustrade or the frieze in his chimney-piece are fac-
similes of some valued importation from the '^Museo
Vaticano."

Italian Gothic. — ^Italian Gothic he will carefully
eschew — at least as a model. [Since these *' Hints *'
have been published, Italian Gothic has received an
amoimt of popular adoration which would have justly
shocked both our author and his contemporaries.] To the
great cathedrals of Germany, France, and Normandy
his continental Gothic studies will be confined ; nor will
he forget, even in perusing them, that England is,
after all, more especially the school in which Gothic
architecture develops itself with the most essential
truth. In Normandy, the Norman Gothic is im-
questionably better and more fully illustrated than
with us; and in many of the foreign pointed ex-
amplea he will see certain indiyidual ^rta of a &r

OONTINBNTAL GOTHia 47

greater magnitnde and more elaborate richness than
any he can meet with at home ; bat it is still from an
untiring study of the cathedrals^ churches, and old
mansions of England, that the true principles of Oothio
design, the laws of its proportion, and the most effectiye
results of its combinations, are to be deduced.

The growing feeling in our country for the palatial
style of mediaeval Home and of Venice, and for the villa
of modem Italy, will, of course, direct him to give
more than common attention to such examples as best
exhibit them; so that he may co-operate with his
numerous improving contemporaries in working out a
worthy Anglo-Italian school of design. Scientific and
literary professors, travellers. High Church conserva-
tives, and others, have all built their club-houses in
pursuance of the aim started by the Buonarottis and
Palladios. The Palladian palace of Stowe, and the
grand piles of Blenheim and Castle Howard, still
maintain their ascendancy over all modem attempts
at the castellated or Tudor mansion. [The castellated
and Tudor styles here alluded to have given place to
a less pretentious and extravagant species of domestic
Gk)thic. Here, as in ecclesiastical Gothic, however,
there is a tendency to mimic literally peculiarities
and quaintness of feature and to affect mere ^'pic-
turesqueness,'' a common vice of the ultra-Gothic
school which should be steadfastly resisted] ; and,
while the Church Architectural Societies are effecting
much good in the reatoration of a pure and correct
taste for Christian Pointed Architecture as applied
to churches and other buildings ecclesiastically con-
nected, there can be little doubt of the propagation
and continued durability of a reviving love for the
modifications of Greek and Roman design. [The hoi^^
here expressed has, at Jeast in the directioii oi ^^^viW

48 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

buildings^ been realised to a greater extent of late
yearS; since tbe present fever of MedisBval ultraism in
taste has abated.] *

Time occupied in Travel. — ^As to the time which
should be occupied in travel, two years should be the
utmost ; while one, employed with devotional industry,
may be sufficient. [Six months, if studiously devoted,
will now suffice.] At all events, a longer period than
the former may too much interfere with the business
habits of a young architect who only has his profes-
sion to depend upon. The writer of these " Hints " was
limited in time because limited in means. Impressed
with the fear of debt, and anxious to relieve those
by whose kind aid he was advantaged, his *' travel's
history '* scarcely filled the twelvemonth. The cost
of his travelling, lodging, and other incidentals, did
not exceed ninety-two pounds, about twenty more
having been expended in books and other articles of
professional utility. To him the pleasures of society
(save those he enjoyed at the common mess- table of
his brother-artists) were denied. Excursions of re-
laxation and mere enjoyment were out of the ques-
tion. He witnessed one opera at Milan, because it
was his duty to inspect the grand Scala theatre ; and
made pleasure and profit tell together in seeing at
once the interior of a French theatre and the acting
of Talma. But he feared the expense of venturing
south of Bome ; forfeited the desired gratification of
seeing Vesuvius and the disentombed cities of its
vicinity, the gay beauties of Naples, and the solitary
grandeur of Paestum; and, after all, returned home
with as much preserved cash as would have enabled
him to accomplish what he had not dared to attempt.

* Since this note was added, a reaction of taste towards a more
Benaisaance feeling has taken place — a Bpedoa oi^^ Q,\\!&esv Axma ** style,
which baa affected both buildings and fumitviie.

hints to tourists. 49

[Hints to Architectural Tourists.

Comparative Value of Travel. — Since the time of
our author that very necessary finish or supplement to
the education of the young architect, " travel/' has to
a great extent at least been superseded. The numerous
sketches and drawings which have during the last
thirty years been published upon almost every con-
ceivable branch and style of foreign architecture, par-
ticularly the Gothic or Mediaeval examples of Italy,
Germany, and France, and the facilities afforded to
the student to acquire such additions to his library ;
the casts and examples of the various art exhibitions
and architectural societies, and the easy reference to
such works, have considerably lessened the necessity
there once existed for the young architect to personally
yisit and examine the remains of ancient art. Not
only have architectural works brought home to the
student the most famous of continental and classical
examples; but the art of photography has with
Nature's own pencil revealed with unerring truth the
beauties of detail of every object upon which dili-
gent artists and dilettanti have devoted their whole
lives to depict. Yet we advise those who have means
and time at their disposal, either before their entrance
upon practice, or occasionally during those holidays
which custom has especially set aside for tour-making,
to avail themselves of those pleasant rambles abroad
which serve to enlarge the scope of their ideas, and
bring home to their daily vocation fresh vigour and
more catholic views of society and art.

Italy. — ^Rome, Florence, and Venice, although
hackneyed resorts of the architectural tourist, may
be visited with profit. Comparatively exhausted as
Italy maj he, there jet remains am]^\Q ^^^^ iicrssv.

50 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

wliicli an unbiassed artist may glean some materials
left untouched by those who have tracked them before.
But there are other lands besides " fair Italy " to attract
him. He may gather much from more northern routes;
the Spanish peninsula, and even the capitals of Russia,
comparatively untouched ground, may afford him an'
unexplored field for his researches. To profit by tour-
making, the young tourist should become acquainted
by previous reading with the localities he is about to
visit, both historically and topographically. Their geo-
logical and other peculiarities should be known before-
hand. Such preparatory knowledge, so far from de-
tracting, materially aids the mind to an independent
opinion and estimate of the place and buildings visited;
it enhances the interest of actual sensible gratification.

One word to the architectural tourist may save him a
regretful retrospect upon his return home. Provide
yourseK with both a sketch-book and note-book, and
let every excursion and ramble be not only fully de-
scribed but freely commented upon. Let the pen as
well as the pencil speak. One or two other hints should
be carefully kept in view by young tourists.

If you go to any church or ruined abbey, let not the
mere sentimental side of your convictions overbalance
your stronger reason or the higher duties of your call-
ing. Let not the devotion to a shrine, or piece of
mosaic work, however lovely in your eyes, or a bit of
sculpture, carving, or embroidery or metal work, absorb
too much of your attention, or wean the mind from any
of those constructive peculiarities of the work which
are worth noticing.

Try to discover the cause of any beautiful effect in

construction and design. If proportions strike you,

measure them carefully, and study them on paper.

Take note of any particular mode of construction, and

CONTINENTAL STUDIES. 51

do not rest content with a general outline or sketch. Con-
stantly keep before your mind the fact that the most
beautiful and stirring work of architecture is the result
of constructed art, arising out of necessity and thought.
Another important point should be kept in view.
The fascination of travel, the associations of an
emotional kind awakened when contemplating scenes
rendered classical by literature and song, often with
bewitching enticement, induce a blind infatuation for
everything foreign from which the young enthusiast
seldom recovers. The writings of Euskin on Venetian,
Veronese, and Florentine art have already captivated
the popular mind, and led, siren-like, some of our
" fSusiliionable " architects to reject their calmer reason
and to reproduce styles absurdly out of place in this
northern climate. Let the student beware of this
allurement, and while admiring the beauties of the
South, the land of classic art, of painting, mosaics,
sculpture and marble, remember that he is working in
Englandy not across the Alps, and that the benefit ho
derives from such works will be in proportion to the
amount of original thought he bestows upon them, and
the means they afford of enabling him to grasp the
more completely the immutable principles of his art.
A wise eclecticism in art is preferable to wholesale
copyism, though the stock of ideas acquired by travel
should enable its possessor to generalise and perfect
more completely the elements of art. "What he sees
should not be considered as giving him principles or
methods, but simply certain remits, the products of par-
ticular social and material conditions. A critical mind
should be brought to their investigation. Let not
peculiarities be mistaken for beauties, nor the imagi-
nation run wild in drawing poetical analogies between
fiict and sentiment

D 2

52 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

France. — The arcliitectural student whose means
are limited cannot take a more pleasant ramble than
one into Normandy. Its contiguity to England, the
facilities of conveyance, and the valuable and prolific
examples it contains of the continental development of
Pointed architecture, from the simple beauty and ex-
pression of the early Romanesque, through the various
phases of the style to the transition into the Renais-
sance, make it a favourite tour with the young archi-
tect. Though our own country is rich in the Roman-
esque or Norman style and the transitional Early
Pointed, we have not the means of studying those earlier
germs and modifications of Gothic which especially adapt
themselves to the requirements of ordinary build-
ings in this style. The forms of the Early Pointed
churches are well worth study for simplicity and
purity. French Pointed work in the north is more
nearly like our own, as at Lisieux, St. Ouen, while the
introduction of the classic forms are less prejudicial
than they are in more southern parts of France.
Rouen, dirty as it is, demands the attention of
the student, especially its cathedral, where the history
of the Pointed style can be traced. The Palais de
Justice and St. Maclou exhibit the admixture of Gothic
with Renaissance forms. St. Ouen shows also the florid
character of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, its
proportions being second to none in France, while the
choir and transepts are perfect of their kind, both in
design and richness. Mr. Fergusson thinks it the most
beautiful church in Europe, and it certainly is one of the
purest of its style. St. Maclou displays the gorgeous
and elaborate detail of a less pure Flamboyant type,
where the student may learn to discriminate between
the elegance and defects of fifteenth-century French
Gothic, which cannot compete with our own florid

STUDIES IN FRANCE. 63

specimens of the style, — ^Henry VII/s chapel to wit.
St. Jacques at Dieppe is another work of the class
which the student will do well to avoid, though he
cannot fail to be struck with its overwrought detail.

For earlier examples, St. Stephen's, St. Nicolas, Caen,
will r^ay study. Coutances, Bayeux, Honfleur, Cau-
debec, Jumi^ges, Bocherville, may be visited en route.

If the student can afford time, a tour through the
southern provinces of France will give him an idea of
the mixture of pure Frankish and the Romanesque or
Romance styles. In Provence he will take cognisance
of the pure Romanesque or Roimd-Arched Gothic,
verging indeed to classical Roman ; such is the cathe-
dral at Avignon ; or mixed with Pointed features, as
the cathedral at Vienne. The circular form of church
found here is worthy the student's attention, as also the
mode of vaulting seen at the church at Fontif roide, near
Narbonne. Aquitaine possesses many examples of a
style partaking both of the round-arched, and a domi-
cal pointed style of an Eastern character, well worth
study. The internal buttressing of the walls, as at
Albyy is suggestive to the architect ; so also the cathe-
drals at Bordeaux and Toulouse, with their grand
aisleless naves. The Round Gothic of Auvergno ex-
hibits a pure style which Fergusson rightly regards
among the perfected styles of Europe.

But whichever part of France the student's rambles
may take, his attention should be directed especially
to the magnificent development of thirteenth-century
examples as exhibited in some of her cathedrals. The
thirteenth century was to Gothic art what the Peri-
clean and Augustan were to Greek and Roman. The
cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, Coutances,
Beauvais, Troyes, Noyon, Paris, are, in the order hero
given^ especially deserving study. One oV\i<et, ^Jsi^

54 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

purest and finest after the first three mentioned,
namely, the cathedral of Bourges, must not be for-
gotten. Its proportions, its aisles, its symmetrical
plan, its chevet, make it a model of French Gothic*

For further remarks on " style '' in design the reader
is referred to Section 3, Part VI. The student who de-
sires to avail himself of the labours of brother tourists
in this field is recommended to study the works of
Messrs. Norman Shaw, Nesfield, and the beautiftd
drawings of Johnson's " Early French Architecture/'

The brick architecture to be found in Italy, Ger-
many, Spain, and France is particularly worthy of
the attention of the architectural tourist, and Mr.
Street's elaborate " Brick and Marble Architecture of
North Italy " may be read. (See also Ruskin's works.)

While we thus refer to Continental studies, let not
the young architect neglect his own country. England
possesses by far the purest examples of Middle-Age
architecture ; and we recommend the student to study
well the principles of development and design observ-
able in the thirteenth and earlier fourteenth century
buildings. For purity of outline and form, in vault-
ing, pillar-clustering, and mouldings, no foreign ex-
amples can compete with the English. The student
is recommended to study, 1st, Masses or Forms ; 2nd,
Lines ; and to observe that in the best periods of art
both had equal • attention bestowed upon them. A
careful study of Mr. Edmund Sharpens admirable
"Architectural Parallels," and his work on the "Seven
Periods of English Gothic," is recommended. Many
of the Cistercian monasteries of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries are excellent models for study.]

♦ The student of French Gothic should note especially the develop-
ing/?/ of vaulting, as seen in the earlier examples.

PART in.

EARLY PRACTICE.

)uR traveller has now returned. His brass plate is
ipon his door. He has indentures to prove his
.ppr^iticeship^ a portfolio to assert his subsequently
xsqnired accomplishment ; and he is ready to begin.

The probability is that he'll have to wait awhile.
le will have nothing to do,— or what he does will bo
lone for nothing. Some one will kindly give him an
►pportunity of showing what he can do, the favour
hown and the labour given being mutually gratuitous.
Ldvertisements will invite him to compete for a Town
lall, or a " New Bridewell,*' a Market House, or a
!Tew Poor TTnion ; and he will send his plans forward,
md they will be sent back ; and some one already well
o do in his profession will, as he is informed, either
)y favour, or job, or otherwise, win the premium and
)e commissioned to carry on the work : and thus, with
he rejected among many, sit down disconsolate, and
^uote from Jaques —

" Thou mak'st thy testament as worldlings do.
Giving thy sum of more to that which had too much."

And then will he be stimulated by a promise from some
STorthy friend of his father, who expresses vague ideas
)f " some daj adding a new dining-room to ^\s \\aws»^ "

56 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

under the inspiration of wliich, visions of a sideboard
recess, flanked by Corinthian columns, suggest them-
selves ; and lastly, he who has promised nothing shows
his friendly indignation in abusing him whose promise
has turned out to be nothing worth.

Hopes, disappointments, and efforts (for the present)
unavgdling, will (unless he be wondrously fortunate in
chance or connection), mark his career for some time
at least; mats le hon temps viendra, and we propose
filling up the leisure of the interval by putting before
him such matters for consideration as may make him
rather value than otherwise the spare time which yet
lies upon his hands.

The duty he now owes to himself is twofold. In the
first place, he has to form and increa^e his connection
by constantly availing himself of every opportunity for
manifesting his professional claims to desert. In the
second place, he has to prepare himself for an efEective
and perfect fulfilment of the duties which his first
engagement will impose upon him. "We have already
sought to impress upon him the heavy responsibility
which will be his when he is no longer the mere agent
of a professional superior. Let him not postpone this
reflection until the day of employment arrive. Every-
body is always in a hurry to have everything done.
His patron will take six months to think of what he
desires to have accomplished in as many hours. When
the commission arrives, immediate work will be
required — ^not preparatory study ; and if there be not
a ready foresight to pierce through all contingencies,
the progressive and ultimate perplexity will be propor-
tionally bewildering. To anticipate possible objections
is greater policy in an architect than to give immediate
answer to requirement. Of all professions, his is the
one most subjecting its professor to meddling inter-

EARLY PRACTICE. 57

ference, and a thoughtless disregard of trouble taken
and obedience unrequited.

" Double, double.
Toil and trouble,"

is indeed the chant of the sister Fates who are hostile
to an architect's peace. The graces of the portico, the '
beauties of decoration and proportion, the triumph '
over a hundred contending desiderata, shall be all
forgotten in my lady's passion for — a housemaid's
closet! It ayaQeth not as an excuse that you can
put it under the back stairs. *'It should have been
thought upon before. An architect ! and not think of
a housemaid's closet ! It ought not to be an extra."
" Extra ! " Fearful word ! The builder's aim, and
the architect's dread ! Let our young friend think of
it betimes; and let him bear in mind, that the best
guard against the overwhelming censure which follows
it, is to habituate the mind to a foresight, which,
during the study of the nearest and most important
things, should penetrate into the most remote and
trifling. AU the grand principles of design, conveni-
ence, and enduring strength, may have been perfectly
answered by the most artistical ability, by ingenious
arrangement, and constructive skill ; but if chimneys
smoke, gutters leak, or drains choke ; if windows prove
not in all trials weather-tight ; if all the little conve-
niences of the former house be not added to all tho
krger ones of the present ; if a shelf, a cupboard, or a
rail and pins be omitted where custom might expect to
find them ; if the whims of old servants be not
considered, or the carelessness of new ones anticipated ;
— ^if, in short, the genius of a Michael Angelo be not
followed close up with the care of a cabinet-maker, the
BLTchiteot will yet have a toil of vexation to ^Ti'^yvfl&'m

D 3

58 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

which may make him almost repent tlie choice of his
profession.

Practical Hints.

Hints on Planning. — ^We shall begin our practical
hints with some remarks in reference to plans^ or
internal arrangement, as affecting elevations, roofs, and
chimneys.

The young architect too frequently concentrates his
attention on those portions of his plan which concern
one or more particular fa9ades. Thus, he is carefiil of
his entrance front and his lawn elevation, as those
alone which will be visible to a stranger approaching
from the lodge, or walking in front of the sitting-room
windows ; and no sooner is the building roofed in than
he discovers that the " return fronts '' are provokingly
more generally visible to the public eye from without
the boundary of the premises than the others which
have had his too exclusive care. One of his " architec-
tural " elevations is seen in continuous connection with
a surface of unstudied masonry, the respective parts of
which neither harmonise in position nor in decoration :
or, at the best, he exhibits a display of blank architec-
ture, the falseness of which is proved by certain promi-
nent necessities which will not be either concealed or
modified. The oiEces and other inferior appendages to
the mansion cling to it, and proclaim themselves with
all the humiliating impertinence (or rather pertinenoe)
of poor relations bent on the declaration of their con-
sanguinity. The idea of *' planting them out," which
originally existed in the mind of the designer, still
exists in his mind only. The trees he requires will
take at least fifty years to grow ; and, even then, winter
will in its turn disrobe them of their foliage to leave
diaplayed an obstinate range of axdaitectvvTal -poverty.

HINTS ON PLANNING. 59

Evergreens will never grow lugh enough. The whole
thing must remain as it is — ^a handsome countenance
with an ugly profile : — a beggar in a velvet waistcoat,
and no coat to cover his sides.

This oversight is still more commonly committed in
town houses and street architecture. Nothing is more
frequent among builders and young architects than
the exhibition of a mere mask, which only deceives
while the spectator is directly opposite on the other
side of the street, or so far as there may be houses of
equal height continuing on either hand. Otherwise,
directly the front is passed, the blank masonry or
naked gables of the returns show themselves like the
mere party- walls in the transverse section of an un-
finished range ; and these, be it remembered, are often
seen for a much greater length of time than is given
in passing, to the main front, since we may have thom
before us during the whole of our progress tdong a
street of half a mile extent. Perhaps only a portion of
the return ends may be seen above the roofs of the
lower houses adjoining : but it is not the less necessary
to continue along this portion the architectural charac
ter of the front. In the many instances which occur
of houses rising successively one above the other on
the side of an ascending street, too much care cannot
be taken to give a finished perspective effect. Tho
means will readily suggest themselves. Architecture, as
we have before said in the first section of our " Hints,"
has a peculiar privilege among the arts in commanding
observation from the distance, and no town or range of
buildings will ever have an imposing or oven a tidy
appearance, while it shows itself to be composed of
independent fragments jostling one against another.
The beggarly habit of carrying a cornice or parapet,
with dressed doors, windows, pilaBteia, &Q.^ ^^^u^ ^i.

60 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

twenty-feet front, leaving in barn-Kke nakedness a
thirty or forty-feet end, is an abomination which even
the most vulgar country builder should eschew. In-
finitely better that the whole should be consistent in
the absolute perfection of nudity.

Reference of Plan to Elevation. — Oversights, ^
however, sufficiently unpardonable are often exhibited
by architects of more established repute, in settling
their 'plmis without due regard to the final appearance
of their exteriors. [Among some leading Gothicists this
is painfully evident. Want of balance, unequal dis-
tribution of windows, awkward intersections of roofs
and gables, and other irregularities are the result. In
designing a plan the block outline of the ground, if
confined, should be carefully studied and kept in view.
The position of the entrance and principal apartments
as regards aspect or front should then be considered
and laid down as the key-note of the plan ; the distri-
bution of the other rooms and offices should be made
to agree with such an outline, at the same time the
outline or disposition of the main masses of the build-
ing should be constantly in view, as regards the roofing
and elevations. In fact, experience has shown us that
the ground plan, principal elevations , and roof plan must
be simultaneously studied to produce a satisfactory
whole. The natural order of arrangement appears to
be: — 1. Position of entrance. 2. Communication.
3. Aspect of apartments. As regards the elevations,
the roof plan must first be considered in disposing
of the projections, gables, and other features after
the general arrangement has been hit upon, and in
complex buildings the cross section should also be
drawn.]

Arrangement should suggest Style. — Let it,
then, be the firat care of tlio yowng architect in

ADVANTAGES OF PERSPECTIVE. 61

designing his plauy to do it with especial reference to
the \_fitne88 ov purpose of his structure, disregarding the
mere " style '* of architecture]. In strictness the stylo
should be suggested by the internal arrangement ; but,
either way, it is equally an architect's duty to see
that convenience and external expression be true to
one another. A ground plan may be exactly adapted
(by certain equally convenient differences of arrange-
ment) either to a Greek or Roman, a Gothic or Italian
elevation ; and whichsoever of these may be decided
on, the arrangements of the walls, with their breaks,
recesses, and projections, and the position of the fire-
places, must be thought of in close conjunction with
the ranges and intersections of the roof, and the satis-
factory position of the chimneys, as objects in the
general view of the building. It is not, in fact, until
a plan of the roof is made, with its stacks of flues well
located and accurately drawn, that the masonry of the
floors beneath can be decided on : nor should the plan
of any one floor be finished until those of the floor or
floors above are perfected.

These points being all considered, the young archi-
tect will take care to make his elevations honestly ex-
hibit their crowning roof and chimneys. The custom
of omitting these features is seriously reprehensible,
and worthy only of a Pecksniff.

Advantages of Perspective Sketching. — He will
be equally careful also to show all the fronts, and to
give at least such perspective sketches as may prevent
those common misconceptions which geometncal ekva-
tiom occasion in not truly showing the projecting or
receding of the different portions. Even architects
deceive themselves by the pleasing effect of fa9ade8
geometrically developed; an effect which is rarely
Been in reality, except at such a diatanfi^ ^% T^"vy^s?t%

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

indistinct all the decorative details of the building.
What^ false idea, for instance, does the geometrical

y yK K

D
D

<-rf>

D
D

<f"— <? — >

III

<-«&-♦

figure A give of the perspective figure b ! It is not
enough to show, by the plans or by description, that c
projects and that d d recede. The strict truth is, that,
in the perspective view most generally visible, the
building will lose all the expression of length which
pleases in the geometrical elevation, and will become a
short squat building, with only one visible wing instead
of two.

[Fa9ades or elevations of buildings in which promi-
nent projections do not occur may be sufficiently repre-
sented by shadows projected at an angle of 45°. By
this means all slight projections vertical and horizontal
can be at once discerned, and their real projection also
obtained on elevation.]

The geometrical elevation of a circular temple is
most deceptive in its appearance, and will occasion
expectations of much greater width than a near per-
spective view will exhibit : thus, the building which
will show geometrically as fig. 1, will show perspec-
tively as fig. 2. In the elevation of the west front of

St. Paul's Cathedral,
the tambour of the
dome looks overwhelm-
ingly large; in the view

„. , ^. « of the real buildine

JFig. 1. Fig. 2. ^ J i. J-

irom a moderate dis-

tance it exhibits no such excess.

VALUE OF ANGULAR PERSPECmVE. 63

Value of Angular Perspective. — ^Agaln, the geo-
metrical elevation of a square tower, in wliicli the
expression of great altitude is required, should be
made with reference to the increased bulk it will
exhibit, when viewed diagonally, to the prejudice of
its loftiness. The habit, in short, of considering the
elevations of parallel planes, without equal regard to
their "returns," and without studying the diagonal
view of both imited, is the cause of infinite disap-
pointment; and equally so is that of only looking
point-blank against edges and vertical surfaces, with-
out duly reflecting on the additional effect of under,
or upper, horizontal surfaces. For example ; what a
light and simple effect has the common cantilever cor-
nice, fig. A, compared to the same cornice seen in per-
spective, as fig. B. Features, which in the geometrical
drawing may appear light ■ • .

and well-proportioned, may i i

in execution prove ill-pro- ^

portioned and heavy. Again,
what may seem well deve-
loped in the drawing, may
wholly or partially disap-
pear in the work itself, as

in the case of a parapet or blocking course concealed
from the near view by the projection of the cornice.
A dome which, geometrically, has a sufficient height,
may, from the point of most frequent view, seem
offensively flat. Sir 0. "Wren, aware of this, has
formed the outline of St. Paul's dome
by segments of circles struck from two
centres like a Gothic arch, the point of
meeting being concealed by the base
of the lantern. Its appearance^ how-
ever, 18 that of a perfect semisplieTe. I^^et^ \^ ^^^

HINTS TO TOUNG ARCHITBCTS,

another precaution to be always carefully taken in the
management of circular buildings, and tliis refers to
the unpleasant effect of
overhanging segmental
architraves or soffite. A is
the elevation of a window
in a bow projection, b is
its perspective appearance from one side. This is not
less objectionable in respect to its constructive weakness
than in regard to its ugliness ; for it is only by con-
cealed management that a flat so£St arch on a curved
plan can be made to stand at all. The case is still
worse when the window-head is a curve, and, in short,
this practice is only allowable when the curve of the
plan is so large, and the openings so narrow, as not to
leave perceptible the defect of the overhanging seg- .
ment.* Thus, in the vast curved outline of the Coli-
seum the arched colonnade is unobfectionable. In the
closely set peristyles of St. Paul's dome, and of the
Temples of Vesta at Rome and Tivoli, it is equally so;
but where the curve of the plan is small, and the
openings, or spaces between the columns, propor-
tionally large, it is a grievous fault. Where small
bay projections are desired, they
should always bo semi-hexagons
or semi-octagons, with the win-
dows in the fiat faces, unless
■ indeed the required bow window
may be so subdivided hy mul-
lions or pilasters as to remedy the objections stated.
The semicircular portico, fig. 1, may be sufficiently
pleasing in its front view ; but a glance at fig. 2 will

Fig. 1.

r^.2.

[• For Bimilar refteans, circular oomers
are very objectionuhh, and arches oonsti,
Btability, 8uoh coraen sbonld be canted.'^

boildioffs of flmall radiuB
constructed in Sum defectire in

TRIANGTJLAB PLANS SOLIDS AKD VOIDS.

show the necessity of studying, not fronts only, but
profiles also.

Triangular Plans, — ^Whfle on the subject of the
different appearance of objects in different points of
view, it may be as well to refer to the triangle as a
form of plan frequently, and most injudiciously, adopted
in pyramids, obelisks,
and pedestals. Viewed
directly in front, on the
lines a — h or c — rf, it is
well enough, as shown
by figs. 1 and 2 ; but
who that sees its ap-
pearance on the line
e— fl, as shown by fig. 3,
does not at once observe
that no pyramid or
obelisk should ever have
an odd number of sides?
For the same reason,
tripod pedestals should
be most cautiously used ;
for, whatever
may be said
in favour of
fig. 4, it is ob-
vious nothing
can be ad-
duced in de-
fence of so ill-
balanced a
composition as
fig. 5.

All this goes to prove the necessity — if not absolutely
of models— of the perspective effects wlaich. \sv3L\^&xsi^^

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 6.

66 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Will have from all points of view. The architect,
pleased with his front elevation, may find reason to
alter it the moment he turns the comer.

Solids and Voids. — ^A different proportion in the
solids and voids of a main and return elevation will be
fatal to good effect. A material difference in the dis-
tances between the common angle and the windows of
the front and return fa9ades, or a much more crowded
position of windows in the one than the other, will be
offensive ; and it may be here remarked, that the pro-
portions of solid and void which hold good in the case
of a simple fa9ade with no dressings to its doors and
windows, wiU not equally serve when those dressings
are to be supplied, since it is only the plain part of
the pier, or of the space between the lower and upper
apertures, which will " tell " in the matter of breadth,

"Window Dressings. — The architraves and flanking
columns of a window must be regarded as the window
itseK; and as a general rule, it may be said that
there cannot be an adequate expression of breadth,
unless the plain part of the pier be equal to the entire
width of the window and its dressings united. The
same law holds good in the horizontal spaces, which
should exhibit, in a large and ornate building, the
same amount of plain masonry above and below the
architraves, strings, cornices, &c., which, in a small
and plain building, would intervene between the sills
and soffits of the windows and the strings or cornice
below or above them. This, it may be remarked,
amounts to little less than saying that architectural
decoration is more appUcable to large than email
buildings, and it is true ; for doors and windows do
not increase in the same ratio that the size of the
building increases. On the contrary, they generally
bear a much greater relative proportion in small houses

WINDOWS— CHIMNEYS. 67

than in princes' palaces; and assuredly, where they
do not leave, at the very leasts such a breadth of pier
as will allow the width of the opening to intervene
between the dressings of two adjacent windows, the
latter had better be left without dressings. On no
occasion whatever ought the breadth of a pier to bo
less than the width of a window opening ; Le. of
course supposing the window to be a single one, and
not triple with intervening mullions.

Junction of Main House and Offices. — If the
error of making a discordant difference between the
fronts of the main house be so serious, not less so
is the total discordancy often seen between the main
house and the offices. Now it is, in fact, very rarely
that the offices are not, from several important points
of view, seen in conjunction with the principal, mass of
the structure; and the difference therefore between the
two should strictly be one of degree only. A hand-
some cornice along the eaves of the one will be ill-
accompanied by a common eaves gutter along those of
the other. Correctly speaking, it should be of the
same form, reduced proportionally in scale, and — if
required — ^without the enrichments of the main cornice.
Above all things, the young architect should avoid
the common mistake of reducing the beauty of the
chimneys; for those of an office range, springing
usually from a lower roof and having a greater relative
altitude, will very likely be more conspicuous than the
others. In short, an aptitude for chimney design is
most important to an architect engaged in villa build-
ing. Let not the anticipation of chimney-pots escape
his consideration. On the contrary, let him design
them, and show them in his elevations, as likelihoods,
which, if ultimately necessary, may not be absolutely
disfiguring. He will further rememlaeT, ttvsA^ Vsifc\^

68 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

the flues in any one stack are numerous, it may be
better to place them in imited parallels than in one
continuous range ; and he will be also cautious in so
arranging his fire-places as that the various flue-stacks
may be as nearly as possible of one size. This uni-
formity, at all events, should be observed in corre-
sponding pairs of stacks.

Chimneys. — He need not be reminded, that, in
Gothic structures, chimneys are not only admissible,
but are often advantageous in their attachment to outer
walls — especially when they rise with the gables. In
the free and irregular style of the Italian villa they
may also occasionally be connected with the outer
walls. In the severer Roman style they may rise from
the angles (as shown in Barry's Reform Club House) ;
but in no style (saving only the Gothic) should they
rise from the eaves if it can possibly be avoided.* The
inordinate height required to raise them above the
ridge of the roof, their insecurity (involving often the
application of iron struts to sustain them), the difficulty
of a satisfactory management of the main cornice
beneath them, and the plumbing required to make
weather-tight their union with the slates ; — all these
circumstances make it most desirable the plans should
be so arranged that the chimneys may ride, as it were,
upon the ridges of the roof.

Flues ^ — The occasional practice of making flues run
a long raking course in the thickness of walls, and of

[* These observations and restrictions as regards chimney-stacks are
correct as far as they agree with the conventional rules of taste laid
down by architects, though the young practitioner is advised to
exercise his own common sense and discretion in designing such
important functions of a building untrammelled by the mere pedantry
of academic rule. Stacks should be collected as much as possible,
and placed in positions whence they can rise uninterruptedly, without
sudden bends, through the roof. Chinmeys attached to walls, and
projecting therefrom, often relieve a blank froTit.*\

CONNECTION IN COMPOSITION. 69

making them even turn comers to conduct them to a
desirable position of exit, cannot be too seriously repre-
hended. Underground flues, too, which must bo
periodically opened to be cleaned, should never bo
adopted save under those imperative circumstances
which the most industrious ingenuity cannot avoid.
Never allow two flues to unite in becoming one ; and
above aU things, so arrange the floor and roof timbers,
that there shall be no chance of their being carried
(even by carelessness itself) into the flues, or within at
least nine inches of them. Here let us remark, while
the occasion so seriously calls for it, on the necessity of
an architect never trusting to the sagacity of workmen
— especially in the country. The common carpenter
and rubble mason will each do hia work irrespective of
the other's ; and, on visiting your building, you will
very likely find that a joist or a purlin has little to
divide it from the fury of a chimney on fire, except the
plaster pargetting which lines the inside of the flue !
With equal care, look to the work which receives the
hearths of the fire-places. " Brick trimmer arches '' may
have been inserted in the specification ; but if there
be not a clerk of the works to look after the building,
it is by no means certain they will be constructed.

Connecting Lines in Composition. — To recur to
the subject of the offices and inferior buildings attached
to the main structure. It may require some care to
make a good: junction between the lower roof of the
former with the higher one of the latter, unless the
ridge of the one can be brought under the cornice or
eaves of the other. Again, the union of the main and
inferior structures should be so harmonized, by the use
of certain string-courses or linos, common to both, as
to show that the two or more parts are component
features of one whole, the extension. o£ 'w^\Ocv.\a tv'^X* ^

70 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

much that of connection as continuity. Finally, it will
be well to avoid the probability of future appended
additions, as out-houses, lean-to's, &c. ; and never to
put off the consideration of wood and coal houses, shoe
and knife houses, dustholes and privies, until the mass
of the building is up.

Position of "Water-closets. — ^There is one par-
ticular necessity in every good house which the young
architect should consider from the very first. It is a
necessity not often very successftilly met, because it is
rarely considered until too late for. efficient manage-
ment. "Water-closets are generally so placed as to
make it a very difficult matter for ladies and gentlemen
to conceal from one another the more humiliating
circumstances of their common nature. It may be,
that we are in England too nice on this point; but
it is nevertheless a point on which an architect is
privileged to exert his ingenuity. So place a water-
closet that any one going in its direction, or returning,
is not necessarily going to or coining from it. Secondly,
let it be so located that its door cannot be seen from
the hall, the staircase, or any important part of the
house where the inmates are likely to be passing.
Avoid, under any circumstances, putting it at the end
of a long passage. Be still more particular in so
placing the closet that the operations of the occupant
and the apparatus shall not audibly announce them-
selves to the sitters in the day-rooms or the sleepers in
the bed-chambers. But, above all, let not the vicinity
of the closet be made known by any offence to the nose
of nice gentility. [One of the most desirable positions
for a water-closet is on a landing, recessed, if possible,
from the staircase. It there answers, in small houses,
all the purposes of day and night use ; and if attached
to a sink and lavatory as an isolatrng cihambervit be*

POSITION OF WATER-CLOSETS. 71

comes a higUy advantageous adjunct, adding materially
to tlie comfortof a house. Itmay also frequently be placed
at the side of the entrance accompanied by the same
conveniences. As to the avoidance of noxious effluvia,
the reader is referred to Part V., Section 3, Home
Drainage.l On this last most important matter we would
call particular attention to the following precautions.
Avoid placing the cesspit within the building. See to
the certain efficacy of the stench-trap at the foot of
the soil-pipe. Let not the waste-pipe from the cistern
enter the cesspit without the water first passing through
a trap which shall prevent the ascent of effluvia into the
locality of the cistern.* If the soil-pipe can be carried
outside the wall, let it be so ; only take every care to
prevent any of the pipes from being injured by frost, t
Let not the cistern be uncovered to the air, lest the
mouths of the pipes, &c., be choked with leaves or
other matter carried there by wind or rain.

Plumbers' "Work. — ^While on the subject of
plumbers* work let us impress upon our young practi-
tioner its foremost importance, and the necessity of
giving the fullest description of it. It is usually too
much generalised. Always employ rolls and drips to
unite the sheets of lead. Do not use solder where it
can be avoided. Leave the lead free to expand and
contract. Cover the gutters with raised boarding.
Provide capacious receiving-boxes at the heads of
water-pipes. Take every precaution to prevent leaves
and rubbish from collecting in the boxes and choking
the pipes, and be equally carefiil to carry the water
from the feet of the pipes immediately clear of the
building and into the drains, otherwise they will only
prove most injurious to the very stability of the
building by soaking the foundations.

* See page 201,

t SoU-pipoB gbonld be encased eitliex in bxic'k. ox n?oq^

72 HINTS TO YOUNG AECHITECTS.

Drains. — In constructing drains have a close regard
to tlie facility of cleansing them, especially where they
unite with the pipes; [at all junctions capped pipes
should be used, J and be equally careful in the supply
of traps to prevent the progress of rats and vermin.
It is too commonly supposed that workmen will have
an eye to all these obvious necessities, but workmen
might as well imagine that ^heir tools will work
of their own accord as might architects conceive
that workmen are to be trusted without accurate descrip-
tion and scrutinising supervision. "We thus mix up
m.QTQ practical matters with matters of pure taste, as an
example of the combined process which should ever be
going on in the mind of the architect.

In connection with the subject of drains we should
not forget to mention the frequent advisability of con-
structing a dry drain to preserve the face of the under-
ground walling from damps ; * and, as a matter of equal
importance, the young architect will not forget .the
mischief of dry-rot, and the noisome exhalations of foul
and stagnant air from beneath such grgund-floor or base-
ment rooms as have not a free ventilation beneath their
joists, effected by apertures and gratings in the outer
walls. [Basements may be effectually ventilated by flues
carried up from them at the side of other flues. By
having hollow walls (see Part V., Sanitary Comtruetion)
ventilation can easily be secured by providing apertures
under basement ceiling into the hollow. These hollows
also keep basement- walls thoroughly dry and supersede
the necessity of dry areas.]

We have 3Jlow disposed of the leading considerations
which should be entertained by the young architect in

* [A drj/ area formed by a wall slightly battered against the earth, or
a semi-arched Tault resting against tiie walls of house, is best in some
cases.]

VIEWS OF EMPLOYERS. 73

forming his plans and elevations of the general carcass
of a dwelling-house, alluding to such paramount prac-
tical matters as are necessary to ensure the comfort of
its occupiers, without which all merits of architectural
propriety and decorative beauty will be regarded as
the mere impositions of taste to conceal defective con-
venience and careless construction. People whoso
tempers are disturbed by leaks, and offensive smells,
by damps and smoky houses, or even by partial failures
in design, will become proportionally blind to the
numerous merits which may still remain ; and the
architect, at the moment of signing his last certificate,
" that the contractor has fulfilled all his duties in the
most complete and workmanlike manner,'* may be, in
effect, signing the declaration of his own inefficiency,
and unconsciously entering on a period of much
trouble and perplexity, when he imagines the comple-
tion of a pleasing labour which is to establish his
professional competency, and produce much future
employment. To call his attention to the remaining
numerous details of his work, the copious stock specifi-
cation which forms the substantial worth of this volume
will, we trust, be found sufficient ; or, at least, suffi-
ciently assistant, in conjunction with his own acquired
knowledge and sagacity. A studious and repeated
perusal of Bartholomew's "Practical Architecture,''
Part I., will supply all that is hero omitted, and will
afford not less information on the subject of the Beau-
tiful than on that of the Constructive.

Views of Employer. — It will now be as well to
afford a few hints as to the relative position of the
architect and his employer. The former usually errs
in giving to the other a credit for thoroughly under^
standing his drawings ; while the latter equally errs
in thinking that his architect is omuiscieut, uot owl^ m

74 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

the general laws of design, but also in the particular
fancies of individual patronage. Now the correction
of the employer is out of the question. He must be
taken as he is found; and the architect must then
find out what he is, "hanging clogs on the nimble-
ness of his own soul, that his patron may go along
with him." What the employer sai/s is not invariably
what he means ; and he does not always think that he
is bound to say much to a professor who is supposed to
know everything. He gives vague ideas of form and
size and arrangement which the architect too hastily
receives as positive instruction ; and, the result proving
wrong, he is abused for not having acted in correction
instead of obedience.

Be cautious, then, in the first instance, of receiving
as law the dimensions which are given for the required
size of rooms. Show your employer an existing room
of the form and size he describes, and learn that he
means such a room. If you have not assured yourself
of this, your troubles will begin before the walls are
twelve inches above ground ; for he will then declare
that the room is much less than the model chosen, and
will hardly believe it to be otherwise, in spite of the arith-
metic which shall be conclusive that it is so. Nothing
is more deceptive than the appearance of comparative
smallness in the rooms of a building only plinth higL

Ocular Impressions. — Consider, secondly, that the
mode of finishing rooms, — ^with a heavy, or light,
cornice, — a dado, or only a simple skirting, — ^a plain
or a richly decorated ceiling, — ^materially affects their
apparent size ; the space taken from the plain part of
the walls and ceiling being, in effect, equal to a
diminution of actual capacity ; or, at least, to an
alteration of its proportions. The annexed figures
wiU iliu/Strate this fact. Seen in close proximity.

OCVLAS, IMPEEaSIOWS.

their sizes are observed to be the same; bat, looked
at in separate

your
real dimension,
— a question
touching only his
carpet - room,
table, and chairs,
— ^yoa may dis-
appoint him in
the expression of
apparent dimen-
sion, which is a
qnefition of optics.

Fig. 2.

Real and Apparent Size. — The expresaion of rela-
tive sizes and proportions ^ill, in fact, be the only
certain assurance of the patron's complete approval,
and thorougbly to effect this, a differing altitude, in
rooms, &c,, of differing magnitudes in the same house,
should be given where readily practicable. If, for
instance, corridors of only six feet wide lead to rooms
of sixteen feet wide, and both be of the same height,
the former will appear too narrow, the latter too low.
Both will be advantaged by diminishiag as much as
may be the height of the corridor; and where the
actual ceiling of the latter cannot (on account of tbe
corresponding height of the doors or windows of both)

s 2

:elB3.

HINTS TO TOUKG ABCHITECl-S.

be flufficiently lowered, a frieze, or entire entablature,
with a higlier skirting, or a dado, may ep diminish the
. , apparent height of the corridor
"" -^ J: — ^' as to give it seeming width,
and preserve undiminished the
■ height of the room. Here in
fact is the legitimate use of
false or psendo- architecture;
and there is no doubt that of
two houses, the one well studied
in these particulars, and the
other not, the former vrill leave
a general impression of spaciousness in all its rooms
which m the latter will be wanting.

Talue of Cornices. — Cornices will therefore be

thrown flat on the ceiling; brought down upon the

v^^^^«i wall ; with friezes ; or complete entah-

f ^Z^ ^ latures ; either immediately connected ,
with the level ceiling, separated from
it by a cove, or forming the imposts of
a segment or circular ceiling, as the
rooms and passages shall be relatively
higher or lower. It is not merely to
) please the eye of the critic that this is
done He will indeed have the double
pleasure of seeing it, and of knowing
why he sees it ; but it is sufficient that
your employer is well satisfied with the
result, without any knowledge of the
wherefore.

WiNDOvrs. — Another point of frequent
disappointment to your employer is the
width or the height of windows, and
more particnlarly of the position of their
sills in relation to the iloot.

WINDOWS. 77

He may be pleased by their appearance in your
elevations^ but he may have such particular notions of
his own as to their effect inside the rooms, that a
material and costly alteration may subsequently in-
crease the bill of extras and affect the beauty of your
exterior. Be clear, then, in the beginning, whether
sliding sashes or French casements are to be insisted
on. Whether the sitting or other room windows are
to reach or nearly reach the floor, or whether there are
to be backs and elbows ; and at what height the glazing
is to commence. Forewarn him that French case-
ments are, in this country, scarcely to be rendered
weather-tight : that if they open outwards, they are
liable to be dashed to pieces by the wind ; if inward,
they interfere with curtains and defy falling Venetian
blinds. Again, if there are to be outer folding shutter
blinds^ your architraves or other dressings will be in
the way ; outer shutters, in short, are most hostile to
decorative dressings.* In large bay or triple windows,
the management of the shutters should be considered
even in the first sketch of your plan. They may be
too wide to allow of the ordinary folding shutters in
side boxings only ; there may be objections to form
additional boxings against the muUions ; lifting shut-
ters, from casings beneath the sill or the room floor,
may be required. Leave not these considerations " for
the future.'* Think of them at once. In domestic
Oothic windows, especially, bo careful to anticipate.
Midlions and transoms of stone demand the greatest
care in forming a weather-tight meeting with case-
ments of metal ; and muUions and transoms of wood
will be tortured with the alternations of heat and wet.
They are fearful contrivances to catch the beat of

* Oatdde sliding sliaitera, or the kind of \)lixid caXL^d. ^^YiJ^Vo^^w.^^^
JU9 more impermeable to the ami and heat.

78 I|INTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECTS.

weather, and to hold it when caught, till it bubbles
through the sash or casement joints, and calls for the
housemaid to bring pots and pans to catch the unwel-
come stream. Are casements, or sashes, to be used P If
the former, the framing will be solid; if the latter, hollow
cased. Are the sashes to rise through the transoms P
Are the casements to open inwards or outwards P No-
thing may be easier to the architect than such a sketch
of a Gothic front as wiU fascinate his employer's eye.

[The position and design of windows need the most
careful thought on the part of an architect. As regards
position in a room, they should be designed with
especial reference not only to lighting but outlook.* A
proportion of 2 to 1 or nearly that height Is reqiured for
single openings in principal rooms, though a less height
may be given in upper stories. The inter-fenestral
spaces or piers should as a rule not be less than the
width of clear opening, except in cases where wide
centre windows are required to give b'ght, or to pro-
duce effect. Jambs should be well splayed, and in
dark confined neighbourhoods, the heads also should be
splayed externally. In bedrooms, windows should be
placed as high as possible both for ventilation and
appearance; a deep dead space of walling over a
window is oppressive and objectionable. As to the
fiUing-in, sliding sashes are preferable to casements in
all exposed situations, though they lend themselves
with more difficulty to architectural appearance than
French or midlioned casements. We have occa-
sionally used horizontally sliding casements instead of
hinged ones, and with good effect.]

Sharp and vigorous touches of the pencil, pic-
turesquely showing the moulded recesses of a Tudor
window, are readily done ; but not so the contrivance

* -Far principal windows, the south-eaBt ib poshsL^^ >ihft\se8\. ^^^^\>«

architects' duties. 79

of such working details as shall in execution preserve
the pictorial and keep out the rain. Consider the cost
of the long rod-bolts, and other expensive articles of
copper and metal, which the pelting of the storm wiU
render imperative. If these "appliances" be not
thought of at the first, your employer will surely
regard them, in their subsequent adoption, as remedial
extras to make good radical defect. Our own per-
plexities in these particulars have been j&equent and
harassing, and we would put our yoimger brethren on
their guard. Let them recollect, that, in a smart sketch,
they draw out and sign a promissory note, which may re-
quire all the wealth of their practical attainment to pay.
Architects' Duties. — ^A gentleman, in employing
an arehUect, will not fail to consider that he might do
without one; and it is, therefore, under the impres-
sion of something over and above what the builder
could do for him, that he incurs the expense of pro-
fessional advice and assistance. The least he has a
right to expect, is the value of the artistical, in addi-
tion to that of the practical; and he may reasonably
expect yet more. Superiority of taste, and of in-
genuity in arrangement, he wiU look for as a matter of
course ; and it must be admitted that he has also a
right to superior knowledge in respect to the econo-
mical (and at the same time fully efficient) manage-
ment of material and general construction. But he
win frequently (and not with so much reason) look for
more still, and be inclined to visit upon his architect
those failures in particular construction which only
good workmen can insure, imder the direction of the
contracting builder, and the supervision of an ever-
watchfiil clerk of the works, exclusively occupied on
one job. It will be well, therefore, for the architect
at once to undeceive hia employer in t\iia \as»\) ^"iixMv

80 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

cular. He cannot be always present to see that the
interior of the walls is well compacted with solid filling
and sufficient mortar ; that foundations and drains,
which are concealed as soon as laid, have been exe-
cuted in thorough obedience to his specifications ; that
every slate is properly nailed, and every piece of lead
flashing inserted sufficiently in the masonry ; that all
the carpentry is thoroughly sound and seasoned ; that
all the joinery is properly " framed, glued, and
blocked ; " that the plastering has been mixed in
the prescribed proportions, and efficiently worked up ;
that the flues are all of the full size and properly
pargetted; that paving has been laid on a well-pre-
pared bottom ; in short, he cannot, during only the
occasional visits of inspection which he engages to
afford, see into those parts of the work which have in
the intervals been concealed; nor can he anticipate
those future deficiencies, either in work or material,
which may not show themselves in any degree until
some time after the occupation of the premises. He
will have done much in observing, that all, which
from time to time remains developed to him, is effected
to his satisfaction ; and his drawings and specifications
will stiU remain, to justify, under any future chance of
impeachment, their sufficiency as a means towards a
satisfactory end. Even a contractor^ however-prac-
tically competent, cannot be always on the spot ; and
no merely ordinary foreman can be trusted in his
stead, — ^because if he be so trustworthy, he is worthy
of the double pay which will leave him an " ordinary
foreman" no longer.

Clerk of Works. — ^When an employer will not

take upon himself the responsibility of trusting to the

efficiency of the contractor and his men, the architect

18 bound to insist on the engagement o5 «i. '^oil-tried

DETAILS. 81

clerk of the works. The author of these " Hints '* has
suffered so much, from a too ready desire to save his
employer the charge of a constant supervisor, that he
cannot too strongly urge upon those whom he now
addresses the advisability of having i^ clear imder-
standing with their patrons on this point.

Details. — ^To recur to a few inatters of taste in the
interior finishings of houses. We recommend the
young architect to provide a good and varied supply
of specimen drawings for the enrichments of cornices,
ceilings, internal dressings and panellings of doors and
windows ; chimney-pieces of marble, for sitting and
best bed rooms; of wood, combined with stone or
marble, for bedrooms; of wood, with slate slips, to
keep the former from the heat of the fire ; and of
cheap simple chimney-pieces of Portland or slate, for
kitchens, offices, and inferior rooms; designs for
columned screens, dividing a long sitting-room into
two compartments, and supporting a partition wall, or
stack of chimneys, in the rooms above ; for columned
or pilastered decorations for dining-room recesses ; for
staircase or other lanterns, with their cornices, and
the enriched soffits round their openings in the main
ceiling ; for turned wood, or cast iron, stair balusters ;
for cast-iron lights over entrance-door transoms.

All these are matters in which the individual fancy
of the architect, and the whim of his employer, may
be more indulged than in those severer and more con-
ventional features which constitute external architec-
tural decoration and character; and the young pro-
fessor, during the leisure of his yet only partially
occupied time, may advantageously keep up his hand
as a draughtsman, and invigorate his imagination as
an artist, by studying them, and providing a series of
such examples as will, hereafter at least, iproN^ ^vx^^'SiV

£ 3

82 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECrrS.

tive, if not ready at once for adoption. Employers can
rarely see what they desire unless they first see some-
thing like it. The slight sketches of these things
which appear in small sections and elevations, or which
are vaguely described in specifications, will merely
serve as postponements of available consideration, and
this wiU arrive at a period when you may regret not
having entertained it before. Against a sketch or
slight description, a contractor puts a low and uncon-
sidef ed price ; and when your working drawings are after-
wards made out, he considers them as much beyond the
thing intended, as the employer thinks them beneath it.
Ornament. — The economy of ornament is not so
much shown in employing it only where most needed,
as in sparingly employing it, with due relative pro-
portion, in every place where it is needed at all. Thus,
in all parts of a house which are seen in immediate and
unconcealed connection with the principal rooms, theii*
relationship to those rooms should be marked. As an
instance of prevailing defect in this particular, we may
allude to the application of bold and handsome cornices
to staircases and the ceilings of staircase landings,
while the plastered soffit of the stairs forms a plain and
mean-looking junction with the face of the wall. You
need not, it is true, continue the modillions of a land-
ing cornice down the rake of the stair soffit to the floor;
but you should imquestionably continue down it one
or more of the upper mouldings of that cornice.*
White plastered soffits are not, in fact, the most
suitable to a range of wainscot stairs. Plaster ex'
presses stone :t and no one would think of casing the
ends, risers, and treads, of a flight of stone steps with

* lit is Btrange that architects overlook the relief of their stair-soffita
yVbjrebould they not have rakiug comioes?
+ The inference here ia hardly logical ^soe DeAg^V^

DOUBLE DOORS. 83

wood. The soffit of a wooden flight of stairs should,
therefore, either be formed of wood panelling, or of
plaster, papered orpainted
in imitation of it : bat,
under any drcomstances,
forget not the raking ,
moulding. *£ven when
the stairs are of stone,
with under-cut mould-
ings, we would still show the moulded work stopping
short of the part of the stone inserted in the wall,
forming the interrening part into a continuous raking
line, and running under it the plaster moulding we
have alluded to.*

Hints on Comfort and Conveitiencb.

Double doors.— In allusion to a few matters of com-
fort and cottveHienec, we would hint at the Tirtuo of
being a match for the occasional violence of gusty
weather, in so contriving that two doors shall be passed
before you are fairly in the body of the house. Thus
on enclosed porch will enable you to shut the outer or
porclt door, before the inner or passage door is opened.
An entrance vestibule should, if possible, have only
one outer door, and one inner door leading into the
staircase or hall of common internal communication.
The interception of through draughts cannot be too
attentively considered. A range of doors, all openiiig
one way, in a long passage with a window at each end,
will often exhibit the very perfection of the evil ; and
you may not expect your lady patroness to give much
eulogy to the perspective of your corridor if she loses
her cap in passing through it, and only gains in return

• [Or the ends o£ ttew near the wall could ^n l«fb \n ^'n ^!D.^
B-iole section, the soffit oefog couDtefsank.']

HINTS TO TODHQ ABCHXTECTS.

a BOre tliroat. The air that can quietly and courteously
insinuate itself into rooms under the bottoms of the
doors, in the chinks between the casements and rebates,
and through the fire-place, is a welcome and necessary
guest ; but when it takes to slamming doors, breaking win-
dows, and carrying hearth-rugs up the chimney, it is a
symptom of some great want of caution in the architect.
Position of Fire-place. — The best situation for fire-
places in a large room is, unquestionably, in the centre
of the longer side; and, for doore, close to the ex-
tremity of the same. The worst position for doors is
at the extremities of the walls at right angles to the
fire-place side, looking directly over the length of the
hearth. Where doors communicate between rooms,
they wiU bo best placed in that part of the partition
walls nearest the window side and furthest ^m the
fire. In smaller rooms, where there is scarcely suf-
ent room for a central fire-place,
and itco doors equidistant from it
on the same side, it is often better
to put the fire opening in the
centre of the length between the
one door and the end of the wall. It is not only more
comfortable, but, where there is no projecting chimney
breast, more sightly, TJader some
circumstances a perfect preservation
of centrality may be obtained by
the use of breaks or pilasters and
ceiling beams, as the adjoined figure
csomplifies.

[Doors should be placed in such positions as will least
destroy the privacy and comfort of a room. To place
a door opposite a fire-place and in the centre of the
wail of a room is manifestly bad ; it creates a direct
draught oyer the most frequented, -gait of a room,

FIREPLACES ^KITCHEN OFFICES. 85

besides the inconyenience of intruding upon those
seated round the table or fire. It should therefore be
placed either at one end or in one of the comers of the
room opposite the fireside.*]

Warming and Ventiiation. — ^If any method of
general warming and ventilation be required, it will be
for the architect to choose from the number of patents
and practices in vogue, and to prepare for them in his
first plans. An early conference with the patentees or
professors of these methods should be of course secured,
and their proposed operations duly provided for.f

Kitchen and Offices. — The perfection of kitchen
and office comfort is, perhaps, a "consummation'*
more ** devoutly to be wished'' than any other; for
all others are especially dependent on it. Expect no
master or mistress to be happy, while a cook, house-
keeper, and butler are discontented. Keep the smell
of the mutton fat, cabbage water and chopped onions
out of the main house, for the sake of the hostess and
her guests; but, for the united sake of all parties,
make your kitchen, scullery, larder, store-room, and
pantry replete in all the sufficiency of space, fittings,
and communication. Old servants may have accom-
modated themselves to old defects ; but the success of
new and better arrangements will, for a length of
time, remain problematical. Your only chance is to
flatter old servants by consultation. Learn from them
the merits and demerits of their present accommoda-
tion ; submit the result of your ingenuity, and of their
exactions, to the upper house ; and thence deduce a
well-studied plan, to be again modified till you think
both houses are satisfied. Forget not the cook's closet,
the still-room, the china closet. Remember that,

* Take care in planning 'bedrooms that the door does not occupy the
bedstead's place, and that the door be hinged so as to screen the bed.
t See SaniUuyr Construction, Warming, &o.,Parl\«

86 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

besides a larder for cooked meat^ anotlier for hung
meat, and a salting-room, may be required. The dairy
may be insufficient without a scalding-room and a
chuming-room. The butler's pantry may be incom-
plete without a separate glass-washing and plate-
cleaning room, and a strong closet for the security of
plate not in constant use. Enable the housekeeper to
have an eye on the cook, and the means (by a sliding
door) of communicating with the kitchen without
necessarily going into it. Keep the servants' hall
and back entrance out of the way of the operations
and runnings to and fro during the bustle of dinner ;
but, at the same time, " handy '' for a speedy advance
to the front door of the main house. Remember that
a butler's satisfaction is improved by well-arranged
cellars for beer, strong ale, wine in casks, and ditto in
bins; and that a master's comfort is enhanced by ready
access to the said cellars from his own part of the
building. Forget not that it will be well if the brew-
house is connected by pipes with the cellars; and
especially bear in mind that pipes of wine which are
from five to six feet long have to go lengthwise down
an inclined plane and through doorways into the cask
cellar. A corking-room and a bottle-room follow of
course. Let your coal and fuel stores be prompt for
the supply of offices and main house, and consider that
coals are of at least two qualities, and must exist
divided. Let your gallantry think of pretty maids
carrying coal-scuttles in their hands without bonnets
on their heads, and provide covered ways for their
benefit. To the boot and knife house it may be well
to add a brushing-room with a good stove in it, or a
drying-closet for wet clothes. Let the wash-house
j^JeM ita cleansed linen readily to the laundry, and the
laundry its mangled and ironed, ditto to AJsi^ \ixiau-

OONVBNIENCES ^LIFTS, ETC. 87

room. Consult propriety in keeping the maids and the
men-servants in a state of respectful separation, with
separate staircases to their respective dormitories.
Let the housekeeper's and butler's sleeping-rooms
respectiyely command those of the former.

Returning into the main house, we may mention the
convenience of a waiting-room connected with the
master's private room ; and again, connected with the
latter, a fire-proof strong closet and a grm closet. A
gentleman's bath and water-closet will be well added
to this nest of conveniences : a second bath and closet
for ladies being provided on the floor next above. On
each floor a housemaid's closet will be most welcome,
with a pipe jfrom the great reservoir in the roof, to
supply each with water for the bedrooms. The conve-
nience of a ready supply of water from one or more
reservoirs (to be filled, when not supplied by the rain;
with water ejected from the tank below by a force-
pump) will be obvious. The water-closets, baths,
butler's room, &c., will be jointly dependent on it.
The matter of water, though mentioned late in this
essay, will be among the first things considered by the
young architect, who has, no doubt, an adequate know-
ledge of well-sinking and steining. It only remains
to hint at the policy of providing ordinary closets
wherever a recess in the masonry may allow it ; for
among the stronger impulses of woman is a passion for
closets, shelves, rails, and pegs. To crown the ridge of
this part of our fabric of hints we simply allude to a
good and well-located dinner-bell.

[In large establishments, and especially in towns
where several stories are superimposed, the convenience
of service lifts is great, and should not be improvided
for. It is easy to provide a comer, a recess, or an
irregular space witbin the kitchen, or &QiN\ii%-Ti^^xo.,Hsst

88 HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTS.

sucli a purpose. Sometimes^ if the kitchen is on tlie
ground-floor, a hatchway for serving to the dining-
room obviates the necessity of the servants traversing
the passages and, perhaps, entrance hall, coming in
collision with visitors and guests, and not unfrequently
rendering the dinner cold. It is a singular instance of
English obstinacy and stubborn adherence to old usage,
that the employment of lifts is so uncommon in private
houses.]

Stabling, &c. — The usual accompaniment of a good
house is a good stable building ; and for many useful
particulars on this subject, as well as in respect to farm
buildings in general, we cannot do better than recom-
mend Loudon's " Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and
Villa Architecture.''

Let the young architect deny to none of his out-
buildings the same amount of care which the main
structure has had. All should show themselves to be
of the same family. The stable court will often afford
an opportunity for an advantageous display of simple
and expressive architecture. The interior of the quad-
rangle may exhibit the rough sketch of the more
finished external fafades, which will admit of much
characteristic decoration. For instance, the entrance
into the court forming the centre-piece of a range of
stables is a most legitimate opportimity for adopting
the general form of the Roman triumphal arch ; * and,
in fact, as good and handsome stables are becoming, more
and more, one of the signs of squirearchical importance,
the young architect will take the subject into his best
consideration. The following hints may be of service.

Space enough for a carriage to drive in, turn, and

* however pardonable in its day we cannot approve our author's
analogy.

STABLES, ETC.

be backed easily into the coach-bouse, not less tban
thirty feet wide. Large open porch before stable door
for cleaning dirty horses in wet weather. Harness-
room between the stable and coach-house, with an
opening in the partition wall for an Arnott's stove,
common to the coach-house and harness-room. It is
most essential that both of these should be dry, and
capable of being heated. Boxes not less than the
width of two stalls; each stall and box having an
efficient ventilating aperture close to the ceiling over
the horse's head. In the loft over, avoid flat collar-
beam roofe which thrust out
the walls. The annexed is
the ordinary roof adopted
by the author. Let not
your smallest stables be less
than ten feet high to the
under edge of the loft joists.
Give larger stables one or
two feet more. Avail your-
self of the additional air
space afforded by the depth
of joists, by having no plastered ceiling; but be
careAil that your floor boarding above is close, with
ploughed and tongued joints. [It is a good plan to
ventilate stables by carrying up wooden trunks through
roof, with caps.] Let your stall^posts run up to take a
head-piece to support the joists of the loft. If one side
of your extreme stall be necessarily a wooden partition
(which is not well), board it to the top : the kicking and
movements of a restless horse will shake down plaster-
ing. In coach-houses place guard stones, and form tram
courses and stops, to prevent the wheels, &c., from
rubbing against the walls and one another, and the
backs of carriages from being injured agamefc \Ji\a\i^OK. ^1

90 HINT8 TO TOUNa ABCHITBCTS.

the coach-house. Guard your doorposts with hard etone
plinths to direct the wheels on being backed in. Seven
feet clear space is ample for a carriage to paee through.
Width of Slabks, Sfc. — Widfli of stables and
depth of coach-houses not less than fifteen, commonly
sixteen, and need not exceed eighteen feet. Entrance
carriage-way into court not leas than ten feet clear.

Stable Fiitings. — Gentlemen and iieir grooms
didbr in the ideas to which tho following queries refer.
The young architect will therefore inquire — General
dimensions as to widths, depths, and heights? Are
the stalls to have sucrfaco drainage to trickle into the
open gutter at foot of stalls,
as 1 P or a central cesspit
and under gutter, as 3 ?
and are they to be flat-paTed
or pitch-paved ? (N.B. Be
careful that the open gutter
be not a trap to catch tho
hoof. It should be so wide
and shallow as to prevent
this danger, or be covered with a grating.) Are the
rack and manger to be of wood, level, and near the
ground, as 1 P or one above
the other, as 2 P or of cast
iron, and placed as 3 P Is
the hay to be thrown down
from the loft into the rack,
or brought to it irom a store
on the groimd level ? Is
the com to be in a chest
below P or to be supplied into the stable by a
trough connected with the com store in the loft?
(N.B. Case your com chest with tinned sheet iron,
or the rats and mice will work in.to it.) Is any

STABLE FimNGS. 91

portion of tlie loft to be employed for men's
sleeping-rooms P If so, there must be regular stairs ;
otherwise a step-ladder may serve. Consider the
position and provision of a door for admitting bay
and com into the loft. Is there to be a crane^ or
bracket with pulley, &c. ? Agree upon the position of
the dung-pit, as convenient for the removal of the dung
to the gardens or fields. Is it to be so constructed and
cemented as to hold liquid manure P Can you unite
the sewerage of the house with that of the stables P
(Do not conduct the water from the roof pipes and the
surface of yard into the liquid-manure tank.) Will
the pebble stones of the vicinity afford good paving P
or must you procure granite or other spalls for itP
Bemember that the tread and kicking of horses will
Boon disturb it, if it be not well bedded, close set, and
well rammed. Defects in this particular are of great
annoyance. Is a clock-tower required P a pigeon-house P
a dog-kennel P Stable privies will, of course, be placed
near the dung-pit. Are any open sheds required P
carpenter's shop P smithery P well P watering-tank P
separate horse infirmary P

[Iron fittings, racks, mangers, open gutters, stall
posts, ventilating ramps of cast iron, &c., now generally
supersede wooden fittings in stables ; they take up less
room, are cleaner and less absorbent, and far more
durable than wood. One of the best improvements is
the adoption of glazed or enamelled iron tiles for
lining the heads of stalls and boxes. Iron casements
and ventilating openings, and valves underneath the
roof or ceiling, should be employed in all cases. For
further information the yoimg architect is referred to
the various catalogues and works issued by well-known
manufacturers of stable fittings.]

For more detailed information on ihis «vi^^^\)^ ^3Cl^

92 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

for abondant instruction in regard to farm buildings,
&c., we again refer to Mr. Loudon's publications [or
Mr. Repton's valuable works].

Lodges : their Style. — ^A word on the subject of
lodges. They are too frequently more pretending in
tbeir architectural appearance than perfect in their
internal comfort. A living-room and a little closet of
a sleeping-room are crammed into a Portland stone
case ; and while the Greek order in its full external
development emulates an Athenian Propyleum, there
is little but dhovAQV within from the lack of those
absolute conveniences which even the humblest
cottager cannot do without. To preserve in cleanly
neatness the day-room (in which nobility itself some-
times takes shelter), and to prevent pots and pans
from showing in the front of our Doric portico, there
must be back rooms and back premises in reasonable
sufficiency. The poor lodgekeeper is rarely admitted
into those preparatory consultations which are open to
the housekeeper, butler, and cook ; and it therefore
behoves the architect to be his especial advocate. A
lodge, in fact, should be a little home, and not a little
temple.* There is not that difference between the lord
of the mansion and the keeper of the gate that there is
between a Christian and a house-dog. No man, who
is in the service of his wealthier fellow, should live in
a kennel, however smart its " complement extern."
Occupy, then, that space which will allow of subdivi-
sion into room for sitting and sleeping in comfort ; for
stowage of food, crockery, and fuel ; for cooking and
cleansing, and other necessary matters. Give the lodge-
keeper his well and pump, or, at least, his tank and

* Since our author's day, a less pretentious and more characteristic
ireatment ia eyinced in these buudings, happily for the dignity of
Art,

BtTILDING COMMITTEES. 93

filterer, tliat lie may not be denied the luxury allowed
by teetotalism.

In respect to the styky we tbink tbe principal en-
trance lodge should be a fitting prologue to the
'^swelling act of the imperial '^ mansion : true to it, in
architectural character, as the mansion portico to the
mansion itself. In the secondary and other lodges or
cottages, the caprice of a taste for variety may be in-
dulged. The lodge at the opening of the grand
avenue should, assuredly, be prophetical of the grand
structure at the end of it ; but there may well be, in
other parts of the ground, the Gothic lodge, the Italian
lodge, the thatched lodge, and the Strns cottage. The
strictest epic poem admits its episode ; and the
different pictorial aspects of different situations on a
gentleman's estate may be suggestive of differing
architectural models.

Btjiij)ing Committees. — In regard to all public
BUILDINGS, it would be impossible, in a work of this
limited extent, to give anything like the detailed
instruction which we have ventured to afford in
respect to domestic buildings. A few cautionary hints
on the manner of dealing with building committees
will prove valuable.

We suppose a case.

You have, either by successful competition or
immediate commission, obtained the opportunity of
executing a church, or any other important structure,
in which the opinions of a Board of Directors are to
be collected and consulted. The most respectful
attention, and the most penetrating efforts to discover
the substance of those opinions, is, of course, your
duty ; and it is not impossible that you may succeed
in obtaining some manageable stuff to mould into
form; hut, under any circumstanoea, \\. \^ ^^^tvssJ^^

94 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

you should "oppose your patience** to their per-
plexities, and " arm yourself with a quietness of spirit
to meet the probable tyranny of theirs." That they
may have chosen your plan as the best of many, or
that they may have approved your design on general
grounds, must not leave you to imagine that the
" working drawings" are all you have now to prepare,
and the cares of uninterrupted supervision the only
ones you have to encounter ; since all the raw ideas of
improvement, which may successively and suddenly
suggest themselves to the various members of the
committee, must be disposed of either by the labour
of incorporating them with your own, or by long and
weighty arguments to prove them " frivolous," if not
" vexatious."

Necessity of authorised Instructions. — ^Take
pains, then, to explain your drawings fully before full
committee, and to get the signature of the chairman
attached to them before you proceed with the execu-
tive. Take especial care that the plans, to which your
first estimate had reference, be preserved ; and that
you obey no injunctions for increasing or altering those
plans, without first giving in writing (of which you
have a copy) a statement of the addition or deviation
which will be thereby occasioned in the cost. Improve-
ments will be constantly desired by unauthorised autho-
rity, of which chairmanship takes no current note ;
and, in the end, memory will only recognise the archi-
tect's original estimate.

Alterations and Additions. — Of course your
alterations and additions will be shown in a new set
of drawings ; the original set being put aside with its
proper estimate. Be urgent in again and again
begging the fullest consideration of your drawings and
specidoationB before you go to public tender, impress-

DRAWING XJP CONTRACT. 95

ing upon the committee the impolicy of making altera-
tions after a tender has been accepted.

Detailed Quantities. — ^Make it, however, a con-
dition with persons competing, that the one whose
tender is accepted shall give ia his detailed quantities
and prices. Before it is accepted, require him to abide
by any mistakes he may haye made in the former, and
to allow of any additions or reductions, at their Ml
amount of quantity, and at the prices which he now
gives in. It is his business to see that the quantities
are sufficient ; i/ours, that the prices are not too high.

It may be, on the reception of his tender, that there
appear reasons for reducing or augmenting the work.
If, however, this be not very important in its amount,
it may not be necessary to make fresh drawings, &c.,
as the contract may be concluded iu reference to those
already prepared, the deviations being shown iu making
the working drawings, being only careful that, before
the works commence, the diflference of cost be regularly
recorded by the treasurer, and that the order for
prbceeding be signed by the chairman.

Drawing up Contract. — ^We may here remark on
the advisability of an architect's being very clear in his
notice to contractors, and in his instructions to the
lawyer who draws up the contract. As a suggestion
for the former we submit the following : —

''To Builders and others. Persons 'willing to contract for the

erection of a at , in the parish of , county

of , may inspect the drawings and specifications at

, from the day of until the

—day of now next ensuing. Tenders to be givon in not

later tlum o'clock on the . The advertisers do

not engage to take the lowest tender ; nor will any he accepted unless
the character, means, and sureties of the person oftering it be satis-
factory, and the amount of the tender wiUiin a certain sum. All
further particulars or explanation will be given by the Architect at
his office ."

Dated Siga^' '

96 HINTS TO YOUNG AECHITECTS.

In addition to tlus^ many further cautions and inti-
mations may be necessary, or, at least, advisable ; but
these may be confined to the architect's office, or the
room where the drawings are deposited : and it may be
also urged, that all the parties tendering be required
to put down their questions on a paper to which all
shall have access, so that the replies attached shall by
all be seen : the object being, that, in fairness, all may
understand the architect's intention alike. State how
the legal expenses are to be borne.

Form of Agreement. — As lawyers invariably differ
in their way of wording an agreement, an architect
need be cautious how he ventures to act without their
assistance. It is the author's practice to submit to
the legal adviser of his employer a printed form, such
as experience has enabled him to prepare. It has been
often adopted at once, but still he ventures no further
than to give its general substance, devoid of legal
technicality.

" John Stokes, of , in the parish of , in the comity

of , having determined to erect a — at , in the

parish of , county of , according to the drawings and

specifications prepared by George Wightwick, Architect ; and William

Styles, of , in the parish of , in the county of ,

Builders, being willing to contract for the execution of the works, the

said Styles agrees for the sum of £ to perform them in a complete

and workmanlike manner, agreeably, not only with the letter of the
specification, and in conformity with the drawings now given, but also
with the full intention of the specification, and conformably with other
future drawings implied by the present, to the satisfaction of the Archi-
tect of the said Stokes ; it being understood that Stokes will have the
right of making any alterations or additions without vitiating the
contract, and that the difierence in the cost, so occasioned, shall be
estimated by his Architect : That, in the event of the Contractor's
bankruptcy, or of his failing to proceed satisfactorily, either as it
regards time, materials, or workmanship, his employer shall be at
liberty to employ other workmen, and to pay them out of tho money
which may yet remain unpaid to the Contractor, who will acknowledge
that the amount of money he may have received before his bankruptcy
is to be regarded as full payment for all the work he has done, as well
as for all the materials, &c., which may be on the premises at the
lime; and that if such remaining money and materials are insufficient,
the residue must ho paid on demand out of the bankrupt's estate : that

CERTIFICATES. 97

no money aball be at any time paid, except under the Architect's certi-
ficate that the works have been done satisfactorily; and that the
Contractor, under certain penalties, shall bind himself to complete tho

works on or before the day of y unless the Architect

shall justify delay : that at certain stated periods of the work the
Contractor shall receive money to the amount of two-thirds (or three-
fourths) the yalue of work &ne, as the Architect G^all estimate it,
and that the residue one-third (or one-fourtli) shall be paid within

months after the completion of the works, provided no

defects of workmanship or materials shall have shown themselves in
that time ; such defects to be remedied by the Contractor before it b0
paid."

Giving Certificates. — ^We need hardly caution the
young architect, before he gives a certificate, to be
very scrutinising in valuing the executed work accord-
ing to the proportional quantity , or, rather, with reference
to the retention of a sum assuredly adequate to com-
plete the building in the event of the contractor's
failure. Bodies of men acting for the public have but
little compassion for errors of judgment, still less of
arithmetic. It is here that the detailed tender is of
value. Try it, however, before you trust to it, and
learn by the trial how to treat it in justice to yourself.
Is it hard in an architect to bind a builder to his
deficiencies of quantity or price ? It is equally hard
upon himself; for he receives his percentage only on the
amount of the deficient estimate ! It is a point of in-
terest and honour in the contractor to take care that
he has a proper price : it is a point of honour only in
the architect — ^and against his interest — ^to see that the
contractor keeps to his price though it be too low.

Architect's Position. — The position which an archi-
tect occupies relatively to his employer and the con-
tractor is often very painful; and the very possible
conclusion of a rupture with one, or the dissatisfaction
of both, should so constantly be borne in mind, as to
prevent too liberal a construction of the contract on
the one hand, and too limited an one on the other.
There is a natural tendency in all young and ardent

98 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

minds to trust to tlie generosity of their patrons, the
liberal intentions of their builders, and the favour of
circumstMices ; and it ia therefore the more necessary
to impress upon the mind of the directing professor,
that the patron and the contractor are equally trustful
in the acuteness of the architect's foresight and in the
clearness of his intentions. It is well to insert in the
contract such a " saving clause " as the following : —

** And the Contractor doth hereby admit that the said specifications
and drawing are all-sufficient for me substantial and efficient erection
of the buildings, &c. : " —

but it will be worse than useless unless the architect,
in the event of a dispute, is enabled to show and to
prove that they really are so. A builder may justly
conceive that what he ^understands is what you mean ;
and he therefore unhesitatingly signs the admission
you require. Be careful, then, that you do not wrong
him by such vague clauses as may, in truth, be little
more than concealments of your own practical de-
ficiencies.

With this we conclude our series of miscellaneous
hints, and proceed in an attempt to facilitate the ope-
ration of the young architect in drawing his atten-
tion to such a methodical arrangement of practical
detail as may enable him the more assuredly to perfect
that most important of all means towards a " binding
contract,'* — a complete specification.

Only let him remember, that we profess to aid his
experience, and not to supply his ignorance.

* [It has been ruled that the architect is the agest of the employer
for all purposes relating to the building, but it has not been decisively
settled whether an architect has authority to order quantities and to
bind the employer to pay for them. Architects have by custom an
implied authority to do so, but this must always be proved. (See
Hoon V. Guardians of Witney Union.)]

PART IV.

PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRFCTION.

Section L

The Mechanical PRiNaPLES of Construction.
Equilibrium of Forces. — The foUowing is a summary
of the most important principles upon which ,the
balance and stability of structures depend ; and which
is here given for the convenience of the young architect.

1. Composition and Resolution of Forces. — If two
forces acting upon a point be represented in magnitude and
direction by tioo straight lines draicn from the pointy
then the diagonal of the parallelogram described upon
these lines will represent the resultant in magnitude and
direction.

Let the forces act along lines ox, oy (fig. 18), and let
them be represented by oa and ob. Complete the
parallelogram oacb, then the resultant force will act
in the direction of the diagonal oc and be equal to it
in magnitude. These three forces are consequently in
equilibrium if we suppose the resultant oc to act in an
opposite direction in the same line. When we thus
find a single force which is equivalent to two others
the parallelogram of forces becomes a rule for the com-
position of foTcee,

100 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Now the resultant oc may be found by trigonometry
thus:—

oc = V OA^ + OB^ + 2 OA - OB COS. AOB.

Its direction may be found by the formulae,

o,. . OB . . OA

Sin Aoc = 8%n AOB — . sm boc = sin aob —

oc' oc

When the two forces act on a point in directions
which include a right angle, the case is one deserving

>^:^

i^^

Fig. 18.

particular notice of the architect, as in the thrusts of
two arches or frames at right angles to each other.
The solution is then simply by Euc. I. 47.

where R represents resultant, p the force oa, and q the
force ob. For example, if p be 15 lbs. and q be 8 lbs.,
then

ii2 = (15)2 + (8)2 = 225 + 64 289,

therefore R = 17.

The above proposition may be stated in another way,
which, from its simplicity and constant use, is of great
value in designing structures.

TRIANGLE OP FORCES. 101

2. If three forces acting on a point he represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in
order, they mil keep the point in equilibrium.

Let ABC be the triangle^ and let p,q and r be throe
forces proportional to the sides bc, ca, ab, and re-
spectively parallel to them — ^p parallel to bc, q parallel

->7«

to CA, and r parallel to ab. Then forces represented
by bc, ca, and ab will keep the point at rest. The
dotted lines show how the proposition may be proved
by the parallelogram of forces, ab, ad, and ca being
three forces in equilibrium.

The above proposition is called ''The Triangle of
Forces."

The same question may be solved by calculation.
Let p, Q and b be the magnitudes of the three forces,
and dab, bac, cad the angles between their direc-
tions ; then.

Sin BAC : sin cad : sin dab : : p : r : q.

Each of these forces is equal and opposite to the
resultant of the other two ; or if three forces as above
keep a point in equilibrium, each force is proportional
to the sine of the angle between the directions of the
other two.

Another way of stating the same principle of great
use in determining the strains upon frames, as roof
trusses and the thrust of arches, is aa to\io^^\—

102 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

If three forces acting on a point keep it in equi-
librium, a triangle having its sides perpendicular to the
directions of the forces may be drawn, the sides being
respectively proportional to the forces perpendicular to
them.

Note, — Sometimes cases occur where it is easier to
apply the latter method of finding the proportionate
strains than that by parallel lines. The principle may
be applied in determining the weights for arch stones
in equilibrium (see section on Stability).

3. If any number of forces act at a point and he
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
polygon taken in order, they will be in equilibrium.

Let p,Q,R,s be forces acting at a point. From any
point A draw ab to represent p in magnitude and
direction, draw bc to represent q, cd to represent r,
and DE to represent s. Then ea will represent the

resultant in magnitude and direction, and these forces
will be in equilibrium. This method is applicable to
any number of forces, and is called " The Polygon of
Forcea*' It is often necessary to determine the re-
sultant of a system of forces acting at or through a
point, or the thrusts of a polygonal frame of bars (see
section on Stability).

Note. — It is not necessary that the forces should
lie in one plane.
4. As wo can compound two forces into one so we

RESOLUTION OP FORCES. 103

can resolve one force into two others in given
directions as ox, oy (fig. 18), For let oc represent
a force. Draw a parallelogram obca having oc as a
diagonal, then the force represented by oc is equal to
two forces represented by ob and oa respectively.
Thus, if we assign the directions of the two com-
ponents we can readily resolve any force into them.

One case deserves special notice.

To resolve a force into two others at right angles to
each other.

Let AX, AY (fig. 21) be at right angles, and let a
denote the angle rax, and r the force to be resolved,
X and Y the required components, then,

AX = AR cos a; ay = ar sin a ;

X2 ^ \^ 3= r2 . ^^g^ ^ ^ ^^^2 ^J _. r2

since sin^ a + cos^ a = 1.

Thus any force p may be resolved
into two others, f cos a and f sin a,
which are rectangular components of
the force p.

One very general rule of great
importance may be stated here.

To find the resolved part of a force ^^S- 21.

in any given direction. Multiply the expression for
the force by the cosine of the angle between the given
direction and that of the force.

Ex. — Let a weight of one ton be drawn up an in-
cline, and let its inclination to the horizon be 4°, then
the resolved part of the weight parallel to the incline
will be 1 X sin 4°, or 156-25 lbs., which will be the
necessary force required, neglecting friction. The re-
solved part of the weight, supported by the plane, will be

1 ton X cos 4P = 2234-5 lbs.

B, Another general case may be uo^^^il^ ^Q ^is^

104 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS,

the direction and magnitude of the resultant of any
number of forces acting in a plane at one point.

Assume any two directions at right angles as axes ;
resolve each force into two components x,y, along
those axes ; take the resultants of the components along
the axes separately, and they will be the rectangular
components of the resultant r of all the forces, thus —

Let AX, AY denote the rectangular components, then

R = Vax^ + AY^
and if 6 be the angle which ii makes with x

cos 6 = — ; sin 6 = — ; ,•, tan 6 = —
R R A x

When the forces act in different planes. Assume any
three directions at right angles to each other and
resolve the forces along those axes, proceeding as
before, or the resultant may be found graphically (3).
6. Moments. — This is a principle of constant occur-
rence and of great utility in construction, and one
which the architect should be perfectly familiar with.

The moment of a force
^ with respect to any

point, is the product of
that force into the per-
pendicular drawn from
its line of action to the
^^' ' point. Thus if ab be

the line of action of a force, o any point, and p denote
the force, its moment with respect to o is

P X OM

A coupk consists of two equal and opposite forces
acting at right angles to a rigid rod. Thus ff repre-
sent a couple of equal parallel and o]^ipo«vie ioT^<i^\ \.^

2'^

MOMEMTS. 105

the perpendicular distance between tliem^ is called the
arm or leverage, and the product, force x leverage, or f
X t. is the moment of the couple. The tendency of a
couple is to cause the plane of the couple to revolve, or
to make a rigid rod twist about its middle point.

The following important laws relating to moments
should be known : —

Anf/ number of forces acting in the same plane, and
any point being taken in that plane, the sum of the
moments of the forces tending to turn the plane in one
direction about that point is equal to the sum of the
moments of those tending to turn it in the opposite
direction.

It will be found moreover that if the forces acting
upon different points of such a system be transferred
to a single point and applied there, parallel to their
original directions, they will hold it at rest. Thus
forces acting as above are subject to the same con*
ditions as those necessary to the equilibrium of forces
at one point ; and also that the sums of their opposite
moments about a given point are equal.

Another interesting property may be noticed : since
the area of any triangle is equal to half the product of
the base into the altitude, the moment of a force may
be geometrically represented by tunce the area of a
triangle having for its base the given force, and for
its altitude the perpendicular drawn from it to the apex.
The following law results : —

If any number of forces acting in one plane, and being
in equilibrium, be represented by lines, and their ex-
tremities be joined with any point, then the sum of the
areas of the triangles formed which have for their bases
forces tending to turn the system in one direction shall be
equal to the sum of those tending to turn it in the other
direction.

J^...

c --^,

106 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

The same truth may be stated thus : — The alge-
braical sum of the moments of two forces round any
point in their plane is equal to the moment of their
resultant.

Parallel Forces.

7. The Principle of the Lever. — This principle
rests upon the preceding, and is one of paramount
importance.

Let us take three parallel forces in one plane which
2t balance each other. The sim-

plest illustration of this is a rigid
^ rod suspended from a point c as
B in the common balance, and hav-
ing two weights p and q attached
\ to its extremities a and b. Then
Fig. 23. if CA =jf? and cb = g^, we shall

have the proportion —

V : Q : : q : 2^, OT
p X p= Q X q;

or the relation may be expressed by saying that the
moments of p and q about c are equal.

This relation holds when the rod is not horizontal,
for by similar triangles

CA : CD : : cb : ce, or

P X CA = Q X CB.

The tension exerted by the third force, or the suspend-
ing string (omitting weight of rod), will be equal to
p + Q.

Thus to find the relative proportions of three parallel
forces in one plane which balance each other we draw
a straight line across the lines of action of the forces ;

PARALLEL FORCES ^THE LEVER. 107

then each force will be proportional to the distance
between the lines of action of the other two ; or in
symbols—

AB : BC : CA : : R : p : Q, and
P + Q + R = o

The proposition thus shown is true also of forces not
parallel.

Now a lever, which is a rod turning about a fixed
point or fulcrum, is acted upon by three forces : viz,
the weight to be raised, the power applied, and the
reaction of the fulcrum. We may distinguish three
kinds of lever : —

1st. When the fiilcrum is between the ])ower and
the weighty or a lever of the first kind.

2nd. When the tceight acts between the fiJcrum
and power y or a lever of the second kind.

3rd. When the power acts between the tceight and
the fulcrum, or a lever of the third kind.

In each case we must have moment of power about
fulcrum = moment of weight about same point, or
in all three cases by the principle of the equality of
moments (6).

p X perpendicular from fulcrum =
w X perpendicular from fulcrum.

In levers of the first and second kinds the resistance
generally exceeds the power; in the third it is less
than the power.

Since the lever in each case is held at rest by three
forces, it follows that the directions of these forces
must meet in a point ; thus if we produce the direc-
tions of the power and weight to meet in a point, the
direction of the third force or the reaction of fulcnun
is through that point.

Note. — The principle of the lever msc^ \i^ ^'^i^'^ifc^

108 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

from the parallelogram of forces, tliough it may inde-
pendently be made the basis of statics.

8. Centre of Gravity. — The centre of gravity of a
body is a point through which the resultant of the
weights of its elements passes in every position of the
body. Now every body is composed of a number of
forces acting in directions parallel to one another but
not always in the same plane. To find the magnitude
and direction of the resultant of such a system of
parallel forces: Find the resultant of any two forces
in one plane. Then, considering this resultant as a new
force, let us find its resultant with a third force. This
will be the resultant of the first three forces, and may be
combined with a fourth, and so on. The amount of the
last resultant found is the sum of the component forces.

To determine the position of the centre of gravity
of any system of bodies we have simply to assume
three difierent planes at right angles to each other,
and take the moments of those bodies from these three
planes; the point of intersection of the three resultants
thus obtained will be the centre required; for the
moment of the resultant of any number of parallel
forces, taken from any given plane parallel to them, is
equal to the sum of the moments of all those forces
from the same plane.

9. Centres of Gtramty of Symmetrical Figures. — ^If a
plane divides a figure into two symmetrical halves,
the centre of gravity will be in that plane ; if it can be
divided by two planes, the centre is in the line where
the two planes cut each other ; if the figure can be
symmetrically divided by three planes, the centre of
gravity will be their point of intersection. A circle, a
sphere, an ellipse, ellipsoid, &c., have their centres of
gravity at their geometrical centres. These cases

suppose the body to be of uniform density and weight.

CENTRE OF GRA\^TY. 109

Compound Figure. — ^In a figure of
two parts, whose centres are known,
A and B, draw a line a b. Multiply
its length by the magnitude of either
of the parts and divide by the whole
magnitude ; the quotient will be the
distance of the centre, c, from the centre
of the other part ; or, ^. ^,

^ BXAB F^ff-24.

A C =

A + B

To find the centre of gravity of two heavy particles or
weights : Join the particles by a line ab, and divide it at
L, so that A L may be to l b as the weight at b is to that at a.

A Parallelogram. — The centre of a parallelogram
is at the intersection of the straight lines which join
the middle points of opposite sides, or of the diagonals.

A Triangle. — ^The centre of gravity of a triangle is
found by following rule : Join the vertex or any angu-
lar point with the middle point of the opposite side,
then the centre is on this line at one-third of its
length from the side. The centre coincides evidently
with the centre of gravity of three equal heavy par-
ticles placed at the angles of triangle.

Triangular Pyramid. — ^The centre of gravity of a
pyramid is determined thus : Join any angular point
with the centre of gravity of the opposite face, then the
centre is on this straight line at one-fourth its height
from base. The same result holds for any pyramid
having a polygonal base, and also for a cone.

[For more extensive information on the subject of
Mechanics and the demonstrative part of Statics, the
reader is referred to Todhunter's "Mechanics for
Beginners,'' Goodwin's " Statics," Twisden's " Practical
Mechanics," and the more exhaustive works of Canon
Moseley and Professor Rankine.}

110 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Section II.

10. Balance and Stability of Structures. — "No
part of the young architect's education, nor the natural
gifts with which he may be endowed, which more
especially fit him for an artist, as expertness with his
pencil and brush, will compensate or make amends for
a deficiency in the important subject of the present
section, which lies at the very threshold of archi-
tectural knowledge, and is the very basis upon which
fine-art architecture rests.

A thorough acquaintance with the preceding section,
and the application of those principles to actual struc-
tures in brick, stone, timber, iron, &c., is necessary
before any attempt is made to design structures upon
whose safety depend the lives of many engaged in
their erection, as well as of those who occupy them.

For a complete knowledge of construction, the reader
is referred to Professor Rankine's works, or he may
consult with advantage the various works on construc-
tion in Weale's Series, and afterwards make himself
familiar with the able treatises of Tredgold, Barlow,
Hodgkinson, and others, on their special branches.

It is simply proposed here to ofier a few hints and
simple methods of testing the stability of structures, as
abutments, walls, piers, arches, and the means of find-
ing the strains on timber and iron constructions in a
few ordinary cases. Practical architects, it is true,
seldom resort to such methods of testing their work,
and others do not take that trouble : in the former
case actual experience and precedent is relied upon ;
in the latter the indifierence proceeds from ignorance,
or what is often the case, from a repugnance to what is
deemed irksome and laborious. The young architect
cannot be too forewarned against this snare. It pro-

STABILITY OF WALLS,

111

ceeds from an ardent enthusiasm for the more artistic
part of his profession, which often despises the critical,
mathematical, and precise for the ideal result ; it allows
the merely emotional to dominate, frequently to the
neglect of truth and science. Let him, however, never
neglect the essential, the mathematical, and exact for
the sensuous impression, which is often unreliable ; the
trouble the exeonination gives tends to verify and cor-
rect the a)sthetic ideas, and may save the yoimg archi-
tect the remorse of an unexpected failure or the ruin of
his reputation. These remarks are more called for
now, when the young enthusiast is so apt to consult
his eye and imagination solely, and to place an unre-
served faith in them.

11. Stability of "Walls, &c. — The application of
the Principle of Moments (Section I.) to the equili-
brium and stability of walls is one of great importance.

Let a B c D (fig. 25) be a section of a wall, acted on by a

Fig. 25. Fig. 26.

pressure p, in the direction p n ; it is clear that if wo
neglect the adhesion of the mortar at any bed-joint as
A B, and consider the wall as a continuous mass, there
will be a certain pressure of p, which will just tend to
turn it round the point a, and this pi^.^xjct^ ^'^ \i^

112 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

the greatest the wall can support. This pressure is
determined by the rule that its moment about th« point
A shall equal the moment of the weight of the wall
about the same point.

Ez. — Let a wall of brickwork (fig. 25), 18 inches thick
and 25 leet high, sustain on the inner edge of its summit
a pressure on each foot of its length at an angle of 60'^
with the horizon. To find the greatest pressure that
the wall can bear without being overturned proceed as
follows : — Draw the section of wall to scale. Make the
angle b n n equal 30^ which the direction of pressure
makes to the wall, draw a n perpendicular to p n, and
through the centre of gravity of wall g draw the ver-
tical G M, cutting its base in m, then by the Principle
pf Moments, pxan = v^xam;w being the weight,
which if ,we put at 4200 lbs., the pressure p will equal
by construction 286 lbs., or that force which just
balances the weight of wall. From such a determination
it is easy to increase the thickness of wall at its base,
especially to ensure the requisite amount of stability.

Buttresses. — It will be observed that by placing
buttresses at intervals along the wall the effect is to
diminish the moment of p, and to increase the weight
of wall ; also if the weight of the buttresses is consi-
dered, the moment of the weight of wall is increased.
In most buildings the thrust at the simimit of wall is
concentrated at the buttresses, as in the case of groined
vaults, and the intervening walling bears little or no
pressure ; in such cases, if in equilibrio, the moment of
lateral thrust equals that of the weight of buttresses.
The plates upon which the rafters of a roof pitch,
however, tend to equalise the thrusts, and each but-
tress with its adjacent halves of walling must be taken
into the calculation in finding the moment of weight.
The pressures to which walls are generally exposed

STABILITY OF WALLS. 113

are tliose occasioned by the thrust of arches, yaults^
and roof principals.

Modes of Failure. — Walls may yield in different
ways ; 1st, by one portion sliding upon the other ;
2nd, by some portion turning over about one of the
edges or bed-joints ; 3rd, by crushing of the material,
the pressure exceeding its cohesive strength. In the
method above given, the second of these failures only
is considered, the resistance offered by the friction of
the mortar being generally sufficient to prevent the
mere sliding of the material ; therefore, in taking the
moments, the lowest bed-joint should be taken, or that
just above the ground. Walls often fail from the
ground yielding under the pressure caused by a thrust ;
the wall then becomes a powerful lever.

Another way of regarding the stability of walls is as
follows : —

Let A B c D (fig. 26) be a wall sustaining a pressure
p, acting in the direction p g, and let g ^i be the direc-
tion of the weight of wall, acting through its centre
of gravity, intersecting the former pressure in g. Set
off G I to represent the weight of wall, and gf the
pressure; then the diagonal gh will bo their re-
sultant, acting in the line g h k.

Let NO be a joint; then if the angle kgm, which
the resultant makes with the perpendicular, be greater
than the limiting angle of resistance,* the upper
portion will slide upon the lower, noab (friction
being neglected) ; if, on the contrary, the angle made
by the resultant is less than the limiting angle of
resistance, the parts cannot slide upon each other, and

• The " limiting angle of resistance " is the greatest angle which the
reaction of a surmce in contact makes with the normal to it, without
motion. Its value varies for different materials. It is of great im-
portance in the investigation of stuhility oi aicVvc^^ «ciA ^vsi^ Vy:^

114 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

the stability will be greatest if the resultant, g k, is
perpendicular to this joint, or ensured if it passes
within the base of wall. If it passes tvithout, the
wall will be weakest at the nearest joint, as no, the
upper part tending to turn on its outer edge n.

It is evident the pressure upon such a joint, when
the resultant acts near one edge of the wall, is one of
varying intensity; and in designing abutments and
lofty towers, or chimney shafts, the resistance offered
by the material at such an edge must be sufficient to
prevent its crushing ; hence the stability of walls and
piers, &c., depends upon the magnitude and direction
of the resultant of the pressure from without, as thrust,
force of wind, &c., and the weight of structure itself
combined. Inattention to this, or the supposition that
the whole base or section of a wall receives the pressures,
has been the source of many lamentable failures, and
accidents to life and property.

Professor Rankine gives the following rules : —

Given the load on a bed-joint and the position of the
centre of pressure, to find approximately the intensity
of pressure at the nearest edge.

In abutments of arches, divide ttcice the load by the
area of the bed ; in retaining- walls multiply the breadth
of the bed by once and a half the distance of the centre
of pressure from the nearest edge, and with the product
divide the load ; the quotient is the required intensity.

The intensity thus found should not exceed one"
eighth of the crushing strength of material. The
moment of stability of an abutment may be calculated
thus: Multiply the superincumbent weight of mass
above bed-joint by the distance of the vertical line
through centre of gravity, from the limiting position*
of the centre of pressure of the bed-joint.

* i.e. safety against ovexlxmmis.

LINE OF RESISTANCE.

115

Practical experience has fixed the greatest deviation of
the centre of pressure from the centre of wall or pier at from
0*3 to 0*375 the whole thickness of wall at the bed-joint.

The Line of Resistance. — It is obvious that the
stability of a wall or pier, under any pressure, depends
on two conditions being fulfilled — 1st, that its
surfaces of contact, or joints, should not slide upon one
another ; and 2nd, that the pressure should not be
such as to cause any portion to turn upon its edge.

Let A BCD represent any structure with horizontal
courses, 1 2, 3 4, 5 6, &c., and let it be subjected to any
pressure p, along the line p a. Now this pressure at
every joint is compounded with
the weight of the stone, or mass,
above it. Thus the pressure p a
produced would cut the joint 1 2,
in d^ but the weight of mass
AB 1 2 is another pressure, and
the resultant (r) of these two
pressures would evidently cut
the joint 1 2 at some determinate
I)oint as J. Now the direction
of a & is J', but the total pressure
will be as before, the resultant
(Rj) of Ri and the weight of mass 12 3 4, and so
on, the original force, p, being deflected from the
straight line at every joint, forming a polygonal
line, a,b,c,d,e, as the resultant of the insistent
pressures. This line has been called by Professor
Moseley the " line of resistance,'' the resisting points of
the different surfaces being all in that line.

Now it is a condition of stability that this line of
resistance shall intersect every joint of the structure
and pass mithtn the mass of it. The line of resistance
continually approaches the extrados or owtet ^vxtfaa^ ^1

Fior. 27.

116 HINTS TO Y0X3NG ARCHITECTS.

a wall ; hence, if its lowest joint is cut by this line the
wall is stable ; if it cuts the extrados, unstable. The
line may be shown to be a hyperbola, though its deter-
mination in walls of ordinary section is seldom required.

12. Pressure of Wind. — ^The usual allowance for
the force of wind in Great Britain is 65 lbs. per square
foot. To find the pressure against a circular chimney
or tower, take half the area of its vertical cross-section
and multiply by the above pressure per square foot of
area; the resultant of this pressure will act at the
centre of magnitude of the vertical area exposed. The
moment of the pressure may be found by multiplying
its amount by the height of its resultant above base.

13. Pressure of Water. — The pressure of water

against each foot in breadth of a vertical plane is found to

depth^
= — ^ — X the weight of water (62 '5 lbs. per cubic foot).

14. Retaining Walls. — The centre of pressure of
a rectangular vertical wall, subjected to the pressure
of earth or water, is at two-thirds of the total depth
from the upper surface, and the direction of the
pressure is horizontal.

To find the thickness for a vertical retaining wall of
rectangular section supporting a bank of earth of the
same height,

Let If/ be the weight of earth ; (f) its angle of repose

or natural slope ; - the ratio of lateral to vertical

P
pressure of the layers of earth ; h = height of wall,

w = its weight ; and q = ratio of intended deviation
of centre of pressure from centre of base to the re-
quired thickness, t. For bank in horizontal layers—

Fanciaons of 0.

/ . t . ^ 25° 30° 35°
p J — Sin (b

- = , ~j—T~ = -406 -S^^ *^1\

-: = V(-

RETAINING WALLS.
iJp' \ .. 3

6qtap

j; if s' = -, then

117

Ra&

In a reservoir wall - = 1.*

or brickwork of
retaining walls
should be di-
minished by steps,
the diminution
being filled with
solid material of
equal weight. The
fax5e of the wall ^»- 28.

should be battered (straight or curved).

Table of Natural Slopxs of Eabth.

Angle of repoEO0.

Dry sand, clay, and mixed earth 37'' to 21°

Damp clay 45°

Wetclay 16°

Shingle and gravel 48° to 35°

The most usual dopes are 1^ to 1, and 2 to 1.

F&E88UBE ON FOUNDATIONS.

Tons on square foot.

Bock, moderately hard 9*0

Good concrete 3*0

Soft rock 1-8

Firm earth, clay, clean dry. gravel,
sharp sand prevented from spread- ) 1 to 1*5
ing.

* Fig. 28 shows a retaining wall supporting a hank of earth just on
the point of slipping ; h b is tiie plane at which the earth d h b sepa-
rates. The pressures acting upon this wedge of earth are its weight
denoted by oi, and the resistance of wall r, the resultant of these
being the pressure against the plane h b, this resultant making with
the perpendicular to s b, the limiting angle of resistance. The greatest
pressure is found to be when tlie angle dbh = ^dbk; hence it
is, as the weight of earth is to its pressure against the wall, so is

the height of wall to bh; and the pressure against wall= — ^ x

weight of cubic foot of earth acting at a point one-third from base. The

formula usually employed iS| Horizontal resistance = — r- tan^ \ a ;

w being weight j^er cubic root of bank *, ^ => Vqi^I q1 '^^^ ^ti\ q. ^=:>
angle ofropose with vertical*

118 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Dams, Dock and Quay "Walls*. — The pressure of
water increases with its depth simply ; therefore, to
determine the pressure against any surface, whatever
its position, vertical, inclined, or horizontal, multiply
the area of surface by the depth, in feet, of its centre
of gravity, below surface of water, and by 62*5 lbs.,
the weight of a cubic foot. The pressure at any point
= depth in feet x 62^.

15. Aeches of Brick and Stone. — ^Few structures
have received so great an amount of attention and learned
theory from mathematicians as the arch. Various
theories have been propounded, though generaUy the
practical conditions have been neglected ; thearch stones,
or " voussoirs," being regarded as smooth bodies devoid
of cement and free from friction. The elaborate theories
of such writers, while interesting, as evincing much
ingenuity and mathematical investigation, and as a
study of a speculative kind, must be regarded by the
young architect as useful only in directing his mind to
conceive the mechanical conditions involved, and to
enable him to distribute his weights, and to proportion
his structiire to the greatest advantage.

Arch of Eqtiilihrium, — The arch of equilibrium is
thus far a useful problem. Perhaps the best theory on
the subject is that of Canon Moseley, published in his
able work on" The Mechanical Principles of Engineering
and Architecture," to which the young architect is re-
ferred for a complete investigation of the subject of the
arch.

In actual practice the element of the cohesion of the
cement must be taken into account, and the mode in
which an arch actually fails gives us the best means of
determining the stability required.

When an arch is not in a condition of equilibrium,
or overloaded, and . the action of the cement is con-

THEORY OF THE ARCH. 119

sidered, it is found to yield by turning upon certain
joints, and separating into four segments, or portions,
as in fig. 29. This mode of failure is caused by the line of
pressure * cutting the .4

extradoB at the crown
A, and iAieintrados at
the points b and c,
called the " points of
rupture," the arch
separating at the
nearest or weakest
joints to such places. Fig. 29.

some portions turning upon their inner edges, b and
c, as on a pivot, and some upon their outer edges, as
at A^ thus causing the arch to sink at the crown and
rise at the haunches. Experiments have shown this
to be precisely the case. It is evident that the line of
pressure is dependent upon the weight or amount
of the horizontal force at the crown. The greatest
value of this force consistent with equilibrium is that
which causes the line of pressure to touch the extra-
dos ; its least value when it touches the intrados, and
when the pressure upon the keystone is the least
possible which would support either semi-arch. It is
evident also that the horizontal force at the crown is
increased by the load over it, and that the stability of
the arch is dependent upon the depth of keystone and
he cohesive resistance of the material.

Again, if there be a deficiency of weight at the
crown, the line of pressure falls below the intrados at
the crown and rises above the extrados at b and c,
causing a depression at the haunches and a rising at

* The Une of pressure is the direction of the resultant^ of the pres-
sures on the different joints of arch stones (see equilibrium of poly-
gonal frame of bars).

120 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

the crown. It is thus seen that there are certain limits
within which the stabihty of an arch is secure, as when
the line of pressure is within the substance of the arch
ring, or does not pass without its boundaries ; but that
when this line deviates so far as to cut the extrados
and thus destroy the equilibrium, the stability is
endangered. The greatest stability is ensured, there-
fore, by the line of pressure being made to cut all the
joints, or to pass within the middle portion of the arch
ring. Professor Rankine observes it should be within
the middle third of the arch thickness.*

Hence the stability of an arch is directly propor-
tional to the depth of its keystone multiplied by the
crushing strength of the material, and is inversely pro-
portional to its radius of curvature multiplied by the
weight on each square foot of the keystone.

Professor Rankine gives a rough approximation to
the horizontal thrust of an arch as follows : —

Take the weight of the vertical load supported
between the crown of arch and that point in the arch
ring where its inclination to the vertical is 45°.

The stability of an arch may be tested as follows : —

Let ABC be a semi-arch, def its abutment, and c
the joint of rupture. Through the centre of gravity of
the load between the crown a and the point of rupture, c,
draw a vertical line. Then, if from a point as m in that
line, two lines can be drawn, one as a tangent to the

* The line of pressure in an arch is generally that of an equili-
brated or inverted catenary, or ** curve of equilibrium,** and under
vertical loads it is very suitable. If a linear arch or rib balanced
under the real forces which act on the real arch can bo drawn within
the middle portion of the arch ring, the stability of the arch is secure.
The linear^ rib or ideal curve so drawn may be the hydrostatic arch
or that suited for equal pressures. It is necessary to assume such
linear arch parallel to the intrados of the proposed arch. For methods
of describing these the reader is referred to Rankine's "Applied
Mechanics.'* Such precautions are, however, unnecessary in design-
ing arches of ordinary span, in which the bond of brickwork and
mortar are taken into account. A pointed arch requires a greater load
at ibe crown than a circular or flat aich, "bxxtl^&a iXjuVxaRroX.*

THEORY OF THE ARCH.

J21

Pig. 80.

assumed arch curve or centre line at tbe joint of rupture,

and the other horizontal, so that the former line shall

cut the joint of

rupture, and the

latter the yertical

joint at the crown

in points which

are both within

the middle third of

the arch ring, the

stability of the arch

is secure. In this

case the stability is tested to the point of rupture

only ; bolow that point it is assumed to be stable.
For the stability of the abutments, the rule for

finding that for piers (Sect. II. 11) is applicable ; the

horizontal pressure of the arch being first found,

the stability of the abutment will be measured by
the moment of its weight about its outer edge at the
base ; or, to ensure stability, the moment of its weight
about the said point added to that of upper segment,
should exceed the moment of the thrust or weight of the
opposite semi-arch, taken acting at the point of rup-
ture ; or the sum of the moments of the weight of pier
and surcharge should exceed moment of thrust.

Practically, and regarding the
bond and cohesion of mortar, the
active thrust of an arch is as
the horizontal component, ab, of
the load on an inclined rigid bar,
AC, fig. 31, from the point of
rupture to the extrados at the
crown, or as the thrusts of two
inclined beams.

The chief object in investi- Fi%« ^^«

gnting the BtabUity of the arch ia to ftnSc \)tia \^^^;assJM5i

122 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

thickness of tlie abutments to resist the thrust, it being
premised that the pressure upon any joint between
the voussoirs should be such as not to exceed a safe
resisting power of the materials of the voussoirs.

For an investigation into the subject of arches and
domes the reader is also referred to the concise work of
Mr. Tarn on the " Science of Building.'' *

Angle of Rupture, — In circular arches the angle of
rupture is found to lie between 45° and 65° ; and hence,
if the squared backing is carried up to an angle of 45°
to the horizon it will be sufficient.

Depth of -ffeys^ow^.-^Rankine gives from 20 to 40
as good medium values of the excess which should
exist beyond the depth of keystone necessary to resist
the crushing of the material, as founded on the best
existing examples. He also gives the following
empirical rule : —

Take a mean proportional between the radius of
curvature of the intrados at crown, and a constant
whose values are as under for the depth of keystone, or
Depth of keystone for a single arch in feet

= ^/ ('12 X radius at crown).

Depth for an arch of a series as an arcade,

= \/ ('17 X radius at crown),

or " for equally intense external loads and equal angles
of rupture, the square of the thickness of keystone
should vary as the radius of intrados.'*

Abutments. — ^In some of the best examples of
bridges the thickness of the abutments ranges from
l-3rd to l-5th of the radius of curvature of arch at its
crown.

Piers. — For piers of a series of arches, the com-
mon thickness is from l-6th to l-7th of span. All

* Lockwood & Co.

STABILITY AND STKENGTH OF BEAMS. 123

•
»

large abutments should be built hollow, with "jack
arches, and have inverted arches at the foundations to
distribute the pressure.

16. Cupolas ob Domes depend upon similar principles
for their stability as the arch, ai^ a dome may be con-
sidered to be composed of a number of portions, or
vertical ribs, cut by planes whose intersections are in
the vertical axis of the dome. All domes exercise a
horizontal thrujst upon their supporting walls or
" drum," and therefore require iron bands, or chains,
inserted at, or just above, the springing. The
weakest joint of a hemispherical dome is found to be
that which makes 20° with the horizontal ; and it is at
this joint the thrust is greatest.

In Gothic or Pointed domes, the angle is smaller.

Stability and Strength op Beams.

17. Case I. — Suppose a beam (fig. 32) supported at
its ends, A and b, and loaded at some intermediate
point, l. Let the supporting pressures and direction
of the load be parallel to each other, as in figure,
where p represents the resultant of the load, including
weight of beam. Then, according to the principle of
the lever (Sect. I. fig. 23), each of the three forces is
proportional to the distance between the lines of action
of the other two, the load being the sum of the two
supporting pressures, or —

p : Rj : Kg • • A.B : lb : la, and —

p = Rl + R2

Case II. — Let the beam be inclined (fig. 33) so that
the pressures and load are not parallel as ab. As the
forces are in equilibrium, their lines of action must
meet in one pointy o, and are pTopoitioi\sl \j^ \!s^<^ *^^^

124

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

sides of a triangle respectively parallel to tlieir

directions.

To find the directions and magnitudes of the

f^ ^ ^ supporting forces. — Let p be

the resultant of load or weight
of beam acting through its
centre of gravity, l, and a and
B the supporting forces. Pro-

Fig. 32.

duce the line of action of b or r^ till it cuts the ver-
tical line CLP in o. Join oa and it will be the line
of action of the support a.

To find the forces. — Set off on the vertical line op

j^ the weight as ol to scale, and

y • ^xj^^d f ^lirough L draw a line parallel

^1 to the horizontal pressure, r^,

meeting oa in Rg, then the sides

'^ of the triangle thus formed will

give the ratios of the forces
Fig. 33. thus —

OL = weight; ORg = supporting pressure, a; and LR2 =
supporting pressure, b. Or, algebraically, if a and b
denote the angles made by the lines of action of the
supports with the vertical line of load, then —

p : Rj : Rg : : sin (a + b) : sin b : sin a.

Case III. — One of the most useful cases is that of

two beams abutting against

each other at their upper

ends, and against two walls

or supports at their lower

ends, and loaded at the apex,

as AB, AC, fig. 34.

Fig. 34. To find the strains along

each beam and the thrust against walls, — ^By the paral-

lelogram of forces (Sect. I.) xeaolve the load along the

EFFECT OF POSITION.

125

Fig. 35.

beams thus : make Ae equal the load ; draw ca i)arallel
to AC and ed parallel to ab ; also draw ab, cd pcrpen*
dicular to a« ; then the strain on
AB = a A. or edy and that on ac =
Adorae. Each of these strains can
be resolved also into vertical and
horizontal components thus: — a a
into Ab acting vertically, and into
a b acting horizontally ; also a d can
be resolved into ac acting vertically, and cd horizon-
tally ; or, by symbols, putting a and b for the respective
angles made by the beams with the vertical or load —

P : 14 : Rj : : «m (rt + J) : sin b : sin a.

The amount of weight on each wall depends on the

inclination of the two beams;

in the figure the wall at c sustains j

the greatest weight; the hori- |

zontal strains, however, will bo ^

found equal. -

18. Effect of Position. — ^In
designing any assemblage of ^^
beams or bars, the relative posi- |--^
tions of the pieces must be con- V
sidered. For example, in the case Fig. 36.

of a crane, we have a strut and tie, one piece sustaining
a compressive and the other a tensile strain ; and these
will depend on their relative inclination to the action of
the load.

Thus in fig. 35, ab sustains compression, and ac
tension, but both strains are equal.

In fig. 36, the strains are greatest with the same
weight, and the piece ba has the greatest strain, as
will be seen by the dotted parallelogram.

The young architect cannot be too "^^vcsviJax \^

126 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

considering the relative strains wliicli different posi-
tions create, by constructing the parallelogram of
strains for himself, and thus determining the kind of
joints or abutment necessary, and the sectional areas of
his timbers to support these strains.

It will be readily seen that the last case noticed, that
of a crane, is of common occurrence in roof-framing,
as in the instance of a principal rafter and strut, or
that of a hammer-beam and strut. It is particularly
necessary to discriminate carefully between pieces
subject to compression, tension, or cross strain.

Note. — ^It will be observed that there are two
methods available for finding the strains in structures,
the first and simplest being that by constructing the
parallelogram or triangle offerees called the " graphical"
method ; the second and most accurate by the applica-
tion of trigonometry, or by calculation (see Sect. I.).
For all practical purposes the graphical method is
suflBciently accurate, is less liable to error, and one
preferable for the architect from the facility it can be
used upon the working drawings themselves. In the
other method tables of sines and tangents are required.

Frames and Trusses.

19. A frame is composed of bars or beams connected
together at their ends, the beams being thus fixed in
their relative positions. It is clear that the joints
themselves offer little aid to the rigidity of such a frame,
so that we may consider the pieces capable of turning
about them unless fixed at both ends. The points
about which such movement would take place are
called the centres of resistance of the joints, the straight
lines joining these centres being the lines of resistance
o£ the beams, along which tlie tlarxista ot t^wsvons are

TRIANGULAR TRUSS. 127

propagated. If subject to a thrust the beam or bar is
a struty if to a pull a tie. In the design and construction
of firames or trusses it is essential to avoid cross strains,
and so to dispose the pieces composing a frame that
they shall be struts and ties only ; this is the science
of good framing, as it is evident, by confining each
piece to compressive and tensile strains, the material is
most economically employed, the sections or scantlings
of the pieces being designed to meet such strains only.

Triangular Frame. — The ordinary form of a frame
is that in which the pieces form a triangle or a system
of triangles.*

Let ABC (fig. 37) represent a frame of three bars or
pieces connected at the
angles. Let a load p be
applied at the apex, and
the supporting forces q
and R be those of the
walls or supports, then
their lines of action
must either be parallel ^'^' ^^•

or intersect in one point. It is evident these three
forces balance each other, and are therefore proportional
to the three sides of a triangle respectively parallel
to their directions.

When the three forces are parallel to each other, as
in the case of an ordinary roof frame, the triangle of
forces becomes a straight line, ca.

Draw OA parallel to a, ob to b, and oc to c, then if
the load ca be applied at the apex of frame, ab applied
at R, and bc applied at q, are the supporting forces, and
the lines oa, ob, oc represent the strains on the bars
a, b, c respectively.

♦• The triangle is the fiimplest and only figure^ the form of which is
perfectly rigid, its sides remaining imaltetea.

128 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

From o draw oh perpendicular to ca, then that line
represents a component of the strain which is equal in
each piece, and is the horizontal thrust of the frame.
The trigonometrical relations are as f oUows : —
Let a, b, c denote the respective angles of the bars
A, B, c to the horizontal line oh, then —

load CA

Horizontal stress oh = 7 ^—7 (1)

tan c + tan a ^ *

Supporting forces ab = oh (tan a — tan h) ,^.

Bc = oh (tan h + tan c) ^ '

!0A = oh , sec a
OB = OH . sec i (3)

oc = OH , sec c

In a polygonal frame a similar method is to be
used, the strains on the several pieces or bars being
found by drawing radiating lines parallel to the bars
from a point to the vertical straight line representing
the parallel forces or the load and supporting reactions ;
the segments into which these radiating lines divide
the vertical line will then represent the forces which
respectively act at the joints of every two consecutive
bars, and the whole vertical line represents the total
load.

The relations of the forces are as follows : —
Let the horizontal component be denoted by h, and
let a and h denote the angles of inclination of any two
bars to the horizontal; and r, Rj the respective strains
along the two bars ; and p the resultant of the external
forces acting through the joint between the two bars,
then —

p = H (tan a + tan h)

R = H . sec a ; and Rj = h • sec 5.

20. Roof Trusses. — ^It is often xeq^iired to dstermine

A 7 €

ROOF TRUSSES. 129

the strains wbich the several pieces of a roof truss are
suhject to, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining
the requisite scant
lings of the timbers *
or, in the case of an
iron roof, the sectional *^*

areas of the rafters, struts, and ties.

Let figure 38 represent an ordinary king and queen
rod truss either of iron or timber.

The strains on the main triangle can be found by
diagram as before, making the vertical line represent
half the gross weight on the roof (see Art. 19) ; or,
algebraically, let w be gross weight of truss, together
with the division of roof which it carries, or from
middle to middle of adjacent bays : — ^Let c = half span
of truss; k = its rise; i = inclination of rafters ; h
= tension along tie beam ; t = thrust along each raf-
ter; then

4 tan

-.or,H
t

o A/

- "A/

T =

V H« +

w2 _
16

'n.+

+ tan H =

: H sec i.

These give the strains on the primary truss. For the
aecondury trussing we must find the load on the points
2 and 3 ; the secondary trusses being a 2 6 and b 3 6.

Distribution of Load. — The weight of roof is
distributed over the points a, 1, 2, c, 3, 4, b ; one'
twelfth resting on each point of support a and b, and
one-sixth on the five points 1, 2, c, 3, 4. The loads at
2 and 3 are each ^ w, or half of load between 2 and c,
and half of load between 2 and a, or owe-Aa^ between
A and c. The strains to be found by equations
(1) (2) (3) of article 19. Tho smaller ^^^-vi^ssrj

G 3

130 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

trusses are A 17 and b 45, and each of the points 1 and
4 sustains -i^th w.

Tensions. — The main suspension rod c 6 sustains -^ w,
and l-12th w hangs by the queen rods 2, 7, and 3, 5.

The tension between 7 and 5 of tie beam is the sum
of the tensions due to the primary and secondary
trusses ; the tensions at the ends between a and 7 and
B and 5, are those due to all three trusses.

Thrusts. — ^Again, the thrust on c 2 is due to large
truss; that on 2, 1 to the primary and secondary
trusses ; and that on 1 a to all three trusses.

In trussing roofs, &c., the following maxims should
be observed : —

1. — The main truss should be composed of one or
more large triangles, the simpler the arrangement the
better.

2. — ^Avoid multiplicity of joints, and give to each
piece its proper joints.

3. — Design the frame so that every load or strain
should be met by a direct support or line of resistance,
either compressive or tensile.

4. — ^Avoid cross strains.

5. — ^Throw the greatest loads at the points of
support.

21. Arched Ribs. — ^When under a vertical load
distributed on each side of the crown of the arch :
To find the total horizontal pressure against the rib
below a given point, graphically —

Let c be any point in the rib. In the diagram of
strains, draw oc parallel to a tangent to rib at c.
Draw vertical line oA as scale of loads, and take oh to
represent vertical load on arc ac. Draw he horizontal,
cutting oc in c, then oe will be thrust along rib at c,
and he will be the horizontal pressure exerted against
CB, the part of rib below c.

ARCHED RIBS.

131

Or algebraically, let h = horizontal pressure or
thrust; p = vertical load supported by rib ac; t =

Fig. 39.

thrust along rib at c ; also let ox = (g, and oy = xc
= y be the co-ordinates of point c ; and let a be
inclination of arch at c or oc to the horizon, then —

H = p - = p cotan a ; and

T = v^ p2 + H^ = i/pH P^ cot 'a = P V 1 + cot ^a

= p cosec a.

At the crown a, the following^ rule is to be used. To
find the thrust at crown of rib : Multiply the radius
of curvature at the crown by the vertical load per
lineal unit of span there.

Ribs under Normal Pressure. — ^In a circular or
other rib under a normal pressure, ue. pressure equal
in all directions, as in the case of the hydrostatic arch,
or an arch sustaining liquid pressure of a given depth,
we have the following condition :—

The thrust at any normally pressed point of a rib is
the product of the radius of curvature by the intensity
of the pressure, the thrust being constant at every
point of the rib.

The figure of a hydrostatic aick \a \dL<gviSlvi'5!5L"^^

a;^

HIXIS TO TOrXO ASCHITECrS.

v^iutsOtt^ <narre^ «s that of an unifomi spring wlien bent, and
dt$;ipplficatioQ to the intrados of an arch-ring is useful.*
SvTUtJt^ found graphically. — ^As an example of the
gcaqphic method of finding the strains on trusses we
gire the following (fig. 40), as illostrating Professor
Maxwell's method of reciprocal figures. Let the load
be reduced to vertical loads f^, y^ ... on the joints of
rafters; g^ Oj . . « on joints of tie. Let f^ P2 be the

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

reactions of walls (shown out of the perpendicular,
' to avoid overlapping of the lines). To draw the dia-
gram of stresses (fig. 41), the polygon of external
fcroes is first drawn by making f^, Fj, . . . p^, Pi,
fi|, G2 • • • parallel to the corresponding lines in the

* For a fall inyestigation of this subject, bqq BAnkine's ** Applied
MfotAatoa/' pp, 182, &P-

JOINTS IN CABFENTRT. 133

diagram of tmss^ aad equal to tlie forces taken in order
on any scale. At the right hand joint the forces acting
F^ Fj 6^, and the stresses on a^, b^ at a point are repre-
sented in the stress diagram by a polygon. Complete
this polygon by drawing lines parallel to a^, 6^, at the
unclosed extremities of lines representing the other
forces. At the next joint the forces acting are Fj ;
and the stresses Oi^ 02, c^ ; of these, Fj and the stress on
«i are already drawn. Complete polygon by drawing
lines parallel to a^y c^. This process will give the stress
diagram, the lengths of the lines will then give the
strains on the corresponding bars.*

22. Strength of Timber. — ^In fixing the scantlings
of timbers of good pine, fir, or oak, the proper sectional
area for the compressive and tensile strains shotdd be
calculated.

The greatest strain (compressive and tensile) is
generally taken at 1,000 lbs. per square inch, and the
factor of safety averages from 8 to 10. Timber and
iron are exposed to these several strains : —

Longitudinal (E^'^^-on

{Distortion.
Twisting.
Bending.

23. Joints and fastenings in Carpentry. — These
are of several kinds, and the reader is referred to the
works of Tredgold and Nicholson for information of
the various joints used.

In designing joints, &c., the following principles
should be attended to : —

(1.) To avoid weakening the pieces of timber by
cutting or notching too deeply,

(2.) Each abutting joint or surface should be perpen-
dicular to the pressure it receives.

* The letters of referenoe in the diagrams explaia t\i^ ^TX^ysiL^xsi'^
strains*

134 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

(3.) The area of surface abutted on should be propor-
tioned to the pressure, so that it may not indent.

(4,) The surfaces of contact should befitted accurately,
in order that the pressure should be evenly borne.

(5.) All fastenings, as nails, spikes, bolts, straps, &c.,
should be of equal strength with the pieces connected.

In lengthening beams, the scarfing should be placed
where the bending moment is small. At the com-
pressed side of a beam the two pieces should have a
square shotdder ; oblique surfaces are bad, and apt to
splinter.

The surfaces oi a scarf should be parallel to the
direction of load, or " up and down," not flatwise.

Notching beams, as a joist or purlin upon a, girder
or principal, should be efiected without cutting deeply
into the piece ; it is best to cut a square notch in the
angles of both, so that the full depth of both pieces
remains unimpaired.

Mortises and Tenons. — ^In mortising a beam the
mortise should be cut at the middle of the depth of
beam, so that the fibres subject to compression and
tension at the upper and under side should be left.

A shouldered tenon should be used, so that the
shoulder should bear upon the edge of the beam,
instead of a long and deep tenon, which imduly
weakens the beam ; the tenon proper should be only
l-6th of the depth of cross beam.

Post and Beam-joints. — When a beam is to rest on
the top of a post or posts, a "notch and bridle" joint
is to be used, the bridle being an uncut portion in the
middle of the bearing beam into which the post is
fitted by a groove. The same joint is applicable when
a post rests on a beam.

Instead of the ordinary method of framing a
iiDg post between ends of rafters, it is best to let

WEIGHT OF FRAMING. 135

rafters i(^ut against eacli otlier^ and to notch a piece
on each side, bolted together to form the suspending
pieces (see Tredgold's " Carpentry ").

Abutment 'Joints. — ^When an oblique strut, as a
principal rafter, abuts on the end of a tie-beam, the
shoulder and end of strut should be cut at right angles
to the pressure or direction of strut, and this abutment
should be of sufficient area to transmit the thrust with-
out splintering the timber. Sometimes this is effected
by a simple notch on tie-beam, or by a tenon on the
strut fitting into a mortise on the tie ; or a bridle on
the tie fitting into a groove made in the shoulder of
strut. Iron straps or bolts are often used to keep the
pieces in their places.

Tredgold gives the following rule for finding
the length between shoulder and end of beam to
prevent the shearing of fibres in the direction of
beam. Divide four times the horizontal thrust of
rafter in lbs. by breadth in inches multipKed into
shearing force of a square inch in lbs. in direction of
the fibres, and quotient will give length in inches.
The resistance to shearing may be taken at 510 lbs.
per square inch ; in practice, four is the factor of
safety.

Bule to find horizontal thrust of inclined beams is
given by the formula —

w X half span

pr^=n = thrust.

2 Else

The above rule for shearing is applicable in ascer-
taining lengths of tenons from pin-holes, scarfs, and
other joints subject to tensile strains.

24. Weight of FRAmNG. — ^Tredgold gives the fol-
lowing approximate weights :—

136 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

lbs. lbs.

Weight of a square of partitioning from . 1,480 to 2,000

"Weight of a square of single joisted floor- ) ^ -^ gQO 2 000

mg without counterfloorinff. . ^ ' ' " *

"Weight of a square of framed flooring ^ g 50O 4 000

with, counterfloonng. j * " '

Per square.
7 cwt.

Minimum Slope.
4''

3 „
7J to 9 „

36 „
5 to 6 „

2i „

4*»
4'
25 J to 30"^

The highest numbers give weight in large buildings
and long bearings.

One cwt. per super foot is ample allowance for the
probable load on floor of an ordinary dwelling-house,
exclusive of floor itself.

Two cwt. per foot is suflBcient in ordinary warehouses
and factory floors.

25. LoABs ON KooFS — ^Data tor Design.

Lead covering

Zinc „ ^

Corrugated iron

Slates

Load for pressure of wind

Timber framing

Boarding f inch

The weight of slates per square foot = 8 lbs., tiles
13 lbs., pressure of wind about 8 lbs.

It is usual to take 40 lbs. per square foot as the basis of
calculation in designing roofs. In calculating for the
weight supported on each truss, the load must be taken
from centre to centre of trusses.

Half load rests on each principal rafter, and may be
considered as collected at apex and bearings; under
this supposition ^ of whole load will be the weight to
provide for.

Strength of Materials.

26. Beams of Timber and Iron. — For a full inves-
tigation of the theory of the resistance of beams, the
reader ia referred to the works of Tredgold, Barlow,

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 137

Rankine^ and otlier writers. We shall here content our-
selves with a few of the most useful principles and rules.

Definitions : Factor of Safety. — ^Is the ratio
which the breaking load bears to the working load^ and
varies for different materials.

Dead Load. — Is a steady load, as the weight of a walL

A Live or Moving Load. — Is a load applied sud-
denly, and accompanied by change and vibration, as
the load which floors and bridges are subject to.

The factors of safety followed in practice, and de-
duced from experiments made by Mr. Fairbairn and
others, are for —

l^fetals

Timber

Masonry

Dead load.

4 to 5
4

lire load.

6
8 to 10
8

Neutral Axis. — ^When a beam is subjected to a
cross strain, its upper fibres are compressed, and its loicer
extended. It follows there is a layer of the material
between these portions which is not exposed to either
of these strains ; this is called the "neutral surface " of
the beam. Where this surface or layer is intersected
by a vertical plane at section of rupture, the line of
intersection is called the " neutral axis " of the beam.
The position of the neutral surface varies for different
degrees of resistance to compression and tension.

Modulus of Elasticity. — Is the value of stiffness
a material possesses within the limits of its elasticity,
or it is the strain it can bear without sensible alteration.
If / be the original length of a prism of any material, x
the change in length produced by a longitudinal force f ;
£ A constant depending on the material, then,

a? : / : : F : e, or e = f - ; e is called the " modulus of

elasticity.**

138 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHlTECrTS.

Motnent of Inertia. — If we conceive a body to con-
sist of a number of heavy particles, and we multiply
the mass of each by the square of its perpendicular
distance from a given line or axis, the sum of all these
products is the " moment of inertia " of the body with
respect to that axis. In a rectangle of depth d and
breadth b the moment of inertia = A hd^»

Tension: To find the intensity of direct. — ^Divide
the load by the sectional area of the bar.

To find the sectional area of a bar to bear a given
had.

Divide the load by the proper modulus.

27. Resistance to Compression. — This is sensibly
equal to the resistance to tension. Direct crushing
takes place only when the material compressed oflPers
to the force a length not exceeding a certain ratio to
its diameter ; when this limit is exceeded, there is a
tendency to give way by bulging and bending laterally.
The cases included in compression are —

Stone and brick columns of ordinary proportions ;
pillars and struts of cast iron, when length does not
exceed about 6 times diameter; pillars and struts of
wrought iron, when length does not exceed 10 times
diameter ; pillars and struts of dry timber, in which
length does not exceed 20 times diameter.

Above rules for tension are applicable to these cases,
using the proper modulus of resistance to crushing.

Resistance to Direct Crushing. — Crushing load of
material = f x s, f being resistance of material in
lbs. on square inch, and s area of section in square
inches.

When the load is not uniform, or its resultant does
not coincide with the axis of pillar, the strength of the
joillar is diminished in the same ratio as the mean
intensity of strain is less than the maximum.

PILLARS. 139

Stone and brick columns should never exceed in
height 12 times their least thickness at base.

Long Pillars and Struts. — ^When the length greatly
exceeds the diameter^ failure or fracture takes place
by cross-breaking.

Mr. Hodgkinson^s formulae for cast-rron cylindrical
pillars which yield in this manner are as under : —

Solid Pillars whose length is not less than 30
diameters^

Let d = diameter in inches ; l = length in feet ;
A = constant multiplier^ theu^

Breaking load in tons = a ^

Hollow Columns. — ^Let n = external diameter, and
d = internal diameter in inches, then breaking load

D 3-6 ^ 3-6

= A r-= when L exceeds 25 d.

l1-7

Values of constant a,

tons.

For solid pillars, fixed ends . . . 4416
Hollow pillars, fixed ends . . . 44*3

ft X c
For short pillars the formula is w = —-——-, 6 =

6 + f c

breaking load for long pillars (see above) ; and c =
crushing load for section = 49 tons per square inch.
For Solid Square Red Deal (dry).

Breaking weight = 7*81 = a — ^

Safe load should not exceed one-tenth breaking load.
Resistance of timber to crushing when dry is from
i to |- of its tenacity. Moisture weakens the adhesion
of the fibres to about one-half oi that in dry state.

« d*'^ and l^^ means that the diameter in inches has to he raised to
3-6tti power and the length in feet to the l-7th power. These powers
are readil/ fonnd hy logarithms. (See Table.^

140 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

For long soUd columns the cylindrical section is
found to be rather stronger than the square, and the
triangular section stronger than the cylindrical, the
areas of section being equal.

28. Resistance to Cross Strain. — Moments of Rup-
ture. — (1.) The moment or strain at any point of a beam
fixed at one end and loaded at the other, is proportional
to the distance from the weight. The resistance of a
loaded beam to fracture depends upon the equaKty of
two moments — one the leverage, or Bending Moment,
the other the area of section at point of rupture, called
Moment of Resistance due to the molecular reaction of
the fibres, or when rupture takes place —

Breadth X depth *X conatantss: Weight X leverage.

(2.) When the weight is distributed uniformly, the
resultant of weight acts at the middle of the beam, so
that the leverage in this case is only half the former,
and therefore such a beam uniformly loaded will bear
twice as much as when loaded at one end.

(3.) When a beam is supported at both ends, and
loaded at some intermediate pointy s, putting p and q to
represent the supporting reactions at ends a and b, the
strain at any point s will be same as in first case, or

Q X B s. If 8 be the middle of beam the strain will be

^ weight X A B.

(4.) When the weight is distributed^ the strain at
middle of beam is only half as much as when weight is
concentrated there.

The strains at any points may be found graphically
by drawing a vertical at the point s, and making it
equal strain at that point, and drawing straight lines or
curves to ends of beam ; these will determine the ordi-
nates at any points. In cases (2) and (4) parabolas
determine the ordinates.

STIFFNESS OF TDfSBR — ^EITLES. 141

29. Stiffness.* — Beams supported at ends and
loaded in middle. The effect of a load to produce de-
flection in a beam is, as we haye seen (28), as the
leverage and load^ or the ''bending moment." The
force producing extension is also as the kngih and weight
directly f and the resistance to this force is inversely as
the breadth and square of the depth. But, combining
the equivalents of the extending and resisting forces,
deflection is as the weight and cube of length directly y and
as the breadth and cube of the depth inversely , that is, the
resistance to deflection is directly as the breadth into the
cube of depths and inversely as the weight into the cube
of length.

Let L = length of bearing in feet ; w = weight in
lbs. ; B = breadth in inches ; d = depth in inches ;
a = a constant determined by experiment for the
material ; s = deflection in inches then —

L* X w X a , 40XbXd*Xs* ,.,

s = 3 — and a = 3— . (1)

B X D^ L^ X w

Deflection should not exceed l-40th of an inch for

every foot in length, therefore dividing above formula

by 40

l' X w X a /o\

s = i • • (2)

40 X B X D^

Tredgold gives the following rules for the stifihess of
beams: —

To find the scantling of a piece of timber to sustain a
given weight when supported at ends.

Case 1. When breadth is given.

Bule. — Multiply the square of length in feet by the
weight in lbs., and this product by value of a. Divide
product by breadth in inches, and cube root of quotient
will give depth in inches.

♦ The foUoXiring are the most useful rules for the architect, as the
undue deflection of beams would serioualy affect a attu.ctvucQ«

142 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Case 2. When depth is given.

Rule. — Multiply the square of length in feet by
weight in lbs., and multiply this product by value of a.
Divide last product by cube of depth in inches, and
quotient will be required breadth.

It will be obvious a certain proportion between depth
and breadth is desirable to give a maximum rigidity.
Tredgold gives this when the breadth is to depth

as 0*6 is to 1 ; thus —^ X 0*6 = least breadth required

to prevent beam yielding sideways. The stiflfest beam
that can be cut out of a round tree gives breadth to

depth as 1 : \/3 or '58 : 1.

Strength of Beams. — The weight a beam will carry
without fracture depends upon the relation which exists
between the moments of " rupture " (28) and " resist-
ance'^ or the equality of the moments. The moment of
resistance is evidently due to the sum of forces of the
fibres of the beam at section of rupture, or a compound
action of resistance to tearing the lower fibres asunder
and crushing the upper fibres, the " neutral axis " being
the limiting extent of each action. Hence the resist-
ance of a beam at any section is directly as the moment
of inertia (26) about the neutral axis of the section, and
inversely as the distance of that axis from the farthest

cbd'^
edge of the section, or . The formula is reduced

to a simple one where the length of beam is given in

feet, the other dimensions being in inches, or

B X D^

X c = breaking weight ; and

B VC D

X c when beam is inclined.

1.008 ifi

BULES FOR SCAirrLINGS.

143

Values of constants a and c in above formulsD are for
the timber ordinarily used —

Fir, Riga .

„ Memel .
Oak, English
Fine, Red .

„ Yellow .

Oo]ie8.foToe

Per sq. inch.

lbs.

12,600

12!000
10,000

StiftoeflsCa)

•0114
•0089
•0119
•0148
•019

Strength (e)

359
545
557
447
383

(The above constants are based on experiments made

by most eminent authorities.)

When a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the

w
other the breaking weight as found above = — ; when

weight is uniformly distributed it = 2 w ; when beam

is fixed at both ends and loaded in middle, breaking

weight = 1^ w.

30. Floors and Roofs. — ^To find the depth of a joist

when length of bearing and breadth are given, the

distance apart being 12 inches from centre to centre.
Rule. — Divide the square of the length in feet by

the breadth in inches, and cube root of quotient

multiplied by 2*2 for fir will give depth in inches.
Girders for House Floors ten feet apart.
JRule. — ^Divide square of length in feet by breadth

in inches, and cube root of quotient X by 4*2 for fir

wiU give depth in inches.

Flitched Beams. — ^Wooden beams with flitches of

wrought-iron plate slightly increase the strength-
Hurst gives the following formula : —

B = breadth in inches.

D = depth in inches.

t = thickness of iron flitch in inches.

L = bearing in feet.

w = breaking weight in centre, in c\9i».

c = constant = 3-662 for oak ; 3-024 for Baltic fir.

144 HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTS.

w = - (CB + 30 t).

One-twelfth is assumed as thickness of flitch.

31. Principal Rafters. — To find scantling when
there is a king post, length, breadth, and span in feet
being given

•096 X ^ — = depth in inches.

When there are two queen posts multiply by decimal
0-155 instead.

Common Rafters. — Depth is found by following
rule, breadth being 2 to 2^ inches.

0-72 X -; — = depth in inches.
\/b

Purlins with long bearings may be trussed with
wrought-iron rods. Depth may be l-12th the span,
and distance of stays apart l-8rd span.

Section III.

32. Iron Construction. — The same principles and
formulae which determine the stability of timber
frames are applicable to iron structures. The young
architect should make himself thoroughly conversant
with the experimental researches of Tredgold, Barlow,
Hodgkinson, Fairbaim, Kirkaldy, and others who
have investigated the principles of iron structures,
as this material must ultimately take the place of
timber in all important structures. The neglect of iron
among architects has given engineers a great start in
the art of construction ; and the architect who wishes
to keep pace with modern invention and science must
jealously guard all encroachments upon those materials
which are reckoned among the great resources of the

present age.

CAST IRON. 145

Among the many uses for whicli iron may be
employed we may enimierate flooring, roofing, either
partially or wholly, supports as columns, bracketed
structures, stairs, window-casements, besides the multi-
farious purposes where rigidity and strength are required
in the least space.

Cast iron affords the architect a material which he
can readily adapt in innumerable cases in which timber
or stone is inadmissible, as in balustrades, crestings,
spandrels, brackets, verandahs, balconies, &c., &c. It
can be cast or moulded into every conceivable form or
pattern, as in moulded gutterings, pillars, &c.
' Wrought iron, though less plastic, is even more
valuable as a constructive material, and may be
employed in all cases where heavy weights are to be
carried, or light structures, as roofs, erected. For
girders, simple or trussed, domical construction, and
where extreme lightness and rigidity are to be com-
bined, no material, or mode of construction, can super-
sede it. As a fireproof material it is preferable to cast
iron ; and when cased in concrete, or plaster, or protected
from the direct action of fire, it may ultimately be made
the most resistant of all materials.

Cast Iron should be limited to the action of
stationary loads. Its brittleness, from the carbon it
possesses, renders it necessary to confine its use to
purposes where great changes of temperature are not
felt. Its crushing resistanjce is about six times as great
as its resistance to cross strain ; hence it should be
used only for beams, columns, struts of short length,
sockets, and castings which are not exposed to sudden
cross strains.

The best kinds of cast iron for large structures are
Nos. 2 and 3 of grey cast iron ; granular white cast
iron is the hardest, but more brittle.

146 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Iron is sounder by being cast under pressure and
in a vertical position ; the air bubbles ascend to the
head. Allowance should be made for expansion and
contraction of the castings. In designing patterns for
castings all abrupt variations in the thickness of metal
should be avoided, so as to prevent unequal contraction
in cooling, and thereby injury or fracture of the iron.

Strength of Cast-iron Beams. — ^From experiments
made by Prof Hodgkinson it has been found that the
strongest form of section for a beam of given depth is
that in which the top and bottom flanges are to one
another in the same proportion as the ratio of resistance
of extension to crushing, or aa 1 to 6.

For the strength of an iron beam we have the follow-
ing approximate formula ; putting a for sectional area,
in inches, of bottom flange, d for depth in inches, / for
bearing in inches, w breaking weight in centre, in tons,
and c, a constant, we have —

a d
/

The constant generally taken in practice is 25 tons.
The central web between flanges should be made to
taper upwards, and the lower flange be made
to contain the most metal, its width being
three times, or twice, as great as the upper
^ flange, since the latter is subject to compres-
sion and the lower to tension. A strain of more
than 1^ ton per inch is injurious on lower flange.
The depth of cast-iron beams should be from l-12th
to 1-1 6th of the span.

For a girder of uniform strength in every part of its

length, it may be diminished towards the ends in the

proportion of the rectangles of the segments at every

point Thua if depth at ends equals % of centre depth.

WROUGHT-IRON BEAMS. 147

an elliptical curve may be drawn for tlie web and
upper flange. Or a similar diminution may be made
in the plan of lower flange by making it a double
parabola, or of segmental curves. It is evident a
uniform section tbrougbout entails a waste of metal at
the extreme ends.*

Wrought -IRON Beams. — Wrought, or malleable,
iron is made by the abstraction of carbon and other
impurities from pig iron. It is more fibrous, tougher
in quality, and more compact than cast iron. Its
resistance to compression is about two-thirds of its
resistance to extension, and its tenacity recommends it
for resisting cross and tensile strains. Kirkaldy gives
25 tons per square inch for the tensile strength of
wrought iron in bars, and 22 tons for plate iron. In
designing pieces of forged iron subject to sudden
shocks, angles and irregularities should be avoided, as
they induce fracture.

For Wrought'iron Piute Girders the following
formula is approximately correct.

Let / = length of girder in feet, w = distributed
load in tons ; d = depth in feet ; s = strain on top
and bottom flange, at centre, in tons. Then

"Yf I . • "W I

s = — ; and when total load is in centre — *
8d 4:d

Wrought iron may be strained in compression to four
tons per square inch, and in tension to five tons ; so
the effective sectional areas of top and bottom flanges
should be determined accordingly, the rivet holes being
taken into account.

Depth taken at l-12th span is regarded as economical
for a straight girder.

* Cast-iron beams should not be loaded with a permanent load q1
more than ooe-sizth of breaking weight.

148 HINTS TO YOUNG AECHITECTS.

The " box ** girder is found to be stronger than the
I-shaped of the same weight, in the proportion of 100
to 93. For large girders the '* lattice" principle is
most economical ; it exposes less surface to wind than
the solid web.

In large plate girders the web must be stiffened at
intervals by angle irons and stay ribs.* Width of
bottom flange may be taken about § depth. The top
flange is generally made of larger sectional area than
the lower, to provide for the comparative weakness of
wrought iron under compression. Brunei ingeniously
effected this by giving the top flange a curved shape
without increasing area of metal.

(For detailed particulars the reader is referred to
Hodgkinson's work, and other treatises on wrought-
iron plate girders.)

Rolled Iron Beams, or joists, are now generally
used for ordinary floors and short bearings. The metal
is rolled in one piece. Sometimes, for additional
strength, two rolled beams are bolted one on the other,
or horizontally combined by additional flange-plates,
which constitutes a very effective beam. Steel is now
often used where great tenacity is required, or the
action of fire is to be withstood, t

Dr. Fairbaim has, in a series of experiments, found
that the effects of long-continued vibratory action, and
changes of load upon wrought-iron bridges and girders
seriously affect the material, and that five tons per
square inch should be the maximum strain produced by
both permanent and moving load.

♦ The web or part between flanges has to resist the shearing force.
When a beam supported at ends is loaded in centre, the shearing force
at every point=jw; when load is distributed it is greatest at sup-
ports, and nothing in centre.

t Iron beams and columns should be cased in earthenware or

Jilaster as a non-conductor. These casings could be moulded to any
ea^. Plaster hollow pots between joista ceiled underneath are
equally fre-reaistiDg.

ROLLED IRON BEAMS. 149

The cliemical action induced by moisture and smoke
on iron renders it necessary to provide a due thickness
of metal in all permanent structures, as well as the
necessity of a coating of paint, which shall arrest
corrosion.*

Steel, as a building material, is now, for special
purposes of construction, superseding malleable iron.
It is compounded of pure iron and carbon ; the propor-
tion of the latter varying according to the requirements
for ductility or hardness. Bessemer's process has
greatly facilitated the manufacture, and it can be
rolled or hammered into joists, railway bars, &o.

Girders, and joists, and pillars made of steel are less
liable to fracture or twist than iron under the action of
fire. For roof framing, too, it ofEers extreme lightness
and durability. Its resistance to tension is only half
its resistance to compression ; so the lower flanges of
girders should be twice the area of top. The strength
of steel columns is said to be double that of solid cast-
iron ones of equal size, and about 30 diameters. For
steam boilers steel plates of ^V ^^^ ''^ ^®^^ ^ pres-
sure of 100 lbs. on the square inch. Mr. Earkaldy's
experiments have shown that a high breaking strain
ma]/ be due to hard unyielding quality, and a low one
to softness. The contraction of area at fracture is
an essential element in judging of quality. It appears
also thiat the breaking strain of puddled steel plates
and iron is greatest in the direction in which they have
been rolled ; in cast steel, the reverse.

♦ See Mr. Matheson's " Works in Iron." The author recommends
oxide of iron paints for aU iron work, and bituminous paint for tho
inside of pipes. BarflTs process of exposing iron to superheated steam
has been well spoken of.

PART V.

SANITARY CONSTRUCTION.

The questions involved in tlie Drainage, Ventilation,
and Warming of buildings demand the serious atten-
tion of tlie young architect. Next to the stability
and arrangement of his structures, their sanitary
condition is the most important of the various func-
tions he is called upon to provide for. Here an
extended knowledge of physical science, as regards
the phenomena of heat and atmospheric changes,
the origin, distribution, weight, and elasticity of
gases, the chemical properties of air and water, the
principles of hydrostatics, pneumatics, and thermo-
dynamics will be of infinite service to him. He should
remember that his profession entails upon him more
direct and responsible duties than those of design in
the abstract. He really becomes the administrator of
public health or disease. Whole families depend on
his careM attention to matters of drainage and ventila-
tion, and public health is in a large degree entrusted to
his control in the design and construction of large
public buildings, as workhouses, schools, factories,
churches, and the Hke, where human beings congre-
gate in large numbers, and disease and death itself ar(?
frequently propagated by infection or otherwise.

OPEN FIREPLACES. 151

Section I. — ^Warming.

To regulate temperature is one of the greatest
secrets of the art of warming. The laws of heat
belong to a special branch of natural philosophy,
to which the student is referred. Combustion is
the chief source of artificial heat, and consists of the
rapid union of the oxygen of the air with various
substances for which it has a strong chemical attrac-
tion. Our ordinary combustibles or fuels are composed
chiefly of two simple elements, carbon and hydrogen.
The carbon of the fuel unites with a certain proportion
(2|^ times) of its weight of oxygen, and forms carbonic
acid gas, and the hydrogen unites with about 8 times
its weight, forming water or vapour. The complete
combustion of a pound of coals requires about 230 cubic
feet of air. The nitrogen of this air, which forms four-
fifths of its bulk, mingling with the carbonic acid and
vapour, ascends in a gaseous form from the fire. Smoke
from coal is the vapour which rises from the carbon
and hydrogen or bitumen in it when the heat is only
about 600°, a greater heat constituting carburetted
hydrogen, or coal gas.

Open Fireplaces. — ^The open English fireplace,
with its air of cheerfulness and comfort, has a claim
upon our social life which it would be difficult to dis-
place. It is, however, with all its advantages, very
wasteful of fuel. It is estimated that about one-half of
the heat produced ascends with the smoke and is wasted.
About a fourth part of the heat which is radiated is lost
also in the space between the fire and mantel ; indeed,
Dr. Amott calculated that only about one-eighth part of
the power of the fuel is realised, the rest being dissi-
pated. Another great objection to it is the creation of
draughts. Various improvementa haN^ ^^«si ifiaia \si

152 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

obviate these evils, first, by diminisliing the conductive
power of the metal. Fire-bricks are now generally
used in the backs and sides of grates to radiate the
heat into the room, instead of metal which conducts
the heat to the walls ; secondly, by forming the sides
or covings of the chimney-mouth in such a manner
as to throw the heat into the room, and to impede its
entrance into the chimney, a still greater advantage is
attained. Thus, instead of the fire recess being square,
the sides should be inclined to the back at an angle of
about 130°. Fire-n^rick slabs moulded in ribs are often
placed in these positions in lieu of metal plates polished,
and are preferable in retaining and throwing out the
heat. Plates of rough metal being good conductors of
heat, absorb it by passing through to other materials
the heat they receive, and hence they lose heat instead
of retaining it. Radiant heat does not affect the sur-
rounding air; the rays of heat pass through without
directly warming the room; the warmth afterwards
felt is due to the reflection and absorption of the rays of
heat by the surrounding objects — the walls, floor, fur-
niture, &c., which being in contact with the air give
out their heat. It is thus explained how a large room
or massive stone building requires a considerable time
before its chilling effect is subdued by heat, a great
quantity of such heat being lost in the transmission
of it from one body to the other. Hence cold glass
and stone surfaces take a considerable time before they
are sufficiently warmed to throw off the required amount
of heat, and during this time strike chills to persons
near them.

Grates should on this account present a large surface

of heat in front, surface rather than depth of fire is

desirable. The shape of fire-box or grate should be

designed in reference to these prixicijlea, and many

VEKTILATIK6 GBATES. 153

modem gprates attain the desired effect in a certain
measure.

Again^ the chimney-throat or month for the exit of
the products of combustion should be only of sufficient
capacity to allow these to pass, instead of a large space
which is continually drawing in the warm air of the
room^ and creating draughts from doors and windows
towards the fireplace. ^^ Register '^ stoves answer this
end to a certain degree^ and Dr. Amott's smokeless
grate was constructed to meet it. Many of the recent
attempts to improve fire-grates are really based on
the principle he adopted. Dr. Amott's grate has no
bottom, but is fed by a box open at top, into which the
coal or fuel is placed (about 20 or 30 lbs. per day).
The wood is ignited at the top of the fuel, a layer of
cinders being above this. The ignition of the wood
ignites both the coal below and the cinders above, the
pitchy vapour from the fresh coal rising through the
wood, flame, and cinders. When the cinder is once
ignited, the rising bitrmien is burnt. The fuel as it
bums is raised by a lever acting on a false bottom to
the box. The valuable quality of this fire is its tenacity
to bum without attention. The draught can also be
regulated by a small slide at the bottom of coal-box,
which also forms the outlet for the ashes.

The Amott grate is also provided with a cover or
hood of metal over the fire-grate to prevent the egress
of the warm air of the room up the flue, the only air
being admitted through the fire in front. The hood is
furnished with a throttle-valve or damper, having an
external index, so as to further regulate the current.
A saving of from one-third to one-half of the fuel is
claimed for this grate by the inventor.

Instead of the metal hood, however, a simpler means
of reducing the chimney-mouth, ia 'Vi'j ^o\!L\»T^»a^svsl'S|^ ^^

H 3

154 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

brick throat of the chimney. It is evident that this
grate combines the requirements for regulating the
temperature of a room as far as the fuel is concerned.
Various means have more recently been devised for
economizing fuel and utilising the heat of open fire-
grates. The principles upon which nearly the whole
of these inventions are based may be summed up as

follows : —

1. An open projecting fire and large heating surface.

2. Fire-brick sides and back.

3. Contracted chimney opening to avoid the rapid
escape of the warm air of room into flue.

4. A separate and distinct ingress for the cold air to
feed the combustion and to prevent draughts from other
sources.

5. Hot-air chambers behind and at the sides of the
fire, communicating by open gratings or valves in front,
or over grate,

6. Consumption of smoke.

The "Wharncliffe" grate, Captain Galton's stove,
the stoves patented by Messrs. Shillito and Shorland,
and other patent fire economizers, more or less meet the
requirements we have alluded to, though they cannot
claim the originality asserted, but are all modifications
of the inventions introduced by Cardinal Polignac,
Count Rumford, and others in the beginning of the
last century, and the later stoves of Sylvester, &c.*

It will be seen, then, that upon the construction no
less than the materials used to radiate the heat of the
fire depends the economical distribution of heat ; that
direct radiation is wasteful of fuel, and that the desired
object is to be attained by increasing the surface of

* The openings or inlets in all these grates should be placed high,
or the warmed air would find its way into the chimney ; especially is
this the case where no proper outlets are proyided.

VENTILATING GRATES. 155

metal or nre-brick so as to diffase the heat of the fire
both ty radiation and conduction ; to prevent conduc-
tion of heat to walls or its current up the smoke flue,
which can best be done by hot-air chambers, with or
without gills ; or by a combination of the two principles,
a warm-air stove with an open fire. The patents
recently brought out, especially those noticed above,
seem to fulfil these desiderata, and are worthy the
attentive study of the architect.

Warming by close stoves, though a preferable mode
to the simple open fire, is open to objections; the
metal becomes so heated as to scorch the air and dust
in contact, and render it imwholesome.* It may be
stated that air to be wholesome requires a certain pro-
portion of vapour ; a cubic foot of air heated to 80° is
capable of absorbing five times as much moisture as the
same quantity at 32°. Thus it becomes necessary to
supply to such stoves a water-pan, so that the heated
air should be moistened by the evaporation. A stove
in which the fire-box is surrounded by brick or cased
so as to allow an intervening chamber of hot air is
preferable, and the heating surface is thus increased in
proportion.

Gills placed within the two metal cases, or radiat-
ing plates, as in the Ghimey stove, may further be
employed in increasing the heating surface. The
" Cockle'* stove. Dr. Amott's, and various modifica-
tions of the same principle, too numerous to mention
here, placed in basement, may be used in the heating
of halls, public buildings, &c., and the warm air be
conveyed by flues to difierent parts.

Whatever system of warming b© employed, it is

* Objections to water-pipes heated on the high-pressure system have
also been raised for similar reasons, though we think fot Us%<^ «^i^i«si&ai^
of heating it answers.

156 HINTS TO YOTJNG ARCHITECTS.

necessary that the fresh cold air should he admitted
in a gentle and diffused manner, and not in sudden
currents from chinks and crevices of doors, &c., as is
generally the case, giving rise to draughts and the
concomitant results, colds, influenzas, and the sharper
pangs of nerve pain. This can be effected by allowing
the fresh air to enter through some channel or flue into
the hot-air chamber heated by fire-gills, or coils of pipe,
as the case may be, and, having become heated in its
passage, allowed to enter the apartment through perfo-
rations in the stove or around it in an equable flow
of fresh warm air ; or otherwise be conducted through
flues in th^ skirtings, &c., to various parts of the room.*
The admission of external air may easily be regulated by
valves or "hit and miss" slides.

Conservation of Heat. — ^Warming to be effectually
applied to buildings requires not only the distribution
of heat by fire-places, stoves, hot water, or other
apparatiw, but such a construction of the building as
will prevent the undue waste or escape of the heat
generated. Indeed, we consider the conservation of
heat or warmth the secret of the art.

Hollow Walls. — To this end all walls should be as
retentive as possible, that is, should be built of non-
conducting materials. As brick or stone is the ordinary
material employed, it is, we think, desirable to con-
struct walls, especially in cold or exposed situations,
with a hollow, or in two thicknesses, a plan frequently
adopted in southern parts of England. The layer or
stratum of air between the outer and inner parts
becomes an effectual barrier to the passage of the heat,
and forms a non-conducting medium of great value
in equalising the interior temperature under extreme
changes. Damp walls absorb heat to a great extent

* This last method the writex B\iggee.tB «a ^T^ietable.

VENTILATION. 157

by tlie evaporation of moisture from their surface, but
by Having boUow walls perfect dryness is insured.
Even iron walls built on the cellular plan with a
" lining or plaster may be made impervious to heat or
cold. Cold walls, the surfaces of windows, floors, &c.,
create currents of air which rob the heat that should
be made available.

Windows. — These become a great source of waste of
heat. Besides the currents of air ordinary sash and
casement windows allow to pass through crevices and
imperfect fitting, their cold glass surfaces absorb the
heat, or allow it to pass by conduction. Currents of
cold air are continually formed, and descending on the
heads of those who sit near windows, are a continual
source of discomfort in houses and public rooms. To
avoid this waste of heat, double windows may be
employed in all cold situations ; they also, near streets
and roads, shut out the noise and dust. Double sashes
may be used, or two sheets of glass in the same sash or
casement frame may be adopted with great advantage.

Doors. — For the same object double doors should
always be placed at entrances or lobbies, and in every
passage subject to cold currents.

Roofs should have felt, plaster pugging, sawdust,
or some non-conducting material inserted under the
slates, or between the rafters. The advantages of such
roofs are great. They retain heat in cold weather, and
effectually resist the penetration Or conduction of heat
in summer-time.

Section II. — ^Ventilation.

The principles of heating and retaining warmth
and a free ventilation are frequently irreconcilable,
and the means adopted to ensure the one oftav
counteract those employed for ttie secioiifiL ^-^"eicX*,

158 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECT^.

Circulation of air. — ^The circulation of pure air at a cer-
tain degree of warmth is the desideratum. If an efficient
system of heating be adopted without adequate means
for the escape of the products of respiration or combus-
tion, a house becomes an oven ; or if free inlets are pro-
vided through the apertures of doors and windows, in-
tol'erable draughts render it uninhabitable. But if the
inlets are so arranged as to avoid the inconvenience of
direct down or cross draughts ; or if the pure air is
first warmed by passing through hot-air chambers, hot-
water coils, or round stoves before its admission to the
apartments, and, further, a sufficient means of escape be
provided for it after it has been respired, the object of
ventilation is attained. A continual circulation of one
part of a house with the other is requisite, and the
best method of efiecting this desirable object is still
a vexed question among architects. Captain Galton's
ventilating fire-place, adopted in barracks and hos-
pitals, to some degree effects the object as regards
ordinary rooms.* The warm-air currents are admitted
high up in the chinmey breast. The inventor claims
for his method an equable temperature in all parts of
the room; that it saves one-third the fuel, is free from
smoke, and prevents down-draughts if placed with an
imlighted fire in same room. With properly regulated
inlets for the fresh air behind the grate, this means
would aflford all that was necessary for warming. The
foul air must, however, be drawn off. This may be
accomplished by valved outlets, as Dr. Arnott's, enter-
ing a fire flue, or, better still, a flue purposely made for
this object, either combined with or near the smoke flue.
We think the cornice of a room admirably lends

♦ Various other ventilating^ stoves, as the " Manchester/' Boyd's,
Pierce'B, 8teer*8, Langdon, have recently been introduced, and are
more or leas succeaBfid approaches.

ClRCTTLi^TION OF AIR. 159

itself to this purpose if made " hollow '* connecting with
a flue. Sun-burners are efficient extractors when lighted.
The extraction of the foul air at the floor level, advo-
cated by some theorists, is, we think, objectionable, and
unsound in principle ; as it is a law of physics that a gas
expands and ascends when heated, the colder strata of
air taking its place, we therefore think a system of
ventilation which follows this natural order the best,
and the ceiling level is for this reason the place for the
exit of the vitiated air. The carbonic acid gas mixed
with the air does not by its greater weight separate
and fall to the lower level, as imagined by many
writers, but tends by the law of diffusion of gases
to diffuse itself throughout the room. To increase
the circulation of this upward current in flues with-
out fire, the draught may be maintained by gas-
jets or the flues warmed by other means. By the
laws of hydrostatics, there is always a column of
ascending air in a chimney or warm flue, the heavier
column of colder air outside tending to take its place.*
Hence, a fire-place offers the best means for perfect
ventilation, and should be adopted in preference to
openings in windows, &c., through which currents of
cold air are continually entering, especially if no special
admission is afforded at lower levels ; and for the in-
gress of fresh air we would arrange openings either in
the floor or through skirtings which may be warmed
by flues or pipes in large buildings ; or in the case of
small apartments, inlets at the fire-grates, as noticed
before. The '* Manchester grate " is one of the best
means yet devised of warming and ventilating several
rooms by the waste heat of a single fire, and this is

♦ The draught or velocity of air i n chimne ys is found by formula:—
Velocity in feet per second='365\/H {T—tj; H being height of shaft
n feet ; T temperature of room ; and i ditto oi cnL\.^xvi^ ^W<;^'s^^^^«

160 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

effected by warm-air flues of metal being carried np
from the hot-air chambers surrounding the fire-box.
By these warm-air flues good ventilation can be secured
by valves or gratings in aU the rooms so warmed.

But another mode of making the circulation com-
plete in a house, is by converting the inner haUs or
staircases into warm-air chambers by stoves or hot-
water coils, and thus diffusing through the rooms
which open from those halls an equable flow of fresh
warm air.*

By thus confining the heating apparatus to the halls
in the first instance, the necessary supply of cold air is
warmed before admission into the apartments, and the
evils of draughty rooms averted, as there wiU not then
exist that continual rushing in of air to supply the fire-
places under this system. We have adopted this
system with success in some cases, and great economy
of fuel is the result.

It will thus be seen a perfect system of ventilation is
inseparable from wanning, and both objects may be
effected at the same time. It is the neglect of the
mutual relation between the two objects which has been
instrumental in impeding the advance of this great
hygienic branch of construction.

The great principle may be shortly stated to be to
provide means for the entrance of fresh air at a warm
temperature and at a low level, and its extraction at a
higher. Its removal is in proportion to the warmth
of the apartment compared to the external air, if the
natural system is adopted ; or if heat is applied to
accelerate, it will depend on the degree of heat, the
law of equiKbrium between the cold and warmer

* Pipes or channels behind the skirting may be provided for the
passage of the warm air. A diffusion of warmed air from a basement
chamber through prober flues opening into haUs and rooms I believe
tc Ifo the moat economical system of waTimng\arg^"\i>ai\dm^ft,

VENTILATION. 161

atmospheres always tending to create a pressure
towards the vacuum. So long as the incoming
currents are rendered warm and imperceptible by enter-
ing through small and well-distributed apertures, the
rapid circidation is harmless and promotive of health,
and the evils of a strained, unprovided admission
liirough crevices is perhaps more destructive to health
than the want of egress. In summer-time these eflfects
are not so apparent, though the two operations of venti-
lation — ^the removal of the foul air and the admission of
the fresh — are still required.*

It may be useful to note that the respiration of one
individual requires at least 500 cubic feet of air per
hour ; f and every cubic foot of gas requires 10 cubic
feet of air and produces about 1 foot of carbonic acid.

In unions, hospitals, prisons, &c., it is usual to allow
for day-rooms about 300 cubic feet of air to each inmate,
and 1,000 or more cubic feet in the dormitories.

An excellent method of extracting the vitiated air of
hospital wards, public rooms, &c., is worth the atten-
tion of the architect. Its action depends on the suction
created in a tube if it be blown across at one end. The
principle has been applied to ventilating tubes Carried
up from the upper part of rooms. Deflecting plates are
fixed at the upper end at an angle, and the horizontal
currents of air produce a partial vacuum at the top, and
cause an up draught to take place. Tredgold first
introduced the plan, but recent inventors have improved
upon it by using vertical corrugated plates or horizontal
ones ; such are the patents known as Boyle's air-pump
ventilator, and Messrs. Banner's cowls. These can be
made to suit buildings in any style, and the system has

♦ In warm weather, the current of air is often reversed, as the air is
more rarified outside.

t Dr. Amott thinks 20 cuhic feet per minute necessary in BQldi.<ss^
sleeping-rooms. In houses 600 cubic feet oi spa^ft ^x a^i^ ^Ss^^-vs^^si^
allowed.

162 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

been applied to ridges and dormers of roofs, as well as
to the ventilation of soil pipes and drains. Sheringham's
ventilators are frequently used with success.

Section III. — House Drainage, &c.

As the object of these remarks is chiefly confined to
the consideration of drainage as it affects our houses, it
will be unnecessary to enter into any detail of the main
question of sewage other than its bearing on this subject.

General Sewerage: Gases. — There is doubtless
much room for improvement here ; the pressing evils
of the present system seem to me easily averted by proper
means of provision in connection with our house drains,
and I allude chiefly to large town systems of drainage,
where it is more than ever necessary to exercise pre-
caution. Especially is this necessary in low-lying
districts and seaport towns, where sewers and drains
frequently become tide or " water locked " during
several hours every day, till the tide allows the escape
of the pent-up sewage. Under the diluent system of
disposing of our sewage — and this is at present the
only practicable system of drainage available in large
towns— there must ever be a large though varying
volume of gas generated in the sewers, and pent up
within them with no means of escape or relief, except
through imperfect gullies, man-holes, and house-traps
and drains. Through such vents this gas sometimes
escapes, often to the injury of the public health, but
especially to the occupants of houses. The pressure of
this gas is very powerful at certain times, either from
the displacement caused by the sewage water, heavy
rainfalls, or by the temperature of the sewers. Now
it is evident that the more air-tight and perfect the
traps and pipes are that prevent the escape of this
noxious gas, the more compressed and concentrated

REMEDIES. 163

is the gas, and the more eagerly it finds a vent
through a weakly guarded passage or trap. Again,
the modem system of draining our houses invites
the admission of these poisonous gases in two ways.
By virtue of the greater lightness of these gases (as
nitrogen, sulphure4t)d hydrogen, ammonia, &c.), in-
creased hy the ascc nsional force created by the higher
temperature of our houses, the cold drains empty
their dangerous product into our water-closets and
through our sinks, &c. Secondly, the anwigement
of the pipes within our houses is another and perhaps
greater source of evil. Our soil-pipes, for example, are
generally in an upright position, and, stupidly enough,
are by the present mode of construction actually
stopped under our very noses by a water check, or
"trap,** as it is called, which is placed under every
closet-pan, sink, &c. This water check, or seal, which
is generally ineflfectual, and often inoperative from
various causes, becomes useless every time the closet
action takes place, the downrush of matter allowing
the free escape of foul gas through it. What a piti-
able piece of human ingenuity, that permits admission
to the most dangerous foe every time our closets are
called into use I

Bemedies. — ^Now what are the remedies proposed or
existing for this crying evil, the most dangerous and
deadly of our modem sanitary regulations? They
may be summarised into three classes: — Ist. Those
remedies that remove the eause of mischief; 2ndly, those
which deal with the main system of sewers and their
outlets in relieving them of the gas, &c. ; 3rdly, those
remedies which may be applied to house-drains. They
are either chemical or mechanical in operation.

Now one of the most important examples of the first
class is that known as " Moule'a Pateofc "Ejax^Jsi ^\a'^u^

164 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

System/' in whicli, instead of water used as the flushing
and cleansing agent, dry earth or ashes are employed to
absorb the noxious portion of excrementary matter and
deodorise it. In country districts where no water sys-
tem exists, or where ready means of utilisation of the
product is at hand, this disinfecting process is both
valuable and economical ; but in large towns I do not
see, under present circumstances, that it can come into
general operation.*

Several plans exist or are proposed imder the second
class. These embrace various schemes for the dis-
infection and the deodorisation of sewage matter by
chemical agencies. Charcoal, chloride of calcium,
lime, and other substances, either to absorb or prevent
the generation of ammonia, to destroy the products of
decomposition, or to act as precipitants (as the alum,
blood, and clay of the a b c process), are used for the
deodorisation and utilisation of the sewage matter.

Other plans employ mechanical means of sewer ven-
tilation either by the erection of ventilating shafts, or
by using the up-cast shafts of factories as extractors.
The latter mode is perhaps the most direct and prac-
tical for the disposal of these sewer gases, although
attended with some difficulty. There can be no ques-
tion as to the desirability of ventilating our sewers,
along the main arteries or at the highest and lowest
points ; and such means, in conjunction with a general
system of house-drain ventilation, as will be next
discussed, cannot fail to have a marked influence on
the health of large populations. The noxious effluvia,
however, arising from man-holes and entrances to
sewers in our public streets, is often detrimental, and
proper means of egress or disinfection of the gas should

' Carboiaaed, refuse, or charcoal, is a good absorbent and deodorant,
and baa been adopted lately with the ** pail &y&lem."

VENTILATING TRAPS. 165

in all cases be provided : some charcoal filters get
saturated and do the latter imperfectly.*

The third class of remedies deals with the evil at our
houses or through our house drains. Several plans
have been suggested, all more or less depending on
suction or on the natural tendency of such gases to rise.
Some propose that the flues of houses should be made
up-cast shafts; others that rain-water pipes should
connect with the drains, and thus carry away the
noxious effluvia above our roofs. Again, the most
general remedy adopted is that of carrying ventilating
pipes from the upper ends of our soil-pipes or closet
syphon-traps to the roofs, or connect them with our
stacks or fire flues. The last remedy is perhaps the
most practicable of the kind, answers the purpose
tolerably well, and can be readily applied.t A still
more efficient plan, however, remains to be noticed —
that of intercepting or giving free escape to the sewer
gas before entering the house drains. This may be
done by having a kind of cesspool or shaft outside the
house open to the air, and communicating with the
trap or syphon between sewer and house. Such a plan
is pi:oposed by Professor Reynolds, and is one of the
best and simplest means yet devised. I think this plan
one of the best, inasmuch as it cuts off all gas or effluvia
communication with the sewer outside our houses
instead of dealing with it after finding a channel for its
escape inside ; for it must be observed, there is little
gas, comparatively, generated within our house drains,
the products of decomposition not having time to
become very noxious. It may be observed here also
that this class of house remedy is more thorough than

♦ Mr. Baldwin Latham's charcoal trays fixed at the summits of
manholes or shafts have been used advantageously when a sufficient
number is employed.

t Many of these plans have been adopted with. moiiQ ot \<^»8i ^sof^^^'^^^

166 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

any of the sewer remedies, and for tliis reason, — that in a
large system of sewerage, the house drains and outlets
become naturally, by virtue of the laws of pneumatics,
the only places for egress of the pent-up sewer air.

Ventilating Junctions. — ^A still more efficient and
ready means of disengaging the sewer gas as well as
any effluvia that is generated within the house drains,
I now bring before my readers. It is based on the
principle above enunciated — that of intercepting the
sewer gas and giving it free escape externally before
entering our houses. Now all flue and pipe ventilators,
however fixed, have the objection that they are costly
and complicated, and often not so effectual as could be
wished, by reason of their length. The invention or
method which I propose is free from these objections,
and the simplicity of it, and the variety of ways in
which it can be appKed, claim for it attention from all
sanitary authorities, boards, urban or rural, medical and
scientific men, and especially architects, builders, and
house plumbers. I have called it the "Ventilating
or open Junction " because this designation seems to
convey best its use and application. Its simplest form
maybe described as a small trough open to the external
air and inserted between the soil or waste-pipe and the
syphon or other trap of the closet or sink. Its more
perfect or developed form combines the syphon-trap
Ld ventilator, aJd may further be provid'^d with I
tray for charcoal or some disinfecting substance through
which the deleterious properties of the gas are de-
stroyed. The last alternative, however, is not neces-
sary under ordinary circumstances, for as the escape of
gas is constant and not intermittent, as in ordinary
closed Boil-pipes, there is no time for the generation of
the noxious products of decomposition.
It 18 evident any ordinary water-closet or soil-pipe

"trough ventilator.'* 167

can be provided with a ventilator by simply cutting
out a portion of the pipe under the trap, and intro-
ducing the open trough or gas outlet, which is simply
a trap open to the air.

It is a well-known fact, and recently brought before
the notice of the British Medical Association by
Dr. Andrew Fergus, that lead soil-pipes, where they
are nearly horizontally placed, and the upper bends of
syphon-traps of the same metal, become under the
corrosive action of the gas evolved from decomposing
excretal matter, literally eaten through. Several speci-
mens of decayed leaden pipes were exhibited, showing
that the lower half of the pipes, being in contact with
the soil and liquid, were not affected. In all cases
which Dr. Fergus attended for diphtheria or typhoid, he
had found escape of sewer gas from soil-pipes. Such
evidence shows that the egress for gas shoidd be ample,
and be at the uppermost points, and be provided as
often as possible in the length of the pipes. All bends
and unnecessary elongations should be avoided, hence
small ventilating-pipes, by their friction, retarding the
gas, are ineffectual. A ventilating-pipe should never
be less than an inch and half in bore.

It may possibly be objected against the "ventilating
trough outlet *' that it allows escape of sewer gas to
take place at inconvenient points, which may be dis-
agreeable. This objection I have shown above to be
ill foimded, as gas is only dangerous when it is confined.
The quantity continually discharged through the outlet
would of course be infinitesimal. It is only by a
system of sealed or closed traps and air-tight pipes as
now used, and so persistently advocated by plumbers,
that gas becomes dangerous, and in proportion to the
free escape provided does it cease to be so. Our
engineers too often insist on fius aix-^i^V ^oTL$CL>stfsck viS.

168 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

sewers and drains, but the evidence of the last half-
century, and the increasing mischief of sewer emana-
tions, show that this is wrong, and that our present
glazed socketed earthenware and iron pipes and brick
sewers, in. which few vents exist, require safety vents,
and these points of relief to our gas-charged systems
are highly necessary.

Summing up the advantages of the "open junc-
tion " over the ordinary pipe ventilation, we have the
following :—

1. Cheater efficiency. — The escape is provided just
where required, over and in a line with the soil-pipe,
and before it enters the syphon-trap, and it provides
an aperture of the same area as the pipe.

2. Facility for cleaning the trap or pipe. — ^By simply
removing the perforated top or grating access is readily
obtained to both trap and pipe, and any stoppage re-
mcvod.

3. Economy. — It saves the expense of a lead or
iron ventilating-pipe carried up to the roof. A venti-
lating-pipe, unless carried up a fire flue, frequently
creates a cold descending current, particularly under
certain states of the atmosphere, and then checks the
escape of gas or forces it through water- trap.

The ingenuity of inventors has generally been
directed in making gas-tight traps, as if the pressure
of gas could be limited. The present invention secures
the water-trap as a useful secondary check, at the same
time affording that relief for the confined gas without
which a thin layer of water is of no avail. Giving free
escape to the insidious foe, it at the same time makes
the water-trap of greater use and efficiency, for it should
be known, that water absorbs gas under pressure, and
when saturated or impregnated with gas must evolve
it Cistern water has been poisoned in a like manner

SANITARY HINtS. 169

by the gases conveyed through waste-pipes. These
are some of the manifest advantages afforded by
the "trough ventilator/* Giving to every house
perfect immunity from the poisonous effluvia of the
sewers^ it also affords ready means of cleansing
pipes.

We may caution the young architect against the
employment of all complicated arrangements which the
ingenuity of patentees has devised^ and to content him-
self with the simpler contrivances which commend
themselves to his common sense and good judgment.
Many very excellent ventilating traps and systems of
house drainage are before the public ; we prefer those
which are easily accessible and allow free escape to the
gas. The germ of the best ventilating traps is an open
syphon, and we may mention Buchan's ventilating
drain trap as an effective appliance based upon this
principle. It can be used to ventilate the sewer and to
allow a current of fresh air to pass through the house
drains. Messrs. Doulton supply stoneware traps for
the same purpose, the object in all cases being the dis-
connection of the house drains from the sewer. .All drain
pipes should be true in bore and smooth, and a good
fall is 1 in 60 or 2 in. in 10 ft., the inclination for the
branches being somewhat more. Their size should
seldom be less than 4 in. in internal diameter, but 6 in.
is necessary in most cases, so that solid matters may
find an easy passage. A 6-in. drain is sufficient for
several houses when the rain-water area is not large.

For the admission of fresh air to buildings we
recommend the conical-shaped perforations lately intro-
duced by Mr. Ellison of Leeds, by which the air is
arrested and diffused as it enters the apartment. Bricks
and skirtings are manufactured on this principle. For
outlets we have already mentioned tha d&^<^\I\sv^ ^^

170 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

extaust ventilators, of which there are several in the
market, applicahle for every variety of purpose.

The excellent closets of Mr. Jennings, Doulton,
and some others, are recommended for simplicity of
construction, cleanliness in action, and freedom from
the liability to corrosion. They are made of one piece
of earthenware, and have in most cases a syphon-trap
combined with the pan. In all instances the old-
fashioned pan closet is to be avoided ; the plug valve
and direct pull being preferable. In the case of waste-
preventers, simplicity of action should govern the
choice, and many excellent patents are to be obtained.

Since the foregoing observations were written, I have
had several opportunities of examining the corrosive
action of sewer gas on lead ; in some instances, the traps
(especially the old D trap) were found honey-combed,
or perforated, at the upper part by the action of the gas.

These observations lead to the conclusion that —

1st. Lead is not altogether so desirable a material as
plumbers would have us believe. Plumbers prefer lead
because it is the material they are most acquainted with ;
and because it admits of easy jointing, and is more
pliable than iron, &c. Some of our sanitary manufac-
turers are, however, wisely giving preferencefor earthen-
ware and tin-encased lead pipes for traps, and the pipe
and drains for the conveyance of soil, &c. Glazed earth-
enware closet traps are decidedly cleaner than lead, and
not liable to corrode. Closet pans and syphons are now
made in one piece of ware. (See Jenning's patent.)

2nd. We are led to the conclusion that any trap or
pipe which harbours the gas, or encloses any space or
corner where it can collect, is defective ; hence D traps,
when unventilated, are more liable than S or syphon
traps, to be corroded or eaten through by the gas.

Closet Appliances. — ^It may not be out of place
here to speak of the closet appliaivfiea m wjaa, Tt^st^ ^a

SANITARY CONDITIONS. 171

the "pan closet/* so called from its having a large pan
and container under the basin. It has disadvantages
from which its rival, the " valve closet " is free. The
container or receiver below the basin is apt to become
foul, and quickly corrode, and it is ftirther open to the
objection that it collects gas in its upper part. In
cases where it is used a small ventilating-pipe may
be inserted, communicating with the soil-pipe venti-
lator or shaft. To remedy this liability to become
foul, Messrs. Warner, of Cripplegate, London, have
provided china containers in lieu of cast iron, which so
soon rusts and becomes coated with offensive matter.

The "valve closet/' having no enclosing pan, is
more direct and clean in its action, the soil at once
entering the trap, and the flushing is more concen-
trated and perfect. There is, also, no space for the
accumulation of foul air as in the "pan.** India-
rubber-faced valves are sometimes fitted to these closets,
making the apparatus noiseless — a great desideratum.
The overflow-pipe usually provided to basins of this
class is often an injurious addition better avoided, as,
unless ventilation be provided qa recommended, it
only conveys eflGluvia into the house. The Hopper closet,
consisting of a simple basin and trap, or Jennings'
earthenware closet is the best.

The overflow-pipes of cisterns are a fruitful source of
mischief. They often are untrapped, and connect with
imventilated soil-pipes. A small bell-trap is often
used, which is of no value whatever, as it soon gets
empty by evaporation. A self-acting trap is essential
in these cases, especially where the cistern supplies
drinking-water, though a separate cistern is best for
the latter purpose.

, Sanitary Conditions. — We may sum up the
necessary conditions of house constructioxi «k& iO^Qr«^\ —

i. I?ry subsail — Houses should iio\) \iQ '>^^^

I 2

172 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECrrS.

against the foot of a slope, especially where a bed of
clay crops out. Basements should be cut o£E from the
surrounding ground by a bed of concrete or asphalte, or
dry areas below level of basement floor, so as to ensure
an open air space all round. Basement floors should be
hollow, well ventilated over damp soils. Damp-proof
courses should be provided in walls. Drains should
never be under a house, but should be accessible; if
under, they should be covered with concrete to make them
air-tight. Sinks and wash-houses of cottages should be
outside walls. Waste-pipes should empty into trapped
gratings, so as to leave air-space between outlet and trap.

2. Pure air, — All drain and soil pipes should be
trapped and ventilated. Cesspools should, in all cases,
be ventilated separately, and formed in the lower sur-
face of strata to prevent percolation into live wells.

3. Warmth. — ^Walls and roofs shovld be of hollow
construction, and non-conducting materials, and be
provided with air gratings. Floors should be
rendered fireproof and sound-proof by concrete fiU-
ing-in between joists or by pugging. "Windows in
exposed sides should be double ; entrances should
be protected by double doors.

4. Ventilation, 8fc. — ^Ventilation should be provided
in all rooms by a proper provision of inlets and
outlets so as to circulate the air without draught;
attics, and apartments in roofs, and staircase lanterns
should particularly be ventilated. Trap-doors should
be provided to roofs.

Cisterns should be covered by felt, also all pipes that
are external, with means of access for repairs. Hall's
water- waste cistern avoids liability to frost. All drains
at junctions and bends should have movable lids.

6. Lofty buildings should be protected by lightning-

condnctora; aXL stoYea and ironwork being connected by

fnre to a well in the earth, or to tlio N7a\At oxidL^g^Tx^akc^.

PART VI.

DESIGN.

Section I. — Architectural Taste,

Before proceeding to consider the principles upon
which Architectural Design is based, it may be as well
to make some remarks upon the general tendency of
art-thought and the transition of taste which the last
century has witnessed. These changes or " fashions "
cannot be too thoughtfully considered by the young
architect, as indicating both the natural tendency, or
reactionary impulse, of the mind for variety ; and also
as affording a very reliable means of testing the
fictitious, and discriminating between truth and error;
between mere sentiment and the immutable laws of
design in art. Since the publication of the first
editions of these " Hints " architecture has undergone
considerable changes in regard to its manner or style.
Greek art, and the traditions of classic Italy, were at
one time the "rage.'' Architects pinned their faith
to the " five Orders," and few ventured to depart from
those proportions which the finest examples of Ghreece
and Eome afforded.

Every column, moulding, and intercolumn was
nicely proportioned by the " module '* or diameter of
the column to within a "minute," or sixtieth part;
and the student who could accurately dii^^ ^<5i ^^ S^;^^

174 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

orders/* and define every detail, was considered to have
acquired the rudiments of his art, which were equally
applicable to churches and theatres, the nobleman's
mansion, to the interior finishing of a room, or a
garden temple. Stuart and Eevett's "Athens,"
Vitruvius, and Palladio, were accounted indisputable
authorities, and their dicta were followed and laid
down with a precision that now appears ridiculous. A
just admiration for the beauty and proportions of the
columnar structures of Athens — ^the Propylaea, the Par-
thenon, the Erechtheum, and others ; the consummate
art and intellectual refinement shown in the sub-
divisions of architrave, frieze, and cornice, and the finer
gradations of the entablature — the triglyphs, mutules,
&c. ; the entasis, or swell of the column, and the other
niceties of adjustment in the forms and mouldings
which learned and painstaking explorers have dis-
covered; all these excellences, no doubt, fired the
enthusiasm of the architect, and were sought after and
reproduced with an untiring zeal by a generation of
artists who have left an imperishable name.

While we are compelled to admire the matchless
proportions and arrested lines of Grecian architecture,
we cannot altogether overlook the error of reproducing
with mechanical correctness the features and peculiari-
ties of a style which were not the most suitable to our
climate and wants. An untiring devotion and enthu-
siasm for this exquisite refinement of art, and a keen
perception df the merits of the style, led to a closer
adherence to precedent than was consistent with our
wants and correct judgment; and hence a reaction
of a difierent kind followed. Eoman models became
fashionable ; a less rigid style succeeded, and eventually
gave place to the Gothic Revival.

Willie correotnesB and method were observed almost

ARCHITECTURAL TASTE. 175

to a faulty and the dogmas of classic art and its forms
repeated ad natiseam, a change began which entirely-
set aside rule and precedent for a mode of thought and
expression in which, a picturesque irregularity and a sen-
timental disregard for order and critical perception were
the predominant characteristics. Both in literature and
art the change was marked. A love of the marvellous
and chivalrous^ the associations of a romantic life,
incited by the writings of Sir Walter Scott and
Byron, displayed the general tendency of the popular
taste.

Again, in art, rectilinear severity gives place to
curved forms, and graduation to picturesque fancies and
broken masses. We find a complete transformation
both in thought and art expression. The unbending
dialect of Johnson is succeeded by a vernacular idiom.
The Greek or B>oman temple is replaced by the
medisoval abbey or cathedral. Buttressed walls take
the place of porticoes and colonnades, pointed arches of
square lintels ; and the fritter of meaningless adjuncts,
pinnacles, and crocketted spires, exchange the rigidity
and rectangularity of unbroken sky-lines.

A frivolous seeking after effect became as painfully
apparent as the monotony of columnar fa9ades, and the
concealment of roofs and gutters by false parapets, pedi-
ments, and balustrades.

From the toy-like Gothic of Walpole*s time,* with
its gabled, castellated, or pinnacled features, the conven-
tional type of church, with its attenuated windows and
western embattled tower, of which there are many ex-
amples still existing, to the later type of fashion in which
the continental Gothic is predominant— a noticeable
change of character and a considerable leap is manifest.

• Known as *♦ Strawl)eiTy Hill" Goibic, iulxodjaa^ Vj ^^^^
there in 1770,

176 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

From overwrought and ornate examples, based on tte
Tudor, or Late Perpendicular, we were lately deluged
with the revival of foreign varieties of Gothic ; crude,
meagre, and frequently devoid of any of the higher and
more intellectual beauties and refinements of Gothic.

After ransacking English Gothic examples, and
studying Pugin's, Rickman's, «,nd Parker's works,
hurried and thought-grudging architects have left our
own shores for examples and types less pure, or the
contemptible motive of mimicking Italianisms or
French forms of Gothicesque.

The student is earnestly invited to consider thought-
fully these changes in the architecture of our era ; to
discard the poetic romanticism and extravagances of
the art, even though under the sanction of our most
fashionable pseudo-Mediaevalists ; to weigh well the
merits of those several schools of art-thought which the
last three centuries have revived ; to consider what
elements in them are worth adopting, irrespective of
narrow prejudice and sectarian ideas ; and so to evolve,
from a generalised study of the past, that particular
mode of construction and expression which best fulfils
the requirements of the present age. Let the word
''style'' be banished from his mind — his practice at
least — so that he mscy follow out his thoughts without
a conventional rendering or phraseology borrowed from
a bygone age. Let him discard the traditions and
dogmas of Mediaevalism as regards the arrangements,
forms, and accessories of his churches ; and, trusting
ovXy to his common sense of fitness, adapt his materials
without reference to mere type, restrained only by a
rational use of the fittest material and the most
scientific method of construction. "We do not mean
that novelty should usurp experience, or be sought
wJjon a certain type or precedent can be found equally

ARCHITECTURAL TASTE. 177

adapted to our wants. This would be rasliness and
presumption.

Let the student particularly avoid affectation or
mannerism as the very curse of Art. Every true
artist must henceforth be a school in himself. The
styles of the Greeks and Komans^ the Bomanesque
and Gothics of the "West, the styles of the East, of the
Srcnaissance, or the schools of the Bevival, have all
served their time and departed. If we recall them^
we can only affect their manner without adding to our
art one idea. The Periclean and Augustan ages, the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, with their wondrous
arts, cannot be brought back ; we may as reasonably
expect to roll back the tide, or recall the past. These
great phases of architectural thought were the results
of working priesthoods or classes — ^the thinking y simple,
honest-minded mason, craftsman, or artist. There was
not the art-cant and thoughtless hurry and affectation
we have now. Our modem taste is vastly different.
"We copy because we will not think for ourselves ; our
national architecture is a reflex of our multifarious
ideas and tastes, rather than of our wants. Unlike
the arts under Pericles and our Edwards, ours has
no basis or belief to repose upon ; it belongs to a
nation, not a class, or society, or dominant Church ; it
has all the elements of discord, it adopts anachronisms
and styles of the most opposite and incongruous descrip-
tion ; chiefly, from a want of agreement between the
material, mental, and moral states of our civilisation.

Instead of resting on a subjective basis, modern inven-
tion, as respects art, is utterly feeble, and has failed to
realise that balance of the intellect and f cQling which
alone can produce the true and beautiful. Thought,
then, should preside, and influence all our architecture ^
it should be freely not grudgingly \)e&Ww^\3^^'^ *^^

I 3

178 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECrS.

smallest detail, no less than npon the general design of
a structure. We should take nothing without this
crucial test — ^nothing without its sanction. True Art is
the combination of the constructive and (esthetic — in-
tellect and moral power; its object must be attained
in the simplest and most unaffected manner, not by fol-
lowing, as our pseudo-Classicists and Mediaevalists have
done, any past style, nor by mistaking barbarism and
crudity for simplicity, as our ultra-RevivaKsts are now
doing. Whatever may be the principles we take for
our guidance, we may be sure nothing will atone for
the want of thought in our designs. Thought-sparing
art has been the source of our decline in constructive
and decorative truth. We are flooded with Conti-
nental works of art ; our students have been taught to
copy and follow instead of work and think for them-
selves. Italian and French Gothicisms are thrust upon
the young architectural aspirant before he can master
the materials and principles of his art ; he is apt to
follow this or that leader of " fashion,'' as his imagina-
tion tends, and thus his future career is fettered and
cramped by a false system of conventionalism and
slavery, instead of prompted and dictated by a free
and independent power of thought, the result of a catho-
lic and nobler view of art, and a generalization of nature.
Let the student of this art regard the mutations
which have successively marked its history during the
last century — the Grecisms, Italicisms, of the Adamses,
Soane, Nash, Wilkins, Barry, and a host of departed
classicists, the Gothics of Walpole and Pugin, and our
own ultra-MediaBvalists — ^the ages of pseudo-temples
and lath-and-plaster pagodas, as merely passing and
reactive changes, resting his taste on the broader prin-
ciples which underlie all true art— the primitive im-
pulsee that create it. *

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN. 179

Section II. — ^Principles op Design.

Every perfect work of art should satisfy and corre-
spond to the necessities of our nature, namely, the Phy-
sical, Intellectual, and Emotional states.* The two first
of these may be considered as embraced under Construc-
tion, and include the principles of Utility and Fitness^
which lie at the root of all good design. The emo-
tional or aesthetic spring from or grow out of these.

In the present brief section we will lay down some
of those general laws which should determine the
design of various functions of architecture, and also the
legitimate employment and use pf materials.

The multifarious uses and purposes to which Archi-
tectural Design is applied are not now considered, as
they belong to a wider view of the subject than can be
discussed here, and further imply questions of indi-
vidual and special requirement, discipline, and the
ever-changing and progressive notions which com-
merce, science, hygiene, and improvements in mechani-
cal appliances and materials call into existence ; as in
the arrangements of our domestic and commercial
buildings, educational institutions, structures devoted
to public worship, as churches and chapels, and the
various buildings erected for sanitary purposes, hos-
pitals, asylums, unions, prisons, and the like. All
these kinds of structure, it is evident, demand special
wants, which only the experience gained from an
examination and study of actual works of merit of their
several kinds can supply. They all require a know-
ledge of the best arrangements and other concrete kinds
of information with which the young architect should
make himself familiar by the study of works specially

* See a work entitled " Theory of the AxtB " ^\i\s^ ^^\. v^^^'Xt'i^
in the JBuiidin^ News,

180 HINTS TO YOUNG AECHITECTS.

devoted to their consideration, and tlie statistics and
reports of parliamentary evidence contained in various
Blue-books. Our duty now will be confined to those
abstract principles of architecture proper, which deal
with structural and technical facts and requirements.

Different conditions and circumstances demand solu-
tion in every case in which an architect is consulted.
Thus, the extent of land, its shape and surroundings,
special wants, as entrances, and modes of lighting,
contiguity of buildings, accommodation, materials of
neighbourhood, and not least, cost, must in every case
determine the arrangement, position, and construction
of a building, in all of which cases it would be impos-
sible to lay down any general rules.

Design is not dependent on abstract form merely,
such as implied in those theories which are foimded on
plant form, geometrical ratios or proportion, harmonic
laws, &c., which all err in not regarding the concrete
nature of architecture.

The very complexity of conditions the architect has
to deal with, is the main cause of his neglecting, as too
often he does, the dictates of direct science. The deduc-
tions of science required by the engineer can be directly
applied, immediate utility being the only end sought ;
hence he works by more exact laws, and the results are
therefore more satisfactory and determinate. On the
contrary, the architect, besides utility, has to gratify
the emotions, and thus he too often works more by his
imagination than his reason, more by custom and pre-
cedent than science. His art stands in much the same
position as that of medicine, half empirical, half exact ;
and the laws of his art are in the same undefined
category as those of moral science, occupying a middle
ground between the exact and indefinite. Thus he is
continually waging a war between advanced theories

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES. 181

and tlie demands of science and those of conventional
art — ^between the progressive and unprogressive ele-
ments of his art.

Laws of Design. — ^The laws which should govern
architectural design are—

1st. Physical Laws in which the senses of weight,
strength, security, and comfort are concerned.

2nd. Intellectual or Discriminative Laws. These
control and adapt the materials and construction of a
building so as to present to the mind a sense of fitness
and adaptation of means to ends. Professor Bain^ in
his able work on " The Senses and Intellect/* shows
that our feelings for "differences and agreements*'
constitute the functions necessary in the performance
of the intellect, and the discrimination has been ex-
pressed as the law of "relativity.** Thus it is our dis-
criminating perception of weight and support, which we
call just proportion, that enables us to give to a struc-
ture an appearance of fitness, the mind being satisfied
with the result. Such is the justness of proportion
between the entablature and columns, or betweqn
arches and abutments, height or mass of wall and its
supports, lengths and widths of apartments, &c. The
adaptation of a material to its use is another example
of this faculty of design.

Mechanical Principles of Design. — All architec-
tural construction involves ideas of rest and motion, or
static and dynamic conditions direct and indirect
support. In the vertical wall or pier we have the
first typified ; in the arch, dome, roof, and vault the
second typified. The lintel, although usually placed
in the first or static condition, is really more significant
of the latter.* The Egyptian and Greek architecture

* Some writers, incorrectly I think, confound the abstract exnre&s.\a^
of lines and masses with their relative du^iiea. l.\.Taa.'^\i^ wi^^t^'i^^

182 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

are eminently symbolic of the static principle ; wliile
the Boman, Eomanesque^ the Gbthic, and all arched
styles, of the dynamic. Correctly, we think the latter
styles and all true architecture show equally both prin-
ciples. Now it may be noticed that the static principle
was the earliest developed, as it was founded upon the
law of gravity in its simplest form ; it was in fact the
simplest mechanical condition of building and the easiest
lesson of experience, and one favourable, as we have shown
elsewhere, to the subjective law of thought. It was
extremely monumental, easily lent itself to this form of
composition, as it did also to the decorative, for the con-
ditions necessary to ornament were speedUy attained.

To span a chasm, or cover a large area, with few
points of support, required a new principle of construc-
tion, an economical balance of counteractive forces.
The arch was the simplest and earUest expedient which
answered this purpose. It enabled small stones to be
used, and we find the columnar and monolithic con-
struction gradually giving place to a system in which
the arch and buttress became the leading elements.
We have here the static and dynamic principles com-
bined, each co-operating with the other. The con-
structions of the Romans first developed this system,
which was perfected during the Middle Ages, and our
own modem works have carried the arched system to
a very advanced state.

The highest forms of architecture — ^the Romanesque
and Gothic — ^have therefore both the static and dij-
namic conditions in a state of balance and agreement ;
the coliunnar and vertical masses (static) being every-
where in conjunction or acting together with the active

that horizoniality can only imply the idea of rest when connected with
pfirtieal snjtport, and that a long unsupported beam is anything but
0table.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES. 183

weightor thrust principle of the arch and vault (dynamic)
— ^never, however, In a state bordering on a tottering
equilibrium, but so far removed from It as to evince
mutual counteraction and aid ; thus we have the but-
tress sustaining the nave or aisle vaulting, and yet
aiding In reality and emphasizing In effect the static
repose of the structure or the vertical parts. The
graduated or staged buttress (which modem Gothicists
are surrendering in favour, of the pilaster or Italian
buttress) exemplifies this principle. While it performs
the office of abutment or counterfort to an unseen but
still-evident force created by the arched opening, vault,
or roof (the graduated increase of thickness as It reaches
the ground agreeing with the theoretical "line of pres-
sure'*), it also affords economic support and expression.
The pyramidal outline of Gothic buildings displays
mutual and co-operative support of the two principles
which we fail to observe in the simple static structures
of Greece.*

As characteristic or symbolic of these principles it
may be noted, that while the static or columnar forms
are simply rectangular^ as in the Greek temples, the
dynamic Is evidenced In triangular and curvilinear
forms. The economical adjustment of material and
forces has thus. In all true composition, shown or
expressed Itself In the leading and dominating lines of
features and mass, and indirectly also Influenced and given
form to every detail. The mechanical framework or con-
trivance has also been the chief impulse to decoration,
and has controlled imagination. Under our present
system or fashion of design, the forms are repeated
without the correspondence of this initial or motive
impulse. The following conclusions may be deduced :

* It may be observed that in Grecian architecture the predominant
lines were horizontal and continuous, and the BTjiboTtoki^\ft\vx^^^^^TJ^^^
and dJBcoDtinnous,

184 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECTS.

1st. The lugliest forms of arcliitecture are those in
which the static principle (or repose) predominates
with the least amount of material^ or in which the
static and dynamic forces and expressions are pleas-
ingly balanced^ as in the Greek and Gothic.

2nd. The correspondence of the mechanical and
decoratiyO; or the intellectual and imaginative, ele-
ments is necessary.

The Egyptian and other primitive structures fail in
the first: the material preponderates. In the Par-
thenon the static principle is more evident to the senses
than the mere mass of the pyramids or the Hall of
Eamak, which expresses only weight and immovable-
ness. In the mediseval cathedral, as our Salisbury,
Lincoln, or Amiens, we have the balance still more
delicately expressed. The Indian and some other forms
show the dynamic condition only.

Materials and their Functions, — ^We have three
distinct structural elements, which play important
parts in architecture : — 1st, the column ; 2nd, the
beam or arch ; 3rd, the tie. Each of these has been
developed under different systems of art. The first we
find in the columnar expressions of Egyptian, Assyrian,
and Greek examples combined with the beam. The
second, or the arch, we have in the Eoman, Roman-
esque, Byzantine Moresque, and Gothic developments ;
while the third, the principle of the tie, has been
reserved for the latest necessities of architecture, and
exemplified in the Ti^ms.

It is evident there are certain materials that lend
themselves to these special elements. For example,
stone, brick, and all homogeneous granular substances
are peculiarly adapted to compressive action, as in
columns and arches ; other tenacious substances, such
as timber, iron, and metals, adapt themselves to tensile

MATERIALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 185

action more favourably than tlie former materials. The
beam, however, Is subject to two separate actions or
strains--a compressive, in the upper section, and a
tensile in the lower part. This double action makes it
necessary that a beam should be of a material which can
equally resist both these strains. On this account, a stone
beam, if too long in proportion to its depth, is out of
place, and weak; it would be liable to open below
from want of cohesive resistance, the resistance of stone
or brick to tension being only about a fifth of its resist-
ance to compression. For lintels and very short bear-
ings, as exemplified in the classic entablature, stone may
be used ; but its legitimate purpose as a material is for
walls, piers, and arches, and for columns whose height
does not exceed ten or twelve times the diameter.
Timber and iron are the materials which combine
the compressive and tensile resistances to the greatest
extent, and therefore are chiefly adapted for beams and
other uses, in which these two kinds of strain are called
into exercise. Compound beams of brick and iron or
concrete and iron are sometimes used with advantage,
as in flooring, roofing, &c., but in these cases the
materials are combined so that each may have its
proper function. From these considerations, then, it
appears that all stone and brick work should be designed
in conformity to the following principles : —

1st. They should be placed in positions, and perform
offices, in which only weight or compressive strains are
concerned, as in walls, piers, columns, arches, &e.

2nd. In designing stonework or brickwork, mass and
weight are required, and forms should be given which
best meet compressive action. Tensional stress should
be avoided. Thus in buttresses we require depth as
well as thickness. Piers and columns of stone or brick
are best of rectangular, square, ootagoinsiiX., ^\x^\iJL^ix^ ^"^

186 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

other figure of section wbose geometric centre is sym-
metrical, or nearly, and so designed as to produce
at «very bed-joint uniform pressure. The piers and
cluster^ shafts of Romanesque and Early Pointed
work illustrate this principle. The arch moulds,
though often complicated, are in good examples de-
signed in section within rectangular outlines, as are also
the engaged and detached shafts which follow the simple
square outline of Norman recessed jambs and archi-
volts. The plans of mullions also illustrate this prin-
ciple ; in the early and better examples, the sections
are nearly square with the angles taken off, or boldly
beaded or shafted, while in late and debased work
hollows, fine fillets, and deep quirks destroy the real
stability and apparent strength.

Where the pressure is one of varying intensity, as in
the case of a pier supporting a thrust, this should be
considered, and sufficient projection and mass given to
that part of work upon which the greatest pressure is
thrown. In the case of an abutment or jamb, against
which an arch abuts, visible as well as actual security
should be given, or the apparent effect will be to make
the pier weak, if not bent to the eye; flat segment
arches springing from narrow piers always give a
crooked appearance to the piers, although architects
seldom seem to notice or heed it.

3rd. Acute angles or arrises should be avoided. No
angle should be less than a right angle in constructive
masonry or brickwork, and sharp angles are incon-
sistent with the nature of such materials, even when
used decoratively.*

Iron and Timber, when used to resist compressive
forces, admit of somewhat wider limitations, being

* For further details the student is referred to the excellent treatise
Ify Vobaon, '^Masonry and Stonecutting " (JjoOctjoo^ & Co.^

IRON AND TIMBER. 187

less friable in their nature. Moulded forms may be
employed more consistently. For tensile strains sec-
tions of less area are allowable, tbougb in all these
cases, square, round, or polygonal figures are more
suitable. In the section on *' Construction '* we have
indicated the best forms for beams, columns, and girders.
The following principles should be observed in design-
ing ironwork : —

1. Columns, struts, and other constructive ironwork
subject to compression, should be of cast iron, of uni-
form or symmetrical section, either solid or hollow,
round, cross-shape, square, or y-shape section.

2. Beams subject to cross strain shoidd be designed
with special reference to the material. Cast iron,
having a greater resistance to compressive than tensile
strains, should be designed with larger sectional areas
or flanges at those parts subject to the latter. In-
equalities of thickness in the metal, and sudden changes
of form, should be avoided.

3. For work subject to sudden jars, changes of
temperature, cross-strains, and where tensile strength
is chiefly required, wrought iron should be used. The
same sections may be adopted for beams, having regard,
however, to the ratio of tensile to compressive strength.
Lightness rather than mass should be observed in
designing all wrought-Iron work.

For Woodwork the following rules should be
observed : —

1. Columns and all pieces subject to pressure should
be of square or rectangular section, plain, chamfered,
or simply moulded. Circular and octagonal sections
may also be employed, but are not so suitable or cha-
racteristic of the material. For example, in frame-
work, turned pillars, with caps a-nd bases of wood, are
not so rational a treatment as chai£kS.eT^^ ox tc^ssk^^

188 HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTS.

work, as such forms do not lend themselves to the
natural fibre and grain of the material.

2. The ornamental treatment of woodwork should
invariably be dictated by its fibrous nature. Cut, per-
forated, or turned work should only be applied to orna-
mental purposes, and on a small scale. Deeply indented
or cut timber, in which the grain of the material is
vreakened or impaired, is improper ; deep quirks, or
deeply cut members, should be avoided. Mouldings,
chamfers,' and bevels are admirable for decorative pur-
poses, while deep quirks and undercuttings are un-
suitable as harbouring dust and dirt, and for external
woodwork are injurious on account of retaining mois-
ture, and tending to accelerate decay.

For carving and turning, the denser kinds of wood,
as oak, are more suitablei

Plastic Substances, such as cement, plaster, and
other compounds of a tenacious kind, carton pierre,
papier-machiy &c., should be treated in the manners
following : —

1. Casting, as in the cast or moulded enrichments
and accessories of building.

2. Bunning, as in moulded work, cornices, strings,
&c.

3. Stamping or impressing, as in ornamental panels
and shallow surface relief.

Cast work should never be too deeply undercut. Bas-
relief is more adapted to these materials and the mode
of manufacture than alto-relievo. On the whole, we
think running or moulding and stamped work the most
characteristic treatment for cements and plasters, as
high or deeply cut relief is evidently inconsistent with
the brittle nature of such substances.

Ceramic materials, as terra-cotta, earthenware, por-
celain, &c., admit of higher xeliei &t oYn^mental pur-

CAST AND STAMPED METAL WORK, 189

poses, being employed in small pieces as panels, string-
courses, &c.

Cast akd Stamped Metal "Work, as zinc and other
alloys, should be designed as indicative or expressive of
such modes of manufacture, and not made to represent
carvings and chisel sculpture.

In short, every material, natural or artificial, should
firstly, be adapted to its proper function and purpose ;
and secondly, the artistic or decorative treatment it
receives should express rather than conceal or counter-
feit its nature.

The tirade against shams of " stucco " and " compos,''
which devices prevailed during the early part of this
century, has called forth a more truthful exhibition
of material ; yet it must be confessed we employ our
materials often more regardless of structural condi-
tions, as, for instance, when we use soft brick for label
mouldings and other exposed parts in a stone build-
ing, or condemn cement and plaster where they would
be of service.

Having discussed the functions of architecture, the
concrete conditions of design, and laid down general
principles which should govern all constructive mem-
bers of buildings, we may now briefly recapitulate those
abstract elements of design which have reference to
Form only, and which please the eye, and through it
the mind, by awakening the emotions. These may
be classed as purely aesthetic elements, and occupy the
border-ground between the Sensuous, and Intellectual,
and Emotional. Such principles constitute all forms of
beauty, and are —

I. Proportion.
II. Unity, or Symmetry.
III. Variety.

190 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

IV. Contrast and Gradation.
V. Optical correction.
VI. Expression.
Vn. Colour.

Beauty of Form.— Without discussing tlie various
hypotheses of philosophers and writers on art as
to what constitutes Beauty, we may say that it de-
pends on a combination of properties which appeal to
the higher emotions rather than upon anyone pecu-
liarity or element inherent in the material, as Burke
propounds ; on any associations of a pleasmg kind, as
attempted to be laid down in Alison's theory ; or upon
any distinct principle of an abstract kind, as a line of
double flexure, arbitrarily defined by Hogarth and
others. All these able theorists, however, have ad-
vanced hypotheses more or less near the truth, and
their works may be studied by all architects and
others engaged in the arts of design. In our own
day, Mr. Fergusson, in his " Principles of Beauty,"
who classifies all beauties under the three heads
of (1) Technic, (2) ^Esthetic, (3) Phonetic, thinks
architecture (as the Greek) combines in equal pro-
portions these three kinds of beauty or merit. As
justly observed by another writer on the " Principles
of Design,'* * this categorical theory does not define the
kind of merit, only the degree, and that we must look
for a class of art possessing an expression peculiar to
itself, not associative, as, for example, in confounding
Gothic art with Religion, or Italian with the Secular, as
commonly done. The great point is to distinguish the
accidental and local from the universal and essential, or the
generalised expression of merits which aptly find their

♦ See the able work on " Design *' by E. L. Garbett. (Lockwood
4& Co.)

PROPORTION. 191

counterparts in our physical, intellectual, and emotional
faculties.

Professor Bain, in Ms work on "The Senses and
Intellect," and his "Manual of Mental and Moral
Science,*' has shown clearly the dependence of our
emotions upon organization, and we refer our readers
to these works for a philosophical investigation of the
causes of heauty.*

Briefly, the beauty of form depends upon an
agreeable balance of those qualities which satisfy the
mind and emotions. A work of art may be striking
from its size, outline, or some sensible property it
possesses, yet it may not be beautiful, — some other
quality may be needed. If it have in addition certain
qualities or attributes which combine to give it ex-
presdon, grace, and fitness, a^d which may depend
on various merits and sensible properties, we then call
it beautiful, or perfect. It is evident every one cannot
realise the same standard of beauty, though there are
some abstract properties which are universally regarded
as beautiful. Some see beauty in the Greek Parthe- •
non, others in the MedisBval cathedral. We must
therefore look for other elements which are necessary
to the beautiful.

I. Proportion is one all-pervading influence. By
proportion we mean the adjustment of weight and
support, ratio of height to breadth, or fitness of size and
bulk for the intended purpose.! Constructive fitness
lies at the basis of it. Attempts have been mad^ by inge-
nious theorists to apply certain arbitrary ratios to archi-
tecture, founded upon analogies of sounds, colours, &c.
Thus Vitruvius gives a certain ratio for the height
and breadth of a window, because two strings of a like

♦ See Herbert Spencer's works.

t A room whose length and breadth have eom^ i&DLjV^T^^^^A^Na
1 or 3 to 2, 18 more agreeable than 'when tlo toX^q V^ ^^cscc£^Sl^«

192 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS,

ratio will give harmonious notes. The analogy is far-
fetched, yet talent has been misspent in attempts
to lay down definite forms and proportions founded
upon harmonic laws, botanical geometry, &c. Some
mental cause must be found for all preference of one
proportion over another.*

II. XTnity and Symmetry are important elements
of beauty. Correspondence and connection of parts,
equal spacing, &c., may be embraced within this
category. Oneness of form, number, ratio, succession,
are equivalent terms implying method or order. Dr.
Hutcheson remarks as regards formal beauty, that
when imiformity is equal, the beauty of forms is in
proportion to their variety; and when their variety
is equal, it is in proportion to their uniformity. A
curved line of irregular flexure is not so beautiful as a
regular one, as an arc of a circle whose direction
though changing does so uniformly.

ni. It is the combination of Unity with Variety
which is needed, and this we get in the simple and
varying curves, as the circle seen perspectively, the
ellipse, hyperbola, parabola, catenary, spiral, &c.
Gradation is another term for this combination.

IV. Contrast may be defined as a change of resem-
blance, either as a change of shape, position, &c., but
resemblances must e;2dst as well as difierences.
Hogarth's line of beauty, being a curve of contrary
flexure, is an apt example of the principle of variety,
gradation, or contrast. It has been well remarked in
the case of curves of opposite curvature, the best

• Mr. D. E. Hay has applied the Pythagorean system of harmonic
numbers to architectural proportions, the basis of the theory being that
a figure is pleasing to the eye in proportion as its primal angles bear to
each other analogous proportions to those of vibrations in a chord of
music, and that harmony of form 'arises from a simple division of a
gnadrant or right angle into harmonic parts, as }, f , i, f, and their
mtdtiplea.

CONTRAST AND GRADATION. 193

contrast is obtained by equality of curvature, or when
the curves are both equally deflected from a common
tangent. The most graceful Greek kinds of ovoid form
exhibit this equality in the opposite curves.

Nature expresses force, strength, and exciting
qualities by angularities and contrasts; the more
delicate feelings and qualities by curvature and
gradation (see Alison on " The Sublimity and Beauty
of the Material World," ch. iv., part 2). One
general and valuable principle may be deduced, viz. —
all structural parts of a building or work of art should
have the more forcible elements of expression, and the
minor and ornamental portions the most graceful and
elegant kinds of form.

Thus the perfect Greek and Gothic show a remark-
able contrast ; in pure Greek we have interrupted vertical
lines, in Gothic interrupted horizontal one&. In all com^
position both vertical and horizontal connection is
necessary to preserve unity of parts.

Other considerations should govern the kind of form
best suited, such as the destination of the building,
whether it be of a grave or light class, and tho
relative position and importance of the features. Some
of the principal kinds of expression in abstract form
arising from the principles of Contrast and Gradation
are—

(1) Rectangular forms, or forms bounded by planes
or lines at right angles (a right angle being tho
strongest contrasted angle).

(2) Forms bounded by oblique lines or planes,
expressing an intermediate state between strength and
force and delicacy or grace.

(3) Curvilinear forms more or less contrasted, as
in geometrical or flowing traceries, forms of arches
and roofs exemplifying gradation and ^'a.^^^ ^cc^

194 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

all the lighter and more soothing qualities of expres*
eion.

(4) Mixtilinear forms, in wHcli the above expres-
sions are blended, as in the combined bead and square
or roll and concavity.

V. Optical oh Ocular Refinement can hardly
be called an aesthetic principle of abstract form,
yet it plays an important part in design. Straight
lines joining curves, as in some Tudor or flat-pointed
arches, always look concave, and have an apparent
deflection at their junction very disagreeable. Straight-
sided shafts, as columns, spires, chimneys, &c., look
weak and concave-sided, which is corrected by a slight
swell, or convexity (entasis), which the Greeks applied
to all the horizontal and vertical lines of their temples.

Again, a slight camber, or rise, to flat-headed
openings, prevents the sunken appearance a perfectly
straight lintel always has, and is necessary in all hori-
zontal and level lines and surfaces.*

Height is obtained by the predominance of vertical
lines, and lessened by horizontal lines. Apparent size
or magnitude is obtained by multiplicity of details, or
small patterns, forming a kind of scale to the eye, and
vice versd. Contrasts always tend to exaggerate the

diflference.t

Decided contrasts of form or direction are often

necessary to correct ocular impressions by making

difierences appear greater.^

The irradiation of light, or the effect of luminosity

in spreading the lighter parts of objects, is an im-

* These efifecis are partly due to the spreading influence of light
(irradiation^.

t Careful measurements have shown that the axes of the comer
columns of Greek temples slightly converged.

} Thus, imless exact centrality or uniformity^of features be ohtainoi'
Ufa more pleashig to increase the departoro or difTcrcnco.

COLOUR, 196

portant principle in optics. On this principle the
drops of the Greek taenia were made conical^ and
larger at the lower end, where they are seen against
a bright surface. Various other instances may be
noticed, but the reader is referred to other treatises,
especially Mr. F. C. Penrose's able investigations on
the optical refinements of the Parthenon.

VI. Expression. — ^Although placed here, this is one
of the principal attributes of true art, but seldom
heeded by architects unless mixed up with associations.
The grave and festive, the majestic or playful, should
be expressed by architecture to the simplest individual.
The stem majesty of the hall of justice, the aspiring
tendency of the religious temple, the festive place of
amusement, and the urbanity of the domestic residence,
should proclaim their respective purposes, at least in
general terms.

VII. Colour. — This belongs to the last and lowest
class of eflfect. Primitive nations have invariably,
like children, been attracted by colour of the brightest
hue. Forms, especially of a natural or sensuous kind,
are next appreciated ; and, lastly, those of a mental or
conventional order. Monochrome decoration has con-
sequently been only appreciated by a few ; the positive
colours of the polychromist being the most popular,
because most pleasing and sensuous.

Children and savages have, as observed by eminent
authorities, always shown a preference for positive
colours ; the nicer and less sensuous distinctions of shades
and tones requiring greater mental discrimination.

Hence it may be laid down that nature offers the
best rule for our guidance, namely, unity of colour,
neutral tints, or secondaries and tertiaries for large
and retiring surfaces and masses, and varied primitive
colours in the smaller and pxommQU\» "^osXa* ^^ ^^^

196 HIHTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECrrS.

duce tlie effect of light and hanuony, there shoTild be
ft balance of colours according to the proportions of the
solar spectrum. The eye exposed to one colour is most
satisfied and pleased with its complementary ; thus red
harmonizes mth green, blue with orange, yellow with
tioki ; and these colours are harmonic^ and arc shown
by physicists to have a simple ratio of.yibrations to one
another as between two musical notes. This ratio is
4 to 6 or 5 to 4. According to this law, the primaries
should be employed in a certain proportion to one
another, e. g. 3 yellow, 5 red, and 8 blue, the latter
as the retiring colour being used in the concave
sur&ces, yellow which advances on the convex, and
red as the middle-distance colour.

Classification of beauties, — ^All beauties or merits
are resolvable into ocular or sensuous impressions, as
the lower sort of elements, and the intellectual or
ideal dass. Many philosophers have denied that there
exists any one form more pleasing than another in the
abstract, i.e. inherently, intrinsically, and that any
preference is simply the result of mutual inference and
association with certain emotions. We have shown,
however, certain elements or pleasing combinations to
exist, though there is always the difficulty of entirely
setting aside the idea of their association with certain
objects; in other words, there are certain properties
which affect the senses and mind independently of
their awakening any extraneous emotion, e,g, a curved
line is always more pleasing than a straight line, and a
circle than a square.

The young artist will perceive that the higher kinds
of expression spring from those qualities which are the
result of discrimination and cultivated taste.

ADDENDA ON CONSTRUCTION.

Mortar and Cement. — ^Limes are either ricli or
hydraulic, according as the limestones are of carbonate
of lime, such as chalk, or contain from 15 to 30 per
cent, of silicates or magnesia. Rich limes slake freely,
and augment largely in bulk. They harden slowly in
air, but not at aU in water. Mortar made of them is
soon affected by damp, &c. Hydraulic lime slakes
slowly, and hardens under water ; hence is adapted for
damp situations. Some stones produce cements which
do not slake, but when ground and mixed with water,
will set in air or water almost immediately. Such
stones contain from 40 to 60 per cent, of silicates. The
hardening or setting of mortar is due to the gradual
absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, thus
forming a crystallized carbonate of lime. In hydraulic
limes the induration is effected, probably, from a union
of the lime with silica and alumina, forming an
insoluble crystallized double silicate. For concrete and
thick walls, and damp places, through which air cannot
permeate, hydraulic limes should be used. The blue
lias is one of the most hydraulic and strongest of limes.
Sand for mortar should be sharp, clean, and gritty, and
not too fine. Good pit sand, or clean road grit, is best.
Salt sand should be avoided Water for mixing should
be free from organic matter, and used sparingly. For
ordinary mortar for brickwork t\iO '5iT0^QtNAss'Q& ^<3Si^

198 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

be, 1 of slaked lime, 1 sand^ and 1 smithy ashes. Fo»
rubble masonry: 1 slaked lime, 2 parts sand; and one-
third part smith's ashes. The admixture of ashes
&cilitates absorption, and makes mortar stronger.
Mortar should be used fresh. Portland Cement is
generally used where strength is required. It is made
of clayey mud pounded under water, dried, and burnt.
It is three times stronger than Eoman cement, and
improves by age. The patent *' Selenitic *' cement can
be used as a substitute for mortar and cement. It saves
lim^ and sets rapidly. It is a species of cement-mortar,
and is an approved method of using prepared quick-
lime.

Bricks, Stone, Walls, and Arches.*— Vitreous
and glazed facing materials should be avoided in
ordinary walls. They conduct heat rapidly, and
condense moisture to an impleasant extent. Hollow
walls, tied with cramps, obviate this, and allow of the
use of non-absorbent vitreous facings to a larger extent.
Hollow bricks, or cellular walls, are better than solid
ones. Hollow bricks, or stoneware, make capital arches
and vaults, light and non-conductive. Floors may
also be constructed of such materials rebated or joggled
together, supported upon encased rolled iron joists—-
the encasing being of the plaster, concrete, or some
non-conducting material, moulded externally. The
author has used this method with success. (See Guil-
laume's " Economic Building Brick.'')

Stone. — Stones should be selected with caution, and
be placed upon their natural quarry beds when used.
Laminated stones should not be used in work exposed
to weather, or in highly relieved mouldings. Gothic
mouldings deeply cut are most liable to decay from
this cause. Delicate mouldings should be executed in
etonea whose grain is favourable to them. Coarse

COMBINATION OF MATERIALS. 199

sandstones are often unadapted for highly moulded
work. Long stones set on end as in inullions, archi-
traves, (Sc, are to he avoided as false construction.

The greater the numher of beds the better, and all
good Middle Age masonry conforms to this rule.
When large or deep stones are used the bed-joints
should he proportionately thick. This is strangely
ignored by architect? and builders. Stones expand and
contract by heat and cold, and in large masses, or long
lengths, as in columns, copings, steps, &c., frequent
joints should be allowed, or they will fracture, or be
forced out of line. A combination of ashlar and rubble
makes bad walling; concrete and ashlar, or brick
facings, are to be preferred if proper bond courses are
used.

Combination of Materials. — The different conduc-
tivities and unequal rates of expansion and contraction
of different substances, caused by changes of tempera-
ture, oxidation, &c., are a serious cause of disrupture,
fracture, and derangement in building, which architects
seldom heed. Care should betaken to combine and adjust
these materials, so as to prevent this cause of failure.
Modes of joining, free space at bearings, and means of
adjustment shoidd be considered. Thus metals expand
more than stone, and all girders and iron framework
should have free play at bearings. Sockets should be
provided for their ends, instead of being allowed to
impair the stability of the supporting walls by entering
and being fixed rigidly to them. Columns and girders
of iron should also be encased in non-conducting
materials, such as porous plaster containing animal
charcoal or earthenware. Fillets of wood banded round
with iron, perforated plating or netting, covered with
plaster, will prevent the destructive action of intense
heat or fire, and render the mateimla \io\i-^Qrei4»s^^kKi%

200 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

and less subject to tlie inconyenience of condensed
moisture.

Mr. Homblower's patent fire-proof flooring is formed
on this principle, and is to be higUy recommended.

The stability of masonry and brickwork should
depend mainly upon the pressure of weight and static
equilibrium. Iron employed as dowels, cramps, &c.,
frequently does more harm than good in corroding or
expanding. Homogeneous materials and construe-
tion are the best ; and when different materials are
combined, they should be made to act and react upon
each other without destroying the structure in which
they are used. Good conductors should be encased
in bad ones with air spaces between; and movable
bearings should be used in all long lengths of materials.

Bond. — ^In bonding walls, hoop-iron, or courses of
bricks in cement, are preferable to wood bond.

Concrete "Walls. — Walls of concrete, either built
in blocks or by the filling-in process, as by Henley's
patent, are cheaper and more impervious to moisture,
vermin, &c., than brick walls. They may be reheved
by panelling, impressed ornament, and faced with stucco
or cement. The compressive resistance of concrete
may be usefully employed in combination with iron tie
rods for floors and beams, as in Hyatt's system. The
statistics of Captain Shaw, of the Metropolitan Fire
Brigade, show concrete to be one of the best and most
fire-resisting materials.

Roof Coverings. — Tiles corrugated or ribbed make
one of the best roof coverings. The Broomhall tiles
are recommended for appearance. Slate is more con-
ductive of heat. All roofs should be either felted or
pugged. In large open roofs, as those of churches,
the pnprging may be filled in between the lathing of
inside plastering or the boarding and the slate bat-

DRAINS. 201

tens, by placing diagonal strips or battens over the
laths two or three inches in thickness, and then nailing
the slate battens horizontally upon those, thus leaving
a space for the pugging. A good and cheap roof can
be formed in this way. Plastered ceiKngs and roofs
are better than boarded ones, being less resonant of
sound and more fire-resisting. An open air space
above collared roofs and ceilings is desirable for venti-
lation, and also for preventing the passage of heat and
retaining warmth in the building.

CisTEKNS. — ^All drinking-water cisterns should be
placed in readily accessible positions for cleansing (not
over water-closets), and be covered with felt to prevent
effects of frost. Overflow and waste pipes should not
lead into soil-pipes, but discharge into stacks or exter-
nally. All water-pipes should be cased in felt or saw-
dust, and be easily got at by pocket pieces or doors in
wood casings.

"Water-closets, Pipes, &c. — The common glazed
earthenware syphon closet-pan is the cheapest and
best ; no overflow should be allowed into valve-
chamber or soil-pipe, as in some old apparatuses,
which allow the sewer air to escape. Lead-encased
pipes (Haines' patent) are better than lead pipes ; and
wrought-iron pipes with screw joints are next best.
All water-closets should be placed in external positions
or projections, and have an intermediate or isolating
lobby for ventilation, &c. Stack pipes may be used as
ventilating-tubes to soil-pipes, &c.

Basement Floors. — Sleeper walls of earthenware
are better than brick for joists, as it checks the rise of
damp from ground.

Drains. — ^Invert of main sewer should be at least
nine inches or a foot below, that of house or branch
drain. Doulton's patent invert blod^ ^t^ Xi^Xi^ x^^rrso^-

K a

202 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

mended. Jimction blocks of stoneware should be in-
serted in main drains or sewers to prevent bungling
jointing by incompetent hands^ and caps, or movable
lids, should be provided to house drains at every bend
to facilitate cleaning the drains. Pipes should be
jointed with clay, or tarred gaskin inserted in the
sockets. Earthenware soil-pipes built into the wall
may be used, but not zinc. Connection between sinks
and house drains should be cut off by allowing the
waste to discharge upon an open outside gully. All
drains should be ventilated at cesspools or dead walls,
and disconnected on both sides of the building by
proper ventilating gullies (see Sanitary Construction,
Part v.).

PART VII.
MODEL SPECIFICATION.

(General )
Clauses, j

Founda- )
lious, &c. /

Well.

ArtlGcial
founda-
tions.

Indents.

General
clauses.

Damp-proof )
course. /

Arches.

INDEX.

Xotico to local authorities. Payment of fees
Protective inclosures. Bestoration of pavements
Removal and shoring. Old materials .
Clearing, excavating, re-filling

Drainage of site

Underpinning

No.
1

Trenches for footings ...... 6

Artificial levels for pavements. Ground-making

round building 7

"Well-digging and building 8

Concrete foundations 9

Piling and planking 10

Brickwork.
Indents in old work, and making good .

Bough
Arches

Brick-facing.
Brick
strings,
cutting8,&c.
Fire-places, "(
flues, &c. 3

Bond — quality of bricks — mortar — ^riso of courses
— ^flushing — grouting — footings — outsido and
inside work — ^hollow walls — facing and point-
ing

Slate or asphaltc damp course

Gauged arches to windows, &c.

Bough arches — ^relieving arches

Inverted arches
Common brick facing .

12
13
U
15

16
17

Brick strings — ^fascias — cornices — cuttings, &c. . 1 8

Fire-openings — arohes — trimmer ditto— flues, stacks,
&c ^^

204 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No.

Fire-places. Chimney bars ••...,, 20

Fixing grates 22

Coping, &c. Tile — or brick on edge 21

Bedding ) t> jj*

timber, } Bedding-pointing— backing timber— stone-work—

stone, &c. J frames, &c 22

^X&c] D--rf walls-piers 23

QO^^ng. } Srick-nog partitions 24

Rough )

brick pa- > Paving— flat— on edge— asphalte paving . . 25

ring, &c. j

Tile paving. Encaustic tile paving 26

paving, j Clinker paving to stables 27

Vaults. Vaults of brick or masonry — filling in, &c. . . 28

Groined ditto 29

Corbelled skew-backs 30

Concrete filling in of vaults 31

Cemented outside 32

Lime-whiting 33

Hoop-iron bond 34

Extra brickwork 35

Party wall 36

Drainage. Cesspit — cover stsono, &c 37

Glazed stoneware pipe drains .... 38

Dip traps or syphon traps 39

Privy drains 40

Outlets from soil pipes, &c 41

Drain pipes from ditto 42

Bubble drains 43

Main drain of brick or sewer . . . .44

Soil pit 45

Dry area of brick or rubble to prevent damp . . . .46

Water-tank .47

Ventilation under floors . • • .... 48

Jobbing and fittings 49

Bubble Masonry and Brick.

General ) Limestone — slate or other material — mortar-
clause, j bond, &c .60

Facing. Bandom coursed 51

Begular coursed 52

Trimmed and coursed .53

INDEX TO MODEL SPECIFICATION.

205

No.
Arched 1 Rough — common hrick — ^hammer-dressed — gauged

soffits. / skew-hack 64

Eeveals. Trimmed rough — common brick — neat dressed . 65

Arches. Rough— coimter arches — ^relieving ditto . . 66

Inverted ditto (see No. 16) . . . . . 57

Rough projections— cores— corhellings 68

Fire-openings — flues — stacks 69

Coping. Rough saddle-hack 60

Cement ditto 60

Footing of paving-stone 61

Rough stone worked in walls, &c. . ... . . .62

Wrought stone built in 63

Stonb-gottino — Classic, Italian, or Gothic.

Door-steps. Common 64

Stair-flights, common 66

Ditto better 66

Paving-stone stairs .67

Out-door stops, plain rubbed 68

Stairs. Stone stairs, superior moulded .... 69

Moulded stairs 70

Stone steps and iron risers 71

Sills. Common window-sill 72

Superior ditto 73

Gothic sills 74

Dressingp, ) ^ , ^.

architraves, J To doors 76

^^•' * Ditto and entablatures 76

Ditto ditto and pediment ... 77

Door dressings 78

Window "> Dressings— architraves— sills, &c. .... 79

dressings. )

Archivolls. ^^ doorways or windows — ^imposts — caps, &c. . 80

Gothic door \ Plinths— jambs — archivolts 81

G^othicTudor. ^^*^° ^^

window i I*linths— jambs — archivolts 83

dicsdings. } rr It. Ri

Tcrra-cotta ..••«..* o«$

Superior ditto . . t . . • • 84

rv i^« A\u^ Ditto 86

1 iiuor ditto.

r>;iy or oriel ) Dressings 86

v.iudows. 1 „ , . ' ft-

Balconies ... • • . * ^^

206 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECT8.

No.

PUnths 87

String conrso 88

Ck>mice 89

Blocking course. Parapet — ^balustrade 90

Chimney stacks ^1

Quoin stones 92

Kusticated \

doors and •) Arcades .,..,... 93

windows. )

Ashlaringy common 94

Ditto best 95

Ditto fixing 96

Gothic Wobk.

Window-sills 74

Door dressings 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86

Plinth 97

String course 98

Ck>mico 99

Parapet 100

Chimneys 101

Quoins • • 192

Ashlaring 193

Buttresses 194

Cappings to ditto 105, 106

Buttress pinnacles 107

Gables 109

Corbels to gables HO

Pediment. Greek or Italian 108

Gothic gables 109

Ditto corbels HO

Portico. Plinth base to columns— cased . . . .Ill

Ditto soUd 112

BackpUnth 113

Columns, &o. 114

Architrave 115

Return ditto 116

Ceiling beams 117

Stone soffit '.118

Frieze 119

Comico 120

INDEX TO MODEL SPBCIPICATIOM. Wl

No.

Portico. Blocking — pampet — baliutrailo .... 121

Pediment 122

Various pavomcals, stepa, &>i. . ■ • • 123

ArcodcB 124

Gothic 12fi

Plugs, ciamp», lead, &a., to srlone-worlt genomlly .126

MlSCFIJ.AmOD8 Stosb-wouk.

Coping 127

Cuiba 128

Heartlia— baoli and front 129

Chimney-piecofl 130

Paving, common 131

Better . . ." 132

Superior 133

Marllo 13i

Enoauetic or teraelatcd 136

Kttangs in cellar 138

Sinla 137

Bath 138

Vaiiooa fittings 186

Stables, mieceUaueouB stoDO-worlc in 140

CoBch-houaoa ditto Ill

Stablc-yarda, ko., pitch paving, cntbB, hinge-Btoues, &c. . • 142

Blatino.

Slating, common 143

Better 144,145

Superior 149

To iron rooti 147

Modes of covering iron too& (bo(») 147

Slating fo circulnrroot 148

Flat pitclied slating 149

Oataido pointing 160

61b1« ridjjQsandbipa 151,162

£411etlng 1G3

Qaeon alating 1S4

Final clause 166

Tiling, plain 166

Bidge and hip tiles 167

FantiUng 168

Final clause 169

208 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No.

Flasteb and Cembnt Work.

Patent cement, uuide work 160

Parian or Keene's cement, ditto 161

Common internal plastering 162

Common three-coat work for ceilings and papering . . . 163

Three-coat work for painting or colour 164

Best three-coat work for paint or paper 165

Whiten ceilings 166

Colonr walls, &c. 167

Beads, quirks, &c 168

Sides, backs, soffits, &c., not cased with joinery . . . .168

Cornices and enrichments 169

Cement skirting 170

Scagliola work and Keene's patent, &c 171

Patent cement outside brickwork 172

Ditto ditto common, on rubble . . . . .173

Ditto ditto superior, on rubble 174

Kough-cast on rubble 175

Two coats common and ono Aberthaw, on rubble . . .176
One coat ditto and two ditto ditto . . . .177

Portland or Aberthaw, on brick 178

Cement or moulded work 179

Parapets and damp-proof <}ourse 180

Carpenters* Work.

Inclosnres 181

Shoring and old material 182

Piling and planking . 183

Sundries 184

Bond and lintels 185

^tory-posts . 186

Bressummers 187

Quarter partitions 183

Ground joists 189

Common joisting 190

Binders and girders 1^1

Single-framed floors ,....,... 192

Double-framed floors 193

Floor trusses 194

Cross straining 195

Floor pugging to prevent sound 195

Ceiling battens 196

FlaU 197

INDEX TO MODEL SPECIFIC ATIOX. 209

No.

Lanterns 198

Roofs, Italian 199

Ditto, Gothic 200

Dormer doors and windows 201

Boarding and battening for lead and slates, and felting . . 202

Open roof, Gotbic 203

Curb roof 204

Garrets 205

Ceiling floors 206

Projecting eaves 207

Troughs, cisterns, &c. 208

Joists, wrought fair 209

Sundry rough work 210

Battening on walls 211

Cradling and firring 212

Columns, and coved ceilings 213

Final clause 214

Sliding doors 215

JoiNEns' Work.

Ventilator to roof . 216

Sky-lights 217

Ceiling or dome inner lights 218

Light and ventilation of water-closets 219

Dormer door 220

Ditto windows 221

Trapdoor 222

Gutter cornice and cantilevers 223

Ditto Italian 224

Eaves gutter cornice, Gothic 225

Barge boards 226

Ditto Gothic 227

Lanterns 228

Floor boarding, common 229

Ditto better 230

Ditto superior 231, 232

I)itto best 233

Ditto wrought underside 233

Very superior floor of deal and wainscot, or of wainscot wholly . 234

Inlaid floors, parquetry ditto 235

Skirting, flush 236

Ditto plugged to wall, common 237, 238

Ditto on fillet and grounds 239,240

Ditto ditto ditto and grooved into floox Vi^\^va^*WiVA*^

210 11IHT8 TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No.

Doot, common, lodged and tmced 2^3

Ditto framed, lodged and braced 24*

Ditto for coach-houBes 2*6

Ditto panoUod, common 246

Ditto ditto bettor 2*7

Ditto ditto euporior 3*8

Ditto ditto boat 249

Doors, folding 2fi0

Ditto, sliding 251

Outer dooiB 262

Ditto foldioE 253

Back doom 25*

Ditto folding 263

Doors with side and top lighta 266

Ditto udo lighte only 26T

Ditto segment, semicircnlar, or pointed-headed . . . 258—260

Doors, Gutiic 261

Sundry doore, borrowed lighta, &v 262

Lantern light (eoo 228) 263

Ditto with curved heads to lighta 26*

Window, saah, simplest 266

Ditto common 268

Ditto better 267

Ditto improved 268

Ditto best 269

Space for Venetian blinds 270

Hinging and furniture of ehulttTa 271

Saeh window with Ufting ehuttets 272

Improved pulley stilo 273

Ditto Buperior 274

Ditto triple light 275

Bow sash window 276

Bay sash windows 277

Venetian window 278

'Wooden casing pilusters 1« windows ...... 279

Segment, circular, or pointed beads to windows .... 230

Casement windows, leaded glazing 281

Ditto «ol leaded . . . . ' . . .282

IfBhattors,&c.,inBido, or outside, &C. 2S3

If Gothic cBsomenfs 284

Trench caaomonls 285

Swing cjiBemonts 286

Coin beads and window boards 287

Windom with lufTcr boarding 288

INDEX TO MODEL SPECIFICATION. 211

No.

Clock or bell-lurret .289

Stairs, common 290

Ditto better 291

Ditto best . 292

Iron stiffening balustci'S 293

Fascia of landing 294

Panelled soffit to stairs 295

Inclosure under stairs 296

Cast-iron balusters 297

Step ladder 298

Panelled framed spandrils 299

Casings of carpentry, &c 300

Board linings, &c., panelled ditto, &c 301

Wooden columns and pilasters 302

Ditto entablature, &c . . 303

Wood carved-work . . . 304

Papier-mach6 work, &c 305

Water-closet fittiogs 306

Privies 307

Sundry fittings . . . . 308

Stables. Miscellaneous joinery 309

Coach-houses. Ditto 310

Loose boxes 311

Outhouses . 312

Stable, coach-house, and outhouses, doors and windows . • 313 '

Final clause to joinery . . . . * . . . 314

Ibon anp Metal Work.

Window guard-bars .315

Windows of dairies and larders, fly wire 316

Metal sky-lights 317

Iron chimney bars . . . 318

Binding bolt to hearth arch 319

Iron columns 320 .

Iron girders 321

Iron joists 322

Fire-proof floors 323

Sundries 324

Iron roofs 325

Cantilever gutters 326

Iron gutters 327

Water-pipes 328

Gratings 329

Fixed ditto » * ^^^

212 HINTS TO YOUNO AECH1TECT3.

No.

SnndrieH 331

It&llj, baloBten, and palisadmg 332

Iron gated 333

Iran doors 331

Wood and iron doors 336

Iron casements 336

Sundries to windows 337

Iron shutters 338

Iron mangers and racks 339

CoLtam nndCo/Balalle-filtiaga 340

Terandali, &c 341

Bnndiies .•..,. 342

General clause for iron work 343

GralBB, Btoves, ranges, coppers, &c. 344

DuUluingmg 34S

Heating apparatus 346

PLnMBins' WoRS,

Lantern top 347

Kidges and Lips 343

Botmers, tops Si9

Sides of ditto 350

Valleys 861

Chimney gutters 362

Parapet gutters 363

Flals 364

Boofs 366

Flashings 366

Iffljing on water 369

Supply-pipoa from cistern 380

WntBr-cloaota 361

Linings of washing troughs, baths, &c 362

Pnmp 363

Sundries 361

Qeneral clause 366

Glazier 366

Painter and stuiner yij7, 368

Zina worker 369

MODEL SPECIFICATION.

Specification of works to be done in tJie constmction of . . , , ^

agreeable to the Drawings herewith

furnislud, and numbered \ to . , . inclusive.

No. 1. To give to tho Metropolitan Board of Works,

Notice to local local Commissioners and Surveyors, &c., all
authorities, requisite notices ; to obtain all official licenses
for temporary obstructions, inclosures, openings
into common sewers, water-pipes, &c. ; and to
Payment of pay all proper and legal fees and charges to
fees. public officers and neighbouring proprietors,

making good any damage occasioned to adjoin-
ing premises, and keeping up Hghts,^ &c., re-
Protective in- quired by night. Construct proper inclosures
closures. and fences for the protection and convenience oi

Restoration of the public during the progress of the works;
pavements, and perfectly reinstate pavements, &c., to the

perfect satisfaction of the Town Surveyors.
Clerk of the ^ of^(iQ for Clerk of the Works, with fire-
Works' office, place and flue of brick or masonry (see 200).

No. 2. Carefully take down the old buildings, effectu-

Removal and ally shoring up as may be necessary fiie adjoin-
oid""^f . ing properties; and entirely remove the old
materia s. j^j^^^gj-jajg^ rubbish, &c., to the satisfaction of all
parties. The old materials to become the pro-
perty of the Contractor, who shall be allowed to
re-employ only such portions thereof as tho
Architect under his handwriting «\i^\\ ^^yok^».

214 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

^0, 3, Clear away all rock, soil, or rubbish, necessary

Clearing, ex- to leave the site of the intended bnilding clear
sayating, ro- and unincumbered ; and excavate for basement
^^"*&* story, areas, footings of walls, cesspits, drains,

tanks, vaults, &c., as shown by drawings.
Properly refill, ram down, and level as re-
quired ; and remove all superfluous matter ex-
cavated, to the satisfaction of all parties.

No. 4. Bale out, draw off, pump away, and remove

Drainage of all water and soil which may come into the
b^ii^^ ^®^°^® excavations from springs, currents, drains, cess-
"^* pools, rain, or otherwise; and effectually com-
plete the drainage of the excavations and foot-
ings before any masonry or brick- work be carried
up. Shore up ground as required.

No. 5. Underpin in the most careful manner all walls.

Underpin- partitions, or buildings, surroundiug the site
ning. q£ ^g intended new buildings in any way en-

dangered by the excavations of the latter.

No. 6. Make perfectly level, and hard, the bed of all

Trenches for trenches for footings ; and consolidate the earth
footings. about the same, and against all walls, drains,
pits, &c. The depth of the footings to be con-
tracted for, as shown by the drawings. Should
a less depth be admissible, or a greater depth be
required, the deviation will be made, under the
written permission of the Architect, and ac-
counted for accordingly.

No. 7. To provide, bring in, spread over, and well

Artificial ram and consolidate, any dry hard ground or
levels for rubbish which may be necessary to form the
and^ground- pj*oper level for internal pavements, or paving of
making round courts, areas, pits, &c. ; or which may be re-
building, quired to raise the ground level to the lines
shown on elevations or sections : the said made

ground to extend feet from the fronts,

and thence to fall to the natural, or now-exist-
ing, surface, in an angle of • . degrees.

PILING AND PLASKINO. 215

No. 8. ^o ^S ^ ^Q'Ii ^^ ^^ situation marked on plan,

•U diKgins foar feet diamober, and feet deep below

L buiHiDg. the level of The Bame to bo

properly steined round with and

domed over with

Ho. 10.

ngand
ikiag.

To make an artificial foundation for (either

certain parts of, or) the entire building,

feet in width, and feet in depth ; the

EQme to he composed of one part of the best fresh
quick Btone Ume, beaten to fine powder, and sis
parts of nnsorecncd gravel (or fine and coarse
Btone ballast), mixed thoroughly with each other
in small qnantitiea at a time, the lime being
moderately slaked with water at the moment of
admixture ; and the concrete, when properly
compounded, and yet hot, to be thrown &om an
elevation of not less than ten feet into the
trenches, where it will form in layers of six
inches deep [or to be rammed in layers] to he re-
peated one above tlie other, ontil the full depth
of the required substratum is attained.

[Here specify concrete walling, if any.]

To make an artificial foundation for (either

certain parts of, or) the
footings of entire build-
ing, with sound fir piles,

feet long, ....

inches square, pointed vrith
iron, and hooped vnth
ditto ; each pile to bo
firmly driven hy means of
ft proper apparatus ; the
relative situation and dis-
tance of the piles, as
Bhown hy adjoining figured
sketch. Bleepers
" X " over each sioopec^
transverse row of

piles, and

planking . . . inches
thick; the whole

Planking.

oSiiS'SS^

216

HIKT8 TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 11.
Indents.

No. 12.
Brickwork.
General
clauBe.

Mortar, &c.

Grouting.
Footings, &c.
See also
No. 69.

Hollow walls.

Pointing.

properly gpiked, &c., &e. [For farUier informa-
tion as to fonndations, see '< FotmdationB and
Concrete Works/' by Dobson (Lockwood and
Co.).]

Bbicewobk.

To cut and parget in the old brickwork
perpendicnlar indents to receive the new work,
and make good the distnrbance in the old work
occasioned thereby.

The whole of the work, shown by

tint on plans and sections, to be constructed

with bricks, laid in English bond ;

the said bricks to be the best of their kind,
hard-bomt, square, and perfectly sound ; laid
in mortar, compounded of one-third well-burnt
stone lime and two-thirds of clean sharp sand,
free from salt, well beaten and worked up
together. (See Part VI., Addenda.) No four
courses to rise more than one inch beyond the
collected height of the bricks. Every course to
bo filled in and fully flushed up with mortar, and
every second (or third course) to be grouted with
liquid mortar of hot lime and sand. The footings
and walls to be of the varying thicknesses and
heights figured on the drawings ; and no varia-
tion to be made between the outside work and
inside work, except that the work intended to be
plastered is to have the joints thereof left rough.
(See 50.) [Or,

The walls to be built hollow with a space of
2V or 8", the thicknesses being tied together by
galvanized iron or tarred cramps set in cement it
necessary, and placed every sixth course in
height, and about 2' 6" apart.]

The visible exterior of walls above ground to
be finished with a neat flat ruled joint (see 51).

No. 13 [Lay throughout the length and thickness of all
Slate or Damp walls and jambs a course of slate in cement, or
course. ^ Itiyei of pitch or asphalte i inch in thickness,

ARCHES.

217

No. 14.
G-auged and
other archeB,
&c.

No. 16.
Brick rough
arches.

Kelieying
arches, &c.

No. 16.
Inverted
arches, &c.

No. 17.
Brick f&cing.

No. 18.
Brick strings
and cutting.

to prevent the damp rising, 4 lb. lead to be
laid over all walls, &c. [The Broomhall Tile
Company's patent vitrified perforated damp-
proof coarse is also recommended.]

All front windows and to have

the best ganged arches, abutting on proper
skew-backs, the soffits and reveals being

^, > inches deep. All other outer openings

to have plain axed (and slightly cambered)

arches closely set and pointed.
[Note. — ^A good wall may be formed with
facings of brick filled in between with
concrete, through courses being placed
every four or six courses to bond the
work.]

Turn rough arches and counter-arches, wher-
ever practicable, through the entire thickness of
walls, except where it may be inexpedient to
show them externally (in which case they will
be concealed by four-
inch facing), and con-
struct nine or four-inch^
relieving arches, over all
lintels or bressummers,
as sketch.

Inverted arches, the whole thickness of walls,
under ( — external openings, — chimney open-
ings, — and other openings, — from pier to
pier, — or) such openings (beneath the ground
level) as are shown to have them on the
drawings.

To face the visible exterior of the walls of the

with facing bricks

of uniform colour, properly bonded into back-
work, and finished with a neat flat ruled joint.

Properly form the string courses, fascias,
pilasters, cornices, breaks, recesses, &c., shown
by drawings (cutting and rubbing 8uch of the
work as may be moulded,) (and neatly splaying
angles, plinths, &c.).

218 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

[Moulded bricks and terra-cotta are generally
used in lieu of cutting, &c.]

No. 19. Properly form all fire openings, mth camber

Brick fire- arches over the same, and trimmer arches
BtacS' &c?^* where required for front hearths. Carefully
gather in the chimney throats, and carry up
flues of not less than fourteen inches by nine in
the clear ; well pargetted [or pipe flues of fire-
clay about eighteen inches long]. The stacks
to be carried above roof to the heights shown
in drawings, with salient courses, &c. ; and
properly fix the chimney tops hereafter de-
scribed.

No. 20. Put chimney bars of wrought iron, 2i" x i"i

Chimney bars, and 18'' longer than chimney opening, properly
caulked at the ends.

No. 21. The walls of to be finished with

Tile coping on a top course of brick on edge [or half-round]
^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ i^^^ coped with double plain tile cresting), set
on go* jjj Q^jj^ jointed with new Portland cement and

clean sand mixed in equal proportions.

No. 22. To bed in mortar all the bond timber, plates,

Bedding, lintels, wood bricks, templates, stone and other
pointing, and ( masonrv 1

backing. work requiring to be set in the < SJ^ • t k I *

To bed in the point round with lime and hair,
mortar all door and window frames, and back up

and fill in with solid | ?^^^^^^^t, 1 all stone

Fixing grates, ^^^ iron work demanding it. Coppers, stoves,
&o. and grates, to be properly set with fire-bricks.

[Form all warm- air flues and fresh-air inlets
as shown.]

No. 23. Build all dwarf walls, piers, &c., necessary to

Dwarf receive sills of partitions and sleepers or joists

masonry or of ground floor, as shown on plans [and lay a
Dnckwork. course of slate in cement", or an asphalte damp-
proof course at proper level].

PA^^NG, VAULTS.

219

No. 24.
Brick-
nogging.

Bricknog all partitions which are marked od
plans with a red hatching, thus : WM^M^^Mf*.

No. 25.

Outer yard

I I- 1

dzcbr

Pave the with hard

^ bricks laid (flat, or on edge, as the case may

Brick paving, allow) in mortar ; and grout between the joints
with liquid mortar.
The bricks to be laid
according to pattern
here sketched, on a
good and Arm bot-
tom previously pre-
pared.

[The " Limmer " asphalte, " Claridge's " and
other patent asphalte pavings are preferable.]

No. 26.
Tilepaving,

Encaustic
Tiles.

No. 27.
Clinker
paving.

Pave the with 12" (red or white

paving tiles, laid (square or anglewise) (either oi
one colour or hoih^ alternating) in mortar upon
full 8'' deep of (fine coal ashes, dry brick, stone
rubbish, lime core, or concrete) bedding ; and
the joints thereof pointed with cement.

[Or,

Lay on a bed of concrete 8" thick properly
floated in cement Minton's or Maw's En-
caustic Tiles (here state description or cost per
foot).]

Pave the (stables, &c.) with real

Dutch or approved clinkers of approved sample,
laid herring-bone fashion or square upon coarse
gravel 6'^ deep, and grouted three times over
completely with stone lime and sand. The
paving to be laid with proper currents, &o.

No. 28.

Vaults of

Construct over the (pointed, seg-
ment, or semicircular, or elliptical) vaults
brick- work or ( jo niasonrv 12 )
ro masonry, of < jj^ck-work 9 J ^^^^^ *^^^' ^*^® ^P^"

drils being filled to within 9" of the crown of vault-
ing with *{ j^/jvjkats f grouted inliquidmortw:.

1.2

220

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Constrnct over tho arched and groined

vaultings, as drawings (with the groin points [if
brick] accurately cut to a regular arris^, and the

No. 29.
Groined
vaults of

brick-work or " ' / jo masonry brick- )

r- masonry, spandrils filled With j work concrete /

to the internal crown of the vault. The whole
to be completely grouted with hot liquid mortar ;
and, after the removal of centering, the whole to
be neatly pointed.

No. 30.
Corbelled
skew-backs.

No. 31.
Concrete
spandrils.

No. 32.
Vaults ce-
mented out-
side.

No. 33.
Lime-whitlng.

No. 34.
Iron hooping.

No. 36.
Extra brick-
work or
rubble.

The skew-backs of vaults to be formed by a
corbelling (as o in adjoining
sketch), so that the arch does
not encroach upon the main
substance of the piers or
springing walls.

Construct vaults, &c., &c., &c., and fill up
spandrils with concrete.

Construct vaults, &c., and coat the outside of
vault and walls with Portland cement i" thick.

Stop and lime-whiten twice the

To employ . . . cwt. of iron hooping as may
be directed, as a bond for the brickwork.

Allow for.

{perch of extra rubble-work )
rod of extra brickwork j
to be used, or not, as shall appear necessary,
and accounted for accordingly.

No. 36. Party- walls. (Make arrangements with Con-

Party-walls, tractor and adjoining Proprietors.)

No. 37.
Cesspit of
brick, or ma-
sonry.

To construct, where shown on plan, a cess-
pool, ' " internal diameter, and ' " from the
bottom to the springing of (arched or domed)
top. The same to be steined round, and vaulted
with (4" brickwork, or good compact rubble
masonry), closely pitch-paved, and lined with
Portland cement up to ttx^ Bi^iinging of vault.

DRAINS.

221

A man-hole 20'' diameter to be left in the top ;
the same to be covered in with a (Yorkshire,
Purbeck, or granite) stone having a s;trong iron
ring therein. Attend Plumber in the admission
of water-closet pipes.

No. 38. [Provide and lay ... . feet of glazed stone-

Glazed Stone- ware socketted pipes free from fire cracks, &c.
ware pipes. q^^^.^ describe whether of Doulton's or other
manufacture, and if with socket caps for clean-
ing,, &c.), laid to a proper fall, and jointed with
clay, tarred gaskin, or cement. Provide and fix
all proper junctions, syphons, bends, invert
blocks, &c., to make connections with sewers.]

No. 39." Construct dip-traps where shown on plan ; the
Dip^aps or ^^^^^ ^^ j^q rendered water-tight with cement ;
yp on- raps. ^^^ provide and fix sink stones over the same.

No. 40. Put from privy to drain a large and complete

Privy drain, brick funnel ; or form small trap cesspit under

the same, cemented to hold water, and glazed

stoneware drain " diameter from thence into

larger drain.

[Drains within a building should be avoided if
possible, or if necessary they should be enclosed
within a brick channel or filled in with asphalte
or Portland cement concrete.]

Form at the feet of soil-pipes, waste-pipes,
and rain-water pipes, stoneware bends set in
Portland cement, delivering into drains [or a
trapped open-grated cesspit] .

Lay, from the to the ... a drain of

strong, glazed, stoneware pipes " diameter

clear, and " diameter from the into

the ... . same to be jointed in fine clay or
cement.

No. 41.
Outlets.

No. 42.
Drain-pipes.

ble, &c.

No. 43. Construct, and continue, from the

P,^5"^^- to the .... a drain '' by "
formed of good close rubble
masonry at sides, slate bottom,
and strong cover stone. The
whole well bedded in mortar.

HINTS TO TOTTNG AKCHITECTB.

(Qy. need a portion of it ba lined ^th cement ?)
[These sqnare-bailt drains anperseded. Glazed
Btonemire pipes can now be obtained of STifficient
bore for all purpoees.]

*^^' a main drain of

" (brick, or good rubble ma- j

sonry in mortar} tlie form

and size shown and figured

in the annexed sketch. [The

invert or bottom of sewer

maybe formed in concrete,

or of invert blocks, and c[i=ab

junction blocks of stoneware inserted for i

Poolton'a hollow stoneware segment sewers are

also reconimeuded.]

No. 45. CoEstnict a soil or dnng pit, &c., &e. Do-

loil or dung scribe its size, form, material, and what drains it

"*■ ia to receive: whether open; with parapet?

arched 1 with man-hole, ic. ? or if covered with

slate or stone slabs ? whether lined (in part, or

wholly) with cement, to hold Uijaid a

Dry area
ble,&c.

Form a dry area round the

walla of (as ahown

' on drawinga), of (brick, or
stone mbble-work) and of the
sectional form and size shown
and figured in the annexed
sketch; the same to be
(covered with flat stone, or
arched with hrick or mbble)
Man-holes where shown on
drawings ; and provide and
fix stone curb and gratinga
of iron tberein, 20" sqnare
The bottom to have a fall to
the drain, and to be pitch
paved.

RUBBLE MASONRY.

223

No. 47.

Construct a water-tank below the floor of

plan, and of the se-

Water-tank, as shown on

brick or rub- tional form and size
®' here shown and figured.

The same to be covered
with a semicircular 4"
brick arch, having a
man-hole, with stone
therein, 20" diameter,
and iron ring. The sides
to be of " (rubble, or
brick- work), the bottom,
of (ditto), and forming
an inverted segment.
The ground outside the sides and below the
bottom to be thoroughly rammed and consoli-
dated ; the outside of said sides and bottom to
be laid against a clayed backing, and the inside
to be lined with fresh Portland cement.

Leave proper and sufl&cient openings for venti-
lating under the joists of ground floor, and pro-
vide and fix neat gratings [of cast iron or glazed
earthenware] in said openings. Form air flues,
where shown, in thickness of walls.

(See Sanitary Construction, Part V.)

No. 49. Attend upon the Stone-masons, Carpenters,

Jobbing, and Plumbers, and Smith, aiding, and making good
after them, and to perform all jobbing necessary
to the perfect completion of the works.

Brick fittings. Hajf-brick piers to stone or slate shelves of
cellar, dairy, larder, &c. (See 148.)

No. 48.
Ventilation.

No. 60.
Rabble ma-
3onry.

Mortar.

Bubble Masonby and Bbice.

The whole of the work, shown by . . . tint,
on plans and sections, to be constructed of good

( lime- stone, \

< slate, > rubble masonry, properly bedded

( or other j
in mortar, compounded of one-third well-bxixiSLi

334

HINTS TO YOVSQ ARCHITECrS.

Qroatiug,

No. 62.

coureed

conrsed
rabble.

stone lime and two-thirda of dean sharp sand,

free from eaJt, well beaten and worked up togs-
FooUngB. (See ther. The footings of walls (see No.
also No. 68.) be formed of large flat ~

Btonea, (having their

length not lees than the .

width of the masonry i

above,) laid traDBversely,

as shown by sketch, a being the footing 'stone.
Bond and ^ BufBoiency of bond stoneB,
quoiiu. aa BBB in the oimezed figore

(having an oxcesB of length

only, and no( of height), at

all qaoins, and where else

required to bind the work,

and insure its uniform com-

pactnesB, especial care being

taken to make the t "

through by well filling the ii

equal Bolidity all
_ ler part with eniBlI

Btones and mortar ; and the work to be grouted
with hot lime and sand at every riae of . . .
inches. The stones to be bedded as found in
the quarry. The walling to be carried np, and
preBerved, both vertically and horizontally true,
and of the varying heights and thicknesses
shown or figured on the drawings.

The visible exterior of

walla above ground to be ^ — \
finiehed in neat random |-~\ J— \~
conrsed work, the stoncB j '
being hammer-dresBed to a l,—
fair surface and neat joint,
and well pointed.

The visible exterior of — i

walls above ground to be —

finished in neat and regu- --f-

courBed work ; no course r_
to be more than

J~L

T-T~

. incbea high ; ham-
mer dreBsed to a fair surface ; the Joiuta to be
close and true, both vertically and horizontally,
and pomted with Aborthaw mortar.

ECBBLB WORK. 225

No. 63. The viaible exterior of the walla

rimmed and above ground to be faoed with a neatly trimmed

lorsed ashlaring of — ^^ "

'*'"*■ Btone, in courseB of ?^

equal height, nor leas f=T=

t&n inches, not more J

than inches. The .
vertical jointa tooled L_

close, and the horizontal joints bevelled (
"^ so as to throw the water from the top of i
course, and pointed with {qy. Aberthaw ?) a neat
flat mled joint. (Qy. sboi^d this ashlaring be
bedded and backed with Aberthaw ?)

[The joints may bo all square and close.]

Uo 54 All the openings to have — (trim-

mon brick arches)— (neatly hammer-dreaaed
arches) — (ganged arches corresponding with the
- ashlaring) to form their soffits outside wood
frames ; the soffita of windows being ^ . , >
inches deep ; and proper skew-backs being
formed in all cases. Alt such arches to be close
set and pointed. [Stone or terra-cotta skew-
backs and lintels may be substituted.]

No. 55. All reveals of the said openings to be^(trim-

EteTenli. med to a neat face) — (also of brick) — (neatly
dressed as arches) — (wrought to a neat sharp
arris, as soffits).

No. 58. TnmroQgharohesaEdcOunter-flrcheswherever
lioDgharcbea, practicable, throngh the
thickness of walls, ex-
cepting where they may .

not show in the external "^

facing ; and construct

12-inch rough relieving ^ches over all lintels, or

breBBummcrs, as sketch.

&o. 57. Inverted arches, &c. (8eft■&o."\.'o^

226

HINTS TO YOUNG ARC?HITECTS.

No. 58.
Aou^h pro*
jectioiu.

Properly form all rough projections, cores,
corbellings, &c., for cement striDg-conrses, fascias,
pilasters, cornices, &c. Or, see No. 18, altering
the word ** brick "for

No. 59. Properly form all fibre openings, with brick

Fire openiogs arches over the same ; and brick trimmer arches

and flues. where reqnired for front hearths. Carefolly

gather in the chimney throats, and carry up

flues round cylinders of not less than 9" or 12^

Chimney diameter in the clear, well pargetted. The

stacks. chimney stacks above roof to be carried up in

brick to the heights shown in drawing; and

properly flx the chimney heads or pots hereafter

described. (See No. 20.)

No. 60. The walls of to be

Koughcoping. finished with a top course of large
rough stones, partially hammer-
dressed to a circular top edge or
saddle back; bedded on their j^at
edge, and well flush pointed with Abertha^v
mortar [or cement].

Kongh
coping and
cement.

The walls of to be

finished with a top course of
stone on edge, well bedded and
jointed ; to overhang the faces
of wall 2 inches, and (when the
masonry shall have perfectly settled) to cover
the said coping with Portland cement, as adjoin-
ing sketch.

No. 61.
Footing of
paving stone.

No. 62.
Hough stone-
work in ma-
soniy or brick'

Provide and lay beneath the footiugs of . -. .
two complete courses of (Yorkshire) stone, of the
several widths shown on drawings. The stones
to be 8" thick, each averaging 10 ft., and none
less than 6 ft. superficial.

Provide and fix — (here mention and describe
the form and size of any roxigh or roughly wrought
stonework which has lo "b^ ^otV^^ ydXq 'Csi'^

STONE-WORK. 227

brickwork or masonry, — such as corbels for
overhanging chimney breasts, or other masonry ;
for gurders or other timbers; rough lintels for
windows or doors where flat arches are not
practicable, and which are to be plastered;
rough lintels over intercolumns ; rough plinths
to receive iron or wood columns and story-
posts ; rough templates to receive iron beams ;
&c.) (in short, dl stone-work that is to be
hereafter concealed).

No. 63. Provide and fix — (here mention and describe

Wrought the form and size of any wrought-fair stone-work

buSt^to ma- ^^^^ ^^^ *^ ^® worked into the solid brick-

sonry, &c., or work or masonry at the time of its buildings —

brick-work, such as hinge-stones, lintels, solid plinths, bases,

corbels, &c., which are unconnected with any

other stone-work, uncovered by plaster, and

used in plain buildings, which, in all other

respects, are of common brick- work or rubble

masonry). (Example. — The hinge-stones and

lintel of a strong closet rebated for iron-doors ;

the plinths under the piers of a shop front ; &c.)

(In short, all stone-work which does not partake

of the nature of ashlar ; which cannot, like stone

steps or window-siUs, be worked in after the

masonry or brick-work has been carried up ; and

without the previous fixing of which the common

walling cannot in any degree proceed.)

Stone-woek.

No. 64. To put to the . . . doors as shown

common. ' on plan, plain solid tooled steps of < ^^^ ^i, \

stone 12" x 8", properly back-jointed, and
mortised for door-posts. Also a piece of paving
of the same, to extend from step to outside face
of plinth.

No. 65. To put from the .... to the .... a flight

ajr*"^' of solid {^f^^} steps. 12" X 8", properly .
tooled (and mortised foi \toii \i^T\.^\»^t'^^\i'5v.^-

228

HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTS.

jointed, and securely (bedded on | ^j^^^^rk }

or (pinned into walls). (If there are landingSi
describe them.)

No. 66.
Better stair
flights.

No. 67.
Stairs of
paying stone.

To put from the .... to the •••• a flight
- ,., fPurbeck )
°f «°^^ i Portland }
steps, wrought and rub-
bed smooth on all faces
and soffit ; back-jointed
as sketch, the treads
mortised for balusters,
and the steps securely pinned into walls. Land-
ings of the same inches
thick, rebated on fo last
riser (and, if required, to
have joggled joints run with
lead).

LANDING

To put from the .... to the .... a flight
of risers, treads, and landings, of inch tooled
. . . . stone, (securely pinned into walls) or
(bedded on brickwork or masonry). The treads
mortised for balusters.

No. 68. To put to the

Out-door ^oors of ... .

steps, occ, -i.T tj J

better quality, ^ohd wrought and
rubbed Portland
stone steps (qy.
with moulded nos-
ings). Each step, out of a stone inches by
. . inches, properly jointed and bedded on the
substructure (and flanked with Portland curbs,
• . inches by . . inches, wrought, with rounded
top, rubbed, and properly mortised for balusters).
(If landing, state it.)

No. 69. To put from the .... to the .... flights of

Stone stairs, the best and hardest Portland stone steps, with

superior. moulded nosings, returned at ends, the soffits

(as well as the rest) wrought and rubbed fair

STEPS AND STAIRS.

229

CAD

bead flash-jointed, as sketch, and tailed fall
9 inches into the walls ; or resting on corbelling.
The bottom step having
its section a solid sqaare,
and finished with hand-
some car tail. The land-
ings thereof to be full
inches thick, with edge
moulding to correspond with nosings of steps ;
the mid-landings being in one slab each, and the
upper landing of . . . stones, tailed inches into
walls, and joggle-jointed with lead. Each step
and landing mortised for balusters. [In buildings
exposed to risk of Are, stone is apt to crack and
splinter under great heat; concrete steps are
here preferable, carried on corbelling or iron
carriages.]

No. 70.
•tone stairs,
.andsome.

No. 71.
•tone steps
nd iron

isers.

To put from the . • • . to the . . • . flights of
the best and hardest
Portland stone steps,
with moulded nos-
ings along the front,
outer end, and also
along the back of
each step ; the soffit of each step (except those
at bottom and landings) to be moulded as shown
by sectional profile, and the whole tailed 9
inches into walls. Landings . . inches thick,
having their soffits moulded and panelled as
drawings, and their edges moulded to cor-
respond with the nosings of steps. Handsome
curtail to bottom step, whose •section will be a
solid square. The whole lapped and jointed as
drawings. The mid-landings to be in one slab
each, and the upper landing in ... . stones,
tailed inches into walls, and joggle-jointed with
lead. All required holes for balusters.

To put from . . • . . to • . • • . a flight of
Portland ^

Purbeck > stone treads, with (rounded) (or
Yorkshire j

230 , HINTS TO TODNG ARCHITECrS.

moulded) noeinga ; the risera thereof to be of
open cast iron-work (see Smith), &c., &is.

No. 72. To pnt to the windows of good common

Window-mile, giUa of ... . stone, inches by inches ; stmk,
weathered and throated, and 4 inches longer

than the width , , Wim,

of openinga. '■■ -■ — '' "1 (H^^^

No. 73. To pnt to windows of .

Window^iUs, (and rubbed) Bills of .

finely wrongbt
stone, inches by

inches, (qy. moulded as drawings ?) and snnk,
weathered and throated. The siila to be 4 inches
longer than the (width of openings) (or than the
united width of openinga and jamh dressings).
(Qy. whether corbels under the sills, &c. ?)

No. 74. To put to windows of ... - common sills of

Window-sills, (slate, Yorkshire stone, or Pnrbeck) paving

^J^°" stone, inches wide, 2J or 8 inches thick,

wrougbt-fair edge and ^

ends, and laid sloping.

(The above will do, —
either for Italian or ~
Gothic.)

s, to put to windows of

sills of stone, properly

wrought, (throated, if prcjecting
(specify if in one or
more heights, and
make the top sill of r-
one length, if pos- f
Bible). I

Note, if two sills
may be cut out of
one stone, as sketch.

DOOR ARCHITRAVE.

231

[put to windows of ... .
monlded brick or terra-cotta
sills of the section in margin,
also lintels as shown.]

No. 75. To put to the doorway of .... an architrave

rchitrayes to of the best solid stone, moulded, and of

^"^ the scantling shown by fig. drawing No. .

The lintel to be of one stone; the jambs of

one ]

three >stone(s) down to plinth. [It is a fallacy

or more j

to imagine one stone stronger

than several. Constructively

it is better to have several

joints in a great length of jamb

or mullion, especially where

brick walling is used, the

settlement of work being

more uniform and the weight of superincumbent

masonry does not bear entirely on the jamb

or mullion, causing fracture at joints, &c.]

The whole to be rebated, as drawings. (State

if any of the jamb stones are to bond into the

walls.)

No. 76.
)or archi-
ive, and
tablature.

To put to the doorway of . . . .an architrave,
&c. (See No. 75.) Put over the architrave a
frieze of similar stone and quality ip . . . .
piece(s), not less than inches thick, of the
height shown in drawing; and, above the
frieze, a cornice of the sectional scantling and
moulded profile also shown (o^ud. m « « . .
stone (s).

232

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 77. To put to the doorway of ... . (all that is

Door archi- mentioned in Nos. 76 and 76) a pediment of the
trave, entabU- ^^^^ ^^qj^q ^n^ quality, the tympanum of one

m^l^ '" (<>' ^®®) stone(s) not less than inches thick,
™^ and the raking cornices to correspond with that

helow, having the additional moulding shown on

drawing.

No. 78. To put to the doorway of

Door dress- pilasters, architraves, &c.,

some.

engaged columns, archi-
traves, &c.,

If any other
parts of the
bailding are

pilaster dressings, as draw-
ings,

columns and jambs, as
drawings,

with
moulded bases, and capitals,

or with
Ionic, Corinthian, or enriched capitals,

• or with
consoles plain or enriched, as drawings :

the pilasters, engaged columns, &c., to be of the
best solid .... stone, in ... . piece(s) (ex-
clusive of caps and bases) and of the sectional
form and scantling shown on drawings. The
architraves, &c. (see Nos. 75 and 76), and, if
pediments are required (see No. 77).

Or,

the capitals (and, if there be such, the enrich-
ments, of architraves, iri^z^a, coim^^^, <;.QtiaQU«^

DOOR AND WINDOW DRESSINGS.

233

to be en- &c.) to be executed in the very best style, after

riched, this models of the full size, provided at the cost of

may be re- the Contractor, and only adopted under the

senred till the expressed satisfaction of the Architect,
end as a gene- ^

[instead of stone, moulded brick pilasters, archi-
traves, columns, &c„ may be employed. In this
case state manufacturer's name and give detail
of the same.
Stone or concrete heads or lintels to windows

and doorways
may be substi-
tuted for
architrave -^

ral clause.

Moulded
brick dress-
ings.

dressings or
pediments, the
Soffits being
simply splay-
ed, or moulded, or of segmental or pointed shape.]
(See sketch.)

No. 79.
Window
dressings,
various.

To put to the window openings of the
architraves, &c. (See No. 75, sub-
stituting the word " sill," or " blocking course,*'
or " string course,'' for plinth) (or as the case
may be.)

[The dressings specified for doors may be
here repeated, describing any variations.]

No. 80. To put to dooi'way of or the windows

Archivolts, q£ g^jj archivolt, or archivolts of

the best solid stone, moulded, and of the
scantling shown in drawing No. , with joints
only, as shown on the elevation thereof by blue
Imposts, &c., lilies. (If a key-stone, describe it.) The
&c., &o. imposts to said archivolt of similar material and

quality, and of the substance and profile shown
in drawings. (Qy. forming caps to pilasters or
jambs ? which pilasters or jambs will extend in
.... piece(s) to base, plinth, sill, string or
blocking course, and be of the sectional sub-
stance shown on plan.)

334 HINTS TO YOUNO AXCUITHCTH.

No. 81. To pnt to doorway of a plinth, jamba,

Ootbie door and arcUvolts of solid stone, wronjH

'' ""* moulded, and of the Bee^onal form and Bcaatiii^
shown by draving No. .

The jamba to be of stoiie(s), alter-
nately bonding into valla; the arehivolts of

.... etone(s^ ; and the eama to be of

stone(s) in their recessed depth, as indicated in
sections. (If there be imposts, caps, bases,
plain -moulded or carved) other eoriohments, and
label or drip-stones, state theiA.)

No. 62. To put to doorway of a plinth

Qotliio Todor and jambs of solid stone, with aqnare head

^r dress- ^jjj spandrils inclosing an archivolt, wronght,

^^' moulded, &c., and of the sectional forms and

scantling shown by drawing No. . (See

No. 81, and add thereto a description of the

spandrils.)

No, 83, To pal to window openings of jambfl

^^P'W" J and archivolts of solid atone. (See

Moulded [In any of the above cases monlded brides or

terra-cotta. teira-cottft may be used instead of stone.]

No. 84. To pat to window openings bf . . . . jambs

Oothiowin- and archivolts of solid .... stone {see No.
itawB,ropo- 81 j_ and properly cut, carve, and fix the

fcolnmns, mnllionH, transoms, mnllion arches
(plain or foliated), spandrils, and the tracery
complete), as shown on drawings. The (col-
nnms, molliona, &e.) to be of the sectional form
and scantling shown in details, and to have

GOTHIC DRESSINGS. 235

joints only where marked by blue line on
elevation.

0. 85. To put to window openings of

io Tudor jambs and square head of solid .... stone,
^^^' (^y« inclosing mullions, transoms, mullion arches
(plain or foliated), spandrils, and tracery) com-
plete, as shown on elevation. The jambs, heads,
(mullions, &e.), to have the sectional form and
scantling shown in details, and to have joints
only where marked. Properly cut and fix also
the labels or drip-stones.

0. 86. Bay or Oriel windows, Italian or Gothic, will

)r ^Oriel • P^*^^® ^^ *^® same general description as already

n or ' given, to which it will be necessary to add a

ic. description of the plinth (under the sill), the

angular piers or jambs, the blocking course,

balustrading, &c. (if Italian) : or the cornice

and battlemented or pierced parapet (if Gothic).

It may be, also, that the Gothic oriel may rest on

a moulded corbel (which must be accurately

described as to construction); and that the

nies. Italian windows may have balconies before them

(continuous, or attached separately), in which

case they must be described, as formed of

...... stone landing,

inches thick (how wrought and
moulded?), tailed inches into
wall ; supported by carved brack-
ets or consoles (as drawings)
securely pinned inches into ^
wall ; and supporting a blocking
course, with pedestals, balusters,
capping, &c., wrought moulded, &c., &c., as
drawings.

[Terra-cotta or cast-iron balustrade may be
employed in lieu of stone.]

87. To put along the a plinth of

stone (neatly wrought) (wrought fine) (how
tooled ?) (qy. rubbed ?) . . fee\. . . m<3sv^^\sN3^;^si.

236

HINTS TO TODKG ABCHTTECTS.

chamfered

one

two V stone(s) inches thick. Thetopcham

or more j

fered, and no stone to be less than . . feet . . inches

long. (See No. 97.)

No. 88. To put along the a

String course, nought moulded )

plain wrought /

and throated (say what stone ?)

string course, of the sectional

form and scantling shown in

details. No stone to be less

than feet in length. (See

No. 98.) [Very effective terra-cotta string

courses may be employed.]

No. 89.
Cornice.

No. 90.
Blocking
course.

Parapet.

To put along the ..... a cornice of

stone (qy. in | ^^ ^^^^ | layers), of the sectional

form and scantling shown in details, and no stone
to be less than feet in length. (Enrichments
to certain mouldings ? Modillions, plain or
enriched ? Soffits sunk panelled, &c. ? Dentils ?
AntefixdB?) All the said enriched parts to be
carved in the best style out of the solid, after
models of the full size, provided at the cost of
the Contractor, and only adopted under the
expressed satisfaction of the Architect. (See
No. 78.) The plain parts wrought in the best

*««*.«/^« (r.^ \ i and rubbed ?
manner, (qy.) | ^^ ^^^^^^^

To fix above the cornice, all

along the , a blocking

course of stone,

a parapet having a plinth, dado, and
capping.

BALUSTRADE, QCOIN STOHES.

a balustrade conrBe, composed of
plinth, pedestals, balnatera, and cap-
ping, as drawing ; the same (or the
several parts of the same) to be solid,
and of tiie sectional form and scant-
ling shown in detailed drawings.
The plinth and capping to be in
stones of not less tiian feet long.

j" square )

The balusters < turned V and half-balasters

( or otherwise J
to pedestals. The whole to 1
(tooled ?) (rubbed ?) (See No.

[In the geuerahty of cases
it is preferable to let the
roofing ran over the cornice
and to form a sunk gutter, i
or to provide a moulded
cast-iron one. See sketch.]

The chimney stacks of .... to be capped
with stone,' moulded, and of the sec-
tional form and scantling shown in drawing.
(Qy. whether the shafts shall be also of stone
entire; or stone ashlar.) (See No. 101.)

No. 92. The .... angles of ... .

loin stonefl. to be finished with (roughly

wrought) or (wrought, part rough, ^

part tooled) or (wrought fair) and iwf«>M(n
chamfer channelled quoins of sohd ^5^

stone, of the heights, i^^

and lengths, sectional form shown
and figured on detailed drawing,
two quoins being cnt out of one
stone thus :

H1KT8 TO TOCNG AACHITE(?rS.

(See No. 114.)

Cjambfl heads )

No. S3. The ■< reveala and soffits > of the (arehoi]

Buetioated I ^g arcHvolta )

arcades. .... to be formed with

rnstic-work of eolid atone,
correaponding, in materi&l
and workmanship, with the
mstic quoins of main bnild-
iug ; and of the form, size,
and scantling shown on
detailed diawinga.

To face with atone aahlaring, (ron^y

wrought) (wrought neat and tooled) (wronght
fair and rubbed) and (square- chunfer- or
moulded-) channelled, aa Bhown by elevation, the
whole of the , properly forming the

(flat )
radiating channels of < segment > arches, and

[ circnlai j
returning the channelling under soffits and
against jamhs or reveals of doors, windows,

i recesses ?) and all ronad (qy. insulated piers ?).
See No. 96.)

No. 96.
Aalilariiig,
tliebeAt.

to face with atone aehlaring,

wronght ^r (qy. mbbed) and worked cloge
joint, the whole of the (If there be

no architraves, mention the radiating joints of

flat 1

segment > arches, &c.) ahown by eleYation(s).

circular )

(See Noa. 96 and 103.)

I nearly as

STONE ASHLASING.

The Bald ashlaring to consist,
circomatances will
admit., of conises

' "high form
ed, with headers
having a honzon
talbedof by [

' "; and stretch I
ere, havuig a hon '
zontal bed of
by ' the

qnoin stones being
in no direction less
than " on their bed All horizontal [
joints to have a slight chamfer on the ^
npper edge of each stone (See No lOS ) f

1 1 1 1

No. 97. Gothic basement or phnth For

;hia plinth, general description eee No 87 Add
description of moulding and enb
plinth (if required) the same to
be of 'the sectional form &c shown ^
in details

h oonrse. Hame de T ^

Bcription as No 88 Sji^

Gothic oomioe. Same

desciintion sa

HINTS TO YOUNG AHCHTTECTS.

Gothic parapet. To fix above the conuce (or
string course) all along the i

(plain capped) or (embattled and capped) or
(embattled and moulded) or (open worked and
capped) parapet of ... . stone, as drawings.
The several parts of the same to be of Qie
sectional form and scantling ehown by details
(the cappbg, if continnons, in atoneB of not less
than ' " long) (the open or ennk ornamental
work carved in ^^^ f^=^^ W^

moolded) (i

(rp7\j

BUTIIIE88ES. 241

battled) (panelled) (or otbemiae decorated) as

drawinga ; the same to be of . . . stone, of the
Bectiohal form and scantlmg shown by details.

{Qy. whether the plain parts of the plinths,
and shaHs, may not be of brick ; the moidd^d
work only being of atone ?)

[Terra-cottft chimney stacks may be used
instead of atone.]

Gothic qnoiua.
No. 92.

Ditto to doors, windows, Ac,

Same general deBcription as
No. 93.)

No. 103. Gothic asblaring. Same general description
aoOio afiikr. as Noe. 96 and 96,

No. 104. Describe bnttresses. Whether formed with

ashlar (as 1) ? or with solid work (as 2) ? or
part BoM and part ashlar ? or with heading and

inoine, (as

c^y tvnduier wrought
at angles ? panelled on
face? or otherwise de-
corated ?

Th,
levera

buttresses, to
pod with (plain
moalded) wati
tables (of one oi
stones), as drawings.

Ifo. IDS.
Qablet
capping.

HINTS TO YOXn*G ABCHITECTB.

The same to be of tlie sune material a&d qualify
SLB . . . and of the sectional profile and Bcantling
shown in details.

Or
(same general de-
scription bh No. 105),
Bnbetitaiing for
" water-tablea" gab-
leta (plain monldodj
(topped with finialB)
(with carved finials
and crockets), &o

(same general deacription

Ko, 107. « No. 106), Bnbstitating

PinniLcles, ftc for " water-tablee " gabletB

(as described in No. 106)

(and adding,)

The top gablet to ba
crowned with (plain
monlded) (moulded crock-
eted) (panelled) pinnacles,
having carved finials, tee.
INote.—Ihe Gothic de-
tails here given are
somewhat effete ;
crockets and other |
einberasoes of the
style are best avoided
in this climate in <

No. 108.
Podimont,
Graekor

Princi^es of Design-
Stonework.]

The aahlaring in the tympannm of pediment
to be precisely accordant, in the height of its
conraes, and constraction, with that of the (walls
below, or general face of boilding). The
horizontal cornice to be a continuation of (main

PEDIMENTS.

cornice), omitting the top moulding; and the
npper layer thereof to be of single etonea from

front to back, Bocniely tailed into the maaonry

not lesa than inches, and no

stone having a &ont length of

less than ' ". The nking

oomicea to be of the same form

and acantling as that of (main

cornice). The apex or meeting

mouldings at top to be out of

one block, having a horizontal

bed on tympanum ; and the '

raking cornice at the lower

angles of pediment to be ont of

the same undivided block mtii

the end of horizontal cornice.

The hidden part of raking

to 1

cut

1 the

form of Btepe, bo as to
have a aeries of horizontal
beda npou the back ma-
sonry. The top stones

to be of one piece transversely and no stone
having a front length of leas than ' "
u2

244

HINTS TO TOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 109.
Gables,
Qothic.

If blocks, pedestals, or acroteria, describe
them.

The gables of to be capped with a

(plain) (moulded) coping of ... • stone, of the

sectional form and scantling shown by detailed
drawings, in lengths of not less than * ",
(back-notched for horizontal beddings,) and with
springing stones and apex-saddle stones cut
of the solid, as also shown.

corbels.

No. 110. (The springing
Gothic gablo Btones to be sup-
ported by cut
flush corbels, of
the face and pro-
file shown by
drawings ;)

(the springing
stones to have a
return face, sup-
ported by corbels
of the face and
profile shown by
drawings) (the
said cdrbels to
be of stone, serving
to stop the eaves
cornice or gutter.)

COPNir!

PORTICOS, 345

Portico Seo Note bolow
Portico, Greek ™, , , - i

orltelidD ^be plmtu under

the colnmng of the - '

No 111 portico to be formed
riinth caaed ^f j^p ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^

of stoDe of

the sectional form and

scantling, and vertical

jointing, shown in

drawings, properly bedded on the (bnck, or

rabble) basement and core The sub plinth

bonded into said core, having its bonding stones

under the axes of colnmns ;

No. 113. the plinth under the
riinUi, solid, colnmns of portico
to be formed solid,
of . , . stone, ^
of the sectional
form and scanthng
and vertical jomtmg, shown on drawings ;

Ko. 113. a plinth, of ashlanng, to match the atone work

Back plinth, ^^^^j colnmns, to be earned roand the inside

recess, or hack of portico, aa drawing

No. 114. The colnmns (ants) and pilasters to be of.
Colnmiw, &o, , , . . stone, with (moulded, or moulded and
enriched) bases and capitals, and (plain, or fluted)
shafla, as detailed on drawinga. The shafts
to be in (one stone, or three atones^, and the
pilaatera properly bonded into the main walling.
[A layer of felt, sheet-lead, &o., is sometimes
interposed between the beds when there is great
weight of anperstraotaio or tendency to une<iaal
settlement.]

Note.

The portico will either he constructed with .1

subatructnre of common rabble, or l^n^k-, «.

246

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

Arcade.

No. 116.
Architrave.

plinth of brick, or rubble covered with cement;
columns of brick covered with cement; an
entablature, &c., of rubble or brick (with rough
stone lintels over columns), also cemented ;

the visible portions will be partly stone, as
1st. Stone plinth only ;
2nd. Stone plinth and columns ;
drd. Stone plinth, columns, and architrave ;

the visible portions vnll be wholly stone, with
backings and fillings of rubble or brick, as the
locality may require.

It will therefore be necessary,

under the heads of < Bricklayer,'
or ' Bubble Mason and Bricklayer,'
to describe the foundations and the core of the
work ; whether there are to be fL2ii stone footings ^
inverted arches under the columns, wood bonds
and cores to the brick columns, relieving arches
over the same, &c., &C.'''

The same remarks will also apply to arcades.
Such portions, therefore, as are not to be stone,
will be described under the heads of * Bricklayer,*
or * Bubble Mason and Bricklayer.'

The architrave to be of stone (solid)

2 3

(or solid up the first, or first two faces) (or solid

4
up to the crown moulding) {describe the casing to
the part which is not solid), of the sectional form
and size shown by details, and vertically (or

otherwise) jointed, as marked on elevations, or
♦ See Bartholomew'ff Specifications, No. 4600.

ARCHITRAVES.

247

shown or described on detailed drawings. If

enriched, describe it.
Note, — ^It is impossible to make any general
description sufficiently accurate for this
important member of a colonnade. A
reference to a fully detailed drawing,
showing the stones separately, the mode
of uniting them by arched or vertical
joggled joints, the copper chain tie and
hanging bar, and the relieving arches of
the concealed brick- work or masonry, is the
only way of insuring a clear understanding.*

No. 116.
Ketum or
back archi-
trave.

No. 117.
Beams in
ceiling.

An architrave of ashlaring, to match that over
the columns, to be carried (round and) along the
inside (or back) recess of portico, as drawing.
Qy. enriched ?

If there be any inner longitudinal and trans-
verse beams to form the ceiling of portico, they
must be carefully studied, and here described.
Qy. enriched ?

' No. 118.
Stone soffit.

If there be a stone ceiling altogether, here
describe it. Qy. enriched ?

No. 119.
Frieze.

No. 120.
Cornice.

No. 121.
Blocking,
parapet,
balustrade.

The frieze to be formed of . • • ; • stbne
ashlaring, in no case less than inches thick,
jointed as drawings ; and the quoins to be cut
out of solid stone, so as to show a return of not
less than ' ". Qy. enriched ?

To put along the front and returns of portico

a cornice of stone. (See No. 89.)

Qy. enriched ?

If the portico, instead of the pediment, &c., is
to have a plain blocking course — or parapet with
capping and plinth — or open balustrade (see
No. 90). Qy. enriched ?

See Bartholomew's SpQci&c»iU<^iA>'^^> ^^'V^*

248

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 122.
Pediment.

No. 123.
Yarioas.

No. 124.
Arcades,
Roman.

Adopt the general description given at No. 108.
If the portico be surmonnted by blocks, pedestals,
or acroteria, describe them. Qy. enriched ?

Complete the description oi the portico by
explicit references to its landing, pavement,
steps, guard-stones to preserve the pUnth from
carriage-wheels, &c.

Describe the plinths; whether solid or not.
The piers ; whether soHd or of ashlar ; whether
plain or rusticated (see No. 92) ; whether there
be plain or moulded imposts. The arches;
whether with archivolts, or radiating stones,
plain, or rusticated as piers ; whether key-stones,
plain or carved, &c., &c.

No. 126.
Arcades,
Gothic.

Describe the plinths; whether solid or not.
The pillars (their bases, capitals, if any) and the
number of stones to compose the shafts; the
number of stones in the archivolts ; and the
quality of the work filling up the spandrils.

No. 126.
Bugs,
cramps,
and lead.

Note. — M the conclusion of the wrought orna-
mental cut stone-work insert a fall description of
the manner in which it is to be secured together
by plugs of slate, marble, stone, galvanised iron,
or copper ; copper cramps ; and lead plugging,
and running ; bearing also in mind the channel-
ling and lead running of water joints on the
upper surfaces of cornices, &c. ; the safe appli-
cation of chain bars ; the provision of sheet lead
in the joints, and under caps and bases of
columns, as well as between any other stones
which, without lead, may have their meeting
arrises crushed by vertical pressure.

Particularly specify also the required accu.-
raoy, sharpness, &c., in the cutting of all
enrichment, and the prior provision of satis-
factory models (see No. 78) ; and expressly
state that the work shall be cased over, and

FinS perfec- ^^^^Y ^^^^ perfect and clean at the conclusion of

Hon, the whole.

Enrichments.

Casing.

COPING, CXJKBS, ETC.

Miscellaneous Stone-work.

. 127.

249

stone

Cover the with

coping, of the sectional form
and scantling shown by
annexed sketch, throated
nnder (one or both) edge(s)
(qy. cramped with copper
or galvanised iron?) and
plugged at the joints with (^M |g^^^^^^

. 128.

lead or slate. (Qy. chased

to receive flushing?) (Qy.

tooled, or rubbed ?) No stone less than

long.

Put round the a curb of

stone, of the sectional form and

scantling shown by annexed

sketch (qy. how wrought?)

(qy. cramped?), plugged at

joints with lead or slate (and

properly mortised for iron railing). No stone

less than ' " in length. (See Plumber,

No. 864.)

. 129. Put to flre-places proper back hearths of
hearths. stone inches thick.

ditto. Put to the flre-places of front

slabs of (qy. slate ? — Portland ? — marble ?)
(rubbed or polished, as the case may be) not
less than inches thick; and inches longer
than their respective flre-openings. The same
to be inches wide.

.130. Provide and fix to the fire opening of

i®y- a (slate) chimney-piece, valued at

M ; to that of a Portland ditto,

value M ; and to that of a

marble ditto, value £ ; the Proprietor being
at liberty to purchase all or any of these
himself; the Contractor keeping distinct the
allowance he has made for carriage and fixing.
[Devonshire supplies verj \i^w3L\i&c\> ^'^'^ij^,

230

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

and varied marbles for these purposes. Enam'
elled slate, or ** Marezzo " marble may be used
as sabstitntes.]

No. 131.
Paving, com-
mon.

Pave the with

(Yorkshire \
Purbeck f . ^
slate ( P"""?'

limestone /
not less than inches thick, and no stone less
than feet superficial; the same to be well
bedded on a good bottom (of dry rubbish) and
jointed in mortar.

No. 132.
Better paving.

Pave the with

No. 133.
Superior
paving.

No. 134.
Marble
paving.

Yorkshire \
Purbeck f . ^
Hmestone ( P^^^'
slate J

(rubbed or tooled) surface ; and rubbed joints
not less than inches thick, and no stone less
than feet square; well bedded on a well-rammed

bottom, and close-jointed in < ^^ ^*

Pave the with Portland stone, inches

thick, surface and joints rubbed fine ; laid
(square ? or diagonally ?) in stones not less than

' " square, (or, as shown on drawings,) with
cement under the joints, on a course of brick-
flat, as sketch; the bricks being well flush-

bedded in dry and well-rammed rubbish. (Qy.
if any marble introduced with the stone ?)

Lay the with a paving, formed of

the different marbles, and of the size and pattern
shown and described on drawing ; the whole to
be executed with the finest possible joint, and
geometrical exactness, and to be left thoroughly
and uniformly polished. (N.B. If the marble be
valuable, state the minimum thickness it may
have as a veneer upon Yorkshire or slate stone.)
The paving to be not less than inches thick,

PAVING, A BATH.

251

No. 135,
Encaustic
tesselated or
Mosaic
paving.

No. 136.
Stone fittings
to cellar.

Larder.
Dairy.

No. 137.
Trough, or
sink.

No. 138.
A bath.

and the joints laid in cement, on courses of brick
flat, firmly flush-bedded in dry well-rammed
rubbish.

Lay the with the encaustic tile

paving of . • . &c., allowing the sum oi£ for the
same, or at the prime cost of . . . per foot super.

f Paving for ornamental purposes is now manu-
actured with marble tessersa laid in concrete.]

( slate \

Form wine-bins in cellar with -; Yorkshire J

(&c. )

slabs inches thick, on half-brick piers, as sketch,
having neatly
vnrought edge.

Ess^nss^

each slab the i^i-:^>V'^A~

fuU length and K^

depth of bin; -

and provide ^t'

and fix also neatly wrought shelves of similar

stone in the larder and dairy, cutting water

channel, as described on drawing. [Or iron racks.]

Put in the scullery a neatly cut sink of ... •
stone, having a clear hollow of by and
inches deep, with hole for waste water-pipe.
[Doulton's stoneware sinks are preferable.]

Put in the a bath, formed of

slabs of slate,
grooved into
each other, and
bolted with
iron, as sketch,
and of the clear
internal dimen-
sions thereon
shown ; the
same to be internally lined with white glazed
tiles bedded in cement; the top edges capped
with (mahogany or marble) capping, and the
exterior painted in imitation of white-veined
marble. Form all necessary holes for supply
and waste pipes.

HlV r^ lO lOCSG ASCBHEnS

G-ei ihit. or "

■r ^ fittmgs; H

J the Tietoiia Co.';-

^oiK fox cbinLiifiv-pi^ciJ-

.li otiwr aMfoX and ona-

JT^ "• ^— Plincii tJ sttn-poate, 8 inches

?*?™* ' rf. 13 iiK^a at caa*. neftUy wrot^ht

J""™" .'jgfotihe ground, acd 12 inches boriea.

■i6« gutter along front of stalls out of

y',-xfi''- a^^ in lengtha of not r r-^^ n

BetCarpRTng. d^^-ftODH and gnbngs ov«r dnuos. '" ''
irtio*"*- Pit^"h pebble-paving in sand.
jjb. of dresEed refdse Etooe. no stone
bss than aTxe-xG', clo&« bedded

in s&ad.

Do. cltLii

oaving- no stone lesa than
f. . . Those in stalls ehan-
nalled to canr off wet ; the
n«t roagh too'.^, and tbo
whole well bedded and jointed
on mortar. [Hard-bomt bricks
or clinkers, pmposely made for
stable paving, are to be pre- :
fened to Btone.]

Con chest in loft, of skte or slabs,

groored into and bolted to one another, inclnd-
ing a bottom ' 'by ' ', and sides and end

feet high. — A chimney-pieco in

saddle-room. (Qy. eaddle-room pared '?)

CoAcs-EorBEB, Aliscellaneons Stone-Trork in

Plinths of stone to the coach door or

COACH HOD8E8. 353

Biory-poeta or piera of the size and form ehown
and figured m ^etch

Sectioii Flan.

(If Btone piers : state whether wftoHyo^iorowjAl
ttone? — in one? or how many stones ? or whe-
ther hinge stonet aidy are required to be built
into brick- work or rubble ?)

Btone to receive bolts of meeting doors.

Curb stone onder doors from plinth to plinth.
(Qy. whether pebhU paved? paved with dretsed
refuse? or fiat-paved? Guard stonea to keep
the wheels of different carriages apart, and to
stop them at back.) (If there be a story of
masonry above the coach-house door -openings,
there will of course he pien instead of wood
posts, and, instead of a wood bressnmmer, there
will be lintels of atones, as a, b, c, d, e, jointed

as drawings, and of the scantling thereon figured ;
with relieving arches provided under the head of
'Bricklayer' or 'Bubble Mason'). Describe any
rebating there may be in the stone-work, and
how the wrought stone-work is to be finished on
the face — cramps, plo^, lead runniug, &a. 8te^.,

254 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECrS.

sills, &c. Also any corbels wliicli may be built
into walls to take the ends of girders.

Stable and otheb Yabi>s.
No. 142. Pitch-paving in sand, properly laid to a cur-
rent, widi sink and gratings. — Coping stones to
dung-pit. — Coping to walls and boondary walls. —
Stone caps to gate piers. — Gate piers, either
partly, or wholly, of wrought stone. — Stones for
hinges, bolts, &c. — Plinths to posts of sheds. —
Curbs from plinth to .plinth, and under gates. —
Stone drinking-troughs. — Curb and cover stone
to man-hole of tank. — ^Pebble or flat paving to
cow-houses, piggeries. — Feeding - troughs to
ditto. — PHnths to posts, and open stone gutters,
&c., to cow-house. — Coping to outer pigsty,
&o., &c. — ^Hinge stones to pigsty doors. — Curb
stone under ditto. — Steps and sills to cow-houses,
and other out-buildings having doors and win-
dows.

slating.

No. 143. Cover the roofs with good scantle slate, on
Slating, com- sound heart of oak or fir single or double laths,
°^°°* and oak pins ; no slate to be less than " by ",

and the whole to be well

plastered against the pin with

lime and hair mortar. The ^^>s>^a

lap of upper slates over the ^^^^^^^^

lower to be not less than 2

inches. Properly cut double rag hips and eaves,

and cut heading course.

No. 144. Cover the roofs with | ^^^ i lady slates

slating. f 16 ^ X 8 ^ \ j^^jiq^ ^-^^^ cast-iron nails (boiled

oil) to battens 2"xi", and
well plastered underneath
with Hme and hair mortar.
The lap of upper over lowest
slate to be not less than 2^
inches. Properly cut double
rag valleys, hips, eaves, and heading course

SLATING.

255

No. 145.
Improved
slating.

No. 146.
Superior
slating

Cover the roofs with | ''T*'''', ^«»,''°*«««' ]

\ or large lady slates, )

" by ", nailed with cast-iron nails (boiled in
linseed oil) to battens 2"
by i", and pointed outside
with putty of whiting, oil,
and sand. The lap of up-
per over lowest slate to be
not less than 3 inches.
Properly cut hips^ eaves, and heading course.

queen

princess

Cover the roofs with«

rag

duchess \* slates,*

marchioness

countess

^viscountess

"X '\ nailed with copper nails to battens

"x ". [Mixed metal or zinc nails are now

generally used.] No slate to have less than a lap of

\qx\ inches over the lowest slate beneath it ;

♦ Queens, 3' X 2', or 27" to 36" by irregular widths.
1 ton will cover about 2\ squares.

Ladies, 16" by 8'. 1200 will cover 5 squares : weight
Ijton.

Princesses, 26 inches long, varying in width from 13
to 20 inches, averaging not less tlmn 16 inches wide,
weighing about 5 ton 3 cwt. per 1200, and covering
about 16 squares.

Ditto, 28 inches long, varying in width from 14 to

21 inches, averaging not less than 17 inches, weighing
ahout 6 tons per 1200, and covering about 18 squares.

Ditto, 30 inches long, dififerent widths, from 15 to

22 inches, averaging not less than 18 inches, weighing
about 7 tons per 1200, and covering about 21 squares.

Ba|^ of large size, 17 dozen weighing a ton, and
covering 2^ squares.

Duchesses, 24 hy 12 inches, weighing about 3 ton
7 cwt. per 1200, and covering about 11 squares.

Marchionesses, 22 by 11 inches, weighing 2 tons
14 cwt. per 1200, and covering about 9 squares.

Countesses, 20 by 10 inches, weighing about 2 tons
3 cwt. per 1200, and covering about 7f squares.

Vicoontesses, 18 by 9 inches, weighing about 1 ton
13 cwt. per 1200, and covering about 6 squares.

256

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 147.

No. 148.

No. 149.
Best slating
for very flat-
pitched roofs.

All the horizontal

and every slate to have at
least two nails. Eaves,
hips, and heading courses
to be formed of cut slates,
so that their bond may be
uniform with all the rest,
over-lays to be well bed-
ded {H inch up, from
the edge) in (the stucco
paint cement of Johns
and Co., Coxside, Ply-
mouth) or other cement.
The raking or vertical
meeting edge joints to
be laid on a bedding of the same cement 8 inches
wide.

c 3— —

If the skeleton roof be of iron, the last descrip-
tion will serve, substituting wrought-iron laths,
** strong copper wire *' for hanging the slates,
instead of ** nails."

[Note. — Iron roofs may be covered, 1st, by
slating on wrought-iron laths ; 2nd, corru-
gated or plain sheet-iron upon same ; 8rd,
by cast-iron galvanised plates fixed to
rafters ; 4th, plain sheet-iron on boarding.]

If the roof be over a circular building, state
that the slates are to be cut to radiating joints
from apex to eaves.

Cover the roof of vnth imperial

slates not less than 2 feet 6 inches by 2 feet

<3>

SP^W^

each, and full inch thick : uniformly laid, with
their ends meeting in a close joint along the

SLATING.

257

JTo. 150.

tside

nting.

'Ho. 161.
.te ridges,
Qmon.

^0. 152,
te ridges,
)orior.

upper fiurface of each rafter; each superior
course to lap over the course below at least
2 inches ; and the vertical or meeting joints to
be covered with imperial slate slips not less than
8 inches wide. The over-lap of slates, and the
slate slips, to be well bedded in (the stucco paint
cement of Johns and Co., Coxside, Plymouth).
Each slate screwed to the rafters with two 1^^''
screws, and two 2" screws to each slip. All
visible edges of the slates and the slips to be
sawn or rubbed to a perfect smoothness ; and
make uniformly close the cement pointing at the
finish of the whole [or slate slabs, tongued and
covered at joints by fJlets or rolls].

Where the slates are not laid in cement, they
may be externally pointed, after laying, as fol-
lows : The over-laps and meeting joints Uirough-
out, to be made close with Johns's patent cement
and sand, worked in with a stump brush, and
the whole coloured as slates.

i to

be covered with imperial slate
inches thick, and in

Hips?
(and)

Eidges
slips, inches wide,
lengths of not less
than ' ", securely
screwed to rafters ;
close stopped at all
meeting joints, and
bedded on the slates
H inch up from the
bottom edge with
(Johns's patent paint) cement.

Hips? ]
(and) V covered with impe-

Bidges j

rial slate saddle-cut capping, of the size and
sectional form figured and shown in sketch, and
in lengths of ' * ; securely screwed to rafters
with screws, and jointed and laid iiLC^TCL^\ii^^*«ss^^

258 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

as the rest of the slating [or specify Robinson's
patent ridge and hip roll bedded in oil cement
and screwed].

No. 153. Fillet the slating, wherever reqidsite, against

*^^ } nmsoiorv^ i ^^*^ (Johns's patent paint
cement, mixed with eqnal parts of sand).

No. 164. Cover the roofs with The

Queen slating, slates to be inches wide. Their length to com-
of various mence (say 86 inches) long, at the gutters, and
sizes. ^^ diminish gradually to (say 80 inches) at the

ridges ; the same hond, being observed through-
out.

No. 155. Examine, and perfectly make good, the whole
Final clause, of the slating, at the close of the works.

\Note, — Slate cisterns, shelves, screeds for hol-
low walls, &c., &c., should be specified
here.]

TILING.

No. 156. Cover the roofs with good plain tiles on double

Tiling, plain. f cement,

lime and
hair
(^mortar,
in each plain tile secured by an oak peg.

heart laths, laid to a proper gauge-

No. 157. The ridges (and hips ?) to be covered with

Ridge and proper ridge (and hip ?) tiles, secured by T nails
hip tiles. dipped in pitch, and hip-hooks also pitched, and

i . r cement.
^ ( lime and hair mortar.

No. 158. Cover the with the best sound

Pantiling. pantiling, laid to a proper gauge, on pantile
laths, and effectually pointed on the inside with
lime and hair mortar. (iVbi«. — ^If for the roof ol
a brewery, or other building, requiring ventila-

PLASTERING.

259

No. 159.
Final clause.

tion, or escape for steam, &c., tbe pantile laid
dry is excellent.) Ridges and hips, as No. 157.
[Ribbed Italian tiles, or those of the Broomhall
Company, are recommended for appearance.]

The whole of the tiling to be left perfect at the
close of the works, and no mortar to show ex-
ternally to the disfigurement of the surface.

PLASTER AND CEMENT- WORE.

No. 160. Cover the partitions and battened walls with

Johns & Co.'s one coat of the paint cement, mixed with very

cemwl't ^* fine sharp and clean sand, on lath and first coat

side work.' ^^ common lime and hair plaster. Cover the

rubble walls with the said paint cement, on a

render of common plaster, as aforesaid. Cover

the brick walls with simply one coat of the said

{fair )
« r

., J- float; and the whole

to be carefully applied according to the printed
instructions of the Patentees.

No. 161.
Parian and
Keene's
cement.

No. 162.
Commonest
internal plas-
tering.

No. 163.
Common
S-coat work
for ceilings
and papering.

No. 164.
3-coat work
for painting
or colour.

Parian or Keene's cement may supersede
wooden angle beads, &c., &c.

Lath, lay, and set the ceilings and partitions
of , and render, set, the walls of • . • •

Lath, lay, float, and set the ceilings and

partitions of , and the battening

against walls; and render, float, and set the
unbattened walls.

Lath, lay, float, and rough stucco the parti-
tions and battened walls ; and render, float, and

rough stucco the unbattened walls of

(Qy. whether jointed to imitate ashlar V\

260 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 165. Lath, lay, float, and finish with trowelled
Bests-coat stucco, the partitions and battened walls; and
OTww^ &^"* render, float, and finish vdth troweUed stucco, ,

r paper, ^^ unbattened walls of the (Qy. if ]

jointed 7)

Ko. 166. To whiten all the ceilings.

No. 167. Colour the walls and partitions of .
a colour.

No. 168. Bun all beads, quirks, &c., to angles of arched ^
soffits, and where else required.

To properly plaster all sides, backs, soffits,
&c., of window or other recesses, arches, ceilings
under stairs, and other parts not cased with
joinery, so that they may finish in conformity
with ihe adjoining plastering.

No. 169. Bun, all round the ceilings of the varions
Cornices and rooms, the cornices, and exectte the various
enrichments, enrichments, as shown and described on the
drawing of " Plasterer's Details,'* sheet No. .
Models of all enrichments to be first made, (qy.
at the expense of the Contractor?) and casts
therefrom finally approved by, and deposited
with, the Architect, before the enriched work be
commenced. [Give girth or width of cornices.]

No. 170. Bun round the floors of askirtiog

Cement of Portland (Keene*s patent ? — Boman ? — Johns

skirtmg. ^^^ Co.'s?) cement, of the

size and sectional form shown

by annexed figure.

No. 171. Execute, in the best Scagliola composition, the

Scagliola, &c. shafts of the columns, pilasters, &c., in the

. . . . ; the Scagliolist engaging to provide the

wood firring and cradling necessary to receive

his work. The shafts to be in imitation of

CEHENTINO.

261

}

No. 172.
Cement, out-
side brick-
work.

No. 173.
Common, on
rubble.

No. 174.
Superior, cm
rubble.

No. 175.
Eough casti
on rubble.

No. 176.
2 coats, com-
mon, and 1
Aberthaw,
on rubble.

No. 177.
I coat, com-
mon, and 2
Aberthaw,
on rabble.

( verde antique ;

< sienna ; )- the caps and bases to be exe-

(jasper;

cuted in Keene's patent cement, (qy. whether the
entablature, or any part of it, is to be Scagliola,
Parian, or Keene's cement ?) and the whole
brought to th|B utmost polish, and left perfect.

Cover the whole of the external surface of the
brick walls with one coat of the patent stucco
paint cement, mixed with sharp clean sand, and
applied according to the printed instructions of
the Patentees, [or with Portland cement in the
proportion of one of cement and three of sand.]

Or,

Cover the whole of the external surface of the
rubble walling with a render of common lime
and hair, and one coat of the patent stucco, &c.,
&c. (See No. 172.)

t/over the whole of the external surface of the
rubble walling with a first coat of the patent
stucco paint cement, mixed with very coarse
sand ; and a second coat of ditto mixed with a
finer sand. (Qy. jointed ?)

Cover the external walls of the ..... .

with a render and float of common lime and
hair, slap-dashed with a rough-cast of fine clean-
washed gravel and lime water. (Coloured ?)

Cover the external walls, where not other-
wise covered, of the , with a render

and float of common lime and hair, and a stucco
of Portland or Aberthaw lime and fine sharp
clean sand. (Qy. jointed ?) (Coloured ?)

Cover the external walls, where not other-
wise covered, of the , with a render of

common lime and hair, a float of Aberthaw lime,
&c., and a stucco of Aberthaw or Portland^
jointed to imitate ashlar.

262 HINTS TO TOUKG ABCHITECTS.

No. 178. Cover the external brick walls, where not

Portland, on otherwise covered, with a float of Portland, &c.,
bnck. j^^ ^ stucco of the same, jointed to imitate

ashlar.

( Aberthaw lime
Ko. 179. Bon, in properly prepared < cement,

( Portland cement,
all parts of the external work hereinafter do-
scrihed, viz. —

a. The moulded cappings and plinths of

chimney shafts.

b. The top front and inside (to flashing) of

parapets.

c. The rail, balusterSi and plinth of balustrade.

d. The entire cornice, including the top surface

thereof.

e. The mouldings, enrichments, &o., &c., of

the frieze and architrave.
/. The strings, edges of rustics, channels of

rusticated parts.
g. The architraves of

doors and windows

of the

fronts, including

the whole girth

from the back of moulding at ▲, to the

wood frame at b.
A. The moulded work of the entablatures,

pediments, of doors and windows.
i. The cornices, trusses, &c., to doors and

windows.
;'. The pilasters, columns, bases, and capitals,

of doors and windows.
k. The sills of windows.
I. The top of main plinth, or the plinth

entirely.
971. The parapet and moulded work of portico,

as cornice, architrave moulding, caps,

bases, and (if fluted) shafts of columns,

plmth, &c., and such other parts as are

not to be executed in stone, or which

cannot be as well finished in stucco.

carpenters' work.

263

The whole of the aforesaid Portland or Roman
cement-work to be coloured in imitation of the
other plastering.

[All the above features may be of terra-cotta,
Eansome's patent stone, or other approved
material, the architect selecting the designs, or
they are to be modelled <from his own designs.]

y, 180. All parapets, having lead
flashings, to have a bed of
cement right through them
immediately above and touch-
ing the flashing.

[All brick and stonework
above roofs to have damp-proof
courses of slate in cement,
sheet-lead, or asphalte to prevent damp drawing
downwards.]

0. 181.
centers'
k, inclo-
s, &c.

CARPENTEES WORK.

Provide and fix all the timbers, boarding, &c.,
necessary to form the protective inclo3ures. (See
No. 1.)

Construct also an office feet by feet clear,
and feet high to the springing of roof, for the
Clerk of the Works, (see No. 1), the same to be
formed of weather-boarding on stout framing,
having a properly hung and glazed window,
also a door in frame, with strong hinges and
good lock ; a drawing-desk feet long by feet
deep, with drawer under ; a stool ; rail and pegs
for cloak and hat; a corner cupboard with
brass-knobbed latch. Floor properly boarded
on joists.

;o. 182.

tring and
materials.

Provide and fix all required timber for shor-
ing, &c. (See No. 2.)

No old timber to be used in the new works,
unless permitted under the handwriting of the
Architect.

264

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 183.
Piling and
planMng.

No. 184.
Sundries.

No. 185.
Bond, &c.
Lintels.

Provide all the timber nec^ssaiy for the piling
and planking of the fonndations, as described
before. (See No. 10.)

Provide and fix all required scaffoldage, cen-
tering, turning pieces, beads, stops, fillets, tilt-
ing fillets, backings, blocks, cradlings, firrings,
bearers, and all other minor articles of carpentry
necessary to the perfect and efficient completion
of the various works particularised under the
heads of Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Bricklayer,
Slater, Plasterer, and Plumber.

Provide all necessary woodbrieks and tem-
plates of sound Memel or red pine, with every
required preparation for fixing grounds, battens,
and joinery; also the various courses of bond
timber and wall plates, described, shown, and
figured on the drawings ; also lintels of Memel
or red pine over all square-headed window,
door, or other openings, within the brick or
stone arched soffits, it being clearly understood,
with reference to external doors and windows,
that no lintel shall appear outside the head of the
wood frame. The said lintels to have a vertical
depth of li inch for every foot of opening be-
tween the templates, and not to be longer than
sufficient to cover the templates. One or more
lintels, as re-
quired, to fill up
for the thickness

of the wall above; | iframe

and the Carpen-
ter to see that R^v^^l
the relieving Section.

STONE OR
BRICK.

eOFFIT

'^<3

Elevation.

arches 'before described (see No* 56) are turned

ORESSUMHEBfi. 265

Ity tho Mason, lemplatea to ItiitelB not to
exceed the Hcantling of 4" x 3*.

Provide and fix the stoty-post (or poala) aa
shown in drawings ; the same to be of the
Bonndest Memel fir, and of the fall fignred scant-
lings, with cast-iron boxed and tenoned caps
and bases, as sketch, |ths thick.

Lr-

Stone base.

To. 187. Bressnmmera of the sonndoBt Memel fir to

'■ extend over (here deacribe, whether from pier
to pier, or over atory-poata, or iron columns, or
otherwiae, wherever they have to he constructed
contemporaneously aud for the aappoit of
masonry) . . . . ; the same to be of the full
fignred BoantUngs, and formed of single timber,
halved, reveraed, trusaed with wrought- iron
(king or queen) holts, abutment ditto, atmts,
and straining piece, and bolted together with
proper nnte, screws, &c., as shown by drawings
[or a plate of wrought iron to be bolted between
Elevotioii. Plan.

pieces]. The whole screwed up to a camber,
and mortiaed for the tenons oi A.W ^ViT^-'^^vi^

abO inNTS TO youmq AacHiTBtTrs.

(of iron colTtmns), taking care to loave the

mortise free for a lateral thmst in the event of

tbe camber settling again to a perfect hoii-

zontal.

N.B. — It is possible the bearing between the

snpportH may be so small aa to require no

iron trnssing. Tbe Architeot vnll here use

hia own discretion ; as the weight above, oi

the flooring bearing on the bressmoiner

mat/ require his serious coaaideration. (See

Fart IV., Sect. 2, Strength of materials.)

No. 188. Silla of quarter partitions, resting on maaonr;,
Qoarter parti- to be of sound old English oak, 4" x 8" (in very
tio"* large bnildinge 6''x4". The scantlings for tlie

usual partition are here stated. When the pai-
"c'oMtai tition exceeds 12 feet high, an increased size
tion" (P^'t should be given). Heads and braces 4"x8''.
IV. Sect 2). Principal quarters, as door-posts, king or queen-
posts, straining-pieces, &c., to be not less than
i"x,i"- Common quarters 4"x2i", and 12 (16
or 18) inches from middle to middle (as the
importance of the building, or of any partionlar
part of it, may require). No quarter to have a
length of more than feet, with-
out horizontal stiffening pieces,
as a, a. The whole, except the
sills resting on walls as afore-
said, to be of (Memel fir on
gi'onad floors. They may be,
if economy require it, of sound
American red pine on the upper
floors). All partitions hanging
over voids to be tmss-framed
in the most careful manner with king or qneen-
; posts, bolted with wrought iron to the sills or

ties ; struts and straining pieces to be properly
framed into the same, and tbe whole rendered
perfectly independent of the floor level with
their sills.

N.B. — In particular cases sketches or draw*

inga of these trussed partitions should bo

_ made ; and it vrill be sometimes advis-

TRUSSING, ETC. 267

able to have the king and qneen quarter
of oaJe»
All required quarter partitioning to form
closets, &c.

189. Ground joists to be of sound old English oak or
d joists. |'12]

Memel fir ''x "and -< 14 > inches apart, on oak

(16)
plates 4" X 3". [Space under ground floors should
be concreted and ventilated.]

190. The rooms and passages, landings, &c., of (dc-

on scribing them with reference to the plans)

S' { Memel fir \

to be laid with < red pine > joists ; those of

( yellow fir j
(such and such rooms) ^'x ^ and inches
mid to mid, &c., &c., &c. The whole to be
properly framed into binders or trimmers, and
to have a 6-inch hold in walls, bearing on plates
4"x8". All trimmer joists to have an excess of
1 inch in thickness over the others.

. 191. Here describe any binders or girders that are
OT and to be employed in connection with the common
floor joists, as to landings in staircases, or over
any other internal openings where the joists can-
not rest on walls or partitions.

. 192. The floors of to be formed of

^" Memel fir binders " x ", and not more than

floors. Q £.^g|. q^p^jI;, on oak templates 4"x4", and having

a hold of 9 inches on walls, with bridging joists

inches apart, and ceiling joists thereunder
2i" X li", and 12 inches mid to mid.

. 193. The floors of to be formed of Meme

le- fir girders " x ", not more than 10 feet apart,

d floors. Q^ Q^^ templates 6"x4'', having a hold of 12l
inches on walls, with bmdeta ^*y.ll* ^txr?v» ^si^-^^

268

HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECTS.

than 6 feet apart, framed into girders, and rest-
ing on oak templates ^''x^", with a 9-inch hold
on walls. (Bridging and ceiling joists as No.
192.) If the girder exceed 20 feet long it
must be trussed, as described for Bressummers,
No. 187.

No. 194. In churches, theatres, public rooms, &c., where
Moor trusses, ^gj,Q g^j.^ galleries and floors rising in steps to
different levels, accurate drawings must be given
of the main trussed framework ; and the speci-
fication will therefore specially refer to these
drawings, as thus : —

The rising floors of to be supported

on trussed framework, as drawings. The trusses
in such or such positions, — or not more than
eet apart) of the full figured scantlings, put
together in the most workmanlike manner, and
with wrought-iron bolts, straps, nuts, screws, &c.,
as drawings. The king or queen timbers of sound

oak ; the remaining timbers of j V^^. . ' |

binders for floor and ceilings ; bridging joists or
firrings for diflerent levels of floor, and ceiling
joists ; the whole as drawings. Breast-work to
front of galleries trussframed, as drawings, of
material corresponding with the floor trusses,
with iron bolts and straps as shown, and of the
full scantling figured.

No. 195. All (single-joist unframed) floors to have a
Cross strain- range of cross
ingandSound bonding of fir
Boarding. pieces2inches

square (as

sketch), closely butted and firmly nailed between
the joists at parallel distances not exceeding 6
feet. (This will not be done in inferior buildings,
nor where the joists are to be visible. See No.
209.) [Properly fill in upon rough boards on
fillets a inch layer of pugging to prevent pas-
sage of sound. (See sketch.) Pugging may be of
chopped hay and lime mortar.]

KOOFS.

269

Sound board-
ing.

The spaces between the joists of the floors of
. . . rooms to be fitted in with sound boarding
on proper fillets ; and the Carpenter to see that
the space between the said boarding and the
floor boards be filled, in with proper pugging of
sufficient thickness.

No. 197.
Plats.

No. 198.
Lanterns.

No. 196. The joists of (such and such) floors to have
Stt^ ceiling , battens U"xi\ and 12 inches mid to

mid, underneath thern^ to insure a good ceiling
for the rooms below.

Here introduce a description of the girders,
binders, bridging and ceiling joists, — or of the
binders, bridging and ceiling joists, — or of the
simple joists only, — ^which may be required to
support the lantern and lead flats of staircases,
or the flats over porticos, bay windows, or other
parts of the buUding; either making explana-
tory sketches on the specification, or referring
to detailed drawings whereon the scantlings are
all figured.

Here introduce a description of the rough
carpentry necessary to raise the sill of &e
lanterns above the flats ; also of the joisting or
rafters necessary to form the flat or roof over the
lantern. Scantlings as drawings.

No. 199. The roof over the to be supported

Uoofa, Italian, by trusses, as shown and figured on drawing
No. , These trusses to be not more than

110 \^^^^ apart, with half trusses at the ends

of corresponding form and scantling ; hip rafters

"hy '', properly framed into a dragon piece of

oak " by ", the said dragon piece dovetailed

into an angle tie of Memel fir, feet long, and

inches square. The tie-beams to have a hold of

18)

12 > inches on the walls, notched on oak tern-

plates, inches long and inches Bc^pA.^^^. '^^xcss^

270 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

or queen posts of wrought-iron rods or oak ^th
wrought-iron step straps or bolts (or both), to
unite them with the tie-beam. Principals of

1 Mei^l fir I ^^^^ united to tie - beam with
wrought-iron bolts, straps (or both), and the
remaining timbers of roof, viz. the (assistant
principals ?) struts, (straining beams ?) (strain-
ing sills ?) ridge-piece, ridge-roll, purlins, pole-
plate, and common rafters, to be likewise of

1 MemTfi' • } *^® whole framed in the most

workmanlike manner, and the tie-beam to be
wedged and bolted up to a camber of inches.
Valley rafters " by ".

\Note, — ^Iron is frequently and economically
combined with timber in large roof trusses ;
all suspension pieces as kings and queens
being of iron rods, with cast-iron socket
heads and shoes to receive the ends of
struts, &c.]
Continue to describe the secondary and collar-
beam, lean-to ropfs, &c., in their turn. For curb
roof, see No. 204. For projecting eaves, see
No. 207.

No. 200. Note, — In these, it is likely there will be no
Roofa, Gothic. tie-beam, nor any angle tie or dragon

pieces. Collar - beams, hammer - beams,
brackets, springing pieces, &c., will super-
sede the tie-beam. The valley rafters may
remain ; but there will be no half trusses
at the ends. An accurate drawing of the
roof must be made, the reference to it in
the specification being only general. (See
No. 203.) For curb roof, see No. 204.
[Curved and moulded ribs bolted or grooved
to principals are often used.]

No. 201. Provide, frame, and fix all the rough carpentry
Dormer doors necessary to form the dormer doors and windows
and windowB, fji the roofs, as Bhown otx di:2i.mtig8.

No. 202.
Boarding and
battening
for lead and
slates, and
Felting.

No. 203.
Open or
Gothic roof.

HOOFS. 271

Lay the roof with | • ^^ } rough Memel

boarding for slates. Inch gutter boarding on
proper bearers to parapets, and boarding for
valley gutters, &c. ; 2-inch drips. (See No.
203.) [All roofs not ceiled underneath should
have felt inserted under slates as a non-con-
ductor of heat and cold. Pugging with chopped
hay and plaster is as good.]

Or,

Lay the roof with Memel fir battens 2"xl'',

for slates. Lich gutter boarding, &c., &c., as

before:

N.B. — ^If the roof have projecting eaves,

there will be no parapet gutter boarding

required.

Lay the several flats, roof of lantern, &c., with

l^^-^l rough boarding for lead, forming proper

rolls for joints and drips.

It may so happen in the case of an Italian
roof, and it will most likely occur in that of a
Oothic roof, that the timbers are to be left
visible from below ; and that the specification
must therefore describe whether they are
to be "wrought fair,*' **cut," ** chamfered,"
" moulded," or " decorated " as drawings. In
a church, chapel, or Gothic hall, for instance,
which has no plastered ceiling, ** the roof," or
"so much of it as is visible," would be so
described; and the slates, or lead covering,
instead of being laid on "rough boarding" (as
in No. 202), would be laid on " inch deal board-
ing with (rebated and beaded) (or ploughed,
tongued, and beaded) joints, and wrought fair
underside."

No. 204, Curb roof over the as drawings.

C"'^ 'oot Raking side, or sides, of { ^Tf^^^ } formed by
framed and braced quartering, as described for

272

HIKTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

No. 206.
Garrets.

quarter partitions, No. 108 : the tie-beams, long
or qneen posts, principals, purlins, stmts, rafters,
&c., &c., together witii the iron bolts or straps,
necessary to the strength of the work, to be
referred to "as shown on drawings," and the
description of the Italian roof, No. 199, to be
followed out as far as it is suitable ; also the
suitable particulars in Nos. 201 and 202.

Bed pine binders from (tie-beam to tie-beam)
or (collar to collar) " x ", and ceiling joists

'' X "; not more than inches mid to mid.
Fir ashlaring from the (raking quarters, or the
rafters) to the floor joists, as section. Dormer
doors and windows, as No. 201. Trap doors,
No. 206.

No. 206. Bed pine bmders " x "9 arid not more
<:j«iliiig floors, than feet apart, framed into tie-beams ; and
ceiling joists " x '', not more than inches
mid to mid. Chase-mortised into the binders.
Openings for trap doors into roof where marked
on plans ; and a rough boarded foot- way to be
formed from the trap to the dormer doors, win-
dows, or ventilators in roof.

No. 207.
PrqjectiDg
JBaves.

No. 208.
Troughs, cis-
terns, &c.

No. 209.
Joists,
wrought fair.

Provide and fix all rough carpentry necessary
to form the projecting eaves, the finishings of
which will be described under the head of
Joiner.

Construct rough red deal water-troughs for

lead lining, to conduct from through

the roof to the cistern, or cisterns, at ;

the said trough to be inches wide and inches
deep in the clear. Construct also the cistern, or
cisterns, of the sizes and in the situations figured
and shown in drawings, fixing the same on
proper bearers. Cover to cistern, if it be out-
side, and feet same.

Note. — In some cases, as in cottages, stables,
&c., &c., the upper joists of floors and lofts will

ROUGH WORK. 273

be wronght fair with chamfered edges or beaded
angles ; also the girders, binders, &c. (See
No. 203.)

No. 210. Provide and fix all required fir bearers and
Sundry rough rough carpentry to the stair flights, &c., &c., &c.
work. "Eere go over the plans very carefully, from

the roof through every floor downwards, and
make as particular allusion as you can to the
numerous minor features which may be peculiar
to the design under consideration; and ^hich
cannot be considered in this general outline.
Thus, in roofs and ceilings, ventilating apertures
may be required. Skylights are to be prepared
for, and quartering for rough boarded linings.
Preparations may be required for hanging pic-
tures ; for hanging lamps to ceilings ; for com-
pleting certain forms, which can only be done
partially with real masonry ; for forming jambs,
arches, inclosures, roofing to porticos, porches,
sheds, covered ways, or projecting windows,
&c., &c., &c.

No. 211. The internal surface of the several walls,
Battening. marked by a yellow line on the plans, to be
prepared for Uie Plasterer with Memel deal
battens 2''xl", and 12 inches mid to mid.

No. 212. Prepare for the arched, groined, or coved
Cradling and ceilings ; for the cornices, beam- work, panelled
"^^* ditto ; for the entablatures, pilasters, and all

other work that is to be finished by the Plas-
terer, with good and sufficient cradling and
firring.

No. 213. Provide and fix also all required rough car-
Columns, &c., pentry to form the cores of Scagliola or wood
cdUnM^^^ columns, with whatever framing or trussed
^' work may be necessary above them ; and all

binders and joists that may be required to such
ceilings as are lowered beneath Uie floor joists
above.

274 HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTS.

No. 214. The whole of the aforesaid Carpenters* work
Final clause, to be executed with sound and well-seasoned
timber, free from sap, shakes, and injurious
knots, and to be framed together with workman-
like skill and accuracy. The scantlings to be
full, aft&r the saw; and the iron bolts, straps,
trusses, screws, nuts, &c., employed in the
roofs, partitions, and bressummers, to be of the
best iron, well hammered and wrought. The
ends of all tie-beams, girders, binders, and other
important bearing timbers, to be left free from
mortar on all sides, so that the air may circulate
around ; and all joists, and the plates on which
they rest, to have their concealed ends well
coated with coal tar. Wherever the fir timber
is not described as of Memel or Baltic, it will
be taken up as American or best Swedish.

No. 215. N.B. — In the event of sliding doors bemg
desired between rooms, the quarter partitioning
must be prepared accordingly with double fram-
ing, leaving the required space between.

JOINEBS' WOEK.

No. 216. Here let the specification allude to any draw-
Ventilator to ing there may be for ventilator, turret, or other
^^'* piece of joinery rising on the roof, and all venti-

latiug hoppers, trunks, &c.

No. 217. Prepare and fix sky-lights,^ as drawing, of 2i-
Sky-b*ghts. inch Memel casement and bars in proper rebated
and beaded frame, with all required means for
rendering the same weather-tight.

[The rafters for sash sky-lights to be grooved
in rebates to let off water.]

JOINERS WORK.

276

No. 216.
Geilin j^, or
dome inner
lights.

Prepare and fix a 2-inch
red deal neatly motdded light,
in proper rebated and beaded
frame, as sketch, in the ceil-
ing floor under the sky-light,
(qy. whether it is to open ?)
and inclose the space between
the two lights with a neat
deal boxing, leaving
a door properly hung
in one of the sides to
allow of cleaning.
Or,

Prepare and fix a
neat deal dome-light,
in proper rebated and
beaded frame, as
sketch, in the ceiling

Plan.

ft \i

ih:

Section.

CEILINO LIGHT

&c., &c., &c., as before.

floor.

No. 219. It is well, when practicable,
Light and ia light, and at the same time
ventilation of yentflate, water-closets by an
water-dosetfl. adaptation of Nos. 217 and
218, lifting the sky-light on
blocks so as to admit of air
passing under the lower
edge of the casement, and
raising also the inner light
for the same purpose. A
dome-light would be best for
a water-closet.

CBIUNO

No. 220. Provide and hang in proper heads and jambs

Dormer door. 2-inch Memel deal bead-butt and square dormer

doors, as shown on drawings, with hingeing and

fastenings complete.

No. 221.
Dormer win-
dows.

» { S Jt »a } f™»e» l»vi»8 »«k .Ub to.

276

No. 222.
Trap door. *

HINTS TO "XOUNG ARCHITECTS.

mnllions ?) the dormer window openings, and fix
window board ; the whole as drawings.

Frame and fix an 1^-inch bead flash and
square trap door, in proper rebated frame, for
ascent into the roof where shown on plans, with
hinges and fastenings.

No. 223. Provide inch Memel

Gutter cornice eaves, also deal canti-
to eaves, levers, cut, moulded, and

le^ framed, at intervals of

' " apart, into an inch
Memel deal fascia board,
having moulding to cor-
respond.

deal cornice to

No. 224. Cornice to eaves to
Eaves cornice, be formed of Memel
Italian. ^^^1, framed, glued,

blocked, and moulded
as drawing, with cut
modillions at intervals
of inches apart ; and
a gutter, of the clear
dimensions shown in
section, and having a

falling bottom, to be formed behind the upper
mouldings of the cornice.

No. 225. Cornice to eaves to be formed
Ditto, Gothic, of Memel deal, framed, glued,
blocked, and moulded as drawing,
with rain-water gutter, of the
clear dimensions figured, and hav-
ing a falling bottom formed in the
upper part.

[Cast-iron gutters, plain and moulded, are now
invariably used in preference to wood.]

No. 229.
booids.

The raking eaves of
gables to be fitted with
iuobUemel deal, moulded
and chamfered or beaded
barge -boards, as drawing,
to coTei the ends of pnr-

ITo. 227. The raking eaves of ga-
Baive-boaidB, bles to be fitted with -inch

f oak ■

cnt and monlded

tdeal

bai^-boards, as drawing
the same to cover the ends
of purlins.

Lantern-light over

the to be

formed of 2- inch Heme 1
deal casements, la solid
Memel fir rebated and
beaded frame, with oak
sill rebated, double
snnk, weathered and
throated, and &Bcia
with monlding all
roTind the top, from
nnder the lead, to li
inch over the joint be-
tween the head-piece
and the casement.
The whole to be
wrought and moulded
as shown b; the draw-

278 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

ings. (See No. 268.) (Qy. if any of the lights
are to Imng 9)

[If it is intended to stain or simply varnish the
inside woodwork, the framing of doors, skirtings,
and other parts must be specified to be of selected
deal, or pitch pine; the framing may be of yellow
and the panels of red deal, all dead or loose knots
and shakes being carefully avoided.]

No. 229. Lay the floors of with inch ....

Floors. deal folding ; no board to exceed inches wide.

Boarding,

common. , . .

No. 230. Lay the floors of with | i'V' . ^f [

tto. better. ^ . X IJ-mch )

deal, straight joint, face-nailed headings splayed;
no board to exceed inches wide.

Ditto, better.

No. 231. Lay the floors of m\h ^ U-hich }

Ditto,
superior

{wainscot, ]
deal, > straight joint, skew-nailed

oak, j

on one

edge, and joints rebated :

or,

No. 232. — and joints ploughed and tongued :
Ditto.

or,

No. 233. — and joints dowelled with oak pins, atf q |
Ditto, best. '^ I o J

inches apart :

(add to either of the foregoing three, viz. Nos.

231,232, or 233,)

headings ploughed and tongued, and no board to

exceed inches wide; neatly mitred margins

to hearths, and the boarding grooved for skirting.

State where floor boarding is to be wrought
No. 234. fair underside.

Very superior

floor of deal ^ ^ /• -v^ainscot ")

and wainscot, Lay the floors of . . . with li-inch i ^^ tit«,v»^i f
or of wainscot lorMemelJ

wboUjr, best boarding, free from knots, and no board to

FLOODS. 279

exceed i - > inches ^ide, Bkew-nftiled on
one edge, dowollcd with oak pins 6 inches apart ;
' headings ploughed and tongned : and wainscot
margin feet wide (measuring from the skirting,
which will be grooved into Uie same) all round
the rooms, accnrately mitred at all angles, with
grain ranning paralld to the ends and sides of the
room respectively,

No. 2SB. If the floors are to be laid in panellings and
Parquetry and fancy patterns, an accurate drawing must bo
inlaid floors, m^de and referred to.

[Parquetry floors may be laid of any design ;
or parquetry borders only. In this case spooify
mannfaotnrer'a name.]

No. 236. The rooms and passages

qSSIT^' *° ''*™ ^'"^"^ ^^^ ''^^'^^^ skirting, ,|
4 inches high, and flash with plaster.

No. 237.
Common
skhtiufia

'. , . . . I -inch deal hollow-

moulded skirting, plugged to
walls, i inches high.

{-inch deal skirting,

6 inches high ; fillet and toms
moulded, and plogged to walls.

280

HINTS TO YOUNG AECHITECTS,

Or,

No. 23D.r f -inch deal skirting, with

SkirtingB and plinth 6 inches high, nailed to fillet
grounds. ^^^^ grooved grounds, and hollow and
torus moulding above plinth.

Or,

No. 240.
Ditto.

inch deal skirting ;

plinth 8 inches high, nailed to fillet
and grooved grounds, and moulding
above plinth, as drawing.

Or,

No. 241.
Ditto.

inch deal skirt-
ing ; plinth 10 inches high, grooved
into floor boarding, nailed to fillet
and to IJ grooved grounds, and
moulding above plinth, as drawing.

DOOBS.

Or,

IJ-inoh deal akirting ;

pibith ischeB high, with i-inch

sinking to form double feoe, grooved

into fioor, nailed to fillet and to 1^

grooved gionndB, and moulding

above plintit, as drawing.

[Note. — For kitchens, ont-ofBces,

&c., oement skirtings are beat

and cleanest.}

The .

f li-inch \ j oak
{ or inch J | doal
in door, formed with vertical ledges, re-

bated and headed joints, nailed to
three back braces, and hung with
strong hook and twist hicges to solid
rebated and beaded frame, 4" x 8",
housed witii iron shoe into step. Nor-
folk thnmb-latch — wood stock lock,

214. The : to have door formed of 2-ineh

b^od Memel deal stiles and top r^, filled
"*"" in with inch deal battens, rebated
and beaded joints, and backed with
two horizontal (and, if necessary,
two diagonal) braces framed into
stiles, &c., the same hung with

( hook and twist ^
strong < cross garnet > hinges

( wronght-iron J
to solid Memel fir &ame, rebated and
twice beaded, and housed with iron shoe into
step. Norfolk thumb-latch to each door — fine
plate 8-inch stock lock.
US. Ooach-honse folding doors will be the same as
lu)me the last described ; rebated in their meeting stiles,
hung with strong wronght-iron hinges, and hav-
ing bolts and swing bar,

1-Inch or
i-incb.

The

...h.™(>j;

t yellow

No. 248.
Ditto,
saporior.

IIIMT8 TO lOUNG AKCUITECTa.

deal foar-panel bead butt and square
(or bead Jiuah aud sqnaie) doors,

hung with cast-iron [^ ^

buttB to 1 J-incb jambs [\y| [ K=H
and heads ; moulding |/\J ~J
( one or ) ., '— r^

""{toll, i"^"

to cover tbe plaster joint ;
iron rim braaa-uiobbed lock.

The to have

Ij-incb yellow deal fonr-
panel, monlded (both sides ;
or one aide, and the other
sqnare ;) hung with iron
butts in l^-inch single re-
bated jambs, with 21-inch

moulding on (^gtu* I sides
to cover plaster joint; and
(morti.e orl^^,.,^„t.
(.iron nm J
bed lock.

Ihe to have doors formed of inch

panels, in 2-inch stiles and tails, monlded both ]
sides ; (one side and square, in closets, io.,) 1
hung with two 8^-inch best iron butts, in 11-
inch jambs double lebated and beaded, and
i K ■°p>i , moulded architrave on framed and
splayed grounds. Good mortise lock with ebon;,
china, or brass knobs to latch and bolt.

The . . to have doors
formed of 14-inch panels,
having sank margins,

or nnkii^in centre

in 2-inch stiles and rails,
the central style being
donble and beaded u£ the

DOORS.

283

No. 250.

)lding

ors.

middle, and the panels ogee and bead both sides.
Door hung with best 4-inch lifting | ?^ |
bntts, in 1^-inch double rebated jambs, and
{ 7-bch *" }^omei axchitrave on framed and

splayed grounds. Best mortise lock with ....
knobs to latch and bolt of approved manufacture.

The opening between rooms to have

doors corresponding with the others in respect to
their general character and mouldings, but hung
folding, and having three panels in their height.
Brass flush bolts top and bottom of one half, and
the other furnished with mortise lock, &c., as
other doors.

No. 251. The opening between . . . : . rooms to have
ding doors, sliding doors, corresponding with the others in
respect to their general character and
mouldings, only that they will have an
additional panel in height. The said
doors to be hung by metal suspenders, to

f=f

nn
nn

5^0. 252.
fcer doors.

the axles of brass rollers, which will traverse
a strong iron rail-rod. The
whole to be executed in the
best manner, and conformable
to the drawings.

[Sometimes they are made
to slide by friction rollers on
metal rod let into floor.]

The door-opening ....
to be fitted with door formed
of li-inch Memel deal ogee
or ovolo bead and raised
panels, three beads flush
inside, in 2 J -inch Memel stiles

HINTS TO TOUHO ABCHITECIS.

and rails, hnng with two strong 41-incli butts ta
solid Memel fir &ame, 41' X 8 . rebated and
twice beaded, housed with iroc shoe lato step,
with transome, 4V' X 8", filled in with cast-iron
rebated framework for glazing, aa drawing : beet
lO-incb iron rim biasB-knobbed lock, baviog
draw-back latch, barrel, and chain. Wooden
architrave on the inside, as drawing.

variation) "hung folding, with two strong 4}-'
inch butts to each half," — " one half to have »
2-feet barrel bolt at top, and 12-inoh ditto ii(
bottom; the other a best 10-iuch iron rim look,

The door-opening to be fitted with

dooT formed of IJ^-inch Memel deal bead flnsh
and square panels, in 2i-iuoh stiles and rails,
hung with 4-inoh bntts in solid Memel fir &ame,
&e., &e., as No. 252.

J the foregoing, varying as

No. 256.
Doom irith
■Ida lights.

No. 253 from No. 252.
To either of the four foregoing doors, add

K^IKE

D nn

" side lights to the said door, as drawing, having

cast-iron rebated lattice- work for glazing, Bet in
BoM fir frame, correBponding -with the rest, with
2V' panelled work below the lights,"

Door as the laet, with aide, but no top lights,
and therefore no tiansome.

If segment headed
door, desoribe it, as
drawing.

headed, desoribe it,
drawing.

Ho. 260. If pointed arched,
desoribe it, as draw-
ing.

The top lights of the three latter may be
termed fan-Ughts,

No. 961. If the doors be Gothic, tlie " ovolo and bead "
or "ogee and bead" monldings mnst be sttp-
' planted by " Qothic moulded, as drawings." It
ia impossible to specify for Gothic joinery, except
as it regards the substance of the frames, tran-
somes, stiles, and panels. Distinct drawings
must be made for each parlicolar case.
[Details of monldings, &o. most be given in all

No. 262. Be earefnl that
Sundry doon. the general head-
*"■' ingof "doorB"in-

clnde all dormer
doors, trap-doors,
blank doors, &c.
Doors to casings of
water-closet pipe s,
cnpboard and
dwarf doors, slid-

HINTS TO TOUNG AHCHITKCTS.

i&g doorfl to baiteiy hatch, baized or cloths
covered doore, with self-cloBing Bpring binges;
whether to open one or both ways ? whether
panel -glazed, as a, or caBoment- glazed, ae b?
and whether any of the inner doors are to be
prepared for borrowed lights above tbem.

Lantern- li

drawings.
siU6" X 4'.
bated, snnk, wea-
thered, throated,
and grooved for
lead. An^e stan-
dards of Memel
or yellow deal
4" X 4", rebated
and beaded ; mnl-
lions 4" X 8", re-
bated and beaded;
head ditto ditto.
2-inch Memel .—
casements finah
with the ontaide
of frame (state if
any are to open,
and how 9). Inch r
Memel fascia board ^
and moulding for S
lead covering ^
Baking board
grooved into sill
to cover plaster
cornice, &c.

ght over the , ss

Oak ^;

So. 264. As above, with Hegmental, semicircnlar, or
arched pointed heads, to the lights and &ameE,
with spandril fillings, &a., as drawing.

No. 365. The window-openings of ... to have S-inob

■Windowa, or 2J-ioch Memel deal sashes (doable, or single,
^ «mj.leflf, jj^jjgj^ ^(j^ best flax, catgnt, or other lines, iron

WINDOW SASHES.

287

weightSi and iron axle pnlleye, io proper decde
cased frames, having oak double sunk Bills
6" X 8". Good Baah-fastenings, Inch angle
bead to plastered jamba and so^ta ; inoli ronnded
ledge to tSkp the plastered back, and skirting of
room carried ronnd the recess,

No. 266. . . . same as foregoing to the word " soffita,"
Wmdowfl, contiuning thus : — inch deal back, moulded and
B«ih,comi<K)a. gjjgj to match doors, and skirting carried
home to the same.

No. 267. same as No. 265 to the words " sash-

Ditto, better- fastenings," continning thus : — soffit, jambs, backs
and elbows of inch deal, panelled and moulded
to match doors, and moulding fixed on framed
and beaded gronnds to form architrave. [3raaB
axle pnlleys instead of iron to be provided.]

No. 268. ■ . • same as

last with the ad-
dition of the mar-
gin M, for Vene-
tian blind.

No. 269.
Ditto, im-
proved.

Same as No.
266 to the words
" BOsh fatten-
ings," continu-
ing thus: — soffit,
back, elbows,
and properly
hong folding shatters ; the

MINTS TO VOtJNO AltCHITECrS.

moulded to match doors, except the back flap!,
which will be bead butt and square, to fall huk
against plastered jambs, in boxing formed by the
gronods, and moulding fixed on the latter to
form arobitraveB as to doors. (Qy. if the addi-
tion No. 26S ?) 8ee No. 271.

Same'aslast to the word "square," adding:—
to fall back against proper bead bait and square
back linings forming boxing with the gromids,
and architraves complete as to doors. (Qy. if
the addition No. 268 ?) See No. 271.

The shatters and bock flaps to be properly
hnng with strong butt hinges ; shnttei latches,
with famiture to match doors ; and strong
wroaght-iron locking bar.

Same as No 265 to the
words " sash-fastentngs," con-
tinuing : addiUonal cased frame
for lifting shatters to be hnng
OS the aashea, and to descend
into a proper deal casing, as
drawing, having hmged ledge
at top. The shutters bead
butt and sqaare, with brass-
headed iron screw m brass
a crew-hole, to
fasten them, as
shown by {(
sketch. The
front of shutter
casing panelled
as doors, and architrave also
to match.

Ko, 273 [An improved kind of palley stile, in wUich the

Improyed weights may be taken out by a movable pocket-
piece fitted with brass flash, ring, Ac, and new
lines introdaced, or the sashes easily removed

WINDOW SASHES.

289

and reversed for cleaning, has been patented,
known as ** Gorman's patent/']

No. 274. Same at last, with the )additlon of soffit jambs
and elbows, panelled as front of shatter casing.

No. 276.
Three light
windowB.

No. 276.
Bow ditto.

The window- ' |
opening of . .
to be fitted with

f 2-m, or-) „
t2i-iii. ) ^®

L_I

mel deal sashes, in triple-light cased frame, as
drawings ; the central sashes double hnng with
best lines, iron weights, and brass pulleys: —
continuing to describe the rest of the inside
joinery, as maybe selected fromNos. 265 to 274
inclusive. (See No. 279.)

If a bow win-
dow, describe it
such.
(See No. 279.)

No. 277.
Bay, ditto.

Ka bay window, say, " the openings of bay to
be fitted withj oi!|^«h^' JMemel deal sashes,
in proper cased frames," &c., stating whether the

t.::;inr

C'///.' ///jW m

central sashes only, or the whole of the sashes,
are to be double hung, &c., &c. (Boo l^o. ^^^>\

290 HINTS TO TOTIWO ABCHITECIS.

No. 278. If a Venetian window. Bay, " the openings of

VenetiftQ Venetian window to be fitt^," &o., Ac., &c., sB

**"*»'• before. (See also No. 279.)

The windows, Noa. 275 to 278, may havs
■'wooden casing pilasters" at a, a, a, ke.,
which mast be described "as shown in drawings."

If the frames and sashes have " segment,"
<< semicircnlar," or " pointed arched heads," de-
scribe " as drawings."

Fit up window-
openings in

with -inch deal case-
ments, Med in with
iron bars and lead
fqy, diamond?) work for glazing;
(certain of them to be) hnng with
strong butt hinges, in solid fir, wronght, rebated,
and beaded fimaea, and oak sills, as drawing
(state if there bo muZfions or troiMomei). Inchde^
window-boards. Good fastenings to close, and
approved means for holding open, the casements.

eNo. ;

*■)

Ho. 232. 8ame as last, omitting "filled inwithironbar
and lead for glazing." (See No. 284.)

No. 2S3. If inside shatters, soffits, backs, or elbowB,
select from No. 26S to 279. If ontside shntters,
make them conform with the doors described in
Nos. 248 to 246, adding the required fastenings
for secaring them when open or shat.

No. 264. If the windows he Qothic, the casements will
be described as hong in solid frames (muUionE) ,
(transomes) and oak sills, moulded, as drawings,
with their hinges, bolts (top and bottom), latches.

CASEMENTS.

291

No. 285.
ench caso-
ints.

No. 286.

and fastenings, stating whether pointed headed,
&c. Soffits, shatters, backs, elbows, &c., as from
No. 265 to 279.

The win-
dow-open-
ings of

to be fitted i?^
with 2-inch "^^'^'^

or 2i-inch Memel moulded
and rebated casements, hay-
ing vertical (and transverse ?)
meeting stiles (and rails?)
as drawings. The same to
be hung in solid Memel fir,
wrought, rebated, and beaded

^^ ^ gv V in oak

double sunk sills, with strong 4-inch butts : good
brass-knobbed latches, and (brass bolts top and
bottom of the opening casement) (or) patent rod-
bolt to make the meeting casements, when closed,
perfectly tight. For soffits, shutters, backs, el-
bows, pilasters, &c., &c., see Nos. 265 to 279.

[The stiles of all casements should be tongued
to fit into grooves made in the frames, or vice
vei'sdy meeting stiles should also have a hook re-
bate joint to prevent wet driving through, and
galvanised iron sill bars inserted in groove with
white lead.]

The windows of to

be fitted with .... deal swing
casements to hang on centres, as
drawing, with apparatus for open-
ing, closing, and fixing the same,
in solid rebated and beaded frames
and oak sills, as drawings.

[Iron casements and frames with check rebated
joints are preferable in many c«k&ei^.\

292 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHTTECTS.

No. 287* Note. — ^Be careful that all common windowfl
and doors, which have no fittings of joinery in-
side, be famished with coin-beads, and that such
windows have window-boards.

No. 288. Fit np the window-openings

with neatly wrought luffer - boarding,
(state whether fixed, — or if it is to 1^
made to close or open at pleasure, by
each board revolving on a wood pin at
each end,) in solid Memel fir frame and
oak sill. (If the boarding is
to open and close, a rod and
peg, as sketch, mnst be made
to revolve on pins in the
head-piece and sill, with a
handle, or other means for
turning it.) C^l

No, 289. Frame and fix a clock or bell-turret over the
...... ; the same to be of Memel fir, and

agreeable to the drawings and the descriptions
thereon.

No. 290. The .... staircase to be fitted with inch
Stairs, ^^jj gtepg having rounded nosings, on J-inch

sornmon. risers, framed into skirting and outer strings,
with neatly turned or square newels and inch-
square balusters, two on each step, and neat 2^-
inch rounded hand-rail. (See Nos. 298 and 294.)

No. 291. The .... staircase to be fitted with 1^-inch
Stairs, better, deal steps, having moulded nosings, framed into
skirting and outer string; the latter wrought,
moulded, and capped, as drawing, with 1^-inch
balusters ; wainscot, hand-rail, and newels, cut
and moulded as pattern. (See Nos. 298 and
294.)

No. 292. The .... staircase to be fitted with 1^-inch

Stairs, best, deal steps, with moulded nosings along fronts

and returns ; inch deal risers ; end-casing of

steps cut as pattern, and fascia moulded as draw-

STATES. 293

ing; handsome curtan step, {^Xo^ny}

hand-rail, and turned | ^^^ganv 1 ^^^^*®'^»
two to each step. (See Nos. 293 and 294.)

No. 293. A sufficiency of cast-iron balusters oi corre-
sponding pattern, to give stiffness to the hand-rail.
[Cast-iron balusters may be used instead of
wood.]

No. 294. The face of landing to have nosing and fascia
corresponding with the steps and balusters also.

No. 295. The staircase of : . . to be fitted (as No. 291
or No. 292), adding, << and the soffit of stairs to
be panelled with wood, as shown and described
on drawings.*'

No. 296. The .... staircase to be fitted with (as No,
291 or No. 292), adding, << and the space (or a
certain part of it) under stairs to be inclosed
with wood-panelled spandril, moulded outside as
drawings, and square on the inside."

No. 297. The staircase of . to be (as No. 291

or No. 292), excepting that ** cast-iron orna-
mental balusters" will supersede the wooden
ones.

No. 298. The to be approached by a flight of

inch I ^ , I treads framed into l^-inch string-
bearers.

No. 299. Frame and fix at and . . . . , &c.

spandrels. r^^^^^ . ,

< li-inch y wainscot i panelled spandrils,

(2-mch j aeal ;

moulded or square, so as to correspond with the
doors or other joinery with which they are seen
or connected. (State whether there are to be
skirtings or cornices, and if any borrowed lights
therein.)

294 HINTS TO YOUNG ABCH1TECT3.

Ko. 800. Specify whatever carings (plain, panelled, oi
Oasisgs. beaded) there may be, not before mentioned,
snch as to beams, lintels, bressommers, story-
posts.

No. 301. Specify if any boarding (plain, grooved,
tongaed, and beaded, or otherwise) on battens
against walls, or against qnarter partitions; or
whether any panelled casings against the same,
as dados, or wainscoting ; and whether base and
sorbase mouldings.

No. 302. The coinnms and pilasters in the • • • • to be
formed of 2-inch yellow deal staves, glued and
blocked with turned yellow deal bases, and caps
(if Tuscan or Doric). (If the caps are Corin-
thian or Ionic, they will be described as '' carved
according to the drawings.")

Ko. 303. Moulded architrave, &c., frieze, and glued,
blocked, and moulded cornice (describe whether
enriched, or with modillions, dentils, &c.).

No. 304. Describe all other carved work.

No. 306. Describe papier-mache, carton-pierre, or gutta-

Papier-mach6 percha work in connection with joinery. Where

work, &c. mouldings of panels, architraves, cornices, &c.,

&c., in the joinery, are to be gilded, they should

always be enriched ; and papier-mache is the best

. way of preparing for it. See published Book of

Ornaments, and Tariff of Prices.

f deal 1
No. 306. Fit up the water-closet with -inch 4 mahgny |-

[ cedar J

pierced seat, and properly framed < /j-Qn. j

hinged) clamped flap of the same material, with
moulded nosing to range with fixed sides, having
boxed sinking for handle in one, and larger ditto
ditto for paper in the other. Back and elbow
beaded boards, B mcVieB \^^, q^ ^fiime material

STABLES. 295

as flap, &c. The riser to be of pan-
elled, and casing for pipes, with doors, &c., as
plan.

No. 307. Privies fitted with deal riser, seat, and cover,
and back and elbow boards.

No. 308. Sundry fittings — as glass-washing troughs in
butler's pantry, dish-washing ditto in scullery,
and all such presses^ shelvings, cupboards, &c.,
&c., as are positively connected with the per-
manent building; wooden chimney-pieces; rails
and pins in closets, passages, and halls, &c., &c.,
&c. ; fittings in butler's pantry, housekeeper's
room, china closets, store rooms; knife and shoe,
drying and brushing rooms ; wash-houses, laun-
dries, brew-houses, cook's closets, housemaid's
closets, larders ; salting-rooms, dairies, scalding-
rooms, still-room, &c., &c. [Specify wrought
and dovetailed inch deal cistern case.]

Stables. — ^Miscellaneous Joinery ; as

No. 309. Stall-posts 6 inches square, chamfered, with
iron shoes ; head-piece to match ; stall divisions
of -inch vertical oak boarding, ploughed and
tongued joints, grooved into bottom rail ^ x y,
and into rounded top rail ^ x 5". — Backs frds
width of stall, formed of rounded oak bars 1^
inch diameter, in rounded top rail 5" x 4", and
bottom ditto 8'^ x ^'^ Boxed oak mangers,
occupying |rd width of stall; standard-post
properly fixed in ground, with halter -pidley
therein : the backs of stalls boarded as high as
the stall divisions, and boarding round all the
walls beside, ranging with the stall boarding. —
Lockers for com, &c. — Traps for letting down
hay. — ^Harness-room boarded top to bottom, v. ith
harness-pegs and saddle-trees, closets, &c. —
Steps or ladders to loft. — ^Doors, windows, hay-
loft doors, &c. — ^Ventilating trunks. — The loft-
joists and boarding wtoti^^\. isSa ^V<st^ -TNssi^^

296 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

from below. — ^Tronk and apparatus for obtaining
com from the chest above. (See No. 818.)

No. 310. Coach -Houses. — Folding doors in jambs,
heads, &c. — Story-posts. — ^Bressummer over . .
. . door from saddle-room. (See No. 818.)

No. 311. Loose boxes boarded round as stables, with
angular quadrant racks and mangers, of the same
general character as to stalls. (See No. 818.)

No. 312. All required joinery to outhouses and coach
gates, sheds, &c., cow-houses, piggeries, &c., &c.
(See No. 818.)

No. 313. The doors and windows suited to stables,
coach-houses, outhouses, &c., will be found
against Nos. 248, 244, 245, 246, 281, 282, 286,
287, 288 ; stable clock turret, 289. [The best
stable windows are of iron, pivot hung case-
ments in small squares.]

No. 314. The whole of the aforesaid joinery to be exe-
Final Clause, cuted with sound and well-seasoned timber, free
from sap, shakes, and large or loose knots, and
to be so early prepared tifiat, after its fixing, it
may remain secure from serious shrinkage. All
obviously necessary or usually required iron-
mongery to be supplied and fixed by the Joiner,
whether specified or not ; and all hinges, locks,
latches, bars, catches, bolts, &c;, to be left per-
fect at the close of the works, easy in their
action, and free from rust.

IBON AND METAL WOBE.

No. 315. T^^ windows of .... (i. e. such as have no

Window shutters, but where security by night is required)

guard bars, to be fortified by strong wrought-iron bars, firmly

screwed into the sills and heads [or provide

Moline's patent wrought-iron windows].

IRON AND METAL WORK.

297

No. 316.

No. 317.
Metal lights.

No. 318.
Chimney
bars.

No. 319.

The windows and .... of ... , (dairies
and larders, for instance) to be fitted with ny-wire
or perforated zinc instead of glazing ;

Or,

The windows of .... to have separate frames
filled in with fly- wire, so that the glazed case-
ments or sashes may open independent of them.

Fix over the opening of .... a skylight of

cast-iron, or i f !?1*„2^ I formed as shown
C copper, )

by drawing, the bars being of the section

as sketch.

(EoUed iron moulded ribs are now used.)

Put to the fire-places of ... . wrought-iron
chimney-bar 2^' x i", properly caulked at the
ends.

Qy. bolts to prevent brick hearth trimmers
from spreading.

No. 320. Provide and fix cast-iron columns to support
Iron columns, the . . . . ; the same to be of the best iron,
cast hollow ; the entire diameter being inches,
and the thickness of the iron being not less than
ith of that entire diameter. Cast-iron plate as
drawing on the top.

J-i i »( K

9«. 331.

S<x 3S.

Ko. 323.
Fire-proof

floon.

tip. badUbad,

Or-

. • • . ; ftfi SBBBS to W of Ae
Oe fijon ami fiiH mmffing (i
in '

over the
best iron, of

Provide and £x cast-iron joists (to
lecexre eftfcer bziek azcbes, stozie fioois,
4e. ?) ; the ssme to lie (^ ih& best iron,
and of the fizll M^wtKng (afttf coolii^)
sbowii by section.

Or,

[Provide snd fix rolled>iron joists of section
^own.]

Or,

[ProTide and fix mroo^t-iron nretted plaie
girdeis of the scantlings a2id section given (here
specify whether '^ box," or lattice, or I-shaped
sections are reqnired, also maker's name and
required net strength. An^e irons, rivetting,
stiffening pieces, &c., should be acenrately shown
and described).]

Or,

[The fire-proof floors to be eonstraeted as per
drawings, and to have wrought, cast, or rolled
iron girders (here describe particnhurs of con-
stroetion, as distances apart, fixing, &c.), to rer
eeiye brick arches or concrete^

ROOFS, GUTTERING. 299

Or,

Provide and fix (state here name of some par-
ticular system of fire-proof flooring or patent, as
the "Dennett" arch; Phillips & Go's; Shaw
& Oo*s, Hornblower's, &c.)]

[The girders to be tested to within two-thirds
or one-half of their calculated breaking weight.
(See " Iron Construction," Part r?".)]

u 324. Wrought-iron tie-bolts ? cast-iron plates ?
ries*! chain bars.

). 325. Iron roofs can be only generally described as
roofs. " of the best wrought and cast iron, and of the
forms and full scantlings (after shrinkage) shown
by the drawings," which cannot be too much
detailed and described thereon. (See Bartholo-
mew's Specifications, chap. 47.) [See section on
Ironwork.]

). 326. Provide and fix .... cast-iron cantilevers to
3r match with the wooden ones of ... . cornice ;

levers, the same to be cast hollow to act as gutters in

conveying the water from the gutter in front to

the heads of water-pipes.

>. 327. Provide and fix along the eaves
5"^fi»* of ... . roofs a cast-iron gutter, as

sketch, with proper bracket supports, ^

&c.

[Provide and fix to eaves of roof cast-iron
guttering of the section shown (or here specify
the castings of some approved manufacturer,
Macfarlane's, Smith & Go's., &c.). Gutters are
made of various moulded forms ; also stack pipes.]

Or,

Zinc shuting may be used.

3. 328. Provide and fix the various cast-iron watet-
)r-pipes. pipes shown on plana ', \.\io%^ ol • * * Vi \^ ^"^^

300

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

inches clear bore, those of .... of inches
ditto, and those of .... of inches ditto. All
these pipes to have proper receiving heads, with
roses or gratings to prevent the descent of leaves
or rubbish, and proper shoes at the bottom to
torn off the wet from walls. The inside of pipes
to be painted three times before fbdng.

No. 329.
GratiDgs.

No. 330.
No. 331.

T ' »

Provide and f wrought-")
fix X or cast-)

iron gratings over the areas

of ; the same to

open (single or folding) on
centres, with means for
securing the same when
closed.

Or,

[Provide and fix patent prismatic psk^ement
lights. (Specify the kind, such as Hyatt's.)]

Qy. any fixed gratings ?

Provide and fix the various cast-iron gratings
to air-holes for ventilating underground joists;
also those required over cesspools, to the gutters
or drains of .... ; also the several coal plates,
with means for securing the latter inside, and
iron stench traps.

No. 332. Provide and fix the iron railing or palisading,
Rails and wrought plain, or cast ornamental, as indicated
balusters, &c. ^^ plans, and shown in detailed drawing ; also
the rail and balusters, wrought plain, or cast
ornamental, to the areas, landings, balconies,
steps, stairs, &c., &c. ; the whole to be properly
fixed, with screws, &c., in wood, or with lead
running in stone-work, as the case may be.

No. 833.
Gtitci.

Provide and hang with proper wrought-iron
hinges and centres (qy. revolving in brass cups ?)
the wickets or gates, single or folding, of wrought-

DOORS, SHUTTERS.

301

iron plain, or of cast-iron ornamental^ shown in
drawings; and with the bolts, stops, latches,
locks, &c., thereon described.

No. 334.
Iron doors.

The opening into strong closet, plate closet,
&c., to be fitted with an iron door and lock valued
at£ .

No. 335.
"Wood and
iron ditto.

A good door may be formed by sheet
iron panels, screwed and rebated into
wronght-iron stiles and rails, moulded
in front and flush at back, the latter
having fixed to them wooden stiles and
rails to form panels like the front. The
whole to be hung with strong 5-inch
butts in iron rebated head and jambs ;
and brass lock on the iron side.

No. 336.
Iron case-
ments.

The windows of .... to be fitted with cast
or wrought iron casements, as fully shown and
detailed on drawings. (The drawings will show
the frames or outer rims, the meeting bars, the
common bars, the part to open, and the me^ins
of opening and closing.) Wheliier the windows
open, or only ventilators in them ?

No. 337.
Sundries to
^Nindows.

If any particular bolts to make weather-tight
the casements, or any metal slips to cover meet-
ing joints of ditto, or to prevent water from
passing over sill, describe them accurately: with
any copper tubing that may be necessary to carry
off wet or condensed moisture.

No. 338.
Shutters.

In Banking-houses, business premises, or other
buildings where fire-proof security is required,
Bunnett's revolving shutters may be advanta-
geously used, or Clark & Co*s self-coiling ditto.

No. 339. Provide and fix cast-iron mangers and racka^ o.^
per drawings, in Btablea.

302

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITKCrrS.

Ko. 340.

No. 341.

No. 342.
Simdiies.

No. 343.
General
clause.

Or,

[Provide and fix complete (here state maker^s
name as) Cottam & Co*8 stable fittings, harness
brackets, &c. .. v

Provide and fix verandah and covered way . . •
of wrought-iron sash bars and cast-iron supports
covered with lead or zinc (here describe weight
of lead or number of gauge of zinc ; also details
and manufacturer's name).

Specify any special iron-work, as school desks,
revolving shutters or hinges, ventilators, door
springs, iron casements and frames, cellular iron
bins, lightning conductors, &c.]

Provide all the cast and wrought iron-work
necessary to the completion of the Carpentry,
according to common usage, whether herein
specified or not, as spikes, nails, screws, hold-
fasts ; also all cast and wrought iron or brass-
work necessary to the doors, windows, shutters,
lantern or sky-lights, and the joinery in general,
as iron shoes to door-posts, hinges of the re-
quired varying description, locks ditto, latches
ditto, bolts, bars, and chains ditto, and brass-
knobbed handles.

Here proceed more minutely to describe the
more important and particular Smith's work,
as —

Wrought-iron abutment, king or queen bolts,
struts, straining-bars, and coupling-bolts, with
their washers, nuts, and screws, to trussed beams
or girders ; wrought-iron stirrups or straps and
bolts, with their wedges, washers, nuts, and
screws, to unite the king and queen posts and
principals with the tie-beams of roofs. — Cast-iron
shoes and cappings to wood story-posts. — Cast-
iron box, sockets, or casings, to receive the ends
of girders, binders, or tie-beams. Also any par-
ticular iron-work necessary to Stonemason's
work. All castings to be clean, sound, free from
air-flaws, &c., and, Vn ^ Ysxi^otVasit <i««ea^ as with

GRATES, STOVES, ETC. 803

columns and bearing-beams, thoroughly proved
before fixing. All wrought iron to be thoroughly
welded and hammered.

0. 344. Provide grates of approved construction for
jes, stoves, the various sitting and bed rooms, of the follow-

;es»&c. jjjg pri^eg respectively, viz The

grates in the .... rooms to have hobs.

Provide stoves for the . . . . , of the follow-
ing descriptions and prices respectively, viz. . . .

Provide and superintend (including all

carriage, men's time, and expenses) the fixing of
a cooking apparatus and range for the kitchen,
valued in themselves separately at £ • Fix
smoke-jack of approved construction in kitchen
flue. Qy. range or stove, or both, in back kitchen
or scullery, valued at £ • Hot-plates, &c. ?
Stove with oven, &c., valued at £ ,in still-room.
Scalding-stove in dairy scullery, valued at £ .
Stoves and coppers in back kitchen or scullery,
wash-house and bake-house, valued at £ . Iron-
ing stove in laundry, valued at £ . Amott's
stoves in ... . and harness-room, valued at
£ • Qy. coppers and stoves in boiling-houses,
brew-houses, &c., &c.

[Grates with fire lump backs and sides, warm-
air chambers at back with inlets into the room
either in the jambs or top of grate, are now gene-
rally adopted in good houses. Such are Captain
Galton's stoves manufactured by Yates, Haywood
& Co., of Upper Thames Street; Steer & Co.*s
patent grate ; and the ** Manchester grate *'
manufactured by Shillito and Shorland, Duke
Street, Westminster, &c.]

[ w^^' Hang, on a proper board, painted and num-
=^°^' bered, .... bells of varying tones, having
springs and pendulums ; the same to communi-
cate, by means of copper wire passing through

{ copper ^^ } *^^^^^^» (concealed in plastering,)

with .... pulls, to be fixed where indicated Ck\s.
plans. The wires to be co\\e(i\.^^m'0aftx^'A>^6sA

304

Ko. 346.
Heaimg.

No. 347.
Lantern top.

No. 348.
Kidges and
Hips.

No. 349.
Dormers.

HINTS TO YOUNG AKCHITECTB.

to be attached with the ntmosi eare to a suf-
ficiency of cranks and coil-springs. The pnlls
to be of the best suitable kinds, with knobs or
lever-pulls, as here described. The pulls in . .
to be of . . . • ; those in • • • • to be, &c., &c.

[Or,

Provide and fix electric bells of approved mana-
factore.

Provide and fix all necessary speaking-tabes,
with ivory or other month-pieces.]

[Heating. — Here provide the mode of heating
by hot air, water, &c., whether high pressure or
not, and specify engineer*s name or apparatus ;
also provide for boiler, furnace, and all necessary
fittings.

State number of coil boxes or chambers.

Or,

Specify the required kind of stove, " Gumey*s"
or other gill stove, flues, &c.] (See page 151.)

No. 350.
Ditto.

Plumbebs' Wobk.

Cover the roof over lantern with
6-lb. lead, to fold round and under
the edge moulding on top of fascia.

Cover the ridges and hips of roof or roofs
with I J;}J; lead } { 2S *^ } i^c^es wide, se-

curely fastened with lead-headed nails (and metal
cramps if necessary), and closely dressed round
ridge-roll and on to the slates.

Cover the (ridges and hips — or the tops) of
dormer doors and windows with 6-lb. lead. (If
ridges f say **as to roof," — if topsy say ** as top
of lantern," — or, if no lantern, describe the work
similarly.)

Qy. Cover the sides of dormer doors and win*
dows vriith 5-lb. lead,.

PLUMBERS WOBK.

305

No. 361.
Valleys.

No. 352.
Chimney
gutters.

No. 353.
Parapet
gutters.

No. 354.
Flats.

No. 355.

No. 356.
FlashiDgs.

No. 857.
Gutter
cornices.

Lay the valley gutters with 7-lb. lead, IG
inches wide, properly dressed under slates.

Lay guttering at back of (and, in superior

work, at sides of) chimney-stacks, of < 'y,'

milled lead, to turn up against the stacks, and
properly dressed under slates.

Lay the parapet gutters with j tj]^^^' \ ^^^^^

lead, to tarn up < 6 > inches np the parapets, and

( 5 J

to reach at least as high

under slates. The gutter

to have a medium width

of inches, and 2-inch drips every feet, with

a fall of not less than 2 inches in 10 feet.

Lay the flats with | Z'' \ lead, with all re-
quired roll-joints, to turn up against the walls, sill
of lantern, &c., and (where there is no vertical
boundary) dressed round and under the edge
moulding of eaves fascia. The lead to have a fdl
of 2 inches in 10 feet, and drips if required.
[Rolls should not exceed 27 inches apart.]

Roofs covered with lead, described, as flats.
(See Zinc Worker.)

Flashings of 4 or 5 lb. milled lead to be applied
wherever the lead coverings of gutters, flats, or
roofs turn up against vertical masonry or wood-
work. Said flashings to be chased into walls at
least 8 inches, and be dressed down over the lead
turn-ups at least 4 inches. It is often advisable
to carry the flashing quite through the parapet.

Line the gutters in eaves-wood cornices with
5-lb. lead (see Joiner) to fold over and under the
front moulding, and turn u^ uivdax ^^a^««. *v?^^

304 HINTS TO YOUNG ABGHITECTS. j

to bo attached with the vtir ~' jig. Pieces
ficicncy of cranks and coD carry vraiei

to be of the best snitabl': j. i^eads.

lover-pulls, as here desr galvanised iron,

to be of . . . . ; the Ji overflow-pipes

One cubic foot of •
Provide and fix "ons of water; a ^

facturo. nifl for supply of the

Provide ar
withivoiyr

jTom that for domestic

Or,

No. 346. [H^r ..stems with lead, the bottoms of
Uoatmg. by hot .^^ ^^ the sides of 5-lb. miUed ditto ;
^,°*' ' ^e the troughs conducting through the
™*^ with 6.1b. lead, or zmo.

y^^pecify charcoal or other cistern filter, as
Mds!b or Bansome's filter.]

Pescribe the pipes that may be necessary to
^f conduct water into the cisterns from the town or
J^^ Clompany 's supply , the outer reservoir, or the force
jr pump in ground-floor: also the waste-pipe re-
quired to prevent overflow, the dimensions there-
of, the place into which it is to discharge, and any
I trap that may be required to prevent the ascent of

effluvia from the drains below.

[Specify Tye and Andrew's or other approved
sink traps to all sinks, &c.]

jfo. 360. Describe any pipes required to conduct water

WPP^gj^^ to the pans of water-closets, or to any other

fi^ ' parts of the building, as washing-places, baths,

butlers* pantries, or housemaids' closets ; stating

such as are to have brass cocks, &c.

No. 361. Provide and fix approved and complete valvo
w to' 1 t lioppcr, or pan apparatus to water-closet, with
a -c 080 . ^jj j.Q^Qij.Q^ brass pulls, levers, wires, cranks,
copper ball-cocks, plugs, &c. Also soil-pipo,
with ventilating outlet or pipe with trap to pre-
vent the ascent of effluvia from the cesspit or
drain. [Soil-pipes should be drawn or cast, not
^ soldered. Iron ox cacWieii'^wt^ \|\^^'s^ ^x<^ boat."!

PIPES AND PUMP. 307

Specify Jenning's earthenware valve closet in
one piece, or Underhay's patent regulating,
Tyler & Co*s. or Lambert's apparatus!]

"dne the washing trough in butler*fl pantry, or

Nther into which a pipe conducts from the

in roof; also bath (if of wood), &c., &c.,

1|. lead of I g ^' I lbs. to the foot : each

, &c., &c., to have a brass plug and chain,
. pipe to conduct therefrom into drains.
VVhere water is brought down to supply jugs,
pitchers, or pails, a shallow trough should be
supplied to catch the droppings, with trapped
pipe therefrom into drains or some movable
vessel beneath.

Provide and fix a (draw and) force-pump in

the where shown on plau, with -inch

pipe thereto from the (well, tank, or reservoir),
and pipe therefrom into the cistern in roof.

Describe any sheet lead that may be required
in the joints of masonry, or for the covering of
any parts thereof ; also any necessary to cover
the joinery, as the tops of wood cornices, para-
pets, &c. All nails used in Plumbers' work to
be of copper. Outhouses and inferior buildings
will require lead- work, as flashings, &c., occa-
sionally, though there may be no lead on their
ridges, hips, &c. Bell and clock turrets will bo
covered with lead in any circumstances.

[Specify all lavatories, urinals, &o., of approved
manufacture, Mansergh's or other traps for waste-
pipes, &c. ; charcoal or other ventilators. Pro-
vide Tyler and Sons' or other approved copper or
galvanised tin bath, with copper pipes and l^-in.
framing panelled with Honduras Mahogany top.]

The lead- work to be laid and dressed down in
the most careful manner, with as little soldering
as may be, and with every regard for ita eiL^wi-
Bion and contraction.

308 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

[Provide and fix complete all approved appli-
ances.]

The work to be left by the Contractor perfect
and complete, without any charge for the labour,
solder, nails, holdfasts, joints, &c., which may
be necessary to the efficient completion of the
works herein generally described and partially
particularized.

Glaziebs' Wobe.

Ko. 866. Glaze the windows of the ... . with best
patent plate glass (or the upper sashes thereof
with sheet glass and the lower with plate) ; the
windows of the ... . with sheet glass (or the
lower sashes thereof with flatted and the upper
with best crown glass) ; the windows of the . . .
with best crown glass ; the windows of the . . •
with glass of second quality ; the windows of
.... with third glass : the whole to be perfect
in its kind, well puttied, and Uft perfect at the
end of the works.

[Specify kind of plate glass, its thickness;
also state quality or No. of sheet and crown
glass. For horticultural buildings, Bendle'8
glazing is preferable to the common kind.]

Painters' Work.

No. 367. Paint the whole of the outside wood and iron

work I ^^^^ I times in oil to finish a warm

stone colour, and the inside do. do. (which it is

usual to paint) i ^Iq^ } *^^®s in oil to finish a

.... colour.

[Paint an approved light olive, grey, or other
tint, the stucco walls (if any).]

Paint also, in like manner (here state the
extra painting, as) the treads and risers of stairs
of . . . . up to the stair-carpet rings : the floors,
from the skirling to the carpet line ; continuing
to particularise all such sashes, frames, shutters,
soffits, backs, elbows, doors, jamb and soffit lin-
ings, frames, skirtingja) panelled inclosures and

ZINC WORKER. 309

linings, as are to be finished with any particular
colonr, or to be grained in imitation of some
fancy wood and twice varnished. Finally,
specify what wnpainted joinery (as real wainscot,
&c.) is to be twice varnished or polished.

[Specify the " silicate," "petrifying,'* "oxide,"
or other approved pamt for iron and external
work,]

[Or,

No. 368. Stain of an improved shade and twice varnish

liner. with the best copal all interior wood-work.

[Sometimes simply varnishing is preferred, in
this case the panels and framework should be of
picked deal or pitch pine of different shades.]

ZiNo Worker.

No. 369 [Here specify any flats, roof coverings, or

other work to be executed in zinc. State kind
of zinc, as that of the " Yieille Montague Zinc
Company," and the No. of gauge or thickness
to be used ; the kind of joint ; ornamental hipping
or cresting. No. 15, 24-oz. zinc should be used
for flats ; No. 18, 20-oz. for gutters. No. 14
gauge is better for good work.]

[Note, — ^In laying zinc particular care must be
exercised in giving room for free expansion and
contraction of metal, by adopting a roll over
which the sheets may lap joint. No solder or
naUs should be used to connect the sheets ;
galvanised iron wall hooks to secure the flash-
ings.]

[Note. — For buildings within the jurisdiction
of the " Metropolitan Building Act " the young
Architect must consult the rules, schedules, &c.]

310 HIBTS TO TOUHG ABCHITBCIS.

OONDinONS OP OONTEACr.

We append here an outline fonn for General Oon-
ditions for Building Contracts

Ho. L '^^ works are to be ezeenied m the best and

most workmanlike maimer^ and in accordance
with the tme and reasonable intent of the plans,
drawings, and specifications taken together, i»diieh
are to be signed by the architect and contractor,
and in case of any discrepancy between the
drawings and spedfieations the architect is to
decide which is to be followed.

Ho. 2. No extra work is to be executed except by the

express order of the architect in writing, and any
variation made in carrying out the works is not
to vitiate the contract, but all additions, omissions,
or variations made in carrying out the works for
which a price may not have been agreed upon,
are to be measur^ and valaed and certified for by
the architect, and added to or dedacted from the
amount of contract as the case maybe, according
to a schedule of prices or at fidr measure and value.

Ko. 3. Should any of the works be in the opinion of

the architect executed with improper materials
or workmansliip, the contractor is when required
by the architect forthwith to pull down and re-
execute the same, and to substitute proper mate-
rials and workmanship, and in case of default of
the contractor within a reasonable time, the
architect is to have full power to employ other
persons to re-execute the work, and the cost
thereof is to be borne by the contractor.

No. 4. Any defects or other faults which may appear

within. . • months from,the completion of the build-
ing are, upon the direction of Uie architect, to be

CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT. 811

amended and made good by the contractor at his
own cost; and in case of default, any cost incurred
by the employer in so making good may be re-
covered by the employer from the contractor, the
amount thereof in case of dispute to be settled as
provided hereafter.

Ko. 5, The contractor is to insure the building against

loss or damage by fire in an office to be approved,
and the building is to be under the contractor's
charge, who shall be responsible for, and make
good, all damages occasioned by fire or otherwise,
over which the contractor shall have control.

No. 6. The architect is to have at all times access to

the works, which are to be under his own con-
trol, and he may require the contractor to dismiss
any workman or workmen whom he may think
incompetent or improper to be employed.

No. 7. The contractor to complete the whole of the

works (excepting painting or papering, or other
work, as the architect shall decide) within ....
calendar months after the commencement, unless
the works be delayed by reason of inclement
weather, or causes not under control. In cases of
default the contractor is to pay or allow the pro-
prietor as by way of liquidated damages the sum
of £ ... . per week for every week during which
the works shall remain incomplete.

No. 8. If the contractor shall become bankrupt, or

make any arrangement for the benefit of his
creditors, or shall delay the performance of his
part of contract from whatever cause, the pro-
prietor or his architect may give to the contractor
or his assignee notice requiring the works to be
proceeded with: and in default it shall be lawful for
the proprietor or his architect to enter upon and
take possession of the works, and to employ any
other person or persons to carry on and complete
the same. The costs and charges incurred in the
said works are to be paid to the T^io^i\fc\»QtVi*^^

312 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

contractor, or may be set off against money dne
or to become due to the contractor.

No. 9. All work and materials intended to form part

of the btiilding are to be considered the property
of the proprietor, and are not to be removed
without consent of the architect.

No. 10. Any question or difference that may arise

between the proprietor or architect and the con-
tractor as to any additions made, or as to the
meaning of the signed drawings and specification
or any other matter or thing arising out of this
contract, except as hereinbefore described, is to be
referred to the arbitration and final decision of
the architect, or in the event of his death and
unwillingness to act, then of ... . architect, or
a Fellow of the Institute of British Architects, to

be appointed on the request of either pai-ty.
No. 11.

(Here insert
clause as to
payments to bo
made on cer-
tificate of
architect.
Payments are
usually made
at the rate of
80 per cent,
upon the value
01 works exe-
cuted and
materials
deliyered.)

niHTS 10 rOTJKG ABGHITE(rr9.

MISCELLANEOUS HINTS AND CAUTIONS.

lion of new In attaching any new work to a buSdiag,

1 old work, eveiy allowance mnat be
made for the sinking of the
footings nnder preBsnre, and
foi the setttemont of the
masonry itself. Thus, while
it is necessary that a vertical
groove, or indent, be made
in the old work, to reeeivo a
corresponding piece of the
new, it is still more essential
that a freedom for the down-
ward motion of the latter
shonid he secured : otberwiso, if it be tightly
toothed and bonded into the old work, the result
illnstrated in the annexed sketch may bo antici-
pated.

ion of The same cantion required in the latter ease

lapfacins must be here equally obBerved. The hacking
h^bnck or (composed of small material and mnch mortar)
king. ^i" settle more than tho/iTM;

and the latter will cosse

quently bulge This is easily

remedied by compntmg, and

allowing for, the difference of

Bettlement , and by a duo

regard to the occasional bond

mg of the ashlar, so as to

make the wall o»e snbstance,

instead of tiLo differently con

ditioned The preceding

sketch illustiates the consequence of weight

pressing upon unbonded ashlar aud on ^iel<Lk%

rubble.

314

DRAINAGE.

loverlod
arches.

[In thick walls concrete of Portland cement
forms the hest filling in bond, or ihrongh courses
being introduced at intervals.]

Inverted arches must be used cautiously. Here
is an instance, in
which the points a
and A were pre-
vented by the in-
verted arch from
sinking with the
points B B, which
latter sunk the
more from the pres-
sure of the arch o
in the direction of
the dotted lines. It is not uncommon for the
young Architect to affect precautionary science^
without a due consideration of the peculiar cir-
cumstances of his case.

pEnvertcd arches should only be employed
under a series of openings to equalise pressure
of piers. Concrete foundations are best in other
cases.]

Drainage, &c. Always endeavour, if possible, to get your
water-closet cesspit outside the building, so that
it may be approached for cleansing vdtbout dis-
turbing the interior. Be careful in the efficient
use of dip-draps to prevent the ascent of rats
from the outer sewer into the drains which are
under the floors of the house. Bats are destruc-
tive in their operations, and if they die in the
drain, prove, for a length of time, an unbearable
nuisance. Drains may serve every purpose of
carrying off soil and water; but the slightest
opening in their upper part will allow the escape
of cflluvia into the space under the ground floor-
ing, and thence into the rooms, unless that space
be thoroughly ventilated with grated openings,
allowing a thorough draught, — or, at least, a free
ingress of fresh air and equal egress of foul. In
the applicatioxx oi (covered dry areas round the

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. 316

excavated basements of bnildings, on no account
omit their entire ventilation. If this be not at-
tended to, the main walling, which they are in-
tended to preserve from damp, may remain even
more continually moist than if in immediate con-
nection with the natural ground. Moisture fre-
quently rises up the walling from below its
foundation, and, exuding from the face of the
masonry, remains confined, unless it evaporate
and escape. Without means to this end, a
covered area will be merely a receptacle for
damp, and may keep the masonry continually
wet, even when the ground outside is perfectly
dry. Be especially cautious that the water from
the rain-pipes of the roofs and flats be not con-
ducted by them into the foundations.

[No drains should be placed under floors, and
every trap should also be a ventilator.

Sewers and drains should have increased fall
at their junctions and at all curves ; the latter
should be in the direction of the flow.]

>pcnisg8. It will save much subsequent trouble and dis-
turbance of masonry, to be assured as to the
size and character of the stoves, grates, ranges,
&c., which the proprietor will employ. In the
kitchen and cooking-rooms, especially, precau-
tionary care should be taken in suiting the open-
ings to the intended apparatus. Do not forget to
be prepared for a smoke-jack, &c.

eror In constructing these, do not omit the holes,

f walls. &c., necessary for under-floor ventilation.

)g. Be careful that the bottom, on which fine pav-

ing is laid, be dry and free from staining material.
Common lime mortar is often injurious to pave-
ments. Portland paving is especially liable to be
disfigured by it.

[Wooden blocks bumetised, about 9" x 4^'',
and laid on concrete, make a good floor ; hollow
tiles or pots may be also U8ed.\

p 2

316

Wronght
Btone-work.

dlatingf.

STONE- WORK, ETC.

In patting wrought stone-work together, iron
is to be avoided as the certain cause of its subse-
quent destruction.

[Galvanised iron may be used, but not in great
mass or long lengths. Space at ends should be
allowed for free expansion.]

The stone cornices, architraves, and dressings
of many a noble mansion have been brought into
premature ruin by the contraction and expansion
of iron under the effects of cold and heat. Bat
there are careless Contractors who will allow
their Corinthian capitals and fluted ^afts to be
ruined, even before the entablature surmounts
them ; and the young Architect will not, there-
fore, omit to insert a clause in his Specification
(and to be peremptory in its enforcement), that
all cut stone-work be securely preserved, during
the progress of the building, with wood casing.
It is surprising how grossly indifferent each
class of artificers is to the work of the others.
It is still more surprising to observe, how fre-
quently they seem indifferent to the preservation
of their own.

Get rid of the Masons and Plasterers, — aye,
and, as much as possible, of the Plumbers,—
before your Slaters begin. The injury done to
slating by the afterwork of chimney^tops, &c., is
much to be dreaded. The cementitious << stop-
ping ** to a roof will not be efficiently done with-
out close supervision : the ridge, hip, and valley
courses will not be properly formed of large cut •
slates, — nor will every slate have its two nails,
unless the Architect see to it.

Plastering.

Clear may be your Specification in forbidding
salt sand, but, if your work be carried on in the
vicinity of any estuary, the chances are (unless
you be deemed cruelly strict) that the suiface of
your internal walls will vary with the weather,
from damp to dry, like a sea-weed, and throw
out salt in such abundance that you may sweep
off a cellar {u\\.

HISTS TO YOUHG ABCHITECTS. 317

[Clean road drift or coarse pit sand shonld only
1m naed ; fine gravel may be mixed.]

iBmi, joists. It IB the office of walls to cony beams, &e. ;
d oth«c and that of beams to stay tlte w^s from falling
nt^bopd, °°'^'"'^3 °^ inwards: bnt it is the duty of Archi-
TtitioDB. '^"^^^ *° ^^^ '^^ *^*> wood-work which supplants
masonry does not weaken the latter; i.e. that
the ends of timbers inserted into walls may not,
by compression, or decay, leave the superincum-
bent masoDry to loosen downwards. Thus, the
" beam a, though . j , --j _ m-, '

entering only a " TP^ S ^ ^^.j r:''^???"

portion of tho illgfKlfltl ~

wall, presses up- t^^^^^I
on the thorough -
stone e, which
throws the weight upon the whole wall, and has,
by means of an iron plate/, a hold to secure its
perpendicularity. The cover-stone' o presses on
the surface of the timber to confirm its security :
but should the timber rot, the cover-stone will
not sink, because sustained by the side-stonea
d d. lo prevent rot, the backiog and side-stones
are left free of the timber, so that air -[- ■■ | -
may traverse round it. The habit of _|M-Tr
placing the ends of beams oa a tem- ' mi^
plate, aa a, is bad. The only juatifi- l^^^^S
cation of the employment of wood, so ^-

built into the walls, is when it forms a continuous
plate, that it may act as a bond to preserve tho
perfect horizontal level of joists, which, how-
ever, should extend a little beyond the plate, so

ns to hare a bearing also on the solid

[A good plan is to form brick or stone corbel-
ling to receive the pinto and joists, 1

318 BEAMS AND LINTEIJS.

Beams Joists, Careful inspection will then so manage the
apd o^er constraction of the wall in this part, as to leave
LintS bond ^^ ^^^ ^^^® weakened by the air hollows required
partitions. ' ^^^ ^® P^^ ^^^ joists ; unless, indeed, it be
very thin, — as only one brick, for instance,—
when no law of common sense can justify tho
use of continuous bond. Where i iiM

joists uninterruptedly cross a r- I II J-'- — .
thin wall, which is to support | ||[ [

another story of masonry, let
there only be one plate, thin.

and on its edge, in the centre of i ||| i

the wall, so that at least a brick
on edge may be placed on each
side of it, to fill up the intervals ^s
between the joists, and give ^^
solid support to the superin-
cumbent masonry. On no ac-
count let the upper part of the
wall be separated from the lower by a mere layer
of perishable wood, or supported by a range of
joists on their edge. It has often occurred to us
that iron hooping should be more used than it is
as the internal bonding of walls. At the same
time, it must be remembered, that bond timber-
ing is necessary, at intervals, to receive the nails
of the battening. When, however, the wall is
thin, it may be imperative to avoid its use,
employing old oak bats for that purpose.

[We think it best in the case of a thin wall to
have brickwork corbelled out on both faces to
receive ends of joists — joists running through
walls conduct sound, also fire, &c.]

In short, let it be the care of the young ArcLI-
tect, so to contrive the union of his masonry and
carpentry, as that the entire removal of the latter
may leave the former secure in its own strength.
In the use of lintels especially, ho should be cau-
tiousv They are useful as bonds to unite tho tops
of piers, and as means for the fixing of the
joinery ; but they ought never to be trusted to as
a lasting support of masonry, — that support being
always really afforded by the relieving segment

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS.

319

Yearns, jouls, arch above the lintel. We are aware, that a
nd other bressummer may be termed a large lintel ; and
'™tek V d *^^*' here, at least, the support of the masonry
«rtitioiis." ' ^^ iTxHy intended. The use of the bressummer,
in shop-front openings, is an evil necessity to
which we must often submit ; and all that an Ar-
chitect can do, is to make the best of a bad job, by
wrought-iron trussing, which will at least give
adequate strength, though it may not insure per-
manent durability. If time spare it, fire may
destroy it ; and the latter evil is not to be met
even by iron, which, if wrought, will bend, — ^if
cast, will crack, with heat. Let the arch, then,
or some modification of it, be always used — ^if
possible.

[A self-tied arch of brick, tied by an iron flitch
plate in centre, is recommended, or tie rods and
cast-iron skewbacks may be used.]

Partitions of wood should not be left to the
sagacity of the Carpenter. Under all circum-
stances where they have to support themselves
over voids, or to bear, or participate in the bear-
ing of, a pressure from above, they should be
considered by the Architect in his Specification,
and carefully studied in making the working
drawings. It is not enough, merely to say, that
<< they are to be trussed so as to prevent any
injury to ceilings by their own pressure, or that
of the roof above them ; ** — ^marginal sketches
should be made, showing the disposition of the
skeleton framing, with whatever iron-work is
necessary to its security.
See, for instance, what a
Carpenter may do, unless
well directed: a roof c,
bearing partly on the par-
tition A, when it should have
borne only on the walls ;
and, instead of distressing
the partition, should have
rather held it suspended ;
the partition a bearing down
with its own weight, and that of the roof, on the

320

FLOORS.

Beams, joidU, floor B, instead of being so truss-framed in ita

and other length as to leave the floor nnconscioos of ita

partitions. ' young Architect as to the manner of doing these

things ; and only call on him not to suppose they

are so obvious as to be done without his guidance.

[All partitions should be trussed by braces

springing from the supports, iron king-bolts being

used to prevent centre portion sagging.]

In the framing of roofs, give a maximum strength
to the purlins :
the undulating
surface of a
weakly purlined
roof will soon
proclaim its de-
fect in this par-
ticular. The position of the principals should
not be observable from without.

[All principals should be self-sustaining and
rest on walls.]

Floors ;
simple and
framed, &c.

For permanent and uniform strength, there is
no floor so good as one composed of simple joists,
stifi'ened by cross bonding : but, in very large
rooms, there is more economy in the compound
floor of binders and joists, or of joists, binders,
and girders. There may be particular reasons
for girders, &c, ; as, when the weight of the floor
has to be thrown upon piers, and not on a con-
tinuous wall of uniform strength : but the usual
motive to the use of the compound floor, in
rooms which exceed 18 or 20 feet in width, is a
legitimate economy of materials. It is only
necessary to caution the young practitioner on
the necessity of considering, that girders have to
perform the duty of cross walls ; that they should
be trussed to prevent their ** sagging," even with
their own weight; that their scantling should
allow for the weakening efiect of the cuttings
made into their substance to receive the timbers
they support ; that their trusses should be wholly
of iron (and not partially of oak, for the Author

HINTS TO YOUNG ABCHITECrS.

321

!loors;
imple &
ramed, &c.

toofd.

dealings.

has seen the bad effects of the shrinkage of oak
struts) ; and, especially, that the end of each
girder, instead of being notched on perishable
templates of wood, and close surrounded with
mortar and masonry, should be housed in a cavity
(as we have already described) with an iron
holding plate; or in-
serted into a cast-iron
boxing, notched into
a thorough-stone,
leaving a space (how-
over small) for air to
circulate about it, and
prevent rot. The fail-
ure of a girder involves the failure of all the rest
of the floor ; and, though all timbers inserted in
masonry should have a more careful regard to
their preservation from decay than it is usual to
bestow, it will be readily admitted, that too much
care cannot be given to those leading bearing
timbers, without the permanent duration of
which the durability of the large remainder is of
no avail.

[Boiled iron joists with cross joists or hollow
rebated tiles or brick arches are best for large
floors. (See Fireproof Construction.)]

The same remarks, applying to the extremities
of girders, apply also to tie-beams.

To procure a good ceiling in sin^Io joist floors,
it is necessary there should be ceiling joists cross-
ing below the others : and it is a question whether
the ceiling joists, under double-framed floors,
instead of being chase-mortised into the binders,
should not be in unbroken lengths nailed under
the binders. Where the ceiling joists (as under
roofs) are likely to be trodden upon, they must
be well secured.

Sound
oarding.

Always consider whether the occupants of any
particular room will be annoyed by the noises of
the rooms below or above. Sound boarding and

322

COLUMNS AND BEAMS.

pngging considerably increase the weight of the
floor, the scantling of whose timbers should there-
fore be thought upon. Water-closet partitions
should be well pugged.

[Pugged floors with mortar and hay should
always be adopted.]

Mice in par-
titions and
Bkirtings.

The space behind the skirtings is oflen
thoroughfare for mice, which also con-
trive to travel from floor to floor in the
hollows of the quarter-partitions, and
become in several ways a great nui-
sance. Plaster or wood stopping is
not always so efficacious as the use of
broken glass in those secret passages
which they are prone to frequent.

a !

CTT

Coverings to
gutters,
cisterns, &c.

The liability of gutters and cisterns to become
choked with snow, or infested with leaves, &c.,
renders it advisable to protect them with a
boarded covering, which may preserve the under
current of water from receiving what may speedily
produce a chokage or overflow.

[It is a good plan to have two cisterns, one for
drinking purposes, and the other for' flushing
drains. Cisterns should be of slate or earthen'
ware glazed, or of galvanised iron.]

Iron columns, On this most important subject we say but
beams, &c. little, that we may signify the more. Here, the
young Architect should not move a step wiihout
carefully consulting the experienced knowledge
of the Engineer. Tredgold's ** Practical Essay
on the Strength of Cast Iron,** Hodgkinson*s and
Fairbaim's works, should be well studied when-
ever necessity compels the support of heavy and
loaded superstructures by iron colunms and
beams. A careful computation of the weight of
the mere building, added to that of its possible
burthen, with allowance for theoretical fallacy,
and a due estimate of the increased strength of
the hollow pillar, as compared with a solid one
having the same amount of metal, must be made,

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. 323

[ion columns, examined, and re-examined, before the Speoifica-
ie ims, &c. tion be issued.

[Under the bearing parts of all columns, sheei
lead or a packing of iron and Portland cemeni
grouting should be laid.]

GENEEAL INDEX.

^BUTMENTS, stabiKty of, 114,
121 ; thicknesB of, 122.

Additions and alterations, 94.

JEsthetic elements, 179, 189.

Agreements, drawing up, 95 ;
form of, 96.

Air, heated, 155; circulation of,
159 ; quantity necessary to re-
spiration, 161.

Alison on Beauty, 190, 193.

Angle, limiting, of resistance, 113 ;
of repose, 116, 117 ; of rupture,
122.

Angular perspective, 63.

Apparent and real size, 75.

Arch, equilibrium of, 118 ; Gwilt
on, 29; angle of rupture in,
122; inverted, 300; theory of
the, 118; line of pressure in,
120; arched ribs, 130 (see
Specification, No. 56 et teq,).

Architects, duties of, 79 ; educa-
tion of young, 32 ; inclination
of those intended for, 2 ; posi-
tion of, 97; responsibility of,
31.

Architecture, its claims as an
art, 32 ; abstract principles of,
180 ; principles of design in,
179 ; laws of design in, 181 ;
mechanical principles of, 181 ;
taste in, 173 ; style in, 177*

Architectural studies, 37 ; abroad,
41 ; tourists, 49.

Architrave (see Specification, No.
75, &c.).

Archivolte (see Specification, No.
80, &c.).

Art, affectation in, 177 ; classifi-
cation of, 190; expression in,
190; knowledge of, 45, 51;
qualities necessary to, 191.

Articleship, hints to pupils during,
37.

Ashlar, 227 (see Specification,
No. 94).

Asphalte for damp proof course,
216 ; for paving, 219 (see Speci-
fication).

Axis, neutral, 137*

"gAIN on Beauty in Art, 191.
Balance and stability of struc-
tures, 110.

Barge board (see Specification,
No. 226, &c.).

Baths (see Specification, Nos.
138, 362).

Beams, strength of, 123, 142;
position of, 125; stiffness of,
140; timber and iron, 136;
cast iron, 145; wrought iron,
146; rolled iron, 147-; flitch,
143.

326

GENEBAL INDEX.

Beauty, definition and hypotheses
of, 190; Bain on, 191; of
form, 190.

Bond (see Specification, No. 12) ;
hoop iron, 34, 185.

Brick and stone arches, 118;
brickwork, 216; paving, 219
(see Specification, bricknog-
ging. No. 24).

Bressummers, 143 (see Specifica-
tion, No. 187).

Building committees, 93 ; sanitary
conditions o^ 171; builder's
work, measurement of, 29.

Buttresses, 112 (see Specification,
No. 104).

QARPENTRY, 133 (see Specifi-
cation).
Casements, 77 (see Specification,

No. 281 et seq.).
Cast iron, 145 ; beams, 145 ;

columns, 138; design in, 187;

cast metal- work, &c., 189.
Cast shadows, 21.
Ceilings, 307 (see Specification,

No. 163, &c.).
Cement, 197 ; selenitic, 198 ;

cement work (see Specification).
Centre of gravity, 108 ; of pres-
sure, 116.
Ceramic materials, 188.
Chimneys, 68 (see Specification).
Cistern, 201 ; connection with

soil pipe to be avoided, 171 ;

waste pipes from, 71 ; covered,

172.
Classic architecture, 174 ; stone-
work (see Specification, No.

64, &c.).
Colour, 195.
Columns, appearanco of, 24 ; stone

and brick, 138 ; cast iron, 139 ;

hollow, 139 ; resistance of, 138 ;

steel; 148.

Combination of materials, 199.
Composition, connection in, 69.
Concrete walls, 200 ; foundations,

215 (see Speciiication) ; value o(

as fire-resisting, 200.
Construction, principles o( 99,

197.
Contracts, drawing up, 95, 310.
Contrast, 192.
Cornices, value of, 76 ; stone (see

Specification, No. 89, &c.).
Cramps, 198 (see Specification,

Nos. 12, 126).
Crushing strength of columns,

139.
Curve, circular, 13 ; to draw, 14 ;

curvilinear forms, 192, 193.

J) AMP-PROOP course (see Spe-
cification, No. 13).

Dams, pressure of water against,
118.

Details, 81.

Dining-room, 88.

Domes, stability of, 123.

Doors, double, 157; sliding (see
Specification, No. 251).

Doorways, position of, 84.

Drains, 72 ; main brick (see Spe-
cification, No. 44) ; rubble (No.
43) ; stoneware, 38.

Drawing, 4; methods of, 9; of
forms, 13.

Dressings (see Specification, No.
75, &o.).

■pJAJtTH, angle of repose, 117;

earthwork (No. 3, &c.).
Eaves (see Specification, Nos.

207, 225).
Egg-shaped sewers (see Specifica*

tion, No. 44).
Elasticity, modulus of, 137.
EngHsh Gothic, 46, 176.
Entasis of columns, &c., 193.

GENETIAL INDEX.

327

Expansion ot materials, 199.
Expression in arc5hitecture, 194.

JTREPLACES, position of, 84 ;
open, 151.

Fittingp, stable (see Specification,
Nos. 140, 309, 340.)

Flashings (see Specification, No.
356).

Flats (see Specification, Nos. 197,
354).

Floors, 142; weights of, 135,
fireproof, 306 (see Specification,
Nos. 192, 194).

Forces, equilibrium of, 99; mo-
ments of, 104.

Forms, delineation of, 12 ; boanty
of, 190.

France, studies in, 52; French
language, 31; French case-
ments. No. 285.

Frieze (see Specification, No. 119).

riABLES (see Specification, No.

^ 109).

Generalisation of facts necessary,

34.
Geometry, useful study of, 2;

works on, 3.
Girders, cast iron, 145 ; wrought

iron, 146 ; box, 147 ; lattice, 147.
Gothic compared with Greek,

183; English, 176; continental,

176 ; Italian, 46, 151, 178 ; roof

(see Specification, No. 203).
Gradation, 192.
Gravity, centre of, 108 ; of various

figures, 109.
Greek, 174 ; static element in,

181 ; character of, 183.
Gutter cornice (see Specification,

No. 223).

JJARMONY, 191; harmonic
proportions, 191.

Hearths (see Specification, No.
129).

Heating, 151 ; conservation of
heat, 156 (see Specification,
No. 346).

Height, apparent,- obtained, 194.

Hints on perspective, 21 ; to
tourists, 49; on form delinea-
tion, 12; miscellaneous, 299.

Hogarth's principles of beauty,
190.

Hollow columns, 139 ; ditto walls,
156, 198 (see Specification, No.
12).

Hoop iron, 200 (see Specification,
No. 34).

Hydraulic lime, 197.

p^ERTIA, moment of, 138.
Inverted arches, 300 (see Spe-
cification, No. 16).

Iron, cast, 145 ; cast beams, 145 ;
ditto colunms, 139; construc-
tion, 144; wrought, 146 (see
Specification, No. 322) ; cover-
ings, 136 ; galvanized, 302 (see
Specification, '' Ironwork '*) ;
fittings of stables (No. 340) ;
expansion of, 199; iron and
metal work, 283 ; gutters (No.
327).

Isometric projection, 25. -

Italian studies, 31, 49 ; Gothic,
46, 178.

JOINERY (see Specification).
Joints in carpentry, 133 (see

Specification).
Joists, depth of, 142 ; iron, rolled,

147 (see Specification, Nos.

190, 209, 322).
Junction of house and offices, 67 ;

ventilating, 165 ; drain, 72 (seo

Specification).

328

GENERAL INDEX.

LATIN, 30.

Lattice girders, 147.
Leadwork (see Spedfioation).
LeYer, principle of the, 106.
light, 78 ; light and shadows, 16. I
Limo, 197 (see Specification).
Limiting angle of resistance, 113.
Loads on floors and roofiB, 136.
Lodges, 92.

]y£AGNITUDE, centre o^ 108.
Masonry (see Specification).

Materials, their functions, 184;
strength of, 136.

Mathematical studies, 2.

Measurement of huilder's work,
29.

Mechanical principles, 99.
Do. of architectural design, 181.

Metal-work, 189.

Methods of study, 11 ; drawing, 9.

Modes of failure of walls, 113.

Modulus of elasticity, 137.

Moments of forces, 104 ; of in-
ertia, 138.

Mortar, 197.

XTATURAL inclinations, 1.
Natural slopes, 117.

QCULAE correction, 193; im-
pressions, 74.
Optical correction, 193.
Ornament, proper use of, 82.
Oval sewer, method of describing,
211 (see Specification).

pAINTINO (see Specification).

Parallelogram of forces, 99.

Parapets (see Specification, Nos.

90, 100).
Parian cement (see Specification).
Parthenon, its proportions, 174;

static principle in, 184.
Partitions, 305 (see Specification).
Fapier-macho, design in.

Paving (see Spedfication, Nos.
25, 131, &c.).

Pediment (see Spedfioation, No.
108).

Perspective, eye, 14; projection,
16; hints on, 21; isometric,
25.

Pillars, strength of, 139.

Pipes, drain, 201; supply, 201
(see Specification, No. 38, &c.).

Planning, hints on, 68 ; reference
of, to elevation, 60.

Plastering, 302.

Plastic substances, 188.

Plate girders.

Plinth (see Specification, Nos.
87, 97).

Plugs (see Specification, 126).

Plumbing, 71 (see Specification).

Pointed arch, 121 ; domes, 123.

Polygons, to draw, 13.

Portico (see Specification, Nos. I
111,112).

Portland cement, 198 (see Specifi-
cation).

Precision of habits, 6.

Pressure, centre of, 116; vof
earth, 116; wind, 116; water,
116, 118.

Principles of study, 33 ; of con-
struction, 99 ; mechanical, 181.

Projection, perspective, 16; iso-
metric, 25.

Proportion in design, 191 ; of '

rooms.
Pump (see Specification, No. 363).
Pupils, 7 ; hints during pupilage,

37.
Purlins, scantlings of, 143.

QUANTITIES, 95.
Quarter partitions, No. 188.
Queen truss, 129.
Queen slating (see Specification,
\ "So. \64V

GENERAL INDEX.

329

Quoins (see Specification, No. 92).

J^AFTERS, 143 (see Specifi-
ation, No. 199, &c.).

Resistance, limiting angle of, 1 13 ;
to compression, 138 ; to cross-
strains, 140 ; line of, 115.

Responsibility, 31.

Retaining walls, 116.

Reveals (No. 65).

Rolled iron joists, 147.

Roman architecture, 47, 49, 174.

Roofs, trusses, 129 ; loads on, 136 ;
coverings of, 136 (see Specift-
cation. No. 199, &c.) ; open,
203, 366, &c. ; Gothic roof.
No. 203 ; coverings, 200.

Rubble masonry (see Specifica-
tion, No. 50, &c.).

Rusticated work (No. 93).

gANITARY construction, 161 ;

conditions, 171.
Sash windows (No. 256, &c.).
Scagliola work (No. 171).
Scantlings of timber, rules for,

141 (see Specification, No. 181

et seq,).
School studies, 1, 7.
Selenitic cement, 198.
Sewerage, 162.
Shadows, 16.

Sinks (see Specification, No. 137).
Sketching, 16 ; advantages of, 61 ;

abroad, 45, 60.
Skylights (No. 217, &c).
Slating (No. 143 et aeq,)
Solids and voids, 66.
Sound boarding (No. 195).
Spire, entasis in, 193.
Stability of structures, 110; of

beams, 123.
Stables, 88 (see Specification,

Nos. 309, 339, &c.).

Stairs (see Spocificationi No.
290, &c.).

Statical design, 181.

Steel, 148.

Steps, 216 (see Specification).

Stiffiiess of beams, 140.

Stone, 198; stonework (No. 61
et seq.).

Strength of materials, 136, 142.

Studies, method of, 11; mathe-
matical, 2 ; principles of study,
3^ ; in France, 62.

Style, arrangement should sug-
gest, 60.

'pASTB, architectural, 173.

Technical studies, 28.
Tension, 138.
Timber, 136, 186.
Tiles (No. 166, &c.) ; encaustic,

(No. 26).
Tourists, hints to, 49.
Tracery, to draw, 13.
Traps, drain, 71, 165.
Travel, 42 ; benefits of, 43 ; time

occupied in, 48 ; hints on, 49.
Triangle of forces, 101 ; centre of

gravity of, 109 ; triangular

plans, 66 ; firame, 127.
Trusses, 126.

UNIFORMITY in design, 192.

■y ALLEYS (see Specification,
No. 351).

Vaults, 112 (see Arch) (see Speci-
fication, No. 28, &c.).

Venetian windows (No. 278).

Ventilation, 157 ; ventilating
traps, 165 (see Specification) ;
under floors (No. 48) ; of water-
closets (No. 219\.

330

GENERAL INDEX.

Y^ALLS, Blability of, 111; re-
taining, 116; hollow, 156
(see Specification)'; sleeper, 23,
&c.

Water-closets, position of, 70;
fittings to, 201 (see Specifica-
tion, Nos. 306, 361) ; ventila-
tion of (see Specification).

Water-pipes (No. 360).

Water-tank, 47.

Well-digging (soe Specification,
No. 8).

Windows, 76 ; proportion of, 78 j

sash (see Specification, No.
266, &c.) ; bay, 276 ; dressings,
79, 83, &c.

Woodwork 187 (see Specification,
under ''Carpenter and Join-
er's " work).

Wrought iron, 145 ; ditto beami,
147 ; plate girders, 147.

2IN0, 136.

Zinc worker (see Specifica
tion)«

THE END.

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Ht^mber^s New Work on Water-Supply.

A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY
of CITIES and TOWNS. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst
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List 0/ Contents: —

I. Hbtorical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply
of Water to Cities and Towns. — II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually asso-
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Flow of Water.— VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply.— VII. Wells.—
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2 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Humbers Modem Engineering. First Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-
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HiTMBSR, Assoc. Inst C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double
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Victoria Station and Roof— L. B.& S. C. Rail, z to 8 Mr. R. Jacomb Hood, C&

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Victoria Station and Roof— L.C.&D.&G.W.

Railways zxtozsA Mr. John Fowler, CE.

Roof q£ Cremome Music Hall ^. x6 Mr. William Hmnber, CI*

Bridge over G. N. Railway 17 Mr. Joseph Cubt^ CE.

Ro(M of Station — ^Dutch Rhenish Railway . . z8 and Z9 Mr. iKuschedi, C a.

Bridge orer the Thames— West London Ex-
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Armour Plates 95 Mr. James Chalmers, CE

Suspension Bridge, Thames a6 to 09 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E.

TheAllenEn^e 30 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E.

Suspension Bridge, Avon 3z to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, CE.

and W. H. Barlow, CS.

Underground Railway 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler, CS.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c.

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Birkenhead Docks Low Water Basin z to z5 Mr. G. F. L3r8ter, CE.

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Digswell Viaduct— Great Northern Railway. Z9 Mr. J. Cuhitt, CE.

Robbery Wood Viaduct— Great N. Railway. 20 Mr. J. Cubitt, CE.

Iron Permanent Way aoa — —

Clydach Viaduct — Merthyr, Tredegar, and

Abergavenny Railway az Mr. Gardner, CE.

Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto aa Mr. Gardner, CE.

College Wood Viaduct — Cornwall Railway . . 23 Mr. Brunei^

Dubhn Winter Palace Roof 34 to a6 Messrs. Ordish&LeFeuvre*

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Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 36 Messrs. Bell & Millar.

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Humder's Modem Engineering. Third Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-
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ZMt ofPliita and Diagramt.
HAIK DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS 1 MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS,

Eltvmtioii and derails. ^ 7. Ou)
Sewci. Bridge over Marsh Lane, N<
WoohriehRilway.andP ■■ *— '■

ly lunelion.-6,9, and io."Outf»fi
. Bridge '■ ■ - - ■

Senr. Bridge over Bon and Baridng
Rjulinr. Elevation nod peuUt—

Outfall Semr.

i6anda7- Sleai .. ,

ElevadoD and Detailfl, — 7B. LaDdiD|C
Stairs between Chiirmg CroH and Watei-
1™ Bridges. ^9 anJ la Votlt Gate.
■a=r tie- I '^™" fflevati™. Skft Elevation and
u. buCfiU ""nil".— y. 3', »nti 31- OvErflmr and
4"«iinn^ 0"1" " Savo, Sa«t S™er. Detail. ;
aection^^i^p^ -'■ -■ -- --■*-' ^-

ij. Outfil] Sewer. Tumbling
Outlot.— 16. Ont&U SewET. Fe

Plata t7 and iS. Ouli^ Sewer,
mondKy branch.— 19, 10, m, and ai. I and Iron f om.

With copious Desciiptive Letterpress, &c.

Humberts Modem Engineering. Fourth Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-
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Ust of Iht Plates and Diagram!.

HAHB AND msCRlPTIOM. PIATM. Null OF KBCIHKKH.

Abbe<r Umi PominnE Station, Main Dnunage,

MeDcn^ I to 4 Hi. BaiatiRtte, CE.

Banow Docks Itog Mom.M'Claui&Slillinui,

Manquia Viaduct, Sactiaeo and Valparaiso [C.E.

Riilwa)' ,0, II Mr. W. Lord, CE.

Adami'Locomalrn, St. Helen'i Canal Riilw. ta, 13 Mi. H. Crlni, CB.

Ciiaun Stnet StalioD RosT 14 to i« Mr. I. Hawkshav, C.E.

Road Bridge tm the River Hoka 17. tS Mr. H. Wakefield, C E.

Tclcgniphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia .... ig Mr. Siemena, C.E.
\naduct ova tbe River Wye, Midland Rallw. so to sa Mr. W. H. Barlow, CE.

St. Oenuni Viaduci, Cornwall Railway a}, 14 Mr. Bmnd. CE.

Wiou^^l-IniD Cytindeifoi Divine BeU sj Mr. J. Coode, CE.

Millwall Docki >6 to 31 Mean. J. Fowls, CE.,and

William Wilson, CK.

HilniT's Patent Eicavalor ji Mr. Milroy, C E.

Metnpolilaii District Railway jj tojS Mr. J. Fowler, and Mr, T.

M. Johnson, CK.
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mtA Copisiii Biier^Hvt LtOtrpratt SfeciJUotioni, &k.

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Humberts Great Work on Bridge Construction.

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and
WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including
Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Prsictical, and
Descriptive. By William Humber, Assoc Inst C. E., and M. Inst
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Strains, Formula & Diagrams for Calculation of.

A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS
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STRENGTH ; consisting of Formukeand Corresponding Diagrams,
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with nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, *js. 6d, doth.

'* The arrangement of the matter in this little volume b as convenient as it wdl
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Barlow on the Strength of Materials.

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS,
with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction oif
Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. ; and an Appendix on the
Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes
and Gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition,
, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow,
F.R.S. The whole arranged and edited by W. Humber, Assoc.
Inst. C.K 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates, and numerous
woodcuts, i&r. cloth.

"The best book on the subject which has yet appeared. .... We know of
n3 work that so completely fulfils its mission.** — English Mechanic.

" The standard treatise upon this particular subject." — Engineer.

Tables of Curves.

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES

for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander

Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Printed on 48 Cards,

and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, Jx. dd,

" Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves

the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small aavantagc as regards the rapidity

of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for the

pocket— sm amoigtmtni waX will recommend Uvem to aYL v^nicxkal men.** — Engittetr.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 5

Tramways and their Working.

TRAMWAYS: their CONSTRUCTION and WORKING.
Containing a Comprehensive History of the System ; an exhaus'
tive Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse
Power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description
of the varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and
Working Expenses, with Special reference to the Tramways of the
United Kingdom. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. I. C. E., Author
of * Railway Machinery,* &c., in one vol. 8vo, with numerous illus-
trations and thirteen folding plates, \%s, cloth.
" All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned
to the author's work ' Railway Machinery/ but the more^ moderate dimensions of
' Tramways ' will place it withm the means of every individual, instead of limiting
its purchase to institutions or to those having a large practice."— 7!^^ Engineer.
Mr. Clark's b3ok is indispensable for the students of the subiect."— 7^ Builder.
^ ** An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this
kind of locomotion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tram-
ways, are to be found- . . . The other parts of Mr. Clark's valuable treatise relating
to cost and expenditure, and tramway cars, are handled in the same thorough
manner." — Buiidin£ News.

Iron and Steel.

*IRON AND STEEL': a Work for the Forge, Foundry,
Factory, and Office. Containing Ready, Useful, and Trustworthy
Information for Ironmasters and their Stocktakers ; Managers of
Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and Metal
Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining,
and Consulting Engineers ; Arclutects, Contractors, Builders, and
Professional Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoare, Author of
•The Slide Rule,' &c Eighth Edition. Revised throughout and
considerably enlarged. With folding Scales of "Foreign Mea-
sures compared with the English Foot," and **fixel Scales of
Squares, Cubes, and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &&**
Oblong, 32mo, leather elastic-band, dr.

" For comprehensiveness the book has not its equaL" — Iron.

" One of the best of the pocket books, and a useful companion in other branches of
work than iron and steel." — English Mechanic.

" We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in con^erii^ the details
of all kinds of iron and steel works." — Naval Science,

Iron and Metal Traded Calculator.

THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION:
Being a Calculator containing a Series of Tables upon a new and
comprehensive plan for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any
gooos bought or sold by weight, from 15. per cwt. to II2J. per
cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per poimd
Each Table extends from one pound to lOO tons ; to which are
appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration
of Superficies and Solids, &c. ; also Tables of Weights of Materials,
and other Useful Memoranda. By Thomas Downie. Strongly
bound in leather, 396 pp., 91.
" A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before

existed." — Building News.

" Will save the possessor the trouble of making numerous intricate calculations.

Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trade&t dwe ^\An& c»OL\acAR^\&.'^vk

handy little companion will be found useful in every o\h«x \w*vnft»»N».^'^^ ''»*''*"

chandise is bought and sold by weight."— /Sai/xoay Nevoi.

WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Pioneer Engineering,

PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering

Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New

Countries. By Edward Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of

"The Art of Building," &c. With numerous Plates and Wood

Engravings. Crown 8vo, lOr. 6c/. doth.

'*A most useful handbook to engineering pioneers. "^/nwr.

" The author^s experience has been turned to good account, and the boolc is likely
to be of considerable service to pioneer engineers."— ^«<A/i»jf News.

Metallurgy of Iron.

A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con-

taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of

Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of

Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the

Roval School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth

Edition, revised and much enlarged. i2mo, doth boards, 5j.

" Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important
/pdnts, while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into."—
Stctndard,

Sanitary Work,

SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND
IN VILLAGES. Comprising : — i. Some of the more Common
Forms of Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water
Supply. A useful book for Members of Local Boards and Rural
Sanitary Authorities, Health Officers, Engineers, Surveyors,
Builders, and Contractors. By Charles Slagg, Assoc Inst C.E.
Crown 8yo, 3^. cloth.

"This is a very useful book, and may be safely recommended. • > • ; The author,
Mr. Charles Slagg, has had practical experience in the worki of which he treats.
There is a great deal of work required to be done in the smaller towns and villages,
and this little volume will help those who are willin^^ to do \t."— Builder.

Steam Engine,

TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. By T. M.
GooDEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of ** The Principles
of Mechanics," "The Elements of Mechanism," &c Second
Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6j. cloth.

[Just pt^lished.

" Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which will bear
comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no
higher praise." — Engineer.

** Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should poj»-
sess himself." — Mining Journal,

Strains.

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK;
with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds,
M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, 5j. cloth.

**The student cannot find a better little book on this subject than that Mrritten by
Mr. Sheilds.*'-^! Ac Engineer.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7

Locomotives.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Com-
prising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive
Engine. By G. D. Dempsky, C.E. With large additions treat-
ing of the Modern Locomotive, by D. Kinn ear Clark, C.E.,
M.LC.E. Author of "Railway Machinery," "A Manual of
Rules, Tables, and Data," *' Tramways, their Construction and
Work," &c., &C. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 35. dd,
cloth boards. \jfust published.

Fuels,

FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; consisting of Abridgments
of ** Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and tne Prevention of
Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A. I. C.E. , and "The Economy
of Fuel," by T. Symes Prideaux. With extensive additions on
Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of Fuel — Coal,
Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. Kinnear Clark^
C.E., M.I. C.E. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 5^. cloth
boards. [Just published.

Steam,

STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Port-
able, an Elementary Treatise on. Being an Extension of Mr»
John Sewell's Treatise on Steam. By D. Kinnear Clark,
C.E., M.I.C.E., Author of "Railway Locomotives," &c. With
Illustrations. i2mo, 41. cloth.

" Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently, and in a popular
style." — Iron,

Roads and Streets,

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In
Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By
Henry Law, C.E. Revised and Condensed by D. Kinnear
Clark, C.E. — II. Recent Practice in the Construction of Roads
and Streets : including Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte.
By D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E. With numerous-
Illustrations. i2mo, 5^. cloth.

" A book whlcl? every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will
be of considerable service to architects, builders, and property owners generally. ** —
Building News.

" The volume is suggestive, and will be an acquisition not only to engineers but to-
the greater number of people in this country on whom devolves the administration of
roads as a part of the system of local government/' — TA* Architect.

" To highway and town surveyors wis book will have the utmost value, and as con-
taining the largest sunount of information in the shortest space and at the lowest price^
we may predict for it a wide curculation." — Journal ^Gnx Lighting.

Steam Boilers.

A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con-
struction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E,
Fifth Edition. I2mb, df. cloth. [Just published.

** The best work on boilers which has come under oux tiolCvcfc?* — Engin*«riw«.
'• The best treatise that hzs ever been pub^hed on sXearnVMLexv'* — Engineer,

8 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Practical Tunnelling.

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING: Explaining in detaU the Setting
out of the Works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-Driving, Ranging
the Lines and Levelling under Ground, Sub- Excavating, Timbering,
and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels with the amount
of labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the
work. By Frederick Walter Simms, M. Inst. C.E., author
of "A Treatise on Levelling." Third Edition, Revised and Ex-
tended, with additional chapters iUustrating the Recent Practice of
Tunnelling as exemplified by the St Gothard, Mont Cenis, and
other modem works, by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E
Imp. 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood En-
gravings, 30J. cloth.

I' It is the only practical treatise on the great art of ttninelling. Mr. Clark's work
brings the exigencies of tunnd enterprise up to our own time. The great length of
modem tunnels has led to a new difficuhv in the art, which the last generation was
iznorant of, namely, the difficulty of ventilation. In Mr. Clark's supplement we find
this branch of the subject has been fully considered. Mr. Clark's additional chapters
on the Mont Cenis and St. Gothard Tunnels contain minute and valuable experiences
and data relating to the method of excavation by compressed air, the heading
operations, rock-boring machinery, process of enlargement, ventilation in course of
construction by compressed air, labour and cost, &.C.— Building NeTvs,

" The estimation m which Mr. Simms' book on tunnelling luis been hdd for over
thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than in the woras of the late Professor
Rankine : — ' The best source of information on the subject of timnds is Mr. F. W.
Simms' work on " Practical Tunnelling." ' — The Architect,

Levelling.

A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of
LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway
and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.
Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms,
F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Sixth Edition, very carefully revised, with
the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting out
Railway Curves, and Mr. Traut wine's Field Practice of Laying
out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo,
%s, dd. doth. %* Trautwine on Curves, separate, 5j.

'* One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there is
scarcely a question connected with levelling for which a solution woula be sought but
that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume." — Mining yourtud.

" The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and collies,"—
Engineer,

The High-Pressure Steam Engine.

THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition
of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved
System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and
Economy. By Dr. Ernst Alban, Practical Machine Maker,
Plau, Mecklcnberg. Translated from the German, with Notes, by
Dr. Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst C.E., &c., &c. With 28 fine Plates,
8vo, i6kr. (td. cloth.

" A work like this, which goes thoroughl^r into the examination of the high-pressure
engine, the hoUer, and its appendages, &c.^ is exceedingly useful, and deserves a place
j'n etenr scientific }ibrary.'*-^team Shipping ChronicU.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 9

Locomotive-Engine Driving.

LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING ; a Practical Manual for
Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael
Reynolds, Inspector, Locomotive and Carriage Department,
London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway. Third Edition,
greatly enlarged. Comprising, besides other additional matter,
A KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illuslra-
tions and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 4J. 6</. cloth.

*' Mr. Reynolds deserves the title of the engine driver's friend." — Railway News.

" Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied ic well. We can confidently
recommend the book not only to the practical driver, but to every one who takes 9u\
interest in the performance of locomotive engines." — The Engineer.

"The work is as novel as it is useful, and if drivers and nremen will but take as
much pains in reading it as the author has in writing it, there can be no question as
to the benefit they willderive." — English Mechanic.

" Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of thie day. This
admirable practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak fii
terms of warm commendation." — Athenautn.

Hydraulics.

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMUL^K
for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs,
Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General
Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage,
Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power, By John Neville,
Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, carefully revised, with
considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 14J. cloth.

" Undoubtedly an exceedingly useful and elaborate compilation." — Iron,
" Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice." — Mining Journal,

Strength of Cast Iron^ &c.

A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON
and OTHER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, M.I.C.E.,
Author of ** Elementary Principles of Carpentry." Fifth Edition,
Edited by E. Hodgkinson, F.R.S. ; to which are added EX-
PERIMENTAL RESEARCHES on the STRENGTH and
OTHER PROPERTIES of CAST IRON. By the Editor.
With 9 Engravings and numerous Wocdcuts. 8vo, 12s, cloth.

\* Hodgkinson on Cast Iron, separately. Price dr. doth.

Minings Surveying and Valuing.

THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM-
PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining
Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im-
proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles
of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal
Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, Mmmg and Civil
Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., i2mo, 4^. cloth.

"Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which^ as far
as we have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy." — Iron and Coal Trades Revuw,

*^* The above, bound with Thoman's Tables. CSea ^-wat -rvV
Price ys. 6d, cloth.

lo WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.,

Slate and Slate Qtcarrying.

A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING,
Scientific, Practical, and CommerciaL By D. C. Davies, F.G.S.,
Mining Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding
Plates. Crown 8vo, dr. cloth.

"A useful and practical hand-book on an important industry." — Engiieering.

" There is no other book which contains so much information concerning tne pro-
cedure obsoved in taking quarries, the processes employed in working uiem, and
such full statistics of the present and past position ot the great slate trade of
Wales."— TVfer Architect.

Earthwork.

EARTHWORK TABLES, showing the Contents in Cubic Yards
of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an
average of 80 feet By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis
Campin, C.E. Cr. 8vo, oblong, 5^. cloth.

"The^ way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of eadi cross
section into three elements, two of which are constant and one variable, is vor
geDioa%.**'—'AtA^fugum,

** Cannot fail to come into general use." — Mining youmoL

Surveying (Land and Marine).

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the

Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railwa3rs, Canals, Rivers,

Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description

and Use of Surveymg Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. E

8vo, I2J. dd, doth, with 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.

"A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student" — Builder.
" Of the utmost practical utiUty, and may be safely recommended to all students
who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."— J/miint; Journal.

Coal and Coal Mining.

COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By
Wabington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c, Chief Inspector
of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of ComwalL New
edition, revised and corrected. i2mo, with numerous Illustra-
tions, 4r. doth boards.

" Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with mndi care, and
as an outlme is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as
of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very
large number of readers." — Mining Jouimal.

Trigonometrical Surveying.

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo-
graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon-
naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems m Geodesy
and Practical Astronomy, and Formulae and Tables for Facilitating
their Calculation. By Lieut-General Frome, R.E., late In-
spector-General of Fortifications, &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged,
thoroughly Revised, and partly Re-written. By Captain Charles
Warren, R.E., F.G.S. With 19 Plates nnd 115 Woodcuts,
rojaJ 8vo, lbs. cloth.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. ii

Fire Engineering.

FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With
a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage-
ment ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of
Life from Fire; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English
Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c., &c.
By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations,
handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, i/. 4J. doth.

" We can most hesurtily commend this book. " — Engmeermg,

'* We strongly recommend the book to the notice of all who are in any way in-
terested in fires, fire-engines, or fire-brigades." — Mtckaniaf Magaami,

Mantial of Mining Tools.

MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents,
Mining Students, &c By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac-
tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text.
i2mo, jj*. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations.

4to, dr. Together, 91. cloth boards.

" Students in the Science of Mining, and Overmen, Captains, Managers, and
Viewers may gain practiod knowledge and useful hmts by the study ot Mr.
Morgans' Manual." — Collury Guardian.

"A very valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining \iXxx9r
tax^"—Mimng Journal,

Common Sense for Gas-Users.

COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: a Catechism of Gas-
Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects,
Engineers, &C., &c. By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of **A
Treatise on Steam Boilers." Second Edition. Crown 8vo, sewed,
with Folding Plates and Wood Engravings, 2J. dd.

Engineering Fieldwork.

THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK,
applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine
Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider-
able additions, and a Supplementary Volume on WATER-
WORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W.
Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. Demy 8ivo, 2
vols, in one, cloth boards, xl. ^s, (published at 2I. 4s,)

Waterworks for Cities and Towns.

WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS,
with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of
England as influencing Supplies of Water. By Samuel Hughes,
F.G.S., Civil Engineer. New and enlarged edition, i2mo, with
numerous Illustrations, 4J. dd, cloth boards.
" One of the most convenient, and at the same time reliable works on a subject,
the vital importance of which cannot be over-estimated.** — Bratt/^rd Observer,

Steam.

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing Rules for Unpro-
fessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. Fourth Edition. i2mo.

Sewed, 6d,
" If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, and then band it te
their stokers to do the same, and see that the Vauct Ao \\, \>«SkKt «x^«»ss«»'««^»
become sensations by their rarity.**—- £it^/tsA Mechanic,

la WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SUR^^YING, ETC,

FUld-Book for Engineers.

THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON-
TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E.
lliird Edition, enlarged, consisting of a Series of Tables, with
Roles, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse
Survejring and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means
of Straight Edge and Set Square only; Levelling with the Theodo-
lite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sec-
tions in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodo-
lite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand
Readings of the Instrument ; Setting out Curves without Theodolite
on the S}*stem of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Off-
sets ; and Earthwork Tables to & feet deep, calculated for every 6
inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts, i2mo, I2J. doth.

"The book is ▼ery handy, and die author might have added that the sepaxate tables
of sines and tangents to every minute vill make it useful for many, other puxposes, the
genuine traverse tables existmg all the same.** — Aihemtum,

•• A very useful work for the practical engineer and surveyor.**— i?a«/wfl[y Nmt.

" The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from Its portability
and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering profcssiotL, —Mimmg

Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of.

A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham,
C.E., Resident Elngineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With
numerous Diagrams. iSmo, 2J. 6</. doth.

** As a reaDy handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to^ it ; and the
railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth-
work will find a great amount (M practical information very admiraUy arranged, and

available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations
required in the engineers' contractor's offices." — ArtUan,

Bridge Construction in Masonry^ Timber^ & Iron.

EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC-
TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting ol
46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of s^ect
Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, wiA
the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Settii^out Works,
illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, 2/. I2x. M half-
morocco.

" One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and
treating on the common every-day practice of the railway engineer. ... A work of
present nature by a man of Mr. HaskoU's experience, must prove invaluaUe to
oreds. The tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance

the

huni

its value." — Enguuerin^,

Pocket' Book for Marine Engineers,

A POCKET BOOK FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. Con-
taining useful Rules and Formulae in a compact form. By Frank
Proctor, A.I.N.A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged.
Royal 32mo,' leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4J.

"We recommend it to our readers as going iax to supply a long-felt want."—
Naval Science.

"A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette.
"Scarcely stnything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for>
gotten, "^/ron.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13

Drawing for Engineers, &c.

THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING

DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering

Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A.,

South Kensington. Third Edition, carefully revised. With upwards

of 300 Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4J.

** Even accomplished draughtsmen will find in it much that will be of use to then^.
A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office.** — Engitteering.
" Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing.'* — Mechanics* Magasifu,

Oblique Arches.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of
OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third EcUtion, with
Plates. Imperial 8vo, %s, cloth.

Oblique Bridges.

A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE

BRIDGES, with 13 lai^e folding Plates. By Geo. Watson

Buck, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected by W. H«

Barlow, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, \2s. cloth.

"The standard text book for all engineers r^farding skew arches b Mr. Buck's
treatise and it would be impossible to consult a \ittXja"'—En£^uer,

Granthanis Iron Skip-Building.

ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING; with Practical Examples and
Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40
Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together
with separate Text, i2mo, cloth limp, also considerably enlarged.
By John Grantham, M. Inst. C.E., &c. 2/. 2j. complete.

" A very elaborate work.^ . . . It forms a most valuable addidon to the history
of iron shipbuilding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject
his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised,
will recommend it as one of practical utiUty to all interested in shipbuildmg."— ^rmr^
a$ui Navv Gazette.

" Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. • . . It is also valuable as a record
of the progress of iron shipbuilding. ... It will, we are confident, command an
extensive circulation among shipbuilders in eeneral. . . . By^ order of the Board
of Admiralty, the work will form the text-bocMc on which the examination in iron ship-
building of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based."—
Engineering.

Wealds Dictionary of Terms.

A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE,
BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY,
ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c By John Weale.
Fifth Edition, revised and corrected by Robert Hunt, F.R.S.,
Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of " Ure*s Dictionary of Arts,"
&c. i2mo, cloth boards, 6s.

" The best small technological dictionary' in the language." — Architect.

** The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after
extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very
complete."— ^i«///^ yournal.

" Inhere is no need now to speak of the excellence of this work ; it received the ap-
proval of the community long ago. Edited now by Mr. Robert Hunt, and published
in a cheap, handy form, it wul ht of the utmost service as a bookoC t«.C«x«Q!CA viwl^^^i
to be exceeded in value." — Scotsman,

WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, ETC.,

ARCHITECTURE, &c.

Constrtution.

THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : An Elementary Ttcatise w
the Principles of Constraction. Bt E. Wyndham Ta&n, lii. A,
Architect. With 47 Wood EngraYings. Demy 8to. &r. 6d/l doth.

*' A Tory Tsduable book, wfaidi we stronsly recommeiid to all students."— JVtnUrr.

'* No architectural student should be without this hand-book."— ^nolcjte^

Beaton's Pocket Estimator.

THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING
TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the varioiis parts
of a BuilcQng collectively, more especially applied to Carpenteis^
and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material
and labour. By A. C. Beaton, Author of "Quantities and
Measurements." Second Edition. Carefully revised. 53 Wood-
cuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size. u. 6d,

Beaton's Builders^ and Surveyors' Technical Guide.

THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER
FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete
Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memo-
randa for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in
all the Building Trades, &c By A. C. Beaton. Second Edit.
With 19 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size. is. dd.

Villa Architecture.

A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a
Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With
Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect,
Author of " TheSpiresand Towersof the Mediaeval Churches of Eng-
land," &c. 31 Plates, 4to, half morocco, gilt edges, i/. \s,
*«* Also an Enlarged edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Detailed

Specifications, Estimates, &c. 2/. 2j. half morocco.
'* The whole of the designs bear evidence of their beine the work of an artistic
architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive. — BuUtUn^ Nrm$,

House Painting.

HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND
SIGN WRITING : a Practical Manual of. With 9 Coloured
Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings.
By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of ** Building Construction," &c
Second Edition, carefully revised. i2mo, 6s, cloth boards.
'* Contains a mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical
man." — English Mechanic,

Wilson's Boiler and Factory Chimneys.

BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; their Draught-power
and Stability, with a chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert
Wilson, C.E., Author of ** Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c., &c.
Crown 8vo, y, 6d. cloth.
"A most valuable book of its kind, full of useful information, definite in statement
end thoroughly practical in treatment." — The Local Government Chronicle, _»;>>» . .

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 15

A Book on Btdlding,

A BOOK ON BUILDING, CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL.

By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S.,

Author of "Clocks and Watches and Bells," &c. Crown 8vo,

with Illustrations, 7j. 6d, cloth.
*' A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. Sir E. Beckett
will be read for the raciness of his style. We are able very cordially to recammend
all persons to read it for themselves. The style throughout is in the highest degree
conaensed and epigrammatic."— 7Y«K«r.

" We commend the book to the thoughtful consideraticm of all who are interested
in the building axu**— Builder.

Architecture^ Ancient and Modem.

RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modem.
Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by Joseph Gwilt,
F.S.A., &c., with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Archi-
tecture, by the Earl of Aberdben ; the ORDERS of
Architecture, by W. H. Leeds, Esq.; The STYLES of Archi-
tecture of Various Countries, by T. Talbot Bury; The
PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. Garbett.
In one Yolume, half-bound (pp. i»ioo), copiously illustrated, I2j.
*^* Sold separately^ in two vols,j as folUms—

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Contaming GwUt's Vitruvius
and Aberdeen's Grecian Architecture. Price 6j. half -bound.

N. B. — This is the only edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a
moderate price,

MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Containing the Orders, by Leeds ;
The Styles, by Bury; and Design, by Garbett. 6s, half-bound.

The Young Architect's Book.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight-
WICK, Architect, Author of " The Palace of Architecture," &c., &c.
New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. Huskisson Guil-

LAUME, Architect. Numerous illustrations. i2mo, cloth boards, 45.

" Will be found an acquisition to pupils, and a copy ought to be considered as
necessary a purchase as a box of instruments." — Architect,

" Contains a laree amount of information, vrhich young architects will do well to
acquire, if they wish to succeed in the everyday worlc of their ^miessiou**'— English
Mechanic.

Drawing for Builders and Students.

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE
BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE.
By George Pyne, Author of a " Rudimentary Treatise on Per-
spective lor Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, 7x. 6d, boards.

Builder's and Contractor s Price Book.

LOCKWOOD & CO.'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S
PRICE BOOK for 1879, containing the latest prices of all kinds
of Builders' Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected
with Building, &c., &c. The whole revised and edited by
Francis T. W. Miller, Architect and Surveyor. Fcap. 8vo,
strongly half-bound, 4X.

i6 WORKS IN architecture; etc.

Handbook of Specifications.

THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Piactical
Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Snnrejror, and Builder, in drawing
np Speci6cations and Contracts for Works and ConstmctioDS.
lUustrated by Precedents of Buildings actnally executed \ff emineDt
Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and
Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c. By Professor
Thomas L. Donaldson, &LLB.A. With A Review of the
Law of Contracts. By W. Cunningham Glen, of the
Middle Temple. With 33 Lithographic Plates, 2 vols., 8yo, 2/. Ts,
*' In these two volumes of z,xoo pazes (together), for^-^our specifications of execmed

works aregi ven, including the specincatioas for parts of the new Hovses of P^rfiancBt,
by Sir Qiarles Barry, and tor the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P.
Donaldson's Uandbodc of Specifications must be boo^ by all ardiitects.'*-^^«<*&fer.

Taylor and Cresys Rome.

THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By
the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.S.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq.
New Edition, thoroughly revised, and supplemented under the
editorial care of the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of
the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Chaplain of Gray's Inn. This is
the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision
of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient
Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates,
half-bound, 5/. 3i-.
*«* Originally published in two volumes, folio, at iS/. i&r.

Specifications for Practical Architecture.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE:

A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with

an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modem Buildings. By

Frederick Rogers, Architect With numerous Illustrations.

Demy 8vo, 15J. doth. (Published at i/. lOr.)

*«* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the

old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew bemg out of print, the author, on the basis

of that work, has produced the above. He has also inserted specifications of worics

that have been erected in his own practice.

The House-Owner^ s Estimator.

THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or. What will it
Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price- Book adapted to the
Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural
Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B. A
Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, Surveyor. With
numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, with the prices carefully
corrected to present time. Crown 8vo, doth, 3J. 6</.
In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." — Field.
" A very nandy book for those who wane to know what a house will cost to build,
alter, or xc^axc.**— English Mechanic.

Useful Text- Book for Architects.

THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful

Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors,

Clerks of Works, &c,&c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect,

Anthot of ** Specifications fox PtaclicaV KTc>\VvtcX?Qx^," &5u With

numerous Illustrations. Crown Svo, 6s. dcAiyu

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17

CARPENTRY, TIMBER, MECHANICS.

TredgolcTs Carpentry, new and cheaper Edition,

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY :
a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the
Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches,
Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which
is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c.,
with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also
numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes,
the Specific Gravities of Materiids, &c. By Thomas Tredgold,
C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor-
rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (i I of which now first appear
in this edition). Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In
I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2J., reduced to i/. 5^. cloth.

" Ought to be in every architect's and every builder'* library, and thoee who
3 not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new vatx^. —Buildtr.
"A work whose monumental exoellenoe must commend it wherever ficilful car-
sntry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by
me. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value."— vffaM&/tiM^ Ntwt,

Irandy^s Timber Tables.

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANTS,
and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E.
Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home
and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements
for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals,
including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c, &c. ;
together with Copious Information for the Retailer and Builder.
Second Edition. Carefully revised and corrected. i2mo, 31. td,
doth.

" Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a
eenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns,
stems, &c. — all that the class to whom it appeals recjuires."— ii'MeZiM Mtckanic.

** The oi^y difficulty we have is as to what is not in its pages. Vfhait we have tested
r the contents, taken at random, is invariably correct."— /^w/fw/A/^Mft/U!rr'# JounuU.

Tables for Packing-Case Makers.

PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial

Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and

upwards. Compiled by William Richardson, Accountant.

Second Edition. Oblong 4to, 3J. 6d. cloth.

" Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use
icking-cases."-— £^wvr. " Invaluable labour-saving tables."— /r^MMM^fvr.

Vicholson^s Carpentet^s Guide.

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES
for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles
essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the
late Peter Nicholson's standi^ work. A new Edition, revised
by Arthur AshpItel, F.S.A., together with Practical Ruk& <yo^
Drawmg, by George Pyne. "With 'j^'P\aXt&, ^\o^ \l» 'v*- e^^^viB*

iS WORKS ON CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC.,

Dowsing' s Timber Merchants Companion.

THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM-
PANION ; containing New and Copious TaUes of the Reduced
Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of aU sizes, from
One to a Thousand Pieces, and the lelatiYe Piice that each size
bears per Lined Foot to any giyen Price per Petersburgh Standard
Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given
Price per Load of 50 Feet; the proportionate Value of Dads and
Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ;
tha readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal
Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a
variety of other valuable information, ay William Dowsing,
Timber Merchant Third Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown
8vo, 3^. cloth.
"Everything is as concise and dear ai it can possibly be made. There can be no
doubt that erery timber merchant and Imilder ought to possess it." — HiUl Adoertiur,

Timber Freight Book.

THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS'
FREIGHT BOOK : Bemg a Comprehensive Series of Tables for
the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokeis,
Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William
Richardson, Timber Broker. Crown 8vo, dr. doth.

Hortoris Measurer.

THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measure-
ment of Boards, Glass, &c, &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided,
Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber.
With just allowances for the bark in the respective species of
trees, and proper -deductions for the waste in newing the trees,
&c. ; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided
timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. By Richard Horton.
Third edition, with considerable and valuable additions, l2mo,
strongly bound in leather, 5^.
"Not only are the best methods oH. measurement shown, and in some instances
illustrated by means of woodcuts, but the erroneous sjrstems pursued by dishonest
dealers are fully exposed The work must be considered to be a valuable addi-
tion to every gardener's library.— Glanilwf.

Superficial Measurement

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA-
SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 mches in length,
by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors,
Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Haw-
KINGS. Fcp. 3J. dd, cloth.

Practical Timber Merchant.

THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT, beinjg a Guide
for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c.,
comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the
Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber,
Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson.
Fcsiji. 8vo, jj-. 6d, cloth.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19

The Mechanic's Workshop Companion.

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM-
PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC-
TICAL ASSISTANT. By William Templeton. Twelfth
Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights,
Engineers, &c. ; and an Ejctensiye Table of Powers and Roots,
&c, &c. II Plates. i2mo, 5^. bound.

" As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are
judiciously met, Tbmplbton's Companion stands unrivalled. " — Mechanic^ Magazine,

" Admirably adapted to tlie wants of a very lar^e class. It has met with great
success ia the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many
men who, in a great measure, owe tbcor rise in life to this Httle work. " — Buiiding NezM,

Engineer's Assistant

THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHTS, And MACHINIST'S
PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useftd
Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original
Matter, by William Templeton. 6th Edition. i8mo, 2J. dd,
doth.
" So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a
price which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to com-
mand the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book
to the attention of our readers." — Mechanics* Magazine.

"A more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not
possibly be made."— ^»</(^^iV<wf.

Designing, Measuring^ and Valuing.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA-
SURINGand VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing
Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing
the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious
Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re-
spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner,
Painter and Glazier, Paperha^er, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood-
cuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. New
Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc-
tion, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measure-
ments. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Svo, lor. 6^. cloth.

" We have failed to discover anything connected with the buildinff trade, from ex-
cavating foimdations to bell-hanging, that is not fully treated upon.]*— Tli^ ArUzan.

" Altogether the book is one ^madi well fulfils the promise of its tide-pa^^ and we
can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compded. Mr.
Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and
have especially augmented its value to sXxiAitDXs,**— -Engineering,

Plumbing.

PLUMBING ; a text-book to the practice of the art or craft of the
plumber. With supplementary chapters upon house- drainage, em-
bodying the latest improvements. By William Paton Buchan,
Sanitary Engineer. i2mo, with about 300 illustrations. 3;. (>d,
cloth.
"There is no other manual in existence of the plumber's art ; and the volume will
be welcomed as the work of a practical master of nis trade." — Public Health.

" The chapters on house-dramage may be usefully consulted, not onlv by plumbecs,
but also by engineers and all engaged or interested in house-building. — Iron.

" A book containing a large amount of practical mfoTma^ctCL,'^>]X\A<^<tf^«x\&.^^«»:^
muXiigent msumer, by one who is weU quali&ed ios \Vu& isjk?^ — Cit^r Prcu.

30 WORKS IN MATHEMATICS, ETC.,

MATHEMATICS, &c

Gregory s Practical Mathematics.

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common-
place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly
for the Use of Civil Engineers, Ardiitects, and Surveyors. Part I.
Pure Mathematics — comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geomedy,
Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Corves
Part II. Mixed Mathematics — comprising Mechanics in general,
Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hjrdrodynamics, Pneumatics,
Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix df
copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory,
LL. D. , F.R, A. S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C. K 4th Edition,
carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, formerly Profes-
sor of Mathematics, Belfast College ; Author of " A Course of
Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, i/. U. doth.

" The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for s<^ving neariy
every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases
explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly wcwked
out."— ^«/^^.

"One of the most serviceable books to the practical medianics of the country.

In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revbed 07

Professor Yoimg. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few

Earafi^raphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical erron wfaidi
ave escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is
possible to make it. It is an instructive book for the student, and^ a Text-
book for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to
refresh his memory upon them." — Building News.

" As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled. " — Artisan,

The Metric System.

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British
Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the
Metric S)rstem at present in use on the Continent By C. H.
DowLiNG, C. K Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo,
loj. (id. strongly boimd.

" Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready
reckoner for the conversion of one system into tiie other.** — Athemtum.

"Their accuracy has been certified by Prof. Airy, Astronomer-RoyaL '•—5«rtA//r.

" Resolution 8. — ^That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of
Metric Tables, by C H. Dowling, C.^"— Report 0/ Section F, Brit. Assoc., Bath.

Comprehe7isive Weight Calculator.

THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR; being a Series of Tables
upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference
the exact Value of any Weight from lib. to 15 Ions, a': 300 Pro-
gressive Rates, from i Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and con-
taining 186,000 Direct Answers, which with their Con-binations,
consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight),
will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being
calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote
Despatch. By Henrv Harben, Accountant, Sheffield, Author
of **The Discount Guide." An entirely New Edition, carefully
revised. Royal 8vo, strongly ba\i-\>o\ind, ^ps.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. a i

Comprehensive Discount Guide.

THE DISCOUNT GUIDE : comprising several Series of Tables
for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others,
by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode
of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and
the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a
Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise
any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which
are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i| to 90 per cent..
Tables of Discount from i J to 98I per cent., and Tables of Commis-
sion, &c., from \ to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant,
Author of ** The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Re-
vised and Corrected. Demy 8 vo. (544 pp.), half-bound,;^ I 5j.

rnwoocTs Tables, greatly enlarged and improved.

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold,
Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the
Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or
other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ;
also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next
Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound
Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate
Rates. By William Inwood, Architect. The 20th edition, with
considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms
for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis-
count, Annuities, &&, by M. Fia>OR Thoman\ cf the Society
Cr^t Mobilier of Paris. i2mo, &r. cloth.

" Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of
ompensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., wi'l
nH the present edition of eminent service." — Et^neering.

** * Inwood's Tables' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been
nriched by large additional contributions by M. Fddor Thoman, whose carefully
■ranged Tables cannot fail to be of the utmobt utHity. " —Miumg youmal.

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer^ &c.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and

Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of

various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn,

M.A.y Architect, Author of. ** The Science of Building," &c.

With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 12^. 6df. cloth.

*' No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the
eamess of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satL<-
\.cxx>x^,**— Scotsman,

Compound Interest and Annuities.

THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ;
with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of
Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and
Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Intro-
duction. By FfcDOR Thoman, of the Society Credit Mobilier,
Paris. 3rd Edition, carefully revised and corrected. f2mo,4f. 6^. cl.

A very powerful work, and the Author \c£a a very remarkable command of hj^
{tA^eL^-^rro/essor A. de Morgan,
"We ncookmcod it to the notice of actuaries 9sA »ic»oun.tKOLXa?*--A<Ktw««m.

22 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC,

SCIENCE AND ART.

Dentistry.

MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. A Practical Treatise on the
Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Com-
prising also Useful Formulae, Tables, and Receipts for Gold
i'late. Clasps, Solders, etc, etc. By Charles Hunter. With
numerous Wood Enc^ravings. Crown 8vo, 7j. dcL Cloth.
" The work is very practicsu." — MontMy Revuw of Dental Surpny.

** An authoritative treatise Many useful and practical hints are scattered

throughout the work, while its value as a text book is enhanced by numerous iUos-
trations. We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students ne-
parinff for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dcntisL —
Dublin youmal ^Medical Science,

Brewing.

A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By Herbert
Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.

"A thoroughly scientific treatise in popular language. It is evident that the
author has mastered his subject in its scientific aspects." — Morning Adver tise r.

** We would particularly recommend teachers of the art to place it in every pupil's
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The Military Sciences.

AIDE-M£M0IRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed
from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif*
ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of
Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an
Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; contaimng nearly 350
Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal 8yo, eztn
cloth boards, and lettered, 4/. lar.
" A compendious encyclopaedia of ndlitary knowledge.**— i?<i£K^«y2^ Review,
" The most comprehensive work of reference to the military andcolbaeial adenccs."
— Volunteer Service Gazette,

Field Fortification.

A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK
of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECON-
NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of
Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown
8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 12^*. complete.

?- Wares and Colours.

THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE- WARES : their
Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications.
For the. Use of Dy^ers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J.
W. Slater. Post 8vo, 7^. (id, cloth.

** a ct>mplete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information is full
and precise, and the methods of determining the value cf articles liable to sophistica-
tion, are practical as well as valuable."— CA^ir^ emd Druggist,

Storms.

STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the
Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds.
]3y William Blasius. With Coloured Plates and numerous
'Wood Engravings. Crowiv ^vo, 10s. 6d. c\o>iJcv>oci^^v

Dye-

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. as

Light-Houses.

EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS ; being a Report of
a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. ^7 Major George H.
Elliot, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 En-
gravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text 8vo, 21s, cloth.

Electricity.

A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Mag-
netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Djmamics, Magno-Electricity, and
the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
Lecturer on Chemistnr at St. George's HospitaL Fourth Edition,
entirely rewritten. Illustrated hy 500 Wooacuts. 8vo, i/. 4r. doth.
" The commendations already bestowed m the pages of the Lanett on the fomer
dUtions of this work are more than ever merited by the present The accounts given
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uer thing, lupe popular and interesting.**— Z^mtt/.

Text-Book of Electricity.

THE STUDENTS TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By
Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, care-
fully Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters
by W. H. Pr£EC£» Vice-President of the Society of Teleg^ph
Engineers, &c. Illustrated with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
125. 6d, cloth. [Just Published.

Rudimentary Magnetism.

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition
of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes
to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S.
New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr.
Noad, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. i2mo, doth, 4r.

"As concise and lucid an exposition of the phenomena of magnetism as we believe
. is possible to write. " — English Mechanic.

** The best possible smnual on the subject of magnetism.** — Mechanics* Magasine.

Zhemical Analysis.

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA-
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trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufiactures,
in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of " Prac-
tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's
" Treatise on Chemical Analysis." New Edition. Enlarged, and
to a great extent re-written, by Henry M. Noad, Ph. D., F.R.S.
With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, \2s. 6d. cloth.
" We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly
ffirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a
uide^ alike indispensable to Uie housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner."—
fedtcal Times,

" Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results
re given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." — Nature.

Mollusca.

A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA ; being a Treatise on
Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S.
With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,¥.G.^. '^SjOcwToawNRx-
oxis Viates and yx> Woodcuts. 3rd EdiWon. Cx . %^Ot is . W» ^^"^cu

24 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

Gold and Gold-Working.

THE PRACTICAL GOLD- WORKER ; or. The Goldsmith's
and Jeweller's Instructor. The Art of Alloying, Melting, Re-
ducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. 1 he processes of
Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and Physical Pro-
perties of Gold, with a new System of Mixing its Alloys ; Soldos,
Enamels, and other useful RiUes and Recipes, &c. 6y George
£. Gke. Crown 8vo, *J5. bd, cloth.

** A g^ood, sound, technical educator, and will be g e nerally accepted as ao
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" The best work yet prmtol on its subject for a reasonable price. We have bo
doubt that it will speedily become a standard book which few will care to be with-
out. " — ycweUer and Metalworker.

Silver and Silver Working.

THE SILVERSMITH»S HANDBOOK, containing full In-
structions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the
different modes of refining and melting the metal, its solders, the
preparation of imitation alloys, methods of manipulation, preven-
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of the work, together with other useful information and memoranda.
By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Crown 8vo, with numerous
illustrations, ^s. 6d. cloth.

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Clocks, Watches y and Bells.

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, and WATCHES,
and BELLS. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart, (late E. B.
Denison), LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Author of "Astronomy with-
out Mathematics," &c Sixth edition, thoroughly revised and
enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. Limp doth (No. 67)
Weale's Series), 4J. td, ; doth boards, 5j. dd.

'* As a popular and practical treatise it is unapproached.*' — Englisk Mechanic.

*' The best work on the subject probably extant. The treatise <mi bells is tin*
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at least as respects clocks and bells. It is the most important work of its kind in
finglish." — Engineering.

The only modem treatise on clock-making.** — Horological youmal,

" This admirable treatise on clocks, by the most able authority on such a subject,
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Science and Scripture.

SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT
ANTAGONISTIC TO IT ; being a Series of Essays on— i.
Alleged Discrepancies; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and
Figure of the Earth ; 3. The Mosaic Cosmogony ; 4. Mirades in
general — Views of Hume and Powell ; 5. The Mirade of Joshua-
Views of Dr. Colenso : The Supematurally Impossible ; 6. The
Age of the Fixed Stars— their Distances and Masses. By Professor
J. R. Young. Fcap. 8vo, 5j. cloth.

" Distinj^uished by the true spirit of scientific inquiry, by great knowledge, by leeea
logical ahihty, and by a style peculiaxYy dear, easy, and «aM,x^XMj^— Noncoi^/Wmw/.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25

DR. LARDNER'S POPULAR WORKS.
Dr. Lardners Museum of Science and Art.

THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by
DiONYSius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi-
losophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With up-
wards of 1200 Engra^dngs on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes.
Price £\ IJ., in a new and elegant cloth binding, or handsomely
bound in half morocco, 31J. 6^.

"The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has
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** Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of
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*^* Separate boohs formed from the above, suitable for Workmen* s

Libraries, Science Classes, &*c,

COMMON THINGS EXPLAINED. Containmg Air, Earth, Fire,
Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and
Watches, &c. 233 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 5/.

THE MICROSCOPE. Containmg Optical Images, Magnifying
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Objects, the Solar Microscope, Microscopic Drawing and Engrav-
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POPULAR GEOLOGY. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes,
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POPULAR PHYSICS. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the
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STEAM AND ITS USES. Including the Steam Engine, the Lo-
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POPULAR ASTRONOMY. Containing How to Observe the
Heavens. The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets. Light, Comets,
Eclipses, Astronomical Influences, &c 182 Illustrations, 4s, 6d.

THE BEE AND WHITE ANTS : Their Manners and Habits.
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trations, cloth gilt, 2f.

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Scientific Class-Books^ by Dr. Lardn^r.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner.

328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, i vol. 3J-. td, cloth.
"Conveys, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions
of Physical Science."— Bn/wA Quarterly Review.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner.
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26 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

DR. LARDNER'S SCIENTIFIC WORKS.
Astronomy.

THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. 4th Edition. Edited
by Edwin Dunkih, F.R.S., RI. Observatoiy, Greenwidi. Whh
38 plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. Cr. 8vo, 91. td, doth.
" Probably no ocber Dock contain* the same amount of inlbrmation in so oon*
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Animal Physics.

THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS. With 520
Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, cloth, *js. 6d, 732 pages.
*' We have no he^tation in cordially recommending it." — Educatiaiud Times.

Electric Telegraph.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. New Edition. ByK B.
Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 2j. 6r/. doth.
' ' One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telq;raph.'' — E»g. Medumk.

LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PfflLOSOPHY.
Mechanics.

THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost

reiJVTilten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illastia-

tions. Post 8vo, dr. cloth.

" The perspicuity of the original has been retained, ' and diapters which had

become obsolete, have been replaced by others of more modem character. Iht

explanations throughout au% studiously popular, and care has been taken to show

the application of the various branches of physics to the mdustrial arts, and to

the practical business of life." — Mining Journal.

Heat.

THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost cntirdy
Rewritten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. etc. 117 Ulustni-
tions. Post 8vo, 6j. cloth.
** The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving
any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." — Engineering.

Hydrostatics and Pneumatics.

THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS.
New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewt,
F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 51. cloth.
" For those * who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical scienoe with-

out the profound methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not nwrdy in*

tended, out well adapted." — Chemical News,

Electricity, Magnetism, and Acoustics.

THE HANDBOOK of ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, and

ACOUSTICS. New Edition. Edited by Geo. Carey Foster,

B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5j. doth.

" The book could not have been entrusted to an^ one better calculated to p re se r v e

the terse and lucid style of Lardner. while correcting his errors and brin^;ing up his

work to the present state of scientific knowledge." — Popular Scienc* Eetntw,

Optics.

THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by
T. Olver Harding, B. A. 298 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5^. doth.

" Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elabocately
Ultistrated, **— Mechanics' Magazine.

\* 21k£ above 5 Vols, form A Comp-let-r Co\3"rs«. 015 '^iccM^ft.XL

Phii.osopv\\'.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 27

Voods and Marbles {Imitation of).

SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF
WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R.
and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting
Institution. Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also
12 Plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Royal folio, bound,
2/. I2J. 6d. [Just Published.

^ictures and Painters.

THE PICTURE AMATEUR'S HANDBOOK AND DIC-
TIONARY OF PAINTERS : being a Guide for Visitors to
Public and Private Picture Galleries, and for Art-Students, in-
cluding an explanation of the various methods of Painting ; In-
structions for Cleaning, Re-Lining, and Restoring Oil Paintings;
A Glossary of Terms; an Historical Sketch of the Principal Schools
of Painting ; and a Dictionary of Painters, giving the Copyists
and Imitators of each Master. By Philippe Daryl, B. A. Crown

8vo, 3J. 6^. cloth.
" Useful as bringing together in a compendious form an almost complete bio-
raphical stock of information respecting the painters of the world." — May/air.
" The bulk of the book is occupied by a dictionary of painters which, considering
i small compasn, is really admirable : the utility of a table of dates of painters in so
^rtable a form is unquestionable. We cordially recommend the hook, —BuiUier,

^Cfputar Work on Painting.

PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical

Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick,

Painter, and John Times, F.S.A. Fourth Edition, revised and

enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, dr. clotb.

%* TTiis Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools 0/

Art at South Kensington,

" Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught,

*om the careful perusal of this onpretendmg but comprehensive treatise. " — A rt JoumaL

** Contams a krge amount erf* original matter, agreeably conveyed." — Builder,

Grammar of Colouring.

A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, appUed to Decorative
Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New edition, en-
larged and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and
Designer, by Ellis A. Davidson. With new Coloured Diagrams
and numerous Engravines on Wood. i2mo, y, 6d. cloth boards.

" One of the most useful of student's books, and probably the best known of the
ew we have on the subject." — Architect.

'* The book is a most useful risumi of the properties of pigments." — Builder.

Wood- Carving.

INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with
Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, hand-
somely printed, with Ten large Plates, 2J. dd,
" The handicraft of die wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt
rem * A Lady's ' publication."— w4^Atf«<p«»f.

Geology^ Physical and Historical.

A CLASS-BOOK of GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL and HIS-
TORICAL. With more than 250 Woodcuts. By R^.\,\j«.Ttc^^.»

A.L.S., F.G.S. i2mo, 55. cloth boards.
" The fulness of the matter has elevated the\>ook.\xao 9tmMv>\oJi'*— SclwoX Board.
?A/v/rur/e.

28 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

Delamotte's Works on Illumination & AlphaJbek,

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION ; for the
use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Prac-
tical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken
from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. * By F. D£U-
MOTTE. Small 4to, 9J. Elegantly bound, cloth antique.

*' A handjr book, beautifully iUustrated ; the text of which is well written, and cal-
culated to be usefuL . . . The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student,
which, with much g^ood sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, axe
selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as taste." — Atherueuwi.

ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIAEVAL;
from the Elighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic,
Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initiak
for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of
Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters,
Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers,
&c &c. &c. Collected and engraved by F. Dslamotte, and
printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, 4J. cloth.

" A well-known engraver and draughtsman has enrolled in this useful book the
result of many years' study and research. For those who insert enamelled sentences
round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church
walls with pithy sentences Atom the Decalogue, this book wul be usefuL" — Athewxum.

EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA-
MENTAL ; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Per-
spective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan,
Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original
Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alpha*
bets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen,
Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers,
Carvers, &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and
printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, 4.r. cloth.

" To artists of all classes, but more especially to architects and engravers, this very
handsome book will be invaluable. There is comprised in it every possible shape into
which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which
has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is
wonderful. ** •-Standard,

MEDIEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI-
NATORS. By F. Delamotte, Illuminator, Designer, and
Engraver on Wood. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title,
printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis
Brooks. Small 4to, dr. cloth gilt

" A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and
all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertMrined and intermingled, sometimes
with a sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem emblazoned in these characters would be
only comparable to one of those delicious love letters symbolized in a bunch of flowers
well selected and cleverly arranged." — Sun.

THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials,
Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias-
tical Devices, Mediaeval and Modem Alphabets, and National
Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and
printed in Colours, Oblong lo^ai Sno^ as. 6</. va ornamental boards.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 39

AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, &c.

Potato Culture.

POTATOES, HOW TO GROW AND SHOW THEM. A
Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the
Potato. By James Pink, Author of ** How to Grow One Thou-
sand Pounds of Potatoes from One Pound of Seed." With
numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2^. cloth.

\ymt Pubiished.

" A well written little volume. The author Rives good practical instructions
under both divi&i^ns of his subject." — Agricultural Gazette,

"Cordial praise must be given to Mr. Pink for his thoroughly practical and useful
work." — DaUy Chronicle.

Kite/ten Gardening.

KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. Showhig how to
prepare and lay out the ground, the best means of cultivating every
known Vegetable and Herb, with cultural directions for the
management of them all the year round. By George M. F.
Glen NY, Editor of **Glenny*s Illustrated Garden Almanack," and
Author of ** Floriculture," &c. With Illustrations, i2mo, zy.
cloth boards. \Just Published,

" As a jruide to hardy kitchen gardening, this book will be found trustworthy and

useful to the many who cannot spare the time to consult more comprehensive and

detailed works.*'— iV!?r/A British Agriculturist.

Bulb Culture.

THE BULB GARDEN, or, How to Cultivate Bulbous and
Tuberous-rooted Flowering Plants to Perfection. A Manual
adapted for both the Professional and Amateur Gardener. By
Samuel Wood, Author of "Good Gardening," etc. With
Coloured Illustrations, Plans of Gardens best suited to the Cultiva-
tion of Bulbs, and numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo,
y, 6d. cloth. \3ust published.

** Supplies the want which has hitherto existed of any sufficiently modem work ot
the kind. The book contains practical suggestions as to die arrangement of
the flowers, and the groMrth of flo«rer-roots for the trade, as well as for amusement."
—Saturday Review.

Prodtutton of Meat.

MEAT PRODUCTION. A Manual for Producers, Distributors,
and Consumers of Butchers' Meat. Being a treatise on means of
increasing its Home Production. Also comprehensively treating
of the Breeding, Rearing, Fattening, and Slaughtering of Meat-
yielding Live Stock ; Indications of the Quality ; Means for Pre-
serving, Curing, and Cooking of the Meat, etc., etc. By John
EwART, author of "The Land Improvers Pocket Book," etc.
With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 5;. cloth.

** A compact and handy volume on the meat question, which deserves serious and
thoughtful consideration at the present time, when the question of the food sup^l^f <\C
the country has become one of the leading topics of the dav." — Meat an.l Pro«x*lo»»,
Traded Review,

30 WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, GARDEmNG, ETC,

Good Gardening.

A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or. How to
Grow Vegetables, Fmits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on
Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting, Laying-oat of Gardens and
Grounds, &c. By S. Wood. Second Edition, with considerable
Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 5/. cloth.

** A Teiy good book, and one to be higUy recommended as a practical guide.
The practicu directions are excellent." — Atkemtum,

" A thoroughly useful gniddxwk for the amateur gardener. ''~Z>aft^ T^l^n^k.

Profitable Gardening.

MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING; or. How to make One
Acre of Land produce ;f 620 a year, by the Cultivation of Fniits
and V^etables ; also. How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass
Houses, so as to realise £l^(> per annum clear Profit. By Samuel
Wood, Author of " Good Gardening," &c. 3rd Edition, revised
With Wood Engravings. Cr. 8vo, 2s. doth.
" We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and
gentleman's gardener, but to the market grower." — Gardener's Magaxime.

Scott Burtis System of Modem Farming.

OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn.
Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming Economy-
Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of the Dairy, Pigs, and
Poultry — Utilisation of Town-Sevrage, Irr^tion, &c New Editioa
In I voL 1250 pp., half-bound, profusely illustrated, I2x.
" There is sufficioit stated within die limits of dus treatise to pre ve nt a fiumer
from going far wrong in any of his operations."— C7^frrv^r.

E wart's Land Improver^ s Pocket-Book.

THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FOR-
MULA, TABLES, and MEMORANDA, required in any Com-
putation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Pro-
perty. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor and Agricultural Engineer.
Royal 32mo, oblong, leather, g^t edges, with elastic band, 4J.
* A compendious and handy little \o\\xcEM.*'—S^ctator.

Hudson's Tables for Land Valuers.

THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT : being Tables,
on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of
Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial
Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, CE.
New Edition, royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, elas'tic band, \s,
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