Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN
HISTORICAL OUTLINES
OF
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE
HISTORICAL OUTLINES
OF
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE,
COMPRISING
CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
LANGUAGE, AND ON WORD-FORMATION.
BY THE
REV. RICHARD MORRIS, LL.D.
EDITOR OF HAMPOLE'S "PRICKE OF CONSCIENCE," "THE STORY OF GENESIS AND
EXODUS," " AYENBITE OF INWYT," " OLD ENGLISH HOMILIES," ETC. ETC.
MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY,
LECTURER ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN KING'S COLLEGE SCHOOL.
SECOND EDITION
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1872.
[77ie Ri^ht of Translation and Reproduction is reserved.]
LONDON I
». Cl.AY, SONS, AKD TAYLOR, FRINTKRS,
BREAD STREET HILL.
Annex
flE
1101
1*7 P-
PREFACE.
MANY writers on the structure and history of English,
in spite of the plain evidence to the contrary, have
regarded our language as one that has sprung up, com-
paratively speaking, within a very recent period. Some
have dared to carry it as far back as Chaucer's time,
because he has usually been spoken of as " the well of
English undefiled." Others again, not so bold, have
deemed it quite sufficient to date the rise of the English
language from the time of the greatest of Elizabethan
writers. By not regarding the earlier stages of our lan-
guage as English, all the necessary helps to a rational
treatment of its grammatical forms and idioms have
been cast aside. The Saturday Review has, very rightly,
raised its voice rather loudly against the absurdity of
such a view, and has properly insisted upon the right
of all periods to be designated as English, — the very
oldest term for our language, and one that is identified
with its earliest history and with the very best writers
of all its periods, from Alfred the Great down to the
vi PREFACE.
present time. This outcry- against an absurd nomen-
clature has been productive of good results, as is seen
in the growing tendency that manifests itself nowadays
to study the older stages of English, for the sake of the
light they throw upon its later and more modern periods ;
and in very many of our public schools, the upper forms
possess a very creditable acquaintance with some of our
old English worthies, and are enabled by the knowledge
they have thus acquired to get a satisfactory account of
the peculiarities and anomalies of modern English.
The unsatisfactory state of most of our English Gram-
mars is perhaps due to the limited knowledge of their
writers,1 and to their unwillingness to avail themselves of
the help afforded by the remains of our early literature.
English Grammar, without a reference to the older forms,
must appear altogether anomalous, inconsistent, and, un-
intelligible. In Germany, the grammar of our language
has been studied and treated scientifically, in the order
of its historical development, by means of our early
literature, and it has also been illustrated by the results
of Comparative Philology. To the most recent of the
German works on our language, that by Professor Koch
— the most orderly and scientific English grammar yet
written — I have been greatly indebted in the compilation
of the present volume, especially for the chapters on word-
1 I do not include Dr. Latham's English Grammars among the
works of the numerous grammar-mongers here alluded to.
PREFACE. vii
formation and the Appendices I. and II. I have also
made much use of the lectures of Professor Max Miiller
on " The Science of Language," and those of Professor
Whitney on " Language, and the Study of Language."
I have, I hope, turned to good account the many old
English works that have been issued from time to time
by our Book Clubs, especially those published by the
present Early English Text Society ; l but the size of
my book obliged me to admit only so many old English
illustrations as were absolutely necessary for the full
explanation of the forms under consideration. I have
endeavoured to write a work that can be profitably used
by students and by the upper forms in our public
schools ; a very elementary book formed no part of my
plan. I hope, however, to have leisure to write a more
elementary work than the present one, as well as to
compile " Historical Outlines of English Syntax," as a
supplement to this " Accidence."
To my own shortcomings I am fully alive, as I know
from my experience as a teacher how difficult it is in
linguistic matters to make one's statements plain and
simple as well as accurate ; I have, however, been more
anxious to write a useful than a popular book, and for
the convenience of English students I have sacrificed the
scientific method of treating English adopted by Koch,
1 It is the plain duty of every Englishman who can in any way
afford it, to support this Society, and the Chaucer Society.
viii PREFACE.
to the more practical one followed by Matzner in his
" Englische Grammatik." Koch commences with a
hypothetical primitive Teutonic speech (Grundsprache),
and traces our language chronologically through all its
stages up to its present form.
In Appendix II. the reader will find an abstract
(with some few additions) of Koch's historical scheme
of the " Accidence," exhibiting the chief inflexional
forms of the English language in its earlier stages.
I have added comparative Tables of Adverbs, Preposi-
tions, Conjunctions, and Interjections, and can vouch
for their correctness only so far as my own reading goes.
The classification is Koch's.
KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON,
December 1871.
GRAMMATICAL WORKS CONSULTED.
Lectures on the Science of Language. First and Second Series.
By Max Mullet. 1861—1864.
Comparative Grammar of the Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, &c.
Languages, by Professor F. Bopp. Translated by B. Eastwick,
F.R.S. Third Edition. London : 1862.
Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-germani-
schen Sprachen, von August Schleicher. Weimar : 1866.
Deutsche Grammatik, von Jacob Grimm. Gottingen: 1819 —
1840.
A Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic Languages, by James
Helfenstein, Ph.D. London: 1870.
Families of Speech, by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, M.A., F.R.S.
London : 1870.
Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh. London :
1861.
The Origin and History of the English Language, and of the
Early Literature it embodies, by G. P. Marsh. London : 1862.
Historische Grammatik der Englische Sprache, von C. Friedrich
Koch. 1863—1869.
Englische Grammatik, von Eduard Matzner. Berlin : 1860
—1865.
x GRAMMATICAL WORKS CONSULTED.
Wissenschaftliche Grammatik der Englishe Sprache, von Eduard
Fiedler, I Bd. Zerbst : 1850. 2 Bd. von Dr. Carl Sachs Leipzig:
1861.
The English Language, by R. G. Latham, M.D. 1855.
The Elements of the English Language, by Ernest Adams, Ph.D.
1870.
A Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners, by Max Miiller. London :
1870.
A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue from the Danish of
Erasmus Rask, translated by Benjamin Thorpe. London : 1865.
A Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language, by
Francis A. March. London : 1870.
Affixes in their Origin and Application, by S. S. Haldeman.
Revised Edition. Philadelphia : 1871.
A Shakespearian Grammar, by E. A. Abbott, M. A. London:
1870.
Language, and the Study of Language. By W. D. Whitney.
London : 1867.
Philological Essays, by the Rev. Richard Garnett. London: 1859.
Observations on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales,
and Gower's Confessio Amantis, by F. J. Child. Boston.
My own schemes of the Grammar of the Old English Southern
dialect will be found in J;he " Ayenbite of Inwyt," " Old English
Homilies" (First Series), and "An Old English Miscellany;" of
the East Midland, in the " Story of Genesis and Exodus," and " Old
English Homilies" (Second Series);1 of the West Midland, in
"Early English Alliterative Poems"— (all published by the Early
English Text Society) ; of the Northern, in Hampole's " Pricke of
Conscience " (Philological Society).
i In the Press.
CONTRACTIONS.
Abs. and Achith. = Absalom and Achitophel.
Allit. = Alliterative Poems (ed. Morris).
Areop. = Milton's Areopagitica (ed. Arber).
Ayenbite — Ayenbite of Inwyt (ed. Morris).
B. and F. = Beaumont and Fletcher.
Boeth. = Boethius.
C. Tales = Canterbury Tales.
Compl. of L. Lyfe = Complaint of a Lover's Lyfe (attributed to
Chaucer).
Confess. Amant. = Confessio Amantis (Gower).
Coriol. = Coriolanus.
Cosmog. = Cosmography (Earle).
Cymb. = Cymbeline.
Dan. = Danish.
E. E. Poems = Early English Poems (ed. Furnivall).
E. E. Spec. = Specimens of Early English (ed. Morris).
F. Q. = Faerie Queene.
Gen. and Ex. = Story of Genesis and Exodus (ed. Morris).
Ger. = German.
Gest. Rom. = Gesta Romanorum (Early English Version).
Goth. = Gothic.
Gr. = Greek.
CONTRA CTIONS.
led. = Icelandic.
Lat = Latin.
La3. = LaSamon's Brut (ed. Madden).
Med. Lat. = Mediaeval Latin.
MeL = Anatomy of Melancholy (Burton).
Mid. H. G. = Middle High German.
O. E. = Old English.
O. E. Horn. = Old English Homilies (ed. Morris).
O. F. = Old French.
O. H. Ger. = Old High German.
O. N. = Old Norse.
Orm. = Ormulum (ed. White).
O. Sax. = Old Saxon.
P. L. = Paradise Lost.
P. of C. = Pricke of Conscience (ed. Morris).
P. of P. = Pastime of Pleasure (Hawes).
Pilgrimage = Pilgrimage of the Lyf of Manhole (ed. Aldfe
Wright).
Prov. E. = Provincial English.
Robt. of Gl. = Robert of Gloucester.
Sansk. = Sanskrit
Shep. Cal. — Shepherd's Calendar.
Spec. E. E. = Specimens of Early English (ed. Morris).
Swed. = Swedish.
•
Tr. and Cr. = Troilus and Cressida.
Trist = Lay of Sir Tristram (ed. Scott).
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGF
FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES I
CHAPTER II.
GRIMM'S LAW 13
CHAPTER III.
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 2^
CHAPTER IV.
OLD ENGLISH DIALECTi 41
CHAPTER V.
PERIOrS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 48
CHAPTER VI.
PHONOLOGY 57
CONTENTS.
ORTHOGRAPHY
CHAPTER VII.
FACE
62
CHAPTER VIII.
ACCENT
74
CHAPTER IX.
ETYMOLOGY
79
CHAPTER X.
SUBSTANTIVES
82
CHAPTER XL
ADJECTIVES
104
CHAPTER XII.
PRONOUNS
116
CHAPTER XIII.
CHAPTER XIV.
153
193
CHAPTER XV.
PREPOSITIONS
203
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVI.
PAGE
CONJUNCTIONS 207
CHAPTER XVII.
INTERJECTIONS 2CK)
CHAPTER XVIII.
DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION 211
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX 1 251
APPENDIX II 260
APPENDIX III 337
INDEX 357
ERRATA.
95> § 79> c°l- 7> f
Page 128, footnote I, dele from We to beyond, and add,
= O.E. anefent — on-efn, on-emn — even with, against, &c.
Page 171, footnote i. The theory of Riickumlaut, or a return to
an original sound which has undergone umlaut, though adopted by
most German philologists, cannot be defended. Mr. Sweet has, in
the Academy, very clearly explained the apparent vowel-change in
such weak verbs as told, sold, &c.
The Gothic saljan, to sell, represents the primitive form of the
verb in which umlaut has not taken place, as it has in O. Eng.
sellan (= sclian). In the infinitive mood and present tense the
suffix * dropped out after umlaut had taken place ; but in the pre-
terite salde ( — salide), sold, the i dropped out without causing umlaut,
so that the root-vowel was thus preserved.
Page 176, line 12, for § 283 read 282.
Page 228, line 8, an-hungred is not found in the oldest English,
but is met with in subsequent periods.
Page 229, line 1 1, for many read navy.
HISTORICAL OUTLINES
OB
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
CHAPTER I.
FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES.
1. WORDS are articulate sounds used to express perception and
thought. The aggregate of these articulate sounds, accepted by and
current among any community, we call speech or language.
2. The language of the same community often presents local
varieties ; to these varieties we give the name of dialects.
3. Grammar treats of the words of which language is composed,
and of the laws by which it is governed.
4. The science of Grammar is of two kinds : (a) Descriptive
Grammar, which classifies, arranges, and describes words as sepa-
rate parts of speech, and notes the changes they undergo under
certain conditions.
(b) Comparative Grammar, which is based on the study of
words, goes beyond the limits of Descriptive Grammar ; that is,
beyond the mere statement of facts. It analyses words, accounts for
the changes they have undergone, and endeavours to trace them back
to their origin. It thus deals with the growth of language.
Descriptive Grammar teaches us that the word loveth is a verb,
indicative mood, &c. Comparative Grammar informs us, (i) that the
radical part of the verb is lov (or luf), denoting desire (cp. Lat.
lubeo) ; (2) that the suffix -th is a remnant of a demonstrative
pronoun signifying he, that, of the same origin as the -t in lube-t.
B
2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
5. Comparative Grammar has shown us that languages may be
classified in two ways : (i) According to the peculiarities of their
grammatical structure, or the mode of denoting the relation of words
to one another ; (2) according to historical relationship.
6. The first mode of classification is called a morpJiological one.
It divides languages into, (i) Monosyllabic or Isolating; (2) Agglu-
tinative ; (3) Inflectional or Polysyllabic.
These terms also represent three periods in the growth of languages
. — that is to say, that language, as an organism, may pass through three-
stages, (i) The monosyllabic period, in which roots are used as
words, without any change of form.
In this stage there are no prefixes or suffixes, and no formally dis-
tinguished parts of speech.
The Chinese is the best example of a language in the isolating or
monosyllabic stage.
"Every word in Chinese is monosyllabic ; and the same word, with-
out any change of form, may be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective,
an adverb, or a particle. Thus ta, according to its position in a
sentence, may mean great, greatness, to grow, very much, very.
" \Ve cannot in Chinese (as in Latin) derive hamferrnm, iron, a
new substantive ftrrarius, a man who works in iron, a blacksmith ;
ferraria, an iron mine, and again ferrariarius, a man who works in
an iron mine ; all this is possible only in an inflected language. "
— MAX MUIXER.
(2) The agglutinative period. In this stage two unaltered roots
are joined together to form words ; in these compounds one
root becomes subordinate to the other, and so loses its inde-
pendence.1 Cf. man-kind, heir-loom, war-like, which are agglu-
tinative compounds. The Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish, the Tamul,
&c., are agglutinative languages.
The Basque and American languages are agglutinative, with this
difference, that the- roots which are joined together have been
abbreviated, as in the Basque ilhun, "twilight," from hill, dead +
egun, day. In the Mexican language their compound terms are
equivalent to phrases ajid sentences, achichillaf achaean, "the place
where people Veep becaftse the water is red ; " from alt, " water ;"
chichiltic, "red;" tlacatl, "man;" sjad. chorea, "weep."
It has been proposed to call these languages polysynthttic or
incorporating. It is remarkable that most of these languages show
that the people who speak them are deficient in the power of ab-
straction.
1 Cp. Hungarian veit — at — andot — ta — tck (= wait — and— will— have— you, ~
you will have been waited for.
I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 3
(3) The inflectional period, in which roots are modified by
prefixes or suffixes, which were once independent words. In agglu-
tinative languages the union of words may be compared to me-
chanical compounds, in inflective languages to chemical compounds.
In most living languages we find traces of all these processes, and
are thus enabled to see how gradually one stage leads to another.
Take, for example, the following : —
He is like God — monosyllabic.
He is God-like = agglutinative.
He is God-ly — inflectional.
Here the syllable ly = like, originally a word, has dwindled down
to a formative elemeat or suffix.
7. The classification of languages according to historical rela-
tionship is a genealogical one.
Historical relationship may be shown by comparing the grammar
and vocabulary of any two or more languages ; if the system of
grammatical inflexions bear a close resemblance to one another, and
if there be a general agreement in the employment of those terms that
are least likely to have been lost or displaced by borrowed terms
(such as pronouns, numerals, words denoting near relationship, &c. ),
then it may be safely asserted that such languages are related to one
another.
Historical relationship, then, rests upon, (i) the similarity of gram-
matical structure ; (2) the fundamental identity of roots.
8. Comparative Grammar teaches us that the English language is
a member of a group of allied languages, to which the term Teutonic
has been given.
The Tentones were a German tribe conquered by Marius : hence
the terms Teiitonicus and Theotiais were subsequently applied to all
German-speaking people.
The Germans still call their language Deut-sch}-
The origin of the term is found in Old High German diet,
people, dtiit-isc, national. In the oldest English theod and theodisc =
people (cf. Umbrian Latin tuticus, from tuta, a city). The Teutons
were the people, in contradistinction to the Romans and others, whom
they called Welsh, or foreign.
The name German was probably given to the Teutons by some
continental Keltic tribes. By some philologists the word German
is said to mean howlers, shriekers (from Keltic gairm-a, to cry out),
on account of their warlike shouts.
1 Dutch is merely another form of the same wcid.
15 2
4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
9. The Teutonic dialects may be arranged in three groups or
subdivisions : —
( I ) The Low German ; (2) the Scandinavian ; (3) the High German.
The English language is a Low German dialect, and is closely
allied to the dialects still spoken on the northern shores and lowlands
of Germany. This relationship is easily accounted for by the emi-
gration of the Angles, Saxon, and other Low German tribes from
the lowlands of Germany situate between the Rhine and Baltic
coasts.
T. To the Low German division belong the following languages : —
(1) Gothic, the oldest and most primitive of the Teutonic
dialects, of which any remains are known, was spoken
by the Eastern and Western Goths, who occupied
the province of Dacia, whence they made incursions
into Asia, Galatia, and Cappadocia.
The oldest record of this dialect is found in the translation of the
Bible by Bishop Ulphiias (born 318, died 388), the greater part of
which has perished, though we still possess considerable portions of
the Gospels and St. Paul's Epistles, some pieces of the Old Testa-
ment, and a small portion of a Commentary.
(2) Frisian, (a) Old Frisian as preserved in documents of
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ; (b) Modern Fri-
sian, still spoken in Friesland, along the coasts and
islands of the North Sea between the Weser and the
Elbe, and in Holstein and Sleswick.
The Frisian is more closely allied to English than the rest of the
Low German languages.
(3) Dutch, (a) Old Dutch (as seen in documents from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth century) ; (6) Modern Dutch,
spoken in Holland and Belgium.
(4) Flemish, (a) Old Flemish, the language of the Court
of Flanders and Brabant in the sixteenth century;
(b) Modern 'Flemish,
(5) Old Saxon, or the Saxon of the Continent, spoken be-
tween the Rhine and Elbe, which had its origin in the
districts of Munster, Essen, and Cleves.
There is a specimen of this dialect in a poetical version of the
Gospels (of the ninth century), entitled the Heljand (O.E. Heiland}
— the Healer or Saviour.
I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 5
The Old Saxon is very closely related to English, and retains
many Teutonic inflexions that have 'disappeared in other Low
German dialects.
(6) English, (a) Old English ; (6) Modern English ; (f)
Provincial English ; (d) Lowland Scotch.
II. To the Scandinavian division belong the following tongues :
— (i) Icelandic; (2) Norwegian; (3) Swedish ; (4) Danish.
The Icelandic is the purest and oldest of the Scandinavian dialects.
The Old Icelandic, from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, is
often called Old Norse, a term that properly applies only to Old
Norwegian.
Iceland was colonized by the Northmen, who established a Re-
public there, and were converted to Christianity A.D. 1000.
III. To the High German division belongs Modern German,
the literary dialect of Germany, properly the speech of the south-
east of Germany, Bavaria, Austria, and some adjacent districts.
It is divided into three stages —
(a) Old High German, comprising a number of dialects (the
Thuringian, Franconian, Swabian, Alsacian, Swiss,
and Bavarian), spoken in Upper or South Germany
from the beginning of the eighth to the middle of the
eleventh century.
(b) Middle High German, spoken in Upper Germany from
the beginning of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth
century.
(c) Modern High German, from the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury to the present time.
Luther ennobled the dialect he used in his beautiful translation of
the Bible, and made the High German the literary language of all
German-speaking people. The Low German dialects of the Conti-
nent are yielding to its influence, and, in course of time, will be
wholly displaced by it.
10. If we compare English and modern German we find them very
clearly distinguished from each other by regular phonetic changes : l
thus a d in English corresponds to a / in German, as dance and
tanz ; day and tag ; deep and tie/; drink and trink. A t in English
iigrees with an s or z in German, as is shown by foot and fuss ;
1 See Grimm's Law, p. 13.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
tin and zinn; to and zu ; tivo and zwei; -water and -wasser. A
German d is equivalent to our th, as die and Afoy dein and thine ;
bad and &z/>4, &c.
Xot only English, but all the remaining members of the Low
German family, as well as the Scandinavian dialects, are thus dis-
tinguished from High German.
II. The Scandinavian dialects differ from the other members of
the Teutonic family in the following particulars : —
(i) The definite article follows its substantive, and coalesces with
it.
In O. Norse /»» = ille; *« = illa; *#=illud : hence hani-nn, the
cock ; giof-in, the gift ; fat -it, the foot.
In Swedish and Danish en (mas. fern.) and et (neut.) = the.
bord-<#, the table.
hjert-a1, the heart.
. — Konung-<r«, the king.
Dan. — Kong-en, ,, ,,
(2) The reflex pronoun sik (O. N.), jag-(Swed. and Dan.),1 Lat. se,
= self, coalesces with verbs, and forms a reflexive suffix : as O.N. at
(alia = fall down, and sik — self, produce the reflexive (or middle)
verb atfallask.
Sk is still further worn down to st, and when added to the verb
renders it passive, as O. N. at kalla, to call ; at kallast, to be
called.
In English we have borrowed at least two of these reflexive verbs ;
namely, bu*sk, from the Icel. bu-a, to prepare, make ready, direct
one's course, and ba-sk ( = bak-sk) from IceL baka, to warm, which
is identical with Eng. bake.
12. Comparative Philology has also proved to us that the
Teutonic dialects form a subdivision of a great family of related
languages, to which the term Indo-European has been applied.
When we recollect that the Indo-European family comprehends
nearly all the languages of Europe, and all those Indian dialects that
1 From the following table it will be seen that sik is accusative : —
O. Norse.
Swedish.
Danish.
Dutch.
German.
Latin.
Norn.
Gen.
wanting
sin
wanting
zijns
sein
sui
Dat
ser
sig
ug
rich
sich
sibi
Ace
sik
s«
sig
rich
sich
se
i.j FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. ^
have sprung from the old Hindu language (Sanskrit), the term is by
no means an inappropriate one. It has been proposed, however,
by eminent philologists, that the term Aryan should be used in its
place. The word Aryan is a Sanskrit word, meaning honourable, noble.
It was the name by which the old Hindus and Persians, who at a
very early period had attained a high degree of culture and civili-
zation, used to call themselves in contradistinction to the uncivilized
races or non- Aryans of India whom they conquered.
Vestiges of the old name are found in Iran, Armenia, Herat, &c.
There are two great divisions of the Indo-European family : A.
European ; B. Asiatic.
A. EUROPEAN DIVISION.
I. The Teutonic Languages, of which we have already
spoken.
II. The Keltic Languages.
(a) Cymric Class. — (i) Welsh; (2) Cornish (died
out about the middle of sixteenth century) ;
(3) Bas-Breton.
(l>) Gadhelic Class. — (i) Erse or Irish; (2) Gaelic,
spoken in the Highlands of Scotland ; (3)
Manx (the dialect spoken in the Isle of
Man).
III. The Italic or Romanic Languages.
(a) Old Italian dialects, as the Oscan (of South
Italy), the Umbrian (of N. E. Italy), Sabine.
(b) The Romance dialects, which have sprung from
the Latin, (i) Italian; (2) French; (3) Pro-
ven9al ; (4) Spanish ; (5) Portuguese ; (6)
Rhaeto-Romanic (or Roumansch), spoken in
Southern Switzerland ; (7) Wallachian,
spoken in the northern provinces of Tur-
key (Wallachia and Moldavia).
The Wallachian is divided by the Danube into two dialects, the
Northern and the Southern. It owes its origin chiefly to the Roman
colonies sent into Dacia by Trajan.
IV. The Hellenic Languages.
(1) Ancient Greek (comprising the Attic, Ionic,
Doric, and ./Eolic dialects).
(2) Modern Greek (comprising several dialects).
8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
The Albanian dialect is a representative of the language spoken
by the Illyrians, who probably occupied the Greek peninsula before
the Hellenic tribes.
All that can be positively stated about it is that it belongs to the
Indo-European family, and is closely related to Greek.
The Albanians inhabit part of the ancient Epirus and Illyrium.
They call themselves Skipetars or mountaineers, and the Turks call
them Arnauts ( — Arbanites).
V. The Sclavonic Languages.
(a) South-east Sclavonic.
(1) Old Bulgarian (or Old Church Slavic) of the
eleventh century.
(2) Russian ; (a) Russian Proper ; (b) Little Russian
or Ruthenian.
(3) Illyric, comprising, (i) Servian; (2) Kroatian ;
(3) Slovenian (of Carinthia and Styria).
(6) Western Branch.
(4) Polish.
(5) Bohemian.
(6) Slovakian.
(7) Upper and Lower Serbian (Lusatian dialects).
(8) Polabian (on the Elbe).
VI. The Lettic Languages.
(1) Old Prussian (the original language of N.E.
Prussia).
(2) Lettish or Livonian (spoken in Kurland and
Livonia).
(3) Lithuanian (spoken in Eastern Prussia).
The Turkish, Hungarian, Basque, Lappish, Finnish, and
Esthonian do not belong to the Indo-European family.
B. ASIATIC DIVISION.
VII. The Indian Languages.
(1) Sanskrit (dead).
(2) Prakrit (Indian dialects, preserved in Sanskrit
dramas).
I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. g
(3) I, Pali (the sacred language of the Buddhists) ;
2, Cingalese, spoken in the Island of
Ceylon.
(4) Modem Indian dialects descended from Sanskrit,
as Hindi, Hindustani, Bengali, Mahratti.
(5) Gypsy dialect. (The Gypsies are of Indian
origin. )
Sanskrit is the oldest and most primitive of the existing Indo-
European tongues.
VIII. The Iranian Languages.
(1) Zend (or Zand), the language of the Zoro-
astrians, preserved in the Zend-Avesta, or
sacred writings of the old Persians, parts of
which are at least a thousand years old.
(2) The cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and
Xerxes and their successors (of the Achae-
menid dynasty), the oldest of them being
about five centuries before Christ.
(3) Pehlevi or Huzvaresh, the language of the
Sassanian dynasty (A.D. 226-651).
(4) Parsi or Pazend, spoken in a more eastern
locality than the Pehlevi, about the time of
the Mohammedan conquest.
(5) Modern Persian, which differs but little from the
Parsi, arose after the Mohammedan conquest
Its first great national work, Shah-Nameh,
was written by Firdusi (died 1020).
The Armenian, Ossetic (spoken in the Caucasus), Kurdish
(spoken by the mountaineers of the border land between Persia,
Turkey, and Russia), Afghan (or Pushto), the language of Bokhara,
are all clearly related to Sanskrit and Persian, but it has not yet
been decided to which group they severally belong.
13. All the Indo-European languages are descended from one
common stock ; that is to say, all the Indo-European languages are
dialects of an old and primitive tongue \rhich no longer exists.
The people who spoke this tongue must have lived together as one
great community more than three thousand years ago. Tradition,
as well as the evidence of language, points to the north-eastern part
of the Iranian table-land, near the Hindu-Rush mountains, as the
original abode of this primitive people.1
'The Aryan people, as they called themselves in opposition to the barbarian,
Cust have occupied a region of vhich Bactria may be regarded as the centre.
io ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP
We must not suppose that they formed one strongly-constituted
state, but were probably divided into distinct tribes, united solely by
the general bond of race, by similarity of manners, religion, and
language.
The language of the primitive Indo-Europeans had its local
varieties or dialects, which were distinguished by certain euphonic
differences ; and these differences, after the Indo-European tribes left
their ancient abode and separated, would become more marked, and
other changes would take place, so that these dialects would assume
the aspect of languages at first sight wholly unconnected.
By the aid of Comparative Philology we find that it is possible
to classify and arrange fas. phonetic differences of the various Indo-
European languages, and to reduce them to certain rules, so that we
are* enabled to determine what sound in one language corresponds to
that of another.1
Philological research has found " that the primitive tribe which
spoke the mother-tongue of the Indo-European family was not
nomadic alone, but had settled habitations, even towns and fortified
places, and addicted itself in part to the rearing of cattle, in part to
the cultivation of the earth. It possessed our chief domestic animals
— the horse, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the swine, besides the
dog ; the bear and the wolf were foes that ravaged its flocks ; the
mouse and fly were already its domestic pests.
" The region it inhabited was a varied one, not bordering upon
the ocean. The season whose name has been most persistent is the
winter. Barley, and perhaps also wheat, was raised for food, and
converted into meal. Mead was prepared from honey, as a cheering
and inebriating drink. The use of certain metals was known;
whether iron was one of these admits of question. The art of
weaving was practised ; wool and hemp, and possibly flax, being the
materials employed. Of other branches of domestic industry little
that is definite can be said ; but those already mentioned imply a
variety of others, as co-ordinate or auxiliary to them. The weapons
of offence and defence were those whicli are usual among primitive
peoples — the sword, spear, bow, and shield. Boats were manufac-
tured, and moved by o*a*s. Of extended and elaborate political
organization no traces are discoverable ; the people was doubtless a
congeries of petty tribes, under chiefs and leaders rather than kings,
The primitive Aryan must have embraced nearly the whole of the region
situated between the Hindu-Kush (Belurtagh), the Oxus, and the Caspian Sea :
and perhaps extended a good way into Sogdiana, towards the sources of the
Oxus and the Taxartes. (Pictet.)
1 Rask first discovered, and Grimm afterward* worked out, the law which
goveins the permutation of consonants ; hence it is always known us Grimm's
I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. n
and with institutions of a patriarchal cast, among which the reduction
to servitude of prisoners taken in war appears not to have been
wanting.
" The structure and relations of the family are more clearly seen ;
names of its members, even to the second and third degrees of con-
sanguinity and affinity, were already fixed, and were significant of
affectionate regard and trustful interdependence. That woman was
looked down upon as a being in capacity and dignity inferior to
man we find no indication whatever.
"The art of numeration was learned, at least up to a hundred;
there is no general Indo-European word for 'thousand.' Some of
the stars were noticed and named. The moon was the chief measurer
of time.
" The religion was polytheistic, a worship of the personified powers
of nature. Its rites, whatever they were, were practised without
the aid of a priesthood." — WHITNEY.
14. Next to the Indo-European the most important family of
languages is the Semitic, sometimes called the Syro- Arabian family,
of which the chief divisions are as follows : —
(a) The Northern or Aramaic, comprehending, (i) the Syriac
(ancient and modern) ; (2) the Assyrian and JBaby-
lonian,
(£) The Central or Canaanitic, including, (i) Hebrew, Phoeni-
cian, Samaritan, and Carthaginian or Punic.
(c) The Southern or Arabic, comprehending, (i) Arabic and
Maltese ; (2) Himyaritic (once spoken in the S.W. of
the peninsula of Arabia), and the Amharic and other
Abyssinian dialects ; (3) the Ethiopic or Geez (the
ancient language of Abyssinia).
It has not yet been shown that the Semitic languages, although in-
flectional, are historically connected with the Indo-European family.
It has not been decided whether the Hamitic family, containing,
(i) the ancient Egyptian and Coptic ; (2) Galla; (3) Berber; (4) Hot-
tentot, &c., have any historical connection with the Semitic.
1 5. The other languages of the world fall into various groups.
A. — The Alatyan or Scythian, comprehending, (i) Hun-
garian; (2) Turkish; (3) Finnish and Lappish; (4)
the Samoyed dialects ; (5) Mongolian dialects ; (6) Tun-
gusian dialects (as Manchu).
12 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. i.
B. — I. The Dravidian or Tamulic (including Tamul, Telegu,
Malabar, Canaries). II. The languages of N.E.
Asia (including the dialects of the Corea, the Kuriles,
Kamchatka, &c. ). III. Japanese, and dialect of Loo-
Choo. IV. Malay-Polynesian or Oceanic languages
(comprehending the dialects of Malacca, Java, Su-
matra, Melanesia, &c. ). V. The Caucasian dialects
(Georgian, &c.).
C. — South African dialects.
A, B, and C are agglutinative in their structure, but have no his-
torical connection with each other.
D. — I. Chinese. II. The language of Farther India (the
Siamese, Burmese, Annamese, Cambodian, £c. ). III.
Thibetan.
These are monosyllabic or isolating in structure.
E. — I. Basque. II. The aboriginal languages of South
America — all polysynthetic in structure.
CHAPTER II.
GRIMM'S LAW.
16. I. IF the same roots or the same words exist in Sanskrit,
Greek, Latin, Keltic, Slavonic, Lithuanian, Gothic,1 and Old High
German, then, wherever the Sanskrit or Greek has an aspirate the
Gothic has the corresponding fiat mute.
II. If in Sanskrit, Greek, &c., we find a flat mute, then we find
a corresponding sharp mute ki Low German, and a corresponding
aspirate in High German.
III. If the six first-named languages show a sharp mute, the
Gothic shows the corresponding aspirate, and Old High German the
corresponding flat mute.
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE SOUNDS.
Sanskrit.
Greek.
Latin.
Gothic and
Low Germ.
Languages.
Old High
Gennau.
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M
"^~ ^
D 73
S ^^
1
-S-J E
•C c c C
24 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
17. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given of this permuta-
tion of consonants throughout the Indo-European family of languages,
"nevertheless we have no reason to believe it of a nature essentially
different from the other mutations of sound l of equally arbitrary
appearance, though of less complication and less range, which the
history of language everywhere exhibits." — WHITNEY.
The changes of sounds just noticed have arisen from what Max
Miiller terms dialectic growth. Even in the history of our own lan-
guage we find traces of similar changes, as vat, in wine-vat, is the
old Southern English form for the Northern fat, a vessel.
In the dialects of the South of England, we may still hear dirsh =
thrush ; drash = thrash.
The aspirate dental th has become s in the third person singular
of verbs, as heloveth = he loves. But this was once a dialectical
peculiarity.
18. There are other changes that must not be confounded with the
permutations coming under Grimm's Law : the chief are those that
arise from an endeavour to make the work of speaking easier to the
speaker, to put a more facile in the stead of a more difficult sound
or combination of sounds, and to get rid of what is unnecessary in
the words we use.
"All articulate sounds are produced by effort, by expenditure oi
muscular energy, in the lungs, throat, and mouth. This effort, like
every other which man makes, he has an instinctive disposition to
seek relief from, to avoid ; we may call it laziness, or we may call it
economy — it is in fact either the one or the other — according to the
circumstances of each separate case ; it is laziness when it gives up
more than it gains ; economy when it gains more than it abandons. "
— WHITNEY.
These wearing down processes are often called euphonic 2 changes.
Max Miiller terms them the results of phonetic decay.
Thus, as he remarks, nearly all the changes that have taken place
in our own language within the last eight centuries come under this
class of changes.
(l) Softening of gutturals at end of words, as silly from s&lig,
godly from godlic = godlike, barley from b<zr-lic_
1 AH letter-change must be based upon physiological grounds.
2 The seat of euphony is in the vocal not in the acoustic organs.
3 bar =r O.K. bere = barley, cp. 'LsA.far; -ley= O.E. -lie (as in garlick, hem-
lock) = plant.
H.] GRIMM'S LA IV. 25
In laugh, cough, &c. the guttural is represented by a labial aspi-
rate (cp. O.E. thof '= though; thruf, thurf — through). A similar
change is seen in Lat. frio, frico, as compared with Gr. \pito,
Sansk. gkarsh, to rub ; Lat. formus, warm ; Sansk. gharma, and
Gr. 6epfju!s.
Trough is pronounced in some parts as troth, just as we hear
children saying fum for thumb, and miffing for nothing. The Rus-
sians put/" regularly for th, turning Theodore into Feodor or Fedor
(cp. Gr. 6tfp, Lat. fera, Eng. deer).
In dough and plough (also in dry, buy, O.E. drige, bugge} the gut-
tural sound is altogether lost, just as it is in many Sanskrit words, as
mah for maght to become great ; dith for dugh, to milk, &c. (cp.
anser for hanser = ghanser, Gr. jcn")-
G has been softened down to/ in ridge, edge, bridge, &c. from O.E.
In bat and mate a £ supplies the place of an original k (cp. O. E. bak
= bat, make = mate, y«%? = fechche = fetch, scratte — scrachche
= scratch).
(2) Softening of initial gutturals, as child for did, &c.
(3) Substitution of d for Afc, as burden for burthen, murder for
murther, &c.
(4) Loss of letters, as woman for tvif-man (cp. ^w^/)/ for goodwife,
huzzy for huswife}, lord for hldford, king for cyning, mole for mold-
warp, stranger for estrangier (Fr.) = extraneus (Lat), &c. (cp. loss
of w before //$ in English words, /torfA for ft>»/£, mouth for muntA,
(5) Insertion of letters, £, </, as slumber for slumer-ian, thumb \
limb, for //£«;«, /z>« (cp. number from numerus, and the insertio::
of / after ;;/ in Latin), thunder for thuner, hind for ^z'«^ (cp. souti.i
for w«w, from Lat. sonus ; and cinder, tender, from Lat. «'«ir, tener ;
Gr. yafj.&p6s for yanp6s ; and Goth, hund-s, Eng. hound, Lat can-is;
Gr. avSpts for app€s).
It must be recollected that certain letter-changes are brought about
under the influence of neighbouring sounds, as English cob-web for
O.E. cop-web, where the influence of «/ has changed the/ into a £ ;
orchard = O. E. art-yard = ort-geard : so we find in the sixteenth
century goujeer for good year.
When two consonants come together the first is often assimilated
to the second, or the second to the first, thus d or t + s will become s,
'26 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 11.
as O.E. god-sib has become gossip. So gospel, grunsel, foster = god-
spel,ground-sel,fodster; chaffare = ehapfare ; cup-board 'is pronounced
cubboard ; Lat. ad-fero = affero, &c. ; puella — putrella, &c.
When two dentals come together, the first is sometimes changed
into a sibilant, as mot-te — moste = most, and wit-te = wiste — \\ ist
(cp. Lat. ^£v/ from O.E. hat-an, to command; misstts for mittus
from 7«i#<? / ««»» = edtutn from «&).
Sometimes j becomes rf, as O.E. "whiles = whilst, hoise =
&c.
Wlien two consonants come together, the first is made like the
second or the second similar to the first,1 as ivtyt = -weeped, kembd
and kempt = kembed = combed ; so we have clotpoll and dodpoll
(cp. Lat. scriptus = scrib-tus). To a similar principle must be ascribed
the loss of the guttural sound of h or gh before // thus might
(= mihtli), night (= nihth) : cp. It. otto for octo.
In other words the only combination of mutes axe. flat +flat and *>ucrf -\
CHAPTER III.
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
19. WE must bear in mind, (i) that English is a member of the
Indo-European family ; (2) that it belongs to the Teutonic group ;
(3) that it is essentially a Low German dialect ; (4) that it was
brought into Britain by wandering tribes from the Continent ; (5)
that we cannot use the terms English or England in connection with
the country before the middle of the fifth century.
20. According to the statements of Bede, the Teutonic invaders
first came over in A.D. 449, and for about 100 years the invasion
may be said to have been going on. In the course of time the
original Keltic population were displaced by the invading tribes,
who became a great nationality, and called themselves ^Englisc or
English. The land they had won they called ^Engla-land (the land
of the Angles) or England.
Bede makes the Teutonic invaders to consist of three tribes —
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons, he tells us, came from
what was known in his time as the district of the Old Saxons, the
country between the Elbe and the Eider.
The Angles came from the Duchy of Sleswick, and there is still a
district in the southern part of the duchy, between the Slie and the
arm of the Baltic, called the Flensborg Fiorde, which bears the
name Angeln.
Bede places the Jutes to the north of the Angles, that is, probably
the upper part of Sleswick or South Jutland.
There were no doubt a considerable proportion of Frisians from
Greater and Lesser Friesland. Bede mentions the Frisians
(Fresones) among the natives from whom the Angles were de-
scended.
The settlements are said to have taken place in the following
order : —
I. Jutes, under Hengest and Horsa, who settled in KENT and
the Isle of Wight and a part of Hampshire in A.D. 449
or 450.
«8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
II. The first division of the Saxons, under Ella (JElle) and
Cissa, settled in SUSSEX, in 477.
III. The second body of Saxons, under Cerdic and Cynric, in
WESSEX, in 495.
IV. The -third body of Saxons in ESSEX, in 530.
V. First division of the Angles, in the kingdom of EAST
ANGLIA (Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and parts
of Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire).
VI. The second division of the Angles, under Ida, in the
kingdom of Beornicia (situated between the Tweed and
the Firth of Forth), in 547.
Two other kingdoms were subsequently established by the Angles
— Deira (between Tweed and Humber), and Afercia,1 comprehending
the Midland counties.
Teutonic tribes were known in Britain, though they made no
settlements before the coming of the Angles. In the fourth century
they made attacks upon the eastern and south-eastern coast of this
island, from the Wash to the Isle of Wight, which, on that account,
was called " Littus Saxonicum" or the Saxon shore or Saxon
frontier ; and an officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore
(Comes Littoris Saxonid per Britannias) was appointed for its
defence. These Teutonic invaders were known to the Romans and
Celts by the name of Saxons ; and this term was afterwards applied
by them to the Teutonic settlers of the fifth century, who, however,
never appear to have called themselves Saxons, but always ^Englisc
or English.
21. The language that was brought into the island by the Low-
German settlers was an inflected speech, like its congener, modem
German. It was, moreover, an unmixed language, all its words
being English, without any admixture of foreign elements.
The Old English borrowed but very few words from the original
inhabitants. In the oldest English written language, from the ninth
to the end of the eleventh century, we find scarcely any traces of
Keltic words.
In our old writers, from the thirteenth century downwards, and in
the modern provincial dialects, we find more frequent traces of words
of Keltic origin, and a few still exist in modem English.
22. The English were converted to Christianity about A. D. 596,
and during the four following centuries many Latin words were
1 Mercia. — march or frontier. In Southern and West Mercia the people were
of Saxon origin ; the others came of an Anglian stock.
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29
introduced by Roman ecclesiastics, and by English writers who
translated Latin works into their own language.
This is called the Latin of the Second period. What is usually
designated the Latin of the First period consists of words that have
had no influence upon the language itself, but are only to be found
in names of places, as castra, a camp, in Don-caster, Chester, &c.
23. Towards the end of the eighth century the Northmen of
Scandinavia (i.e. of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who were
then without distinction called Danes, ravaged the eastern coast of
England, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Ireland.
In the ninth century they gained a permanent footing in England,
and subdued the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and
Mercia.
In the eleventh century Danish sovereigns were established on the
English throne for nearly thirty years.
Chronologically the facts are as'follows : —
In 787 three ships of Northmen appeared and made an attack
upon the coast of Dorsetshire.
In 832 the Danes ravaged Sheppey in Kent.
In 833 thirty- five ships came to Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and
Egbert was defeated by the Danes.
In 835 the Welsh and Danes were defeated by Egbert at Hen-
gestesdun.
In 855 the Danes wintered in Sheppey.
In 866 they wintered in East Anglia.
In 868 they got into Mercia as far as Nottingham, and in 870
they invaded East Anglia.
In 871 the eastern part of Wessex was invaded by the Danes.
In 874 the Danes entered Lincolnshire.
In 876 they made settlements in Northumbria.
In 878 Alfred concluded a treaty with Guthorm or Guthrum,
the Danish chief, and formally ceded to the invaders all Northum-
berland and East Anglia, most part of Essex, and the north-east
part of Mercia.
In 991 the Norwegians invaded the east coast of England and plun-
dered Ipswich ; they were defeated at the battle of Maldon. Before
i coo the Danes had settled in Cumberland.1
In 1013 Svein, King of Denmark, conquered England ; and
between the years 1013 and 1042 a Danish dynasty ruled over
England.
1 For an admirable account of the Danish invasions see Dr. Freeman's Old-
English History for Children, pp. 91 — 239.
30 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
24. The Danish and English are allied tongues, and consequently
there is an identity of roots, so that it is by no means an easy matter
to detect the Danish words that have found their way into English.
In the literature of the tenth and eleventh centuries we find but
few traces of Danish, and what little there is occurs in the scanty
literature of Northern English, and not in the dominant English of the
South. We know, too, that in the north and east of England the
Old English inflections were much unsettled by Danish influence, and
that in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries nearly all the older
inflections of nouns, adjectives, and verbs had disappeared, •while
in the south of England the old forms were kept up to a much
later period, and many of them have not yet died out.
There are numerous traces of Scandinavian words — (i) in the local
nomenclature of England ; (2) in Old English literature of the north
of England ; (3) in the north of England provincial dialects.
In modern English they are not so numerous. It may be suffi-
cient for the present to say that there are a few common words of
undoubted Danish origin, as are, till, until, fro, yhnvard, ill, bound
(for a place), dusk, bask, &c.
25. The next great event that affected the English language
was the Norman invasion in 1066, by which French became the
language of the Court, of the nobility, of the clergy, of literature,
and of all who wished for or sought advancement in Church or
State.1
An old writer tells us that gentlemen's children were taught
French from their cradle ; and in the grammar-schools boys were
taught to construe 'their Latin into French. Even uplandish men
(or rustics) tried to speak French in order to be thought something
of, so low did the English and their language fall into disrepute.
In the universities Latin or French was -ordered to be used.
French was employed in the courts of law, and the proceedings of
Parliament were recorded in French.
1 To the Normans we owe most of the terms pertaining to (i) feudalism and
war, J2 1 tne church, (3) the law, and (4) the chase.
(1) Aid, anns, armou^ assault, banner, baron, battle, buckler, captain,
chivalry, challenge, duke, fealty, fief, gallant, hauberk, homage,
lance, mail, march, soldier, tallage, truncheon, tournament, vassal,
&c.
(2) Altar, Bible, baptism, ceremony, devotion, friar, homily, idolatry, inter-
dict, piety, penance, prayer, preach, relic, religion, sermon, scandal,
sacrifice, saint, tonsure.
(3) Assize, attorney, case, cause, chancellor, court, dower, damage';,
estate, fee, felony, fine, judge, jury, mulct, parliament, plaintiff,
plea, plead, statute, sue, tax, ward.
(4) Bay, brace, chase, couple, copse, course, covert, falcon, forest, leash,
leveret, mews, quarry, reynard, rabbit, tiercet, venison.
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31
The great mass of the people, however, clung to their mother-
tongue, and from time to time there arose men who thought it a
meritorious work to write in English, for the benefit of the " unlered
and lewed," who knew nothing of French.
It must be recollected that the Norman invaders did not carry on
an exterminating war against the natives as the Saxons did against
the Keltic inhabitants, nor were they superior in numbers to the
English ; and therefore, as might be expected, there came a time
when the two races — the conquering and the conquered — coalesced
and became one people, and the language of the majority prevailed.
\Yhile this was taking place French became familiar to the English
people, and very many words found their way first in the spoken and
then in the written language. But after this coalescence of the two
races Norman-French became of less and less importance, and at
last ceased to be spoken.
In 1349 boys ceased to learn their Latin through the medium of
French, and in 1362 (the 36th year of Edward III.) it was directed
by Act of Parliament that all pleadings in the law courts should
henceforth be conducted in English, because, as is stated in the
preamble to the Act, French was become much unknown in the
realm.
Norman- French had suffered too by being transported to English
soil, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had become a
mere provincial dialect, in fact a corrupt sort of French which would
no longer pass current as the " French of Paris."
These changes were brought about by political circumstances,
such as the loss of Normandy in King John s reign, and the French
wars of Edward III. (1339), which produced a strong anti-Gallican
feeling in the minds of both Anglo-Normans and English.
26. We have seen that Norman-French is sprung from the
Latin language brought into Gaul by the Romans. It has, how-
ever, preserved (i) some few Keltic words borrowed from the old
Gauls;1 (2) many Teutonic terms introduced by the Franks, who in
the fifth century conquered the country, and imposed their name
upon the country and language ; 2 (3) a few Scandinavian words
brought into the language by the Northmen who settled in Nor-
mandy in the tenth century.
But the Norman-French was essentially a Latin tongue, and it
added to English another Latin element, which is usually called the
Latin of the third period.
27. From the revival of learning in the beginning of the sixteenth
century up to the present time we have introduced a large number
1 As vassal, varlet, &c. 8 Marshal, seneschal, guile, &c.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[•CHAP.
of words from Latin. These have been called the Latin of the
fourth period.
28. Greek words have also found their way into the language, but
have been borrowed more sparingly than Latin.
The Latin element, then, comes to us either indirectly or directly.
That introduced by the Norman-French comes indirectly, and has
in very many instances undergone great change in spelling. Latin
words of the fourth period are borrowed direct from the Latin, and
have not suffered much alteration. A few examples will make this
clear : —
Latin.
balsamum
captivus
quietus
factum
factio
fragilis
lectio
poenitentia
securus
tractus
Compare, too, ancestor and antecessor ; sampler and exemplar ;
benison and benediction; chalice and calyx ; conceit and conception ;
constraint and construction; defeat and defect; forge and fabric ;
malison and malediction; mayor and major ; nourishment and nutri-
ment ; poor and pauper ; orison (prayer) and oration ; proctor and
procurator ; purveyance and providence ; ray and radius ; respite and
respect; sir and senior ; fur/ace and. superficies, treason and tradition.
Loyal and legal ; privy and private ; royal and regal; strait and
strict.
Aggriezt and aggravate; couch and collocate ; construe and con-
struct; esteem and estimate; paint and depict; purvey and provide ;
rule and regulate.
A few words from, the Greek have suffered similar change, as
frenzy, blame (cp. blaspheme}, fantom (cp. fantasm), story (cp. history).
29. Our language has naturalized miscellaneous words from
various sources besides those already mentioned.
(1) Hebrew.— Abbot, amen, cabal, cherub, jubilee, pharisaical,
Sabbath, seraph, Shibboleth.
(2) Arabic. — Admiral, alchemy, alkali, alcohol, alcove, alembic,
almanac, amulet, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, assassin, atlas,
Latin introduced by
Norman-French.
Latin borrowed directly
from the Latin.
balm
balsam
caitiff
captive
coy
?uiet
feat
act
fashion
faction
frail
fragile
lesson
lection
penance
penitence
sure
secure
trait
tract
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33
azure, bazaar, caliph, chemistry, cotton, cipher, dragoman,
Elixir, felucca, gazelle, giraffe, popinjay, shrub, syrup, sofa,
sherbet, talisman, tariff, tamarind, zenith, zero.
Arabia exercised powerful influence upon European culture in the
Middle Ages. Many words in the above list, as admiral, artichoke,
assassin, popinjay, &c., have come to us through one of the Romance
dialects.
(3) Persian. — Caravan, chess, dervish, emerald, indigo, lac, lilac,
orange, pasha, sash, shawl, turban, taffety.
(4) Hindu. — Calico, chintz, dimity, jungle, boot, muslin, nabob,
pagoda, palanquin, paunch, pundit, rajah, rice, rupee, rum,
sugar, toddy.
(5) Malay. — (Run) a-muck, bantam, gamboge, orang outang,
rattan, sago, verandah ; tattoo and taboo (Polynesian) ; ging-
ham (Java).
(6) Chinese. — Caddy, nankeen, satin, tea, mandarin.
(7) Turkish. — Caftan, chouse, divan, fakir, janissary, odalisk,
saloop, scimitar.
(8) American. — Canoe, cocoa, hammock, maize, potato, skunk,
squaw, tobacco, tomahawk, wigwam, yam.
(9) Italian. — Balustrade, bandit, brave, brst, canto, carnival, char-
latan, domino, ditto, dilettante, folio, gazette, grotto, harle-
quin, motto, portico, scaramouch, stanza, stiletto, stucco,
studio, tenor, umbrella, vista, volcano, &c.
(10) Spanish. — Alligator, armada, cargo, cirjar, desperado, don,
embargo, flotilla, gala, mosquito, punctilio, tornado, &c.
1 II ) Portuguese. — Caste,commodore, fetishism.palaver, porcelain.&c.
(12) French. — Aide-de-camp, accoucheur, accouchement, attache,
au fait, belle, bivouac, belles-lettres, billet-doux, badinage,
blase, bon mot, bouquet, brochure, bonhomie, blonde,
brusque, busk, coif, coup, debut, debris, dejeuner, depot,
eclat, elite, ensemble, ennui, etiquette, entremets, facade,
foible, fricassee, gout, interne, omelet, naive, naivete, penchant,
nonchalance, outre, passe, persiflage, personnel, precis, pres-
tige, programme, protege, rapport, redaction, renaissance,
recherche, seance, soiree, trousseau.
(13) Dutch. — Block, boom, boor, cruise, loiter, ogle, ravel, ruffle,
scamper, schooner, sloop, stiver, yacht, &c.
(14) German. — Landgrave, landgravine, loafer, waltz, cobalt,
nickel, quartz, felspar, zinc.
D
34 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
30. Taking the actual number of words from a good English
dictionary, the sum total will be over 100,000. Words of classical
origin are calculated to be about twice as numerous as pure English
words ; hence some writers, who have only considered the consti-
tuent parts of our vocabulary, have come to the conclusion that
English is not only a mixed or composite language, but also a
Romance language. They have, however, overlooked the fact
that the grammar is not mixed or borrowed, but is altogether
English.
We must recollect that in ordinary conversation our vocabulary is
limited, and that we do not employ more than from three to five
thousand words, while our best writers make use of about twice
that number.
Now it is possible to carry on conversation, and write numerous
sentences, without employing any borrowed terms ; but if we en-
deavour to speak or write without making use of the native element
(grammar or vocabulary), we shall find that such a thing is impos-
sible. In our talk, in the works of our greatest writers, the English
element greatly preponderates.
3 1. It will be interesting as well as useful to be able to distinguish
the English or Ixnv German elements from the Romance terms.
Pure English are—
I. I. Demonstrative adjectives (a, the, this) ; pronouns
(personal, relative, demonstrative, <S:c. ) ; numerals.
2. All auxiliary and defective verbs.
3. Prepositions and conjunctions.
4. Nouns forming their plural by change of vowel.
5. Verbs forming their past tense by change of vowel.
6. Adjectives forming their degrees of comparison irregularly.
II. I. Grammatical inflections, as —
(a) Plural suffixes (-s and -en) and ending of possessive
case.
(^) Verbal inflections of present and past tenses, of active
and passive participles.
(c ) Suffixe* denoting degrees of comparison.
III. I. Numerous suffixes —
(a) Of Nouns, as -hood, -ship, -dom, -th (-(), -ness, -ing,
•ling, -kin, -ock.
(/>) Of Adjectives, as -ful, -ly, -en, -ish, -some, -ward,
(c) Of Verbs, as -en.
2. Numerous prefixes, as a, al, be, for, ful, on, over, out,
under.
IV. Most monosyllabic words.
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
35
S . The names of the elements and their changes, of the seasons,
the heavenly bodies, the divisions of time, the features of natural
scenery, the organs of the body, the modes of bodily actions and
posture, the commonest animals, the words used in earliest child-
hood, the ordinary terms of traffic, the constituent words in
proverbs, the designation of kindred, the simpler emotions of the
mind, terms of pleasantry, satire, contempt, indignation, invective,
and anger, are for the most part un borrowed. l
Of Romance Origin.
Firmament, meteor, planet,
comet, air, atmosphere, sea-
son, autumn, hour, minute.
Mountain, valley, river, rivulet,
torrent, cascade, fountain, un-
dulation.
Of English Origin.
I. Heaven, sky, welkin, sun,
moon, star, thunder, lightning,
fire, weather, wind, storm,
blast, cold, frost, heat, warmth,
cloud, dew, hail, snow, ice,
rime, rain, hoarfrost, sleet,
time, tide, year, month, day,
night, light, darkness, twi-
light, dawn, morning, even-
ing, noon, afternoon, winter,
spring, summer, harvest.
II. World, earth, land, hill,
dale, ground, bottom, height,
water, sea, stream, flood, ebb,
burn, well, spring, wave,
waterfall, island.
III. Mould, sand, loam, clay, Brass, mercury, names of precious
stone, gold, silver, lead, cop- stones.
per, tin, iron, quicksilver.
IV. Field, heath, wood, thicket, Forest, poplar, pine, fruit,
grove, tree, alder, ash, beech, cherry, apricot, juice, grape,
birch, elm, fir, oak, lime, wil-
low, yew, apple, pear, plum, pea,
berry, crop, corn, wheat, rye, lily,
oats, barley, acorn, sloe, bram-
ble, nut, flax, grass, weed,
leek, wort, moss, reed, ivy,
clover, flax, bean, daisy, fox-
glove, honeysuckle, bloom,
blossom, root, stem, stalk, leaf, twig, sprig, spray, rod, bow,
sprout, rind, bark, haulm, hay, straw, ear, cluster, seed, chaff.
grain, onion, carrot, cabbage,
Pea, flower, pansy, violet,
tulip, trunk, branch, &c.
1 Rogers in Edinburgh Reviruu, April 1859.
n 2
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
Of English Origin.
V. Hare, roe, hart, deer, fox,
wolf, boar, marten, cat, rat,
mouse, dog, hound, hitch, ape,
ass, horse, mare, nag, cow,
ox, bull, calf, neat, sheep,
buck, ram, swine, sow, far-
row, goat, mole.
VI. Bird, fowl, hawk, raven,
rook, crow, stork, bittern,
crane, glede, swan, owl, lap-
wing, starling, lark, nightin-
gale, throstle, swallow, dove,
finch, sparrow, snipe, wren,
goose, duck, hen, gander,
drake.
VII. Fish, whale, shark, eel,
herring, lobster, otter, cockle.
VIII. Worm, adder, snake, bee,
wasp, fly, midge, hornet, gnat,
drone, humble-bee, beetle,
chafer, spider, grasshopper,
louse, flea, moth, butterfly,
ant, maggot, frog, toad, tad-
pole.
IX. Man, woman, body, flesh,
bone, soul, ghost, mind, blood,
gore, sweat, limb, head, brain,
skull, eye, brow, ear, mouth,
li^,, nose, chin, cheek, fore-
head, tongue, tooth, neck,
throat, shoulder, ar'ni, elbow,
hand, foot, fist, finger, toe,
thumb, nail, wrist, ankle,
hough, sole, shank, shin, leg,
knee, hip, thigh, side, rib,
back, wornb, belly, navel,
breast, bosom, barm, lap,
liver, maw, sinew, skin, fell,
hair, lock, beard, whiskers.
Of Romance Or
Animal, beast, squirrel, lion,
tiger, mule, elephant, £c.
Eagle, falcon, heron, ostrich,
vulture, mavis, cock, pigeon.
Salmon, sturgeon, lamprey,
trout.
Serpent, lizard, alligator.
Corpse, spirit, perspiration,
countenance, stature, figure,
palate, stomach, moustache,
palm, vein, artery, intestines,
nerves.
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37
Of English Origin.
X. Horn, neb, snout, beak, tail,
mane, udder, claw, hoof,
comb, fleece, wool, feather,
bristle, down, wing, muscle.
XI. House, yard, hall, church,
room, wall, wainscot, beam,
gable, floor, roof, staple, door,
gate, stair, threshold, window,
shelf, hearth, fireside, stove,
oven, stool, bench, bed, stall,
bin, crib, loft, kitchen, tub,
can, mug, loom, cup, vat,
ewer, kettle, trough, ton, dish,
board, spoon, knife, cloth,
knocker, bell, handle, watch,
clock, looking-glass, hardware,
tile.
XII. Plough, share, furrow, rake,
harrow, sickle, scythe, sheaf,
barn, flail, waggon, wain, cart,
wheel, spoke, nave, yoke.
XIIL Weeds, cloth, shirt, skirt,
smock, sack, sleeve, coat, belt,
girdle, band, clasp, hose,
breeches, drawers, shoe, glove,
hood, hat, stockings, ring, pin,
needle, weapon, sword, hilt,
blade, sheath, axe, spear, dart,
shaft, arrow, bow, shield.helm,
saddle, bridle, stirrup, halter.
XIV. Meat, food, fodder, meal,
dough, bread, loaf, crumb, cake,
milk, honey, tallow, flesh,
ham, drink, wine, beer, ale,
brandy.
XV. Ship, keel, boat, wherry,
hulk, fleet, float, raft, stern,
stem, board, deck, helm, rud-
der, oar, sail, mast.
Of Romance Origin.
Palace,temple,cha pel, tabernacle,
tent, chamber, cabinet, parlour,
closet, chimney, ceiling, front,
battlement, pinnacle, tower,
lattice, table, chair, stable,
garret, cellar, furniture, uten-
sils, goblet, chalice, cauldron,
fork, nap (-kin), plate, carpet,
tapestry, mirror, curtain, cut-
lery.
Coulter.
Garment, lace, buckle, pocket,
trousers, dress, robe, costume,
pall, boot, cap, bonnet, veil,
button, target, gauntlet, mail,
harness, arms.
Victuals, provender, flour, lard,
grcojc, butter, cheese, beef,
veal, pork, mutten, roast,
boiled, broiled, fry, bacon,
toast, sausage, pie, soup, spirits.
Vessel, galley, prow.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
Of English Origin.
XVI. Father, mother, sister,
brother,son, daughter.husband,
wife, bride, godfather, step-
mother.
XVII. Trade,business, chapman,
bookseller, fishmonger, &c. ;
pedlar, hosier, shoemaker, &c. ;
outfitter, weaver ;baker, cooper,
cartwright, fiddler, thatcher,
seamstress, smith, goldsmith,
blacksmith,fuller,tanner,sailor,
miller, cook, skinner, glover,
fisherman, sawyer, groom,
workman, player, wright.
XVIII. King, queen, earl, lord,
lady, knight, alderman, sheriff,
beadle, steward.
XIX. Kingdom, shire, folk, hun-
dred, riding, wardmote, hust-
ings.
XX. White, yellow, red, black,
blue, brown, grey, green.
XXI. Fiddle, harp, drum.
Of Romance Origin.
Family, grand (-father), uncle,
aunt, ancestor, spouse, con-
sort, parent, tutor, pupil,
cousin, relation, papa, mamma,
niece, nephew, spouse.
Traffick, commerce, industry,
mechanic, merchant, prin-
cipal, partner, clerk, appren-
tice, potter, draper, actor,
laundress, chandler, mariner,
barber, vintner, mason, cutler,
poulterer, painter, plumber,
plasterer, carpenter, mercer,
hostler, banker, servant, jour-
ney(man), labourer.
Title, dignity, duke, marquis,
viscount, baron, baronet,
count, squire, master (mister),
chancellor, secretary, treasurer,
councillor, chamberlain, peer,
ambassador, captain, major,
colonel, lieutenant, general,
ensign, cornet, sergeant, of-
ficer, herald, mayor, bailiff,
engineer, professor, &c.
Court, state, administration, con-
stitution, people, suite, treaty,
unioni cabinet, minister, suc-
cessor, heir, sovereign, re-
nunciation, abdication, do-
minion, reign, government,
council, royal, loyal, emperor,
audience, state, parliament,
commons, chambers, signor,
party, deputy, member, peace,
war, inhabitant, subject, navy,
army, treasurer.
Colour, purple, scarlet, vermi-
lion, violet, orange, sable, &c.
Lyre, bass, flute, lute, organ,
pipe, violin, &c.
in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39
XXII. All words relating to art, except singing and drawing,
are of Romance origin.
XXIII. Familiar actions, feelings, qualities, are for the most
part unborrowed.
Of English Origin. Of Romance Origin.
Talk, answer, behave, bluster, Converse, respond, reply, impel,
gather, grasp, grapple, hear, prevent, direct, ascend, tra-
hark, listen, hinder, walk, verse, &c.
limp, run, leap, &c. &c.
XXIV. The names of special action, qualities, &c., are mostly pure
English ; general terms are Latin, as —
Warmth, flurry, mildness, heat, Impression, sensation, emotion,
' wrath, &c. disposition, temper, passion, &c.
Even, smooth, crooked, high, Equal, level, curved, prominent,
brittle, narrow, &c. fragile, &c.
32. The Romance element has provided us with a large number
of synonymous terms by which our language is greatly enriched, as —
benediction and blessing
commence ,, begin
branch , bough
flour
member
gain
desire
purchase
gentle
terror
sentiment
labour
flower
amiable
cordial
meal
limb
win
wish
buy
mild
dread
feeling
work
bloom
friendly
hearty
33. Sometimes we find English and Romance elements com-
pounded. These are termed Hybrids.
I. Pure English words -with Romance suffixes : —
Ance. Hindr-#w<?, further-a««, forbear-ancf.
Age. Bond-0£v?, cart-age, pound-«£V, stow-age, tonn-age.
Merit. Forbode-w«?/, endear-w«rf, aione-ment, wonder-matt.
Ry. Midwffe-ry, knave-re, &c.
Ity. Odd-ity.
40 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. in.
£t * f Stream-/^, smick-rf.
Ess. Godd-as, shepherd-m, huntr-«tt, songstr-«.r.
Able. ~Eat-ab/e, laugh-a£/<r, read-able, unmistake-aW<».
Ous. Burden-0wj, raven-0#.r, wondr-ous.
Ative.
II. Romance words -with English endings : —
Ness. Immense- ness, factious-ness, savage- ness, with numerous
others formed from adjectives in ful, as merci-ful-
ness, use-ful-wt-jj, &c.
Dom. "Dvke-dom, martyr-dem.
Hood. False-//<w/.
Rick. ~Bishop-ricA.
Ship. Apprentice-.?/*^ sureti-j^»^.
Kin. Nap-/&/«.
Less. Use-/(Kfj, grace-Jess, barm-less, and many others.
Full. Use;/M/, grate-fuJ, bountiy«/, merci-fu/, and numerous
others.
Some. Quarrel-.sww^, cumber-j<7»z^, venture-ww^, humour-j<?;//f.
Ish. Sott-w^, fool-w/i, fever-w^, brut-w^, slav-M.
Ly. Round-/y, rude-fy, savage-fy, and innumerable others.
III. English words with Romance prefixes : —
En, Em. .£«-dear, /w-thral, <wz-bolden.
Dis. Z?w--belief, ^/V-burden.
Re. ^<r-kindle, relight, retake, r^-seat.
IV. Romance words with English prefixes : —
Be. /??-siege, ^<r-cause, ^-powder.
Under. Under-va^af, under-act, untffr-price,
Un. £7«-stable, w«-fortunate, and very many others.
Over. Ozw-turn, over-value, over-rate, ozw-curious.
For. Jfyr-pass, /or-prise, for-fend.
After. After-piece, after-pains.
Out. 0w/-prize
Up. 6^-train.
CHAPTER IV.
OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS.
34. BEFORE the Norman Conquest we find evidence offzvo dialects,
a Southern and a Northern.
The Southern was the literary language, and had an extensive
literature ; in it are written the best of our oldest English works.
The grammar of this dialect is exceedingly uniform, and the voca-
bulary contains no admixture of Danish terms.
The Northern dialect possesses a very scanty literature. An
examination of existing specimens shows us, (i) that this dialect had
grammatical inflections and words unknown to the Southern dialect ;
(2) that the number of Danish terms are very few.
Some writers think that these differences are due to the original
Teutonic tribes that colonized the north and north-east of England.
As these tribes are designated by old writers Angles, in contra-
distinction to the Jutes and Saxons, this dialect is called Anglian.
The chief points of grammatical difference between the Northern
and Southern dialects are : —
(1) The loss of n in the infinitive ending of verbs, as,
N. cuoetha = S. cwethan, to say.
N. drinc-a = S. drinc-an, to drink.
(2) The first person singular indicative ends in u or o instead 01
e, as,
N. Ic getreow-u = S. getreow-e, I believe, trow.
N. Ic drinc-o = S. drinc-e, I drink.
(3) The second person singular present indicative often ends in
-s rather than -sf, and we find it in the second person
singular perfect indicative of weak verbs —
N. Su ge plantad-es = S. gc plantod-est, thou hast planted.
(4) The third person sing, frequently ends in s instead of th.
N. he gewyrces = S. gewyrcath, he works.
N. he onsaces = S. onsacath, he denies.
42 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(5) The third plural present indicative and the second person
plural imperative often have -s instead of -th.
N. hia onfoas = S. ki onfoath, they receive.
(6) The occasional omission of ge before the passive participle.
N. hered = S. geherod, praised.
N. bledscd = S. gebletsod, blessed.
(7) Occasional use of active participle in -and instead of -end.
N. drincande = S. drincende, drinking.
(8) The use of aren for syndon or synd = are (in all persons of
the plural).
In nouns we find much irregularity as compared with the Southern
dialect.
(9) Plurals end in a, u, o, or e, instead of -a«.i
N. heorta = S. heortan, hearts.
N. witeg-u = S. ivitegan, prophets.
N- ego = S. eagan, eyes.
N. nome — S. naman, names.
(10) -es is sometimes found instead of -e as the genitive suffix of
feminine nouns.
(11) the and thio are sometimes found for se (masc.) and seo (fern/)
= the.
(12) The plural article tha sometimes occurs for the demonstrative
pronoun hi = they.
We see that 10, II, 12, are really changes towards modern
English.
35. After the Norman Conquest dialects become much more
marked, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we are able
to distinguish three great varieties of English.
(1) The Northern dialect, which was spoken in Northumberland,
Durham, and -Yorkshire, and in the Lowlands of Scot-
land.
(2) The Midland dialect, spoken in the whole of the Midland
shires, in the East Anglian counties, and in the counties
*~ the west of the Pennine chain ; that is, in Cumberland,
Westmoreland, Lancashire, Shropshire.
1 In the Southern dialect words belonging to this declension had « in the
oblique cases of the singular, but this is dropped in the Northern dialect.
iv.] OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS. 43
(3) The Southern dialect, spoken in all the counties south of the
Thames ; in Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, and in parts
of Herefordshire and Worcestershire.
It is not difficult to distinguish these dialects from one another on
account of their grammatical differences.
The most convenient test is the inflection of the verb in the present
plural indicative.
(4) The Southern dialect employs -eifi, the Midland -en, as the in-
flection for all forms of the plural present indicative.'
The Northern dialect uses neither of these forms, but substitutes
-es for -eth or -en.1
The Northern dialect has its imperative plural in -es ; the
Southern and Midland dialects, in -eth.
EXAMPLES.
Plural Pres. Up-stegh^f (up-go) hilles and feldes down-gaj
(down-go). a
Thir (these) kinges rid^r forth thair rade (road).3
And gret fisch^r ctes the smale (small).4
The mar thou drinks of the se
The mare and mar(e) thresto ye.5
Now we wyn and now we tyn (lose).*
Imp. Oppenw (open) your yates (gates) wide. 7
Gaij (go) he said, and spirr (inquire) welle gern
(earnestly).
Cuntr (come) again and telj (tell) me.8
Plural Pres. We habbe/// (have) the maystry.9
Childern leueM Freynsch and construe//; and lurneM
an (in) Englysch.10
Imp. LusteM (listeneth) . . . late//; (let) me speke.11
Adrawe/A 5°ure (your) suerdes (swords).1*
Plural Pres. Loverd we ar-en (are) bothe thine.13
Loverd we shole-« the wel fede.14
And thei that fallow on the erthe, dyen anon.18
Imp. Doth awei Soure 5atus (gates) and be//; rerid out See
everlastende 5atis.16
1 We do not find -.s often in the first person. Often all inflections are dropped
in the plural, as in modern English.
3 Specimens of Early English, p. 91. 3 Ib. p. 129. 4 Ib. p. 152.
Sib. p. 154- 6Ib. p. 178. 7 Ib. p. 88. 8 Ib. p. 130.
9 Ib. p. 342. I0 Ib. p. 339. " Ib. p. 36. " Ib. p. 66.
*3ib. p. 47. *4lb. p. 48. 15 Ib. p. 202. 'Mb. p. 94.
44 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
36. The Midland dialect, being widely diffused, had various local
forms. The most marked of these are : (i) the Eastern Midland,
spoken in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Suffolk ; (2) the West Midland,
spoken in Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Cheshire, Shrop-
shire.
The East Midland conjugated its verb in the present singular
indicative like the Southern dialect —
1st pers. hop-e I hope.
2nd „ hope-jtf thou hopest.
3rd „ hop-ft/i he hopes.
The West Midland, like the Northern, conjugated its verb as
follows : —
1st pers. hope.1
2nd „ hop-«-.
3rd „ hop-w.
37. There are many other points in which these dialects differed
from one another.
(i. ) The Southern was fond, as it still is, of using .v where the
other dialects had f, as vo = fa — foe ; winger = finger.
In the old Kentish of the fourteenth century we find
z for j : as zinge = to sing ; zede = said.
(ii.) It preferred the palatal cA to the guttural k in many words,2
as —
riche = Northern rike — kingdom.
zecA = „ sek — sack.
crouche = „ croke — cross.
(iii. ) It often had 5 and u where the Northern dialect had a and /',
as —
. hul = Northern = hil.
put = „ = pit.
bdn — = b&n = bone.
I6f = = lAf = loaf.
6n (oon) „ = dn = one.
In its grammar the Southern was still more distinctly marked.
(a) It preserved a large number of nouns with plurals in n, as
sterren = stars, eyren = eggs, kun = kine, &c. The
Northern dialect had only about four of these plurals,
namely, eg/ieti( = eyes), hosen, oxen, and scAoon(=shoes).
1 The Northern dialect has J occasionally in the first person.
2 This softening serves to explain many of the double forms in modern English,
as ditch and dike, pouch and poke, church and kirk, nook and notch, take and
batch, &c.
IV.] OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS. 4?
,\i 1
(Z>) It kept up the genitive of feminine nouns in e,1 while the
Northern dialect employed only the masculine suffix j-,
as in modern English.
(f) Genitive plurals in -ene 2 are very common, but do not
occur at all in the Northern dialect.
(d) Adjectives and demonstrative pronouns retained many of
the older inflections, and the definite article was in-
flected. Many pronominal forms were employed in
the South that never existed in the North, as Aa (a)
= he ; is = them ; is = her.
(e) Where the older language had infinitives ending in -an and
-ian, the Southern dialect had -en or -e and -u:3 The
Northern dialect had scarcely a trace of this inflection.
(_/ ) Active participles ended in -indt (ynde) ; in the North in
-ande (and).*
(g) Passive participles retained the old prefix ge (softened
down to i or_j/5) ; in the North it was never used.
(h) It had many verbal inflections that were unknown to the
Northern dialect, as -st (present and past tenses), -en
(plural past indicative), -e (second person plural past
indicative of strong verbs).
(1) The Northern dialect had many plural forms of nouns
that were wholly unknown to the Northern dialect, as
— Brether = brethren, childer — children, ky — cows
(kine), fund = hands.
(2) That was used as a demonstrative as at present, without
reference to gender. In the Southern dialect thai was
often the neuter of the definite article.
(3) Same (as the same, this same) was used instead of the
Southern thilke, modern thuck, thick, or t/iucky.
(4) Thir, (her (the plural of the Scandinavian article), the
these, was often used.
(5) The pronominal forms were very different. Thus instead
of the Southern heo (hi, hit) = she, this dialect used
sco, scho, the older form of our she. It rejected the
old plural pronouns of the third person, and substi-
1 Soiilefode = soul's food ; senne nede — sin's need.
2 apostlene fet — apostles' feet : Gywene will — Jews' will.
3 Lervie (= hifian}, to love ; hatie (= hatian) to hate ; tellen, telle = to tell.
4 singinde, N. singand = singing.
5 y-broke = ybroken =• broken ; i-farc = ifaren = gone.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
tuted the plural article, as thai, thdir, thaim (thatu),
instead of hi (heo, hit), heore (here), heom (hem) ; ures,
yhoures, thairs, quite common then as now, were un-
known in the South.
6. At = to was used as a sign of the infinitive mood; sal and
sttld = schal and sclnild.
7. The Northern dialect had numerous Scandinavian forms,
as —
hethen, hence = Southern henne
thethen, thence = „ thenne
ivhetheti, whence — whennes
sum
fro,
til
by
mtnne
plogh
iiefe (neve)
slerne
toss
low
•werre
slik
gar
&c.
&c.
fram — from
to
tun = town
lesse = less
su/3 — plough
fust — fist
sterre — star
bere = barley
ley = flame
wyrse = worse
swich — such
do.
&c.
38. The East Midland dialect had one peculiarity that has not
been found in the other dialects, namely, the coalescence of pronouns
with verbs, and even with pronouns, as —
caldes — calde + es — called them
iedes = dede + e s = put them
hes = he + es = he + them
get = ge + it = she + it
mes = me + es = one(Fr. on) + them.
The West Midland dialect had its peculiarities, as ho — she ; hit
= its ; shyn = shuln (plural).
39. We must bear in mind that the Midland dialect was the speech
that was most widely spread, and, as we might expect, would be the
one that would gradually take the lead in becoming the standard
language. There were, as we have seen, many varieties of the
Midland dialect, but by far the most important of these was the
East Midland. As early as the beginning of the thirteenth
iv.] OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS. 47
century it began to be cultivated as a literary dialect, and had then
thrown off most of the older inflections, so as to become, in respect
of inflectional forms and syntactical structure, as simple as our own.
In this dialect Wicliffe, Gower, and Chaucer wrote, as well as the
older and well-known authors, Orm and Robert of Brunne. It was,
however, Chaucer's influence that raised this dialect to the position
of the standard language. In Chaucer's time this dialect was the
language of the metropolis, and had probably found its way south
of the Thames into Kent and Surrey.
At a later period the Southern dialect had so far retreated before
it as to become Western rather than Southern; in fact, the latter
designation was applied to the language which had become the
standard one.
George Puttenham, writing in 1589, speaks of three dialects — the
Northern, Western, and Southern. The Northern was that spoken
north of the Trent ; the Southern was that south of the Trent,
which was also the language of the court, of the metropolis, and of
the surrounding shires ; the Western, as now, was confined to the
counties of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, Wiltshire, &C.1
1 " Our maker (poet) therefore at these dayes shall not follow Piers Plowman, nor
Gower, nor Lydgate, nor yet Chaucer, for their language is now out of use with
us : neither shall he take the termes of Northern-men, such as they use in dayly
talke, whether they be noble men, or gentlemen, or of their best clarkes, all is a
matter ; nor in effect any speach used beyond the river of Trent, though no man
can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet it is not so
courtly nor so current as our Southerns English is, no more is the far Westerne
man's speach : ye shall therefore take the usual speach of the Court, and that of
London and the shires lying about London within Ix myles, and not much above.
I say not this but that in every shyre of England there be gentlemen and others
that speake but specially write as good Southerne as we of Middlesex or Surrey
do, but not the common people of every shire, to whom the gentlemen and also
their learned clarkes do Cor the most part condescend, but herein we are already
ruled by th' English dictionaries and other bookes written by learned men."
CHAPTER V.
PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
40. ALL living languages, in being handed down from one genera-
tion to another, undergo changes and modifications. These go on so
gradually as to be almost imperceptible, and it is only by looking
back to past periods that we become sensible that the language has
changed. A language that possesses a literature is enabled to register
the changes that are taking place. Now the English language
possesses a most copious literature, which goes as far back as
the end of the eighth century, so that it is possible to mark out with
some distinctness different periods in the growth or history of our
language.
L The English of the First Period.
(A.D. 450 — 1 100.)
(a) The grammar of this period is synthetic or inflectional, while
that of modern English is analytical*
(b) The vocabulary contains no foreign elements.
(f) The chief grammatical differences between the oldest English
and the English of the present day are these : —
(1) Grammatical Gender. — As in Latin and Greek, gender is
marked by the termination of the nominative, and alst>
by other case endings. Substantives and adjectives have
three genders — masculine, feminine, and neuter.
(2) Declensions vf Substantives. — There were various declen-
sions, and at least five cases (nominative, accusative,
genitive, dative, and ablative or instrumental! dis-
tinguished by various endings.
(3) The Definite Article was inflected, and was also used ooth
ar- a demonstrative and a relative pronoun.
(4) Pronouns had a dual number.
1 Cp. O.E. drituan with " to drink."
CH. v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 49
(5) The infinitive of Verbs ended in -an, the dative infinitive
in -anne (-enne).
(6) Only the dative infinitive was preceded by the preposition
to.
(7) The present participle ended in -ende.
(8) The passive participle was preceded by the prefix ge-.
(9) Active and passive participles were declined like adjectives.
(10) In the present tense plural indicative the endings were,
(i) -ath ; (2) -ath; (3) -ath.
(11) In the present pi. subjunctive they were -on, -on, -on.1
(12) In the preterite tense plural indicative the endings were
-on (sometimes -an).
(13) The second person singular in the preterite tense of weak
verbs ended in -sf, as lufode-st = thou loved-est ; the
corresponding suffix of strong verbs was -e, as—
at-e, thou atest or didst eat.
slep-e, thou slept-est.
(14) The future tense was supplied by the present, and shall
and will were not usually Iznse auxiliaries.
(15) Prepositions governed various cases.
II. The English of the Second Period.
(A.D. noo to about 1250.)
41. Before the Norman Conquest the English language showed a
tendency to substitute an analytical for a synthetical structure, and
probably, had there been no Norman invasion, English would have
arrived at the same simplification of its grammar as nearly ever)'
other nation of the Low German stock has done. The Danish
invasion had already in some parts of the country produced this
result ; but the Norman invasion caused these changes, more or less
inherent in all languages, to take place more rapidly and more
The first change which took place affected the orthography ; and
this is to be traced in documents written about the beginning of the
twelfth century, and constitutes the only important modification of
the older language.
This change consisted in a general weakening of the terminations
of words.
i. The older vowel endings, a, o, u, were reduced to e.
1 -en is an earlier form of this suffix.
E
50 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
This change affected the oblique cases of nouns and adjectives as
well as the nominative, so that the termination
an became en.1 ra, ru became re.
as „ es. ena „ ene.
ath „ eth. on „ en.
uni „ en.1 od, ode „ ed, ede.
ii. C or k is often softened to ch, and g to y or w.
To make these changes clearer, we give —
(i) A portion of^Elfric's homily, " De Initio Creature," in the
English of the first period ; (2) the same in the English of
the beginning of the twelfth century ; and (3 and 4) the
same a few years later.2
1. An anginn is ealra \>\nga, }>£et is God ^Elmightig.
2. An anginn is ealra thingen, paet is God Almightig.
3. An angin is alr# eing<?, poet is God almihtio-
4. * * * * * *
5. One beginning is ther" of all things, that is God Almighty.
1. Tie is ordfrumfl and ende : he is ordfrunuj fortft be he
WDCS cefre.
2. He is ordfruma and sende : he is ordfrum^ for J>an )>e
he waes sefre.
3. He is ordfrum/z and ende : he is ordfrum^ for )>i oe he wres
aefre.
4. [He is] hordfruma and rende : he is ord for he wes efre.
5. He is beginning and end : he is beginning, for-that that
he was ever.
1. He is ende buten aelcere geendunge, for San \>& he biS
asfre unge-endod.
2. He is senda; abutm selcere gesendunge, for )>an J>e he
byO oefre unge-aendod.
•J. He is ende buton sclcre endunge, for t»an Se he biS sefre
un,3e-end6d.
4. He is sende buton aelcere 5iendunoe
5. He is end without any ending, for-that that he is ever
nnended.
1. He is ealra cyningfl cyning, and ealra hlafordrt hlaford.
2. He is ealra king<"«^ kinge, and ealra hlaford^ hlaford.
1 « sometimes disappears.
2 Examples 3 and 4 were probably written in different carts of England before
1150.
v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 51
3. He is alnz kyng<? kyng, and alre laford^ laford.
4. Heo is alra king<?/z<? king, and alra hlaforden hlaford.
5. He is of all kings King, and of all lords Lord.
1. He hylt mid his mihte heofanas and eor'&m and ealle.
2. He healt mid his mihte heofonas and eorftan and ealle.
3. He halt mid his mihte heofen^s and eorSan and alle.
4. He halt mid his mihte heferu? and eorSe and alle.
5. He holdeth with his might heavens and earth and all.
1. Gesceafta buten geswince.
2. Gesceafte [buten] geswynce.
3. Isceafte buton swinke.
4. 5escea-fte buton 5eswince-
5. Creatures without swink (toil).
The next example is given, (i) in the oldest English; (2) in
that of nooj (3) in that of about 1150.
1. Twelf unbeawaj synde>« on J>yss^r<? worulde to hearme
2. Twelf unSeawdr synden on byssen wurlde to hearme
3. Twelf unj>eaw£r beoS on \>v;&ere weorlde to hermew
4. Twelve vices are there in this world for harm
1. "Eallttm mannum gif hi moton ricsiaw and hi alecgad"
2. Ealkw mann<?« gyf \\eo motc-w r\\\ge>i and heo alecg«f
3. Alle monneu o'f hi mote« rixiaw and hi alleggad"
4. To all men, if they might hold sway, and they put down
1. Rihtwisnysse and J>one ^leafaw amymzdf and mamrj'wx
gebringad"
2. Rihtwisnysse and J>one ^leafi? amerred" and mancynn
gebring«f
3. Rihtwisnt'j^ and \>ene /leafczw amerrad'and moncuti bring^cf
4. Righteousness and (the) belief mar, and mankind bring
1. Gif hi mot0« to helle.
2. Gyf heo mot^« to helle.
3. 5if hi motaw to helle.
4. If they might to hell
From 1150 to 1200 numerous grammatical changes took place,
the most important of which were —
I. The indefinite article a« (a) is developed out of the
numeral. It is frequently inflected.
£ 2
52 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
2. The definite article becomes ]>e, \eo, ]>e, (\>at), instead of
se, seo, \(Bt.^
It frequently drops the older inflections, especially in the
feminine.
We find )>e often used as a plural instead of ]>a or ]>o.
3. Nominative plural of nouns end in -en (ore) instead of a or
u, thus conforming to plurals of the n declension.
4. Plurals in -es sometimes take the place of those in -en (-an),
the genitive plural ends in -ene or -e, and occasionally
in -es.
5. The dative plural (originally -um) becomes e and en.
6. Some confusion is seen in the gender of nouns.
7. Adjectives show a tendency to drop certain case-endings : —
(1) The genitive singular masculine of the indefinite
declension.
(2) The genitive and dative feminine of the indefinite
declension.
(3) The plural -en of the definite declension frequently
becomes e.
8. The dual forms are still in use, but less frequently employed.
The dative him, hem, are used instead of the accusative.
9. New pronominal forms come into use, as ^a = he, she,
they; /J=her; ir = them; me=one.
16. The n in min, thin, are often dropped before consonants,
but retained in the plural and oblique cases.
1 1 . The infinitive of verbs frequently drops the final n, as
smelle=smellen, to smell ; herie—herien, to praise. To
is sometimes used before infinitives.
12. The gerundial or dative infinitive ends often in -en or -e
instead of -enne (-anne).
13. The n of the passive participle is often dropped, as icume
— icumen = come.
14. The present participle ends in -inde, and is frequently used
instead of the gerundial infinitive, as to swiminde=\.o
swimene = to swim.
15. Shall and will began to be used as tense auxiliaries of the
future.
i Traces of tt and si are found in the Kentish dialect of the thirteenth century.
v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53
The above remarks apply chiefly to the Southern dialect. In the
other dialects of this period (East and West Midland) we find even
a greater simplification of the grammar. Thus to take the Ormulum
(East Midland) we find the following important changes : —
(a) The definite article is used as at present, and that is em-
ployed as a demonstrative irrespective of gender.
(b) Gender of substantives is almost the same as in modern
English.
(c) -es is used as the ordinary sign of the plural.
(d) -es, singular and plural, has become the ordinary suffix of
the genitive case.
(<?) Adjectives, as in Chaucer's time, have a final e for the older
inflections, but e is chiefly used, (i) as a sign of the plural,
(2) to distinguish the definite form of the adjective.
(_/)The forms they, theirs, come into use.
(g) Passive participles drop the prefix i (ge), as cumen for icumen.
(A) The plural of the present indicative ends in -en instead of
-etli.
(i) Am = are, for beoth.
In an English work written before 1250, containing many forms
belonging to the West Midland dialect, we find —
(a) Articles and nouns and adjectives as in the Ormulum.
(<£) The pronoun thai instead of hi or heo = they : / for Ic or
Ich.
(c) Passive participles frequently omit the prefix i.
(d) Active participles end in -ande instead of -inde.
(e) Verbs are conjugated in the indicative present as follows : —
Singular. Plural.
(1) luv-e (i) luv-en
(2) luv-e.« <2) luv-en
(3) luv-ea xj) luv-en
(f) Strong and weak verbs are conjugated after the following
manner in the past tense : —
Singular. Plural.
( (i) makede makeden = made
Weak. < (2) makedes makeden ,,
I (3) makede makeden ,,
( (i) schop schop-en = created, shaped
Strong. J. (2) schop schop-en ,, ,,
( (3) schop schop-en „ „
54 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Here we see two important changes : (i) -es for -est in second
person of weak verbs ; and (2^ the dropping of e in strong verbs.
From 1150 to 1250 the influence of Norman-French begins to
exhibit itself in the vocabulary of the English language.
III. The English of the Third Period.
(A.D. 1250—1350.)
42. (i) The article still preserves some of the older inflections, as :
(1) the genitive singular feminine; (2) the accusative
masculine ; (3) the plural \>o (the nominative being used
with all cases of nouns).
(2) Nouns exhibit much confusion in gender — words that were
once masculine or feminine becoming neuter.
(3) Plurals in -en and -es often used indiscriminately.
(4) The genitive -es becomes more general, and begins to take
the place — (i) of the older -en and -e (in old masculine
and neuter nouns) ; and (2) of -e in feminine nouns.
(5) The dative singular of pronouns shows a tendency to drop
off; mi-self and //h'-self often used instead of me-self
and the- self}-
(6) Dual forms of the personal pronouns dropped out of use
shortly before 1300.
(7) A final e used, (i) for the sign of plural of adjectives ; and
(2) for distinguishing between the definite and indefinite
declensions.
(8) The gerundial infinitive terminates in -en and -e.
(9) The ordinary infinitive takes to before it.
f 10) Some few strong verbs become weak. Present participles
in -inge begin to appear about 1300.
French words become now more common, especially towards the
end of this period.
In ten pages of Robert of Gloucester, Marsh has calculated that
four per cent, of the vocabulary is Norman-French.
IV. The English of the Fourth Period.
(A.D. 1350 — 1460.)
43. In this period the Midland dialect has become the prevailing
one. Northern and Southern words still retain their own pecu-
liarities.
i We sometimes find miself as well as meself in La3amoo.
v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55
The following are the chief points to be noted : —
1. The plural article, tho = the, those, is still often used.
2. The -es in plural and genitive case of substantives is mostly
a separate syllable.
3. The pronouns are :
/ for the older Ic (Ich sometimes occurs).
sche for the older heo.
him, them, -whom, used as datives and accusatives.
cures, yaures, heres, in common use for oure, youre,
here.
thei (they) in general use instead of hi (heo).
here = their.
hem = them.
4. The plurals of verbs in the present and past indicative
end -en or -e.
The imperative plural ends in -eth.
•est often used as the inflection of the second person
singular preterite of strong and weak verbs.
The infinitive mood ends in -en or -e ; but the inflection is
often lost towards the end of the fourteenth century.
The present participle ends usually in -ing (inge).
The passive participle of strong verbs ends in -en or -e.
The termination -e is an important one.
1. It represents an older vowel ending, as nam-e = nam-a,
sun-e = sun-u; or the termination -an, -en, as withute
— -with-utan.
2. It represents various inflections, and is used —
(a) As a mark of the plural or definite' adjective
(adjectival e), as smale fowles ; the gretl see.
(b) As a mark of adverbs, as softe — softly. (Ad-
verbial e. )
(c) As a mark of the infinitive mood, past tense of
weak verbs and imperative rnood. ( Verbal e.)
Him thoughts that his herte loolde breke. (Chaucer.)
Towards the end of this period the use of the final e becomes
irregular and uncertain, and the Northern forms of the pronouns,
their, theirs, them, come into use in the other dialects.
56 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE [CHAP. v.
V. The English of the Fifth Period.
(A.D. 146010 present time.)
44. There are really two subdivisions of this period —
(1) 1460 to 1520.
(2) 1520 to present time.
From 1460 to 1520 there is a general dearth of great literary-
works, but there were two events in this period that greatly affected
;he language, especially its vocabulary —
(1) The introduction of printing into England by Caxton.
(2) The diffusion of classical literature.
For some peculiarities of Elizabethan English see Abbott's
" Shakespearian Grammar."
CHAPTER VI.
PHONOLOGY.
Letters.
45. LETTERS are conventional signs employed to represent sounds.
The collection of letters is called the Alphabet ; from Alpha and
Beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.
The alphabet has grown out of the old pictorial mode of writing.
The earliest written signs denoted concrete objects ; they were pic-
torial representations of objects, like the old Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Then single sounds were afterwards indicated by parts of these
pictures.
The alphabet which has given rise to that now in use among
nearly all the Indo-European nations, was originally syllabic,1 in
which the consonants were regarded as the substantial part of the
syllable, the vowels being looked upon as altogether subordinate
and of inferior value. Consequently the consonants only were
written, or written in full — the accompanying vowel being either
omitted, or represented by some less conspicuous symbol.
Such is the construction of the ancient Semitic alphabet — the
Phoenician, from which have sprung the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic,
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin alphabets.
The oldest English alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters. All
except three are Roman characters. )> (thorn) and p (wen) are
Runic letters ; J} S is merely a crossed d, used instead of the
thorn ; * and j, as well as « and v, were expressed by the same
character.
1 A pure syllabic alphabet is one whose letters represent syllables instead of
articulations ; which makes an imperfect phonetic analysis of words, not into
the simple sounds that compose them, but into their syllabic elements ; which
does not separate the vowel from its attendant consonant or consonants, but de-
notes both together by an indivisible sign. One of the most noted alphabets of
this kind is the Japanese. (See Whitney, p. 465.)
58 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
46. The spoken alphabet must be distinguished from the written
alphabet.
The sounds composing the spoken alphabet are produced by the
human voice, which is a kind of wind instrument, in which the
vibratory apparatus is supplied by the chorda vocales or vocal chords
(ligaments that are stretched across the windpipe), while the outer
tube, or tubes, through which the waves of sound pass, are furnished
by the different configurations of the mouth.
The articulating organs, or organs of speech, are the tongue, the
cavity of the fauces, the lips, teeth, and palate, and the cavity of the
nostrils, which modify the impulse given to the breath as it arises
from the larynx, and produce the various vowels and consonants that
make up the spoken alphabet
47. Vowels are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords.
The pitch or tone of a vowel is determined by the vocal chords,
but its quality depends upon the configuration of the mouth or
buccal tube.
For the formation of the three principal vowels we give the
interior of the mouth two extreme positions. In one we round the
lips and draw down the tongue, so that the cavity of the mouth
assumes the shape of a bottle without a neck, and we pronounce u.
In the other we narrow the lips and draw up the tongue as high as
possible, so that the buccal tube represents a bottle with a very wide
neck, and we pronounce i (as in French and German). If the lips
are wide open, and the tongue lies flat and in its natural position, we
pronounce a.
Between these three elementary articulations there is an inde-
finite variety of vowel sounds.
A, i, u are by philologists called the primitive vowels, and from them all the
••irious vowel sounds in the Aryan languages have been developed.
-here are two steps in the early development of these sounds — (i) the union of
a with a ; (2) the union of a with * and u.
Primitive. ist gradation. 2nd gradation.
1. a . . .<z + <z = ^. . . (iii = d.
2. i . . » a + i = at (I) . . a + at = At.
3. u . . .*« + « = au (<3) . . a + au = &u.
Thus it is seen that long vowels are of secondary formation.
Sometimes a full vowel is weakened into a thin one, as a into i or u (Sanskrit,
Greek, Latin, &c.).
In O.E. and in most of the Teutonic dialects, a is weakened into e, i into e,
and « into o.
Sometimes a simple vowel is broken into two, as garden into gearden ; cp. Lat.
castra, O.E. ceaster, English Chester; thus in O. E. a is broken into ea (t'a) ; i
to eo (io, ie).
Sometimes a vowel in one syllable of "a word is modified by another in the follow-
ing syllable — o is affected by * and the sound e is produced, and this change
vi.j PHONOLOGY. 59
remains even when the modifying vowel has been lost : as Eng. feet, compared
with Goih.fotjus, Old-Sax. Joti, shows that the original form must have been
feti.
When z" is followed by a. it becomes e, as O. E. )ielp-an, to help, from the root
hilp, help ; and « followed by a becomes o : thus from the root bug (Old-Eng.
bugan), to bend is formed boga, a bow.
48. Diphthongs arise when, instead of pronouncing one vowel
immediately after another with two efforts of the voice, we produce
a sound during the change from one position to the other that
would be required for each vowel. If we change the a into the »
position and pronounce a vowel, we hear at as in aisle. If we
change the a into the H position and pronounce a vowel, we hear au
as in how. Here too we find many variations, and the less perfect
diphthongs, such as oi, &c.
49. Consonants fall under the category of noises.
(a) Some are produced by the opening or closing of the organs of
speech, in which the breath is stopped and cannot be prolonged.
These are called muies or checks, as G, K, D, T, &c.
If the breath is stopped and the veil is withdrawn that separates
the nose from the pharynx, we obtain the nasals N, NG, M.
(b) If the breath be not wholly stopped, but the articulating
organs are so modified as to allow the sound to be prolonged, then
we get continuous consonants, called breaths or spirants, as H, TH,
F, s, &c.
/ and r, which belong to this class, are called trills, and are pro-
duced by a vibration of certain portions of the mouth (tongue or
uvula).
(c) The consonants may be classified according to the organs by
which they are produced, as gutturals (k, g, ch), palatals (ch, j),
Initials (sh. zh), dentals (t, d, th, dh), labials (p, h>, f, v).
(d) Those sounds produced by a greater effort of the vocal organs
are called sharp, as /, f, t, &c. ; if produced by a less effort, they
are called flat, as b, v, d.
(e) The following table contains the consonants in the English
alphabet, arranged according to a physiological plan : —
6o
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
J
1
'2
"3
i
ri
"3
c
n
C
a
d
3
rt
a
c.
O
J5
"5
BH
g
fi
g
O
rS
a
'£
a
J
i?
to
B
:
E
:
if.
1
U
H
1
cs
*z
M
Jt
•o
*
"
,D
h
b
g
•«
0!
^
M
•
0.
X
^^
ta
i-
u
e
X
:
-
h
:
H
i
K
w
K
0
FLAT.
'i'
I
I
g
s
4
5
>
:
3
X
*u
j3
b
^
2
^^
ff_^
^,
D
e
a.
a
1
o .
|
J
1
|
4j
*
*^
.
•«
^2*
*^
J?
U)
1
o"5
j=
«
J
j
J3
•o
A
:
II
c1"^
V •
1
£:
u
v .
3 •
Ml
•o .
e
i :
u •
I
V •
h
o
O
"*:
"32
P
Is
o "
Tongue and
of teeth
o "
£ *
? ^
c c
f2-
|l
Upper and 1
lips
Upperand 1
lips round
M
N
m
*
""
^
00
*
o
VI.]
PHONOLOGY.
61
50. From this table of consonants we have omitted (i)c, because,
when used before a consonant or a, o, u, it has the sound of k, and
•\vhen used before e, i, y, it has the sound of s (in rice) ; (2) the soft
sound of g (in gem}, because this is represented byy; (3) q, because
this is equivalen to kw ; (4) x, because it is equivalent to ks or gs.
51. On the Number of Elementary Sounds in the spoken English
Alphabet.
In addition to the twenty-four consonants already enumerated we
have fourteen single vowels andyfw? diphthongs, making altogether
forty -three sounds.
1. a mgnat.
2. a inpatr, ware.
3. a 'mfame.
4. a in father.
.5. a in all.
6. a in want.
7. e in »&?/.
8. e in 0/irf.
9. * in knit.
IO. <? in not.
11. 0 in note.
12. oo \nfool, rude.
1 3. oo in wood, put.
14. « in ««/.
15. i in ^*gr/4.
1 6. >' in aye.
1 7. « in boil.
1 8. tny in &?zf.
19 ??£/ in mew.
CHAPTER VII.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
52. ORTHOEPY deals with the proper pronunciation of words ;
Orthography with the proper representation of the words of the
spoken language. The one deals with words as they are pronounced,
the other with words as they are written.
A perfect alphabet must be based upon phonetic principles, and
(1) every simple sound must be represented by a distinct symbol ;
(2) no sound must be represented by more than one sign.
(a) The spoken alphabet contains forty-three sounds, but the
•written alphabet has only twenty-six letters or symbols to represent
them : therefore in the first point necessary to a perfect system of
orthography the English alphabet is found wanting.
The alphabet, as we have seen, is redundant, containing three
superfluous letters, c, q, x, so that it contains only twenty-three
letters wherewith to represent forty-three sounds. So that it is both
imperfect and redundant. Again, the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, have
to represent no less than thirteen sounds (see § 51).
The same combinations of letters, too, have distinct sounds, as
ough in bough, borough, cough, chough, hough, hiccough, though,
trough, through, Sc. sough ; ea in beat, bear, &c.
(b) In regard to the second point, that no sound should be repre-
sented by more than one sign, we again find that the English alpha-
bet fails. The letter n (in note) may be represented by oa (boat),
oe (toe), to (yeoman), «* (soul), mv (sow), rw (sew), ait (hautboy),
eau (beau), owe (owe), do (floor), oh (oh !). The alphabet is there-
fore inconsistent as well as imperfect.
Many letters are silent, as in psalm, calf, could, gnat, know, &c.
(c) The English alphabet is supplemented by a number of double
letters called digraphs (oa, oo, &c. ), which are as inconsistently em-
ployed as the simple characters themselves.
(d) Other expedients for remedying the defects of the alphabet
CHAP, vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 63
(1) The use of a final e to denote a long vowel, as bite, note, &c.
But even with regard to this e the orthography is not consistent : it
will not allow a word to end in v, although the preceding vowel is
short, hence an e is retained in live, give, &c.
(2) The doubling of consonants to indicate a short vowel, as
folly, hotter, &c.
It must be recollected that the letters a, e, i, o, u, were originally
devised and intended to represent the vowel sounds heard in far,
pny, figure, pole, rule, respectively. In other languages that employ
them they still have this value.
During the written period of our language the pronunciation of
the vowels has xmdergone great and extensive changes at different
periods, while the spelling has not kept pace with these changes,
so that there has arisen a great dislocation of our orthographical
system, a divorcement of our written from our spoken alphabet.
The introduction of foreign elements into the English language
during its written period has brought into use different, and often
discordant, systems of orthography1 (cp. ch in church, chivalry,
Christian, &c. ). In addition to this there are peculiarities of the
orthographical usages of the Old-English dialects.
53. The following letter-changes are worth recollecting : —
LABIALS— B, P, F, V, W.
B. This letter has crept into many words, as O.E. slumer-ian,
= slumber; thum-a = thum^y lim — lim^.
Cp. htimble from humilis, number from numerare.
B has changed to —
1 I ) p in gossip, from O.E. godsib ; purse from O. Fr. borse (cp.
bursar, disburse] ; apricot, Fr. abricot.'*
(2) To v in have from Q.fL./iabban, heave from O.E. hebban.
(3) To m in summerset = Fr. soubresaut.
P. P is represented by —
(1) b in lobster = O.E. loppestre; dribble from drip, drofi=O.~E..
dropian, cobweb — O.E. copucb.
(2) v in knave = O.E. cnapa.
It is often inserted between m and t, as empty — O.E. emii* (cp.
gleam and glimpse, sempsur and seamster) ; tempt — O.Fr. tenter,
Lat. tentare.
1 Whitney. 2 We sometimes find in O.E. a^ricock = apricot.
64 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
F. An_/" frequently becomes v, as vat, vetches, vixen =fat, fetches,
fixen.
C^.Jrve and Jiffy, twelve and twelfth.
F has disappeared from many words, as head, lord, hawk, hath,
•woman = O.E. he&fod (heved), hlaford (loverd), hafoc, hafath (hafth),
wifman (wimman).
Cp. O.fr.jolif, O.E.jo!i/= jolly.
The O.E. efeta, aneft, has become (i) evet ; (2) ewt ; (3) newt (the
» belongs to the indefinite article).
V in some Romance words represents ph, as vial = phial, O.E.
visnomy = physiognomy.
It has been changed to (i) w in periwinkle = Fr. pervenfhe,
Lat. perivinca ; (2) to m in malmsey = O,E. makesic, from O.Fr.
jwa/rwj/V.
W. This letter has disappeared in —
ooze = O.E. was.
lisp = O.E. tvlisp.
four = O.~E.fe0wer.
soul = O.E. .rtfzo/, sawul.
lark = Scotch laverock, O.E. lawerce.
ought = O.E. a-wiht (auht, oht).
tree = O.E. treow.
knee = O.E. cneow.
W has crept into «/&?/<? and its derivatives = O.E. hal (kol) ; so
whoop, O.E. /£<?<?/ (Fr. houper).
B 'W has become a- A, as —
who = O.E. hva.
whelp = O.E. kwelp.
&c. &c.
The w has disappeared in certain combinations (tw, thw, sw\ as—
tusk = O.E. twisc (fuse ).
thong = O. E. thwang (thwong).
sister. = O. E. twister (monster).
such = O. E. swilc (svnuh).
DENTALS— D, T, TH.
D. D has sometimes become —
(i) /, as clot = clod.
abbot — O.E. abbad (abbod).
etch «= eddisc = O.E. edisc.
partridge «•» O. Fr. perdrix, Lat. perdix.
vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 63
(2) ///, as (a) O.E. hider, t/tider, hwider have become hither
thither, -whither ; (b) l^t.Jides, O.Yi.feid = faith.
It has disappeared from —
gospel = O. E. godspd.
answer = O. E. and-swizrian (answeriari).
woodbine = O.E. iinidu-bind.
It has crept into—
thunder = O.E. thunor.
hind = O.E. hina (Mne\.
lend = O. E. Iczn-an (lene).
round (to whisper) = O. E. runian {runen, ronnen}.
gender = O. Fr. genre; Lat. genus.
sound = O.~E.s0uu; Lat. sanus.
riband (ribbon) = Fr. ruban.
jaundice = Fr. jaunisse (cp. tender from Lat. tetter).
T. Tis sometimes represented by d, as —
proud = O. E. prut.
bud = Fr. bout.
diamond = Fr. diamant.
card = Fr. carte ; Lat. charta.
It has become th in author (Lat. auctor} and lant-horn J (Lat.
laterna; Fr. lanterne}.
It has fallen away (before s) in best = O.E. betst, last = O.E.
latst; Essex = Eastsexan (Estsex).
At the end of a word it has disappeared in —
anvil = O.E. anfilt.
petty = Fr. petit.
dandelion = Fr. dent de lion.
It has crept in (a) after an s, as in behest — O.E. behtzs ; also in
amongst, against, midst, amidst, whilst, betwixt, and O.E. onest,
alongst, anenst, &c.
(3) in tyrant = O.Fr. tiran; Lat. tyrannus.
parchment = O.Fr. parchemin,
cormorant = Fr. cormoran.
ancient — O.Fr. anden.
pheasant = O. Fr. phaisan.
A corrupt spelling arising from a mistaken etymology.
F
66 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Th has sometimes become —
(1) d, as murder = O.E. myrthra.
could = O.E c-uthe (couthe, conde}.
fiddle = O.E fithele.
dwarf = O.E. thweorh (duiergh).
Bedlam = Bethlehem.
(2) t, as theft = O.E. theofth.
nostril = O.E. nas-thyrlu (nostfiirles).
(3) s, as love-s = love-th.
Th has disappeared in —
Norfolk = O.E. North-folc, &c.
worship = O.E. -weorthsdpc (worths hipe).
SIBILANTS— S, Z, SH.
S is closely allied to r, and even in the oldest English we have
traces of the interchange in —
forlorn = forloren — forlosen (lost).
frort (Milton) = froren •=• frosen — frozen.
O. E. gecoren (ycorn) = chosen.
Cp. O.E. isern = iren = iron.
We often write c for an older s, as —
mice = O.E. mys.
pence = O. E. fens, pans.
once =: O.E. ones (o»s).
hence = O.S. hennes (hens).
Sc has in many cases been softened down to sh (O.E. sch), as —
shall = O.E. sceal(scal).
sHame = O.E. scamu.
fish = O.E. fac.
It is often preserved before a, o, r.
For sc and sp we frequently find by metathesis cs and ps, as —
hoax = O.E. husc.
So for ask we find axe — O.E. axien = acsian = ascian.
In O.E. we find elapsed — clasped, lipsed = lisped.
vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 67
In Romance words, s has passed into —
(1) sh, as cash = O.Fr. casse, chasse ; Lat. capsa.
radish = Lat. radix.
nourish = O.E. norysy, norice, Lat. nutrire, O.Fr. nurir.
Cp. blandish (Lat. blandiri, O.Fr. blandir), cherish (O.Fr. cherir),
flourish (Lat. fiorere], perish (Lat. perire, O.Fr. perir}.
(2) To -ge, as cabbage = Fr. cabus, Lat. cabusia.
sausage = Fr. saucisse, Lat. sais:'sia.
(3) To x (from mistaken etymology), as pickaxe = O.E. pikois.
French s (Lat. t) has become sh, as —
fashion = Q.¥r.faceon,fazon, Lat. factio.
anguish = Fr. angoisse, Lat angustia.
In some words j has disappeared —
riddle = O.E. t -ad-else (Ger. ratJisal).
pea = O.E. /wa, O.Fr. /<?w, Lat. pesum.
cherry = O.E. «>«, Fr. c^r/^, Lat. cerasus.
hautboy = Fr. hautbois.
relay = Fr. relais.
noisome = noise-some, from O.Fr. noise — Lat. nausea, or
puny = Fr. puisne.
In a few words s has intruded, as — s-melt, s-cratch, s-creak,
s-quas!:, s-quecze, s-neeze, i-s-land — O.E. ea=-land, igland; aisle —
Fr. aile : demesne = demain, O.Fr. domaine, demeine = Lat.
domininm.
Z was not known in the oldest English, and through the influence
of Xorman -French it has taken the place of an older s, as —
dizzy = O.E. dysig.
freeze = O. E. freosan.
It also stands for a Fr. c or s, as hazard, lizard, buzzard, seize.
Z has intruded in citizen — Fr. citoyen.
It has changed to g in ginger (Lat. zinziber, O.E. gingrvere).
68 ENGLISH A CCIDENCE. [c n A ; -.
GUTTURALS— K, G, CH, H.
K. (i) c (k) has become ck.
In Old-English before the Conquest c was always hard, but under
Norman-French influence c (before e, i, ea, co) has been changed to
ch ; as O.E. cele, cese, tin, cild \\A\K become chill, cheise, chin, child ;
ceorl, ceaf have become churl, chaff.
A final c has sometimes changed to ch, as O.E. die to d;ch ;
hwilc to which. Sometimes the ch has disappeared, as O. E. Ic =
Ich = /; anlic — onlich = only; ceferalc = everech = every ,
berlic = berlich = barley.
In a few instances c has become first ch and then/, as —
jaw = chaw.
ajar = achar (on the turn), from O. E. cerran, to turn.
knowledge = O. E. knowlech, knmvlach = cnawlac.
(2) In some Romance words c has become —
(a) ch, as cherry = Fr. cerise, Lat. cerasus.
chives = Fr. cive.
coach — Fr. carosse, Lat carocimn.
(6) sh, as shingle = O.Fr. cengle, Lat ringitlum.
(c) g, as flagon = Tr.Jlacon.
sugar = Fr. sucre.
(3) C (followed by t) has sometimes become gh, as —
delight = O.Fr. deliter, Lat. delectare.
-straight = O.Fr. streit, Lat. strictus.
G. In all words of English origin initial g is always hard, even
before e, i, y, as game, give, go, get, &c.
G has been softened (i) to /, y, e, a, as —
O.E. genok = enough.
gelic = alike.
hand-geweorc — handiwork.
feger = fair.
, h&gel — hail.
twegen = twain.
ivaga — way.
vn.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 69
(2) To w— O.E. lagu - law.
sage — saw.
maga — maw.
dagian — dawn.
fugol — fowl.
sorg (sorh) = sorrow.
mearg — marrow.
gealga — gallow(s).
Sometimes it is lost in the root and makes its appearance in the
derivatives, as dry and drought, slay and slaughter, draw (drag) and
draught.
It has disappeared in —
if = O.E. gif.
icicle = O.E. ts-gicel.
lent — O.E. lengten (lencten).
It has been softened to
(1) ge ( — j) in singe — O. E. be sengan (seitgen).
cringe = O.E. cringan (to die).
Roger — O.E. hrodgar.
(2) to ch in orchard — O.E. ort-geard '(or (yard) — herb-garden.
Gc (Gg] has often become/ (dg) —
edge = O.E. ecg(egg).
bridge = O.E. brycg (brigge).
ridge = O. E. hrycg (rigge).
In Romance words g often disappears, as —
master = O.E. maister = O.Fr. maistre, Lat. magister.
disdain = O.Fr. desdaigner, Lat. disdignare.
Sometimes g becomes w, as : wafer — O. Fr. gauffre, goffre, Lat
gafrum, cp. -wastel-brede in Chaucer = cake-bread (Fr. gateau).
G has crept into the following words —
foreign = O.Yr.forain, Lat. forensis.
feign = Q.Yr.feindre.
sovereign = O.Fr. soverain, Lat. superanus.
impregnable = Fr. imprenable.
Ch did not exist in the oldest English. In foreign words c was
substituted for it, as O. E. arcebiscop = archbishop.
Through French influence ch came to represent a Latin c, as Lat.
cambiare, O.Fr. cangier, changier, change. Cp. chapter, chapel,
chamber, chief, &c.
70 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Ch in many Romance words has been changed —
(1) To dg, as cartridge = Fr. cartouche.
(2) To sh, as parish = Fr. faroiste, Lat. parochia.
fetish = Tr. fetietie.
caboshed = Fr. caboche.
(3) To tch, as butcher = Fr. boucher.
dispatch = O.Fr. dtpescher.
H. This letter has disappeared from many words, especially
before /, n, r, as —
it = O.E. hit.
loaf = O.E. hlaf.
lade = O.E. kladan.
neck = O.E. hnecca.
ring = O.E. hring.
In the following words h has intruded, as wharf, whelk, whelm.
It has fallen away from many words, as —
tear = O.E. taker, tar.
fee = O.~E..feoh,feo.
&c. &c.
It has become gh in —
thigh = O.E. theok.
high = O.E. heah.
nigh = O.E. neah.
though = O.E. theah.
knight = O.E. cniht.
wrought = O.E. wrohte.
&c. &c.
In some words h has become first gh and thenyj as —
enough = Q.TL.genok.
laugh = O.E. hleahhan.
&c. &c.
In ilk, O.E. eohl, h has become changed to k.
We have both sounds side by side in —
candle and chandler.
carnal and chamel-(house).
cattle and chattel
ORTHOGRAPHY. 71
LIQUIDS— L, M, N, R.
L. In some Romance words / has been weakened to u, as- -
hauberk (O.Fr. halberc, kalbert).
auburn (Lat. alburnum).
In O.E. we find assaut, maugre, paume, caudron, soudier, &c.
L has disappeared in the following English words : —
each = O.E. ale (elch).
which = O.E. hwylc (while, whilch}.
such = O.E. swylc (swilch, swulche, sulche),
as = O.E. ealsiva (also, alse, ase).
England = O. E. Engle-lond (Engelond).
L has become —
(1) r, in lavender = Lat. lavendula.
sinoper = Lat. sinoplum.
colonel (pron. kurnel) — coronel (Spanish).
In O.E. we find br ember and bremel — bramble.
(2) n, in postern = O.Fr. posterle, posterm ; Lat. posterula.
L has intruded into the following words : —
could = (O.E. cuthe, coufe}.
myrtle = I-at. myrtus.
manciple = O.Fr. mancipe ; Lat. manripium*
participle = Lat. participium.
principle — Lat. principium.
syllable = Lat. syllaba.
M. M has been lost in some of the oldest English words, as —
five = O.E fif (Goth. fimf).
soft = O. E. softs ; Germ, sanft = samft.
M is sometimes weakened to n, as —
ant = (O.E. czmete), emmet.
count = O.Fr. cumte ; Lat. comes.
renowned = O.E. renowmed ; Fr. renomme.
noun = Fr. nom ; Lat. nomen.
count = O.Fr. confer; Lat. computare.
ransom = O.Fr. raancon; Lat. rcdemptio ; O.E. mmson.
M is sometimes changed to b, as marblestone = O. E. mannanstan.
72 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
N. In the oldest English we find the loss of w before^ f/i, s,
and the vowel lengthened in consequence, as —
goose = (gens), cp. Germ. gans.
tooth = (tont/i), cp. Goth, tunthus ; Germ. zahn.
other = (onthcr), cp. Goth anthar ; Germ, ander.
Cp. us with Germ. u>is, and could (coud) with can.
It has disappeared from many adverbs and prepositions, as —
beside = O.E. bisidan.
before = O.E. beforan.
within = O.E. -withinnan.
It has also been lost in other words, as —
ell = O.E. fin.
eve = O.E. afen.
game = O. E. gamen.
mill = O. E. mylen (miln).
eleven = O.E. andlifum.
Thursday = O.E. thunrcs-dag (thunresdtzi).
agnail = O.E. ang-megL
yesterday = O.E. gestran-dcsg.
fortnight = O.'E.feowertene-niht(fmrteniht).
It has dropped from the beginning of a few words, as —
adder = O.E. mzddre (nadder).
apron = O.Fr. naperon.
N has intruded in a few words, as —
newt = an ewt.
nag = Dan. og ; O.-Sax, ehu (cp. Lat. equa).
In Old-English we find noumpere = umpire (= Lat. impar) ;
-nojtch = oitche (Fr. oc/ie), nounce (= uncia). Shakespeare has
nuncle, naunt. ,
It has sometimes crept into the body of a word, as —
nightingale = O.E. niJitegale.
messenger = O. E. messager (O. Fr. messagier).
passenger — O. E. passager (O. Fr. passagur).
popinjay = O. E. popigay (O. Fr. papigat).
At end of words we find an inorganic n, as bittern •=• O.E.
biiore, Fr. butor : marten = O.E. mearth.
vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 73
iVhas become (i) m in —
smack = O.E. snacc (boat), Fr. semaque.
hemp — O.E. hanep.
lime (tree) = O.E. lind.
tempt = O.Fr. tenter, Lat. tentare.
comfort = O.Fr. confort, Lat. confortare.
venom = Lat. venenum.
vellum — Fr. velin,
megrim — Fr. migraine.
(2) / in flannel, formerly flannen.
R sometimes represents a more original s, as —
ear = O.E. fare, Goth. auso.
iron = O.E. isen, iren, Goth, cisarn.
It has disappeared from some few words, as —
speak = O.E. spracan.
pin = O. E. preon.
palsy = O.E. palasie, fr.paralysie, Gr. paralysis.
cockade = O.Fr. cocart.
R has intruded into the following words : —
groom (bridegroom) = O.E. guma(gome).
hoarse = O.E. Ms.
partridge = Fr. perdrix, Lat. perdix.
cartridge = Fr. cartouche.
corporal = Fr. caporal.
culprit. = Lat. cnlpa.
CHAPTER VIII.
ACCENT.
54. Accent is the stress of the voice upon a syllable of a word.
Syllabic accent is an etymological one, and in oldest English it was
upon the root and not upon the inflectional syllables.
By the Norman Conquest a different system of accentuation was
introduced, which towards the end of the twelfth century began to
show itself in the written language.
" The vocabulary of the French language is derived, to a great ex-
tent, from Latin words deprived of their terminal inflexions. The
French adjectives mortal and fatal are formed from the Latin
morfatifa.ndfatafis, by dropping the inflected syllable ; the French
nouns nation and condition, from the Latin" accusatives natiotum, con-
ditionem, " by rejecting the em final. In most cases the last syllable
retained in the French derivatives was prosodically long in the Latin
original ; and either because it was also accented or because the slight
accent which is perceivable in the French articulation represents
temporal length, the stress of the voice was laid on the final syllable
of all these words. When we borrowed such words from the French,
we took them with their native accentuation ; and as accent is much
stronger in English than in French, the final syllable1 was doubtless
more forcibly enunciated in the former than in the latter language. "
— MARSH.
French accentuation even affected words of pure English origin,
and we find in Robert of Gloucester wisllche (wisely) for -uris'liche ;
begynnyng1, endyng1, &c. ; and Chaucer rhymes gladnes'se with dis-
trejse, &c. *.
Spenser's accentuation exhibits the influence of French accent
Thus he rhymes blonves with shallowes, things with tidings, &c.
" A straunger in thy home and ignoraunt',
Of Phaedria', thine owne fellovJ servaunf."
F. Q. ii. 6. 9.
* The* syllables that were accented in O.E. words of Fr. origin are: -<ice,
-age, -ail (-aillt), -ain, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ent, -ee, -ey, -e, -eis, -el, -er, ere,
-tsse, -ice, -ite, -ie, -if, in, inet -iff, -ion, -cion, -tion, -iion, -tntnt, -on, -our,
-or, -out, -te, -tude, -ure.
CHAP, vin.] ACCENT. 75
" A work of rich entayle and curious mould,
Woven with antickes and wild imagery,
And in his lap a masse, of coyne he told,
And turned upsidowne, to feede his eye
And covetous desire with his huge I/treasury1."
F. Q. ii. 7. 4.
" Hath now made thrall to your commandement."
F. Q. ii. 10. 59.
Shakespeare and Milton retain many words accented upon the final
syllable which are now accented according to the Teutonic method,
as aspect, converse, acchs, &c.
As early as Chaucer's time an attempt was made to bring the
words of French origin under the Teutonic accentuation, and in the
" Canterbury Tales" we find mor'tal, teni!pest, sub 'stance ; and many
words were pronounced according to the English or French accentu-
ation, zspris'on and prison', ten^pest and tempest1.
In the Elizabethan period we find a great tendency to throw the
accent back to the earlier syllables of Romance words, though
they retained a secondary accent at or near the end of the word, as
nd'ti'on, std'ti'on.
In many words a strong syllable has received the accent in pre-
ference to a weak one, as Fr. ac"ceptdble, Lat. ac'cepld 'bills, has
become not ad'ceptable but acceptable.
I. Many French words still keep their own accent, especially —
(1) Nouns, in -ode, -ier (eer), -e, -ee, or -oon, -ine (-in), as —
cascad^, crusade1, &c. ; cavalier', chandelier1, &c. ; gazetteer',
pioneer1, &c. (in conformity with these we say harpooneer', moun-
taineer1) ; legatee1, payee1, &c. ; balloon', cartoon', &c. ; chagrin', violin',
&c. ; routine', marine', &c.
Also the following words — cadet1, brunette1, gazette1, cravat1, canal',
control', gazelle1, amateur1, fatigue', antique1, police1, &c.
(2) Adjectives (a) from Lat. adj. in us, as august, benign', robust',
&c. ; (b) in -ose, as morose1, verbose1, &c. ; (c) -esque, as burlesque',
grotesque' , &c.
(3) Some verbs, as — baptize", cajole1, caress1, carouse1, chastise",
escape1, esteem', &c. &c.
II. Many Latin and Greek words of comparatively recent intro-
duction keep their original form and accent, as — auro'ra, coro'na,
colossus, ide'a, hypothesis, &c.
76 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
III. Some few Italian words keep their full form and original
accent, as mulatto, sona'ta, tobac'co, •volca'no.
Shortened forms lose their original accent, as barfdit, marmot,
&c.
55. In many words mostly of Latin origin a change of accent
makes up for the want of inflectional endings, and serves to distin-
guish (a) a noun from a verb, (6) an adjective from a verb, (c) an
adjective from a noun —
(a) augment to augment1,
torment to tormenf.
&c. &c.
(6) a&'sent to absent,
fre'quent to frequent.
(c) a com' pact to compact'.
an expert to expert.
&c. &c.
It occurs in some few words of Teutonic origin, as overflow and
to overflow/, o'vertkraw and to overthrow ', &c.
56. The accent distinguishes between the meanings of words, as —
to conjure and to conjure1,
in'cense and to incense1.
Au'gust and august1,
min'ute and minute1,
supine and supine.
57. Influence of Accent.
Accent plays an important part in the changes that words
undergo.
Unaccented syllables are much weaker than accented ones, and we
find unaccented syllables dropping off —
(a) At the beginning*gf words (Aphccresis).
(o) At the end of words (Apocope).
(c) The accent causes two syllables to blend into one (Syncope).
EXAMPLES.
(a) bishop = Lat. episcopus.
reeve = O. E. ge-refa.
squire = O. Fr. escnicr (Lat. scutarius).
viii.] ACCENT. 77
spy = O.Fr. espier.
story =3 O.Fr. estoire (Lat. historia],
stranger = O.Fr. estranger (Lat. extraneus).
ticket = O.Fr. eticquette.
dropsy = O.E. ydropesie (Gr. hydropsis),
A few double forms are sometimes found, as — squire and esquire,
strange and estrange, state and estate, spy and espy, spital and hos-
pital, sport and disport, sample and example, &c.
($) name = O.E. nama.
riches = O.E. richesse.
chapel = O.E. chapelle.
&c. &c.
(c) brain = O.E. bragen.
church — O.E. cyrice.
French = O. E. frencisc.
hawk = O.E. hafoc.
head = O.E. hcafod.
mint = O.E. mynet.
crown = Lat. corona.
comrade = Fr. camarade.
palsy — Gr. paralysis.
sexton = sacristan.
proxy = procuracy.
parrot = Fr. perroquet.
In compounds we find the same principle at work, and their
origin is obscured : —
daisy = O.E. dceges eage (day's eye).
elbow = O.E. eln-boga (arm-bending).
gossip = O.E. god-sibb (God-related).
harbour = O.E. here-berga (herberwe), i.e. protection
for an army.
habergeon (hauberk) = O.E. heals-bcrga (protection for the neck).
Lammas = O.E. hl&f-mcsse (loaf-mass),
neighbour = O.E. nc&h-bur (near-dweller),
nostril = O. E. nose-thyrel (nose-hole),
orchard = O.E. ort-geard (herb-garden),
sheriff = O.E. scire-gerSfa (shire-reeve),
threshold = O.E. thresc-wold (thresh-wood, i.e. wood
Ijeaten or trodden by the foot = door-sill),
woman = O.E. -a'tfinan (= wife-man).
78 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. vm.
leman = O.E. leaf-man (lief-man, dear-man, sweet-
heart).
constable = Lat. comes stabuli.
curfew = O.Fr. cuevre-feu.
kerchief = O.Fr. cuevre-chief.
In proper names we have numerous instances : —
(a) Names of places : —
Canterbury = O.E. Cant-wara-burh (= town of the men
of Kent).
York = O. E. Eofor-ivic (Evenvich, Evenvik).
Windsor = O.E. Windles-ofra (Wyndelsore).
Sunday = O.E. Sunnan-dag.
Thursday = O.E. Thunres-d<eg.
(I) Names of persons : —
Bap = Baptist.
Ben = Benjamin.
Gib = Gilbert.
Hal = Harry.
Taff = Theophilus.
Wat = Walter.
Bess, Bet = Elizabeth.
Meg, Madge = Margaret.
Maude = Magdalen.
Dol = Dorothy.
Cp. cab = cabriolet
bus = omnibus,
consols = consolidated annuities,
chum = chamberfellow, (S:c.
rail = railway.
tramway = Outram way.
CHAPTER IX.
ETYMOLOGY.
58. Etymology treats of the structure and history of words ; its
chief divisions are inflexion and derivation.
Words denote the attributes cr relations of things, and are of
two kinds : (l) those significant of quality ; (a) of material things, as
sweet, bright, (b) of acts, as quick, slaw, &c. ; (2) those indicative
of position (relating to time, space, &c. ), as here, there, then, I, he.
The first are called notional words, the second relational words.
A root or radical is that part of a word which cannot be reduced
to a simpler or more original form. Roots are classified into —
(a) predicative, corresponding to notional words.
(b) demonstrative, corresponding to relational words.
Inflexions are shortened forms, for the most part, of demonstrative,
sometimes of predicative roots. Hence all inflexions were once
significant.
59. THE PARTS OF SPEECH, OR LANGUAGE, are—
I. Noun (Substantive, Adjective).
I. Inflexional. \ 2. Verb.
3. Pronoun.
4. Adverb.
II. Indeclinable
words, or particles.
5. Preposition.
6. Conjunction.
7. Interjection.
60. Nouns1 include —
(1) Abstract substantives, like mrtite, which denote the qualities
of things simply, significative only of mental conceptions.
(2) Concrete substantives, in which a single attribute stands
synecdochically for many.2
' Fr. nom, Lat. ttomcn, from gtiosco = that by which anything is known.
2 Cp. wheat, which, originally signified U'fiite.
8o ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(3) Adjectives, i.e. attributes used as descriptive epithets ; being
sometimes simple, as black, white, &c. , sometimes compound words,
as sorroiojul, godlike, friendly.
In Greek and Latin all adjectives have distinctive terminations,
which were originally separate words. Most of these terminations
have a possessive signification; others denote similarity, &c., analogous
to our -like, -fill, -less ; and in all cases they do not so much belong
to the attribute as to the subject. The termination puts the word in
condition to be joined to some substantive.
61. The Verb was originally nothing more than a noun combined
with the oblique case of a personal pronoun ; so that in am —
a = as = existence.
m = of me, &c.
62. Pronouns are attributes of a peculiar kind, not permanently
attached to certain objects or classes of objects ; nor are they limited
in their application. " Only one thing may be called the sun ; only
certain objects are white ; but there is nothing which may not be /
and_j'<?« and it, alternately, as the point from which it is viewed.
" In this universality of their application as dependent upon relative
situation merely, and in the consequent capacity of each of them to
designate any object which has its own specific name besides, and
so, in a manner, to stand for and represent that other name, lies
the essential character of the Pronoun. The Hindu title, sarvarnd-
man, ' name for everything,' ' universal designation,' is therefore more
directly and fundamentally characteristic than the one we give them,
pronoun, 'standing for a name.' " — WHITNEY.
63. Adverbs are derivative forms of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns.
Thus, our adverbial suffix -ly was originally -lice = the ablative or
dative case of an adjective ending in -lie = like, the adverbial ending
-ment of Romance words is the Latin ablative mente, " with mind "
(Fr. bonnement = kindly = bond mente, "with kind intent").
Many relational adve/bs are formed from demonstrative pronouns,
as he-re, hi-ther, whe-n, £c.
64. Prepositions were once adverbial prefixes to the verb, serving
to point out more clearly the direction of the verbal action : by
degrees they detached themselves from the verb and came to belong
to the noun, furthering the disappearance of its case-endings, and
assuming their office. The oldest prepositions can be traced to
pronominal roots ; others are from verbal roots. — WHITNEY.
IX.]
ETYMOLOGY.
Si
65. Conjunctions are of comparatively late growth, and are
either of pronominal original, or abbreviated forms of expression,
as —
else — O. E. elles, a genitive of el = alius.
unless = on less.
least = thy lees = eb minus.
but = be oiit = (O.E. bi-utari).
likewise = in like wise (manner).
&c. &c.
CHAPTER X.
SUBSTANTIVES.
I. GENDER.
66. GENDER is a grammatical distinction, and applies to words
only. Sex is a natural distinction, and applies to living objects.
By personification we attribute sex to inanimate things, as "The
Sun in his glory, the Moon in her wane."
The distinctions of gender are sometimes marked by different ter-
minations, as genitor, genitrix ; dominus, domina. This is called
grammatical gender.
67. Loss of Grammatical Gender in English. — The oldest
English, like Greek and Latin, and modern German, possessed
grammatical gender.
mag-a, a kinsman. mag-e, a kinswoman.
tufa, a nephew. nefe, niece.
•utiduwa, a widower. widuive, a widow.
munec, a monk. municen, a nun.
god, a god. gyden, a goddess.
webbert, a weaver. webb-estre, a webster.
So frco-dom (freedom) was masculine ; gretting (greeting), feminine ;
and cycen, chicken, neuter.
Grammatical gendgr went gradually out of use after the Norman
Conquest, owing to the following causes : —
(1) The confusion between masculine and feminine suffixes.
(2) Loss of suffixes marking gender.
(3) Loss of case inflections in the masculine and feminine forms
of demonstratives.
68. Traces of grammatical gender were preserved much longer in
some dialects than in others. The Northern dialects were the first
CHAP, x.] GENDER. 83
to discard the older distinctions, which, however, survived in the
Southern dialect of Kent as late at least as 1340. *•
69. The names of males belong to the masculine gender.
The names of females to the feminine gender.
The names of things of neither sex are neuter.
Words like child, parent, of which, without a qualifying term, the
gender is either masculine or feminine, are said to be of the common
gender.
70. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine and
feminine in English : —
(a) By employing a different word for the male and female.
(b) By the use of suffixes.
(c) By composition.
71. Before the Conquest our language possessed many words
answering to our " man."
The term "man" corresponded generally to the German mensch,
person, and was not confined originally to the masculine gender;
hence it occurs frequently in compounds with a qualifying term, as
— wif-man,2 woman; leaf-man, sweetheart; "wapned-man* man,
male.
Other common words for "man" Tverzguma, as in bryd-gutna =
bride-groom (Ger. brautigam} — the bride's man ; 4 gum-mann ;
btorn ; carl,5 our churl ; Tver6 (man and husband).
72. I. Different words for the masculine and feminine.
FATHER. MOTHER.
BROTHER. SISTER.
Father (O.E. fader) is cognate with Lat. pa-ter, Gr. jra-r^p = one who feeds
or supports. Cp. pa-sec, fee-d, fa-t, &c.
1 " Therthe schok, the sonne dym becom
In thare tyde." — SHOREHAM.
Here the inflection of the demonstrative shows that tyde is feminine.
" Be thise virtue the guode overcomth alle his vyendes thane dyevel, tht
wordle, and tket vless," — AYENBITE. Dyevel is masculine ; wordle feminine ;
and vies neuter.
2 JK/y = wife, is cognate with the Lat. ux-or, and originally signified ' one
carried off.'
3 W&pned-man = a man armed with a weapon.
4 Spenser has herd-groom = herdsman. Guma is cognate with Lat. homo.
5 Spenser uses carl for an old man, a churl. In O.E. we have the com-
pounds carlman and carman = male, man. Cp. Scotch carlin, an old woman.
6 Wer cognate with Lat. vir.
G 2
84 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Mo-ther (O.E. mddor, moder), Lat ma-ter, contains a root ma, to produce,
bring forth.
Bro-ther (O.E. brot/ior), Lat. frater, originally signified 'one who bears of
supports, ' from the verb bear, cognate with \j3A\afero.
Sis-ter (O. E. stueostar, snstcr) is cognate with Lat. soror (= sot-tor), and had
perhaps originally the san.e signification as mo-iher.
The termination in all these words denotes the agent. In the primitive
Aryan speech there was no distinct suffix used as a sign of gender.
PAPA. MAMMA.
These words are of Latin origin. Papa = father : cp. pope. Mamma = mother :
cp. mammal.
Sox. DAUGHTER.
Son (O.E. su-nu) — one brought forth, born (cp. bairn), from the root su, to
bring forth ; daugh-ter cognate with Gr. tfiordrrjp = milker, milkmaid, from root
duh (dugh], to milk.
UNCLE. AUNT.
Uncle is from O.Fr. uncle, oncle, from Lat avunculus.
Aunt from O.Fr. ante, Lat amita. The O.E. word for uncle was (i) earn
(em), Ger. ohm (oheim), (-£)fefdera. Aunt in the oldest English was modrigt.
BOY. GIRL.
Boy is not found in the oldest English ; it is of frequent occurrence in O.E.
writers of the fourteenth century, by whom it is applied to men occupying a
low position, to menial servants : it is therefore often used as a term of contempt.
The term is probably of Teutonic origin, and is cognate with O.Du. boeve, Platt-
Deutsch bfav, Swed. bof, Ger. bube, O.K. Ger. puopo.
The O.E. word for boy was cnapa (knave), Ger. knabe, whence knave-child^
a boy.
Gir-l is a diminutive of a root gir, cognate with Platt-Deutsch gor, a little
child.
In O.E. writers of the fourteenth century ^7'r/was of the common gender:
thus Chaucer has ' yonge girles' = young persons ; and the O.E. expression knave-
girle occurs in the sense of boy.
Wench is a shortened form of the O.E. wenchcl, which in the "Ormulum" is
applied to Isaac, and was originally a word of the common gender.
In a metrical version of the Old and New Testaments of the fourteenth century,
in the Vernon MS., we find tnayden and from = boy and girl : —
" Ine reche whether hit beo maydtn other grant."
BACHELOR. MAID.
The derivation of bachelor, which comes to us from the French, is uncertain ;
it probably contains a Celtic root, as seen in Welsh bachgen, a boy (from bach,
little) ; whence O.Fr. bachelor, a sen-ant, apprentice in arms, a knight-bachelor.
Maid-=- O.E. ftuegetk, mad; maiden (O.E. magd-en, of neuter gender) is a
derivative. '
The literal meaning of maid is one grown up, an adult It is often applied to
males as well as females.
1 We have the same root in Goth, mag-us, a boy ; mag-aths, a young girl ;
O.E. mag-a, a son (cp. Sc. mac), all connected with the Sansk. root nia/'i, tc
become great, to grow.
Monk (O. E. munec, matte) comes from the Greek through the Latin nwnachut.
Friar (O.JL.frere, Q.Yr.freire, Lat. f rater) signifies a Iroti
X.] GENDER. 85
KING. QUEEN.
King (O.E. cyning, cyng) originally signified the father of a family, ' King of
his own kin." J Queen (O.E. aval) at first meant wife, woman, mother.2
EARL. COUNTESS.
Earl (O.E. eort) is probably a contraction of O.E. ealdor man = elder-man,
i term applied to the heretogas or leaders of the old English chiefs who first
settled in this country.
Countess (O.Fr. contesse, cuntesse] is the feminine of the word count.
MONK. NUN.
igh th
<ther of a religion*
order.
Nitn (O.E. nunne, nonne] from Latin nmtna, a grandmother. The first nuns
would naturally be older women. 3
The Old English feminine for monk was munecen = minchen.
WIZARD. WITCH.
Wizard from O.Fr. guise-art, guisch-art, signifies a very wise man; the
French word is of Teutonic origin, guise = Icelandic visk-r, wise. The suffix -ard
is of the same origin as that in dnmk-ard.
The oldest English words for wizard were ivigelere, one who uses wiles, and
kweplere.
Witch in old writers is a word of the common gender. The O.E. is wicce, to
which there was probably a corresponding masculine, wicc-a.4
SLOVEN. SLUT.
Sloven seems to be connected with O.E. slavere, to slobber (cp. to slobler
work = to do work slovenly). Some etymologist connected it with slow (O.E
tiam).
Slat is perhaps connected with O.E. slotere, to defile ; slottisch, dirty, slutty.
Slattern (= slat ten) probably means tattered, from the verb slit (pret. slat)5.
The following words, though apparently different, are etymo
logically connected :—
NEPHEW. NIECE.
Kephew is from the Lat. nepos, a grandson, through the O.Fr. nevod (iiiff,
tiiez), Fr. neveu.6
1 Cp. Sc. janaka (= genitor), father, from /an, to beget.
- Cp. Gcth. qens, O.H. Ger. cliena, a. woman, wife; Eng. quean, used only in
a bad sense.
3 Cp. Gr. wairar, a priest, from /<?/#, a father.
4 Cp. O.E. -webb-a, a male weaver ; webb-c, a female weaver.
5 Robert of Brunne has denude, a feminine term equivalent to slattern, for
which we now write doivd-y.
6 The Sansk. naptri shows that nepos (fern, neptis) contains the remnant of a
suffix -ter, as in pa-tcr. The Sansk. naptri = na+fitri, not a father, one who is
not old enough to become a parent.
86 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Niece is the Fr. niece from the Lat. neptis, a grand-daughter.
The O.E. ntf-a (nephew), nef-e (niece), are cognate with nefos and neptis,
and with nephew and niece.
The O.E. forms could not, as some have suggested, given rise to nephevj or
niece, but both would assume a common form, neve, which is found in O.E. writers
after the Conquest.
LORD. LADY.
Lord(Q.TL. hl&ford — hlAf-weard] is a compound containing the suffix -tueard
(-ward] = keeper, guardian, as in O.E. boatward, boat-keeper. It is generally
explained as foaf(O.'E. hlAf), -distributor.
Lady (O. E. Mcefdige = hl&fweardige*) is a (contracted) feminine of Lord.
LAD. LASS.
In O.E. ladde is generally used in the sense of a man of an inferior station, a
menial servant. It is generally considered as being connected with O.E. lead,
lede (cp. Goth. jugga.-taui/ts, a young man, jugga = young), from leodan, Goth.
liudan, to grow up.
Lass does not occur in O.E. writers before the fourteenth century, and only
in Northern writers. It is probably a contraction of laddess.
In the following pairs one is a compound : —
MAN. WOMAN.
See remarks on MAN, p. 83, § 71.
BRIDEGROOM. BRIDE.
^.remarks on GROOM, p. 83, § 71.
Notice too that the masculine is formed from the feminine.
These terms are mostly applied to newly-married persons. " And is the bride
and bridegroom coming home?"— SHAKESPEARE.
In O.E. (fourteenth century) bryd (brud), by metathesis, often becomes burd
(bird), and is employed in the sense of maiden : hence bttrnes and burdes = young
men and maidens.
• HUSBAND. WIFE.
Husband is not the band, bond, or support of the house, as some have inge-
niously tried to make out, but signified originally the master of the house,
paterfamilias. ,
ffus = house ; bond ^ O. E. bonda, a participial form of the verb bu-an, to
inhabit, cultivate ; so that bonda 2 = husbandman, the possessor as well as the cul-
tivator of the soil attached to his house. Bond-men came to signify (i) peasants,
(2) churls, slaves; hence the compounds bond-slave, bond-age, which have
nothing to do with the verb bind, or the noun bond.
Wife was often used in older writers in the sense of woman ; hence it occurs in
some compounds with this meaning, as, fish-wife, house-wife, huzzy = housewife ;
goody = good-wife.
1 In later writers htefdige became lafdie, lavdi, lady.
a Cp. Icel. bffndi, a husbandman, from bua, to cultivate, dwell ; Dan. bonde,
peasant, countryman.
x.] GENDER. 87
SIRE. MADAM.
Sir is from O. Fr. sires, Fr. sire, Lat. senior.
Madam — Fr. niadame — my lady = mta domina.
Spenser frequently uses dame in the sense of lady.
Sire and dam are still applied to the father and mother of animals.
Grandsire and beldam are sometimes found for grandfather and grandmother.
Names of Animals.
BOAR. Sow.
Boar (O.E. bar), originally only one of many names for the male swine. Eofot
(cp. Dan. ever-swin) and bearh died out very early ; the latter still survives in
larrom-pig.
The general term of this species was Swine (O.E. siuin, cp. suiinstede = pigsty ;
surer, sounder, a herd of swine).
/"/^(O.Du. bigge, big) is not found in the oldest English ; in later writers it is
mo.sily applied to young swine.
Gris (grise, grice), from O.N. g ris, is used by our older writers for a young pig.
Farrmv = O.E.jearA = a little pig.
BULL. Cow.
/j«//(O.E. bulle) is not found in the oldest English. It probably comes from
the Icelandic boli.
Bullock (O.E. bulluca) is properly a little bull, a bull-calf.
Cmv= O.E. ta.1
The Fr. bceuf also signifies bull. The general term of the species was Ox
(O.E. oxa). There were other special designations, as steer (O.E. steor, sfeorc,
terms applied to the males of other species; cp. Ger. stier, a bull ; O.H. Ger.
stcro, ram. See note on Stag).
Heifer = O. E. heah-fore, heafre \liecforde}, of which the first syllable signifies
high, great. Cp. heah-deor = roe-buck.
BUCK. DOE.
Buck — O.E. bucca; doe — O.E. da, dama. In O.E. Juefer signifies he-goat,
connate with Lat. caper; rah, ra — roe = caprea.
Kid (cognate with Lat. tuzdus) = O.N. kid; an O.E. word for Aid-wan, ticcen,
Gcr. zick-lein.
HART. ROE.
Hart, O.E. heorut, heart = horned ; cp. cervus. Hind = cerva.
J>eer(Q.T£i. dear = Gr. Otjf,, Lat.y^ra)was once a general term for an animal
(wild), hence Shakespeare talks of 'rats and mice, and such small deer.'
STAG. HIND.
Stag = Icel. steggr, which was applied to the males of many species. In the
English provincial dialects stag or steg = a gander or a cock.
Bailey has stagg-ard, a hart in its fourth year.
WickluTe has shee-oxe.
88 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
HOUND. BITCH.
Hound = O.E. hutui, cognate with Lat. cants.
Dog dois not occur in the oldest English. It is found m the cognate dia.ects,
O.Dan, dogee, IceL doggr. Tike occurs sometimes in O.E. for a dog.
Bitck = O.E. bicc-e.
STALLION. MARE.
Stallion (O.Fr. estalon} has supplanted the O.E. hengcst and steda (steed).
Hone (O.E. hon) was originally of the neuter gender.
Mart (O.E. tnenJte), the feminine of an original masculine, meark.
SOLTl I FILLY.
FOAL. )
Foal, O.E. Sola, Ger. fallen, Lat. fullus.
Filly = Scotch fillek, Wel
COCK. HEN.
.//«» had a corresponding masculine, hana, in O.E. : cp. Ger. haJut and kenne.
GANDER. GOOSE.
Gander (O.E. gan^l-ra) and O?« (O.E.^flr =gons,gans)zre related words.
The d and r in gander are merely euphonic ; a is the masculine suffix and the
root is gan = fans, a goose ; cp. Icel. gas, goose ; gasi, gander ; also Ger. fans,
Gr. x«j», Latin anser(= hanser).
DRAKE. DUCK.
Duck = O.E. doke = diver (connected with the verb to duck, O.Dan, dniken,
O.H.G. ttehan, to dive, plunge) has no etymological connection with Drake.
The word drake can only be explained by a reference to the cognate forms :
O.Norse and-rtft-a, O.H.Ger. ant-richo, ant-reeho, which suggests an O.English
end-ric-e (which, however, does not occur in O.E. literature).
IB O.E. ened, end = duck (cp. O.H.Ger. anvt, Ger. ente, Lat. anas) ; rice —
icmp, cp. Lat. rex.
So that d-rake is a contraction of end-rake = duck-king, king of the ducks. l \
RUFF. REEVE.
Reeve seems a true feminine of Ruff.
MILTER. S FAWNER.
DROXS. BEE.
73. II. The Gender marked by difference of termination.
The feminine is usually formed from the masculine.
A. Obsolete modes of forming the feminine : —
' The suffix -rick is found in some of the German dialects : in taHber-rich, a
male dove ; enterick, a drake ; ganse-rich, a gander.
x.] GENDER. 89
(1) By the suffix -en.
In the oldest English -en was a. common feminine suffix, as —
M. F.
Cas-ere (emperor) Caser-n (empress).
Fox Fyx-en (vixen).
God, a god Gyden (goddess).
Manna (man-servant) Mennen (woman-servant).
Wulf (wolf) Wylten (she-wolf).
In modem English we have only preserved one word with this
suffix — vixen.
Vix-en is formed from -vox, the Southern form of fox. The change
of vowel is regular : compare god and gyden.
In Scotch, cart-in = an old woman.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find a few more of these feminines,
as — minclicn,* a nun; wolvene, a she-wolf; dovene, a she-dove; schalkene, a
female servant, from scJialk (O.E. scealc),a. Kan-servant, which exists in mar-
w/Wand seneschal.
(2) By the suffix -ster.
In the oldest English we have a numerous class of words ending in -ster (sire,
siere), corresponding to masculine forms in -ere.
M. r.
bscc-ere (baker) bsec-estre.
fithel-ere (fiddler) fithel-stre.
hearp-ere (harper) hearp-estre.
sang-ere (singer) sang-e.stre.
seam-ere (sewer; seam-estre.
taepp-er (bar-man) taspp-estre.
webb-ere (weaver) webb-estre
Up to the end of the thirteenth century -sterjms a characteristic sign of the
feminine gender, and by its meai.s new feminines could be always formed from
the masculine.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find some curious forms, as —
bellering-estre, a female bell-ringer.
•uric-then-estrc, a weekly woman-servant.
hordestre, a cellaress.
ivasshestre, a washerwoman.
In the fourteenth century we find the suffix -ster giving place to the Norman-
French -ess, and there is consequently a want of uniformity in the employment
of this termination. Thus Robert of Brunne uses sangster, songster, as a
1 This suffix is found in several of the Aryan languages : cp. Ger. sang-er
(singer) and sangerinn ; fuchs (fox) and fucks-inn; Gr. ijpouvri, hero-z«<r (O.Fr.
licro-ine). Latin regina. ...
Margravine and Landgravine contain the Romance suffix -me (as in Iteroin
and not the Teutonic -in.
Lithuanian gandras, stork ; gandr-ene ($."}•
Sansk. Indra (name of a god) ; Indrani (the wife of Indra). _
The Sanskrit shows that n is no mark of gender, but of possession ; the -I is UU
sign of gender, which appears in Lithuanian -ene, but is lost in the English -en,
Ger. -inn.
90 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
masculine.1 In Purvey's Recension of Wickliffe's translation of the Scriptures
we find songstere used for the masculine singer ; and Wickli/fe uses tvebbestere
as a masculine.
Daunstere (a female dancer), kotestre (hostess), tombestfre (= daunstere) are
hybrid words, and etymologicnlly as bad as sleeresse, &c.
In the " Pilgrimage of the Lyf of Manhode " (beginning of fifteenth century),
we have only one word in -ster as the name of a female, viz. hangestre = the
feminine of hangman or hangere (p. 144).
The following feminines in -ess occur in this work : — meyeresse, enquerouresse,
bigiiemresse, condyeresse, constabUsse, jogelouresse, forgeresse, skorclieresse, en-
chantmresse, bacouresse, graoeresse, gold-smithesse, disporteresse.
Still a good number of words with this suffix are to be found as feminines late
in the fifteenth century, as —
kempster = pectrix. baxter = pistrix.
webster = textrix. salster = salinaria.
dryster = siccatrix. brawdster = palmaria.
sewster = sutrix. huxter = auxiatrix.
We have now only one feminine word with this suffix, viz. spin-
ster: but huckster was used very late as a feminine. Hucksterer and
man-hnckster are new masculines formed from the feminine.
When the suffix -ster was felt no longer to mark the gender, some
new feminines were formed by the addition of the Romance French
-ess to the English -ster, as songstr-ess and seamstr-ess,2
which hybrid forms are, etymologically speaking, double feminines.
The suffix -ster now often marks the agent with more or less a sense of contempt
and depreciation, as punster, trickster, gamester.
In Elizabethan writers we find drugster, hackster (swordsman),
teamster, seedster (sower), throwster, rhymester, whipster, &c.
B. Romance suffixes.
To replace the obsolete English modes of forming the feminine,
several suffixes are used to mark the gender.
(I) Lat. -or (m.), and -ix (f.).
M. F.
adjutor adjutrix.
testator testatrix.
&c. &c.
. ±
. J Th!lNorth.ern dialects of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries seldom employ
uffix and it is often found, as in Robert of Brunne, in masculine nouns
(marking the agent).
{" &? <,'Pjmulu2l"Iw? faA**tcesttrr= Auctster,which is probably masculine.
i Wicklitfc we find sips that this suffix was going out of use to mark gender
s double forms that he employs, as dtueU-stere and dweller^sse, sleestere and
sleeresse, davnstere and daunseresse.
Howell uses hucksteress and spinstress as feminines. Ben Jonson uses
imster and songster to express the feminine : while Shakespeare uses sttnster
nrtimesas = spinner.
x.] GENDER.
(2)
Romance -ine.
M.
F.
hero
heroine.
landgrave
landgravine.
margrave
margravine.
(3)
Romance -a.
M.
F.
sultan
sultan-a.
signor
signor-a.
infant
infant-a.
In O.K. the Romance fern, suffix -ere is used in chambrere, Fr. chamlerilre
= chamberwoman ; lavendere = laundress. " God hath maad me (Penitence)
his chanmbrere and his lavendere" — Pilgrimage.
(4) The French -ess is, however, the ordinary feminine suffix, and
the only living mode of forming fresh feminines ; -ess is Med. Lat
issa, and occurs in the Old English abbud-isse = abbess.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find contesse = countess ;
emperesse — empress. In the fourteenth century -ess began to take the
place of the English -ster, and was no doubt at first added only to
Romance words ; after a time it was added to Teutonic as well as to
borrowed words.
In the Elizabethan period we find that it was added more fre-
quently to distinguish the feminine than at present.
Spenser has championess, vassaless, warriouress, &c. Chapman
uses heroess, butteress, waggoness, redress, &c. (See Trench's "English
Past and Present," p. 156.)
1 I ) The suffix -ess is added to the simple masculine, as —
M. F.
baron baron-ess,
giant giant-ess.
&c. &c.
(2) The masculine ending is dropped before the suffix, as —
M. F.
cater-er catcr-ess.
sorcer-er sorcer-ess.
cS:c. &c.
(3) The masculine ending (-or, -er) is shortened before the addition
of -ess: —
M. F.
actor actress,
conductor conductress.
&c. &c.
92 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(4) Duchess is from O.Fr. ducesse, dnchesse ; marchioness, from
Med. Lat. marchio ; mistress, O.E. maisteresse, from master, O.E
maister.
74. III. Gender is sometimes denoted by composition.
In the oldest English we find traces of a qualifying word compounded with a
general term, as man-cild = man-child, boy ; carl-catt, tom-cat ; carl-fugol, a
male bird ; wif-man — woman ; cwen-fugol, a female bird. In later times we
find cnave-child = boy.
(1) By using the words male and female.
M. F.
male-servant female-servant.
(2) By using man, woman, or maid.
M. F.
man-servant maid-servant,
men-singers women-singers.
Sometimes we find servant-man, servant-maid, •uiasher-tuomati, milk-man
milk-maid.
(3) By the use of he and she, mostly in the names of animals.
M. F.
he-goat she-goat,
he-bear she-bear.
In Shakespeare's time he and she were used as nouns ; and not
only did people talk of he's and shjs for males and females, but
even of \\\z fairest he and the fairest she : whence he and she are also
compounded with substantives, especially to convey a contemptuous
or ridiculous sense, as " Howl, you 'he monks and you she monks. "-
DRANT'S Sermons.
Cp. he-devil she-devil.
He and she were not thus used in the oldest English ; it is an idiom " common
to the Scandinavian and the English, which in awkwardness surpasses anything
to be met with in any other-speech." — MARSH. We find this idiom as early as
the -beginning of the fourteenth century, the earliest expressions being lie-beast
and she-beast.
(4) Dog and bitch, as dog-fox, bitch-fox, &c.
(5) Buck and doe, as buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit, &c.
(6) Boar and sow, as boar-pig, sow-pig.
(7) Ewe in rune-lamb (Gen. xxi. 18).
(8) Col '/and filly, as colt-foal, filly -foal.
1 "The he hathe two pynnes . . . 'and the she Lathe none."— LAUFEN-CK
ANDREWS, Babys Book, p. 231.
x.] NUMBER. 93
(9) Cock and hen, as cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow.
" Take hede of those egges that be blont on bothe endes, and thci shal be
lienne chekeas, and those that be longe and sharpe on bothe endes shal be cocke
cliekens." — L. ANDREWE, Babys Book, p. 222.
In names of animals the class-name is frequently treated as
neuter, as " In its natural state the hedgehog is nocturnal."
So also names of children, as, child, boy, &c.
II. NUMBER.
75. Some languages, as Sanskrit, Greek, &c., have three numbers,
singular (marking one object), plural (more than one), dual (two).
The oldest English had the dual number only in the personal
pronouns, which we no longer preserve.
76. In the oldest English there were several plural endings, -as,
-an, -u, -a, -o. After the Norman Conquest these were reduced
(i) to -es, -en, -e; (2) to -es, -en ; and finally the suffix -es or -s
became the ordinary plural ending.
Thus -as was originally only the plural sign of one declension
of masculine nouns, as, fisc, fish, pi. fiscas.
When -as became -es, it still remained for the most part a dis-
tinct syllable, as in the following passage in Chaucer : —
"And \vith his stremes dryeth in thegreves
The silver dropes hongyng on the leeves."
Spenser has several instances.
" In wine and oyle they wash his woundes wide." — F. Q. L 5. 17.
Hawes has many instances of the fuller form -es, as —
"The knightes all unto their arjnes went." — Pastime of Pleasure, p. 131.
77. Though we have only one plural ending, we make a very
vigorous use of it We have replaced foreign plurals by it, as
insects, indexes, choruses, ethics, &c. We add it to adjectives used
as substantives, as goods, evils, blacks, sweets, vitals, commons?- &c.;
to verbal nouns, as cittlings, scrapings, &c. ; and to pronouns, as
others, noughts.
94 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAV.
78. The reduction of -es to -s causes the suffix to come into direct
contact with the last letter of the substantive to which it is added,
and by which it is affected.
(a) If the substantive ends in a flat mute, a liquid, or a vowel,
j is pronounced flat, as tubs, lads, stags, hills, hens, feathers, trees,
days, folios.
(b) If the substantive ends in a sharp mute, s takes the sharp
sound, as traps, fits, stacks.
(f) The fuller form -es is retained when the substantive ends in a
sibilant or palatal sound, such as ss, sh, x, ch; as glasses, wishes, foxes,
churches, ages, judges.
(d) Words of pure English origin ending in -f, -fe, -If, with a
preceding long vowel (except 00} retain the older spelling, but only
sound the s, as leaf, leaves ; thief, thieves ; wife, wives ; shelf, shelves;
wolf, wotves.
In roof, hoof, reef, ftfe, strife, the./ is retained and s only added. We some-
~"~ * find elfs, shelf s, instead of elves, shelves.
(e) In Romance words f remains unchanged, and the plural is
formed by s, as briefs, chiefs, griefs.
Exceptions. — In O.E. we find pr -oaves, kerchieves, beeves.
(f) Words ending in -ff, -rf, form the plural by the addition of s,
and the/is left unchanged, as cliff, cliffs ; dwarf, dwarfs.
We sometimes find staves, wharves, dwarves, scaraes, mastives, written for
staffs, dwarfs, wharfs, scarfs, mastiffs; and in old writers, cleeves, turves, for
cliffs, turfs; also helves — handles. In Rastall's Chronicles, 1529, we find torses
pL of turf.
(g) Words terminating hi a single y keep the old orthography,
and y is changed into *V ?& fly, flies ; city, cities.
In Old English the singular ended in -ie, as flie, ciiie.
Y remains unchanged if it is diphthongal or preceded by another
vowel, and* only is added,* as boy, boys ; play, play s ; -valley, valleys.
We sometimes find -sallies, monies, monkies, pullies, &c. AVeaii has for its
plural alkaliei.
(A) Words in -o (not those in -to), mostly of foreign origin, form
the plural in -es (sounded as z), as echoes, heroes, potatoes.
Words in -io add j, as /olios, seraglios.
A few of later origin in -o and -oo add s, as dominos, grottos,
tyrot, cuckcos, Hindoos.
x.] NUMBER. 95
(i) Particles used as substantives take -s or -es for their plural, as
rips and downs; ayes and noes (or aye's and no's); the O's and J/a« ;
pros and ^«j / et-ceteras.
(j ) In compounds the plural is formed by s, as blackbirds, pay-
masters.
When the adjective (after the French method) is the last part of
the compound, the sign of the plural is added to the substantive, as
attorneys-general, courts-martial. So in prepositional compounds,
as sons-in-law, fathers-in-law, lookers-on, men-of-war.
(K) When full is compounded with a noun, s is added to the last
element, as handfuls, ciipfuls ; but not if the terms are kept dis-
tinct, as " two handfuls of marbles ;" " we have our /lands full of
work. "
In Old English such forms as handful, shipful were mostly re-
garded as adjective compounds, and did not take the plural sign.
79. Plural formed by vowel-change —
foot,
O.E.
fl*',
plural
feet,
O.E.
A
tooth,
O.E.
t6th;
plural
teeth,
O.E.
tSth.
mouse,
O.E,
mus ;
plural
mice,
O.E.
mus.
louse,
O.E.
lus;
plural
lice,
O.E.
#s.
goose,
O.E.
gds;
plural
geese,
O.E.
ges.
man,
O.E.
man ;
plural
men,
O.E.
men.
All these words once had a plural ending. The vowel of the plural sufTiv,
though lost, has left its influence in the change of the root-vowel, which, pMi -
logically speaking, is no inflection ; cp. O.Sax. fdti = feet, bdci = O.E. tec =
books.
See remarks on Vowel-change, p. 58, § 47.
80. Plurals in -en (O.E. -an).
(1) There were a larger number of these words in the oldest
English which formed the plural in -an, only one is now in common
use, oxen = O.E. ox-an.
Shoon, O.E. scon, and hosen, O.E. hosan, are more or less obsolete.
Spenser frequently uses eyen = O. E. eagan, Provincial English ten ; and foen
= O.E. fan, /on, foes.
(2) Some words that now form their plural in « originally ended
in a vowel, and have therefore conformed to plurals in n.
Kine. — The e is no part of the plural, as we find in O.E. ktn
and ken. Cow originally made its plural by vowel-change, O.E. cu,
a cow, plural cy. Cp. O.E. mus (mouse), mis (mice).
96 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
In O.E. we find ky, kye, kine, still preserved in the North of
England.
Child-r-e-n.— In the oldest English child (did) formed its plural
by strengthening the base by means of the letter r, and adding «, as
cild-r-it.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find cild-r-u converted
into (i) child-r-e and (2) cliild-r-e-n.
In the fourteenth century we find in the Northern dialects childer =
children, where the -re has become -er (cp. O.E. alra = (i) alrc,
(2) aller, (3) alder).
In O.E. of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find calvren,
lambren, and eyren (eggs).
O.E. cealf(caU ) had for its plural— (\) cealf-r-v ; (2) cal-v-r-e; (3) calveren ;
O.E. lamb, pi. (i) lamb-r-u; (2) lamb-r-t; (3) lambr-e-n; (4) lambs.
O.E. ay (egg), pi. (i) ceg-r-u; (?)ey-r-e; (3) ey-r-e-n.
Brethren.— In the oldest English the plural of brother was
brothru (brothra). In the thirteenth century this became ( I ) brothr-e,
(2) brothr-e-n (brotheren\ (3) brethr-e, (4) brethr-e-n, (5) brotheres
(brothers).
In the Northern dialects in the fourteenth century we find brethre
becoming brether. r
The e in brethren seems to have arisen from the dative singular (brethtr).
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, we find that the oldest English
dohtm became dohtren, dmightreti, dektren, and dewier.
Sister and mother once belonged to the same declension.
TREEN = O.E. treow-u is used by Sackville (" Induction")2 : —
" The vnathful Winter, 'preaching on apace,
With blustering blasts had all ybar'd the treat."
8l. Some words, origmally neuter and flexionless in the plural, have
the same form for the singular and the plural.
1. Deer = O.E. dear, pi. dear.
2. Sheep' = O. E. sce&p, pi. scedp.
3. Swine — O.E. swin, pi. swtn.
4. Neat = O. E. ne&t (used collectively to include steer,
• heifer, calf).3
This class once included the following words -.—folk, year, yoke,
head, score, pound, hair, horse,* &c.
1 "These be my mother, brether, and sisters." — Bp. PILKINGTON (died 1575).
a Siitren occurs in the " Fardell of Facion " (1555).
3 In O. E. goat is treated as a plural :— " Jabel departed the flokkis of scheep
from the flokkis of goat." — CAPGRA VE, p. 8. Also warm : — "All kindes of beastes,
fowle, and ivormi. ' — Fardell of Facion.
4 " Tame and well-ordered hone, but wild and unfortunate childr_-;i." —
ASCMAM.
X.] NUMBER.
97
82. Many substantives are treated as plurals and take no plural
sign, as —
(1) Words used in a collective sense : cavalry, infantry, harlotry,
fish, fowl, cattle, poultry, fruit.
Capgrave uses gander as a plural. In the " Fardell of Facion "
we read that "quail and mallard are not but for the richer sort."
(2) Names expressive of quantity, mass, weight, as : pair, brace,
couple, dozen, score, gross, quire, ream, stone, tun, last, Joot, fathom,
mile, chaldron, bushel.
Also cannon, shot, shilling, mark ; rod, and furlong (Fardell of
Facion).
In the phrase horse and foot we have either a contraction of (a) horsemen
and footmen, or of (i>) men on Anne (O.E. men an horse) and men on foot (O.E.
men afoot).
83. Some substantives have a double plural form, with different
meanings, as —
Brothei-s (by blood), brethren T (of an order or community).
Cloths (sorts of cloth) ; clothes (garments, clothing).
Dies (a stamp for coining, &c.) ; dice (hi gaming).
Peas (the pi. of pea) ; pease (collective). Pea, O.E fisa, is derived from Lat.
pisttm. In O.E. we find pi. pesen (and peses]. The s belongs to ihe root, and 15
no inflexion. When the old pi. ending was lost, Jease was looked upon as a
plural, and a new singular, pea, was coined.8
Pennies (a number of separate coins) ; pence (collective). Penny, Q.TL.penig,
pi. penegas (pennyes, pans, pens), without any distinction of meaning. When
pence is compounded with a numeral as the name of a separate coin, we can regard
it as a singular, and make it take the plural inflexion, as two sixpences.
84. Foreign words usually take tbe English plural. Some few
keep their original plural, as —
Latin (i)
Sing.
arcanum
addendum
datum
Plural.
arcana*
addenda*
data.
erratum
errata*
stratum
strata.
magus
magi.
1 This distinction is, of course, comparatively recent.
* Spenser has —
" Not worth Sifese."
Surrey —
" a pen
Above a pearl in price."
" Net worth two ptason" = f eaten,
H
98 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Sing.
Plural.
radius
radii.
minutia
minuthe.
species
species.
&C.
&c.
Greek (2)
axis
axes.
basis
bases.
ellipsis
ellipses.
&C.
&c.
Romance (3)
monsieur
messieurs.
bandit
banditti.
ate.
&c.
Hebrew (4)
cherub
cherubim.
seraph
seraphim.
Some of these have the English plural, as — appendixes, calixes, vor-
texes, criterions, automatons, phenomenons, memorandums, spectrums,
focuses, funguses, similes, beaus, seraphs, cherubs, as well as their
original plurals, appendices, calices, vortices, criteria, automata, pheno-
mena, memoranda, spectra, foci, fungi, similia, beaux, seraphim,
c/ierubitn (and seraphin, cherubin1).
85. Some have two plurals with different meanings, as —
indexes (of a book) indices (signs in algebra).
geniuses (men of genius) genii (spirits, supernatural beings).
parts (abilities) parts (divisions).
86. Many substantives are used only in the plural, as —
(1) Substantives denoting things that consist of more than one
part, and consequently always express plurality, as —
(a) Parts of the body : lights, lungs, veins, kidneys, -whiskers, chit-
terlings, intestines, bowels.
(ff) Clothing : breeches, slops, trowsers, drawers, mittens, garters.
(f) Tools, instruments, implements, &c ; shears, scissors, /
snuffers, tongs, scales, fcc. (Shakespeare uses ballance as a plural.)
'' A peyre of ballaunce." — DRANT.
(2) Names of things considered in the mass or aggregate, as —
ashes, embers, cinders, lees, molasses.
87. Many foreign words are used only in the plural, as aborigine,
foces, literati, prolegomena, &c.
1 Chfrubims and seraphim* occur in Elizabethan English.
x.] NUMBER.
99
88. The English plural sign sometimes replaces the original plural,
r.s nomads, plciads, hyads, rhinoceroses.
Of a similar kind are —
abstergents ( = abstergentia).
analects (= analecta).
arms (= arma).
annals (— anna/es), &c.
89. The plurals of some substantives differ in meaning from the
singulars, as antic, antics; beef, beeves; chap, chaps; draught,
draughts; checker, checkers ; forfeit, forfeits ; record, records; scale,
scales ; spectacle, spectacles ; grain, grains ; ground, grounds ; -water,
waters; copper, coppers; iron, irons; compass, compasses; return,
returns ; &c. £c.
So too verbal substantives, as cutting and cuttings ; sweeping and
sweepings, &c.
90. Many adjectives used as substantives form their plural
regularly, as good, goods; captive, captives; lunatic, lunatics;
cp. commons, eatables, betters, superiors, odds, extras.
To this class, with English plural substituted for foreign adjective
plural, belong acoustics, analytics, ethics, optics, politics.
91. Some plural forms are sometimes treated as singulars, as
amends,^- bellows,'2 gallows,3 means,* news,6 odds,6 pains? sessions,
shambles, small-pox,* tidings,9 wages.
Most of these are comparatively late plurals, and the singular was
once used where we employ the plural.
92. Alms, eaves, riches, though treated as plurals, are singular
in form.
Alms = Gr. l\ti\fjiOff{,vT\ ; O.E. almessc, almesse, almes. In O.E.
we find pi. elmessen, almesses.™
1 Amends from Fr. amende. Robert of Brunne has " the amends was."
2 O.E. " a gret belygh ; " "a peyre belyes."— Pilgrimage, pp. in, 116.
3 O.E. pi. — galgan.
4 Means (Fr. moyen, Lat. medium).
5 News (Fr. native ties, Lat. nova).
6 Odds in it is odds = it is most probable.
7 Fain. There is some confusion with the double origin of the word— (i) trom
O.E. pin, pain, torment ; (a) from Lat./<r«rt.
In the singular pain — suffering ; in the plural = sufferings, trouble.
8 -Pox — -poc-s ; as in chicken-pock, pock-mark.
9 Tidings. O.E. tidcnde. The plural is rare in O.E.
10 Cp. " he asked an alms." (Acts lii. 3.) "All a common riches. — . JOHN
FLE i CHER, Wit without Money.
H 2
ioo ' ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Riches = O.Fr. richace ; O.E. richeise, richesse. In O.E. we
find pi. rifhesses. Alms and riches are etymologically no more
plurals than are largess and noblesse.
Eaves = O. E. yfes, efese = margin, edge.
\Ve sometimes find £^«-droppers = eaves-droppers ; esen =
O.E. effsen, eaves.
93. Summons is a singular form ( = O. Fr. semonse ; O. E. somons),
and is usually treated as such, making the pi. summonses.
94. Proper names form the plural regularly.
(a) A few originally adjectives take no plural sign, as Dutch,
English, Scotch.
(l>) Many geographical names are frequently plural in form, as
Athens, Thebes, the Netherlands, Indies, Azores, Alps.
(f) In names of persons, when a descriptive term is added, only
the last adds s for the plural, as master bakers, brother squires, the
two doctor Johns,
We, however, may say the Miss Browns or the Misses Brown.
Where two titles are united the last now usually takes the plural,
as major-generals : a few old expressions sometimes occur in which
both words, following the French idiom, take the plural, as knights-
templars, lords-lieutenants, lords-justices.
III. CASE.
95. In some languages nouns (substantives and adjectives) take
different forms (cases) in different relations in a sentence.
The moveahlc or variable terminations of a noun are called its
tase-endings.
"At Athens, the term case, or ptotit, had a philosophical meaning ; at Rome,
cams was merely a literal translation : the original meaning of/all was lost, and
the worJ dwindled down to a mere technical term. In the philosophical language
of the Stoics, ftoiis, which the Romans translated by casus. really meant ' fall ' ;
that is to say, the inclination or relation of one idea to another, the falling or
reding of one word on another. Lone and angry discussions were carried on as
to whether the name of ftiisis, or fall, was applicable to the nominative ; ami
this is lost to us when we speak of cases."— MAX ML'LLER.
96. The oldest English had six cases : Nominative, Vocative,
Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Instrumental.
In the Aryan lan?<iages the case-ending* are attenuated words— of all of
which the origin i> v«ry obscure.
X.] CASE. 101
The nominative ending s (as in re x = reg-s) is connected with the demonstrative
pronouns, O.E. se, seo, tluet; Gr. o, h, TO ; Sansk. sa, sd, tat; Eng. the.
The dative suffix was originally a preposition, signifying to or for: cp. the
pronouns — Lat. tibi with Sansk. tu-bhyam; Sansk. abbhi, Gr. a/ifl>«, O.E. umbe
and be, which we see again in the plural of Latin nouns of the third, fourth, and
rifth declensions. In Sansk. this abhi was shortened to at (e), and is still more
disguised in Latin and Greek.
The ablative termination was / or d, as Sansk. acuat = O. Lat. eouod, from a
horse ; thu t or d is probably connected with the demonstrative to. : cp. Lat. in-de,
urde.
The locative had the ending i, denoting the relation expressed by our preposition
in, to which it is related.
The instrumental, expressing the relation by or with, ended in a.
The accusative had the letter m for its suffix.
The genitive ended in s or sya. which is supposed to be a demonstrative pronoun
(cp. Sansk. syas, sya, tyat. this, that). In the possessive pronouns, Sansk. we
find tyas, tyA, tyatn, as mudiyas, madiya, madiyam = metis, meet, meum. It is
therefore probable that the genitive ending was nothing more than an adjective
termination.
In Sansk. adjectives are formed by the suffix -tya (=sya}.
In Greek the form cogitate with tya was ffio-g. From dti/ioc, people, came
the adjective knuoaioQ (belonging to the people). In Greek, an IT between two
vowels of grammatical terminations is elided : thus the genitive of t*»u£ is not
•yefeaoe, butY€i>eo£or ffvov^; hence offjtovio would become atftolo, the Homeric
genitive of Hjfio^. in later Greek replaced by oij^jov — MAX ML'LLER.
We have something like it in English. Compare the force of the suffix » in
wooden with that of n in mine, thine.
"The Latin geuitivits (genitive) is a mere blunder, for the Greek •v.-or&geniki
could never mean genitrws. Genitivus, if it is meant to express the case erf
origin or birth, would in Greek have been called gennetike, not genike. Nor dot,
iheg-enitive express the relation of son to father. For though we may say 'th«
son of the father,' we may likewise say, 'the father of the son.' Genike, in
Greek, had a much wider, a much more philosophical meaning It meant casiu
generalis, the general case, or rather the case which expresses the genus or kind.
This is the real power of the genitive. . . . The termination of the genitive is,
in most cases, identical with those derivative suffixes by which substantives ar«
changed into adjectives." — MA
POSSESSIVE CASE.
97. In modern English we have no case-endings of substantives
except one, the possessive, the representative of the older genitive.
The nominative and accusative have no formative particles to
distinguish them, and their position in a sentence, or the sense, is the
only means we have of distinguishing them from one another.
98. In the oldest English there were various declensions, as in
Latin and Greek : so there were different genitive suffixes (a) for the
singular, (/;) for the plural.
The suffix -its originally belonged to the genitive sing, of some
masculine and neuter substantives ; it was not the genitive sign ol
,02 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
the feminine until the thirteenth century, and then for the most part
only in the Northern dialect (cp. Lady-day with Lord's day}.
T.ate in the fourteenth century we find traces of the old plural
ending -ene, -en (-ena), as kingen-en = of kings. (Piers Plowman.}
Probably before the thirteenth century -es betran to take its place :— " Alri
huerdes louerd, and alre kingetu king."— O.E. Horn., Second Scries.
99. The suffix -es was a distinct syllable in Old English, as—
" Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre."— CHAUCER.
Traces of this form we have in Elizabethan writers : —
" Then looking upward to the heaven's beams,
With nightis stars thick powder'd everywhere."
SACKVILLE'S Induction.
" Of aspis sting herself did stoutly kill." — SPENSER, F. Q. i. 5, 50.
"To show bis teeth as white as -whales bone."
SHAKESPEARE'S Love's Labours Lost, v. 2.
100. The sign of the possessive is now -s for both numbers ; and
it is subject to the same euphonic modifications as the sign of the
plural (see § 78).
The loss of the final vowel is indicated by the apostrophe ('), as
boy's, &C.1
When a word in the singular of more than two syllables ends in
s, x, ge, s is omitted but (') retained, as — Lycurgus' sons, Socrates'
wife.
In poetry this frequently happens with respect to words of more
than one syllable, especially if the following word begins with a
sibilant, as —
The Cyclops" hammer ; young Paris' face ; your highness' love ; for
justice sake ; for praise sake ; the Phoenix' throne ; a partridge win:;
(Shakespeare); princess' favourite (Congreve); the Prior of Jvrvaulx'
question (W. Scott):
In O.E., fifteenth century, if the noun ended in a sibilant or was followed by a
word beginning with a sibilant, the possessive sign was dropt, as a goose egg, the
river side. •
101. In compounds the suffix is attached to the last element, as
— the son-in-law's house ; the heir-at-lavf s will ; the Queen of
England's reign ; Henry the First's reign.
1 O was at first probably used to distinguish the genitive from theplur.il suffix.
Its use may have been established from a false theory of the origin of the genitive
case, which was thoroughly believed in from Ren jonson's to Addison's time-
that s was a contraction of his; hence such expressions as "the princr his house,"
far " the prince's house."
x.] CASE. 103
THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
102. In the oldest English the dative was the absolute case, just as
the ablative is in Latin. About the middle of the fourteenth century
the nominative began to replace it. Milton has a few instances of
this construction (in imitation of the Latin idiom), as " me over-
thrown," "us dispossessed," " him destroyed. "
" Schal no flesch upon folde by fonden onlyue,
Out-taken y^w a5t (eight)." — Allit. Poems, p. 47, 1. 357.
'Thei ban stolen him »s slepinge." — WICKUFFE, Mali, xxviii. 21.
' Hyin tha gyt spreccttdum, hig coraon fram tham heah-gesamnun
M
' '!,\inredurabelocen>-t, oide thint f^icr." — M.iit. iv. 13.
CHAPTER XI.
ADJECTIVES.
103. IN modern English the adjective has lost the inflexions ol
number, gender, or case belonging to the older stages of the language.
104. In Chaucer's time, and even later, we find (a) an inflexional
e to mark the plural number ; (£) an inflexional e for the definite
adjective — that is, when preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or a
possessive pronoun, as —
" Whan Zephirus eek with his nveete breethe
Knspired hath in every holte and heethe
The tendre croppes, and the.y0«£/sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours ironue,
And small fowles maken melodic."
CHAUCER'S Prol. to C. Tola.
This e in the oblique cases of the definite form, in the oldest English, became
««, of which, perhaps, we have a trace in the phrase " in the olden time."
We often replace an inflexional e or « by the word one. Cp.
" And the children ham lovie togidere and bevly the velaorede of th« greaten. "
— AJienbite, p. 739.
" The vissere hath more blisse vor to nime ane gratnc visse thane ant littlene. "
-16. p. a38.
" These tweyne oltfe" (= these two old ones). — Pilgrimage, p. in.
" I sigh toward the tour an old oon* that come and neihede me." — Ib. p. 23.
" I sigh an old oon that was clumben anhy up on thy bed." — Ib. 205.
105. Chaucer has instances of the Norman-French plural s in
such phrases as cosins germains, in oiher//ar« delitables.
#
In C E. the adjective of Romance origin frequently took a plural termination
(-«, -r) when placed after its substantive,2 as —
" tValeres principales." — Early Eng. Poems, p. 43.
" Vertues cardinals." — Castele of Love, p. 37.
" Ch.tnouns reguleres," "causes resonaoles," "parties tneridionnlfs."
M.AUNDEVILLS.
'_ The writer of the Pilgrimage only u«es the oon when the adjectire is accu-
Mtive. a Stow has keyres males = male heirs.
CHAP. XI.] ADJECTIVES. 105
106. It is also found without a following substantive, as —
" Of romances that been realcs
Of popes and cardinales." — CHAUCER'S Sir Thopas.
" He ous tekth to knawe the greate things vram the little, the preciausa vram
the viies, the zuete vram the zoure." — ASenbite, p. 76.
In this last example the unborrowed adjectives greate, little, &c., express the
plural by the final e.
Sometimes the plural s replaces the final e when the adjective is used substan-
lively, as —
"They love their yonges very well." — LAWRENCE ANDREWE.
Ones sometimes replaces the plural sign, as " If it fortuned one of the yongei
to dye than these aide ones wyll burye them." — Ib.
Cp. -wantons, empties, calms, shallows, worthies, orderlies, godlies.
107. Shakespeare has preserved one remnant of the older case-endings of the
plural adjective in the compound alderlie/est := the dearest of all, the most pre-
cious of all. (2 K. Hen. VI. i. I.)
A ider (sometimes written alther) is another form of aller = al-re = al-ra (•=•
omnium), the genitive plural of ail.
In Old English writers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, we find bath-er,
of both, for which we sometimes find bathes, as "your bathes paynes." — Pit-
grimage, p. 167.
I. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
108. Comparison is a variation or change of form to denote
degrees of quantity or quality. It belongs to adverbs as well as
adjectives.
"The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than at present,
and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, in which
compared correlative terms are implied." — MARCH.
109. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, high ;
the comparative, higher ; the superlative, highest.
The comparative is formed by adding -er to the positive ; the
superlative by adding -est to the positive.
This rule applies to (i) all monosyllabic adjectives ; (2) all dis-
syllabic adjectives with the accent upon the last syllable, M—gtHUeP,
%enteder, genteelest ; (3) adjectives of two syllables, in which the
last syllable is elided before the comparative, zs,—able, abler, abUst ;
(4) adjectives of two syllables ending in y, which is changed to »'
before the suffixes of comparison, as — happy, happier, happiest.
Orthographical changes : —
(1) A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel is doubled, a« vtet,
wetter, -wettest; red, redder, reddest; cruel, crueller, cruellest.
(2) A single final y is changed to i, as happy, happier, hc.ppiest ; but y with
a preceding vowel remains unchanged, as gay, gayer, gayest.
io5 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE, [CHAP.
(3) Adjectives ending in a sil:nt or unaccented t add -r and -st, instead of -<•«•
and -est, to the positive, as polite, pouter, politest: noble, nobLr,
noblest.
I to. When the adjective has more than two syllables, the com-
parison is expressed by more and most, as — eloqi4fnt, more eloquent,
most eloquent.
This mode of comparison is probably due to Norman- French influence, and it
makes its appearance at the end of the thirteenth century, as " mtst getityl"
(ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER), and becomes of frequent occurrence in Chaucer and
Wickliffc, as mast mighty, mast clear.
In poetry we find even monosyllabic adjectives compared (for the sake of
euphony) by more and most, as " Ingratitude more strong than traitors' arm^ "
(bHAKEst-EAKE). " Upon a lowly asse more white than snow " (SPE.VSBK).
Older writers on grammar make the mode of comparison depend on the
ending, not the length of the adjective ; if the adjectival ending is -ing. -ist, -e^,
-en, -ain, -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, the comparison is made by more and most. The
best writers, however, are not guided by this rule.
"Ascham writes tuttittivtst ; Bacon, honourablest, and ancicnter; Fuller,
eminentest, eloquenter, leurnedst, soUmnest,famousest, virtnonscst, with the
comparative and supsrlative adverbs, tviselier, easilier, hardliest; Sidney even
uses repiningest ; Coleridge, safeliest." — MARSH.
in. Double Comparisons are not uncommon both in old and
modern English, as more hottere, most fairest (Maundeville) ; moos!
clcnnest (Piers Plowman); more kinder, more corrupUr (Shakespeare);
most straitest {Acts of Apostles, xxvi 5).
The comparison is sometimes strengthened by adverbs, as still busier, far
n>:ser. the lamest of the low. So Chaucer has/a/nrj/ effaire (Knightes Tale).
Adjectives with a superlative sense are not usually compared. In poetry,
we find, however, perfectest, chiefest (Shakespeare), extremest (Milton), more
perfect (Eng. Bible), lonelier (Longfellow).
112. The r of the comparative stands for a more original s, as seen
in the allied languages of the Aryan speech.
Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O.E. Eng.
Comparative— mdh-t-yas. utt-fa. j ^£ j ma-iz-a. mdra. more.
Superlative— mah-ish-tha. nfy-to-Tuv. - ma-ist-s. ma:st. most.
The superlative was originally formed from the comparative by
means of the suffix -t.
113. In numerals and pronominal words, &c. we find a relic of an
old comparative, as in other, Lat. al-teru-s ; Gr. t-rtpo-t ; Sansk. <:'«-
tar-d • -whether, Lat. u-tent-s ; Gr. Ko-rtpo-s ; Sansk. ka-tard. By
bansknt grammarians the origin of -ther, -tfru, -tero, -tara is said
to be found in the Sanskrit root tar (cp. Lat. trans. Eng. throit*h\
to cross over, go beyond.
XJ.] ADJECTIVES.
107
114. An old superlative ending common to many of the Aryan
languages is -ma, as — Eng. for-ma, fru-ma ; Lat. pri-mu-s ; Gr.wpa-
TO(S) ; Sansk. pra-tha-iiu.
Ma is found in composition with fa, as in the numerals — Lat. Septimus ; Gr.
«/3-(3u-jLio(<,) ; Sansk. sap-ta-ind.
In Latin, -ti-mu-s (as in septimui,') is added to the old comp. is, whence -istimu-s,
and -itsiuttu (by assimilauciij.
II. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS.
115. OLD, ELDER, ELDEST (O.E. eald, aid; yldra, eldra ; yldnst,
eldest}.
Elder and eldest are archaic, and can only be used with reference
to living things.1 As than cannot be used after elder, it is evident
that its full comparative force is lost.
Older and oldest are the ordinary comparatives now in use.
The vowel change in elder, &c. is explained by the fact that there was ori-
ginally an * before r and si, which affected the preceding a or en, hence O.E. eald
and eldra, strang and strengra, &c.
1 1 6. GOOD, BETTER, BEST (O.E. gdd ; betera, betra ; betest, betst}.
The comparative and superlative are from a root bet (or bat], good,
found in O. E. bet-lie, goodly, excellent ; bel-an, to make good,
amend.
Best = bet-st, illustrates the law that a dental is assimilated to
a following sibilant.
In O. E. we find a comparative adverb, bet (the sign of inflexion
being lost).
117. Bad
Evil
111
i worse worst { O.E. y/tt; uyrsa, wyrs ; wyrresl,
j I wyrst.
Wor-se, wor-st, are formed from a root, wear, which is cognate
with Latin vir-us.
The -se is an older form of -re (er).
The Dan. varre (O.N. verri) found its way into English writers of the North
of England. Gower uses it in the following lines : —
" Of thilke werre (war)
In whiche none wot who hath the -werre (worse).'
Spenser uses it with reference to the etymology of the word world:
" The world is much war than it was woont."
Chaucer sometimes uses baddcrio* worse.
1 This distinction is recent : cp. the following from Earle's Muro-cosmograpkit
(1628) : " His very atyre is that which is the eldest out of fashion." (Ed. ARBER,
p. 29.)
log ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
118. MUCH, MORE, MOST (O.E. miff/, mara, rmfst).
Much is from O.E. mitel, through the forms michel, muthel.
More is formed from the root mag (or mah 1), so that more = makrt
and most = mah-st.
In O. E. mice! = great : mare, mart = greater ; most, mest, mast = greatest.
A contracted form of mare (properly adverbial), ma, mo, is used by O. E. writers.
It is found also in Shakespeare under the form moe
Alexander Gill makes mo the comparative of many; more the comparative of
much.
Many = O.E. maneg, Goth, manegs, contains the root mang, a
nasalized form of mag (mah).
119. LITTLE, LESS, LEAST (O.E. lytel ; lassa (las) ; lasest, hzsf).
les-s = O.E. las-se, les-se = las-sa = las-ra.
least = Us-st = Lzs-est.
Lesser \s a double comparative, as "the lesser light." (Eng. Bible).
Shakespeare has littkst (Hamlet, iii. 2).
In O.E. we find fyt = little, which has nothing to do with the root of less, which
is cognate with Goth, lasivSza (infirrnior), the comp. of lasiv-s (infirmus); cp. lazy.
We also find in O.E. min and mis = O.N. minni, Goth, tninniza = less, Lat.
m:n-or ; Goth, mitts = Lat minus.
120. NEAR, NEARER, NEAREST (O.E. ne&h, neh ; nyra, ne&r,
nearra ; neahst, nthst. Later forms of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries were — negh ; nerre (ner) ; next (neghest).
By the Old EngSsh forms we see that nigJt, near, next, are their proper repre
sentatives. Shakespeare u«es near' as a comparative adverb.
Kea-r = neah-r; next = negh-st or neah-st. (The guttural of course was
once pronounced.)
High was once similarly compared— heah (hen, kegk) ; hlhra, htrra (herre) ;
keoJut, htnst (neghest, next)*
121. Near, for negh or nigh, first came into use in the phrase 'far
and near,' in which near is an adverb, and represents the oldest
English neorran = near (adv.), analogous tofeorran = afar.
1 This root is found in Sansk. moJt (= magh), to grow, become great ; also
in O.E. mtrx-ett = main.
* "The mere to the Church the ferther from God.1* — HEYWOOD'S Proverbs, C.
" The near in blood the nearer bloody." — Macbeth, ii. 3.
J * When bale is hekst boote is next." — HEYWOOD'S Proverbs, E. iiL back.
Hawes (Past, of PI. p. 60) uses the old ferre : —
" My raynde '« her was so ententyfe
That I folowed her into a temple ferre,
Replete with joy, as bright as any sterr*,"
*^l _ ADJECTIVES. ,09
In this we see the positive is replaced by an adverb J- and not by
the comparative adjective, as is usually supposed.
Nearer, nearest, are formed regularly from near.
122. FAR, FARTHER, FARTHEST (Q.*£. feor, fyrra, fyrrat Later
forms, fer,ferre (ferrer), ferrest).
Farther is for far-er;* the th seems to have crept in from false
analogy with further. Farthest = far-est. Further - O E
further = ult£>-ius, the comparative of furth = forth. The super-
lative in O.E. v
LATE. LATER, LATEST (O.E. late, lator, latest}; late, latter, last
(O.E. late-mest — last).
Last - O.E. latst: cp. bat - betst*
Latter and last refer to order, as "The latter alternative ; " " The last of the
Romans."
Later and latest refer to time. This distinction is not always strictly observed
by our poetical writers.
RATHER. The positive and superlative are obsolete.
Rathe was the positive, as "the rathe primrose " (Milton) : here
rathe means early.
Rather means sooner, and is now used where liefer was once
employed.
The O.E. forms were hrtfd (ready), hrallira, krathdft.
123. Adjectives containing the superlative m.
The Old English for-m-a signifies first, the superlative of a roo»
fore. Fyrm-est = for-m-ost also had the same meaning, but is a
double superlative.
First (O.E. fyrrest, fyn(] is the regular superlative of fore.
Former is a comparative formed from the old superlative.
In O.E. we have ferine &n&forfmeste for first.
" Adam our forme fader. " — CHAUCER.
" Adam oure/oremeste fader." — MAUNDEVILLK.
Forme fader was afterwards changed to — (j)forne fader; (a) formerfather.
1 The adverb seems to be comparative.
x By some,furi/ifr is explained as more to Hie fore, as if it contained the com-
parative suffix -ther.
3 In the " Oimuiam" we have late, lattrc, lattst = late, latter, last.
1 10
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
124. The suffix -most (O.E. »«/), then, in such words as utmost
is a double superlative ending, and not the word most. The analogies
of the language clearly show that most was never suffixed to expre
the superlative.
after-m-ost = O E. afte-m-at, <*fter-m at.
further-m-ost = furthest = Q.E. forth-m-at.
In O.E. we fmAfortker-M-ore and backer-m-ore.
hindmost, hindermost = O.E. hindu-ma, hinde-ma.
Chaucer uses hinderest : cp. O.E. interest, merest, ufferest, utterest.
hither-m-ost is not found in the oldest English,
in-m-ost, inner-m-ost = O.E. inne-m-est, inne-ma.
lover-m-ost, (nether-m-ost = O.E. nithe-m-a, mtJie-m-est).
mid-m-ost = O.E. mede-ma, mede-mest.
out-m-ost, outer-m-ost ) = O.E. ute-ma, uU-rrmt.
ut-m-o-t, utter-m-ost )
up-m-ost, upper-m-ost, over-m-ost = O.E. yfe-mest, ufe-meste.
125. Over = upper (cp. a-b-ove) in O.E. writers :
" Pare thy brede and kerve in two,
The over crust tho nether fro."
Bake of Curfasye, p. 300.
" With tho ove-tit-ast [uppermost] lofe hit [the saltcellar] shalle be set."
Ib. p. 32*
126. In O.E. we find superlatives of south, east, west, as—
nttkemest, eastemest, and wesfemest.
Comp. endmost (O.E. endemest), topmost, headmost
III. NUMERALS.1
1 27. NUMBERS may be considered under their divisions — Cardinal,
Ordinal, and Indefinite Numerals.
1 The origin of the numerals is involved in much obscurity.
Oite seems to- have been another form of the pronoun a, he, that.
In Or. elc (= t »-0 we have a form cognate with same, fame; cp. Lat. sim-plex,
tint-ills, semel, sinputi
Two. In Lat. this assumes the form bi, ri (prefixes \ bis ; Gr. 3i'c (adverb).
Three = that what gOf s beyond, from the root tri (tar), to go beyond.
Four. The original form is said to signify and three, i.e. i and tiirte. Sansk.
ikalar. Lat. gnatnor; cha = qua = and ; tur =: tuor =. three.
Others explain cha = /fr/i — one. [Fii't
XI. ] ADJECTIVES. 1 1 1
i. Cardinal.
128. One. O.E. an; Goth, ains; Gr. s?s ; Lat. unus ; Sansk.
f-kj.
Out of the O.E. form an = one was developed the so-called
indefinite article an and (by loss of n) a.
In O. E. we find one = ana = alone.
Two. O.E. twa ; Goth, tvai; Gr. Svo; Lat. duo; Sansk. dva;
O.Sax. tut.
Twain = two, O.E. iwegen.
We had another word for two in the Northern dialects, of Scandinavian oiigin,
viz. twin, originally a distributive : cp. Goth, tveinnai, O.N. ti-ennr.
Thrin for three also occurs in O.E. Northern writers, O.N. tkrennr.
Three. O.E. thri, threo ; Goth, threis ; Gr. rpfts ; Lat. ires;
Sansk. tri.
Four. O. E. feovjer ; Goth, fidvor; Gr. Ttrrapej, rsWapes; Lat.
(ftiatuor ; Sansk. katvar.
This numeral has lost a letter, ///, and there is an O. E. compound
—fetker-foted, fither-foted — quadruped — which fcthcr is, of course,
more oriinal
Five. O.E.///"; Goth, fimf; Gr. trtvre ; Lat. quinque; Sansk.
panchan.
\\\five we see that a nasal has disappeared.
Six. O.E. six ; Goth, saihs ; Gr. e{; Lat. SCJT; Sansk. shash.
Seven. O.E. seofon; Goth, sibun ; Gr. fwrd ; Lat. septem ;
Sansk. saptan.
Eight. O.E. eahta; Goth, ahta^'t.; Gr. UKTU; ~La.t.octo; Sansk.
ashtan.
Nine. O.E. nigon ; Goth, niun ; O.Sax. nigun ; Gr. irvfa;
Lat. nffvem ; Sansk. navan.
In the fourteenth century we find ntghen for nine. The gh orf represents an
original v.
five = that which comes after ffour].
The Sansk. panchan is connected with/ru&r&x = coming after, as mpaskchAt,
behind, after.
Six. Sansk. shash = Zend, kshvas, which is probably a compound of two
Sevtn is connected with a root sap, to follow — that which follows [six].
Sansk. ashtiin — a. + cha + tan — i + and + 3.
and is the beginning of a new
F.ight i., originally a dual form. Sansk. afht<in
.\~lne = imv = that n-hich comes after eight
quaternion.
I'cn — two an'' ei^i.t.
H2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Ten. O.E. tyn, ten; Goth, talhun; Gr. 5«'/ca ; Lat decem;
Sansk. dashan.
The Gothic shows that tyn or ten = /•<£•<?» or tygen.
Eleven. O.E. end-lif (endleof); Goth, din-lif; Gr. e^-Sf/ta ;
Lat. undecim ; Sansk. ika-das/ia.
Eleven = end = en = one + lev-en = Hf = ten.
Twelve. O. E. twelf; Goth, twa-lif; is a compound of ftoi =
two + lif = ten.
The suffix -/#" is another form of tig = ten, which we find in O.E. tTDtn-tig,
Goth, tvai-tig-jtu — 2 X 10 =* twenty. So that -///"corresponds to Gr. -Sfna ;
Lat. -decim. (In Lat. / and rf are sometimes interchangeable, as lacrynta. and
dacryma.} In such words as laugh, enough, gk, originally a guttural, has
become f.
In Lithuanian we find wieno-lika = 11 ; chvy-lika =: ia.
In the Fr. onxe, dauze ; the Lat. -decim has undergone a greater change than
'tig into -/j£
The Sansk. dva-eUisha. = 12 is represented in Hindustani by b&-raJi ; and * M-
dasha, = 16, by s6-!ak.
129. The numbers from thirteen to nineteen are formed by adding
~teen {O.E. -tyne) = ten, to the first nine numerals.
130. The numerals from twenty to ninety are formed by suffix-
ing -ty (O. E. tig) = ten, to the first nine numerals.
131. Hundred. In the oldest English we find hund = hundred.
In the Northumbrian dialect hundrad, hundrath occurs. Hund
originally signified ten (cp. Lat. centum, Gr. «'-/caTor, Sansk. s/iata);
it is nothing else but a shortened form of tegen, -tegen-d, Goth, tai-
hun, taihun-d, ten. The syllable -red = -ratkr is also a suffix
used in Icelandic, with the same force as 'tig.'1
In the oldest English hund was added to the numerals from 70 to 100, as hund-
stofeittig— 70; Goth, sibutt-tfhund ; Gr. I/MO^-KOVT.I ; Lat feflua-ginta.
It is provable that the original form was not hund-seofentig, but hund-seofonta ;
O. Sax. (k}aut sibunta (decade seventh).
Hundred could also be expressed by hund-tentih (kitnd-teontig): cp. Goth.
tatiiun-tthund.
132. Thousand = O.E. th&send; Goth, th&sendja; Slavonic
tnsantja; Lithuanian tt'ik- stanti ; in which perhaps we have a com-
bination of ten and hundred. The Sanskrit saJtasras, 1,000 = a
going together.
« Some suppose that hund red = kund-are (like Cfnt-tiria) with suffix -d. la
O.E. of the fourteenth century we find hutidermA hundretk. In O. N. hu*drath
=*• hundred: cp. Attrathr, containing 80; Unetkr, containing 100.
XT.] ADJECTIVES. 113
133. For expressing DISTRIBUTIVES (how many at a time) wt
employ —
(1) The preposition by, as by ones, by twos, two by hvo.
So in O. E. be anfealdum, one by one ; be hundredes, be thou-
sandes. (Maundeville. )
(2) And, as two and two.
(3) With each and every, two each, every four.
There are ako other expressions, as two apiece, two at a timi.
134. MULTIPLICATIVES are expressed —
(1) By placing the cardinal before the greater number, as eight
hundred.
(2) By adjectives, with suffix -fold, as hvofold, &c.
(3) By Romance adjectives in -pie (ble), as dou-ble, tre-ble,
tri-ple, &c.
(4) By the adverb once, as once, twice.
(5) By the word times ; three times one are three.
In O.E. we used sithe, sithes = times ; as tu>o sithcs too = 2 X 2.
135. Both. O.E. begen (m.), b& (n.); Goth, bai, ba ; Ger.
bei-de.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find bey, ba, [><>,
boo = both ; gen. beire (bother, botheres).
Sometimes ba is joined to tiva (two), as bdtiua, buhva, butu.
Bo-th is a derivative of bo or ba, by means of the suffix -th. Cp.
Goth, baj-oths; O.N. b&thir.
As we find bathe first in the Northern dialects, it is probably due
to Scandinavian influence.
The O. E. begen softened to beyne occurs in the literature of the
fourteenth century :—
" Well thou maiht, Sif thou wolt, taken ensaumple of beyne,
Bothe two in heor elde children heo beore." — Vemon MS.
2. Ordinals.
136. The ordinals, with the -exception of first and second, are
formed from the cardinal numbers, and were originally superlative*
formed by the suffix -fa (th).
First. For the etymology of this word see § 123.
I
,,4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Second (Lat. secundus = following) has replaced the O.K. other
(a comparative form).
In O E. other (= on-ther = one of two) might signify the first or the second of
two It is sometimes joined with the neuter of the article, as thcrt oilier, which
in the fourteenth century was represented by the father (= thet other) ; the first
was sometimes expressed by the ton (the toon), the tone = thet one.
Third = O.K. thridda, thridde ; -de ( = -dja) is an adjective
suffix = tha : cp. Lat. ter-tiu-s.
Fourth = O.E. feor-tha.
Fifth = O.E. ff-ta.
Sixth = O.E. six-ta.
Seventh, Ninth, Tenth = O.E. seofStka, nigStha, teotha.
In thirteenth and fourteenth centuries these were —
sevetAe, nethe, and tethe (in the Southern dialects).
sevende, neghende, tende (in the Northern dialects).
seventhe, ninthe, tenthe (in the Midland dialects).
The Midland forms are formed from the Northern ones, and made their
appearance in the fourteenth century ; and the latter are of Scandinavian origin.1
In the Northumbrian Gospels we find seofunda.
Eighth stands for eight-th ; O.E. eaht-o-tha.
In O. E. (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) we find aghtende.
Eleventh* = O.E. endlefta, eellefta (elleuendf, endlefthe in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries).
Twelfth = O.E. twelfta (twelfths, twelft, in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries).
Thirteenth = O. E. threthefaha \threttethe and threttende, thirtende,
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries].
So up to nineteen, the oldest English forms end in -othe (without
«) as : fourteen, fecruyrteotha ; fifteen, fij 'teotha ; sixteen, sixteotha ;
seventeen, seofonteotha ; eighteen, eahtateotha ; nineteen, nigonteotha.
The corresponding forms in use in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries were: fourteen, fourtethe, fourtende, fourtenthe ; fifteen,
fyftetht, fif tende, fifttnthe ; sixteen, sixtethe, sextendt, sixtenthe, &c.
Twentieth = O.E. hvcntug-otha (twenlithe}.
1 Cp. O.N. 7 siSundi, 9 ninndi, 10 tiundi, 13 threttandi, \t,fi>ntandi, &c.
* For origin of » see remarks on Seventh.
xi.] ADJECTIVES.
IV. INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
137. The indefinite article, as we have seen, is a new development
after the Conquest of the numeral one (dti).
Before a word beginning with a consonant the n is dropped.
One + the negative ne give us none, O. E. nan.
None is only used predicatively or absolutively ; l when used with
a following substantive the « is dropped, whence no.
Before comparatives no is in the instrumental case, as "no better," &c Cp
"(he belter," &c.
V. INDEFINITE NUMERALS.
138. All = O.E. tail, eal (see note on the old genitive plural,
allcr, alder, § 107).
139. Many = O.E. manig, maneg.*
In the thirteenth century we find for the first time the indefinite-
article used after it, as : on moni are wisen (La3amon), many enne
thing — many a wise, many a thing. Hawes has many a fold.
140. Fela, feola, fele, Ger. ^/(many), were once in common use
as late as the eighteenth century.
141. Few = O.E.fedwa,fed.
In O.E. we findy^, fo, andfone as well as/ewe, few.
1 By absolutely is meant without a following substantive.
1 Many is also a noun, as in "a great many."
" A -many of our bodies." — Hen. V. v. j.
" O thou fond many." — 2 Hen. IV. \. 3.
" The rank-scented many."
" In many 's looks." — Sonnets, 93.
" A meanye of us were called together." — LATIMER'S Sermons
" Than a gret many of old sparowes geder to-geder."— L. ANDREWS.
"And him fyligdon mycele ma-nigeo = and there followed him (a) great many
(or multitude)." — Matt. iv. 25.
I 2
CHAPTER XII.
PRONOUNS.
142. ON the nature of the Pronoun see p. 80, § 62.
143. The classes of Pronouns are : (i) Personal Pronouns, (2)
Demonstrative Pronouns, (3) Interrogative Pronouns, (4) Relative
Pronouns, (5) Indefinite Pronouns.
I. Personal Pronouns.
(i) SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS.
144. The personal pronouns have no distinction of gender. There
are two person? : the person who speaks, called thejirsf person ; the
person spoken to, the second person.
(a) Inflexion of the Pronoun of the First Person.1
O. English.
SING. Norn. I Ic Ich* Uch*
Gen. — min
Dat. me me
Ace. me mec me
PLURAL Kcm. we we
Gen. — Aser ure
Dat. us As
Ace. us usif us
145. In I the guttural has disappeared : it is radical and exists in the allied
languages, as Sar.sk. ah-ant ; Or. t-><i ; Lat. egv ; Cloth, ik.
By noticing the oblique cases we see there are two stems, ah (ic) and ma, of
•(lie first person.
146. In O.E. we find the pronoun agglutinated to a verb, as Ichabbe = Ich r
kabbt(\ have) ; I Mile = Ich + willed will), &c.
In the provincial dialects of the South of England it still exists; cp. "chill"
in Shakespeare's King Lear.
1 Those marked thus (* ) are later forms.
CHAP, xii.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 117
147. Me (dative) is still in use (i) before impersonal verbs, me-
thinks = it appears to me ; me seems, me lists ; (2) after interjections,
as, woe is me, well is him ; (3) to express the indirect object, to me,
or for me. 1
Me = for me. It is often a mere expletive in Elizabethan writers, and no doubt
the original force of the pronoun was forgotten.
See the dialogue between Petruchio and his servant Giumio, in Taming of
Shrew, i. 2 : —
" Pet. Villain, I say, knock me here soundly.
" Grit. Knock you here, sir? Why, sir, what am I, sir, that I should knock
you here, sir?
" Pet. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, and rap me well, or I'll knock your
knave's pate.
"Grit. My master is grown quarrelsome. I should knock you first, and then
I know after who comes by the worst. . . .
" Hortensio. How now, what's the matter?
" Gru. Look you, sir, — he bid me knock him, and rap him soundly, sir.
Was it fit for a servant to use his master so?"
In O.E. we find the dative construed before the verb to be and an
adjective, as : me -were leaf = it would be lief (preferable) to me.
Traces of this idiom are to be found in Shakespeare, as : Me had
rather {Rich. II. iii. 3) = O.E. me were lefer = Ihadliever.
Shakespeare has also : you were best = it were best for you.
The dative me has lost a suffix r (sign of dative): cp. Goth.
mi-s, Ger. mi-r.
The ace. me = mec : cp. Goth, mik ; Ger. mich.
148. We : Goth, zueis: Ger. wir; Sansk. -vayam, where iu, like
Sansk. va, represents an m ; the suffix -s (-r) is a relic of an old
demonstrative sma joined to the first pronoun : cp. Sansk. astnf.
Gr. -I'l'/J.f'is, so that (originally) we = / + that (or he).
149. Us (dnt.) : Goth, unsis ; Ger. tins. The letter n disappears
as usual before s in Old English.
U = an older a ( = ma), as in Sanskrit a-sma-byam : -s (ns)
represents the particle (sma), so that the case-ending has disappeared
altogether.
Us (ace.): Goth, u-nsi-s ; Ger. uns ; Sansk. a-smd-n. Us then
= muns = mans — masm.
150. The O. E. had a dual number for the first and second persons,
which went out of use towards the close of the thirteenth century.
» "He plucked mt ope his doublet."— Julius Ctrstir, i. a.
n8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
151.
(6) The Pronoun of the Second Person.
Old English.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
thou
thu.
Gen.
—
thtn.
Dot.
thee
the
Ace.
thee
thee,
the.
PLURAL.
Nom.
ye, you
g*
—
Gen.
—
eower,
gure
*
Dot.
you
eow,
guw.
*
Ace.
you
eowif,
emu,
guw.
152. Thou: Ootb. thu ; Gr. <rv, TV ; Lat. tu ; Sansk. ti-a-trt.
The stem is tea, which is weakened to tu and yu.
153. The use of the plural for the singular was established as early
as the beginning of the fourteenth century.
Thou, as in Shakespeare's time, was(i)thepronoun ofaflfection towards friends,
(a)good-humoured superiority to servants, and (3) Contempt or anger to strangers.
It nad, however, already fallen somewhat into disuse : and, being regarded as
archaic, was naturally adopted (4) in the higher poetic style and in the language
of solemn prayer. — ABBOTT.
154. Thee (dat): Goth, thu-s ; Gr. ao( ; Lat. tibi ; Sansk.
tubhyam. See remarks on me (dat. ).
Thee (ace.): Goth, thuk; Ger. dkh ; Gr. r4, <re ; Lat. se ;
Sansk. tv&m. See remarks on me (ace. ).
155. Ye : Goth, ju-t ; Gr. v/ifTs ; Lat. vos ; Sansk. yusmf, yiiyan.
The Sanskrit yu-snif = tu + sma = thou and he.1 The dual
git originally signified thou + two = you two.
The confusion between ye and you did not exist in Old English. Ye was
always used as a nom., and><?« as a dat. or ace. In the English Bible the dis-
tinction is very carefully observed, but in the dramatists of the Elizabethan period
tliere is a very loose use of the two forms. Not only is you used as nominative,
but ye is used as an accusative. 3
" Vain nomp and glory of the world, I hate ^."—SHAKESPEARE.
" And I as one consent with ye in all." — SACKVILLE.
You (dat.) : Goth, jzwi-s ; O. Sax iu ; Gr. vfiv ; Lat. rv -i'is ;
Sansk. yu-sma-bhyam and vas.
You (ace.) : Goth, iswis ; O. Sax. iu; Gr. vfuis; Lat. vos ; Sansk.
yusmdn (vas}.
1 That is, smn = he, that, this, &c.
* I am inclined to look upon the origin of ye for you in the rapid and careless
pronunciation of the latter word, so that, after all, the ye in the above extracts
should be written y* (= you) ; ye or you may be changed into ee : cp. look tt «
XII.]
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
119
In English you has been developed out of the O. E. emu, which
represents yu = tu, the stem of the second personal pronoun ; the
case suffix having wholly disappeared.
(c) Demonstrative Pronoun of the TJiird Person.
156. He, She, It. This pronoun is sometimes, but incorrectly,
called a personal pronoun : it has distinction of gender, like other
demonstrative pronouns in O.E., which the personal pronouns have
Old English.
MASCULINE. Nom. he he.
his.
him.
— kine, him.*
FEMIN I N E. Nom. she heo, hi, * zi, * ?>ho, * ho, * sco. *
hire,
hire.
— hi, heo.*
NEUTER, Nom. it hit.
his.
him.
hit.
PLURAL.
Nom. They hi, heo, hit,* )>«,* ]>ai,* \>ei*
Gen. Aira, heora, here, her, \>ar* )?air.*
Dat. Them hem, heom, hem* ham,* \>am* \>aim.*
Ace. Them hi, heo, hem,* i>am,* \>o*
157. The Old English pronouns were formed from only one stem,
hi ; but the modern English contains the stems hi, sa, and tha.
He. For he we sometimes find in Old English ha, a (not con-
fined always to one number or gender =&r, she, it, they}.
It occurs in Shakespeare, as "'a must needs" (2 Hen. VI. iv. 2) ;
qtioth 'a; and is also common in other old writers, as— "has a
eaten bull-beefe" (S. Rowlands) ; "see how a frownes" (Ib.).
Hi-m (dat.) contains a real dative suffix m, which is also found
in the dative of adjectives and demonstrative pronouns.2
1 The demonstrative character of this pronoun is seen in such expressions as,
" What is he at the gate ?" (Shakespeare) ; " He of the bottomless pit" (Milton,
Areopagitica) ; " hii of Denemarch " (Robert of Gloucester) ; " thai of Lome,
Mat of the Castel" (B arbour) ; "they in France" (Shakespeare); " tliem of
Greece " (North's Plutarch). Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
2 Him was al~o the dative of it, and we often find it applied to inanimate
things in the later periods of the language.
Nom.
he
Gen.
—
Dat.
him
Ace.
him
Nom.
she
Gen.
—
Dat.
her
Ace.
her
Nom.
it
Gen.
—
Dat.
it
Ace.
it
120 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Hi-m (ace.)- This was originally a dative form, which in the
twelfth century (in La^amon and Or»t.) began to replace the accu-
sative.
J/i-ne. — The old accusative was sometimes shortened to kin and
in, and still exists in the South of England under the form en, as —
" Up I sprung, drow'd [threw] down my candle, and douted [put
out] en; and hadn't a blunk [spark] o' fire to teen en again." —
( Devonshire Dialxt. )
1 58. She, in the twelfth century, in the Northern dialects, replaced
the old form heo. The earliest instance of its use is found in the
A. -Sax. Chronicle.1 After all, it is only the substitution of one de-
monstrative for another, for she is the feminine of the definite
article, which in O.E. was seo or sia ; from the latter of these
probably comes she.
In t'.e Lancashire dialect the old feminine is still preserved under
the form ho, pronounced something like he in her.
Her (dat.) contains a true dative (fern.) suffix, -r or -re.
Her (ncc.) was originally dative, and, as in the case of him, has
replaced an accusative ; the old ace. was hi, heo.
159. I-t has lost an initial guttural.2 The /is an old neuter suffix
(cp. tha-t, wha-t) cognate with d in Latin — illn-d, istu-d, quo-d,
qui-d. It is often a kind of indeterminate pronoun in O. E. ; it was
a man = there was a man ; it am — there are.
It (dat.) has replaced the true form him.
For the history of the word his see Adjective Pronouns.
160. They. — In the thirteenth century this form came into use in
the North of England, and replaced hi or heo ; the earliest forms
of it are )><?53> thei, tha.
The Southern dialect kept up the old form hi or heo nearly to the
end of the fourteenth century.
Tliey is the nom. plural of the definite article, O.E. tha, probably
modified by Scandinavian influence.3
1 1140 (Stephen). Dzr efter sccr ferde ofer sas." In the thirteenth century,
the ordinary form, of she is sea, found in Northern writers ; scA^(sfte)is a Midland
modification of it.
a We find this h disappearing as early as the twelfth century (as in Ornt.).
3 The O. Norse forms bear a greater resemblance to they, their, and them
than the O.E. ones.
O. Norse thei-r, theirra, theim.
O.E. tha, th&ra, th&m.
The Midland and Southern dialects changed O.E. tha to tJto, not to thei or
xii.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 121
" Or gif thai men, that will study
In tne craft of Astrology," &c — HARBOUR'S Bruce.
Them (clat.), O.K. \>dm, is the dative plural of the definite article,
and" replaced O. E. heom, hem.
The-m (ace.) is a dative form; the true accusative is thd or thy.
It has replaced the O.E. hi or heo.
"We often find in the dramatists em (ace.), usually printed 'em, as
if it were a contraction of them, which represents the old heom,
/tern, as —
" The sceptre and the golden wreath of royalty
Seem hung within my reach.
Then take 'em to you
An i wear 'em long and worthily." — RO\VE.
161. TABLE showing the origin of she, they, &c.
Definite Article.
Masc. Fern. Neut.
Singular Norn. . . se seo (sio) thaet
THE SHE THAT
Norn. Gen, Dat. Ace.
Plural „ . tha thara tham tha
II II
THEY THEIR THEM
\Ve have said nothing about the genitives of the personal pro-
nouns, because they are now expressed by the accusative with a pre-
position. For the origin of the pronominal genitives, see Adjective
Pronouns.
(2) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
162. Reflexives in English are supplied by the personal pronouns
with or without the word self.
" I do repent me."— SHAKESPEARE'S Merchant of Venice.
" Signor Antonio commends him to you." — Ib.
" My heart hath one poor string to stay it by."— A'/Xf John.
" Come, lay thee down."— LODGE'S Looking Glass.
" Ladies, go sit you down amidst this bower." — Ib.
"AH (f_hes) have hid them in the weeds."-JoHN FLETCHER'S Faithful
Shepherdess.
163. The addition of self renders the reflexive signification more
emphatic, ai—
122 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(I) myself, (thou) thyself, &C.
Singular . 1st person, myself; 2d person, thyself, yourself.
Plural . . „ ourselves; ,, yourselves.
Singular (3d person) . masc, himself; fern, herself; neut. itself.
Plural ,, . themselves.
164. Self1 was originally an adjective = same, as "in that selve moment"
(CHAI-CEK).
" A goblet of the self " = " A piece of the same." — Bake of Curtasye, \. 776.
" That self mould " (SHAKESPEARE, Rick. II. i. 2). Cp. self-same _
In the oldest English selfvizs, declined as a definite or indefinite adjective ; as
Ic seifanA Ic selfct — I (my)self, and agreed with the pronouns to which it was
added ; as nom. Ic self a ; gen. min selfes, dat. me silfum, ace. mec si If tie.
165. In O.K. sometimes the dative of the personal pronoun was
prefixed to the nominative of self, as — (i) It me silf; (2) thu the
silf; (3) he him silf: (i) we us silfe ; (2) ge e6w silfe; (3) hi him
silfe.
166. In the thirteenth century a new form came in, by the sub-
stitution of the genitive for the dative of the prefixed pronoun in the
first and second persons, as — mi self, thi self, for me self, the self; our
self, your self, for us self, you self.
No doubt self began to be regarded as a noun. Cp. one's self.
" Speak of thy fair self, Edith." — J. FLETCHER.
" My woeful self." — BEN JONSON.
"Thy crying self." — SHAKESPEARE.
" For at your dore myself doth dwell." — HEYWOOD, The Four P.'s.
" Myself hath been the whip."— CHAUCER.
Hence self makes its plural, selves, like nouns ending in -f, -fe;
cp. " To our gross selves (Shakespeare) — a formation altogether of
recent origin. "To prove their selfes" occurs in Berner's Froissart.3
167. Such phrases as Ctesar's self( North), Tarquin's self (Shake-
speare), are not, philologically speaking, so correct as AttUa self
(North), &c. Comp.
" And knaw kyndly what God es
And what man self es that es les."
HAM POLE'S Pricke of Consc., p. 4.
1 Self, Goth, tilba, Ger. selbe, probably contains the reflexive si (Lat se), and
'If— ft, life, soul (as in Ger. leib, body). The Sansk. atman, soul, is used as
a reflexive.
* 111 O.E. the plural was marked by e or -en : when this disappeared it left the
plurals ourself, yourself, themself; but as me and you were often used in the
singular number, a new plural came into use, so we now say yourself (sing. ),
yourselves (pi.).
Cp. " We have saved ourself that trouble." — FIELDING.
' You, my Prince, yourself a soldier, will reward him."— LORD BYRON.
xii.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 123
1 68. In himself, themselves, it self (not its self) the old dative
remains unchanged ; his self, themselves, are provincialisms. With
own, his and their may be used.
169. In O.E. one was sometimes used for self.
" And the body with flesshe and bane,
Es harder than the saul by it ant."
HAMPOLE, Pricke of Consc., p. 85.
" Whan they come by them one two "
= " When they two came by themselves."
Marie d' Arthur, p. 14.
(3) ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
170. The adjective pronouns, or, as they are sometimes called, the
possessive pronouns, were originally formed from the genitive case
of the personal pronouns, and were declined like adjectives.
In modern English, the possessive adjective pronouns are identical
in form with the old genitives of the personal pronouns, and are
indeclinable.
Traces of the older adjectival forms are found in the fourteenth
century.
171. Mine, my, thine, thy, O.E. min, thin. The e in mine and
thine only marks the length of the preceding vowel, and is no
inflexional syllable.
-n is a true genitive suffix as far as English is concerned, but is of
adjectival origin.1
In the twelfth century the n dropped off before a consonant, but
was retained (a) in the oblique cases, (b) in the plural (with final e),
(c) when the pronoun followed the substantive, (d) before a word com-
mencing with a vowel.
The fourth or euphonic use i of mine and thine is exceedingly
common in poetry, as —
" Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice." — SHAKESPEARE.
Of the third usage we have instances as late as Shakespeare's
time, as brother mine, uncle mine.
172. His, a true genitive of the root hi.
In O.E. we often find a plural hist.
He-r, O.E. hi-re, contains a genitive suffix, -r (re).
« Goth, meiiia, theina ; Gr. € ^ov, aov (TCOI'O) ; Lat. met, tut; S.insk. warnj,
lava. The Gothic forms correspond to Sansk. mad-tya, tvad-lya, the * in
meina, tlieina representing d ia mad-iya, &c.
124 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Its, O.E. his. This form is not much older than the end of the
sixteenth century. It is not found in the Bible, or in Spenser, rarely
hi Shakespeare1 and Bacon, more frequently in Milton, common in
Diyden, who seems to have been ignorant of the fact that his was
once the genitive of it, as well as of he.
" And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind." —
Gen. i. 12.
" // shall bruise thy head, and them shall bruise his heel."— Gen. iii. 15.
" And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world.
Did lose his lustre." — Julius Cefsar, i. 2.
173. Alonp with the use of his we find, in the fourteenth century,
in the West Midland dialect, an uninflected genitive hit.
" Forthy the derk dede see hit is demed ever more
For hit dede3 of dethe duren there Set." 2 — Allit. Poems, B. 1. 1021.
This curious form is found in our Elizabethan dramatists : —
" It knighthood shall fight all it friends." — Silent Woman, ii. 3.
" The innocent milk in it most innocent mouth."
" The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long,
That it's had it head bit off by it young." — Lear, i. 4.
" That which groweth of it own accord." 3 — Levit. xxv. 5.
174. For its own we have a curious form that occurs frequently in
older writers, namely l the own,' as — "A certeine sede which
groweth there of the own accord e." — Fardell of Fadon, 1555.
It occurs in Hooker, but is altered in the modern reprints to
its own. The earliest instance of this usage is found in Hampole's
" Pricke of Conscience," p. 85 (A.D. 1340) : —
" For the saule, als the boke bers wytnes,
May be pyned with fire bodily,
Als rt may be wiih the awen body."
175. Ou-r, you-r, O.E. u-re (us-er), emv-er .
All these forms contain a genitive pL suffix (adjectival), -r (-re).
See note on Alder, p. 105.
Thei-r has also a genitive pi. suffix, -r, and has replaced the older
kt-re (heo-re, he-re, he-r). See Table, p. 121.
1 Mr. Abbott notices that it is common in Florio's Montaigne,
" " Therefore the dark Dead Sea il is 'leemed evermore,
For its deeds of death endure (last) there yet."
! TV mod.ern reprint of the edition of 1611 has altered it to its.
4 A later iorm.
xii.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 125
(4) INDEPENDENT OR ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES.
176. Mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, are called
independent or absolute because they may be used without a following
substantive, as this is mine, that is yours.
" The tempest may break out which overwhelms thee
And thine, and mine." — BYRON.
177. Hers, ours, yours, theirs, are double genitives containing
a pi. suffix r + a sing, suffix -s. These forms were confined in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to the Northern dialects, and are
probably due to Scandinavian influence. Sometimes we find imi-
tations of them in the Midland dialects, as /tores, heres — theirs.
The more ordinary forms in the Southern dialects than these in -i
are hire (hir), oure (our), youre (}'0ur), here (her], as— "I wol be
your in alle that ever I may." — CHAUCER.
In Old English we sometimes find ouren — ours ; heren = theirs,
and in provincial English we find hisn, /tern, ourn, theirn.
II. Demonstrative Pronouns.
1 78. The demonstratives, with the exception of the and yon, are
used substantively and adjectively.
(i) The (usually called the Definite Article) was formerly declined
like an adjective for number, gender, and case, but is now without
any inflexion.1
SINGULAR.
Masc. Nont. se, the*
Gen. thce-s, the-s* lhi-s* tha-s.*
Dat. tha-tn, tha-n* the-n.*
Ace. tha-ne, the-ne* t/ia-rtf,* the-n* thoiu.
Inst. till, till.
Fern. Nam. sea, theo* thn* the*
Gen. tha-re, tha-re,* t he-re*
Dat. thce-re, tha-re,* the-re*
Ace. tha, theo* the*
Neut. Kont.\
and } tha-t, that* thet*
Ace. )
Gen. )
and } like the Masc.
Dat. }
' Later forms which were in- partial use during the twelfth, thirteenth, and
fourteenth centuries are distinguished thus (•).
126 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
PLURAL.
Kern. tkA, Otau* tlto* the*
Gen. tha-ra, tha-ra, thare* tkere.*
Dat. tJkA-m, tJue-m, tJtan,* ikon,* then*
Ace. tM, tkaie* tko* the*
The inflexions began to drop off about the middle of the twelfth
century.
The, before a comparative, is the old instrumental thi, as the inert
— eo niagis, &c.
(2) That. In the O.E. Northern dialects that was used irrespec-
tive of gender, as lhatt engell ; thatt allterr (Orm.), and in the
fourteenth century we find it as a demonstrative, as now, taking the
place of the older thilk (thilte). See next page. Then it took f«r
itself the following plurals : (a) tho (or t/ia), the old plural of the
definite article ; (£) thos (thas), the old plurals of this.1
In the Southern and some of the Midland dialects, we find thts> thru, t/tisz,
tftcs — these.
(3) Those = O.E. thas, the old plural of thes = this.
The history of the word that should be borne well in mind : — (i) It was origin
ally neuter, (cp. i-t, vrAa-tl ; (2) It became an indeclinable dctncnstratire,
answering in meaning to ill*, ilia, illud; (3) It took the pi. (i) of the; (a) of
this.
(4) This ( = hif, hoc, hoc) = O.E. thes (m.), theos (f.), this (m.),
as formerly declined like an adjective. Here again the neuter has
replaced the masculine and feminine forms, which, however, in the
south of England were to be found as late as 1357.
In Wickliffe we have thins fader = the father of this man.
The O.E. thti is (as seen by the O Sax. these) contracted, and it contains the
root the (or tka, as in ttu and a lengthened form of se (the;, Sansk. sfa. This
u(sya, had the force of Lat. -c, -que, as in Ju-c, quit-gut.
These = O.E. thds, thes* these,* thisf* this.*
^ •
1 The e is no sign of inflexion, but marks the length of the vowel a.
Koch supposes tkose to be a lengthened form of the old pi. tho. He seems to
have overlooked the Northumbrian use of MAI (which in the Midland dialects
would be represented by tkos). Koch's statement is : " Es kann nicht die
fortbildung von Ags. thas sein." Cp. the following passage from Hampole'f
Pritkt of Cotuc p. 30 : —
" Alle tkas men that the world mast dauntes,
Mast bisily the world here hiuntes ;
And thas that the world serves and loves,
Serves the devil, as the book proves."
xii.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 127
This refers to the more immediate object, that to the remoter
object.
" What conscience dictates to be done,
Or wains me not to do,
This teach me more thau hell to shun,
Tluit more than heaven pursue." — POPB.
179. We have three demonstratives containing the adjective -Itc,
like, with the instrumental case of the particles so, the, and i (Goth.
i-s).
(1) Such: O.E. fwilc1 = swi, the inst. of swa = so. and -k =
lie = like.
Such then signifies so-like (cp. Ger. solch = so-lich) ; such like is a
pleonastic expression.
In the Northern dialects we find slyk, s/i, silk, of Scandinavian
origin, whence Scotch sic.
In O. E. siiche ten, &c. = ten times as much (or as many), &c.
"The lengthe is suche ten as the deepnesse." — Pilgrimage, p. 235.
(2) Thilk = the like, that, that same = O.E. thy-lic, thy-lc
{thdk,* thulk,* thtke*) ; Provincial English thuck, finicky (theck,
thick, thicky, thecky}. Thi =• the instrumental case of the. and Ik =
like. It corresponds exactly to LaL ta-lis, Sansk. ta-drisha, Gr.
frjXinos.
" I am thilke that thou shouldest seeche." — Pilgrimage, p. 5.
" She hadde founded thiike hous." — Ib. p. 7.
Thys-lic (whence thylltc) = this like, is sometimes found in O.E.
(3) Ilk = same: ' of that ilk.1
" This ilk worthe knight." — CHAUCER.
" That ilk* man." — Ib.
Ilk = O.E. ylc ; i or y = the instrumental case of the stem i =
he, that, and -Ik = -U — like.
180. Same: Gothic sa»ia, O.N. samr, Lat. similis, Gr. ouas,
Sansk. sama. In the oldest English same is an adverb = together,
and not a demonstrative.
As the word makes its appearance for the first time in the Nor! hern
dialects, it is no doubt due to Scandinavian influence.8
It is joined to the demonstratives the, this, that, yon, yond, self.
1 In O.E. of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there are various forms o/
this compound, as'swulc, sulcJt, swulch, stoich, nvucJt, sock.
= That ilk, O. E. that ylca, was originally neuter. Ilk = same must be dis-
tinguished from O. E. ilk, ilka, eacH, ea :h one.
3 Sam...satn = whether.. .or, is found in O.E.
128 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. ICHAP.
ifcl. Yon, yond, yonder. Goth./<z/«J (m.),jaina (i.),jainafa (n.),
that In the oldest English yond (geond) is only a preposition =
through, over, beyond, or an adverb = yonder. The root ge is a
pronominal stem that occurs \nyea, O.E. £?0; j^-J, &C.1
Yond makes its appearance as a demonstrative for the first time
in the "Ormulum" (twelfth century).
It is seldom used substantively, as in the following passages from
Old English writers : —
" I am the kynge of this londe & Oryens am kalled>(
And the Ixtndur is my quene, Betryce she hette."
Chevelere Assign*, 1. 232.
" Ys Tirme thy page?" — R. OP BRUNNE, Spec, of E. Eng., p. 119.
" The 'itoiul is th.it semly." — WILL. OF PALERNE.
182. So. O.E. = swa.
" Folly (I say) that both makes friends and keeps them so." — BP. RENNET'S
Translation ^"ERASMUS" Praise of Folly.
" If there were such a way ; there is none so." — GOWER, ii. 33.
In O.E. so (inst.) is used before comparatives like Hie (O. E. tht) : "swa leng
the werse" = tlu longer tlte worse ; " smo leng swo more." — O.E. Hem. Second
Series, pp. 85, 87.
III. Interrogative Pronouns.
182*. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, what,
whether, with the compounds whoever, whatever, whether-
soever, whichsoever.
183. Who. O.E. hwa, hitio* ho* (masc. and fern.), hwaf,
wat * (neut. ) ; Goth, hva-s (m. ), hva (neuL ) ; Sans-k. kds (m. ), kA (f. ),
ka-t (neut.) ; Gr. KO-S, TO? ; Lat. quis, qua, quod*
It is only used of persons, and is masculine and feminine.
Whose. O.E. Awas, -whos,*hos* was* was,* gen. sing. Origin •
ally of all genders, now limited to persons, though in poetry it
occasionally occurs with reference to neuter substantives. It is also
used absolutely, as " Whose is the crime?"
Whom (dat. sing.)* O.E. hwam* wham* 'worn,* originally
of all genders.
The accusative hwone (hwane) was replaced in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries by «>/;«>«, but instances of the older Jnvone are to
be found under the forms Irwan, wan, wane.
1 We have the same root perhaps in O.E. anent, anence; O.H. Ger. entiont :
Mid. H. Ger. jen-unt — beyond. Gtonre = Ger. jener, occurs in King Alfred'*
translation of St. Gregory's Pastoral.
1 Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
xii.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 129
184. Wha-t, originally the neuter of -who. In the "Ormulum"
what is used adjectively, without respect to gender, as "whatt inarm ? "
"•w/iatt thing?" just as we say, "-what man?" '•'••what woman?"
" what thing ? " Without a noun it is now singular and neuter ; with
a noun it is singular or plural, and of all genders.
What in Old English was used in questions concerning the nature,
quality, or state of a person, as hwizt is tys — quis cst /&;V(Matt. iv. 41).
" What is this woraman, quod I, so worthily atired ? " — Piers Plowman.
What is followed by a, like many, such, each, £c.
185. What for = -what sort of a, is an idiom that made its
appearance in the sixteenth century, and is similar to the German
was fur ein, as What is he for a vicar ? = Was, fiir einen Vikar,
ister? What sort of a vicar is he? Spenser, Palgrave, and Ben
Jonson have instances of it.
186. Whether.— Q .¥.. hivccther, ivheth'er,^ -wher ; Goth, hva-thar
= which of the two.2 It has become archaic; but was very common
in the seventeenth century.
" W ''tether is greater, the gift or the altar?" — Matt, xxiii. 19,
It is very rarely used adjectively, as in the following passage : —
"Thirdly (we have to consider) whether state (the Church or the Common-
wealth) is the superior." — BP. MORTON in Literature of tlie C/iurcA of England,
vol. i. p. 109.
In the thirteenth century it is rarely inflected ; and the following
passages are almost unique : —
(<z) " Ilivctlieres fere wult tu boon ? Mid hwether wult tn tholitn ? " 3 — Aticren
Riwle, p. 284.
(6) " Now •whether his hert was fulle of care."* — Morte d" Arthur.
Whether his — ivhelhcres. I have seen ivho his = -whose, an
analogous formation.
(c) Bishop Hall uses the rare compound whethersoever.
" What matters it whether I go for a flower or a weed, here? Whethersocoer
I must wither. (Uterlibet, arescam necesse est./'
1 See Comparative*, § 113, for origin of -ther.
3 Koch says : " Es wird im Nags, fast flcxionslos."
3 "Of which of the two wilt thou be the associate? With which of the two
wilt thou suffer?"
4 " Now of which of the two was the heart full of care ? " The writer is speak-
ing of Launcelot and Queen Guenever.
K
1 3o ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
187. Which, O.E. hwilc, hulic, while,* whulc* whulch,* wuch*
wock,* a compound of hwi, the instrumental case of hwa, who,
and lie = like. Cp. Lat. qua-li-s. It is used as a singular or
plural, and of any gender. 1
In O.E. it has the force sometimes of (a) quis, as ffuylc is min
mddor ? Who is my mother? (b) quantus : —
". Whiche a sinnc violent." — GOWER, iii. 244.
" Alias vr^uch serwe and deol ther wes ! " — Cartel of Love, p. 5.
IV. Relative Pronouns.
188. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, as.
In O.E. who, -which, what, were not relative, but interrogative
pronouns ; which, whose, whom, occur as interrogatives as early as
the end of the twelfth century, but who not until the fourteenth cen-
tury,4 and was not in common use before the sixteenth century. That
and what originally referred only to neuter antecedents.
The relatives in the oldest English were : —
(i) se (m.), tea (f.), that (n.) : also the def. article, (a) the, indeclinable.
(3) the in combination with se, seo, that : as se the, sea the, tJtattc. (<J
twA, so. (s] that that, whatever. (6) swylc . . . swylc = such . . . such.
189. Who as a relative is not recognized by Ben Jonson, who says
" one relative which." It is now used in both numbers, and relates
to masculine or feminine antecedents (rational).
190. Who is very rarely employed by Hawes ; frequently by Berners ; not un-
common in Shakespeare ; used only once or twice by Sackville.
" And other sort * * *
» » « » *
Who, fearing to be yielded, fled before ;
Stole home by silence of the secret night :
The third unhappy and enraged sort
Of desp'rate hearts, who, stain'd in princes' blood,
From traitorous furour could not be withdrawn." — SACKVILLE.
191. Who . . . lie is used like Ger. tuer, quisquis = whoso : 3—
1 Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
3 That is to say, used freely, like Latin qui. Cp. the following : —
" Who of 3ou dredende the Lord, herende the vois of his servaunt. Who aide
in dercnesses."— Wickliffite Version, Isaiah \. 10.
3 This construction is common in Shakespeare, where we should use wJieever: —
" O now W/o will behold
The royal captain of this ruin'd band ?
Let him cry, ' Praise and glory on his head.' "
Henry V. iv. Prol.
" Whom he did foreknow, he did predestinate." — Rom. viii. 29.
. " Wlu seems most sure, him soonest whirls she (Fortune) down."
SACKVILLK'S Henry Stafford.
xii. J RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 131
" Who is trewe of his tonge,
* * * *
He is a god by the Gospel."
Piers PI. (ed. Wright), p. 20.
" And -who wylle not, thay shalle be slone." — TOWNLEV, Mysteries, p. 71.
" A hwam mai he luue treweliche hwa ne luues his brother, Thenne hwase
the ne luues he is mon unwreastest." (Ah ! whom may he love truly whoso
loveth not his brother ; then whoso loveth not thse is a most wicked man.)—
O.E. Horn. First Series, p. 274.
The demonstrative may be omitted, as —
" Who steals my purse steals trash."— Othello, iii. 3. 167.
192. The O.E. whan, wan is sometimes found in the fourteenth century as an
objective case (representing O.E. hivone and hwam} : —
" Seint Dunstan com horn a3en . . .
Ladde his abbey al in pees fram uAan he was so longe."
£. Eng. Poems, p. 37.
" This(e) were ure faderes of •wan we beth suththe ycome." — ROBERT or
Oi OUCESTER.
193. InGower we find the demonstrative M« joined to whose and whom, so that
the whose = whose ; the whom — whom : —
" The whos power as now is falle." — Confessio Amant. ii. 187.
" The whom no pite might areste." — Ib. iii. 203.
" Your mistress from the whom I see
There's no disjunction." — Winter's Tale, iv. 4.
Whose that = whoso : —
" To Venus whos prest that I am." — Confess, Amant. ii. 61.
" And dame Musyke commaunded curteysly
La Bell Pucell wyth me than to daunce •
Whoine that I toke wyth all my plesaunce."
HAWES, Pastime of Pleasure, p. 70
194. Shakespeare uses who of animals and of inanimate objects regarded as
persons, as —
" A lion who glared."— JuL Casar, \.
" The winds
Who take the ruffian billows by the tops."— 2 Hen. IV. iii. i.
" And as the turtle that has lost her mate
Whom griping sorrow doth so sore attaint."
SACKVILLE'S Henry Stafford.
195. Which now relates only to neuter antecedents, but this ii
comparatively a modern restriction. Cp. " Our Father which art in
heaven. "
" Then Warwick disannuls great John of Gaunt, ...
Which did subdue the greatest part of Spain."— 3 If en. VI. ui. 3.
" Adrian which pope was."— GOWER, i. 29.
" She which shall be thy norice."- Ib. i. 195.
136. Compounds of which with tlte, that, as, &c. are now archaic :—
" 'Twas a foolish guest,
The -which to gain and keep he sacrificed all rttt." — Bvxow.
K 2
132 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" The better part of valour is discretion, in the -which better part I have saved
my life." — i Hen. IV. v. 4.
" The chain
Which God he knows I saw not, for the which
He did arrest me." — Comedy of Errors, v. i.
" The civil power, which is the very fountain and head from the which both these
estates (Church and Commonwealth) do flow, and by the which it is brought to
pass that there is a Church in any place." — Br. MOKTDN.
" His food, for most, was wild fruits of the tree,
Unless sometimes some crumbs fell to his share,
Which in his wallet long, God wot, kept he,
As on the -which full daint'ly would he fare."
SACKVILLB'S Induction.
" The which was cleped Clemene." — GOWER, ii. 34.
" Among the -which? there was one."— Ib. ii. 375.
" The Latin worde ivhyche that is referred
Unto a thynge whych is substancyall,
Fora nowne substantive is wel averred."
HAWES, P. of P. p. 24 ; see p. 14.
" Theis . . . yatis (gates) which that ye beholde."— SKELTON, L 384.
" Man, the which that wit and reason can." — GOWER, i. 34.
" Thing which that is to love due." — Ib. ii. 18.
" Thing which as may nought been acheved."— Ib. ii. 380.
" This abbot -which that was an holy man."
CHAUCER'S Prioress' Tale, 1. 630.
" The sond and ek the smale stones
Wkiche as sche ekes out for the nones."
GOWER, Specimens of E. Eng., p. 373.
197. That, originally only the natter singular relative, now agree»
with singular and plural antecedents of all genders. 1
That came in during the twelfth century to supply the place of
the indeclinable relative the, and in the fourteenth century it is the
ordinary relative. la the sixteenth century, which often supplies its
place; in the seventeenth century, who replaces it. About Addi-
son's time, that had again come into fashion, and had almost driven
which and who out of use.
1 That introduces always an adjective clause, while -who and which are not
always so used ; as —
(1) I met a man who told me he had been called = I met a man and he told
me, &c.
(2) It's no use asking John, •mho knows nothing of it = It's no use asking
John, (since, seeing that, for &c.) he knows nothing of it.
In (i) the second clause is co-ordinate in sense with the preceding ; in (2) it ii
adverbial.
" That is the proper restrictive explicative, limiting or defining relative." —
BAIN'S English Grammar, p. 23.
xii.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 133
Addison, in his " Humble Petition of Who and Which," makes
the petitioners thus complain : " We are descended of ancient
families, and kept up our dignity and honour many years, till the
Jack Sprat that supplanted us. "
198. There is another point in which that resembles the indeclinable M*; both
being followed and not preceded by a preposition, as—" tluet bed, se lama on
lies" (Mark ii. 4) = "The bed -wherein the sick of the palsy lay" (Lnglisk
Version), or = the bed that the lame man lay on.
So in O.E., fourteenth century : —
" The ston that he leonede to" — Vernon MS. fol. 4<7.
And, as in our Version, the relative adverb is sometimes found :
" He code in to the cite ther alle his fon inne were." — Jo.
As was used sometimes to replace that, as —
" For .ther is a welle fair ynou3
In the stede a» he lai on; as me ma3 ther iseo."
£. Ens- Poems, p. 55.
" On Eng'.ysshe tunge out of Frankys
Of a boke as 1 fonde ynne."
R. OF BRUNNE'S Handlynge Synne, p. 3.
199. That, in virtue of its being neuter, is sometimes used for
what, and a preposition may precede it
" I am possess'd of that is mine."— SHAKESPEARE'S Much Ado, i. x.
" Throw us that you have about you."
lb., Two Gentlemen of Verona.
" We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen."— St. John iii. n.
" What wight is that which saw that I did see."
Ferrex and Porrex, p. 69.
" Eschewe that wicked is."— GOWER'S Confess. Atnant. i. 244.
" That he hath hyght, he shall it hold."— Marie d' Arthur, p. 132.
200. The O.E. that that = whatever, as "that that later bith, thzt hzfth
angin " ~ that that later is, that hath beginning.
We still find it for that -wfiich—
«• That that I did, I was set on to do't by g*g£^ iy fc
" That that is, is."— Ib. v. i.
" Th*t that that gentleman has advanced, is not that, that he should have
proved to your Lordship." — Spectator, 80.
201. What = that which, refers to singular and neuter antecedents.
It is used both substantively and adjectively.
" W hat is done cannot be undone."— Macbeth, v. i.
" Look w/iat I speak, my life shall prove it true."-/*, iv. 3.
134 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" No ill luck stirring but what lights upon my shoulder."
Merchant of Venice, iii. i.
"The entertainer provides what fare he pleases." — FIELDING.
202. Such expressions as the following are archaic, as —
" He it was, whose guile
Stirred up with envy and revenge deceived
The mother of mankind, w/tat time his pride
Had cast him out from heaven." — MILTON.
" At what time Joas reigned as yet in Juda." — HOLINSHED.
" For •what tyme he to me spak,
Out of hys mouth me thoghte brak
A flamme of fyre." — R. OF BRUNNE, Specimens, p. 119.
203. It is a vulgarism to use what with an antecedent noun or
pronoun, as —
" A vagrant is a man what wanders."
Yet we find some instances of this in older writers, as —
" I fear nothing what can be said against me." — Hen. VIII. v. i.
" To have his pomp and all what state compounds."
Tinton of Athens, iv. 2.
" Either the matter what other men wrote, or els the maner how other men
wrote." — ASCHAM'S Scholemaster, p. 142.
'* Offer them peace or aught what is beside."
Ed. I. in Old Plays, vol. ii. p. 37.
904. What that, that what, are archaic, as —
" What man that it smite
Thurghout his annur it wol kerve and byte. "
CHAUCER'S Sguyer's Tale, 1. 10471.
" That what we have we prize not to the worth." — Much Ado, iv. i.
" That what is extremely proper in one company, may be highly improper in
mother." — CHESTERFIELD.
" What that a king himselfe bit (= bids)."
GOWEK, Confess. Amant. i. 4.
" But what that God forwot mot needes be." — CHAUCER.
" What schulde I telle . . .
And of moche other thing what that then was?"
R. OF BRUNNE'S Handlynge Synnc, Prol.
205. So what as = what that : —
" Here I do bequeathe to thee
In full possession, half that Kendal hath.
And what as Bradford holds of me in chief."
DODSLEY, Old Plays, ii. 47.
xii.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 135
206. As (O.E. eall-su>a, alswa, also,* alse,* ase,* als ;* cp. O.E.
hwa-ttua and hose — whoso) possesses a relative force on account of
its being a compound of so,1 and is usually employed as such when
preceded by the demonstratives such, same, so much.*
" All such reading as was never read." — POPE.
" Unto bad causes swear
Such creatures as men dcubt." — Julius Cersar, ii. i.
" For all such authors as be fullest of good matter ... be likewise alwayes most
proper in words." — ASCHAM'S Scholemaster, p. 136.
" Some such sores as greve me to touch them myself."
Ed. 1. in Old Plays, vol. ii. p. 20.
" Such, one as is already furnished with plentie of learning." — Ib. p. 113.
" These are suck as with curst curres barke at every man but their owne
friends." — GOSSON, School of Abuse, p. 18.
" For tho sche thoghte to beginne
Such thing as semeth impossible."
GOWEK, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 373.
" Of sich as loves servauntes ben." — Romaunt of the Rose, 1. 145.
" In thilke places as they habiten." — Ib. 660.
After so, as occurs sometimes —
" So many examples as filled xv. bookes." — ASCHAM, p. 157.
In Shakespeare it is found after this, that:
" That gentleness as I was wont to have." — Julius Ccesar, i. 2.
" Under these hard conditions as this time is like to lay upon me."—//*.
But in O.E. writers we sometimes find as = such as : —
" DrauJtes as me draweth in poudre " ^characters suck as one draws in powder
(dust). — E. Eng. Poems, p. 77.
" Talys shall thou fynde therynne,
Mervelys some as Y fonde wrytyn." — R. OF BRUNNE, p. 5
207. For such ... as the oldest English has swylc . . . syivlc — such . .
such : —
" He sece swylcne hlaford nvylcne he wille."— Mths. V.\.\: — let him
seek such a lord as he may choose.
At the end of the twelfth century we find as for stvylc .—
" Withth all su'illc rime alls her iss sett."— Ornt. D. 101.
Cp. tke following, where alse — as if = the older sivilc :—
" He wes so kene, he wes swa strang
Sw tic hit weore an eotand."— Lal>. A. p. 58.
' ^ThVsV/is mov^Vdie people~are ckangcd."-DR. DONNE'S Ser*,**
» Those marked thus (*) are later forms
136 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" He wes swa kcne, and so strong,
A 1st he were an catande [= giantj." — La*,. B. p. 58.
(A = earlier text early thirteenth century ; B = later thirteenth.)
Sometimes so is found after swylc: —
" And swilche othre [sennen] so the apostle her nemde." — O.E. Homilies,
Second Series.
" Swylcra yrmtha swa thu unc ser scrife " = Of such miseries as thou pre-
viously assigned to us (two). — Exeter Book, 373.'
208. Who-so, what-so, who-so-ever, which-so-ever are
relatives (indefinite), like the Latin quisquis, quicunque.
The latter parts of the compounds, used adjectively, are sometimes
separated by an intervening noun, as —
" We can create, and in what place soe'er
Thrive tinder evil." — MILTON, i. 260.
" Upon what side as ever itfalle." — GOWEK, Confess. Ainant. \. 264.
209. What is used sometimes for -whatever : —
" And, speak men -what they can to him, he'll answer
With some rhyme rotten sentence."
HENRV POKTBR in LAMB'S Drain. Poets, p. 432, Holm's Series.
" What thou here yef no credence."
GOWER'S Confess. Antant. i. 50,
In O.E. we find who that ever, tuhat that ever, who-as-ever, -what-as-evcr,
v>hat-als-c-jer.
" Yn what cuntre of the worlde so ever that he be gone."— Gfst. Rom. i.
" Who that ever cometh thedir he shalle fare well." — Ib.
210. Who-ever, whatever, -which-ever are relative and interrogative.
They do not occur in the oldest English, and are comparatively
late forms.
V. indefinite Pronouns.
211. The indefinite pronouns do not specify any particular object.
Some are used.substantively, others adjectively. Most of them may
be used in both ways. The indefinites are (in addition to the inde-
finite relatives) who, tuhat, some, none, no, atig/if, naught, enough,
any, each, every, either, neither, other, else, sundry, certain.
.'. l?-the S,ax- Chron- A D. 1137, there is a similar displacement :—
i wenden tha:t he sculde ben alsitic alse the com was " = they thought
tn«f he should be all suth as the uncle was.
xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 137
212. Who = any one, some one.
" Timon, surnamed Misantropos (as who should' say Loupgarou, or the man-
hater)." — NORTH'S Plutarck, 171.
" Suppose who enters now,
A king whose eyes are set in silver, one
That blusheth gold." — DECKER'S Satiro-Mastix.
" 'Twill be my chaunce els some to kill wherever it be or whom." — DAMS,
Scourge of Folly, DODSLEY'S Old Plays, ii. p. 50,
" ' Is mother Chat at home ? ' She is, syr, and she is not ; but it please her to
whom.'" — Jb. p. 61.
" The cloudy messenger turns me his back
And hums, as who should say, ' You'll rue the time
That clogs me with this answer."' — Macbeth, iii. 6.
" As -who would saye Astrologie were a thing of great primacie." — DRAKT'*
Sermons.
" Sche was as ivlio seith, a goddesse."
GowfcR, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 376.
" Thay faught[en] alle that longe day,
Who had it sene, wele myght he syghe."
Morte d Arthur, p. 126.
" I will not live
Wfu wolde me all this world here give."
CHAUCER'S Drtam, 1. 618.
" If ther were not ivho to sle it," &c. — Pilgrimage, p. 12.
" Alsxua (= als wha) say here, may lyf na man
\Vithouten drede, that wiue can."- HAMI-OLE, P. ofC. p. 69.
" As hwa se seie he this is mare then theof."— O E. Horn., First Series, p. 281.
" Thcnne aSaines kinde gath hwa that swuche kinscmon ne luueth."— Jb., p. 275.
Who is sometimes joined to some. See § 217.
213. What is indefinite in such expressions as '•'I tell youw/^z/"
(= something), "I know not what" "what not," " elles what
(Chaucer).
" Come down and learne the liltie what
That Thomalin can sayne."— SPENSKR'S Snef. Cal., July.
" As they spek of many what."
ROBERT OF BKUNNE, Hatidlyngt Synne, Specimens, p. na
" Which was the lothliestfe] what."— COWER, i. 98.
" As he which cowthe mochel ivhat."—Ib. i. 320.
" Love is bought for litil what."— lb. ii. 275.
"A little what."— WICKLIFFE, John vi. 7.
" Gif thaer hioa-t to lafe si " = If there be anything rcmaining.-C-"^ h
Sachs from Ettinfilier.
In the oldest English we find ilnes hwat and swilces hivat - somewhat
For other compounds, see some, § 217.
138 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
214. Some (O.E. sum, som* aliquis, quelque) is used both adjec-
tively and substantively.
(i) It has the force of the indefinites a, any, a certain, as —
" And if som Smithfield ruffian take up som strange going ; som new mowing
with their mouth ; wrinchyng with the shoulder ; som brave proverb, some fresh
new othe, . . . som new disguised garment . . . whatsoever it cost, gotten must it
be." — ASCHAM, SchoUmaster, p. 44.
" And yet he could roundlie rap out so many uglie othes as som good man of
fourscore yeare old hath never heard named before." — It. p. 48.
" Some holy angel
Fly to the court of England." — Macbeth, iii. 6.
"The fireplace was an old one, built by some Dutch merchant long ago." —
DICKENS.
" Sum holi childe." — Life of Becket, p. 104.
" Ther was sum prest." — WICKLIFFE, Luke i. 5.
"Sum Song man suede him." — 16., Mark xiv. 51.
" Bot len me sum fetel (vessel) tharto." — Specimens of E. Eng., p. 156.
* The33 wisstenn thatt him wacs summ unncuth sihhthe shaewedd." — Orm.
228.
" Sum dema wass on sumere ceastre." — Luke xviii. 2.
We find it sometimes with the genitive plural in O.E., as —
" Tha com his feonda sum." — Matt. xiii. 25.
(2) It expresses an indefinite part or quantity, as —
" It is some mercy when men kill with speed." — WEBSTER'S Duchess of Malfy.
" The annoyance of the dust, or else some meat
You ate at dinner, cannot brook with you."
MiDDLETON's^n&w of Feverskam.
" And therefore wol I make you disport
As I seyde erst, and do you som comfort."
CHAUCER, Pro!. 1. 770.
(3) With plural substantives, as " some years ago. "
" Some certain of the noblest-minded Romans." — jful. Ctrsar, i. 3.
" And some I see . . .
That twofold balls and treble sceptres bear." — Macoeth, iv. i.
* There be iom serving men that do but ill service to their young masters." —
ISCHAM, SchoUmaster, p. 48.
" I write not to hurte any, but to profit som." — ID.
(4) With numerals, in the sense of about : —
" Surrounded by some fifty or sixty fathoms of iron cable." — DICKENS.
xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
'39
" What a prodigy was't
That from sotne^ two yards high, a slender man
Should break his neck."
J. WEBSTER, The White Devil.
" Some half hour to seven."
BEN JONSON. Every Man in his Humour.
" A prosperous youth he was, aged some four and ten."— GREEN, p. 66.
" Some dozen Romans of us." — Cytnb. \. 7.
" Some day or two." — Rich. III. iii. \.
" Tha waeron hi same ten year on tham gewinn." — BOETH. xviii. i.
(5) With the genitive pi., O.E. " code eahta. sum " = lie went one of eight.
We find in modern Scotch a remnant of this idiom in the phrase "a huasum
dance," a dance in which two persons are engaged.
" Bot it (boat) sa litell wes, that it
Mychte our the waiter hot thresum flyt " (carry).— BARBOUR'S Brus, p. 63.
(6) In apposition instead of the partitive genitive, as—
" sef thou havest bred ant ale
* * * »
Thou del hit sum about." — BARBOUR'S Brus, p. 98.
" Hit nis no5t rigt the tapres tende, bote hi were her some" (/>. except some
of them were here). — Specimens of E. Eng. p. 41.
" Summe heo fleijen to Irelonde." — La^amon, iii. 167.
" Sume tha boceras."— Matt. ix. 3.
" Ge magon gehyran sume his theawas." — sElfric, Dom. 5. in. mense Septem.
" Ac sume ge ne gelyfath." — John vi. 64.
Instead of this contraction the partitive genitive was used as early as the twelfth
century.
" Sum of the sede feol an uppe the stane and s:im among theornen." — O. Eng.
Horn., First Series, p. 133.
" Summe offure little floce." — Orm. 1. 6574.
" Lo here a tale of sow sum."
R. OF BRUNNE, Handlynge Synne, p. 309.
" Summe of hem camen fro fer." — WICKLIFFE'S Int. viii. 3.
" The kynge and somme of hys defendede hem faste." — ROBT. OF GLOU-
CESTER, 1. 1290.
215. Some . . . some = alius . . . alius ; alter . . . alter.
" Some thought Dunkirk, some that Ypres was his object."— MACAULAY.
" The work some praise,
And some the architect." — MILTON, P. L. i. jy
" For books are as meats and viands are, some of good, some of evill substance."
—Arcopagiiica, ed. Arber, p. 43.
" Some say he is with the Emperor of Russia,
Other some, he is in Rome."— Comedy of Errors, iii. a.
140 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAF.
In O.E. we find the singular as well as the plural,1 as —
" Sum man hath an 100 wyues, sume mo, sum less." — MAUNDE.VILLE, p. 22.
(a) Singular: —
" Sam man desireth for to have richesse,
And sjm man wolde out of his prisoun fayn."
CHAUCHR'S Knightcs Tale.
" He mot ben deed, the kyng as schal a page ;
Sam in his bed, sain in the deepe see,
Sam in the large felde, as men may se." — Ib.
" Sum was king and sum kumeling (foreigner)."
Gen. and Ex. 1. 834.
" Anum he sealde fif pund, summit twa, sunium an." — Matt. xxv. 15.
{*) Plural:—
" Sommt the hed from the body he smote,
Somme the arms, somme the scholdcrs."
LONELICH'S St. Graal, p. 128.
" Thus may men se that at thoo dayes suiiime were richere then sunime and
retlier to give elmesse." — CAPGKAVE, p. 10.
" Ofsumme sevene and sevenc, of sunime two and two." — Ib. p. 16.
" He bylevede ys folc somme aslawc and some ywounded." — ROBERT or
GLOUCESTER, 1. 4855.
Byron ("Don Juan ") uses same's = one's —
" Howsoe'er it shock same's self love."
Heywood uses somes —
" But of all somes none is displeased
To be welcome."
216. Some is also used indefinitely with other, another —
" Who . . . hath . . . not worshipped somt idol or another." — THACKERAV'S
Httt. ofH. Esmond.
" By some device or other."
SHAKESPEARE'S Comedy of Errors, \. i.
" By some accident or other." — HOIIUES.
Some . . . many —
" She pullcth up some be the rote,
And manye with a knyf sche schereth."
GOWEK, Specimens of Early Eng., p. 373.
217. COMPOUNDS OF SOME. — Somebody, something, some-one,
somewhat, othersome, some-who.
1 Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar, p. fi.
xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 141
Somebody1 —
" Ere you came by ther grove I was sombody,
Now I am but a noddy (i.e. a nobody) "
Damon and Pythias, in Dodsley's Old Plays.
Something —
" Wh'jn as we sat and sigh'd,
And look'd upon each other, and conceived
Not what we ail'd, yet something we dij ail."
DANIEL'S Hymen's Triumph.
" For't must be done to-night,
And something {torn the palace." — Macbeth, iii. i.
" Sir, you did take me up when I was nothing.
And only yet am something by being yours."
B. and F. Philaster.
Some who —
" But ilsomivho the flamme staunche." — GOWER'S Confess, i. 15.
" Than preyede the rich mon Abraham
That he wolde sende Lazare or sum other •wham
To hys brethryn alle fyve."
R. OF BRUNNE'S Hattdlyngc Synne, p. 209.
Somewhat —
" From them I should learn somewhat, I am sure,
I never shall know here." — WEBSTER'S Duchess of Malfy.
"Duck. What did I say?
Ant. That I should write somewhat."— Ib.
" There is somewhat in the winde."
Damon and Pythias, in Old Plays, \. 193.
" Ther nys no creature so good, that him ne wanteth somnvhat of the perfec-
tionin of God."— CHAUCER (ed Wright), ii. p. 333-
" Ther where he was schotte another chappelle standes, and sotrrwhat of that
tre."— R. OF BRUNNE'S Chron.
"He come to Pers there he stode
And askede hym sum of hys gode,
Sunnvhat of hys clothing."— U>., HamHynge Synne.
" Thi brother hath snimuhat ngeins thce."— WICKLIFFE, Matt. v. 23.
" Sumwhatt Ice habbe shaewedd 3uw." — Orm. 958.
Some one replaced the O. E. sum man.
" Some one comes."— LONGFELLOW.
" Some one among you all,
Shew me herself or grave."— T. HEVWOOD s Stiver Age.
' Be<bre somebody could get into use body must have been used for wight,
person, as —
" A doughty hdy in alle his lyf."— Gest. Rom.
" The servaunts yede to her chaumber and founde nobody."— Ib. 35.
142 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP
Robert of Brunne has sum oun (Handlynge Synne, p. 294) =
some one ; Robert of Gloucester has somewanne = somrwhom =
something.
Somdcl = somedeal, is very common for somewhat.
Other some —
" Other tome [houses are made] with reede." — HAKLUYT, p. 504.
" Though some be lyes,
Yet other some be true." — DODSLEY'S Old Plays, ii. p. 74.
218. All and some —
This phrase is exceedingly common in O.E. and is equivalent to all and one =
one and all, each and all. It has also the force of wholly, altogether ; hence it is
supposed that some = same, O.E. samen, together. Cp. Spenser's phrase '• Light
and dark sam."
" Stop your noses, readers, all and some." — DRVDEN, Abs. and Ackith.
" This other swore alle and some" — Specimens of E. Eng. p. 106.
" The tale ys wrytyn al and sum,
In a boke of Vitas patrum."
R. OF BRUNNE'S Handlynge Synne, 1. ifx).
" For everi creature go schal
By that brugge, sum or al."
Old Eng. Miscell. p. 225.
riy tmesis we have *' all together and sum."
" Whyle they were alle together and sum"
Play of the Sacrament, \. 402.
" Neither fals witnesse thou noon bere
On no mannys matere, al neither somme." — Baby's Boke, p. 49.
" II have) nother witte enough whole and seme."
Damon and Pythias, Old Plays, p. 232.
219. One (O. E. an, on,* oon*)1 is the numeral one with extended
applications. It is used substantively and adjectively. When used
substantively, it has a plural ones and a genitive one's, and may be
compounded with self.
" One can only attribute the chameleon character in which one seems to figure
to the want of penetration o(9ne's neighbours." — Evening- Standard, Sat. Oct. I,
1870, p. i, col. 3.
" Once more I am reminded that one ought to do a thing oneself \i one wants it
to be done properly." — Ib. p. i, col. 3.
" It is a pretty saying of a wicked one."
TOURNKUR'S The Revenger's Tragedy.
" Go, take it up, and carry it in. Tis a huge one ; we never kill'd so large a
swine ; so fierce, too, I never met vith yet." — BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER, The
Prophetess.
' Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 143
"To yceUe one's heart unto commiseration is an efTecte of facilitie, tendernesse
and meeknesse. — MONTAIGNE'S Florio, p. 2.
" Well, well, such counterfeit jewels
Make true ones oft suspected."— WEBSTER'S White Devil.
220. Sometimes one — someone: —
" But here cometh one; I will withdraw myself aside."— LILY'S Satho and
Pkao.
" I hear one's pace, 'tis surely Carracas."
R. TAYLOR'S The Hog hath lost his Pearl.
" For taking one's part that is out of power." — King Lear, i. 3.
The earliest use of a genitive of one in its present acceptation is found in the
Morte d Arthur, p. 10.
" Lady thy sieve thou shall of shere,
I wolle it take for the love of thee ;
So did I nevyr no ladyes ere,
But one1 that most hath lovide me."
The plural of one occurs as early as Chaucer's time, as — "we thre ben al
cones." 2
221. Chaucer, too, uses one as a substantive with an adjective where it seems to
be a substitution for wight, or person, as —
" I was a lusty oon." — CHAUCER, 1. 6187.
In the thirteenth century we find thing, properly neuter, used in a similar
manner : —
" So that this tuo lithere thinge : were at one rede." 3
Early Eng. Poems, p. 50.
One is used for thing in Chevelere Assigne, p. 15 :
" But what broode on is this on my breste,
*****
And what longe on is this that I shall up lyfte."
But this one is sometimes used instead of repeating the noun, as —
" Who embrace instead of the true [religion] a false one," where Hooker,
Book v. ch. ii. 2, omits the indefinite one.
So Milton, Areop. p. 45 : '' It is a blank vertue, not a pure."
This usage does not explain the employment of one when it is preceded by a
demonstrative, as the, this, &c., as tlie mighty one. Here the older writers em-
ployed the definite adjective with a final (inflexional) e, as tlte gode. The loss of
this ending no doubt led to the introduction of one to supply its place. See p. 104.
222. The indefinite one, as in one says, is sometimes, but wrongly,
derived from the Fr. on, Lat. homo. It is merely the use of the
numeral one for the older man, men, or me.
1 One = ones = the sleeve of one. Perhaps the e marks here the gen. fern.
2 In the oldest Eng. one could have a plural, as each one — aura gehivyli =
each of ones.
3 Lithere thinges = wicked ones. This phrase is applied to Quendride
(Kenelm's sister), and Askebert (Kenelm's guardian).
144 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
In the " Morte d'Arthur" man is replaced by one when it relates to a. fern-nine
word.1
" He is man of such apparayle,
Off hym I have fulle mychelle dredc."—Mortf d'Arthur, p. 69.
" Latmcelot than full stylle stoode,
As man that was mochefl] of myght" — 16. p. 118.
" And one that bryghtest was of ble."— 16. p. 142.
123. Sometimes he occurs where we use one * —
" As lie that ay was hend and be."— Morte d'Arthur, p. 23.
Gower uses Ac, she, instead of the old relative after as, as —
" As he that was of wisdom slih."— Specimens of E. Eng. p. 367.
" As sche which dede hir hole intent."— 16. p. 374.
Cp. " he died
As one that had been stuHi^d in his death,
To throw away the dearest thing he own'd." — Macbeth, i. 4.
" As one who would say, come follow ..."
Belfliegor in LAMB'S Dram. Poets, Bohn's Series, p. 532.
224. Man.
" For your name,
Of ... and murderess, they proceed from yon,
As if a titan f= one] should spit against the wind ;
The filth returns in 's 1= one's] face."— WEBSTER'S White DeviL
" As though a man would say," &c. — DRANT'S Sermons.
" Vor the more that a man can, the more wurthe he is." — ROUT. OF GLOUC.
" Vor, bote a man conne Frenss, me telth of him lute." — 16.
" So, that man that tvolde [= siquis] him wul arise, delicacy is to despise."—
GOWER, iii. 40.
" Off thys ba:aille were to telle
A man that it wele undyrstode
How knyhtes undyr sadels felle." — Morte d'Arthur, p. 89.
125. Appositional use of one.
This use of one has become archaic, having been replaced by the partitive
genitive.
1 The form men for the s'ngular, from which me comes by falling away of «.is
to be explained by the fact that in the twelfth century, a final -an became -en ; but
men i« often treated as a plural form in O. E.
1 This use of one after as deserves some notice, as it has never been thoroughly
explained.
This idiom answers to the Latin qnippe yui, and, therefore, cue is the sub-
stitute for a relative. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we hnd a relative
instead of one; in later times he and man were substituted for it.
" He com himself alast ase the thc-t was of alle men veirest."— Ancren Ritole,
p. 388.
Ate the thet — as he that — as one that.
" The sunne nis boten a schadewe ase thco thet loseth here liht." — O.E. Ham.
First S-.rie>, p. 185.
Att tkto thet = as she that =
as one that.
"*•] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. I45
| I am oon the fayreste."— CHAUCER'S Troylus and Cryseide. c. v. ».
" He was <*"* in soothe, without excepcioun,
— • — oon the best on lyve."— lb. Compl. ofL. Lyfe, xxiii.
"^ So fair a wight as she was oon"— GOWER'S Confess. Ant. ii. 70.
" An other such as he was on'."—Jt>. ii. 15.
" Lawe is one the best."— /i. iii. 189.
" Suche a lemman as thou hast oon."—Morte d' Arthur, p. 25.
" Such a dynte he gaffe hym one. ' — Ib. p. 117.
" For thys is one the moste syniie."— ROBT. OF BRUNNK, p. 6.
In Shakespeare we find one with superlatives —
" He is one the truest manner'd." — Cymb. i. 6.
" One the wisest prince."— Hen. VIII. ii. 4.
In the fifteenth century we find the partitive form in use, as—
" One <jAhe strongest pyl."— LO.XELICH'S Sc-ynt Graal, vol. i. p. 101.
Cp. the old use of some. See p. 123, § 169.
226. Use of one before proper names.*-
" You may say one Albert, riding by
This way, only inquired their health."— R. TAYX.OR'S Lingua.
227. For use of one = own, self, alone, see p. 123, § 169.
228. One = the same.
" That's all one to me."— GREEN, p. 86.
""I is all on:
To be a witch as to be counted one."— DECKER'S Witch of Edmtnton.
229. None, no (O.E. ndn, non,* noon, na* = ne + dn — not
one).2
No is formed of none by the falling away of n, and stands hi the
same relation to none as my and thy to mine and thine, and a to an.
None is used substantively and absolutely, and no adjectively —
" But I can finde none that is good and meke."
HAWES, P. of P. p. 136.
" For surely there's none lives but 3 painted comfort."
KYD'S Spanish Tragedy.
" Thou shall get kings, though thou be none." — Macbeth, i. 3.
" For overlop (omission) moht I mac non."
Specimens of E. Eng. p. 150.
It seems to be emphatic after the substantive —
" Satisfaction can be none but by pangs of death."
Twelfth Night, iii. 4.
1 This construction occurs in Robert of Gloucester : " The castel hild c*e
Wyllam Louel," 1 9352. 3 Those marked thus (*) are later form*.
3 But = tha tlias not painted, &c.
L
146 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" And save his good broadsword he weapon had none."—Vf. SCOTT.
" For pok (poke, bag) no sek no havd he nan."
Specimens of E. Eng. p. 155.
In O.E. (fourteenth century) non (none) and no are used much in the same way
as an and a ; none before a vowel, &c.
" It toucheth to non other se."
MAUNDEVILLE, Specimens ofE. Eng. p. 203.
" Sche doth non harm to no man." — Ib.
" And for to fall it hath none impediment."— HAWKS, P. of P. p. 44.
230. No, though equivalent to not one, is often united to a
plural substantive ; thus we find in O.E. :
" None monekes." — Specimens of E. Eng. p. 80. " Non houses."— MAUNDB-
VILLE, p. 63. I.e. No monks; no houses.
None is sometimes followed by other —
" Thou shall have none other gods before me." — Deal. \. 7.
In O. E. it is always non other, not no other, which would have
sounded as strangely as a other.
231. No one (= not one one) is tautological, but it evidently
replaces the O. E. no man, no wight. 1
Sometimes not one is used in its place.
232. Nothing, pi. Nothings.
" The other sorts of devils are called in Scripture daemonia .... and which St.
Paul calleth nothings : for an idol, saith he, is nothing" — HOBBES, v. p. 2111.
233. Aught, naught—
Aught, ought (O.E. awiht, aht). Awiht contains the prefix d (as
in O. E. d-ge-hwylc = aghwylc, each ; <zf-re = ever ; ahivather,
farther, dther, outher, ag-hwtzther, cegther = either ; d-n = one ;
tr-n-ig, any), the- original signification of which is ever, aye (cp.
Goth, ahu, Gr. dtl ; Goth, ai-r, O.E. a-r, ere), and wiht (Goth.
waihts), wight, whit, creature, thing, something.
" For aughf\ know, the rest are dead, my lord."
WEBSTER'S Appins and Virginia.
" Amongst so many tnousand authors you shall scarse find one by reading of
whom you shall be anywhit better." — BURTON'S Mel. p. 7.
Cp. " To luite ne to muche wiht." — Castelof 'Love, \. 638.
" Thereof he ete a lytelle wight." — Morte d' Arthur, p. 36.
" Syr Zvwayne, knowistow any •wight ?" — Ib. p. 5.
1 " Sche was vanyssht riht as hir liste,
That no -uryht bot hir-self it wiste."— GOWER, in Spec, of E. Eng. p. 371.
xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 147
234. Naught (O.E. n&wiht? naht) and not (O.E. noght, not) are
negative forms of aught, so that not a whit is pleonastic ; in a
whit the a must not be considered as the article ; a whit = awhit =
a-wiht or aught.
Naughts is used by Green (p. 157) for nothings —
" We country sluts of merry Fressingfield
Come to buy needless naughts to make us fine."
235. Enough (O.E. gen6h, ynough,* ytww, * enow, anow. Cp.
Goth, ga-noks, Ger. genug).*
Sometimes we find enow used as a plural, corresponding to O. E.
inohe, invwe, in which the plural is marked by the final e.
" Have I not cares enow and pangs enow > " — BYRON.
" Servile letters anow." 3 — Areopagitica, p. 40.
236. Any (O.E. anig = rtllus] is an adjective formed from the
numeral dn, one. In O.E. we find ceni, ezi, ei, for any, and La3a-
mon has genitives, eeies and czines.
" Ay two had disches twelve." — Sir Gaw. : Specimens, p. 224.
We find a distinction in O.E. made between the singular eny, any,
and the plural anif, anye.
" And 3if that eni him wraththed adoun he was anon."
ROBT. OF GLOUC.
237. Compounds are anyone, anybody, anything, O.E. any -wight,
any man, eny persone.
" Unnethe eni man mi3te [h]is bowe bende." — ROBT. OF GLOUC.
Any originally had a negative nanig — nullus, of which a trace exists in the
twelfth century.
"Niss nani thing" = there is not anything. — Orm. \. 61, 1. 1839. "Nani matt"
= not any man.— Jo. p. 216. We use none instead : — "And as I had rather have
any do it than myself, yet surely myself rather than none at all." — ASCHAM'S
Scholemaster, p. 157.
238. Each [O.E. (E-lc = d-gc-Zir ; from d (see remarks on aught),
and lie = like ; later forms are elc, elch, euch, uch, ych, ech, ilk].
It is properly singular, but has acquired a distributive sense. It
is used substantively and adjectively.
1 As an adverb no whit is found as well as naught = not.
" I am no ivhit sorry." — DODSLEY'S Old Plays, ii. 84.
" Ector ne liked no -aiight
The wordis that he herd there." — Morte d' Arthur
1 Those marked thus {*) are later forms.
3 Mihon {Arcopagit., p. 28, ed. Arber) writes anoufh, adv.
L 2
148 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" Of the fruit
Of each tree in the garden we may eat."— MILTON'S P. L. ix. 661.
" Simeon and Levi took each man his sword."— Gen. xxxiv. 25.
" Cloven tongues sat upon each of them." — Acts ii. 3.
" At each his needless heavings."— Winter's Tale, ii. 3.
"la beam do find in each of three." — Love's Labour's Lost, iv. 3.
Each and every are used alike by Spenser : —
" She every hill and dale, each wood and plaine did search."—/1. Q. \. a, 8.
239. Each is sometimes used for both —
" And each though enemies to either1 's reign
Do in consent shake hands to torture me."
SHAKESPEARE'S Sonnets, 28.
Hence it often happens that each is wrongly followed by pronouns
and verbs as the plural number.
" Each in her sleep themselves so beautify." — Rape of Lucrece, 404.
" How pale each worshipful rev'rend guest
Rise from a clergy or a city feast."— POPE'S Imit. Hor. ii. 75.
240. In the twelfth and following centuries, we find each followed
by an, a, on — one.
" Illc an tmnclene lusst,
Annd illc an ifell wille." — Orm, 5726.
'' Heo bigonne to fle echon." — ROBT. OF GLOUCESTER, 378.
'.' llkon of the knightes had a barony." — R. OF BRUNNE'S Chronicle.
" And ilka lym on ilka syde." — HAMPOLK'S P. ofC.
" Thei token ech on by hymself a peny." — WICKLIFFE, Matt. xx. 10.
" For hit clam uclie a c\yKc."—Allit, Poems.
Each one is a remnant of this, as —
" The princes of Israel, being twelve men : each one was for the house of his
fathers." — Num. i. 44.
Each other sometimes = each alternate, every other, as —
" Each otJiefwordc I was a knave." — Gammer Gurton's Needle.
241. Every is a compound of ever and each, O.K. izver-elc, ever-
ilk, ever-each. It was unknown in the oldest stage of the language ;
it occurs in Lajamon (ab. 1200). '
" Everilc he kexte, on ilc he gret (wept)." — Gen. and Ex.
" Everich * of you schul brynge an hundred knightes."
CHAUCER'S Knightes Tale, \. 995.
1 Here means each one [of you (two)].
XII.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 149
" Carry hym aboute to every of his friendes."
Fardell of Facion, 8.
" Every of your wishes."— Antony and Clcofi. ii. 2.
We also find O.E. evrichon, everilkan = everyone. Everybody
and everything are later formations.
The history of every having been forgotten in the sixteenth cen-
tury, we find every each, like not a whit, no one, &c.
" Every each of them hath some vices."— BURTON'S Mel. p. 601.
242. Either [O.E. (i) ag-hivather, aither, ait her ; (2) &-hwather,
dwther, Atker, oiuther, outlier, tf/ier.]1
Ei = <zg = A, see remarks on aught; -ther = comparative suffix.
See § 1 13. So either - any one of two, and sometimes it is used for
each and both, but not so frequently in* modern as in O.E.
" The king of Israel and Jehoshaphat sat either of them on his throne."—
a Cnron. xvui. 9.
Either has a possessive form —
" Where cither's fall determines both their fates."
ROWE, Lucttn, vi. 13.
" They are both in either' s power."— The Tempest.
" Confute the allegations of our adversaryes, the end being truth, which once
fished out by the harde encounter of eitliers argumentes .... both partes shoulde
be satisfyed."— GOSSON'S School of Abuse, p. 46.
243. Neither (O.E. nalnuxther, nduther, nouther*), the negative of
either as naught is of aitght.
" Now new, now old, now both, now neither,
To serve the world's course, they care not with whether."
ASCHAM'S Scholcmaster, p. 84.
" Neither of either, I remit both twain."
Love's Labour's Lost, v. 2.
" Truth may lie on both sides, on either side or on neither side."— CARLYLE'S
French Revolution, iii. 163.
" Ac hot- neither'3 ... in pur ri3te nas." — ROBT. OF GLOUCESTER, Specimens of
E. Ens. P- 68.
1 Cp. " For anther he sal the tane hate
And the tother luf after his state,
Or he sal the tane of tham mayntene
And the tother despyse." — HAMPOLK'S P. ofC. p. 31.
" Bot with the world comes Dam Fortone,
That ay ther hand may chaunge sone. " — Ib. p. 36.
*. Cp. " He ne had nouther strenthe ne myght,
Nouther to ga ne ghit to stand." — Ib. p. 13.
3 Neither of them.
150 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
It is sometimes, but wrongly, found with a plural verb, as —
" Thersites' body is as good as Ajax",
When neither are alive." — Cymb. iv. a.
244. Other (O.E. 8-ther, Goth, an-thar — one of two, second
and other. See remarks on numerals, p. 114).
This word originally belonged to the indefinite declension, making
its plural othre, leaving other as the plural when the final e fell
away, as
" Whan other are glad
Than is he sad."— SKELTON, i. 79.
" Some other give me thanks." — Comedy of Errors, iv. 3.
" Some other .... do not utterlie dispraise learning, but they sale," &c. —
ASCHAM'S Scholemaster, p. 54.
•' Awei sche bad alle othre go."
GOWEK, in Specimens of E. Eng. p. 374.
Cp. " Other some" — Acts xvii. 18.
A new plural was afterwards formed by the ordinary plural
suffix s.
Other's (O.E. othres> otheres) is a true genitive.
" Let ech of us hold up his hond to other,
And ech of us bycome otheres brother."
CHAUCER, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 353
" And eyther tlranke of otheres bloode."— Gest. Rom. p. 19.
245. Another is a later form ; x sum other was once used instead
of it.
246. One another, each other, are sometimes called reciprocal
pronouns ; but they are not compounds : in such phrases as " love
each other," "love one another," the construction is, each love the
other, one love another ; each and one being subjects, and other and
another objects, of their respective predicates.
In O.E. we find each to other = to each other.
We sometimes find ay {her other — either other, in this sense, as —
" Uche payre by payre to plese ayther other" — Allit. Poems, p. 46.
" Her eyther had killed other."— Piers Plowman, Pas. v. 1. 165.
Other what = -what else occurs in Dodsley's Old Plays, ii. 67,—
" What strokes he bare away, or
Other-what was his gaines, I wot not."
" And (he) speketh of other-kwat." — Ancrert Ri-wle, p. 96.
247. Else (O.E. elles, the genitive of the demonstrative root, ele,
e/, as in Lat. alius*).
1 Another is used in the Ormulum.
* In the oldest English we find a comparative elra.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 151
We find it in O. E. after ought, nought, as in modern English.
It has acquired an adverbial sense = aliter. Cp. O.E. owiht dies =
aught of other = aught else.
" A pouder » » * *
I-maad, outhcr of chalk, outher of glas,
Or soin what elles." — CHAUCER, 1. 13078.
" Bischopes and bachelers, bote maistres and doctours,
Liggen in London in lenten and elles."
Piers Plowman, Prol. 1. 91.
" So, what for drcde and ellis, they were both ensuryd."
Tale of Beryn, 1. naa.
In the oldest English we had elks hwat = aught else.1
Sometimes we find not else — nought else.
" In Moses' hard law we had
Not else but darkness.
All was not else but night." — DODSLEY'S Old Plays, p. 39.
24 . Sundry (O.E. synderig — singularis, sundrie, sondry =
separate) is now used in the plural —
" For sundry weighty reasons." — Macbeth, iii. i, iv. 3.
It occurs, however, sometimes as a singular in older writers in the
sense of separate.
" Ale hefde sindri moder." — LaZ. i. 114.
" Thor was in helle a sundri sted."— Gen. and Ex. 1984, p. 57.
So in Shakespeare —
" The sundry contemplation
Of my travels is a most humorous sadness."
As You Like It, iv. i.
249. Several is used for sundry —
" To every several man" —-Julius Casar, iii. 2.
" Two several times."— Ib. v. 3.
" Truth lies open to all, it's no man's several."— BEN JONSON.
" By some severals" — Winter's Tale, i. 2.
250. Divers (O.E. diverse, O.Fr. divers], and different (Fr.
different), and O.E. sere, ser (O.Fr. sevre, separated ; sevrte, sepa-
ration), are sometimes employed for sundry.
251. Certain (from Lat. certus) is singular and plural, and is used
substantively and adjectively.
« tls what in Chaucer.
152 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. xn.
" A certain man planted a vineyard." — Mark xii. i.
" There came from the ruler of the synagogue's house certain which said." —
/*. v. 35.
" To hunt the boar with ct rtain of his friends." — Vcmis and Adonis^
Cp. its use as a substantive in the following passages : —
" A certayn of varieties and boyes. " — BERNER'S Froissart.
" A certain of grain." — Fardell of f'acion.
" Beseeching him to lene him a certeyn
Of gold, and he wold quyt it him ageyn." — CHAUCER, 1. 12953.
" Sit I wolle have another certayne."— Gesta Rom. p. 23.
CHAPTER XIII.
VERBS.
252. VERBS may be classified into (a) transitive, requiring an
object, as "he /earns his lessons;" (£) intransitive, requiring no
object, as " the sun shines."
253. Transitive verbs only have a passive voice.
Transitive verbs include (i) reflexive verbs, in which, the agent and
object are identical, as " he hurt himself" " I'll /ay me down ;" and
reciprocal verbs, as "to love one another." These verbs admit of no
passive voice.
254. Intransitive verbs include a large number that might be
classed as frequentative, diminutive, inceptive, desiderative, &c.
Some intransitive verbs, by means of a preposition, become transi-
tive, and may be used passively, as " the man laughs at the boy,"
" the boy was laughed at by the man."
Some intransitive verbs have a causative meaning, and take an
object, as "he ran," "he ran a thorn through his finger." See
Causative Verbs, under the head of VERBAL SUFFIXES.
255. Some transitive verbs are reflexive in meaning, though not in
form, and appear at first sight as if used intransitively, as " he keeps
aloof from danger," i.e. he keeps himself, &c. Cp. "he stole away
to England."
Sometimes a transitive verb has a passive sense, with an active
form, as "the cakes ate short and crisp" = the cakes were
eaten short and crisp.
256. Intransitive verbs may take a noun of kindred meaning or
object, called the cognate object, as to die a death, to sleep a sleep,
to run a race.
257. Verbs used with the third person only are called impersonal
verbs, as me thinks, me seems, it rains, it snows.
258. The verb affirms action or existence of a subject, under certain
conditions or relations, called voice, mood, tense.
'54
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
In some languages verbs undergo a change of form for voice mood, and tense ;
suffixed ; whence rexi, the perfect of reg-ere.
Voice.— There are two voices— (a) the active, in which the subject
of the verb is represented as acting, as "I love John;" (6) the
passive, in which the subject of the verb is represented as affected by
the action, as " I am loved by John."
The passive voice has grown out of reflexive verbs ; but our language has never
developed, by change of the verb, a reflexive form, so that the passive voice in
English is expressed by the passive participle combined with auxiliary verbs.
The Scandinavian dialects have a special form for reflexive verbs. See p. 6.
259. There are five moods — (i) the indicative makes a simple
assertion, states or asks about a fact ; (2) the subjunctive expresses a
possibility : it is sometimes called the conditional or conjunctive
mood ; (3) the imperative denotes that an action is commanded,
desired, or entreated ; (4) the infinitive slates the action without the
limitations peculiar to voice, tense, &c., and is merely an abstract
substantive ; (5) participles are adjectives.
260. The tenses are three — (cf) present, (b} past, (c] future.
An action may be stated with reference to time, present, past, and
future, as (a) indefinite, (b) continuous and imperfect, (c) perfect,
(d) perfect and continuous.
Hence we may arrange the tenses according to the following
scheme : —
TENSE.
INDEFINITE.
IMPERFECT
CONTINUOUS.
PERFECT.
PERFECT
CONTINUOUS.
Present . .
I praise.
I am prais-
ing.
I have praised
I have been
praising.
Past' . . .
I praised.
I was prais-
ing.
I had praised.
I had been
praising.
Future . .
I shall praise.
I shall be
praibing.
I shall have
praised.
I shall have
been praising.
1 This j was originally a part of the root as, to be.
" Sometimes called imperfect.
xni.] STRONG VERBS,
'55
261. For I praise, I praised, we sometimes use Ida praise, I did
praise, which are by some called emphatic present and past tenses.
I am going to praise is called intentional present.
I was going to praise „ „ past.
I shall be going to praise „ „ future.
In English we have only change of form, for \hzpresent andjasf ;
the other tenses are expressed by the use of auxiliary verbs.
262. There are two numbers, singular and plural ; three persons,
first, second, and third.
263. Conjugation.— Verbs are classified according to the mode
of expressing the past indefinite tense, into (a] strong verbs, (b) weak
verbs.
Strong Verbs. — The past tense of strong verbs is expressed by a
change of vowel only ; nothing is added to the root.
Weak Verbs. — The past tense indefinite of weak verbs is ex-
pressed by adding to the verbal root the syllable d or its euphonic
substitute t. The e before d unites the suffix to the root.
The distinction between strong and weak verbs must be clearly borne in mind.
(1) Strong verbs have vowel change only ; their past tense is not formed by
adding -d or -/.
(2) The passive participles of strong verbs do tut end in -d or -t, as do those
of weak verbs.
(3) All p. participles of strong verbs once ended in -en (-«) ; i but in very
many p. participles tiiis suffix has dropt off. The history of a word is
sometimes necessary to be known before its conjugation can be
decided.
\Veak verbs sometimes have a change of vowel, and the addition of -d or -/, as
boiigh-t; but this change is no result of reduplication.
STRONG VERBS.
264. All strong verbs in the Aryan languages originally formed
their perfect tense by reduplication, that is by the repetition of the
root : thus from the root bhug = bend was originally formed (i)
bhug-bhug; (2) bhu-bhug (by shortening the first root) ; then by
adding the personal ending (3) blni-bkdga, which is the Sanskrit
verb = I bowed or bent, and this is found in Gr. W-^etryo, "L&t.f&gi
(~fnfugi), Goth, baug, O. E. bedh, English bowed.
In the Latin, Gothic, and O.E. forms, the vowel change shows
that the initial letter of the root has gone, and the first consonant is
1 The passive participle in -n is only an adjective like wooden. Cp. Lat. pknus
original form = (i) na, whence (2) an = (3) en.
156 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
the. initial of the reduplicated syllable. Thus, Latin, fugi = /« +
fug- 1 = fu + ug-i. l
Thu«, we sec, the perfect of facto was probably formed : (i) fa-fac-i,
(2) fe-fic-i, (3)/««, (4) A'-
In languages belonging to the Teutonic group, we have even
clearer examples of reduplication, as well as of the loss of it.
The verb held (past definite of hold, O.E. Iieald-an) was originally
heold; but Gothic preserves the fuller form, hai-hald ; O.H.Ger.
hialt (i.e. heikalt) ; Ger. hidt.'i
In our verb held the first h is the reduplicated letter. The vowel
e is the result of the union of the vowel of the reduplicated syllable
with that of the root.
265. The several stages would be (i) ha-hald, (2) ha-hild, (3) haild, (4) Md?
Cp. Goth, kaittm — to call . . perf. haihait.
O.E. k&tan „ hlht,het.
Goth, rtdan — to rede (advise) „ rairdth.
O.E. rAedan re6rd.
Goth. Utan = to let . . . .
O.E. latan
Goth, laikan = to leap . . .
O.E. l&can
O.E. on-dradan = to dread .
Iail6t.
leirt (— leolt ; rfor 1).
lailaik.
leflc.
on-dreord.
266. In Old English we have two verbs that preserve the redu-
plicated syllable and the initial root letter —
(1) Did, the past tense of do, O.E. dide, O. Sax. de-da. It
belongs, therefore, to the class of strong verbs.
We have a cognate root in n'OoM'. and Lat do; Sansk.'<£kz. The Sans. perf.
is dadhAu =. Lat. dedi.
(2) Hight—
" An ancient fabric rais'd t" inform the sight,
There stood of yore, and Barbican it kigttt."— DRYDEH.
" That wretched wight
The Duke of Gloucester, that Richard hight."
SACKVILLE, Duke of Buckingham.
" Johan kight that oon, and Alayn hight that other."
CHAUCER, Tlte Reeve's Tale.
Behight =• promised. So little was this form understood in the sixteenth cen-
tury that •yye actually find behfghteth = promiseth, used by Sackville, as if from
a present ' tehigkt : cp. ought and must, originally past tenses which have
acquired a present meaning.
Hight = was called is the past indefinite of the O.E. /uttan,
hate, hole, to call, corresponding to Goth, haihait. See § 265.
«' Intent my steps, fled.
"The change of vowel in the perfect is due to the coalescence of the rowel of
the reduplicated syllable with the root vowel.
I For at = 8, see J 47, p. 58.
xin.] STRONG VERBS, 157
267. DIVISION I. Class L
The first division of strong verbs includes those whose past
tenses clearly point to an original reduplication ; the vowel of
passive participles undergoes no change. 1
PRES.
PAST.
P.p.
PRES.
PERFECT.
P.P.
(l)
fall
fell
fallen O.K.
fealle
feoll
feallen
hold
held
held „
hcalde
heold
Lcalden
behold
beheld
beholden*
hang
hung
hung ,,
hange
heng
hangen
hangen*
gang, go
—
gone „
gange
geong
gangen
(a)
sweep
hate*
swep*
hight
swepen* ,,
hoten* „
swape
hate
sweop
heht
swapen
haten
het
blow
blew
blown „
blawe
bleow
blawen
cnaw en
know
knew
known ,,
awe
crow
sow
sew*
sown „
sawe
seow
sawen
mow
mew*
mown „
ma we
meow
mawen
throw
threw
thrown ,,
thrawe
threow
thrawen
(3)
let
let* *
leten*
Ixte
leort,
Ixten
leet*
leot, let
(4)
sleep
slep*
slepen* „
slxpe
slep
steepen
sleep*
leap
lep*
lopen* „
hleape
hleop
hlcapcn
beat
leep*
bet*
beaten „
beate
beot
beaten
beet*
beat
hew
hew*
hewn „
heawe
heow
heawen
(5)
row
rew*
rowen* ,,
rowe
reow
rowen
grow
flow
grew
flew
grown „
flown „
growe
flotve
grew
lleow
growen
fluwen
(6) weep wep* wepen* „ wcpe wcop wepen
(i) Many verbs once belonging to this division have either become
obsolete or have adopted a weak form for the past tense and p. par-
ticiple, as —
Well (O.E. -weallan, to well up), fold, walk, low, row, span,
leap, sweep, weep.
In the provincial dialects we find strong forms of some of these
verbs still in use, as to row, past rew, p.p. rowen; to leaf, past lop,
' Forms marked * are obsolete, and iveak forms have taken their places as
tlept Ju-i^ed. weft, leapt, wed. Some of these weak forms came in early-
tlepte, dredde = dreaded, as in the Ornntlum.
_.» Let in twelfth century has a weak form, let-it, lattt.
158 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAF.
loup, p.p. loupen ; to -weep, pastwfp; to sleep, past slep ; to beat,
past bett (Scotch). Cp. :—
" Some to the ground were lopen from above." — SURREY, ALn. ii.
" She brouhte the greyn from hevene to erthe and seeai it. The erthe ther it
wss some was never ered."— Pilgrimage, p. 43.
" For while they \xfolden together as thorns." — NaJtntn x. 10.
" And sighing sore, her hands she wrung and fold."
SACKVILLE'S Induction.
(2) Let (past), though strong in form, is weak as regards its pro-
nunciation ; it is weak in the p.p. : beat is weak in pret, but strong
in p.p.
(3) Hew, sow, mow, have now weak past tenses, but strong
passive participles, as well as weak ones.
In the Bible we have p.p. hewn and hewed,
The provincial dialects have strong forms, as hew = hewed, sew
= sowed, mtw = mowed, snew = snowed.
(4) Hung (past) = O.E. heng; it has also a weak past, hanged,
and a weak p.p. hanged. In O.E. we find hangian, a derivative,
and weak verb, making its past tense hangode.
(5) Some passive participles have sprung from the past tense, as
hung = hangen ; held = holden ; fell = fallen (Shakespeare, Lear,
iv. 6).
Others have contracted forms of p.p., as strum = sowen, &c.
268. The second division of strong verbs includes those that
have vowel change in the past tense and in the passive participle.
These verbs were of course originally reduplicate, but the evidence is not so
clear as in the first class of verbs. Cp. set (= did sit), Goth, sat, with Sansk,
sa-sad-a (pi. sM-ima), Lat. sed-i; bound (O.E. band), Goth, band, Sansk. ba-
bandk-a.1
H.-re the past tense contains the original vowel, while the vowel a of the
present tense has been weakened to «': so such verbs as give, help stand for more
ancient roots, as gaf, half, which in the preterite preserve the original root
vowel.
Sometimes the root of the present is strengthened by an infixed letter, as
f*-*-g. go, sta-n-d, bri-n-g, thi-n-k. Cp. Lat. fu-H-do, tu-n-do, &c.
•
269. DIVISION II. Class I*
O.F..
PRES.
PAST.
P.p.
PRES.
PER p. sing.
PERF.//.
P.-.
help
halp«
holpen
helpe
healp
hulpon
holpen
holp*
delve
dalf*
dolven*
delfe
dealf
dulfon
dolfen
delve*
« This is seen by the Sansk. root bandh compared with perfect tatandtui.
* Forms marked thus (*) are obsolete.
XIII.]
STRONG VERBS.
'59
O.K.
PRES.
PAST.
P.p.
PRES.
PF.RF. sing.
PERK, pi
P.P.
melt
malt*
molten
melte
mealt
multon
molten
molt*
yield
yold*
yolden*
gilde
gcald
guidon
golden
yald*
swell
swoll*
swollen
swelle
sweal
swullen
swollen
swall*
(2)
swim
swam
swum
swimme
swamm
swummon swummer.
climb
clamb*
clomben*
climbe
clamb
clumbon
clumben
clomb*
be-gan
began
begun
on-ginne
ongann
ongunnon ongunnen
spin
spun
spun
spinne
spann
spunnon
spunnen
span*
win
wan
won
winne
wan
wunnon
wunnen
run
ran
run
rinne
ran
runnon
runnen
bind
bound
bound
yrne
binde
arn
band
urnon
bundon
urnen
bunden
find
found
found
find
fand
fundon
fuiiden
grind
ground
ground
grinde
grand
grundon
grunden
wind
wound
wound
winde
wand
wundon
wunden
slink
slunk
slunk
—
—
—
—
drink
drank
drunk
drince
dranc
dnmcon
druncen
shrink
shrank
shrunk
for-scrin<
:e -scranc
scruncon
scruncen
sink
sank
sunk
since
sane
suncon
suncen
stink
stank
stunk
stince
stanc
stuncon
stuncen
sing
sang
sung
singe
sang
sungon
sungen
spring
sprang
sprung
springe
sprang
sprungon
sprungen
sting
stang
stung
stinge
stang
stungon
stungen
swing
swung
swung
swinge
swang
swingon
swungen
wring
ring
wrung
rang
wrung
rung
wringe
hringe
wrang
hrang
wrungon
hrungon
wrungen
hrungen
cling
clang
clung
clinge
clang
clungon
dungen
ding
dang*
dungen*
—
—
—
—
dung*
(3
carve
carf*
corven*
ceorfe
cearf
curfon
corfen
starve
starf*
storven*
steorfe
stearf
sturion
storfen
worth
warth*
worthen*
weorthe
wearth
wurthon
worthen
worth*
burst
burst
burst
berste
bearst
burston
borsten
barst*
borsten*
brast*
bursten*
thrash
throsh*
throshen*
thersce
thearsc
thurscon
thorscen
(4)
fight
fought
fought
*• i . «
feohte
feaht
fuhton
fohten
foughten*
Here the root vowel was originally a, weakened to i in the pre-
sent and to u in the past pi. and p.p.
(i) To this division once belonged milk, yield, swallow,
bellow, stint, burn, mourn, spurn, ding, carve, starve, burst.
Cp. " Forth from her eyen the crystal tears out brast."
SACKVILLBS Induction.
" When Adam dnlve, and Eve span,
Who was then the gentleman?
Up start the carle and gathered good,
And thereof came the gentle blood."
BP. PILKINGTOIT (Parker Soc. p. 125).
160 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
"I waked : herewith to the house-top I clamb." — SURREY, A£n. II.
" Who willingly \aAyielden prisoner." — 16.
" The yolden ghost his mercy doth require." — SURREY'S Ecclesiastes.
"Many founden it {greyn) and throahen it."— Pilgrimage, p. 43.
"Which hath dung me down to the infernal bottom of desolation."— NASH'S
Lenten Stuff.
(2) We have many verbs with mixed strong and weak forms ;
the past tense may be weak and the p. p. strong, as, past, clomb, and
p.p. climbed ; or the past may be strong and the p.p. weak, as, past,
delved, p.p. dohen. Clemde occurs in fourteenth century English.
Swollen has almost given way to swelled.
Helped has replaced the old past, holp y1 holpen as a p.p. is
archaic, helped being now the regular form.2
(3) Sometimes a strong participle is used simply as an adjective, as
drunken, molten — "a drunken man," "molten lead ;" in Alicah
\. 4, molten is used as p. p. ; so in Elizabethan writers, sunken,
shrunken.
"And the metalle be the hete of the fire malt "— CAPCRAVE, p. 9.
" My heart is molt to see his grief so great."
SACKVILLE'S Induction.
""As gold is tried in the oven, wherein it is molten." — COVERDALE.
(4) The verbs swim, begin, run, drink, shrink, sink, ring,
sing, spring, have for their proper past tenses swam, began, ran, &c.,
preserving the original a ; but in okter writers (sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries) and in colloquial English we find forms with u,
which have come from the passive participles.3
Sometimes we actually find the past tense doing duty for the
passive participle ; thus Shakespeare has swam = swum (As You
Like ft, iv. i), drank = drunk.
(5) Many of those "forms that originally had a in the past now have
u, as spun, slunk, stunk, stung, flung, swung, wrung, clung,
and strung (a modern form). " Sche Jiang from me " (Heywood's
Proverbs, C. 4). Slang*(i Saw. xvii. 49).
1 Holp is a preterite in Shakespeare. See King yoltn, i. T : Rich. If. v. 5.
* Holfm: " He hath lw!f>en his people Israel" — Eng. Bible ; ' he half his
brother '— CAPCKAVE, p. 30; holp for lielpen is found in Shakespeare, Teiitfest,
i. 2.
3 Some grammarians have ascribed these past tenses to the pret. pi. ; but this is
hardly probable, for we do not find these forms in use in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries, i.e. sw-im for nvam in past sing. ; what we do meet with is a
change of a into o, as nvom, began, song (soong). Ben Jonson has to fling, past.
Jiang, Jl on f, p.p.Jlonf, &c.
xiii.] STRONG VERBS. 161
A few verbs have on, which has arisen out of an o or oo, as bound
= O.K. bond — band ; found = fond (foond) = fund ; ground —
grand (groond) — grand.
(6) Wound --= past of to wind (up), but winded = past tense of to
wind a horn ; but Walter Scott has "his horn he wound" (Lady
of the '
(7) Foughten occurs in Henry V. iv. 6 : cp. " a \ia.rd.-foughten
feeld " (Heywood's Proverbs, E. in). Starven p.p. is used by
Sackville : " her starven corpse " (Induction) ; " hnnger-starven "
(Hall's Satires) ; but " hunger -starved" (Gam. Gurton's Needle).
O.E.
PRES.
PAST.
P.i'.
PRES.
PERF.
(i) steal
stole
stolen
stele
sta;l '
(2) come
came
come
cume
com
(3) bear
bore
born
bere
bser
bare
borne*
shear
shore*
shorn
scere
SCSKT
tear
tore
torn
tere
tasr
(4) speak
spoke
spake
spoken
spoke*
sprece
brece
spraec
braec
270. DIVISION II. Class II.
P.p.
stolen
cumen
boren
scoren
toren
sprecen
brocen
1 i ) The old verbs quell (kill) and nim (to take, rob) once belonged
to this class.
(2) In O.E. (fourteenth century, especially in the Northern dialects)
we find the old <x represented often by a : — stal, bar, schar, tar, spac,
brae ; bare, brake, spake, are archaic ; in the Southern dialect we find
<z often changed to e, as her (beer), spec, brek.
(3) Born and Borne, though the same words, have different
meanings : borne = carried ; born = brought forth.
(4) In older writers, and sometimes in modern poetry, we find the
« falling away (as in Old English) : hence broke* = broken ; spoke
= spoken; stole* — stolen.
Shakespeare has "I have spake" (Henry VIII. ii. 4).
(5) Shakespeare, Cymbeline, v. 5, has becomed.
(6) The e in stole, &c., is no inflexion ; it merely marks the length
of the preceding vowel.
1 The prct. pi. has a long vowel, as stfclon, cw&tnon, baron, &c.
* Measure for Measure, v. i. 3 Walter Scott, Kenihtiortk.
* Milton.
M
1 62
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
271
. DIVISION
II. Class III.
O.E.
PRES.
PAST.
p.p.
PRES.
PERF.
P.P.
(i) give
weave
gave
wove
given
woven
gife
wefe
geaf
waef
gifen
wefen
(i) eat
ate
eaten
etc
•t
eten
eat
eat
get
got
gotten
ongite1
ongeat
ongeten
gat*
got
sit
sat
sat
sitte
szt
seten
seten*
tread
trod
trodden
trede
traed
treden
trod
bid
bade
bidden
bidde
feed
beden
bid
bid
—
quoth
—
cwethe
cwacth
cweden
(3)-
was
—
wese
waes
wesen
(4) wreak
ivroken*
lie
lay
lain
liege
laeg
legen
lien*
see
saw
seen
SCO
seah
ge-sen
(seohe) PRET.//. sawon
(1) Quoth, originally perfect, is now used as a present tense; the
root of the present is seen in bequeathe. The present of was is lost ;
we have parts of the verb in wast, ivere, -wert.
(2) Mete (measure), wreak,8 weigh, fret, knead, once strong,
have become weak. Cp.
" We shall not all umvroken die this day." — SURREY, jEn. ii.
(3) In O.E. (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) we find gaf and
gef, ft and eet, quoth and quod.
(4) Bid = bade, arises out of the passive participle ; bedeti —•
Hdden occurs in the fifteenth century ; so seten for sat.
Boden = bidden, invited. "It happed hym that was boden, in
lokyng on the walle to espye this ymage," &c. (Caxton's Golden
Legend, fol. cclxix. col. i). "This verb properly belongs to Class VI.
(Div. II.).3
Heywood uses the phrase " a geven horse " {Proverbs, B. ii. ).
(5) Walter Scott has'eat = ate.
(6) Gat is used by Shakespeare for got (past).
(7) The ending of the passive participle has sometimes fallen
away, as in bid = bidden; sat, the past indef., is used instead of the
old participle seten.
1 Ongite = perceive, understand.
2 Spenser has a strong p.p. -varvken (Skef>. CaL\
3 Cp. O.E. beode, bt&d, boden, to bid, order.
STRONG VERBS. ,63
Double forms of the p.p. are eaten and eaf;'1 bidden and bid;* gotten
t;3 trodden and trod;* woven and wove;5 lien* (— O.K. i-Uyc=.
— ge-legen] and lain.
272. DIVISION II. Class IV.
P.p.
standen
sworen
sea pen
hafen
grafen
scafen
hladen
wsscen
bacen
scocen
tacen
wacen
acen
dragen
gnagen
hleahhen
sleahhen
weaxen
(i) Fare, wade, ache, gnaw, wash, step, laugh,7 yell, wax,*
bake,9 have at present weak past tenses and passive participles.
Cp. " Sapience this bred turnede and book it." — Pilgrimage, p. 44.
Beuk = book occurs in Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, ii. i.
Gnew = gnawed occurs in Mirroitrfor Magistrates, vol. ii. p. 74.
" Gne"M and fretted his conscience." — TYNDALL'S Prol. to Jonas, Parker So*,
p. 456. Shakespeare has begnaivn, Tarn, of Shrew, iii. 2.
" He flay a lion." — CAPGRAVE.
" Both Jlayn and hedid " (= beheaded). — 16. Chron. p. 61.
" Zoroaster low as no child did but he." — Ib. p. 26.
" There he wesh nve, there he bathed me." — Pilgrimage, p. S.
" And in here owen blood han washen hem." — Ib.
" She . . . hejffuf hire axe to me." — Ib. p. in.
" She said her hede oke."—La Tour Landry.
1 Shakespeare, King John, i. i. 2 Milton, Paradise Lost, vii. 304.
3 English Bible. * Shakespeare, K. Richard II. ii. 2.
5 Milton, Par. Lost, ix. 839. 6 Eng. Bible and Shakespeare, now archaic.
7 Scotch has leugh — laughed (past). * Spenser has woxe, past, ivoxcn, p.p.
9 Baken = baked, p.p. in Leviticus ii. 4. " My spirit is waxen weak and
fuel ile." — Ps. Ixxvii. COVEKDALE.
M 2
O.K.
PRES.
PAST.
P.p.
PRES.
PERF.
stand
stood
stood
stande
stCd
swear
swore
sworn
swerige
swSr
shape
shope*
shapen*
scape
sc6p
heave
hove*
hoven*
hebbe
ahof
grave
grove*
graven*
grafe
gruf
shave
shove*
shaven*
scafe
sc5f
lade
—
laden
hlade
h!6d
wash
wesh*
washen*
wasce
wosc
bake
book*
baken*
bace
bdc
shake
shook
shaken
scace
scOc
forsake
forsook
forsaken
—
—
take
took
taken
tace
tCc
awake
awoke
awoke
wace
wSc
ache
ok*
oken*
ace
oc
draw
drew
drawn
drage
droh
gnaw
gnew*
gnawn*
gnage
gnoh
laugh
lough*
laughed
hleahhe
hloh
slay
slew
slain
sleahhe
sloh
wax
wex*
waxen*
weaxe
weox
wox*
I64
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
(2). (a) Strong forms have been replaced by weak ones in the past
tense of shape, grave, shave, lade, &c. Strong participles of these
are occasionally met with, as shapen (Ps. li. 5), graven (p.p. in
Byron, Childe Harold, i. ; as an adjective, in English Bible, Ex. xx.
4 ; p.p. Ps. xcvii. 7), loaden = laden (Milton, P. Lost, iv. 14 ; Bacon,
Essays). " The heavier the ship is loaden, the slower it goes "
(Bp. Pilkington, p. 208). Cp.
" And masts nnskave for haste."— SURREY, jEn. iv.
" With such weapons they shaft them to defend." — Ib. jEtt. ii.
(b} We have also double forms, a strong and a weak one, in the
past tense, as woke and waked; hove- and heaved.
(f) We sometimes in Shakespeare find forms of the past tense
employed for the p. participle, as arose (Comedy of Errors, v. i) =
arisen ; shook (King John, iv. 2 ; Othello, ii. I ; Milton, vi. 219) =
shaken ; forsook (Otfiello, iv. 2) = forsaken • took (Twelfth Night,
iv. 2; Julius Casar, ii. i) = taken ; mistook (Jnliits Ctesar, i. 2 ;
Milton, Arcades) = mistaken; shaked, too, occurs tor shaken (Ps. cix.
25 ; Troilus and Cressida, i. 3 ; Henry V. ii. I ; Tempest, ii. i).
(3) Stood, p.p. is properly a past tense ; the old p.p. = standen.
Cp. the p.p. understanden and understand.
"Have I understand thy mind?" — COVERDAJ.E, p. 457.
(4) Sware occurs in Mark vi. 23, Titus Andronicus, iv. I ; but
the a is not original, but probably has come in through false analogy
with spake, bare, &C.
273. DIVISION II. Class V.
O.E.
PRFS,
PAST.
- P.P.
PRES.
PERF. sing.
PERF.//.
P.P.
(i) shine
shone
shone
seine
scan
scinon
scinen
(2) drive
drove
driven
drife
dt&f
drifon
drifen
shrive
thrive
shrove
throve
shriven
thriven
scrife
gescraf
gescrifon
gescrifen
rive
rove*
riven
—
—
(3) bite
bot*
bitten
bite
bat
biton
biten
smite
smote
smitten
smite
smat
smiton
smiten
write
wrote
written
write
wrat
writon
writen
a-bide
abode
abiden*
hide
bad
bidon
biden
chide
chode*
chid
chidden
cick
cad
cidon
ciden
ride
rode
ridden
ride
rad
ridon
riden
•lide
slode"
i&d
si id den 1
slid /
Sslide
aslfid
aslidon
asiiden
XIII.]
STROAJG VERBS.
165
O.E.
PRES.
stride
PAST.
strode
P.p.
stridden
PRES.
strithe
PERF. sing.
strath
PERF. J>1.
strithon
P.p.
strithen
writhe 1
wreathe f
writhed
writhen*
writhe
wrath
writhon
writhen
rise
rose
risen
a-rise
aras
arisen
arisen
arise
arose
arisen
strike1
struck
struck
strice
strac
stricon
stricen
stricken
(1) Gripe (= grasp), spew, slit, wreathe (writhe), sigh, rive,
once belonged to this class, but have become weak : riven is used
as an adjective.
(2) Most of these verbs have changed the & of the past into o, as
shone, drove, &c.
The older fonns sometimes occur, as drave (in English Bible and
Shakespeare), smate, &c. " Absalom drave him out of his king-
dom" (Coverdale); " stroke me with thunder" (Surrey, ./£'«. ii. );
" he with his hands strove to unloose the knots " (Ib. ).
(3) Just as we found sung — sang, swum =• swam, properly par-
ticipial forms, so we find, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
driv = drove, smit = smote, rid = rode, ris = rose, writ = wrote.
Cp. bit for O.E. hot, boot.
(4) Shortened forms of the participles occur, as writ = written
(Twelfth Night, v. i ; Richard II. ii. i), smit = smitten, chid =
chidden, slid = slidden.
Chid, O.E. ctdde, chidde, is a weak form: "the eldest chidde
with the knight" (La Tour Landry, p. IQ).2
(5) Past tenses are also used for the participles, as drove = driven
(2 Henry VI. iii. 2), rode = ridden (Henry IV. v. 3 ; Henry V.
iv. 3), smote = smitten (Coriolanus, iii. i), wrote = written (Lear,
i. 2 ; Cymbeline, iii. 5), arose = arisen (Comedy of Errors, v. i).
(6) Weak forms of the passive participle arc rived (Julius
Ccesar, i. 3), strived (Rom. xv. 20), shrived (A'inj John, ii. 4).
(7) In shone for shinen, abode for abiden, struck for stricken,
we have the substitute of the past tense for the p. participle.
(8) For stricken and driven we sometimes find strucken (Milton,
ix. 1064; Julius Casar, iii. i) ; "the clock hafh strooken four"
1 Orm. has strike, strac, as in modern English ; in the oldest English strict =
I go.
2 Chode occurs in the Bible (Gen. xxxi. 36, Numbers xx. 3). Chide, p.p. in
Shakespeare.
1 66 ENGLISH A CCIDENCE. [c HAP.
(Lodge's A Looking-glass for London) ; droven = driven (Antony
and Cleopatra, iv. 7).
(9) Shined — shone (Ezek. xliii. 2). Shinde occurs in the fourteenth
century.
(10) Wreathen, as adjective, occurs in Timon of Athens, iii. 2,
" that sorrow -wreathen root ;" " wreathen cables" (Surrey, sEn. iv.).
It occurs in The Newfounde World as a p.p. : " out of which may
\xturong or writheti water." Abiden occurs in the Knglish Bible.
" He had bid" — abiden — endured (Sidney's Arcadia}.
274. DIVISION II. Class IV.
O.K.
PRES. PAST. P.p. PRES. PERF. */«£•. PERF.//. P.p.
creep crop* cropen* creope creap crupon cropen
shove shof* shaven* sceofe sceaf scufon scol'en
cleave clave* cloven cleofe cleaf clufon clofen
clove
shoot shot shotten* sceote sreat scuton scoten
seethe sodden seothe seuth sudon soden
sod
choose chase* chosen ceose ceas curon coren
chose
freeze froze frozen freose freas fruron froren
lose lost losen* forleose forleas forluron forloren
suck sook* soken* suce seac sucon socen
fly flew flown fieoee > a .u a
flee flew* - fleohe / fleah fluSon floSen
(1) Many verbs belonging to this class have become weak, as
creep,1 cleave, seethe, lose, chew, rue, brew, dive, shove, slip,
lot, fleet, reek, smoke, bow, suck, lock. Cp.
" She sJwf me with hire knyf."- Pilgrimage, p. 132.
" Shaven on thilke spere." — Ib. p. 130.
" Ther sook^ never noon suich milk."— Ib, p. 205.
(2) Creep, cleave, bereave, flee, lose, shoot, shorten the long
vowel of the present in the weak form of their past tenses.
(3) Clave and cloven occur in the English Bible (Genesis xx. 3,
Ps. Ixxviii. 15, Acts ii. 3) ; cleft, p.p., in Altcah i. 4 (cp., too, a "cleft
palate," but a "cloven foot"); chase in Surrey's poems;2 shotten
1 Cp. Scotch craft (Gentle Shepherd, v. i).
9 "S'uluu for love, Surrey for lord thou chase." — P. 92 (Bell's edition).
STRONG VERBS. ,67
occurs in sJwtten herring (i Henry IV.} = a herring that has
deposited its roe ; forlorn (Milton, Paradise Lost, ii. 6—15) = for-
losen.'i Milton has frore, Spenser frorne = frozen ; froze = frozen
occurs in Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV. i. i. Sodden occurs in English
Bible; cp.
" Twice J<x/simplicity." — Love's Labours Lost, iv. 2.
" Sodden water." — S. ROWLANDS.
" Beer he protests is sodded and. refined."— /£.
" With rost or sod." — 16.
(4) Cleave, O.E. difian, to cling to, adhere to. This is properly
a weak verb, and its past tense is cleaved ; yet clave is sometimes
found {Ruth i. 14 ; Acts xvii. 34).
(5) Flee has a weak past tense and p.p.,^/fe/.
275. Some verbs that have now a strong past tense, or p.p., were
once weak, as —
PRFS.
PAST.
P.p.
(i) wear
wore
worn
ware *
(2) stick
stuck
stuck
stack*
(3) betide
betid1
betid
(4) dig
dug
dug
digged*
digged*
(5) hide
hid
hidden
hid
(6) spit
spit*
spitten*
spat*
spitted*
spat
(7) show
shown
shewed
showed
Stack = stuck is used by
Surrey :
" Which he refused and stack to his intent.
"—Virgil, ii. (ed. Bell), p 170.
1 " With gastly lookes as one in manner &rw."— SACKVILLE, Induction, St. 78.
Forlore (cp.Jrore) : " Thou hadst not spent thy travail thus, nor all thy pain
forlore."— SURREY (ed. Bell1, p. 80.
* Betid and spat are only apparently weak ; in O. E. we find Ic-iLi-de, spatie.
,68 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
WEAK VERBS.
276. The verbs of the strong conjugation we have seen form the
past tense by a change of the root-vowel ; weak verbs by means
of a suffix -d or -/.
This suffix is a mutilated form of the auxiliary verb dos
In O.E. the perfect of do was di-</r, in O.Sax. deda. In O.E.
the suffix of the perfect of weak verbs was -de; in Goth, and O.
Sax. -da. In the plural (Gothic) it has a longer fona.—dedum : thus
from Goth, nasian, O.E. nerian, to save, was formed. Goth.
nasi-da? I saved; nasi-dedum, we saved. O.E. nfre-de, I saved;
nere-don, we savei
277. The suffix -de was originally united to the root by means of a
vowel e or a,3 as O.E. ner-e-de — saved ; luf-o-de = loved.
In Gothic and Old High German there were three conjugations of weak verbs,
according to the vowel that was between the root and suffix of the perfect: —
(1) The first conjug. had i, as Goth, nas-i-da, O.H.Ger. ner-ita, O.E.
ner-e-de = preserved.
(2) The second conjug. had 6, as Goth, satt-o-da, O.H.Ger. siclp-t-ta, O.E
sealf-o-de = anointed.
(3) The third conjug. had ai Goth., e O.H.Ger. Goth, hab-ai-da, O.H.Ger
hap-t-ta, wanting in O.E.
278. The oldest English had two conjugations of weak verbs —
(1) With vowel e between root and suffix.
(2) ,, ,, o „ ,, „
279. Modern English has in reality only one class with vowel e
between root and suffix.
In thank-e-d, past indef. , thank = root ; e = connecting vowel ; and -d = con-
tracted form of did.
In thank-e-d, p.p. thank = root ; e = connecting vowel ; d = participle suffix
cognate with Gothic -da(t), Lat. -/«(«) (= to-s), Gr. -to(s), Sansk. -td(s).4
(i) This t, however, is only preserved when the suffix d is to be
united to a root ending in a dental, as wett-e-d, head-e-d, waft-e-d.
1 Cp. Gr. pass.- first aorist l-rvf-9-tiv, where the tense suffix is the On ('— O. E. de)
of ri-Vn-ni.
3 Represents a more original nasi-dida.
3 This e or o is represented in Sanskrit by the suffix -aya, which appears in
Gothic Aakai-da = O.E. haf-de = ha-d.
* This termination is evidently an old demonstrative, like -en (= no) of strong
verbs ; hence the passive participle denotes possession, having properties of, as
thojtldtf'd, having shoulders.
xiii.] WEAK VERBS. 160
In all other cases, though we write ed, we drop the e in pronun-
ciation, and loved, praised, &c., are pronounced as lorid, praifd, &c.
If the verb ends in a flat consonant or a vowel, ed has the sound
of a ; if in a sharp consonant, it has the sound of f.
(a) There are some orthographical variations — (i) the change of> (not preceded
by another vowel) into z before the addition of ed, as carry, carried; (2) doubling
of a simple consonant after a short vowel before ed is added, as beg, begg-ed,
•wet, -wett-ed.
T is sometimes written for d, especially in older writers, after combination of
consonants, as smell, smelt ; fnss, fast; burn, burnt. We also meet with it after
p and k, as whipt, draft, knockt.
(b) The loss of the final e (of O.E. -ed-e) no longer enables us to distinguish the
past tense from the passive participle.
(2) Before the addition of the suffix d the radical vowel is
shortened, as hear, heard ; flee, fled?-
(3) If a root ends in d, the suffix d is dropped and the radical
vowel, if long, is shortened, as —
PRES. PAST. P.p.
lead led led2
feed fed fed
read read read
spread spread spread
(4) t has replaced d in some verbs ending —
(a) In -/ (to indicate more clearly that the radical vowel is
shortened), as
feel felt felt
deal dealt dealt
((>) In a combination of liquids, as —
smell smelt smelt
burn burnt burnt
(5) Sometimes d and t are found side by side, as —
mean
meant
meant
meaned
meaned
dream
dreamt
dreamt
dreamed
dreamed
In O.E. these verbs retain the fuller form, as
herde (perfect), herd
fledde „ fled
O.E. Itrde; lad-de ; lad-ed: later forms, lede ; ledde (lad*/*) ; tied, ilad.
170 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(•5) t replaces d after/, /, v, ch, s, and the radical vowel, if long,
is shortened, as —
PRES. PAST. P.P.
creep crept crept
sleep slept slept
weep wept wept
cleave cleft cleft
pitch pitched pitched
pight* pight*
lose lost lost
Elizabethan writers have the following old forms : —
blench blent blent
drench dreynt dreynt
ming (mingle) meynt meynt
Chaucer and other writers of his time have —
singe seynde seynd
sprenge (sprinkle) spreynte spreynd, spreynt
quenche queynt queynt
clenche (clinch) cleynte cleynt
(7) Verbs ending in Id, nd, rd, change the d into t in the past
tense and passive participle, and the suffix disappears, as —
build built (builded) built 1 (builded)
gild gilt (gilded) gilt (gilded)
bend bent bent (bended)*
rend rent rent
gird girt girt
(8) The suffix d is dropped after d, t, the combination st, rf, ft,
and the present, past, and passive participles have the same
form, as —
rid . rid rid
shred shred shred
cut cut cut
light . light light
put put put
shut shut shut
cast cast cast
left left left
hurt hurt hurt
' We meet with this change in the fourteenth century. In the earlier periods
we find bnlilt = built, in which the d has dropt or become assimilated to the root.
2 These forms have different meanings, as " He was bent upon mischief." " Cn
bended knees."
xai.j WEAK VERBS. 171
Some of these verbs have the regular form, as lighted, quitted, £c.,
and in O.E. of the fourteenth century we find cutted, putted.
(9) Vowel change with the addition of (a) d, (b) t — '
O.E.
PRES. PAST. P.p. PRES. PERF. P.p.
tealde teald*
sealde seald
rohte roht
(a) tell
told
told
telle
sell
sold
sold
selle
(b) reck
rought*
rought*
rece
reach
raught*
raught* 2
seek
sought
sought
sece
teach
taught
taught
tjece
stretch
stretched
stretched
strecce
s<5hte soht
taehte fceht
streahc Jtreaht
straught*
The t for d in sought, &c., is due to the fact that the c is a sharp
guttural, so was the ch in teach, reach, &c. ; the guttural afterwards
passed into a continuous mute on account of the following /.
280. Catch, caught, caught, does not occur in the oldest
English ; in Laoamon we find cacche, cahte, caht. This verb has
conformed to the past tense of teach, &c.
Analogous to the above forms we find fraught (adj. ), as well as
freighted ; distraught and distracted.
" His head dismember'd from his mangled corpse,
Herself she cast into a vessel fraught
With clotter'd blood." — SACKVILLE'S Duke of Buckingham.
" And forth we launch full fraughted to the brink." — Induction.
281. The following verbs are peculiarly formed —
PRES. PAST. P.P.
(i) clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad
In the oldest English d&tliian — to clothe ; perf. cldthode, p.p.
clathod.
In the thirteenth and following centuries we find clothien, cletken,
to clothe; perf. clethed, clothed, znAclaii, cled ; p.p. clothed, clad.
Clad seems to have arisen out of analogy with such O. E. forms as
ladde — led, radde = read.3
1 The change of vowels in these verbs is explained by the fact that they have
all lost a suffix i (= ya. — aya\ which influenced the original sounds a ard o of
the stems ; and in the perfects and p. participles we have a return to the original
a or o sound : thus O.E. seilan, to sell, represents a primitive seliaii Goth, saljan ;
loss of i causes the doubling of the consonant in S'-ll:in.
2 Intt his arms a hie he rang/it." — SUKKEV.
3 Cletk-d- — cledde = cladde — dad.
1 72 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
PRES. PAST. P.P.
(2) make made made
O.E. mace macode macod
The loss of k occurs as early as the thirteenth century.
(3) Have, had, had; O.E. habbe, hafde, hatfid.
In later periods we have, in the past tense, hcefde, hedde, hadde ;
in p. p. ihaved, ihafd, yhad.
(4) Say, said, said; O.E. secge, sergde (sezde), scegd (sad).
Lay, laid, laid; O.E. lecge, legede (tide), Ifged, led.
In say, lay (= O.E. seye, leye), y is a softening of eg.
(5) Bring, brought, brought ; O.E. brings, brohte, broht.
In the oldest English we also find bring, brang, brungtn, from
which we see that the root is brang = brag.
(6) Buy, bought, bought; O.E. bycge, bohte, boht.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to buy = buggen ; so y
represents g, which appears again in the past tense.
(7) Think, thought, thought; O.E. thence, th&hte, th6ht.
The root of this verb is thak : cp. Goth, tagkja, I think (= (Aa-n-
kia) ; cp. ga-n-ge, sta-n-d, &c.
(8) Methinks,1 methought, methought ; O.E. ihyncth, th&hie,
gethuht.
(9) Work, wrought, wrought; O.E. wyrce, tvorhte, worht.
The * in O.E. wyr&etizs been changed under the influence of the
w to (i) «, (2) o ; cp. O.E. wurchen and worchen, to work.
Wrought is archaic, but in poetical composition is common ;
worked is quite a modem form.
Went was originally the past tense of wend, O.E. tvcndan, to turn,
go ; it replaced O.E. eo-de, *>ede, yode.
VERBAL INFLEXIONS.
282. The elements in the verb are (i) the root ; (2) mood suffixes ;
(3) tense suffixes ; (4) the person-endings (the mood and tense
suffixes come before the person-endings) ; (5) connecting vowel
between root and suffixes.
1 Cp. German dtnken — to think ; diinken = to seem.
Xiii.] VERBAL INFLEXIONS. 173
In the Aryan dialects the original person-endings were pronouns, which in their
full form were for (a) the singular :— (i) Ma, (2) t-va, (3) ta : these were weakened
to (i) mi, (2) it, (3) ti; and ti of the second person became further weakened
to si.
(b) The plural suffixes are compounds: (i)ntas (= ma-si), (2) tas (= ta-si), (3) ait-
ti ; ma-si = I + thou = we ; ta-si = thou + thou = ye ; ati-ti1 — he + he =
they.
The subjunctive (or conjunctive) in the Teutonic dialects was originally an
optative mood, the original suffix of which was.y« —go. In Gothic this suffix was
weakened to i in present subj. and became/a in perfect subj.
The Sansk. subj. of root, as, to be (Eng. a-m), s-ya-m (=• as-ya-m), Gr. tin"
(= e<7-7»]-/i), Lat. sim (= es-ie-nt), O.E. sy (— ns-y — as-ya-»i).
Of the mode of forming tense we have already spoken. See §§ 264, 267.
283. (i) PRESENT INDICATIVE.
In some verbs the person-endings were added at once to the root without any
connective vowel, as in the verbs go and do : —
Go, O.E., sing., ga, g^st, gd-th = go,goest(=go-tt),goeth,goes (=gos\.
pi. ga-tk, gath, ga-th = go, go, go.
Do, O.E., sing., do-in, de-st, dS-th — do, do-st, do-th (does).
pi. do-th, d6-tht do-th = do, do, do.
In other verbs a connecting vowel came in between the root and the suffixes ;
this often disappears in modern English : —
Goth. O.E.
Singular, i bair-a, ber-e =t bear.
3 bair-i-th fa^-ffy =bear-e-th(bear-s}.
Plural, i bair-a-m, ber-a-th = bear.
2 bair'i-th, ber-a-th = bear.
3 bair-a-nd, ber-a-th = bear.
In the Old English dialect! (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) we find in the
Southern. Midland. Northern.
1 ber-eth, ber-en, bere (her).
2 ber-eth, ber-en, beres (bers).
3 ber-eth, ber-en, beres (bers).
i An = ana-s, this, that, he (Sansk.).
* In O. H. Ger. we have older forms : —
Sing. i gS-m Pl**> g!-mM
2 ga-s
3 ia-t
17 \ ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
The Gothic bair-a, O. E. ber-e, stand for more primitive forms, bair-a-m, ber-e-tn ;
but the m having disappeared in the oldest forms of these languages, the connect-
ing vowel represents the person-ending.
In Chaucer this e was a distinct syllable, as " I drede nought that eyther thou
shalt die," &c. In modern English it has wholly disappeared ; in the plural the
connecting vowel and suffixes are lost.
In O.E. (as in Lasamon) we find / (= ye = ya = aya) the connecting vowel in
the infir.itive, as lov-i-en, lav-i-e, &c. and in the present indie, as Jck lov-i-e, &c.
It is still heard in infinitives in the South of England, as to milky, to ntowy, &c.
Many strong verbs lost this suffix i and doubled the final consonant, as O.E.
(i) title, (-2) sit-est, (3) sit-eth = < i) sit, (2) sittest, (3) sitteth.
The silent e in some few verbs like hav-r, liv-e, which adds nothing now to the
length of the preceding vowel, was once sounded.
284. (2) PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
This mood originally had a tense suffix which came between the connecting
rowel and the personal ending. *
Goth. O.E. Eng.
Singular, i bair-a-n, ber-e = bear.
2 bair-a-i-s, ber-e = bear.
3 bair-a-i, ber-e = bear.
Plural, i bair-a-i-ma, ber-en = bear.
Singular, i s6k-ja-u, sfc-e — seek.
&c. &c. &c.
285. (3) PAST INDICATIVE.
Strong verbs in O.E. lost their connecting vowel, as : —
Goth. O.E.
Singular, i hai-hald = keold = held.
2 hai-hals-t = lieold-e = heldest.
3 hai-hald = heold = held.
Plural, i kat-Jia^ttim — heold-on = held.
286. Weak verbs added the syllable -de (-/e) to the root ; in O.E. the con-
necting vowel was lost in some verbs (see §§ 277 — 279).
Goth. O.E.
Singular, i s6k-i-da = soh-te — sough-t.
2 stk-i-dts* — soh-test — sough-t.
3 sfk-i-da = soh-te = sough-t.
Plural, i sok-i-dldti-n: = soh-to-n =• sough-t.
&c. &c. &c.
The O.E. e— a -f *.
* ITiis -des may be for -tieti-t; in the Teutonic livnsrtiages when a dental is addcj
to another dental the first becomes f, as tvit-tf = wist, tiiot-te = moste = must.
xui.] VERBAL INFLEXIONS. 175
287. In the fourteenth century we find the second person-ending -e of strong
verbs sometimes changed to e*t, as t/ion gave and tkou gavest (in Wickliffc we find
holpedist). The old plural -nn, -on, became -en, and the « frequently falls away
so we have held-en and helde, &c. In modern English the older endings have
all disappeared.
288. (4) PAST SUBJUNCTIVE.
In strong verbs the connecting vowel was e =ya, as : —
Goth. O.E. Eng.
Singular, i ter-ja-u = b&r-e = bore.
2 bcr-ci-s = b&r-e = bore.
3 btr-i =; b&r-e — bore.
Plural, i ber-ei-ma = bar-e-n = bore.
&c. &c. &c.
In some weak verbs it is lost : —
Singular, i stk-i-did-jct-u = sdh-te = sough-t
2 sdk-i-ded-ei-s = s6h-te = sough-t.
3 s6k-i-ded-i = sdh-te = sough-t.
Plural, i sok-i-dcd-ti-ma = sdh-ton = sough-t.
In Gothic pi. we see, (i) sok root, (2) i connecting vowel, (3) ded tense suffix,
(4)_/« mood suffix, (5) u = um — mi(tna) personal suffix.
288*. The IMPERATIVE is properly no mood, but is merely the root + a
personal pronoun in the vocative.
In O. E. the imperative plural ended in -th, as go-eth (= gA-tK), go ye ; ber-etk
(=: ber-atX), bear ye.
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
289. (i) The suffix of the first person was originally m, as in a-m.
In O. E. we have, gedo-m, I do ; beam, I be ; geseam, I see.
In the Northern dialect of the-oldest period we find m weakened to « in perfect
as Ic giherduii, I heard.
(2) The suffix of the second person was originally s (= si = ti =
fa = tvd). In O.E. we sometimes find s for stt as thou /iafes = thou
hast, which is the regular inflexion of the Northern dialects in the
fourteenth century ; but the ordinary person-ending is st.
This termination is subject to certain orthographical modifications : —
(a.) After a final e -st is added, as love-st.
(b) Y (not diphthongal) is changed to i before st, as criest.
(c) In verbs of one syllable with a short vowel, the final consonant is <
as beggest, pitttcst.
(it) After a sibilant, palatal (s, ch), est is added, as bless-est, teadi-est, &c.
I76 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
In the strong perfects in O.E. the pronoun si ( = tva) becomes fl
(O.Sax. -*' ; Goth. -/). We have replaced this by at. (See § 282.)
In weak verbs the ending is -st ; but we often find s in O. E. as
thu brohtes, thu sealdes, &c.
The subjunctive mood has lost the personal suffix -st.
(3) The suffix of the third person is -th (= fa = that, he). This
as early as the eleventh century was softened to s. We have two
forms ; s in common use, th archaic and still used in poetry.
The verbal suffix 8 is subject to the same euphonic changes as the plural • of
substantives.
The plural suffixes (i) -ma-si, (2) -fa-si, (3) -an-ti are in O.E.
reduced to one for all three persons. (See § 283. )
Spenser and Shakespeare have a few examples of the plural -en?
as " they marchen " (Spenser, i. 4, 37). Cp.
" And then the whole quire hold their hips and laugh,
And taeuceti in their mirth." — Midsummer Nighfs Dream, ii. i.
" For either they [women] be full of jealousy,
Or masterful!, or loven novelty."
BURTON'S Anatomy of Mel. p. 604.
It was archaic in Spenser's time, and is seldom used by Hawes or
Sackville.
In O.E. when the pronoun followed the verb the inflexion was dropped, as fa
£*, yego.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
290. (i) The infinitive is simply an abstract noun. In O.E. the
sign of the infinitive was the suffix -an, corresponding to Sanskrit
nouns in ana, as gam-ana-m, from gam,* to go.
(2) In Sanskrit the dative and locative singular of these abstract nouns (asgam-
an-djra, dat. ; gamant, loc. , were used as inhnitives. In Greek we have this suffix
in-evtii, -vni, tiv (XeXoiir-f vai, iioo-rai, rvjrr-av).
In Gothic the infinitive (-ana) lost its case sign and the suffix a, and therefore
always ends in -an ; in Frisian and Old Norse it is shortened to -a; in Dutch
and German it is -en.
(3) In the twelfth and following centuries the an was represented
by en or e, as breken and breke — to break.
1 It is omitted in the Northern dialects of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries.
9 " In former times, till about the reign of Henry the Eighth, they (the persons
of the plural) were wont to be formed by adding -en, but now, whatsoever the cause,
it hath quite grown out of use." — BEN JONSON.
3 In fam-atn-m the m is merely a neuter suffix.
xiii. J INFINITIVE MOOD. 177
In Wickliffe the suffix is for the most part e ; in Chaucer and Piers
Plowman we find -en and -e. When this e became silent the infinitive
was only distinguished by the preposition to,1 which is not found
before the simple infinitive until about the end of the twelfth century.
" No devel shall 3ow dere." — Pass. vii. 1. 34.
" Shall no devel at h'.s ded-day deren hym a mySte."— Ib. vii. 1. 50.
" To bakbite and to bosten and be re fals witnesse." — Ib. ii. 1. 80.
Spenser and Shakespeare have an archaic use of it, as " to kitten''
(Pericles].
" Henceforth his ghost . . .
In peace may^assen over Lethe lake." — F. Q. I. iii. 36.
In Hall's Satires we find " to deken low," p. 51.
(4) The infinitive had a dative form expressed by the suffix e,2 and
governed by the preposition to.
This is sometimes called the gerundial infinitive : it is also equiva-
lent to Lat. supines ; as, etanne, to eat ; faranne, to fare, go.
(5) In the twelfth century we find this ending -enne (anne), confounded with
the participial ending -ende (inde),1 as : —
" The synfulle [man fasteth] jor to clenstn him, the rihtwise for to -witiende
his nhtwisnesse." — O.E. Horn., Second Series, p. 57.
In the fourteenth century, we find " to mitinge" = to wit ; " to seethinge" = to
be sodden (WICKLIFFE, Text A.),* the participle -ende (-inde) having taken also
the form -inge. Cp. ''This nySte that is to comyng" (Tale of Beryn, 1. 347).
In the fifteenth and following centuries these forms dropt out of use.
(6) The extract given above shows that the dative infinitive assumed
the form of the simple infinitive as early as the twelfth century.
In the Ormulum there is only one suffix -en for both infinitives.
We find a trace of this dative infinitive in Sackville —
" The soil, that erst so seemly was to seen,
Was all despoiled of her beauty's hue. "—Induction.
" And with a ?igh, he ceased
To tellen forth the treachery and the trains." — Duke of Buckingham.
291. Because the suffix -ing represents (i) -ungin verbal substantives, as shmo-^
ing (O.E. sceawung) ; (2) -ende or -inde in present participles, as -< he is coming,"
"he was coming " (O.E. he is cutnende, he wjes ciimeiide), and sometimes repre-
sented the dative infinitive -enne (rarely the simple infinitive -=•«) : English gram-
marians have of late years put forth a theory concerning the infinitive, which is
neither supported by O.E. usage nor is in accordance with the general direction of
changes that have taken place in regard to these suffixes.
1 Cp./or to; the for is, of course, pleonastic, but, no doubt, was used to dis-
tinguish it from the simple infin. with to before it.
* The » is always doubled before the addition of this on the oldest English. In
later times -enne, -anne became -ene, then -en or -e.
We have traces of -ene as late as the middle of the fourteenth century.
3 So in the oldest English occasionally.
4 Cp. " And the dragoun stood before the womman that was to bennge chind . . .
And she childede a sone male, that was to reulinge alle folk.es." — WICXLIFF*.
N
178 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(1) It is said that the infinitive in -tn has become -ing in such phrases as,
" seeing is believing"1 = to see is to believe. We know, however, (a) that the
suffix -fa disappeared in the sixteenth and following centuries, and (£)that it rarely
in O.E. writers became -inge or -inf.'
It is quite evident that although, in sense, seeing and believing are equivalent to
infinitives, they are not so in form, but merely represent old English substantive
in -ung.
Cp. "The giving a bookseller his price for his book has this advantage." —
SELDEN'S Table Talk. " Quoting- of Authors is most for matter of fact." — Ib.
Such a phrase as " it is hard to heal an old sore " may be converted into " it is
hard healing an old sore ;" but tracing phrases of this kind only as far back as the
sixteenth century, we find that a preposition has disappeared after the verbal
substantive, as : — " it is yll healyng of an olde sore " (HEVWOOD'S Proverbs), and
" it is evill waking ol a sleeping hog " (Ib.).
(2) It is asserted that the O.E. infinitive in -enne actually exists under the form
-ing in such expressions as " fA/or teaching" " fond of learning;" &c.
In these cases we have merely the verbal nouns governed by a preposition doing
duty for the old dative infinitive, and altogether replacing it.
We have seen, too, that the old infinitive in -ing, as to •witinge, &c. died out
•bout the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century.
(3) These forms in -ing are no doubt very perplexing, and we find even Max
Muller thrown off his guard by them. He says, " The vulgar or dialectic expres-
sion ' /«• is a going ' is far more correct than 'he is going.'" If so, "he it'tis a
going," &c. must be more correct than "he was going;" but on turning to
similar expressions in O.E. writers we find "he is gangende" and "he was gan-
gende" used to translate Latin present and imperfect tenses ; but never "he is
on gangling," he is a going. 3 Compare
" The thyef is comynde." — A'benbite, p. 264.
" That Israelisshe folc was tvalkenJe."
O.E. Horn., Second Series, p. 51.
1 Mr. Abbott quotes "Returning were as tedious as (to) go o'er."— /Wp. iii. 4.
This form is also used as object : —
" If all fear'd (frowning that spy waves ashore,
Gold would grow rich, and all the merchants poor."
TOURNEUR, The Revenger's Tragedy.
* In the Romance of Partenay, written about the beginning of the sixteenth
century, or the latter part of the fifteenth, we find instances of infinitives in -ing
for -en after an auxiliary verb (which we never get in modern English), but we
can draw no conclusions. from the exceptional usage of so late a work : —
" Our lorde will receyve hym of hys grace,
And off all hys syn yeuyng hym pardon " — (1. 1528).
" And fthey] shall
Enlesmg [= lesen] the Rewme and also the land"— (1. 5625).
We also find in this work passive participles of strong verbs in -ing, -yng,
instead of -tn, as hiking = taken. In Elizabethan writers we find loading —
laden = laden, and beholding = beholden. Shakespeare (i Hen. IV.) has
Htoulten = moulting!
3 In the dramatists of a much later period we find it, as —
" Your father is a going, good old man." — SHIRLEY'S Brothers.
The a in these expressions was used before verbal substantives beginning with
a consonant, and is a shortened form of an which was used before vowels ; an
is mere y a dialectical form of on. (Cp. " Now off, now an."— WYATT'S Poems,
cd. Bell, p. 136.)
xiii.] INFINITIVE AND VERBAL NOUNS. 179
292. In O.E. writers after the Conquest we find the verbal noun with en, am,
in,1 a, employed (i) after verbs of motion, as "he wente on hunting," "he fell
on sleeping, &c.
(2) After the verbs if, -was, to form present and imperfect tenses, with pasiive
signification, as " the churche was in byldynge " (RouT. OF BKUNNE'S Chronicles,
i. cxcvii.), " as this was a doyng" (Morte d' Arthur, lib. II. c. viii.), " he rode
in huntings" (Gest. Knm.) Ben Jonson retains these expressions, and states
that they have the force of gerunds.
Cp. "I saw great peeces of ordinance makyng." — CORYAT'S Crudities.
" Women are angels, •wooing (= in wooing)." — Tr. andCr. i. 2.
(3) The verbal substantive with a could be used after the verb be where no time
was indicated, as " he is long a rising" = " he is long in rising."
In O.E. we could substitute an abstract noun with a different suffix, as " hf
wente forth an huntcth "3 — he went forth on hunting (or a hunting).
About the beginning of the eighteenth century we find the a frequently omitted,
and it is now only allowed as a colloquialism.
(4) After verbs of motion the verbal subst. is not only preceded by on, an, a,
but by to * and of.
" If two fall to scuffling, one tears the other's band." — SELDEN'S Table Talk.
" A dog had been at market to buy a shoulder of mutton ; coming home he met
two dogs by the way that quarrell'd with him ; he laid down his shoulder of
mutton, and fell to fighting (•= a fighting) with one of them ; in the meantime
the other dog fell ta eating (an eating) his mutton ; he seeing that, left the dog he
was fighting with, and fell upon him that was eating ; then the other dog fell to
eat*' (— an eating') ; when he perceived there was no remedy, but which of them
soever he fought withal, his mutton was in danger ; he thought he would have as
much of it as he could, and, therefore, gave over fighting, and fell to eating
himself."— Ib.
(5) We usually abridge sentences containing the verbal substantive, so that it
looks like a gerund, as " For the repealing of my banished orot/ier,"S can now
be expressed by " For repealing my banished brother."
Cp. " Up peyn of losing of a finger" = upon pain of losing a finger.— CAP-
GRAVE'S Chron. p. 195.
1 The infinitive sometimes replaces it in Shakespeare, as —
" Eleven hours I spent to write it o'er." — Rich. III. iii. 6.
Here, " to write " is equivalent to " in writing-."
2 See Marsh's Lectures on the English Language (ed. Smith), pp. 462, 472.
In all the instances quoted by Marsh, the subject of the sentence preceding the
verbal noun represents an inanimate object.
3 Old and New Test, in Vernon MS.
4 Nash I Peter Penniless) has "fall a retayling" In Gammer Gurton t NeedU
we have " Hodge fell of s^vearing."
5 Quoted by Mr. Abbott, from' ?ul. Ctrsar, iii. i, who says that the expressions
common in O.E. began to be regarded as colloquial in Shakespeare's tune. Co.
Touchstone's words in As You Like It, ii. 4 : —
" I remember the kissing of her battes,
. . and the wooing of a peas-cod instead of her.
i8o
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
PRESENT (OR ACTIVE) PARTICIPLE.
293. The present participle is formed by the suffix -ing, which has
replaced the O.E. -tnde(end); -inde, -ande (and),1 as O.E. gd-nd,
d$-nd = going, doing ; comende, zvepinde, rydande, &c.
The suffix -ing arises out of -inde, and took place first in the
Southern dialect during the twelfth century, though the older form
did not die out until after 1340.
LaSamon has " goinde ne ridinge."
The Northern dialects carefully distinguished (as did the Lowland
Scotch dialect up to a very late period) the participle in -and from
the noun in -ing (O.E. -ung) :
" Than es our birthe here bygynnyng
Of the dede that es our endyng ;
For ay the mare that we wax aide
The mare our lif may be ded talde.
Tharfor whylles we er here lyffand
Ilk day er we thos dyhand."— HAMPOLE, P. of C. p. 58.
Ben Jonspn's Sad Shepherd contains some passages written in imitation of the
Northern dialect, and in it he makes use of the participle in and. " Twa trilland
brooks" (act ii. 2), "a stinkand\>roc\<.," " pleasand things," " while I sat whyrl-
and of my brazen spindle," " barkand parish tykes," &c. — Ib.
Chaucer rarely uses the participle in and; he has several instances of Norman-
French participles, as sufficant, consentant, &c.
Spenser has glitterand, trenchand, but his use of them is archaic.
For Passive Participles, see p. 155, § 263, p. 168, § 279.
ANOMALOUS VERBS.
294. Be. — The conjugation of this verb contains three distinct
roots — (i) as, (2) be (bu), (3) was.
Present Indicative ...
Sing.
i
am
2
art
3
is
PL
Subjunctive
Sing.
be
be
be
PL
Past Indicative
Sing.
•
was
wast
(wert)
was
PI.
Subjunctive
Sing.
were
were
were
PI.
are
be
were
were
Infinitive,
be
1 Imperative,
be
Pres. Part,
being
Passive Pa»t.
been
i i3! suffix, and e is the connecting vowel.
In O.E. of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries -inde is found only in the
bputh, and -end in the Midland, and -and in the Northumbrian dialects (and in
dialects influenced by the Northumbrian). In the oldest periods of the language
-tnde is W. Saxon, -and Northumbrian.
XIII.]
ANOMALOUS VERBS. rfi
Goth.
O.E.
Pres. Indie. ...
Sing.
i
i-m
eo-m
bco-m, beo
(earn)*
2
i-s
ear-t
bi-st, beost
3
is-t
is
bi-th, beth, beoth, bes
PI.
I
a
sij-u-m
sij-u-th
ar-on
arn*
ar-on
beo-th, sind, rinden,* sunden*
belli* (syndon)
beo-th, sind (syndon)
arn*
3
si-nd
ar-on
beo-th, sind (syndon)
arn*
Pres. Subj. ...
Sing.
I
si-ja-u
wes-e
beo, s!
2
sij-ai-s
wes-e
beo, si
3
sij-ai
wes-e
beo, si, seo*
PI.
i
sij-ai-ma
wes-e-n
beo-n, ben,* si-n, seen*
2
sij-ai-th
wes-e-n
beo-n, si-n
3
sij-ai-na
wes-e-n
beo-n, sin
Past Indie. ...
Sing.
I
was
wses
wes*
2
was-t
wabr-e
were*
3
was
wsbs
wes*
PI.
I
wes-um
waer-on
weren*
2
wes-uth
wabr-on
weren*
3
wes-un
wabr-on
weren*
Past Subj. ...
Sing.
i
wes-ja-u
wabr-e
were*
2
wes-ei-s
wzr-e
were*
3
\ves-i
wefer-e
were*
PI.
i
wes-ei-ma
wabr-e-n
weren*
2
wes-ei-th
wabr-e-n
weren*
3
wes-ei-na
wabr-e-n
weren*
Imperative ...
Sing.
2
wis
wes
beo, seo,*«i*
PI.
2
wis-i-th
wesath
beoth, beth*
Infinitive
wis-a-n
wesan
beon, ben*
Pres. Part ...
wisands
wesende
Passive Part....
...
wisans
gewesen
yben*'
295. Am = ar-m,
that is as-m ; * as is the root, m the first per-
sonal pronoun
1 Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
2 Cp. Sansk. Present Indie, (i) as-mi, (2) a-st, (3) as-ti, PL (i) smas, (2) stka,
(3) santi.
Pres. Subj. s-y&-m, sy&s, sy&t ; syd-mas, s-y&-ta, s-yd-nt.
The root be exists in Lat. fu-i; Sansk. bhav-ami, I be, first person of
root bhu.
iS2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Ar-t = as-t; t = the second personal pronoun.
Is. — The root as is here weakened to is, and the suffix th or / i.«
dropped (cp. Goth. ts-t).
Are = ase, represents the old northern English aron,1 am, er.
It is of Scandinavian origin. Cp. O.N. em, 1 am; erf, thou art;
er, he is ; er-um, we are ; eruth, ye are ; eru, they are.
The O.E. s-ind — Sansk. santi (= as-santi) ; sindon is a double plural ;
sunden occurs as late as 1250 ; sinden is in the Ormulum.
The root be was conjugated in the present tense, singular and
plural, indicative, as late as Milton's time,
I be.
Thou beesL
O.E. (Hebethorbes.)
We be, O.E. ben.
Ye be, „ „
They be, „
The first person is found in the English Bible. Compare
" If thou freest Stephano, touch me." — Tempest, iL 2.
" If thou beest he."— MILTON, Paradise Lost, L 84.
The third person beth and bes were in use in the fourteenth century ; the latter
with a future signification.
The pi. is very common, as : —
" We be twelve brethren." — Gen. xlii. 32.
" There be more marvels yet." — BYRON, Childe Harold.
" As fresh as bin the flowers in May." — PEELB.
Bin •=• be with n as plural suffix.
In the present subjunctive, only the root be is employed, and all the inflexions
ai_ lost.
296. Was. — The O.E. -wesan, to be, is cognate with Goth, wisan;
O.N. vera, to be, abide ; Sansk. vas, to dwell.
It is a strong verb, the old past tense being •was ; the suffix of the first personal
pronoun is gone, as in the preterites of all strong verbs.
Was-t. — We have seen that all strong verbs in the oldest English
had the suffix e for the second person singular. In the Gothic icas-t
we have an older suffix, t (suffix of second person, as in ar-t), altogether
lost in O.E. .
But wast is not found in the oldest English ; it is quite a late
form, not older than the fourteenth century.2 The O.E. form was
were (that is, wese),z from which we have formed, after the analogy
of shall and will, wer-t,4 which is sometimes, but wrongly, used for
1 Ar-on is not found in the old English West-Saxon dialect.
1 It occurs in Wickliffe (Mark xiy. 67).
3 " Litel thou were tempted, or litel thou -Mere stittd.."— Pilgrimage, p. 33.
4 The O. Norse = var-t.
XIII.]
ANOMALOUS VERBS.
183
the subjunctive were (second person singular), as " thou -weri grin. "
(A'hig John, ii. 3).
Were = O.E. wer-e-n ; that is, -wes-e-n.
297. In O. E. we have negative forms, as nam, I am not ; na> t,
thou art not ; nis, he is not ; nert, were not, &c.
298. Can.
Present Indicative ...
123
Sing, can canst can
I 2 j
PI. can
Subjunctive ...
Sing. — — —
PI.
Past Indicative
Sing, could couldst could
PI. could
Subjunctive
Sing. — —
PI.
O.E. Goth
Present Indicative
Sing, i can, con kann
2 canst kant
3 can, con kann
PI. i cannon kunnum
Present Subjunctive ...
... Sing. cunne kunjau
PI. cunnon kuneima
Past Indicative
Sing, i cu-the kun-tha
2 cuthest kun-thes
3 cuthe kun-tha
PI. i cuthon kun-thedum
Past Subjunctive
Sing. cuthe kunthedjau
PI. cuthon kun-thedeima
P-st Passive
cuth
kunths
cunnan kunnan
Many verbs in Teutonic and other languages, having lost their present tens-,
express the meaning of the lost tense by means of the preterite, as Lat. cat, ccrpi,
mcitiitti. Or. < i<ia.
Can is one of these, being equivalent to navt. It was originally the pret
of a vtrb cognate with Goth, cennan, to bring forth, so that can originally was
equivalent to gcni-.i.
Can (first and third persons).— No personal suffixes, as in the past
tense of all verbs originally strong.
Can-st stands for can-!.
The plural inflexions (cp. O.E. cunnott, <•«««*») have disappea
Could.— The O.E. forms couthe, coude, show that a non-radical
/ has crept in, probably from false analog}' with shall and wUL
1 84
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
O.K. Coude = Goth, cun-tha ( = cun-da), has the tense suffix d of
weak verbs.
We have the old past participle of the verb in un-coiith (O.E. un-cuth = un-
known).
In Chaucer we find infinitive contu, to be able, as " I shal not conne answere. "
Sliakespeare has, " to con thanks." " He shulde can us no thank." — BURNER'S
Frotisart.
Con = learn, study (as con a lesson), makes past tense and passive participle
conned.
Cunning = knowing, is really a present participle of can (con).
299. Dare.
123
1 2 3
Present Indicative ... Sing, dare darest dares
PI. dare
Subjunctive ...
... Sing, dare dare dare
PL dare
Past Indicative
... Sing, durst durst durst
PI. durst
Subjunctive ...
... Sing, durst durst durst
PI. durst
Infinitive.
Imperative. Pres. Part | Passive Part.
dare
dare daring
| dared
O.E.
Goth.
Present Indicative
.. Sing, i dear (dar)1
dars
2 dearst (darst)
dart
3 dear (dar)
dars
PI- durron (durren, durre) daurs-um
Present Subjunctive.. Sing, i durre —
Past Indicative
... Sing, i dors-te (durste)
daursta
2 dors-test (durstest.
daurstes
3 dorste (durste)
daursta
PI. i dorsten (dursten)
daurstedum
Subjunctive ...
... Sing. dorste (durste)
PL dorsten (dursten, durste)
Infinitive
durran (dore)
dauran
Dare. — The root is dars (cp. Gr. Oaftfiv, Oaptrt'iv).
The third person dare (O. E. dar) is strictly correct. Cp.
" A bard to sing of deeds he dare not imitate."
WALTER SCOTT, Waverlfy.
In the Pilgrimage of the Lyf of Man we find p.p. dorre: —
" ^"1 *** tnou swich and swich that thou darst passe the lawe . . . whens
Cometh it thee and how hast thou dorre be so harde." — P. 78.
1 Forms in parentheses are later ones.
XIII.]
ANOMALOUS VERBS.
185
Wickliffe has infinitive dore : —
" The which thing that I shulde dore don, me styride the studie of Orygen."
Dare makes a new preterite, dared, when it signifies to challenge,
as " he dared me to do it."
300. Shall.
Present Indicative ...
i
Sing, shall
shall sblll PL X
Subjunctive ... ...
Sing. —
— — PL
Past Indicative
Sing, should shouldst should PI.
Subjunctive
Sing. —
— — PL
O.E.
Pres. Indie. ... Sing, i sceal
2 scealt
3 sceal
PI. i scul-on
seal1 schal
scalt schalt
seal schal
sculon schulen
Pres. Subj. ... Sing.
PL
scyle
scylen
scule schule
sculen schulen
Past Indie. ... Sing.
PI.
i sceolde
2 sceoldest
3 sceolde
sceoldon
scolde schulde
scoldest schuldest
scolde schulde
scolden schulden
Past Subj. ... Sing.
PI.
sceolde
sceoldon
scolde schulde
scolden schulden
Infinitive
Pres. Part.
sculan
shall
should
Goth.
skal
skal-t
skal
skulum
skuljau
skuleima
skulda
skuldes
skulda
skuldeduro
skuldedjau
skuldedeima
skulan
skulds
Shall often occurs in O.E. in the sense of to owe, as —
" Frend, as I am trewe knyght,
And by that feith I skal to God and yow,
I hadde it nevere half so hoote as now."
CHAUCER, Tr. and Cr. 1. 1600
" Thise dette ssel (owes) ech to othren."— A'senbite, p. 145.
" Hu micel sceal thu ? " = How much owest thou I—Luke xvi. 5.
Shall is historically a preterite of a present skilii, which signifies / kill, and
so sliall = I have killed, I must pay the fine or Tver geld: hence I am under an
obligation, I must.
' The second and third columns of O.E. are later forms.
i86
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP
301.
May.
i
2
3
i 2 3
Present Indicative ...
Sing, may
mayst
may PL
may
P:ist Indicative
Sing, might
mightst
might PL
might
mightest
O.E.
Goth.
Pres. Indie.
Sing. i
maeg
mzi
mow
mag
a
meaht
miht
maist
mag-t
3
mzg
mxi
—
mag
Plural, i
magon
magen
mughen
magum
mawen
mowen
Pres. Subj.
Sing. i mage
mzi
mughe
magjau
mowe
Plural i magen
maegen
mughen
mageima
mowe
Past Indie.
Sing. i meahte
mihte
moughte
mahta
Plural, i meahton
mihten
mighten
mahtcdum
Past Subj.
Sing. i meahte
mihte
mighte
nahtcdjau
Plural. i meahten
mihten
mighten
mahtedeima
Infinitive
magan
mowen
mowe
magan
Pres. Part.
msegende
mowend
mowing
—
mijtand
Pass. Part.
meaht
might*
mahts
May (first person). — The_y here represents an older g.
Might. — The second person singular, we see, had originally the
suffix /, like shalt, -wilt, &C.
" Amende thee while thow myght." — Piers Plowman.
In the fourteenth century we find this suffix dropping off, as " No
thing thou may take from us " (Maundeville, p. 29). Skelton, too,
uses this uninflected form, as "thou may see thyself" (i. 145).
JKay = possession, is the preterite of a primitive mig-an (crescere, gignere), and
signified originally, I have begotten, produced ; hence, I am able.
In O.E. fourteenth century we find inf. mawe, pres. part, mowfnde, movoinge
(WicKLiFFB, Jer. xlvi. 10), pp. might, mogt: —
" Who shall mtruic fi3te." — WICKLIFFE, Apoc. xiii. 4.
" This con I wot wel, me not to have ino"i>t remene." — Job, Prol. p. 671.
" If goodly had he might."— CHAUCER.
Ml I. I
ANOMALOUS VERBS.
187
302. Will.
Present Indicative ...
123 123
Sing, will wilt will PI. will
Subjunctive
Sing. — — — PI.
Past Indicative
Sing, would wouldst would PI. would
Subjunctive
Sing. — — — PI.
O.K.
Pres. Indie. ...
Sing, i
2
3
wile wille wolle, wolc, wol
wilt wult wolt
wile wille wulle, wole, wol
PI. i
willath wulleth woileth, wolen, wilen
Pres Subj. ...
Sing, i
wille wolle wulle
Past Indie. ...
Sing, i
wolde wolde
PI. i
wolden wolden
Past Subj. ...
Sing.
wolde
Infinitive
...
willan wilen wolen
Pres. Part. ...
willende
(1) In O. E. won't we have a trace of the O.E. ivol (-wole).
(2) In O.E. we find infinitive wolen, as "he shall ivoL-n"
(Wickliffe, Apoc. xi. 6); p.p. -wold —
" And in the same maner oure Lord Crist hath wolde and suffred."
CHAUCER, Melibeus, p. 159 (Wright).
(3) Negative' forms occur in O. E., as nille = will not ; nolde =
would not ; willy nilly = will ye, nill ye, will he, nill he, " Will
you, nill you" {Taming of the Shrew, ii. i).
" To will or nill." — BEN JONSON, Catiline.
Cp. O.E. " For ivoltiy, nulni, hi sul fle," &c. — Early Eng. Poems, p. 12.
Wolny — wolen hi, will they ; nulni — nolen hi, nill they.
(4) In O.E. we find two weak verbs, willian and wilnian, to
desire ; the former of these exists in will = to desire.
" And Venus in her message Hermes sped
To blody Mars to will him not to rise."— SACKVILLK, Induction.
" For what wot I the after weal that fortune wills to me."
SURREY, J-'.iitkful Lmtr
" Which mass he willed to be reared high."— It., j*Encid.
IKS
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
303. Owe.
Present Indicative
I 2 3
... Sing, owe owest oweth
123
PL owe
Subjunctive ...
... Sing. — —
PL
Past Indicative
... Sing, ought oughtest ought
PL. ought
Subjunctive ...
... Sing. — — —
PL
Infinitive.
Present Participle.
Perfect.
owe
owing
—
O.E.
Goth.
Pres. Indie. Sing.
i ah og* ow* aih
2 age agest* ouh* owest* aih-t
3 ah ouh* oweth* aih
Plural
i agon agen* owen*
aigum
Past Indie Sing.
i Shte a3te* ow3te*
aihta
Plural
i ahton aSten* owjten*
aihtedum
Infinitive
agan a3en* ogen* <
jwen* aigan
Pres. Part.
igende
Pass. Part.
agen a3t ought owed aihts1
(1) Owe (O.E. ah, Goth, aih, I have) no longer exists in the sense
of have, possess. It is the past of an infinitive eigan, to labour,
work ; whence owe originally signified I have worked, I have earned,
hence (a) I possess, have, (6) I have it as a duty, I ought.
(2) Owe as an independent verb: —
Cp. Hwat dd ic that if fee ttf age ? = what must I do that I may have
eternal life t—Mark x. 17.
" And all thatt iss, and beoth,
He shop and ah." — Orm. 6777.
" God ah (= owes) the littell mede." — Ib.
" By the treuthe ich ov to the." — ROBT. OF GLOUCESTER, 6524.
" He owltte to him 10,000 talentes." — WICKLIFFE, Matt. xviiL 24.
" 3eld that thou tnvist." — Ib. xviii. 28.
" You ought him a thousand pounds." — SHAKESPEARE.
" The knight, the which that castle aught."
SPENSER, F. Queene, VI. iii. 2.
(3) As an auxiliary, it first appears in LaSamon's Brut, " he ah to don " = he
has to do, he must do.
" I owe for to be cristned."— WICKLIFFE, Matt. iii. 14.
1 Those marked thus '*' — •-
XIII.]
ANOMALOUS VERBS.
189
" And gladder oughte his freend ben of his deth
Whan with honour up yolden is his breth."
CHAUCER, Knightes TaU.
(4) It occurs impersonally with datives, as —
" Wei ought us werche." — CHAUCKR.
(5) Owe as a weak verb, signifying to be in debt, is conjugated
regularly : present (i) owe, (2) mvest, (3) owes (oweth) ; past (l) owed,
(2) oivedst, (3) owed.
(6) Ought, properly a past tense, is now used as a present, to
signify moral obligation.
(7) Own, to possess, has probably arisen out of the derivative
O.E. verb, ahnian ( = dg-nian), to possess ; or from the old participle
passive of owe—dgen (awen, owen). Shakespeare uses owe for own.
304. Must.
Present Indicative
Sing.
-
-
PI.
—
Subjunctive ...
Sing.
-
-
PI.
-
Past Indicative
Sing.
must must must
PI.
must
Subjunctive ...
Sing.
—
—
PI.
-
O.E.
Goth.
Present Indie. ..
. Sing.
I m-jt
2 m3s-t
mote*
mote*
mot
most
3 m8-t
mote*
mot
PI.
i moton
nioten*
motum
Past Indie.
. Sing.
PI.
i moste
i moston
moste*
mosten*
nuista
mdstedum
(1) The verb mot fai Old English denoted permission, possibility,
and obligation ( = may, can, &c. ).
Spenser uses the old verb mote, as —
" Fraelissa was as faire, as faire mote bee."
(2) Must has now the force of a present as well as of a past tense,
and denotes necessity and obligation. Chaucer uses moste as
present tense.
305. Wit.
Present Indicative ...
Sing, wot
_ wot |P1.
Subjunctive I Sing. —
_ - JP1
Past Indicative
Sing, wist
— wist PI.
Subjunctive
Sing. —
_ — PL
'9°
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
Infinitive,
wit
Present Participle. 1 Past Participle,
witting wist
O.E.
Goth.
Present Indie..
. Sing.
i wat
2 wast
3 wat
wot
wost
wot
wait
waist
wait
PL
i witon
witen
witum
Past Indie.
. Sing.
PI.
... wiste
... \viston
wuste
wusten
wissa
wissedum
Infinitive
... witan
witan
Present Part. .
... witer.de
Pass. Part.
... when
iwist, wist
The original signification of O.E. wat, Goth, wit, is " I have
ieen " (cp. Gr. oTSa), hence / know, from the root wit or vid, to see.
(1) Shakespeare has I wot, he wot, you wot, they wot.
(2) The old second person singular has given way to wotUst ; and
viotteth or wots is sometimes found for wot.
(3^ Wist, the true past tense of wit, occurs frequently in the
English Bible ; but Sackville uses wotted, as —
" I, which ivotted\xs.\.
His wretched drifts." — Duke of Buckingham.
(4) Unwist = unknown, undiscovered :
" Couldst thou hope, univist, to leave my land ? "
SURREY, Mneid'w.
(5) Wotting = O.E. witende (witing\ occurs in the Winter's Tale
(ed. Collier), iii. 2. Cp. unwitting, unwittingly.
(6) To wit, a gepundial infinitive, is used as an adverb = namely.
To weet, a causative of wit — to learn, as —
" Then we in doubt to Phoebus' temple sent
Euripilus to weet the prophesy." — SURREY, sEneid ii.
(7) Must and wist have an s, which is not found in the roots mot
and wit.
The past tenses are formed by adding to the root t, as mot-te,
vrit-te ; but, by a common law in the Teutonic dialects, the first t is
changed to s : hence mos-te, wis-te.
306. Mind, in the sense of to remember, as " mind what you are about," has a
non-radical d.
xiii.] ANOMALOUS VERBS.
191
PRES.
PERF.
INF.
O.E.
gemaji
gemunde
gemunan
(meminisse)
Goth.
man
munda
niunan
—
O.N.
man
munna)
munda I
muna
(recordari)
U.w. munu Ijjif \\fiv)
The O.E. (ge~]-man is the past of an old form mina, cogito. In the Northern
dialects of the fourteenth century, we find the O.N. man, mone. mun = must
shall, used as an auxiliary verb.
307. Own. I tnvn I have done wrong = I grant or confess I have done wrong.
This verb seems to have arisen out of O. E. an, an, the first person singular of
unnan, to grant, concede (cp. Ger. gottnen) : —
" Miche gode ye wold him an." — Trist. 1. 66.
" Y take that me gode an." — 16. iii. 7.
308. Do, in " How do you do ?"
In the first verb we have the ordinary do —facere ; the second do — v*lert
— O.E. dugan, to avail, prevail (Ger. tatigen), Scotch dow.
O.E.
Present Indicative i deah
2 duge
3 deah, degh,* dowes*
PI. i dugon
Past Indicative, Sing, i dohte, dowed* '
309. Tenses formed by Composition.
(i) Tenses are formed, not only by suffixes added to the verbal
root, but by using auxiliary verbs along with the participles or in-
finitive mood. This is called the analytical mode of expressing time.
The perfect tense is denoted by have and is; the future by shall and
will.
"The primary meaning of the word have is 'possession.' It is easy to see how
' I have my arms stretched out" might pass into ' I have stretched out my arms,'
or how, in such phrases as ' he has put on his coat," ' we have eaten our break-
fast,' ' they have finished their work,' a declaration of possession of the object in
the condition denoted by the participle should come to be accepted as sufficiently
expressing the completed act of putting it into that condition ; the present posses-
sive, in fact, implies the past action, and, if our use of have were limited to the
cases in which such an implication was apparent, the expressions in which we
used it, would be phrases only. When, however, we extend the implication of
past action to every variety of cases, as in ' I have discharged my servant,' ' he
has lost his breakfast,' ' we have exposed their errors ;' when there is no idea of
possession for it to grow out of; or with neuter verbs, ' You have been in error,"
he has come from London,' ' they have gone away ;' where there is even no
object for the have to govern ; where condition and not action is expressed ; and
' you are been,' ' he is come,' ' they are gone,' would be theoretically mo^e cor-
rect (as they are alone proper in German) ; - then we have converted have from
an independent part of speech into a fairly formative element." — WHITNEY.
1 Those marked thus (*) are later forms.
192 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(2) In O.E. writers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have was
weakened to ha, and in the sixteenth century we find it coalescing
with the passive participle.
" The Jewes wolden ha broken his bones."
Legends of Holy Rood, p. 139, 1. 237.
"Therefore ech man ha this in memorye."
LVDGATE, Arund. MS. fol. 376.
" I ha thereto plesaunce." — Ib. foL 27.
" I knowlech to afelid."— WICKLIFFE, A fol. for the Lollards, p. i.1
" It shuld a fallen on a bassenet or a helme." — FROISSART, L ch. ii. 25.
" Richard might . . . asaued hymself if he would afled awaie." — Life of
Kic'iard III. in Hardyng, p. 547, reprint of 1812. 2
(3) Do and did are used for forming emphatic tenses, as " I do
love," " I </;V/love."
This idiom did not make its appearance till about the thirteenth
century, and did not come into general use before the fifteenth
century.
Do (not causative) seems to have been used first as an auxiliary
before imperatives, as —
"Do gyf glory to thy Godde." — Allit. Poems, C. 1. 204.
Lydgate. is the earliest writer I know of that uses the modern
construction of do and did as tense auxiliaries.
In:O.E. do = to make, cause, as —
"And if I do that lak,
Doth strepe me, and put me in a sak
And in the next ryver do me drenche."
CHAUCER, C. Tales, 11. 10074-5.
It was also used as at present, to save the repetition of the principa I
verb, as —
" I love you more than you do me."
SHAKESPEARE, King John, iv. i.
" He slep no more than doth the nightingale."
* CHAUCER, c. vii. 1. 98.
(4) In O.E. gan, can, was used as a tense auxiliary = did.
But the details of this usage must be sought in the syntax of
auxiliary verbs.
Quotod by Marsh. a ]bjd.
CHAPTER XIV.
ADVERBS.
310. ADVERBS are mostly either abbreviations of words (or phrases,
as likewise = in like wise) belonging to other parts of speech, or
particular cases of nouns and pronouns.
They modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and
may be classified according to their meaning into adverbs of —
(1) PLACE, answering to the question (a) WHERE? (b) WHITHER?
(c) WHENCE? as (a) here, there, anywhere, elsewhere, somewhere, no-
whei-e, yonder, below, before, behind, within, without ;(b) hither, thither,
hitherwards, backwards, from below, from above; (c) hence, thence,
(2) TIME, answering to the question WHEN ? (a) PRESENT, as now,
to-day, at present, forthwith, &c. ; (&) PAST, as yesterday, lately, for-
wards, of yore ; (c) FUTURE, as to-morrow, soon, by and by ; (d) DURA-
TION OF TIME (how long), as long time, still, ever, &c. ; (e) REPE-
TITION (how often), as again, once, seldom, oft, daily ; (f) RELATIVE
TO SOME OTHER TIME (how soon), as, then, after, forthwith, first, last.
(3) MANNER or QUALITY, as (a) well, wisely, slowly, quickly —
some of these are interrogative, demonstrative, or indefinite, as how,
so, thus, nohow, &c. ; (b) affirmation, as yes, yea, truly, indeed, &c. ;
(c) negation, as not, nay ; (d) doubt, uncertainty, as lively, perhaps.
(4) MEASURE, QUANTITY, DEGREE, as much, little, enough, half,
much, scarce, far, very, exceedingly.
(5) CAUSE, INSTRUMENTALITY, as why, wherefore, whence.
311. According to their origin, or form, adverbs are divided into
the following classes : —
I. Substantive Adverbs.
I. With case-endings :
(i) GENITIVE SINGULAR, need-s, O.E. neede*, " he must needs (of
necessity) die."
In O.E. we find the genitive used adverbially, as
" Fure, the never nc atheostrede, winterts ne sumeres." — LaZ. 2861.
" Heo wolden feden thone kir.g, dates and nihtes."—Ib, 3235-
O
I94 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
" Ich not to hwan thu bredst thi brod
Lives ne tfeatha ne deth hit god." — OTt'l&* Nightingale, 1. 1634.
Cp. O.E. tuilles, willingly ; sothes, of a truth ; his thonkes = of his own accord,
&c.
The tennination has disappeared in many of the older words, as
day and night, summer and winter. Cp.
" We shul be redy to stonde with you, lyfe and dethe." — Gest. Rom. p. 37.
The preposition of has taken the place of the genitive suffix, as
of necessity, of course, of force, of purpose, of right, of a truth,
of a day. \Ve actually find in the sixteenth century "of a late daycs,"
as well as " of late days"
Sometimes we have of (or in, at, a, on) with the old genitive, as
anights, of mornings, a mornings, on Sundays, now-a-days = O. E.
now-on-dayes, in-a-doors, &c.
There were some adverbs in O.E. , originally dative feminine singular, ending in
-inga, -unga, -linga, -lunga. A few of these, without the dative suffix, exUt
under the form -ling or -long, as head-long (O.E. heedlingf), sideling, sidelong,
dark-ling (darklong), Jlatling an&Jlatloiig.
In the fourteenth century we find these with the genitive form, as allyiiges
(wholly), heedlynges,JlatlyHges, noselynges.
The Scotch dialect has preserved the old suffix -linges under the form lias, as
dark/ins (in the dark).
The word grovelling was originally an adverb ; cp. Scotch groflins, O.E. griif-
fy*fs, graft ingti.
We find -gates = -ways in O.E., as thus-gate = thus-wise, allegates = always.
(2) DATIVE AXD INSTRUMENTAL, ever (O.E. afre), never (O.E.
tttr/re), whilom (O.E. hwil-um}, limb-meal (O.E. lim-nuzl-um), piece-
meal.
(3) ACCUSATIVE, ay (O.E. d, Goth. aho\ the while (O.E. th&
hii'lle), somewhile (sumeltwile), some deal (sumne dccl), ahvay (O.E.
ealne weg), otherwise (othre wfsen), O. E. the morn l = to-morn ; cp.
nowise, noway, sometime.
In such phrases as ""He went home," " They wandered north and south," " 1
saw him yesterday" " They cry day and night unto him," " Can ye aught tell ? "
the words home, north, south, yesterday, &c. arc adverbial accusatives.
(a) Many of the old Accusatives now have a genitive form, z&cther-
way-s, always, longways, straightivays, anothergates (cp. O. E. algaics
= always, thusgates, &c. ), sideways, sometimes, otheni'hiles, somewJiiles,
the whilst. In the Ayenbite and in Piers Plowman we find therhuile,
therhuyl, therhuyls.
(o) In most English Grammars that I have seen a in a-year, a-day
~ yearly, daily, is treated as the indefinite article used distributivelv.
1 The was originally instrumental = O.E. tlif.
xiv.J ADVERBS. 195
A reference to older writers at once shows that this treatment is
wholly incorrect.
" Thrywa on geare" = thrice a year. — Exod. xxiii. 17.
"An halpenny on day" — a halfpenny a day. — Bake of Curtasye, 1. 616.
In some few words of French origin we have substituted a or on
for Fr. en or a, especially in older writers ; around, O. E. on rounde,
O. F. en rond. Cp. a fine and in fine, a stray, on stray, &c.
In O.E. we find in for a before words of French origin, as —
" Thet corn a gerse, the vines in flouring " = the corn in grass, the vine in
flowering. — Ayenbite, p. 36.'
In a- feared, a-feard, an hungered, an hungry, O. E. a fingered,
a dread, the prefix a is a corruption of the O. E. of, an intensitive
prefix, sometimes equivalent to for in forswear. In O.E. we find
a thirst, on thirst, and of thirst.
A is also a weakened form of the preposition of or o. " A dozen
rtbeer" (S. ROWLAND'S Diogenes], "God a mercy," "man-a-war."1
Cp. " Body o me," " two a clock," and " two o clock."
In the compound Jack-an-apes, the a or o becomes an before a
vowel, just as we find in O.E. an before vowels and the letter^, and
a before consonants, as an erthe — in earth, an Iiand = in hand, &c.
II. PREPOSITIONAL : a-wayl (O.E. on^ua-g), a-back (O.E. on-ba-c),
a-gain (O.E. on-gedn), a-day (on-dczgt), to-day (O.E. td-dagc), to-night
(O.E. to-nihte], a niht (on niht), to-morn, to-morrow (O.1L. tS-mergen),
O.E. to-yere (this year), to-eve (yesterday evening), to-whiles = mean-
while, adown (O.E. d-dnne).
Cp. abed, afoot, asleep (on sleep), alive (on life), ahead, on head,
on-brood, a-broach, ashore, arow, aloft, apart, among, across, afide,
a height, an end, a-front, a-door, besides (O.E. besides, besiden), of
kin (akin), of kind (naturally], of purpose, because, by chance, perhaps,
perchance, perforce,
In O.E. we find asidis, on sidif hand = aside, apart ; by northe, by touthe, by
pecemeale, by cos (by chance).
Other but more recent adverbial forms of this nature are — by no
means, by any means, beforehand, at hand, in front, at night, at times,
at length? at-gaze (agaze), by degrees, up-stairs, indoors, in fact, in deed.
The preposition is sometimes omitted, as " they went back " ( =
aback), "this stick was broke cross" (= across).
1 Cp. " Innes a Court men" (Earle's Cosmog. ed. Arber, p. 41).
2 The a ~ an has the same meaning as on : but an was used before consonants,
a before vowels. Cp. anon, anende.
It occurs as an independent word, as —
" Thin holy blod thet thou ssedest ane the rod. —Ayenbite, p. i.
" The robe of scarlet erthan thet the kuen his do an."—lb. p. 167. _
3 Tn Earle's Cosmog. (ed. Arber) we find at tlte length, at bedstdet (p. 14), "•
su~H:me(p. 33).
O 2
I96 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
II. Adjectival Adverbs.
(1) In O.E. many adverbs are formed from adjectives by means
of the suffix -e.1 Thus an adjective in -fie = like was converted into an
adverb by this means, as biterlic (adjective), biterllce (adverb), bitterly.
The loss of the adverbial e reduced the adverb to the same form as
the adjective : hence O. E. faste, faste, became fast ; faire, fair, &c. ;
he smot him harde = he smote him hard.
Cp. to work hard, to sleep sound, to speak fair.
In Elizabethan writers we find the adverbial -ly often omitted, as
" grievous sick," " miserable poor."
(2) Many adjective forms, especially those of irregular comparison,
as well, much, little, &c., are used as adverbs.
(3) GENITIVE FORMS, as else (O.E. elles), backwards, forwards,
upwards, eftsoons, uneathes, unawares.
(4) ACCUSATIVE, ere (O.E. cer\ enough (O.E. gendh), backward,
homeward.
(5) DATIVE, seldom: cp. O.E. on-ferrum = afar; O.E. miclum,
greatly ; litlum and lytlum — paulatim.3
" Lere hem litlum and lytlum." — Piers Plowman, B. p. 286.
In later times the inflexion dropped, and we often find the pre-
positional construction instead, as by little and little* Cp.
" So did the waxen image (lo) by sntale ami smaie decrease."
" They love the mullet greate. BRANT'S Horace, Sat. ii. 2.
And yet do mynce her stitale and sntale." — Ib.
" My rentes come to me thicke and thicke." — Ib. ii. 3.
(6) INSTRUMENTAL, yore (O. E. gedrd), yet (O. E. geta], soon (O.E.
i sona).
(7) PREPOSITIONAL FORMS, amidst4 (O.E. on-middum, amidde,
a-middes), towards (O.E. to-weardes), together (O.E. to-gader], afar,
anew, alate, aright, abroad, afar, aloud, along, agood, a-cold, ala.i,
anon, at large, a-high, on high, in vain (O.E. on Uel), in general,
in short,* at the full, to right, on a sudden, at unawares (at unaware
occurs in DRANT'S Horaci), at all (O.E. alles), withal, of yore, of new,
of late, of right [O. E. ,of fresh, of neere, in open ( = openly), in
playne ( = plainly)].
Prepositions sometimes accompany the comparative and superla-
tive, as for the worse, &c. ; at /atf, O. E. atte laste — at the last ; atte
wyrst, at the worst, &c. : cp. O. E. atte beste, at the best ; at least, &o.
1 Probably the old dative ending.
» Sometimes in O.E. we find -en for -um, as tohilen, sr.lden.
3 The genitive form is sometimes met with, " by fifties and littles."
* The / in such words as amidst, amongst, is merely euphonic ; cp. O.E.
vlongft (= along), onest (= once),
i /« Jew also occurs in Elizabethan literature ; cp. in brief, &.c.
XIV0 ADVERBS. ,97
III. Numeral Adverbs.
Once, O.E. ane, ene, ones, encs, ans ; Twice, O.E.twj-wal
tmwe, tw,en, twie, twits, twit; Thrice, O.E. thri-wa, tkriwe, thru,
thrus, thrys.
The -ce = -i - -fs. In betwixt (= O. E. betutohs) the last letter is not radical •
cp. atniast.
An on ( = in one instant), at one, at once, atwain, atwo, in twain,
O.E. a twinne, a thre, &c. for the nonce*
312. IV. Adverbs formed from Particles.
A.— PREPOSITIONAL ADVERBS.
(1) Aft (O.E. aft, eft), after (O.E. <zft-er), after-wards, &c. ;
abaft = a + be + aft (O.E. be-aftari).
(2) By (O.E. bt, big),for-by, by and by.
(3) For, as in be-fore (O. E. beforan], for-th, forthwith, afore, afore-
hand, beforehand.
(4) Hind, as in behind '(O.E. behindan), behindhand; O.E. hindan,
hindweard.
(5) In, as in within [O.E. innan, binnan (— be-innan), withinnan,
•withinnen}, O.E. inwith.
(6) Neath, as in be-neath, underneath (O.E. neothan, be-nythan,
underneothan, nithor, nit her, down).
(7) On, onward.
(8) Of (O.E. of= from, off}, off.
(9) To, too.
(10) Through (O.E. thurh ; later forms, thurf, thurch, thitnih,
thorgh), thorough, thro^lghly, thoroughly.
(11) Under, underfoot, underhand.
(12) Up, tipper, uppermost, upward.
(13) From the old form ufan (ufon) we get above (= O.E.
A-bufan, abuven), over (= O.E. ofer) ; cp. O.E. be-ufan, bufan, :
ufan, onufan — above ; ufamveard, upwards ; ufanan, from above.3
1 The -ma in twi-iua, &c. = war (O. N. -var, Sansk. vara), originally signified
time : we have cognate suffix in Septem-/vr, &c.
2 Cp. O. f..for then anes or far tftan anes, where the * originally belonged to
the demonstrative ; cp. the oldest English for tkant anuitt.
3 Later forms are buven, ouenan, bibufen.
198
ENGLISH ACCIDEXCE.
[CHAP.
(14) Out, about (O.E. At, &te, utan, b-utan, ymb-utari), without
(O.K. li'iihutan, tuithouten), abouts, thereabouts.
In O.E. we have inwith, ouhuitk.
B. — PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.
Table of Adverbs connected with the Stems he, the, who.
PRONOMINAL
STEMS.
PLACE
WHERE.
MOTION
TO.
MOTION
FROM.
TIME
WHEN.
MANNER.
CAUSE.
who
where
whither
whence
when
how
why
the
there
thither
thence
then
thus
the
he
here
hither
hence
-
-
(i) Adverbs connected with the demonstrative the : —
There (O.E. th&r, t/nzr), originally locative ; re is probably a
shortened form of der (Sansk. ta-tra « there).
Thither (O.E. thtder) contains the locative suffix -tfier,1 corre-
sponding to O.N. thathra, Sansk. ta-tra ; thitherward (O.E. thider-
weard, thiderweardes).
Then (O.E. thantfe, thonne, thfnne), accusative singular.8 It is
the same word as the conjunction than.
We find in O. E. tha, tho — then, thence ; nouthe = now then.
•
Thence (O.E. than-an, tfian-on, thonon, thananne ; later forms,
thanene, tkannene, thenne-s, then-s) has two suffixes : (l) n, originally
perhaps the locative of the demonstrative stem na (existing in
adjectives in -en, and in passive participles) ; and (2) the genitive -ce
= -es, which came in about the thirteenth century.
1 It is of the same origin as the comparative suffix from tar, to go beyond.
•• Cp. Latin tu-m. tun-r, ta-in, tandem, ta-nten, tantus, (at, &c., all containing
the demonstrative stem to, cognate with English the.
Xiv.] AD VERBS. 199
In O.E. northern writers we find thethen — O.N. thathan — thence ;
old Scotch writers have thyne.
In Latin we find suffix -n in superne, from above. In O. E. we have east-an, from
the east ; west-an, i'rom the west, &c. ; hind-an, from behind.
The (O.E. tht) before comparatives is an adverb, and is the in-
strumental case of the definite article the : the more, O, E. tht mare
— eb magis.
In O.E. we have for-thi orfor-thy = therefore, as —
" Forihy appease your griefe and heavie plight."
SPENSER, F. Q. n. i. 14.
Thus (O.E. thus), probably an instrumental case of this; in
O. Saxon thius = inst. case of thit, the neuter of these (this).
Lest = O.E. thy las (or the lees) + the (indeclinable relative),
which, by omission of thy, became weakened to leoste, leste.
(2) Adverbs connected with the demonstrative stem he (hi) : —
Here (O.E. her\ On the origin of the suffix -r, see remarks
on there, p. 198.
Hither (O.E. hider). See remarks on whither.
Hence (O.E. hinan, heonan, hronane, heona ; later forms, hennene,
henne, hennes, hens}.
In O.E. northern writers we find hethen = O.N. hethan.
In Gothic we have an accusative Una, corresponding to then or than,
NVe have the same root perhaps in hin-d-er, he-kind.
(3) Adverbs from the interrogative stem who :—
Where (O.E. hwcer, hwar). See remarks on there.
Whither (O.E. kwee-der, hwider), witherward. See remarks on
thither.
When (O.E. hwanan, hwana, h-wanon ; later forms, wheneiie,
•whenne, hwanne, -whennes, whens), -whence.
In O. E. northern writers we find -whethan = O.N. kvethan. ,
remarks on thence.
How (O.E. hu, kwu*\ why (O.E. tout), are instrumental cases of
U' In O E. we have far-why - wherefore, because. In the English
Bible the mark of interrogation is -wrongly printed er it.
i Capgravc actually writes w/u> for how.
200 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(4) From the reflexive stem si : —
So (O.E. fivd), an instrumental case of srata = so.
Also and as are compounds of so with the adjective all.
(5) From the demonstrative stem ya, yon, yond, yonder, beyond.
See Demonstrative Pronouns, § 181, p. 128.
(6) From the relative stem ya : —
In Sansk. ya-s, yd, ya-t = qui, quae, quod.
Yea (O.E. gea, gia ; later forms, yha, ya, ye ; Goth, ja)
Ye-s (O.E. ge-se ; later forms, ^is,ykis)>.
The suffix s (-se) in yes is the present subjunctive of the root as,
to be ; O.E. sf, Ger. set = let it be. In O.E. there was a negative
ite-se; O.E. nces — not = ne wees = was not.
Tfo-t (O.E. gyta, geta, gyf) contains the same root.1 The Latin ja-m contains
a cognate stem.
(7) From an interrogatiTe stem ye : —
Yesterday (O. E. gystran-dag). This adverb is cognate with Goth.
ffi-s-tra, Lat. heri (Jie-s-ttrnu-s), Gr. x^s> Sansk. hy-as ( = ha-dyas).
The suffix ~tra (-ter) is comparative.
(8) From the demonstrative sarn : —
Sam, together, used by Spenser = O.E. satnan, samen ; cp. O.E.
nm-od, sam-ad; Goth, sam-ath, together ; Gr. a/ua ; Lat. simul.
(9) From Sun-dor : —
Asunder (= O.E. on sundron, on sundruni) and sun-der (O.E.
sunder, Goth, sun-dro, separately, apart).
(10) From the demonstrative na : —
(a) Now (O.E. ««2), — cp. Lat. nu-n-c, nutn, nam, ne, Gr. vvv ;
(#) ne = not, as in Chaucer; (f) no (O.E. na) ; and (d) nay.
" His hors was good, but he ne was nought gay." — Prol. 1. 74.
In O. E. ne = neither, nor. Spenser uses it —
• " Ne let him then admire,
But yield his sence to bee too blunt and bace." — F. Q. ii. Intr. 4.
1 If (O.E. gif, yif) is by some philologists connected with Goth, iba, ibai.
perhaps, lest ; which is probably the dative case of iba. = doubt : cp. IceL ef
doubt, if.
3 Cp. O. E. nutha, noutlie — now then.
Xiv.] ADVERBS.
201
This particle enters into the following words : — none, nought,
nor, neither, never.
(n) Not = nought. See aught, § 233, p. 146.
For not, not a -whit, we sometimes find not a jot, not a bit; cp. O.E. nevt~ a
del, never a whit.
The Latin niltil •=. not a bean.1 In vulgar language we hear such expressions
as I don t care a straw, or a button, &c. So in O.E. writers we get " noght a
dene ^bean)," " not a kers (cress). "2
Ay. sometimes used for yes, is identical with adv. aye = ever ;
O.li. d as in ever (O.E. cefer).
For aye = for ever —
" With endless vengeance on his stock/or ayt."
SACKVILLE, Ferrex and Porrex.
What = why is an adverb, as —
" What should I more now seek to say in this,
Or one jot farther linger forth my tale ? "
SACKVILLE, Duke of Buckingham.
" What need we any spur but our own cause ? " — Jvl. Ctrsar, ii. i.
^313. V. Compound Adverbs.
(i) There, here, where, are combined (a] with prepositions, as therein,
thereinto, thereabout, thereabouts, thereafter, thereat, theieon, thereof,
thereout, thereunto, thereunder, thereupon, thereby, therefore, therefrom
(and O.E. therefro], therewith, therewithal, thereto, thitherto ; herein,
hereinto, hereabout, hereafter, hereat, hereof, hereout, hereinto, here-
upon, hereby, herewith, heretofore, hitherto; wherein, whereinto,
w/iereabout, -whereat, whereof, whereunto, whereupon, whereby,
wherefore, wherewith, wherewithal, wherethrough.
The pronominal adverbs have a relative force. We have seen that
the O.E. indeclinable relative the and English that are followed 'by
prepositions ; hence here, there, where, are mostly followed by prepo-
sitions. We have a few compounds with prepositions preceding, as
from thence, from whence.
The preposition is sometimes separated from the adverb, as " On
Ttalioe, thar Rome nu on stondeth " (La3- 107). See quotations
under as, § 198, p. 133.
' Max Miiller says not a thread. In O.E. we find the word nifel = trifle,
nothing.
- ihis is the origin of the slang expression " I don't care a curse."
202 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP, xiv
(K) With so and soever, as whereso, wheresoever, wherever, -whither'
soever, whencesoever, whereas.
(c) With else, some, other, every, no, each, any, as elsewhere, some-
where, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, eachwhere CO. E. ay-where =
everywhere), anywhere.
(2) How is combined with so, as howso, howsoever.
(3) Other compounds have already been noticed, see §311, pp.
195, 196. To these may be added erelong, erewhile, while-ere, ere-
now, withal, after-all, forthwith, at random *.• Fr. a randon.
(4) Some elliptical expressions are used as adverbs, as
mayhap, howbeit, as it were, to wit, to be sure.
CHAPTER XV.
PREPOSITIONS.
314. PREPOSITIONS are so named because they were originally
prefixed to the verb, in order to modify its meaning. They express
(i) the relations of space, (2) other relations derived from" those of
space, ami marked in some languages by case-endings.
Prepositions are either simple or compound.
I. Simple Prepositions.
In (O.E. in) is connected with on, an, a, from a demonstrative
stem a + na.
Before a dental « shows a tendency to disappear, as tooth = tonth. So ia our
dramatists and O.E. writers we find i'the — in the.
At (O. E. tzt} also contains the stem a (cp. Sanskrit d-dhi, Lat. ad ';
-dhi - Gr. -0,).
Of (O.E. of, af, cef ; Goth, af, from ; LaL ab, Gr. &*6, Sansk.
afa).
By, O.F. bi (cp. Sansk. a-bki, of which the suffix -bhi = Gr. -<£»,
Lat. -bi ; a nasalized form of a-bhi is found in Gr. dfj.<f>i, Lat. a>r.l>-,
O.Sax. umbi, O.E. umbe, enibe, ymbe, nm-, Ger. um-).
For (O.E. for, Goth, fatir, O.X. fyr, fyrir) ; a-fore (O.E. on-
foran).
From (O.E. fram,from; fra, fro ; O.^.frd).
The m is a superlative suffix (cp. Sanskrit para-ma-s, homfard, cognate with
Eng. fore (O.E. fare).
The same root is seen in for-th, fur-ther, far. Cp. Sansk. pra, Gr. wpb,
Lat. pro.
On (O.Sax. an ; O.Fris. an, d ; O.N. A ; Goth, ana), up-ON.
Up (O.E. up}, formed from a stem u+pa. Cp. Sansk. upa, near;
Gr. dW, near, under ; Lat. s-ub ; Goth, iup ; O.K. Ger. &f.
Out (O.E. ut) ; the older form is seen in utter, utmost.
204 ENGLISH A CC1DENCE. [CHAP.
With (O. E. with, wither, from, against). We have a more original
form in O.E., viz. mid, with; Goth, mith, Sansk. mi t has, Gr.
/x«Tuv*from a demonstrative stem ma. Wither (or with) is a com-
parative form, in which m is replaced by w (cp. Goth, -withra).
To (O.E. tf). It is often used in the sense of " for," as tofrend—
" for friend" (Spenser), to wife, &c.
Too (adv.) is another form of the same word.
II. Compound Prepositions.
(1) Comparatives : —
After (O.E. eef-ter), a comparative formed from of; see Compa-
rison of Adjectives. We have the same root in aft, eft. abaft, &c.
Over (O. E. ofer) is a comparative connected with up, and with
the compound above (O. E. a-b-ufari) ; cp. Sansk. upari, Gr. virtp,
Lat. super ; O.E. ufera, higher.
Under (O.E. un-der, Goth, un-dar, Sansk. an-tar, Lat. in-ter)
contains the root in (see p. 203'), with the comparative suffix -ther
(-der).
Through (O.E. thur-h, O.Sax. thur-ah, Goth, thair-h, Ger.
dur-ch ; from root tdr, to go beyond ; cp. Lat. tra-ns, Sansk. tiras,
across).
Thorough is merely another form of through.
(2) Prepositions compounded with prepositions : into(Q.TL. infill],
upon, beneath, underneath, afar, before, behind, beyoiiu, ivithin, with-
out, throughout [Q.}L. foreby, at-forer on-foran (= afore), tofore\
But (= O.E. bulan = be-utan) originally signified be out. In
pro vincial English it signifies without.
Above = a (on) + he + tf^(O.E. bufan = bc-ufan). See up
and over, § 312, p. 197.
About = a + be + out (O.E. abutan = d-be-tttan).
Among, amongst (O.E. ge-mang, on gemong ; later forms,
amouges, amang).
Unto in O.E. often — until ; unt — Goth, unde, to; O.Fris. ontt
; O.Sax. unt, unte; O.E. 6th = until
Until = unt + till.
xv.] PREPOSITIONS. 205
(3) Prepositions formed from substantives : —
Again, against, over against (O.E. on-ge&n, agean ; to-gegness,
against ; later forms, on'fyznes, a^enes, ayens ; cp. Ger. ent-gegen).
Other prepositions of this class are, instead of, in behalf of, by dint
of, by way of, for the sake of; abroad, abreast, atop, ahead, astride,
adoivn, across.
(4) Adjective prepositions : —
Ere (O.E. tz-r), before, is a comparative of the root &. See
§ 233, p. 146.
Or (O.E. ar) is another form of the same word.
Till (O.E. til, good ; Goth, gatils, useful ; O.N. til, to).
Till first makes its appearance as a preposition in the northern
dialect. It occurs in the Durham Gospels (eleventh century).
In O. E. we find intil — into.
To-ward, towards (O.E. td-weard, td-weardes).
In O. E. we find these elements separated. Cp.
" Thy thoughts which are to us ward." — Psalm x\. 5.
Other adverbs of this kind are afterward, afterwards, upward, fro-
•ward — away from.
" Give ear to my suit, Lord ; frontward hide aot thy face." — Paraphrase of
Psalm Iv. by Earl of Surrey.
Along, alongst (O.E. andlang, ondlang, endelong, endlonges,
an long, on longc, alonges, through, along).
It is often used for lengthwise, and is opposed to athwart or across.
" The dores were alle of ademauntz eterne
Iclenched overtkwart and e>tdelong."—C.\itxtKS., Knigktet TaU.
" Muche lond he him Sef an long thare sea." — Lai. 138.
There is another along (O.E. ge-lang) altogether different from
this, in the sense of " on account (of)."
" All this is 'long ofyou."—Coriol. v. 4.
" All along of the accursed gold."— Fortunes cf Nigel.
" On me is nought alonge thin yvel fare."
CHAUCKK, Tr. and Cr. 11. 1. 1000.
" Vor oOe is al mi lif Hong."— O.E, Horn., First Series, p. 197.
Amid, amidst (O.E. on-middan, on-middum ; later forms,
amidde, amiddes ; from the adjective midd, as in middle, mid-most].
In the midst is a compound Uke O.E. in the myddes of; cp. O.i.
tS-middes -- amidst.
206 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. xv.
Other prepositions of this kind are, around, a-slant, a-skaunt,
be-low, be-twixt (O.K. betweoh-s, be-tweor,, from twi, two), between
(O.E. be-tweonum, betwynan), attveen, atwixt.
An-ent is O.E. on-efn, on-emn, near, toward (later forms, on-
efen-t, anent, anentes, anens, anence).
Athwart, over-thwart, thwart (O.E. thwar, on thweorh ; O.N.
thwert).
Fast by (O.E. on fast, near) ; cp. hardby, forby.
Since (O.E. siththan ; later forms, sit/Uhe, stthe, sin, sen ; sithens,
sithence, sinnes, sins1).
O. E. no but, not but = only.
(5) Verbal prepositions : —
The following prepositions arise out of a participial construction :
notwithstanding, owing to, outtaken (now replaced by except}, &c.
" Ther is non, outtaken hem (— iis exceptis)." — WICKLIFFE, Mark xii. 32.
315. III. Prepositions of Romance Origin.
(1) Uncompounded :—per, -versus, satis ( = Lat. sine).
(2) Compounded: — (a) Substantive — across, via, because, apropos
of, by means of, by reason of, by virtue of, in accordance with, in
addition to, in case of, in comparison to, in compliance with, in conse-
quence of, in defiance of, in spite of, in favour of, in front of, in lieu
of, in opposition to, in the point of, in quest of, with regard to, in reply
to, with reference to, in respect of, in search of, on account of, on tht
plea of, with a view to.
(6) Adjective — agreeably to, exclusive of, inclusive of, maugre,
minus, previous to, relatively to, around, round, round about.
(e) Verbal, active :-— during, pending, according to, barring, bating,
concerning^ considering, excepting, facing, including, passing, regard-
ing, respecting, aiding, tending, touching ; (2) passive : — except,
excepted, past, save.*
1 Sith is an adjective = O.E. sith, late ; siththan = later than, afterwards.
The root is sinth ; cp. Goth, sinih, a way.
* Many of these have arisen out of the old dative (absolute) constriction.
CHAPTER XVI.
CONJUNCTIONS.
316. CONJUNCTIONS join sentences and co-ordinate terms. Ac-
cording to meaning, they are divided into —
Co-ordinate, joining independent prepositions : (a) copulative, as
and, also, &C, ; (b) disjunctive, as or, else, &c. ; (c) adversative, as
but, yd, &c. ; (d) illative, zsfor, therefore, hence.
Snb-ordinate, joining a dependent clause to a principal sentence :
{a] those used in joining substantive clauses to the principal sentence,
as that, whether ; (b) those introducing an adverbial clause, marking
(i) time — when, while, until ; (2) reason, cause — because, for, since ;
(3) condition — if, unless, except ; (4) purpose, end — that, so, lest.
317. According to their origin, conjunctions may be divided into —
pronominal, numeral, adverbial, substantive, prepositional, verbal,
compound.
(1) Pronominal: —
And (O.Sax. endi, O.H.Ger. anti, from the stem ana).
An — if (Goth, an, O.E. ono). It is sometimes written ans
and frequently joined to if.
Eke — also (O.E. ec), hence, ho-a, so, also, as, just as, as far
as, in so far as, -whereas, lest, then, than,1 thence, no sooner than,
though,* although, therefore, that, yea, nay, what . . . and (O.E.
lehat . . . what), -whereupon, whence, whether, either, neither ;
or, nor. 3
(2) Numeral : — both, first, secondly, &c.
1 We occasionally find, as in Scotch, or and nor instead of than.
2 O. E. theah, Goth, thau-h, from the demonstrative stem the.
3 Or and nor are contractions of other, nether = either, neither.
208 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. xvi.
(3) Substantive : — sometimes . . . sometimes, "while, in case, upon
condition, in order that, otherwise, likewise ( = in like wise), on
the one hand . . . on the other hand, on the contrary, because,
besides, on purpose that, at times, if (see footnote on p. 200).
(4) Adjective (Adverbial): — even, alike, accordingly, conse-
quently, directly, finally, lastly, namely, partly . . . partly, only,
furthermore, moreover, now . . . now, anon . t . anon, lest, unless
(O.E. onlesse), &c.
(5) Prepositional: —
(a) Originally used before the demonstratives that or this : — ere,
after, before, but, for, in (that), since (sith, sithence1), till, until, with
(that) ; (6) participial : — notwithstanding, except, excepting, save,
saving, &c.
(6) Verbal : — to wit, videlicet (viz, ), say, suppose, considering, pro-
viding.
(7) Compounds, being abbreviated forms of expression: not only,*
nathless, nevertheless, nathemore (Spenser), O.E. nathemo, O.E. never
the later, that is, that is to say, may be, were it not, were it so, be it
so, be so, how be it, albeit, O.E. al if, &c.
So in O.E. we have warne, 'warn = were it not, unless (cp. O. H.Ger. nur =
tit iv&ri = were it not), equivalent to the O.E. n&re that, were it not. Cp. O.E.
guilt (•= gui ne = *hy not), O that.
1 The O.E. «>->«« = st\-\am, after that.
a Not only . . . but alst = O. E. «4 Uts tfuet *n . . . ac ecu ; tiaittless — O. E.
*? thy las ; Utt = O.E. Its the for thy las the.
CHAPTER XVII.
INTERJECTIONS.1
318. INTERJECTIONS, having no grammatical connection with
other words in a sentence, are not, strictly speaking, "parts of
speech." They are either imitations of cries expressing a sudden
outburst of feeling, as oh, ah, or are mere sound gestures, as sf, s/i.
Many words, phrases, and sentences have come to be used
interjectionally, as a/as, sounds, £c.
Interjections may express feelings of —
(1) Pain, weariness— ah, oh, O (O.Fr. a, ah, ahi, 0, ok, oki),
ay. O.E. interjections of pain are, a, ou, ow.
Welaway, welliiday (O.E. wa Id wd ; Id = lo, wd = -woe; wd Id,
Scotch waly, O. E. awey (alas).
Alas (O. F. hailas, kalas), alack, lackadaisy, alackaday, boohoo, out
alas, O dear me ( ? dio mio, my God), heigh ho, heigh, heyday, O.E.
hig.
(2) Joy — hey, heigh (Fr. he"), hey-day, hurrah, huzza, hilliho.
(3) Surprise, &c. — eh (O E. ey\ ha, ha, ha! what, why, how,
lo, la, lawk, aha (Lat ha), ho, hi,
(4) Aversion, disgust, disapproval— fy, fie, foh, fugh, faugh,
fudge, poh, pooh, pugh (Fr. pouah), bow, bah, pah? pish, pshah,
pshaw, tut, whcio, ugh (O.E. tveu), out, out on, hence, avaunt,
aroynt, begone, for shame, fiddle-faddle.
1 "Voces quae cujuscunque passionis animi pulsu per exclamntionem inter-
jiciuntur." — PRISCIAN, I>tst. Grant. \. 15, c. 7.
2 SeMen uses 6nJi as adj. : " It (child) all bedawbs it (coat) with its/rtA hands
T~ l.i.. *r~ 11,
"• / tittle i ntK.
Shakespeare has it as an interj. : " Fie,jie,_fie '.pah ! pnk ! Give me an oune«
>f civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination."— Lear, iv. 6.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. xvn.
(5) Protestation — indeed, in faith, perdy, gad,1 egad, ecod, ods, odd,
fidd's bob, odd's pettikins, udsfoot, ods bodkins, od zooks, zooks, odso,
gadso, 'sdeath, 's/i/e, zounds, 'sbud, 'sblood, lord, marry, lady, btrlady,
by'rlakin, jingo* by jingo, deuce, dyce, devil, gemminy (O gemini).
(6) Calling and exclaiming — hilloa, holla, ho, so ho, hoy, hey,
hem, harow (O.Fr.Aaro, a cry for help), help, hoa, bravo, well done,
hark, look, see, oyes, mum, hist, -whist, tut, tush, silence, peace, ir^ay,
bo, shoo, shoohoo, -whoa.
(7) Doubt, consideration — why, hum, hem (Lat. hem), humph,
what.
(8) Many interjections are what are called " imitative words," or
onomatopoeias : —
Sounds produced (a) by inanimate objects — ding-dong,
bim-bom, ting-tang, tick-tack, thwack, whack, twang, bang, whiz,
thud, whop, slap, dash, splash, clank, puff".
(b) By animate objects — bow-wow, mew, caw, purr, croak,
cock-a-doodle-do, cuckoo, tu-whit, to-whoo, tu-whu, weke-weke, ha ha.s
1 In gad, egad, od, the name of the Deity is profanely used. In the Middle
Ages people swore by parts of Christ's body, by His sides, face, feet, bones ; hair
(cp. sfitcks, God's hair;, blood, wounds (zounds, 'ad's nouns = God's wounds),
life : also by the Virgin Mary (by the mackins = by the maiden), by the mass :
also, by the pity and mercy of God, as " by Goddes ore ; " " Odd's fittikens ; "
by God's sanctities (God's sonties).
2 "Jingo, jinkers = St. Gingoulph.
3 Used to imitate the sound of a horse's neigh, as Job xxxix. 25. Luther use«
hut.
CHAPTER XVIII.
DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION,
319. ROOTS, as we have seen, are either predicative or demon-
strative, and constitute the primary elements of words. See § 58.
The root is the significative part of a word, as bair-n, O. E. ber-n,
contains the root bar, to bear. Suffixes serve to modify the root
meaning, as the n in bair-n, which is identical with the en in the
passive participle of strong verbs: heHce bairn = one bor-n or
brought forth. Thus from the verb spin, by adding the suffix -der,
lenoting the instrument or agent, we get spi-der,1 the spinner.
Suffixes were once independent words, which, by being added to
principal roots to modify their meaning, gradually lost their inde-
pendence and became mere signs of relation, and were employed
as formative elements. Cp. the origin of the adverbial suffix -lyt
which originally signified like.
To get at the root of a word we must remove all the formative
elements, and such changes of vowel as have been produced by the
addition of relational syllables.
A theme or stem is that modification that the root assumes before
the terminations of declension and conjugation are added, as love-d*
lov ( = luf) is the root ; love '.( = lufo) is the theme or stem ; -d is the
suffix of the past tense.
320. Themes are formed from roots (it) by the addition of a demonstrative root,
(2) by a change of the root vowel, (3) by "combining other stems, (4) by redupli-
cation.
In English very many formative elements have been lost, especially those of
demonstrative origin. Gothic has retained more of these suffixes, once common
to all the Aryan languages : thus from the root^ri/= give, the O.E. formed ^j/-*
a gift, f^f-ol, generous, liberal ; gif-ta, marriage dowry ; gif-te-lic, belonging to
a wedding ; gif-an, to give ; giv-en-de, giving, a giver. Here the root-^owcl a is
weakened to *'.
Gothic has gab-ei, gain, gift ; gab-ei-gs, rich ; gab-i-g-aba, richly ; gib-n, gift ;
gib-a-n, to give ; gib-and-s, a giver, giving ; other derivations might be fauna, as
gab-ig-jan, to enrich ; gab-ig-nan, to be rich.
1 In English a radical » often disappears before d, th, as tooth, O.E. toth, L«.
tontk; cp. O.H. Ger. tand, Ger. zaJtn, Lat. dent.
T 2
tt2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
In O.E. gift*, Goth. gib+a, a or visa, demonstrative particle forming a feminine
noun ; gif-ta contains the demonstrative th (as in tkf). In the Gothic gab-ei (for
gabi) the suffix forms an abstract substantive feminine ; by adding the adjective
suffix g (same as English .y in dirt-y) we $ctgaiti-f; then with the further addi
tion of the nominative sign we have gabei-gs.
Fromg'iiig' (= gabig m gabeig) we form a causative verb gab-tg-j-an, to enrich,
and by means of the demonstrative « (the sign of the passive participle) we get a
verb with a passive signification gibig-n-an, to be rich.
SUFFIXES (OF TEUTONIC ORIGIN).
3'2i. I. Nouns (Substantives and Adjectives).
(A) VOWEL SUFFIXES.
Many words have lost a vowel suffix in English fronY the earliest
fime. Cp. O.E. wulf, Aivolf, with Lat. lupu-s^ Sansk. vark-a-s ;
O.E. huttit, a hound, Goth, hund-s, Gr. KVUV, Lat. canl-s, Sansk.
shunas ( = kunas} ; O.E. dear, Goth, diu-s, Gr. Oifp, Lat^ra.
Modern English has thrown off, or reduced to silent letters, many
older vowel endings, as —
O. E. diiru, dore, a door, Goth, daura, Sansk. dvar-a, Gr. Ovpa, ;
O.E. cneow, the knee, Goth. /£«/'#, Gr. y&vv, Laf. genu.*
The suffix -ow represents in some few substantives an older suffix,
(») u, (2) wa,
(1) shad-ow = O.E: sceadu, Goth. fkathu-st
meadow *= O.E. meodu, ntcduf
(2) caHtio = O.E. cal-u, Lat. ealtius.
fallow =a O,E. feal-u, fealive, Lat. fulvus.
Mallow = O.E. tnal-u, Lat. malva.
narrow — O.E. ttearu.
sallow *= O.E. jatu, O.H.Ger. salaw.
yellow ±c O.E. geolu, Lat. gilvus.
swallow >a O.E. swal'fioe, O.H.Ger. swal-awa, Ger. schwalbe.
sinew * O.E. sinewe, seonu, O.H.Ger. senawa.
1 S = sign of nominative.
_ 2 Eng. io»rf or band corresponds to Gothic btlndi. Cp. Lat. nouns in -ia, fts
tK-ra-ia, hunger, from root ed, eat ; Gr. noun in m, as irei'-ia, poverty, from »rei>tw;
Sansk. vid-ya, knowledge.
3 In many others it is lost, even in the oldast English, t6th. too»h ; Goth, tun-
thus, &c.
SUFFIXES. 213
The same suffix exists in HUE, O.E. hi-w, heo--w; HIVE, O.K. Aiwa, a family •
ALE, O.E eahi; YARE, O.E. gearu, O.H. Ger. garaw; TRUE, O E. trcmu'
trim:, Goth, triggv-s, Sansk. dhra-va-s.
It has fallen off in many words, as bale, meal, nigh, nesh, &c. Other words
with this ending belong to the suffix y.
Cp. Lat. eq-uu-s, with Goth, aih-wu-s, O. Sax. ehu, Sansk. as/iva.
Y- — In O.E. we find this suffix under the form ig* used to form
adjectives from substantives — busy = O.E. bys-ig; dizzy, O.E.
fl&W^f.
So, bloody, crafty, dusty, foamy, holy, hungry, heavy, mighty,
moody, many, silly, thirsty, -weary.
It can be added to almost any substantive, as briery, fiery, earthy,
•woody, &c.
It is added also to Romance roots, as savoury, flowery.
In the following words we find a suffix '-ig or h, which has been
softened down in some cases to ow or y : — body, O.E. bod-ig, O.H.
Ger. potah ; honey, O.E. hunig, O.H. Ger. hon-ang ; sallow, O.E.
salig, sal-h, O. H. Ger. sal-aha, Lat. salix, Gr. TJ/U'KJJ ; holtou,
Swed. holig.
(B) CONSONANT SUFFIXES.
K2 (-ock, -kin, -ing, -ish, -ling).
(1) Ock (O.E. ucd] adds a diminutive sense to bullock (O.E.
bnll-nca, the root), buttock, hummock, hillock, jaddock, finnoik,
mullock, ruddock.
Haw-k, milk, silk, yolk, smack (boat, O.E. nacd] contain this
suffix.
In Lowland Scotch dialect we find manttock, laddock, lassock, wifock.
Proper names too, as Da-vock, Bessock.
It is sometimes reduced to -ick, as tassick, cp. ivif-Tikie, little wife ; drappukie,
little drop.
In proper names the suffix appears, as Pollock (from Paul],
Baldock (from Baldwin), Wilcock, IVilcox (from William).
(2) Kin (diminutival). — Bumf kin, buskin, firkin, kilderkin, lad-
kin, lambkin, nap-kin.
1 This g represents an Aryan ka, which is represented by -ha., -ga, in Gothic,
as steina-ha, stony ; mahtei-gn, mighty. In Latin and Greek it appears in
numerous words, as hosticus, urbicus ; nuAejuiKuv, UITTUKOS.
2 Originally ka. It is of pronominal origin ; with a connecting vowel it would
SLisume also the forms of aka, ika, uka, &c.
It must be recollected that ng is the corresponding nasal to k, g, &c. Hence,
we find the original forms ika, tika, becoming ing, ung. Ka could be weakened
to ki, and this with ar. additional n would produce kin ; with a preceding / we get
ling - ; with s, we have af&tt weakened to is£ or ish.
2i4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
In proper names, as Dawkin (David], Simkin (Simon), Jenkins,
(Jo'.n), Perkins (Peter).
(3) I°& (patronymic).— O.E. Sciif-ing,tiMSaa.dSk8f; Elising,
the son of Elisa (Elisha). Cp. names of towns in -ing-ton.
(4) Ing (ending in substantives which originally had an adjectival
meaning). — Atheling, king (O.E. cyn-ing*), lord-ing (lordling),
penny (O.E. pend-ing, pen-ing), shilling, herring, whiting, gelding,
sweeting.
(5) Ing (diminutive). — Farthing, riding ( = trithing), O.E.
tithing (tenth).
These forms are properly fractional. Cp. O.N. tkrithjungr, J, fj6rthun.gr, \.
(6) Ling = 1 + ing (diminutive).
(a) Darling, duckling, foundling, gosling, starling, sapling, seed-
ling, suckling, yearling, youngling.
(b) It has a depreciative sense in groundling, hireling, -world-
ling, &c.
(7) The diminutival -ing seems to have weakened to y (*V), in
Billy, Betty ; cp. Scotch lassie, laddie.*
(8) Ing (suffix of verbal nouns = O.E. ung-3}. — Being, clothing,
cheaping (O.E. ceapung), learning (O.E. leornung).
(9> Ish (O.E. -isc\—(i) English, Irish, Welsh, Scotch; (2) out-
landish, heathenish, womanish, bookish, hoggish ; (3) reddish, greet' ish,
sweetish.
L, R«(el, er).
(a) Substantives in -le, -I, O.E. -el (-ol, -ul, -/), as angle (= O. E.
ang-el), apple, beadle, bramble, bridle, devil, bundle, fiddle, ic-icle,
kettle, nettle, navel, runnel, saddle, sladdle, shambles, sickle, settle,
•
1 Cp. Sansk./<j«-a^a, a father, producer; from jan, to produce. Sansk. pu-
traka, a little son ; from/a/r/z, a son.
3 In the province of Mecklenburg we find -ing so used. Jehanning = Johnny;
kindling, laddy. But ie may be a softening of -ick = ock.
3 -Ing in O.E. (fourteenth century) represented (i) -ung, (2) -ende, -inde,
(3) -enne; it now represents (i) -vng, (2) -ende, -inde.
4 These two suffixes represent an Aryan ar (al). They are not, as is usually
affirmed in English Grammars, diminutive suffixes, but denote the agent, instru-
ment, &c. Cp. Lat. sel-la (= sed-la), seat ; agilis, active. Gr. /9ri-Xo-r, threshold.
KdMW-i/Xo-c, bent. Lat. ca-ru-s, dear. Gr. »t*-p6-s, corpse.
xvi IT.] SUFFIXES. 215
steeple, thistle, tile, throstle, whistle, fowl, hail, heel, nail, sail, tail,
soul, wheel.
In the Scotch dialect el has become re!, as betherel = beadle ; gangrel, a beggar,
cp. mong-rel.
(b) Adjectives in -le, -1 (O.E. -el, -ol), as little = O.E. lytel ;
fickle = O. E. fic-ol ; brittle, et'il, ill, idle, mifkle, tickk (unsteady).
O.E. drunk-el-rw, cost-l-ew, chok-l-ewt, sic-l-ew.
(c) Substantives in r (O.E. -or, -er, -r), a? hammer (O.E. hamor),
wat-er (O.E. water), tear (O.E. teag-or, tear, tar).
Adder, bee-r, beaver, bcnu.'r, calver, chafer, finger, hunger, liver, lair,
summer, silver, stair, timber, tear, thunder, wonder, water, winter.
(d) Adjectives in -r (O.E. -or, -er, -r), bitter, fair, lither, slipper-y
(O.E. sliper, and slider), meagre.
M.1
(1) Blossom, bloo-m (O.E. blo-ma), besom (O.E. bes-ma), groom
(O. E. gu-ma\ helm of ship (O. E. heal-ma], thumb (O. E. thu-ma),
team (O.E. teo-ma).
(2) A shortened form of this suffix 2 is fpnnd in arm, barm, beam,
bottom, bosom, doom, dream, fathom, gleam, halm, helm, holm, home,
palm, qualm, seam, stream, slim, team, worm.
Adjectives : war-m (cp. Lat. Jbr-mu-s, warming ; Gr. 0fp-/j.6-s ;
Sansk. ghar-ma-s, warm) ; O.E. ar-m, poor.
(3) A suffix ma appears in superlatives with m, as for-m-ost, ut-
m-ost, &c.
N.
Participles : broken, beaten, hew-n,z &c.
Substantives : bai-rn, beacon, burden, churn, chin, corn, heaven,
iron(Q. E. tren}, kitchen, maiden, main, morn, oven, rain, raven, thane,
' Originally man. Cp. O.E. na-ma; Lat. no-men; Sansk. nd-man ; Gr. THTI-
/u^ (opinion >.
We nnd this suffix in the participles of the present, perfect, and future tenses
in Greek and Sanskrit, as Gr. dido-pf n>-c, re-rvft-^ti oc ; Sansk. dfrsya-mfaias —
2 ;« for wM°(or mi), as dim, O.H.Ger. tou-m, smoke, Lat. /u-mus, Sansk.
dliu-ma; luilm, Lat. cala-mu-s, Sansk. kala-ma-s. _
3 OriKinally na. We find this suffix in Sanskrit passive participles, as bhug-tui-s^
bent ; bhag-na-s, broken ; in Gr. nouns of participial origin, as Ttn-vo-v, child, —
brought forth ; in Lat. adj., a*ple-nu-s, full (i.e. filled).
It is no doubt of demonstrative origin = this, that, here; hence, like the ^rfot
the passive participles of weak verbs, it denotes possession.
216 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
rjrine, token, thorn, yarn, weapon, -wain; vixen,1 O.E. -wolvene,
dovene, &c.
Adjectives : (l) aspen, ashen, buchen, brazen, flaxen, birchen,
glassen, golden, heathen, leaden, linen, oaken, oaten, silken, -w-.
wooden ; (2) brcnvn, even, fain, green, lean, heathen, stern; (3) eastern,
northern, southern, western.
These last contain suffix r + n.
In chick-en, kitten, the suffix -en has a diminutival force.
N, ND.»
Eve, even, evening (O.E. cefen, O. S. abanl, O. Fris. a-vend},
elephant (O.E. olfend, Goth, ulbandus, Lat. elephantus), errand*
(O.E. cer-end), fiend* (O.E. fiond, feond), friend* (O.E. freond,
friond), youth6 (O.E. geogoth, O. H. Ger. jungu-nd), tiding (O.E.
tidende\ wi-nd.7
All present participles in the oldest English ended in -nd (-ende,
-ande ; later, -/«<£, -end, -and, -inge).
S.8
I. Addice, adze (O.E. adesa) ; dLr<? (O.E. «wr; Goth, aqw-izi);
bliss (from M/&r : cp. O. E. #»/&<?, from /«//</) ; eaves (O. E. ^/fer<r).
Sel.
II. Axle (O.E. «**/,?; Gr. achsel) ; >*(7w^/ (O.E. M-sel, hu-sl ;
Goth, hun-sl, a sacrifice), ousel, ouzel ^O.E. ^/<f/ O.H.Ger. am-isala).
L (= Is).
From the combination -Is, the j has dropt off in modern English.
Burial (O.E. byrgels, a burying- place); bridle (O.E. bridels};
1 The original meaning is of or pertaining to the fox ; the feminine suffix (e)
is lost. See remarks on vij:rn under GENIJEK.
2 Originally a participial suffix, cp. O.E. terende ; Goth, baira-nd-s ; Lat.
ferens ; Gr. f>fpui> (<pff»o»Toc).
3 From root <w, to be quick. 4 From^rt«, to hate.
5 Yrom/reon, to love.
6 We find youngth in the sixteenth-century writers, as if it were formed from
young.
7 From a root v&, to blow.
8 I. In the allied languages we find a suffix -as (ta, is) in abstract substantives.
and by metathesis -els, as O.E. rtrdeU ; Ger. r&tluel; (*' to the suffix tu (or /a),
whence (i) -assu (Gothic I, and (2) by addition of «, nassu; O.E. »t», «£«;
O.H.Ocr. w/jjj, nisti, aiss, nass; (3) «/, (4) by addition of r, ester (estre}.
xvin.] SUFFIXES. 217
girdle (O.K. gyrdels); riddle (O.E. reedels) ; skittles (O.E. scyttels =
that which is shot forward, a bolt, bar).
N-ess.
This suffix is added to (a) adjectives, as greatness, goodness, sick-
ness, sweetness; (b) substantives, as witness, wilderness (O.E. -wild-
eorness).
It enters into combination with Romance words ending in -able,
-a/, -ant, -ar, -ary, -ate, -able, -ible, -ic, -ous, &c.
Est. Earnest, harv-est.
Ster. Bolster, holster.
Ster (O.E. istre), originally a sign of the feminine gender, as
spinster, huckster, &c. See Gender, g 73, p. 89.
Upholsterer was originally (i) ttpholder, (2) upholster.
D, originally th.1
(1) It occurs in (a) participles, as praised, lowed ; (6) in adjectives
with a possessive sense (cp. -en in broken and wood-en}, as horned,
feathered, hilted, booted, an hungered, good-hearted, thick-lipped.
(c) Substantives — blood, blade, deed, Jlood, gleed, gold, head, seed,
speed, shield, thread.
(d) Adjectives — bold, cold, dead, loud, naked, wicked (O.E. wicce,
wikke).
(2) Under the form th it is found in abstract substantives derived
from adjectives and verbs.
Preceded by a sharp mute, &c. th is changed to t.
Substantives — craft, dart, drought, flight, gift, height, knight, loft,
night, might, slaught-er, sight, theft, draught, weight, new-t, ef-t,
gannet, hornet, hart, len-ten (O. E. lenc-t-en, leng-t-en, from long,
long). Dearth, death, depth, health, length, mirth, strength, sloth,
tilth, truth, warmth, birth, earth, kith.
Adjectives — bright, light, right, salt, swift, left.
Sometimes a euphonic j strengthens the dental, as be-hest, bla-s-t,
du-s-t, fi-s-t, mixen (and muck) = O.E. meox, meohx ; Goth, maih-
s-tu-s.
1 Th. is a pronominal stem, as in the, that. Under the form tn (iu) this suffix
appears in Sanskrit and Latin p. participles, as Sansk. jna-ta-s — Lat. na-tu-s. It
occurs in Gr. adjectives that have a passive meaning, as TTO-TO-J;, c'.rink, $>iX-n-
TC>-£, beloved. In English p. participles it appears as d, in love-d, or /, as in
brought. In uncou-th we have the original form of the suffix.
2 1 8 ENGLISH A CCIDENCE. [c HA!>.
Ther.1
(1) This suffix, marking the agent, occurs in terms of relationship
common to all the Aryan languages — brother, daughter, father,
mother, sister.
(2) It is found in other substantives, under the forms -ther, -der,
-ter, -die (marking the instrument) : —
Pother, feather, weather, bladder, fodder, foster, ladder, murder,
rudder, laughter, needle (O.E. n&dl ; Goth, ne-thla ( = ne-thra), cp.
Gr. -rpf, -Spo, -Spa ; -r\o, -TAT;, -8Ao, -5A7j ; Lat nouns in tru-m,
&c. as ara-tru-m, fulgetra, lightning).
(3) See comparatives in -ther, § 113, p. 106.
Er (O.E. ere — er + a demonstratively Goth, ei-s; O.H.Ger.
-an),2 as baker, O.E. bacere.
(1) This suffix forms nouns from (a) strong verbs, as grinder, rider,
speaker, singer ; (l>) weak verbs, as leader, lover, lender ; (c) from
substantives, as miller, gardener, changer, treasurer.
(2) Some few words have i inserted before er, probably under the
influence of Norman French : collier, clothier, glazier, laivyer.
II. Noun Suffixes from Predicative Roots.
322. The following formations might really be treated under the
head of Composition : —
i. SUBSTANTIVES.
Craft (O.E. craft), priest-craft, book-craft, leech-craft, star-craft,
•wood-craft.
Cp. O.E. staf-cnzft (= letter-craft), grammar.
Kind (O.E. cyn), mankind.
Cp. O.E. treow-cyn (tree-kind), wood.
The suffix kin in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries became
less frequently used than in the earlier periods, and the word kin
was employed instead, as " alles kinnes bakes" = books of every kind ;
hence arose the followirig compounds : — alleskyns, noskynnes, nakin,
whatkin. Cp.
" Saga me hvoat bk-kittna and hu fela syndon." — Sol. and Sat.
' ' Quatkin (= whatkin) man mai this be ? " — Cursor Mvndi.
1 In Sansk. Gr. and Lat. -tar, -ter, is the suffix employed to form nontina
agentis: cp. Sansk. patar ; iraTJjp ; LaA,fater; O. 'S.. fader, father, &c. from the
root fa, fa, to feed.
2 £i* (=y-as) in Gothic (-a, -e, in O.E.) denotes the agent. Haird-ei = O.E.
herde ; Ger. hirt-e. Cp. O.E. hunta, hunt-er ; ivebba, weaver.
xvrii.] SUFFIXES. 2 IG
Dom1 (O.E. ddm, judgment, authority, dominion ; Ger. -thum),
thraldom, iialidom, wisdom, kingdom (O.E. kine-dom), dukedom.
Ern (O.E. ern ; O.N. rann, house), bar-n, from bere, barley.
Cp. O. E. sl&pern, a sleeping place ; horseni, a stable.
Fare (way, course). Thorough-fare, chaffer, -welfare.
Ard (O.E. heard, hard, cp. mtegen-heard, might-hard, iren-heard,
iron-hard ; O. H. Ger. -hart ; O.Fr. -ard) ; bast-ard, bayard, braggart,
buzzard, coward, dullard, laggard, haggard, niggard, sluggard, stag-
gard. standard, sweetheart. But dastard — O. E. dastrod, frightened.
Hood, head (O.E. had, state, rank, person, character; later forms
-hed, hod; O.Fris. hed ; O.H.Ger. -heit).
(1) Manhood, childhood, brotherhood, godhead, maidenhead.
(2) Hardihood, likelihood; livelihood, which originally meant liveli-
ness, but it now stands for the O. E. lif-lode ( = life-leading} sustenance.
Lock (O.E. Zdc, gift, sport), wed-lock, knowledge (O.E. cnowlach,
cncr^ilech = cnawlac).
Lock, -lick (O.E. -leac, -lie) in the names of plants — leek (O. E. leaf) ; bar-
ley (O.E. berlic — bere plant) ; garlick (spear plant) ; hem-lock, char-lock.
Meal (O.E. w^/,time division), uvder-meal — noontide, cp. piece-
meal. See adverbs, § 311, p. 194.
Red (O.E. -rMen = mode, fashion); hat-red, kin-d-red (O.E.
kyn-red).
Rick (O.E. rice = power, dominion) ; bishofrick, cp. O.E.
hcfeiicrichc, kinerick ( = kine-ricke ; kine = royal).
Ship (O.E. scipe, scepe — shape, manner, form); friendship,
lordship, worship, hardship, land-skip, land-scape (cp. O.N. land-
skapr ; O.E. landscipe).
Wright (O.E. wyrhta, wrihte, a workman), whed-wrigkt, play-
Tree (wood), axle-tree, O.E. dore-tre (door-post, bar of a door).
Beam (tree), horn-beam.
Monger (dealer), coster-monger, news-monger.
2. ADJECTIVES.
Fast (O.E. fast, fast, firm), steadfast, shamefaced ( = O.E. shame*
fast), root fast, soothfast.
Fold (O.Y..feald, fold), two-fold, manifold.
Ful (O.E.>/, full), hateful, wilful (= O.E. willesful)^ _
' Dom (or doo-m) is formed from the verb do, just as Wui j from n'eM/u.
22o ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Less (O.E. leds ; Goth, laus), loose from; it has no connection
tfith less, the comp. ot little ; fearless, joyless, guiltless.
Ly, like (O.E./fr; Goth, -leiks; O.N. -Hkr, -le'gr; Lat. -Us; Gr.
-\IKOS), godly, manly, goodly, sickly ; cp. warlike, dovelike.
Some (O.E. jww; O.N. -samr ; O. H.Ger. sam = same, like),
blithesome, buxom ( = bugh-som), fulsome, irksome, gamesome.
Teen, ty = ten. See Numerals, § 129, p. 112.
Ward (O.E. weard ; Goth, -wairths, becoming, leading to : con-
nected with weorthan, to be, Sansk. vrit, Lat vert-ere, to turn),
jlr;oardt toward, untoward.
Wise (O.E. wts, mode, way, manner) ; righteous (O.E. riht-wts,
rightwise) ; boisterous (O. E. bostwys).
Worth (O.E. weorth, worthy dear-worth (precious), stalworth.
III. Adverbial Suffixes.
For the suffixes -es,*s, -urn, &c. see Adverbs-, § 311, pp. 193—196.
Ly (O.E. lice, the dative of lie, like), only, utterly, wickedly,
willingly.
Ling, long (O.E. -lunga, -linga, nasalized forms of -tfce, -l&ce),
darkling, headlong, sideling, sidelong. See Adverbs, § 311 ; O.E.
noseling, backling, &c.
Meal, piece-meal, flock-meal (used by Chapman), limb-meal
(Cymbeline, iL 4). See p. 219.
Ward, wards, hitherward, backwards, downwards, &£.
Wise (manner, mode), otherwise, nowise, likewise.
Way-s. See Adverbs, p. 194.
IV. Verbal Suffixes.
The verbal suffixes, which we find in Gothic and Old English, have
nearly all disappeared. *
The oldest Teutonic verbal suffixes were, as in Gothic, d)/a (ei), (2) d (•= A),
(3) ai, all of which can be traced to a more primitive suffix aya (from the root
I = go).
Thus the suffix 6 was used to form verbs from nominal themes, as from Gothic
fisk-s, a fish, came./£i&>«, O. E. fisc -ia-n, to fish.
A few causative verbs in modern English are expressed by vowel
change, but the suffix that caused it has been lost. 1
* Qf.faratt, to goitre, xnd/er-ian, carry, Jerry.
xvi 1 1.) SUFFIXES.
O.E.
INTR.
CAUS.
INTR.
CAUS.
to fall
to fell
feallan
fellan
to drink
to drench
drincan
drencan
to lie
to lay
licgan
lecgan
to sit
to set
sittan
settan
to rise
to raise
risan
rjeran, rassan
to wind
to wend
windan
wendan
The suffix used for causative verbs was originally aya, an extension of root t, to
go ; cp. Sansk. kar-aya->ni, I cause to make. This aya appears in Gothic as fa
as sat-ja, I set (Sansk. sad-aya-mi, from sita, I sit ; lag-ja, I lay, from lig-a, I lie'.
In Sanskrit we find a causative suffix/, in Lat./ and c, as Sansk. ya-p-ayA-mi,
I cause to go ; Lat. ja-c-io, cp. rap-io. This/ becomes/in English, as ivea-v-c ;
cp. O.E. bif-ian, to tremble, from a root bi (Sansk. Mi), to fear.
S occurs in verbs formed1 from nominal stems, as clean-se,1 curse,
wanze (to wane), tru-st (O.E. treowsian), cp. clasp (root clap), grasp
(root grap, grip), lisp (root lip).
N originally added a reflexive or passive sense to the verb, as
learn, from lere; but it has now a causative meaning, as fatten,
sweeten, lengthen, strengthen.
L,2 which adds to the root the sense of frequency, repetition,
diminution, &c. — bustle, crankle, crimple, dribble, drizzle, grapple,
dangle, dazzle, kneel, nestle, prowl, settle, sparkle, startle, &c.
R adds a frequentative or intensive signification — bluster, flitter,
flutter, glitter, hanker.
K (frequentative) — hark, from hear, lurk, stalk, skulk, walk, talk.
323. COMPOSITION.
Two or more words are joined together to make a single term
expressing a new notion, as orchard, nightingale, handiwork.
In Gothic we find a zvu>el3 between the roots, as aurti-gards, O.E. ort-gcard
= orchard, luittdu-ivaiirnts, O.E. haHd-gf-lutore, handiwork.
Nightingale =a O.E. nikte-gale, Ger. nathtegaU, O. H.Ger. naktigala = night-
singer.
In O.E. we find nighter-tale (= «.ihte-tale), night-time.
1 This s was used to form substantives from adjectives, as &tiss from blithe, and
properly belongs to the nominal stem.
- This / seems to have come into use through verbs from nouns in -/, as whistle,
saddle, &.C.
5 This vowel belongs to the nominal stem, as Goth, ka^du-s, hand, aurti =s
aurtts = wort (herb).
222
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[CHAP.
I. Substantive Compounds,
(i) Substantive and Substantive.
(a) Descriptive, as gar-lick, spear-plant, even-tide, noon-tide,
thurch-yard, head-man.
(6) Appositional, as oak-tree, beech-tree.
(c) Genitive, as kinsman, Tuesday, doomsday.
Leadsman and guardsman had no J in the oldest English.
(d) Accusative, as man-killer, blood-shedding.
Compounds like Lord-lieutenant, earl-marshal are of French origin.
In many compound terms the elements have become changed or
obsolete, and are not easily recognized.
O.E.
hang-nail
=• ang-ntzgele*- = a sore under the nail
ban-dog
= bond-doge — a dog chained up
bar-n
= bere-arn =• barley-house
brim-stone
= bren-ston = burn-stone
bridal
= bryd-ealu = j bride jle, *>. bride-
gospel
= god-spell = God's word 2
grunsel
= grund-syl = ground-sil
heifer
= hed-fore* = stall-cow
huzzy
= hus-wif = housewife
icicle
= ts-gicel = ice-jag
Lammas
= hl&f-masse — loaf-mass
mole
— mold-weorp = mould-thrower
auger
= nafo-ger, navegar •=• naveborer
nostril
= nose-thyrel — nose-hole
orchard
= ort-geard, ort-yard = herb garden
stirrup
'= stig-rdp = climbing-rope
( guardian of cattle,
steward
= stige-weard — j domestic offices, &c.
• ( stige = sty, stall
shelter
= scild-truma •= troop-shield
tadpole
( t&d = toad, frog, ) , . t, .
~ i and pol = pool \ = toad « the P°o1
titmouse
= t'^e— little, and m&se— hedge-sparrow
ivofld
1 -werold (wer = man
~ | + eld = age).
1 *"£ = sore, pain. a Some say gospel =. good tidings.
3 Hea a* pen, stall ;/t»-e = cow, connected with O.E../ear, bull, ox.
xviii.] SUBSTANTIVE COMPOUNDS. 223
(2) Substantive and Adjective — free-man, mid-day, mid-night,
mid-summer, black-bird, alder-man.
Cp. neighbour = O. E. nedh-bur = one who dwells near
mid-riff = O.E. mid-hrif: mid = middle ; Artf = body, uterus.
(3) Substantive and Numeral — twi-light, sen-night, fort-night.
(4) Substantive and Pronoun — self-will, self-esteem.
(5) Substantive and Verb — grind-stone, -whet-stone, pin-fold, wag-
tail, rear-mouse, bake-house, wash-house, wash-tub, pick-pocket, spend-
thrift, &c.
Distaff = O.E. distcef, dyse-stafe, Prov. E. dise — to supply the
staff with flax (dise = flax, hence to supply flax).
A substantive is often qualified by another substantive, to which
it is joined by a preposition, as man-of-war, will-o'-the-wisp, Jack-a-
lantern^- brother-in-law, &c.
II. Adjective Compounds,
1. Substantive and Adjective, in which the substantive has the
force of an adverb, as blood-red — red as blood, snow-white —
white as snow, sea-sick = sick through the sea, fire-proof — proof
against fire, cone-shaped, eagle-eyed, coal-evcd, lion-hearted.
2. Adjective and Substantive, denoting possession, as barefoot.
Cp. O.E. clckn-heort = having a clean heart, an-eage = having
one eye.
In the corresponding modern forms the substantive has taken the
participial suffix (perfect) of weak verbs, as bare-footed, bare-headed,
one-eyed, three-cornered, four-footed. *
3. Participial combinations, in which the participle is the last
element.
(a) Substantive and present participle, in which the first element
is the object of the second, as earth-shaking, heart-rending.
(l>) Adjective and present participle, in which the first element is
equivalent to an adverb, as deep-musing, fresh-looking, ill-looking.
1 a = o — of. We sometimes find man-a-war, two-a-clock, &c. : Cp. " He is
exceedingly censur*d by the Innes-a-Court men." — EAELK'S Micro-Coimographil,
p. 41-
2 Just as the suffix -en denotes possession in golden, &T., so does -ed in such
words as booted, shouldered, forms to which Spenser and other Elizabethan writers
are very partial.
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
(f) Substantive and perfect participle, as ale-fed, book-learned,
death-doomed, earth-born, moth-eaten, sea-torn, -wind-fallen. (Cp.
chap-fallen, brawn-fallen.')
(d) Adjective and perfect participle, as dear-bought, full-fed, high-
finished, new-made, well-bred, fresh-blown, high-born, dead-drunk,
hard-gotten.
III. Verbal Compounds.
1. Substantive and verb. — Back-bite, blood-let, brow-beat, hood-
wink, kiln-dry, ham-string.
2. Adjective and verb. — Dry-nurse, dumb-found, white-wash.
3. Adverb and verb. — Cross-question, dojf( = do-off), don (— do-
on), dout ( = do-out), dup ( = do-up).
324. COMPOSITION WITH TEUTONIC PARTICLES. •
(A) Inseparable Particles.
I. A.
(1) A (O.K. d; Goth, us; O.H.Ger. -ur, -ar, -A; Ger. -er\
added to verbs, originally signified from, out, away, back, (a) From
the meaning of from, away, arises a privative, or opposite signifi-
cation, as O. E. wendan, to turn ; a-wendan, turn away, subvert.
(b) It does not always alter the root-meaning, but merely intensifies
it, as O.E. abidan, to abide.
(i.) Ago, alight, arise, arouse (cp. O.E. aby* awreke, aslake, arere,
ahange); (ii.) abide, awake.
(2) A (O.E. A; Goth, diw ; O.H.Ger. fa: cp. Gr. dtl), ever,
always. See aught (pi 146), either (p. 149).
(3) A = on (O.E. an) : a-way, a-gain, &c. See p. 2OI.
(4) A (O.E. at, at) =*back, like Latin re; O.E. at-wite = <ri-
viitan = reproach ; Eng. twit.
(5) A = of: adown = O.E. of -June.
(6) A (= O.E. ge,y), as a-like (O. E. geltc)* among (O.E. ge-
mang), a-ware (O.E. ge-wcere, i-ware).
* aby = abuy = pay for, atone for ; corrupted into abide by Milton.
3 This is the usual view taken of the origin of alike, but it would be mort
correct to regard it as another form of O.E. on-lic, art-iicfi — alike.
xviii.] TEUTONIC PARTICLES. 225
In the seventeenth century we find anough — enough (O. E.
genoh, ino5) ', along (of) = on account of (O.E. gelang, ilong).
Ready — O. E. iredy — ge-nzd.
(7) A (O.E. -and ; Goth, -anda), back.
A-long (O.E. and-latig, end-long, an-long) ; a-cknowledge (O.E.
ackncnu = oncndwan ; O.Sax. ant-kennjan) : cp. to an-swer = O.E.
andswarian ; ambassador = O.E. ambeht, Goth, and-bahts.
(8) A (= O.E. of), like Lat. per, is an intensitive : — rt-shamed
(— O.E. of-ashajned), a-thirst (— O.E. of thirst).
II. Be (O.E. be, bi, big) is identical with the preposition by.
(1) It adds an intensitive force to transitive verbs, as bedaub,
besmear, &c.
(2) It renders intransitive verbs transitive, as bespeak, bethink.
(3) It has a privative meaning in be-head.
(4) It enters into combination with substantives to form verbs,
as be-friend, be-knave, be-night, be-troth.
(5) It is added to Romance roots, as be-charm, be-flatter, be-siege,
be-tray.
Be-lieve = O.E. gelyfan, Ger. glauben ; be-reave — O.E. reafian;
bc-gin — O.E. on-ginnan.
(6) It is also added to nouns, as be-Jealf, be-hest, be-hoof, be-qucst,
by-blow, by-name, by-path, by-stander, by-way, by-word.
(7) It forms part of adverbs, as be-fore, be-sides, be-cause.
III. For (O.E. for; Goth, faur, fair, fra ; Lat. per) - through,
throughly, adds an intensitive meaning, as far-bid, for-do, far-give,
for-get, far-swear^- far-lorn.
In some words it is equivalent to amiss, badly, as fore-deem, fore-
spent, fure-speak, fore-shamed : cp. O.E. for-shapen, transformed very
much, mis-shapen, far-wounded — very much wounded, and hence
badly wounded. 2
It enters into combination with a few Romance roots, as for-
barred, for-judge, far-fend ( = forbid), far-guess.
1 Cp. Lat. per-jurare = to swear out and out, and hence, to swear falsely;
ptr-eo —perish = Q.Y,.for-fare — to go through to the death.
1 Cp. O.E. far-dry, very dry ; far-wet, very well.
O
226 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
IV. Fore (O.E.>;r) = before.
( I ) \Y ith verbs— -fore-bode, fore-cast, fore-tell.
(2) With participles— -fore-said, fore-told, fore-dated.
(3) With substantives— -fere-father, fore-castle, fore-sight.
V. Gain (O.E. g<rgtt, on-g<zgn, a-gain, back, again), against.
Gain-say, gain-stand, gain-strive: cp. O.E. ayen-bite = remorse*
d&n-byggen = to redeem.
VI.
I-iuiss (O.E. gezviss), truly. See alike, among (p. 224), cnoitg/t
(O.E. genoh, inoh).
VII. Mis- (O.E. mis; Goth, missa; O.X. mis), defect, error,
evil.1
Mis-behave, mis-call, mis-trust, mis-deed.
In French compounds mis- = French mes-, from Lat. minus ; as
mis-c/iief, mis-chance; O.E. mes-chef, mes-chaunce.
VIII. Nether (O.E. nither), down, downward, below.
Nether-stocks (used by Shakespeare, as opposed to upper-stocks, or
breeches), Nether-lands.
IX. Sand (O.E. af«), half.
Sand-blind = sam-blind (Shakespeare) : cp. O.E. sdm-curic (half-
alive).
X. To (Goth, dis; O.N. tor; O.H.Ger. zar, zer ; Lat. dis- ;
Gr. 5.-)-
This particle is of very frequent occurrence in Old English, signi-
fying asunder, in pieces ; it is sometimes intensitive, as to-bite, to-
cleave, to-rend, to-teaf ; it is often strengthened by the word all
( = quite) : " And a certain woman cast a piece of a. millstone
upon Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull" (Judges ix. 53).
All-to-brakt = broke quite in pieces. See All, p. 227.
1 In O. E. titys — wrong : —
" Als Innocentes that never dyd rays."
HAMPOLE, P. of C., I. 3289.
It is sometimes used for less, as —
" Sixtene more ns tnis."— IXJNELICH, San Graal, p. 52.
xvin.] TEUTONIC PARTICLES. 227
To is sometimes the ordinary preposition, as in O.E. to-name, an
additional name ; to-nefyen, to approach. In adverbs it is found in
to-day, to-morrow, to-night ; O.E. to-year — this year, to-whils =
whilst.
XI. Un (O.E.on; Goth, and; Ger. ent), back. See (7) A, p. 225.
Un-bind, un-do, un-lock, un-windJ-
XII. Un (O.E. ^ln}, not, as tin-true, tin-wise, un-ready, un-told,
•un-truth.
XIII. Wan (O.E. wan : cp. O.E. wana; Goth, -wans, wanting),
denoting deficiency, wan-ting in, is equivalent to un- or dis-.
Wanhope, despair ; wan-trust, wanton ( =• -wan-towen — untrained,
uneducated, wild, from O.E. teon [p.p. togen, toweii], to lead).
XIV. ; With (O.E. with, a shortened form of wiSer, back,
against), back, against.
With-draw, with-hold, with-say, with-stand.
(B) Separable Particles.
I. After (O.E. after), after-growth, after-math, after-dinner.
Eft (O.E. eft, eft}, eft-soons.
II. All (O.E. <zl, eal), all-mighty, all-wise, &c.
In O.E. al = quite. It is added (i) to participles, as al-brent —
quite burnt, al-heled = quite concealed, &c. ; (2) to verbs, as al-
breken, to break entirely. It also comes before verbs compounded
with the particle to.
"Wickliffe has many of these forms, as al-to-brenne — to bum up
entirely ; the particle to- probably becoming weakened.
In Elizabethan and later writers ail-to — altogether, quite ; the
original meaning of to having been lost sight of.
All to topple (Pericles, iii. 2, 17) = topple altogether ; all to
nought ( Venus and Adonis, 993) ; ail-to ruffled (Milton).
III. Forth (O.E./ortA).
Forth-coming, forth-going.
IV. Fro, from (O.E. fram ; O.N. fro).
From-ward, fro-ward.
1 In the Durham Gospels we find -unbinda, undda ; La3amco has vnbindtn
vndon ; Or»i. has ««« sperren, unbar, open.
Q 2
228 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
V. In (O.E. in, inn).
In-come, in-wit, in-land, iii-sight, in-lorn, in-bred, in-sfep, in*
•ward, in-lay, in-fold.
In many verbs it has been replaced by a Romance form (en, em),
as en-dear, en-ligkten, cn-tainc, em-bitter, em-bolden.
VI. Of, off (O.E. of; Goth, af ; O.H.Ger. aba), from, off.
Of-fal, off-set, off-scum, off-spring.
A-thirst (= O.E. of-lhyrst); an-hungred (= O.E. of-hyngred) :
cp. O. E. adreden and of-dreden; afcren and of-feren. See (8) A, p. 225.
VII. On (O.E. on) — upon, forward.
On-set, on-slaught, cm-want.
VIII. Out, Ut (O.E. lit).
Out-bud, out-pour, out-root, out-breathe, out-break, out-cast, out-side,
out-post, out-law, ut-ter, ut-most.
It has sometimes the sense of beyond, over, as out-bred, out-Jo,
out-flank.
IX. Over (O.E. ofer), above, beyond, exceedingly, too much.
(1) "With substantives and adjectives. — Oz'er-coat, over-flow, over*
joy, over-poise, over-big, over-cold, over-curious : cp. O.E. over-
hand- = upper hand.
(2) With verbs. — (i) over-flow, over-fly, over-gild, over-hang,
over-spread, over-throw. (2) over-burden, over-build, over-dry, over-
drunk, over-carry, over-fatigued. (3) over-hear, over-look, over-see.
X. Thorough, through1 (O.E. thurh, thurith ; Goth, thairh).
Thorough-fare, thorough-bred, through-train.
XI. Under (O.E. under).
(1) With verbs. — (i) Under-go, undcr-stand, under-fake. (2)
under-let, under-sdl, under-prize.
(2) With substantires. — Under-growth, under-wood.
XII. Up (O.E. up).
(1) With verbs.— Up-bear, up-braid (O.E. obraide), up-ho!d,
up-set.
(2) With substantives. — Up-land, up-start, up-shot.
(3) With adjectives. — Up-right, up-ward.
1 Through, is connected with a root tfuir, cognate with Sansk. tar (tri), to go
beyond : cp. Lat. tra-m.
xvm.1 SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN. 229
325. SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN.
I. Vowel Endings.
Many words of French origin have lost an original vowel, as —
Beast: O.E. bate ; O.Fr. beste ; Lat. bestia.
Vein: O.E. veyne ; Fr. veine ; Lat. vena.
Fig: Q.~E..fyge; Q.Yr.fige; Lat. ficus.
Y.
(1) In substantives this suffix frequently represents Fr. u;
Lat. ia, condition, faculty, &c. : —
Barony, company, copy, courtesy, fallacy, folly, family, fury,
harmony, history, lobby, memory, modesty, many, ribald-r-y (O.E.
ribaudie], -victory, &c.
It is added occasionally to stems in er, as baker-y, fisher-y} leclitr-y,
prior-y, robber-y.
In names of countries we have ia as well as_y, as Italy, Sicily, &c. ;
Armen-ia, Assyr-ia.
Many words in y have come through Lat. nouns in -ia (Fr. -ie)
from Gr. -i, -ta, -€ia : —
Analogy, apology, apostasy, blasphemy, geometry, melancholy, me-
lody, fancy (O.E. phantasy), philosophy, frenzy, abbey, litany, necro-
mancy.
(2) It sometimes stands for Lat. iu-m : —
Augury, horology, larceny, obloquy, remedy, study, subsidy, O.E.
obsequy.
(3) Y represents also Lat. -atus, as attorney, deputy, ally, quarry.
(4) Many words ending in cy, sy, are formed on the model of
French words in -cie ; Lat. -t-ia: —
Bankruptcy, chaplaincy, conspiracy, curacy, minstrelsy.
It is equivalent to the suffix -ness in degeneracy, intimacy, intricacy,
obstinacy, &c. — all formed from adjectives in -ate.
(5) There are other words in cy, sy, that have arisen from Latin
-sis, Gr. <ris, as catalepsy, epilepsy, idiosyncrasy, £c. : see p. 239.
(6) Some words in ee arise from Lat. -ceu-s, -eru-m : —
Pharisee, pigmy, Sadducee.
(7) Spongy = Lat. spongiosus.
(8) For hasty, testy, jolly, see Ive, p. 230.
230 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Ancy, ency: see p. 241.
Mony : see p. 235.
Ary, ory : see p. 232.
Ee, ey : see pp. 238, 242.
II. Consonant Endings.
V.
Ve. Octa-ve (Lat. octa-vu-s), olive (Lat. oliva), sa-fe (Lat sal-
vu-s ; O.Fr. salv, sauf).
The v is vocalized in the following words: — assiduous (Lat.
assid-uu-s ; Fr. assidu), continuous, exiguous, ingenuous, perspicuous,
promiscuous, residue (Lat. residuum).
The common suffix -ous = Lat. -osu-s : see S.
Ive (Fr. if; Lat -ivus ; a shortened form of Lat. -tivus),1 able
to, inclined to.
Bailiff (M.i&.'La.t. ballivus), captive {caitiff), motive, native, plaintiff,
active, adoptive, alternative, attentive, contemplative, fugitive, laxative,
furtive, pensive, restive, &c.
In some few words / has dropped off, as hasty (O.Fr. hastif),
jolly (Q.'S.jolif; O.Fr. jolt, fern, jolive), testy (O.E. testif), guilty
S.
Ous, ose (Lat. -osu-s;* O.Fr. -os, -ous; Fr. -eux, -oux, -ose),
full, like.
Copious, curious, delicious, famous, glorious, &c. ; bellicose, jocose,
verbose, &c.
(1) Ous sometimes 'represents Lat. -us, as anxious, arborcws,
arduous, omnivorous, superfluous, &c.
(2) It is also added to adjectival stems, as asper-ous (O.E. asper),
audacious, precipitous, together with many others ending in -ferous,
-gcrous.
1 Cognate with Sansk. -tavya, the suffix of the future passive participle.
= Ostis is cognate with Sansk. vdns, the suffix of the perfect participle active ;
-ttsltris) -us (-en's), -itr (-oris), -ur(-urti], -or (-oris\ are other forms of the
same suffix.
xviii.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN. 231
(3) It is also used in modern formations, as contradictious ; feli-
citous, joyous, murderous, wondrous.
Ese (Fr. -is, -ois, -ais ; It. -ese ; Lat. -ensis), of or belonging to.
Chinese, Japanese, Maltese, Portuguese ; burgess (Mid. Lat. bur-
gensis ; 0. Fr. burgeis ; Fr. bourgeois ; It. borghese; O. E. bourgeis).
courteous (Mid. Lat. curtis ; O.Fr. cttrteis, courtois ; It. cortese ;
O.E. curtiis), marquis (Mid. Lat. marcliensis ; It. marcliese ; O.F.
marcis ; O.E. marcheis, markis], morass1 (It. riarese ; O.F. mareis ;
O.E. mareys).
Ess (Lat. -issa ; Gr. -«r<ra;2 It. -essa; Sp. -esa, -isa; Fr. -esst):
the ordinary feminine suffix of substantives, as countess, duche*~
hostess, &c. : see GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES.
R.
(i) R, re, &c. (Lat. -ru-s). See p. 214.
Adjectives. — Clea-r (Lat. cla-ru-s ; O.Fr. cle-r), pu-re (Lat.
pu-ru-s ; O.Fr. pu-re), asper, ten-d-er (Lat. tetter; Fr. tendre),
meagre (Lat. macer ; O. Fr. maigre).
Substantives. — Figure (O.F. figure), letter (O. Fr.
(2) R, er, re, &c. (Lat. -ri-s).
Adjectives. — Eager (Lat acer ; O.F. aigre ; O.E. <§r<?), vinegar
(Fr. vin-aigre — vinum acre), familiar (Lat familiaris ; O.Fr.
famUier), regular, singular.
Substantives. — Air (Gr. dyp ; Lat. aer ; O.Fr. a/>), cinder (Lat.
««/j (-^ir) ; O. Fr. cetidre), cucumber (Lat. cucumis ; Fr. concombre ;
It. cocomero; O.E. cucumere\ flower, flour (Lat. y?^; O.Fr. y?i?r),
^vWtr (Lat. genus ; O.Fr. ^fwre), powder (Lat. pulvis ; O.Fr.
'poldre), secular (Lat. stzcularis ; O. Fr. seculier), scholar (Lat.
scholaris; O.Fr. escolier), altar (Lat. altaria ; O.Fr. 0/fer, auter},
collar (Lat. collare ; Fr. collier), pillar (Mid. Lat pilare ; Sp. /zfor),
scapular (Lat. scapulare ; Fr. scapulaire).
(3) Our (Lat -w ; Fr. -«<r), quality, state.
Ardour, colour, errour, favour, honour, labour, &c.
Devoir (O.Fr. devoir; Lat. debe-re), leisure (O.Fr. /wjz'r, /tvj7>;
1 Marsh is not of Fr. origin, being another form of O.E. mer-sc.
2 According to Bopp, -«rcra = -<T or id + -jvz. Thus ,j<ia-i\i<r<ra has arisen
Irom a mor2 original furm, f3aai\i&-jra.
232 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Lat. licere), livery (O.Fr. livifr ; Lat. liberare), power (O.F. poer ;
It. potere ; Lat posse), recovery (O.K. recovere ; O.Fr. recovrer ; Lat.
recuperare).
It is sometimes added to a Teutonic stem, as behav-wur.
(4) Ary, ier, eer, er (Lat. -arius, -erius ; Fr. -aire, -ier ; It.
-ario, -orio), relating to.
Adjectives. — Contrary, necessary, secondary, &c.
Substantives. — Adversary, commissary, notary, secretary, January,
&c.; brigadier, chandelier, engineer, mountainer (mountaineer), har-
pooner, &c.
Arbalister (Lat. arcubalistarius ; O.Fr. arbalestier), archer (Mid.
Lat. arcarius ; O.Fr. archier), bachelor (Mid.Lat. baccalareus ; O.Fr.
backelier), banner (Mid. Lat banderarius, banderensis, banderetits ;
Fr. tanderet), butter (Lat. buticularius ; O.Fr. bouteillier), carpenter
(Lat. carpentarius ; O.Fr. carpentier), chancellor (Lat cancellarius ;
O.Fr. chancelier, O.E. chaunceler), almoner (Mid.Lat. eleemosy-
narius ; O.Fr. almosnier; Fr. aumSnier), barber (Mid.Lat barberius;
Fr. barbier), butcher (Lat buccerius ; Fr. boucfter), calendar (Fr.
calendrier), cellarer (Lat. cellarius ; Fr. celUrier), counsellor (Lat.
conciliarius ; O. Fr. conseillere ; O. E. conseilere), cutler (Fr. coutelier),
draper (Mid.Lat. draperius ; Fr. drapier), falconer (Mid. Lat. ya/-
conarius ; Fr. fauconier), farrier ^(Lat. ferrarius; fr.ferreur), hostlet
(Lat. hospitilarius), mariner (Mid.Lat. marinarius ; Fr. marinier),
messenger (Mid.Lat. messagarius : O.Fr. messagier ; O.E. messager),
officer (Mid.Lat. officiarius; Fr. officier), notary (Lat. notarius),
palmer (Mid.Lat palmarius; O.Fr. palmier), partner (Mid.Lat.
partionarins ; O.Fr. partinaire), plover (Fr. pluvier ; Lat. //«-
viarius), juniper (Fr. genhrrier), laurel (Fr. laurier), poplar (Fr.
peuplier),' prisoner (Mid.Lat. prisonarius; Fr. prisonnitr), quarter
(Lat. quartarnis ; O.F. quarter), squire, esquire (Lat. scutarius ;
O.Fr. escuier, esquier), sorcerer (Mid.Lat. sortarius), treasure
(Mid.Lat. thesaurarius ; O.Fr. tresorier), vicar (Lat. vicarius ; O.Fr.
I'icaire), vintner (Mid.Lat. vinetarius), usher (Mid.Lat. ataritis ;
O.Fr. uissier).
(5) Many •nrords in -ory, -ary, -ry, -er (= person or place
or thing adapted for some purpose, &c.) come from Latin sub-
stantives in -arinm.
Electuary, granary, salary, sanctuary, armory, dowry, vrvary,
treasury, vestry ; cellar, charter, danger, exemplar (sampler), hamper,
larder, manor, mortar, saucer.
xviii.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN 233
(6) Lat. -aria, -eria, has become -ery, -ry, -er in the following: —
Buttery, chivalry (cavalry), carpentry, laundry, pantry, wintry ,
dowager, gutter, garter, litter, matter, forager, river.
Ry (Fr. -rie), collective, an art.
Cookery, fairy, Jewry, nunnery, napery, poultry, poetry, spicery,
surgery, &c.
(1) El, le, \.—(a), [Lat. l-n-m],
Example, sample, file, temple.
(l>), [Lat. -ulus, -olus, -ilus, -elus\.
Angle, oriole, cable, carol, disciple, people, squirrel, title, veal,
umbles, numlles [cp. (li)umble pie\
(c), [Lat. ~ula\
Buckle, canal, table, eagle, trellis.
(d), [Lat. -ela; Fr. -He, -elle\.
Candle, cautel, clientele, quarrel, tutel-age.
(e), [Lat -allus, -allum ; -ellus, -ella, -ellum ; -Ulus, -illuni\.
Metal, bowel, bushel, chancel, morsel, libel, mangonel, mangle,
measels, quarrel (arrow), kernel, candle, castle, gruel, mantle, pand,
pommel, chapel ; pestle ; seal, tassel.
To this class belong bateau, chateau, bureau, &c.
(f), [Lat. -b-ulus, -c-ulus, -c-ulum\?
Bu-g-le, chesi-b-le (chasu-b-le), fa-b-le, sta-b-le ; arti-c-le, un-c-le,
carbun-c-le, mira-c-le, pinna-c-le, obsta-c-le, recepta-c-le, specta-c-le,
tabcrna-c-le, par-c-el, pen-c-il, dam-s-el, ves-s-el.
In bottle, fennel, peril, travel, the c has disappeared.
(2) Rel, erel, is supposed to be a combination of er + el (Fr.
er-eau, er-elle), diminutive.
Cockerel, dotterel, hogrel, mackerel, mongrel, pickerel.
(3) (a) Al, el, il, ile (Lat. a-li-s, e-li-s, i-li-s ; Fr. -al, -el, -il, -ilet
forming adjectives from substantive stems), of or belonging to,
capable of.
1 It is connected with suffix r. See p. 214.
2 The suffix -acle sometimes marks instrument, place, as oracle, receptacle, &c. ;
sometimes it seems dim., as corpnscule.
234 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Equal, annual, casual, Ifgal, loyal, mortal, &c. ; cruel, civil,
gentile, servile, subtle, gentle, genteel, Jwstile, fragile, able (Fr.
habile).
The following substantives also contain the same suffix : — Canal,
channel, charnd. carnal, cattle, chattel, coronal, fuel, hospital (hotel,
spittaf), jewel, minstrel, madrigal, official.
Modern formations are numerous, as acquittal, disposal, avowal,
denial, &c.
(6) Many adjectives in -al are now treated as substantives, as
cardinal, criminal, general, material, &c.
(c) In many words it has taken the place of Lat. -us, -is : —
festival, prodigal, celestial.
It is also added to the adjectival suffix -ic, as angelical, comical,
-whimsical, &c.
The following substantives are from words in -alia, -ilia,
-f'ilia : — Funerals, entrails, movables, rascal, spousals, victuals, battle
and marvel.
(4) B-le, a-ble, i-ble (Lat a-b-ili-s), able to, likely to,
full of.
Abominable, acceptable, culpable, reasonable, feeble, foible (O.Fr.
f.oible, foible ; Lat. flebilis), movable, stable.
Iff.
(1) M, me (Lat. mu-s, -a, -m), that which. See p. 215.
Fir-m, fu-me, fa-me, fia-me, for-m, raisin (LaL racemus ; Sp.
racimo ; Fr. raisin).
(2) M, men, mon^Lat -men, -mo), that which.
Char-m, cri-me, legu-me, real-m, volu-me.
M has become n in leaven (Lat. leva-men; O.Fr. levaiti), noun
(Lat. no-men; O.Fr. noom, non), renown.
The following words contain the Greek suffix -pa : — Apophthegm,
emblem, phantom, paradigm, phlegm, problem, scheme, tJieme.
(3) Ism (Gr. iff-pos ; Lat. -ismus; Fr. -isme; a combination of uo
and is), condition, act, &c,
Baptism, barbarism, despotism, egotism (Fr. tgoismc}, latinism,
prmnncialism, vulgarism, &c.
In some words it adds a depreciative sense, as deism, mannsricm,
fapism.
xvin.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN. 235
(4) Mn1 (Lat. -umnus, -minus, &c.).
Autu-mn, colu-mn, ter-m, da-m-age.
(5) Mony (Lat. -mon-ia, -mon-ium; Fr. -main, -moine). See
M, p. 234.
Acrimony, ceremony, matrimony, sanctimony, testimony, &c.
(6) Ment (Lat. -men-tu-m ; Fr. -ment), instrument, &c.
Experiment, firmament, garment, instrument, pavement, •vest-
ment, &c.
It is also added to Teutonic roots, as acknowledgment, fulfil-
ment, &c.
N.
(1) N, ne (Lat. nu-s, -a, -m), passive suffix, like -ed (en) in
English. See p. 215.
Fa-ne, plain, reign, pen, plane.
(2) An, ain (Lat. a-nu-s, -a, -m ; Fr. an, am, aine), of or
belonging to.
Artisan, courtezan, german (O.E. germain), mean, pagan,
partisan, publican, pelican, sexton ( — sacristan), peasan-t, Roman,
Tuscan, &c. ; captain, certain, chieftain, chaplain, fountain, porce-
lain, villain, sovereign (O.Fr. soverain ; Lat. superanus), warden
zx\& guardian (O.Fr. gardian).
Other forms of an, ain, are found in citizen, denizen, mizzen,
surgeon, parishioner, scrivener.
In modem English the suffix ait is employed without reference to
its original use in forming nouns and adjectives, as civilian, gram-
marian, &c. ; censorian, diluvian, plebeian, &c.
An becomes ane in humane, extramundane, transmontane, &c.
(3) En, in (Lat. e-nu-s, -a, -m). See An.
Alien, dozen, damson, damascene, warren, chain, florin, vermin,
venom (O.Fr. venin; O.E. venyni).
(4) In, ine (Lat. i-nu-s, -a, -m). See An.
Bas-in, coffin, cousin, citrine, goblin, matins, cummin, ravine, can'
teen (Fr. cantine), patten (Fr. patin), baboon (O.E. babuyn, b.abion ;
Fr. babou-in), cushion (O.E. coschyn], lectern (O.E. letyrn; Fr.
lutrin). curtain (O.E. cortyn), pilgrim (peregrine), discipline, doctrine,
1 The suffix -umnus is connate with the Sansk. participial suffix -matta ; -moniz
is the same suffix in combination with -fa; with the suffix -tu-jn it become;:
-mentu-m.
236 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
eglantine, famine, medicine, rapine; with numerous adjectives, as
aquiline, canine, &c.
(5) On, ion, eon, oon, in (Lat. o, io [ace. on-em] ; It. -one ;
Sp. -on, -ona ; Fr. -on), act of, state of.
Apron (napron), bacon, capon, dragon, falcon, fawn (O. E. faon,
fanon), felon, glutton, .flagon, griffon (griffin), mutton, gallon, pennon,
salmon, sturgeon, simpleton, talon, champion, clarion, companion,
marchioness, onion, pavilion, stallion, scorpion, pigeon, scutcheon,
truncheon, mason (Mid. Lat. macio).
Buffoon, dragon, balloon, batoon, carroon, harpoon, macaroon,
musketoon, poltroon, saloon ; origin, ruin, virgin, &C. Custom ( =
Lat. consuetudinem). In all other words from Lat. -tudo, the in has
fallen off. as multitude, &c.
Lagoon (Lat. lacuna : Fr. lagune).
Many words in -oon are augmentative, as balloon, &c. ; some in
-on are diminutive, as flagon, habergeon, &c.
Numerous abstract substantives, as dominion, oblivion, opinion,
rebellion, &c.
(6) An, can, eign, ain (Lat. -an-eu-s, -a, -m).
Mediterranean, campaign, champaign, foreign (O. Fr. forain ; Lat.
foraneus), mountain, strange (O.Fr. estrange; Lat. extraneiis),
sudden.
The Latin -aneus appears under the forms -ineus, -oneus, &c., as
in sanguine, carrion (It. carogna, O. Fr. caroigne).
(7) Ern, urn (Lat. -er-na, -ur-nus). See An.
Cavern, cistern, tavern, diuturn, nocturn, dium-al, nocturn-al, &c.
C (see p. 213).
(1) Ac, ic, oc (Lat. -ax, -ix, -ox), pertaining to, possessing.
Words containing this suffix are mostly found in adjectives in
combination with -ums, as audacious, capacious, atrocious, &c.
The following substantives also contain suffixes ax and ix much
altered : —
Chalice, furnace, mortise, pentise (penthouse], matrice (matrix),
partridge, phoenix, pumice.
(2) Ac (Lat. a-cu-s, -a, -m), having, pertaining to.
Demoniac, maniac, Syriac, barracks, carrock (carrack), cassock.
(3) Ic (-l-cu-s, -a, -m), occurs as a suffix in (a) substantives, =
art, science ; (b) adjectives, = of or belonging to.
xvin.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN. 237
(a) Arithmetic, cynic, heretic, logic, magic, music, physic, cleric,
clerk, fabric, perch, park, porch.
(b) Aromatic, barbaric, frantic, gigantic, laconic, metallic, public,
rustic, schismatic.
It is also found in combination with -al, as canonical, heretical,
magical, &c.
Indigo — the Spanish form of Indicus (colour), Indian (colour).
(4) Ic (Lat. -icit-s), of or belonging to.
Amic-able, in-im-ic-al.
In enemy (Lat. inimlcus), the guttural has disappeared.
(5) Uc (Lat. -uca). See Ac.
Festuc-ous, Idtuce, periwig (wig), = O.E. perwicht (Fr. perruque ;
It. perrucca).
(6) Ass, ace (Lat. -ac-eus, -a, -m ; -ac-ius, -ic-ius, -oc-ius ; It.
-accio, -accia; Fr. -as, -asse, &c.).
Cutlass (Fr. coutelas, as if from Lat. culfellaceus), canvas (It. cana-
vaccio), cuirass (Mid.Lat. coracium, coratium], moustache (It mos-
taccio), cartridge (Fr. cartouche; It. cartoccio), menace (Lat.
minacite), populace, pinnace (It. pinaccia), terrace (It. terracia; Fr.
terrasse), apprentice (Mid.Lat. apprentices), pilche (Mid.Lat. pel-
licea ; Fr. pelisse ; It. pelliccia), surplice ( — super-pellicium).
(7) Esque (Fr. -esque; It. -esco; Lat. -is-cu-s, a euphonic form of
-icus), like.
Burlesque, grotesque, picturesque.
It occurs in some proper nouns : — Danish (O. Fr. Danesche) ;
French ; nwrrice (dance) = moresjue, or morisco.
(8) Atic (Lat. -aticus), of or belonging to.
Aquatic, fanatic, lunatic.
(9) Age (Lat. -aticum ; Fr. -age) gives a collective sense.
Age (O.Fr. edage ; Mid. Lat. ataticum), advantage, beverage,
carriage, courage, carnage, herbage, heritage, homage, language,
passage, marriage, outrage, personage, potage, stage, vassalage, zrillage,
voyage, vintage.
It is sometimes added to Teutonic roots, as cottage, freightage,
tillage.
238 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
A-te (LaL a-tu-s, a-su-s), quality of, like, subject of an action.
Substantives. — Advocate, curate, legate, private, renegade and
runagate.
Adjectives. — Delicate, desolate, ordinate, inordinate.
The suffix atus through French / has become ed, as armed, dis-
inherit'cii, deformed, renowned, troubled.
Ee (Fr. /<•), object of an action, is another form of Lat. -atus, as
in appellee, legatee, grantee, •vendee ; army = Fr. armee.
In devotee, grandee, the passive signification is not preserved.
E-te (Lat. -e-tus) : — Complete, replete, also discreet, secret.
I-te (LaL -i-tus) : — Contrite, definite, favourite, prest (ready) = Lat.
prtestitus.
T (Lat. -tu-s).
Adjectives. — Chaste, honest, modest, distinct, elect, perfect, robust,
mute, strict, strait, straight, subject, sain-t.
In diverse, scarce (Mid. Lat. scarpsus = ex-carpsus) we have s
fort.
Substantives. — Appetite, circuit, conduct, convent, delight, fruit,
habit, market, plaint, profit, state, magistrate, course, decrease, excess,
process, press.
This 'suffix has become y in clergy, county, duchy, treaty ; cy
in magistracy, papacy, primacy.
Id (Lat. i-du-s, -du-s) : — Ac-id, frig-id, &c.
T (Lat. -tu-m).
Biscuit, conquest, covert (cover), date, deceit, desert, fact, feat, jest,
intent, infinite, interdict, verdict, joint, merit, precept, pulpit, point,
script, statute, tribute, quest, request.
With s for t, mass, 'poise, response, sauce, advice, device.
The -t is lost in decree, purpose, vow.
T(-ta).
Aunt, debt, quilt, minute, plummet, rent, route, ambassade
(embassy).
S for t occurs infoss, noise, spouse, assize.
Ta has become y in assembly, causey (causeway), chimney, couch,
country, covey, destiny, entry, jelly, journey, jury, meiny, party,
pastry, valley, volley, value.
1 Connected with Sanskrit participial -ta, English -ed. See p. 217.
xvni.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN, 239
Ade (= Lat. -a-ta ; Fr. -a-de ; Sp. -ado, -ado).
Brigade, balustrade, brocade, cavalcade, cascade, lemonade, parade,
sj/ad, &c. ; desperado, pintado, armada.
Et (Lat. e-tum), a place for or with, &c.
Arboret, budget, banquet, fagot, junket, pallet.
Et diminutive (Fr. -et, -ette).
Substantives. — Aigrct, aglet,* amoret, bassinet, billet, basket, buffet,
castlet, chaplet, casket, circlet, clicket, corbel, coronet, corset, cruet,
freshet, ganet, goblet, gibbet, gullet, hatchet, lappet, lancet, lei'eret,
locket, mallet, musket, pocket, pullet, puppet, signet, trumpet, turret,
ticket, ballot, chariot, faggot, galiot, parrot (parroquel}.
Adjectives. — Brunette, dulcet, russet, violet, ratchet.
L-et (diminutive).
Bracelet, hamlet, leaflet, ringlet, streamlet.
Ty (Lat. -tas [tat} ; Fr. te, added to substantive and adjective
stems) has the force of the suffix -ness.
Authority, beauty, bounty, charity, captivity, crttelty, frailty,
honesty, £c.
Tude : see suffix -on, p. 236.
T (Lat. -ti, as ar-s, ar-ti-s).
Ar-t, font, front, mount, port, part, sort.
Connected with Lat. ti is Gr. ai-s, as in d) analy-sis, diagno-sis,
hypothe-sis, &c. ; (2) apocalyp-se, ba-se, ellip-se, paraphra-se, dscc. ;
(3) catalep-sy, drop-sy, epilep-sy, hypocri-sy, pal-sy.
S-ti (Lat. -stis], of or belonging to.
Agrestic, celestial, campestral, equestrian, terrestrial.
Ce, ise, ss (= Lat. -ti-a; Fr. -esse), condition, quality of.
Avarice, justice, cowardice, distress, duress, franchise, largess,
merchandise, noblesse, prowess, riches.
Ter (Lat. -ter), one who is.
Master, minister.
Tor (Lat. -tor), agent.
Auditor, author ^O.E. auctor), doctor, factor.
Dor, door, dore = Sp. -dor, Lat. -tor.
Corridor, matador, battledoor, stevedore.
24o ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Sor, another form of tor, occurs in antecessor, confessor, suc-
cessor, &c.
Many words, originally ending in tor, have in French and English
lost t ; and many words in or, our, have become er.
Ambler, compiler, courier, diviner, emperor, former, founder,
governor, interpreter, juror, juggler, labourer, lever, preacher,
saviour, taxer.
Many words in our (Fr. eur) have become er under the influence
of the Eng. er (O.E. ere).
Jobber, receiver, &c.
Ter (Lat. -trum), instrument.
Cloister, spectre.
Ite (Lat. -ita, Fr. -ite), belonging to.
Carmelite, Canaanite, Jesuit, &c.
T (Gr. -TIJS), he who, that which.
Apostate, comet, hermit, planet, prophet, idiot, patriot.
Id (Gr. -iSTjs, Lat. Ides), relating to.
&ntid, Nereid, &c,
1st (Gr. -IO--TTJS; Lat. -ista ; Fr. -iste), agent.
Antagonist, baptist, evangelist, &c. ; artist, dentist, deist, florist,
latinist, &c. ; enthusiast, encomiast, &c.
Ist-er, one who is engaged in.
Chorister, sophister (O.E. canonistre, Itgistre).
Trix (Lat. -trix), female agent.
Administratrix, negotiatrix.
Empress = imperatrix (Fr. imperatrice), nurse — nutrix (Fr.
nourrice).
Ture, sure (Lat. -turo^, -sura), has an abstract signification in
feminine substantives.
Concrete substantives.— Aperture, creature, nature, picture, &c.
Armour (Mid. Lat. armatura).
Abstract substantives. — Adventure, capture, gesture, nurture, mea-
sure, &c.
Tor-y, sor-y (Lat. -tor-iu-s, -a, -m ; -sorium, -soria ; Fr. -oire,
•oir, -toir, -soir), (\) place, (2) of a nature to, relating to.
xvm.] SUFFIXES OF ROMANCE ORIGIN. 241
Substantives. — Auditory, dormitory, monitory ; oratory, purgatory,
refectory, repository, &c.
Adjectives. — Amatory, rotatory, &c.
The following contain (i) Lat. -torium; Fr. -oire, -oir: — Coverture,
counter, lavcr, mortar, mirror, parlour, escritoire. (2) Lat. -sorium ;
Fr. -soir : — censer, razor, scissors.
Tery (Lat. -terium ; Fr. -trie). Y = iu-m = condition : see Y,
p. 229, and Ter, p. 239.
Mastery, ministry, mystery.
Nt (Lat. -a-ns, -e-ns ; Fr. -ent, -ant: a participial suffix).
Adjectives. — Abundant, discordant, distant, elegant, Sic. ; adjacent,
latent, obedient, patient, prudent, &c.
Substantives. — Defendant, dependant, inhabitant, servant, Serjeant,
ivarrant, agent, adherent, client, &c.
The following words contain other forms of this suffix: — Brigand,
diamond.
Und, bund (Lat. -undus, -bundus, a gerundial suffix).
FacmtJ, jocund, second, round, vagabond.
Nd (Lat. -ndus, -nda, -ndum}, something to be done.
Garland, legend, prebend, provender, viand ; deodandt memo-
randum.
L-ent (Lat. -lentus, -a, -m ; -lens), full of.
Corpulent, esculent, feculent, violent, &c.
Lence (Lat. -lentia], fulness of.
Corpulence, opulence, succulence, £c.
Nee (Lat. -nt-ia), quality of, act of, result of, &c.
Abundance, chance, distance, instance, penance, indulgence, licence,
presence, &c.
Ncy (Lat. -antia, -entia ; Fr. -ance, -ence ; It. -anza, -enza),
quality of, result of, act of, &c.
Brilliancy, consonancy, decency, excellency, exigency, infancy, &c.
Tion, sion (Lat. ti-o [tionis], si-o [sionis]), act of, state of, <ic.
Absolution, action, caution, citation, confirmation, &c. ; confusion,
profession, benison, malison, poison, ransom, reason, treason, venison,
fas/iion.
R
242 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAF
Verbal.
Ise, Ize (Lat -ire ; Fr. -iscr ; Gr. -«£o>), make, give, &c.
Apologize, sermonize, tantalize, &c.
Ish (LaL -*><?/ Fr. -*>; cp. Fr. participles in -issant: -iss — Lac
inchoative suffix -esc), make, give.
Admonish, establish, finish, &c.
Ey (LaL -are; Fr. -er), parley: cp. verbs in -fy; Lat. -ficare ,
Fr. -fier.
326. COMPOSITION OF ROMANCE ROOTS.
We have many compounds of Romance origin (French, &c.,
Latin and Greek) in English, the elements of which can only be
explained by a reference to those languages, as : —
(1) Aqueduct, solstice (cp. bridegroom, sunrise, &c.), artifice, geo~
graphy, homicide (cp. manslaughter, bloodshed, &c. ), aeronaut (cp. sea-
farer), somnambulist (cp. night-brawler].
(2) Verjuice = Fr. verjus, vert-jus (cp. greyfiound, &c.).
Many Romance words have the adjective for the last element, as
vinegar — Fr. vinaigre = vinum acer, &c.
(3) Kerchief, O.Fr. cuevre chief (c^. catch-penny, breakiuaU'r].
(4) Omnipotent, grandiloquent (cp. almighty, deep-musing).
(5) LongimanoHs, magnanimous, quadruped (cp. long-handed,
high-minded, four-footed],
(6) Carnivorous, pacific, &c. (pp. heart-rending, peace-making, £c.).
(7) Armipotent (cp. arm-strong, heart-sick, &c.).
(8) Edify, mortify (cp. backbite, kilndry).
(9) Fortify, magnify (cp. fine-draw, hot-press, -whitewash, &c. ).
The etymology of many words is disguised through the changes
they have undergone, as.: —
(l) megrim (hemicranium, Gr. rffUKpavia = pain affecting
one-half the skull, from T}/XJ and Kpaviov). 1
parsley = Fr. persil, Lat. petro-selinum (Gr. irtrpa
fff \IVOV).
1 " Etnigrartfus, vertnis capitis, Angl. the tnygryne, or the head-worm 'Ortus
in Promp. Pary.). Pains in the head (and capricious fancies) were suppcsed to
arise from the biting of a worm." — WEDGWOOD.
xviii.] ROMANCE PARTICLES. 243
(?) grandam
= Fr. grande dame.
gramercy
— Fr. grand merci.
maugre
= O.Fr. malgre = Lat. male-gratum.
verdict
= Lat. vere-dictum.
viscount
= Lat. vice-comte from vice and comes.
(3) chanticleer
= Fr. c&ante, imper. of chanter, and
clair, O.F. der.
curfew
= Fr. couvre-fiu.
wardrobe
= Fr. garde-robe.
(4) dandelion
= Fr. dent-de-lion.
debonair
= O. Fr. <fe &?« az're.
legerdemain
= Fr. /^r at /a main.
paramour
— Fr. /#r amour.
pardy
— Fr. /<2A- Dieu, &c.
327. COMPOSITION WITH ROMANCE PARTICLES.
(1) A, ab, abs (Lat. a£, Sansk. apa}, away from : —
Avert, abdicate, abjure, abscond, absent, &c.
Advance, advantage — Fr. avancer, avantage, from Lat. ao,
ante.
B is lost in abridge = abbreviare, and assail — absolvere.
(2) Ad,1 A (Lat. ad, Fr. ^), to—
Adapt, adore, adhere, adjoin, accept, accumulate, affirm, affix,
affront, aggravate, alleviate, allege, appear, apply, arrive,
assail, assent, assets, attain.
Achieve, agree, amerce, amount, a-cquit (O.Fr. a-qtdter),
acquaint (O.Fr. acointer — ad-cognitare}, averse, avow.
(3) Ante, anti (Lat. ante, O. Fr. ans, ains, eins), before : —
Ante-cede, ante-chamber.
Anticipate, &c.
Ancestor =• O.Fr. ances sor ( = antecessor}.
(4) Amb, am (Lat. ambi), about.
Amb-i-ent, am-putate.
(5) Circum, circu (Lat. circum), round about :—
Circumstance, circumscribe^ circuit, &c.
(6) Com, con (Lat. cum, O.Fr. com, cum, con, fun). Com remains
unchanged before m and/; it becomes col and cor before /and r;
co before vowels : —
1 The d in ad io assimilated to the initial letters of the words to which it is
prefixed, and becomes ac, af, ag, al, ap, ar, as, at.
R 2
244 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
Command, comprehend, collect, col-lingual, collocate, collate, &c.
Coeval, coheir, co-operate, &c.
Conceive, condemn, conduct, confirm, conjure, conqueror,
consent, contain, convey.
Counsel, council, countenance.
Count (Lat computare, O.Fr. confer), custom (Lat. consuetu-
dituni).
Cost (Lat. constare, O.Fr. co-ster), curry (O. F. conroyer).
Couch (= LaL collocare, O.Fr. colcher).
Accoutre (O.Fr. accoustrer, from Lat. adcustodem).
Scourge = Lat. cor-rigia, whence It. corregiare, to scourge.
Quash (O.Fr. esquachier, to crash, from Lat. co-actus).
Co occurs as a prefix with some Teutonic roots, as co-worker, co~
understanding.
(7) Contra, contro, counter (Lat. contra, Q.lf.contre), against: —
Contra-diet, contro-vert, &c.
Cottnter-balance, counter-feit, &c.
Cot4nter-weigh, counterwork.
(8) De (Lat. de, Fr. <//),. down, from, away: —
Decline, descend, depart, &c.
It is negative and oppositive in destroy, desuetude, deform, &c.
It is intensitive in declare, desolate, desiccate, &c.
(9) Dis, di (Lat. dis, di, O.Fr. des, Fr. dis, des, di, de), and by
assimilation dif, asunder, apart, in two ; difference, negation : —
Disarm, discern, dismember, disturb, discord, distance, &c.
Differ, difficulty, disease, &c.
Dilate, dilute, diminish, divorce, diverse.
Descry, descant, despatch.
It became de in defy, defer, delay, deluge, depart.
Dis is joined to Teutonic roots, as disown, dislike, &c.
(10) Ex, e, es (Lat. ex, O.Fr. ex, es, e), by assimilation ef, out of,
from : —
Exalt, exempt, exhale, expatriate, &c.
Elect, evade, &c.* ,
Efface, effect, &c. *
It has a privative sense in ex-emperor, ex-mayor, &c.
Amend = emend ; award (O.Fr. esward), afraid '(Fr. effrayert
to frighten).
Escape, escheat, essay, astonish, issue (O.Fr. issir, LaL ex ire).
S-ample (O.Fr. ex-ample), s-carce = excerpt (O.Fr. es-cars),
s-carch (O.Fr. es-corcer), special.
xviii.] ROMANCE PARTICLES. 245
(n ) Extra (Lat. extra), beyond: —
Extraneous, extraordinary, extravagant, extra-regular, extra-
work, &c. Stray for estray, from extra and vago.
(12) In, en, em (Lat. in, Fr. en, em), in, into, on, within ; by
assimilation, il, im, ir : —
Inaugurate, innovate, invade, innate.
Illustrate, illusion, &c.
Imbibe, impart, immigrate, £c.
Irritate, irrigate.
Enchant, encounter, encumber, endure, engage, enhance, en-
sign, environ, envy, entice, envoy.
Embellish, embrace, embalm.
Anoint (O.Fr. enoindre), ambush.
Impair.
Em and en are found prefixed to Teutonic roots, as —
Embillow, embolden, endear, enlighten, &c.
(13) In (Lat. in, cp. Gr. &v, Eng. un), not; by assimilation, il, im,
ir ; like the Eng. un, it is prefixed to substantives and adjectives: —
(1) Inconvenience, impiety, illiberality, &c.
(2) Incautious, impolitic, illegal, irregular, &c.
It occurs in some few parasynthetic verbs, as incapacitate, indis-
pose, illegalize, immortalize, &c.
The prefix un sometimes takes its place, as in unable, unapt, un-
comfortable, uncertain, &c.
(14) Inter, intro (Lat. inter, intro, O.Fr. inter, entre), between,
within, among : —
Interpose, intercede, interdict, intercept, interfere, interlace, in-
termix, intermarry.
Introduce, intromit, &c.
Introduction, introgression, introit.
9 Entertain, enterprise, entrails.
(15) Mis (O.Fr. mes, mes, me, Lat. minus, O.E. mes, mis}. This
suffix enters into composition with Romance roots ; it must not be
confounded with the Teutonic suffix mis, mistake, &c.
Misadventure, mischance (O.E. meschaunce), mischief (O.E.
meschef1).
1 The O.E. bonche/is the opposite of mischief.
246 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP.
(16) Ob (Lat ob, before c, f, p, becomes by assimilation oc, of,
op), in front of, against : —
VERBS : Obey, oblige, obviate, occupy, occur, offer, offend, oppose
SUBS. : Obeisance, obedience, occasion, offence, office.
(17) Per (Lat. per, Fr. per, par, O.E. par}, through : —
Perceive, perfect, perform, perish, perjure, pierce, percolate,
perennial, persecute, pursue, pardon, appurtenance, pertinence.
Per becomes pel in pellucid, and pil in pilgrim.
It is intensitive in persuade, peracute, &c.
(18) Post (Lat. post), after :—
Postpone, post-date, post-diluvian, postscript, &c.
(19) Pro (Lat pra, Fr. pre\ before :—
Precede, presume, pretence, &c.
Precinct, preface, prefect, prelate.
Provost (O.E. prepost, O.Fr. prevosf).
(20) Preter (Lat prater, Fr. prher), past : —
Preterite, preternatural, &c.
(21) Pro (Lat pro, O.Fr. pro, por, pur, pour\ forth, forward,
before : —
Proceed, procure, progress, profess, proffer, progeny.
Purchase, purvey ( = provide), pttrpose, pursue, portray, por-
trait, portend.
Pro = instead of, in pronoun, proconsul.
(22) Re, Red (Lat. re, red), back, again : —
Rebel, 'receive, reclaim, recreant, recover, re-adopt, re-admit, &c.
Red-eem, red-ound, redolent, render (Lat. reddere, O.Fr.
rendre\ rally ( = Lat re + alligare, Fr. relier).
Re is compounded with Teutonic roots, as rebuild, remind, reopen,
&c.
(23) Retro (Lat. retro), backwards: —
Retrocede, retrograde, retrospect.
Reretvard — O.E. rereward (It retro-gardia, Fr. <?;•->-/,>-.•-
garde\ rear-guard, rear, arrear.
(24) Se, sed (Lat. se, Fr. se"), apart, awav : —
Secede, seclude, seduce, sedition.
xviii.] ROMANCE PARTICLES. £47
(25) Sub (Lat. sub), under, up from below ; by assimilation
(before c,f, g, m, p, r, s), sue, suf, sug, sum, sup, sur, sus : —
Subject, succour, suffer, suffix,' suggest, summoner, suppress,
surprise, suspend, sustain, stipple, sojourn (O.Fr. so-jorner,
Lat. sub-diurno).
Sub sometimes enters into composition with Teutonic roots, as
sublet, sub-worker, sub-kingdom.
(26) Subter (Lat. subter), under : —
Subterfuge, subterraneous, &c.
(27) Super (.Lat super, O.Fr. sovre, sore, sor, sur), above,
beyond : —
Superpose, superscription, supernatural, superfine, superfluous,
&c.
Surface (= superficies), surcoat, surfeit, surplice, surname,
surcharge, surpass, surprise, survey, &c.
The Ital. sopra occurs in sovereign (It. sovrano, Lat. supernus).
(28) Trans (Fr. ires, Lat. trans, tra), across : —
Transfigure, transform, translate, transitive, transmontane
(tramontane').
Be-tray (O.Fr. trahir, Lat. tradere), treason (— tradition),
travel, traverse, trespass.
(29) Ultra (Lat. ultra), beyond : —
Ultrarliberal.
To outrage — O. Fr. otiltrager.
(30) Un, uni (Lat units), one : —
Unanimous, uniform.
(31) Vice (Lat vice, Fr. vis), instead of: —
Vicar, vice-agent, vice-chancellor, viceroy, viscount.
Some few Adverbial particles are used as prefixes : —
(32) Bis, bi (Lat. bi), twice ; bini, two by two.
Biscuit, bissextile, biennial, binocular, £c.
(a) Demi (Fr. demi, Lat. dimidium) : —
Demigod, demiquaver.
Semi (Lat. semi}, half : —
Semi-column, semi-circle, semi-annual, &c.
248 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CH. xvm.
(b) Male, mal (Lat. male, ma!, Fr. male, ma/, tnau), ill : —
Maltreat, malediction, malevolent, malcontent, ttiaujn.
(f) Non (Lat. non\ not: —
Nonage, nonsense.
(d) Pen (Fr. pen-, Lat. pane), almost : —
Peninsula, penumbra, penultimate.
(e) Sine (Lat. sine) : —
Sinecure, sincere.
The Fr. sans = Lat. sine in sansculotte, sansculottism,1 sans-souci.
* Fr. culotte, breeches ; sansculotte = a ragged fellow, a radical republican.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX I.
I. KELTIC ELEMENT IN MODERN ENGLISH.
1. KELTIC words existing in the oldest English : * —
Brock (badger), breeches, clout, cradle, crock, crook, glen, kiln,
mattock.
2. Keltic words still found in English : —
Ballast, boast, t>od(-km), bog, bother, bribe, cam (crooked), crag,
dainty, dandriff, darn, daub, dirk, gyve, havoc, kibe, log,
loop, maggot, mop, motley, mug, noggin, nod, pillow, scrag,
spigot, squeal, squall.
3. Keltic words of recent origin : —
Bannock, bard, brogue,clan, claymore (great sword), clog, log,
Druid, fillibeg, gag, garran,z pibroch, piggin, plaid, pony,
shamrock, slab, -whisky.
4. Keltic words introduced by Norman-French : —
Bag, barren, barter, barrator, barrel, basin, basket, bassenet,
bonnet, bucket, boots, bran, brisket, button, chemise, car, cart,
clapper, dagger, dungeon, gravel, gown, harness, marl,
mitten, motley, osier, pot, posnet, rogue, ribbon, skain (skein],
tike.
These have no cognates in the other Teutonic dialects.
2 Used by Spenser.
252
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
II. LATIN ELEMENT IN THE OLDEST ENGLISH.
Of words borrowed from the Latin in the oldest period of the
language —
(1) Some kept their full forms, as : —
Cometa, corona, culter, &c.
(2) Others dropped the Latin endings, as : —
Candel, apostol, caste/, &c.
(3) Some take an English suffix, as : —
Draca (LaL draco), mynetere (Lat monetarius).
(4) A few acquired the Teutonic accent, as : —
Biscop (Lat. episcopus), munec (Lat. monachus).
(5) Some simulated an English form, as : —
Marman-stdn (Lat marmor), mere-great (Lat margariUi).
(6) A few hybrids made their appearance, as : —
Martyrdom, regollice (regularly).
abbod, abbud,
albe,
ancor, ancer,
ancra,
antiphone, antefn
apostol,
baepstere,
balsam,
basilisca,
biscop,
buttor, butor,
Calend, .
calic, calc,
camel,
canon,
canon,
candel, condel,
capitola,
carited,
caerfille,
Lat abbas, abbot
alba, aube
ancora, anchor
anckoreta, nun
antiphonia (oa>Ti<f>tavtia}, anthem
apostolus (oir<J<rroAos)
baptista (jSoirrKmjy)
balsamum (^SoAcrauo^)
basilicus (/3ao-jA.»<ricos)
episcopus (irlffKOTTos)
butyrum (ftourvpov), buttei
Calenda, calends
calix, chalice
came/us, camel
canonicus, canon
canon, cannon
candela, candle
capitulum, chapter
caritas, charity
cerefolium, chervil
I.]
LA TIN ELEMENT.
253
Caser, Lat. Casar, emperor
ceastre, ,, castrum, Chester
cedar, ,, cedrus (/ce'Spos), cedar
cese, cyse, ,, caseus, cheese
chor, ,, chorus, choir
cisten (beam), ,, castaneus, chesnut tree
circul, ,, circulus, circle
cyrs (treow), ,, cerasus, cherry
cyria, Gr. vvpiaK-^, church
culpian, Lat. culpare, to blame
culter, ,, culter, a coulter.
cipresse,
, cupressus (Kvirdpiaaos], cypress
cleric, clerc,
, clericus. (K\fipiit6s), cleric
cluster, clauster,
, daustrum, cloister
cluse,
, clausa, close
corona,
, corona, crown
creda (creed),
, credo, I believe
Cristen,
, Christianus, Christian
cristalla,
, crystallus (Kpv<rra\\os), crystal
cytere,
, cithara (KiOdpa), guitar
demon,
, dtzmon (Saifj.<av), demon
diacon, deacon,
, diaconus (Siditovos), deacon
disc,
, discus (Si'cr/coj), dish
diabul, deofol,
, diabolus (5tdpo\os), devil
discipul,
, discipulus, disciple
draca,
, draco, dragon
earce,
, area, ark
ele,
, oleum (<£\ouov), oil
aelmaes.se, selmesse,
, eleemosyna (eAf^uoo-i/VTj), alms
frers, fers,
, versus, verse
fie,
, ficus, fig
fefer,
, febris, fever
feferfuge,
, febrifuger, feverfew
gigant,
, gigans, giant
gimm,
, gemma, gem
lilige, lilie,
, lilium, lily
leo,
, leo, lion
leon,
, tecena, lioness
lactuce,
, lactuca, lettuce
lufuste,
, ligusticum, lovage
niEEgester,
, magister, master
messe, mtesse,
, missa (est concio), mass
monec, munuc,
munec, monc
mynster,
monachus (fjLO
monasierium
), monk
254 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
("A pp.
mynet, Lat. moneta, mint
mynetian, M..L,at.monftare, to mint
marman-stan, Lat. mar/nor, marble
mere-greot, ,, margarita (fj-apyapirrj^),
margarite
(pearl)
munt,
mons, mount
nunna, nunne,
nonna, nun
non,
nona, noon
offrian,
offerre, to offer
ostre,
ostrea, ostreum, oyster
organ,
organutn, organ
psel, pel,
pallium, pall
palm,
palma, palm
palant,
palatium, palace
papa,
papa, pope
paid.
pardus (irdpSos), leopard
pawa,
pavo, peacock
pinsian,
pensare, to weigh
pinn (treow),
pinus, pinum, pine
peru,
pirum, pear
persuc, persoc
(tre6w)
persica (malus), persicum,
i'each '
pipor, pepor,
piper (ireVepi)) pepper
pisa,
pisum (iriffov], pea, pease
pistol,
epistola, epistle
plant,
planta, plant
plaster,
einplastrum (finrhcurrpov),
plaster
plum (tre6w),
prunus, prunum, plum
porr, por-leac,
porrus, porrum, leek
pople,
popuhts, people
port,
portus, port
port,
porta, gate
post,
postis, post
portic,
porticus, porch
preost,
presbyter (irpeffftvTfpos), c!
!c;, priest
prafort,
prapositus, provost
predician, •
prcedicare, to preach
prim,
prima, prime
profian,
probare, to prove
peters.elige,
petroselinum, parsley
pervince,
vinca, periwinkle
psalm, salm,
psalmus (ifaAMo's)
pund,
pondus, pound
psaltere,
psalterium, psalter
purpur,
, purpura, purple
I.]
SCANDINA VIAN ELEMENT.
255
pytt, Lat. puteus, spit
regul, regel, ,, regula, rule
reliquie, ,, reliquia:, relics
rute, ,, ruta, rue
raedfce, ,, radix, radish
sanct, ,, sanctus, saint
scolu, ,, schola (trxoXTj), school
sacerd, ,, sacerdos, priest
senepe, ,, slnapi (aiviqtn), senvy
sigel, ,, sigillum, seal
solere, M.Lat. solarium, sollar
straet, Lat. strata (via), street
synod, ,, synodus (tri/'wSos), synod
taefl, tsefel, ,, tabula, table
tempel, ,, tcmplum, temple
titul, ,, titulus, title
tor, ,, turris, tower
truht, ,, tructa, trout
tunic, ,, tunica, tunic
turtle, ,, turtur, turtle
timpan, ,, tympanum (riipTravov), tambour
ynce, ,, tmcia, ounce, inch
III. SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH.
Abroad, agate, askew, aslant, athwart, bang, bellow, bask, bole (of
a tree), blunt, bore (tidal wave), booty, bound (for a journey), brag,
brink, bull, busk, buckle-to (— buskle^), &i0(ock), cake, call, cast, clip,
clumsy, cross, crook, cripple, cuff, curl, cut, dairy, dash, daze, dazzle,
die, droop, dub, didl, earl, fell (hill), fellow, fleer, flit, fond, fool, fro,
froth, gable, gaby (cp. O. E. gabbe, to lie, deceive), gait, grovel, glow,
/tale (drag), hit, hug, hustings, irk, keg, kid, kindle, leap (year), low,
loft (aloft), lurk, neve, ««z/"(fist), niggle, niggard, mump, mumble,
muck, odd, puck (goblin), ransack, rump, ruck, root, scald (pcet),
scare, scold, skidl, sctill, scant, skill, scrub, skulk, skid, sky, shaw
(wood), sly, screw, sleeve, sledge, sled, sleek, screech, shriek, sleight,
snug, sag, soggy, sprout, stagger, stag, stack, stifle, tarn (lake), trust,
thrive, thrum, un-ru-ly (O. E. ro, rest), ugly, uproar, •wafentake,
window, windlass.
1 Bishop Pilkington.
256
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
IV. FRENCH WORDS IN ENGLISH OF TEUTONIC
ORIGIN.
" The French or Prankish language is now a Romanic dialect,
and its grammar is but a blurred copy of the grammar of Cicero.
But its dictionary is full of Teutonic words, more or less Romanized
to suit the pronunciation of the Roman inhabitants of GauL " — MAX
MULLER.
a-ghast(O.E.agaste), Goth, us-gaisjan, to make aghast, O.Fr. agacer.
ambassador, Goth, and-bahts, O.E. ambeht, O. H.Ger. am-
paht, LaL ambactus, a servant, O. Fr. ambas-
sadeur.
arquebuss, Ger. hakenbiichse, Dutch hook-bus, O. Fr. Aar-
quebuse, Fr. arquebuse.
attack, O.N. taka, O.E. tacan, take, O.Fr. taicher,
techer, Fr. tocher, attacker, attaquer.
attire, O.E. ttr, O. H.Ger. ziari, Ger. zier, O.Fr. tire.
baldric, O. H.Ger. balderich, girdle, belt, O.F. baldre,
baldret, baudre.
balcony, O.K. Ger. palcho, O.N. balkr, M.Lat balco,
Fr. balcon, Eng. balk.
barrier, embarrass, O. H.Ger. para, Sp. barras, Eng. bar.
belfry, Mid. H.Ger. berc-vrit, ber-vrit, M. Lat. berfredits,
belfredus, O.Fr. berfroit, belefroi, a watch-
tower.
bivouac, O. H.Ger. bt-wacha, O.Fr. bivouac, biouac.
bush (busk), O.N. buskr, O.K. Ger. busc, O.Fr. b'ois.
butt, Fr. bouter, O.K. Ger. bdzen.
brand, brandish, O.N. brandr, O.E. brand, sword, O.Fr. brant.
bruise, O.E. brysan, O.Fr. brisier, bruisicr.
carcanet, - O. H.Ger. querca, O.N. kverk, neck, O.Fr.
charchont, Fr. carcan.
chamberlain, O. H. Ger. kainarling, O. Fr. chambrdenc, cham-
, brelain.
champion, O. H.Ger. campio, O.E. cempa, O.Fr. campion,
champion.
choice, Goth, kiusan, O.E. ceosan, Ger. kiesen, Fr.
clioisir, to choose,
cry, descry, O. H.Ger. scrian, Ger. schrien, O.Fr. escrier,
crier.
dance, Ger. tanz, O.N. dans, O.Fr. danse, dance.
defile, O.E. fylan, O.Fr. defoler.
I.]
FRENCH TEUTONIC WORDS.
257
enamel, O.N. smelta, Ger. schmchen, to melt, whence
M.Lat. smaltum, It. snialto, O.Fr. esinal,
estnail.
eschew, O.H.Ger. sciuhan, Ger. scheuen, scheuchen,
O.Fr. eschiver, eskiver.
fee, fief, feoff, O.Fr. fiu, fieu, fed, Goth, fai/iu, O.H.Ger.
fi/iu, Q.IL.feok, cattle.
flatter, O.^. Jladra, O.Fr. fiater.
gallop (O.E. wallop), Goth, ga-hl&upan, O.E. ge-hle&pan, O.Fr.
galoper.
garnish, O.H.Ger. warnSn, O.E. weamian, to vrarn ;
O.Fr. warnir, guarnir, O.E. warnisen, pro-
vide, supply.
grate, O. H. Ger. chrazdn, Ger. trafzen, O. Fr. gratter.
guide,1 O.E. iL-ifian, betwitian.. to guard, protect ; O.Fr.
gitier, to guide.
guile, O. E. tittle, O. F. guile, guiile.
guiee, O.E. wise, O.H.Ger. wtsa ; modern Eng. wise
(as in likewise ), O. Fr. guise ; cp. O. Fr. des-
guiser = to disguise,
hamlet, Goth, haims, O.E. Mm, horn, Fr. hamel,
hameau,
haste, O.N. hasir, O.Fr. haste.
hauberk, O.H.Ger. hals-bcrc, O.E. heals-beorg, O.Fr.
halberc, hauberc, lumbert, O.E. habergeon.
haunt (to), O.N. heimta, O. Fr. hauler, hauler.
herald, O.H.Ger. heri-iualt, heriolt, O.Fr. heralt,
heraut.
lansquenet, Ger. landsknecht.
lech-ir, O.H.Ger. lecchdn, O.E. //Vrww, to lick, O.Fr.
Itchier, lecher, whence O.Fr. lecheor, a
lecher.2
march, marches, O.H.Ger. marcha, O.E. mearc (boundary,
border), O.Fr. marce, marche.
marshal, O.H.Ger. marah-scalh (marah, horse, scalh,
servant), O.Fr. marescal, mareschal.
massacre, O.H.Ger. mezzalon, Ger. metzeln, to cut down,
Fr. massacre.
pouch, poke, pocket,
poach, O.E. pocca, poha, bag, Fr. poche.
1 Fr. words with initial gu, and Italian words commencing
are almost invariably of Teutonic origin.
8 Kelish is from the same source.
, gue, gut,
25*
ENGLISH A CCIDENCE.
[AFP.
quiver,
reward, guerdon,
ribald,
rifle,
ring, harangue,
range, arrange,
roast,
rob,
robe,
seize,
seneschal,
shallop,
skiff,
slate,
spy (to),
target,
tire (out),
towel,
tumble,
tarn,
wage, gage,
wait (await),
war,
ward, guard,
wicket,
wimple,
coccr, O.K. Ger. kohhar, Ger. kocher,
O.Fr. couirt, ciiirre.
O.H.Ger. wiitar-ldn, M.I. at. ivider-donum,
O.F. toerdon, guer redan.
O. H.Ger. hrtba, hrtpa. (prostituta), O.Fr.
ribald, a ribald person.
O.X. hrifa, O.Fr. riffer, riffler.
O. H.Ger. firing, ring.
O.E. rSstan, Ger. rosten, O.Fr. rostir.
O. H.Ger. rattbSn, O. ii. rtafian, O.Fr. rober.
O. H.Ger. roub, O.E. rcdf, Fr. robe.
O. H.Ger. bi-sazian, Ger. besetzen, O.Fr. saisir,
Sfisir.
O. H.Ger. sene-scalA (old servant), O.Fr. sent*
seal, seneschal.
Du. slofp, Fr. chaloupe.
O.E. scif, Ger. schiff, Fr. esquif, whence
equip, O.Fr. csquiper.
connected with Eng. slit; O.Fr. esclat, O.E.
sklat, slate.
O. H.Ger. sprehSn, O.Fr. espier.
O. H.Ger. targa, O.E. targe, O.Fr. targe,
O.E. teran, Goth, tairan, Ger. herren, O.Fr.
tirtr.
O.H.Ger. d-oahtia, twahila, O.E. }wdl, O.Fr.
toialle, touialle.
O. X. tuntba (to fall forward), titmbian (to dance),
O.Fr. lumber.
O. N. turnan, O. E. tyrtian, O. H. Ger. turnun,
O.Fr. turner, tormr.
O.E. wed, Goth, vadi, O.H.Ger. -wetti, M.Lat
vadium.'
O.H.Ger. loa/ita, Ger. va/it, O.Fr. u-aitf,
gaite, guaite, watch ; O.H.Ger. wahlen, O.Fr.
gaiter, guiater, to wait
O.E. ivyrre, O.H.Ger. werra (scanda!um),
O. Fr. iL'L-rrr, guerre.
Goth, tocirdja, O. E. -itard, O. H.Ger. n-arl,
O.Fr. gtiard<\ taarde; cp. guardian, war-
den.
O.E. 7i-/V, O.X. »ft, bight, haven, O.Fr. wikei,
giiisfhet.
O.H.Ger. wompal, O.Fr. guimple, gimple,
guimpe.
FRENCH TEUTONIC WORDS.
O.E. warish, guarish, O.E., O.H.Ger. ivarian, iverien, Ger.
Tiw//;T«, O.Fr. ivarir, guarir, garir.
O.E. warnish, garnish, O.E. U'ean/ian, O.H.Ger. warndn,to warn,
O.Fr. wctruir, guarnir, provide, prepare,
secure.
Some foreign words have simulated, wholly or partly, an English
form : —
arblast, Q.lL.arow-blaste,Q.*Fr.arbaleste, ~LaA..arcubalista.
beef-eaters, Fr. buffetiers.
causeway, Fr. chausse, O.F. cauchie, M. Lat. calceata (via),
Lat. calciata (via).
cray-fish (crawfish), O.H.Ger. krebiz, Ger. krebs, crab, O.Fr. escre-
visse, Fr. ecrevisse, O.E. krevys, crevish.
O.Fr. graile, Lat. craticula.
O.E. pyl-craft, Lat. paragraphus, Fr.flara/e.
= renegate, renegado.
gridiron,
pil-crow,
runagate
Cp. :-
furbelow,
lanthorn,
pickaxe,
rosemary,
sparrow-grass
somerset,
Fr. falbala, Sp. farfala.
O.Fr. lanterns, Lat. lanterna.
O. E. pikois.
O.E. rosemaryne, Lat. rosmarinus^
Lat. asparagus.
Fr. soubresaut, Lat supra saltus.
s 2.
APPENDIX II.
OUTLINES OF O.E. ACCIDENCE.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES, &c.
FIRST PERIOD OF THE LANGUAGE.
(A.) Vowel Stems.1
i. MASCULINE.
dagt day ; hirde, shepherd ; gtzst, guest ; sunu, son ; wudu, wood.
Sing.
PI.
<z STEM.
i STEM.
11 STEM.
N.
daeg
hirde
gaest
sunu
wudu
G.
daeges
hirdes
gsestes
suna
wudu, wudcs
D.
daege
hirde
gaeste
suna
wudu, wude
A.
dseg
hirde
gaest
sunu
wudu
I.
daeg-S
hirde
gaeste
N.
daga
hirdas
gastas
suna
wudas
(gistas)
G.
daga
hirda
gasta (gista)
suna
wuda
D.
dagum
hirdum
gastum
sunum
wuduin
(gistum)
A,
dagas
hirdas
gastas
suna
wudas
(gistas)
GOTHIC.
Sing. ..
. N.
dags
hairdeis
gasts
sunus
G.
dagis
hairdeis
gastis
sunaus
D.
daga
• hairdja
gasta
sunau
A.
dag
hairdi
gast
sunu
PL ..
. N.
dagos
hairdjos
gasteis
sunjus
G.
dage
hairdje
gaste
suniwe
D.
dagam
haircljam
gastim
sunum
A.
dagans
hairdjans
gastins
sununs
1 These are arranged according to their original stem-endings, in -a, -i, -u ;
*g (orig. stem, daga.), fast (orig. item, fasti), sunu, &c.
A PP. II.]
VOWEL STEMS. 261
2
. FEMININE.
gifu, gift ; dtzd, deed ; hand .
,' duru, door.
a
STEM.
* STEM.
w STEM.
Sing.
... N.
gifu
dad
hand duru
G.
gife
dade
handa (dure)
D.
gife
dabde
handa dura, duru
A.
gife
dabd(e)
hand duru
I.
gife
dabde
PI.
... N.
gifa
d&da
handa
G.
gifa, gifena
dseda
handa
D.
gifum
dajdum
handum
A.
gifa
dida
handa
GOTHIC.
Sing.
N.
giba
deds
handus
G.
gibos
dedais
handaus
D.
gibai
dedai
handau
A.
giba
ded
handu
PI.
... N.
gibos
dedeis
handjus
G.
gib6
dede
handiwe
D.
gib6m
dedim
handum
A.
gibos
dedins
handuns
S:ng.
PL
Sing
PL
3. NEUTER.
•word ; fat, vat ; cynn, kin ; no -it stems.
a
STEM.
» STEM.
N.
word
fset
cynn
G.
wordes
fsetes
cynnes
D.
worde
fsete
cynne
A.
worde
fzt
cynn
I.
worde
fsete
N.
word
fatu
cynn
G.
worda
fata
cynna
D.
wordam
fatum
cynnum
A.
word
fatu
cynn
GOTHIC.
N.
waurd
kuni
G.
waurdis
kunjis
D.
waurda
kunja
A.
waurd
kuni
N.
waurda
kunja
G.
waurde
kunje
D.
waurdara.
kunjam
A.
waurda
kunja
262
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
(B.) Consonant Stems.
(i) -N STEMS.
MASC. FEM.
NEUT.
Sing
... N.
hana
unge
cage
G.
hanan
ungan'
eagan
D.
hanan
ungan
eagan
A.
hanan
ungan
cage
PL
... N.
hanan
ungan
eagan
G.
hanena
ungena
eagena
D.
hanum
ungum
eagum
A.
hanan
ungan
eagan
GOTH
1C.
Sing
... N.
G.
hana
hanins
"ggo
uggons
hairto (= heart)
hairtins
D.
hanin
uggon
hairtin
A.
hanan
uggon
hairtd
PI.
... N.
hanans
uggons
hairt3na
G.
hanane
uggon3
hairtane
D.
hanam
uggom
hairtam
A.
hanans
uggons
hairtona
SING.
N. faeder brotfor
G. faeder, faederes breSer
D. faeder, faedere broSer
A. feder broOor
SING.
N. fadar
G. fadrs
I), fardr
A. fadar
(2) -R STEMS.
fsederas
faedera
faederum
fxderas
GOTHIC.
Pr..
fadrjus
fad re
fad rum
fadruns
PL.
broOru
broOra
broOrum
broOrti
Plurals formed by Vowel Change.
(1) -/stems, fern.: —
B$c, books, byrig, boroughs, lys, lice, rnys, mice, tyrj, turfs, gh,
geese.
(2) -u stems, masc. : —
Fft, feet, tffi, teeth, men,
This vowel change occurs also in the dative singular and ace.
plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NRt'T.
N.
—
— -
—
G.
-es
-e
-es
D.
-e
-e
-e
A.
—
-e (-en)
—
N.
-es
-e, -en (-es)
-es
G.
-e, -en, -ene (-es)
-e, en, -ene (-es)
-e, -en, -ene
(-es)
1).
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
A.
-es
-e, -en (-es)
-es
II.] VOWEL DECLENSION. 263
SECOND PERIOD.
I. VOWEL DECLENSIOX.
In the Second period of the language traces of the original vowel-
stems disappear, and substantives once belonging to this class are
declined according to gender. In the following table the case-
suffixes are given for comparison with the older forms : — •
Sing.
PI.
(1) Gen. sing. fern. — Some few feminine substantives form their
genitives (like masc. and neuters) in -es instead of -e.
(2) Norn, plural fern. — The suffix -es begins to replace -e, -en, as
dedes, mihtcs, siiines, &c.
(3) Nom, plural neuter. — Many neuters, originally having no
sumx in the plural, now take -es, as londcs, huses, wordcs, worses,
thinges, though the original uninflected forms are frequently met with
as late as the middle of the fourteenth century.
Deer, sheep, horse, &c., as in modern English, remain without
inflexion.
Many substantives originally forming the plural in -u, have -e or
-en (and sometimes -es), as richen, riche (kingdoms), treive, trewen
(trees), &c.
(4) Gen. plural. — The old suffix -a is now represented by -e, -en;
and also by -ene (the gen. plural of « declension).
(5) Dat. plural. — The old suffix -um has become -en and -e, and
occasionally -es.
(6) Plurals formed by vowel change :—fet (fat), men, &c. ; b&c
is occasionally found side by side with bokcs.
MASC.
FEM.
NBUT.
... N.
-e
-e
-e
G.
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
-•.•n, -e (-es)
D.
-en, -e
-en, -e
-en, -e
A.
-f.n, -e
-en, -e
-e
... N.
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
G.
-ene (-en)
-ene (-en)
-ene (-en)
J")
-en, -e
-en, -e
-en, -e
A.
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
-en, -e (-es)
264 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
II. -N DECLENSION.
M/
Sing.
PI.
In the gen. plural -enen sometimes occurs for -ene.
III. -R DECLENSION.
(1) Brother, moder, dohter, suster, have no inflexion in the genitive
singular. Fader and/aderes (gen. sing.) are found in writers of this
period.
(2) The nom. plurals are in -e, -en, or -es, as brethre, brothrc,
sustre, dohtre, &c. ; brethren, brethren, dohtren, dehtren, sustreu, &c. ;
faderes, brothres, dohtres, sostres, &c.
(3) The gen. plural -ene (-enne) sometimes disappears altogether.
"His dohter namen" = the names of his daughters (LaSamon).
(4) The dat. plural ends in -en, -e (and sometimes -es}.
In the Ormulum -es occurs as the genitive singular of substantives
of all genders.
The nom. plural is ordinarily -es, and even dear (deer) makes plural
tieoress.
The gen. plural ends mostly in -es ; rarely in -e, as " aller kinge
king" — king of alt kings.
.THIRD PERIOD,
i. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
(1) -fs(-is, -ys), without distinction of gender.
(2) Very many plurals in -en, -n, are still preserved, representing
(a) old plurals in -an of the « declension, (l>) plurals originally end-
ing in -a, -u : — (a) chirchen (churches) ; e'&n, eicn (eyes) ; ben (bees) ;
ii. J FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 265
fon (foes) ; oxen, &c. ; (b) honden (hands), slnnen (sins), develcn
(devils), heveden (heads), modren (mothers), sostren (sisters), bro\>ren,
ken (kin), &c.
Plurals in e are not rare, as blostnie (blossoms), dede (deeds), milt
(miles), childre (and childer}, brefyre {brewer}, &c.
(3) Many words have no plural inflexion, as htts, hoiis, hors, sckfp,
deer, pound, her (hair) ; but horses, pouudes, and haires occur in this
period.
(4) Plurals formed by vowel change: — -fet, te\>, get, ky, hend (hands).
2. CASE ENDINGS.
(1) Case-endings are reduced to two, genitive and dative.
(2) The g, n. sin^. for the most part ends in -en (-is, -ys) ; it is not
always added to feminine substantives, as " the qutne fader " (Robt.
of Gloucester, 1. 610) ; " the empresse sone" (Ib. 1. 9708).
(3) The gen. plural ends in -es, and sometimes in -ene (-en),1 as
clerkene, of clerks, monkene, of monks (Robt. of Gloucester).
(4) The dative sing, is often denoted by a final -e : nom. god, dat
gode.
There are frequent traces of it, however, -in the Kentish Ayenbite
(I340).
(5) The dative plural is mostly like the nom. plural.
FOURTH PERIOD.
i. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
(1) The plural suffix is -es (-is, -ys, -us).
In Romance words -s, -z, occurs for -es, &c.
(2) Plurals in -en are (a) ashen, been (bees), eyen, hosen, oxen,*
fesen,3 shoon, ton (toes), belonging to n declension; (b) sustren,
daughtren, brethren (r declension); \t) children, calveren, eyren (eggs),
lainbrm* (with r inserted before en), originally forming plural in -«;
kin, ken, kicn for cy, ky, defter (daughters).
1 This suffix is unknown in the Northern dialect.
2 Oxis occurs in Vi i< kbffe, Luc. xvii. 7.
2 J'eses occurs in Piers Plowman.
4 Calues, egges, and lamies are also met with.
zob ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APT>.
(3) Some neuter plurals have no s, as offr> &&*" (hair), hors, htnts,
sckeep, pmande, siuyn, thing.
(4) After numerals the plural inflexion is often dropped.
(5) Plurals with vowel change:— -fet, gees, lys, mys, trues, men, &c.
2. CASE ENDINGS.
(1) The^z-w. sing, ends in -es (-is, -ys), -s.
(2) The gen. plural terminates in -es.
(3) The old genitive plural suffix -ene is still met with, as childrene,
clerk me, kyngene (Piers Plowman).1
ADJECTIVES.
FIRST PERIOD.
i. STRONG (or INDEFINITE) DECLENSION.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
&MJJ. ... N. blind blind1 blind
G. blindes blindre blindes
D. blindum blindre blindum
A, blindne blinde blind
I. blind-e — blinde
PI. »~. N. blind-e blinde blindu
G. blind-ra blindra blindra
D. blind-um blindum blindum
A. blind-e blinde blindu
GOTHIC.
ing. ... N.
blinds
blinda
blind(ata)
G.
blindis
blindaizos
blindis
D.
blindamma
blindai
blindamma
A,
blindana
blinda
blind(ata)
n. N.
blindai
blindSs
blinda
G.
blindaize
blindaizd
blindaiza
D.
blindaim
blindaim
blindaim
A.
blindans
blindos
blinda
1 Very rarely used by Chaucer. 2 Original form, blindu.
II.]
DECLENSIONS.
267
Sing.
PI.
2. WEAK (or DEFINITE) DECLENSION.
MASC.
blinda
blindan
blindan
blindan
FEM.
blinde
blindan
blindan
blmdaij
MASC., FEM., and NEUT.
N. blindan
G. blindena
D. blindum
A. blindan
NKUT.
blinde
blindan
blindan
blinde
GOTHIC.
Sing.
PI.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
N. blinda
G. blindins
D. blindin
A. blindan
blind3
blinduns
blindon
blindOa
blindS
blindins
blindin
blindd
N. blindans
G. blindane
D. blindam
A. blindans
blinduns
blindono
blindom
b. in dons
blindona
blindane
blindam
blindona
SECOND PERIOD,
i. STRONG DECLENSION.
Sing.
N.
G.
1).
A.
MASC.
blind
blindes
blinde
blindne
FEM.
blind
blindre (blinde)
blind re (blinde)
blinde
NKUT.
blind
blindes
blinde
blind
PI. of all gend. N. blinde
G. blindere (blinde)
D. blinden (blinde)
A. blinde
2. In the weak or definite declension -an becomes'(i) -en, (2) -e.
All cases of the sing, are often denoted by the final e,
The plural ends in -en or -e.
In the Ormulum all the older inflexions of both declensions are
represented by e.
268 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [A PP.
THIRD PERIOD.
In the Third period the older adjectival inflexions are represented
by a final -e, and even this sometimes is dropped.
In Robert of Gloucester and the Ayenbite we sometimes find the accusative
in -ne of the strong declension- in the Ayenbite we find dative plural in -en,
in indefinites like one, other.
The plural of adjectives (mostly of Romance origin) sometimes
terminates in -es, especially when the adjective follows the noun, as
•water es principales. Robert of Gloucester has " foure godes sones, "
" the godes kny3tes."
FOURTH PERIOD.
A final <• marks (a) the plural, (b) the definite form, of the
adjective.
Plurals in s are common, as in the previous period.
PRONOUNS.
I. Personal Pronouns.
FIRST PERIOD.
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.
Sing. ... N. Ic
G. min
D. me
A. mec, me J>ec, }>e
Pi. ... N. we ge
G. user, tire eower
D. fls eow
A. fls, usic eow, eowic
Dual ... N. wit git
G. uncer incer
D. line incer
A. uncit, unc iucit, inc
GOTHIC.
Sing. ... N. ik jut
G. meina theina
D. mis thus
A. mik tbuk
II.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 269
PI. ... N. weis jus
G. unsara izwara
D. unsis izwis
A. unsis iswis
Dual ... N. wit jut
G. ugkara(= unkara) igkwara
D. ugkis jgkwis
A. ugkis igkwis
SECOND PERIOD. THIRD PERIOD. FOURTH PERIOD.
Sing. ... N. Ich, ic, ihc ich, ik, I ich, ik, I
G. min — —
D. me me me
A. me me me
PL ... N. we we we
G. ure ure
D. us, ous us, ous us
A. us, ous us, ous us
Dual ... N. wit
G. unker —
D. ' unc, unk —
A. unc —
SECOND PERIOD. THIRD PERIOD. FOURTH PERIOD.
Sing. ... N. ]>u, ]>ou )>u, ]>ou J?ou
G. >in — —
PI. ... N. 3e Je, yhe, ye 3e, ye
G. eoure, eur, ewr, Sure —
A o«W>3uw Seow } 3ou> yhcm> ou you» 3ow> yow
Dual ... N. 3it
G. inker, 3unker unker
D.) •
A > me, gunc
The dual is found as late as 1280, as in Havclok the Dane.
The older genitives min, thin, as early as LaSamon's time began
to be employed only as possessive adjectives ; ure, enure, eouer, Sure,
are mostly formed with indefinite pronouns, as ure ech — each of us,
Sure nan — none of us ; but the partitive form ech of us is also in
use at this period.
For other changes see Pronouns (Personal).
270
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[AFP.
II. Pronouns of the Third Person.
Sing.
MASC
N. he
G. his
D. him
A. hine
FIRST PERIOD.
FEM.
heo
hire
hire
hi
NEUT.
hit
his
him
hit
PL (of all N. hi(hig)
genders) G. hira (heora)
D. him (heom)
A. hi (hig)
Gothic has no hi stem.
Masc.
Fera.
If cut
V\
SECOND PERIOD.
THIRD PERIOD.
FOURTH PERIOD.
X.
He, ha
He, ha, a
He, a
G.
His
His
His
D.
Him
Him
Him
A.
Hine, hin, hira
Him (hine)
Him
N
Hi, heo, hie, he, 3e
, Heo, hi, sco,1
Hue, heo, ho,
3eo, 3ho, sea;1
sche, zy, sge
sche, scho
G.
Hire, heore, here
Hire
Hire (hir)
1).
Hire, heore, here
Hire
Hire (hir)
A.
Hi, heo, hie, hire
Hi (his, is), hire
Hire
(his, hes, es)
X.
Hit (it)
Hit (it)
Hit (it)
( V.
His
His*
His, hit
1).
Him
Him
Him (it)
A.
Hit (it)
Hit (it)
Hit (it)
N. Hi, heo, hie, he,3 Hi, hii, heo, hue, hii,* J)ei, ]>ai, tha
ha, ]>e33, ]>ei, )>ai he, thei, thai (hii), a
G.
D.
Hire, heore, here,
the33re
Heom, hem, ham,
J>e3.im
Hi, heo, hie. heom,
3am (jus, hes)
Heore, here, her, here, her, hir,
hir, hare, ]>air thair, thar
Heom, hem, ham, hem, tham, horn
}>am, horn
Hi, hii, hem (hise, hem, tham, )>em
is), j>am, horn
(l) In the Third period the gen. plural is used with indefinite
pronouns, as here non (none of them), here eyther (each of them), &c.
* Sea occurs in Saxon Chronicle (Stephen) ; sco, scho is a Northern form ; sc k
t. Midland variety of it r and ho is West Midland.
• Mostly used adjectively.
S Hie and he are East Midland forms ; hue, Southern (used by Trevisal
<IUre.
ii.] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 271
(2) The accusatives (singular and plural) begin in the Second
period to be replaced by dative forms, but the old accusative (hine) is
found in the Ayenbite (.1340), and is still in use iu the South of
England under the form -en.
(3) The Northern dialect (and those with Northern peculiarities)
replace the plural of the stem hi by the plural of the definite article.
(4) In the South of England a = he is still preserved. In Lan-
cashire ho is used for she.
III. Reflexive Pronouns.
(1) In the First period si/f(sel() was declined as an adjective along
with personal pronouns, as —
N. Icsilfa; G. minsilfes ; D. me silfum ; A. mec (me) silfne,
ftc.
(2) Sometimes the dative of the personal pronoun was added to
the nom. of silf, as ic me silf; thu the silf; he him silf; we us silfe ;
ge e6w silfe ; hi him silfe.
(3) SMf a^so stands with a substantive, as God silf = God
himself.
(4) With a demonstrative, silfvwt declined according to the weak
or definite declension, as se silfa — the same.
(5) In the Second period (as in La3- ) the genitive shows a tendency
to replace the dative, as mi silf for me silf, but it is not common ;
and in all other cases the old form is preserved.
In the Third and Fourth periods mi self, thi self, our self, &c.
become more frequently used : Wickliffe has instances of the older
forms, as we us silf, Qe QOU self, as well as of we our self, & ^oure
self. His .sr//" occurs in Northern English of the Third period.
(6) Keif is sometimes lengthened to selven in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, as I miselven, he him selven (Chaucer).
IV. Adjective Pronouns.
(l) The possessives in the First period are — mtn («ny), thin (thy),
hi» (his, its), hire (her), ure (our), eower (your), hira, heora (their),
uncer (our two), incer (your two).
Sin is found in poetry as a reflective possessive of the third
person.
272
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
FIRST PERIOD.
SECOND PERIOD.
MASC
FEM.
MASC.
FEM.
... N.
min
min
min, mi
mine,
min,
mi
G.
mines
minra
mines, min
mire,
mine,
min,
D.
minum
minre
mine, min, mi
mire,
mine,
min,
A.
minne
mine
minne, mine, min, mi
mine,
min,
mi
... N.
mine
mine, min, mi
G.
minra
mire, mine
D.
minun
mmnen, mine, min
A.
mine
mine
(2) In the Second period the possessives are — First person, min
(simj.), unker (dual), wre (plural). Second person, thin (sing. },
inker, "Hunker (dual), eowre, eoure, Sure (plural). Third person, his,
hire (sing. ), hire, Jiere, heore, the^re (plural).
Min is thus declined : —
Sing.
PL
Tfiin is similarly declined.
, Ure is declined as follows in the First period : —
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Sing. ... N. fiser, fire fiser, ure flser, ure
G. useres, usses, ures fiserre, flsse, firre same as masc.
D. {Uerum, ussum, urum userre, fisse, flrrc „
A. userue, urne usere, usse, lire fiser, ure
PI. ... N. usere, usse, fire flser, ure, &c.
G. usera, ussa, fire — same as masc.
D. userum, ussum, — ,,
urura
A. fisere, flsse, fire — Cser, ure
In the Second period we sometimes find ure and eower (sure)
inflected like adjectives of the strong declension, as " [/res forma
faderes gult" = the guilt of our first father (Moral Ode).
(a) As mine and thine are the plurals of min and thin, so in the
Second and Third periods kise is the plural of his.
(K) Hire (her) is generally uninflected.
as "hires leores " = her cheeks.
La3amon has plural hires,
(c) In the Ormttlum we find genitive the^res, as " till e'S
es herrte " = to the hearts of them both.
(3) In the Third period the dual forms disappear, and the posses-
sives are — min, thin, his, hire, our, oure, Soure, here, thair ; absolute
II.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 273
possessives — oures, urs ; Soures, yhoures ; thaires, thairs, as well as
cure, ure ; ^oure, here.
The plurals mine, thine, hise, &c. are in use.
(4) In the Fourth period we find plural hise; and oures, y oures,
heres, hares (theirs), are more commonly used than in the Third
period.
V. Demonstrative Pronouns.
FIRST PERIOD.
Sing. ... N.
MASC FEM. NEUT.
se (pe ') seo (J>eo, thiu i) pset
G.
1>£ES psbre
same as masc.
D.
pam, paem psere
A.
pane, pone pa
past
I.
py, ]>e pa
same as masc.
PI. (of all genders)
N.
fa
G.
)ara, bsfcra
D. '
)am, pfem
A.
3a
GOTHIC.
MASC.
Sing.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
N. sa
s6
thata
G. this
thizos
as masc.
D. thamma
thizai
A. thana
the
thata
I. the
N. thai
th6s
th3
G. thize
thizS
as masc.
D. thaim
thaim
A. thans
thos
th6
In the SECOND PERIOD we find se replaced by the ; and often
all inflexions are dropped, so that we get an uninflected the as irj
modern English.
MASCULINE.
Singular. N. pe, pa
G. paes, pas, pes, peos, J>is, pe
D. pan, pon, pane, pone, ^onne, peonne, pen, pa, pe
A. pene, hane, hjene, ]?ene, ]>anne, hone, pon, pe
I. pe
1 Old Northern forms.
T
274 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
The old Kentish dialect of ihe thirteenth century is more archaic
than other Southern dialects, and has se (m.), «'(fem.), thct, that (n.).
"Nu lordinges }>is is ]>e miracle }'et \et godspel of te dai us tel>. ac great is
be tokningge. Se leprus signefiej> \o senuulle men. si lepre J>o sennen. \et scab
bitokned po litle sennen, si lepre betokned \o grete sennen pet biedh diadliche."
" This is si glorius miracle."
" This is si signifiance of the miracle. "
" }>o seide ]>e lord to his sergant."
" Of }>o holi gost ; in "pa time." *
FEMININE.
Singular. N. )>eo, J>a, Jne, J>e, \>o
G. bare, baere, )>ere, ber, J>e
D. )>are, j>aere, J>ere, be
A. pa, )>eo, be, bo
Singular. N. and A. J>at, baet, pet, J>e
G. and D. as masculine
Plural. N. pa, )>o, paie, pe
G. pare, pere, per
D. )>an, pon, )>en, bane, bsen, peon, ]>a, pe
A. J>aie, ]>o, ]>e
In the Ormulum and other Midland writers the gender of that is
forgotten, and it is used as a demonstrative pronoun as at present.
In the THIRD PERIOD the article is for the most part flexionless
in the singular : though Southern writers, as Robert of Gloucester,
Dan Michel (in Ayenbite), &c., preserve some of the older forms,
as ace. masc. tha-tie, the-n.
" Zueche yeares driue)> ]>ane dyevel uram pe herte as )>et weter cachche)> \ant
bond out of pe kechene." — Ayenbite, p. ijt.3
The Kentish of 1340 also preserves the fem. Jw.
The fem. gen. and tlat. tliare (ther) is employed by Shoreham, as
" thare saulegalle'1 =*the gall of the soul (Shoreham's Poems,
p. 92) ; "one thare crybbe" (Ib. p. 157).
The old dative -n (O.K. -m) is preserved in such expressions as
"for Mi? wonce" (O E.y&r than aiu-s) : cp. O. E atten fnde = at then
ende (Robt. of Gloucester) ; "after spousynge" (Shoreham, p. 57) ;
after = at ther = at the (fem. ).
1 See Kentish Sermons, inO.E. Miscellany (ed. Morris). 3 herte is fem.
ii.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 275
The plural forms in the THIRD PERIOD are ]>o, \eo, Jxz,1 Jw/,1
which are also used for the plural of that: e.g. of \>o, of \>a, to
\o — of those, to those.
In the FOURTH PERIOD the plural Jw is still in use ; but the
singular is uninflected.
That, plural tho ( = those), are demonstratives.
Skelton uses tho — those : " Alle tho that were on my partye."
]>es, \eos, \is, this.
FIRST PERIOD.
M. F. N.
Singular, N. ]>es J>eos |)is
G. jnses |)isse }>ises
D. j>isum J>isse i>isum
A. Jjisne ]>as J)is
Plural. N. has
G. jiissa
D. )?isum
A. )>as
In the SECOND PERIOD we find the following forms : —
M. F. N.
Sing. N. }>es, ]>is fas, }>eos, ])is, )>os |jis
G. jrisses, |>isse, })is jiissere, ])isse as masc.-
D. pissene, J)issen, Jnsse |>issere, J)isse ,,
A. }>esne, ))isne |»as, }>3es )'is
Plural. N. and A. {>as, J>eos, ]>os, }>es, ]>ese, ])is, J;ise
G. jiissere, |>isse
D. J>issen, J)isse, |)eos
In the Ormnlum, this has no inflexions except plural }>ise.
In the THIRD PERIOD //i/j is flexionless in the singular;2 we find
in the plural thcs, this, thise, these.
In the Ayenbite we find in the singular nom. masc. this, ace.
ma>c. therne ( = t/tesne), ace. fem. thise, dat. thiscn, thise.
Shoreham has dat. sing, and pi. thyssere?
In the FOURTH PERIOD \\e have sing, this, pi. thise, this, thes,
these.
1 Northern forms.
2 We find s mistimes tJiisne r.cc. sing, in some Southern writers.
3 Trevivj, 1337, has nom. masc. \es, fem. ]>eos (^fues), pi. Jvai. fx^f.
276
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
In the Northern dialects we find t/ier, ihir, the plural of the Old
Norse definite article, used for these1 :—
" Alle mans lyfe casten may.be
Principally in this partes thre,
That er titir to our understandyng,
Bygynnyng, midward, and endyng.
Tlier thre parties er thre spaces talcle
Of the lyf of ilk man yhung and aide."
HAMPOLE, P.ofC.
It is used by James I. in his Essayes in Poesie (ed. Arber, p. 70) :
" Thir are thy workes."
VI. Interrogative Pronouns.
FIRST PERIOD.
Hvia, who.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUT.
Singular.
N.
hwa
hwzet
G.
hwees
hwses
D.
hwam, hwsem
hwaem
A.
hwone, hwasne
hwset
I.
hwi
hwi
N.
G.
D.
A.
I.
MASC.
hwas
hwis
hwamma
hwana
hwe
GOTHIC
FBM.
hwo
hwizos
hwizai
hwo
hwe
NEUT.
hwa
as masc.
hwa
hwe
In the SECOND PERIOD we find the following forms :-—
. MASC. AND FEM.
Singular, N. hwa, whae, wa, wha, wo
NEUT.
hwat, hwet,
what, wheel
as masc.
G. hwa«, whes, was, whas
D. hwairt, whan ,,
A. hwan, wan, hwam, whan, wham hwat, whret,
&c. wham
In the Ormulum we find what used irrespective of gender,- as
•what man, -what thing, &c.
1 In the O.N. pi. their (masc.), thecr (fern.), tktiu (neut.) ; r = s (sign of
plural).
n. J INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 277
In the THIRD PERIOD the dative replaces the old accusative.
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
Singular. N. wha, who, huo, wo, ho, quo what, wat, huet,
quat
G. wlias, whos, wos, quas as masc.
D. whom, wham, worn, quart! „
A. whom, wham, won, \vhan, what, huet
wan, quam
What is used as an adjective without inflexions,
In the FOURTH PERIOD, N. -who, -what ; G. whos, whoos, -whose ;
A. -whom, in hat.
Ilu'&^er, whether, which of two.
FIRST PERIOD.
If.
F.
N.
Singular,
N.
hw£eo"er
hwsegeru
hwa?£>er
G.
h\va'5eres
hvia.-g'erre
as masc.
1).
hwajSeriim
hwEt'oierre
A.
hwsegerne
h\\ segere
hwaeger
M. AND F.
N.
Plural.
N.
hwsp?Jerre
]
iwa'o^ ru
G.
hwsegerra
—
D.
rum
—
A.
]
llWCE'U -"'1'U
Hwilc is dec'incd iil.o the strong declension of adjectives.
SKCOND PERIOD.
In Laoamon we find in Text A : — -
M. F.
Singular. N. ' ' whulche
G. here
1>. '. wimlchere
A. whi whulche
Plural.
278 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
In Text B we have rjoch (oblique cases woc/ie).
In the Ormulum we have Sing. N. w/iillc, G. whillkes, Plur. N.
wkillke.
In the THIRD PEUIOD this pronoun is flexionless ; the pi. often
has the final e * : —vihylc, whilch, ivhilk, wick, -umch, woch, huich ;
pi. w&ilcke, -whuhe, huiche.
In the FOURTH PKKIOD the is joined to which, as the which
(relative).
VII. Relative Pronouns.
FIRST PERIOD.
(1) Se (masc.), seo, sio (fern.), thaet (neut).
" Caron se hzefde eac Jrio heafdu and se waes swiSe oreald."— BOETHIUS.
" He haefde an swiOe aenlice \rifsto waes haten Eurydice. " — Ib.
" )>a naefde he na scipa )>onne an \at waes ]>eah J>re-re]>re. " — Ib.
" Se }>orhwunaS dO ende f^ byO hal." — Matt. x. 26.
(2) J>e with «, sec, \xet, as J^-b^, J«>-}><?, \xzt-]>e (\><zt-te\
" Is for-J>i an Faeder se ]>e sefre is F«eder." — jELFRic, De Fide Catholica.
i'3) t"e (indeclinable).
" Gesselig bi?S se mon ]>f mseg geseon." — BOETHIOS.
" /Elc }>ara J>^ yfele detS, hatati J>aet leoht." — John iii. 20.
(4) Se J>e . . . se.
" Se \ie bryd haefO, se is brydguma." — 7<?A« iii. 9.
(5) be with personal pronouns, as t><? «• (if be), \>u \>e, &c.
" lc com Gabrihel ic ]>e stand beforan Gode." — Luke L 19.
" Faeder ure, ]>u ]>e eart on heofonum." — Matt, vi 9.
(6) J>e . . . he = who, )>e . . . his = whose, }>e . . . him = whom.
" \e he sylfa astah ofer sunnan up." — Ps. Ixvii. 4.
" J'ast nass na eowre« ]>ances, ac )>urh God }>e ic Jtirh A;> willan hider
asend waes." — Gen. xlv. 8.
In the SECOND PERIOD we find —
(i) indeclinable J>e. (2) that, thet, with antecedents of all
genders. (3) ]>e \>e, \>eo \>e(= se \>e, seo \>e]. Cp.
1 The Ayenbite has dative plural in -en, as huichen.
ii.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 279-
(1) " Eft se ]>e ds!3 aelmyssan for his drihtnes lufon se behyt his goldhord," &c.
—O.E. Horn. p. 300.
(2) " Eft ]><? ]>e deleG elmessen for his drihtnes luuan : Tfe behut his goldhord."
— Ib. p. 109.'
(3) \>e \>e is further changed to b<? \>at and he \>at (he \>et). Cp.
" Se J^2 aihte wil holde." — Moral Ode, 1. 55, in O.E. Horn. Second Series.
" }>f Tfet," &C.—76. in O.E. Horn. First Series.
" Se \e her doO ani god." — Ib. 1. 53, in O.E. Horn. Second Series.
" \e }>e," &c. — Ib. in O. E. Horn. First Series.
" He }>at, &c." — Ib. in O.E. Miscellany, latter part of thirteenth century.
\>e \>e is not found in La3amon's Brut.
In the Ancren Riwle ]>e . . . \>et — \>e }>e . . . \>e :
" ]>e is federleas ]>et haueS . . . vorlore )>ene Veder of heouene."
" }>ea detS also }>eo is betere J>en ich am."
That as a relative replaced — (i) the indeclinable \>e ; (2) }>e in \>e
\e (se )>e}, &c.
(1) First period —
" On anre dune ]>e is gehaten Synay." — iELFRlC.
Second period —
" Uppon ane dune ]>ai is ]>e raont of Synai." — O.E. Horn. First Series, p. 86.
(2) First period —
" Swa sceal se lareow d<5n se 15e bit?," &c. — ./ELFRIC.
Second period —
" Alswa seal \e larOeu don "pe ~$et biO," &c. — O.E. Horn. p. 95
(3) First period —
" An (tyd) is seo fie WEES buten s." — ^ELFRIC.
Second period —
" On is ~jpei wes buten e." — O.E. Horn. p. 89.
In the Ormttlum, \>at replaces \>e . . . \>e, \>e, &c. The pi. \>a \>at—
those that.
1 Extract (i) is from the English of the First period, (2) of the Second period
(about 1150).
* Se ]>e is borrowed from a version of the First period.
280
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
In Chaucer we find that . . . he = who ; that . . . kis = whose ;
that . . . Aim =• whom.
" A worthy man,
TJiat from the tyme that he first began
To ryden out, he lovede chyvalrye." — Pro/. 11. 43-45.
" Al were they sore hurte and namely oon
That with a spere was thirled his brest boon."
Knightes Tale, 11. 1843-44.
" I saugh today a corps ybom to chirche,
That now on Monday last I saugh him wirche."
Milleres Tale.
For other forms see RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
VIII. Indefinite Pronouns.
(i) An (one, a) is declined according to the strong declension.
FIRST PERIOD.
M.
Singular. N. an
G. anes
D. anum
A. anne, £nne
I. ane
Plural (of N. ane
all genders). G. anra
D. anum
A. ane
I. anum
In the Second period we find —
M.
F.
an
anre
anre
ane
anre
N.
an
anes
anum
an
ane1
Singular.
N.
G.
D.
A.
an, os, a
anes, *nnes, ones
ane, anne
asnne, enne
F.
an, on, a
sere, are, ore
are, one
ane, a-ne
N.
an, a
as masc.
an, a
In the Third and subsequent periods it is uninflected.3
1 In the Ayenbite, enne ace. of one, ane ace. masc. and fern, of an, a; so on<n
z anum, dat. sing. = to one (used subst.) : see Ayeiibite, p. 175.
II.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 281
(2) Nan (= ne + an), no, is declined in the same way.
In the Second and Third periods it is for the most part uninflected.
In Southern writers we find gen. sing., as nones kunnes, of no kind.
The Ayenbite has ace. nenne, dat. nonen.
*>
(3) Sum (a, certain, some) is declined in the First period accord-
ing to the strong declension of adjectives.
In La5amoM (Second period) we have the following forms : —
M. F.
Singular. N. sum sum
G. summes sumere
D. summe sumere
A. sumne sum
Plural. N. and A. summe
D. summen
In the Ormulum we find — •
N. sum. G. sumess. PI. sume
In the Third and Fourth periods we find sum, som, some ; PI.
sume, summe, some, used mostly in its modern acceptation.
(4) Man (Ger. man), one, is used in the First period only in the
nom. In the Second and subsequent periods we find man, man,
and me1 used with a verb in the singular.
Traces of this me are found in Elizabethan literature : —
" Stop tne his dice you2 are a villaine" (LODGE); i.e. let any one stop his dice,
&c.
(5) /Enig (any), negative n^nig, was declined according to the
strong declension.
In the Second period the g falls away. The following forms are
used by La5amon : — Sing. N. cent, cei, at, ei ; Gen. ceies, cei ; Dat.
cei ; Ace. itine, one. PI. en.
In the subsequent periods we find am', any, any, eny, with PI.
enie, an:*:, &c.
(6) Od"er, one of two, the first or the second.
" Lamech nam twa wif, (foer wx^ genemned Ada and cOer Sella." — Gen. iv. 19.
" SoClice o'Ser is se Fseder, oGer is se sunu."— MI.FRIC, De Fuie Catholica.
1 This fonn is looked upon as a shortened form of men.
3 You is used as an indefinite pronoun, cp. " AS, you may say.**
282 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
In the Second period we find an cfyerr, ant^ o\>err, nan o\>err, sum
efrerr — ( Ormtthtm}.
In the Third period — that an, that oon, the ton, the toon = the
one, the first ; that other, thet other = the other, the second. We also
find thother = the other. **
The pi. of 0$er is cfore. In the Third and Fourth periods we find
— rfSre and cfcer. In the Ayenbite we find pi. eftren.
(7) Wha (any one) and whaet (aught).
"And gif Jrwa to inc kwett cwytJ." — Matt. xi. 3.
See other examples in INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
We have also compounds, as swylces hw&t, Jruxet tyles (in Ormitlum,
Kttless w/tatt), elles hu-iEt.
In the Second period summwhatt ( Orm. ) makes its appearance.
(8) Hwylc (any one).
" Gif cow htuylc segtS." — Mic. xiii. 2t.
Cp. "J>ai fande iii crossis ; an was ]>at ilke. Bot wiste }>ai no3t guilk was guilk.
J>e quilk mu)>t }>e )>euis be." — Legends of Holy Rood, p. 113.
(9) In all periods sueh is an indefinite pronoun : —
"Be nvilcum, and be sviticum )>u miht ongitan," &c. (BoETHius) = By such
and such thou mayest perceive, &c.
" Whi art thou swick and ranch that thou darst passe the lawe." — Pilgrimage,
P- 78-
(10) Even that becomes an indefinite pronoun : —
" S-anch a time thou didest thus, swich a sonedai, swich. a moneday thann«
thou didest that and thanne thnt." — Pilgrimage.
Cp. " Had it been
Rapier or that and poniard . . .
... I had been then your man."— A Cure for a Cuckold.
(i i) In " Hakluyt's Voyages" (1589) we find ^used indefinitely — he
... he = one . . . othlr: "After comes ^#?and hee. " Cp. Chaucer's
use of he in Knightes Tale, 11. 1756—1761 :
" He rolleth under foot as doth a balle.
He foyneth on his feet with a tronchoun,
And he him hurtleth with his hors adoun,
He thurgh the body is hurt, and siththen take,
Maugre his heed, and brought unto the stake ;
Another lad is on that other side."
II.] COMPOUNDS. 283
IX. Compounds.
(1) Of hwa :—ge-hu<a, each, every ; dg-kiva (= A-ge-hu>d), every ;
ellcs fai>a (Lat. ali-quis), any : A-hwd-swd, whoso, whosoever ;
hwut-hrjitgu (— hwigu-k&gu), anything.
In the subsequent periods, svid-hwd-swd becomes (l) hwa-swa,
hwa-se, (2) whoso, -whose.
(2) Of hwaetJer :— A-hwtefter, anyone ; duf&r, dftor, ffier ( = a-ge-
hivafier), agfnvafter, ergfter, Sg^er, other, either ; ge-hwt£$er, either ;
n-d-/iW(T(Ser, ndwfier, novf&r, noQer, neither.1
Later forms are tmnvber, ey\>er, ou\>er, o\>er = either ; nou\>er,
r, no\>er — neither.
(3) Of hwilc : — ge-itihilc, anybody; eeghu<ilc, whoever/ kwilchtigu,
anyone, anything ; s?vd-fcw7c-swd, whosoever.
In the Second period we find ge-hwilc softened down to ihwilc.
(4) jElc (— d-ge-ltc), each, all, was declined like hwilc.
In the Second period we have the following forms : —
M. F.
Singular. N. aslc, ech selc, ech
G. aelches, alches, eches alchcre, elchere
D. elchen, alche, eche alchere, elchere
A. selcne, alcne, echne elche, eche
We also find alcan = each one, which is uninflected.
In the subsequent periods we find ilk, ech, uch, ilka, uch a, eck
a, ych a. In the Ayenbite we find echen, after the prepositions of,
to, in.
Atuer-<zlc (every) was inflected like <z!c, and in the Third period we
find—
" Evereches owe name." — St. Brandan, p. 3.
In the Ayenbite we find Sing. Ace. evrinne, Dat. evricken.
1 From these forms we get either, other, or, nor.
284
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[A PP.
CONJUGATION OF AVEAK VERBS.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
(i)
SING.
nerie T
seaifie*
nerest
seaifast
nerefl
Pi.
neriaO
sealfiaC
neriaO
sealftaO
neriaO
seaifiaS
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
SING. PL.
nerie
seal fie
nerie
sealfie
nerie
sealfie
nenen
sealfien
nerien
sealfien
neri-.-n
sealfien
INDICATIVE PERFECT.
SING.
(i) nerede
sealfode
PL.
neredon
sealfodon
SING.
nerede
sealfode
(2) neredest
seall'odest
neredon
sealfodon
nerede
sealfode
(3) neredede
sealfode
neredon
sealfodon
neredes
sealfode
SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT.
PL.
nereden
sealfoden
nereden
sealfoden
nereden
sealfoden
H
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SING.
nere
seaha
PL.
neriaO
sealfiaO
nenan
sealfian
to nerienne
to sealfianne
PRES. P.
neriende
sealficade
nered
seaJfod
GOTHIC.
INDICATIVE PRESENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT.
SING.
PL.
SING.
PL.
(T) nasja
nasjam* ^
nasjau
nasjai-ma
saiuC
sal bum
sal bo
salboma
(a) nasjls
na'ji)>
nasjais
nasjai J>
salbOf
salbS>
sal bos
salbo>
(3) m
na>jand
nasjai
nasjaina
salb6>
sal bond
salbd
salboa-.
1 To save.
To salve.
II. 1
STRONG VERBS.
285
INDICATIVE
PERFECT.
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT.
SlN'G.
PL.
SING.
PL.
(0
nasida
salboda
nasidedum
salbodedum
nasidediau
saibodedjau
nasidedeiraa
salbodedeima
(2)
nasides
salbodes
nasidedu{>
salbodedu]?
nasidedeis
salbudedeis
nasidedei]>
salbodedei}>
(3)
nisida
salbSda
nasidedum
salbodcdum
nasidedi
salbodedi
nasidedeina
salbQdedeina
IMPERATIVE.
1NFIN
(2)
SING
nasei
salbS
Pi..
nasji>
salbof
nasjan
salbon
nasjands
sal bonds
nasifs
salbofs
CONJUGATION OF STRONG VERBS.
FIRST PERIOD.
ACTIVE VOICE.
PRES. INF.
niman
Niman, to take.
PERF.
nam
Pi-
nainon
P.p.
numen
INDICATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present (and Future) Tznse.
SING.
(1) Ic nime
(2) )>u nimest
(3) he nimeO
PL.
we nimaO
ge nima8
hi nimaS
SING.
Ic nime
fu nime
he nime
PL.
we nimen
ge nimen
hi nimen
2*6
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[AFP.
Perfect.
SING.
PL.
SING.
PL.
(i) Ic nan
we namon
Ic name
we nameu
(2) )m name
ge namon
]>u name
ge nainen
(3) he nam
hi namon
he name
hi numen
IMPERATIVE.
(2) nim
INFINITIVE.
Simple. Dative.
to miiuuine
PRES. P.
nimende
PASS. P.
numen
GOTHIC.
INDICATIVE PRESENT.
SING.
(1) nima
(2) nimis
(3 ) nimij>
PL.
nimam
nimand
INDICATIVE PERFECT.
(1) nam ncmum
(2) namt nemuj>
(3) nam nemun
IMPERATIVE.
SING. PL.
(2) nim nimi)>
PRES. P.
nimand-s
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT.
SING.
(1) nimau
(2) nim.iis
(3) nimai
PL.
nihi;"d-ma
nimai])
nimai-na
SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT,
(i) nem-jau nemeima
(2) nemjeis
(3) nemi
INFIX,
niman
PASS. P.
IlillllJ'h
nemei}>
nemeina
DAT. INFIN.
FIRST PERIOD.
(I) Many Strong verbs have change of vowel in the second and
third persons sing. pres. indie.
(1) cume (come) crcope (creep) bace (bake) feallan (fall)
(2) cymst crypst becst feist
(3) cymiS ' ; ' i'> becO fe!3
II.] STRONG VERBS. 287
(2) Some lose their connecting vowel and assimilate the suffix of
the second and third persons singular pres. indie, to the root,1 as : —
(1) etc (eat) bindc (bind) slea (slay)
(2) ytst binst slehst (slyhst)
(3) yt bint slehC (siyhO)
(3) Strong verbs have the same vowel-change in the second
person perfect indicative as in the plural, as Ic fand (found), b»
funde (— foundest), pi. vrefundon, &c.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRONG VERBS.
DIVISION I. Class /.
PRES. a, ea.
PERF. ed, f.
PASS. P. a, ea.
(i) fealle
fe611
feallen
fall
wealle
weoll
weallen
well
fealde
feold
fealden
fold
healde (halde)
heGld
healden
hold
stealde
steOld
stealden
possess
wealde
weold
wealden
wield
banne
ben (beon)
bannen
order
spanne
spen (speon)
spannen
span
fange (fo)
feng
fangen
take, catch
gange
geng (geong)
gangen
go
hange
heng
hangen
hang
PRES. &.
PERF. ed, I.
P.p. A.
(2) swape
sweop
swapen
sweep
ge-nape
geneop
genapen
whelm
for-swafe
forsweof
f irswafen
drive
blawe
ble6w
blawen
blow
cnawe
cneow
cnawen
know
crawe
creow
crawen
crow
mawe
meow
mawen
mow
sawe
seow
sawen
sow
prawe
Jreow
)>ra\ven
thrown
wawe
weow
wawen
blow
blate
blet (bleot)
blatcn
pale
hate
het(heht)
haten
order
hnate
hneot (hnet)
hnaten
knock
scade
seed 'sciod, sceod)
scaden
shed, divide
lace
leOlc (lee)
lacen
leap
PRRS. ea.
PERF. ed.
P.p. ea.
(3) heafe
heof
heafen
weep
hleape
hleop
hleapen
leap
a-h-neape
a-hne6p
ahneapen
sever
heawe
heow
heawen
hew
beate
beot
beaten
beat
breate
breot
bieaten
break
gesceate
gesceut
gesceaten
fall to
deage
deog
deagen
dye
Weak verbs are also subject to this assimilation.
288
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
PRES. <£.
PERF. e6, t.
P.p. A
(4) slxpe
slep
slipen
sleep
prate
get
gri-ten
greet
fete
Icon OeSt, let)
lajien
let
on-dr^bde
-dreflrd (-dred)
-driden
dread
ride
reord (red, raed}
rabden
counsel
PRES. t.
PERF. e6, t.
P.p. 6.
(5) hrowe
hreow
hrowen
cry
hwope
h*-eop
hwopen
whoop
blowe
bleSw
bio wen
blow
flowe
fle6w
fldwen
flow
growe
greSw
growen
grow
h!5we
hie6w
hlowen
low
rowe
re6w
rowen
row
swowe
swe6w (sweg)
swowen
speed
blote
bleot
bl&ten
sacrifice
swfige
sweoh (sweflg)
swogen
sough
PRES. I.
PERF. et.
P.p. t.
(6) hrepe
hreop
hrepen
cry
wepe
weop
wepen
weep
GeSng was replaced by a weak form eode (cade) from a root i, ir
A weak form gengde is also met with.
Slepde occurs for slfp in the Northern dialect.
SECOND PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
P.P.
falle, ualle
ueol, feol, fol, fel
iuallen, iueoHen1
fall
halde (holde)
heold, held, hzld,
ihalden, iholden
hold
huld
falde (folde)
feold
ifolden
fold
walde (welde)
wald, weld
awald
wield
walke
weolk, welk
iwalken
walk
fo (fange)
feng
ifon, ifongen
take
p (go, gange)
Range
heong, heng
igan, igon, gangen
hongen, hon
g°
hang
hate (hote)
hahte, hehte, het
ihaeten, ihote,
order
ihaten
lake
hK
—
leap
blawe (blowe,
bleou, bleu, blew,
iblowen
blow
blxwe)
bleu
cnawe (cnowe)
cneow", cnew, kneu
icnawen
know
sawe (sowe)
seow, sow
isowen, isawen
sow
ma we (mowe)
meow, mew
imowen
mow
)>rawe ()>rowe)
sbeHe (slepe)
J>reou, treu
slaep, sleap
ithrowen
islepen
throw
sleep
1 The Southern dialects retain the prefix » or y before the p.p., and freauently
drop the final -«. The Northern dialects drop the prefixal i, but seldom lose
the *.
IL]
STRONG VERBS.
28<
PRES.
PERK. P.p.
Izpe (lepe)
leop, lep, leup, ileopen, ileapen
leav
leoup, lup
laete (letc)
let ileten, ilseten
let
wepe (weope)
hewe
weop, wep iwepen
heow, hew iheawen, iheouwen,
wet^
hew
haewen
bete
beot, bet ibeaten, ibaeten
beat
rowe
rew, reu irowen
row
growe
greu, greow igrowen
grow
Some few perfects have become weak, as : —
laete (lete)
Iette(laette, leatte)1 —
let
lepe
leopt ' —
leap
slepe
sleapte (slapte) 2 —
sleep
drede
dredde 3 adrad '
dread
sh?ede
shadde 3 shadd 3
shed
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF. P.p.
falle
vil, fel, fil, ful yfalle, yfallen,
fall
yvalle, fallen
halde (holde)
fange (fo, fonge)
held, hield, huld yholde, iholden
afong,afeng,aveng, yfonge, ifongen,
hold
take
avong, veng ivongen
hange (honge)
heng yhonge
hang
go
ygo, gon, gan
go
hole
het, hight yhote
call, name
blowe (blawe)
blew yblowe, yblowen
blow
knowe (knawe)
knew, kneu yknowen, knawen
know
sow
seu, sew sowen
sow
))rowe
}>rew, ]>reu igrowen
thrown
slepe
slep, sleep, sleop, —
sleep
slup
bete
byet, bet byeten, ibeten
beat
lete (late)
let ilate, laten
let
drede
dred
dread
lepe
lep, hliep, hlip —
leap
wepe
wep —
weep
hewe
hew ihewen
hew
rowe
rew, row
row
growe
grew, greu igrowen
grow
The following weak forms are to be met with : —
idrad (p.p.), dradde (per£), and fanged (perf. and p.p.), hatte
(p.p.), shadde (perf.), stiad (p.p.), lette (perf.), i/et (p.p.), -wept^iueped
'perf.), Qede and -wende, wente (perf.), hanged, henged (p. p. ).
In La5amon. 2 In LaSamon and Ormuium. 3 In Crtnutui*.
V
290
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[A PP.
FOURTH
PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
P.p.
falle
fel, ful
fallen
fall
holde
held, huld
holden
hold
walk
welk
—
walk
under-fong
-feng
-fongen
undertake
honge, haiige
heng, heeng
hongen
hang
gon, goon, goo, go
—
goon, gon, ygo
go
hole
hight
hoten
call, name
blowe
blew
blowen
blow
knowe
knew
knowen
know
crowe
crew, creew
crowen
crow
growe
grew
growen
grow
sowe
sew, seew
so wen
sow
throw
threw
throwen
throw
slepe
slep, sleep
slepen
sleep
lepe
leep, lep
lopen
leap
lete, late
let, leet
leten
let
hewe
hew, heew
hewen
hew
bete
bet, beet
beten
beat
wepe
wep, weep
wepen, wopea
weep
(1) The following weak forms make their appearance : —
weeldide (p.p. •weeldid), walked (perf. and p.p.), underfonged (perf. ),
hangide, honfede(p&$.), hanged, Aonged(p.p. ), swepide (perf.), isweped
(p. p. ), knowide (perf. ), sowide (perf. ), sowid (p. p. ), leppide, lepte (perf. ),
grcwed (perf. ), leppid, lept (p.p.), slepte (perf.), slept (p.p.), dredde,
dradde (perf.), adred, adrad (p.p. ).
(2) Held, heng, are sometimes used for the p.p.
(3) A mute final e is often found in the perfect, as blewe, crnue,
leete, &c. ,
DIVISION II. Class I.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. e, i.
(i) belle
swelle
helpe
delfe
melte
swelte
be-telde
melee
beige
felge
PERF. a (ea,^. PL. «.
beall bullon
sweal (sweoll) swullon
healp hulpon
dealf dulfon
mealt multon
swealt swulton
teald tuldon
mealc mulcon
bealh (bealg) bulgon
fealh (fealg, fulgon
P.p. u, o.
bollen
swollen
holpen
dolfen
molten
swollen
tolden
molcen
bolgen
folgen
bellow
swell
help
delve
melt
die
cover up
milk
be wroth
go into
II.]
STRONG VERBS.
291
PRES. e, i.
PERF.«(«,«)
. PL. «.
P.P. u,o.
swelge
swealh (swealg) swulgon
swolgen,
swallow
swelgen
gille
geal
gullon
gollen
yell
gilpe
gealp
gulpon
golpen
boast
glide
geald
guidon
golden
pay
(2) hlimme
hlam
hlummon
hlummen
sound
grimme
gram
grummon
grummen
rage
swimme
swam
swummon
swummen
swim
climbe
clamb, clom
clumbon
clumben
climb
gelimpe
gelamp
gelumpon
gelumpen
happen
gerimpe
geramp
gemmpon
gerumpen
rumple
on-ginne
-gan
-gunnon
gunnen
begin
linne
Ian
lunnon
lunnen
cease
rinne(eorne)ran
runnon
runnen
run
sinne
san
sunnon
sunnen
think
spinne
winne
span
wan
spunnon
wunnon
spunnen
wunnen
spin
fight (win)
stinte
slant
stunton
stunten
stint
trinte
prant
prunton
Jrunten
swell
binde
band
bundon
bunden
bind
finde
fand
fundon
funden
find
grinde
hrinde
grand
hrand
grundon
hrundon
grunden
hrunden
grind
push
swinde
pinde
winde
swand
pand
wand
swundon
pundon
wundon
swunden
punden
wunden
pine (swoon)
swell
wind
crince
crane
cruncon
cruncen
yield
a-cwince
drince
-cwanc
dranc
-cwuncon
druncon
-cwuncen
druncen
go out (quench)
drink
for-scrince
-scranc
-scruncon
-scruncen
shrink
since
sane
suncon
suncen
sink
stince
stanc
stuncon
stuncen
stink
swince
swanc
swuncon
swuncen
toil
bringe
clinge
brang
clang
brungon
clungon
brungen
clungen
bring
cling (wither)
cringe
gefringe
crang
-frang
crungon
-frungon
crungen
-frungen
cringe, fall
ask
geonge
gang
gungon
—
go
singe
sang
sungon
sungen
sing
springe
sprang
sprungon
sprungen
spring
stinge
stang
stungon
stungen
sting
swinge
ge^inge
swang
gepang
swungon
gepungon
swungen
gepungen
swing, beat
grow
])nnge
prang
frungon
frungen
throng
Jnvinge
pwang
pwungon
pwungen
constrain
wringe
wrang
wrungon
wrungen
wring
PRES. to.
PERF. ea.
PL.*.
P.P. 0.
(3) georre
gear
gurron
gorren
whirr
meorne
mearn
murnon
mornen
mourn
speorne
spearn
spurnon
spornen
spurn
weorpe
ceorfe
wearp
cearf
wurpon
curfon
worpen
corfen
warp, thro\v
carve, cut
deorfe
dearf
durfon
dorfen
suffer
U 2
292 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
UPP.
PRES. eo. PERF. fa . PL. u. P.p. f>.
hweorfe hwearf hwurfon hworfen
return
steorfe stearf sturfon storfen
starve, die
sweorfe swearf swurfon sworfen
cleanse
weorfe wear)> wurdon worden
become
sweorce swearc swurcon sworcen
grow faint
beorge bearh burgon borgen
guard
feohte feaht fuhton fohten
tight
PRES. e. PERF. ea,(ai}. PL. «. P.p. o.
(4) berste bearst burston borsten
burst
^ersce tsersc J>urscon forscen
thresh
gefregne gefrsegn gefrugnon gefrugnen
bregde braegd brugdon brogden
ask
braid
stregde st?aegd strugdon strogden
straw, sprinkle
SECOND PERIOD.
PRES. PERF. PL. P.p.
swelle swal, swol swolzen swollen
swell
Selpe 3ealp, 5a!p 3ulpen <• Solpen
Selle 3al Sullen Sullen
yelp
yell
helpe halp, help holpen holpen
delve dalf, dolf, delf dulfen, dulven dolfen, dolven
help
delve
3elde Seald, 3ald 3ulden, 3oJden 3olden
yie'd
r.welte swalt swulten swollen
.-.welter, die
belc;e balg,baElh,belh, bulSen boloen, bolwen
be angry, swell
balh
swel.le swealh swollen
swallow
•iw'inme swam, sworn swummen swommen
swim
(!.:)-limpe -lomp, -lamp -lumpen, -lorn- -lumpen
happen
pen
climbe ci.iip.b, clomb clumben clumben
climb
b-'.inne blan blunnen blunnen
ceaie
i \ • J-gan, -gon -gunnen -gunnen
begin
(i)-winne -wan, -won -wunnen -wunnen
\vin
^rinne (irne, ran, ron (orn, urnen runnen
< eorne, arn)
( erne)
run
^beorne, born burnen
-. berne.
burn
I brinne
bir.de band, botl^ bunden bunden
bind
finde fand.fond.vond funden funden
find
grinde grand, grond grunden grunden
grind
swinde swond
—
winde wand, wond wunden wunden
wind
/•wiiiclie, swanc, swonc swunken swunken
toil
I swinke
fdrinke dranc, drone drunken drunken
drink
\ (drinche)
stinke stanc, stone stunken stunken
stink
singe sang, song sungen sungen
sing
STRONG VERBS.
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
springe
sprang, sprang
sprungcn
sprungen
spring
swinge
swang, swong
swungen
swungen
swing
ringe
rang, rong
rungen
rungen
ring
clinge
clang, clong
clungen
clungen
cling
stinge
stang, stong
stungen
stungen
sting
j'rintte
J'run.:, J'rong
frungen
J>rungen
throng
(weorpe,
warp, worp,
wurpeti
worpen
warp
< worpe,
\verp
( werpe
stcrfe
starf, sterf
sturven
storven
die
kerfe
carf, cjerf, keri
' curven
corven
cut
wurfe
warf
wur]>en
wurj>en , wor-
become
(worfe)
ten
breste,
brast, barst,
brusten,bursten brosten, bor-
burst
bcrste
borst
sten, brusten,
bursten
J>resce
J>rash
Jirushen
proshen
thresh
swaerce
—
swurken
• —
grow faint
fehte
faht, feaht,
fuhten
fohten, fogten
fight
fogt, feht
berge
barh, barg
bur3'en
bor.ien,
protect
borwen
( brede
Ubrede
braid (breid)
abred
bruiden
abroden / .
braid
(1) Southern English dialects have o for the Northern a in (he
perfect, v&fond = jand ; stone = stanc, &c.
(2) A few verbs have become weak in La3amon, as —
mornede (perf. ), mnrned (p.p.); freinede (perf.), frdned (p.p.);
barnde (perf.) ; derfde (perf.), dervcd (p.p.) ; dctnde (perf.) ; ringed*
(perf.)- FrctQQtiedd (p.p.) occurs in the Ormulum.
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
Pu
P.p.
helpe
help,halp,heolp
holpen
holpen r
help
yelpe
yalp
—
yolpen
boast
delve
dalf
dolven
dolven
delve
melte
malt, molt
molten
molten
melt
?elde
3ald, Sold, 3eld
3olden
3olden, yolden
yield
swel.ie
sw.il
—
—
swell
climb
clam
clomben
clomben
climb
swimme
swam, sworn
—
—
swim
ginne
gan, gon
gonnen
gonnen, gun-
beg. n
nen
winne
wan, won
wonnen
wonnen
win
rinne, renne
ran, ron
ronnen
ronnen, run-
run
nen
1 t: often dropped in Southern dialects. The Northern dialects prefer u ia the
pi. and p.p.
294 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
irne
orn, arn, yarn
—
y-yerne run
linne, b-linne
blan, Ian
blonnen
blonnen lease
binde
band, bond
bonden,
bonden, bind
bounden
bounden,
bunden
finde
fand, fond,
fonden,
fonden, funden, find
vbnd
founden
founden
winde
wond, wand
wonden
wonden wind
driuke
drank, dronk
drunken
dronken, drink
drunken
sinke
sank, sonk
sunken,
sonken sink
sonken
stinke
stank, stonk
stonken
stonken stink
swinke
swank
swonken
swonken toil
singe
sang, song,
songen
zongen, songen, sing
zang, zong
sungen
slinge
slong, slang
slongen
slongen sling
fringe
Jrang, ]>rong
)>rongen
Jrungen throng
springe
sprang, sprong
sprongen
sprongen spring
nnge
rong, rang
rongen
rongen, rungen nng
wringe
wrang, wrong
wrongen
wrongen wring
stinge
stang, stong
stongen
stongen, sting
stangen
swinge
swong, swang
swongen
swungen swing
kerve
carf, kerf
corven
corven carve
sterve
starf
storven
storven starve
werpe
warp
—
worpen warp
berste, breste
brast, barst,
borsten
borsten, bursten burst
borst
ber3e
bor3
bor3en protect
brede
braid (to-bred)
—
— braid
wor]>e
werf, worf
worj>en
— become
fi3te
fo3t, faght,
fo3ten
foSten, foughten fight
vo3t
Weak perfects replace strong ones, as : —
Clemde (Early Eng. Poems) ; swelled (Tristram) ; swatie (Ayen-
bite) ; swelled ( Psalter) ; arnde (Robt. of Gl.) ; helped is a p.p. in
Psalter j melted ; slenget (Havelok).
FOURTH PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
swelle
swall
swollen
swollen
swell
helpe
halp, holj5
holpen
holpen
help
delve
dalf
dolven
dolven, delven
delve
melte
malt, molt
molten
molten
melt
swelte
swelt
—
—
die
3elde, Seelde
Said, 3old, 3eld Solden, 3elden
Solden
yield
swimme
swam, sworn
swommen
swommen
swim
climbe
clamb, clomb
clomben,
clomben
climb
clamben
biginne
(bi)gan
(bi)gonnen,
(bi)gunnen.
begin
(bi)gunnen
(bi)gonnen
spinne
span
sponnen
sponnen
spin
n.] STRONG VERBS. 295
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
winne
wan, won
wonnen
wonnen win
renne
ran, ron
ronnen, runnen
runnen, ronnen run
stinte
—
—
stenten stint (stop)
binde
bond, boond,
bounden
bounden bind
bound, band
finde
fond, foond
founden
founden found
grinde
winde
grond, grand
wond
grounden
wounden
grounden grind
wounden wind
sinke
sank, sonk
sonken
sonken, sunken sink
drinke
drank, dronk
dronken
drunken drink
swinke
swank
swonken
swonken toil
stinke
stank, stonk
stonken
stonken stink
shrinke
shrank
shronken
shronken shrink
ringe
rang, rong
rongen
rongen, rungen ring
singe
sang, soong,
songen
songen, sungen sing
song
stinge
stong
stongen
stongen, sting
stungen
springe
sprang, sprong,
sprongen
sprongen, spring
sproong
sprungen
thringe
throng
throngen,
throngen throng
thrungen
wringe
wrong, vvrang
wrongen
wrongen wring
kerve
karf
korven
korven carve
sterve
starf
storven
storven starve
worthe
worth
worthen become
breste
brast, brost,
brosten,
brosten, burst
brest, barst,
barsten,
borsten
borst .
borsten
threshe
thrasch
throshen
throshen thresh
breide
(to-)brayd
—
— braid
liSte
fa3t, faujt
foSten, fouSten
fouSten fight
(1) Weak perfects — helpede, delvide, vieltide, fyldide, ken-yde,
renncde, threschide (Wickliffe), yioymmed (Allit. Poems).
(2) Weak p.p. — helped, melted, threshed, bray^eJe (Wickliffe).
DIVISION II. Class 1 'I.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. »'. PERF. &, a. . P. P. u, a.
l]
cwele
cwsel1
cwolen
kill
ge-dwele
-dwael
-dwolen
en-
hele
hsl
holen
hide, cover
hwele
hwsel
hwolen
sound
stele
stxl
stolen
steal
swele
swsel
swolen
sweal
CO
niir.e
nam (noni)
numen
steal, take
cwime, curae
cwam (cwom, com)
cumen
come
PI. cwcclon. All verbs of this class have a long vowel in pluraL
296
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[AIT
PkES.
(3) here
scere
PEKF.
ba:r
scaer
P.p.
boren
scoren
bear
shear
tere
ge-)nvere
sprece
brece
tier
-)>waer
spraec
braec
toren
-)>worea
sprecen
brocen
tear
weld
speak
break
SECOND
PERIOD.
PRES.
(i) stele
PERF.
stal (stalen, pi.)
P.p.
stolen
steal
(2) nime
come, cume
man, nom, nxm
(nomen, nemen,
pi.)
com (comen, pi.)
numen, nomen
cumen, comen
steal
come
(3) bere
soere, schaere
tere
baer, bar, bor, beer
(pi. beren, basren)
scar, schzr
tar (toren, pi.)
boren
scoren
toren
bear
shear
tear
(4) break
brae, braec, breac,
broken
break
brec (brocen,
braken, pi.)
speke, spacke spac, space, spec speken, spoken speak
(pi. spaeken,
speken)
Weak perfect — helede ^LaSamon).
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
(0 hele, hile
stele
PERF.
hal
stel, stal
P.p.
holen
stolen
hidK
steal
(a) nime
come
nom, nam
com, cam
nomen, numen
comen, cumen
steal
come
(3) bere
schere
tere
ber, bar, bor
scker, schar, sclior
tar
boren
schoren, schorn
toren
bear
shear
tear
(4) breke
speke
brae, brek
spac, spec
broken
spoken
break
speak
FOURTH
PERIOD.
PRKS.
ste'e
nime
come, cume
bere
PERF. P.P.
stal, staal, stol, stolen
stel
nam, nom, nem nomen
cam, com comen, cumeo
bar, baar, beer, bor boren, bom
steal
take, steal
come
bear
(bare)
II.]
STRONG VERBS.
297
PKES.
schere
PERF. P.P.
schar schoren
shear
brtke, breeke
sptke
brak ( brake), breek broken
spak (spake), spek spoken
break
speak
Weak perfects — hilede and tercde (Wickliffe).
DIVISION II. Class III.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. e.
PERF. a: (pi. &).
P.p. ce, i.
drepe
swefe
draep
swaef
drepen
swefen
strike, kill
sleep
wefe
waef
wefen
weave
ete
«et
eten
eat
frete
frset
freten
eat up
mete
OOP*
meten
mete, measure
cnede
cnaed
cneden
knead
trede
traed
treden
tread
c\\e]>e
CWSBp
cwej>en
quoth
lese
laes
lesen
gather
ge-nese
-naes
-nesen
recover
wese
waes
wesen
be (was)
\vrece
wraec
wrecen
wreak
wege
waeg
wegen
carry
gife
geat
gifen
give
(for gite
-geat
-giten
(forget
on-gite
-geat
-geten
perceive
seohe (MO)
seah (pi. sabgon,
gesen, gesewen
see
sawon)
fricge
frseg
gefregen
inquire
liege
Iseg
legen
lie
)>icge
>eah, ]>ah (pi.
]>egen
take
}>ibgon)
sitte
sa;t
geseten
sit
bidde
baed
beden
bid
SECOND PERIOD.
PKES. PERF. P.P.
drepe drap dropen slay
3ete aet, et, at, seat eten eat
(under)3ite,(bi3ete) -3aet, -gat, -3at -3et -3eten,-geten,-3iten perceive
(forjfrete fraet freten fret
mete mat meten mete
trede traed (pi. treden), treden tread
trad
quepe cwej>, quee}), cwa]> quej>en quoth
(pi. cwaepen,
quejien)
waes (pi. weren) was
wreke wraec, wrec wreken, wroken wreak
298 ENGLISH ACCIDEXCE. [APP.
PRES. PERF. P.P.
Sife Siaf, 3af, 3ef Siven, ?even give
lyge laei, leai, Ia.i3 (pi. leien, Luen, Ie3en lie
Seven, Iae3en)
seo, se szh, seih, sag, seg, se3en, sen, sogen, see
sah (pi. ssejen, sowen
segen)
«tte saet (pi. seten), sat, seten at
bidde baed, bed, bad (pi. — bid
baeden, beden,
boden)
Tredded = trodden occurs in Ormulum, L 5728.
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
P.p.
drepe
drap
—
slay
etc
et
eten
eat
frete
fret
freten
fret
3ete
Sat, 3ot, 3et
Seten, Siten
g«
trede
trad
treden, troden
tread
quebe
quo}>, qua]>, quad
—
quoth
wreke
wrak, wrek
wroken
wreak
3ive
Sef, Saf
Siven, 3oven
give
ligge, lie
lai, lei, Ie5
leyen, liggen
lie
sitte
sat, zet
seten
sit
bidde
bad, bed
beden
bid
se. seye
say, sau, saw,
seyen, seien, sewen,
see
sagh, sauh, sei
zo3en, ze3en,
seen, sain, sen
FOURTH
PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
p.p.
weve
waf?
woven
weave
ete
et, eet
eten
eat
mete
mat, met
meten
mete
Sete
Sect, 3at, 3ot
Setten, 3oten
get
trede (treede)
trad (trade)
treden, troden
tread
que>e
quod
—
quoth
wreke
wrak,*wrek
wroken
wreak
se
sa3, say, sei, sagh,
seien, seen
see
saw, si3, sih,
sauh, ;augh
Sife, Sefe, 3eve
3af, Sef, yof
Siven, Seven, yoven
give
sitte
sat (sate)
sitten, seeten, seten
sit
bidde
bad
—
bid
ligge, lie
lay, ley
leyen, leien
lie
Weak forms — metide for mat or met.
II.]
STRONG
VERBS.
age
DIVISION II.
Class IV.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. a. PERF. 6 (pi. S).
P.p. a.
(i) ale
61
alen
shine
gale
g61
galen
sing
fare
for
faren
fare, go
stape
stop
stapen
step
scape
scop
scapen
shape
grafe
grof
grafen
dig
scafe
scof
scafen
shave
rafe
r6f
rafen
rob
hlade
hlod
hladen
load
wade
w6d
wadeh
wade, go
ace
8c
acen
ache
bace
b6c
bacen
bake
sace
s6c
sacen
fight
tace
t6c
tacen
take
wace
wdc
wacen
wake
wasce
w3sc
wasscen
wash
drage
dr6h
dragen
drag, draw
gnage
gnoh
gnagen
gnaw
(2) sceaOe
sc6d
sceaOen
scathe
sceace
scoc
scacen
shake
leahe
loh
leahen, lean
blame
sleahe
sloh
slagen, sleahhen
slay
]>weahe
J>woh
]>\\egen
wash
weaxe
wox
weaxen
wax
(3) spane
spon
spanen
allure
stande
stun
standen
stand
(4) swerige, swarie
hebbe (hafie)
swdr
hof
sworen
hafen
swear
heave
hleahhe, hlehhe
hloh
hleahhen
laugh
SECOND
PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
p.p.
guile, 3elle
goll (pi. gollen,
5olen
sing, yell
gullen)
fare
for
faren
go, fare
scape
scop
scaepen, scapeu
shape
grave
lade
grof
[lod]
gra\en
laden
grave
lade
wade
wod
waden
go
wasshe
wesh, weosch,
washen, waschen
wash
weis, wuesch
bake
bok, book
baken
bake
(for; sake
-soc
-sakeu
forsake
take
toe
taken
take
ake
oc
—
ache
wakie, wake
woe
waken
wake
3oo
ENGLISH ACCIDEVCE.
[A PP.
PRES.
PERF. P.p.
drage, drave
droh,drouh,drog, dra3en, dragen,
draw
drug (pi. drow- drawen, drogen
en)
sle
sloh, slash, slog, slowen, sla3en,
slay
slug, slouh (pi. sle3en, sleien,
slowen) sla wen, slagen,
slain
fie, fla, flu
fk>5 vlajen
flay
\vaxe
weox, wex, wax waxen, wexen,
wax
woxen
stand
stod standen
stand
swerie
swor sworen
swear
stepe
stop stopen
step
haeve, hefe
heat", hxf, hef, heoven, hofen,
heave
hof, heof hoven
Ieh3e
loh Io3en, lowen
laugh
Weak perfects :-
-takede (La5.) = toe ; hefed =
Ao/(O.E. Horn.,
Second Series); wakeden = -woe (La3- Text B).
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF. P.p.
gale
Sal, 5ol —
sing, yell
stonde
stod standen, stonden
stand
fare
for faren
fare
swere
swor, swar sworen, sworn
swear
schape
schop schapen
shape
wade
wed —
go
washe
wesch, wosch waschen
wash
schake
schok schaken
shake
ake
ok (oken)
ache
forsake
forsok forsaken
forsake
take
tok taken
take
wake
wok waken
wake
drawe
drow, drouh, drawen
draw
drew
waxe, wexe
sle, sla, slo
wax, wex waxen, woxen
slow, slogh, slawen, slain
wax
slay
slouh, slou
fle, fla, flo, fla3e
flogh, flouh, vlea5 flain, flawen
flay
lighe, lawghe,
-low, Iow5
laugh
hleoe
stepe
hefe, hebhr
step, stap stopen, stoupen
hof hoven, heven
step
heave
'FOURTH PERIOD.
PRES
PERF. P.p.
stonde, stande
stod, stood stonden, standen
stand
swere, sweere
swer, swor, swoor sworen
swear
fare
for faren, foren
go, fare
shape
shop shapen
shape
stepe
stopen, stoupen
step
heue
haf, hef, hof hoven
heave
grave
(grof) graven
grave
li.] STRONG VERBS.
PRES.
PERF.
P.p.
lade
lade
laden
load
schave
schoof
schaven, schoven
shave
wasche
wesch, wosch
waschen
wash
hake
book
baken
bake
schake
schok, schook
schaken
shake
forsake
forsok
forsaken
forsake
take
tok, took
taken
take
wake
wook
waken
wake
ake, aake, ache
ok
—
ache
draw-
dro3, drow,
drawen
draw
drowh, drew,
drouh
gnaw
gnew, gnow
gnawen
gnaw
laghe, lawe, Iey3e
low, Iow3, Io3.
Ia3en
laugh
lough, Ioow5
sle, slea, sla
slo3, slow, slew,
slain, slawen,
slay
slew3
slawn
fle, flo
flouh
flam
flay
wexe, waxe
wox, wax, wex,
woxen, waxen,
wax
wseex
wexen
(1) Weak perfects -.—Collide, ^ellide, shapide, stept, hevcde, graved,
schemed, waschede, bakede, shockide, shakide, wakide, akide, lef^ede,
dratvede, "waxed.
(2) Weak p.p. : — heved, graved, waischid, -waked, shapid, aivakid.
DIVISION II. Class V.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. f. PERF. A. PL. i. P.P. i.
cine can cinpn cmen split
dwine dwan dwinon dwinen dwindle
gine gan ginon ginen yawn
hrine hran hrinon hrinen touch
h\vine hwan hwinon hwinen whiz
seine scan scinon scinen shine
gripe grap gripon gripen gripe
nipe nap nipon nipen darken
ripe rap ripon ripen reap
to-=11r>'! -slip -slipon -slipen dissolve
be-:.'.- -laf -lifon -Hfen remain
rlife claf clifon clifen cleave
U.ife draf drifon drifen drive
scrife scraf scrifon scrifen shrive
slife slaf slifon slifen split
swife swaf swi'on swifen sweep, turn
spiwe spaw *piwon spiwen spew
bite bat b'ton biten bite
tTite flat fliton fliten flite, ".trivc
hnite hnat hnitin hniten butt
5!ite slat sliton sliten slit
302
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
PRES. t.
PERF. 4.
PL. t.
P.p. i.
smite
smat
smiton
smiten
smite
bwite
fwat
}>witon
Jiwiten
cut off
wite
wat
witon
witen
see, visit, go
wlite
wlat
wliton
wliten
look
write
wrat
writon
writen
write
bide
bad
bidon
biden
bide
cide
cad
cidon
ciden
chide
glide
glad
glidon
gliden
glide
gnide
Wide
gnad
hlad
gnidon
hlidon
gniden
hliden
rub
cover
ride
rad
ridon
riden
ride
slide
slad
slid'on
sliden
slide
stride
strad
stridon
striden
stride
wride
wrad
wridon
wriden
bud
Ii8e
latS
lidon
liden
sail
mide
tata
midon
miden
hide
scritfe
scraO
scridon
send en
go
sniOe
snaO
snidon
sniden
slit
wriSe
wraO
wridon
wriden
writhe, wreathe
wriSe
wraO
wriCon
writSen
bud, grow
a-grise
-eras
-grison
-grisen
dread
S-rise
ras
risen
risen
rise
blice
blac
blicon
blicen
shine
sice
sac
sicon
sicen
sigh
snice
snac
snicon
snicen
sneak
strlce
strac
stricon
stricen
g°
swice
swac
swicon •
swicen
deceive
wice
wac
wicon
wicen
yield
hnige
hnah
hnigon
hnigen
nod
mige
mah
migon
migen
water
sige
sah
sigon
sigen
sink
stige
stah
stigon
stigen
ascend
wige
wah
wigon
wigen
fight
lihe
lah OSg)
ligon
ligen
lend, give
sihe (seo)
sah
sigon
sigen
strain
tihe (teo)
}>ihe Q>eo)
wrihe (wreo)
tah (teah)
>ah
wrah (wreah)
tugon (tigon)
(J>igon) )>ugon
wrigon
tigen, togen
}>ogeu
wrogen, wrigen
draw, pull
grind
cower
SECOND PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
chine
chan, chon
_ -
chinen
split
seine
scan, son (=
shinen
shinen
shine
shon) •
rine
ran
—
rinen
touch
gripe
grap, grop,
gripen
gripen
gripe
grsep
ripe
rop
ripen
ripen
reap
drive
draf, drof,
drifen
driven, drifen
drive
drsef
brife
>raf
])rifen
prifen
thrive
bite
bat, bot
biten
biten
bite
schrive
schrof
schriven
schriven
shrive
slite
slat
sliten
sliten
slit
strive
strof
striven
striven
strive
II.]
STRONG VERBS. 3°;
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
smite
smat, smot,
smiten
smiten
smite
smset
write
wrat, wrot
writen
writen
write
wite
wat
witen
witen
go
wlite
wlaet
—
—
look
a-bide
-bad, -bod
-biden •
-biden
abide
stride
strad
—
—
strive
glide
glad, gl«ed,
gliden
gliden
glide
glod
ride
rad, rod, rsed
riden
riden
ride
gnide
gnad
—
gniden
rub
liSe
laS, IzeS
—
HSen
sail
sniCe
snaeS, snatS
sniSen
sniSen
cut
scriSe
scraS, scroO
scriSen
scriSen
go
wri'Se
wraetJ
—
writSen
writhe
a-rise
-ras, -ros,
-risen
-risen
rise
-raes
a-grise
-gras, -gros
—
-grisen
dread
strike
strak
striken
striken
go
swike
swac
swiken
swiken
deceive
si3e
sah, seh, soh
si5en
si3en
sink
sti3e
steih, ste3,
stiSen
sti3en, stien
ascend
stah, stash
teo
tah, taeh, teh
tu3en
to3en, tuhen
accuse
}>eo
J>seh, ]>eg, ]>eah piSen
])o3en, ])owen
grow, thrive
wreo
wreih
wrioen, wnen
wri3en, wrien
cover
Weak forms— Iftede, IVSde = left (La3.)j bUa-fde = belaf (LaJ.) ;
bilefcd (p.p. Orm.) ; bilefde (Ancren Riwle) ; fyonede, fyiiede (from
geonian, ginian, to yawn — a weak verb) occurs in St. Marherete.
THIRD PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
chine
chon, chan
—
chinen
split
schine
schon
schinen
schinen
shine
ripe, repe
[rop]
—
ropen
reap
gripe
grop
gripen
gripen
gripe
drife, drive
schrive
draf, drof
schrof
driven
schriven
oriven
schriven
drive
shrive
(to) rive
-rof
-riven
-riven
rive
prife, thrive
throf
thrifen
thrifen
thrive
bite
bot, bat
biten
biten
bite
flite
flot
—
—
strive
sm'te
smat, smot
smiten
smiten
smite
write
wrat, wrot
writen
writen
write
abide
abad, abod
abiden
abiden
abide
ride
rad, rod
riden
riden
ride
chidden
chide
gnide
stride
gnad
strad, strod
gniden
striden
gniden
striden
rub
strive
writhe
wro]>
—
wrij>en
writhe
rise
ras, ros
risen
risen
rise
agrise
agros
agrisen
agrisen
dread
304 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [AFP
PRES. PERF. PL. P.p.
strice strek go
s'i3e ste3, stegh, stijen ascend
stey, steaS
teo, te ley to5en draw
wre wreigh wro3en cover
(1) Weak perfects — gripte, griped, schinde, chidde, biswiked, bilifte,
bdafte, blefede.
(2) Some singular forms (especially in Northern writers) have a
mute e, as smate, bate, abode, abode.
(3) Northern writers keep a (or o) in the plural instead of z, as ras
— ris(en).
FOURTH PERIOD.
PRES. PERF. PL. P.P.
schine schon, schoon shinen shinen shine
repe ropen reap
dryve drof, draf driven driven drive
shryve shrof shriven shriven shrive
stryve strof. stroof striven striven strive
thrive throf thriven thriven thrive
byte hot, boot, bat biten biten bite
flite flot strive
smyte smot, smoot, sraiten smiten smite
smat
wryte wrot, wroot, writen writen write
wrat
thwite — thwiten cut
bide bod, bood, biden biden bide
bad
chide — chidden chide
glide glod, glood gliden gliden glide
ryde rod, rooil, rad riden riden ride
slyde slood sliden sliden slide
stride strad ' — — stride
wrythe wrooth writhen, writhe
wrethen
ryse ros, roos, ras risen risen
(a)grise -gros *» — -grUen
ste3e, stye stey, stei3, sti3en stiSen
stigh
wrie — — wrien cover
tee tigh towen draw
Weak perfects — dwynede, agriside, sykide, sliced (Wickliffe); p.p.
duiingd (Chaucer).
In " Alliterative Poems" we. find -.—fine, to cease, with a stror.i'
perf. f»t ; and trine, to go (of Norse origin), with perf. iron.
II.]
STRONG VERBS.
3»5
DIVISION II. Class VI.
FIRST PERIOD.
PRES. eo(a).
PERF. ea.
PL. w.
P.P. 0.
creope
dreope
creap
dreap
crupon
drupon
cropen
dropen
creep
drop
geope
slupe
geap
sleap
gupon
slupoa
gopen
slopen
take up
dissolve
supe
cleofe
seap
cleaf
supon
clufon
sopen
clofen
sup
cleave
deofe, dufe
deaf
dufon
dofen
dive
sceofe, scufe
sceaf
scufon
scofen
shove
leofe
leaf
lufon
lofen
love
reofe
reaf
rufon
rofen
reave
breowe
breaw
bruwon
browen
brew
ceowe
ceaw
cuwon
cowen
chew
hreowe
hreaw
hruwon
hrowen
rue
}>reowe
treaw
J>ruwon
]>rowen
throe
breote
treat
bruton
broten
break
fleote
fleat
fluton
floten
float
geote
geat
guton
goten
pour
greote
hleote
great
hleat
gruton
hluton
groten
hloten
greet
cast lots
hrute
hreat
hruton
hroten
snore
lute
leat
luton
loten
lout, bow
neote
neat
nuton
noten
enjoy
reote
reat
ruton
roten
weep, cry
scote
sceat
scuton
scoten
shoot
beote
a-}>reote
beode
>eat
->reat
bead
futon
-)>ruton
budoa
])oten
-Jroten
boden
howl
loathe, irk
bid
encode
cnead
cnudon
cnoden
knot
creode
cread
crudon
croden
crowd
leode
lead
ludon
loden
grow
reode
read
rudon
roden
redden
strfide
5-breoSe
a-huOe
hreoSe
stread
-breaO
-heaS
hreaO
strudon
-bruSon
-hudon
h rudon
stroden
-brotien
-hoden
hroden
despoil
to make worss
spoil
adorn
seofle
seatS
sudon
soden
seethe
ceose
ceas
curon
coren
choose
dreose
dreas
druron
droren
mourn
freose
freas
fruron
froren
freeze
be-greose
hreose
-greas
hreas
-gruron
hruron
-groren
hroren
frighten
rush
for-leos»
-leas
-luron
-loren
lose
briice
breac
brucon
brocen
brook, use
luce
leac
lucon
locen
lock
reoce
reac
rucon
rocen
reek
smeoce
sraeac
smucon
smocen
smoke
suce
seac
sucon
socen
suck
beah
bugan
bogen
bow
lleoge
dreah
fleah
drugon
fiuguii
drogen
flogen
suffer
flv
306
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
PRES. eo (4).
PERF. e&. PL. n.
P.P. 0.
leoge
leah lugon
logen
lie
smflge
smeah sraugon
smoger
creep
fleohe (flefi)
fleah flugon
flogen
flee
teohe (ted)
teah tugon
togen
tue
3eo
Ceah Ougon
t5ogen
thrive
wred
wreah wrugon
wrogen
cover
SECOND PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF. PL.
P.p.
crepe
deofe
crap, crep crupon
dezf, def
cropen
creep
dive
scuve
scaf, scaef, scuven,
schoven
shove
scef schoven
cVove
clasf cluven, chifen
cloven, clofen
cleave
brewe
brew —
browen
brew
reowe
raew, rew, reuw, —
—
rue
reu
geote
gaet, get guten
goten
pour
sceote
sceat, scast, scuten
scoten
shoot
scheat, schet
vleote, flete
flet. flaet fluten
floten
float
lute
leat luten
loten
bow
beode, bede,
baed, bad, bed, buden, biden
boden, bedeu.
bid
bidde
bead
beoden
for-beode
-baed, -bad, -buden
-boden
forbid
-bead
rheose
chaes, ches curen, chosen
coren, chosen
choose
frese
—
froren
freeze
reose, rese
rats, res
_
rush
lease
laes, les, lees, loren, luren
loren
lose
leas
s?oj>e
set suden
sod en
seethe
luke
Iser, lok luken
token
lock
suke
saec, s«c suken
soken
suck
bu3e, buwe
bash, bah, beh, bujen
bo3en
bow, bend
beih
driSe
dreih. dreg dro3en
droSen, drohen
suffer
lite, Ie5e, Iu3e
laeh, leh lu.ien
loSen
lie
fleo
flseh, fleh, fleih flu3en, flnwf n
flu.ien, flowen
fly
rleo
flash, fleh, fln.ien, flowen,
floSen, flowen
flee
fleah, fleih, fiuen
flei
(I) Weak
perfects *:~-fosi\ff, bo~,cde, resden (La.j.) ;
defde = dived
(St. Marherete).
(2) Weak
p.p.^i/lw«/(La3.). «^/«
f(0rm.).
THIRD PERIOD.
PRKS.
PERF. PL.
Pp.
cr-|.s
creap cropen
cropen
creep
cleve
clef, cleef Cloven
cloven
cleave
brewe
brew browen
browen
brew
ii.] STRONG VERBS.
3°7
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
schete
schet, schot,
schoten
schoten,
shoot
scheat, sset
schotten
schuve
schef, schof
schoven
schoven
shove
brewe
brew
—
browen
brew
rewe
reu
—
rue
3ete
loute, lute, lote
yhet, Set
leat
3oten
louten
3oten, 3et(en)
louten, loten
pour
bow
flete
flet
—
floten
float
bede
bed, bad
boden
boden, bederi
bid
sefe
sej>, seath, sod
soden
sodcn, sodden
seethe
chese, chese
ches, cheas
chosen
chosen, corn,
choose
coren
lese
les, lyeas, lees
lesen, losen,
losen, loren,
lose
loreu
lorn
frese
fres
frosen
frosen, froren
freeze
loke, luke
leac, lok
loken
loken
look
a-bu5e, abowe
-bea3
-bjwen
-bo3en, -bowen
bow
H3e
leigh
—
lowen
lie
fle, fliSe
fleh, fley, flegh
flcwen
flowen
fly
fle, fle5e
flew, fleu, fley
flowen
flowen
flee
dri3e
dregh
—
—
suffer
Weak forms -.—lost, lest, (bi)lauked, bowed, lighed, fled, schette.
FOURTH PERIOD.
PRES.
PERF.
PL.
P.p.
crepe
crop (crope)
cropen
cropen
creep
soupe
soop, sop
—
sopen
sup
clyve, cleve
schove
cleef, clef
schof
cloven, eleven
cloven
schoven
cleave
shove
brewe
brew
—
browen
brew
for-bede
-beed, -bad
-beden
-boden, -biden,
bid
-beden
sethe
seth
—
soden, sothen
seethe
Seete, yete
3ot
—
3oten
pour
schete
schete
—
schoten
shoot
flete
flet, fleet, flot
—
float
chese
ches, chees,
chosen, chesen
chosen
choose
chos
frese
frees, fres
frosen
frosen, froren
freeze
leese
les, lees
losen
losen, loren
lose
brouke
loke
broke
lek
—
loken
brook (enjoy)
lock
Ii3e, lie
Iei3
—
lowen
lie
flee, fle3e,
flei3, flew,
flewen
flowen
fly
flieSe
flegh, neigh
flee, fliohe
flei3, flew
fiowen
flowen
flee
(1) Weak perfects : — brewedc, sethede, Betide, "t>oite, schotte,flelide,
lowtide, cheside, /reside, losed, loste, leste, bowide, liede, fledde.
(2) Weak p.p.:— schot. cleft, lowtiJ, lost, lest, lyed, fled,
baii'id, soupide.
X 2
308 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [AIT.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEAK VERBS.
FIRST PERIOD.
Class I.
(1) Radical sJiort. — The first class has the connecting vowel e
(— i = ia), and contains verbs with short and long radical vowels, as
ner-e-de (perf. ), ner-e-d (p.p.).
(2) Radical long. — The connecting vowel is lost in the perfects of
those verbs with long radicals.
INF. PERF. P.p.
d&l-an dsbl-de gedael-ed divide
mjen-an msen-de mzn-ed lament
lafed-an l&d-de labd-ed lead
dem-an dera-de dera-ed deem
fed-an fed-de fed-ed feed
&c. &c. &c-
The perfect and p.p. of the following verbs retain the original
radical vowel (<?) of the stem : ] —
sec -an sSh-te soh-t seek
lec-an r6h-te roh-t reck
(3) Stems ending in mn, ng, rm, m, Id, nd, rd, lose the connecting
vowel e in the perfect.
The perfects of stems in mn drop « before de.
nemn-an nem-de memn-e-d name
spreng-an spreng-de spreng-e-d spriug
baern-an bsem-de bsern-e-d burn
styrm-an styrm-de stynn-e-d storm
(4) Stems ending (through gemination) in //, mm, ss, dd, ,
t>p (for Ij, mj, sj, dj, gj?cj, pf), have no connecting vowel in the
perfect.
wemm-an
wem-de
wemm-e-d
defile
cenn-an
cen-de
cenn-e-d
bring forth
spill -an
spil-de
spill-c-d
spill
ahredj-an
ahred-de
&hredd-e-d
rescue
lecg-an
leg-de
leg-e-d
lay
1 The e is caused by the lost connecting vowel i (o + i = e).
ii.] WEAK VERBS. 309
Some verbs in the perfect and p.p. retain the radical vowel (a)
of the stem.
INF. PERF. P.p.
cwell-an cweal-de cweal-d kill
sell-an seal-de seal-d, sal-d sell
tell-an teal-de teal-d tell
recc-an reah-te reah-t reck
strecc-an streh-te (streahte) streah-t stretch
wecc-an weah-te weah-t arouse
In the following verbs (with stems in Id, nd, rd, nt, rt,ft, st, Jit)
the connecting vowel is lost, and the suffix d of the perfect is as-
similated to the final dental of the stem, so that d + de = de.
scild-an scild-c scild-ed shield
send-an send-e send-ed send
gyrd-an gyrd-e gyrd-ed gird
stylt-an stylt-e stylt-ed stand astonished
hyit-an hyrt-e hyrt-ed hearten
mynt-an mynt-e mynt-ed purpose
haeft-an hasft-e hseft-ed bind
riht-an riht-e riht-ed set right
rest-an rest-e rest-ed rest
D becomes t when added to stems ending in/, t, nc, s, x.
dypp-an dyp-te dypp-ed dip
sett-an set-te sett-ed, set set
drenc-an drenc-te drenc-ed drink
cyss-an cys-te cyss-ed kiss
lix-an lix-te lix-ed shine
When / is added to stems in cc, the perf. and p.p. have only a
single h before the suffix.
recc-an reah-te reah-t reck
wecc-an weah-te weah-t arouse
strecc-an streah-te streah-t stretch
In verbs with long stems ending in a sharp mute, d in the perl,
becomes /, as —
rsep-an rsbp-te r^bp-ed reap
met-an met-te met-ed meet
C becomes h before t, as —
t&c-an t&h-te t&h-t teach
jio ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
Class II.
The second class of weak verbs has o for its connecting vowel, as
lufian, to love ; perf. luf-o-de; p.p. luf-od.
This o is weakened to a, a, and e, as : —
\>r(rwade — \>r<nu-o-de, suffered.
cleopade and cleopede = cleopode, called.
singude = singode, sinned.
SUBSEQUENT PERIODS.
In the Second and subsequent periods, the two conjugations are
mixed up, because the connecting vowel o has become e.
In the earlier part of this period we find perfects in -ode, -tide, side
by side with -ede ; they are to be regarded as exceptional forms.
(l) Radical short.
SECOND PERIOD.
INF. PKRP. P.p.
sweven swev-e-de iswev-ed sleep
}>ankien J>ank-e-de ifank-cd thank
In the Third and Fourth periods we find -id and -ltd in the perfect
tense and passive participle, as well as -ede, -de.
The Fourth period keeps the connecting vowel e, but frequently
drops the e of the suffix de.
(2) Radical long. — The connecting vowel disappears in long syl-
lable-stems, and d is added immediately to the verbal stem.
SECOND PERIOD.
INF. PERF. P.P.
daelen dael-de, del-de idel-ed divide
demen dem-de idem-ed deem
lenen len-de ilen-ed lend
heren her-de iher-d hear
leden, lasden led-de ilae d, ile-d lead
feden fed-de ifed feed
ii.J WEAK VERBS.
THIRD AND FOURTH PERIODS.
INF. PERF. P.P.
dele del -de deled divide
jjeme dem-de dem-d deem
lede led-de, lad-de led, lad lead
drede dred-de, drad-de dred, drad dread
&c. &c. &c.
(3) The suffix d assimilates to the d of the combination -Id, -nd
(-dd) 1 ; -rt, -st, -At, -ft.
SECOND PERIOD.
INF. PERF. P.P.
bulden bulde buld build
senden sende isend send
wendeu wende iwend2 turn
setten sette iset set
resteii reste irest rest
hurten hurte ihurt hurt
casten caste icast cast
THIRD PERIOD.
INF. PERF. P.P.
bulden bulde jbuld build
senden sende isend send
casten caste icast cast
setten sette iset set
&c. &c. &c.
In Northern writers we find / often replacing d, as —
sende ?ent(e) sent send
wende went(e) went wend, go
FOURTH PERIOD.
The d is now regularly converted into t, as —
INF. PERF. P.P.
blenden blente, blent blent blend
(4) The suffix -d is changed into -t after /, / ch, cch, ss, t; ck
becomes A (5) before te ; nch becomes ng or is vocalized before te.
i Or we may consider that the doi-ld, -nd, &c. is dropped.
* In verbs of this class LaSamon often replaces d by /, as, WtMtttm, ivente,
iwettt.
312
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
TAP P.
SECOND PERIOD.
INF.
PERF.
P.P.
w
kepen
kepte
kept
keep
cussen
custe
cust
kiss
cutten
cutte
cut
cut
putten
putte
put
put
rsecchen
raehte, rahte
raht
explain
fcacchen
1 kecchen
cahte
keihte, cauhte
caht )
keihtf
catch
tsechen
tahte
taht
. teach
smecchen
smeihte
smecched
taste, smack
lacchen
lahte
laht
seize
[a)
drenchen
drengte, dreinte
idreint
drench
mengen
meinde
meind
mingle
In the following verbs there is a return to the radical vowel of t: e
stem : —
(3) (saechen
(sechen
sohte
souhte
soht )
souhtf
seek
recchen
rohte (rehte)
roht
reck
(strecchen
streahte (streihte)
streiht
stretch
(strsecchen
tellen
talde, tolde
tald, itold, teld
tell
sellen
saelde, salde, solde
seld, isald, isold
sell
THIRD PERIOD.
INF.
. PERF.
P.p.
(i) kepen
kepte
kept, kept
keep
lefen
lefte (left)
left, left
leave
refen
refte (reft)
reft, reft
(be)reave
wefen
wefte (weft)
weft, weft
weave
cacchen
caSte
ca3t, ca3t
catch
clenchen
cleinte, clente
cleint, iclent
clench
techen
tau5te, teiSte,
tau3t, tau3t
teach
tauhte (taght)
(2) drenchen
(3) sechen
rechen
rechen
tellen
sellen
dreynte
dreynt
soSte, souhte (souht) iso3t, soSt
roSi e •
rauhte, reiSte, —
rauSte, raughte
tolde, tald itold, told, tald,
teld
solde isold, sold
The Ayenbite keeps the old ea, as :-
'elle
tealde
zealde
yteald, tald
yzeald, zald
drown
seek
reck
reach
tell
sell
tell
sell
WEAK VERBS. 313
FOURTH PERIOD.
INF.
PERF.
PP.
kepen
iuevm, leven
kepte (kepide)
lefte, lafte (laft)
kept
left, laft
keep
leave
refen
refte, rafte (raft)
raft (refed)
be-reave
greten
grette
gret
greet
sweten
swatte, swette
swet, swat
sweat
meeten
mette
met
meet
kepen
keste, kiste
kest, klst
kiss
twicchen
twight(e)
t wight
twitch
picchen
pignt(e)
pight
pitch
plicchen
plight(e)
plight
pluck
techen
tou3te, tau3te
tou3t, tau3t
tench
cacche
cau5te, caughte
ca3t, cau3t, caught
catch
lachen
Iau3te
Iau3t
seize
blenchen
bleynt(e), blent(e)
blench
quenchen
queinte
queint
quench
drenchen
dreint(e)
dreint
drench
The g- in ng becomes vocalized before the suffix d or t.
INF. PERF. P.P.
sprengen spreynde, spreynte, spreynt, spreyned sprinkle
sprengide
mengen meynde, meynte, — mingle
myngede
sengen (seynde) seynd, seind singe
(3) sechen sou3te sou3t seek
be-sechen -sou3te -sou3t beseech
recchen rou3te, roughte, rauSt, rou3t reck
rau3te
reche rau3te rau3t reach
strecche strauhte, strauSte straught, strauSt stretch
biggen bouSte boujt buy
smeken smaughte smack
tellen tolde, telde told, teld, tald tell
sellen soold, selde, solde, sold, seld, said sell
salde
Anomalous forms are treated along with their modem representa-
tives ; see ANOMALOUS VERBS.
3 14 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
ADVERBS.
I. Substantive.
(a) GENITIVE.
First Period. — Dceges (of a day), forS-dages (late in the day),
summeres and ivinteres (summer and winter), nihtes (of a night),
neades (needs), soScs, (of a truth), &c.
Second Period. — Forf dates, dates (deies), nihtes, ' aday and nyhtes*
(dtzies and nihtes), lifes (alive), deathes (dead), nedes (needs), winteres,
sumeres, willes (willingly), wattes (purposely), unwaldes (accidentally),
soSes (of a truth), his ^onkes (of his own accord), hwiles (hwils), the
hiuiles, cfoerhwiles (sometimes), summes weis, oSres -wets (oQenveis),
nanes weis, alles weis, allegates (always), so&riAfes (truly), halfinges
(by half), &c.
Third Period. — Dayes, nyhtes, ani^tes, ^onkes, un\>onkes, neJes,
hwiles, &c.
Fourth Period. — Adayes, nedes, other-weies, algates (always), «££*•
linges, hedlynges (headlong), noselynges, sidelonges, grovelonges, &.z.
(6) DATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL.
First Period. — ALfrey n&fre, heodage (to-day), hwihtm (whilom),
itiindiim (at times), dagum (by day), nahtum (by night), Siiinc'-
mdl-um (by little times, at spare times), nahtum (nightly), &c. ;
handlunga (hand to hand), bteclinga (backwards), s&fan (from the
south), e&stan (from the east), &c.
Second Period.-1- Ai,fre, efre, nafre, nteuere, nede (of necessity),
•whilum (hiudem, hwilen, w/iilen), wuke-mtzlum (-.veekly), drope-me.e
(drop-meal), lim-mele (limb-meal), wunder = •zvundrum (wonderfully).
nedunga, nedlunge (<j£ necessity), ruglinge (backward), stundmeie,
umbstunde (at intervals), euerte, neuerte, eauer^ette, &c.
Third Period. — Evere, euer, nevere, never, whilom, -while, lym-
mele, pecemele, stundemele, euerte, neuerte, wonder, cupfemele, pound'
mele, floc-mele (by companies).
Fourth Period. — Ever, never, -whilom, alleweyes, gobbetmeh, pecemei.
by pecemele (piecemeal), hipyil-melum (by heaps), stawndmeel, lyrn-
mele, parcfl-mele, eggelynge, grovelonge, &c.
n.] ADVERBS. 315
(c) ACCUSATIVE.
First Period. — H&m (home), east, west, sufi, nor'Q, d (ever), nd
(no), <?rt/w£ w<£" (alway), M //w'^ (whilst), j«w* /he///? (somewhile),
«£/, jw;/«<? a£/ (somedeal), wiht, d-wiht (something, somewhat), ffQre
wisan (otherwise), sume Tutsan (somewise), sfi$ (truth), n&nigking
(nought), &c.
Second Period. — Ham, horn, norft, east (ast], suft, west, sumedale,
ntmdel, what-gate, allegate, o\er-gate, \>eo hwile (the while), other-
hwile, sumewhile, o\>er ( = oberwise), fulsoft, o, a, aa (ever), eaiviht
(aught), &c.
Third Period. — Horn, norfy, est, west, sou\>, a, oo, ay, somdel, o^t,
ilka dele, ahuei, alnewey, o/Un-tide, sumhwile, ofyerhwile, t/ius-§ate,
allegate, srvagate, &c.
Fourth Period. — Horn, algate (allegate}, alway, sometime, somJd,
wmdele, gretdel, everydel, aiiQt, o\>erwise, &c.
(d) PREPOSITIONAL FORMS.
First Period. — On weg (away), on b<zc, underbtzc (aback), on-ge&n
(against, opposite) ; toge&nes (against), to-afenes (in the evening),
on-dage (a-day), on-niht (anight), td-dage (to-day), td-nikte (to-
night), on <Erne mergen (early mornings), on morgen (a-mornings),
on midne-dag (at mid-day), ddune (down), on midre nUite (at mid-
night), &c.
Second Period. — Umbe-stunde, umbe-Jnvile (at intervals) ; bysydes,
biside, bisiden, bisides ; bi-daye, bi-nykte ; bihalves (beside) ; bilife,
bilifes (quickly) ; adun (down), a-bac, abacch ; on-^ten, a^an, a^ein.
tS-'seines (against, towards) ; adtzi, adai, aniht, an-hond, an-eftu
(at eventide); an-ende, on-ende (lastly) ; a-lyve, a-marwe, a-mar&n,
a-monve, a-mor^e (a-morro\v) ; arewen (arow), a seoven nihte (a sen
night); aslepe, awei, awai (away); an erne morew (on early morrow)
on live, a ^es half (an. this side of); oslape (asleep) ; on nihtes, atten
ende, at ben ende (at last) ; at monvhen, at morwen, to-marhen, to-
mot~we, to-marewene, to-niht, to-daie, to-^ere, to-sumere, &c., to-softe
(truly), bi dages, bi nyhtes, &c.
Third Period. — Abak, adoun, afelde, agrund, alonde, awey, amorwe,
any(jt, aivynter, ayen, ayenward, an haste, an hand, on ht^e, onlive,
on nicies, on day vs, on monce, on peces ; bilife, bilyi'e, biside, bysydes,
bicas,becas (accidentally), attencnde, bynor\>e, bysouty, byeste, by west*,
316 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [.\VP.
uf>hap, upon hast, forcas, forso\>e, to-day, to-ny^t, to-morn, tfiv
(to-eve), insped (speedily), at ese, &c.
Fourth Period. — Utnbe-stoundes, in-stoundes (at intervals^, urn-
hwile, adoun, abak, asyde (asidishalf), afire, a^en, amorewe, anight,
afote (on fote), arow, aslope, on egge (on edge), onsydes, on sidishand
(aside), a-dregh, o-dregh, on-dre^ (aside) ; beforehand, to-moi~ve, to-
morn, to-sere, &c.
II. Adjective.
(1) With final -e.
First Period. — Fiest-e, hlud-e, biter-lic-e, &c.
Second Period. — Fcs'c, Ihude, ille, ufele, depe, swfyf, vastltihc, blfpe-
like, baldel?~), &c.
Third Period. — Wide, side, dere, depe, harde, unebe, nobliche, &c.
In the Northern dialects we find -like and -ly for -liche.
Fourth Period. — Paste, Julie, righte, hevtnlich, hevenliche, scharply,
passendli, felendly, &c.
(2) In the comparative and superlative degrees, adjectives (First
period) end in -or and -ost, without any other inflexion, as
geornor (more diligent), fastor (faster), ea&licor (more en.-ily),
heardost (hardest), effi&elicost (easiest). Some few comparatives drop
the suffix, as leng (longer), bet (better), md (more), <?b (easier).
In the subsequent periods, adverbs form their comparatives in -ere
(-er, -or, -ur) ; superlatives in -este (-est).
The comparative of words in -liche becomes —
(a) -liker, -luker, -loker, -laker.
(*) -Iyer.
The superlative of 'adjectives in -liche ends in —
(a) -likest, -lukest, -lokest, -lakest.
(6) -lyest. Cp. de\liker, gerenluker, deorluker, bltyloker, fella-
her (more fiercely), &c.
In the Fourth period -Iyer predominates.
We also find as late as Chaucer the shortened comparatives bet.
mo !"ng.
II.] ADVERBS. 317
(3) Many adjectives are used as adverbs, especially those with
i Tegular comparisons.
First Period.— Wda, wd (well), ufele (ill), lytle, lytlum (little),
micles, micium (much), nedh, nih (nigh, near), feor (far), fot^S (forth),
late, latan (late), bet (better), \ie bet (the better), betst (best), wyrs
(worse), wyrst (worst), tyi ICES (the less), m& (more), &c.
Subsequent Periods. — Ufele, uvele, ille (ill), lute, lyte, lytyl, bet, best,
worse, wurst, lasse, lesse, lest, ma, mare, more, &c., fer, near, tier,
nerre, ny5, nexst, nest, forth, farther, later, latere, latst, ner )pe later,
never the later, &c.
(4) Case-endings : —
(a) GENITIVE.
First Period. — Tpweprhes (across), sones (soon), ealles (altogether),
efnes, emnes (evenly), micles (greatly), elles (else), &c.
Adverbs in -weards (-wards), &c.
Second Period. — Alles, elles, rihtes, duvcl-rihtes (with a dive),
adunrihtes, alrihtes, ananrihtes, forftrihtes, \>crilites, upmardcs, hider-
tuardes, forftiuardes, eftsones, muchdes, cwices (alive), alunges (alto-
gether), adunu'ardes, a^einwardes, &c.
Third Period. — Alles, dies, eftsones, amiddes, rihtes, dounri^tcs,
aweiicardes (away), &c.
Fourth Period. — Elles, une\>cs, unwares, hidenvardes, upwardes,
fo}~wardes, halfinges, endlonges, afterwardes, (owardes, uprihtes, &.^.
(6) INSTRUMENTAL.
First Period. — Geara (of yore), s$na (soon), geta (yet).
Second Period, —^ore, sone, ^ette, Set, eflsone, ever^et, never^el.
Third and Fourth Periods. — Sone, Set, ever^et.
(c) DATIVE.
First Period. — Lytlum (little), micium (greatly, much), r^un-
drum (wonderfully), Jur\>iun (even), deurnunga (secretly), callinga
(wholly), <kc.
Second Period. — Litflen, lytlen, muchelc, for\>e, allinge, uttmun'i
lunge (unmindfully), sddum, iJdt.ii, sdde, a tie (alone), &c.
3*8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
Third Period. — Lytlen, muchele, moche, selde, selden, one, ferinkli
(suddenly), sunderlyng (separately), &c.
Fourth Period. — Lytlen, lytlum, mtuhe, muchel, allynge, &c,
(if) ACCUSATIVE.
First Period. — &r (ere), eal (all), nt&h (nigh), n6h, genoh
(enough), feor (far), lyt, lytel, rilit ; adverbs in -weard (ward), &c.
Second Period. — Al, tzr, er (ere) ; a-neoh, neh (nigh), inoh
(enough) ; hiderward, fyondward, binward (within),
fortyward, forftriht, anonrUit, aweiward, amiddeward, &c.
Third Period. — Al ; er, ar, or (ere) ; nth, ny5, rf§t, fer,
imydward, \iderward, awkeivard ( = wrongly), for^riht, &c.
Fourth Period. — Al ; er, or; negh, ny*> ; afer, ri^f, ynow ;
estu>ard, to-warde, &c.
(e) PREPOSITIONAL.
First Period. — On-middum (amidst), on-efen (anent), on-y&eorh
(across), on-geador (together), on-idel (in vain), on-sundrum
(asunder), on-eornost (in earnest), to-middes (amidst), td-~a>eardes
(towards), to-gadere (together), to-somne (together), ofer-eall (every-
where), atgtzdere (together), be dnfealdum (singly), &c.
Second Period. — Amidden (amid), amiddes, a-neah (nigh), a-ii'i
(against), an-vest, on-fest, anewist, a-newest (fast by, near), ariht,
anheh (on high), alast, anewe, an-anriht, on ivf&re (against), on-
sunder, on o\er (othenvise), on-idel, in-idel, to-samen, to-somne, to-
g(ederes. togedere; to-gode (gratuitously), overal, of lah (from below),
of feor, of feorren (afar), of heh (from on high), mid-rihte (rightly),
atte laste, &c.
Third Period. —Alast, alefte, amidde, amiddes, in-middes, anhey,
on hie, an heft, en, heifr, abrod, abroad, on-ferruni, an even (at
last^, ana^t (to nougBt), to gedere, togedere, togederes, overal, uppon
//«'5» *t &l, <** die (in all things = alles), at alle rio/es, anonri^tes,
to-ri^tes, uprises, at arst, atte fulle, ate laste, atte laste, atte best,
ate verst (at first), albidene, bydcne ( = by that, subsequently), &c.
Fourth Period. — Abrood, alarge, afer, aferre, an/ie^, in melle,
amel (amid), on rounde, in myddes, in mydde ; in seme (together^,
on ri^t, on-wyde, to-geder, in-idel, alo3, at ^e fulle; overtkivart, end-
longe, endlonges, &c,
It.] ADVERBS. 3*9
III. Numeral.
First Period. — JEne (once), aninga, dn-unga (once), on-an (con-
tinually, once for all), for an (for ever), on dne (at same time,
together), twhua (twice), betivih (between), \riga, \rhva (thrice), &c.
^Second Period.— Ene, anes, enes, twies, hveien, tweie, 'prices, at
ones, at eanes, ansi\e (once), anan, al onan, a twa, a two, on
hvinne, on \re, betweonen, betwenen, bitimxen, to \>an ane, to \an
anes, for \t nanes, for \an one, &c.
Third Period.— Ene, ones, enes, anes, hvie, thrie, twyes, thries,
anon; in on (continually), at one, at on, at ene, atwo, a \re,
atwinne, asevene, bytweyne, for \e nones, &c.
Fourth Period. — Anes, ones, twyes, thries, twye, three, anoon, ato,
in two, in on, atone, at ene, after on, bytwene, for }e nones, &c.
IV. Adverbs formed from Particles.
FIRST PER SECOND PER. THIRD PER. FOURTH PER.
a-ft eft eft eft efte, eft eft, aft
after efter, after after aftre, after after
afterward efterward (adv. efterward afterward
& prep.)
— efter]>anne — after that
/jEftan nevereft never after
I \vit5-asftan
| be-aeftan
y LJCX^lLall
bi bi^ bi, be by, bi, be by, be by
— for-by past, near
fore fore fore before
bi-aeften,
—
baft
basftan
bi.be
by, bi, be
by, be
—
—
for-by
fore
fore
—
fom-on,
—
—
forn-an (as
before)
foren
bi-foren,
bivoren,
beforn,
bivoren
biforen,
bifor
bvfore,
beforn
abaft
to-foran (here)to-fore
1 wiS-foran ,. ,
_ avoreward forward
forg fortS, vorS forth, vorth forth forth
_ forO-rihte forth-right
— forS-ward forS-ward forward
_ _ forth-with — before
— swire-forC neck-forth
for-to, for-te, forte, fort until
vorte
— her-forj)
- >er-forp -
fort5>at untl1
320
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
FIRST PKR. SECOND PER. THIRD PER.
FOURTH PKR.
geond
3ond
be-3ende,
bi3onde.
beyond
bi-3onde,
bijonden
bi-3unde
—
Seondward
yondward
her
her, here
her, her-
1 e here
here
hider, hidres
hider
hider, huder
hider
hither
—
hiderward
—
—
hitherward
Chilian, heonan,
heonne
henne, hennes
hennen, henen,
hence
heonane,
hennes,
/ heonone,
henne, hen,
\ heona
hennus,
1-
jheten
hepen
hennis, hens
hej>en
hence
—
\hepen-ward
—
—
henceforth,
henceforward
—
—
fra hepen
fro hennes
from hence
__
heonneuorO,
—
—
henceforth
henonforO
hind^u, hinder,
—
hindward
hindeward
hindward
hindweard
behindan
bihinden
byhynde
behinde
behind
hwjet (what)
raesthwet
alhuet (until),
(almost),
ney-wat (nearly)
alse wat se
(as soon as)
—
monihwat
—
—
many-what
hwar, hwjer
hwer, waer,
where, were
wh«r, wore
where
whaer,
whsere
_
—
elles wer
—
elsewhere
ichwer
—
—
eachwhere
hwaeder,
hwuder
wyder, whider
whider, where
whither
hwider,
hwyder
_
whiderward
whiderward
—
whitherward
—
elleswhider,
—
_
elsewhere
elles hwar,
other hwar
hwanan,
wonene,
wanne, wheSen whennes.
whence, from
hwana,
hwenene,
whens, from
whence
ibghwonene
whe])en
whennes
—
whepeuward
—
—
whence-warii
arghwar,
e33whaer,
ouwhar
our whar,
anywhere,
ahwar,
aihware,
owhere,
everywhere
gehwar,
owhar,
aywhere
seghweder
uwher, *.
ihwer
—
—
nour, nowhar
—
nowhere
se'.d-hwonne
seldhwonne,
selden, selde
selde
seldom
•
selden, selde,
seldum
in
in
in, yn
in
in
innan
inne
inne, ine
ine
in
binnan
binnen, binne,
bin
—
within
bine,
an-inne
—
inwardes
—
—
mw.ird, within
«•? ADVERBS, 3n
FIRST PER.
wiSinnaa
SECOXD PER. THIRD PEK.
wiCinnen, WTpiar.en,
iviOinne, wi)>mne,
inwitJ imvij)
FOURTH PER.
wifinne, inwjj> •within
mid
mid, mide mid
M
. .
nudealle
midaile jnklalle,
vifalli
•wifal
•withal,
altogether,
niOor, niOer
neotJer, nitSer netSer
ncSer
wholly
neither
nitjan
neCan —
binoOen, benepe,
bineSen, binepcn.
binepen^1
from beneath
beneath
bineatJen, binej>a
bineoOe
benefe
oeotSeward
neoper-ward, —•
nej'ewarde
*•
nether-wan}
n
nu no\r, to'J
no-ir-
now
on
on on
on
on
of __
of of
of
of
cal-swii
swa,s\vo, so.se swa,.sa, so, se
alswa, alswo, alswa, also,
so, »e
also, als, a»
so
as
also, alse, alsa, als^
als aset als
svrylce 'as iQ
Swilce — *
__
__
to
to, te to
to
to
—
forto, forte —
for to
(before infin.)
•*-
ever-te (ever-to, —
__
_
ever as yet)
^M
never-te —
^^
(never as yet),
never-to
Pa7
— til and fra
per, >ar, por per, pere, par,
til and fro
]>ere, pare,
to and fra
there
fore
Jer, par,
Jseder, pider
piderward,
pidenveardes
panon, ponon
Jtder Kder, puder
piderward piderward
ponene, fanne,
Janene, }>annene
pore
Kder
piderward
Jennes
thither
thitherward
thitherwards
thence
panne
panne, ponne
Janne, penne fenne, }>anne
fennes, Jienns,
then
Vs
]>an, pen
pa
pa, po ]>a, po
Jo
then
~~
pepen, pepen
pejjen, pien
thence
nuOa
pass (so, very)
pepenforO —
nupe, nupen noufe
pes
noupe
thenceforth
now, now thea
t3 tarn, t3 pon
(so, very)
Jus
Jus Jus, }>ous
Jus
thus
purh
under
Purh, purch Porh, porgh
pureh J>urf
thurh-ut —
under under
porgh
purgh, forow
under, undre
through
thorough
throughout
under
—
— —
from undre
from under
up
up up
up
UD
^
upwardes —
">
upward
322
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
FIRST PER.
SF.COND PER.
THIRD PER. FOURTH PER.
—
iipward
— — •
upward
ufan
—
— ; ' —
above
ufanan
ovenan
— —
above
bufan
buven, buve
buve buve
above
abuf.iu
abufen,
aboven, above, above, aboven
above
bibufen
abuve
wi8-ufan
_
—
above
on-ufan
—
— ' —
above
ufan-ward
—
ovenward —
above
ufeweard
uveward
— —
upward
—
»•*
almost almost
almost '
ofer
over'
over over
over
fit, ute
ut, ute, uten
out out
out
—
utwardes
— • —
outward
/butan
abeoten,
abouten. abouten.
about
(ymb-iltan
jfltan-ymb
\flta-ymb
abuten, abute aboute aboute
__
wi8-uten,
wipouten, wipouten,
without
uten-wiC,
wipout, wipoute,
ute-wi8
outwith outwith
wiC
wi8
wi8 —
against
wiSer
—
wiOer (opposite)
—
wip and wib
p&r-abfltan
pasr-abutenj
per-abuten
per-aboute -^
thereabout
_
Jjasr-binnen
—
therewithin
__
pser-bi, 1>or-bi
Srbi
thereby
paer-asfter
per(par)-aefter,
r-after
thereafter
par-after
—
—
per ney,
there nigh
per neih
—
—
per-aftenvard
thereafter
_
_
per biside
there beside
paer-inne
por-inne,
per-inne
-d
therein
ber-inne,
o
per-aninne,
B
per-an, prin
Or
paer-mid
per-mide,
permid
f)
therewith
par.-mid
'rt
paer-of •>
per-of, per-offe,
por-offen
per-of
H
c
thereof
paer-on
pron, pser-on,
par-onwpron
per-on
<
thereon
J>aer-to
par-t6geanes
]>er-to, pop-til
per-a3en,
ferto, per-til
per-teyenes
thereto
thereagainst
&r-to-3eines,
r-to-yeynes
pxr-ufan
per-oven,
—
thereabove
per-ufenan
_
J)er-ofer
ferover
thereover
—
per-upon
perupon
thereupon
_
par-vore,
per-fore,
therefore
per (paer)-fore
per-vore
1 al-mest = alre tnest = most of all ; alre — geti. p!. of al.
II.]
ADVERBS.
323
FIRST PER.
paer-fite
SECOND PER.
por-uten,
THIRD PER.
per-out,
FOURTH PER
thereout
ter-ute,
par-oute
par-ute
T3
-
por-buten
per-purh,
par-purh
' per-progh
.9
A
therewithout
therethrough
paer-uiS
pa;r-wiS,
per-wip
"S
therewith
por-wiS
&
—
Jar-wyp-al
per-wifal
H
therewithal
por-under,
per-under
—
thereunder
por-fra, per-fra, ther-fro,
per-from >er-fram
therefrom
per-uppe,
pruppe
therupon
therupon
there-up
—
Jer-at
therat
thereat
per-anunder,
por-under
—
—
thereundei
•
per-imong,
Jer-among,
peramong
—
there among
por-mong
— _
—
far-into
^
thereinto
her-asfter
J>er-toward
her-efter,
per-to-fore
her-after
herafter
theretofore
toward
hereafter
her-bi
•~
her-mid
her-of, -offe
her-mid, -wip
her-of
herof
herewith
hereof
—
her-on
her-on
heron
hereon
her-fore
her-for,
her-fore
herfore
herefore
—
her-to
hereto
—
her-ut
her-out
hereout
—
her-wiSinnen
her-inne
herin
herein
—
her-purh
whar-ine,
huer-ynne
wherin
here-through
wherein
war-ine
—
quor-at
whaeron
huer-an,
—
whereat
whereon
huer-on
—
—
huer-of,
wherof
whereof
whar-of
—
hwer-wi3
huer-mide,
wherwith
wherewith
hwarwip
~—
hwar-to,
^_
_ _
hwer-to
hwar-fore,
hwar-puruh
—
wherfore
wherefore-
why ne
hwi ne
huer-by
huer-onder
huer-oppe
quin, quine,
-
whereby
whereunder
whereup
Othat
whine
3*4
XCE.
PREPOSITIONS,
I. Prepositions Proper.
FfRST PER. SECON-D PER. THIRD PER.
FOURTH PEE.
defter, xft
after, a-ftere,
after
aftre, after
after
after, cftci
_
efterward
_
_
_
bx&an,
kaftan,
_
baft
behind, after
bo-icftan
btftften,
baffen,
wjf£*ftan
JC (0,7
.
__
behind
•and
~r
—
— r
with, in
at
set, at, et
at
at
at
bi.be
tor, fore
bj, by, be
fore, for, vor
bi, by, be
for, vor, fore
bi, by, be
for, vor
by
for
fcran
for-bi
—
forbi
before
.jet-foran
at-foren,
atvore
—
before
et-foren
bj-foran,
foren,
byforen,
bifore,
before
be-foran
elforan
bifore,
before,'
-
bivore
beforn,
beforen
on-fljran
aforen
—
nfore
afore
to-foran
tofore, toforen
tofore, tovore
to fore
before
•wiO-foran
__
—
_
before
forth (adv.)
for)>e (prep.
—
witliout-
forth = forth
= beyond)
'
forlh — out-
from (in
'-
side of
Shakspeare)
«•
•Hk
«•
even-forth,
»
em-fort h,
ferforth
(according,
to the extent
of)
fram
from, vrom
from
from
from
frommard
_
—
fro ward
from ward
_
fro, fra
fro, fra
fro, fra
from
giond, geond
geond, 3eond,
Seond
—
through, after
gond
(fram)geondan
—
—
—
from beyond
be-geond,
bi3ende,».
biSonde,
beSonde,
over, by,
be-geondan
biSonden
biSende
bi3ondis
beyond
wi8-geondan
—
—
—
beyond
be-heonan
_
—
—
this side of
be-hindan
bihinden
behynde
behynde
behind
in
in, innen
inne, ine
in
in
innan
inne, innan
_
_
in, within
b-innan
binnen, bine,
bin
—
within
binne
wiO-innan
wij'innen,
wy)>inne
withinne,
within
wij>inne,
within,
in-wi)>
in with
II.]
PREPOSITIONS.
3*5
FrRST PKK.
SECOND PEE. THIRD PER. FOURTH PER.
—
nine raidde- amidward —
amid
ward
mid
mid mid mid
with
"""*
en-midden araiddes, imyd, —
imyddes (in
in the middle
of
neoOan
be-neoOan
the midst of)
bineope, "binepe, benepe
bineperij benepe
beneath
beneath
binopen
under-necOan
of
undernepe underneape undernepe
of of of
underneath
from, on"
on
on, o (before on, an, a, on, an, a
on, in
]>e), an, a
on innon
— — —
within, into
inne on
an inne — _
within, into
up + on
up on, an uppe upon upon, in upon
upon '
foV
(WiclduTe)
apet = 08 pact o fat —
(O.E. Horn. '
until, onto
'08 in
ist Series)
forte, fort forte, fort —
until
to
til (Northum-
to to, alto (unto) to
til til til
to, for
to
brian Gos-
pels)
—
— unto unto
unto
—
forte (forto) forte, vort, —
until
fort
into
into into into
into
b-ufan
intil intil, until intil, until
buuen, boue, — buue
into, until
above
bufen, buue
"*"~
a-bufen above, aboven, above, aboven
oboune,
above, over
oboven
on-tifan
oven an, _
from above,
utienen,
upon, over
ovenon
—
— an-oue-ward, —
T
an-ou-ward
on (at the
ofer
top of)
ofcr, over over over
over, above
— at- over, at-
beyond, above
up 'adv.)
up up, op up
up
uppan
uppan, uppen, upe, up, upe, up
upcn, uppe, op, ope
up (upon, on)
uppo, uppon
on-uppan
an-uppe, on- — —
upon
uppe, an-
uppon
tinder
under under under
under
i Upon (prep.) = »/ (adv.) + OH (prep.), not O.E, u&a», uppen, vfft.
326
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
—
Bounder
—
anunder
under
utan
ute
out, out-of
out
out of, from
out
butan (= be-
buten, bute *
bute, botc,
bute, but, bot
but, out of,
utan)
bot, but
without,
except
on-butan
abutan
_
—
about,
around
a-butan
abuten
abute, aboute,
boute,
about
oboute
aboute
wiO-utan
wiSuten,
withouten,
withouten,
without
wi8-ute,
withoute,
withoute,
utwi)>.
outwith
outwith
utewi]>,
wij>utan
ymb-Ctan,
_
—
__
about, round
utan-ymbe
about
_
—
ute over (above)
—
—
—
Jnirh-ut
thorgh out
thurSout
throughout
wiS
with2
with
with
with
—
forC-wiC
forf-wij)
__
forthwith
wioer (against)
—
_
_
ymbe, ymb,
umben, embe,
embe, umbe,
umbe (about)
around, about
embe, emb
umbe
umbe-mong
um- only as
(about, round
prefix to
about)
verbs
Jmrh
)>urh, Jmrch,
Jnirh, Jtoru,
thurgh,
through
]>ureh
}>ur3, J>urf
thor3,
thorgh,
thorow
J)oru-out
throughout
II. Compound Prepositions.
(a) SUBSTANTIVE.
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
eac (in addi-
ek, ec (adv.)
ek, eke (adv.)
eke, ek (adv.)
eke
tion to)
to-eacan .
to-eketadv.),
}>erteke (adv.)
thereto
teke (adv.),
tekan (adv.)
on-gegn,
on-3ein,
gayn, aoen,
aoen, aSien,
against, towards
on-gen,
on-3«en,».
a3ein, a3eyn,
a3ens,
(opposite)
on-gean,
on-3aenes,
a.iain,
aSemes,
a-gean,
3aen, an5en,
a3aine,
ayens,
a-ggn
a5en, o3en,
ogain,
aSeinst,
aSeines,
ajaines,
ayenst
aSenes,
ayen, ayans,
yeynes
aye
The O.E. bute = without, except.
2 In the Second period -with often signifies from, by, and has also the sense of
our with. In the Third and Fourth periods it takes altogether the place of the older
mid. In the First period wi8 = with, opposite, against, from, beside, along, &c.
II.]
PREPOSITIONS.
327
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER. FOURTH. PER.
—
—
avoreye, —
over against
avorye
(against,
towards)
tS-gegnes,
to-3fine,
toyenes, to-a3ens
against
to-genes,
to-Senes,
to5ens
to-geanes
to-3eines,
to-5eine,
to-yeynes
ge-mang,
imasng, imong
;, among, omang, among,
among, amongst
on-gemang,
amang,
amanges, amonges,
on-mang,
among,
imang, immonSes
a-mang
bimong,
umbe-mong
imang
be-norSan
—
bynorth - by north
north of
be-eastan
bi esten
by este by este
east of
be-\vestan
biwesten
by weste by weste
west of
be-su9an
—
by soujt1 —
south of
—
bi-side,
bysyde, byside,
beside, besides
bisiden,
bysides bysides
bisides
be-healfe
bihalf, bihaelves, — —
besides (on this
bihalves
side of), on be-
half of
—
—
instude of instede of
instead of
a-dun
adun, dun
doun doun
down, adown
—
Jnirh dynt
(with gen. )
thorgh dynt of, —
with dynt of
with dint of,
by dint of
—
—
be wey of —
by way of
on-lyfte (adv.)
o-lofte (adv.)
alofte (adv.) alofte
aloft (Shak-
speare)
~~
^
toppe (above) —
—
ser
ar er
(£) ADJECTIVE.
feor
unfeor
gehende
(cp. O.Sax.
ihende
hende (adv.) hende, ende
far from
not far from
handy to, near
to
at-handum,
at hand)
neah
near
neh
ney ny3, nygh
nigh, nigh to
to, .near,
near to
nehst
naext
next, nest next (= next
next, next to
to)
neah-hand
_
neihand ner hond
near
(nearly)
1 In the provincial dialects we find besoittft, be west, &c. In the Second period
these forms are also useti -adverbially.
328
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APl».
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
TKIBD PER.
FOUBTH PER.
neslwiste
ancoweste,
—
—
by, near
ancousto
tO-weard
toward.
toward
toward
toward
touward
ta-oreardes
•_
_
towardes
towards l
_
adune-ward
_
—
down
_
after-ward
__
—
after
fran-ward
fro ni mar J,
framward
fromward
from
fromword,
fraward
—
—
upward
—
(upwards of)
wana
vane, on wane,
—
—
minus
nwane
and-lang,
on-longcn,
endelong,
along,
along
ond-long
an-long,
end-lang
ende-long,
inlanges
cndelonges
ge-long, pre-
ceded by
ilang, ilong,
preceded by
along (on)
along (on)
all "long of,
along of
prep, on
on
on middarj
on midden,
—
—
amid
imiddes
on-middum
amidden,
amydde, amid, amyddis,
amid, amidst
amidde,
amideward
mydde,
amidward
amyddes,
amiddes
t6-middes
in pe middes of in pe middis of
in the midst of
on-middele
~
~~
in pe mydil
of, in pe
in the middle
of, by the
myddylle of
middle of
_
__
_
amel, ymel,2
amid
omell, amel
bc-twih,
bitwihan,
betuex, bitwix
bitwixe,
betwixt
be-tweoh,
bituhhen,
betwixen,
betwuh,
bituhhe,
betwixt,
betuh
bitwixan,
bytwyste
(beturhs,
bitwise,
betweohs},
bitwixen,
betweox,
bitwixte,
betwux
bitwix
m^
^m
M9
a-twixt
(Spenser)
be-tweonum,
bitweonen,
bytwene
betwen,
between
be-tw^nura
bitwine,
bytwene
bitwene,
bitwcnen
efene, efne
afne (upon*
emne, efne,
—
even, evenly
(adv.),
even with)
an emn, Src.
nefne, nemne
(adv.)
(except).
tft-emnes,
t6-efnes
(along,
evenly)
» In the Second period we find towardes (adv.) = about to come, future.
Shak^peare uses toward in the same sense.
» O.X. & medtl, a niilli; Dan. intellem; Swe. emilUm.
n.J
CONJUNCTIONS,
»9
FIRST PER. SECOND PER. THIRD PKK. FOURTH PER.
on-efn. on-emn on efn (adv. in onence,ancnte, anent, anens,1
La5.), anendej anenus,
anundes, anemptis,
anont, ouont, anentist,
on-onde, ane>-nst,
anende
uiiciciii
_ — £mfor}>
according
to
— eveneforj) -
according
(adv.)
to
on~fest
onfest, onfast, — feste by
fast by
anfest, faste
bi
Jiwyrs,
pwirhes,
supj>he, sippe suppe, sipe sijie, sin, "Sen
J>wer-t-ut — •""
(O.N. pvert)
since
athwart,
thwart
pweorh,
pwer,
on fweorh
(adv.)
— overbwert over pwart
pwertover — —
onward — — "
inward —
athwart, thwart
athwart
instead of
within
CONJUNCTIONS.
I. Pronominal.
FIRST PER.
and
ono
SECOND PER. THIRD PER. FOURTH PER.
and and ar"J
an, and and, an and, an
and
an, if, an if
nu
ne...ne
eac, cc
nu now, now now
ne...ne ne...ne ne...r.e
ek, eke, ok ek, eke eke, eche
now
neither. ..nor
also, eke
ac, ach, ah
ah, auh, ec, ac ac
but
ach, ok
swa
swa, so, sua, sa, swa, sa, so so
so
eal-swa
swo
alswa, alswo, also, alswa, as, also
also, as
also, alse, alse, ase
ase
sum som, sum som, sum
as
swa hwser-swa
swylce
whscr-swa wher-as wheras
swulc, alse, —
whereas
as if
gif
ase
. 5if, gif, yef 3if, yif 5". "
if
J Anon to = even to (anent in the Third period) ; cp.
" Alle (h)is elopes caste of everichon
Anon to is scerte."— Legends of Holy Rood, pp. 54. 5
rb became evene aboute in later writers ; used as an adv.
330
ENGLISH ACCIDENCE.
[APP.
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
1
py
}*
pj
—
therefore
apy 0-e)
—
—
so much the
...as
pylas
lest, leoste
leste, laste
lest
lest
pelaste pe
P3ES
—
—
—
so far, thus
paespe
—
—
—
whereby
—
J>es
—.
—
therefore
pon, )>onne
panne, panne,
panne, pan,
panne, pan
then
tenne,
ponne
tenne,
ponne
ponne
pene, panne,
penne, panne,
pan, pen
than, since
ponne, pan
pan
—
—
—
als, bot
than
fa
pa, po
})o, pa
ta, ta
then
Vapa
pa, po
po
po, po pat
when that
>eah
pah, pah,
pe3. pel, pof
pou3, pogh,
nevertheless,
]>oh, peh,
peigh,"pei
though
paih, tauh,
peih, peyh
swapeah
poh-swa-poh
—
alle ponghe
although
nevertheless
(though)
tanon
_
—
_
thence
par, paer pasr
ter, paer paer
per-fore,
jre
ter, peras
perfore
there, where
therefore
par-fore
penden
pende
—
_
whilst
fbrpy
forCi
for thy
for thy
therefore
(for thy is used
by Spenser)
paet
pat, pet
petj pat, at
pat, at
that, in order
that, on
purpose that
aer (paet)
aer, er, ar
ar, or, er
ar, er, or
ere, or (ever)
aer pam paet,
ser pan, er pan
er pan
erthen,
ere that
aer pam po
erst then,
or that
—
after pat
after that
after that
after
—
_
during, whilst
—
biforen- pat
bifore "pat
before pat
before, afore
—
imong pat
—
—
while that
butan (pan),
bute, buten
bute, bote,
but, bot
but,
butan
bute pat
but that
—
— •
—
no but,
only
no bot
_
but 3if
but-3if,
but 5if
but. ..if (unless)
but-gif
_
^
bi pat
bipat
until, by that
bi pam pe
for pan pact,
for ton pe,
for pon JJat,
for ton,
for pat, foi
for because
that, for this
by this that, as
because that,
seeing that,
for Pam pe,
for pi pat,
that
therefore
for pan pe
to-for,
forpi
(for tlutt,
for because,
are archaic)'
II.]
CONJUNCTIONS.
331
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER. '
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
—
for
for
for
for, because
—
foral
for all (notwith-
standing)
—
—
for and (and
—
fra pat
from pat,
_._
moreover)
since, from that
mid pam pe,
mid py pe
i>at pat
fram pat
' -
(time)
In that
with that,
when, while
—
—
_
unless
nemne,
nymSe
.'.(5 pa;t
a pet,
al huet,
until
forto, forte,
fort, forte
vorte, fort,
St, wat
of ]>on
t (when
(= sytSOan,
that)
since)
siSSan
on3a=n pat
seoSOen
seppe, sen
sipen, sip,
against
since, sith that
(= siSpam
paet)
sipens, sins,
sin pat
(Spenser),
sithens (Ib.),
sithence,
since that
-
til pat
forte pat)
forC pat, >
frapat
tille, til, to
forto, forte
fropat
til, unto, to
(Shaksp.)
since
till, until
until, till tliat
forte )
wiS J>on pe
wi8 pon pe,
wip pan-pe
wip }> e pat,
wip pat
with that
provided
(to fam pzt
< to Pe tet
to pan pat
—
—
to the end that
Uo py pact
1 —
—
—
wipouten
unless that,
—
purh pat,
purh pat pat
-
pur3 pat,
pur3 pat pat,
except, without
through that •'
ther thur3
pat (because
that)
—
—
—
besides that
—
—
notwithstand-
ing that
—
—
—
by pe cause
because that
fat, because
pat
—
—
—
for because
for because
pat
(vulgar)
~~
•*•
—
no but, no but
except that,
5if, but
except, ex-
—
—
save
save that, saf
only that
cepting that
save, save only
that
332
ENGLISH A CCJDJLVCE.
[ATP,
FIRST PEK.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PIZK,
_
__
•on lesse
—
saving, unless
cpm...sam,
sam...sam
—
—
whether.. .or
same. -same
ge
_
_
•_
and
ge...ge
ge...ge
_
_
both. ..and
° .
gc...ana
gafa-gaja
—
•ye bo]>, ya
both. ..and
bo>e...and
ge
5e
5c
3e (She)
even, yea,
nay, nay
even, ay
gi»F get
Set, Sette
Set
Set
yet
—
bwet...hwet
wat...wat,
what. ..what,
what. ..what,
what...what
what... and
v.hat...and
what, what
...and
bwonoe
wenne, whan,
wan, wannc,
whan, when,
when,
whanne,
huen
when that
when so,
wane (J>onnc
when as,
]>anne)
whensoever
hwar, huer,
hwar
•wher, huer,
wher, whar
where
swS huer
whar
_
ware so,
_
_
whercso
hwaere-swa,
war-swa,
wer-swa,
whasr-swa-se
whaer-sum
—
—
war-by
wherby that,
whereby,
wherefore
wherefore
that
^»
_
wher-with1
_
where-with
whuder
war-}>oru
whider
whider
where-through
whither
swa-hwider-
wuder-swa
whider-ever
•whithersoever
swa
_
woder J)at
_
_
whither that
hwaeOer...]>e
\vhc]>cr...o]>er,
__
whether...or,
whether. ..or,
whether. ..)>e
wher... wher
whether,
or whether
hwaeOer...oWSe,
—
—
—
whether. ..or
fc
„
or
swa-]>eah-
—
}>ogh-que]>er,
the qucthcr
nevertheless,
hwseOere
thogh-
yet
whether
zfegSer...ge,
e3tfer...3e, •.
either.. .and
both. ..and
&gOres...ge •
£ei8er...and,
eS]3er...and,
bo8e...and
— .
_
_
ey)>er...or,
either. ..or,
e])er...or
either, or else
SOor (SSer)
o8er...o8er
oj>er...or
oj>er-.or
either. ..or
...o»>e
—
—
e)>er...or
either.. .or
1 See Adverbs.
n.].
CONJUNCTIONS.
333
F/RST PER.
SECOND PEK.
K. FOURTH PER
«•
_
«_
ey]>er...or,
either—or
or,..ouj)lier
«•«
— »
MM
or.. .or
or. ..or
«*«*.
o]>cr
neofler—ne,
neo?ier...nar
ofer, of
nopcr...ne,
nouJJer...
ofer, or
nei)'er...ne,
nc noj>er...ue,
or
neitUer...nor
nowjer-.^jic
neyper...ne
—
— <
—
nouj>er...ne,
Ucithev,..'!ioitber,
ne]ter... neper, nor.,,nor
r.eiper...
neiper
II. Numeral.
an. ..sura,
sum. ^ stun
80m...som,
fona,..som,
one(sOme)...some,
sum...sum
sum,..ai)dsom oon-.-anoper,
one. ..another,
Oon...aniloon
, other.. .some,
oj'er-.-oJ'er,
one... other
begen'...and
ba'{fe...and,
V6oj'e...and
on-.-ofer
bothe...and
both...ari«t
ba...and
ferest...
erst—sifpen,
first...si)>}'en first.. .and
first...after-
sippan...2eC
et nexten
(sil'T'ei
sippcn
wards,
nextan
(rare)
...at last
—
—
«-
first... after,
first, secondly,
, ...eft,
lastly, fmally,
, ...afterward,
&c»
, ...after J\it,
, ...fcrther-
more,
, ...also,
, ...thanne,
, ...than,
, ...finally
III. Adjective
(Adverbial).
on efne
eornostlice
an afne
evene
therfore
even, even to
therefore
for pern
—
—
therefore
therefore
soSlice
—
—
forso)>e lo !
truly
sooj>ly,
witofilice
_
,
sofly
indeed,
truly
elles
and xlles
.
forso)>e
and elles,
else, or else
elles, or
elles
gelice,
iliche (alike)
(an-liche)
like as, likewise,
gelice-swa,
alike. ..and
on-lice
1 It was inflected.
334 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
FIRST PER. SECOND PER. THIRD PER. FOURTH PER.
— — " furthermore furthermore
— — furtherover further
— — — moreover moreover
— — as — where that
as ver forp as as fer for}> as far as ' •
IV. Substantive.
hwilum...
while (wile)...
—
whilom. ..and
awhile. ..awhile,
hwilum
while (wile)
whilom
sometimes...
sometimes,
at times,.. at
times
—
—
—
now. ..now
now. ..now
__
}>eonne...penne
—
—
now.. .now
M hwile >e
peo while pe
—
—
the while that
pahwile
pa while bat
pe while pe, *
the while pat
the while,
while that,
the while that
while, whilst.
whil pat,
while, whiles
the while,
the while
hwils
fat, to while
whils, whiles
(the whiles),
pat, torwhils
while that,
whilst that,
•
during the
^
while that
—
—
for pe case pat
in case if
in case, in case
that
on pact gerad
—
—
—
on condition
that
V. Prepositional.
See or, after, biforan, b&tan, bi, for, from, in, mid, nemne, oS, of,
onge&n, stS, til, td, -wiS, vnSutan, burttA, &c. These forms are
generally followed by Jw/, }><? (that).
VI. Verbal.
VII. Compounds.
nala:s pxt an — no3t one...ac not only. ..but, not only. ..but,
...ac eSc not only... not merely—
but eke, but
not only...
but and
II.]- • '
INTERJECTIONS.
335
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
na pylses,
na pe Ises
nopelaes,
no }>e later.
no]>eles,
neverpeles,
neverpeles,
napeles.
neDeles
nathless,'
nevertheless
neuerpe
later,
neyeies,
never pe
ner pe later
later
ac na pe ma
—
na}>emo
— rf
nathemore
(nevertheless)
panis
fat is, pet is
fat is
that is at say
pat is " j,-
that is to seye,
that is
that is to say
' •
thai is to
seie
na-re 'newsere)
—
warne, warn
warne, \varn
were it not that
pset
na war .
__
alle be it that;
were it so,
be so it be,
be it so, albe,
•
by so, were
albeit
it so that
_
—
—
though so be
how be it
that, sitK
that, so is
that
INTERJECTIONS.
ah !
A! A ! A!
4
(WickliSe,
Jer. xiv. 13.)
--- alia
aha
ana
ea-la2
— alas, alias
alas,
alias
fy alias
{O, alas,
alas the day
alack,
lackaday
_
bah(O.F. bah)
—
— —
ey
eh (O.F. eX),
ay
— fyatlebles
vath or fie
fie [O.F.^f)
(=fiea
to thee,
devils)
fy3 (vath)
thou, fy
__
vah (vath)
foh, fah, faugh
l«g
—
_
heigh, hey,
heyday
hu
_ —
—
how
hula
_ —
—
how now
hwy
la
la, lo, lour lo
why
lo, loo
why
lo ! la ! O la !
o o
ow, ou
O, oh
—
a
O, O me !
Nefor thi, n at for thi 'occur in the Third and Fourth periods for nmer-
theless.
2 Ea-la seems to be mixed up with F. he-las (Lat. lassus, weary/, hence alasl
alack
S36
ENGLISH A CCIDENCE.
[APP. Ii.
FIRST PER.
SECOND PER.
THIRD PER.
FOURTH PER.
_
_
_
te he'
aha'!
—
—
—
weu
aha!
hwxt
_
what
what
what!
wa
wa, wo
wo
woo, wo
woef
wa-la
wola, wallan,
—
—
alast
\vela. w eolla.
v.-de
—
__
alas
alas!
wa !a w&
ah wala wa,
walawa.
weSlaway,
weilawey
wala v/a
ah, vell-a-day,
well away
wola wo,
wreiia, wsei,
weilawei
_
aw;ei, av/ej,
awei, awey.
_
alas ! O we !
aweih
wet
harow
ay me ! aye J
harrow I
__
_
Mi
whist
whisht ! hush !
_
_
on3
_
God's wounds
= zounds
z
heil (be ]>0tt)
—
baw, bawe
hail t al hail 1
bow-wow
•_,
_
_
heit now
gee
_
_
_
jossa
-.vhoa
—
—
—
avoy (O.Fr.
fie
avoi)
In tlie Second period we find zvifurrist, wot Crist = Christ knows,
by Christ !
In the Third period we find (i) deus, dcntte = the deuce ; (2) da*
fait, dahet (O. Fr. da/iait, dehait, dehet) = ill betide. In subsequent
•writers it became da\>et, which has given rise to dose you! dise you!
dash you I (3) goddot, goddoth — God wot, God knows. It occurs
also in the subsequent period.
Peter = St. Peter, is a common interjection in the Third and
Fourth periods, like Marry!* (= the Virgin Maty) in later times.
Bi Crist, for God, Lordf, &c. occur in the Third and Fourth
periods.
1 Denotes mocking laughter.
* Seinte Marie ! occurs as interjection in the Second period.
APPENDIX III.
WORDS OF NORMAN-FRENCH ORIGIN IN THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE BEFORE 1300.
I. IN" the " Saxon Chronicle* before 1200: —
1086. dubban, dubben, to dub.
1135. pais.
1137. tresor, prisun, justise, rente, privileges, miracles.
1138. standard.
1140. emperice, cuntesse, tur.
1154. curt, processiun.
II. " Lambeth Homilies" ("O.E. Horn.," First Series), ed. Morris,
for E.E.T. Society, before 1200 : —
Castelf processiun (p. 3), palefrai, saltere, prophete (5), fructe, messe
(10), munte (11), asottie (17), rubbere (19), sottes, iugulere (29),
meister (41), merci (43), manere, sacremens, ureisuns (51), riche,
lechurs, blanchet (53), parais (61), elmesse, cherite (69), salm, font
(73), sermonen, ewangeliste (Si), liureisun (85), ioffred (87), cachepol
(97), passiun (119), crunede (129), seinte (131), clerk (133), flum
(141), erites (= heretics), munek, elmesful, poverte, large, prude,
spus-had (143), sauter (155), fou, cuning, ermine, ocquerin, sabe-
line (181), servise, prut.
III. " Trinity College Homilies" ("O.E. Horn.," Second Series),
ed. Morris, for E.E.T. Society,1 before 1200 : —
Clerc (9), chastren, custume (n), gestninge, spuse (13), penance
(17), richeise, lechure (29), orgele, barun (35), miseise (43), aisie,
poure, candel, taper (47), religiun, turtle (49), mesure (55), minster,
penitence, roberie (61), meister, onur (83), munt, palm, olive (89),
calice, messe, sepulcre (91), crisme-cloth (95), maisterlinges (in),
1 In the Press.
Z
338 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
olvente, languste (locust), prisune, marbreston, salm, prophete, turnde,
oregel, underplanter, underplantede, tur, corporeals, caliz, bispused,
almes, archebissopes, sole, chemise, albe, sol, saffran, fustane, mentel,
burnet, sergantes, acheked, martirs, confessors, patriarche, virgines,
calch, waferiht, street.
IV. Words from La^amon's "Brut," ed. Madden (?I2O5) : —
In the first text — achaped, ascaped, admirai-1, armite, appostolie,
archen, astronomic, avallen, balles, barun, biclusen, bounie, bolle,
brunie, burne, iburned, bunnen, cacchen, canele, cantelcope, cathel
(chattels), cheisil, cludina (or cuiress), clusden (closed), comp
( = camp), coriun (musical pipe), crane, cruneden, cros, crucche,
dotie, dubben, due, dusje-pers, eastresse, falsie, flum, ginne, hardi-
liche, hiue (hue and cry), hose, hune (topmast?), ieled (anointed),
hurte, ire, kablen, lac, lavede, latimer, legiun, licoriz, liun, lof (luff),
machunes, mahun, male, mantel, martir, messagere, mile, montaine,
munstre, munt, must, nonne, olifantes, pal, paradis, peytisce (= of
Poitou), pilegrim, pouere, pore, porz (ports), postes, processiun,
puinde, putte, quecchen ( = quasser, casser ?), riche, riches ( =
richesse), salmes, salteriun, scserninge, scare, scarn, scornes, scere-
migge (scrimmage), scole, scurmen, seselled, senaht, senaturs, seint,
servise, servinge, sire, sot, sumunde, talie(?), temple, timpe, toppe,
tumbel, tunne, tur, turne, vlette (flat, floor), warde, weorre (war),
werrer(to war, ravage), ymages.
In the -later text we find the additional words — abbey, anued,
aspide (espied), atyr, canoun, changede, chapel, chevetaine, chowles
(jowls), cloke, conseil, contre (country), cope, cri, delaie, dosseperes,
eyr, failede, fol, folie, gile, gisarme, grace, grand, guyse, harsun
(arcun), heremite, honure, hostage, manere, marbre-stone, nonnerie,
note, paide, pais, paisi, pare, passi, pensiles, porses, prisune, rollede,
route, sarvi, scapie, seine (ensign), siwi (follow), soffri, istored, tavel,
tresur, truage, tumbe, urinal, usi, waiteth.
V. (i) "Seinte MarJiarrete" ed. Cockayne, for E.E.T. Society,
about 1220 : —
Seinte, passiun, crunede, font, martir (i), grace, prince (2),
merci, chevese, changede (3), salve, samblant (5), liun (6), mantles
(7), warant (8), bascin (9), drake (10), crauant, crane, castel (n),
ibreuet (16), taperes (18), fontstan (19), chapele, lampe (20), martir-
dom, turnen (21), grandame, prisun (23).
(2) " On Ureisun," &c. in Lambeth MS. and Cotton MS.
Nero, A. xiv. ("O.E. Horn.," First Series), about 1220: —
Privite, medicine, cunfort, fals (185), delit, unsauuet (187), salvi,
abandun (189).
in.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 339
(3) "On God Ureisun," Cotton MS. Nero, A. xiv. (" O.E.
Horn.," First Series) : —
Paradise, servise, ciclatune, ikraned, krune (193), munuch,
cherite (199).
(4) " On Lofsong of ure Lefdi " (Ib. ) :—
Passiun, prude, pris (205), bufettunge, crununge, sacrement,
sacreS, grace (207).
(5) " On Lofsong of ure Louerde " (Ib. ) : —
I-sacred, merci, ewangelistel(2O9), merciable, warant (211), turnen,
obedience (213), sawter, seruunge, of-seruunge, unofserued (215).
(6) "Souks Wards" (Bodl. MS. 34, Royal MS. 17, A. 27, Ib.) :—
Semblant, irobbet, tresur, tresor, castel, meistreo", amestable,
meistre, meosure, craned1 (247), preouin (249), mealies (253), mesure
(255), meoster, icheret, aturnet (257), keiseres, trones, cunfessurs
(261).
(7) " Wohunge of ure Louerd" (Cotton MS. Titus, D. 18, Ib.) :—
Dru<5, largese, 'noblesce, debonairte (269), large, druri, hardi
(271), praie, robbedes, prisun, noble, gentile, gentiller, gentileste
(273), deboneirschipe, grace, passiun, calenges (275), spuse,
pouerte, strete, poure, beast (277), mesaise, treitur, tresun, ribauz
(279), buffet, prince, piler, crune (281), munt, schurges, lettres (283),
dol, derennedes, chaumbre, paie (285), prei, eise, carpe (287).
(S) " Hali Madenhad? (Ib.) ed. Cockayne —
Eise (i), servise, chaunger, confort, grace, delit, serven (7),
cuntasse, treitre, gentil (9), leccherie, tresor, acovered, coveringe,
meistre (n), uerte, estat, beast, basine, prophete (13), dignete,
irobbed, chaisteg, crunen (19), weimeres, chaste (21), aturn, icruned,
gerlaunde, flurs, degrez, preoueS (23), haunteS, heritage (25), un-
coverlich, acoveringe, vanite (27), sauuure, trubuil, seruise (29),
richesce, huler, semblaund (30), greue, prisun, cuncweari, puisun,
cangun (33), sule'5, turnunge, angoise (35), adamantine stan, nurice
(37), laumpe, paraise (45), prokie, asailSet (47).
(9) "Ancren Rhule" ed. Morton, for Camden Society :—
Spus, riwle (3), riwlen, religiun (4), chaungunge, chaungen,
clergesse, ures, manere, professiun, obedience, chastete (6), cherite,
penitence, riwlunge, seint, ordre, descriued, canoniel (8), recluses,
prelaz, prechures, religiuse, maten (10), abit, scandle, prophete,
Z 2
540 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
gile, seruien, distinctiuns (12), seruise, cheapitres, sauter, kunfort,
saluen (14), crucifix, auez, relikes (16), creviz, collecte, vers, salme,
crede, prime (20), eise, silence, lescuns, feste, cumplie, anniversaries,
ureisuns, letanie, observaunce, trinite (24), servie (26), verset, merci
(30), prisun, prisune, temptaciuns (32), igranted (34), antefne (36),
verslunge, meditaciuns (44), uenie, clauses (46), parlures, unseaueliche,
creoice, chastite (50), preoue, deliten, point (52), kalenge, parais,
feble-(54), cope, sieve, mesur, treisun, speciale (56), lecheries, fol-
herdi, asaileS, quarreaus, castel, weorreur, cwarreaus, kemeaus,
kernel, ancheisuns, sacrement, kurteisie, creoisen, duble, advent,
parten, blamen, preisen, fantesme (62), sot, pris, keccheS, noise (64);-
mercer, salve (66), preche, prechen, counsail, semblaunt, chastie-
ment, cluse (72), mesure (74), noces, reisun, autorite, turnes, spice
(78), eresie, nurice (82), charoines, corbin, mesteres, menestraus, preis-
unge (84), rob, poure (86), chere, bisaumpleft, grace, rikelot (88),
gelus, gelusie (90), chaumbre (92), crune, anui (94), pleinte (96),
cauncre, sauuen, propreliche (98), scorn (100), cumfort (102), joie,
wardeins (104), trufles, bitrufleS, munt, buffeten (106), dangerus,
schaundle, meseise, ipaied, mesterie (108), bi-clusinge, anguise (no),
anguisuse, largeliche, asaumple, tendrust, fefre, berebarde (112),
reisuns, diete, presente, pitaunce (114), eaise, gibet (116), pellican,
juggen> juggement (118), leun, unicorne, versalie, remedies, unstable
(120), raunsun, ransun, dette, detturs, acwiten (124), cwitaunce,
purgatorie, andetted, persun, persone (126), cul, simple, ipocrite,
gilen (128), achate, defautes, regibbeg, disciplines, sacrifise, sacre-
fises, sauur, ikupled, paien (138), ameistren, dignite, cwointe, cwiver,
meistrie (140), i-ancred, ancre (anchor), cuntinuelement, contem-
placiun(i42), ipreised(i44), priuement (146), lepnis, figer, despoiled
(148), frut, figes, tresor, robbares, muchares (150), mercer, riche,
celles, aromaz (152), present, priuite, sturbinge, turne, baret (154),
auauncej), barain, ymne, suiilede, ancheisun (158), baptiste, priuilege,
prechur, merit, astaz, preeminces, preofunge (160), disturben, licur,
bame, chaste, medicine (164), hurlunge, noble, gentile, noblesce,
largesce, itrussed (166), trusseaus, purses, burgeises, renten, larger,
relef, genterise, richesses, familiarite, prive, presse (168), sepulcre,
bi-barred (170), fol, peis (172), entermeten, preouen, awaitie (174),
orhel(i76), itempted, *puffes (178), pacience, meister (180), grucche,
debonere (186), crununge, pilere (188), messager (190), cwite (192),
treitre, plente, adversite, prosperite, lecherie, glutunie, salue (194),
aspieden, propre, assauz (196), liun, unicorn, scorpiun, mis-ipaied,
chastiement, inobedience, prelat, paroschian, blasphemie, impa-
cience, continaunce, riote (198), rancor (200), tricherie, simonie (202),
stat, incest, waite, gigge (204), presumciun, accidie, terme (208),
kurt, iuglur (210), angoise, skirm (212), augrim, kuuertur, glutun,
manciple, celere, neppe (214), lechur, vileinie, eremite (216), ten-
NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS.
341
taciun, akointed, miracle (218), adote, chetel (222), ampuiles (226),
tur, tenten, asailen, cite, weorrur, kunscence, tempti (228), dialoge,
greuen, dame (250), feblesce (232), baban (234), champiuu (236),
trone, prokie (238), armes, peinture, sauuaciun, pope, sucurs, effi-
caces (246), ape, ape-ware (248), cwaer, departunge, driwerie, spitel
(250), attente, deskumfu (252), recorde, misericorde (256), turnen,
capitalen, garcen, skurgen (258), palm, despuiled (260), sponge,
miotrun, unsauure, anicles, sulement, iturpled (266), sacrament,
sacreft, mesbcg, trublen, dewleset (268), amased, bimased, mascliche
(272), rosen (276), ignorance (278), haunche (280), ameistre, quaer
(282), afeited (284), robben, pagine (286), cogitaciun, arfeeiiun,
creaunt (288), lettre, passiun (292), recoilen, gunfaneur (300), urne-
menz, eritage (302), belami, \veorrede, chaunge (312), sarmun, to-
tages, circumstances, cause (316), rnunuch, clerk (318), flatterunge
(320), trussen, torplen (322), sol, sutare (324), harloz, festre (328),
truwandise, cancre (330), arche (334), baundune (338), iflured, flures,
abstinence, delices, auenture (340), ipocrisie (342), enbreued, sire,
absoluciun, remissiun (346), sentence, pilegrimes (348), rute, s,j>eiise,
isonted, untrussed (350), jurneie, vilte, asperete (354), harlot, glone,
seinte, gi-edU, sotschipe, pilche (362), sabraz, akoveren (364),
deuociun, ungraciuse, feblie (368), risiciens, spices, gingiuere, ge-
dewal, cloudegelofre, letuarie (370), mirre, aloes, periectiun, ture.s
(372), devot (376), reclus (378), ententes, testament, saluz, de-
struied, beaubelet (388), debonerte, turnement (390), peintunge
(392), giwerie, depeinten, passen (396), tribulaciuns (402), failede,
piment (404), chaumberling, kunsiler (410), seruen, deinte, assum-
ciun, nativite (412), potage, rentes, kurtesie, gingiure (416), vesti-
menz, stamin (418), vaumpez, ilaced, veiles, atiffen, broche (420;,
obedient, hesmel (424), atura (426), isturbed, servant (428).
VI. (i) O.E. "Bestiary," in "An O.E. Miscellany," ed. Morris,
for E.E.T. Society, about 1240 : —
Leun, funt-fat, crede, grace, venim, pourc, capun, market,
cethegrande, cete, elpe, mandragores, turtre, spuse, panter, dragun,
robbingCj simple.
(2) "Genesis and Exodus" ed. Morris, for E.E.T. Society, about
1240 : —
Aucter, auter, astronomige, arsrnetrike, bigamie, crisme, charite,
canticle, circumcis, corune, crune, desert, graunte, gruchede, holo-
caust, hostel, iurnes, iusted, lecherie, lepre, munt, mester, meister,
offiz, pais, plente, pore, present, pris, prisun, promissioun, prophet,
roche, sacrede, cite, spirit, spices, suriun, swinacie, serue, sen-ice,
ydeles, ydolatrie.
342 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
(3) " Old Kentish Sermons" in "An O.E. Miscellany," about
1240 : —
Seinte, aperen, conseil, anuri, onuri, aparailen, anud, somoni,
glorius, miracle, ensample, cuuenable, sacrefyse, verray, signefien,
suffri, amunteft, defenden, cors, pelrimage, visiti, poure, amoneste-
ment, signefiance, urisun, ofserven, cite, auenture, sergaunz, ydres,
seruen, religiun, custome, contrarie, commencement, natureliclie,
lecherie, roberie, spusbreche, orgeilus, umble, lechur, chaste, folies,
vertu, montayne, sannun, leprus, onure, lepre, iwarised, maladie,
glutunie, desevird, compainie, asoiled, perissi, peril, merci, acumbri,
marcatte, travail, commandement, isauued, deliuri, seraise, paie,
gruohche, serui, aresunede, diuers, nature, grante.
(4) " Oivl and Nightingale" ed. Stratmann, 1244: —
Plaid, plaiding, ipeint, dahet, faucun, castel, acorde, plaidi (6),
grante, afoled (7), schirme (10), weorre (12), barez, grucching (13),
plaites, riche, povre, cundut (15), ginne (21), purs (22), clerkes,
munekes, canunes, pope (23), manteine (24), fitte (23), mester (29),
gems (33), merci (34), spusing (41), sot (42), spus-bruche (42),
sothede (46), sputing (47), pais (54), rente, maister (55).
(5) " Jesus Poems" in "An O.E. Miscellany," about 1244 (MS.
written after 1250) :—
Duzeper, turnen, flum, seruy, prechi, bitrayen, fowe, robe, pale-
fray, temple, prute, maystres, feste, aslcape, munt, prysune, calehe,
trayen, hardy, mantel, cendal, dute, princes, kustume, crane, quyte,
croyz, cheysU, sepulchre, mercy, prechen, prechynge, turn, ofseruie,
pouernesse, playdurs, drywories, spusynge, lecherye, sermonye,
laced, warantye, poure, flur, kastel, spis, amatiste, grace, calcydone,
lectorie, tupace, iaspe, saphir, sardone, smaragde, beril, crisopace,
amur, symonye, clergie, weorrejj, crysme-child, prynce, sermun,
barun, scarlat, rencyan, russet, meyne, reyne, fyn, culur, buffet,
gayhol, curteys, skarlet, palle, persones, matines, quiten, nappes.
VII. " Havelok ihe'Dane" ed. Skeat, for E.E.T. Society, about
1280:—
Fyn (i), barun, robberes (2), pouere, ayse, preyse, menio (3),
merci, large, eyr (4), pleinte, poure, preyden, turnen (5), preyj,
payed, messe-bok, caliz, messe-gere, corporaus (6), curteysye, luue-
drurye, tendre, arke (7), catel, sauteres, sayse (8), fey, justises,
grith-sergeans, gleyues, cri, beste (9), chaste, clatheit, sire, trayson,
traytur(io), pourelike, feble, chanounes (n), auter, castel, febielike
(13), malisun, kopes, hermites, trecheiy, felony (14), waiten (16),
in.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 343
anker, riche(i7), poke, croune, leoun, best (18), cerges(i9), pastees,
flaunes (20), chartre (21), traytour, doutede (22), flote, sturgiun,
turbut (23), tumberel, paniers, gronge, laumprei, wastels, simenels
(24), gruched (25), mester (26), segges (28), parlement, chaumpioun
(31), baroun (32), traysoun (33), maugre, grauntede (35), spusing,
spusen (36), ioie, syre (37), uoyz, croiz (39), closede, trone, conine,
burgeys (40), prey (41), iustise (44), stone (45), curt (46), seinte,
beneysun, veneysun, pyment, plente (47), gleiues, chinche, supe,
ioupe (48), barre (49), asayleden, leun (51), alias, ribbe (52), ser-
'gaunz, baret (53), sleues, frusshe (55), trusse, mayster (56), couere,
dubbe, mele, palefrey, seriaunz, warant (57), glotuns, serganz,
serges, pappes (59), gent, charbucle (60), saue (62), per (63), con-
estable (64), taleuaces, hasard, romanz, labour (65), cauenard (67),
blame (68), leteres (70), seysed (71), desherite, gisarm, aunlaz
(72), runci, priorie, nunnes (73), noblelike, wade (75), pateyn (77),
eritage, utrage, feyth, conseyl (81), curteyse, spuse (82), curteys,
rose, roser, flour (83), bamage, coruning, parted (84), tresoun,
felonnye (85).
VIII. (i) " King Horn" ed. Lumby, for E.E.T. Society, before
1300:—
Flur, colur, rose, payn, serue, roche, admiral, arive, galeie,
mestere, seruise, curt, squiere, spusen, dubbing, gegours, crune,
gestes, proue, manere, prowesse, grace, bataille, denie, rnaister,
assaille, auenture, turne, homage, enuye, folye, couerture, messa-
venture, lace, place, graunt, iarmed, paynyme, prime, compaynye,
scaped, rengne, rente, devise, enemis, bigiled, spuse, posse, ankere,
palmere, ispused, castel, deole, chaunge, sclavyne, scrippe, colmie,
bicolmede, ture, pure, squier, galun, glotun, disse, pilegryn, damesele,
preie, bitraie, palais, chaere, blame, heritage, baronage, crois,
passage, banere, chapeles, roch, serie, cosin, ginne, gravel.
(2) " Assumpcioun" in the volume containing " King Horn : ''-
Lescoun, assompcion, temple, senti, poure, mester, messager,
frut, palm, meigne, belamy, chauntre, gile, bitraie, space, amendy,
parchement, seniise, chere.
(3) " Florice and Blauncheflur" in " King Horn" :—
Date, grace, place, departe, chaumberlein (51), marchaunt, sem-
blaunt (52), mariner, largeliche, parais, baruns, cite, paleis (53),
riche, ioie, meniuier, pane, burgeis, curtais (54), ginne, pirate,
porter, marbelston (55), sopere, marchaundice, curties, gref (56),
entermeten, aquite, tures, plenere, kernel, crestele, charbucle (57),
lampe, torche, lanterne, barbecan, culuart, felun, areisun, seriruins,
344 ENGLISH ACCJDE.\CE. [AIT.
stage, parage (58), capun, cristal, cler, saphir, flur, onur (59),
chaunge, pris, coniureson, chauntement, ginnur, squire, schauntillun,
mascun (mason), culvert, felun, resun, felonie, spie (60), esceker,
covetus, envius, preie, grante, angussus, coveitus, honure (61), com-
paygne, druerie, parte, cunsail (62), fin (end), chaumbre (63), crie,
par amur (64), art, part (65), certes, merci, crien, pite, dute, pal,
admiral (66), tur, towaille, bacin, peire, oresun, passion, sire, demure
(67), piler, chamberlayn (68), belamy, hardy, barnage, iugements,
prison, palais, barons, deshonur, accupement (69), suffre, tendef),
parting (70), quite (71), engin, granti, igranted (72), maine, dub-
bede, spusen (73).
IX. "Kyng Alixaunder" ed. Weber, before 1300 : —
Divers, defaute, poverte (3), flour, annye, maner, fool, duyk, pris,
desireth, solas, cas, ribaudye, joye, baret, pais, jeste, maister (4),
deliciouse (5), clerk, maistrie (6), ars, planet, chaunce, baroun,
popet, bat (stick), enemye, chain, conjureson, asaied, regioun,
assaile, puyr, bataile, cler, nacioun, dromoun, batayling, y-chaunged
(8), ymage, basyn, distinctioun, weorre, disgysed, sojournyng, cite,
anoyed, distryed (9), iniquite, saun fable, table, astromyen, astro-
nomye, nygremauncye, discrye (10), justes, turnay, jay, accord[e]
<ii)» jolif, feste, honeste, burgeys, jugoleris, mesteris, desirith, los,
praisyng, folie, dame, gentil, face, marchal, atire, damoselis, delis,
•muyle (12), orfreys, roite (= rute), swte (= sute), trampes, orgies,
tymbres, carolying, champion, skyrmyng, lioun, chas, bay, baude-
kyn, pres, sengle, mantal-les, croune (13), atyred, gentil, gent, faile,
mervaile, contray, abasched, leisere (14), y-chaste (15), undur-chaum-
burleyn, by-cache, jugge, matynges, pryvete, madame, heygh-maister
'(16), sacrefying, chaisel, place, certes, ars-table, cours, colour, cristal,
-propre, nature, saffer [saphir] (18), irrous, herbes, herber, stamped,
morter, virgyn, charmed, conjuryng, dragon, covertour, preost
{= pressed] (19), messanger, pallis, riche, chaumbre. voidud, aspyed
(20), refuse, maisteflyng, conqueren, charmyng, aferis (21), mesanter,
desirous, repentyng, solace, losynger (22), privete, gileful, suspecioun
(23), galopith, encheson, hardy, chere, powere, comburment, fruyt,
comforted, sorcerye, Bressed, pavyloun (25), best (26), grcved,
ameye, semblaunt, gentil-men (27), drake, pray (= prey), faukon
(28), strete, dotaunce, signifiaunce, signifyng, estellacioun, signefieth,
sourmouncie (29), poisond, return, traitour, dragonet, resset, g)rnne,
cowart, feynt (30), planete, werryour, hardyest(e), norice(3i), geste,
dosayn, afatement, demayne^ skyrme, pars, romaunce, storie, dis-
raying, justyng, (a)sailyng, defendyng, reveryng (32), playn, chayn,
presented, perce, cheyn(33), firmament, verrament, tresond, afaunce,
quyt (34), part, art, failith, sclaundre, aire [heir] (35), soun, stable,
in.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 345
monteth, reyne, dcmeynith, aforced (36), reverence, crouned (37)
somound, roune (38), issue, dubbed, servise, dubbyng, plente,
deynte, tresoreris [treasurers], someris, comaundement, present,
departed, botileris, jogoleris, page (39), y-greved, manas, tmssed,
barge, ohfauns, camelis, vitailes, armes (40), party, savage, asteynte [?]
(41), ascaped, gage, maltalent, ire (42), departyng, armed, trumpyng,
.boryng, demaynyng, baner, ynde [blew], asaied, launce, armures,
yperced (44), amoure [lover], socour, scoumfyt, damage, grevaunce
(45), visage, rage, pile, spoile, perile, duk, delivered, liversoon,
foisoun, skarshche, counsail, spouse, grauntid, counsailyng, spoused,
message, flora (47), samytes, cortined, gardynes, people, barneys,
prynce, nobles, sytolyng, carolyng, turneieyng, tour (48), arived,
paleis (49), praised, y-crouned, chaunge, anired, coup (50), maigne,
aschape, purveyede, contek, prison (51), a reson, to reygne, male
ese, acorded, gestnyng (52), defende, veynes, deray, amende, olifaunt,
sones, prest, batail, boceleris, forkis (53), touched, y-siwed, mang-
nehs, alblastres, engyn, myne, mynoris (54), poraile, apertelche,
pore, sire, pes, ese, 'countryng, to hardye, talant, trouage, usage,
anoied, truage (58), daunte, manace, rent, deliverid (59), to dres[se],
presentis, compissement, verament, noise, cry, richely, treson, siwith,
palfrey (61), coroune, feute, parted, tresour, nobleye, noumbre,
ancres, acise (= asise), mariners, vigor, bac[h]elur, sojouifn], en-
cresed (63), lettres, renoun, honour, seignour, weorriour (64), "senas
(senates), assentyn, servisd, distruyed (65), chivalrie, castel, seignorie,
sojornith, temple, market, purtreyed (66), curteis (67), travaile,
vestement, sacrifise, sacrefyeng, besans (68), peoren (peers), riband,
(69), jewelis, empire, barbicans, mayntenid, quarellis, Dieu mercy,
trappen (70), travailled, cors, launceynge, peys, metal, fronst, to-
lonst (71), assaut, solaced, angwysch (72), trowage, salved, distrene
(? derreyne), parlement, comune, assent (73), braunche, scourge,
haumudeys, paramours, neyce, cosynes, governor, robbour, coinoun
(74), outrage, peer, pautener (75), amayed, doute, round (76),
amiraylis, chast[e], purs (77), chaunselere, frusche, appertenaunce
(78), amye (friend), mercye, trespas, juggement, acordement (80),
verreyment, carole, tent, entent, justis, ven(e)sounes (81), bikir,
bocher, lyon, mace (82), pleynt, soudan, verger, long-berdet (83),
counselers, matere, ost, messantour (84), gonfanoun, sendel, sicla-
toun, joly, perceyved (85), standard, orgulous (86), conseillynge,
arme, ordeyn, astore, apaied, graunt, covenaunt, y-pavylounded,
prechid (87), honourith, kourith, coward (89), siwen (90), menage,
compaignye, samyt, delyt, ches [chess] (91), warante, akedoun, tron-
chon, certe(s), melodye, crye, labour (93), assaylyng, bray, poudre,
quarel, aspieth (94), destuted, autour, conceyved, drewery (96),
basnet, gysarme, peces, saun faile, saun dotaunce (99), ypreost,
arsoun, weilyng, mason, hawberk, vertuous, socoure (101), passed,
346 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
veyne, batelynge, nobleys (= noblesse), acost, croupe, batalye, aperte
(103), defoille, boyle, corour (104), raundoun, asiweth, curtesye,
vylanye, garsounes, comunes (105), pellis, barneys, quystron, wary-
som, castles, arayed, assailed, valoure, parforce, ascapith, pavelounes
(107), spoil, payed, deol, turneth, sojorneth, avauncement, amour
(109), chevalry, messangers, justices, alblastreris, defence, dispence,
vygoure, noble (112), barounye, bachelrye, fortresses, segedyn,
aviroun, asawt, gyse, pencil (113), avetrol, justyng, acorde, y-f oiled,
emperour, armure (115), berfreyes, quarelis, hurdices, dismayng
(117), coyntise (118), favour, nortoure, adaunt, preche (119), ven-
yme, cleir (120), flourith, pertyng [parting] (122), homage, feute,
lewte, servys, marchauns, clergie, acord, parage (124), dispised(l25),
pyrie (jewels), unplye, palys, acoste (126), tence, distroied, rebel,
chast, almatour, quoynte, coragous, trayed (127), busard, povert,
lynage, servage (128), reherce (129), paye, norysched, baronage, plas
(place), chesse (131), avowe, crount, raunsoun, soffraunce, amende-
ment, haven, cheventeyn, asoyne, gay, geaunt (133), magnelis,
rowte, toreUis (134), pypyn (pipe), male-aperte, duyre, hast, tayl,
gonnes (135), dure, speciale, gyle (136), person, rybaud, verger,
velasour, swyer (137), harlot, cowardieth, continaunce, hardieth,
rente, by-lace, dosseyn (139), pays, travaille, soudans (140), ordeyne,
dragman (— interpreter), flum, maugre, camailes, dromedaries,
somers, justers (141), trappe, croper, queyntise, laboures, trum pours,
jangelours, route, robbedyn, tresours, corant, palfray, amblant,
sergant, serjans, asemblaye, gylyng (145), ficicion (146), pocions,
lettrure, aprise, spies (147), proferid, scarceliche, perage ( = parage)*
cage, corage, forest, sodeynliche (148), hardinesse, prowesse (149),
chaunse, defendit, entraile, gargaze, gorger, joster (151), mace, lyoun
(152), pesens (154), faynt, flank, launche (155), weorryours, mes-
chef, agref, asay (157), pray, iavasour, slyces (158), amy, voys (159),
deshonour, descharged, aquyted, asyghe (= essay), oncas, antoure,
lechour, tra^our, aliene(i6i), aventure, victorie, chesoun, acoysyng,
amiture (163), traj'tory, pere, preoire, glove (164), honest, cure,
entermetyd, dispoyled, joyned (165), tastyng, feyntise, corsour (166),
trouble (168), aspye, tyffen, prj'veliche (169), contynaunce, demor-
rance, peolure, destrer*» (i/o), perlement, message (171), fable,
pyment, botileir, vengaunce, laroun, usage, court, richesse, repent-
and (173), vysage (174), auntred, keoverid, folye (175), eschape
(176), dragoun, failleth (178), constable, ostage, ape, scape (180),
disray, pomon, arsun (181), soket, perced(i82), prj^-e, \ygour, antur,
assoj-ne (185), tressours, autors, peyn, autorite, salueth (186), purchas,
discryve (187), posterne (188), norische, medlay (189), tyger, spirit,
vaite (190), amended, gentiliche, ba\vmed, schryne, entaile, fyne
(191), maried, ystabled, avaunce, baudry, keouere, harnesche (192),
I".] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 347
gybet, dispit, noyse, bailifs (193), siweye, jolifliche, partie, ylis,
afyhe (197), botemeys, merveille (198), desert, apert (199), memorie,
sklaunder (200), gyoures, peryl, straungest, lessoun, mountayne,
engyneful, avenaunt, asperaunt, conquerrende, jugge (203), fest,
jolifie, damoysel, haunteth (205), garnement, penaunce, discipline,
medecyne (206), palmer, ermine, skarlet, pers, furchures (207),
coloure, malicious (209), pleyne, laak, tryacle (210), charrey,
astrangled, magnels (211), nombre (212), oost, mangenils, aketoun,
plate, gaumbisoun, meschaunce, greuance (213), ypotame, sem-
blabel, reisyn (214), purchacyng, pas, mend}rng, soiournyng (215),
tornay, dauncen, .leopardes, unces, baneret (217), beef, motoun,
venysoun, seysouns, sopere, charbokel-, laumpe, aveyse, scorpion,
bugle, cheyne, glotoun, fuysoun, meyntenaunt (218), lake (220),
saven, loos, mounde (221), tressed, pecock (223), envenymed,
molest, perch, saumoun, foysouo (225), estre, robe, furred, meneyere,
tabard, borel (227), scarsete, mantel (228), ennesure, defyeaunce,
chaumpe, defendynge, assailynge, parde (230), merveilynges, ymages,
pure, stage, conquerde (231), envenymen, gorgen (232), dromuns,
barge, spyces (233), faas, preciouse, conceyveth (234), jacynkte,
piropes, crisolites, safyres, smaragdes, margarites, terrene, fourmed,
doloure, remenaunt (235), cokedrill, monecros (236), vitailles (237),
yportami, entreden, fygeres (238), delited, tempestes, entree, re-
kowered, duzeyn (241), tourment (242), doutaunce (244), consent
(246), mynstral, juwel, sumpteris (250), lumbars, cayvars (251),
ryvage, vysite, mont (252), hurdles, strayte, graven, anoye, vermye
(2S3)» destraye, sacrefyse, queyntaunce, yle, syment, pyrates (255),
power, mountaunce, purveyed, y-changed (256), tempreth, muray,
koyntise (258), merveillouse, robbery (259), lecherie, pasture, furchur,
sustinaunce, honouryng, archeris, panter (260), nobleyse (262), fame,
langage, encence, flum (263), arnement (264), carayne, unhonest
(266), rinocertis, hont, medli, monoceros, marreys, front, rasour (270),
noriceth, delfyns, valour (271), treble (272), enbrace (273), tenour
(274), desyre, caries (carats), chargen, perdos, unycornes (275),
ceptres, mester, cortesy (276), delit, solasying, aresoned (277),
sakret, notemugge, sedewale, wodewale, canel, licoris (278), gilofre,
quybibe, gynger, comyn, odour, delices, spices, broches (280), des-
tenyng (281), largenesse, prowes[se] (282), fairye, comforte (283),
creature (284), poysond, amonestement, certeyn, dysours, dalye (286),
tressen, sygaldrye, emeraundis, peopur (288), soffred, mesureabele,
bonere, assise, marchaunt, baudekins, pelles (290), latimer, rocher,
distresse, teste [head], counseiler, enherit, hostel, lyvereyng (293),
defyghe, vawte, alouris, corner (295), preove, dette, atyr, defycng,
deffyeng (297), demere, seynory, chalangith (298), blamed, aifye,
Jereyne, afeormed (300), acount (301), malese, devyse (302), rere-
348 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
mayn, spye, gangle [jangle] (303), discoverte, covenaunt, glorious,
warentmentis (304), batest, abatest, tyranne (306), amendyng, pil-
grimage, chalenge (307), to coverye, tapnage (308), demayn, paleys,
qweynte (311), certyn, esteris, evorye (312), ymagour, disseyte,
losenger, konioun (315), trace (316), reinvarde (317), remuwing,
depose, encombrement (318).
X. A. " Lives of Saints" <Srv., in " Early English Poems," ed.
Fumivall, for Philological Society, about 1295 : —
(1) St. Dunstan. — Miracle, doute, manere, sodeynliche, taper (34),
crouning, norischi, crede, uncle, ioye, deynte, grauntede, abbei,
ordeynour, rente, ordre, monek (35), cordeyned, amende, privei,
celle, oreisouns, servie, poure, enuye, treoflinge (36), contrai, pose,
poer, consailler, abbey, sojournede, sire, grace, folliche (37), blamie,
persoun, persones, lecherie, maistres, preveie, place, aperteliche,
priveite, masse (38), kirileyson, solaz, joyfulle, anteyn, special*,
servede, trespas, assoillede, freres (39).
(2) An Oxford Student — Madame (40), scole, penance, repentant,
iserved (41), onoury, servise, prive, clerk, onourede, priveiliche,
cors (42).
(3) The Jews and the Cross. — Sacring, trecherie (42), forme,
vylte, priveite (43).
(4) St. Swithin. — Confessour, turnde, seint (43), chiefe, consail,
heir, norissie, portoure, ioyous, bobaunce, squiers, bost, amendede
(44), masoun, ribaudie (45), ischryned, doutest, poyiit, signe, iolyf,
igreved, honer, assignede, consayl (46), sumnede, oreisouns, irevested,
devocioun, processioun, schrine, noble (47).
(5) St. Kenelm. — Abbai, principales (48), departed (49), ac-
countes, foh'e, enuye, .heritage, outrage, purveide, felonye, poisoun,
ymartred, ambesas, wardeyn, traitour, trecherie, frut (50), deol,
priveite, norice, tendre (51), travaillest, iugement, valleye, vers,
cumpaignye, martirs (52)vhonury, seisi (53), larder, awaitede, lettres,
diverse (54), nobliche, reiike, noblerere, feste, messager (55)» con'
teckede, pees, for-travailed, sauf, suy, bigyled, chapel (56), sautere,
sauvoure, attefyne, schryne (57).
(6) St. James. — Isued, preisi, beau, membre, pelegrim, cas,
bitraye, queyiatise, bigyli, resoun (58), justise, dulfulliche, merci,
doutede, agyled (59).
(7) St. Christopher. — Melodic, iugelour, firce, beau sire, delyvri
(60), poer, mester, croiz, croice, ipassed, turnede, hermyte [here-
III.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 349
myte, ermyte] (61), prechi, confortie, tourment (62), virtu, preching,
tourne, yarmed, cowardz (63), icristned, cristnede, sige, prisoun,
itournd (64), gridire, roste, piler, arblestes, angusse, feble, clere (65).
(8) The 11,000 Virgins. — Virgines, fame, queynte, noblei, spouse,
Marie, heir, destruye, message, deol, paye, grante, certeyn (66),
honoure, servie, cristenie, priveite, preisi, tresches, sustenance,
ary\-e, damaisele, aryvede, honourede, dignete (68), chast, baptize,
ibaptised, suffrie, suede, cride, creatoure, gent(r)ise (69), nonnerie,
granti, martyrs, enclynede, covent, tumbe, abbesse, honoury,
chere (70).
(9) St. Edmund the Confessor. — Confessour, seint, isoilled, ordre,
nonnes, hauberk, spense, scole (71), usede, grace, signe, grevy (72),
yused, grevede, ensentede, chastete, ymage, pryveiliche, spoushode,
mariage, ostesse, febliche (73), discipline, fyne (end), chaste, catel,
flour, porveide (74), symonye, desire, priorasse, quitoure, itour-
mentede, tuochi (75), confort, oreisoun, custume, lessoun, pamerie
(76), contynuelliche, profound* arsmetrike, cours, figours, numbre,
visciun, entende, paume, rounde, cerclen, trinite, divinite, chanceler,
alosed, universite, pitousliche, religioun, desputede, scolers (77),
savour, clergie, mageste, stat, desputie, studie, delyvre (78), pre-
chour, croserie, procuracies, persones, largeliche, pouere, prechede
(79), merci, roveisouns, baners, desturbie, desturbi, grevede (80),
canoun, seculer, tresourer, avanced, sojournede, defaute, abbod,
disciple, comun, ellectioun, messager (81), chamberlayn, arche-
bischop, maistrie, messagers, semblant, lettres, chapitre, plener,
queor, consailli, certes, obedience (82), ioyful, pite, heriet, deolful-
liche, meseise, best (83), envie, contek, grandsire, legat, acordi,
ensample, werrie, franchise, payest, amende, sentence, stabliche
(84), anuy, isustened, ancestres, amendement, feble, soiourny (85),
ipreched, minstre, faillede, ischryned (86).
(10) St. Edmund the King. — Hardie, corteys, quoynte, robbede
(87), bisigede, scourgen, tourmentours (88), pitousliche, suede,
pelrynage, honoury, noble (89).
(n) St. Katherine. — Artz, emperour, gywise, sacrifyse, temple,
reisouns, preouede, queyntise (90), justise, gent, preise, blame, veyne
glorie, resoun, maister, maistrie, sustenie (91), desputi, plaidi,
preovie, falliest (92), philosophe, iscourged, prophete, traitours, con-
forti (93), apeired, paleys, blandisinge, tourmentz, scourges, turne,
prisoun, emporice, privei (94), prisones, ibaptized, turmente, tour-
ment, iugement, gentrise, emperesse (95), rasours, mossel-mele, tur-
mende (96), preyere, igranti (97), iourneyes, nobliche, oylle (98).
350 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
(12) St. Andrew. — Pur, doutede (99), folie, itournd, doutie,
scourgi, tourmentours, preciouses (100).
(13) Seinte Lucie. — Grevous, fisciciens, ispend, meneisoun,
amende, tuochede, presse, tuochinge (102), {granted, notice, que(y)n-
teliche, spere, lechour (103), comun, bordel, defouled, sauter,
aprochi, enchantours, enchantementz (104), tendre (105).
(14) St Edward. — Blame, aventoares, pore (106).
(15) Judas Iscariot. — Norischie, barayl (107), hurlede, bicas, heire,
privite, ichasted, awaitede (108), raaugre, anuyed, peren [pears]
(109), repentant, purs-berer, susteynie, oignement, keoverie (no),
baret.
(16) Pilate. — Spousbreche, norisschi (in), hostage, truage,
faillede, queyntere, gyle, peer, chaste]), duri, enquerede, yle (112),
amaistrede, ascapede, crede, felonie, tresour, baillie, trecherie, ac-
countie, bitrayd, acorded (113), repentede, keverchief, face, defaute,
forme (114), assentede, tempest (115), swaged, iuggede, enqueste,
clestruyde, passede (116), passi, gailer, gentrice, curteisie, aventoure,
atroute (117), roche, dulfol (118).
(17) The Pit of Hell (in " Fragments of Popular Science," ed.
Wright). — Cours, cler, candle, firmament, planete, frat, diverse,
glotouns, qualite, crestal (133), balle, elementz, rounde, eir [air]
(134), post, noyse, pur (135), debrusede, turment, tempest, mayster
(136), occian (ocean), veynes, bal, boustes (? boustus), debonere,
bosti, hardi, lecherie, temprieth, entempri (138), change, turneth,
maner, norisschinge (139), purveide, forme, resoun, departi, attefyne,
angusse, iclosed, i-strei5t, semblant, signes (140).
X. B. " \>e Holy Rode" (in " Legends of the Holy Rood "), ed.
Morris, for E. E. T. Society : —
Parais, valeie, envie (18), failede, anuyd, oile (20), defaute, doute
(22), delit, ioie, floures, frut, maner, place (24), stat, prophete,
trinyte, honur, confermy (26), power, cercle, honured (28), lecherie,
penaunce, sauter, templo, noble, carpenters (30), defoulede, grace,
destrued, vertu (32), croys, paynym (34), batail, fyn, lettres, signe,
maister, enquerede (36), baptizen (37), conseil, somounce, amounty,
enqueri, comun (38), sepulcre, prechede, debrusede (40), prison,
cristeny, hasteh'che, icristened (42). chere, fourme, ser%y, paie (44),
treson, procession, ibaptised, scryne, presiouse (preciouses), desirede
(46), ahansed, feste, partie, presious, queyntise (48), sege, trone,.
cok, bast (bastard), emperour, dedeyned (50), baundone, si\vy, mark,
sertes (52), honur, pascion, nobleie, feble (54), scivede, price, con-
treie, honour!, save, companye, ofTring, melodic (56), prechede,
in.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 351
turne, gredice, rosti, gynne, honure (58), deboner, caudron, tor-
mentynge (60).
XI. "Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle" ed. Hearne, about
1295 :—
Yle, derate, fmyt, parkes, ryveres, plente (i), defaute, maystres (2),
emperoures, worrede, destruiode, maystrie (4), chase, metel (6), clos,
stret, pleyn, gyn, pek (7), pur, amende (8), age, transmigration,
incarnation, bataile (9), enchantement, passe, enchaunterye (10),
trauayl, deolful, servage, ostage, prowes, stat, power, noble (11),
ost, pryson, chaunce, enhaunce, oblige, prys (12), store, messager,
chargede, delyverede, deol, cryede (13), comfortede, change, y-armed,
contre, temple, bestes, astore, offrede, honourede, place, ymage
(14), geandes, geant, sovereyn, acoyntede, company (15), porchase,
pes, hardi, solas, peses, robbery, strange, robbede (16), prest,
percede, maister (17), batail, chateus, ystored, cheson, castel, despit,
arme]j, armede, departede, partyes (18), ordeynede, bisegede, pos-
terne, neueu, of-scape, quoyntise, faileth, honour, tabernacle, cite,
pais, havene, ariruede (20), geand, to-raced, roches (22), aspiede,
ese, plenteus, prince (23), for J>e cas (because), astorede, damyseles,
cheventeyn, pere, colour, maner, gent, spouse, bitraye (24), of-scapie,
spousede, coynteliche, priveliche, prive, privite, sacrifise, sposhed,
poer, spousebruche (26), concubine, attefine, diverse, letre (27),
fame, veyn, close, cacheth, enchanter, chauntement (28), eir, crie,
regned, hautinesse (29), Marie, noblest, bacheler, richesse (30), des-
pisest, mariage, unmaried, graunt (31), tresour, entisede, spene,
playnede, amendement (32), serve, grace, poverte, joiful (33),
myseise, meseise, asayed, noblei (34), ensample, symple, antres,
ma dame (35), siwte, arayed, false (36), aunte, prison, part (37),
cosyn, nobliche, prophetic (38), feyntyse, koyntise, porveyede,
truage, route (39), condyt (40), occean, companye, cler, sustynance
(41), ese, eritage, rage, siwede (42), bi-cas, towchyng, venymed (43),
amendede, governede (45), messingeres, homage, destruye, defoule,
gentrise, couetyse, nobleye (46), franchise, conseleres, pavelon, or-
deyned, quareles, mace, awatede (49), maistry, corteysie, joye (50),
portes, ronde, ambes, atyr, y-osted, certeyn (52), menstrales, carole,
bacheleres, anyed, court, asise, fest, siwie, juggement (53), abaty,
sawve, stable, conseil (= council), vilenye, undeserved (54), sire,
treson, bysegede, valei (55), tricherie, defendede, defaut, ascapede
(56), amendy, preyse, pees, lyon, cruel (57), vncle, merci, ysuf-
frede, trespas, forme, acordede (58), cas (59), descrivyng, messa-
geres, paide, noumbre (60), adauntede (61), aryvede (62), felonye,
partye, ynorisched, trecherus, yserved, hardynesse (64), anauntre,
acord, perauntre, acordy, spousyng, nobleste, damesel, alied (65),
352 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
purliche, ysponsed (66), evangelist, preche (67), chaumbre, blamede,
fey, ficicianes (68), norische, gynne, langage, feble, chef (69), suffre
(70), martri, joyned (71), temprede, rebel, emperie, quoynte (72),
miracles, lettres, hastiliche, archetemples (74), eyr, bachelerie,
bachiler, avaunsed, cartre, purchas (77), daungere, delivere ("8),
quoynteliche, bytraide (79), egre, torment, conquerede, croys (82),
crowne, grantede (83), ycrowned (84), deserite, deserites, enlegeance,
firmament (85), baptize, pur mesel, baptizing, ybaptized (86), mast-
ling (87), joyful (88), counseileres, spousi, aliance, avys (89), des-
tourbede, contek (90), spousedest, (atte) fyn (91), warnesture, \var-
deynes, robboures (94), simpler, acente (96), robby (97), obligi,
\verrours, recet (98), hamer, marchandise, hauberk (99), travail,
turnede, squiers (100), a-stored, destruyeth (101), armes (102),
sacryng, goveme, trayson, sustene, purchace (108), hastiues, ycom-
paced, large, poynte (109), glose, susteynede (no), arivede, choys
(in), powers, servise, honoureth, planetes (112), chatews, cove-
naunt (113), rentes, wareson, privete (114), graunte, apayed (117),
vassayl, paith, prechoures, lechour, lecheri, paynen (119), prechede,
porpos (121), poyson, apoysnede (122), stabhche, payns [pagans]
(123), ypayd, bitray(e), vilanye (124), semble, pay, barons (125),
mantel, defoulede (126), ofserved, conselers (127), enchanters, morter
(128), nonnery, semblant (129), philosophic, enchantoures [enchan-
ters] (130), fundement, dragon, asailede (131), seynorie, change,
digne, sege (132), asaile (133), chaste, corteys (134), savede (135),
outrage, faylede (136), joustes, tomemens, lance, meschance (137),
armour, comforted, siwe, ordeyne(i39), entente, fynede (140), verdyt,
peces (141), pyte, destresse, prisones (143), defende, treche, me-
dycine, vertu (147), leveres, cables, enchantery (148), chauntiment
(149), abyt (150), spycery, fsyik, noyse, yformed (151), branches
(152), cors, mynstre (154), monteynes (155), delaye, demayde (156),
contasse, parlemente, despyte, anguyssous, entre, folye(i5S), porter,
privey(i59), compas, febliche (162), feblor, feblesse, pouere, aspyed
(165), debonere, gentyl, meyne (167), biseged (168), mercy (170),
encented (171), arme'th, dedeyn (172), purlyche, asoiled, prechynge
(173), ypeynt, toret (174), asaut (175), afayted, prelats, processyon,
anguysse, relykes (177), plente (180), largesse, storys, sumny (181),
maynage (183), pas, dui% atyled (184), keverede, frount (185), clery
(186), rounde, dossepers, fers (188), los (189), paleys (190), ermyne,
boteler, suwyte, botelerye, druery, yproved, chastore (191), preve,
tables, chekere, alurs (192), senatour, reverye, auncetres (193), man-
dement (194), taveme, ha?arderye (195), descord (196), honoury
(197), anhansy (198), archers (199), veage, conquery (200), jugede,
pavylous, gleyve (203), harrlj'ssy, pitos (204), mysaventure, pece,
noryse (205), comforty, yspyted, spyte, rostede, astoned (207),
governy (209), bytumde, despoylede, condut (212), seyngner>-e (213),
ni.] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS. 353
defense, recetted, conseyly, d'ureynede (214), pece-mele (217), by-
closede (218), passy, cheance, spousbreche (220), anguysous (222'),
traytor, coler, souple, scapye, yperysed (226), cell (233), entyced,
ermytes (235), yconfermed (237), norysynge, norysede, masse (238),
sauflyche, eusenten (239), susteyny (240), chantement, porchacy,
veneson, best (243), yrosted (244), playnte (252), deserte (253),
poueral, avysyon, prophecye, regnede (254), dyscordyng, -penance
(255). conteked (259), scourged, crounement (263), cacchynge (265),
spousy, fol, delyt, encheson (268), blamede (272), scaubert, preste
(273)> noblyliche, tresorye (274), relygion, spence (275), prioryes,
abbeys (276), chartre, confermyng, pytoslyche, arysed (277), mes-
cheance (278), apeyrede, kalangede (279), tempest (281), cathedral,
ferce, ssryne (282), terme, envye (284), ysaved, bycas (288), por-
veyde (289), sacring, crouny (290). repentant, bastard (295), raymson,
debrusede (298), cancrefrete (299), partede (302), yordeyned, soffry
(303), coveyteth (306), partyner, desyry (309), gyle, foundement,
ypoynted (310), avanced, avancement (312), scarlet, taylor, tour (313),
assygned, glosyng (314), alyancc, tendre, norysy (315), restorede
(319), caroyne (320), enresonede, chaere (321), almesse, peryl, rose,
acording(33i), sclaundre, contenance (333), vengeance, desyfe (334),
orysons, feynede (336), trone, apoysony, peiysy (337), wynipel,
myracle (338), delyvery (340), mossel, poudre, jugged (345), baronye,
conferment (349), conseyly, peraventer (358), conseylede, corageus
(359), glotonye (360), targe (361), vantward, valeye (362), keverynge,
vysyon (363), largelyche, canons (364), streytlyche (373), tyrant,
raunsom (374), apertelyche, myscheving, mysauntre (375), arblaste
(377), dyverse (378), larg>-lyche (383), omage (387), spenynge, fol-
large (389), say, belamy (390), sauf, quyt, creyserye, creysede (393),
magnales (394), armure (397), potage (404), devocyon, revested (406),
amyrayl, garyson, besans (409), renable, hastyf, secund (414), con-
seylers (417), forest (419), clergye (420), hardyssede (426), destourb-
aunce, chasty (428), assyses, mesures (429), waryson (431), damasele
(432). gentryse (434), dystourbed (436), emperesse, lampreye (442),
pryncypal (446), meseyse (450), calangy, conseyly (451), ordeyne,
hardy (452), percy, resun (453), taper, offrynge, sygne (456), lyge,
fol-hardy, porueance, leon (457), anhansyeth (458), socour (462),
emprisonede, despyt, asoyly (464), irnproued (466), chaunceler (468),
ordeinour (469), custome, costome (470), playdinge, patron, voweson
(471), purchasy, bailifs, vacauns, prelat, chapele (472), efcedekne,
plaininge, amendi, citacion, felon, bulle, desordeini (473), crouni
(474), marbreston, paviment, cardinals (476), patriarc (480), pre-
smms, presant(485), croyserye, delivery (487), annyd, trossi, romance
(4^7), broche, calis (489), palefrey, chamberlein (490), mareshal,
pilous, quarel (491), contesse (492),'seisede, chaunge, isacred, covent
(493). sousprior, arivi (494), general, passion, pitosliche (495), jus-
A A
354 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [APP.
tizes, principals (496), specialliche, graunti, paiden, defendi, sosteini
(498), forester (499), demande, relesi, entredit, commune (503), apert,
chasti (501), avauncieth (503), sentence (504), gywel (508), unstable
(510), destance (511), delaied (513), legal (514), sinkpors, scarse-
liche (515), meschaunce (516), priueliche (518), sacri (522), acused,
prise, faile (523), prechors, concentede (528), freres (530), pleinede,
porveanc'e (533), hauntede, tornemiens (534), borgeis, portreven
(541), viniterie, dosils (542), unarmed, attired, conteini (547), de-
fensables, mangenel (549), procurede, banerets (551), solaci (552),
reverence (553), remuede (555), demembred (559), sodeinliche (560),
diner, grevede, suspendede (563), saut, gout (564), constable (565),
closi, cope, cirurgian (566), deserited (567), somenie, despepled,
feblede (568), assumption (570).
XII. Harl. MS. 2253.
(1) Proverbs of Hendyng, 1272 — 1307 (in "Specimens of Early
English"). — Servys, warysoun, fule, tempred, sot, male, gyleth.
(2) Lyric Poetry (ed. Wright, for Percy Society). — Soteleth, sotel,
poure (23), siwith (24), flour, feynt, beryl, saphyr, jasper, gernet, ruby,
onycle, diamaunde, coral (25), emeraude, margarite, charbocle,
chere, rose, lilye-white, primerols, passeth, parvenke, pris, Alisaundre,
ache, anys, coynte, columbine, bis, celydoyne, sauge, solsicle, papejai,
tortle, tour, faucoun, mondrake, treacle, trone, licoris, sucre, saveth
(26), gromyl, quibibe, comyn, crone, court, canel, cofre, gyngyvre,
sedewale, gylofre, merci, resoun, gentel, joyeth, baundoun (27),
bounte (29), richesse, reynes (31), croune, serven (32) noon, spices,
romaunz (34), parays, broche (35), gyle, grein (38), chaunge (40),
non, pees (42), doute, bref, notes (43), mandeth [mendeth] (44),
tricherie, trichour (46), asoyle, folies, ' wayte glede ' (watch-ember),
goute (48), glotonie, lecherie, lavendere, coveytise, latymer (49),
frount, face, launterne, fyn, graciouse, gay, gentil, jolyf, jay (52),
fi(th)ele, rubie, baner, bealte, largesse, lilie, lealle, poer, pleyntes,
siwed, maistry (53), e»gyn, preye, fourm'e (59), fyne, joie (60),
peyne (62), duel (dole), lykerusere, alumere (68), servyng, pieie
(69), grace (72), graunte (73), soffrede (83), compagnie, scourges (84),
blame, virgyne, medicyn, tresor, piete, jolyfte, floures, honoures
(89), par-amours (91), flur, crie, soffre, cler, false (93), solas, coun-
seileth, presente, encenz, sontes (96), ycrouned (98), vilore, demp-
ned (100), feble, porest, e'yse (102), maister, precious (103), coan-
sail (104), palefrey, par, charite, tressour (105), champioun (106),
trous, forke, frere, caynard (no), maystiy, bayly (in), preide
(112).
I".] NORMAN-FRENCH WORDS.
355
For the list of words from the " Saxon Chronicle " and Laga-
mon s " Brut " I am indebted to Mr. Joseph Payne. See his list" of
Norman-Irench words used by LaSamon, in Notes and Queries,
'\ w*-\ Trrt.i ~*-i, c — : ~ T.-i _oy_ «- >
No. 80, Fourth Series, July 10, 1869.
For Norman-French loans after 1300, see Marsh's " The Origin
d History ol the English Language," and Dr. Latham's " English
inenafre.
and
Language.
A A 2
INDEX.
INDEX.1
(The numerical references arc double ; the former number of each pair denoting
the /<*£?, the latter denoting the section.)
A, prefix, 34, 31. Accent, in Shakespeare, Milton, &a,
for he, she, it, they, 119, 157. 75, 54.
for o, 44, 37 ; into e, 49, 41. on final syllables, 75, 54.
into o in strong verbs, 166, 273. in Elizabethan period, 75, 54.
into w in past tense, 160, 269. Latin, Greek, French influence on,
how produced physiologically, 58, 75, 54.
47. distinguishes verb from noun, 76,
different sounds of, 61, 51 ; 63, 52. 55.
before verbs = on, in, &c., 179, influence of, 76, 57.
292. Accoutre, 244, 325.
adverbial prefix, 194, 311. Accusative case, ending, 101, 96.
= of, 223, 323 (note). in modern English, 101, 97.
Teutonic prefix, 224, 324, adverbs from, 194, 311 ; 196, 311.
Romance prefix, 243, 325. Ad, Romance prefix, 243, 325.
Ab, Romance prefix, 243, 325. Adder, 72, 53.
Abbott, Shakespearian Grammar, 56, Ade, suffix, 239, 325.
44; 140, 216 (note). Adjectival adverbs, 196, 311.
on tkou,you, 118, 153. suffix, 212, 321; 219, 322.
his for its, 124, 172 (note). compounds, 223, 323.
on infinitive in ing, 178, 291 (note). Adjective, in N. and S. dialects, 45, 37.
on gerundial infinitive, 179, 292 changes in, 50, 41 ; 52, 41 ; 53, 41.
(note). distinguished by accent, 76, 55.
Ablative case, ending of, 101, 96. uses as substantive, 99, 90 ; 100, 94.
Able, suffix, 234, 325. classified as noun, 79, 60.
Romance suffix, 40, 33. definition of, 80, 60.
About, compound preposition, 204, 314. comparison of, 105, 108 ; 107, 115.
Above, compound preposition, 204, 314. numerals, 110, 127.
Absolute case, 103, 102. indefinite article, 115, 137.
Ac, ace, suffix, 236, 325. indefinite numerals, 115, 138.
Accent, definition of, 74, 54. uninflected in modern English,
in Old English, 74, 54. 104, 103.
after Conquest, 74, 54. inflected in Chaucer's time, 104
in Chaucer, Spenser, &c., 74, 54. 105.
1 This Index (compiled by Mr. John Eliot, student in the Evening Depart-
ment of King's College, London) does not include the Appendices. .
INDEX.
Adjectives of Romance origin, 104,
105.
used as substantives, 103, 106.
Adverb, ending in e, 55, 43.
indeclinable, 79, 59.
definition, formation, SO, 63.
definition of, 193, 310.
of place, time, &c., 193, 310.
substantive, 193, 311.
adjectival, 196, 311.
numeral, 197, 311.
from participle, 197, 312.
pronominal, 198, 312.
prepositional, 197, 312.
compound, 201, 313.
Adverbial terminations, ly, met:t, 80,
63.
prefix, 8<T, 64 ; 247, 325.
suffix, 220, 322.
African, South, dialects of, 12, 15.
After, prefix, 40, 33 ; 227, 324.
comparative preposition, 204, 314.
adverb, 197, 312.
Again, against, preposition, 205, 314.
Age. suffix, 39, 33 ; 237, 325.
Agglutinative language, 2, 6; 12, 15.
Ain, suffix, 235, 325 ; 230, 325.
Ajar, 68, 53.
AJ, prefix, 34, 31 ; suffix, 233, 325.
Alatian languages, 11, 15.
Alfred, treatv with Danes, 29, 23.
All, prefix, 227, 324.
indefinite numeral, 115, 138.
used with some, 142, 218.
Alms, 99, 91 ; 99, 92.
Along, preposition, 205, 314.
Alphabet, 57, 45.
spoken and written, 58, 46.
elementary sounds in, 61, 51.
inconsistent, 62, 52.
. imperfect, redundant, 62, 52.
Also, 200, 312.
Amb, Romance prefix, 243, 325.
American words in English, 33, 29.
Amid, amidst, preposition, 205, 314.
Among, compound prepositT«n, 2C4,
314.
An, suffix, 235, 325 ; 236, 325.
- if, 207, 317.
plural termination, 95, 80.
infinitive suffix, 176, 290.
Analytical language, English, 48, 40.
form of denoting tense, J91, 309.
Ance, Romance suffix, 39, 33.
Ancestor, 243, 325.
Anent, 128, 181 (note); 206, 314.
Angeln, 27, 20.
Angles invade England, 27, 20.
Teutonic tribes before them, 28,
:o.
distinguished from Jutes, Saxons,
&c., 41, 34.
Anglian dialect, 41, 34 ; (see also
Dialects).
Anon, 197, 311.
Another, 150, 245.
preceded by onf, 150, 246.
Ante, Romance prefix, 2-13, 325.
Any, 147, 236.
compounded, 147, 237.
old negative of, 147, 237.
joined to whit, 146, 233.
Aphaeresis, 76, 57.
Apocory, 76, 57.
Apostrophe in genitive case, 102, 100.
Apron, 236, 325.
Arabic, Semitic language, 11, 14,
words in English, 32, 29.
influence on Europe, 33, 29.
Are, 30, 24 ; 42, 34 ; 53, 41 ; 182, 195.
Armour, 240, 325.
Article, definite, in Scandinavian, 6, u.
in First Period, 48, 40.
in Second Period. 51, 41 ; 53, 41.
in Third Period, 54, 43.
definite, in North and South
dialects, 45, 37.
indefinite, 111, 128; 115, 137.
definite, 121, 161 ; 125, 178.
definite, in O.E., 130, 188.
Articulation, physiology of, 53, 46.
Ary, suffix, 232, 325.
Aryan, origin of name, 7, 12.
Indo-European languages, 7, 12.
comparison of languages, lOo, 112.
strong verbs, 155, 264.
As, used with such, 135, 206 ; 135, 207.
= that, 133, 198.
used with what, 134, 205.
compounded with st>, 135, 206.
also, 200, 312.
Ass, suffix, 236, 325.
Asunder, 200, 312.
At, before infinitive, 46, 37 ; preposition,
203, 314.
Ate, suffix, 238, 325.
Atic, suftix, 237, 325.
Athwart, preposition, 206, 314,
Ative, Romance suffix, 40, 33.
Aught, etymology of, 14C, 233.
Aunt, 84, 72.
Ay, aye, 201, 312.
IND'EX.
361
B, change into/, 25, 18; 63, 53.
inserted into words, 25, 18 ; 03, 53.
change into/, i», m, 03, 53.
Bachelor, 84, 72.
Bad, 107, 117.
Bain on use of //««/, 132, 197 ;note).
Bake, 0, n.
Barley, 24, i3 ; 68, 53 ; 219, 322.
Barn, 21S, 322.
Bask, 30, 24.
Basque, 1-. 15.
B<ittlcdoor, '239, 325.
Be, prefix, 34, 31 : 40, 33 ; 225, 324.
verb to be, ISO, 294.
in Milton's time, J82, 295.
Norse influence, 182, 295.
Bee, 88, 72.
Behight, 156, 266.
Beornicia, kingdom of, 23, 20.
Bet, better, best, 107, 116.
Bis, Romance prefix, 243, 325.
Bitch, 88, 72 ; 92, 74.
Blame, 32, 28.
Ble, suffix, 113, 134 ; 234, 325.
Boar, 87, 72 ; 92, 74.
Boisterous, 220, 322.
Bondman, 86, 72.
Born, borne, 161, 270.
Both, m, 135.
Bound, 30, 24.
Boy, 84, 72.
Breaths, how produced physiologically,
59, 49-
Brethren, 96, So.
Bridal, 'Z'2'2, 323.
Bride, (rtJ, -,-i.
Bridegroom, S3, 71 ; 86, 72.
Bring, brought, 172, 281.
Brother, 83, 72.
Buck, 87, 72 ; 92, 74.
Bull, 87. 72.
Burial, 2it5, 321.
But, 81, 65.
compound preposition, 204, 314.
Buy, bought, 172, 218.
By, in distributives, 113, 133.
preposition, 197, 312 ; 203, 314.
C changed to ch, 50, 41.
= A and s, 61, 50.
= k, 03, 53.
in Romance suffixes, 236, 325.
Can, 183, 298 ; 192. 309.
Canterbury, etymology of, 78, 57.
" Canterbury Tales," accent in, 75, 54.
Cardinal numbers (see Numerals).
Case, in First Period, 43, 40.
in Second Period, 50, 41.
-endings, 100, 95.
Max M filler on, 100, 95.
six cases in O.E.. 100, 96.
Possessive, 101, 97.
absolute, 103, 102.
Castra, 29, 22.
Catch, caught, 171, 280.
Caxton, influence of printing, 56, 44.
Celtic (see Keltic).
Certain, indefinite pronoun, 151, 251.
Olfor£, 44,37; 50, 41.
= c, dg, sh, tck, 09, 53.
Cha'.Tare, 25, 18.
Chariot, 239, 325.
Chaucer, wrote in East Midland
dialect, 47, 39.
influence, 47, 39.
accent in, 74, 54.
plural endings, 93, 76.
genitive case, 102, 99.
adjective inflexions, 104, 104 ; 105,
106.
comparative of adjectives, 106,
no.
Checks, how produced physiologically,
59, 49.
Children, 96, 80.
Chinese language, 2, 6 ; 12, 15.
words in English, 33, 29.
Christianity introduced into England,
28, 22.
Chum, 78, 57.
Circum, Romance prefix, 243, 325.
Clad, 171, 281.
Classical words in English, 34, 30.
learning, revival of, :*', .14.
Classification of consonants, 60, 49.
Clemde, 160, 269.
Clothe, clad, 171, 281.
Coalition, verbs with pronouns, &c-,
46, 38.
Cobweb, 25, 18.
Cock, 88, 72 ; 92, 74.
Colt, 88, 72 ; 92, 74.
Com, Romance prefix, 243, 325.
Comparative Sounds, Table of, 13, i(i
ciegree, 105, 109 ; 106, 1 12.
Comparison, English, past and present,
48, 40 ; 50, 41.
of adjectives, 105, 108.
Marsh on, 105, 108.
degrees of, 105, 109,
double, 106, in.
strengthened by adverbs, 106, in.
irregular, 107, 115.
INDEX.
Comparison with m and most, 109,
123 ; 110, 124.
English and Romance words, 35,
.Si-
Composition, words formed by, 221, 323.
with Teutonic particles, 224, 324.
of Romance roots, 242, 325.
Romance particles in, 243, 325.
Compound words, plural of, 95, 78.
genitive of, 102, 101.
adverbs, 201, 313.
prepositions, 204, 314.
conjunctions, 208, 317.
words, Romance, 242, 325.
substantive, 222, 323.
adjectival, 223, 323.
verbal, 224, 323.
(See also under Composition.)
Con for can, 184, 298.
Romance prefix, 243, 325.
Conjunction, indeclinable, 79, 59.
origin of, 81, 65.
divisions of, &c-, 207, 316.
Conquest, Norman, effects on English,
49, 41.
effects on accent, 74, 54.
change at, 179, 292.
Consonant endings, 230, 325.
Consonants, two together, 25, 18.
Grimm's law, 13, 16.
in Indo-European languages, 57,
how produced physiologically, 59,
49.
classification of, 59, 49.
table of, 60, 49.
equivalents of, c, g, q, x, 61, 50.
various sounds of, 62, 52.
inconsistent use of, 63, 53.
labials, 63, 53.
dentals, 64, 53.
sibilants, 66, 53.
gutturals, 68, 53.
liquids, 71, 53.
changed before s in plural, 94, 78.
infixed in verb, 158, 268,.
as suffixes, 213, 321. *
Contra, Romance prefix, 244, 325.
Cornish, Keltic language, 7, 12.
Cost, 244, 325.
Couch, 32, 28.
Counter, Romance prefix, 244, 325.
Countess, 85, 72.
Cow, 87, 72.
Coy, 32, 28.
Cumberland, Danes in, 29, aj.
Cunning, from can, 184, 298.
Curry, 244, 325.
Curse = kers = cress, 201, 312.
Cutlass, 237, 325.
Dfor/A, 25, 18 ; 217, 321.
inserted into words, 25, 18.
inserted, cast off, &c. , 04, 53.
in past of weak verbs, 155, 263 ;
174, 286 ; 168, 276.
in mind, 190, 306.
Daisy, 77, 57.
Dame, used by Spenser, 87, 72.
Dandelion, 243, 325.
Danes invade England, 29, 23.
Danish, branch of Scandinavian, 5, o.
grammatical peculiarities, 6, n.
allied to English, 30, 24.
words of, in English, 30, 24.
terms in Northern dialect, 41, 34.
invasion, effects on language, 49,
41-
Dare, 184, 299 ; 185, 299.
Dative case, Second Period, 52, 41.
Third Period, 54, 42.
effects on plural, 96, 8a
case, ending of, 101, 96.
case, absolute, 103, 102.
infinitive, 177, 290; 178, 291.
adverbs formed from, 194, 311 ;
196, 311.
Daughter, 84, 72.
De, Romance prefix, 244, 325.
Decay, phonetic, 24, 18.
Deer, used by Shakespeare, 87, 72.
Definite article (see Article).
Degrees of comparison, 105, 109.
Demonstrative pronoun, forms in
Northern and Southern dia-
lects, 45, 37.
changed into adverbs, 80, 63.
in nominative case-ending, 101, 96.
in genitive case-ending, 101, 96.
Dentals, 26, 18 ; 64, 53.
how produced physiologically, 59,
49-
Derivation, 79, 58 ; 211, 319.
Di. dis, Romance prefix, 244, 325.
Dialectic growth, 24, 17.
peculiarities, 24, 17.
Dialects, definition of, 1, 2.
modern provincial Keltic element,
28, 20.
Northern English Scandinavian
element, 30, 24.
corrupt Norman-French, 31, 25.
before Conquest, Northern and
Southern, 41, 34.
INDEX.
363
Dialects, in thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, 42, 35.
two forms of Midland, 44, 36 ; 46,
38.
in A.D. 1589, 47, 39.
in Second Period, 53, 41.
in Fourth Period, 54, 43.
gender distinctions, 82, 68.
Northern, gender suffix, 90, 73.
ordinals in, 114, 136.
concerning possessives, 125, 177.
provincial, strong verbs, 157, 267.
strong verbs, 161, 270.
Northern, 182, 295.
West Saxon, 182, 295 (note).
Southern, Midland, and Northern,
173, 283 ; 175, 289 ; 180, 293.
Did, exhibiting reduplication in past
tense, 156, 266.
Different = sundry, 151, 250.
Digraphs, 62, 52.
Diphthongs, how produced physiologi-
cally, 59, 48.
different sounds of, 61, 51.
Dis, Romance prefix, 40, 33.
Distaff, 223, 323.
Distract, distraught, 171, 280.
Distributives, numeral, 113, 133.
Divers = sundry, 151, 250.
Do, suffix, weak verbs, 168, 276 ; 173,
283 ; 192, 309
= to cause, 192, 309.
in horn do you do, 191, 308.
Doe, 87, 72.
Dog, 88, 72 ; 92, 74.
Dom. nominal suffix, 34, 31.
English suffix, 40, 33.
Doom, 218, 322.
Dor, door, dore, suffix, 239, 325.
Double forms from Latin, 32, 28.
form of past participle, 163, 271 ;
164, 272.
forms, 77, 57.
feminine forms, 90, 73.
form of weak verbs, 169, 279 ; 170,
279 ; 171, 280.
plural forms, 97, 83.
plural forms of foreign words, 98, 84.
plural forms with two senses, 98, 85.
meaning, singular and plural, 99,
89.
comparisons, 106, in.
Dowdy, 86, 72 (note).
Drake, 88, 72.
Drofe, 88, 72.
Dual number, First Period, 48, 40.
Second Period, 52, 41.
Dual number. Third Period, 54, 43.
in English, 93, 75.
in pronouns, 117, 130.
Duchess, 92, 73.
Duck, 88, 72.
Dutch, branch of Low German, 4, 9.
words in English, 33, 29.
E, between root and suffix in verbs,
168, 278.
connecting root and suffix of verbs
in Chaucer, 174, 283.
suffix of adverbs, 196, 311.
Romance prefix, 244, 325.
for/i, o, u, 49, 41.
different sounds of, 61, 51.
adjective termination, 104, 104.
Each, 113, 133 ; 147, 238.
used as every, 148, 238.
used as both, 148, 239.
followed by an, a, on, &c., 148,
240.
Ean, suffix, 236, 233.
Earl, 85, 72.
East Anglia, 29, 23.
East Midland dialect, 44, 36 ; (see als*
Dialects.)
Eaves, 100, 92.
Ecclesiastical influence on English, 29,
22.
Edward III., act concerning French,
31, 25.
Ee, suffix, 238, 325.
Eer, suffix, 232, 325.
Ed, suffix, 238, 323.
Egyptian, Hamitic language, 11, 14.
hieroglyphics, 57, 45.
Eight, 111, 127 (note); 111, 128.
Eighth, U4, 136.
Eign, suffix, 236, 325.
Either, 149, 242.
El, suffix, 23^, 323.
Elbow, 77, 57.
Elder, eldc.i, 107, 113.
Elementary sounds in English, (51, 51.
Eleven, 112, 128.
Eleventh, 114, 136.
Elizabethan period, use of writers in,
90, 73 ; 91, 73 ; 102, 99 ; 160,
269; 170, 279; 195, 311 ; 190,
311 : 223, 323 (note).
Elra, 150, 247 (note).
Else, 81, 65 ; 150, 247 ; 151, 247-
Em, Romance prefix, 40, 33 ; 245, 325.
En, Romance prefix, 40, 33 ; 245, 325.
suffix to denote gender, 89, 73.
plural termination, 95, So.
364
INDEX.
En, adjectival and verbal suffix, 34, 31. Far, farther, farthest, 109, 122.
or ene, 102, 98 ; 17ti, 289. Fashion, 32, 28.
adjective termination, 104, 104. Fast by, adjectival preposition, 20C,
for hint or Aine, 120, 157. 314.
suffix, 235. 325 ; 23C, 325. Father, 88, 72.
Ence, ent, suffix, 241, 325. Fela = many, 115, 140.
Endings (see Termination, Suffixes). Female, 92, 74 (see Gender).
English language, branch of lx>w Feminine gender, 83, <5g; 102, 98 (see
German, 5, 9. also Gender).
came from Continent, 27, 19. Few, 115, 141.
influences of invasions, 27, 20; 28, Fifth, 114, 136.
22 ; 29, 23 ; 30, 24. Filly, 88, 72 ; 92, 74.
effect on, of political events, 31, 25. First, 109, 123; 113, 136.
number of words in, 34, 30. Five, 111, 128 ; 111, 127 (note).
hybrids in, 39, 33. Flat sound, how produced physiologi-
elementary sounds, 61, 51. cally, 59, 49.
" English, Past and Present," Trench, Flexionless neuter nouns, 96, 81.
91, 73. Foal, 88, 72.
Enough, enow, 147, 325. Fold, suffix, 113, 134.
Er, suffix for comparative, 105, 109. For, prefix, 34, 31 ; 40, 33 ; 225, 324.
Ere, in compound adverbs, 202, 313. related to dative case, 101, 96.
adjectival preposition, 205, 314. adverb, 197, 312.
Erel, suffix, 233, 325. preposition, 203, 314.
Ern, suffix, 23(5, 325. Fore, Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Errand, 216, 321. Foreign words naturalized, 32, 29.
Erse, Keltic language, 7, 12. plural, how formed, 97, 84; 99,
Es, suffix of genitive singular, 101, 98. 90.
a distinct syllable, 102, 99. used only in plural, 98, 86.
suffix to denote plural, 93, 76. take plural in English, 99, 87.
reduced to s, 94, 78. Formation of words, 211, 319.
suffix, 244, 325. Former, 109, 123.
Ese, ess, suffix, 231, 325. Forswear, 225, 324 (note).
Ksque, suffix, 237, 325. Forth, prefix, 227, 324.
Ess, Romance suffix, 40, 33. preposition, 203, 314.
to denote gender, 90, 73. Forthi = therefore, 199, 312.
Et, Romance suffix, 40, 33 ; 239, 325. Forwhy = wherefore, 199, 312.
Etc, suffix, 238, 325. Foster, 26, 18.
Etymology, definition of, 79, 58. Four, 110, 127 (note) ; 111, 128.
division of, 79, 58. Fourth, 114, 136.
parts of speech, 79, 59, Franks, Teutonic influence on French,
Euphonic changes, 24, 18 ; 25, 18 ; 26, 3] , 26.
18 ; 44, 37 ; 63-, 53. French, Italic language, 7, 12.
Every, 113, 133." possessions lost to England, and
used as each, 148, 238. wars with, 31, 25.
=. ever each., 148, 241. influence of K ranks, 31. 26.
compounded, 149, 241.* words in English, &', .-9.
use in sixteenth century* 149, 241. words, accent of, T4, 54.
Evil, 107, 117. (See also Norman-French.)
Ewe, 87, 72 ; 92, 74. Friar, 85, 72.
Ex, Romance prefix, 244, 325. Frisian branch of Low German, 4,
Extra, Romance prefix, 245, 325. 9.
Ey, suffix, 242, 325. invasion of England, 27, 20.
Fro, 30, 24.
prefix, 227, 324.
F sound for th, 25, 18. From, preposition, 203, 314.
for v, 44, 37 ; 63, 53. Teutonic prefix, 227, 324.
cast off, lost, &c., 63, 53 ; 230, 325. Froward, 30, 24
INDEX.
365
Ful, adjectival suffix, 34, 31. Goose, 88, 72.
prefix, 34, 31. Gospel, 26, 18; 65, 53.
Full, English suffix, 40, 33. Gossip, 26, 18 ; 63, 53
suffix, plural of, 95, 78. Gothic, branch of Low German, 4 o.
Future tense in First Period, 49, 40. literature, 4, 9.
in Second Period, 52, 41. Grimm's Law on, 13, 16.
comparison of adjectives in, 106,
112.
G, sound of, into j ,25, 18 ; 61, 50. past tense a reduplication, 156,
into y and w, 50, 41 ; 186, 301. 264
hard, softened, cast off, &c.( 63, three conjugations of weak verbs,
Gaelic, Keltic language, 1, 12. Gower wrote ?r7kast Midland dialect.
Gam 1 eutonic prefix, 226, 324. 47, 39.
Can = did, 192, 309. Gradation of vowels, 58, 47.
Gander, 88, 72. Gramercy, 243, 325.
Gates, adverbial suffix, 194, 311. Grammar, use of, 1 3
Ge, prefix, 49, 40 ; 53, 41. descriptive, 1, 4.
Gender in First Period, 48, 40. comparative, 1, 4.
!n 2,lc.ond I Period, 52, 41 ; 53, 41. English, unmixed, 34. 30.
in Third Period 54 42. Greek, ancient, Hellenic language, 7,
of substantives, 82, 66. I2
grammatical, lost in English, 82, modern, Hellenic language, 7, 12.
.. .7-. Grimm's Law in, 13, 16.
extinctions, 83, 70— 92, 74. words in English. 32, 28.
in pronouns 116, 144 ; 119, ,56. plural, how formed, 98, 84 ; 99, 88 ;
Genitive case, 54, 42 ; 101, 96. 99 90
Max Muller on 101, 96. comparison of adjectives, 106, 112.
case-ending 102, 98. past tense formed by reduplication,
case in his, 102, I0o (note). 155, 264 • 156 266
case in compound words, 102, roi. Grimm's Law 13 16— 23 16
of personal pronouns, 123, I7i. not the law of all changes, 24, 18.
suffix n and r, 123, 170; 123, 171. Growth, dialectic, 24 17.
partitive of one, 144, 125. Gutturals, softening of, 24, 18
case, adverbs formed from, 193, changes of, 25, 18 • 44, 37
Geographic^ liKf Northern, Mid- h™ P^uced physiologically, 59,
land, and Southern dialects, changes in, 68, 53.
of East Midland and West Mid-
land dialects, 44, 36 H disappears before /, n, r, intruded,
names plural in form, 100, 94. cast off, changed, 70 co
German, origin of name, 3, 8. Hamitic languages, 11, 14.
T w> A 9- , Hart, 87, 72.
Low Grimm's Law, 13, 16. Hautboy, 67, 53
r' i u^'^ K Have- had> !7^, 28r ; 191, 300.
nwS-'^'r'9' - Whitney on, 191, 309.
Old High, Grimms Law, 13, 16. He, adverbial stem, 119, 156- 119 ic7-
Middle, 5 9. 19S
ern'^9- , and sAt used as nouns, 92, 74.
B^5gis*»» stsrfSS*
^aaasM« .r,. „,. H-SSS sSEl »
fiT'lW 7«' words in English, 32, 20. '
3
366
INDEX.
Hellenic languages, 7, 12.
of Indo-European family, 7, 12.
Hen, 88, 72.
prefix denoting gender, 9", 74.
Hence, 199, 312.
Her, 120, 158 ; 123, 177.
Here, 199, 312.
Hers, 125, 177.
Hext, superlative of high, 108, 120.
High German (see German).
Hight, exhibiting reduplication in past
tense, 156, 266.
Him (dative), 119, 157.
(accusative), 120, 157.
represented by en, 120, 157.
Hind, 87, 7:: 197, 312.
Hindu words in English, 33, 29.
His, 123, 172.
sign of genitive case, 102, 100
(note).
Hither, 199, 312.
Hood, nominal suffix, 34, 31.
English suffix, 40, 33.
Horse, 88, 72.
Hound, 8S, 72.
How, 199, 312; 202, 313.
Huckster, 90, 73.
Hundred, 112, 131.
Husband, 86, 72.
Huzzy, 86, 72.
Hybrids, English and Romance, 39,
words, 90, 73 ; 217, 320.
I, for », 44, 37.
how produced physiologically, 68,
different sounds of, 61, 51.
concerning, 57, 45.
Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
(the pronoun), 116, .144 — 116, 146.
Tble, suffix, 234, 325.
Ic, suffix, 230, 325.
Icelandic language, 5, 9.
Icicle, 69, 53 ; 22'2, 323. ,
Id, suffix, 238, 325 ; 2-iO, 325.*
ler, suffix, 232, 375.
II, ile, suffix, 233, 323.
Ilk, 127, 179.
III, 30, 24 ; 107, 117.
In, before verbal nouns, 179, 292.
adverb, 197, 312.
preposition, 203, 314.
Teutonic prefix, 2'JS, 324.
Romance prefix, 245, 335.
suffix, 235, 325.
Indefinite article (see Article).
Indo-European languages, 6, 12 ; 9,
13; 10, 13; 27, 19; 57, 45;
106, 112.
Ine, suffix, 235, 325.
Romance suffix denoting gender,
90, 73- .
Infinitive mood, in First Period, 49, 40.
in Second Period, 52, 41.
in Fourth Perioor 55, 43.
Inflectional or polysyllabic languages.
2,6; 11. 14.
Inflections in English, Danish influence
on, 30, 24.
plural, verbal, comparative, 34, 31.
of dialects (see Dialects).
all significant at one time, 79, 58.
denoting gender, 82, 67.
verbal, 172, 282.
neuter nouns not having, 96, 81.
in genitive singular feminine
nouns, 102, 98.
to form genitive case, 101, 97.
in oblique case of adjectives lost,
104, 103.
of adjectives in Chaucer's time,
104, 104.
Ing, nominal suffix, 34, 31.
= ting, cride, itu/e, 177, 291.
in participles, 180, 293.
Instrumental case, 101, 96.
adverbs formed from, 194, 311 ;
196, 311.
Inter, Romance prefix, 245, 325.
Interjection, 79, 59.
definition of, 209, 318.
as onomatopoeia, 210, 318.
Intro, Romance prefix, 245, 325.
Introductions into English tKrougk
Norman- French, 32, 28.
direct from Latin, 3-, 28.
by Romance languages, 34, 31.
Invading tribes into England, 27, 20.
Invasion, Norman, A.D. 1066, 30, 2j.
Ion, suffix, 236, 325.
Irish, Keltic language, 7, 12.
Irregular comparisons, 107, 115.
Is, auxiliary verb, 191, 309.
Ise, ize, suffix, 242, 325.
Ish, adjectival suffix, 34, 31.
English suffix, 40, 33 ; 242, 325.
Ism, suffix, 234,325.
Isolating or monosyllabic lang-.iagts,
2, 6; 12, 15.
Issa, Mecliseval Latin suffix, 91, 7j.
1st, suffix, 240, 325.
It, 119, 156; 120, 150,
INDEX. 367
It, also nit, 124, 173. Language, definition of, 1, i.
also its, 124, 172. parts of speech, 79, 59.
Italian, Italic language, 7, 12. Languages, classification of, 2, 5.
words in English, 33, 29. morphological, 2 6
Ite, suffix, 238, 325; 240, 325. monosyllabic, 2, 6 ; 12, 15.
Ity, Romance suffix, 39, 33. agglutinative, 2, 6 ; 12 15.
I ve, suffix, 230, 325. Semitic inflectional, 11, 14.
Ix, Romance suffix, denoting gender, polysyllabic, 2, 6.
90< 73- polysinthetic, 12, 15.
fenealogical, 3, 7.
ndo-European, 6, 12.
J. 5l>45- Basque, 12, 15.
Jackanapes, 195, 311. synthetic, 48, 40.
Japanese language, 12, 15. analytical, 48, 40.
dialect of Loochoo, 12, 15. Lass, 86, 72.
alphabet, 57, 45. Last, 109, 122.
Jingo, 210, 318 (note). Late, later, latest, 109, 122.
Jutes, invade England, 27, 20. Latin, Grimm's law in, 13, 16.
distinguished from Angles, 41, 34. in English, 32, 28.
in English, through Norman-
.. , French, 32, 28.
K, changed to tf 25, 18. words of Second Period, 23, 22.
for cA, 44, 37; 50, 41. introduced by ecclesiastic.' 29, 22
for c, ol. 50; 68, 53. words of First Period, 29, 22.
loss of, in mttdt, 172, 281. Third Period, 31, 26.
Keltic languages, 7, 12. Fourth Period, 31, 27.
elements in early, modern, and accent of, in English 75 54 • 78
provincial English, 28, 21- 55.
words in French, 31, 26. words in English, plural how
population displaced, 27, 20. formed, 97, 84; 99, 88.
word bachelor, 84, 72. comparison of aojectives in, 106,
Kent invaded, A. D. 449, 27, 20. 112.
„ dialects °f> 83' *&• past tense, reduplication, 155, 264;
Kerchief, 242, 325. 156, 2<56.
Kid, 8, , 72. prepositions in English, 206, 315.
Kin, nominal suffix, 34, 31. Law, Grimm's, 13, 16.
English suffix, 40, 33. other laws of change, 24 18.
Kme, plural of cow, how formed, 95, Lay, laid, 172, 281.
v. 08°- Le, suffix, 233* 325.
King, 85, 72. Least. 108. 119.
Knowledge, 219, 322. Less, English suffix, 40, 33; 108 no.
Knowlech = acknowledge, 192, 309. Less, least, 108, 119.
Koch, on those, 126, 178 (note). Lesser, 10S, 119.
Lest, 199, 312.
Let, suffix, 40, 33; 239, 325.
L, weakened into n, cast off, changed Letters, 25, 18.
to r, n, intruded, 71, 53. definition, use, origin of, 57, 4s.
in co-uld, not radical, 183, 298. written and spoken, 58, 46.
in Romance suffixes, 233, 325. vowels, 57, 4=; ; 58, 47 -61 si' 62,
Labial, aspirate, 25, 18. 52.
how produced physiologically, 59, consonants, 59, 40 ; 61 50 • 63 53.
, 49- Lie, suffix = like, 127 170.
changes in, 63, 53. Lif, suffix = ten. !12, 128
L^, 86, 72. Ljngi nominal suffix, 34 y..
Landscape, 219, 322.' Liquids, changes' in? 71, 53.
368
INDEX.
Literature of English language, 48,
40.
Little, 108, 119.
Littus Saxonicum, 28, 20.
Livelihood, 219, 322.
Locative case, 101, 96.
Long, adverbial suffix, 191, 311.
Lord, 64, 53; 86, 72.
Low German (see German).
Luther, effect on High German, 5, 9.
Ly, adjectival suffix, 34, 31.
English suffix, 40, 33.
adverbial suffix, 80, 63.
M, lost, weakened, changed, 71, 53.
suffix of first person in verbs, ] 75,
289.
in superlatives, 109, 123.
in from, 203, 314.
in Romance suffixes, 234, 325.
Ma, old superlative suffix, 107, 114.
Madam, 87, 72.
Maid, 84, 72 ; 92, 74.
Make, made, 172, 281.
Mai, Romance prefix, 248, 325.
Malay language, 12, 15.
words in English, 33, 29.
Male, 92, 74.
Maltese language, 11, 14.
Mamma, 84, 72.
Man = one, 144, 224 ; 143, 222.
men into me, 144, 222 (note).
O.E. word for, 83, 71: 86, 72.
in composition, 83, 71.
denoting gender, 92, 74.
Many, 108, 118; 115, 139.
Manx, Keltic language, 7, 12.
March, on comparison of adjectives,
105, 108; 106, no.
Marchioness, 92, 73.
Mare, 88, 72.
Mareschal, 89, 73.
Marsh, 231, 325 (note).
reference to, f>4, 42; 92, 74.
on accent, 74, 54. •
on gerundial infinitive, 179, 293
(note).
Masculine gender, 83, 69.
Max Miiller on Chinese, 2, 6.
on consonants, 24, 17.
on dialectic growth, 24, 17.
on phonetic decay, 24, 18.
on case, 100, 95.
on Greek adjective, 101, 96.
on word genitive, 101, 96.
on ing, in infinitive, 178, 291.
Max Muller on r.ot a thread, 201, 312
(note).
May, might, 186, 301.
Me, 117, 147.
dative with impersonal verbs, 117,
147.
as an expletive, 117, 147.
from men, 144, 222 (note).
Meal, adverbial suffix, 194, 311.
Megrim, 242, 325.
Men becomes me, 144, 222 (rvti-1).
Ment, suffix, 39, 33 ; 80, 63; 235, 325.
Middle German (sec German).
Midland counties, peopled by Angles,
28, 20.
dialect (see Dialects).
Milter, 88, 72.
Milton, accent, 75. 54.
case absolute, 103, 102.
use of verb to be, 182, 293.
Minchen, 85, 72.
Mind, 190, 306.
Mine, 123, 171; 125, 176.
Mis, Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Romance prefix, 245, 325,
Mistress, 92, 73.
Mo = more, 108, 118.
Modern High German (sec German).
Modification of vowels, 58, 47.
of diphthongs, 59, 48. ,
of consonants, 63, 53.
Mole, 222, 323.
Monk, 85, 72.
Monosyllabic language, 2, 6 ; 12, 15. .
Monosyllables in English, 34, 31.
Mony, suffix, 235, 325.
Mood, defined, 154, 259.
indicative, 173, 283 : 174, 285.
subjunctive, 174, 284 ; 175, 288.
infinitive, 176, 290.
infinitive and verbal nouns, 177,
291.
participle, ISO. 293.
imperative, 175, 288.
More, 108, 118 ; 106, no.
Morphological language, 2, 6.
Morrice dance, 237, 325.
Most, 108, 118 ; 106, no.
suffix for mest, 110, 124.
Mot = must, 189, 304.
Mother, 83, 72.
Much, 108. 118.
Muller (sfc Max Muller).
Must, 156, 266; 189, 304.
Mutes, how produced physiologically,
59, 49.
My, mine, 123, 171; 125 176
INDEX. 369
N, lost, intruded, changed, &c., 72, 53. None = no, 146, 230.
genitive suffix, 123, 170. Norman-French invasion, 30, 25.
suffix in past participles, 155, 263. effects of, 49, 41 ; 54, 41 ; 82, 67; 93,
infixed, 158, 268. 76 ; 218, 321.
falling off in p. part., 161, 270; 162, not spoken by the people, 31, 25.
271- coalesces with English, 31, 25.
falling out before dental, 203, 314. corrupted, 31, 25.
lost before d, 211, 319 (note). Latin words through, 32, 28.
in Romance suffixes, 235, 325. conquest, effect on accent, 74, r4.
Na, adverbial stem, 200, 312. suffix to denote gender, 89, 73."
Nag, 72, 53. adjectives in plural, 104, 105.
Nam, 182, 297. influence on comparison of adjec-
Names, geographical, personal, 100, lives, 100, no.
94- Normandy, loss of, 31, 25.
Nasals, how produced physiologically, Norse, old, 5, 9.
59,49. North of England, Scandinavian influ-
Naturahzed words in English, 33, 29; ence, 30, 24.
206> 3*5- Northern dialect, Scandinavian forms
Naught, naughts, 147, 234. in, 46, 37. (See also Dialects.)
Ncy, suffix, 241, 325. Northmen (see Danes), in North of
Nd, suffix, 241, 325. France, 31, 36.
Near, 108, 120; 108, 121. Northumbria, Danes in, 29 23.
Neath, 197, 312. Nostril, 66, 53 ; 77, 57 • 222, 5-.'3.
Negative form of yes, 200, 312. Not, 201, 312.
form of verbs, 183, 297. Nothing, 146, 232.
form of will = nill, 187, -302. Nought, 201, 312.
Neither, 149, 243. Noun, in Northern and Southern
used with plural verb, 150, 243. dialects, 44, 37.
Nephew, 85, 72. genitive, 45, 37.
Ness, nominal suffix, 34, 31. in First Period, 48, 40.
English suffix, 40, 33. Second Period, 50, 41.
Nether, Teutonic prefix, 226, 324. Third Period, 54, 42.
Neuter gender, 83, 69. (See also distinguished by accent, 76, 55.
Gender.) inflectional, 79, 59.
News, 99, 91 (note). substantive and adjective, 79, 60.
Newt, 64, 53 ; 72, 53. verbal, in infinitive, 177, 290 ; 178,
Next, 108, 120. 291.
Niece, 85, 72. as a suffix, 212, 321 ; 218, 332.
Nill, negative of will, 187, 302. Now, 200, 312.
Nim = to take, 161, 270. " Nt, suffix, 241,' 325.
Nine, 111, 128 ; 111, 127 (note). Number (set Dual <z«rf(PIural).
Ninth, 114, 136. Numbers, etymological origin of, 110,
No, 115, 137. 127 (note).
used adjectively, 145, 229. Numerals, 110, 127—115, 138.
= not one, 146, 230. used with some, 138, 214.
-other = none other, 146, 230. one, 142, 219.
used with one, 146, 231. adverbs, 197, 311.
Nominal words, 79, 58. Nun, 85, 72.
Nominative case, ending of, 101, 96.
in modern English, 101, 97.
absolute, 103, 102.
Non, Romance prefix, 248, 325. O for a, 44, 37.
Nonce, infer the nonce, 197, 311. changed into e, 49, 41.
None, 115, 137. different sounds of, 61, 51.
used substantively, 145, 229. changed into ou, 161, 269.
— not one, 146, 230. for a in strong verbs, 165, 073.
followed by other, 146, 230. Ob, Romance prefix, 246, 325. "
B B
37°
INDEX.
OBject to transitive verbs, 163, 252.
cognate, 153, 256.
Oc, suffix, 236, 325.
Ock, nominal suffix, 34, 31.
Of, preposition, in adverbs, 194, 311 ;
197, 312 ; 203, 314.
Teutonic prefix, 228, 324.
Off, Teutonic prefix, 228, 324.
Old, 10T, 115.
Old English dialects (see Dialects).
Old High German (see German).
Old Norse, 5, 9.
Old Saxon, branch of Low German,
4.9-
literature, ninth century, 4, 9.
Om, on, suffix, 241, 325.
On, suffix, 236, 325.
prefix, 84, 31 ; 228, 324 ; 197, 312.
preposition, 203, 314.
Once, 113, 134; 197, 311.
One, 110, 127 ; 115, 137 ; 111, 128 ; 142,
219.
used for self, 123, 169; 142, 219.
used with some, &.C., 141, 217.
yarious meanings of, 143, 220 ; 145,
228.
used with another, 150, 146.
used with no, 146, 231.
Onomatopoeias, 210, 318.
Oon, suffix, 236, 325.
Or, suffix denoting gender, 90, 73.
Orchard, 25, 18 ; 69, 53 : 77. 57 : 221,
323 ; 222, 323.
Ordinal numbers (see Numerals).
Orm wrote in East Midland dialect,
47, 39.
Orthoepy, definition of, 62, 52.
Orthography, English, 49, 41.
definition of, 62, 52.
inconsistency of, 62, 52.
Ose, suffix, 230, 325.
Other for second, 114, 136; 150, 144.
used with some, 142, 217.
genitive form, 150, 244.
preceded by each, 150, 246.
Ought, 156, 266 ; 189, 303. •
Our, 124, 175.
suffix, 231, 325.
Ous, Romance suffix, 40, 33.
suffix, 230, 323.
Out, prefix, 34, 31 ; 40, 33 ; 196, 311.
preposition, 203, 314.
Teutonic prefix, 228, 324.
Outrage, 247, 325.
Over, 110, 125 ; 197, 312.
prefix, 34, 31 ; 40, 33 ; 228, 324.
preposition, 204, 314.
Owe, ought own, 188, 303.
Own, 123, 168 ; 124, I?4 ; 189, 303 ; 191,
3°7-
Ox, 87, 72.
Oxen, a plural in CH, 95. 80.
P, changed inio l>, 25, 18.
represented by v, inserted between
m and t, 63, 53.
Pain, 99, 91 (note).
Palatals, how produced physiologically,
59, 49-
Papa, 84, 72.
Pardon, 246, 325.
Parliament, records in French, 30, 25.
act concerning French, 81, 25.
Parsley, 242, 325.
Participle, in Northern and Southern
dialects, 45, 37.
present in ind, and, 45, 37.
in ende, 49, 40.
passive with prefix ge, 49, 40.
in Second Period, 52, 41.
in Third Period, 64, 42.
in Fourth Period, 65, 43.
a mood, 154, 259.
of strong and weak verbs, 155, 263.
unchanged in root vowel, 157, 267.
changed in root vowel, 1 58, 269.
Particles, Teutonic, in composition, 224,
324-
Romance, in composition, 243, 325.
Parts of speech, 79, 59.
Peas, 97, 83.
Pellucid, 246, 325.
Pen, Romance prefix, 248, 325.
Per, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Periods of English language : —
First Period, 450 — noo, 48, 40.
Second, 1100—1250, 49, 41.
Third, 1250—7350, 54, 42.
Fourth, 1350—1460, 54, 43.
Fifth, 1460 to present, 56, 44.
Periods of introducing Latin : —
First or Roman, 27, 22.
Second, or Ecclesiastical, 28, 22.
Third, or French, 31, 26.
Fourth at revival oflearning,31, 27.
Permutation of consonants : —
Grimm's Law, 13, 16.
Whitney on, 24, 17.
other laws than Grimm's, £•!, 17.
in English, 59, 49; 63, 53.
Persian language, 9, 12.
words in English, 33, 2<>.
Person, in pronouns. 110, 144.
in rerbs, 155. 262.
INDEX. 371
Person-endings in verbs, 173, 282; 175, Prefixes, a, in a-day, &c., 194, 311.
289; 181, 295; 182, 296. to,. 195, 311.
changes in fourteenth century, Teutonic particles, 224, 324.
_175, 287. Romance particles, 243, 325.
m in first person, and s, st, in Preposition, 49, 40; 20.'i, 314.
second, 175, 289. indeclinable, 79, 59.
in past of strong verbs, 1S3, 2y8. definition of, &c., 80, 64.
th, s, in third person, 170, 289. to, for, in, &c., 101, 96.
en in plural, 176, 289. removed from relative, 153, 198.
Personal name, 100, 94. to before infinitive, 177, 290,
pronoun, dual, 93, 75. Preter, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Phonetic, decay, 24, 18. Printing, influence of, 56, 44.
principles in alphabet, 62, 52. Priscian on interjection, 209, 318
Phonology, 57, 45. (note).
Physiology of speech. 58, 46. Pro, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
of vowels, 58, 47. Pronominal adverbs, 198, 312 ; 201, 313.
of diphthongs, 59, 48. Pronoun, reflex in Scandinavian, 6, u.
of consonants, 59, 49. coalescing, 46, 38.
Pickaxe, 67, 53. dual number of, 48, 40.
Pig, 87, 72. forms in First Period, 48, 40.
Pilgrim, 246, 325. forms in Second Period, 52, 41.
Pie, suffix, 113, 134. forms in Third Period, 54, 42.
Plural, in nouns, Second Period, 52, 41. forms in Fourth Period, 55, 43.
in nouns, Third and Fourth Periods, forms in Fifth Period, 55, 43.
54, 42—55, 43. inflectional, 79, 59.
endings, 93, 76. definition of, 80, 62.
change of consonant in, 94, 78. Whitney on, 80, 62.
of compound words, 95, 78; 100, 94. personal, dual, 93, 75.
change of vowel in, 95, 79. personal, 116, 144.
formed in en, 95, 80. demonstrative, 125, 178.
of neuter words, 96, 81. interrogative, 128, ic.2.
of collective substantives, 97, £2. . relative, 130, 188.
double forms, 97, 83 — 98, 85. indefinite, 136, 211.
of naturalized words, 97, 84. substantive, 116, 144.
words only used in, 98, 86. of first person, 116, 144.
formation of, 99, 88 — 99, 91. has dual number, 117, 150.
forms treated as singular, 99, 01. reflexive, 121, 162.
singular forms treated as plural, adjective, 123, 170.
99, 92. in person-endings, 173, 282 ; 181,
singular forms having the appear- 295.
ance of plural, 100, 93. in imperative mood, 175, 288.
of proper names, 100, 94, Pronunciation, changes in, 63, 52.
geniuve of, 11/2, 98. Proper names, plural of, 100, 94.
_ of adjectives, 104, 104 — 105, 107. used with one, 145,226.
Political events, effects on language, Provincial English, plural in en, 95, 80
31, 25. Proxy, 77, 57.
Polysyllabic languages, 2, 6 ; 11, 14. Pullet, 239, 325.
Portuguese language, 7, 12. Pure English, 34, 30.
words in English, 33, 29. tables of words, 35, 31.
Position, words signifying, 79, 58. words with Romance suffixes, 3D.
Post, Romance prefix, n'-ki, 325. 33.
Pis, Romance prefix, 24C, 325. woras with Romance prefixes, 40,
Prefixes, purely English, 34, 31. 3-5.
'Romance, 40, 33. Puttenham, Geo., refers to three dia-
English, 40, 33. lects in England in 1589, 47,
ge to p. pariiciple, 49, 40 ; f>3, 41. 39.
denoting gender 92, 74. quotations from, 47, 39 (note).
B a 2
372
INDEX.
8, equal to kw, 61, 50.
uahty, word* significant of, 79, 58.
adjectives, 79, 60.
Quash. 244, 325.
Queen, 85, 72.
Quell = kili, 161, 270.
Quoth, 162, 271.
R, representing disappears, intruded,
73, 53.
genitive s-uffix, 123, 172; 124, 175.
in Romance suffixes, 230, •; .25.
Radical part of a word, 79, 58 ; 211,
3i9
Rally, 246, 3?=
Ram, 87, 72.
Rather, 109, 122.
Re, Romance prefix, 40, 33 ; 246, 325.
Red, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Reduplication of present to form the
past tense, 155, 264.
Reeve, 88, 72.
Reflective verbs, 154, 258.
Scandinavian, 154, 258.
Rel, suffix, 233, 325.
Relational words, 79, 58.
Revival of learning, 31, 27 : 56, 44.
Retro, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Riches (note\ 99, 91 ; 100, 92.
Rick, English suffix, 40, 33; 88, 72
(note).
Riddle, 67, 53 : 216, 321.
Righteous, 220, 322.
Robert of Brunne wrote in East Mid-
land dialect, &, 39.
Robert of Gloucester, accent, 74, 54.
Roe, 87, 72
Roman influence on English, 29, 22.
Romance dialects, 7, 12.
words in English, 34, 31.
table of words, 35, 31 et seg.
words with English suffixes and
prefixes, 40, 33.
suffixes to denote gender, 90, 73.
word, plural how formed, 94, 78 ;
98,84.
origin, adjectivrs of, 104, 105.
prepositions, 206, 315.
suffixes, 229; 325.
roots, compound, 242, 325.
particles in composition, 243, 325.
Root of a word, 79, 58.
and suffix connected in verbs, 174,
283
Roots, definition of, 211, 319.
Ruff, 88, 72.
Runic letters, 57, 45.
Ry, Romance suffix, 39, 33 ; 233, 325.
S, changed into st, 26, 18.
for z, 44, 37.
allied to r, represented by c,
66, 53.
changes in, intruded, 66, 53.
plural suffix, 93, 77 ; 94, 78.
suffix to singular words, 99, o
100, 93.
genitive case-ending, 102, 100.
forming plural of adjectives, 10
105.
in second person of verbs, 175, 289,
in third, 176, 289.
before a dental, 217, 321.
in Romance suffixes, 230, 325.
for t, 238, 325.
Sam, adverbial stem, 200, 312.
Same, 127, 180.
= one, 145, 228.
Sand, Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Sandblind, 226, 324.
Sanskrit, 8, 12.
Grimm's Law in, 13, 16.
comparison ofadjectivesin,106,na.
past tense formed by reduplication,
155, 264; 156, 266.
Saxon, branch of Low German, 4, 9.
literature in ninth century, 4, 9.
Saxons, 41, 34.
invade England, 27, 20.
Say, said, 172, 281.
Scandinavian (see also Danes)—
language, 4, 9.
dialects, 5, 9.
compared with other Teutonic lan-
guages, fi, ii.
definite article in, 6, ri.
pronoun reflexive, 6, n.
influence on English, 30, 24.
local names, &c , 30, 24.
words in English, 30, 24.
words in Norman-French, 31, 26.
influence on they, 120, 160.
forms in Northern dialect, 46, 37.
origin of slyk, sli, &c , 127, 179.
influence on same, 127, 180.
origin of are, 182, 295.
Scarce, 238, 325 ; 244, 325.
Scourge, H4, 325.
Se, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Sed, Romance prefix, 246, 325.
Second, 114, 136, 2U, 325.
= other, 150, ^44.
INDEX.
373
Self, reflex- pronoun, 121, 162. Softening gutturals :—
adjective = same, 122, 164. into labial aspirate, 25, 18.
prefixed with personal pronoun, until quite lost, 25 1 8
.122> l65- ^into/, 25, 18.
various uses of, 122, 166. initial letter, 25, 18.
used with envn, 123, 168. k into ch, 44 37
represented by one, 123, 169. Some, adjectival suffix, 34, 31.
Semitic languages, 11, 14 ; 67, 45. English suffix, 40, 33. "
neschal, S3 73. other „ ]38 139
September, 197, 311 (note'. 142 217- 142 218
Ser, sere = sundry, 151, 250. Somdel, 142, 217.
Seven 111, 128. Son, 84, 72.
Seventh, 114, 136. Songster, 90, 73.
Several 151, 249. Sor> suffilCj 240, 325.
Sexton, 77, 57. Sory, suffix, 240, 325.
Shall, 185, 300; 191, 309. Sounds, division of, 13, 16.
= to owe, 185, 300. Grimm's Law on, 13, 16.
Shamefaced, 219, 322. j for th, 25, 18.
Shakespeare, accent, 74, 54. p jnto ^ 25, 18.
Sharp sound, how produced, physiolo- neighbouring, influence of, 25, 18.
ci no Sically 59, 49. two consonants assimilated, 25, 18.
She, 92, 74; 119, 156; 120, 158; 121, s into st, 26, 18.
,,, ..... JL61- assimilating of. 26, 18.
Sheriff, 77, 57. * for A, 25, 18.
Ship nominal suffix, 34, 31. d for th> 25> 18.
English suffix, 40 33. physiology of vocal organs, 58,
Si, adverbial stem, 200, 312. 46_59 49
Sibilant, for two dentals, 26, 18. elementary, in English, 61 51
„.. changes in, 66, 53. number of, in English, 62, 52.
hik, b, 1 1 (note). change in (see Vowels, Consonants').
Since, adjective preposition, 206, 314. Sovereign, 235, 325; 247, 323
Smden Ib2, 295. Sow> 87> . 92
Sine, Romance prefix, 248, 325. Spanish, 7, 12.
Singular, like plural, 96, 81. words in English, 33, 29.
some words none, 98, 86. Spawner, 88, 72.
distinct meaning from plural, 99, Spsech, physiology of, 58, 46.
parts of (see Parts of Speech).
use of plural nouns, 99, 91. Spelling, changes in, 63 52
formaspluial, 99, 92. Spirants, how produced physiologi-
form with the appearance of plural, cally, 59, 49.
100, 93 Spoken alphabet, 58, 46.
genitive of, 101, 98. Ss, suffix, 239, 325.
Sion, suffix, 241, 325. St = j 26 18.
Sire, 87, 72. Stag 87 2.
Sister, 83, 72. Stallion, 88, 72.
ciX> i, \i/27 (n°te) : ln> I28' Stcm (*ee Theme).
X ' t'a13 ' St?r> suffix to denote gender, 89, 73.
Slattern 86, 72. denoting also contempt, 90, 73?
S oven 86, 72. Stevedore, 239, 325.
Slut, 86, 72. Steward, 222, 323.
Sneeze 67, 53. Strong verb 155 263_166
bo = O. E. swa 128, 182. aovr s,rong once weak, Ib7 275.
compounded, 135, 206. letter infixed, 158, 268.
with rnylt, 136, 207. Sub, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
with also, 2,00, 312. Substantive (see also Noun)—
Softening gutturals :— gender of, 82, 66.
end of word, 24, 18. number of, 93, 75.
374
INDEX.
Substantive, case of, TOO, 75.
plural of l see Plural).
neuter, 96, 81.
from adjective, 105, 106.
adverbs, 193, 311.
as suffix, 212, 321 ; 218. 322.
compounds, 222, 323.
Subter, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
Such, 127, 179.
used with as, 135, 206 ; 135, 207.
Suffixes, plural, comparative, 34, 31.
nominal, 34, 31.
adjectival, 34, 31.
verbal, 34, 31.
Romance, 39, 33.
English, 40, 33.
ly, tnrnt, 80, 63.
denoting gender, 82, 67 ; 83, 70 :
90, 73 ; 91, 73-
rick, 88, 72 (note).
tn, to denote feminine, 89, 73.
tier, ess, to denote feminine, 89,
73 ; 217, 321 ; 91, 73.
denoting plural, 93, 76.
f, denoting plural, 93, 77 ; 94, 78.
en, denoting plural, 95, 80.
denoting case, 101, 96.
n, in adjectives, 101, 96 ; 104, 104.
es, genitive singular, 101, 98 ; 102,
99-
ene, genitive plural, 102, 98.
z, plural adjectives, 101, 105.
er, comparative degree, 105, 109.
est, superlative degree, 105, 109.
m, superlative, 215, 320.
ma, old superlative ending, 107,
114.
most, 110, 124.
lif, 112, 128.
teen, 112, 129.
ty, 112, 130.
fold, pie, 113, 134.
dja, tka, in ordinals, 114, 136.
*, genitival, 123, 170.
r, genitival, 123, 172 ; 124» 175.
lie, 127, 179.
a, t, in past part, 155, 263 ; 171,
279.
n, in past part., 161, 270.
denoting mood and tense, 172, 282.
denoting person, 173, 283.
how connected with root in verbs,
174, 283.
an, en, e, infinitive, 176, 290.
ung, ing, infinitive, 177, 291.
ing, inde, &c. participles, ISO, 293 ;
214, 320.
i-uffixes, / in might, 1S6, 301.
long, gates , mtal, in adverbs, 21U.
322; 194, 311.
e, ly, in adverbs, 196, 311.
her in September, 197, 311 (note).
m \\ifrom, 203, 314.
once independent words, 211, 319.
in word formation, 211, 320.
of Teutonic origin, 212, 321.
vowel, 212, 321.
consonantal, 213, 321.
being nouns, 212, 321 ; 218, 322.
being adjectives, 219, 322.
adverbial, 220, 322.
verbal, 220, 322.
in compound words, 221, 323.
of Romance origin, 229, 325.
tker, 218, 321.
Summon?, 100, 93.
Sundor, adverbial compound, 200, 312.
Sundry, 151, 248.
= divers, different, sere, 151, 250.
Super, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
Superlative degree in est, 105, 109.
degree in most, 106, no; 110, 124.
in Aryan languages, 106, 112.
in ma, 107, 114.
containing m, 109, 123.
for South, East, \Vcst, 110, 126.
used wiih one, 145, 225.
Sure, suffix, 240, 323.
Surplice, 237, 325.
Sweetheart, 219, 322.
Swine, 87, 72.
Swylc, 135, 207.
Syllabic language, 57, 45.
Syllable, recipient of accent, 74, 54.
weakening, and casting off of, by
accent, 76, 57.
list of accented terminations, 74,
54 (note).
Synonyms, 32, 28 ; 39, 32.
Synthetic language, English in first
period, 48, 40.
T, represented by d, cast off, inserted,
&c, 05, 53.
suffix in past tense, 155, 263 ; 174,
286.
— d = do, suffix to weak verbs,
168, 276.
changed to * (note), 174, ;36; 190,
305.
m might, ISO, 301.
sound of k, 25, 18.
in Romance suffixes, 238, 323.
INDEX. 375
Table of comparative sounds, 13, 16. Thence, 198, 312.
of synonyms, 39, 33. Ther, old comparative suffix, 108, 113.
Tadpole, 222, 323. used with inne, 133, 198.
Teen, suffix, 112, 129. There, 198, 312.
Ten, 112, 128. Thes, 126, 178-
Tense, defined, 154, 260. These, 120, 178.
emphatic, intentional, 155, 261. 1 'hey, 120, 160 ; 121, 161.
past, in strong and weak verbs, Thi, instrumental case of t/te, 127, 179.
156, 263. Thilk, 126, 178 ; 12T, i?9-
past, formed by reduplication, 155, Thine, 123, 171 ; 125, 176.
264 ; 174, 285. Thing = one, 143, 221.
past, change of vowel in, 157, 267 ; Think, thought, 172, 781
158, 269. Third, 114, 136.
past, formed with d, t, 168, 276 ; Thirteen, 112, 129.
174, 286. Thirteenth, 114, 136.
present, 173, 283 ; 174, 284. This, thas, those, 126, 178-
present participle, ISO, 293. Thither, 198, 312.
formed by composition, 191, 309. Thorn letter, 57, 45.
denoted analytically, 191, 309. Thorough, Teutonic prefix, 223, 324.
Tenth, 114, 136. Those, 126, 178.
Tor, suffix, ^y, 325. Thou, 118, 152.
Terminations (see Suffixes). changed to you, 118, 153.
Tery, suffix, 241, 325. Thousand, 112, 132.
Teutonic, origin of name, 3, 3 Three, 110, 127 (note) ; 111, 128.
groups of dialects, 4, 9. Threshold, 77, 57.
elements in English, 4, 9. Thresum, 139, 214.
of Indo-European family, 6, 12; Thrice, 197, 311.
7( I2. Through, thorough, compar. preposi-
group', English from, 27, 19. tion, 204, 314.
people, invaders of England, 27, 20. root of, 106, 113 ; 197, 312.
tribes in England before the Teutonic prefix, 223, 324.
Angles, 28, 20. Thus, 199, 312.
suffixes, 212, 321. Thy, thine, 123, 171 ; 125, 176.
panicles as prefixes, 224, 324. Ticket, 77, 57.
Th becomes d, t, s, cast off, &c., 66, 53- Tig, ty, suffix, 112, 130 ; 239, 325.
in fhird person of verbs, 176, 289. Tike for dog, 88, 72 ; 180, 293.
for d, 25, 18. Till, 30, 24 ; 205, 314.
nominal sutfix, 34, 31. Tion, suffix, 241, 325.
Thaet-thaet — that which, 133, 200. Tmesis, 133, 198 ; 136, 208 ; 142, 218 :
That, 40,37 ; 126, 178 ; 132,i97 ; 133.198. 205, 314.
in Second Period, 53, 41. To, before infinitive, 49, 40; 54, 42;
used with what, 134, 204. 177, 290.
replaced by as, 133, 198. related to dative case, 101, 96.
followed by preposition, 133, 198. adverb, 197, 312.
used for what, 133, 199. adverbial prefix, 195, 311.
used with that, 133, 200. preposition =for, 204, 314.
definite article, 121, 161. Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Ti e, 1'25, 178 ; 132, 197 ; 133, 198. To wit = namely, 190, 305.
stem of pronominal aaverbs. 198, Too, preposition, 204, 314.
312; 199, 312. Tor, suffix, 239, 325.
T Kee, 118, 154. Tory, suffix, 240, 325.
Their, 121, 161 ; 124, 175. Toward, towards, 205, 314.
'lliem, 121, 1 60 ; 121, 161. Tramway, 78, 57.
em, used for, 121, 160. Trans, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
Tbeme, definition of, 211, 319. Treen, plural of tree, 96, 80.
how formed, 211, 320. Trench, " English Past and Present,
Then, 198, 312. 91. 73-
376
INDEX.
Trills, how produced physiologically,
69, 49.
Trix, suffix, 240, 325.
Tude, suffix, 239, 325.
Ture, suffix, 240, 325.
Turkish language. 11, 15.
words in English, 33, 29.
Twain, 111 . 128.
Twasum, 139, 214.
Twelfth, 114, 136.
Twelve, 112, 128.
Twentieth, 114, 136.
Twenty, 112, 130.
Twice, 197, 311.
Two, 111, 128 (note); 110, 127.
TV. tie. suffix, 112. 130; 239, 325.
U for », 44, 37.
for e, 49, 41.
concerning a and v, 57, 45.
how produced physiologically, 58,
different sounds of, 61, 51.
from a in past tense, 160, 269.
= ?', 230, 325.
Uc, suffix, 236, 325.
Ultra, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
Un, uni, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
English prefix, 40, 33.
Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Uncle, 84, 72.
Und, suffix, 241, 325.
Under, prefix, 34, 31 ; 40, 33 ; 228,
324-
adverb, 197, 312.
preposition, 204, 314.
Ung, infinitive termination, 177, 291 ;
180, 293.
Until, 30, 24.
compound preposition, 204, 314.
Unto, compound preposition, 204, 314.
Up, prefix, 40. 33 ; 228, 324.
adverb, 197, 312.
preposition, 203, 314.
Urn, suffix, 236, 325. *.
Us, 117, 149.
Ut, Teutonic prefix, 228, 324.
Utter, preposition, 203, 314.
V, 57, 45-
for/, 44, 37.
represented by ph, w, m, 64, 53.
= u, 230, 325.
in Romance suffixes, 230, 325.
Vagabond, 241, 325.
Ve, suffix, 230, 325.
Verb, distinctions of, in O. E. dialects,
41, 34—*-'', 37-
coalesces with pronoun, 46, 38.
forms in First Period, 49, 40.
forms in Second Period, 53, 41.
strong; and weak, Second Period,
53, 41.
strong and weak, Third Period,
54,42.
in Fourth Period, 55, 43.
distinguished from noun by accent,
76, 55-
inflectional part of speech, 79, 59.
definition, formation of, 80, 61.
classification, 153, 252.
transitive, 153, 253 ; 153, 255.
intransitive, 153, 254.
intransitive, with cognate object,
153, 2=6.
reflexive, 153, 253 ; 153, 255.
reciprocal, 153, 283.
causative, 153, 254.
passive, 153, 255.
impersonal, 153, 257.
voice, mood, tense of, 153, 258.
number, person of, 155, 262.
conjugation of, 155, 263.
strong, weak, 155, 263.
elements of. 172, 282.
inflexions of, 172, 282.
present indicative, 173, 283.
present subjunctive, 174, 284.
past indicative, 174, 285.
past subjunctive, 175, 288.
person-ending, 175, 289.
infinitive mood, 176, 200.
present participle, 180, 293.
anomalous, 180, 294 et stq.
verbal nouns, 17T, 291.
negative forms of, 183, 297.
auxiliary, 191, 309.
intransitive and transitive, from
same root, 221, 322.
Verbal'nouns, 177, 291.
suffixes, 220, 323 ; 242, 325.
compounds, 224, 323.
endings, 242, 325.
Verjuice, 242, 325.
Viand, 241, 325.
Vice, Romance prefix, 247, 325.
Vinegar, 242, 325.
Vixen, 89, 73 : 216, 320 (note).
Vocabulary, English, 34, 30.
no foreign elements in, in the First
Period, 48, 40.
changes, Second Period, 64, 41.
INDEX.
377
Vocabulary, changes, Third Period, 54,
42-
changes, Fifth Period, 56, 44.
changes by influence of printing,
&C., 50, 44,
Vocal organs, physiology of, 58, 46.
Vocative case, 100, 96.
Voice, human, physiology of, 58, 46.
active, passive, 154, 258.
Vowel, change in elder, 107, 115.
change in strong verbs, 155, 263.
change in past tense, 157, 267 ; 158,
269.
between root and suffix in weak
verbs, 168, 277 ; 163, 279.
radical, in weak verbs, 169, 279.
change in weak verbs, 171, 279.
original of verbal stems, 171, 279
(note).
connecting root and suffix, 17:2,
282 ; 173, 283 ; 174, 285 ; 175,
288.
suffixes, 212, 321 ; 229, 325.
Vowels, how produced physiologically,
58, 47.
gradations, modifications of, 58,
modification into diphthongs,59,48.
different sounds of, 61, 51.
various sounds of, in English, 62,
52.
long and short, how represented in
spelling, 63, 52.
changed to form plural, 95, 79.
Wfor^-, 50, 41.
cast off, inserted, w& = hiv, 64,
53-
Wan = wfuin, 131, 192.
Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Wanton, 227, 324.
Ward, adjectival suffix, 34, 31.
Was, 182, 296 ; 162, 271.
We, 117, 148.
Weak verbs, 168, 276.
in Gothic, 168, 277.
in Old English, 168, 278.
in Modern English, 168, 279.
radical vowel in, 169, 279 ; 171,
279.
suffix </ unused, 170, 279.
exceptional forms, 171, 280; 172,
281..
W<5n letter, 57, 45.
Wench, 84, 72.
Welsh, origin of name, 3, 8.
Keltic language, 7, 12.
Went, from -wend, 17'2, 281.
West Midland dialect (see Dialects).
Wether, 87, 72.
Whan or wan, 131, 192.
What, whatever, 12S, 183 : 129, 184 ;
133, 201.
replaced by that, 133, 199.
archaic use of, 134, 202.
vulgar use of, 134, 203.
used with ihat, 134, 204.
used with as, 134, 205.
used for whatever, 136, 209.
= something, 137, 213.
aneshiveet, s^uilceshwcet, 137, 213.
What for a = what sort of a, 129, 185.
Whatso, 136, 208.
Whatsoever, whatasever, whatever,
136, 210.
When, 199, 312.
Where, 199, 312.
Whether, whethersoever, 128, 183.
= which of the two, 129, 186.
Which, whichsoever, 128, 183 ; 130,
189; 131, 195 ; 133, 197 ; 136,
208.
O.E. htvilc, &c., 130, 187.
whichever, 136, 210.
with the, that, &c., 131, 196.
Whit, 146, 233.
Whither, 199, 312.
Whitney, account of Indo-Europeans,
1«, 13-
on Grimm's Law, 24, 17.
on laws other than Grimm's, 24, 17.
on syllables, 57, 45.
on orthography, 63, 52 (note).
on pronouns, 80, 62.
on prepositions, 80, 64.
on verb have, 191, 309.
Who, whoever, 128, 183; 130, 188 ;
130, 189 ; 130, 190 ; 133, 197 ;
136, 210.
= any one, some one, 137, 212.
joined to same, 140, 217.
adverbial stem, 199, 312.
Whom, 128, 183.
with the, 131, 193.
Whose, 128, 183.
with the, that, 131, 193.
Whoso, whosoever, 13H, 208.
Wickliffe wrote in East Midland
dialect, 47, 39.
. case absolute, 103, 102.
Wife, 83, 71 (note) ; 86, 72.
Wig, 237, 345.
378
INDEX.
Wight, 146, 233.
Will, auxiliary verb, 191, 309.
also wol, 187, 302.
Wind (a horn), 261, 269.
Windsor, 78, 57.
Wit, 190, 305.
Witch, 85, 72.
With, wither, preposition, 204, 314.
Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
Wizard, 85, 72.
Wolen, as infinitive, 1S7, 302.
Words, definition of, 1, i.
naturalized in English, 33, 29,
number of, in English, 34, 30.
pure and classical, 34, 30.
vocabulary of English, 34, 30.
Romance, in English, 34, 31.
meaning of, distinguished by ac-
cent, 76, 56.
denoting quality, position, 79. 58.
as parts of speech, 79, 59.
used to denote gender, 92, 74.
naturalized, plural of, 97, 84 ; 99,
90.
used only in plural, 98, 87.
compound, genitives of, 102, 101.
compound, 221, 323.
formation, roots of, 211, 319.
Work, wrought, 172, 281.
World, 222, 323.
Worse, worst, 107, 117.
Written alphabet, 58, 46.
X, equivalent to ks or gs, 61, 50.
Y, for^-, 50, 41 : 186, 301.
Teutonic prefix, 226, 324.
in Romance suffixes, 229, 325.
Ye, 118, 155; 200, 312.
Yea, 200, 312.
Yes, 209, 312.
Yesterday, 200, 312.
Yet, 200, 312.
Yon, yond, yonder, 125, 178; 128, i£i.
York, 78, 57.
You, 118, 155.
used for tJwu, 118, 153.
used for ye, 118, 155.
Your, 124, 175.
Youth, 216, 321.
Z, for s, 44, 37.
for s, c, intruded, chsjiged, 67, 53.
J> (thorn letter), 57, 45.
P (wen letter), 57, 45.
S, S, 6V, 45.
THE END-
LONDON :
R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRttrTRRS,
BREAD STREET HU.I-.
University of California
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