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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


ENGLAND'S  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 


CEYLON 


AND   ITS  DEPENDENCIES. 


AN  HISTORICAL, 


POLITICAL    AND    STATISTICAL  ACCOUNT 


OF 


CEYLON 


AND    ITS     DEPENDENCIES. 


BY 


CHARLES  PRIDHAM,  Esq.,  B.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

ADTIIOK   OF    "  HISTOKY    OF   MAUBITICS,"   ETC. 


VOL.  II. 


LONDON: 
T.  AND  W.  BOONE,  29,  NEW  BOND  STREET. 

MDCCCILIX. 


DS 

*,89 

V?2ZJL 

CHAP.    I.]  PHYSICAL    ASPECT    AND    TOPOGRAPHY.  485 


PART   IV 


CHAPTER  I. 


Geographical  outline  of  the  Island — Character  of  the  Maritime  and  Interior 
districts — Position  of  the  Mountain  Zone — Peculiarities  in  the  direction  of 
the  Mountain  chains — Form  and  direction  of  the  Mountain  valleys — Descrip- 
tion of  the  hilly  region — Physical  Aspect  and  Topography. 

Northern  Province:   How    bounded  and  divided — Pomparippo  river  and  district 
— Isle  Karetivoe — Point  Kudramalai,  Marichikattie,  The  Kal-aar — District 
of  Moessellie — Bay  of  Kondatchie — Navigation  of  the  coast — The  Awerie-aar 
— District  of  Nanaatan — Cattoekare,  or  Giants'  (Sodien)  tank — Mantotte  and 
its  ruins — District  of  Mantotte — Island  of  Manaar — Channel  between  it  and 
the  main — Village  of  Manaar — Description  of  the  island — Theories  in  reference 
to  the  Paumban  Channel  and  Palk's  Strait — Traditions  of  the  formation  of  a 
Saitubandha  or  Causeway  by  Rama,  and  subsequently  by  Gajabahoo — Tra- 
ditions of  the  Brahmins  at  Ramisseram — Description  of  the  Paumban  passage 
— Project  for  forming  a  navigable  channel  by  Colonel  Monteith — He  eventually 
succeeds  in  gaining  permission  to  undertake  the  enterprise,  and  accomplishes 
the  work — Navigation  of  the  coast — District  of  Wirteltivoe  (Vertativoe) — 
Country  of  the  Wanny,  its  vast  extent — In  what  state  and  under  what  form 
of   Government   when    occupied    by    the    Portuguese — Description    of    the 
Wanniyas — Character  of  the  people — Changes  ensuing  on  the  arrival  of  the 
Dutch — Subsequent  restoration  of  the  Wanniyas  to  their  hereditary  dignities 
— Their  tyranny  and  oppression — Are  superseded  by  the  Dutch — They  rebel, 
but  are  defeated  and  deposed — Government  instituted  by  the  Dutch — 'Zeal 
and  energy    of  the  Landrost— His  success  in  civilising  the    inhabitants  and 
developing   the  resources   of   the  country — Subdivisions  of  the  Wanny  and 
description  of  the  tanks,  capabilities,  cultivatable  lands,  productions,  &c.  of 
each — Theory  with  respect  to  the  former  devastation  of  this  country,  by  vol- 
canic agency — Curious  natural  phenomena  still  existing  to  prove  the  reality 
of  a  subterrane  disturbance — District  of  Chitty  Colom,  and  its  two  divisions 
of  Nadoe  Chitty  Colom,  and  Sinne  Chitty  Colom — District  of  Pannengammo, 
and  its  six  divisions  of  Pannengammo  Poerivoe,  Toenoeka  Poerivoe,  Meerkoe 
Moelle,  Kelekoe  Moelle  Tekoe  Poerivoe,   Tank  of  Padeviel  Colom,  Kelekoe 
Moelle  Waddekoe  Poerivoe,  Oedeaar-Oer — District  of  Meelpattoe,  and  its 
three  divisions  of  Kelekoe  Poerivoe,  Tekoe  Poerivoe,  Waddekoe  Poerivoe  — 
District  of  Moelliawalle — District  of  Poedoe-koedyirpoe — District  of  Kar- 
navelpattoe,   and  its  divisions  of  Tekoe  Poerivoe  and  Waddekoe  Poerivoe — 
Districtof  Karetchie — Districtof  Poonaryn — Districtof  Pallawirajen  Kattoe — 
District  of   Ilipekadawe  — Isle  Irrentivoe,  or   two    Brothers,     Kakeritivoe, 
Paletivoe,  Nadoentivoe  (Delft),  Nayntivoe  (Haarlem),  Poengerdutivoe,  (Mid- 
dleburgh>,  Analativoe  (Rotterdam),  Welane  (Leyden),  Kayts,  Mandeltivoe, 
Kalmoone  Point,  Karadivoe  (Amsterdam),  Hammanhiel — Peninsula  of  Jaffna, 
District  of  Walligamme,  Batticotta,  Jatihapatam,  Sailing  directions — District 
of  Wadamoratchie,  Point  Pedro,  Sailing  directions — District  of  Timmoratchie 
— Districtof  Patchilapelle,  Chavagacherry — Interior  of  the  Northern  Province, 
District  of  Neura  or  Nuwara  Kalawa,  Desolate   country,  formerly  populous 
and  well  cultivated,  Tanks  and  Ruins — Anuvadhapoora  (the  Anurogiarmnuin 
of  Ptolemy)  the  ancient  Capital  of  Ceylon     Its  runs — Description  of  the 


480  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

Temples,&c.  &c— Tissawewa  Lake,  Mihintalai — Subdivisions  of  the  Nuwara, 
Kalawa  district— Its  state  of  cultivation,  capabilities,  &c. — Ancient  capital  of 
Wijittapoora—  Seegiri — Ruins  of  Minigiri — Source  of  the  Kala  or  Kalawa 
Oya— Superficies  of  the  Northern  Province. 

Eastern  Province ;  Its  bounds  and  divisions — Moeletivoe— The  Wanny  district 
of  Kariekattoe  Moelle,  .Kokelay — The  Tinne-Marre-Waddie — Plains  of 
Cutchiavelle — Kattoe  Colota  Pattoo,  its  Tanks,  state  of  Cultivation,  &c. — 
Hot  springs  of  Kanya,  Legends  thereon — Trincomalee,  Sailing  directions — 
Description  of  its  Bays,  Harbours,  Forts,  Town,  Inhabitants — District  of 
Tamblegam — Tamblegahi  ;  its  Tanks,  the  Kandelle-oya,  Gantalawe  or  Kan- 
delle  Lake— District  of  Kotti-aar,  Kotti-aar  Bay,  the  Kotti-aar  Tanks — 
District  of  Tamankada — The  Virgal-ganga,  Tanks— Kaudella  Tank  -  Lake  of 
Menairia,  Nuwara  Kandi,  Topawewa  Tank,  Pollonaroowa  and  its  ruins — 
Koorle  Pattoo,  Nallore-aar,  Leways,  Mookwa  districts  of  Eraoer,  Karre- 
witte,  Manmoene,  Eroewil,  Karrewaddie,  Nadene,  Sammantorre,  Akkara- 
pattoo — Batecalo,  Sailing  directions — Harbour,  Lake,  Town— Veddah  Ratte, 
Maha  Veddah  Ratte,  Bintenne,  Tank  of  Bintenne — The  Maha-velle-ganga, 
its  course  from  Bintenne  to  the  sea— Survey  of  Mr.  Brooke — District  of 
Nadekadoe  ;  Inhabitants  chiefly  of  Singhalese  descent — Navil-aar,  Tanks — 
District  of  Wellasse,  Kotabowa — District  of  Panowa — Superficies  of  the 
Eastern  Province. 

Southern  Province :  How  bounded  and  divided — District  of  Upper  Ouva,  Badulla 
and  its  valley — Namina  Kooli  Kandi  Mountain,  Passera,  Alipoota — Districtof 
Lower  Ouva,  Bootle — The  Parapa-oya,  the  Mahagam  Pattoo,  Kattragam  and 
its  Temple,  Elephant's  Rock,  Paltoopane  ;  Ruins  of  Magaama,  The  Kirinde- 
oya,  Leways,  Wellawe,  Nitre  Cave,  Gampaha — Bay  of  Hambantotte,  Sailing 
directions,  Hambantotte — District  of  Morva,  Mulgiri-galla  wihare,  Girawe- 
pattoo,  Tangalle,  District  of  Kangebodde,  District  of  Wellebodde,  District  of 
Gange-bodde,  Dondera  Ruins  of,  Dondera  Head — Matura — The  Belligam 
Korle — District  of  Talpe — Lake  of  Cogalle — Galle,  Description  of  the  Fortress, 
Town,  Public  Buildings,  Gravets,  Inhabitants,  &c. — Gangebodde  pattoo, 
The  Gindurah  River,  Baddagamme — District  of  Wellebodde,  Amblangodde 
— District  of  Wallawitte,  Bentotte — District  of  Saffragam,  and  its  sub- 
divisions, Ratnapoora — The  Kalu-ganga,  Route  to  Adam's  Peak,  (Samanala) 
from  Gillemalle — Palabadoola,  Diabetme,  Description  of  the  Mountain 
Scenery,  Ascent  to  the  Peak,  Stupendous  Rock  of  Uno-Dhia,  Seetla-ganga 
—Rock  of  Diwiyagalla,  Height  of  the  Peak  ;  Description  of  the  Sri  Pada  or 
sacred  foot ;  Scenery  as  seen  from  the  summit — The  Bhagawa  Lenna — The 
Wilmantalawa,  or  Horton  Plains,  Bilhool-oya,  the  Maha  Ellia — Hakgalla 
Range,  Totapela  Range,  Idalgashina  Pass,  Velangahena,  Wilson  Plains, 
District  of  Yatapalata,  Fort  McDonald,  Valley  of  Parnegamme,  Toopittia, 
Himbleatwelle,  Pass  of  Appootella — Superficies  of  the  Southern  Province. 

Western  Province :  Its  boundaries  and  divisions — District  of  Caltura,  Barberyn, 
Caltura,  The  Kalu-ganga  —  Pasdum  Korle  —  Raygam  Korle,  Horona, 
Nambapane,  Pantura,  Lake  of  Morottoe  —  Salpitty  Korle,  Mount 
Lavinia,  Colpetty — Hewagam  Korle,  Colombo  ;  Fort,  Pettah,  Gravets, 
Port,  Institutions,  Inhabitants — The  Kalane-ganga,  (Mutwal)  Hangwelle, 
Avishavelle,  Seetawaka — Hina  Korle,  Cotta  (Jayawardhanapoora) — Three 
Korles,  Ruwanwelle,  Yateantotte— Upper  Bulatgamme.  Sources  of  the 
Kalane  and  Mahavelle-gangas,  Ambagamma — Lower  Bulatgamme — The 
Four  Korles,  Atelle,  Aranderre,  Ballapanne,  Ambanpittia,  Ambapusse, 
Molligodde,  Hettymule — The  Allootcoor  Korle,  The  Muli-waddie,  Ne- 
gombo,  Fort,  Pettah,  Gravets,  Institutions — Hapetigam  Korle — The  Seven 
Korles,  the  Maha-oya  (Kaymel  River),  Allow,  Dambadiniya,  Kurunaigalla, 
Aetagalla  Mountain — District  of  Oederpalata — District  of  Meddapalata — 
District  of  Jatikalan,  Madampe — District  of  Jagam — District  of  Monasse- 


CHAP.  I.]  GEOGRAPHICAL    OUTLINE    OF    THE    ISLAND.  487 

ram,  Chilaw,  the  Didroo-oya,  Mongra-oya,  Baddegamrna — District  of 
Toompane,  Kospotte-oya — District  of  Anewoollandan — District  of  Akkara- 
pattoo,  Navakadoo,  Calpentyn — The  Demelepattoe — The  Raja  Wanny,  Raja 
Wanniya  Pattoe,  Putlam,  Mare  Karre  Pattoe,  Koomarewanniya — Interior 
of  the  Seven  Korles,  Yapahoo,  Galgiria  Kandi,  the  Weliker-aar — Superficies 
of  the  Western  Province.  .     , •     \\ 

Central  Province  :  How  bounded  and  divided— District  of  Matale:  Dambool, 
Menik  Denna  Nuwara,  the  Meerisagona-oya,  Pass 'of  Andagalla,  Eyheylapola, 
Amooka  Kandi,  Nallande,  the  Ambangangtt,  Passof  Yattawatte,  Aluewihare, 
Ollegamma,  Artapola  Kandi,  Fort  M'Dowal  or  Matale,  Ruins  of  Walabanu- 
wara,  Pass  of  Ballakadawe,  Hunisgiri-Kandi,  the  Lakgalla  range,  Atgalle  Pass, 
Giriagam  and  Gallegedra  Passes,  Madawalatenne,  Dunawille. — District  of 
Doombera :  Parnegamme,  Gonagodde,  Koondasala,  Madugalla,  the  Hulu- 
ganga,  Medamahaneura,  Gampaha  Korle,  Galle-peddehella  Pass,  Range  of 
Memoora — The  Harrisapattoo — District  of  Yattineura  :  Amanapoora,  Balane- 
Pass,  Kaduganava  Pass,  Dikgalle,  Dodanwille — District  of  Oudarieura — 
District  of  Dolasbage,  Gampola,  Pusilava,  Pasbage — District  of  Kotmale  : 
Kotmale-ganga,  Nuwera  Elliya,  Mountain  of  Pedrotallagalla — District  of 
Oudapalata,  Rambodde,  the  Maha-oya,  Nillembe — Kandy,  its  Citadel,  Palace, 
Town,  Public  Buildings,  Institutions,  Roads,  People,  Scenery,  Kadughas- 
totte  Ferry,  Lewelle  Ford,  Gannooroowe,  the  Mahavelle-ganga — District  of 
Hewahette :  Hangarankette,  Dhiatalawa  Mountain,  the  Bilhool-oya, 
Plains  of  Maturatta — District  of  Walapane — District  of  Wiyaloowa,  Ourna- 
oya  :  Badulla-oya — Superficies  of  the  Central  Province. 

The  geographical  outline  of  the  island  may  be  dismissed  in  a  very 
few  words,  and  it  is  only  the  interior  that  will  require  a  more  minute 
description.  The  maritime  districts,  comprising  about  a  half  of  the 
width  of  the  southern,  eastern,  and  western  provinces,  are  flat ;  the 
northern  province,  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  eastern  province, 
are  wholly  so.  Perhaps  this  division  of  the  island  may  vary  in  ele- 
vation from  twenty  to  two  hundred  feet.  It  exhibits  extensive  plains, 
either  quite  level,  as  towards  the  coast,  or  approaching  the  interior, 
slightly  undulating  ;  in  the  former  case  being  almost  entirely  without 
a  hill,  in  the  latter  interrupted  by  chains  of  low  hills  and  solitary- 
masses  of  rock  rising  from  one  to  five  hundred  feet  above  the  plain. 
The  character  of  the  interior  of  the  island  greatly  varies  in  relation  to 
surface.  Nowhere  is  the  distinction  of  high  and  low  land  more 
obvious.  With  tolerable  precision  it  maybe  divided  into  flat  country, 
hilly  and  mountainous.  The  mountainous  division  is  skirted  by  the 
billy,  and  the  latter  is,  as  we  have  already  observed,  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  a  flat  maritime  belt,  and  on  the  fourth  by  a  flat 
country,  comprising  nearly  one-half  of  the  island.  If  the  island  then 
were  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  an  imaginary  line  from  east  to 
west,  the  mountainous  region  would  be  found  to  occupy  nearly  the 
middle  of  the  southern  half,  or  as  nearly  as  possible  what  is  now  called 
the  Central  Province.  The  centre  of  this  region  is  about  7°  3' 
north  latitude,  and  80°  46'  east  longitude.  Its  greatest  length,  that 
is  from  north  to  south,  may  be  computed  at  02,  and  its  greatest 
width,  that  is  from  east  to  west,  at  56  miles.  The  exact  boundaries 
and  extent  of  the  hilly  division,  are  not  so  easily  described.     On  an 


•188  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

average,  it  extends  beyond  the  mountains  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
miles. 

The  features  of  each  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  island  are  neces- 
sarily peculiar ;  grandeur  is  the  characteristic  of  the  mountainous, 
beauty  of  the  hilly,  and  tameness  of  the  flat  country,  which  a  covering 
of  luxuriant  vegetation,  with  few  exceptions,  spread  over  the  whole, 
does  not  tend  to  diminish. 

The  mountainous  district  varies  in  its  perpendicular  elevation  above 
the  sea  level,  from  800  to  8000  feet.  In  general  it  averages  about 
2000  feet,  the  regions  of  greater  elevation,  by  which  are  to  be  under- 
stood masses  of  continuous  surface  approaching  more  or  less  to  table 
land,  are  inconsiderable  in  extent.  The  principal  are  that  portion 
of  the  country  lying  between  Maturatta  and  Fort  M 'Donald,  which 
is  the  very  heart  and  centre  of  the  mountainous  division,  and  which 
reaches  4000  feet,  and  the  tract  adjoining  Nuwera  Elliya,  which 
reaches  5000  feet. 

In  few  countries  do  mountains  exhibit  greater  variety  of  forms  and 
directions.  They  most  frequently  occur  connected  in  chains,  and 
terminating  in  rounded  or  peaked  summits.  Their  sides  are  always 
steep,  and  occasionally  precipitous  and  rocky.  Solitary  insulated 
mountains  are  of  rare  occurrence.  In  some  districts  the  mountain 
chains  run  in  a  parallel  direction,  in  others  even  adjoining  mountains 
do  not  correspond  with  any  regularity  in  their  direction.  Thus  in 
Doombera,  the  mountain  ridges  generally  run  N.N.E.  and  S.S.W. 
In  Ouva,  on  the  contrary,  they  run  in  various  directions.  One 
remarkable  circumstance  in  reference  to  Ceylon,  is,  that  no  correspon- 
dence can  be  traced  between  the  proportional  heights  of  the  mountains 
and  the  depths  of  the  adjoining  valleys.  Thus  there  is  not  a  single 
lake  nor  even  stagnant  pool  among  the  mountains,  and  it  is  scarcely 
credible  that  they  ever  existed,  as  they  could  not  well  be  filled  up  by 
the  detritus  of  rocks,  little  liable  to  decay  and  disintegration. 

Since  there  are  no  lakes  in  the  interior,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that  every  valley  has  an  outlet,  and  that  the  descent  of  every 
valley  is  gradual  though  irregular  from  the  mountain  to  the  plain. 
The  forms  and  directions  of  the  valleys  are  not  less  various  than  those 
of  the  mountains  by  which  they  are  constituted.  In  general  their 
width  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  their  length  ;  often  they 
are  extremely  narrow.  The  deepest  are  in  the  heart  of  the  moun- 
tains. Some  are  between  three  and  four  thousand  feet  deep,  and  not 
perhaps  more  than  half  a  mile  w  kle  from  one  mountain  to  the  other. 
The  hilly  division  of  the  interior  varies  in  respect  of  its  continuous 
surface  from  one  to  five  hundred  feet ;  and  the  hills  themselves  may 
vary  in  perpendicular  height  from  two  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet. 
Like  the  mountains,  they  are  more  or  less  connected  with  chains 
generally  of  little  length.  Their  outlines  are  rounded  and  gentle  ; 
their  sides  seldom  steep,  and  their  appearance  comparatively  tame. 
In  the  valleys  formed  by  the  hills  there  is  nothing  peculiar  to  be 
noticed. 


CHAP.    I.]     NORTHERN    PROVINCE DISTRICT    OF    POMPARIPPO.       489 

Commencing  with  the  Northern,  at  its  point  of  junction  with  the 
Western  Province  at  the  Pomparippo-oya,1  with  one  of  whose  af- 
fluents it  is  coterminous  to  its  source,  we  shall  follow  the  circuit  of 
the  island  as  the  best  method  of  developing  its  moral  and  physical 
peculiarities.  The  boundaries  of  this  province  are  the  sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar  to  the  West  and  North-west,  Palk's  Strait  and  the 
13ay  of  Bengal  to  the  North  and  North-east,  the  Eastern  Province 
to  the  East,  the  Central  Province  to  the  South-east,  and  the  Western 
Province  to  the  South  South-west. 

The  Pomparippo-oya  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Matale,  and  subsequently  uniting  itself  with  the  waters  of  the 
Kalawewe  tank,  about  fifteen  miles  to  the  north  of  Dambool,  winds 
through  the  province  of  Nuwera  Kalawa  in  a  north-westerly  direction. 
After  entering  the  district  of  Pomparippo  it  divides  itself  into  five 
branches,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Calpentyn.  The  Singhalese  call 
it  Kalawa-oya,  from  its  passing  through  the  tank  of  that  name ;  but 
there  is  a  tradition  that  it  is  derived  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Nuwera  Kalawa  having  bathed  in  its  waters, 
and  previously  rubbed  their  bodies  with  turmeric  (kaha),  which  had 
been  sent  to  them  as  a  present  by  the  Prince  of  Kurunaigalla,  as  a 
mark  of  his  contempt.  It  abounds  in  fish,  and  swarms  with  alli- 
gators. The  principal  branch  of  the  river  runs  four  miles  below 
the  village  of  Pomparippo,  and  is  fordable  except  after  the  heavy 
rains. 

The  remains  of  a  stone  bridge  built  over  this  river  by  the  King 
Mahasen  more  than  1500  years  ago,  were  discovered  by  Forbes 
in  1826,  while  on  his  road  from  Kurunaigalla  to  Anuradhapoora. 
It  consisted  of  a  pier  of  considerable  length,  projecting  into,  and  con- 
tracting, the  stream,  which  is  there  both  broad  and  rapid.  The 
stones  used  in  its  construction  vary  from  eight  to  fourteen  feet  in 
length  ;  they  are  laid  in  regular  lines,  and  some  are  jointed  into  one 
another  :  each  course  also  recedes  a  few  inches  from  the  edge  of  the 
one  underneath  ;  and  this  form,  while  offering  less  direct  resistance 
to  the  current,  gives  additional  strength  to  the  building.  The  end 
of  the  pier  has  been  swept  away,  but  the  extremity  of  that  remaining 
is  eighteen  feet  above  the  water,  and  six  feet  above  the  causeway. 
In  the  rocks,  which  form  the  bed  of  the  river,  square  holes  may  be 
distinguished,  in  which  stone  pillars  have  been  placed,  and  the  bridge 
was  completed  by  laying  long  stones  or  beams  of  wood  on  these  to 
connect  the  different  parts  of  the  structure.  At  a  short  distance  fur- 
ther clown  the  stream,  the  site  of  another  hi  idge  can  be  traced,  which 
appears  to  have  been  constructed  on  the  same  plan,  but  either  at  an 
earlier  period,  or  of  less  durable  materials.  The  large  stones  have 
been  riven  from  the   adjacent  rocks  by  means  of  wedges,  and  the 

1  Ganga  is  generally  and  properly  used  to  denote  a  river  of  the  first  class, 
such  as  the  Mahavelle  or  Kalane.  Oya,  an  (innavigable  stream  or  rivulet.  Aar, 
is  the  Malabar  or  Tamul  name,  denoting  river. 


490  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

shape  and  ornament  has  been  completed  by  chisels.  This  manner  of 
working  quarries  and  splitting  stones  is  everywhere  observable  in  Cey- 
lon, and  these  means  for  procuring  large  granite  pillars,  and  shaping 
their  ornaments,  which  are  of  a  comparatively  recent  date  in  Great 
Britain,  were  in  vogue  in  Ceylon  two  thousand  years  ago.  In  con- 
formity with  the  wild  tradition  of  the  natives,  that  Mahasen  could 
compel  even  the  demons  to  work  for  him,  and  that  this  bridge  is  a  speci- 
men of  their  masonry,  the  ruins  here  are  known  by  the  name  of  Yakka- 
Beudi-palam  (bridge  built  by  devils).  In  the  upper  row  a  stone  is 
pointed  out,  on  the  under  side  of  which  the  figure  of  the  architect  is 
said  to  be  cut. 

The  district  of  Pomparippo,  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Nuwera  Kalawa  and  Demelapattoo,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Mari- 
chikattie  or  Moderagam-Aar,  is  upwards  of  twenty  miles  long  and 
eight  broad,  and  contains  thirty-five  villages.  The  face  of  the 
country  exhibits  an  expanse  of  large  forests,  diversified  with  open 
tracts,  and  a  ridge  of  hills  runs  along  its  western  borders  up  to 
Kooderamalai  point.  It  is  supposed  that  the  name  Pomparippo,  or 
Pomparappee,  signifying  "  the  golden  plains,"  was  bestowed  on 
this  province  on  account  of  its  excellent  soil,  but  owing  to  its  scanty 
population,  its  agricultural  resources  are  very  circumscribed.  It 
abounds,  however,  with  cattle,  and  carries  on  a  trade  with  Colombo 
in  ghee,  honey,  bees'  wax,  and  deer's  horns. 

In  this  district  the  ruins  of  many  ancient  buildings  and  tanks  may 
still  be  traced,  indicating  that  this  part  of  the  country,  at  present 
overgrown  with  jungle,  was  formerly  thickly  peopled,  and  in  a 
flourishing  condition.  We  have  elsewhere  seen  that  Nawaratna 
Wanniya,  a  Mookwa  chieftain,  obtained  the  hereditary  fee  of  this 
district  from  a  Singhalese  monarch,  but  it  did  not  long  continue  in 
his  family,  being  parcelled  out  by  his  heirs  and  transferred  to  other 
individuals.  The  village  of  Pomparippo  is  situated  on  a  large  plain, 
about  four  miles  to  the  north  of  the  ford,  and  is  chiefly  inhabited  by 
Moormen  and  Hindoos  of  industrious  and  contented  habits.  In  its 
neighbourhood  deer  are  to  be  met  with  in  great  numbers,  and  afford 
good  sport  to  those  who  are  fond  of  coursing  and  disregard  the  danger 
of  hard- riding  over  broken  ground.  The  wooded  nature  of  the 
country  and  coarse  vegetation  of  the  plains  render  it  necessary  that 
the  dogs  be  fleet ;  they  must  also  be  strong  and  high  mettled  enough 
to  speed  through  the  prickly  plants  so  common  in  the  open  grounds 
of  Ceylon.  In  dry  seasons  the  ground  is  intersected  by  numerous 
cracks,  and  wherever  the  deep  footsteps  of  elephants  have  sunk 
during  the  rainy  season  they  become  hardened  by  the  sun,  and  are 
a  serious  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  horses.  Pomparippo  has  a 
stone  rest  house,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  post  there  are 
plantations  of  fruit-bearing  trees  and  a  vineyard. 

The  first  stage  from  Pomparippo  northwards  is  through  the 
village  of  Marrunde  or  Mardodde,  (8f  miles)  to   the  rest  house  of 


CHAP.    I.]  ISLE    KARETIVOE —  KUDBAMALAI.  491 

Marichikattie,  16^  miles,  which  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  river. 
The  Moderagam  or  Marichikattie-aar  rises  in  the  interior,  and  after  a 
sinuous  course  of  upwards  of  forty  miles,  in  a  north-westerly  direc- 
tion, falls  into  the  Strait  of  Manaar  at  Moderagam.  Its  waters  seem 
to  have  been  advantageously  employed  for  supplying  the  tanks  of 
the  district.  The  road  along  this  country  is  very  sandy  and  bordered 
on  the  east  by  dense  jungles,  i  swarming  with  wild  beasts,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  villages,  and  their  dependent  paddy  fields.  The 
Padouas,  many  of  whom  are  found  here,  and  who  were  formerly 
considered  so  low  and  degraded  that  they  were  restricted  from  play- 
ing on  any  musical  instrument  whatever,  nullified  the  stern  edict  of 
their  oppressors  by  drawing  sounds  from  earthen  chatties  with  the 
breath,  to  which  they  keep  admirable  time  in  the  dance. 

The  island  of  Karadive  (Karetivoe),  twelve  miles  north-west  of  Cal- 
pentyn,  which  goes  to  form  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Calpentyn,  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  channel  of  about  five  miles  broad  at 
its  southern,  and  eight  at  its  northern  extremity.  It  is  about  nine 
miles  long,  and  from  one  to  two  broad ;  in  the  middle  is  a  large 
pond  surrounded  by  an  open  space  covered  with  coarse  grass,  and 
both  ends  of  the  island  are  overgrown  with  jungle,  rising  from  a 
swampy  soil,  though  there  is  no  timber  on  the  island.  It  is  com- 
monly believed  that  this  island  was  formerly  connected  with  the 
peninsula  of  Calpentyn  ;  and  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  place 
were  wont  to  resort  to  a  Hindoo  temple,  which  then  stood  there,  but 
has  since  been  separated  from  it  by  the  encroachments  of  the  sea. 
This  tradition  would  seem  to  derive  strength  from  the  circumstance 
that  such  a  temple  is  now  remaining  on  the  island,  but  in  a  dilapi- 
dated state.  The  jungle  of  keeri  shelters  large  herds  of  deer,  and 
excellent  sport  may  here  be  found  by  beating  the  brushwood. 
Though  barren  and  uninhabited,  it  forms,  from  its  advantageous 
situation  for  fishing,  a  rendezvous  for  fishermen  from  Manaar  and 
Negombo  during  the  north-east  monsoon.  Some  years  since  a 
pearl  bank  was  discovered  off  Karadive,  and  was  fished  in    1 832. 

Koodremale  or  Kudramalai  (Horse  mountain)  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal features  of  the  Pomparippo  district,  and  the  most  interesting  in 


1  It  is  believed  by  the  Hindoos  that  many  of  the  combats  and  scenes  described 
in  the  Ramayana  occurred  in  this  part  of  the  island  ;  that  the  rough  beads, 
bangles,  and  other  ornaments  of  very  coarse  coloured  glass,  found  in  great  quan- 
tities, mixed  with  the  soil  in  the  tank  and  vicinity  of  Pasimadoe,  are  the  remains 
of  the  fallen  warriors  of  that  period,  and  that  Marambu,  Pomparippo,  Mari- 
chikattie, Mardodde,  &c.  &c.  preserve  by  their  names  the  recollections  of  that 
great  war.  The  Swaita-ma-parwatia,  the  white  rocks  which  were  the  key  of 
Rama's  position,  the  Ranabhumi,  battle-field  in  which  Rawana  fell,  and  the 
splendid  fort  of  Sri-Lanka-poora  are  all  supposed  to  lie  whelmed  beneath  the 
ocean  on  this  side  of  Ceylon.  The  more  rational  mode  of  accounting  for  the 
abundance  of  these  singular  relics  of  the  past  on  this  spot  is,  that  a  manufactory 
of  that  article  must  have  once  existed  there. 


492  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

connection  with  the  antiquities  of  Ceylon.  It  is  supposed  by  most 
Avriters  to  be  the  Hippurus  or  Hipporus,1  mentioned  by  Pliny,  lib. 
vi.  cap.  22.  as  the  port  to  which  a  freedman  of  Annius  Plocamus, 
who  farmed  the  customs  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  was  unexpectedly  driven,  after  having  been  blown  off  the 
Arabian  coast  in  a  violent  tempest. 

A  considerable  settlement,  composed  of  Arab  immigrants,  existed 
in  the  eighth  century,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  hill,  who  sub- 
sequently supplied  their  brethren  at  Manaar  and  Mantotte  with  an 
abundance  of  pearls,  which  they  probably  obtained  on  the  coast. 

In  the  woods  beneath  the  hill,  which  now  harbour  innumerable 
wild  beasts  and  reptiles,  native  tradition  traces  the  site  of  a  royal 
residence,  once  occupied  by  an  Amazon  princess,  called  Alliarasany, 
whose  amours  with  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Mahabnarat,  form  the 
subject  of  an  interesting  drama.  On  the  north  side  of  the  hill  is  a 
small  mosque  erected  over  the  tomb  of  a  Mahommedan  saint,  to 
whose  shrine,  the  navigators  of  that  faith,  in  touching  here  on  their 
way  to  and  from  the  coast,  invariably  present  an  offering. 

The  next  stage  from  Marichikattie  is  to  the  pagoda  of  Kall-aar,  a 
Hindoo  temple  seven  and  a  half  miles  distant,  which  is  now  dilapidated 
but  was  once  so  famous,  that  the  priests  who  officiated  in  it  were 
allowed  many  important  privileges,  including  a  moiety  of  the  pearl 
oysters  fished  on  the  banks  off  Kondatchie.  The  coolies  here  ex- 
change money  for  ashes,  which  they  rub  over  their  arms  and  fore- 
heads to  ward  off  the  dangers  of  the  journey,  and  preserve  them- 
selves and  families  in  health. 

The  scenery  between  Pomparippo  and  Kall-aar,  if  it  were  more 
diversified,  would  be  magnificent.  The  trees  to  the  right  of  the 
road  are  of  the  highest  dimensions,  and  their  foliage  cannot  be  sur- 

1  The  freedman  of  Annius  Plocamus  is  supposed  to  have  preceded  but  a  short 
time,  Hippalus,  the  discoverer  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  which  was  called  after 
his  name.  Of  the  precise  situation  of  Hippurus,  we  are  not  informed,  but  learn 
that  it  was  a  port  to  the  northward ;  and  it  is  plain  that  it  must  have  been  on  the 
western  coast,  from  the  circumstance  of  Hippalus  having  been  blown  across 
during  his  sailing  round  Arabia.  A  conjecture  has  often  suggested  itself,  which 
the  latent  etymology  of  the  name  given  to  the  port  at  which  Hippalus  arrived, 
in  two  different  languages  might,  with  a  trifling  literal  alteration  in  one  of  the 
names,  seem  to  sanction.  The  name  by  which  the  port  is  called  in  Pliny  is 
Hippuros,  'iirirovpoQ  (the  horse's  tail),  as  Arcturus  is  the  bear's  tail;  now  sup- 
posing the  name  to  have  been  really  Hipporos,  we  shall  have  for  the  name  of  the 
port  'i-mropoc,  instead  of  the  former,  which  in  English  will  signify  '  horse  moun- 
tain.' Is  it  possible,  then,  to  find  on  the  north-western  coast  to  which  Hippalus 
was  carried,  any  trace  of  such  a  name  ?  It  is  clearly  evident  in  the  name  given 
to  the  highland  north  of  Calpentyn,  in  the  Malabar  language,  Koodra-malie, 
literally  horse-mountain,  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  the  port  of  Calpentyn  and 
the  inland  coast  adjoining  Kudramalai,  are  the  only  parts  of  the  coast  between 
Manaar  and  Negombo,  into  which  he  could  have  entered.  At  this  day,  vessels 
from  the  coast  are  often  detained  at  Calpentyn,  on  their  way  to  Colombo,  without 
the  power  of  advancing  further  against  the  south-west  monsoon. 


CHAP.    I.]         DISTRICTS    OF    MOESSELLIE    AND    NANAATAN.  493 

passed  for  beauty  and  variety  of  tint.     This  portion  of  the  country 
is  liable  to  inundation  during  the  rainy  season. 

The  natives  on  this  part  of  the  coast  purify  the  thick,  white, 
muddy,  and  unwholesome  water,  by  means  ef  a  nut  called  arnbu- 
prasudana,  which  is  abundant  in  the  dry  parts  of  Ceylon,  and  when 
rubbed  down  in  the  inside  of  an  earthenware  vessel,  clears  the  water 
by  precipitating  the  earthy  particles.  The  common  oyster  abounds 
on  the  coast  between  Putlam  and  Kall-aar,  and  its  gathering  and 
pickling  for  Colombo  and  Kandy,  would  give  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  the  natives,  if  they  were  induced  to  embark  in  it. 

The  Kall-aar  (Rock  river)  has  its  source  in  the  interior,  and  falls 
into  the  sea  about  fifteen  miles  south  of  Manaar.  The  next  stage  is 
to  Kondatchie,  the  great  seat  of  the  pearl  fishery,  which  like  Kall-aar, 
is  in  the  district  of  Moessellie.  This  district  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Wanny,  on  the  south  by  the  Moderagam,  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Arippo  river.  It  contains  about  eighty-five  villages,  the  greater  part 
of  which  are  inhabited  by  Moormen,  who  have  come  over  from  the 
opposite  coast  and  settled  here.  The  country  is  level,  and  as  the 
soil  is  better  adapted  for  paddy  cultivation  than  any  thing  else,  the 
inhabitants  prepare  their  lands  chiefly  for  this  grain.  The  forests 
abound  with  elephants,  and  teem  with  every  kind  of  game  and  reptile. 
The  whole  of  the  shore  encircling  the  bay  of  Kondatchie  is  an 
arid,  sandy  desert,  almost  without  a  redeeming  feature,  or  water  to 
quench  the  thirst  of  the  traveller.  The  moment  the  fishery  is  over, 
Kondatchie' s  glory  ceases,  and  it  becomes  the  same  miserable  spot 
that  it  has  been  for  ages. 

Four  'miles  north  of  Kondatchie  is  Arippo,  (a  sieve,  in  allusion  to 
the  sifting  of  pearls) .  Here  on  an  elevated  bank  near  the  sea  shore, 
stands  '  the  Doric,'  a  mansion  erected  by  Governor  North,  and  so 
called  from  the  front  being  of  that  order  of  architecture.  During 
the  period  of  the  pearl  fishery,  it  is  the  residence  of  the  Supervisor, 
but  it  is  open  as  a  rest  house  to  European  travellers.  Arippo  has  now 
a  direct  communication  with  Kandy,  by  means  of  the  new  road  to 
Anuradhapoora.  The  village  is  situated  near  one  of  the  mouths  of 
the  Awerie-aar,  is  four  leagues  south  of  Manaar,  and  contains  up- 
wards of  180  inhabitants,  composed  chiefly  of  fishermen.  It  boasts 
of  a  small  fort  with  two  bastions  and  barracks,  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  resort  of  the  Malabar  divers,  &c,  during  the 
fishery.  The  rest  house  at  Arippo  is  commodious,  and  there  are 
springs  of  excellent  water  in  the  vicinity,  which  are  the  more  pre- 
cious from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it  any  where  else.  Arippo  is 
memorable  as  the  first  place  at  which  Knox  arrived  on  the  coast, 
after  his  escape  from  nineteen  years'  captivity  in  the  Kandian 
country. 

The  Awerie-aar,  or  river  of  Arippo,  rises  far  in  the  interior  in  the 
southern  districts  of  Nuwera  Kalawa.  It  is  there  known  by  the 
Singhalese  name  of  Malwatte  oya  (flower  garden  river).     After  pass- 


494  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

ing  by  Anuradhapoora,  it  makes  a  bend  to  the  north-east,  it  then 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Kurnndu-oya,  and  taking  a  north-westerly 
course  through  a  part  of  the  Wanny,  enters  the  limits  of  Nanaatan 
near  the  Giant's  tank,  whence  it  turns  due  west  till  it  runs  into  the 
sea,  after  a  course  of  about  eighty-five  miles.  In  the  bed  and  banks 
of  this  river,  a  species  of  red  and  blue  stone,  known  by  the  name  of 
*  Manaar  stones,'  is  found  by  sifting  the  sand. 

The  district  of  Nanaatan  is  about  fourteen  miles  long,  and  from 
five  to  nine  miles  broad,  and  contains  about  188  villages.  It  pro- 
duces a  great  quantity  of  paddy,  and  the  peasantry  are  more  indus- 
trious than  their  neighbours.  The  village  of  Nanaatan  is  about  four 
miles  distant  from  the  northern  bank  of  the  Awerie-aar.  The 
Portuguese  erected  a  church  here  which  fell  to  decay  many  years 
ago,  and  the  present  one  has  been  raised  on  its  site.  Large  quan- 
tities of  betel  are  grown  here,  and  it  supplies  the  whole  neighbour- 
hood with  this  article. 

The  report  of  Capt.  Schneider,  Chief  Colonial  Engineer,  to  Sir 
Thomas  Maitland,  on  the  Giant's  Tank  (Cattoekare),  shews  the 
number  of  acres  in  the  Mantotte  and  Nanaatan  districts,  which  it  is 
capable  of  irrigating  ;  the  lands  it  formerly  irrigated,  and  what  repairs 
are  necessary  to  that  end.  The  river  connected  with  this  tank  is  what 
the  Dutch  called  the  Moessellie  River,  and  now  called  the  Awerie- 
aar.  The  dam  of  Cattoekare  must,  says  he,  be  built  up  with  earth, 
six  sluices  must  be  built  with  arches,  and  stone  dams  will  have 
to  be  constructed  where  the  superfluous  water  is  to  run  over. 
Canals  will  also  have  to  be  cut  to  the  river,  where  small  sluices  will 
have  to  be  formed. 

The  Giant's  tank  is  thus  described  :  "This  tank,  supposed  by  the 
natives  to  have  been  constructed  by  Sodien  (Giants),  consists  of  a  large 
spot  of  low  land,  surrounded  from  the  north-west  to  the  south  side,  by 
an  earthen  dike  or  dam  to  keep  the  water  within  confined  in  the  rainy 
season,  and  to  water  the  paddy  fields  when  necessary.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  several  places  broken  or  washed  away,  in  some  places  is 
scarcely  visible,  and  consequently  no  water  remains  at  present.  At 
certain  spots  outside  the  tank,  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  dam 
are  to  be  seen  rivulets  by  which  the  water  runs  down  from  the  tank 
into  the  sea.  On  the  south  side  of  the  tank  is  the  Moessellie  river, 
the  water  of  which  runs  from  the  highlands  into  the  sea,  but  only 
during  heavy  rains.  This  river  swells  in  some  years  nine  feet  above 
its  banks,  though  its  bed  is  twelve  feet  deep.  About  nine  miles  from 
the  south  end  of  the  dam  of  Cattoekare  is  a  stone  dam  lying  across, 
built  up  with  large  hewn  stones,  some  of  which  are  from  seven  to 
eight  feet  long,  from  three  to  four  broad,  and  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  feet  thick,  made  fast  with  cement,  the  length  of  this  dam  is 
about  600  feet,  the  breadth  from  40  to  60  feet,  and  the  height  from 
8  to  12  feet.  The  whole  must  have  been  constructed  at  enormous 
labour.     Near  this  stone  dam  is  a  canal  to  lead  the  remaining  water 


CHAP.    I.]  CATTOEKARE    OR    GIANT'S    TANK.  495 

of  the  river  to  the  tank,  but  this  work  seems  to  have  been  abandoned 
about  half  way,  and  has  since  broken  down  at  four  different  places, 
where  it  discharges  itself  again  into  the  river.  Several  persons  have 
formed  fields  and  erected  small  tanks  within  the  Giants'  tank,  where 
at  the  date  of  this  report,  were  23  villages  with  cultivated  grounds, 
sufficient  to  sow  3,121  parrahs.  Outside  the  tank  are  a  great 
number  of  villages,  all  of  which  have  their  small  tanks,  for  the 
retention  of  water  for  their  own  use.  The  extent  occupied  by  these 
tillages  is  sufficient  to  sow  16,500  parrahs. 

"  The  extent  of  the  tank  Cattoekare  is  about  20,000  parrahs  of 
sowing  ground.  The  height  of  the  various  parts  of  the  dam  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  varies,  being  respectively  30  feet,  54  feet,  and  67 
feet.  The  natives  opine  that  from  the  mere  water  of  the  rivulets 
running  into  Cattoekare,  independent  of  the  river,  the  tank  might  be 
fully  supplied,  but  to  make  the  work  more  certain,  the  abandoned 
canal  might  be  continued,  and  would  only  need  to  be  four  feet  broad 
and  six  feet  deep,  by  which  means  the  superfluous  water  of  the  river 
would  find  its  way,  and  a  similar  canal  might  be  cut  on  the  north 
side  of  the  tank,  to  conduct  the  water  from  the  highlands  on  that 
side.  It  would  take  three  years  to  complete  this  work,  meanwhile  the 
agriculture  both  within  and  without  the  tank  might  be  carried  on  as 
before.  The  Mantotte  and  Nanaatan  districts  can  only  be  assisted 
with  water  from  Cattoekare  if  repaired,  being  a  land  of  large  extent 
and  without  mountains,  whence  there  is  little  rain.  This  land  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Werteltivoe  and  Pannengammo,  on  the 
east  by  Chitty  colom,  on  the  north-west  and  west  by  the  sea,  on  the 
south  by  the  Moessellie  river,  and  contains  255  large  and  small 
villages,  having  in  cultivated  grounds  21,000  parrahs.  Nanaatan  has 
in  addition  32  villages  to  the  south  of  the  Moessellie  river,  and  1 2 
villages  beyond  the  tank  Cattoekare,  which  cannot  be  irrigated  by 
that  tank,  but  only  by  the  repair  of  the  smaller  tanks  now  in  use, 
besides  these  are  23  villages  within  Cattoekare,  which  have  3,121 
parrahs  of  cultivated  grounds  which  by  repairing  the  said  tank  will 
be  done  away,  but  the  people  can  be  indemnified  with  a  similar 
quantum  of  land  outside.  This  part  of  the  country  cannot  be  sown 
without  artificial  irrigation,  from  the  paucity  of  rain,  and  the  ground 
is  hard  and  clayey  ;  the  crop  requires  water  therefore  from  the  time 
the  rain  ceases  until  it  is  fully  grown. 

"  A  custom  prevails  of  sowing  the  tanks  with  such  paddy  as  can 
bear  an  abundance  of  moisture,  and  this  is  done  before  the  rain,  with 
a  mammootie,  and  when  the  cultivator  can  do  nothing  else,  the 
ground  being  much  softer  there  than  in  the  ordinary  fields.  In 
process  of  time,  the  small  tanks  could  be  turned  into  fields. 
Some  of  the  small  tanks  are  still  in  a  tolerably  good  condition, 
and  their  repair  might  be  left  to  the  husbandmen  themselves, 
on  condition  that  the  money  be  not  paid  till  the  repairs  are  approved 
of.     The   extent  of  the  lands   outside    of  Cattoekare   is    166,000 


496  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

parrahs  of  ground,  from  which,  after  deducting  9 1 ,000  parrahs  for 
pasture  ground,  &c,  and  21,000  now  cultivated,  54,000  parrahs 
might  at  once  be  cultivated  and  turned  into  proper  fields,  making 
25,000  parrahs  which  can  be  supplied  with  water  from  the  Cattoekare, 
and  would  give  for  the  first  crop  70,000  parrahs  duty,  and  for  the 
second  15,000,  and  in  case  the  people  paid  one  tenth  more  for 
the  supply  of  water,  then  the  Government,  after  deducting  all 
expenses  for  repairing  the  dam,  sluices,  &c.  &c,  would  receive  an 
income  of  100,000  rix-dollars,  besides  the  benefit  to  the  people, 
and  the  maintenance  pf  an  increased  population.  The  cost  of 
repairing  the  Giant's  tank  he  estimates  at  250,000  rix-dollars.  The 
two  provinces  of  Mantotte  and  Nanaatan,"  says  Schneider,  "have  not 
this  year,  i.  e.  1808,  yet  contributed  2,000  rix-dollars,  and  it  is 
because  many  fields  have  been  abandoned  from  want  of  water  after 
the  crop  has  been  half  grown,  which  has  made  the  cultivator  dejected, 
and  has  depopulated  the  country.  The  repairs  of  the  small  tanks 
in  the  same  districts  in  a  season  of  plentiful  rain,  would  produce  a 
revenue  of  20,000  rix-dollars  per  annum,  but  this  could  only  be 
relied  on  in  case  of  rain.  The  soil  of  these  districts  is  naturally  rich, 
but  the  want  of  rain  for  years  together  has  caused  the  cultivator  to 
despair." 

The  next  stage  in  proceeding  northwards  from  Arippo  is  Bangalle, 
(Vankale),  eight  miles  distant,  a  village  in  the  district  of  Mantotte, 
situate  on  a  sandy  beach  near  the  sea.  It  has  a  Romish  Church 
built  of  stone,  but  the  inhabitants  are  far  from  numerous,  and  almost 
entirely  employed  in  the  fishery.  The  Colombo  road  branches  off 
here  in  two  directions,  one  leading  to  Manaar,  and  the  other  to 
Jaffna.  Four  miles  from  Bangalle  is  the  village  of  Mantotte 
(Mantai),  where  there  is  a  large  storehouse  used  as  a  depot  for  the 
tithe,  and  a  rest  house,  the  former  having  been  built  by  the  Por- 
tuguese for  a  church,  and  the  latter  as  a  parsonage  house  attached 
to  it. 

At  a  small  distance  to  the  east  of  the  village,  there  are  some 
ancient  ruins,  which  tradition  mentions  as  being  the  site  of  buildings 
belonging  to  a  company  of  goldsmiths,  but  there  cannot  be  a  question 
that  Mantotte  was  formerly  the  site  of  a  considerable  Gentoo  city,  if 
not  the  temporary  emporium  of  trade  between  the  East  and  West. 
It  is  supposed  by  Mr.  Tumour  to  have  been  founded  by  Elaala,  205 
b.o.,  but  he  does  not  state  the  grounds  on  which  he  rests  his 
opinion.  The  present  ruins  found  near  Mantotte,  and  which  are  of 
brick  and  mortar,  lead  us  back  no  further  than  six  centuries,  and 
coincide  with  the  date  of  Arabian  enterprise.  The  credulity  of  a 
degenerate  posterity,  and  the  mingled  feelings  of  admiration  and  awe 
with  which  they  witnessed  works  they  could  not  imitate,  has  led 
them  to  perplex  the  annals  of  their  foundation  with  the  web  of 
fiction,  and  to  assign  superhuman  proportions  to  the  architects  and 
labourers  employed  in  rearing  the  mighty  granitic  piles  that  have 


CHAP.    [.]  DISTRICT    OJP    MANTOTTE.  497 

baffled  the  devastation  of  ages.  Hence  the  robust  labour  segre- 
gated to  execute  the  magnificent  conceptions  of  a  monarch,  is  now 
impersonated  in  giants  of  forty  feet  stature,  or  demons  exorcised 
into  executing  the  behests  of  his  superior  will. 

In  the  time  of  De  Mello,  Commander  of  Manaar,  1575,  some 
Roman  houses  were  opened  in  the  province  of  Mantotte,  and  in  the 
time  of  the  Dutch,  many  Roman  ruins  and  pieces  of  mavble-work 
were  to  be  seen.  In  examining  the  foundation,  an  iron  chain  of  very 
different  form  and  design  to  any  thing  made  in  India,  was  dis- 
covered. They  found  also  three  pieces  of  copper  coin,  one  of  which 
was  entirely  worn  away,  and  a  gold  coin,  on  one  side  of  which 
was  the  image  of  a  man  from  the  breast  upwards  ;  at  the  edge  was 
deciphered  part  of  a  superscription,  in  which  the  letter  '  C,'  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  Claudius,  was  visible.  On  another  coin  were  dis- 
covered the  letters  '  R,  M,  N,  R,'  supposed  by  Valentyn  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  word  Romanorum.  The  same  writer  conjectures 
that  these  coins  were  brought  thither  by  the  freedman  of  Annius 
Plocamus,  but  I  confess  I  do  not  see  why  we  should  limit  ourselves 
to  such  a  source,  when  we  know  that  both  Roman  and  Greek  coins 
must  have  been  in  part  the  circulating  media  employed  in  Oriental 
commerce,  one  of  whose  emporia  was  doubtless  in  this  very  district. 

The  line  of  argument,  if  argument  it  can  be  called,  taken  by 
Major  Forbes,  in  his  notice  of  the  vestiges  of  antiquity  and  the 
traditions  of  former  mercantile  emporia  on  this  coast,  appears  to  me 
to  be  unworthy  of  a  writer,  whose  judgment  on  most  points  is  gene- 
rally so  sound.  Since  there  are  at  least  two  fallacies  discoverable  in 
his  argument,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  recapitulate  briefly  what 
the  advocates  of  the  threefold  point,  to  which  I  shall  presently 
advert,  infer  from  the  statements  of  the  ancient  writers,  our  know- 
ledge of  the  navigation  of  these  seas  by  the  ancients,  the  state  of 
navigation  during  the  middle  ages,  and  the  vestiges  of  great  an- 
tiquity that  still  remain.  That  point,  as  I  before  remarked,  is  of  a 
threefold  nature,  and  has  strict  reference  to  a  particular  time,  to 
particular  agency,  and  I  might  add,  a  particular  mode  of  operation. 
By  particular  time,  I  mean  to  imply  that  the  commerce  supposed  to 
have  had  its  centre  here,  as  an  emporium,  was  limited  to  a  con- 
tracted space,  one  of  the  incidents  either  unnoticed  or  misrepresented 
by  Major  Forbes  :  by  particular  agency,  I  refer  to  the  three  nations 
or  peoples  by  whom  this  commerce  was  conducted,  viz.  the  Shire  or 
Seres,  by  whom  the  eastern  transit  was  undertaken,  the  Malabars 
and  latterly  the  Indo-Moors,  who  acted  as  agens  de  change,  and  the 
Arabians  and  Greeks  who  engaged  in  the  western  transit,  that  is 
from  Ceylon,  and  at  different  epochs,  from  the  Malabar  coast.  But 
here  again,  Major  Forbes  is  at  fault,  and  he  confuses  the  three  com- 
ponents of  the  population  of  Ceylon  in  a  case,  in  which  a  dis- 
tinction is  absolutely  necessary  to  elucidate  the  subject.  By  a  par- 
ticular mode  of  operation,  I  refer  to  the  exchange  which  took  place 

2   K 


498  CEYLON.  [fAUT    IV- 

between  the  two  great  mercantile  nations.  The  principal  ground  of 
Major  Forbes's  hostility  to  the  whole  theory  in  question,  would  seem 
in  a  great  measure  to  rest  on  the  assumed  poverty  and  tameness  of 
character  of  the  Malabars  and  Indo-Moors.  But  this  is  a  point  on 
which  much  stress  need  not  be  laid,  though  I  cannot  allow,  without 
a  protest,  an  inference  of  their  former  to  be  drawn  from  their  present 
state.  But  I  maintain  further  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  shew  that 
the  Malabars  took  any  active  part  in  the  transaction  at  all ;  the 
country  inhabited  by  them,  or  in  their  power,  happened  by  a 
physical  accident  to  be  on  the  highway  of  the  trade  between  the  East 
and  the  West,  where  the  parties  to  the  trade  could  effect  a  mutual 
exchange,  and  save  on  either  side  a  protracted  navigation.  A 
hundred  circumstances  can  be  imagined,  all  within  the  range  of  pro- 
bability, to  account  either  for  the  Malabars,  &c.  themselves  partici- 
pating in  the  commerce,  their  contenting  themselves  with  deriving 
the  incidental  advantages  which  it  is  obvious  must  have  accrued  to 
them,  letting  alone  all  active  participation,  or  their  being  coerced  by 
the  Arabians  and  Greeks,  a  far  more  warlike  people,  into  resigning 
the  points  of  the  coast  which  would  avail  for  ensuring  the  safety  of 
mercantile  operations. 

One  circumstance  which  almost  amounts  to  a  proof  in  favour  of 
the  theory  I  have  endeavoured  to  expound,  is  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  country,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  theatre  of  this 
commerce.  The  soil  of  the  district,  though  far  from  barren  under 
irrigation,  is  naked  and  parched  to  an  extreme,  where  removed  from 
its  influence  ;  the  atmosphere  also  is  dry  to  an  excess,  from  the  hot 
winds  which  at  times  destroy  all  vegetation  within  their  range.  How 
came  it  to  pass,  then,  that  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation,  in  former 
times,  fixed  its  residence  in  this  most  unprofitable  and  uncongenial 
part  of  the  island,  and  what  were  the  causes  that  afterwards  made  it 
forsake  it,  and  leave  it  to  its  original  desolation  ?  Neither  the  facts 
that  the  Hindoo  invaders  of  Ceylon  occupied  this  country  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  their  inroads  into  the  interior,  and  erected  the  buildings, 
of  which  but  few  vestiges  remain,  or  that  pilgrims  from  the  penin- 
sula landed  here  in  great  numbers  on  their  way  to  the  renowned 
temples  of  the  north-east,  or  the  Sri  Pada  of  the  interior,  will  suffi- 
ciently account  for  this  influx  of  population  and  wealth.  Commerce, 
and  not  the  indulgence  of  a  spirit  of  conquest,  can  perhaps  alone  be 
legitimately  assigned. 

Prior  to  the  discovery  of  the  compass,  when  mariners  could  not 
safely  venture  out  of  sight  of  land,  they  had  no  alternative  in  passing 
from  the  Malabar  to  the  Coromandel  coast,  but  to  proceed  by  the 
strait  between  Ceylon  and  the  Peninsula,  or  by  rounding  the  island. 
To  effect  the  latter,  however,  by  keeping  close  to  the  island  is  im- 
practicable, except  by  waiting  for  the  changes  in  the  regular  mon- 
soons. The  south-west  that  blows  from  April  to  September,  and  is 
favourable  to  vessels  proceeding  from  Cape    Comorin   to   Manaar, 


CHAP.  I.]  MANTOTTE   AS    A    COMMERCIAL    EMPORIUM.  49(J 

renders  it  impracticable  to  proceed  thence  to  Dondera  Head.  The 
north  east  that  prevails  from  October  to  February,  while  facilitating 
the  passage  of  these  vessels  from  Manaar  to  Dondera  Head,  renders 
it  necessary  that  they  should  there  wait  again  for  the  south-west 
before  they  can  proceed  to  Trincomalee  or  the  Coromandel  coast. 
Such  being  the  case,  it  is  clear  that  vessels  would  rendezvous  in  the 
straits  of  Manaar,  or  the  Paumban  channel,  and  that  those  vessels 
which  from  their  size  could  not  pass,  would  be  unloaded,  and  the 
merchandize  either  be  removed  in  boats,  to  be  transhipped  in  other 
vessels,  as  they  arrived  from  the  opposite  coast  of  India,  or  be  de 
posited  in  stores  to  wait  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  necessary 
conveyance.  These  circumstances  are  sufficient  in  themselves  to  ac- 
count for  a  concourse  of  traders  on  the  shores  of  these  straits,  and 
the  adjacent  districts,  and  the  formation  of  numerous  establishments 
at  or  near  Manaar  for  their  convenience.  These  establishments 
would  call  into  existence,  and  give  an  impetus  to,  the  cultivation  of 
land  in  the  vicinity  which,  in  the  absence  of  that  extraordinary 
stimulant,  might  perhaps  have  lain  for  ever  uncultivated.  Many 
merchants  from  the  Persian  and  Arabian  Gulfs,  and  the  Malabar 
coast,  would  prefer  disposing  of  their  goods  at  such  a  depot,  and 
returning  home  with  their  ships  laden  with  the  produce  of  Coro- 
mandel and  the  Gangetic  provinces,  to  continuing  a  tedious  and 
hazardous  voyage.  The  discovery  of  the  compass  and  the  im- 
provements in  navigation,  at  once  altered  the  system.  Larger 
vessels  were  then  substituted,  which  kept  out  to  sea,  the  trading- 
through  tbe  straits  of  Manaar  soon  became  less  profitable,  and 
more  tedious  than  by  a  direct  voyage,  and  was  therefore  abandoned ; 
hence  followed  the  decay  of  the  establishments  at  Manaar  and 
Mantotte,  and  the  consequent  depopulation  of  the  country. 

"When  these  mercantile  establishments  were  thus  on  the  wane,  and 
began  to  be  reduced  in  strength  and  population,  it  is  very  possible 
that  the  Singhalese  princes,  feeling  their  superiority,  attacked  the 
remnant  and  reduced  the  Aareya  Chakkra  Warti  from  a  state  of 
independence  to  a  recognition  of  their  supremacy. 

The  vicinity  of  the  pearl  fishery  to  these  districts  may  also  have 
added  to  the  inducements  of  trading  nations  to  make  them  the  seat 
of  exchange,  though  it  would  not  in  itself  be  a  sufficient  inducement 
to  tempt  them  to  establish  a  permanent  residence  in  so  arid  a  country, 
while  Tutacorin  was  the  recognised  seat  of  the  fishery. 

The  whole  district  of  Mantotte1  (Mahatottam,  "Great  Garden") 
is  surrounded  with  a  halo  of  interest  for  the  antiquary,  and  it  is  far 
from  improbable  that  the  measures  that  cannot  fail  to  be  taken, 
sooner  or  later,  to  restore  its  former  fertility  to  this  neglected  but 
very  capable  district,  may  evoke  some  relic  of  the  past  to  elucidate 
what  is  now  shrouded  in  mystery.     Mantotte  is  bounded  on  the  east 

1  Matotte,  or  Mantotte,  has  been  sometimes  confounded  with  Mahawettatotte, 
it  the  mouth  of  the  Kotti-aaiv 

2    K    2 


500  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

by  the  Wanny,  on  the  north  by  the  channel  which  divides  Manaar 
from  the  main  land,  and  on  the  south  by  Nanaatan.  The  face  of  the 
country  is  almost  level,  but  from  the  ruined  state  of  the  tanks,  the 
whole  district  does  not  produce  more  than  30,000  parrahs  of  paddy, 
although  its  facilities  for  irrigation  are  very  great.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  composed  of  Malabars,  and  live  in  147  villages.  The  repair  of 
the  tanks,  exclusive  of  Kattoekare,  wovdd  not  exceed  £5 50.  and  the 
tithe  to  Government  would  be  5000  parrahs  of  paddy.  Salt  pans  are 
found  in  some  parts  of  this  coast,  and  formerly  yielded  a  large  supply. 

The  island  of  Manaar  (Mannarama1),  so  called  from  the  Tamil 
words,  man,  sand,  and  aar,  river,  is  separated  from  the  coast  of  Ceylon 
by  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  varying  in  breadth  from  two  to  three 
miles  at  high  water,  but  at  ebb  tide  it  appears  to  be  little  more  than 
a  rivulet,  and  is  then  fordable.  It  lies  between  8°  56'  and  9°  0'  50" 
north  lat.,  and  79°  50'  and  80°  8'  east  long.,  is  eighteen  miles  long, 
and  from  two  to  four  broad,  is  the  point  of  Ceylon  nearest  to  the 
Indian  peninsula,  its  north-western  extremity  being  thirty  miles  from 
Ramisseram,  and  contains  twenty-two  villages.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  island  is  low  ground,  exhibiting  a  mixture  of  shells  and  sand 
worked  up  by  the  waves  ;  the  soil  is  scarcely  anywhere  adapted  for 
the  operations  of  agriculture,  and  the  water  is  generally  impregnated 
with  salt,  It  is  chiefly  planted  with  cocoa-nut  and  palmyra  trees, 
besides  a  small  variety  of  shrubs  and  vegetables,  among  which  cotton 
predominates.  The  climate  differs  little  from  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring coast,  and  the  inhabitants  enjoy  good  health  throughout  the 
year,  except  at  the  first  setting  in  of  the  monsoon  rains,  when  they 
are  subject  to  a  malignant  fever  and  ague,  which  often  prove  fatal. 
Salt  forms  spontaneously  on  the  island,  but  not  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  in  the  Leways.  In  the  most  wild  and  uncultivated  parts 
of  the  sandy  tracts,  the  best  Chaya  root  is  produced,  the  collection 
of  which  forms  the  exclusive  occupation  of  a  particular  class  of  people 
callec^Kadeyas.  The  chanks  found  a  little  to  the  northward  of 
Manaar  are  plentiful,  but  devoid  of  that  brilliant  whiteness  for  which 
those  of  Calpentyn  are  held  in  estimation.  Both  the  channel  and 
the  gulf  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  which  are  caught  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  and  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Histoire  de  la  Compagnie  de 
Jesus,  that  in  1560  seven  mermaids  were  caught  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Manaar  by  the  fishermen,  and  were  dissected  by  the  physician  to 
the  Viceroy  of  Goa. 

Manaar  is  famous  for  its  large  breed  of  black  cattle  and  goats  ; 
from  the  milk  of  the  latter  the  people  manufacture  a  coarse  kind  of 
cream  cheese,  small  and  round,  the  art  of  which  was  probably  com- 
municated to  them  by  the  Dutch.  Sheep  thrive  here  better  than 
in  any  other  part  of  Ceylon,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  extensive  sheep 
walks  between  Jaffnapatam  and  Point  Pedro.    Butcher's  meat,  poultry, 

1  The  etymology  I  would  venture  to  propose  is  Raman-aar,  or  Rama's  river, 
in  which  cat>e  the  excision  of  the  first  syllable  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place. 


CHAP.    I.]  THE    ISLAND    AND    TOWN    OF    MANAAR.  501 

game,  fruit,  rice,  and  vegetables,  are  procurable  at  a  low  rate.  Paddy 
is  sown  in  the  Manaar  district  in  September  and  October,  and  reaped 
in  March  ;  Kurukkan  is  sown  in  September,  and  reaped  in  December  ; 
Gingilie  is  sown  in  March  and  reaped  in  May. 

The  town  of  Manaar  is  situated  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  island,  and  is  about  142  miles  N.N.W.  of  Colombo.  It  has  a 
small  square  fort,  surrounded  by  a  wide  ditcb,  which  stands  so  close 
to  the  channel,  that  it  may  be  seen  from  the  opposite  shore  of 
Ceylon.  This  fort  contains,  besides  the  officers'  quarters,  magazines 
and  barracks,  a  small  Protestant  church,  and  two  reservoirs  of  water. 
During  war  it  is  a  dependency  of  Jaffna,  and  was,  at  one  time,  com- 
manded by  a  field  officer,  but  at  present  is  tenanted  by  invalids,  and 
is  used  as  a  depot  for  salt.  In  the  time  of  the  Dutch,  a  strong 
garrison  was  kept.  At  the  distance  of  a  furlong  from  the  fort  through 
an  avenue  of  Suria  trees,  stands  the  town,  which  is  small  but  neat,  con- 
taining several  good  houses,  a  court  house,  a  large,  commodious,  and 
well  supplied  bazaar,  several  chapels  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholics, 
and  a  church  attached  to  the  Reformed  faith  of  Holland.  Besides 
the  principal  streets  occupied  by  the  burghers,  there  are  a  great 
number  of  smaller  ones,  in  which  the  natives  reside,  and  which 
extend  into  the  country.  Manaar  has  a  small  custom-house  establish- 
ment ;  its  exports,  which  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Coromandel 
coast,  consist  of  chanks,  chaya  root,  palmyra  rafters,  areka  nuts, 
gingilie,  ironwood  timber,  and  salt  fish  ;  and  its  imports  of  cloth, 
rice,  paddy,  spices,  and  drugs.  The  harbour,  though  shallow,  is 
completely  sheltered. 

The  village  of  Pesale,  or  Pcixale,  composed  of  the  two  Tamil  words 
pe,  devil,  and  sale,  a  hall,  so  called  from  its  having  once  been  the 
resort  of  sorcerers,  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  the  island.  It 
is  about  twelve  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Manaar,  on  a  sandy  beach 
near  the  sea,  and  is  considered  a  good  situation  for  the  fishery.  The 
inhabitants  who  are  chiefly  Parawas,  from  the  continent,  exceed 
1000  in  number,  and  employ  more  than  200  canoes  in  their  calling. 
When  the  Portuguese  were  in  possession  of  the  island  they  erected 
a  very  splendid  church  at  some  distance  from  the  beach,  but  as  it 
had  crumbled  into  ruins,  a  new  one  has  been  erected  in  its  neighbour- 
hood. Karsel  is  a  village  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  about  eight 
miles  north-west  of  Manaar.  A  government  cotton  plantation  was 
once  formed  here  ;  but,  the  first  produce  proving  insufficient  to  pay 
the  expense,  it  was  abandoned.  This  village  is  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  its  gardens,  and  the  excellence  of  its  water. 

St.  Pedro,  about  five  miles  north-west  of  Manaar,  was  so  named  by 
the  Portuguese,  from  the  church  dedicated  to  St.  Peter.  It  has  a  fine 
harbour,  and  was  formerly  the  depot  for  the  chanks  fished  along  the 
coast,  previous  to  their  exportation  to  Bengal.  About  a  mile  west  of 
the  Tillage  stands  a  round  tower,  by  some  thought  to  have  been  erected 
by  the  early  Mahommedan  settlers,  by  others  to  have  been  built  by 
the  Portuguese  as  a  watch-tower,  for  noticing  the  approach  of  vessels. 


502  CEYLON.  [PART  IV, 

Totawelle  (the  garden  plain)  is  about  three  miles  to  the  west 
of  Manaar,  and  is  inhabited  by  Kadeyas,  who  dig  for  chaya  root, 
which  is  exported  to  Madura  and  other  parts  of  the  Coromandel 
coast.  The  Portuguese  built  a  fine  church  here,  but  it  has  long 
since  fallen  to  ruins,  and  a  new  one  has  been  built  by  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  all  Roman  Catholics. 

Talamanaar  is  a  village  at  the  south-west  angle  of  the  island,  from 
which  travellers  are  ferried  over  to  the  continent  of  India,  and  con- 
tains upwards  of  300  inhabitants,  principally  fishermen.  The  wind 
to  which  this  part  of  the  island  is  very  much  exposed  is  continually 
throwing  up  huge  mounds  of  sand. 

According  to  the  traditions  of  the  natives,  Manaar  was  in  early 
times  the  hereditary  property  of  the  Kadeyas,  and  exclusively  occu- 
pied by  them,  but  subject  to  the  King  of  Jaffna.  In  the  eighth 
century  the  Mahommedan1  emigrants  from  Arabia  formed  a  consider- 
able settlement  on  the  island,  and  from  its  position  between  Ceylon 
and  the  peninsula  of  India,  chose  it  as  the  emporium  of  their  com- 
merce, and  guarded  the  two  passages  in  the  neighbourhood  with  an 
armed  force.  But  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese  this 
establishment  was  already  on  the  wane,  and  shortly  afterwards 
ceased  to  exist.  In  1503  the  Kadeyas  to  a  man  embraced  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  with  what  results  we  have  elsewhere  shewn. 
In  1590  the  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Portuguese,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  attempts  made  by  the  King  of.  Jaffna  to  retake 
it,  they  retained  it  till  1650,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  after 
a  short  resistance.  During  the  government  of  the  Portuguese  it  was 
their  head  quarters  in  the  northern  provinces,  and  a  Captain-General 
permanently  resided  there.  It-  was  here  also  they  detained  the 
empress  Donna  Catharina,  whom  they  employed  as  a  tool  for  the 
furtherance  of  their  intei'ests  in  Ceylon.  Nowhere  were  their  attempts 
to  propagate  their  faith  more  active  than  here,  and  the  success  which 
attended  their  labour  is  to  this  day  evident,  by  the  fact  that  there 
are  few  persons  of  any  other  sect  or  religion  at  Manaar,  and  none  in 
the  adjacent  district  of  Mantotte. 

The  Dutch  soon  rendered  themselves  unpopular  with  the  inhabi- 
tants by  their  endeavours  to  supplant  the  Romish  religion,  and, 
though  they  subsequently  became  more  tolerant,  yet  they  never 
gained  the  affections  of  the  people ;  and  when  they  contemplated 
levying  a  tax  on  the  fish  caught  by  the  Parawas,  who  are  the  princi- 
pal inhabitants,  some  opposition  was  made,  and  numbers  emigrated 
to  the  opposite  coast,  placing  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
Raja  of  Ramnad,  and  did  not  return  to  the  island  till  the  Dutch  had 
given  a  solemn  assurance  of  the  abandonment  of  the  tax.  Manaar 
was  taken  by  the  British  in  1795. 

1  The  Mahommedan  merchants  are  said  to  have  had  immense  depots  here, 
both  of  the  productions  of  Ceylon  for  the  export  trade,  and  the  manufactures 
and  productions  of  the  Mahommedan  states  settled  along  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Persian  Gulf. 


CHAP  .  I.]    CONNEXION  BETWEEN  RAMISSERAM  AND  THE  MAIN.      503 

The  navigation  for  large  vessels  near  the  shore  between  Manaar 
and  Karetivoe  is  rather  dangerous,  as  there  are  many  banks  inter- 
spersed, but  small  ones  drawing  seven  or  eight  feet  of  water  only, 
and  acquainted  with  the  coast,  pass  inside  or  between  some  of  them. 
Ships  making  for  Manaar,  when  three  or  three  and  a  half  leagues 
west  of  Karetivoe,  steer  to  the  north-east,  keeping  a  good  look  out, 
and  the  lead  going,  the  soundings  being  irregular  over  a  rocky 
bottom,  until  seven  or  eight  fathoms  near  the  island,  under  these 
depths  they  decrease  gradually  towards  it  to  five  fathoms  sandy 
ground.  In  this  track  there  are  sometimes  overfalls  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  fathoms  to  two  or  three  fathoms  less  at  a  cast.  If  a 
vessel  shoal  to  eight  fathoms  hard  ground  in  passing  near  the  reef  or 
outermost  banks,  she  must  instantly  haul  to  the  westward.  From 
this  part  of  Ceylon  to  the  Tinevelly  coast,  soundings  extend  across 
the  gult*  to  the  southward  of  Adam's  bridge,  but  the  outer  limit  of  the 
bank  is  not  even  yet  known  to  Europeans,  as  the  navigation  of  the 
gulf  to  the  northward  of  Colombo  is  principally  limited  to  coasters. 

The  gut  between  Manaar  and  Mantotte  has  in  some  places  ten  or 
twelve  feet  at  high  water,  in  others  not  more  than  six,  it  is  only 
therefore  navigable  for  dhonies  and  small  country  boats,  but  the  only 
anchorage  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  in  four  or  five  fathoms, 
and  four  or  five  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  gut.  This  channel, 
moreover,  does  not  appear  capable  of  any  material  improvement,  as 
there  is  a  bar  opposite  to  its  south  end. 

In  entering  upon  an  investigation,  or  rather  speculation,  as  to  the 
original  state  of  Palk's  Strait,  and  of  the  Paumban  channel,  and  to  what 
cause  the  latter  is  indebted  for  its  existence,  we  must  needs  commence 
by  assuming  that  most  probable  of  theories,  the  original  junction  of 
Ramisseram  with  the  main  land.  That  done,  we  may  account  by  a  very 
clear  analogy,  bearing  in  mind  the  disruptions  and  convulsions  of  the 
earth's  surface  even  in  the  temperate  zone,  for  its  separation  at  a  sub- 
sequent period  from  the  Peninsula.  Fabulous  and  obscure  as  most  of 
the  traditions  handed  down  respecting  the  deeds  of  Rama  and  his 
opponent  may  be,  it  does  not  seem  impossible,  if  we  consider  how 
recklessly  labour  has  been  lavished  in  every  age  of  Eastern  despotism, 
but   that  Rama,  having  completed  the  Saitubaudha1   or  causeway 

1  Hindoo  history  evidently  alludes  to  Adam's  or  Rama's  bridge,  in  recounting 
the  wars  of  Lanka,  and  attributes  to  Rama,  the  son  of  Cush,  an  incarnate  deity 
of  the  first  rank  in  Hindoo  mythology,  the  conquest  of  the  island  with  an  army  of 
Indian  satyrs  ;  and  states  that  Rama's  General,  the  prince  of  satyrs,  called 
Hanuman,  from  his  high  cheek  bones,  and  son  of  Pavon,  the  Indian  god  of  storms 
and  winds,  and  one  of  the  eight  Genii,  soon  raised  with  workmen  of  such  agility 
a  bridge  of  rocks  over  the  sea,  part  of  which,  say  the  Hindoos,  yet  remains. 
Sir  W.  Jones  in  alluding  to  this,  inquires  if  this  army  of  satyrs  might  not  have 
been  only  a  race  of  mountaineers  whom  Rama  had  civilized,  and  concludes  with 
mentioning,  that  the  large  breed  of  Indian  apes  was  even  in  his  time  held  in  high 
veneration  by  the  Hindoos,  and  fed  with  devotion  by  the  Brahmins,  who  seem  in 
two  or  three  places  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  to  have  a  regular  endowment  for 


504  CEYLON,  [PART   IV. 

through  the  then  existing  straits,  (which  we  are  told  have  been  much 
deeper  in  ancient  times)  may  have  marched  his  army  across  it  from 
the  continent  to  the  invasion  of  Ceylon,  and  hence  have  given  this 
name  of  Rama's  bridge.  The  accomplishment  of  a  similar  undertaking 
is  represented  by  the  native  annalists  to  have  been  effected  by 
Gajabahoo,  a.d.  113. 

The  Paumban  passage,  or  as  it  is  called  by  the  inhabitants,  the 
Paumban  river,  is  a  narrow  opening  through  a  dam  or  ridge  of  rocks, 
extending  from  the  island  of  Ramisseram  to  the  opposite  promontory, 
on  the  continent  to  the  east  of  Ramnad,  and  is  situate  between  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk's  Strait.  The  continuation  of  the  rocks  or 
dam  can  be  easily  traced  on  the  main  land  and  island  of  Ramisseram 
preserving  exactly  the  same  direction,  but  rising  on  both  sides  several 
feet  higher  than  the  dam  in  its  natural  position,  and  in  uniform 
layers,  having  a  small  inclination  to  the  south.  The  ridges  which 
form  the  dam,  were  very  much  broken  and  displaced,  consisting  of 
large  flat  masses  of  rocks,  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  feet  in 
thickness.  Their  shattered  state,  and  the  break  or  chasm  which 
they  form  in  the  general  height  of  the  stratum  of  rock,  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  island  of  Ramisseram  was  at  one  time  connected 
with  the  main  land,  and  that  it  had  been  separated  in  the  first 
instance  by  the  sea  during  storms  breaking  over  and  bursting  the 
chain  of  rocks  which  joined  them,  and  afterwards  by  the  water 
undermining  and  displacing  the  broken  fragments. 

This  supposition  corresponds  with  the  tradition  of  the  inhabitants  ; 
for  the  Brahmins  of  Ramisseram  state  that  when  Achoodapah  Naig 
was  Raja  of  Madura,  a.d.  1484,  the  island  was  connected  with  the 
continent,  and  that  the  Saumy  of  Ramisseram  was  carried  to  the 
mainland  thrice  every  year  on  particular  festivals.  During  the  reign 
of  Achoodapah  Naig,  a  small  breach  in  the  rock  was  caused  by  a 
•violent  storm,  but  as  there  was  no  great  depth  of  water  in  it,  travellers 
still  continued  to  cross  on  foot  till  the  time  of  his  successor, 
Vissoovana  Naig,  when  the  breach  was  much  enlai'ged  by  a  second 
storm.  The  Divan  Ramapiah  was  ordered  to  fill  up  the  breach  that 
the  pilgrims  of  the  pagoda  at  Ramisseram  might  passwithout  difficulty; 
this  was  accordingly  done,  and  the  repairs  lasted  about  ten  years, 
when  a  third  hurricane  reopened  and  greatly  extended  the  breach. 
The  rock  of  which  the  dam  is  composed,  is  a  sand  stone,  varying 

their  support  :  they  live  in  tribes  of  three  or  four  hundred,  are  wonderfully 
gentle,  and  appear  to  have  some  kind  of  order  and  subordination  in  their  little 
sylvan  polity." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Mahommedans  assert  with  about  equal  reason,  that  the 
bridge  of  Islets  bearing  the  name  of  the  common  father  of  mankind,  was  formed 
by  angels  to  permit  his  passage  to  Hindostan,  after  having  dropped  upon  the 
mountain  Hamalell,  when  expelled  from  the  celestial  paradise ;  and  it  has  been 
also  asserted,  that  the  persecuted  followers  of  Boodh  or  Buddha,  when  driven' 
from  the  continent  by  the  Brahmins,  sought  a  secure  resting  place  for  themselves 
and  for  the  unmolested  exercise  of  their  religion,  by  passing  over  this  causeway 
to  Ceylon. 


CHAP.    I.]  DESCRIPTION    OF    ADAM'S    BRIDGE.  505 

considerably  in  quality  and  compactness,  but  every  where  soft,  and 
easily  pierced  and  broken.  The  dam  was  2,250  yards  in  length, 
and  bounded  by  two  parallel  ridges  of  rock  about  140  yards  apart. 
From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  inferred  that  the  Paumban 
channels  have  gradually  been  becoming  deeper  by  the  action  of  the 
waves  and  currents  upon  the  ledges  of  rock  which  impede  the 
passage,  and  that  if  there  ever  was  any  channel  through  which  large 
ships  could  pass,  between  Ceylon  and  the  continent,  it  must  have 
been  during  some  temporary  shifting  of  the  sand  banks  between 
Manaar  and  Ramisseram, 

The  account  given  by  Baldseus  of  the  shifting  of  the  impediments 
at  one  of  the  channels  at  Adam's  bridge  by  the  Portuguese,  as  if  they 
were  the  lock-gates  of  a  canal,  in  order  to  allow  their  fleet,  menaced 
by  the  Dutch,  to  escape  from  this  outlet,  is  hardly  worthy  of  consi- 
deration, and  difficult  of  belief ;  for  in  that  case  either  some  of  the 
channels  must  have  been  deeper  in  former  days,  or  the  ships  must 
have  been  of  a  small  size.  Adam's  bridge*  itself  is  a  very  extraor- 
dinary formation.  It  is  only  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth, 
and  consists  entirely  of  sand,  partly  above  and  partly  below  water, 
collected  apparently  by  the  surf  and  currents,  and  unsupported,  as  far 
as  has  yet  been  ascertained,  by  rock.  The  east  end  was  pierced  to 
the  depth  of  thirty  feet ;  and  nothing  found  but  sand;  on  each  side  of 
the  bank  at  the  distance  of  from  two  to  three  miles,  the  sea  is  six 
fathoms  deep,  and  quite  free  from  obstructions  of  every  kind. 

There  are  three  principal  openings  across  A.dam's  bridge,  one  near  the 
north-west  end  of  Manaar,  called  the  Talmanaar  passage  ;  the  second, 
eight  miles  further  to  the  west,  and  the  third  about  eleven  miles  from 
the  island  of  Ramisseram,  termed  the  Tannycoody  passage,  this  last 
has  been  examined  and  surveyed.  It  is  narrow  in  the  centre,  and 
thirty  feet  deep,  with  broad  curved  bars  opposite  to  its  two  ends,  on 
which  there  is  not  more  than  five  or  six  feet  of  water.  The  bank 
between  it  and  Ramisseram  is  entire,  and  several  feet  above  water. 
The  Talmanaar  passage  exactly  resembles  that  of  Tannycoody, 
but  it  is  not  so  deep,  there  being  only  about  three  feet  of  water  on  its 
north  bar.  The  intermediate  opening  has  never  been  examined,  but 
from  its  appearence,  there  is  little  doubt  of  its  corresponding  very 
nearly  with  the  other  two.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Talmanaar  and 
Tannycoody  openings,  the  bank  is  visible  above  water  for  several 
miles,  intersected  by  only  a  few  narrow  openings,  but  towards  its 
centre  it  is  chiefly  covered  with  water,  and  very  little  sand  is  to  be 
seen,  though  from  the  surf  breaking  exactly  on  the  line  of  the  bank, 
the  depth  of  water  cannot  exceed  two  or  three  feet. 

1  Adam's  bridge  is  called  by  the  natives  "  Tiroowanai,"  or  the  sacred  embank- 
ment, and  "  Seetapandanam,"  or  the  structure  of  Seeta.  Valmika,  in  his  Uttara 
kanda,  cap.  xviii,  describes  the  bridge  as  being  ten  yojens  in  breadth,  and  one 
hundred  in  length,  and  composed  of  no  other  materials  than  huge  rocks  piled  up 
in  a  chain  by  the  Vdnaras,  under  the  direction  of  Nala,  one  of  the  chief  engineers 
of  the  gods. 


506  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

During  both  monsoons,  on  the  lee  side  of  the  bank,  there  are  a  great 
number  of  irregular  shifting  sand  banks  scattered  about,  on  which 
there  are  from  two  to  four  feet  of  water,  with  passages  between  them 
eight  or  nine  feet  deep.  The  weather  side  on  the  contrary,  particu- 
larly towards  the  end  of  the  monsoon,  is  in  great  measure  clear  of 
such  banks,  and  the  surf  breaks  on  its  shore  nearly  in  a  straight  con- 
tinued line.  When  the  monsoon  changes,  the  strength  and  prevailing 
direction  of  the  current  change  too,  and  the  loose  sand  of  which  the 
shifting  banks  are  composed,  on  what  was  the  lee  side,  being  stirred 
up  by  the  surf  and  sea,  is  swept  by  the  current  through  the  channels, 
and  deposited  on  the  opposite  side,  partly  on  the  bars  and  partly  in 
loose  detached  heaps  along  the  bank.  These  deposits  appear  to  be 
further  increased  by  the  sand  thrown  upon  the  weather  shore  by  the 
surf,  which,  as  soon  as  it  becomes  dry,  is  carried  by  the  wind  across 
the  bank  into  the  sea  on  the  other  side.  When  the  wind  is  strong, 
a  continued  stream  of  sand  is  swept  across  the  bank  into  the  sea  on 
the  lee  side.  The  beach  of  Adam's  bridge,  therefore,  to  the  distance 
of  about  a  mile  on  both  sides,  is  continually  changing  and  shifting ; 
on  the  weather  side  it  is  generally  clear,  except  immediately  opposite 
to  the  channels  where  there  are  always  projecting  bars,  while  on  the 
opposite  side  there  are  many  loose  banks  scattered  about,  and  con- 
stantly changing  and  varying  in  position  and  extent  as  the  monsoon 
advances,  and  according  to  the  state  of  the  sea  and  weather.  During 
both  monsoons  rather  a  high  surf  breaks  on  the  weather  side  of  the 
bank,  but  the  south-west  monsoon  produces  much  the  highest  surf, 
accompanied  by  a  long  heavy  swell.  During  part  of  the  north-east 
monsoon  the  surf  breaks  on  both  sides  of  the  banks.  Dhonies  and 
fishing  boats  occasionally  used  to  pass  through  the  openings  in  fine 
weather,  but  the  passage  was  attended  with  difficulty  and  danger, 
and  was  not  common. 

The  practicability  of  opening  a  channel  sufficiently  deep  for 
all  classes  of  ships,  and  keeping  it  open,  was  found  to  be  doubtful. 
A  strong  double  bulwark  of  stones  across  the  bank,  extending  into 
deep  water  on  both  sides,  with  a  narrow  opening  of  100  or  200  feet 
might  perhaps  have  accomplished  the  object.  The  velocity  of  the 
current  would  probably  keep  a  narrow  fixed  channel  of  that  descrip- 
tion always  sufficiently  deep,  and  sweep  off  any  sand  that  might  be 
carried  into  it,  either  by  the  sea  or  by  the  wind  ;  and,  as  the  bulwark 
would  extend  into  deep  water  beyond  the  shifting  sands  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  surf,  its  ends  might  possibly  be  kept  free  from  sand. 
The  danger  to  be  chiefly  apprehended  was  the  formation  of  bars 
opposite  to  the  ends  of  the  channel,  similar  to  what  were  found  in 
front  of  the  natural  openings,  but  as  the  current  is  rapid  and  extends 
into  deep  water  it  is  likely  that  what  did  pass  through  it  wTould  be 
dissipated  and  disappear. 

In  1836,  the  Government  of  Madras  made  an  application  to  that 
of  Bombay,  for  a  surveying  party  to  examine  the  gulf  of  Manaar. 
The  idea  of  this   undertaking   originated  with  General  Monteith, 


CHAP.    1.]  FORMATION    OF    A    NAVIGABLE    CHANNEL.  507 

Chief  of  the  Madras  Engineers,  who  had  been  wrecked  on  the  shores 
of  the  gulf  in  1809,  and  had  felt  the  strongest  possible  desire  to  see 
its  coasts  and  shoals,  and  sunken  rocks,  examined  and  laid  down, 
with  a  view  as  far  as  possible,  to  diminish  the  obstructions  to  navi- 
gation. A  party  was  therefore  detached  from  Captain  Moresby  to 
undertake  this  service,  and  a  party  of  Madras  engineers,  and  about 
fifty  convicts  were  engaged  under  the  direction  of  General,  then 
Colonel  Monteith,  in  cutting  a  navigable  channel  through  two  formid- 
able ledges  of  rock,  extending  from  the  island  of  Ramisseram  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  the  continent. 

The  passage  through  these  rocks,  while  they  remained  in  their 
natural  state,  had  a  depth  of  at  most  six  or  seven  feet,  while  on  the 
Great  Horse  Shoe-bank,  a  little  to  the  south,  there  was  scarcely  a 
depth  of  five  feet  at  high- water.  In  despite  of  these  obstacles,  however 
large  numbers  of  small  craft  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  had  long 
made  use  of  the  channel,  though  they  had  been  always  compelled  to 
land  a  portion  of  their  cargoes  on  entering  the  strait.     The  principal 
object  of  the  Madras  Government  was  now  therefore,    to  widen,  and 
deepen  the  passage,  so  as  to  obtain  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  for 
vessels  of  moderate  burden,  and  for  the  steamers  from  the   Red  Sea 
to  Calcutta  when  established.     As  it  has  been  already  observed,  up 
to  1837,  all  vessels  beyond  the  smallest  class  were  compelled  in  pass- 
ing  from  one  side  of  the  Indian  peninsula  to  the  other,   to  beat 
round  Ceylon,  often  in  the  teeth   of  heavy  and  contrary  winds,  and 
always  against  currents  more  or  less  powerful.     The  addition  thus 
made  to  their  voyage,  averaged  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances, 2000  miles,  but  as  it  was  often  necessary  to  run  down   ten 
degrees  of  latitude,  before  they  could  open  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  they 
had  to  sail  full  3500  miles,  ere  they  regained  the  directer  course. 
The  craft  exposed  to  this  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time,  were  em- 
ployed in  the  conveyance   of  the  produce  of  Malabar,   Travancore, 
and  other  fertile  provinces,  to  Madras.     Prices,  as  it  will  easily  be 
conceived,  were  very  materially  enhanced  by  such   a  state  of  things 
on  the  Coromandel  coast.     Fewer  persons  would  engage  in  the  trade 
on  account  of  the  dangers  to  be   apprehended  in  rounding  Ceylon ; 
while  the  mere  length  of  the  voyage  by  increasing   the  wages  of 
crews,  and  the  interest  of  capital,  necessarily  raised  the  cost  of  com- 
modities.    Its   chief  effect,    however,   was  to  confine  the  coasting 
trade  to  small  vessels,  which  by  the  slow  process  of  unloading  and 
reloading,  could  reach  their  point  of  destination  through  the  gulf  of 
Manaar  and  the  Paumban  passage.    Where  Nature  has  in  a  sportive 
or  capricious  mood,  barred  or  endangered  the  progress  of  man,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  she  has  ever  summoned  forth  increased  energy  and 
resolution  in  her  children  for  the  encounter.     Hence  on  the  little 
island  of  Ramisseram,  is  to  be  found  a  hardy  race  of  native  pilots  ; 
and  the  village  of  Paumban  owes  its  existence  to  the  intricacy  and 
shallowness  of  the    neighbouring    channel.       Circumstances    might 
occur  which  would  render  the  impracticability  of  this  route  a  public 


508  CEYLON.  [PAET   IV. 

calamity.  Thus  during  the  war  in  Affghanistan  '  the  Enterprise,' 
a  well  built  and  powerful  steamer,  bound  with  treasure  and  arms  for 
Kurrachee,  was  completely  beaten  back  and  detained  for  weeks  by 
the  force  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  while  numbers  of  coasting  ves- 
sels were  passing  and  repassing  daily  through  the  Paumban  channel, 
completely  under  the  shelter  of  land.  The  attention  of  Government 
had  been  directed  to  this  subject  as  far  back  as  1828,  when  some 
efforts  were  made  towards  removing  the  principal  obstacles  to  the 
navigation,  but  were  discontinued  for  reasons  not  known. 

The  geological  structure  of  the  strait  is  curious.  An  immense 
congeries  of  rocks,  many  of  them  rising  to  the  surface  of  the  waves, 
obstructed  the  channel  for  2960  feet,  and  between  these  at  high 
water,  the  small  and  venturous  craft  of  the  country  threaded  their 
tortuous  and  somewhat  dangerous  course.  The  northern  extremity 
consists  of  coral  and  limestone  to  which  succeeds  shingle,  mixed  with 
granite  boulders,  but  not  loose.  This  passed,  a  breadth  of  blue  soft 
sandstone  mixed  with  lime  and  madrepore  succeeds.  Then  follows 
the  great  northern  reef  composed  of  hard  red  sandstone,  and  extend- 
ing east  and  west  almost  in  a  right  line.  A  broad  belt  of  broken 
sandstone  interspersed  with  boulders  of  other  substances  next  suc- 
ceeds, and  the  southern  reef,  consisting  like  the  former,  with  which 
it  runs  parallel,  of  hard  red  sandstone,  follows.  A  bed  of  the  same 
rock,  but  less  indurated,  then  stretches  southwards  to  the  site  of  the 
great  sand-bank. 

As  may  be  supposed  "  the  practical  men"  as  usual  pronounced 
this  undertaking  ridiculous,  and  viewed  the  obstacles  to  its  comple- 
tion insurmountable,  while  the  Court  of  Directors,  ever  slow  in 
advancing  any  thing  to  promote  objects  beyond  their  own  narrow 
range  of  vision,  had  little  faith  in  the  success  of  the  enterprise,  and 
were  indisposed  to  expend  a  competent  sum  for  its  execution.  Un- 
daunted by  the  apathy  that  prevailed,  Colonel  Monteith,  perfectly 
confident  that  if  the  requisite  means  were  placed  at  his  disposal,  he 
could  cut  through  the  interposing  reefs  a  channel  of  fourteen  feet  at 
low,  and  sixteen  at  high -water,  and  at  the  same  time  of  sufficient 
breadth  to  allow  of  its  being  safely  navigated  at  all  seasons,  perse- 
vered, and  finally  succeeded  in  obtaining  his  authority.  He  located 
his  gang  of  convicts  at  Ramisseram,  where  he  likewise  erected  bar- 
racks for  the  troops.  A  large  diving  bell  five  tons  in  weight  was 
sent  him  from  Ceylon :  he  purchased  or  constructed  a  number  of 
catamarans,  and  with  the  least  possible  delay,  commenced  operations. 
Great  energy  and  perseverance  were  exhibited  by  all  parties,  the 
sappers  and  convicts  working  almost  continually  in  the  water,  diving, 
boring  and  blasting.  The  most  laborious  work  was  removing  the 
huge  fragments  of  rock  when  they  had  been  detached.  This  was 
effected  by  raising  and  swinging  them  to  the  sides  of  the  catamarans 
or  large  boats,  by  which  they  were  carried  away,  and  dropped  into 
the  sea  with  the  view  of  forming  a  sort  of  breakwater  on  either  side 
of  the  channel.     At  one  time  the  explosion  under  water  took  place 


CHAP.    I.]        SUCCESS    OF    THE    ENTERPRISE— WEKTLETEEVOE.         509 

before  the  men  could  get  out  of  the  way,  and  on  one  occasion  a  large 
catamaran  was  overturned  with  six  persons  in  it.  Another  time, 
when  the  fuse  had  been  twenty  minutes  without  exploding,  a  diver 
was  sent  to  withdraw  the  powder,  but  found  the  fire  burning  fiercely, 
and  had  scarcely  effected  his  escape,  before  immense  fragments  of 
rock  were  projected  above  water,  and  .scattered  with  tremendous 
force  on  all  sides. 

During  the  whole  period  in  which  operations  were  carried  on,  how- 
ever, few  casualties  occurred,  while  owing  to  the  excellent  system  of 
management  pursued  by  General  Monteith  and  his  humanity  to 
those  under  his  care,  the  deaths  from  sickness  did  not  exceed  those 
occurring  in  any  ordinary  service.  At  length  a  powerful  steam- 
dredge  was  sent  out  from  England,  which  cleared  away  the  loose 
rock  at  the  rate  of  about  2000  cubic  feet  per  day.  Nevertheless  the 
channel  has  not  yet  been  excavated  to  the  depth  required,  having 
only  ten  feet  at  low,  and  twelve  feet  at  high  water,  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  90  to  150  yards.  Its  edges  are  carefully  marked 
throughout  by  buoys.  It  may  with  truth,  however,  be  said,  that 
the  undertaking  has  succeeded,  since  not  only  do  all  the  country 
craft  use  the  channel,  but  the  Calcutta  steamers  also..  The  "Ne- 
mesis" and  the  "  Pluto"  on  their  return  from  China  came  this  way, 
and  in  coal  alone  effected  a  saving  of  ^6400.  But  the  most  striking 
illustration  of  the  value  of  the  Paumban  channel  is  supplied  by  the 
fact,  that  whereas  before  the  works  were  undertaken,  the  amount  of 
tonnage  that  traversed  the  strait  was  from  20,000  to  23,000  tons  a 
year,  it  has  now  increased  to  140,000  in  the  same  period,  or  six-fold. 

The  passage  from  Mantotte  to  Jaffnapatam  is  effected  with  most 
ease  by  sea,  the  distance  by  that  mode  of  transit  not  exceeding  sixty- 
eight  miles,  but  the  botanist  conscious  of  the  treasures  that  await 
him  by  the  more  circuitous  route,  will  prefer  it,  as  a  number  of 
plants  are  to  be  found  by  the  land  route  that  are  not  to  be  met  with 
elsewhere  in  the  island.  The  road  is  sandy,  often  inundated  to  a 
great  depth  in  the  rainy  season,  and  skirted  by  jungle,  though  the 
districts  contiguous  to  the  villages  are  well  cultivated,  and  abun- 
dantly stocked  with  cattle.  The  native  cottages  are  remarkable  for 
their  neatness,  and  their  freedom  from  musquitoes,  which  arises  from 
the  plaster  of  cow-dung  laid  on  the  cottage  floors,  which  when 
levelled  makes  an  excellent  pavement,  cool,  comfortable,  and  from  its 
anti-contagious  influences,  salutary  to  the  inmates. 

Vertativoe  (Wertleteevoe)  the  first  stage  on  this  route,  and  nine 
miles  from  Mantotte,  is  the  principal  village  in  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  which  is  included  within  the  territory  of  the  Wanny, 
and  comprises  104  villages  ;  the  repair  of  tbe  tanks  would  cost 
i£500.  and  the  tithe  to  Government  would  be  4500  parrahs  of  paddy. 
Its  inhabitants,  who  are  Moors,  carry  on  a  considerable  manufacture 
of  salt.  Here  is  a  post  station  and  rest-house  for  travellers,  and  a 
road  leads  from  hence  through  the  Wannv  to  Trincomalee.     Near 


510  •  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

the  first  rest-house  on  this  road  is  a  small  temple  of  most  excellent 
construction.  The  building  is  a  long  square,  about  twenty-two  feet 
in  length  and  fifteen  in  width,  and  the  stones  are  in  perfect  preserva- 
tion. The  cornice  is  cut  with  great  taste,  after  the  Hindoo  style, 
and  the  ornaments  are  not  unlike  those  seen  in  some  ruins  of  a 
temple  on  Malabar  point  af  Bombay. 

The  next  stage,  northward,  is  lllipekadawe,  5f  miles,  the  prin- 
cipal village  in  the  district  of  the  same  name,  (where  there  is  a  rest- 
house),  which  is  also  within  the  limits  of  the  Wanny.  Besides  paddy, 
a  very  small  proportion  of  fine  grain  is  cultivated  in  this  part  of  the 
country,  as  it  is  overgrown  with  jungle,  and  infested  with  elephants. 
Near  lllipekadawe  is  a  large  species  of  tamarind,  Papara-pulli, 
Singh,  under  which  Baldseus  is  said  to  have  first  preached  the  Gospel 
in  Ceylon  This  tree  is  more  than  eighty  feet  high,  and  thirty  in 
girth.  lllipekadawe  has  forty-five  tanks,  of  which  twenty  require 
repair,  and  would  cost  .=6450.  ;  and  if  all  the  fields  in  this  district 
were  sown,  the  tithe  would  yield  1500  parrahs  of  paddy.  Tobacco 
thrives  well  here.  From  hence  the  next  stage  is  to  Pali-aar,  six 
miles,  aud  from  thence  to  Pallawarajenkattoe,  8f  miles,  the  principal 
village  in  the  district  of  that  name,  which  has  a  large  tank,  that 
affords  means  of  cultivating  a  large  number  of  paddy  fields.  The 
rest-house  stands  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  sea.  There  are 
six  tanks  requiring  repair  in  this  district,  and  the  tank  before 
alluded  to  requires  a  canal  to  drain  off  its  superfluous  water,  the 
whole  cost  would  be  ^6320-,  and  the  tithe,  including  that  received 
from  the  fields  not  watered  from  the  tanks,  would  yield  3000  parrahs 
of  paddy. 

Off  this  coast  is  Irrentivoe  (the  Two  Brothers'  island)  about  five 
miles  N.W.  from  Pallawarajenkattoe.  They  are  inhabited,  and 
abound  with  good  pasturage,  in  which  a  part  of  the  Delft  stud  was 
formerly  sent  to  graze.  Fish  is  plentiful.  There  is  a  small  Roman 
Catholic  chapel  on  one  of  the  islands. 

The  next  stage  is  to  Vewaltcengie,   six  miles  and  a  half;  from 
thence  to  Sembencoondu  is  five  and  a  half  miles,  and  from  the  latter 
to  Poonaryn,  a  village  in  the  parish  of  the  same  name  aud  attached 
to  the  district  of  Pachellepalle,  is  five  miles.       Here  is  a  small  fort 
built  by  the  Dutch,  and  a  rest-house  for  travellers,  both  very  plea- 
santly situated.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  dense  population,  with  extensive 
plots   of  paddy   land  diversified   with  plantations  of  cocoa-nut  and 
palmyra  trees.   Though  fiat  and  sandy  near  the  coast,  this  district 
contains  some   beautiful   scenery,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  verdure 
and  good  cultivation.       Its  forest  trees  are  of  the  most  magnificent 
and  picturesque  variety,  and  the  beautiful  scenery  of  the  tropics, 
can  no  where  be  seen  to  greater  advantage,   or  less  adorned  by  art. 
North-west  of  Poonaryn  stretches  the  long  neck  of  land  along  which 
the  road  runs,  terminating  at  Kalmoone  point,  and  forming  one  of  the 
entrances  into  the  little  inland  sea  of  Jaffna.      It  is  often   inundated 


CHAP.    I.]    ILLIPEKADAWi,  PALLAWAPAIENKATTOE,  POONARYN.      51  1 

by  the  sea.  There  is  a  small  fort  at  this  place,  which  commands  the 
gut.  Kalmoone  point  is  13|  miles  from  Poonaryn,  and  from  thence 
across  the  channel  to  Jaffnapatam  via  Colombotorre,  is  6^  miles 

The  Peninsula  of  Jaffna1  (Yapana)  is  situated  on  a  neck  of  land 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  Ceylon,  and  directly  opposite  to  Nega- 
patam  in  the  southern  Carnatic.  Its  bounds  have  been  implied  in 
our  description  of  the  Northern  Province,  of  which  it  forms  a  large 
and  b}r  far  the  most  populous  component,  several  of  its  most  populous 
parishes  or  sub-divisions  shewing  an  average  of  nearly  1000  the 
square  mile,  and  the  whole  population  can  fall  little  if  at  all  short  of 
200,000  souls.  Its  whole  length  is  about  thirty-five  miles  from 
north-west  to  south-east,  and  its  breadth  from  eight  to  twenty-five 
miles  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  comprehending  an  area  of  1 220  square  miles. 
It  is  divided  into  four  districts,  exclusive  of  the  islands,  viz.  Wada- 
marachie,  Temnarachie,  Pachellepalle  and  Walligamme,  which  con- 
tain thirty-two  parishes  or  sub-divisions,  and  more  than  160  villages. 

From  its  maritime  situation,  Jaffna  escapes  the  intensely  hot 
winds,  which  prevail  on  the  continent,  and  the  climate  is  therefore  on 
the  whole  healthy  and  less  inimical  to  European  constitutions.  At 
Jaffnapatam  the  mean  daily  variation  of  the  temperature  is  5°.  and 
the  annual  range  from  70°  to  90o.  The  soil  is  generally  sandy  and 
calcareous,  resting  upon  madrepore  ;  but  when  manured,  it  yields  abun- 
dant crops,  and  altogether  its  careful  cultivation  entitles  it  to  the 
appellation  of  the  "  Ulster"  of  Ceylon.  Paddy  is  sown  in  August 
and  September,  and  reaped  in  January  and  February,  and  though 
the  province  is  not  intersected  by  any  rivers  or  watercourses  for 
irrigation,  yet  such  is  the  retentive  nature  of  the  soil,  that"  the  crops 
seldom  fail  except  in  the  event  of  a  protracted  drought,  and  want 
is  almost  unknown.  Of  the  fine  grains,  warrego,  saamy,  kurukkan, 
tinisaamy  and  panisaamy  are  alone  cultivated.  Tobacco  of  a  very 
superior  quality  is  raised  in  large  but  not  sufficient  quantities,  par- 
ticularly in  the  district  of  Pachellepalle,  and  is  transported  to  the 
markets  of  Colombo,  Galle,  and  Kandy.  The  cultivation  has  been 
seriously  checked  from  time  to  time  by  a  mortality  among  the  cattle, 
whose  manure  is  absolutely  required  for  the  success  of  the  crop  :  un- 
der due  encouragement  it  is  capable  of  largely  adding  to  the  wealth  of 
the  country.  Cotton  of  a  fine  quality  is  also  produced  in  the  penin- 
sula. 

Jaffna   contained   till  lately  very  few  cocoa-nut  plantations,  but 

1  The  Palsesimundi  oppidum  of  the  ancients  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
situate  in  the  Jaffna  peninsula,  but  its  precise  situation  remains  to  be  determined. 
It  is  described  by  the  Rachia  as  being  the  principal  city,  and  having  a  capacious 
harbour,  which  would  almost  induce  one  to  look  for  it  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
Ceylon.  The  theory  of  Forbes,  who  traces  its  etymology  to  the  Singhalese  words, 
Palacia,  lower,  and  Mandhala,  province  (in  which  case  it  might  be  freely  rendered 
'  low  lands')  ;  in  allusion  to  the  general  division  of  the  Kandian  districts,  into 
Udacia  and  Palacia,'  upper  and  lower,'  is  very  ingenious  and  even  suggestive,  but 
can  it  legitimately  be  made  to  extend  to  a  Malabar  province  ? 


512  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

this  deficiency  was  supplied  by  the  abundance  of  the  palmyra-palm, 
the  fruit  and  roots  of  which  form  a  material  portion  of  the  diet  of 
the  inhabitants,  while  the  leaves  serve  as  thatch  for  houses,  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  paper,  and  for  making  mats,  baskets,  winnows,  and  fans, 
and  the  timber  is  largely  used  in  building.  Cocoa-nut  trees  are  now 
being  extensively  planted  in  this  province,  where  they  flourish  ex- 
tremely well.  Areka  nuts  are  produced  in  different  parts  of  the 
province,  but  not  to  a  degree  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of  the 
inhabitants.  Jack  fruits,  mangoes,  oranges,  pine-apples,  pome- 
granates, guavas,  jambos,  bananas,  anonas  (custard  apples),  and  a 
variety  of  other  fruits  are  found  in  the  villages,  and  grapes  are  raised 
in  the  town  and  the  various  mission  stations.  Pulse  of  several  sorts, 
sweet  potatoes,  yams,  and  other  indigenous  vegetables  abound,  all  of 
which  are  daily  brought  to  the  bazaars  and  exposed  for  sale.  Chaya 
roots  and  indigo  grow  wild  in  the  several  districts,  but  the  first  has 
alone  attracted  notice  as  an  article  of  trade. 

Jaffna  is  well  supplied  with  fish,  and  chanks  are  found  on  the  sea- 
coast,  as  well  as  embedded  under  ground  in  different  parts.  Black 
cattle  and  sheep  are  found  in  great  numbers,  and  there  are  large 
herds  of  goats.  The  principal  manufactures  are  those  of  cloth  and 
jaggery.  The  descendants  of  a  colony  of  Senyas  who  emigrated 
from  the  opposite  coast  and  settled  there  during  the  time  of  the 
Dutch, '  who  from  fiscal  motives  encouraged  the  manufacture,  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  making  cloth,  which  they  have  brought  to  such  a 
state  of  perfection  that  some  of  their  camboys  and  sarons  rival  those 
of  Pulicat  in  texture  and  colour.  Besides  these,  are  potteries,  and 
some  villages  of  braziers  and  gold  and  silversmiths.  Oil  is  manu- 
factured at  Jaffna  from  the  kernels  of  the  cocoa,  punnay  and  other 
nuts,  the  apparatus  for  expressing  which  is  very  rude,  consisting  of  a 
large  wooden  mortar  and  lever,  which  is  turned  by  two  bullocks,  but 
now  that  European  capital  has  begun  to  find  its  way  into  the 
peninsula,  a  more  effective  mode  will  doubtless  be  applied. 

The  export  trade  of  Jaffna  to  ports  beyond  Ceylon,  consists  of 
tobacco,  palmyra  timber,  jaggery,  chillies,  onions,  winnows,   brass, 
pots,  &c,  and  the  imports  are  cloths,  cotton  thread,   iron,   paddjr, 
rice,  curry  seeds,  medical  drugs  and  earthenware. 

The  inhabitants  are  with  few  exceptions  Tamulians,  and  are  in 
general  industrious,  active,  and  enterprising ;  but  are  by  no  means 
remarkable  for  their  freedom  from  licentiousness  and  crime,  and  the 
peninsula  has  acquired  a  notoriety  for  its  murders,  highway 
robberies,  ear  cutting,  and  other  atrocious  offences. 

In  former  times,  this  part  of  Ceylon  was  particularly  famed  as  the 
seat  of  Tamul  literature,  but  latterly  learning  has  sadly  declined  even 
among  the  Brahmins.  The  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  were 
once  Roman  Catholics,  but  afterwards  conformed  to  the  Protestant 
faith,  under  the  Dutch  they  had  a  church  and  school  in  each  parish, 
but   since   the  downfall  of  that   power,   they  have   relapsed  into 


CHAP.  I.]         EARLY  SETTLEMENT  OP  JAFFNA.  513 

Hindooism,  and  adhere  to  all  the  superstitious  characteristics  of  the 
Siva  creed,  for  the  celebration  of  whose  mysteries  there  are  more  than 
300  temples. 

Little  positive  information  of  the  ancient  history  of  this  interesting 
portion  of  Ceylon  exists,  all  that  can  be  collected  from  the  traditions 
of  the  natives  is  that  in  ages  past  it  was  a  complete  desert,  but  that 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  blind  adventurer  from  the  Coromandel 
coast  named  Vira  Raghava  (who  was  a  yalpanen,  or  lyrist  by  pro- 
fession), as  a  gift  from  an  ancient  king  of  Ceylon  on  account 
of  his  wonderful  power  on  the  lyre,  and  that  he  had  it  cleared 
of  jungle,  when  it  was  subsequently  colonised  from  the  southern 
provinces  of  India,  which  were  then  independent  of  the  Telinga 
empire  of  Vijaianagger.  After  the  province  became  peopled,  its 
founder  called  it  after  his  name,  Yalpana  Nadoo,  the  country  of  the 
lyrist  (which  has  since  been  corrupted  into  Yapana  or  Jaffna),  and 
some  time  afterwards  formed  it  into  a  kingdom.  Sensible,  however, 
of  his  own  ineligibility,  he  went  to  Coromandel,  and  brought  over 
a  prince  of  the  race  of  Solen,  whom  he  crowned  king  in  the  year 
3000  of  Kali  yug.  (101.  B.C.)  and  to  him  he  transferred  his  right  to 
the  soil.  This  king  was  unfortunately  crippled  in  one  of  his  arms, 
hence  he  was  styled  Visaya  Koolaugai  Chakkrawarti,  but  he  was 
nevertheless  distinguished  for  the  attention  he  paid  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  country.  His  descendants  reigned  in  .the  peninsula 
under  the  title  of  Ariya  Chakkrawarties,  and  carried  on  frequent 
hostilities  with  the  Singhalese. 

In  1410  a.d.,  however,  the  Chakkrawarti  is  said  to  have  been 
overthrown1  and  deposed  by  Prackramabahoo,  who  once  more  reduced 
the  kingdom  of  Jaffna  under  the  Singhalese  yoke,  and  raised  one  of 

1  The  remarkable  political  feature  that  can  hardly  fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of 
the  intelligent  reader  in  connection  with  Singhalese  history,  is  the  absence  of 
attractive  power  in  the  policy  and  operations  of  the  Supreme  Government,  This 
observation  is  indeed  applicable  in  some  degree  to  all  Eastern  governments,  but 
its  truth  is  nowhere  more  manifest  than  in  Ceylon.  Whether  it  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  indolence  of  the  monarch,  in  whose  mind  his  own  individual  pleasure  was  the 
sole  governing  motive  of  life,  or  whether  to  the  conventionalities  of  court  eticpiette 
from  which  a  deviation  was  almost  unknown,  the  effect  was  one  and  the  same ; 
and  except  that  the  Emperor  might  chance  to  have  "  a  more  splendid  trough  and 
wider  sty"  than  the  nominally  subordinate,  but  practically  independent  chiefs,  one 
would  be  almost  justified  in  inquiring  in  what  consisted  the  proofs  of  imperial 
power.  Jt  might  have  been  expected,  that  when  the  capital  of  Ceylon  lay  in  the 
centre  of  its  northern  half,  a  monarch,  if  not  ambitious  enough  to  aim  at  the  un- 
divided dominion  of  an  island,  barely  large  enough  to  place  it  in  the  rank  of  a 
second  rate  power,  would  have  been  led  to  assert  his  supremacy  over  a  portion 
of  territory  almost  within  sight  of  the  seat  of  his  rule  ;  yet  the  absence  of  any 
mention  of  a  continuous  authority,  and  the  fact  that  the  Malabar  invader  when 
expelled  from  the  Singhalese  territories,  found  here  an  undisturbed  resting  place, 
will  shew  that  such  a  conclusion  cannot  rightly  be  inferred.  It  will  perhaps 
occur  to  some  readers,  that  this  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  Singhalese 
monarchs,  may  have  arisen  from  other  than  political  causes,  such  as  the  isolated 
position  of  the  peninsula  ;  and  the  circumstance  that  all  communication  with  the 
continent  was  held  either  through  Manaar  or  Kotti-aar. 

2  L 


514  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

his  own  nephews  to  the  throne.  His  dynasty  would  nevertheless 
appear  to  have  been  but  of  short  duration,  for  we  fiud  that  when  the 
Portuguese  arrived  on  the  island,  Jaffna  was  governed  by  its  native 
sovereign,  with  whom  they  carried  on  a  desultory  war  for  several 
years,  till  he  was  finally  vanquished  in  1591,  and  the  whole  peninsula 
acknowledged  their  supremacy.  Jaffna  was  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Dutch  in  1600,  and  capitulated  to  the  British  in  1795. 

Jaffnapatam  (Yapana  patnam),  the  chief  town  of  the  peninsula,  is 
situated  in  9°  AT  N.  lat.  and  80°  9'  E.  long,  is  296  miles  south-west 
of  Madras,  and  215  north  of  Colombo.  It  possesses  a  large  fort, 
built  in  the  form  of  a  pentagon,  with  five  bastions,  surrounded  by  a 
broad  moat  and  extensive  glacis  ;  within  its  walls  is  a  church  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  built  by  the  Dutch,  and  now  used  by  the 
English  (service  being  performed  by  a  Church  Missionary),  the 
house  of  the  Commandant,  soldiers'  barracks,  and  some  other  good 
buildings.  In  the  time  of  the  Dutch  it  was  the  residence  of  a 
"  Commander,"  who  was  the  second  officer  of  rank  in  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company  in  Ceylon.  Under  him  was  a  Dissave 
appointed  in  1661,  who  was  expected  to  spend  six  months  of  the 
year  in  the  Wanny.  The  government  house  is  now  used  as  a  police 
court.  At  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  to  the  eastward  stands  the 
Pettah,  which  contains  several  broad  parallel  streets,  intersected  by  . 
smaller  ones,. and  is  in  great  measure  free  from  the  noxious  exhala- 
tions for  which  similar  localities  are  elsewhere  notorious.  Verandahs 
are  attached  to  most  of  the  houses.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of 
brick,  with  delightful  gardens  abounding  with  the  choicest  native 
and  exotic  fruits,  and  some  of  them  are  shaded  in  front  by  trees. 
During  the  time  of  the  Dutch,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Pettah  consisted  of  that  people ;  but,  since  the  British  conquest, 
many  have  emigrated  to  Batavia,  or  settled  in  other  parts  of  the 
island.  There  still  remains  a  very  respectable  body  of  the  descen- 
dants of  both  Dutch  and  Portuguese,  and  many  of  the  former  have 
withiu  late  years  been  induced  to  settle  here  in  consequence  of  the 
cheapness  and  abundance  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  principal 
constituents  of  the  population  are  Moormen  or  Hindoos,  and  the 
coasting  trade,  consisting  of  the  import  of  cotton  manufactures,  is 
carried  on  through  the  intervention  of  Chitties,  who  are  the  bill 
discounters  and  money  changers  of  Ceylon.  The  Cutcherry  is  in  the 
Pettah.  The  bazaar  at  Jaffnapatam  is  abundantly  supplied  with  the 
necessaries  of  life  at  a  cheap  rate,  and  always  wears  a  busy  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Roman  Catholics  have  their  chapels,  and  the  Church  of  St. 
John  belongs  to  the  Tamul  Protestants,  in  which  the  Tamul  Colonial 
Chaplain  officiates.  At  Wannapanne,  a  village  in  the  vicinity,  the 
Hindoos  have  a  large  temple,  called  Kanda  Swamy,  which  far 
exceeds  all  the  rest  in  the  province,  both  in  grandeur  and  magnifi- 
cence. It  was  endowed  by  Wyti  Linga  Chetty  upwards  of  fifty 
years  ago,  and  has  a  band  of  dancing  girls  attached  to  it.     It  is 


CHAP.    I.]       JAFFNArATAM  —  THE    DISTRICT    OF    WALLIGAMME.        515 

ornamented  with  an  accumulation  of  small  towers,  and  enclosed  by  a 
wall  having  a  large  gateway.  Among  the  institutions  of  Jaffna,  the 
Friend  in  Need  Society,  established  in  1841,  is  one  of  the  most  useful. 

Jaffnapatam  is  not  accessible  to  vessels  of  any  considerable  size, 
owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  water,  but  they  unload  their  cargo  at 
Kayts,  and  they  are  conveyed  from  thence  to  the  town  in  small  boats. 

Jaffnapatam  is  the  seat  of  the  Government  agent  for  the  northern 
province,  the  district  judge,  fiscal,  and  police  magistrate,  all  of 
which  offices  are,  with  one  exception,  filled  by  gentlemen  of  the  civil 
service. 

The  principal  parishes  of  the  peninsula  are,  Wannapane,  Kopaay, 
Poottoor,  Atchuwelle,  M^ajlitte,  Tellipalle,  Pandaterripoe,  Mallagam, 
Oodooville,  Sangane,  Manipay,  Batticotta,  (Vattukotte),  Nellorc, 
all  in  the  province  of  Walligamme. 

Wannapane  has  part  of  the  town  of  Jaffnapatam  within  its  limits. 
Its  population  exceeds  7000.  Kopaay  abounds  with -paddy,  fine 
grain,  and  in  almost  every  sort  of  fruit  trees.  The  population  is 
about  5550,  and  there  is  an  extensive  pottery.  Poottoor  has  been 
much  improved  of  late  by  the  new  roads  which  radiate  from  it. 
There  is  a  venerable  old  church  at  this  place,  built  by  the  Dutch. 
The  population  is  little  short  of  4000.  Atchuwelle  is  extremely 
fertile,  and  on  the  whole  well  cultivated,  while  the  woods  abound 
with  hares,  deer  and  wild  boars.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is 
about  2400,  and  a  portion  of  them  lead  a  strolling  life,  and  gain  a 
livelihood  by  fortune  telling.  Majlitte  formerly  boasted  of  a 
splendid  church  and  parsonage  built  by  the  Portuguese.  The  soil  of 
this  parish  being  composed  of  a  whitish  clay,  yields  but  inferior 
crops  of  paddy,  but  this  defect  is  compensated  by  the  great  quantity 
of  fine  grain,  yams  and  tobacco,  it  produces.  The  population 
amounts  to  3550.  At  Navakeery,  near  Majlitte,  is  a  very  extraor- 
dinary well,  24  fathoms  deep,  and  165  in  circumference.  Of  the 
twenty-four  fathoms,  fourteen  are  quite  fresh,  but  at  sixteen,  the 
water  is  salt  with  a  nauseous  sulphury  smell.  It  is  thought  to  have 
some  subterraneous  communication  with  the  sea  at  Keerimale,  and 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  in  the  well  is  about  six  inches  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  Pandaterippoe  had  formerly  a  magnificent  church, 
which  has  been  repaired  by  the  American  missionaries,  and  formed 
into  a  mission  station.  The  inhabitants  who  are  nearly  3800  in 
number,  are  principally  Romanists.  Tillipalle  is  one  of  the  best 
cultivated  parishes  in  the  district,  abounding  in  all  sorts  of  fruits, 
areka  nuts  and  grain.  The  American  Missionaries  have  established 
schools  and  repaired  the  old  Dutch  Church.  The  population  amounts 
to  5580.  At  Mavitapuram,  in  this  parish,  is  a  large  temple  sacred 
to  Skanda,  and  said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  a  princess 
from  the  Coromandel  coast,  who  having  been  born  with  a  horse  face, 
here  got  rid  of  it,  hence  the  name.  Mallagam  has  a  red  soil,  and 
produces  abundant  crops  of  fine  grains,  yams,   sweet  potatoes  and 

2  i    2 


51G  CEYLON.  [PAKT    IV. 

tobacco,  but  no  paddy.  It  has  a  daily  market  and  court  bouse,  is 
famed  for  its  breed  of  black  cattle  and  sbeep,  and  the  population  is 
about  5000,  Oodooville  is  one  of  the  stations  of  the  American 
mission.  Sangane  has  a  population  of  4500,  and  has  a  daily  market. 
Manipay  contains  many  Hindoo  temples,  and  is  the  station  of  an 
American  missionary.  The  population  exceeds  8000.  Batticotta 
is  situated  near  the  coast ;  the  soil  is  in  general  arid,  but  remark- 
ably fertile,  and  yields  abundant  crops  of  paddy  and  fine  grain. 
The  palmyra  grows  everywhere,  and  is  often  interspersed  with  mango 
trees.  This  village  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  Collegiate  Institu- 
tion established  by  the  American  Missionaries,  who  have  made  it 
their  central  station.  The  population  amounts  to  7250.  The 
Brahmin  Viswanatha  Sastro,  Malabar  Almanack  maker,  resided  in 
this  parish ;  Sir  A.  Johnston  being  much  pleased  with  his  intelli- 
gence, procured  for  him  from  George  the  IVth,  the  honorary  dis- 
tinction of  "  Almanack  Maker  to  his  Majesty,"  the  intelligence  of 
which  nearly  turned  his  brain.  Nellore  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  seat  of  the  Cbakkrawarties.  In  the  neighbourhood,  there  is  a 
large  Hindoo  temple  sacred  to  Skanda  or  Kanda  Swamy,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  first  Chakkrawarti  centuries  ago.  It  is  in 
great  repute  among  the  natives,  and  the  annual  festival  attracts 
thither  a  vast  concourse  of  people  from  distant  parts.  This  village 
is  the  principal  Church  Missionary  station  in  the  peninsula,  and 
they  have  a  church,  school,  and  printing  press  in  operation.  The 
population,  which  consists  of  agriculturists,  mechanics  and  traders, 
reaches  5600. 

Warenie,  Navakoolie,  Eludumatwal,  are  the  principal  parishes 
in  the  district  of  Tenmaracbie.  Warenie  produces  little  else  but 
cocoa  nuts,  palmyra,  areka  nuts,  plantain  and  cashew  trees,  as 
the  soil  is  too  sandy  for  paddy.  The  population  amounts  to 
5580.  Navakoolie  on  the  other  hand  yields  large  quantities  of 
paddy.  The  population  is  about  400Q.  Eludumatwal  produces 
large  crops  of  paddy  and  fine  grain,  and  the  weekly  market  attracts 
a  large  assemblage  of  people.     The  population  is  about  ,3000. 

Katchay,  Mogamalle,  Tambagamme,  Plopallie,  Chavagacherry,  are 
the  principal  parishes  in  the  Pachellepalle  district.  Katchay  is  situated 
on  the  singular  lake  extending  from  Jaffnapatam  to  Moelletivoe.  It 
comprehends  a  well  cultivated  tract  diversified  with  jungle,  and  its 
population  amounts  to  3000.  Mogamalle  is  productive,  though  its  soil 
is  sandy,  and  yields  a  plentiful  crop  of  paddy,  it  has  a  market  weekly, 
and  the  population  is  1230.  At  Tambagamme,  the  population  is  in- 
considerable, and  the  country  is  little  cultivated,  but  there  are  a  few 
paddy  fields  and  palmyra  groves.  Klaly  on  the  high  road  between 
Jaffnapatam  and  Trincomalee,  is  noted  for  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
dedicated  to  St.  James  the  Greater,  which  attracts  a  great  number 
of  pilgrims  from  different  parts  of  the  island.  So  debased  and 
grovelling  is  Romish  superstition  in  Ceylon,  that  the  image  of  the 
saint  is  annually  set  on  a  car  and  drawn  along  the  streets  in  the  same 


CHAP.  I.]  TENMAKACIIIE,  PACIIELLEPALLE,  AND  WADAMAHACHIE.   517 

manner  as  the  Hindoos  parade  their  idol  at  Ramisseram.  At  Plopallie, 
the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  but  well  adapted  to  the  palmyra.  The 
forests  in  the  neighbourhood  produce  the  wood  called  Jagers-wood, 
and  it  was  exported  in  the  time  of  the  Dutch  to  the  Coromandel 
coast.  The  population  is  abuut  800.  Chavagacherry  lies  near  a 
salt  creek,  is  the  station  of  a  district  judge,  and  an  American  Mis- 
sionary, and  is  a  large  and  populous  parish.  It  is  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  Bischuter  or  Elephant  Pass,  along  which  the  road  from 
Jaffna  to  Trincomalee  passes.  This  pass  was  fortified  and  guarded 
by  the  Dutch,  as  also  that  of  Pass  Pyl  to  the  eastward,  but  the 
fortifications  were  subsequently  demolished.  At  Kaythady,  a  village 
in  this  parish,  is  a  large  temple  sacred  to  Pulleyar  or  Ganesa.  The 
idol  is  placed  on  a  magnificent  car  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon,  at 
the  festival  in  May. 

Kattawelle,  Point  Pedro,  &c.  are  the  principal  parishes  in  the 
Wadamarachie  district.  Kattawelle  under  the  Dutch  had  a  large 
church.  This  parish  is  extensive  and  populous,  numbering  11,450 
inhabitants.  Point  Pedro  is  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  the 
northernmost  point  in  Ceylon,  it  being  two  miles  distant.  It  is  called 
by  the  natives  Parettitorre  or  Cotton  harbour,  from  the  great  quan- 
tity of  cotton  formerly  produced  here,  and  by  the  Portuguese  was 
named  Punto  das  Peclras,  or  rocky  point.  The  village  stands  in 
9°  48'  N.  lat.  and  80°  25'  E.  long.  It  is  about  twenty-one  miles 
north-east  of  Jaffnapatam,  and  possesses  a  small  but  commodious 
harbour,  where  vessels  find  a  safe  anchorage.  There  is  a  passage 
for  boats  up  the  river,  which  is  very  intricate  and  terminates  a  few 
miles  to  the  west  of  Pjaint  Pedro  at  Tondeman-aar,  where  it  is  com- 
manded by  a  small  fort,  now  ungarrisoned.  The  overland  route  to 
Point  Pedro  lies  through  Kopaay,  and  along  a  low  country  devoted 
to  sheep  pasturage  as  far  as  Atchuwelle  ;  some  plants  are  to  be 
found  in  this  neighbourhood  that  are  met  with  nowhere  else  in 
the  island.  Trincomalee  may  be  reached  by  a  dhoney  from 
Point  Pedro  in  a  few  hours  during  the  north-east  monsoon.  The 
direct  overland  route  from  Jaffnapatam  to  Trincomalee  is  across  the 
ferry  at  Navakoolie  through  Katchay.  For  a  low  champagne 
country  the  road  is  tolerably  good  as  far  as  Mullativoe,  fifty-nine 
miles.  So  little,  however,  was  this  district  resorted  to  by  travellers, 
that  there  were  till  lately  no  appointed  rest-houses,  but  the  post- 
holders  at  the  several  stages  were  required  to  provide  every  necessary 
at  a  price  fixed  by  the  Government  agent  of  the  province.  There  is  a 
small  custom  house  established  at  Point  Pedro,  and  it  is  the  station  of 
a  police  magistrate.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  the  Coro- 
mandel coast  in  palmyra  timber,  in  return  for  which  are  imported 
grain,  cloth,  &c.  The  Dutch  had  a  large  church  here,  and  their  school 
numbered  1000  children,  but  the  religion  of  Siva  has  again  regained  its 
former  position.  The  Wesleyans  and  Roman  Catholics  have,  how- 
ever, occupied  this  post.     The  population  of  the  parish  is  about  9000. 

Karadivc   or   Karetivoe  (Amsterdam),  is  an  island  to  the  west  of 


518  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

Jaffna  in  80°  1'  E.  long.  It  is  about  five  miles  long  and  two  broad, 
and  contains  upwards  of  5500  inhabitants,  who  maintain  themselves 
by  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits,  and  the  fishery.  It  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  in  each  of  which  is  a  temple  built  of  coral  and 
chunam.  The  arm  of  the  sea  which  separates  it  from  Jaffna,  is 
very  shallow,  and  fordable  at  all  times,  except  during  the  north-east 
monsoon.  The  soil  is  sandy,  but  produces  paddy,  cocoa  nuts, 
palmyra,  jack,  mangoes  and  illipe  nuts,  from  which  an  oil  is  extracted. 
The  island  is  noted  for  its  chaya  root.  Chanks  are  found  in  great 
abundance  along  the  coast,  but  the  fishery  has  for  some  years  been 
abandoned.  There  are  still  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  an  old  Dutch 
church. 

Mandetivoe  (Leyden1),  divided  into  the  three  parishes  of  Kayts, 
Welane,  and  Allepitty,  has  a  large  breed  of  cattle  and  goats,  and 
produces  paddy,  cocoa  nuts,  and  the  palmyra.  It  lies  directly  oppo- 
site Batticotia,  and  contains  nearly  5000  inhabitants ;  Kayts,  the 
principal  village  and  sea-port  in  the  parish  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  at  the  extreme  end  of  a  harbour,  which  is  formed  by  an 
opening  about  a  half  a  mile  broad  between  Karadive  and  Leyden, 
connecting  the  lake  of  Jaffna  with  the  sea.  Its  Singhalese  name 
was  "  Ooratotte,"  or  hog  ferry,  which  originated  in  a  fabulous  story 
of  Sakreya  (who  was  metamorphosed  into  an  enormous  hog),  having 
swum  across  from  the  Coromandel  coast  and  effected  a  landing  at 
this  place.  Kayts  is  the  Leith  of  Jaffnapatam,  its  harbour  affords 
safe  anchorage  for  shipping  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  is  much 
frequented  by  country  craft  and  small  vessels.  There  may  still  be 
seen  the  remains  of  a  fort,  Cangienture,  erected  by  the  Dutch  to 
command  the  entrance  of  this  harbour,  and  by  a  cross  fire  with  the 
guns  of  Hammanheil  to  check  the  advance  of  an  invading  enemy. 
The  village  is  not  extensive,  but  there  is  a  small  church  belonging  to 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  court  house.  There  are  very  few  cocoa 
nuts  in  the  village,  but  an  abundance  of  the  palmyra,  the  timber  of 
which  is  exported  to  the  continent.  The  greater  part  of  the  inha- 
bitants are  fishermen.  Fish  is  exceedingly  plentiful,  and  there  was 
formerly  a  depot  for  chanks  here.  From  Baldaeus's  account  of  Jaffna 
it  would  appear  that  Kayts  was  in  former  times  subject  to  inunda- 
tions, and  in  1658  many  of  the  inhabitants  and  cattle  were  carried 
away  and  perished. 

1  There  have  beeu  no  slight  confusion  and  misapprehension,  both  as  regards 
the  names,  position,  and  identity  of  this  group  of  islands,  and  several  errors  have 
in  consequence  occurred.  In  the  several  maps  of  this  part  of  Ceylon  that  have 
from  time  to  time  appeared,  the  authors,  who  have  been  mere  copyists,  adopted 
the  involuntary  error  of  the  Dutch  original.  Suspecting  as  much,  I  obtained  a 
sight  of  that  document,  and  discovered  the  source  from  whence  the  first  and 
subsequent  mistakes  sprung.  The  natives  of  these  islands  are  the  handsomest, 
finest  limbed,  and  most  athletic  of  the  whole  Tamul  population  of  Ceylon,  nurtured 
under  the  invigorating  influence  of  the  sea  breeze,  they  are  capable  of  the  greatest 
exertion,  and  the  isolation  of  their  marine  abode,  jretains  their  minds  in  all  the 
purity  of  primeval  nature. 


CHAP.  I.]      DESCRIPTION    OP   THE    ISLES    OFF   THE    N.W.   COAST.    519 

Hammanheil  is  a  rock  in  the  harbour  of  Kayts  at  the  distance  of  a 
few  hundred  yards  from  the  shore.  The  fort  is  entirely  built  of  coral 
stone,  has  a  reservoir  for  water,  and  was  formerly  occupied  as  a  state 
prison.  Welane  is  the  most  populous  and  fertile  of  the  three 
parishes,  and  exports  a  considerable  quantity  of  its  produce  to 
Jaffna. 

The  soil  of  Allaputty  (Allepitty),  the  southern  parish  is  loose  and 
sandy,  and  yields  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  paddy,  but  the 
palmyra  everywhere  abounds.  The  inhabitants  are  Malabars  and 
followers  of  Siva.  Fish  is  caught  plentifully  on  the  coast,  and,  when 
dried,  is  exported  to  Jaffna. 

Poengertivoe  or  Punguditivoe  (Middleburgh)  lies  to  the  south- 
west of  Jaffna,  is  about  ten  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  2550 
inhabitants.  Fish  and  oysters  are  caught  in  great  plenty,  and  afford 
employment  to  the  greater  part  of  the  population,  as  the  soil  is  too 
rocky  to  be  worked.  Goats  abound  in  the  island,  and  their  milk  is 
generally  curdled  and  exported  in  the  form  of  ghee.  There  was 
formerly  a  Protestant  church  and  school  here,  but  they  have  long 
ceased  to  exist. 

Paletivoe  and  Kakeritivoe  are  two  small  islands,  a  few  miles  to  the 
south  of  Calmoone  point. 

Nayntivoe  (Haarlem),  is  about  four  miles  in  circumference,  and 
chiefly  inhabited  by  a  class  of  Vellalas  who  now  pass  for  Brahmins, 
as  their  progenitors  assumed  the  sacerdotal  habit  for  the  purpose  of 
exemption  from  the  forced  labour  required  by  the  Dutch.  In  the 
time  of  Baldeeus,  the  whole  of  these  pretended  Brahmins  had  become 
Christians,  and  had  a  small  church,  of  which  no  vestige  now  remains. 
The  island  is  partially  cultivated,  but  does  not  contain  more  "than 
500  inhabitants.  There  is  a  small  Hindoo  temple,  sacred  to  Naga 
Tambiram  or  the  god  of  serpents,  in  which  are  a  number  of  cobra 
capellas  that  are  daily  fed  by  the  Pandarams. 

Analativoe  (Rotterdam),  was  formerly  known  by  the  name  of 
Donna  Clara,  from  a  lady  of  that  name,  who  was  mistress  of  the  soil 
in  the  time  of  the  Portuguese.  It  contains  upwards  of  a  thousand 
inhabitants,  but  the  increase  has  been  checked  by  the  ravages  of  the 
cholera.  The  soil  is  sandy,  but  productive  in  palmyra  trees,  plan- 
tains, and  cotton  which  is  largely  cultivated. 

Nedoentivoe  (Delft),  is  about  eight  miles  long  by  three  broad,  and 
is  entirely  surrounded  by  a  large  coral  reef.  In  the  old  charts  it  was 
called  Ilha  das  Vaccas  (Cows  Island).  The  north  and  west  sides 
are  inhabited,  and  the  remainder  is  Government  property.  There 
was  formerly  a  great  scarcity  of  water,  and  the  Dutch  had  about  400 
wells  dug  through  a  body  of  solid  rock  at  the  south  side  to  obtain  a 
good  supply.  Delft  possesses  no  natural  harbour,  but  a  small  and 
secure  one  was  formed  on  the  north  by  blasting  through  the  coral 
reef.  A  fort  was  erected  by  the  Dutch  on  a  small  esplanade  close  to 
the  sea,  but  it  no  longer  exists.  During  the  time  of  the  Dutch  this 
island  was  appropriated  by  them  to  the  breeding  of  horses.     A  num- 


520  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

ber  of  fine  Arabian  mares  were  introduced  and  crossed  with  the  horses 
that  had  been  brought  thither  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  extensive 
stud  thus  produced,  was  disposed  of  from  time  to  time  on  the  continent. 
A  grant  of  the  island  was  made  in  1 803  to  Colonel  Barbut,  who  had 
made  arrangements  for  carrying  on  the  establishment  on  a  large  scale, 
but  his  premature  death  interrupted  the  fulfilment  of  his  plans,  and 
the  island  reverted  to  Government.  The  stud  was  for  some  time  main- 
tained by  the  British,  but  owing  to  mismanagement  it  ceased  to  be 
profitable,  though  some  very  useful,  spirited,  and  well  framed  horses, 
for  which  there  was  a  good  demand,  were  reared  from  it.  In  their 
place  a  number  of  cattle  have  been  introduced,  and  have  been  crossed 
with  a  fine  breed  imported  from  Surat.  Hemp  flourishes  here,  and 
it  is  said  wheat. 

Returning  to  Ceylon — Southward  of  the  Peninsula,  to  which  it 
was  attached  as  a  parish  is,  the  Karetchypattoo,  bordering  on  the 
"Wanny,  and  containing  about  1200  inhabitants.  Paddy  is  sown  here 
in  September  and  October,  and  reaped  in  February  and  March. 
The  cultivation  of  fine  grain  is  much  neglected,  and  the  produce  is  at 
present  insignificant. 

The  country  of  the  Wanny  is  separated  on  the  north  by  Jaffna, 
and  the  territory  attached  to  it ;  on  the  east  by  the  sea,  the  Tenna 
marre  waddie,  and  Kattoecolompattoo,  on  the  west  by  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar,  and  on  the  south  by  Nuwera  Kalawa.  Geographically,  it 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  the  districts  on  the  coast,  which 
were  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  the  northern  interior  districts  also  in 
their  power,  and  the  southern  interior  districts,  which  went  to  form 
what  was  called  the  Kandian  Wanny.  The  maximum  length  of  the 
country  is  about  sixty-five  miles,  and  the  maximum  breadth  about 
fifty  miles. 

The  meaning  of  the  wrord  "Wanny"  is  "burning  hot,"  and  proba- 
bly there  is  no  portion  of  the  east  to  which  the  appellation  may  be 
more  strictly  applied.  Thus  when  the  thermometer  at  Jaffnapatam 
is  from  80°  to  85°  it  is  at  least  ten  degrees  higher  in  the  Wanny. 
This  intense  heat  may  be  ascribed  to  three  causes,  the  density  of  the 
jungle,  the  mineral  if  not  volcanic  nature  of  the  soil,  the  level 
character  of  the  country,  and  the  absence  of  the  refreshing  sea-breeze. 

The  Wanny  was  formerly  divided  into  several  independent  prin- 
cipalities, over  each  of  which  a  Malabar  prince  or  princess  under  the 
title  of  Wanniya  or  Wanmchi  presided.  The  population  is  then 
supposed  to  have  been  dense,  and  its  subsequent  diminution  can 
only  be  accounted  for  by  the  intestine  quarrels  of  the  chiefs  which 
led  to  a  neglect  of  the  repairs  of  the  tanks.  This  superadded  to 
droughts  of  sometimes  three  years  in  succession,  the  devastations  of 
wild  beasts,  and  the  indolence  of  the  people,  hastened  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  country,  and  a  cultivation  of  the  mere  surface  included 
within  the  tanks  by  the  demoralised  remnant  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  Dutch  Landrost  of  the  Wanny  would  seem  rather  to  attribute 
the  depopulation  to  volcanic  agency ;  but  however  it  may  have  par- 


CHAP.    I.]     THE  COUNTRY  OF  THE  WANNY — ITS  EARLY  HISTORY.     521 

tially    contributed   to   this    desolation,  it  is  impossible  to  trace  it 
entirely  to  that  source. 

Under  the  Portuguese  the  Wanny  was  governed  by  a  resident,  but 
we  are  unable  to  discover  any  traces  of  their  rule.  Soon  after  the 
Dutch  became  masters  of  Jaffna,  they  restored  the  Wanniyas1  to  their 
authority,  but  exacted  from  them  a  tribute  in  elephants.  Subse- 
quently, when  their  power  had  become  consolidated  in  Ceylon,  they 
discovered  that  a  road  through  the  Wanny  from  Manaar  to  Moelletivoe 
and  Trincomalee  was  indispensable  for  their  security  and  the  com- 
munication with  Negapatam.  Hence  when  the  stipulated  tribute  had 
been  withheld,  they  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Wanniyas,  which 
thev  ultimately  subjected  to  their  authority,  and  making  Sembatte, 
chief  of  the  Waniuchis,  a  prisoner,  banished  her  to  Colombo. 

The  Dutch  Landrost  found  the  people  in  a  most  demoralized 
state,  and  they  would  ere  long  have  become  on  a  par  with  the 
Veddahs,  their  neighbours  on  the  south-east.  No  coin  was  to  be 
found  in  the  country,  and  every  one  had  to  be  paid  in  paddy.  The 
dead  they  buried  at  so  little  depth,  that  the  jackalls  came  and 
devoured  their  remains  ;  the  people  were  too  idle  to  dig  wells,  and 
drank  the  filthy  water  found  in  holes.  No  more  paddy  was  grown 
than  was  absolutely  required  for  the  support  of  their  families,  and  the 
export  of  butter  to  Jaffna  and  Trincomalee  in  return  for  cloth  and 
iron  had  nearly  ceased  :  he  now  devoted  his  whole  energies  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  territory  and  its  people.  To  the  native  Modeliars  he 
left  the  trial  of  petty  disputes  with  a  right  of  appeal  to  himself,  and 
by  a  happy  blending  of  kindness  and  severity,  worked  a  rapid  change 
in  their  social  condition  ;  he  procured  by  forced  labour  three  times 
the  number  of  elephants  which  had  been  annually  paid  as  tribute  by 
the  Wanniyas  ;  and  the  tithe  of  the  paddy  crop,  which  had  scarcely 
exceeded  10,000  parrahs  in  1/84,  he  raised  to  28,458  parrahs  in 
1790,  and  35,962  in  1/91,  so  that  the  total  crop  in  the  last  year  fell 
little  short  of  400,000  parrahs  or  17,600,000  lbs.  of  rice  ;  the  popu- 
lation of  the  country  began  to  increase,  and  it  promised  eventually  to 
become   the  granary  of  the  eastern   coast.     The  scarcity  of  money 

1  The  state  of  the  Wanny  under  its  native  chieftains  is  described  as  follows  by 
the  Landrost.     On  the  restoration  of  the  Wanniyas,  bands  of  vagabonds,  male- 
factors, and  runaway  slaves  flocked  to  the  Wanny  and  found  shelter  among  the 
headmen.     The   Wanniyas  elated  with  their   new  power,  oppressed  the  people, 
plundered  travellers,  would  no  longer  obey  the  orders  of  the   Jaffna  authorities, 
and  so   despotic  was  their  rule,  that  if  a  man   coveted  the  wife  of  another,  she 
could  be  purchased   of  a  Wanniya,  under  the  plea  that  she  desired  two  husbands. 
None  dare  display  jewellery  or  any  articles  of  value  for  fear  of  being  robbed  by 
the  bravoes  of  the  Wanniya,  who  had    the  titles  of  adigaars,   canganies,   and 
odyars.     The  cultivators    becoming  weary  of  oppression,  deserted  the  country  in 
numbers.    Finally,  the  Wanniyas  quarrelled  with  each  other.  Governor  Schreuder 
having  declared  one  of  them  an  outlaw,  the  chief  hung  olas  to  the  trees,  on  which 
•    was   inscribed  a  retaliatory  proclamation.     Finally   the  Wanniyas  rose  in  rebel- 
lion,   blocked  up  all  the  paths,  but  were  at  length    dispersed,  and  ultimately 
settled  down  in  1784,  and  became  peaceable  subjects. 


522  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

alone  prevented  the  repair  of  the  tanks,  and  thereby  the  restoration 
of  the  country  to  its  former  fertility. 

When  the  English  took  possession  of  the  country  in  1795,  it 
enjoyed  tranquillity  for  some  years,  until  in  1803,  when  Pandara 
Wanniya,  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  original  Wanniyas  deposed  by 
the  Dutch,  raised  a  formidable  insurrection  against  the  British 
Government,  and  being  assisted  by  the  Kandians,  with  whom  we 
were  then  at  war,  soon  overran  all  the  northern  districts,  and  had 
the  boldness  to  penetrate  as  far  as  Elephant's  Pass  into  the  peninsula 
of  Jaffna.  His  object  was  to  restore  the  independence  of  the  Wanny, 
and  render  himself  head  of  all  its  principalities,  but  though  daring 
and  active,  the  force  under  his  command  was  unable  to  cope  with 
regular  troops,  and  was  only  fitted  for  guerilla  warfare.  After  several 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  discover  his  retreats,  made  from  the  different 
posts,  he  was  finally  surprised,  his  troops  killed  or  dispersed,  the 
country  was  cleared  of  the  rebels,  and  tranquillity  was  restored. 

The  change  of  masters  brought  no  advantage  to  the  people  of 
the  Wanny.  Under  the  Dutch  the  headmen  were  prevented  from 
oppressing  the  people,  as  it  was  the  interest  of  the  Government  to 
develop  the  resources  of  the  country.  The  British,  ignorant  of  its 
capabilities,  totally  neglected  it.  The  headmen  became  very  exactious, 
and  obtained  more  than  they  had  a  right  to  demand.  The  Modeliars 
too,  collected  more  than  was  required  for  Government  dues,  and  kept 
the  remainder  for  themselves,  which  they  resold  to  the  people  at  an 
extravagant  price  for  seed.  This  and  a  series  of  other  vexations, 
such  as  delay  in  the  issue  of  seed,  soon  drove  numbers  of  husband- 
men away,  and  after  a  long  drought,  numbers  betook  themselves  to 
the  jungle. 

Captain  Schneider  recommended  the  formation  of  a  granary  in 
the  middle  of  the  country  as  a  depot  for  seed  paddy,  which  would  in 
that  case  be  well  dried  ;  and  that  a  person  should  be  appointed  to 
supervise  the  whole  alterations,  both  the  repair  of  tanks,  and  the 
renewed  cultivation,  so  as  to  settle  all  disputes  that  might  arise. 
The  Kandian  war,  however,  soon  broke  out  afresh,  and  the  matter  was 
indefinitely  postponed.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  Wanny  is  low, 
exhibiting  a  variegated  expanse  of  forest  and  jungle,  and  now  and 
then  a  few  paddy  fields  in  a  state  of  culture.  In  consequence  of  its 
liability  to  droughts,  hurricanes  and  heavy  rains,  the  inhabitants  will 
be  deterred  from  carrying  on  the  cultivation  of  paddy  to  any  extent, 
until  the  tanks  are  repaired.  At  present  they  have  two  crops,  one 
in  the  winter,  and  another  in  summer,  and  the  paddy  sown  by  them 
takes  from  three  to  six  months  to  attain  maturity.  The  second  crop 
consists  of  natchene  and  warrego  which  require  no  water.  The 
chief  food  of  the  people  is  rice,  butter  and  milk,  with  the  banana  and 
other  fruits.  The  Wanny  produces  a  vast  number  of  rare  medicinal 
plants,  herbs,  and  roots,  one  called  the  Wannia  Doctoral  has  been 
efficaciously  applied  in  certain  disorders. 

The  staple  products  of  the  country  are  elephant  tusks,  cattle,  deer, 


CHAP.    I.]       LATER    HISTORY   OF    THE   WANNY ITS   DIVISIONS.       523 

wax,  honey,  milk,  ghee  and  cocoa  nuts,  in  exchange  for  which  they 
receive  cloth,  salt,  and  salt  fish.  A  spirit  called  Wallenpattoe,  very 
strong,  but  of  a  disagreeable  odour,  is  distilled  here.  In  consequence 
of  the  wild  state  of  the  country,  the  people  are  exposed  to  a  compli- 
cation of  visitations "  in  addition  to  those  previously  mentioned. 
Thus  they  have  to  he  constantly  on  the  watch  against  wild  animals, 
and  the  number  of  elephants  infesting  the  country  is  prodigious.  A 
wholesale  extermination  of  this  useless  animal  is  now,  however,  being 
carried  on,  and  as  the  people  are  well  armed,  and  are  further  stimu- 
lated by  rewards,  to  extirpate  the  intruder,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
object  will  shortly  be  attained.  The  population  of  the  Wanny, 
including  therein  its  three  divisions,  does  not  perhaps  exceed  30,000 
in  number ;  that  of  what  may  be  termed  the  Wanny  proper  was 
16,000  in  1785. 

The  soil  of  the  Wanny  is  of  three  kinds,  rich,  sandy,  and  mixed 
earth.  The  greater  part  is  clay,  which  cannot  be  worked  in  dry 
weather,  but  yields  the  finest  paddy.  The  soil  of  mixed  clay  and  of 
reddish  earth  produces  first  rate  tobacco  and  cotton,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  fruit  trees  ;  on  that  mixed  with  clay  and  sand,  the  pal- 
myra and  cocoa  nut  thrive.  The  water  generally  contains  mineral 
properties,  and  a  stranger  at  once  throws  out  any  humours  he  may 
before  have  had  in  his  system.  Great  quantities  of  burnt1  or  melted 
lava  and  metal  ore  is  found  thrown  up  on  the  surface  in  heaps  at  various 
places  from  Kanya  on  the  east  to  Nanaatan  on  the  west,  and  more  or 
less  from  Nuwera  Kalawa  to  Jaffna. 

The  Wamry2  is  divided  as  follows.  The  western  maritime  districts 
of  Karetchypattoo,  Poonaryn,  Pallawaraienkattoe,  Illippekadewe  and 
Wirteltivoe  have  been  already  described,  and  the  eastern  districts 
will  be  described  in  their  turn.  The  district  of  Chitty-colom  is 
divided  into  two  parts ;  one  of  which  is  called  Nadoe  Chitty-colom, 
and  contains  ninety  villages  and  an  equal  number  of  tanks,  of  which 
upwards  of  fifty  are  broken  down  and  useless.  To  bring  these  into  a 
state  of  repair,  would  cost  in  actual  outlay  £  1,734,  according  to  the 
estimate  of  Captain  Schneider,  then  Colonial  Engineer.  At  that 
time  (1808)  compulsory  labour  was  in  full  force,  and  its  cost  was 

1  In  Padre  Argensola's  history  of  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  spice 
islands,  it  is  mentioned  that  springs  of  liquid  bitumen  thicker  than  oil  had  been 
found  in  Ceylon,  and  that  the  mountains  occasionally  blazed  and  cast  up  clouds 
of  brimstone  among  the  crags  of  the  hills.  This  statement  is  doubtless  exag- 
gerated. Little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  veracity  of  the  Portuguese  writers 
of  that  day,  still  less  on  the  natives  from  whom  they  derived  their  information, 
and  who  would  be  sure  to  heighten  the  importance  of  such  a  phenomenon  ;  the 
presence  of  sulphur  in  Ceylon  and  the  traditions  of  the  natives,  nevertheless 
certainly  strengthen  the  belief  of  subterrane  inflammability. 

8  I  may  cursorily  observe  that  the  condottori  used  by  the  Romans  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  tanks  of  Italy,  the  principle  of  which  I  suspect  they  borrowed 
cither  from  India  or  Ceylon,  are  to  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the  Wanny.  This 
subject  will  however  be  entered  on  in  the  consideration  of  the  tanks  of  the  Eastern 
province. 


521  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

not  taken  into  consideration  in  forming  the  estimate.  As,  however, 
the  Wanny  tanks  are  small  and  easy  of  repair,  there  cannot  he  a 
doubt  that  the  people  would  cheerfully  acquiesce  in  a  general  labour 
assessment,  if  it  were  only  to  save  the  amount  with  which  they  would 
he  otherwise  charged  for  that  head.  I  shall  therefore  in  great 
measure  exclude  the  cost  of  labour,  and  it  will  be  only  skilled  labour 
and  materials  which  will  be  included  in  the  various  estimates.  In 
return  for  the  outlay  above  mentioned,  the  Government  might 
calculate  on  a  return  of  4500  parrahs  of  paddy  at  the  -^  duty.  In 
this  province,  at  the  village  of  Erilpericolom,  there  is  a  tank  formed 
and  joined  together  by  pieces  of  rock  which  stand  there ;  there  is 
also  a  drain  and  cistern,  built  of  hewn  stones.  In  1 780,  a  number 
of  Singhalese  families  came  from  the  south,  and  with  the  permission 
of  the  Wanniya,  rebuilt  this  tank  at  their  own  expense,  and  for 
eighteen  years  about  thirty  families  remained  there  and  cultivated 
the  land,  but  in  1 800  the  tank  broke  down  in  two  places,  where  the 
rocks  were  joined  by  earthen  dams  ;  and,  as  they  could  not  them- 
selves repair  the  damage,  they  forsook  the  place.  The  fields 
belonging  to  this  village  could  be  sown  twice  a  year,  as  the  tank  holds 
a  large  supply  of  water. 

The  other  part  of  this  district  called  Sinne  Chitty-colom  contains 
7 1   villages,   and  as   many  tanks,   of  which  forty-seven  are  broken 
down,  to  repair  the  whole  of  these  would  cost  562,458.,  and  the  duty 
in  return  would  bring  in  4000  parrahs  of  paddy.     In  this  district, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  tobacco  was  formerly  cultivated,  and  was 
watered  from  the  tanks,  but  the  scarcity  of  water  and  the  poverty  of 
the  people  has  led  to  its  abandonment.     A  few  descendants  of  the 
Portuguese,  distinguishable  from  the  natives  by  their  stature,  features, 
and    colour,    but   not   by   their    dress,    nor  even,  according  to  one 
authority,  by  their  religion,  reside  in  this  district  which  was  formerly 
therefore  called Parengei  Chitty-colom .  Parengei  signifying  European. 
The  district  Paunengammo  is  divided  into  six  parts,  viz.  Pannen- 
gammo  Poerivoe,  which  contains   84  villages  and  as  many  tanks,  of 
which  79  are  broken  down,  the  repair  of  the  whole  would  cost  £  1,73  5., 
after  which  they  would  yield  a  revenue  of  6300  parrahs  of  paddy, 
per  annum.     The  village  of  Pannengammo  which  is  twenty  miles  east 
of  Vertativoe,  was  formerly  the  residence  of  a  Wannichy.    It  produces 
a  considerable  quantity  of  paddy,  and  has  large  tamarind  and  cocoa 
nut  groves.    Some  remarkable  ruins  of  a  temple,  the  stones  of  which 
are  of  a  square  cut,  and  connected  together  without  the  assistance  of 
mortar,   thereby  indicating    the   style   of  a   very   remote   era,    are 
found  at  a  short  distance  from  the  village.     Toenoeka  Poerivoe,  con- 
tains 33    villages   and  tanks,  of  which    17  are    broken   down,    to 
repair  the  whole  would  cost  ^61,457.,  and  they  would  then  return  a 
tithe  of  5800  parrahs  of  paddy,  per  annum.     Meerkoe  Moelle  has  47 
villages  and  tanks,  of  which  36  are  broken  down,  the  repair  of  them 
would  cost  £605.  for  which  would   be  returned  a  tithe  of  2150 
parrahs  of  paddy  per  annum,  Kelekoe  Moelle  Tekoe  Poerivoe  has  70 


CHAP. I.]  REPAIR  OF  THE  WANNY  TANKS ESTIMATE  OF  THE  COST.  525 

villages  and  tanks,  of  which  34  are  broken  down,  to  repair  the  whole 
would  cost  £688.  and  the  tithe  would  yield  3300  parrahs  of 
paddy ;  Kelekoe  Moelle  Waddekoe  Poerivoe  has  59  villages  and  the 
same  number  of  tanks,  of  which  20  are  broken  down,  to  bring  all 
into  repair,  would  cost  .=£857.  and  the  tithe  would  yield  2650  parrahs 
of  paddy;  Oedeaar  Oer  has  79  villages  and  tanks,  of  which  51 
are  broken  down  to  repair  the  whole  would  cost  about  .£1285.  and 
the  tenth  would  yield  6 1 50  parrahs  of  paddy.  Tobacco  was  formerly 
cultivated  in  this  province. 

The  district  of  Meelpattoe  or  Mullipatto  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
Kelekoe  Poerivoe,  which  has  36  villages  and  tanks,  of  which  13  are 
broken  down,  the  repair  of  which  would  cost  £321.  yielding  an 
annual  revenue  of  12/5  parrahs  of  paddy;  Tekoe  Poerivoe  has  31 
villages  and  tanks,  of  which  19  are  broken  down,  the  whole  with  the 
exception  of  two  woidd  cost  £223.  and  yield  a  tenth  of  1350  parrahs 
of  paddy  ;  Waddekoe  Poerivoe  has  28  villages  and  27  tanks,  three  of 
which  are  broken,  the  whole  may  be  repaired  for  £215.  and  would 
then  yield  1780  parrahs.  Tobacco  was  formerly  grown  in  this  dis- 
trict. Annatewamadoo  is  the  principal  village  in  this  district,  and 
possesses  a  rest-house,  being  on  the  high  road  between  Vertativo  and 
Trincomalee.  It  is  situated  on  an  extensive  plain,  bordered  by  a 
variety  of  beautiful  trees  and  shrubs.  The  paddy  fields  are  here  well 
cultivated. 

The  district  of  Moelliawalle  or  Mulliwalle  has  but  three  tanks,  all 
of  which  are  broken,  the  repairs  would  cost  £34.  and  would  produce 
950  parrahs  of  paddy  as  tenth.  In  this  district  are  good  gardens 
planted  with  palmyra,  cocoa  nut  and  jack  trees,  also  with  the  pepper 
vine  which  thrives  well.  There  is  here  a  large  quantity  of  excellent 
waste  land.  Tobacco  is  grown,  and  watered  from  the  wells  which 
are  dug  from  time  to  time. 

The  district  of  Poedoekoedyirpoe  has  six  tanks,  of  which  two  are 
broken  down,  and  their  repair  would  cost  £38.  This  district  con- 
tains also  about  750  marcals  of  ground  in  cultivated  fields,  which 
could  be  watered  from  the  above  tanks,  and  1253  marcals  of  fields, 
which  are  sown  in  the  rainy  season,  from  the  whole  there  would  be 
a  tithe  of  1 700  parrahs  of  paddy.  Palmyra  and  cocoa  nut  trees 
flourish  here,  and  tobacco  is  also  grown. 

The  district  of  Karnavelpattoe  is  divided  into  Tekoe  Poerivoe, 
with  49  villages,  and  the  same  number  of  tanks,  of  which  32 
are  broken  down  ;  to  repair  the  whole  would  cost  £576.,  in  return 
for  which  Government  would  receive  3,900  parrahs  of  paddy. 
Tobacco  formerly  flourished  here  ;  Waddekoe  Poerivoe,  with  sixteen 
villages,  eight  of  which  only  have  tanks,  seven  of  these  are  broken ; 
to  repair  the  whole  would  cost  about  £200.  The  other  villages  sow 
their  fields  in  the  rainy  season,  and  if  all  the  fields  were  to  be  sown, 
the  tithe  would  produce  4,700  parrahs  of  paddy.  Tobacco  was  for- 
merly grown  here  in  great  abundance,    and  watered  from  wells,  but 


526  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

from  the  want  of  cattle  to  manure  the  ground,  the  cultivation  has 
decreased.  The  population  consists  of  Vellalas,  Karreyas,  and 
Chandas. 

The  cost  then  of  the  repair  of  all  the  Wanny  tanks,  with  the  aid 
of  the  free  labour  of  the  natives  interested  therein,  would  certainly 
not  exceed  ^620,000,  and  if  we  were  to  accept  Captain  Schneiders' 
estimate,  would  not  exceed  .=£14,000.  If  all  the  cultivated  fields, 
which  contain  about  70,4/5  marcals,  or  37,500  parrahs  of  paddy, 
were  sown,  the  tenth  to  Government  would  be  60,000  parrahs  of 
paddy.  The  inhabitants  did  at  one  time  combine  together  in  one 
district  to  repair  a  certain  number  of  tanks,  but  the  work  was  too 
much  for  them.  The  prosperity  of  a  country,  whose  capabilities 
are  so  great,  would  soon  return,  in  case  of  the  repair  of  the  tanks, 
and  the  people  would  return  also.  The  tanks  were  originally  strongly 
made,  but  they  have  not  been  kept  up  well.  They  were  dammed  off 
on  two  sides  to  contain  the  water  descending  from  the  highlands  in 
the  rainy  monsoon  :  the  dams  were  formed  of  earth,  and  laid  on  the 
lowest  side  of  the  ground,  or  where  there  was  a  slope  :  the  thickness 
of  the  dam  was  in  proportion  to  the  height,  and  the  height  to  the 
size  of  the  tank.  The  fields  next  to  or  on  the  lower  side  of  the  dam 
are  cultivated,  whereby  the  water  can  with  ease  be  led  into  the  fields 
by  laving  it  out  of  the  tank.  The  state  of  these  tanks  ought  to  be 
looked  to  every  year,  as  was  formerly  the  case,  when  tank  makers 
came  annually  from  Jaffna  for  the  purpose,  the  cost  was  then  trifling. 
The  causes  of  the  decay  of  the  tanks  are  thus  given.  (1st.)  The 
dams  should  be  clean,  free  from  jungle,  or  the  repair  is  impeded  ; 
moreover  in  stormy  weather  the  roots  of  the  shrubs  loosen  the  earth, 
through  the  pores  of  which  thus  loosened,  the  water  finds  its  way, 
and  at  last  completes  a  breach.  (2nd.)  The  headmen  should  take 
care  that  every  tank  have  its  proper  channel,  and  that  they  be  formed 
where  they  are  wanting,  and  that  the  dams  may  not  be  cut  to  carry 
water  to  the  fields,  as  the  loose  earth  placed  to  fill  up  the  gap  is  car- 
ried away  in  the  rainy  season.  The  channels  formerly  were  formed 
of  hollow  trees.  (3rd.)  Every  tank  should  have  a  place  for  the 
superfluous  water  to  run  out,  but  it  must  be  of  such  a  height  as  to 
leave  a  sufficiency  of  water  in  the  tank.  (4th .)  An  open  way  must 
be  left  for  cattle  at  a  place  where  the  dam  is  low,  in  order  that  the 
cattle  may  drink  there.  (5th.)  The  repairs  are  not  sufficiently 
durable,  the  earth  should  be  stamped  down. 

The  roads  opened  through  the  Wanny  are  as  yet  mere  tracks, 
which  were  chiefly  undertaken  by  the  Dutch.  Rest  houses  were  for- 
merly attached  to  the  principal  routes,  but  except  on  that  between 
Vertativoe  and  Trincomalee,  they  are  now  generally  in  ruins. 

The  southern  Wanny  consists  of  that  portion  of  the  country  which 
was  known  as  the  Kandian  or  King's  Wanny,  previous  to  the  dis- 

1  The  Singhalese  authority  practically  extended  no  further  north  than  Nuwera 
Kalawa,  but  the  Wanniyas  all  acknowledged  the  Emperor  as  their  liege  lord. 


CHAP.  I.]    DISTRICT  OF  NUWERA  KALAWA  AND  ITS  CHARACTER.    527 

memberment  of  the  Kandian  kingdom,  and  was  divided  amongst  the 
Soerje  Wanniyas  on  the  west,  and  the  Noegerje  Wanniyas  on  the  east, 
but  which  is  now  incorporated  with  the  other  portions  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  character  of  the  country  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the 
northern  division,  but  it  is  entirely  uncultivated,  and  almost  unin- 
habited ;  and  except  in  the  central  portion,  which  is  watered  by  the 
Malwatte-oya  and  its  tributaries,  and  contains  numerous  tanks,  would 
seem  to  be  devoid  of  the  appliances  of  irrigation.  Parts  of  the 
Noegerje  Wanny  are  said  to  produce  good  cotton.  The  road  con- 
necting Anuradhapoora  and  the  country  to  the  south  with  the  Jaffna 
peninsula  intersects  this  province.  As  will  be  supposed,  it  is  a  mere 
track,  and  without  rest  houses,  being  seldom  or  never  frequented. 
The  forests  in  this  part  of  the  country  degenerate  into  low  prickly 
scrub. 

A  portion  of  the  country  traversed  by  the  new  road  between 
Anuradhapoora  and  Arippo  belongs  to  this  district,  and  is  the  most 
dreary  and  desolate  that  can  be  conceived,  consisting  on  either  side 
of  an  interminable  jungle.  The  principal  villages  on  the  west  are 
Oyamadoe,  Payamadoe,  and  Tamenawille,  where  there  is  a  small 
lake.  To  the  villages  once  existing  on  this  line  of  road,  the  word 
Palu  (desolate),  for  a  distance  of  forty  miles,  is  an  invariable  addition 
to  the  name  of  the  place.  Extensive  rice  grounds,  now  almost 
covered  with  the  encroaching  jungle,  prove  that  the  country  was 
formerly  densely  inhabited ;  villages  and  temples  have  shared  the 
same  fate,  and  are  now  among  the  things  that  were.  Granite  pillars, 
ancient  landmarks,  and  the  ruined  embankments  of  tanks  are  now 
the  only  traces  of  the  former  abode  of  man. 

Neura  or  Nuwera  Kalava  or  Kalawa,  reaches  from  the  Southern 
Wanny,  its  northern  boundary  to  the  Kala  or  Kalawa-  oya,  which 
divides  it  from  the  Seven  Korles  on  the  south  and  south-west ;  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north-west  by  the  district  of  Pomparippo,  on  the 
east  by  Tamblegam  and  Tamankada,  and  on  the  south-east  by  Matale. 
R  is  divided  into  fourteen  pattoos  or  hundreds,  Herellewe,  Matam- 
ban,  Indrowa,  Halagamuwe,  Hooroole,  Mahapotane,  Maminiya, 
Paraha^a,  Hahalle,  Nuagamdaha,  Killegamme,  Epawela,  Ollagaila, 
and  Nuweragamme. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  Nuwera  Kalawa  may  be  characterised  as  a 
dead  flat,  covered  with  thick  jungles  ;  and  though  it  has  some  hills 
on  the  east  and  north-east,  yet  none  of  them  rise  to  any  great 
height.  It  is,  however,  remarkable  for  its  detached  and  precipitous 
rocks ,  some  of  these  are  of  the  hugest  dimensions,  and  shoot  up 
from  amidst  the  forests,  which  cover  its  far  spreading  plains. 
Nuwera  Kalawa  has,  perhaps,  equally  with  the  Wanny,  witnessed 
great  commotions  above,  and  below  its  surface,  and  retains  ample 
vestiges  of  elemental  strife.  I  am  almost  inclined  to  infer  that  it 
is  rich  in  mineral  resources,  as  far  as  I  can  collect  from  the  disjointed 
statements  I  have  had  at  my  disposal.  It  has  but  few  rivers,  and  those 


528  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

only  take  their  source  within  its  confines.  The  Kala,  from  whence 
it  takes  its  name,  does  not  permeate  its  internal  districts,  but  its 
branches  have  been  turned  to  the  best  purpose  in  feeding  the 
numerous  tanks,  which  are  now,  however,  broken  down  or  unservice- 
able. 

The  climate  of  Nuwera  Kalawa  is  generally  considered  healthy, 
but  in  consequence  of  tbe  highlands  being  overgrown  with  thick 
jungle,  and  exposed  to  the  putrid  effluvia  arising  from  stagnant 
wateYs,  the  inhabitants  are  subject  to  fever  and  ague  at  certain  periods 
of  the  year,  especially  during  the  rainy  season.  The  soil  is,  in  most 
parts,  remarkably  fertile,  and  yields  two  harvests  in  the  year,  one  of 
which  is  reaped  in  February,  the  other  in  July.  Paddy  is  the  staple 
production,  but  other  sorts  of  grain,  such  as  kurukkan,  gingelie, 
mungo,  and  minery,  together  with  mustard,  chillies,  and  cotton  are 
extensively  cultivated.  Its  manufactures  are  chiefly  confined  to  a 
coarse  kind  of  cotton  stuffs. 

It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the  maritime  districts,  and 
also  with  some  of  the  inland  provinces,  exporting  paddy,  fine  grain, 
chillies,  and  cotton,  and  importing  salt,  salt  fish,  cloth,  areka  nuts, 
tobacco,  iron,  copper,  steel,  lead,  pepper,  garlic,  onions,  and  turmeric. 

The  inhabitants  are  composed  of  Malabars  on  the  north,  north- 
east, and  north-west ;  and  Singhalese  in  the  southern  divisions. 
They  are  both  remarkable  for  their  industry,  and  the  simplicity  of 
their  manners  and  customs. 

By  the  repair  of  the  tanks  in  this  vast  district,  the  produce  and 
resources  of  the  island  would  be  wonderfully  augmented  and  thou- 
sands of  Tamul  emigrants  would  gradually  find  their  wav  and  settle 
in  its  rich  but  now  parched  plains.  If  we  are  to  form  an  estimate 
from  the  number  and  dimensions  of  the  tanks  that  may  still  be 
traced,  and  the  ruins  •  of  its  once  magnificent  metropolis,  it  must 
have  formerly  contained  a  very  numerous  population,  for  within  its 
limits  was  concentrated  nearly  all  the  power,  wealth  and  splendour 
of  the  state.  It  owes  its  present  prostration  to  the  frequent  inva- 
sions of  the  Malabars,  and  to  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government, 
which  by  abstracting  the  capital  employed  in  its  cultiva^on,  and 
transferring  it  to  the  neighbouring  district  of  Tamankada,  insensibly 
led  to  the  neglect  of  irrigation,  and  the  consequent  depopulation  of 
tbe  country. 

In  seasons  of  drought  the  few  streams  that  pass  through  it  are 
either  absorbed  by  the  thirsty  soil,  or  become  a  chain  of  pools,  even 
the  wells  dry  up,  at  which  period  the  wild  beasts,  who  at  other  times 
find  security  and  plenty  within  its  jungles,  leave  it  for  more  hospi- 
table retreats.  At  this  season  the  fish  may  be  caught  in  any  num- 
bers in  the  pools,  as  they  have  no  means  of  escape. 

Tbe  haunts  of  the  Veddahs  extended  up  to  Nuwera  Kalawa  in  the 
time  of  Knox,  and  probably  included  the  Southern  Wanny.  They 
are  still  frequently  to  be  found  to  the  north-west  of  the  district  of 
Mafale. 


CHAP.    I.J     ANURADHAPOORA SITE,    LEGENDS,    AND    HISTORY.      529 

The  chieftain  of  this  district  bears  the  title  of  Satpattoo  Maha 
Wanni  Unnahey,  and  as  he  is  considered  to  be  descended  from  the 
person  who  brought  over  the  Sri  Maha  Botli  tree  from  Dambadiva, 
is  held  in  great  respect  by  the  Singhalese,  and  is  the  warden  of  the 
temple  at  Anuradhapoora.  Having  been  implicated  in  the  Kaudian 
rebellion,  he  was  for  a  time  removed  from  office,  but  was  subse- 
quently reinstated. 

After  crossing  the  Kalawa-oya,  and  entering  the  Nuwara  Kalawa 
district,  the  stranger  from  the  south  will  perceive  a  marked  difference 
in  the  customs,  manners,  and  appearance  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
taller  and  have  more  regular  features,  but  are  neither  so  healthy 
looking  nor  so  robust  as  those  of  the  mountainous  districts.  Instead 
of  the  usual  dress  of  Kandians,  a  coloured  handkerchief  bound  round 
the  head,  they  wear  a  peculiar  sort  of  turban,  so  fastened,  that  in 
the  middle  and  on  the  top  of  the  head,  a  peak  projects  upwards  like 
the  crest  of  a  helmet.  The  country  on  this  side  presents  little 
worthy  of  notice,  until  the  artificial  lake  Tissa-wewa  is  reached, 
where  on  the  opposite  side,  and  rising  far  above  the  ancient  forest  by 
which  they  are  surrounded,  Buddhist  monuments  like  hills  covered 
with  wood,  and  surmounted  by  the  remains  of  spires  are  observed  ; 
the  scattered  materials  of  ancient  buildings,  and  numberless  stone 
pillars,  then  attest  the  arrival  within  the  limits  of  Anuradhapoora, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Ceylon. 

From  the  earliest  ages,  the  site  on  which  Anuradhapoora  was 
built  has  been  considered  sacred  by  the  votaries  of  Buddha,  and 
when  the  first  Buddha  of  the  present  era  visited  it,  he  is  said  to  have 
found  it  already  hallowed  as  a  scene  of  the  ancient  religious  rites  of 
preceding  generations,  and  consecrated  by  Buddhas  of  a  former  era. 
The  locality  does  not  possess  any  intrinsic  recommendations  for  the 
capital  of  the  island,  and  bears  out  the  impression  of  its  having  been 
selected  from  some  superstitious  motive.  Its  subsequent  abandon- 
ment, decay  and  present  desolation,  even  if  history  had  not  pre- 
served a  record  of  the  feuds,  famines,  wars  and  pestilence  which  at 
various  times  oppressed  the  country,  and  reduced  the  number  of 
inhabitants  so  as  to  render  the  remainder  incapable  of  maintaining 
the  great  embankments  of  their  artificial  lakes,  might  amply  be 
accounted  for  by  the  operation  of  natural  causes.  The  bunds  or 
embankments  of  the  great  tanks  having  burst,  their  waters  spread 
over  the  country  as  their  channels  were  neglected,  and  engendered  a 
perpetual  miasm  by  forming  noxious  swamps,  and  giving  birth  to  the 
dense  jungle  or  giant  forests. 

Anuradhapoora  is  first  mentioned  by  that  name  about  500  B.C.  ; 
it  was  then  a  village  and  the  residence  of  a  prince  Sekya  Kumaraya, 
who  took  the  name  of  Anuradha  on  his  settling  at  this  place,  which  the 
king  Panduwasa  had  assigned  to  him,  when  he  came  to  visit  his  sister, 
the  queen  Bhadda-kaehana.  They  were  grandchildren  of  Amitodama, 
tlic  paternal  uncle  of  Gautama  Buddha.  It  was  chosen  for  the  capital 
bj  i  lie  king  Pandukabhaya,  b.c.  437,  who  greatly  embellished  it  and 


530  CEYLON,  [PAKT    IV. 

constructed  the  Jayawewa  and  Abayawewa,  two  very  extensive  tanks, 
and  in  the  reign  of  Dewenipeatissa,  which  commenced  B.C.  307,  it 
received  the  collarbone  of  Gautama,  his  begging  dish  filled  with  relics, 
and  a  branch  of  the  bo-tree,  under  which  he  had  reclined.  Anuradha- 
poora  had  been  sanctified  by  the  presence  of  former  Buddhas,  and 
these  memorials  of  Gautama  increased  its  sacred  character  ;  additional 
relics  were  subsequently  brought,  for  which  temples  were  reared  by 
successive  sovereigns,  and  Wahapp,.  who  commenced  his  reign  a.d. 
62,  finished  the  walls  of  the  city,  which  were  sixty-four  miles  in 
extent,  each  side  being  sixteen  miles,  and  thus  its  perimeter  was 
25 6  square  miles.  Anuradhapoora1  is  properly  laid  down  in 
Ptolemy's  map,  and  is  there  called  Anurogrammum,  Grama  or 
Gramya,  being  used  for  a  town,  and  Poora  for  a  city.  For  upwards 
of  1200  years,  Anuradhapoora  remained  the  capital  of  the  island, 
except  during  the  reign  of  Kaasiyappa,when  that  parricide  and  usurper 
transferred  the  seat  of  his  government  to  the  inaccessible  rock  fort 
of  Seegiri.  In  the  eighth  century,  Pollonnaroowa  was  chosen  as  the 
capital  in  preference  to  Anuradhapoora,  the  latter  being  too  much 
exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  Malabars.  The  religious  edifices  were 
occasionally  repaired  by  pious  sovereigns,  until  the  time  of  Maagha, 
a  successful  invader. 

All  the  ruins  of  Anuradhapoora,  even  the  lofty  monuments  con- 
taining the  relics  of  Buddha,  are  either  entirely  covered  with  jungle, 
or  partly  obscured  by  forests,  which  the  imagination  of  natives  has 
peopled  with  unholy  phantoms,  spirits  of  the  wicked  doomed  to 
wander  near  the  ruins,  which  were  witnesses  of  their  guilt  and 
partakers  of  their  desolation.  "Although  simplicity,"  says  Forbes, 
"  is  the  most  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  ancient  architectural 
remains  of  the  Singhalese,  yet  some  of  the  carving  in  granite  might 
compete  with  the  best  modern  workmanship  of  Europe  in  the  same 
material,  both  as  regards  depth  and  sharpness  of  cutting  ;  and  the 
sculptures  at  Anuradhapoora  and  places  built  at  remote  ages,  are 
distinguished  from  any  attempts  of  modern  natives,  not  less  by  the 
more  animated  action  of  the  figures  than  by  greater  correctness  of 
proportion." 

In  the  centre  of  a  square  in  front  of  the  Maha-wihare  (great 
temple),  is  a  shady  tree,  and  a  stone  pillar  fourteen  feet  high  stands 
beside  the  figure  of  a  bull  cut  in  granite  and  revolving  on  a  pivot. 
In  the  entrance  from  this  square  into  the  Maha-wihare,  are  a  few 
steps  exquisitely  and  elaborately  carved,  and  still  in  perfect  preserva- 
tion. Ascending  these,  and  passing  through  a  mean  building  of 
modern  erection,  an  enclosure  345  feet  long  by  216  broad  is  entered, 
which  surrounds  the  court  of  the   bo-tree,    styled  by  Buddhists, 

'  ''  The  lower  classes  of  natives,"  sajs  Forbes,  "  believe  that  the  name  of  the 
city  is  derived  from  Anu-Raja  (ninety  kings),  and  Knox  seems  to  favour  this 
error  when  he  calls  it  Anurodgburro,  but  it  was  from  the  name  of  the  constella- 
tion Anuradha,  under  which  it  was  founded." 


CHAF.    I.]         THE    SKI    MAHA    BODIN    TREE — TOOPHARAMAYA.         ;>3i 

Jaya-Sri-maha-Bodinwahawai  (the  great,  famous,  and  triumphant 
fig  tree).  Within  the  walls  may  be  observed  the  remains  of  several 
small  temples,  and  the  centre  is  occupied  by  the  sacred  tree  and  the 
buildings  in  which  it  is  contained  or  supported.  This  tree  is  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  veneration  to  the  numerous  pilgrims  who  annually  visit 
Anuradhapoora  ;  to  perform  pooja  and  distribute  alms  to  the  priests 
in  honour  of  Buddha.  They  believe  what  their  records  relate,  that 
it  is  a  branch  of  the  tree  under  which  Gautama  sat,  the  day  he 
became  a  Buddha,  and  that  it  was  sent  from  Patalipoora  by  the 
King  Dharmasoka,  who  gave  it  in  charge  to  his  daughter  Sangha- 
mitta.  It  is  mentioned  by  Casie  Chitty,  that  the  real  Sri  Maha 
Bodi  tree  became  extinct  long  ago,  but  he  does  not  intimate,  what 
indeed  would  appear  far  from  improbable,  that  the  present  may 
be  an  offshoot  from  the  original. 

The  spot  on  which  the  tree  stands,  is  supposed  to  have  been  at 
former  periods  the  position  where  the  emblematic  trees  of  former 
Buddhas  grew,  viz.  Kakusanda  Buddha's,  the  mahari  tree,  Kona- 
gamma  Buddha's,  the  atika  tree  (licus  glomerata),  and  Kaasyappa's, 
the  nigrodi  (banyan).  ' *.  No  one  of  the  several  stems  or  branches  of 
the  tree,"  says  Forbes,  "  is  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter,  and 
several  of  the  largest  project  through  the  sides  of  the  terraced  build- 
ing in  which  it  is  growing.  This  structure  consists  of  four  plat- 
forms, decreasing  in  size  as  you  ascend,  and  giving  room  for  a  broad 
walk  round  each  of  them.  From  the  self-renovating  properties  of 
the  bo-tree,  it  is  not  at  all  impossible,  that  this  one  may  possess  the 
great  antiquity  claimed  for  it  by  the  sacred  guardian  ;  if  so,  the  for- 
bearance of  the  Malabar  conquerors  must  be  accounted  for  by  their 
considering  this  tree  sacred  to  other  gods ;  the  profits  derived  from 
pilgrims  may  also  have  induced  them  to  give  full  weight  to  the  alleged 
partiality  of  Brahma  for  this  beautiful  tree.  The  Lowa  Maha  Pay  a 
and  Ruwanwelle-saye,  &c.  have  been  already  described  under  the 
reign  of  Dootoo  Gaimoouoo,  by  whom  they  were  constructed. — (Sec 
page  41.) 

Toopharamaya,  although  surpassed  in  size  by  many,  exceeds  in 
beauty  and  unity  of  design,  and  in  the  finish  of  the  minute  figures  on 
its  tall,  slender  and  graceful  columns,  any  dagobah  in  Ceylon  ;  this 
dagobah  is  low,  broad  at  the  top,  and  surrounded  by  four  lines  of 
pillars,  twenty-seven  in  each  line,  fixed  in  the  elevated  granite  plat- 
form, so  as  to  form  radii  of  a  circle,  of  which  the  monument  is  the 
centre.  These  pillars  are  twenty-four  feet  high,  with  square  bases, 
octagonal  shafts  and  circular  capitals ;  the  base  and  shafts  fourteen 
inches  thick  and  twenty-two  feet  long,  are  each  of  one  stone ;.  the 
capitals  are  much  broader  than  the  base,  and  are  highly  finished. 
Toopharamaya  was  built  over  the  collar  bone  of  Gautama,  when  it 
was  brought  from  Maghada  in  the  reign  of  Dewenipeatissa,  B.C. 
30 7,  and  the  ruins  of  an  adjoining  building  received  the  Dalada 
relic,  when  it  arrived  in  Ceylon.     Lankaramaya  was  erected  in  the 

■2    M    2 


532  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

reign  of  Mahasen,  it  is  in  better  order,  but  much  inferior  in  effect 
to  the  Toopharamaya,  from  which  it  is  copied.  The  Abhayagiri 
dagobah,  described  in  p.  45,  is  even  now  230  feet  high,  and  the  plat- 
form on  wbich  it  stands,  as  well  as  the  fosse  and  surrounding  wall 
were  proportionably  extensive  :  the  whole  of  the  building,  except  a 
few  patches  near  the  summit,  is  covered  with  thick  jungle  and  high 
trees,  even  where  the  interstices  of  the  pavement,  composed  of  large 
granite  slabs,  are  all  that  yield  nourishment  to  the  trees,  or  secure 
their  roots. 

The  Jaitawanaramaya  was  commenced  by  Mahasen,  and  completed 
by  Kitsiri  Majan,  a.d.  310  :  its  height  was  originally  315  feet,  and 
its  ruins  are  still  2G9  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain.  The  cubic 
contents  of  this  temple  have  been  estimated  at  456,000  cubic  yards, 
and  it  has  been  calculated  that  with  its  present  remains,  a  brick  wall 
twelve  feet  high,  two  feet  broad,  and  ninety-seven  miles  long  might 
be  constructed.  To  its  very  summit  the  Jaitawanaramaya  is  encom- 
passed and  overspread  by  trees  and  brushwood,  the  most  active 
agents  of  ruin  to  the  ancient  buildings  of  Ceylon,  as  their  increasing 
roots  and  towering  stems,  shaken  by  the  wind,  overturn  and  displace 
what  has  long  resisted  the  strife  of  elements. 

Amidst  the  ruins  of  the  palace,  stand  six  square  pillars,  support- 
ing some  remains  of  a  cornice ;  each  of  these  pillars  is  formed  of  a 
single  stone  eighteen  feet  long  and  three  broad.  There  also  is  the 
stone  canoe,  made  by  order  of  Gaimoonoo,  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ,  to  hold  the  liquid  prepared  for  the  refection  of  the  priests ; 
it  measures  sixty-three  feet  in  length,  three  and  a  half  in  breadth, 
and  two  feet  ten  inches  in  depth.  Within  the  precincts  of  the  royal 
buildings,  may  be  seen  the  stone  trough  from  which  the  state 
elephants  drank.  The  Isuramini  wihare,  a  temple  partly  cut  in  the 
rock,  the  Saila  Chytia,  a  small  monument  built  on  a  spot  where 
Buddha  had  rested  himself,  and  the  tomb  of  Elaala,  are  among  the 
ruins  visited  by  the  pious  pilgrims. 

Besides  eight  large  tanks  at  Anuradhapoora,  there  are  several  of  a 
smaller  size,  built  round  with  hewn  stone :  in  whose  side  are  cells 
formerly  occupied  by  priests  as  places  for  contemplation,  when  reli- 
gion flourished  and  the  tanks  were  full,  one  of  these  cells  when 
examined  proved  to  be  formed  of  five  slabs,  and  it  was  twelve  feet 
long,  eight  broad,  and  five  feet  high ;  the  lowest  stone  or  floor  of  the 
cell  being  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  water  in  the  tank.  There  are  also 
many  wells  built  round  with  stone ;  one  very  large  one  near  the 
Ruwanwelle-saye  is  circular,  and  the  size  diminishes  with  each  course 
of  masonry,  so  as  to  form  steps  for  descending  to  the  bottom  in  any 
direction.  Near  the  footpath  leading  to  the  Jaitawanaramaya,  lies 
a  vessel  ornamented  with  pilasters  cut  in  relievo  ;  it  is  formed  out  of 
a  single  granite  stone,  and  is  ten  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  two  feet 
deep.     It  was  used  to  contain  food  for  the  priests. 

Anuradhapoora  is  thus   described  in  an  ancient  native  chronicle. 


CHAP.  I.]    THEIR    METROPOLIS   DESCRIBED   BY  THE    SINGHALESE.  533 

"  The  magnificent  city  of  Anuradhapoora  is  refulgent  from  the 
numerous  temples  and  palaces,  whose  golden  pinnacles  glitter  in  the 
sky.  The  sides  of  its  streets  are  strewn  with  black  sand,  and  the 
middle  is  sprinkled  with  white  sand ;  they  are  spanned  by  arches,1 
bearing  flags  of  gold  and  silver ;  on  either  side  are  vessels  of  the 
same  precious  metals  containing  flowers  ;  and  in  niches  are  statues 
holding  lamps  of  great  value.  In  the  streets  are  multitudes  of 
people  armed  with  bows  and  arrows  ;  also  men  powerful  as  gods, 
who  with  their  huge  swords  could  cut  asunder  a  tusk-elephant  at 
one  blow.  Elephants,  horses,  carts,  and  myriads  of  people  are  con- 
stantly passing  and  repassing ;  there  are  jugglers,  dancers,  and 
musicians  of  various  nations,  whose  chank  shells  and  other  musical 
instruments  are  ornamented  with  gold.  The  distance  from  the  prin- 
cipal gate  to  the  south  gate  is  four  gows  (sixteen  miles),  and  from 
the  north  gate  to  the  south  gate,  four  gows :  the  principal  streets  are 
Chandrawakka-widiya  or  Moon  Street,  Raja  maha-widiya  or  Great 
King  Street,  Iliuguruwak-widiya,  and  Mahavelle-widiya,  Great  Sandy 
Street,  or  from  the  river  Mahavelle-ganga.  In  Chandrawakka- 
widiya  are  11,000  houses,  many  of  them  being  two-storied;  the 
smaller  streets  are  innumerable.  The  palace  has  immense  ranges  of 
building,  some  of  two,  others  of  three  stories  in  height,  and  its  subter- 
raneous apartments  are  of  great  extent."  Excluding  the  four  principal 
streets,  the  others  were  built  of  perishable  materials,  and  were  de- 
signated from  the  different  classes  who  inhabited  them.  The  vast 
area  of  Anuradhapoora,  covering  within  its  walls  a  space  of  256 
square  miles,  will  not  afford  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  extent  of  its 
population,  as  tanks,  fields,  and  even  forests  are  mentioned  as  being 
within  its  limits.  In  Anuradhapoora  the  only  sacred  buildings  of 
modern  date  are  a  few  small  temples  erected  on  the  foundations  and 
from  the  materials  of  former  structures ;  they  are  supported  by 
wooden  pillars,  "which  even  in  the  same  building,"  says  Forbes, 
"  present  a  great  variety  of  capitals  and  perfect  defiance  of  propor- 
tion." These  mean  temples  of  clay  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
granite  columns,  massive  foundations,  and  stone  pillars,  which  still 
stand  or  lie  scattered  in  endless  profusion  amidst  the  ruined  heaps 
and  proud  remains  of  former  ages,  and  prove  that  Buddhism  is  now 
on  the  wane,  where  it  once  held  despotic  sway  over  mind  and  matter. 
In  several  places,  miles  distant  from  the  deserted  city,  are  great  heaps 
of  stone  on  the  road  side,  intended  to  commemorate  events  which 
are  long  since  forgotten  ;  yet  every  pilgrim  adds  still  a  stone  to  these 
anonymous  cairns.  Near  Kagamma  lie  the  ruins  of  the  Nakha  (finger 
nail)  dagobah  and  Tiraapan.  Near  the  forest  of  Kolon-oya,  and  situate 
in  a  plain,  is  the  Nuwarawewa  (city  lake),  which  contains  but  little 
water,   and  that  in  detached   pools,  in  the  dry  season.     Over  its 

1  ' '  Arches  formed  of  areka  trees,  split,  and  bent,  or  of  some  other  pliable 
wood,  were  always  used,"  says  Forbes,  "  in  decorating  entrances  and  public 
buildings  on  days  of  ceremony  and  rejoicing,  but  an  arch  of  masonry  i  i  never 
seen  in  any  Singhalese  building  of  great  antiquity." — Vol.  i.  p.  235. 


534  CEYLON".  [part  IV, 

wooded  embankment  the  crumbling  spires  of  the  ancient  capital  may 
be  distinctly  seen. 

Among  the  ruins  of  Anuradhapoora,  the  dagobahs1  or  monumental 
tombs  of  the  relics  of  Buddha,  the  mode  of  their  construction,  the 
object  for  which  they  were  intended,  and  not  the  least  their  magni- 
tude, are  worthy  of  especial  remark.  The  distinctive  form  of  all 
monumental  Buddhistical  buildings,  in  every  country  where  the  reli- 
gion of  Buddha  predominates,  is  that  of  a  bell-shaped  tomb,  sur- 
mounted by  a  spire.  Whether  in  the  outline  of  the  cumbrous  mount 
or  in  miniature  within  the  laboured  excavation,  this  peculiar  shape 
(although  variously  modified)  is  general,  and  enables  one  to  recognise 
the  neglected  and  forsaken  shrines  of  Buddha  in  countries  where  his 
religion  no  longer  exists,  and  his  ^ery  name  is  unknown.  The  gaudy 
Shoemadoo  of  Pegu,  the  elegant  Toopharamaya  of  Anuradhapoora,  the 
more  modern  masonry  of  Boro  Budor  in  Java,  are  all  of  the  same 
general  form,  and  in  the  desolate  caves  of  Carli,  as  in  the  gaudy 
rock  temples  of  Dambool,  there  is  still  extant  the  mark  of  Buddha — 
the  tomb  of  his  relics. 

Dagobahs  are  considered  the  primeval  attempts  of  the  architect, 
and  there  are  those  who  maintain  that  the  character  and  form  of 
Buddhist  buildings,  bear  convincing  proofs  of  having  been  copied 
from  the  figure  of  a  tent,  while  others  trace  their  continual  progress 
from  the  humble  heap  of  earth,  which  covers  the  ashes  or  urn  of 
the  dead,  up  to  the  stupendous  mount  of  masonry  erected  above  the 
tomb  of  the  great.  These  monuments  in  Ceylon  are  built  around  a 
small  cell  or  hollow  stone,  containing  the  relic,  along  with  which  a 
few  ornaments  and  emblems  of  Buddhist  worship  were  usually  depo- 
sited, such  as  pearls,  precious  stones,  and  figures  of  Buddha,  whose 
number  and  value  depended  on  the  importance  attached  to  the  relic, 
or  the  wealth  of  the  rearer  of  the  monument. 

The  account  in  Singhalese  records  of  the  rich  offerings  and  rare 
gems  deposited  with  some  of  the  relics,  is  doubtless  much  exagge- 
rated ;  though  that  of  the  external  decorations  and  ornaments  of 
these  dagobahs  is  in  general  correct  In  a  sohona  or  Singhalese  ce- 
metery may  be  seen  a  variety  of  miniature  dagobahs,  if  the  little 
earthen  mound  raised  over  the  ashes  of  the  dead,  be  encircled  with 
a  row  of  stones,  the  origin  of  the  projecting  basement  may  be  traced; 
if  the  tomb  be  that  of  a  headman  or  high-priest,  it  will  probably  be 
cased  with  stone  and  surrounded  by  a  row  of  pillars  :  on  all  these 
an  aewaria  branch  was  planted,  which  after  taking  root  and  shooting 
out  its  cluster  of  leaves,  gives  the  semblance  of  the  spire  and  its 
spreading  termination.  In  a  word,  the  dagobah  only  differs  in  size 
and  in  the  durability  of  its  materials,  from  the  humble  heap  which 
covers  the  ashes  of  an  obscure  priest  or  village  headman. 

"  The  tomb   of  Alvattes,"   remarks   Forbes,    "  which    Herodotus 
describes  as  only  inferior  to  the  remains  in  Egypt  and  Babylon,  was  of 

1  Dagobah,  from  Dhatu-garba  (womb  or  receptacle  of  a  relic.) 


CHAP.  I.j  MODERN  VILLAGE  OF  ANURADHAPOORA MIHINTALAI.  535 

the  same  configuration  as  the  sepulchral  mounds  of  the  Buddhists.  In 
materials  and  construction  the  dagobahs  of  Anuradhapoora  far  exceed 
the  tomb  of  Alyattes,  and  fully  equal  it  in  size.  All  the  dagobahs  at 
Anuradhapoora  were  built  of  brick  and  incrusted  with  a  preparation 
of  lime,  cocoa-nut  water,  and  the  glutinous  juice  of  a  fruit,  which 
grows  on  the  native  Paragaha.  This  preparation  is  of  a  pure  white, 
receives  a  polish  nearly  equal  to  marble,  and  is  extremely  durable." 

In  the  rebellion  of  1818  Pilame  Talawe  made  a  stand  along  with 
the  Pretender  at  Anuradhapoora,  perhaps  to  recall  to  the  minds  of 
the  Singhalese  the  associations  of  their  faded  nationality.  If  such 
were  his  intentions,  they  were  soon  defeated,  and  on  the  approach  of 
the  British  troops  he  retired  to  Putlam,  leaving  his  Malabar  protege 
in  the  hands  of  the  victor. 

The  quantity  of  game,  of  every  description,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Anuradhapoora  is  astonishing  ;  every  animal  seems  as  if  by  instinct 
to  know  it  is  within  the  limits  of  a  sanctuary,  where  it  is  secure  from 
slaughter  ;  and  even  now  a  native  will  rarely  venture  to  transgress 
Buddha's  first  commandment,  "  From  the  meanest  insect  up  to 
man  thou  shalt  not  kill,"  within  the  precincts  of  this  hallowed  city. 

Within  late  years  the  roads  which  have  been  constructed,  opened, 
or  improved  to  connect  it  with  the  chief  towns  on  the  coast  and 
interior,  have  stimulated  the  enterprise  of  the  people  ;  and  it  only 
requires  a  trifling  advance  of  money,  soon  to  be  repaid  with  interest ; 
and,  what  is  much  more  important,  an  amicable  organisation  of  all 
the  effective  labour  of  the  district,  to  restore  the  whole  of  the  tanks, 
and  therewith  its  fertility  and  former  population.  Anuradhapoora  is 
now  considered  unhealthy,  but  can  it  be  wondered  at,  when  the 
dank  vegetation  of  the  surrounding  jungle  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion. Had  the  district  in  which  it  is  situated  been  formerly 
unhealthy,  it  could  not  for  twelve  centuries  have  remained  the  capital 
of  the  island.     The  village  is  now  the  seat  of  the  district  court. 

The  road  from  Anuradhapoora  to  Mihintalai,1  although  now  in 
some  places  only  a  forest  track,  was  a  carriage  road,  B.C.  307  ;  as  the 
King  Devenipeatissa  sent  his  carriage  to  convey  the  priest  Mihindoo 
to  the  capital  from  the  mountain  of  Mihintalai.  The  path  at  first 
leads  for  upwards  of  a  mile  along  the  embankment  of  the  Nuwara- 
wewa  (city  lake),  and  then  proceeds  through  the  jungle  at  the 
northern  end  of  this  tank  :  six  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  city  the 
path  becomes  much  wider,  and  has  on  each  side  continued  mounds 
of  decayed  bricks,  the  relics  of  one  of  the  principal  streets  of  Anu- 
radhapoora. Passing  two  other  tanks,  the  last  of  which  called 
Bulian-coloin,  is  eight  miles  from  the  sacred  tree,  and  reaches  to  the 
foot  of  the  rock  ;  the  traveller  arrives  at  the  granite  steps,  which  are 
twenty  feet  long,  and  although  many  are  broken  and  others  displaced, 
still  by  them  the  ascent  of  Mihintalai  is  easily  accomplished,  even 
on  horseback.     The  number  of  these  steps,  including  those  leading 

1  This  rocky  mountain,  or  parts  of  it  is  mentioned  by  various  names  ia  the 
native  history  as  Piyal  Kulu,  Missako,  Chetiyo,  Saegiri. 


536  CETLOIT.  [PAHT.  IT. 

to  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  on  which  are  the  ruins  of  the  Et 
Wihare,  is  1840.  They  were  completed  by  the  King  Maha  Dailiya, 
who  reigned  from  a.d.  8  to  a.d.  20.  Ascending  from  a  landing 
place  of  considerable  extent,  on  which  are  the  foundations  of  large 
buildings,  a  long  flight  of  steps  leads  to  a  more  extensive  flat,  on 
which  is  situated  the  Ambastella  dagobah,  the  dwellings  of  the  priests 
and  various  ruins.  On  every  side  this  spot  is  surrounded  by  masses 
of  granite,  some  of  these  are  of  considerable  height  and  difficult 
access,  and  all  are  sanctified  by  legends  attested  by  crumbling  monu- 
ments, in  which  are  deposited  those  relics  which  procured  for  Mihin- 
talai  the  name  of  Solosmastane  (the  place  of  the  sixteen  relics).  On 
the  consecrated  pinnacles  of  this  mountain  lingers  the  faint  twilight 
of  an  early  history,  which  connects  the  records  of  another  race,  and 
their  forgotten  prophets  with  the  dawn  of  Singhalese  literature,  and 
the  permanent  establishment  of  Gautama  Buddha's  religion  by  the 
priest  Mihindoo.  The  appearance  of  former  Buddhas  at  this  place 
is  mentioned  in  several  religious  legends  ;  and  although  the  events 
regarding  them  are  few  and  uninteresting,  yet  the  extent  of  labour 
and  different  stages  of  decay,  which  appear  in  the  weather  worn  steps 
(even  those  cut  in  the  solid  rock)  evince  the  remains  on  this  mountain 
to  be  the  work  of  successive  generations,  and  of  different  and  widely 
separated  ages.  The  principal  dagobah  of  Mihintalai  derives  its 
sanctity  from  the  relic  it  contains,  viz.  the  Aurnaroma,  a  hair  which 
grew  on  a  mole  between  the  eyebrows  of  Gautama  Buddha.  The 
Ambastella  dagobah  is  situated  on  the  spot  which  Mihindoo  selected 
for  his  conference,  with  the  King  Dewenipeatissa,  whom  he  here 
encountered  on  returning  from  the  chase  :  the  broken  statue  of  this 
king  in  a  devotional  attitude  now  lies  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
monument,  half  covered  with  rubbish,  and  almost  concealed  by  rank 
weeds.  The  bed  of  Mihindoo  is  pointed  out  on  one  of  the  rocky 
pinnacles  which  overhang  the  plain  ;  this  bed  is  merely  a  level  space 
on  the  rock,  five  feet  long  by  two  feet  broad ;  it  is  elevated  about  an 
inch,  as  the  surface  around  has  been  cut  away  to  that  extent :  over  it 
rests  a  mass  of  rock  with  a  natural  arch  open  at  both  sides.  This 
eyry  of  the  anchorite  commands  an  extensive  view,  but  having  a 
precipice  on  either  side,  to  reach  it,  is  difficult,  to  recline  on  it  would 
be  perilous.  Mihintalai  derives  its  present  name  from  Mihindoo, 
son  of  Dharmasoka,  King  of  India. 

The  view  from  Mihintalai  is  said  to  extend  from  sea  to  sea  ;  on 
the  west  are  the  tanks  and  temples  of  Auuradhapoora,  visible  from 
amidst  the  thick  forest  that  obscures  the  city ;  the  hill  of  Saing- 
liamalai  is  on  the  far  north-east,  with  a  religious  ruin  on  its  summit, 
and  the  high  mountain  of  Bitigalla  rises  abrupt  and  rocky  on  the 
south-east.  The  caves  and  residences  of  the  Yakkas  are  said  by  the 
natives  to  be  still  visible  in  Bitigalla,  where  they  resisted  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  Dootoo-gaimoonoo,  and  a  numerous  force,  B.C.  160.  The 
natives  have  a  horror  of  trespassing  on  what  they  believe  to  be  a 
stronghold  of  the   devils,  and  deny  any    knowledge  of  the  way  in 


CHAP.    1.1  KALAWA    TANK — RUINS    OF   WIGITTAPOORA.  537 

which  the  mountain  can  be  ascended.  On  the  rocks  of  Mihintalai 
are  long  inscriptions  in  the  Nagara  character,  which  have  not  yet 
been  translated.  There  are  also  very  long  inscriptions  in  the  ancient 
Singhalese  character,  of  date  a.d.  222;  some  of  these  specify  the 
duties  expected  from  the  priests  of  the  establishment,  the  manner  in 
which  the  revenues  are  to  be  disposed  of,  and  the  treatment  to  which 
the  tenants  and  servants  of  the  temple  are  to  be  subjected.  The 
whole  vicinity  is  extremely  unhealthy  from  the  decay  and  decom- 
position of  the  vegetable  matter  deposited  by  the  floods,  whose 
subsidence  is  the  signal  for  the  visit  of  remittent  and  intermittent 
fevers. 

The  Kalawa  tank,  which  may  possibly  have  originally  been  one 
of  first  class  magnitude,  exhibits  present  proofs  of  having  watered  a  vast 
extent  of  circumjacent  territory;  the  country  stretching  towards  the 
rising  grounds  of  Dambool  and  Kandepalle  on  the  one  side,  and  to 
Nikini,  seventeen  miles  from  Dambool  on  the  other ;  indicating  the 
marks  of  inundation,  and  having,  according  to   Forbes,  been  all  in- 
cluded within  the  limits   of  the  immense  reservoir.      The  double 
sluice  of  the  Kalawa  tank  is  in  good  order,   and  built  of  very  large 
blocks  of  hewn  stone  joined  in  a  workmanlike  manner,  and,  as  is  the 
case  with  most  tanks  in  Ceylon  designed  for  the  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion, the  outlets  for  the  water  are  on  a  level  with  the  lowest  part  of 
the  interior  excavation.      The  spill-water  is  a  great  mass  of  solid 
masonry,  and  the  length  of  the  principal  embankment  is  about  five 
miles,  and  the  sides  of  the   chasm  are  70  feet  in  height.     Other 
lateral   embankments  of  still  greater  length  but  of  less  height,  com- 
plete   this    stupendous  work,   which  in  a    much  more  contracted 
form  had  existed  for  many  centuries  before  it  was  improved  and  en- 
larged by  the  King  Dasenkelliya,  a  short  time  before  he  was  mur- 
dered, a.d.  477.     The  remains  of  this  tank  alone,  constructed  under 
a  very  disturbed  reign,  and  immediately  after  long  continued  wars 
with  the  Malabars  who  had  only  been  expelled  from  the  capital  a 
few  years  before,  shews  that  a  great  population  then  existed  under 
the  control  of  a  despot  who  could  direct  their  labours.      A  canal 
called  Jayaganga  was  cut  from  this  tank  to  Anuradhapoora,    and  is 
calculated  to  have  been  upwards  of  60  miles  in  length. 

The  remains  of  Wigittapoora,  are  a  mile  from  the  sluice  of  the 
Kalawa  tank  through  thick,  low,  thorny  jungle.  This  place  is  men- 
tioned in  Singhalese  history  as  early  as  B.C.  504,  at  which  time  it 
was  the  residence  of  Panduwasa,  the  second  king  of  the  Mahawanse 
(great  dynasty),  and  here  he  established  one  of  his  queen's  brothers, 
a  sou  of  Amitodana  and  cousin  of  Gautama  Buddha,  who  was  after- 
wards known  by  the  name  of  Wigitta.  The  fort  here  was  built  by 
Elaala,  the  Malabar  invader,  and  previously  to  his  defeat  and  death 
it  stood  a  siege  of  four  months,  when  it  was  attacked  by  the  Singha- 
lese under  the  command  of  Gaimoonoo.  Wigittapoora  is  situated  in  a 
marshy  plain,  near  two  rocky  hills,  and  being  considered  one  of  the 


538  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

most  pestilential  spots  in  an  unhealthy  district,  is  overgrown  with 
jungle,  its  temple  is  in  ruins,  and  the  dagobah  which  is  40  feet  high, 
and  terminated  by  an  octagonal  pillar,  is  completely  obscured  by 
trees  and  vegetation  :  two  lines  of  an  inscription  in  the  Nagara  cha- 
racter are  cut  in  one  of  the  stones  near  this  dagobah.  The  walls  of  the 
fort  not  more  than  three  feet  thick,  are  easily  traced,  as  also  a  ditch 
which  surrounds  them,  and  the  tank  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the 
siege,  as  the  place  which  the  elephant  took  refuge  from  the  missiles 
of  the  defenders.  The  fort  appears  to  have  been  a  square  redoubt, 
each  side  of  which  is  about  100  yards  in  length.  The  walls  have 
been  of  brick  raised  on  stone  foundation,  and  much  of  the  materials 
of  this  stronghold  were  probably  employed  in  the  construction  of  the 
dagobah  which  was  erected  several  centuries  later  within  its  enclosure. 

At  no  great  distance  from  Wigittapoora,  is  the  rock  and  ancient 
fortress  of  Sigiri,1  which  appears  to  start  as  it  were  from  the  plain, 
on  whose  scanty  fields  and  far  extending  forests  it  seems  to  frown 
defiance,  while  the  lake  or  tank  around  reflects  from  its  unruffled 
surface  its  bare  overhanging  sides,  and  brushwood  covered  summit. 
Through  the  trees  near  the  base  of  the  rock  may  be  distinguished 
massive  stone  walls,  which  indicate  the  site  of  the  former  capital. 
Though  the  appearance  and  situation  of  the  rock  must  have  attracted 
the  notice  of  those  who  formed  the  earliest  strongholds  of  Ceylon, 
yet  its  hard  substance  and  impracticable  ascent  were  not  completely 
made  available  until  a.d.  478,  at  which  time  it  was  made  the  seat 
of  government  by  Sigiri-kasoomboo  I.,  otherwise  known  as  Kaa- 
syappa  the  Parricide,  in  consequence  of  his  having  obtained  the 
throne  by  the  murder  of  his  father  Dasenkelliya. 

To  form  the  lower  part  of  the  fortress  of  Sigiri,  many  detached 
rocks  have  been  joined  by  massive  walls  of  stone,  supporting  plat- 
forms of  various  sizes  and  unequal  heights  now  overgrown  with  forest 
trees.  On  surmounting  these  ramparts,  the  foot  of  the  bare  and 
beetling  crag  is  reached,  when  at  a  considerable  distance  overhead, 
may  be  seen  a  gallery  clinging  to  the  rock  and  connecting  two  eleva- 
ted terraces  at  opposite  ends,  and  about  half  the  height  of  the  main 
column  of  rock.  These  remains  are  not  only  remarkable  from  their 
position  and  construction,  but  as  being  the  only  extensive  fragments 
of  the  ancient  capitals  of  Ceylon,  which  are  neither  buried  by  jungle 
nor  overshadowed  by  forest.  The  ascent  to  the  gallery  is  bv  a 
double  line  of  small  steps  cut  three  or  four  inches  into  the  rock,  each 
step  being  about  six  inches  in  length :  four  square  holes  visible 
above,   have   probably  contained   supports  for  a  platform  to  project 

1  "  Sikhari  signifies  a  mountain-stronghold  or  hill  fort,  but  so  simple  a  deri- 
vation, and  so  appropriate  a  designation  is  rejected  by  the  natives  for  the  far- 
fetched one  of  Siha  or  Singha  (a  lion)  and  giri  (a  rock),  from  the  number  of  lions 
sculptured  on  different  parts  of  the  fortress.  Their  derivations,  always  fanciful, 
and  often  absurd,  are  not  supported  in  this  instance  by  any  remains  of  that  cha- 
racter, and  it  is  one  of  the  very  few  important  places  in  which  lions  are  not  sculp- 
tured in  various  attitudes." — Forbes,  vol.  2.  p.  2. 


CIIAr.    I.]  SIGIRI — ITS    ROCK    AND    RUINS.  539 

over  this  hazardous  pathway,  and  from  which  missiles  would  descend 
with  such  force  and  certainty  as  effectually  to  prevent  hostile  intru- 
sion by  this  approach.  The  gallery  has  been  formed  by  cutting 
grooves  in  the  rock  where  it  was  not  cpiite  perpendicular,  and  these 
served  for  foundations  of  the  parapet  wall  and  floor.  About  100 
yards  of  length  of  this  gallery  remain  entire,  and  its  preservation  is  to 
be  attributed  to  the  excessive  heat  of  the  sun,  increased  by  reflection 
from  the  rock  to  such  a  degree  as  totally  to  prevent  vegetation  on 
this  exposed  portion  of  the  ruins.  At  one  place  at  which  a  cascade 
appear^  after  heavy  rains,  water  trickles  from  the  over-hanging  rock, 
in  some  degree  justifying  the  assertions  of  the  natives,  which  are 
founded  on  tradition,  that  a  tank  was  formed  and  still  exists  on  the 
inaccessible  summit  of  this  fortress.  The  gallery  has  been  entered, 
but  no  person  can  proceed  along  it  for  more  than  100  yards,  as  it 
has  slipped  from  its  scanty  foundations  at  an  angle  of  the  rock.  In 
several  of  the  huge  masses  of  rock  included  in  the  ramparts,  tanks 
have  been  excavated,  they  are  neatly  ornamented,  and  in  size  vary 
from  12  to  20  feet  in  length;  their  general  depth  is  about  three  feet. 
On  the  plain  towards  the  north-east  and  connected  with  the  elevated 
terrace  at  the  east  end  of  the  rock,  stood  the  royal  buildings :  that 
part  which  was  situated  on  level  ground  being  surrounded  with  a  wet 
ditch  faced  with  stone ;  while  the  more  elevated  portions  are  not  only 
of  difficult  access,  but  are  without  any  more  convenient  communi- 
cation than  steps,  such  as  those  which  led  to  the  entrance  of  the 
gallery.  The  town  lay  around  the  palace  to  the  north  of  the  rock, 
and  a  stone  wall  and  wet  ditch  with  which  it  had  been  surrounded, 
may  be  traced  for  some  distance.  From  the  highest  terrace  many 
small  steps  leading  to  the  summit  of  the  rock  may  still  be  perceived, 
but  in  much  too  dilapidated  a  state,  and  in  too  hazardous  a  position 
for  any  one  to  attempt  the  ascent  and  visit  a  spot  which  for  ages 
has  been  beyond  the  reach  of  native  curiosity.  Several  Nagara 
inscriptions  are  found  on  the  rock  of  Sigiri  and  the  neighbouring  hill. 
The  rock  temple  of  Peduru-galla  has  long  been  in  a  state  of  ruin  and 
choked  up  with  rubbish;  its  length  is  120  cubits  by  12  cubits 
breadth,  and  two  of  the  statues  it  contains  are  cut  from  the  solid 
rock :  near  this  temple  are  the  ruins  of  a  dagobah ;  and  thirty-six  stone 
pillars  point  out  the  site  of  the  assembly  hall  of  the  priests. 

The  gallery  which  winds  along  the  rock  of  Sigiri,  is  formed  of 
brick,  originally  coated  with  a  cement  so  durable,  that  large  portions 
of  it  still  remain.  From  the  rock  above,  and  overhanging  this 
passage,  much  stone  has  been  removed  by  fire  and  by  wedges,  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  still  practised  by  the  Kandian  Galwadouas  (masons, 
literally  stone  carpenters),  when  they  have  occasion  to  rend  large 
blocks  from  the  quarry.  The  projecting  rock  above  the  gallery,  has 
for  the  most  part,  been  painted  in  bright  colours,  fragments  of  which 
may  still  beperceived  inthoseplaces  most  sheltered  from  the  heavy  rains. 

The  embankment  of  the  tank  of  Sigiri  is  of  considerable  size,  and  is 


540  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

capable  of  repair,  but  the  population  is  at  present  too  sparse  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  fields,  which  the  tank  would  irrigate,  or  so  many  of 
them  as  at  present,  to  render  the  repair  of  the  embankment  an  ad- 
visable speculation  for  individuals,  though  an  advance  from  Govern- 
ment would  be  well  and  judiciously  made. 

The  fortress  of  Sigiri  often  changed  masters,  yet  never  stood  a 
siege,  proving  how  timidity  and  treachery  smoothed  the  path  for  the 
Malabar  invader,  or  the  ambitious  traitor. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Sigiri,  the  low  jungles  used  to  be  occasionally 
cleared  and  cultivated  with  cotton,  and  bartered  for  cocoa  and  areka- 
nuts,  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  districts. 

At  no  great  distance  from  Sigiri,  are  the  ruins  of  Minigiri,  the 
site  of  a  large  Buddhist  establishment,  thought  by  Forbes  to  have 
included  a  nunnery  or  asylum  for  priestesses.  A  tradition  prevails 
among  the  natives,  that  only  priests  or  women  can  visit  Minigiri, 
without  incurring  the  risk  of  divine  vengeance. 

The  principal  tanks  in  Nuwara  Kalawa,  are,  the  Bawale,  the 
Tissawewa,  Kooroondoowewa,  Biliwewa,  Kalawawewa,  Nuwarawewa. 

The  superficies  of  the  Northern  province,  is  6,053  square  miles, 
and  its  population,  which  was  299,252,  in  1843,  estimated  at  the 
rate  of  increase,  which  has  been  maintained  for  several  years,  would 
give  for  1848,  325,752. 

The  Eastern  Province  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Bay 
of  Bengal ;  on  the  north-west  by  the  country  of  the  Wanny,  in  the 
Northern  province  ;  on  the  west  by  Nuwara  Kalawa,  in  the  same 
province,  and  by  the  Central  province  ;  and  on  the  south-west,  by 
the  Southern  province. 

After  passing  the  long  neck  of  land  connecting  the  Jaffna  penin- 
sula with  the  main,  the  traveller  enters  the  Wanny  district  of 
Kariekattoe  Moelle,  North  and  South,  now  attached  to  the  Northern 
province.  The  principal  place  is  Moelitivoe,  or  Mullativoe  (fifty- 
eight  miles  south-east  from  Jaffhapatam),  which  lies  on  the  coast  about 
two  miles  from  the  Wattoewe  kal-aar,  which  is  fordable.  There  is 
here  a  small  fort,  and  good  rest  house,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  a  district 
court  and  police  magistrate.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed 
in  fishing.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  stone  and  white -washed, 
and  the  town  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Dutch 
Landrost,  Nagel,  an  active  and  enterprising  officer.  In  1803  this 
place  was  attacked  by  the  Kandians  in  great  force,  and  the  small 
British  garrison,  finding  it  untenable,  was  compelled  to  withdraw  to 
Jaffna,  but  it  \vas  soon  recovered  by  a  detachment  sent  from  Trinco- 
malee.  The  neighbourhood  of  Moelitivoe  abounds  with  cattle,  is 
pretty  well  cultivated,  and  the  woods  in  the  vicinity  are  the  haunt  of 
deer  and  wild  boars. 

The  north-east  extremity  of  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  is  encompassed 
by  a  shoal,  deriving  its  name  from  Point  Pedro,  and  stretching  in  a 


CHAP.    I.J  KARIEKATTOE    MOELLE  —  EASTERN    PROVINCE.  541 

line  nearly  parallel  with  the  shore,  about  six  leagues  to  the  south  south- 
east. Between  this  long  narrow  shoal  and  the  coast,  there  is  a  safe 
channel  about  three  miles  wide,  with  regular  soundings,  soft  mud  of 
seven  fathoms  close  to  the  shore,  which  increases  to  nine"  in  mid 
channel,  and  again  decreases  to  five  close  to  the  inner  edge  of  the 
shoal.  The  whole  of  this  coast  is  low,  and  abounds  in  palmyra 
trees.  From  Moelitivoe  a  dangerous  coral  shoal,  called  Molawal 
shoal,  with  but  two  fathoms  of  water  on  it,  extends  to  the  eastward 
and  north-eastward,  about  four  miles  from  the  shore,  which  should 
not  be  approached  nearer  than  thirteen  fathoms. 

The  coast  between  Moelitivoe  and  Pigeon  island  is  low,  and 
safe  to  approach  as  far  as  eighteen  fathoms  in  the  night,  and 
twelve  in  the  day.  Three  and  a  half  leagues  from  Pigeon  island, 
is  the  Nay-aar,  and  four  leagues  further  to  the  south-east,  is  the 
river  Kokelay. 

The  next  village  to  the  southward,  is  Alambiel,  eight  miles  distant, 
which  has  a  Romish  chureh-,  and  a  rest  house,  facing  a  beautiful 
plain,  enlivened  with  constant  verdure,  and  watered  by  two  tanks. 
Near  the  village  is  a  salt  lake  or  estuary,  whose  western  shores  are 
environed  by  hills  of  a  very  picturesque  appearance.  Several 
branches  of  the  estuary  intersect  the  road  in  different  places,  and 
though  not  deep,  are  from  the  yielding  nature  of  their  blue  clay 
bottom,  dangerous  for  cattle  and  horses  to  pass.  At  the  Nay-Aar 
is  the  line  of  separation  between  the  Northern  and  Eastern  province. 
From  hence  to  Kokelay  is  upwards  of  ten  miles.  During  the  heat  of 
the  day  in  the  south  west  monsoon,  the  glare  of  the  sun  and  the  sand- 
flies, render  travelling  very  disagreeable  from  nine  a.m.  to  four  p.m., 
but  during  the  north-east  monsoon,  the  road  is  comparatively 
pleasant,  owing  to  the  refreshing  sea  breezes.  The  Kokelay  river,  and 
the  whole  coast  abound  with  fish  and  oysters,  and  there  is  such  an  accu- 
mulation of  dead  shells,  that  sufficient  lime  for  the  whole  province 
might  be  procured  on  this  spot.  The  village  of  Kokelay  is  situated 
on  the  banks  of  the  estuary  of  the  same  name,  near  which  stands  the 
rest  house  on  a  grassy  plain. 

At  the  earliest  dawn,  flamingoes,  widgeons,  curlews,  herons,  and 
snipes,  congregate  in  the  watery  patches  near  the  plains,  which  are 
covered  with  verdure,  and  bordered  by  magnificent  forest  trees,  on 
whose  topmost  branches,  countless  peafowl  linger  for  the  approach 
of  the  sun  to  exhale  the  night  dew  from  their  splendid  plumage.  Yet 
little  is  here  seen  of  man's  industry,  though  the  resources  of  the 
country  are  exhaustless,  and  the  population  is  sparse  to  a  degree. 

The  whole  district  of  Kariekattoe  Moelle,  contains  fifty-one 
villages,  thirty-three  of  which  have  tanks,  and  nineteen  of  them  are 
broken  down,  the  repair  of  which  would  not,  according  to  the  system 
recommended  for  the  other  Wanny  districts,  exceed  36150,  in  return 
for  which  they  would  yield  a  tithe  of  1,700  parrahs  of  paddy,  and  the 
whole  fields  sown  in  the  rainy  season,  would  in  addition  yield  a  tenth 


542  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

of  7000  parrahs.  Tobacco  is  here  extensively  planted,  and  watered 
from  wells.  The  roads  connecting  the  north-west  coast  with 
Moelitivoe  and  Trincomalee,  pass  through  this  district.  The  Hindoo 
villagers  are  an  industrious  class,  and  appear  contented  and  happy. 
Their  usual  plain  diet  includes  the  kellingo,  or  meal  made  from  the 
spring  leaf  of  the  palmyra,  and  their  chief  employment  is  in  salting 
fish  for  the  Kandian  market,  and  the  pursuit  of  their  simple  hus- 
bandry. Every  cottage  has  its  garden,  containing  capsicums, 
tobacco,  cotton,  Indian  spinach,  water-melons,  ginger,  pumpkins, 
betel,  cucumbers,  turmeric,  pepper,  yams,  beans,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
plantains.  The  people  are  in  general  well  grown  and  handsome,  and 
modest  in  their  appearance  and  demeanour,  but  all  their  children  are 
subject  to  the  obesity  common  in  this  island,  and  which  is 
attributable  to  the  inordinate  use  of  rice ;  the  remedy  used  is  the 
flesh  of  the  Kiri  Ba,  or  river  tortoise.  The  Caffrarian  lime  (Citrus 
tuberoides),  is  commonly  used  here  for  cleansing  the  long  black 
hair,  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  •  of  the  people. 

At  the  southern  extremity  of  Kariekattoe  Moelle  is  the  great  lake 
Padeviel-colom,  one  of  the  largest  in  Ceylon.  After  the  strictest 
search,  we  have  been  unable  to  find  any  authentic  record  of  its  con- 
struction, or  of  the  period  in  which  it  took  place.  It  is  not  impossi- 
ble, but  that  it  may  have  been  the  work  of  the  Malabar  prince  at 
Trincomalee,  but  it  is  more  likely  to  have  owed  its  formation  to 
Praackramababoo,  by  whom  the  northern  districts  were  brought  into 
subjection.  It  is  fed  at  the  north-eastern  side  by  two  small  streams, 
and  connected  with  one  or  more  on  the  north-western. 

Resuming  the  coast-road  the  next  stage  to  the  southward  is  Terria, 
or,  according  to  native  pronunciation,  Pehria.  This  -district  called 
the  Tenna  Marre  Waddie  Pattoo  contains  rocks  of  vast  dimensions, 
and  grotesque  shapes,  which  with  other  picturesque  accessories, 
render  the  scenery  worthy  of  the  delineation  of  the  painter.  The 
native  cottages,  which  are  formed  of  jungle  sticks  (Warretchie)  and 
clay  white-washed  with  chunam,  give  a  pleasing  effect  to  the  scene. 
The  banyan  tree  (Ficus  Indica)  is  common  here  ;  and  during  the 
time  its  red  figs  are  ripe,  the  sportsman  has  nothing  to  do  but  station 
himself  in  a  good  position  under  cover,  and  within  gunshot  of  the 
trees  soon  after  dusk,  when  he  may  kill  wild  hogs  in  any  number ; 
for  those  animals  are  then  so  intent  upon  the  process  of  deglutition, 
this  being  their  favourite  esculent,  that  they  return  after  a  short  time 
to  the  spot,  although  conscious  of  the  death  of  their  companions, 
and  continue  to  run  to  and  fro  to  the  same  place  several  times  during 
the  night,  until  the  sportsman  is  satiated  with  slaughter. 

The  next  stage  (eight  miles)  is  to  Kutchiavelle  in  the  Kattukolam- 
pattoo.  This  district  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tenna  Marre 
Waddie,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Tamballagam-pattoo,  and  is  about 
twenty-five  miles  long,  and  from  eight  to  eighteen  broad.  It  abounds 
in  vast  tracts  of  low  lands,  calculated  for  the  culture  of  paddy,  but 


CHAP.  I.]  TENNA    MARItE    WADDIE — KATTUCOLAMPATTOO.  543 

from  the  scantiness  of  the  population,  a  great  portion  of  them  is 
neglected.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  province  were  part  of  the 
emigrants  from  the  Coromandel  coast,  when  the  temple  of  Trinco- 
malee  was  building,  and  were  in  consequence  liable  to  be  called  out 
for  its  service.  The  village  of  Kutchiavelle  is  small  and  thinly 
peopled  ;  but  there  is  a  rest-house ;  the  country  is  sandy,  but  diver- 
sified by  wide  and  beautiful  plains,  seldom,  however,  visible  from  the 
'sea,  and  bordered  by  jungles  abounding  in  wild  hogs,  deer,  and 
buffaloes.  It  is  therefore  much  resorted  to  by  sportsmen  from  Trin- 
comalee.  The  next  stage  is  to  Nillavelle,  thirteen  miles  ;  the  road 
occasionally  undulating  and  hilly,  presents  a  splendid  prospect  of  the 
bay  of  Trincomalee,  and  its  numerous  fortifications.  The  village 
besides  palmyra  and  cocoa-nuts,  produces  a  large  quantity  of  tobacco, 
and  salt  is  manufactured  in  the  marshes  in  the  vicinity.  To  the 
north-west  of  Nillavelle  stands  a  column  «of  granite  (rising  out  of  the 
summit  of  a  circular  mount),  which  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  human  figure.  Tradition  affirms  it  to  be  the  petrified  remains 
of  a  lady  of  quality,  who  had  offended  the  tutelar  deity  of  the  place, 
by  making  his  sacred  grove  in  the  neighbourhood  the  scene  of  her 
lasciviousness  with  a  slave. 

To  the  west  of  the  road  between  Nillavelle  and  Trincomalee,  and 
about  six  miles  from  the  latter  place,  lie  the  celebrated  hot  springs 
of  Kannya  (virgin),  seven  in  number,  which  are  frequently  visited  by 
parties  from  Trincomalee.  They  are  surrounded  by  low  jungle  and 
swamp,  and  in  an  unhealthy  country ;  and  the  enclosure  in  which 
they  are  found  is  about  thirty-six  feet  long,  and  sixteen  broad, 
formed  by  a  wall  of  brick  six  feet  high.  Each  well  is  protected  by 
a  little  embankment  about  a  foot  and  a  half  high.  They  are  all  in 
high  repute  among  the  natives,  who  regard  them  with  superstitious 
reverence,  and  are  under  the  protection  of  Gauesa,  the  Hindoo  god 
of  wisdom,  to  whom  an  adjoining  temple,  containing  his  image  rudely 
sculptured  in  stone,  is  dedicated.  Near  the  wells  is  a  rivulet,  into 
which  their  superfluous  water  empties  itself,  by  means  of  a  channel, 
the  rivulet  contains  therefore  a  mixture  of  hot  and  cold  water,  and 
its  temperature  is  tepid.  Their  origin  is  accounted  for  by  the  natives 
in  the  following  manner  :  to  delay  the  King  Eawana,  and  thus 
prevent  the  success  of  one  of  his  undertakings  ;  Vishnu,  according 
to  the  legend,  appeared  in  the  form  of  an  old  man,  and  falsely 
informed  the  king  that  Kannya  (the  virgin  mother  of  Rawana)  had 
died.  On  hearing  this,  Rawana  determined  to  remain  and  perform 
the  usual  solemnities  for  deceased  relatives,  whenever  he  could  find 
water  for  the  requisite  ablution.  Vishnu  having  ascertained  his 
wishes  disappeared  at  the  spot,  and  caused  the  hot  springs  to  burst 
forth.  From  the  solemnities  thus  performed  in  honour  of  Kannya, 
the  springs  have  ever  since  retained  her  name.  In  the  Singhalese 
accounts  of  Rawana,  he  and  his  brothers  Kumbakarna  and  Weebees- 
hana  were  miraculously  brought  forth  to  Vishrawana,  by  Maya  ;  but 
who  then  was   and  always    continued  to  be   Kannya   (the  virgin). 


544  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

Vishrawana  was  a  Brahmin  ascetic  ;  Kannya  the  daughter  of  a  fugi- 
tive king  of  the  Asurs. 

At  present  these  wells  are  merely  resorted  to  as  warm  baths,  and 
are  used  chiefly  in  cutaneous  diseases,  but  a  time  may  come  when 
some  spirited  capitalist  may  here  rear  up  edifices  that  shall  vie  with 
the  spas  of  Europe,  and  remove  the  necessity  of  the  Anglo-Indian 
resorting  to  England  for  the  renovation  of  health.  The  water,  which 
is  light  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  is  generally  applied  here  by  affusion  ;* 
the  patient  standing  on  a  round  stone  has  pots  of  water  poured  on 
him  by  an  attendant.  Facing  the  west  side  of  Kannya  there  are 
several  hills,  from  whence  a  fine  view  of  the  salt  frith  to  the  north 
may  be  obtained,  and  on  the  summit  of  one  is  shewn  the  remains  of 
the  tombs  of  a  giant  and  his  son. 

The  principal  features  of  the  coast  adjacent  to  Trincomalee  are  a 
bold  shore,  immense  tracts  of  inland  forests,  and  the  prevalence  of  the 
palmyra  palm,  but  the  country  is  better  cultivated  and  peopled  than 
might  at  first  sight  be  supposed.  Trincomalee,  the  capital  of  the 
eastern  province,  is  situated  in  8°  33'  5'  north  latitude,  and  810  13'  2" 
east  longitude,  and  lies  130  miles  south-east  of  Jaffnapatam.  The 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  town  presents  scenery,  which  for 
picturesqueness  is  without  a  rival,  if  the  situation  be  considered,  con- 
sisting of"  hills  covered  to  the  very  summit  with  magnificent  timber. 
The  Malabars  call  it  Tirukonathamalei,  or  "the  mountain  of  the  sacred 
Konatha,"  from  the  Hindoo  god  of  that  name,  who  had  formerly  a 
temple  on  the  summit  of  one  of  the  hills  there,  which  was  celebrated 
over  the  whole  of  India.  Trincomalee  would  appear  to  have  been  a 
place  of  some  note  even  in  the  earliest  periods  of  history.  According 
to  traditions  recognised  by  Kaviraja  Varsthayen,  an  ancient  bard  of 
great  celebrity,  it  was  founded  by  the  king  Kulakkottoo  Maha  Raja, 
1589  B.C.  or  51.2  of  the  Kaling.  This  prince  was  the  son  of  Manoo 
Nitikanea  Solen,  sovereign  of  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  who  being 
apprized  of  the  sacred  nature  of  the  mountain  of  Trincomalee,  came 
over,  and  having  built  a  temple  to  Konatha  or  Koneser1  on  its  sum- 

1  The  rocky  promontory  occupied  by  the  fort  of  Trincomalee,  is  by  the  natives 
consistently  dedicated  to  Siva,  the  destroyer,  in  his  ancient  name  of  Eiswara,  and 
is  regarded  with  great  veneration  by  his  votaries.  They  believe  that  in  the  earliest 
wars  of  the  gods,  three  of  the  peaks  of  Mahameru  were  thrown  down  and  driven 
to  different  parts  of  the  world ;  one  of  these  is  Koneiswara-parwatia  or  Trinco- 
malee, which  thenceforth  became  equally  with  Kailasa  the  abode  of  Siva.  There 
is  probably  no  more  ancient  form  of  worship  existing  than  that  of  Eiswara  upon 
his  sacred  promontory,  and  it  has  been  connected  with  the  rites  of  Siva  by  the 
votaries  of  the  latter  at  a  later  period.  In  the  Rajawali,  Kuwani,  the  Yakka  mis- 
tress of  Wijeya,  is  said  to  have  had  her  wretched  fate  predicted  in  a  dream  by 
Eiswara.  In  Wilson's  Sanscrit  Dictionary  the  translation  of  Eiswara  is  given  as 
God,  "  an  universal  spirit ;"  and  "the  whole  scene,"  says  Forbes,  "  as  well 
as  the  religious  ceremonies  on  the  precipice  of  Trincomalee  possesses  a  character 
of  romantic  wildness  and  mysterious  antiquity.  The  priest  (a  Brahmin),  with  his 
head  encircled  by  a  string  of  large  beads  and  a  yellow  cloth  bound  round  his 
loins,   places   himself  at  stated   periods,  and  generally  a  little  before  sun-set, 


CHAP.    I.]  TRINCOMALEE ITS    EARLY    HISTORY.  545 

mit,  founded  a  town  below,  which  he  settled  with  immigrants  from 
his  father's  dominions,  and  gave  over  to  Taniunna  Popalen,  a 
Malabar  nobleman,  who  became  the  governor  of  the  place  and  its 
adjacent  territory.  The  Wanniyas  who  subsequently  governed  the 
country,  traced  their  descent  to  this  noble,  and  maintained  an  inde- 
pendent authority  for  a  long  series  of  years. 

When  the  Portuguese  made  themselves  masters  of  Trincomalee, 
they  demolished  the  spacious  temple  dedicated  to  Siva,  for  which  it 
was  celebrated,  and  erected  a  fort  on  the  north-west  point  of  the 
bay  out  of  the  materials.  The  Malabars  possess  several  works  in 
the  Tamul  language,  that  profess  to  describe  the  extent  and  wealth 
of  thrse  establishments  in  the  days  of  their  prosperity,  as  well  as 
the  miracles  performed  in  them  from  the  time  of  their  dedication, 
when  the  King  Kolakotu  having  completed  their  endowment,  retired 
into  a  sacred  secret  chamber,  and  from  thence  passed  body  and 
spirit  direct  into  the  bliss  of  Siva. 

on  the  giddy  height  of  the  farthest  rock  that  rises  over  the  dark  and  fathomless 
ocean  ;  some  of  the  votaries  perch  themselves  among  the  dangerous  crags,  while 
the  more  timid  or  less  devout,  kneel,  prostrate  themselves,  or  securely  recline  on 
the  short  grass  which  clothes  the  promontory.  The  priest  after  performing  his  ab- 
lutions, places  himself  in  various  picturescpie  attitudes,  and  occasionally  as  he 
drops  some  betel-leaves  or  rice  into  the  sea,  bows  himself  with  great  reverence 
towards  a  chasm  in  the  rock,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  residence  of  the  spirit, 
the  object  of  his  worship.  After  the  sun  is  down,  the  Brahmin  waves  a  censer, 
then  holds  it  at  the  full  stretch  of  his  arm  above  his  head,  while  the  incense  flames 
up,  flickers  and  disappears  ;  then  as  the  perfume  spreads  around,  he  concludes  his 
incantations  by  casting  a  cocoa-nut  into  the  ocean,  and  receiving  the  offerings  on 
behalf  of  Eiswara.  The  offerings  consist  of  the  smallest  copper  coins,  rice,  and 
betel  leaves,  but  the  priest  derives  a  poor  remuneration  for  his  ministration  on 
such  a  dangerous  altar." 

The  summit  of  the  promontory  is  much  more  elevated,  and  close  above  the 
perilous  situation  on  which  the  priest  officiates  ;  it  consists  of  a  huge  loose  mass 
of  rock.  On  this  primeval  altar  of  pagan  superstition,  is  the  monument  of  a  sui- 
cidal lover,  consisting  of  a  pillar  alternately  square  and  octagonal.  The  inscription 
is  nearly  effaced  from  lapse  of  time,  but  the  following  is  said  to  be  a  copy. 

"Tot  Gedaghtenis  Van  Francina  Van  Rhede  Tuen  Mydregt  Desen  A°  1687  : 
24  April  op  Geregt." 

"  Tradition  still  hands  down  the  particulars  of  the  mournful  fate  of  Francina  van 
Rhede.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  gentleman  high  in  the  Dutch  service,  had 
been  betrothed,  and  at  the  time  of  her  death  was  about  to  be  deserted  by  her 
affianced  husband,  a  Captain  in  the  army.  He  was  on  board  a  vessel  that  had 
spread  its  sails  for  Europe  ;  but  before  getting  clear  of  the  coast,  the  ship  had  to 
tack  and  pass  out  parallel  to  the  precipices  that  form  the  southern  promontory  of 
the  fort  of  Trincomalee.  The  motions  of  the  vessel  had  been  watched  with  intense 
excitement  by  the  abandoned  fair  one  :  as  it  neared  the  rock  she  rushed  from  her 
apartment,  and  flying  along  the  edge  of  the  cliffs  close  under  which  the  vessel 
was  gliding,  there  for  a  moment  paused.  The  point  was  nearly  gained,  the  swift 
ship  and  the  false  lover  were  turning  from  her  towards  a  far  distant  land  ;  a 
moment  she  balanced  herself  on  a  projecting  crag,  then  plunged  from  the  giddy 
height.  Her  mangled  remains  were  rescued  from  the  rocky  fragments  that  pro- 
ject through  the  waves  at  the  base  of  the  precipice,  and  its  summit  still  bears 
in  h'-'r  monument  the  warning  of  devoted  love  inspiring  deep  revenge." 

2    N 


546  CEYLOX.  [part  IV. 

The  present  town  of  Trincomalee  stands  in  a  north-easterly  direc- 
tion along  the  outer  bay,  in  a  woody  and  hilly  country,  interspersed 
with  cocoa-nut  and  palmyra  trees,  but  its  appearance  is  extremely 
wild  from  the  absence  of  cultivation  around,  and  like  most  sea-port 
towns,  which  are  dependent  on  war  for  prosperity,  it  suffers  from 
peace.  From  the  numerous  advantages  offered  by  its  magnificent 
harbours,  it  is  the  chief  depot  of  the  Imperial  navy,  in  the  Indian 
seas,  and  possesses  a  dockyard  and  arsenal  for  the  refitment  of  the 
largest  vessels.  Trincomalee  is  by  nature  strong,  and  art  has  ren- 
dered it  impregnable.  The  fort  commanding  the  bays,  and  particu- 
larly the  entrance  to  the  inner  bay,  occupies  an  area  of  nearly  three 
miles,  and  includes  a  hill  immediately  over  the  sea.  Within  its 
walls,  there  are  several  ranges  of  buildings,  chiefly  erected  on  the 
lower  ground  close  to  the  landing  place.  The  citadel  for  the  defence 
of  the  harbour,  called  Fort  Ostenburgh,  is  erected  on  a  cliff  which 
projects  into  the  sea,  about  three  miles  to  the  west  of  Trincomalee, 
and  cannot  be  attacked  until  the  capture  of  the  lower  fort  has  been 
effected. 

The  excellence  of  its  harbour  renders  Trincomalee  an  acquisition 
of  inestimable  value  to  a  first  class  naval  power,  and  so  capacious 
are  its  accommodations,  that  the  whole  of  the  British  navy  may  ride  in 
it  in  perfect  security.  The  inner  bay  being  land-locked  and  almost 
unfathomable,  ships  of  every  rate  and  class  can  there  be  secure  in 
the  most  violent  gales,  but  this  circumstance,  from  its  offering  great 
natural  obstacles  to  a  free  circulation  of  the  sea  breeze,  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  a  leading  cause  of  the  proverbial  unhealthiness  of  the 
place,  coupled  as  it  is  with  the  presence  of  a  swamp  on  the  land  side. 

The  harbour  of  Trincomalee  with  its  bays,  form  a  capacious  inlet, 
the  entrance  to  which  between  Foul  Point  on  the  south-east,  and 
Fort  Frederick  on  the  north-west,  is  between  five  and  six  miles  wide, 
contracting  however  to  about  half  that  width  between  Norway  Point  to 
the  south-west,  and  Chapel  Island  on  the  north-west,  when  it  again  sud- 
denly opens,  forming  Great  Bay  to  the  southward,  and  the  harbour 
of  Trincomalee  to  the  northward.  To  the  westward  of  these,  sepa- 
rated from  the  harbour  by  a  peninsula,  and  connected  by  a  narrow 
passage,  with  the  north-west  part  of  Great  Bay,  is  the  Bay  of 
Tamblegam,  navigable  for  boats  only.  The  harbour  itself,  in  its  full 
extent  is  about  two  miles  each  way,  indented  by  numerous  bays  and 
coves,  and  containing  within  its  bosom  several  islands,  and  many 
shoals  and  rocks. 

Flagstaff  Point,  the  northern  extremity  of  the  narrow  anrl  crooked 
peninsula,  that  bounds  the  east  and  south-east  sides  of  the  harbour 
of  Trincomalee,  and  separates  it  from  Back  Bay,  is  high,  steep,  bluff 
land,  easily  recognized  from  the  sea,  being  covered  with  trees  and 
having  on  it  several  batteries.  The  south-east  point  of  the  penin- 
sula, called  Chapel  Point,  has  an  islet  off  it,  called  Chapel  Island, 
and  to  the  eastward  a  reef  of  rocks,  more  than  half  a  mile  distant, 


CHAP.  I.]        DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    TOWN,    FORTS,    AND    BAYS.       547 

nearly  on  the  edge  of  soundings.  Flagstaff  Point  is  bold  and  safe  to 
approach,  but  between  it  and  Chapel  Point,  rocks  stretch  out  from 
two  small  projections,  which  should  not  be  approached  under  four- 
teen fathoms.  The  south-west  point  of  the  peninsula,  called  Ele- 
phant Point,  has  an  island  called  Elephant  Island  near  it  on  the 
south-east  side,  from  which  a  reef  with  five  or  six  feet  on  it  projects 
to  the  westward.  Osnaburgh  Point,  the  westernmost  point  of  the 
peninsula,  is  a  little  further  to  the  north-west,  between  it  and  Elephant 
Point  there  is  a  cove  with  soundings  of  from  eight  to  fourteen  fathoms. 

The  eutrance  to  the  inner  harbour  is  not  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide, 
formed  by  Osnaburgh  Point  to  the  eastward,  and  the  Great  and  Lit- 
tle Islands  to  the  westward.  About  half  a  mile  south  from  Great 
Island,  and  one  mile  west  of  Elephant  Island,  is  Clapenburg  Is- 
land, close  to  a  point  of  the  same  name  ;  and  about  a  mile  further 
to  the  southward  is  a  point  where  the  land  is  elevated  a  little,  called 
Marble  Point,  with  rocks  projecting  •around.  This  point  forms  the 
western  extreme  of  the  Great  Bay,  separating  it  from  the  entrance  of 
the  harbour,  and  affording  a  mark  for  entering  in.  To  the  westward 
of  Marble  Point,  and  between  it  and  the  entrance  to  Tamblegam  Bay, 
there  is  an  island  called  Bird  Island  :  to  the  south-east  of  it  lies 
Pigeon  or  Elizabeth  Island,  distant  nearly  a  mile,  with  ten  or  twelve 
fathoms  close  to,  and  Round  Island  nearly  the  same  distance  from 
the  Point  to  the  east-north-east,  with  thirty  fathoms  near  it,  on  the 
outside,  and  then  all  on  a  sudden  no  ground.  On  the  south  side  of 
this  island  there  is  a  rock  above  water,  and  between  it  and  Isle  Cla- 
penburg, is  the  Grummet  Rock.  The  entrance  leading  to  the  har- 
bour is  formed  by  these  islands  and  rocks  to  the  south-west,  and 
Elephant  Island  and  Point  to  the  north-east. 

Foul  Point,  the  outer  south-east  point  of  Trincomalee  inlet  bears 
S.E.  I  E.  five  and  a  half  miles  from  Flagstaff  Point,  and  has  a  reef 
projecting  from  it  to  the  northward  nearly  a  mile ;  the  coast  to  the 
westward  is  slightly  concave  to  Norway  Point,  which  bears  from 
Foul  Point  about  W.S.W.,  between  two  and  three  miles.  Between 
these  points,  nearly  a  mile  off  shore,  is  Northesk  Rock. 

Great  or  Kotti-aar  Bay,  forming  the  southern  part  of  Trincomalee 
inlet,  is  upwards  of  five  miles  across  in  its  widest  part,  but  not  more  than 
four  between  Norway  Point  on  the  east,  and  Marble  Point  on  the  west. 
The  centre  of  Great  Bay  is  very  deep,  having  no  bottom  at  eighty 
fathoms,  on  approaching  the  shore,  however,  soundings  are  obtained 
at  from  forty  to  eight  fathoms.  Four  rivers  fall  into  the  south  part 
of  the  bay,  nearly  at  equal  distances  from  each  other.  The  bank  of 
soundings  lining  the  shores  of  the  bay,  extends  very  little  outside  the 
islets  or  rocks,  except  at  the  south-east  part,  where  ships  may  anchor 
in  ten  or  twelve  fathoms  regular  soundings,  soft  mud,  sheltered  from 
easterly  and  southerly  winds. 

The  east  side  of  the  bay  is  bounded  by  Norway  Point  to  the 
northward,  which  is  about  two  miles  to  the  W.S.W.  of  Foul  Point., 

2  N  2 


548  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

Norway  Island  lies  west  side  of  the  point,  having  a  rocky  reef  en- 
compassing it  and  the  islets  near  it  and  the  point.  From  this  point 
and  the  island  a  sand  bank  stretches  about  a  mile  to  the  southward, 
with  soundings  on  it  three  and  three  and  a  half  fathoms  and  twenty  or 
twenty-five  fathoms  close  to :  to  the  westward  of  it  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  distant  there  is  no  ground,  but  to  the  southward  there  is  good 
anchorage,  near  the  shore.  Both  Norway  and  Foul  Points  must  be 
avoided  on  account  of  the  reefs  which  project  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
from  them,  nor  is  the  shore  between  them  safe,  the  soundings  being 
irregular,  and  about  half  way  there  is  a  very  dangerous  rock,  called 
Northesk  Rock,  close  to  which  are  twelve  and  fourteen  fathoms. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  making  the  port  of  Trincomalee  during 
October  and  November,  from  the  strong  current  which  sets  to  the 
southward,  and  from  the  light  variable  winds,  with  occasional  squalls 
and  thick  weather,  which  prevail  until  the  north-east  monsoon  sets  in 
about  the  end  of  the  latter  month. 

The  town,  which  is  separated  from  the  fort  by  a  spacious  es- 
planade, occupies  perhaps  more  ground  than  Colombo,  though  it 
does  not  contain  one  half  of  its  population,  and  the  houses  are  neither 
neat  nor  regularly  arranged.  Its  society  is  almost  exclusively  com- 
posed of  the  civil  and  military  officers  stationed  here,  and  there  are 
as  yet  few  European  settlers.  To  the  Protestant  church  is  attached 
a  Colonial  chaplain,  the  Wesleyans  have  also  an  establishment  here, 
and  the  Roman  Catholics  have  two  chapels.  The  Moors  and  Mala- 
bars,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population,  have  also  several  mosques 
and  temples. 

The  bazaar  is  very  extensive,  and  every  class  of  mechanical  skill 
finds  here  a  representative.  Ebony  forms  an  article  of  export  to 
England,  and  various  descriptions  of  timber  are  exported  to  Madras 
and  other  eastern  markets.  But  for  the  limited  rise  of  the  tide,  which 
seldom  exceeds  thirty-eight  inches,  government  ship  building  would 
be  carried  on,  on  a  large  scale.  The  climate  of  Trincomalee  is  ex- 
cessively hot,  and  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  74^°  to  91|° 
throughout  the  year. 

Formerly  there  were  several  extensive  plantations  of  cocoa-nut 
trees  facing  the  esplanade,  but  they  have  since  been  cut  down,  from 
the  unfounded  idea  that  they  contributed  to  render  the  place  unhealthy. 

Trincomalee  has  now  direct  communication  with  both  Kandy  and 
Colombo,  the  route  to  the  former  lies  through  the  following  places  : 
to  Pallampoota  rest  house,  10|  miles,  from  thence  to  Wenerian 
Colom,  where  there  is  a  small  tank,  1 2\  miles  ;  to  Gantalawe  rest- 
house,  2|  miles  ;  to  Talgaha  Ella,  6  J  miles  ;  to  Alut-wewa-oya  (ex- 
cellent water  and  a  post  station),  6  miles  ;  to  the  Gal-oya  (rest-house 
and  post  station),  right  bank  via  Nayapane  Pass,  6g  miles ;  to  Tal- 
baddegalla,  or  three  wells,  6§  miles  ;  to  Haburenne  (large  tank  and 
post  station),  3  miles  ;  to  Oulandangawa  (village  and  tank),  2|  miles  ; 
to  Innamallowe   (post  station),  Gf   miles  ;   to  the  Junction  Kandy 


CHAP.  I.]   TAMBLEGAM LAKE  OF  KANDELLi  (GANTALAWE).   549 

road,  4 1  miles  ;  to  Dambool  rest-house,  2f  miles ;  to  Lenadorra  post 
station,  7  miles  ;  to  Nallande  post  station,  7  miles  ;  to  Palapatwella 
Ella  rest-house,  4  miles ;  to  Fort  McDowall  (the  station  of  the  as- 
sistant government  agent  and  district  judge),  1 1  miles  ;  to  the  sum- 
mit of  Ballakadawe  Pass,  6 £  miles  ;  to  the  ferry  of  the  Mahavelle- 
ganga,  7j  miles  ;  to  Kandy,  2|  miles.     Total,  1 1G  miles. 

The  next  stage  from  Trincomalee  to  the  southward,  is  Tambala- 
gam,  fifteen  miles  distant.  The  crocodile  abounds  in  this  district, 
and  the  jungles  teem  with  game  and  wild  beasts.  The  road  is  sandy 
and  bordered  with  jungle,  but  on  approaching  the  village,  the  coun- 
try appears  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  and  the  prospect  of  the  bay  is 
magnificent.  Tambalagam  or  Tamblegam,  so  called  from  Tambuli- 
gama,  (the  village  of  betel-leaf,)  is  situated  on  the  margin  of  one  of  the 
smaller  bays,  forming  the  harbour  of  Trincomalee.  It  contains  a  Hin- 
doo temple  of  considerable  antiquity  and  note,  and  has  a  rest-house  for 
travellers.  The  vicinity  abounds  with  paddy  fields,  and  being  well  wa- 
tered by  the  Kandelle-oya,  which  is  connected  with  the  Kotti-aar  and 
flows  into  Tamblegam  bay,  always  wears  a  verdant  and  flourishing  ap- 
pearance. The  district  of  the  same  name  extends  twenty  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  breadth.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Wanny  ;  north  by  Kattukolampattoo,  and  south 
by  Tamankadewe,  and  its  means  of  irrigation,  if  scientifically  applied, 
are  of  the  most  comprehensive  description.  The  country  between 
Tamblegam  and  Kandelle,  is  very  uuinteresting  ;  being  low,  wooded 
and  uncultivated.  Kandelle  itself  is  a  scattered  village,  containing 
about  sixteen  families  who  support  themselves  by  the  cultivation  of 
paddy. 

The  tank  of  Gantalawe  is  one  of  the  monuments  left  by  Mahasen, 
and  was  undertaken  at  the  close  of  his  reign  under  the  influence  of 
feelings  of  remorse.  All  the  lands  irrigated  by  this  tank  were  there- 
fore bestowed  on  religious  establishments  ;  hence  its  name  of  Dan- 
talawa  or  Gantalawe  (plain  granted  to  temples),  which  has  been  cor- 
rupted by  Europeans  into  Kandelle. 

Tanks  in  Ceylon  are  of  two  kinds.  One  description  is  formed  by 
vast  mounds  as  in  India,  and  the  water  is  supplied  by  a  channel  or 
channels  cut  from  some  adjacent  stream,  which  may  possess  a  super- 
fluity, or  where  its  waters  may  not  be  absolutely  required  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  in  the  vicinity  ;  the  other  and  far  more  natural 
and  effective  plan  is  the  making  use  of  the  two  sides  of  a  valley  for 
the  purpose,  and  embanking  both  its  outlets.  In  certain  cases,  where 
a  valley  has  but  one  outlet,  the  process  is  still  more  facile.  When 
industry  was  checked  in  Ceylon  by  intestine  commotion,  the  tanks 
were  neglected,  morasses  formed,  the  jungle  rapidly  encroached  on 
the  cultivated  land,  the  climate  became  permanently  deteriorated,  the 
population  diminished,  and  beasts  of  prey  simultaneously  multiplied. 
The  Lake  of  Kandelle,  or  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  the  Kandelle 
water,  is  in  the  opinion  of  connoisseurs,  the  most  beautiful  lake  in 


550  CEYLON.  [PART   IT. 

Ceylon,  and  from  its  being  enveloped  on  all  sides  by  lofty  hills,  it 
will  bear  inspection  from  several  points.     This  is  more  than  can  be 
said  of  many  of  the  lakes,  which  are  generally  tame  at  the  lower 
extremities.     But  it  is  the  peculiar  beauty  of  the  waters  of  Kandelle 
that  in  their  case  the  ground  ascends  everywhere  from  their  edge 
with  a  nearly  equal  degree  of  boldness.     Greatness  of  expanse  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  formation  of  perfect  lake  scenery,  and 
the  proper   characteristics  of  a  lake  may  be  lost  by  too  great   an 
expansion  of  its  waters.     But  for  the  attainment  of  perfect  beauty,  it 
is  indispensably  necessary  that  a  lake  should  cover  with  its  waters 
the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole  of  the  basin  which  it  occupies,  but  this 
the  lakes  in  Ceylon  rarely  if  ever  do,  an  interval  of  plain  between 
them  and  the  surrounding  mountains  effectually  marring  the    fair 
perspective,  and  reducing  their  apparent  magnitude.     The  Kandelle 
kke  is  situate  within  thirty  miles  of  Trincomalee,   in   an  extensive 
and  broad  valley,  around  which  the  ground  gradually  ascends  towards 
the  distant  hills  that  envelope  it.     Independently  of  the  cheerful 
and  refreshing  appearance,  which   open  plains  and  a  large   sheet  of 
water  present  in  a  wooded  country  and  warm  climate,  this  place  has 
also  strong  claims  to   admiration  for  its  numerous   groups  of  forest 
trees,  scattered  through  the  plains  which  intervene  between  the  lake 
and  thick  jungle  covering  the  rising  grounds  and  hills  on  the  west 
and  north  of  Gantalawe.     In  the  centre  of  the  valley,  a  long  cause- 
way, principally  made  of  masses  of  rock,   extending  upwards  of  a 
mile,  has  been  formed  for  the  retention  of  the  waters  that  from  every 
side  pour  into  the  space  inclosed  within  the  circumjacent  hills  and 
the  artificial  dam  thus  formed.     The  lake  has  two  sluices,  or  outlets  ; 
the  principal  one  is  about  100  yards  from  the  rocky  ledge,  through 
which  a  river  is  constantly  flowing  ;  the  other  is  near  the  opposite 
extremity  of  the  embankment,  which  is  commonly  dry,  and  carries 
off  water  only  when  the  lake  is  unusually  high.     The  great  outlet  is 
constructed  with  much  art,,  and  of  vast  strength ;  the  channel  is 
beneath  a  platform  of  masonry  that  projects  into  the  lake  about  six 
feet  beyond  the  line  of  the  embankmeat,  and  is  24  feet  long.     It  is 
built  of  oblong  stones  from  five  to  seven  feet  long,  well  wrought  and 
fitted  to  each  other  without  cement.     The  top  of  the  platform  is 
flat ;  it  contains  a  small   cylindrical   well,    communicating    directly 
with  the  channel  below,  and  in  which  the  water  in  passing  rises  of 
course  to   the  level  of  the  lake.     The  water  passing  through  the 
embankment,   appears  on  the  other  side   gushing   out  in  a  noble 
stream  through  two  apertures  formed  by  a  transverse  mass  of  i*ock, 
supported   by  three  perpendicular   masses.     The   transverse  mass, 
which  is  now  cracked  in  two,  is  about  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  long, 
and  four  or  five  thick  ;   and  the  other  masses  are  of  proportionate 
size.     The  water  rushing  out  in  considerable  volume  with  great  force, 
and  dashing  among  rocks  beneath,  in  the  midst  of  the  deep  gloomy 
shade   produced   by  overhanging  trees,   presents  altogether  a  very 


CHAP.    I.]  KOTTI-AAR    DISTRICT — TAMANKADEWE.  551 

striking  scene.  "The  work  itself,"  says  Davy,  "has  a  simple 
grandeur  about  it,  which  is  seldom  associated  with  art ;  it  looks 
more  like  a  natural  phenomenon  than  the  design  of  man."  The 
other  outlet  being  dry,  affords  an  opportunity  for  examining  the 
entrance  of  the  channel ;  at  the  foot  of  the  embankment  there  is  a 
circular  pit  almost  filled  with  leaves  and  branches,  and  a  little 
anterior  to  it  another  small  pit,  the  mouth  of  which  is  almost  entirely 
covered  and  defended  by  a  large  long  mass  of  hewn  stone. 

During  the  rainy  season,  when  the  lake  attains  its  greatest  elevation, 
the  area  of  ground  over  which  the  inundation  extends,  may  be 
computed  at  fifteen  square  miles.  This  work  of  art  and  others  of 
nearly  equally  gigantic  proportions  in  the  island,  sufficiently  indicate 
that  at  some  remote  period,  Ceylon  was  a  densely  peopled  country, 
and  under  a  government  sufficiently  enlightened  to  appreciate  the 
execution  of  an  undertaking,  which,  to  men  ignorant  of  mechanical 
powers,  must  have  been  an  Herculean  operation  ;  for  such  is  the 
capricious  nature  of  the  mountain  streams  in  this  island,  where  heavy 
rains  frequently  fall  for  many  successive  days  without  intermission, 
that  no  common  barrier  would  suffice  to  resist  the  great  and  sudden 
pressure  that  must  be  sustained  on  such  occasions.  Aware  of  this 
peculiarity  in  the  character  of  their  rivers,  the  Singhalese  built  the 
retaining  wall  that  supports  the  waters  of  the  lake  of  Kandelle  with 
such  solidity  and  massiveness,  as  to  defy  the  utmost  fury  of  the 
mountain  torrents.  Nearly  the  whole  of  its  extent  is  formed  with 
vast  hewn  masses  of  rock,  faced  with  stones  eight  or  ten  feet  in 
length,  piled  up  twenty  feet  high,  and  from  150'  to  200  feet  thick  at 
the  base,  placed  like  steps  and  laid  in  regular  layers,  to  move  which 
by  sheer  physical  force  must  have  required  the  united  labour  of 
thousands. 

Resuming  the  coast  route,  from  Tamblegam  to  Kotti-aar,  the 
distance  is  about  1 2\  miles,  partly  along  the  bed  of  a  stream,  which 
has  its  source  from  Lake  Kandelle,  and  occasionally  through  fertile 
valleys,  varied  by  dense  jungle.  The  small  town  of  Kotti-aar  is 
situate  on  the  south  side  of  the  inner  harbour  of  Trincomalee,  and 
was  anciently  a  place  of  some  importance  ;  even  in  Knox's  time  it 
was  frequented  by  a  considerable  number  of  vessels  from  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  custom  dues  collected  there  formed  a  large  item  of  the 
royal  revenues.  The  passage  from  hence  to  Trincomalee  by  boat  is 
far  preferable  to  the  overland  route,  as  the  magnificent  scenery  of 
the  bay  is  thereby  seen  to  the  greatest  advantage.  This  place  is  still 
populous  ;  Malabars  are  the  chief  components  of  the  population. 
The  country  around  is  well  cultivated,  cattle  abound,  and  the  pasture 
is  extremely  good. 

The  district  of  Kotti-aar  extends  along  the  east  coast  of  the  island 
from  the  north  bank  of  the  Virgal-ganga  to  the  frontiers  of  Tamble- 
gam ;  and,  as  it  lies  within  the  delta  formed  by  the  two  rivers  Virgal 
and  Kotti-aar,  is  completely  insulated.     It  is  about  27  miles  long, 


552  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

from  north-east  to  southwest,  and  15  broad  from  east  to  west, 
containing  about  30  villages,  and  a  population  of  more  than  2000 
souls,  two-thirds  of  which  are  Malabars,  and  the  remainder  Moors. 
The  country  from  Anedivoe  to  Topore  is  almost  level,  diversified 
with  extensive  plains,  interspersed  with  thick  jungles,  and  intersected 
by  several  nullahs,  most  of  which  are  fordable,  but  from  Topore  to 
the  northward,  it  has  an  elevated  aspect,  and  abounds  with  high 
rocks  and  hills.  The  soil  is  generally  sandy.  The  low  lands  yield 
fine  crops  of  paddy,  and  the  higher  grounds  all  the  varieties  of  dry 
grain.  The  forests  supply  almost  every  species  of  timber,  and  har- 
bour a  vast  number  of  wild  animals,  greatly  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  route  southward  from  Kotti-aar  is  through  Topoo- 
torre,  9}  miles,  where  is  an  extensive  tank,  which  is  of  little  service, 
from  the  want  of  capital  in  the  country.  From  hence  Anedivoe 
(Elephant's  Island)  is  13|  miles,  the  road  between  the  two  places  is 
through  well  cultivated  paddy  fields,  interspersed  with  palmyra, 
cocoa-nut,  tamarind  and  wild  tea-trees.  The  plains  abound  with 
cattle,  and  particularly  buffaloes. 

This  district  was  originally  the  hereditary  domain  of  a  female 
chieftain,  styled  "Wannichee,  and  one  of  her  descendants  is  still 
known  by  the  designation,  though  he  has  lost  the  powers  of,  Wanniya. 
The  Kotti-aar,  or  river,  is  one  of  the  outlets  into  which  the  Mahavelle 
disembogues  itself  twenty-five  miles  south  of  the  bay  of  the  same 
name  into  which  it  falls  :  the  Virgal-ganga  branching  off  at  the  same 
place,  Kurinjamoone,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  by  two  channels, 
at  about  the  same  distance  to  the  south  of  Trincomalee.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  is  the  village,  which  has  extensive  paddy  fields 
attached  to  it,  and  the  Malabars  have  a  large  temple. 

The  district  of  Tamankadewe  lies  to  the  west  of  the  Mahavelle- 
ganga  and  Kotti-aar,  and  is  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  Amban- 
ganga,  west  and  north  by  the  districts  of  Nuwera  Kalawa,  and 
Tamblegam,  and  has  an  area  of  62  1  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  3150  souls.  In  earlier  periods  this  district  contained  a  vast 
population,  for  six  centuries  and  a  half  the  capital  of  the  island  was 
within  its  limits,  and  from  its  extensive  resources  for  irrigation,  pro- 
duced inexhaustible  supplies  of  grain,  and  well  merited  the  title  of 
the  granary  of  the  island.  At  present  a  great  proportion  of  the  lands 
lie  waste,  covered  with  morasses,  and  the  produce  of  paddy  is  con- 
sequently greatly  diminished.  The  forests  abound  in  game,  and 
supply  the  best  ebony,  satin,  cattamanao,  and  iron-wood  timber, 
but  the  greatest  apathy  prevails  with  respect  to  the  development  of 
this  source  of  wealth,  and  indeed  in  every  thing  else, 

If  the  Kotti-aar  were  cleared  of  the  obstructions  at  its  mouth  and 
other  parts,  and  the  Mahavelle  were  deepened  so  as  to  admit  the 
passage  of  vessels  drawing  even  but  six  feet  of  water,  a  very  extensive 
and  prosperous  trade  would  soon  arise,  and  doubtless  justify  a  farther 
and  more  effectual   operation.     Till   this   takes  place,  one    of  the 


CHAP.    I.]  TANK    OF    KAUDELLE LAKE    OF    MENNAIRIA-  553 

noblest  rivers  in  the  world  is  lost  to  the  country  which  it  was 
especially  intended  to  benefit,  and  its  solitary  function  is  to  drain  the 
superfluous  water  of  the  mountain  zone. 

The  minor  streams  intersecting  this  district,  such  as  the  Gal-oya 
and  Alut-wewa-oya,  must  have  supplied  a  vast  number  of  tanks  ; 
some  of  these  are  of  the  largest  size  :  that   of  Kaudelle,  which  was 
fed  by  the  latter  river,  is  now  a  swampy  plain  of  great  extent  between 
Mennairia  and  Kaudelle  ;  the  embankment  of  this  tank  was  of  the 
largest  dimensions.     The  mouth  of  the  outlet  is  a  massive  work,  and 
still  nearly  in  perfect  preservation.     It  is  a  square  well,  with   walls 
formed  of  large  stones,  some  of  which  are  twelve  feet  by  four,  neatly 
cut,  and  most  nicely  adapted  and  rabbeted  together.      Adjoining  it 
are  the  remains  of  a  canal  which  is  said  to  have  connected  the  tanks 
of  Mennairia,  Kaudelle  and  Gantalawe,  and  to  have  extended  beyond 
the  former  of  these  to  the  Amban-ganga  at  Ellaherra,  from  whence 
it  was  supplied  with  water.     "  Until  this  canal  is  traced  through  the 
Konderawe  hills,  the  extent  and  difficulty  of  such  an  undertaking 
must  excite  doubts,"  remarks  Forbes,  "whether  it  were  successfully 
accomplished  :  it  is  declared  to  have  been  of  sufficient  size    and  to 
have  been  used  as  a  means  of  conveyance  for  produce  as  well  as  for 
the    supply  of  water  necessary  to  fill  the  tanks  and  irrigate  the 
country  through  which  it  passed.     Its  length,  including   these  arti- 
ficial lakes,  could  not  have  been  under  one  hundred  miles  ;  and  if  it 
is  found  to  have  been  completed,  there  can  be  little   doubt  that  the 
succession  of  tanks  thus  connected  and  supplied,  were  the  waters  to 
which  the  vanity  of  a  king  gave  his  own  name,  dignifying  them  with 
the  appellation  of  the  '  Sea  of  Praackrama.'  "     This  monarch  reigned 
in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  on  an  excavation  at  Ellaherra 
there  is  an  inscription  stating  that  this  canal  was  completed  by  the 
king  Praackrama  Baboo. 

On  one  of  the  low  ranges  of  hills  in  this  neighbourhood,  Nuwara 
Kandi  (the  hill  of  the  city),  Mahasen  Raja,  resided  in  the  third 
century,  while  superintending  the  formation  of  the  neighbouring  tank 
of  Mennairia,  whose  glassy  lake  and  radiant  plains,  soon  burst  on 
the  view.  From  the  great  extent  and  irregular  form  of  the  lake 
of  Mennairia,  one  would  scarcely  suppose  it  a  work  of  art, 
and  although  its  waters  are  now  confined  to  little  purpose,  and  the 
neighbouring  plains  contain  a  scanty  and  sickly  population,  owing  to 
their  low  and  marshy  situation,  yet  cultivation  might  be  gradually 
restored,  and  health  with  increasing  population,  smile  on  the  20,000 
fields,  which  the  royal  architect  formed  along  with  the  lake  which 
was  to  irrigate  them.  Formerly  there  were  several  artificial  lakes, 
covering  a  much  larger  surface  than  that  of  Mennairia,  but  they 
no  longer  exist,  and  stand  a  small  chance  of  being  restored  ;  as  they 
would  not  perhaps  repay  the  necessary  expenditure  required  for 
repairs,  and  to  preserve  them  against  accidents. 

The  rest-house  of  Mennairia  can  only  be  reached  by  passing  along 


554  CEYLON.  [PART  IT. 

several  canals  and  muddy  rice  fields,  and  occupies  the  worst  position 
that  can  be  conceived,   commanding  no  view  either  of  the  forest- 
covered  hills,  or  the  lake  which  they  enclosed,  and  combining  all  the 
different  causes  supposed  to  produce  unhealthiness.     Between  the 
rest-house  and  the  lake  is  the  Kowilla,  dedicated  to  Mahasen.       It 
is  a  wretched  hut  mudded  up  in  the  corner  of  the  ruined  temple, 
which  was  destroyed  in  the  rebellion  of  1817;   like  most  others 
dedicated  to  gods,  it  contains  a  bow  and  arrow  of  the  deified  king. 
Among  the  various  temples  which  are  supposed  to  possess  peculiar 
sanctity,  and  whose  guardian  god  takes  vengeance  on  any  perjurer 
that  should  dare  to  profane  his  shrine,  Mennairia  is  pre-eminent,  and 
its  unwholesome  plains  have  often  proved  the  grave  of  the  perjurer, 
and  his  adversary,  who  was  always  present  to  watch  his  antagonist, 
and  see  that  the  usual  ceremonies   were  strictly  observed.     "  The 
placid  surface  of  the  lake  of  Mennairia,  when  lighted,"  says  Forbes, 
"  by  the  evening  sun,  reflects  the  varied  foliage  and  forms  of  the 
clumps  and  trees  on  its  promontories,  capes,  and  islands  ;  narrow 
creeks  pierce  far  into  the  overhanging  forest ;  and  beyond  the  waters, 
rich  grassy  plains  stretch  among  the  wooded  hills,  over  which  arise 
in  distance  the  grand  outlines  of  the  mountains  of  Matale.     On  the 
plains  are  scattered  herds  of  elephants,  buffaloes,   and  spotted  deer, 
and   all  the  winged  race  in  every  variety  of  form  and  hue  glance 
along  the  margin  of  the  water,  or  flit  along  its  narrow  inlets,   while 
the  whole  scene,  brilliant  in  colour,  refulgent  with  light,  and  replete 
with  animal  life,  leaves  behind  a  never-fading  reminiscence  on  the 
mind."     Notwithstanding  the  great  expanse  of  water  in  the  tank  of 
Mennairia,  the  principal  embankment  was  not  required  of  such  great 
extent   as   those  of  much  smaller  reservoirs,  scarcely   exceeding  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  sixty  feet  in  width  at  the  top,  and 
overgrown  with  forest  trees  and  thick  jungle ;  its  outlets  which  are 
composed  of  large  masses  of  rock  coarsely  cut,  are  on  a  level  with  the 
deepest  parts,  so  that  while  any  water  remained,  the  supply  for  the 
villages,  canals,  and  rice  fields,  was  maintained,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
absence  of  rain  for  two  years,  would  not  have  caused  the  absorption 
of  the  water.     It  is  one  of  those  works  by  which  man  has  successfully 
combated  the  caprice   of  seasons,   and  the  revolutions  of  nature. 
The  stream  running  from  the  tank,  is  of  considerable  size,  and  flows 
into  the  Mahavelle-ganga.     Formerly,  when  its  waters  were  directed 
by  man,  it  was  a  source  of  fertility  to  the  whole  tract  through  which 
it  passed,  but  now  running  waste,  forming  swamps,  and  only  sup- 
porting rank  vegetation,  it  is  the  fruitful  cause  of  unwholesomeness  to 
the  adjacent  country.     The  country  between  Mennairia  and  Kandelle, 
is  almost  entirely  covered  with  wood,  and  the  scenery  only  improves 
between  Permamadua  and   Kandelle.      A  sportsman  may  find  an 
abundant  variety  and  quantity  of  game  in  the  vicinity  of  Mennairia, 
where  it  is  undisturbed  by  the  approach  of  man. 

The  ruins  of  Pollonnaroowa,  the  capital  of  the  island  for  500 


CHAP.  I.]    POLLONNAROOWA — FOUNDATION  AND  ABANDONMENT.  555 

years,  lie  near  Mennairia  ;  at  about  five  miles  distance  between  tbe  two 
places,  is  the  small  artificial  lake,  called  Giri-tala,  formed  of  a  strong 
stone  embankment,  which  crosses  a  hollow  at  the  top  of  a  steep 
descent,  terminating  in  level  ground  and  damp  forests,  where  hewn 
stones,  carved  spouts,  and  steps  of  masonry,  denote  the  populous 
suburb  of  the  ancient  city. 

Pollonnaroowa  was  called  Pulastya-poora  in  ancient  works,  a  name 
connected  with  the  most  ancient  legends  of  the  country,  and  the 
Hindoo  poem  of  the  Ramayana,  Pulastya  being  one  of  the  progenitors 
of  Rawana,  king  of  Ceylon,  in  the  earliest  period  to  which  tradition 
ventures  to  go  back.  Here,  as  at  Anuradhapoora,  superstition 
selected  the  site  of  a  town  that  has  otherwise  no  obvious  recommen- 
dation, and  judging  by  present  appearances  almost  every  disadvan- 
tage for  the  position  of  the  capital  of  the  island.  The  ruins  of 
Pollonnaroowa  are  now  generally  called  by  Europeans,  Topare,  a  cor- 
ruption of  Topawewa,  the  name  of  the  tank  which  extends  along  one 
side  of  the  city,  at  whose  farthest  extremity  appears  the  ruined  spire 
of  the  Rankot  dagobah. 

The  power  of  Ceylon  was  already  on  the  wane,  when  the  tank  of 
Topawewa  was  formed  by  the  Upatissa  II.,  who  commenced  his 
reign  a.d.  368.  This  king  erected  many  public  works  in  various 
parts  of  the  island,  and  endowed  numerous  religious  edifices ;  to 
these  exertions  he  was  stimulated  both  by  piety  and  terror,  the  former 
excited  by  a  priest  of  Hattanagalla,  the  latter  by  an  earthquake.  In 
a.d.  G50,  Sirisangabo  II.  built  a  palace  at  Pollonnaroowa,  but  it  was 
not  then  considered  the  capital,  and  probably  had  been  the  place  of 
his  retirement  when  driven  from  the  throne,  which  he  afterwards 
recovered  from  the  usurper  Kaloona.  From  this  time  it  was  the 
occasional  residence  of  several  monarchs,  and  towards  the  close  of 
the  eighth  century,  became  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  the  insignia 
of  royalty  were  removed  thither  from  the  ancient  capital.  Pollon- 
naroowa, though  taken  and  pillaged  by  foreign  invaders,  and  a 
sufferer  from  domestic  feuds,  still  increased  in  size,  till  it  arrived  at 
the  acme  of  prosperity  in  the  twelfth  century,  under  the  reigns  of 
Praackrama  Baboo,  and  Kirti  Nissanga,  by  whom  all  the  principal 
buildings  were  commenced  or  completed.  The  vast  undertakings 
and  wars  of  these  energetic  but  vain  monarchs,  seem  to  have  exhausted 
the  strength  of  a  nation,  weakened  also  by  internal  dissension  ;  for 
Ceylon,  after  the  feverish  excitement  and  boasted  prosperity  of  these 
reigns,  sank  more  rapidly,  and  Pollonnaroowa,  which  had  continued 
the  seat  of  government  for  550  years,  was  neglected  from  a.d.  1240, 
when  its  principal  buildings  had  been  demolished  by  the  Malabars, 
and  was  finally  deserted  a.d.  1319. 

The  temples  and  buildings  of  Pollonnaroowa,  are  in  much  better 
preservation  than  those  of  Anuradhapoora,  although  very  inferior  to 
them  in  point  of  size ;  the  extent  of  the  city  too  corresponds  with 
the  diminished  resources  and  decreased  population  of  the  island  in 


556  CEYLON.  [PAItT    IV. 

the  twelfth  century,  when  the  rampart  or  fence  of  Pollonnaroowa  was 
formed,  as  compared  with  the  power  and  splendour  of  Ceylon,  under 
the  great  dynasty,  when  Wahapp  huilt  the  walls  of  Anuradhapoora, 
in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

"  In  several  of  the  buildings  at  Pollonnaroowa,"  says  Forbes,  "par- 
ticularly in  two  small  doors,  the  proper  arch  is  to  be  found  in  form, 
but  the  principle  of  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  understood  by 
the  Singhalese  architects  ;  as  in  the  largest  buildings  which  have 
brick  roofs,  the  side  walls  approximate  as  they  ascend,  from  each 
course  of  bricks  projecting  forward  a  little  beyond  the  one  immedi- 
ately below  it,  until  only  a  small  space  is  left,  which  has  been  com- 
pleted on  the  principle  of  the  wedge  ;  the  section  of  one  of  these 
chambers  would  nearly  resemble  a  parabolic  curve." 

The  Jaitawana-rama,  which  is  considered  to  be  a  precise  imitation 
of  the  temple  built  for  Gautama  Buddha,  and  in  which  he  resided  at 
Saewatnuwara,  in  Kosolratta,  more  resembles  the  early  ecclesiastical 
edifices  of  Europe,  than  any  other  which  the  island  possesses.     In 
front,  it  has  a  small  mound,  covered  with  stone  pillars,  the  remains  of 
the  Gamsabae   Mandapa,   and  the  proper  entrance  is  from  thence 
between  two  polygonal  pillars  of  about  fifty  feet  high  ;  these  form 
the  termination  of  the  exterior  walls  of  two  chambers*   into  which 
this  temple  is  divided.     The  interior  of  these  apartments  is  much 
the  broadest,  and  opposite  to  its  entrance  a  figure  of  Gautama  pro- 
jecting from  the  wall,  occupies  the  whole  height  of  the  building, 
about  fifty  feet.    On  the  outside,  this  ruin  presents  two  rows  of  gothic 
windows,  but  the  upper  range  is  closed,  and  does  not  admit  light  or 
air.     This  temple  was  repaired,  if  it  was  not  built,  by  Kirti  Nissanga, 
soon  after  his  succession  to  the  throne  in  a.d.   1192.     The  whole 
length  is  about   150  feet,  and  its  walls,   which  are  very  thick,  are 
entirely  composed  of  brick  and  mortar-.     With  the  exception  of  a 
stone  moulding,  the  whole  building,  including  the  colossal  statue,  has 
been    covered    with   polished   cement,    which    still   adheres   to   the 
entrance  pillars  and  various  other  portions  of  this  impending  ruin. 
The  figures  of  two  snakes  cast  in  stone  near  the  Jaitawanarama  give 
birth  to  a  legend  and  erroneous  derivation  of  the  name  of  the  city, 
and  it  is  from  polon  and  na,  the  polonga  and  hooded  snake  that  the 
vulgar  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  name  Pollonnarroowa.     Projecting  in 
the  strongest  relief  from  the  perpendicular  face  of  a  large  rock,  are 
three  colossal  figures  of  Buddha  ;  they  are  in  the  usual  position, 
sitting,  standing,  and  reclining,  the  last  mentioned  being  upwards  of 
forty  feet  in  length.     According  to  minute  directions,  which  the 
Singhalese  possess,  these  positions  of  Gautama  are,  and  his  features 
ought  to  be,  retained  without  variation;  so  also  it  is  with  the  figure 
of  every  supernatural  creature  which  they  worship,   whether  it  be 
deified,  mortal,  or  demon,  the  shape  originally  adopted  must  remain 
unaltered.      "  The  restrictions  of  human  beings  by  caste,"  remarks 
Forbes,  "are  not  more  imperious  or  better  observed  than  the  instruc- 


CHAP.    I.J  THE    JAITAWANARAMA RANKOT    DAGOBAH.  557 

tions  that  fix  the  forms  of  figures  to  be  worshipped :  the  results 
exhibited  by  the  minds  of  mortals  and  the  efforts  of  statuaries,  afford 
ccpial  proofs  of  an  impolitic  interference  and  its  baneful  results. 
Mankind  debarred  from  improvement,  first  ceased  to  advance,  then 
gradually  declined,  and  sculptors  condemned  to  imitate  only,  at 
length  fell  short  of  their  originals,  yet  had  their  failures  again 
repeated,  and  their  faults  multiplied.  Between  the  sitting  and 
standing  figures,  the  Isuramini  or  Kalugalla-wihare,  has  been  cut 
in  the  hard  rock,  and  in  this  cavern  temple,  part  of  the  stone  has 
been  left,  and  afterwards  shaped  into  the  figure  of  Buddha,  seated 
on  a  throne,  the  two  pillars  in  the  front  of  this  wihare,  are  also  part 
of  the  solid  rock.  These  works  were  completed  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  in  the  reign  of  Praackrama  Baboo,  yet  are  they  not 
decayed,  but  the  most  minute  ornaments  are  sharp,  and  undiminished 
by  time  or  weather,  and  will  perhaps  retain  their  freshness,  when 
the  religion  of  Gautama  has  faded  for  ever  in  its  holy  land  and 
island  stronghold.  The  Dalada  Malagawa  (palace  of  the  tooth)  is 
partly  obscured  on  the  outside,  and  the  inside  is  nearly  filled  with 
rubbish.  It  is  a  small  building  of  excellent  masonry  and  neat  archi- 
tecture. The  roof  is  flat,  and  formed  of  long  stones,  and  the 
granite  of  which  it  is  entirely  built,  retains  in  perfection  the  admira- 
ble sharpness  of  the  original  cutting.  It  is  said  to  have  been  joined 
together  under  the  personal  superintendence  of  Kirti  Nissanga  in  one 
day,  a.d.  119.3.     Bears  in  numbers  find  shelter  among  these  ruins. 

The  Rankot  dagobah  was  built  by  the  second  queen  of  Mahaloo 
Praackrama  Bahoo,  between  the  years  a.d.  1154  and  1186,  but 
Kirti  Nissanga,  who  increased  its  height,  gave  it  the  name  of 
Thuparama.  It  is  the  loftiest  building  at  Pollonnaroowa,  and  though 
like  the  other  ruins,  it  is  much  overgrown  with  jungle,  large  trees,  and 
creeping  plants,  yet  the  form  of  its  spire  may  be  still  discerned  at  a 
distance  of  several  miles,  as  the  forests  at  this  place  display  in  the 
size  of  their  trees,  the  occasional  deficiency  of  moisture,  from  which 
this  portion  of  the  land  frequently  suffers.  Around  the  base  but 
forming  part  of  the  dagobah,  are  eight  small  chapels,  and  between 
each  of  them  there  is  an  ornamented  projection.  The  height  from 
the  level  of  the  platform  on  which  these  stand,  to  the  highest  portion 
of  the  existing  remains  of  the  steeple,  is  159  feet.  As  the  platform 
is  considerably  elevated  above  the  surrounding  country,  the  native 
histories  which  state  its  entire  height  at  120  carpenter's  cubits,  i.e. 
two  hundred  and  seventy  feet,  are  confirmed  The  golden  umbrella 
raised  on  the  summit  of  the  spire  obtained  for  this  building  the  name 
of  Itankot,  by  which  it  is  now  generally  known.  The  derivatives  are, 
ran,  gold,  kot,  the  umbrella-like  termination,  which  was  generally 
raised  on  the  top  of  the  spire  of  a  dagobah. 

The  remains  of  the  Bannage  (place  for  publicly  expounding  the 
Buddhist  Scriptures)  is  encircled  by  a  fence  of  peculiar  construction,  in 
which   the  two   lines  of  longitudinal  bars  are  of  stone,  fitting  in  to 


558  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

upright  stone  pillars.  In  the  Watte-daga,  Poeyage,  Lanka-rama, 
Meres-wattya,  Keeree-wihare,  &c.  &c.,  there  is  little  to  remark,  but 
the  exact  correspondence  of  their  site  and  remains  with  the  native 
accounts  of  this  city  and  the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  buildings  as 
recorded  in  the  Singhalese  history.  Tbe  Sat-mahal-prasada  is  a  neat 
pyramidal  building  of  no  great  height,  although  its  name  implies  that 
it  was  seven  stories  high. 

The  palace  is  now  a  shapeless  mass,  overgrown  with  vegetation, 
and  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  Topawewa,  the  waters  of  which  were 
conducted  through  the  building.  The  roj^al  bath  is  still  distinct ;  it 
is  a  circular  excavation,  about  six  feet  deep,  lined  with  hewn  stones, 
one  of  which  is  round  and  raised  above  the  rest  of  the  pavement : 
this  marks  the  spot  where  the  kings  stood  and  received  the  services 
of  the  numerous  officers  connected  with  the  bathing  and  dressing  de- 
partments of  a  Singhalese  monarch.  Several  stones  covered  with 
long  inscriptions  are  found  at  Pollonnaroowa.  One  stone  brought 
from  Mihintalai  is  shaped  like  the  leaf  of  a  Singhalese  ola,  and  is 
neatly  ornamented,  the  characters,  which  are  small,  and  beautifully 
cut,  and  for  the  most  part  Singhalese,  being  surrounded  by  a  mould- 
ing  of  birds,  it  is  twenty-five  feet  long,  four  broad,  and  two  thick, 
and  the  subject  principally  treated  of,  refers  to  the  reign  of  Kirti 
Nissanga.  "  In  a  situation  abounding  with  rocks  and  quarries,"  ob- 
serves Forbes,  "  from  which  they  could  have  riven  masses  of  any  size 
by  means  of  wedges,  of  which  abundant  use  has  been  made  at  Pollon- 
naroowa, it  is  remarkable  that  this  cumbrous  mass  should  have  been 
removed  upwards  of  eighty  miles,  and  yet  more  surprising  how  the 
feat  was  accomplished."  He  was  at  first  little  inclined  to  regard  the 
tradition,  which  spoke  of  its  removal  by  men  from  a  place  so  distant 
as  Mihintalai,  until  the  translation  of  the  inscription  proved  its 
authenticity.  "This  engraved  stone  is  the  one  which  the  Adigaar 
Unawoomandanawan  caused  the  strong  men  of  Nissankha  to  bring 
from  the  mountain  Saegiri  (Mihintalai)  at  Anuradhapoora,  in  the 
time  of  Piaja  Sree  Kalinga  Chakkrawarti." 

Several  of  the  inscriptions  cut  in  stone  at  Pollonnaroowa  are  of  great 
length,  in  a  character  which  is  Singhalese,  yet  containing  many  letters 
now  obsolete,  but  generally  beautifully  executed.  These  inscriptions 
are  valuable  for  the  dates  which  they  afford,  and  deserving  of  notice  for 
the  customs  and  recognized  duties  of  a  Singhalese  king  upwards  of  600 
years  ago  :  they  further  exhibit  in  perfection  the  self-praise  in  which 
these  monarchs  indulged,  and  the  high  sounding  titles  they  assumed. 
The  warlike  actions  and  personal  valour  ascribed  to  the  reigning 
kings,  by  these  imperishable  records,  are  however  totally  false,  or  so 
exaggerated,  as  to  be  inapplicable.  Another  of  the  inscriptions 
records  the  grants  made  and  the  titles  bestowed  by  a  grateful  king 
on  a  chief,  his  friend,  and  his  mother,  who  had  been  instrumental  in 
bringing  this  prince  from  the  continent  of  India,  and  placing  him  on  the 
throne  of  Ceylon,  a.  d.  1 200.   The  chieftain  was  named  Kooloondoo- 


CHAP.  I.]  DISTRICT  OF  BATECALO — HISTORY  OF  ITS  SETTLEMENT.  559 

tetti  Abo-nawan  ;  his  friend,  another  man  of  rank,  was  Kumbudal- 
nawan. 

To  resume  the  coast  route — The  traveller  having  crossed  the 
Virgal-ganga  at  Moleade,  two  miles  from  Anedivoe,  where  boats  are 
always  at  hand  for  the  passage  of  the  ferry,  will  find  the  Koorle- 
pattoo,  a  well  cultivated  and  low,  but  charming,  country  before 
him.  This  hundred  forms  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  extensive 
district  of  Batecalo,  stretching  from  the  Virgal-ganga  to  the 
Kumukan-aar,  a  distance  of  nearly  150  miles  from  north  to  south. 
Its  native  name  is  Mattakalappoo,  from  the  Singhalese  words  mada, 
muddy,  and  Kalappoo,  a  lake,  perhaps  in  allusion  to  the  lake  for 
which  it  is  famous.  It  is  divided  into  eleven  pattoos  or  hundreds, 
vis.  Manmoone,  Karrewitte,  Porativoe,  Eruwil,  Karrewahoo,  Sam- 
mantorrc,  Nadukadoe,  Akkarapattoo,  Panaha  or  Panowa,  Eraoor, 
and  Koorle  pattoe,  with  an  area  of  1360  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  35,000  souls.  The  climate  is  on  the  whole  salubrious ; 
and  except  during  the  hot  months,  when  the  thermometer  sometimes 
stands  at  94°  in  the  shade,  and  the  Katchan  or  hot  wind  visits  the 
coast,  is  cooler  than  any  other  part  of  the  sea  coast,  being  consider- 
ably influenced  by  the  ranges  of  lofty  mountains  on  the  west.  From 
the  Virgal-ganga  to  Nalloor,  the  face  of  the  country  exhibits  sandy- 
plains,  and  loose  soil,  sometimes  uncultivated  and  barren,  surrounded 
on  every  side  by  jungle,  and  intersected  by  salt  water  lakes.  To  the 
southward  from  Eraoor  to  the  Kumukan-oya,  it  is  diversified  with 
huge  masses  of  rock,  high  jungles,  salt  and  fresh  water  lakes,  and 
large  plains  under  tillage.  The  soil  moreover  is  of  marl  and  a  dark 
sand.  The  forests  yield  a  vast  quantity  of  excellent  timber,  and 
satin  wood  and  ebony  are  exported  in  considerable  quantities  to  the 
Coromandel  coast. 

With  regard  to  its  agricultural  resources,  it  now  produces  nearly  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  paddy  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  though  it  formerly  exported  largely,  it  was  for  more  than  thirty 
years  after  the  arrival  of  the  British,  dependent  for  its  supply  of  this 
necessary  of  life  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  Recently  cocoa-nut 
plantations  have  been  laid  down  by  both  European  and  native  capital- 
ists, and  it  promises  to  derive  no  slight  advantage  from  the  cultiva- 
tion. It  abounds  also  with  palmyra,  mango  and  other  fruit  trees, 
and  produces  an  infinite  variety  of  fine  grains.  It  is  famous  for  a 
large  breed  of  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  ;  its  jungles  afford 
every  sort  of  game,  while  its  numerous  lakes  and  rivers  yield  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  fish.  Its  population  consists  chiefly  of  Malabars, 
Mookwas,  and  Moors,  who  are  said  to  be  remarkable  for  their 
tranquil  and  contented  dispositions,  and  the  little  desire  they  feel 
to  leave  the  spot  where  they  were  bora. 

The  settlement  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Ceylon  is  perhaps  accounted 
for  in  a  more  intelligible  manner  than  any  other  division  of  the 
island.     From  the  south  bank  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga  round  to  the 


5G0  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

Kalu-ganga  on  the  west  coast,  comprising  therefor?  Malayaa,  or  a 
considerable  part  of  the  mountain  region,  and  all  the  lcrvv  lands  south 
of  those  rivers,  was  the  principality  of  Roohoona,  governed  for 
centuries  by  its  local  princes,  and  yielding,  if  any,  a  very  imperfect 
fealty  to  the  metropolitan  state.  Under  the  sovereignty  of  these 
princes,  all  the  great  works,  many  of  whose  vestiges  still  remain, 
were  executed.  Subsequently  Roohoona  became  reannexed  to  the 
metropolitan  state,  and  soon  shared  in  its  vicissitudes.  From  the 
time  of  Maagha's  invasion,  the  unity  of  the  kingdom  ceased  to  be 
preserved ;  the  capital  was  removed  from  Pollonnaroowa  to  Dam- 
badiniya,  and  from  Dambadiniya  in  its  turn  to  six  or  eight  other 
localities,  just  as  was  dictated  by  a  monarch's  caprice,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  the  complete  dismemberment  of  the  country  ensued. 
The  monarch  of  the  mountain  zone,  whose  seat  of  government  was 
at  Kandy,  was  at  length  tempted  to  extend  his  dominion  o^er  the 
east  coast,  and  whether  his  rule  was  personally  offensive  or  his  policy 
truculent,  the  result  was  that  the  Singhalese  inhabitants,  with  the 
exception'  of  those  in  the  pattoos  of  Nadukadoe  and  Panowa, 
abandoned  the  country,  leaving  the  Veddahs  to  roam  over  it  undis- 
turbed. Things  were  in  this  state,  when  the  Malabar  chieftains  from 
the  north  began  to  emigrate  southwards,  and  settled  in  the  district 
of  Kotti-aar.  One  of  these  with  the  title  of  Wanniya  became 
governor  of  the  Batecalo  district,  and  paid  tribute  to  Randy.  Being 
deposed  by  the  Veddahs,  he  retired  to  Point  Pedro,  from  whence, 
after  some  delay,  he  returned  with  seven  vessels  manned  with 
Mookwa  fishermen,  and  with  their  assistance  drove  the  Veddahs 
into  the  interior  and  re-established  his  authority.  At  length,  however, 
the  Mookwas  rebelled,  submitted  to  the  Kandian  monarch,  and  a 
dissave  was  appointed  over  the  whole  district.  Nadukadoe  was  still 
peopled  by  a  remnant  of  the  old  inhabitants,  Panowa  was  annexed  to 
Ouva ;  and  the  Mookwa  headmen,  called  Peddies,  divided  the 
remainder  of  the  coast  territory  among  their  seven  families,  appor- 
tioning a  pattoo  to  each.  They  next  obtained  a  concession  of  the  land 
from  the  king,  and  a  patent  authorising  the  eldest  of  the  male  members 
of  the  families  to  continue  to  rank  as  Head  Peddie  in  their  respective 
pattoos.  No  long  time  had  elapsed  before  a  large  body  of  Malabar 
immigrants  arrived  from  Jaffna,  and  settled  amongst  them,  and  they 
were  succeeded  by  several  families  of  Moors.  To  increase  further  the 
population,  the  Mookwas  purchased  and  educated  Veddah  children, 
and  the  state  of  the  province  had  begun  to  assume  a  promising  aspect, 
when  the  rapacity  of  the  dissave,  and  the  extortions  and  oppressions 
of  his  deputy,  the  land  vidahn,  revived  all  the  original  elements  of 
disorganisation.  Even  among  the  Mookwas,  no  person  was  secure 
in  the  possession  of  his  land,  as  the  dissave,  whenever  he  visited  the 
country,  could  be  bribed  to  make  any  award.  The  whole  community 
sighed  to  be  delivered  from  the  galling  yoke,  and  implored  the  Dutch 
to  assume  the  government  of  the  territory,  to  which  the  latter  acceded 


CHAP.    I.]    THE   KOOItLE-PATTOO NALLOER — EUAOER-PATTOO.       561 

on  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  with  Kandy,  in  1761.  Under  the 
Dutch,  prosperity  began  to  revive,  the  headmen  employed  to  collect 
the  tithe  on  grain,  honestly  gave  in  the  quantum  so  collected ;  but, 
finding  that  the  Government  had  little  or  no  check  on  their  proceed- 
ings, gradually  delivered  less  and  less,  till  the  whole  revenue  had 
become  a  burlesque.  The  fraud  was  thus  discovered,  and  they  were 
compelled  to  disgorge  their  ill-gotten  gains,  but  they  still  continued  to 
extract  large  profits  from  those  employed  in  forced  labour,  and 
exacted  heavy  fines  from  those  they  exempted.  On  the  arrival  of 
Governor  Falcke,  orders  were  issued  for  the  mild  and  lenient  treatment 
of  natives,  and  the  concession  of  popular  institutions.  The  Mookwa 
headmen  thus  became  reconciled  to  the  limitation  imposed  upon 
their  extortions,  and  thenceforth  decided  differences  between  the 
people  in  conjunction  with  the  Dutch  resident. 

To  return  to  the  Koorle-pattoo: — this  hundred  extends  from  theVir- 
gal-ganga  to  Vendeloos  bay.  The  villages  are  eight  or  nine  in  number, 
but  are  far  from  well  peopled.    The  country  in  the  rear  is  a  complete 
forest,  infested  with  elephants,  buffaloes,  &c.  and  the  Veddahs  frequent 
it  in  the  dry  season.    From  the  Virgal-ganga  to  Kaddiravelle"  the  dis- 
tance is  four  miles,  and  from  thence  to  Pannitchankanne,  where  the 
river  of  that  name  is  crossed  by  a  ferry,  nearly  ten  miles.     Wild 
orange,  lime  and  cinnamon  trees  abound  here,  and  attract  myriads  of 
monkies.   Salt  is  procured  to  a  large  extent  in  the  vicinity.    The  leways 
in  this  district  all  belong  to  Government,  but  are  by  no  means  so  pro- 
ductive as  those  of  the  Southern  province.     Vendeloos  bay  or  inlet  is 
about  1 6£  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  lake  of  Batecalo,  the  coast  be- 
tween is  low  and  woody,  and  may  be  approached  occasionally  to  ten 
or  twelve  fathoms  ;  but  in  the  night,  large  ships  should  keep  two  or 
three  miles  off  shore.     Vendeloos  inlet  is  rocky  at  the  entrance ; 
when  abreast  of  this  place,  the  Sugar  Loaf  bears  to  the  south-westward. 
About  six  leagues  to  the  west  of  it  is  Dimbuhagalla,  or  the  Gunner's 
Quoin.      Ships  bound  to  Trincomalee  from  the  south  in  the  south- 
west monsoon,  keep  near  the  eastern  coast  of  Ceylon ;  as  the  land 
winds   blow   very  strong  in  the  night,  and  frequently  in  the  day, 
often  rendering  it  difficult  for  a  ship  to  regain  the  coast,  if  she  get , 
far  to  seaward,  where  the  current  generally  sets  to  the  eastward  in 
that  season.     Near  the  shore  along  the  north-east  coast  of  Ceylon, 
the  current  is  fluctuating  in  the  south-west  monsoon,  generally  weak, 
and  sets  mostly  to  the  southward.     The  next  stage  is  to  Kommol- 
landam  Moone,   15^  miles,  a  small  and  sparsely  populated  village, 
little  cultivated,  and  surrounded  on  all  but  the  coast  side,  by  dense 
jungle  :  the  road  however  is  good  throughout.     The  next  village  is 
Nalloer  (Bapoor),  4 \  miles,  situate  near  the  Nalloer-aar,  and  abound- 
ing in  wild  cinnamon.     The  country  about  here  is  better  inhabited,1 

1  Some  curious  ancient  inscriptions  have  recently  been  discovered  at  Rose- 
lanmalle  in  this  pattoo,  and  forwarded  to  the  Ceylon  branch  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety,  and  it  is  far  from  improbable  but  that  they  may  throw  some  light  on  the 
earlier  history  of  Koohoona. 

2  o 


562  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

and  between  Nalloer  and  Eraoer,  ten  miles,  is  extensively  cultivated 
with  paddy,  yams,  and  plantains,  but  the  road  is  a  very  deep  and 
loose  sand  for  some  part  of  the  distance.  Cotton  is  growu,  but  in 
a  limited  quantity,  compared  with  the  capabilities  of  the  country. 
Labour  is  cheap  throughout  the  Batecalo  district,  and  contracts  have 
been  made  for  felling  timber  so  low  as  fourteen  shillings  per  acre. 
Ferry  boats  are  always  to  be  had  for  crossing  the  Nalloer  and  Eraoer 
rivers,  both  of  which  are  salt.  At  Eraoer  is  a  good  rest  house,  and 
a  temple  sacred  to  Vira  Badra,  one  of  the  malignant  deities  in 
Hindoo  mythology.  This  place  was  formerly  the  seat  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  stuffs,  a  branch  of  industry  sedulously  cultivated 
under  the  Dutch.  The  country  around  is  far  from  fertile,  and  the 
water  indifferent.  Near  this  place,  a  branch  from  the  coast  road 
diverges,  passing  the  north  ern  confines  of  the  Karrewitte  pattoo,  through 
Veddah-ratte  to  Binterme,  a  distance  of  ninety-three  miles,  and  another 
winds  along  the  western  shore  of  the  Batecalo  lake,  and  again  unites 
itself  with  the  Batecalo  road.  Another  stage  of  nine  miles  brings 
the  traveller  to  Batecalo,  famous  for  its  mosquitoes. 

The   island    of  Pooliantivoe,  on  which   the  town  of  Batecalo  is 
situate,  is  in  7°  42'  N.  lat.  and  81°  51'  E.  long,  is  about  three  miles 
and  a  half  in  circumference,  and  is  formed  by  the  lake  of  Batecalo, 
which  communicates  with  the  sea.     Batecalo  is  the  seat  of  the  assis- 
tant agent  for  the  Eastern   province,  the  judge  of  the  district  court, 
and  a  police   magistrate.     The  fort,  built  of  coral  rock,  is  a  small 
square  building,  and  contains  a  barrack,  magazine,  and  commandant's 
house.     The  town  stands  a  few  hundred  yards  from  it,  and  is  almost 
embosomed  in  topes  of  cocoa-nut  trees.     Though  the  streets  cannot 
boast  of  regularity,  nor  the  houses  of  grandeur  or  neatness,  still  it 
presents  a  rather  picturesque  ensemble  from  the  vegetation  in  which 
it  is  shrouded,  and  is  chiefly   inhabited  by  Dutch   burghers   and 
natives.     The  bazaar  is  a  dispersed  assemblage  of  huts  occupied  by 
venders  of  fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  poultry,  eggs,  oysters,  rice,  &c.  all 
of  which  are  abundant,  excellent,  and  cheap.     Excellent  table  cloths, 
towels,  and  napkins,   are  manufactured  here,   as   also  cotton-cloth. 
The   trade  of  Batecalo,   though  on  the  increase,  is  as  yet  of  little 
importance,    owing    to  its   isolation   from   the   other   provinces   of 
Ceylon.     The  development  of  its  agricultural  wealth  will,  however, 
eventually  place  it  in  the  position  to  which  its  advantages  entitle  it. 
The  lake  of  Batecalo  is  navigable  for  schooners,  and  even  dhonies 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.     The  village   of  Katancoditeripoo 
contains  a  dense  population  of  Moormen,  whose  schooners  sail  up  the 
lake,  as  high  as  Navacodah,  and  ten  miles  up  the  Eraoer  branch. 
Up  the  shallower  parts  of  the  lake  large  "  ballams,"  sailing  without 
outriggers,  and  carrying  several  tons  weight  of  paddy,  salt,  and  cocoa- 
nuts  penetrate.    Batecalo  has  one  Protestant  and  two  or  three  Romish 
churches,  and  the  Mahommedans  and  heathen  have  also  their  respec- 
tive places  of  worship.     Batecalo  is  memorable  in  the   history  of 
Ceylon,  from  being  the  first  port  visited  by  the  Dutch  under  Spil- 


CHAP.I.]  MANMOONE  PATTOO — ISLE  POOLTANTIVOE  — BATECALO.  563 

bergen,  in  1G02.  The  coast  off  Batecalo  is  bold,  and  the  immense 
sandstone  rocks,  known  as  the  "  Friar's  hood,"  "Elephant's  rock," 
and  "  Pagoda  rock,"  are  excellent  landmarks  for  the  navigator.  The 
inlet  is  narrow  at  the  entrance,  and  not  discernible  except  from  the 
northward,  but  it  may  be  known  by  a  house  and  flag-staff.  There  are 
six  feet  on  the  bar  at  low  water,  and  the  tide  rises  about  two  or  three 
feet  perpendicularly.  Wood  and  water  may  both  be  obtained  here 
in  any  quantity.  The  anchorage  in  the  road  is  not  always  safe  in  the 
north-east  monsoon  when  a  gale  from  that  quarter  may  occur  between 
September  and  February,  but  in  the  south-west  monsoon  it  is  safe. 
Ships  generally  anchor  to  the  north-west  or  westward  of  the  reef, 
with  the  entrance  of  the  river  about  south  ;  the  Friar's  Hood,  south- 
south-west,  distant  about  two  miles,  abreast  of  a  cluster  of  rocks 
projecting  from  the  shore  to  the  northward  of  the  river.  The 
mountain  which  resembles  a  Friar's  hood  when  bearing  to  the  south- 
westward,  has  the  form  of  a  pyramid  when  it  beais  to  the  north- 
westward. From  October  to  February,  when  the  north-west  mon- 
soon blows,  the  native  merchants  lay  up  their  vessels. 

The  pattoo  of  Manmoone,  in  which  Batecalo  is  situate,  extends 
along  the  greater  part  of  the  shore,  laved  by  the  lake  of  Batecalo. 
The  soil  is  sandy,  but  is  extensively  cultivated  with  cotton,  and 
cocoa-nut,  and  palmyra  trees.  Under  the  encouragement  of  M. 
Burnand,  Batecalo  promised  to  become  a  seat  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
ture, and  its  cloth  was  exchanged  for  the  produce  of  the  Kandian 
country.  The  villages,  forty  in  number,  are  populous,  and  the 
inhabitants  contented  and  industrious.  Moodelakooda,  or  Navacodah 
(the  Alligator's  bay),  is  a  considerable  village  projecting  into  the 
lake  south-west  of  Batecalo.  Karrewittepattoe,  on  the  west  shore  of 
the  lake,  is  but  thinly  peopled  and  little  cultivated. 

The  next  stage  from  Batecalo  southwards  is  to  Naypattre  Moone,  a 
large  and  populous  village,  1 7\  miles  distant,  on  the  banks  of  the  lake, 
where  there  is  a  tolerable  rest-house,  but  the  neighbourhood,  though 
delightfully  situated  and  extremely  fertile,  is  only  indifferently  culti- 
vated. From  thence  to  Wambimodoo  rest-house  is  7|  miles.  This, 
though  well  cultivated  on  the  right  of  the  road,  is  about  the 
wildest  part  of  Ceylon,  and  the  traveller  can  only  proceed  during 
the  day  in  safety ;  for  so  numerous  are  elephants,  bears,  and 
leopards,  that  there  is  no  chance  of  escape,  and  in  the  rainy  season, 
when  driven  by  the  mosquitoes  from  the  jungles  into  the  plains,  they 
infest  the  roads  as  much  by  day  as  by  night.  Porativoe  or  Nadene- 
pattoo  is  situated  on  the  south-west  shore  of  the  Batecalo  lake,  and 
contains  but  four  villages,  surrounded  with  paddy  fields  and  prodi- 
gious forests  of  excellent  timber  ;  the  village  of  Porativoe  is  almost 
composed  of  Mookwas,  but  in  the  neighbourhood  there  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  gold  and  silver  smiths.  The  temple,  sacred  to 
Skanda,  is  a  stone  building.  Nadene,  another  village,  was  formerly 
the  residence  of  a  Wanniya,  and  is  a  rendezvous  for  the  buffalo 
hunts  which  take  place  in  the  adjacent  forest.  It  has  a  small  temple 
sacred  to  Nayamar  (a  deity  peculiar  to  this  part  of  the  country),  and 

2  o  2 


564  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

the  buffalo  hunters1  make  an  annual  offering  at  his  shrine.  Palga- 
mam  is  remarkable  for  its  temple  sacred  to  the  five  Pandawa  heroes. 
An  annual  festival  of  ten  days  attracts  a  large  concourse  of  people, 
and  those  who  have  bound  themselves  by  vow,  walk  barefoot  over 
burning  coals.  The  Eroowil  pattoo  lies  at  the  south-west  end  of  the 
lake,  which  is  connected  with  its  southern  inlet  by  a  narrow  gut. 
Karrewahoo-pattoe  on  the  coast  is  fertile  and  populous,  and  produces 
paddy,  tobacco,  cocoa-nut,  palmyra,  sugar  cane  and  plantains.  Its 
pasture  lands  are  extensive,  and  cattle  are  plentiful.  There  are  still 
a  few  potters,  dyers,  and  weavers  of  cloth  here.  Sijampattoo,  or 
Sammantorre,  situate  at  the  south-end  of  the  lake,  is  sparsely  peopled, 
and  little  cultivated,  containing  nine  villages,  of  which  the  only  con- 
siderable one  is  that  from  which  it  derives  its  name  ;  Annamalle  (the 
Swan's  Hill)  has  a  water  communication  with  Batecalo  by  the  lake 
which  extends  thus  far. 

Akkarapattoo  stretches  along  the  south-east  coast  and  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Nadukadoo,  on  the  south  by  Panowa,  and  on  the  north 
by  Sammantorre.  It  is  about  16  miles  long  by  from  4  to  7  broad, 
and  contains  fourteen  villages,  in  many  of  which  a  large  quantity  of 
paddy  is  produced.  The  Navil-aar  a  considerable  stream  runs 
into  the  sea  in  this  pattoo  ;  its  waters  were  formerly  applied  to  the 
supply  of  a  large  number  of  tanks.  The  people  are  principally 
Malabars,  and  on  the  whole  industrious  and  peaceable.  From 
Wambimodoo  to  the  village  of  Trikoil  (Tiru,  holy,  and  kovil  or 
kowila,  temple),  situate  in  this  hundred,  and  lying  on  the  coast  is  six- 
teen miles.  On  the  land  side,  it  is  enclosed  by  thick  forests,  and 
has  a  large  Hindoo  temple,  sacred  to  Skanda,  the  god  of  war,  in 
which  are  delineated  all  the  lewd  and  exciting  sculptures  characteristic 
of  the  swamies  of  India.  If  the  traveller  be  a  sportsman  or  a  bota- 
nist, he  has  only  to  diverge  to  his  right  throughout  this  route,  to 
have  as  much  and  as  great  a  variety  of  shooting  or  scientific  amuse- 
ment, as  he  can  desire  ;  for  the  extensive  forests  for  which  this  part 
of  the  island  is  famous,  are  so  seldom  traversed  by  Europeans,  that 
the  wild  beast  reigns  supreme. 

Nadukadoo  pattoe  on  the  west,  though  containing  twenty-four  vil- 
lages, has  scarcely  more  than  half  that  number  inhabited.  It  has, 
however,  many  extensive  plains,  and  is  traversed  by  several  nullahs, 
which  it  is  difficult  to  cross  in  the  rainy  season.  The  magnificent 
wihare  and  dagobah,  at  Digganakhya,  were  situate  in  the  Nadukadoo 
pattoe,  and  were  erected  by  Saidatissa,  brother  of  Dootoogaimoo, 

l  The  mode  of  hunting  the  wild  hog  and  buffalo  in  Ceylon  is  remarkable  for 
its  simplicity  and  success.  The  huntsman  enters  the  plain  mounted  on  a  tame 
buffalo  trained  to  the  business,  whose  movements  he  directs  by  a  halter  fastened 
round  the  head ;  and  bending  his  body  so  that  the  pursued  animals  cannot  see 
him,  keeps  always  under  cover  on  the  off  side.  In  this  position  he  turns  and 
manoeuvres  the  buffalo  with  ease  and  rapidity  in  all  directions,  while  the  game, 
which  would  fly  if  it  perceived  a  man,  is  not  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  a  buffalo. 
Approaching  thus  within  a  small  distance,  the  hunter  takes  deliberate  aim  over 
its  back,  and  seldom  or  never  fails  of  success. 


CHAP.  I.]    KARIIEWITTE  —  NADENE — EKOOWIL — KARUEWAHOO.        5G5 

about  B.  c.  150,  while  governing  the  Roohoona  division.  They 
were  discovered  by  the  collector  of  the  district  of  Batecalo,  many 
years  ago,  in  the  centre  of  a  thick  forest.  The  size  of  the  wihare  is 
gigantic,  and  the  credulous  natives  maintain  that  it  was  erected  many 
thousand  years  ago,  by  giants  ten  cubits  tall.  The  cone  of  the  temple 
is  entirely  covered  with  brick  and  mortar ;  its  basis  is  almost  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  the  top  and  sides  are  now 
planted  with  large  trees,  that  have  fixed  their  roots  in  the  ruins,  and 
elevating  their  head  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  shade  this  little  hill. 
A  square  enclosure,  a  mile  in  circumference,  consisting  of  a  broad 
wall,  made  of  bricks  and  mortar,  and  having  within  it  a  number  of 
cells  surrounds  the  temple.  The  entrance  to  this  enclosure  is  through 
a  colonnade  of  stone  pillars,  about  ten  feet  high.  Near  the  temple 
arc  seen  the  ruins  of  another  large  building  of  the  same  materials, 
probably  the  dagobah  already  spoken  of.  The  natives,  however, 
report  that  it  was  the  palace  of  a  king,  erected  many  years  after  the 
other  buildings.  The  Diggaawewa  tank,  constructed  by  the  same 
prince,  whose  exact  locality  is  as  yet  undetermined,  was  probably  also 
in  this  neighbourhood. 

Between  Trikoil  and  Komarie,  a  stage  of  eleven  miles,  the  country 
begins  to  wear  a  more  cultivated  aspect ;  black  paddy,  yams,  maize, 
payro,  Natchenie  or  kurukkan  being  largely  grown,  and  plenty  of 
fish,  poultry,  eggs,  rice,  milk,  fruits  and  vegetables,  may  be  obtained 
at  moderate  prices  along  the  whole  of  the  coast.  From  Komarie  to 
Pativilla,  is  nine  miles,  from  thence  via  Arookgam  to  Panowa,  near 
which  the  Arookgam-aar  is  crossed  twice,  is  twelve  miles.  Arook- 
gam, situate  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  a  large  and  populous 
village,  and  was  a  military  post  under  the  Dutch. 

Panowa  (Panahe),  ranks  below  most  of  the  other  pattoos  in  popu- 
lation, containing  only  fourteen  small  villages,  and  the  whole  number 
of  the  inhabitants  does  not  exceed  800.  In  general  features,  it  has 
also  a  different  character  from  the  rest  of  the  pattoos  ;  for  instead  of 
the  uniform  flatness  by  which  they  are  distinguished,  there  is  a  suc- 
cession of  rocks  and  hills,  now  and  then  interrupted  by  extensive 
plains  and  thick  forests. 

From  Panowa  to  Oohundcmallc,1  where  there  is  a  tolerable  rest- 
house,  is  8£  miles  ;  to  the  village  of  Kombookan  is  12|  miles.  The 
Kombookan-aar,  so  called  from  the  innumerable  kombook  trees 
lining  its  banks,  has  its  source  in  the  Namina  Kooli  Kandi  range,  and 
falls  into  the  sea,  after  a  south-easterly  course  of  upwards  of  thirty- 
five  miles,  during  which  it  divides  the  Eastern  from  the  Southern 
province. 

The  interior  of  the  Southern  portion  of  the  Eastern  province,  con- 

1  At  Oohund-emalle  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  huge  granite  rocks  that  border  on 
iliis  road,  and  is  sanctified  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  by  a  legend  of  Hindoo  super- 
stition. On  the  summit  is  the  impression  of  a  god,  and  there  arc  several  small 
reservoirs.  On  the  various  platforms  are  several  rude  altars  for  the  reception  of 
offerings. 


5-66  CEYLON.  [part  IV, 

tains  the  country  known  as  Veddah  Ratte  and  Maha  Veddah  Ratte, 
which  is  very  inaccessible  in  consequence  of  its  impervious  jungles. 

Dembahagalle  or  Dimbulugalla,  called  by  sailors  the  Gunner's 
Quoin,  is  a  lofty  mountain,  rising  about  3000  feet  from  the  plains  ; 
opposite  to  the  spot  where  the  Amban-ganga  unites  with  the  Maha- 
velle ;  in  ail  probability  it  is  of  volcanic  formation.  Its  summit  is 
constantly  veiled  in  clouds,  but  in  clear  weather,  a  most  splendid 
view  of  tbe  country  may  be  obtained,  comprising  the  Cbapel  Point 
at  Trhicomalee,  the  lake  of  Batecalo,  the  hills  beyond  Mennairia, 
and  the  Kandian  mountains.  About  fifteen  miles  to  the  east,  is  a 
spring,  which  rises  three  or  four  feet  above  ground,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  cauldron  twenty-five  yards  in  diameter,  consisting  of  soft  mud, 
from  which  issue  a  warm  and  a  cold  stream. 

The  district  of  Binteune  (called  also  Vintana by  Valentyn),  is  situate 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga ;  and  probably  contains 
a  population  of  from  eight  to  nine  thousand  souls.  Its  village  of  the 
same  name  which  lies  about  thirty-five  miles  from  Kandy,  and  is  the 
centre  from  which  several  roads  radiate,  was  once  a  royal  residence  ; 
and  when  Spilbergen  passed  through  it  on  his  way  to  Kandy,  he  is 
said  to  have  found  several  handsome  temples  and  a  monastery.  Near 
the  village,  was  Mahawelligam,  the  Yakka  capital,  which  is  said  by 
Forbes,  to  have  occupied  a  space  twelve  miles  in  length,  by  eight  in 
breadth,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  In  this  town  was 
built  theMyungana  dagobah,  which  enclosed  a  golden  casket,  containing 
a  portion  of  Gautama's  hair,  cut  off  when  he  became  a  Buddha.  To 
the  dagobah,  originally  built  by  the  chief  of  the  converted  Yakkas, 
was  afterwards  added  the  griwa  (neck  bone)  relic,  and  it  was 
enlarged  to  the  height  of  twelve  cubits.  The  King  Khula  Bhya 
raised  it  to  thirty  cubits,  and  Dootoogaimoonoo  to  ninety  cubits. 
Near  Binteune,  are  the  remains  of  a  large  tank  six  or  eight  miles  in 
circumference,  supplied  by  one  of  the  numerous  rivulets  branching 
from  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  Bintenne  suffers  much  from  long 
droughts,  and  the  temperature  is  excessively  high.  Much  sickness 
prevails  at  certain  seasons,  whence  it  was  used  by  the  Kandian  king 
as  a  place  of  banishment  for  criminals.  At  Himberewe  where  it 
approximates  nearer  to  the  mountain  ranges,  the  temperature  is  much 
cooler  than  at  Bintenne  ;  the  soil  is  there  also  excellent,  and  the 
people  have  extensive  gardens  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  in  which 
tobacco,  maize,  kurukkan,  and  almost  every  sort  of  vegetable  flourish. 
The  indigenous  grasses  are  here  of  the  most  luxuriant  description, 
and  though  large  herds  of  cattle  are  possessed  by  the  natives,  they  are 
insufficient  to  restrain  its  exuberance.  Higher  up  the  river  towards 
Bintenne,  is  Kindegodde  a  large  Moorish  village;  the  land  is  watered 
by  small  streams  from  the  hills  and  produces  dry  grain  and  paddy. 

The  village  of  Pangragam  lies  within  the  angle  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Gallagedda-oya,  and  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  At  Alli- 
gam,  higher  up  the  river,  are  the  remains  of  a  canal  cut  by  a  Kan- 


CHAP.    I.]      DINTENNE — REPORT    ON    THE    MAIIAVELLE-GANGA .       5G7 

dian  monarch,  its  bed  is  from  eighty  to  ninety  feet  above  the  river.1 
It  commences  at  a  small  cataract  eight  miles  above  Pangragam,  runs 

l  The   following  abstract,    condensed  from   the  report   of  Mr.  Brooke,  who 
ascended  the  river  from  its  outlet  near  Kotti-aar  to  Kandy,  a  distance  of  about  150 
miles,  is  the  more  valuable  and  deserving  of  consideration  at  this  moment,  in 
consequence  of  the  inability  of  the  Ceylon  Railway  Company  to  proceed  further 
than  Kandy  with  their  line  ;  if  indeed  they  reach  that  place  for  the  next  three  years. 
"  The  Virgal  ganga,   though    the  smaller  branch,  is  the  chief  outlet  of  the 
Mahavelle  to  the  sea,  except  in  January  and  during  the   freshes.     The  Kotti-aar 
above  Goorookel-ganga  is  in  several  parts  not  more  than  a  few  inches  in  depth,  and 
in  many  places  is  quite  dry,  and  up  to  Kooranjemoone,  where  it  unites  with  the 
Virgal,  it  has  very  little  water.  At  that  place  the  breadth  of  its  bed  varies  from  120 
to  140  yards.    The  banks  are  in  excellent  condition,  and  the  bed  consists  of  deep 
sand,  which  rises  higher  and  higher  as  you  approach  Kooranjemoone,  until  it  be- 
comes, in  some  places,  level  with  the  banks,  and  evidently  continues  to  increase. 
There  is  not  a  village,  nor,  except  at  Goorookel-ganga,  even  a  house  on  the  banks 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  that  place.  When  this  branch  of  the  river  is  navigable, 
the  natives  avail  themselves  of  the   opportunity  of  conveying  their  grain  to  the 
neighbouring  ports.     At  Kooranjemoone,  the  Mahavelle  turns  off  at  a  very  acute 
angle,  at  the  apex  of  which  it  pours  its  waters  into  the  Virgal.     The  Malabars 
who  possess  a  large  Gentoo  temple  on  the  banks  of  the   Virgal,  were  assembled 
many  years  ago  by  their  priests  to  widen  and  deepen  this  branch  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  a  greater  supply  of  water  to  irrigate  the  paddy  lands  belonging  to 
the  temple.     This  was  easily  accomplished,   the  current  being  naturally  directed 
into  this  channel.     Since  then  it  has  been  considerably  enlarged.    Still  the  breadth 
of  the  Virgal  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  Mahavelle,  and  from  this  circumstance, 
the  current  runs  with  great  impetuosity.     The  natives  raft  considerable  quantities 
of  timber  up  the  Kotti-aar  branch   in  January  and  during  the  rains,  and  when 
they  arrive  at  the  junction  of  the  two  branches,  so  great  is  the  impetuosity  with 
which  the  stream  rushes  into  the  Virgal,  that  it  becomes  exceedingly   difficult 
and  dangerous  to  gain  the  Kotti-aar,  for  should  the  rafts  come  within  the  influence 
of  the  current,  they  are  hurried  down  the  Virgal  to  the  sea,  and  the  people  are 
obliged  to  abandon  them,  and  swim  ashore.     In  this  way,  many  rafts  have  been 
annually  lost.     The  river  at  the  junction  turning  off  at  an  angle,  and  the  Virgal 
branching  off  from  the  apex,  the  current  is  naturally  directed  to  it. 

"To  turn  the  stream  round  this  angle  by  damming  up  the  Virgal,  would  be  next 
to  impossible,  for  the  water  at  the  entrance  of  the  Virgal  is  even  when  low,  ten 
feet  deep,  and  the  bed  or  the  Kotti-aar  immediately  below  the  junction,  is  five 
feet  above  the  water.  The  river  during  the  rains,  rises  ten  or  twelve  feet,  at  which 
time  the  stream  at  the  entrance  of  the  Virgal  is  so  strong  and  deep,  as  to  render 
it  impossible  to  throw  a  dam  across  it,  in  order  to  force  the  water  round  the 
angle.  But  about  700  yards  above  the  junction,  there  is  a  channel  twenty  or 
thirty  yards  broad,  which  unites  with  the  original  bed  again  below.  Were  this 
enlarged,  and  the  river  immediately  below  its  entrance  dammed  up,  the  stream 
would  be  forced  through  the  channel,  towards  Trincomalee.  But  the  dam  should 
be  very  firmly  constructed,  on  account  of  the  current  during  the  freshes. 

"  Another  mode  of  effecting  this  object  would  be  by  turning  the  stream  into  the 
Damban-aar,  which  branches  off  from  the  left  side  of  the  river,  about  a  thousand 
yards  above  Kooranjemoone,  and  unites  with  it  again  about  five  hundred  yards 
above  Goorookel-ganga,  from  which  place  to  the  mouth  there  is  no  fresh  w7ater. 
This  stream  from  its  commencement,  varies  in  breadth  from  forty  to  seventy 
yards,  it  then  turns  off  at  a  right  angle,  and  flows  through  a  narrow  rocky 
channel,  twelve  yards  broad,  and  sixty  long.  The  rocks  consist  only  of  sandstone, 
and  therefore  may  be  easily  removed.  Still  further  up,  the  stream  runs  without 
interruption,  until  it  branches  off  from  the  river,  above  Kooranjemoone,  and 
thus  cuts  oft'  both  the  angle  at  the  junction  and  the  dry  bed  of  the  river  between 
Kooranjemoone  and  Goorookel-ganga.  Several  insulated  sand  banks  occur  in  the 
middle  of  the  river  in  various  parts,  and  alligators  abound  every  where. 


568  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

by  the  side  of  a  long  hill  and  after  skirting  extensive  paddy  plains 
falls  into  the  river  opposite  to  Pangragam.     From  being  so  long 

"  From  Kooranjemoone  to  threeniiles  below  Pereatory, a  distance  of  twenty-seven 
miles,  the  river  varies  in  breadth  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  forty  yards,  and 
from  four  to  seven  feet  in  depth.  It  is.  very  winding,  and  was  low  when  Mr. 
Brooke  surveyed  it.  At  Kooranjemoone,  it  rises  during  the  freshes  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet,  here  from  twelve  to  fifteen.  In  some  places  it  overflows  its  banks 
three  or  four  feet,  but  this  inundation  is  short  in  duration,  and  in  January  and 
August.  At  the  sudden  turns  of  the  river,  sand  is  collected  in  banks  three  or 
four  feet  above  low  water,  but  covered  at  the  rise,  and  must  be  removed  to 
admit  boats.  Were  the  impediments  removed  at  Kooranjemoone,  the  force  of 
the  steam  would  perhaps  gradually  destroy  these  banks.  Besides  this  impedi- 
ment, there  is  another,  rendering  the  navigation  difficult  and  dangerous,  viz., 
dead  trees,  which  have  hung  for  many  years  in  the  river,  attached  by  their  roots 
to  the  bank.  Perhaps  this  is  one  cause  which  prevents  the  sand  from  drifting 
down.     In  the  wider  parts  of  the  river,  the  stream  runs  two  miles  an  hour. 

"  At  Pereatory,  the  river  suddenly  becomes  broad  and  shallow,  and  separates 
into  two  branches ;  the  right  is  called  the  Peerear-ganga ;  the  left,  the  Chena- 
ganga.  The  latter  is  from  ninety  to  110  yards  broad.  It  unites  with  the 
Adamban-aar,  and  its  bed  is  dry,  consisting  of  deep  sand.  It  would  be  possible 
to  turn  the  river  into  this  channel,  as,  at  its  separation,  it  is  very  shallow.  A  little 
below  Pereatory,  the  natives  have  thrown  a  dam  obliquely  across  the  river,  in 
order  to  turn  the  stream  into  a  large  canal. 

"  The  Ambanganga  joins  the  Mahavelle  five  miles  above  Pereatory.  At  Kalinga, 
twenty-fonr  miles  above  Pereatory,  the  river  varies  in  breadth  from  250  to  500 
yards,  and  in  some  places  is  not  more  than  one  foot  deep.  The  banks  are  in 
good  order,  but  are  overflowed  during  the  freshes,  which  is  attributable  to  the 
insufficiency  of  the  Virgal  as  an  outlet.  The  plains  on  each  side  of  the  Amban- 
ganga are  very  extensive,  and  are  irrigated  by  means  of  water  courses,  supplied 
by  the  superabundant  water  of  the  river,  which  overflows  its  banks. 

"  At  Kalinga  the  river  for  about  a  mile  is  exceedingly  rocky  ;  reefs  of  rocks  in 
some  places  running  from  bank  to  bank,  forming  waterfalls  over  which  the  stream 
runs  impetuously.  Some  of  these  falls  are  twelve  feet  in  the  mile.  Above  Kalinga, 
it  continues  more  or  less  rocky,  the  reefs  running  across  and  causing  falls  of 
about  two  feet.  The  rocks  extend  fourteen  miles,  and  are  generally  from  one  to 
two  and  three  feet  above  the  water  when  low,  but  are  covered  at  the  rise,  and  have 
a  deep  channel  running  between  them.  The  breadth  of*he  river  here  varies  from 
150  to  200  yards.  The  banks  are  high,  but  there  are  numerous  gaps  cut  through 
them  in  order  to  allow  the  water  a  passage  into  the  numerous  rivulets  and  canals, 
which  extend  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior.  Higher  up  is  the  bed  of  a 
large  river,  which  enters  the  Mahavelle  on  the  right  side.  Its  bed  is  from  fifty 
to  sixty  yards  wide.     It  rises  probably  south-west  of  Batecalo. 

"  At  Kindegodde, eighteen  miles  from  the  termination  of  the  rocks  above  Kalinga, 
the  river  varies  from  180  to  250  yards  in  breadth,  sometimes  extending  into  reaches 
or  bays.  The  water  here  is  shallow,  and  trees  overhang  the  river  so  low,  as  to 
prevent  the  passage  of  a  boat.  The  banks  are  good  and  high,  and  not  overflowed. 
The  rise  of  the  water  during  the  freshes  is  from  twenty  to  twenty- five  feet.  At 
Bintenne  five  and  a  half  miles  further,  the  river  is  from  110  to  200  yards  broad, 
and  for  the  first  three  miles  is  very  rocky.  At  Pangragam  on  the  right  side  of  the 
river  above  Bintenne,  it  is  rocky,  and  in  some  places  there  are  waterfalls  of  three 
to  four  feet  high. 

"  At  Rattambe  the  Ooma-oya  unites  with  the  Mahavelle,  and  both  fall  into  a 
natural  basin  formed  in  some  perpendicular  rocks  which  rise  forty  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  Besides  the  principal  fall,  which  is  sixteen  feet  high,  there 
are  several  smaller  falls  ten  or  twelve  feet  high.  The  rocks  forming  the  basin  are 
four  or  five  feet  under  water,  so  that  the  rise  here  is  about  fifty-four  feet.  Half  a  mile 
above  Rattambe  is  the  Bombee-oya,  which  enters  the  Mahavelle  on  the  left  side. 


CHAP.    I.]       DISTRICT    OF    WELASSE —  SOUTHERN    PROVINCE.  560 

neglected,  it  is  now  of  little  use,  and  scarcely  exceeds  nine  feet  in 
width  and  one  in  depth,  with  a  slow  current. 

The  district  of  Welasse  is  bounded  on  the  north*  by  Bintenne,  east 
by  Maha  Veddah  Ratte,  west  by  the  district  of  Wiyaloowa,  in  the 
Central  province,  and  south  by  Upper  and  Lower  Ouva.  It  is  com- 
paratively low  ground,  almost  plain,  bounded  by  hills,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  open  tracts  and  jungles,  infested  by  elephants,  wild  hogs, 
and  deer.  In  consequence  of  the  droughts  to  which  it  is  subject, 
the  climate  is  very  unwholesome,  and  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year, 
commencing  in  June,  and  ending  in  October,  during  which  the  wind 
is  generally  N.W.,  endemic  fever  prevails,  which  sometimes  carries 
off  large  numbers  of  people.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  Moor- 
men, and  very  industrious,  raise  two  crops  of  paddy,  and  two  of  fine 
grain  in  a  year,  but  the  cultivation  though  on  the  increase,  is  com- 
paratively small.  The  pasturage  of  the  district  is  however  very  abun- 
dant, and  the  people  who  have  considerable  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks 
of  goats,  are  in  easy  circumstances.  Kotabowa,  the  principal  village 
is  inhabited  by  Moormen,  and  was  formerly  the  chief  military  station 
of  the  district.  The  post  was  surrounded  by  a  low  breast  work 
with  a  ditch  inside  :  about  a  mile  from  the  village  is  a  steep  rocky 
hill,  which  affords  a  fine  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  From  it 
Namina  Kooli  Kandi  and  the  Hoonisgiri  range  in  Doombera,  are  very 
conspicuous.  Very  many  hills  in  the  direction  of  Batecalo  are  also  seen. 

From  Kottabowa  to  Battagammana  in  the  Maha  Veddah  Ratte 
is  about  twenty  miles,  the  intervening  country  has  a  rather  agreeable 
appearance,  consisting  of  open  grass  plains,  and  extensive  paddy 
fields,  interspersed  with  jungle. 

The  superficies  of  the  Eastern  province,  is  ^4,895  miles,  and  the 
total  population  which  was  73,303  in  1843,  may  be  estimated  at  the 
current  rate  of  increase  at  80,850. 

The  Southern  province  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  sea ;  on  the 
west  and  north-west  by  the  Western  province  ;  on  the  north-east  by 
tin'  Eastern  province ;  on  the  north  by  the  Central  province,  from 
which  it  is  divided  by  a  triangular  line,  extending  a  little  to  the 
north-east  of  Badulla,  and  from  thence,  in  a  southerly  direction 
towards  Pedrotallagalla  and  Nuwera  Elliya,  whence  it  proceeds  in  a 

"  Were  then  the  obstructions  at  Kooranjemoone  and  Goorookel  removed,  the 
impediments  in  other  parts  of  the  river,  consisting  principally  of  sand,  would  be 
cleared  by  the  mere  increase  of  the  current,  and  thus  render  the  river  capable  of 
being  navigated  by  the  largest  boats,  at  least  as  far  as  Kalinga,  or  eighty  miles 
from  the  mouth,  where  it  becomes  rocky,  and  even  then  these  rocky  parts 
might  be  avoided  by  opening  a  stream  which  branches  off  from  the  left  side  of 
the  river  immediately  above  Kalinga,  and  enters  it  again  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  below.  But  even  the  rocky  parts  of  the  river  may  be  rendered  navigable, 
as  they  are  of  so  soft  a  nature,  as  to  be  easily  broken  by  a  sledge  hammer,  or 
blasted.  Should  this  ever  be  deemed  advisable,  it  would  be  necessary  to  clear 
only  one  side  of  the  river  to  the  breadth  of  forty  yards;  a  tracking  path  should 
also  be  cleared  mi  the  bank.  The  expense  and  difficulty  would  not  be  great. 
But  in  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  as  to  the  practicability  of  rendering  the  river 
able  throughout  the  year,  an  intelligent  person  should  reside  at  some 
convenient  spot,  where  he  would  be  enabled  to  examine  it  at  various  periods." 


570  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

northerly  direction  at  some  distance  to  the  north  of  Adam's  Peak, 
and  terminates  on  the  confines  of  Lower  Bulatgamme. 

Ouva  or  Uwa,  \*hich  is  divided  into  the  two  districts  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Ouva,1  which  are  known  to  the  natives  as  Oudakinda,  the 
upper;  Meddakinda,  the  middle;  and  Yattikinda,  the  lower  divisions, 
and  subdivided  into  many  korles  or  pattoos,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  valuable  portions  of  the  Southern  province.  Upper  Ouva 
forms  a  part  of  the  mountain  zone ;  Lower  Ouva,  the  hilly  region, 
extending  towards  the  Mahagampattoo  ;  and  they  are  separated  from 
Saffragam  by  the  Goorakondera-oya.  United,  they  include  an  area 
of  4114  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  more  than  30,000. 

The  natural  features  of  Upper  Ouva,  are  varied  and  magnificent, 
— now  covered  with  vast  forests,  — now  displaying  the  sublimest  moun- 
tain scenery, — now  wide  extending  plains.  Those  of  Lower  Ouva  are 
widely  different,  and  though  equally  remarkable  for  its  forests,  it  is 
diversified  with  flat  and  undulating  country.  The  climate  of  Upper 
Ouva  is  very  salubrious,  well  adapted  to  the  European  constitution, 
and  the  soil  is  so  well  fitted  for  agricultural  purposes,  that  wheat 
could  be  raised  in  any  quantity  with  little  difficulty,  and  it  produces 
some  of  the  finest  coffee  in  the  island.  It  is  remarkable  also  for  its 
large  breed  of  cattle,  which,  according  to  Knox,  "when  carried  to 
other  parts  of  the  island,  would  commonly  die,  and  the  reason  thereof 
no  man  could  tell."  This  mortality,  doubtless,  arose  from  the 
difference  of  pasture,  that  of  Ouva  being  peculiarly  rich  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  The  district  is  capable  of  supporting  an  almost  inde- 
finite number  of  cattle,  and  the  only  precaution  that  would  be  required, 
is  the  provision  of  fodder  for  the  short  seasons,  when  its  surface  is 
exposed  to  the  parching  influence  of  a  tropical  sun  and  bleak  winds. 

Badulla  is  the  principal  station  in  Upper  Ouva,  and  the  seat  of 
the  assistant  Government  agent,  district  judge,  and  the  head-quarters 
of  the  officer  in  command  of  the  district.  It  is  situate  on  a  gently 
rising  ground,  2107  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  an  extensive 
and  beautiful  valley,  terminated  by  an  amphitheatre  of  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  watered  by  the  Badulla-oya,  which  almost  encircles  it. 
The  fort,  which  has  but  slight  pretensions  to  size  or  strength,  and 
formerly  contained  within  it  the  royal  palace,  is  built  in  the  form  of 
a  star,  and  has  an  extensive  cantonment  attached  to  it.  There  is 
here  a  temple  dedicated  to  Kattragamma  Deio,  and  a  Buddhist  wihare, 
with  a  dagobah  attached  to  it,  which  were  built  by  Makalan-Detoo- 
tissa  in  the  third  century.  This  dagobah  is  from  forty  to  fifty  feet 
high,  and  rises  within  a  double  enclosure,  skilfully  constructed  of 
brick.  Nothing  reposes  on  the  foundation  below,  except  this  great 
cirevdar  dome,  which  is  as  smooth  as  the  globe  of  some  huge  lamp. 
Everything  is  grey  with  age,  yet  in  the  coating  of  plaster  that  covers 

1  Upper  Ouva  has  one  striking  geographical  peculiarity  in  its  undulating  sur- 
face of  hills  and  valleys,  rounded  and  smoothed  as  equably  as  if.  instead  of  primitive 
rock,  they  consisted  of  chalk  or  clay.  This  is  accounted  for  by  Dr.  Davy,  from  the 
similarity  in  quality  of  the  rock,  and  its  undergoing  rapid  decomposition  and 
disintegration  from  the  action  of  air  and  water. 


CHAP.    I.]  UPPER    AND    LOWER    OUVA  — BADULLA.  571 

the  whole,  traces  of  figures  of  volutes  and  arabesque  devices  are  here 
and  there  discernible.  The  summit  appears  to  have  been  of  old  com- 
pletely gilded,  and  the  base  elegantly  and  finely  fluted,  but  there  is 
not  a  window  or  door,  except  underground,  to  this  mysterious  edifice. 

Badulla  is  a  tolerably  large  and  very  neat  village,  consisting  of  two 
broad  streets  which  cross"  each  other,  and  seem  to  stand  in  the  midst 
of  a  pleasant  garden.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of  one  story,  built  of 
bamboo,  and  covered  with  the  leaves  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree.  Each 
house  has  in  general  but  three  walls,  the  fourth  side  being  open,  and 
serving  at  once  for  door,  window,  and  shop.  At  the  extremity  of 
one  of  the  streets,  a  most  enchanting  landscape  opens  upon  the  view  ; 
of  which  the  lofty  mountain  of  Namina  Kooli  Kandi  in  the  back- 
ground, a  glorious  forest  of  tall  cocoa-nut  and  jack-fruit  trees,  areka 
and  palmyra  palms,  the  underwood  beneath  the  thick  shade  of  their 
thick  bowering  foliage,  consisting  of  various  blossoming  shrubs  with 
lovely  flowers  breathing  a  celestial  perfume,  are  the  leading  features. 
On  the  road  outside  the  village,  appears  here  and  there  a  small 
cottage  between  the  trees,  in  which  the  beautiful  and  fragrant  yellow 
fruit  of  the  banana  may  be  seen  offered  for  sale  ;  and  goats,  not 
unlike  fawns  in  their  appearance,  running  about  on  every  side  amid 
groups  of  young  children. 

Badulla  was  once  the  seat  of  a  principality,  and  under  the  trium- 
virate, which  ensued  after  the  death  of  Senerat,  Koomara  Singha 
Hastana  made  it  his  residence.  In  the  time  of  Knox,  it  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  island,  but  its  palace  was  then 
already  in  ruins  ;  the  Portuguese  in  their  incursions  having  surprised 
and  burnt  it. 

The  fertile  valley  of  Badulla,  intersected  by  numerous  artificial 
canals  from  the  mountain  streams,  is  formed  into  rice  fields,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  elevated  spots,  which  tufted  with  cocoa-nut  trees, 
look  like  islands  of  palms  in  a  sea  of  verdure  ;  the  largest  of  these  is 
occupied  by  the  fort  and  village. 

Namina-cooli  Kandi  is  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in  Ceylon, 
being  4000  feet  above  the  plain,  and  6/00  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  massive  grandeur.  The  track,  which  at  first  is 
through  a  gentle  ascent,  about  three  miles  from  Badulla,  is  covered 
with  guavo-jungle,  and  infested  with  leeches,  but  it  soon  runs  over 
very  irregular  and  steep  ground,  which  would  have  been  inaccessible, 
had  it  been  bare.  Still  higher,  the  side  of  the  mountain  is  without 
wood,  and  covered  with  lemon-grass,  and  higher  still,  the  ascent  lies 
over  immense  masses  of  bare  rock  ;  above  this  rocky  region  to  its 
very  summit,  the  mountain  is  covered  with  thick  wood,  through 
which  the  way  is  bewildering,  from  the  many  tracks  of  wild  animals. 
The  top  is  almost  table  land,  gently  sloping  on  every  side,  and  many 
acres  in  extent :  it  is  without  rock,  its  surface  and  soil  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  friable,  and  as  it  were,  disintegrating  quartz,  and 
quarts;  gravel  in  some  places,  discoloured  by  black  mould,  in]  others 
as  white  as  snow,  with  pieces  of  ironstone  here  and  there  intermixed. 


572  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

The  vegetation  is  peculiar,  and  very  different  from  that  in  the  forest 
helow :  it  heing  composed  of  low  trees  and  bushes,  which  grow  in 
clumps,  separated  from  each  other  by  little  open  spaces,  either  of 
white  gravel  or  of  dark  soil,  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens.  The 
plants,  though  apparently  dwarfish  and  stunted,  as  if  they  had 
struggled  for  life  with  the  elements,  look  fresh  and  healthy.  By 
climbing  a  rhododendron,  here  in  abundance,  a  fine  prospect  of  the 
surrounding  country  may  generally  be  obtained.  The  valley  of 
Badulla,  in  miniature,  appears  at  a  great  depth  below  like  a  circular 
basin,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  several  valleys  at  their  place  of 
junction,  and  flanked  by  a  double  row  of  hills  of  very  unequal  heights. 

On  the  occurrence  of  a  long  drought,  the  Kappurales  of  the  Kattra- 
gamma  temple,  ascend  the  mountain,  and  with  a  leaf  of  a  particular 
kind,  throw  water,  to  the  sound  of  tom-toms,  from  the  deepest  pit 
into  the  air,  and  scatter  it  over  the  people  as  an  offering  to  their  God. 
They  then  descend,  confident  of  having  a  fall  of  rain  before  they  are 
half-way  down,  and  every  native  has  a  thorough  conviction  of  the 
infallibility  of  the  ceremony  in  producing  the  effect.  This  is  but 
another  instance  of  the  credulity  of  the  natives,  into  whose  mind  it 
never  seems  to  enter  that  the  priests  never  ascend  the  mountain  till 
they  have  clear  signs  of  an  approaching  change  of  weather.  The 
thermometer  in  the  middle  of  the  day  ranges  from  65°  to  73°  on  the 
summit  of  Namina  Kooli  Kandi. 

The  country  surrounding  Badulla,  gives  proofs  of  having  been 
once  densely  peopled,  and  the  state  of  desolation  which  it  wore  for 
some  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  British,  was  the  result  of  the  never- 
ending  warfare  in  which  it  had  involuntarily  participated.  It  now 
bids  fair  to  regain  its  former  standard  of  fertility. 

It  is  connected  by  roads  with  Batecalo,  Hambantotte  (98  miles), 
and  Colombo  (138  miles),  Galle,  &c.  &c.  and  by  three  different  routes 
with  Kandy,  from  which  it  is  5 1  miles  distant  by  the  Walapanne  route, 
and  59  miles  by  the  banks  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  The  country  be- 
tween Badulla  and  Kandy  is  intersected  by  eight  rivers,  besides  minor 
streams,  and  the  direct  route  lies  through  Taldenia  9f  miles  ;  Vella- 
oya,  9  miles  ;  Ooma-oya,  6  J  miles  ;  Kooroondu-oya,  5f  miles  ;  Bella- 
hool-oya,  4f  miles  ;  Gonegamma,  3|  miles  ;  Maha-oya,  3|  miles  ; 
Harrackgamme-oya,  2  miles  ;  Koondasala  ferry,  5 £  miles ;  Kandy, 
3f  miles,  the  whole  road  is  good,  and  gradually  descending  from  the 
mountainous  to  the  hilly. 

The  path  between  Badulla  and  Gampaha,  a  small  district,  forming 
part  of  the  romantic  valley  of  the  Ooma-oya,  lies  up  an  abrupt 
ascent,  and  then  passes  along  the  sides  of  the  Narangalla  mountain, 
from  thence  there  is  a  magnificent  view  over  the  whole  valley  of 
Badulla,  which  appears,  except  at  one  narrow  outlet,  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  hills  ;  it  then  descends  for  several  miles,  crosses  by  a 
ford  the  rapid  stream  of  the  Ooma-oya,  near  Toopittia,  and  traverses 
an  open  grazing  country. 

The  road  from  Badulla  through  Upper  Ouva,  is  carried  over  steep 


CIIA1'.  I.]   NAMINA  KOOLE  KANDI IIAKOALLA HORTON   PLAINS.  573 

hills,  and  leads  past  the  military  post  of  Himbleatawelle,  situated  on 
the  summit  of  a  bleak  hill,  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This 
post  is  particularly  useful  for  the  purposes  of  communication,  most 
of  the  other  posts  of  Ouva,  during  the  rebellion,  were  visible  from  it. 
The  view  from  this  station  is  very  extensive ;  the  nearest  features 
of  the  scenery  being  the  innumerable  green  hills  of  Ouva,  with  here 
and  there  a  copse  m  the  sheltered  recesses,  extensive  plains  dotted 
with  stunted  trees,  the  bottom  of  steep  and  very  narrow  valleys 
terraced  into  rice  grounds,  and,  except  in  the  direction  of  Veddah- 
ratte,  and  Bintenne,  over  which  the  eye  may  wander  until  the  outline 
of  objects  fades  into  distance,  the  scene  has  a  continued  boundary 
of  mountains,  including  those  of  Doombera  on  the  north.  The 
extent  of  pasture  land  in  Ouva  is  very  great,  and  the  number  of 
cattle  grazing  on  it,  still  unproportioned  to  the  extent,  though  bleak 
^iiids  and  a  scorching  sun  will  wither  the  herbage  in  the  dry  season, 
and  render  the  pasture  scarce.  Towards  the  autumn,  Upper  Ouva, 
and  indeed,  the  whole  of  the  mountain  zone  in  its  vicinity,  frequently 
present  a  miserable  aspect ;  the  season  preceding  has  been,  perhaps, 
dry,  the  winds  have  done  their  work,  and  the  natives  have  set  fire 
to  the  dry  grass  to  improve  the  pasture,  or  to  the  upland  jungle  for 
the  purpose  of  cultivating  grains  that  do  not  require  irrigation. 

Between  Himbleatawelle  and  Fort  M 'Donald  the  course  of  the 
Ooma-oya  is  continued  through  the  valley  of  Parncgamme :  the 
stream  has  the  same  impetuous  character,  and  its  banks  retain  the 
same  wild  and  rugged  scenery  as  in  the  downward  course  through 
Gampaha. 

The  rocks  of  Hakgalla,  and  the  pleasure  grounds  of  Rawana  have 
been  described  in  another  place  ;  it  is  a  region  varying  from  five  to 
seven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  After  passing  through 
a  swampy  jungle,  and  turning  round  the  northern  eftd  of  Hakgalla 
mountain,  an  open  valley,  fringed* with  barberry  bushes,  and  diversified 
by  groups  and  single  trees  of  the  superb  rhododendron  arboreum 
succeeds :  the  dell  is  surrounded  by  hoary  forests,  whose  rich  but 
sombre  colouring  is  unable  to  remove  that  sullen  gloom  which  shade 
and  indescribable  stillness  throws  over  the  scene  between  Hakgalla 
and  the  massive  Pedro.  This  is  the  Seeta  Talawa  elsewhere 
described. 

The  most  elevated  table  land  in  Ceylon  are  the  open  plains 
extending  between  the  Totapela  range  and  the  mountains  which 
overhang  Sanragam.  This  region  was  called  Horton  Plains,  in 
compliment  to  Sir  Wilmot  Horton,  then  Governor  of  Ceylon,  by 
the  two  European  officers  who  first  penetrated  into  this  tract  of 
country.  For  the  first  seven  miles,  the  path  lies  through  a  close 
forest  of  low  sized  trees,  with  thick  set  gnarled  branches,  the  whole 
space  between  their  stems  being  occupied  by  the  ugly  and  unvarying 
nelu  plant :  the  next  six  miles  of  the  route  is  over  an  open  undu- 
lating country,  with  a  soil  like  peat  moss,  and  covered  with  coarse 
grass,  through  which  numerous  small  streams,  which  are  the  sources 


5/4  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

of  the  Mahavelle-ganga,  traverse.  A  damp  hoary  forest,  so  densely 
shaded  by  the  overhanging  foliage  that  the  few  rays  of  light  which 
penetrate  through  the  moss  clad  branches,  appear  unnaturally  bright, 
and  seem  to  descend  with  an  intensity,  that  falling  upon  the  yellow 
leaf  of  the  broad  fern,  produce  a  gleam  so  brilliant  as  to  contrast 
yet  more  strongly  with  the  gloomy  jungle  around.  After  a  steep 
ascent  of  two  miles,  the  wood  is  passed,  and  the'IIorton  Plains  are 
reached.  These  extend  for  eight  or  ten  miles,  have  a  perimeter  of 
about  twenty-five  miles,  and  are  covered  with  coarse  yellow  grass, 
except  in  those  places  where  the  bright  green  of  dwarf  bamboos 
shew  the  course  of  the  rills  winding  through  the  open  space,  which 
appears  radiant  with  light,  as  contrasted  with  the  sombre  woods  that 
encompass  the  plain  or  the  dark  thickets  which  are  scattered  on 
its  surface,  and  extend  through  its  valleys. 

The  mountains  of  Lunugalla  and  Suduhugalla,  7800  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  rise  from  this  table  land,  and  serve  to  relieve  the 
monotony  of  a  forest  bound  horizon.  This  tract  is  seldom  visited 
by  the  natives  on  hunting  excursions,  and  is  known  to  them  as  the 
Maha-ellia,  (the  great  common  or  clear  space)  a  portion  of  it  is  called 
the  Wilman-talawa,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjoining  country  are 
a  race  of  mountaineers,  whose  hardy  habits  and  capabilities  of 
enduring  intense  cold,  distinguish,  and  in  some  degree,  separate 
them  from  their  fellow  countrymen  of  the  other  parts  of  the  island. 

"In  these  vast  jungle  solitudes,"  says  Forbes,  "on  every  twig, 
round  every  tree,  the  stilly .  damp  of  ages  has  twined  a  mossy 
verdure :  from  its  slender  filament  on  the  young  shoots,  slight 
texture  on  the  smaller  branches,  and  heavy  folds  enveloping  the 
parent  stem  of  forest  patriarchs,  we  learn  how  time,  undisturbed  by 
tempest,  has  woven  the  solemn  drapery  of  this  silent  region,  where 
the  very  shadows  of  the  clouds  seem  to  steal  after  each  other 
slowly,  silently,  one  could  almost  fancy  at  measured  distances.  The 
mouldering  rocks,  moss-clad  forests,  and  solitary  plains,  offer  so  few 
signs  of  animated  nature,  that  the  notes  of  a  small  bird  seem  a 
relief  from  universal  stillness,  and  the  occasional  rise  of  snipe  become 
absolutely  startling."  On  tie  green  banks  of  a  rill  on  the  slope  of 
the  Totapela  mountain,  that  officer  discovered  an  echo  "  which 
hurried  forth  from  every  copse  and  winding  glade  in'  these,  the 
farthest  bounds  of  Rawana's  forest  labyrinth."  As  evening  ap- 
proaches, the  mists  creep  up  the  glen,  then  expand  over  the  forests, 
till  darkness  closes  the  day  of  universal  stillness  in  this  domain  of 
primeval  nature.  Solitude  is  insufficient  to  convey  an  idea  of  the 
feeling  of  loneliness  inspired  by  this  place.  In  one  part  of  the 
Horton  Plains  run  the  several  streams  that  form  the  Bilhool-oya, 
which,  in  a  later  part  of  its  course  through  Saffragam,  and  along 
the  flats  of  the  Tangalle  district,  receives  the  name  of  the  Walawe 
river,  and  after  a  course  of  sixty  miles,  reaches,  although  it  does  not 
run  into  the  sea,  at  the  south  of  the  island,  its  mouth  being  com- 
pletely stopped  up  by  a  sand-bank,  through  which  its  waters  per- 
colate  to  the  sea.     The  farthest  source   of  the  Mahavelle  ganga  is 


CHAP.  I  ]     THE    MAHA-ELLIA — BAWANA's    GARDEN — SCENERY.       575 

supposed  to  rise  here,  and  flows  due  north  ;  hence  it  has  a  course 
of  about  200  miles,  the  last  eighty  of  which  might  be  rendered 
navigable  for  boats  at  no  very  great  expense. 

In  proceeding  to  Gallegamma  at  the  edge  of  the  elevated  country, 
the  fust  part  of  the  route  lies  through  the  plain  along  which  the 
Bilhool-oya  holds  its  course,  occasionally  enlivened  by  little  sparkling 
rills,  which  leap  from  rocky  banks  and  gloomy  copse  into  its  smiling 
current.  The  outlet  of  the  stream  from  this  valley,  7000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  is  by  a  chasm  from  which  it  plunges  for  5000 
iVi  t  through  tangled  brakes  and  murky  jungles,  which  cover  the 
mountain  walls  of  Rawaiia's  garden.  In  descending  towards  Galle- 
gamma, the  stream  is  again  perceived,  after  its  furious  descent, 
emerging  from  a  caverned  glen,  whence  it  hurries  through  various 
rocky  channels,  till  its  diverted  waters  are  made  to  glide  peacefully 
in  many  a  miniature  canal  through  the  levelled  terraces  and  bright 
green  paddy  fields  of  Gallegamma. 

The  views  on  descending  from  the  plains  are  magnificent,  par- 
ticularly at  one  spot,  from  which  the  eye  is  directed  between  two 
ranges  of  projecting  mountains  to  rest  on  the  lower  hills  of 
Safiragam,  the  dreary  forest  flats  of  the  Mahagampattoo,  the 
distant  hills  of  Kattragamme,  and  the  white  salt-encrusted  lakes, 
which  are  conspicuous  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles,  and  serve  to 
separate  the  misty  outline  of  the  coast  from  the  clearer  blue  of  the 
ocean.  The  horizon  here  appears  on  a  line  with  mountains  6000 
feet  in  height,  clouds  roll  in  the  valley  below,  others  float  high  in 
air,  some  rest  on  the  mountains,  and  a  long  chain  of  vapour  appears 
to  hang  supended  across  the  lowlands,  which  are  darkened  by  its 
shadow,  the  whole  forming  a  beautiful  commingled  scene  of  earth, 
air,  aud  ocean,  displaced  from  the  relative  position  in  which  those 
elements  are  accustomed  to  be  viewed.  The  opposite  bleak  range 
of  H alalia  exhibits  the  white  skeleton  tracery  of  gigantic  trees 
gleaming  on  its  huge  dark  mass :  this  appearance  is  produced  by 
rills  and  streamlets  rushing  down  and  uniting  in  channels  graved  by 
the  slow  unceasing  hand  of  time,  and  suddenly  filled  by  lines  of 
sparkling  foam.  The  clefts  and  watercourses  of  Hagalla  are 
assigned  by  tradition  to  thetime  of  Rawana,  and  are  said  to  be  the 
furrows  of  Kama's  arrows  ;  the  mountain  itself,  in  the  same  spirit  of 
fiction,  is  believed  to  be  the  transformed  body  of  one  of  his  great 
adversaries,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Lanka,  the  enemies  of 
the  gods. 

The  descent  into  Safiragam  is  by  the  decaying,  but  not  ancient 
temples  of  Alut  Nuwara,  whence  Balangodde,  1800  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Wallawe,  is  arrived  at. 

To  reach  the  table  land  of  Upper  Ouva  from  Balangodde,  the 
Walhwe'-ganga,  about  one  mile  and  a  quarter  distant,  is  crossed 
on  bamboo  rafts,  or  a  platform 'raised  upon  a  couple  of  small 
canoes,  or  in  the  dry  season  it  may  be  forded  :  the  route  lies  through 
the  abandoned  military  pos(  of  Alut  Nuwara  (the  new  city)   to   the 


570  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

ancient  dewale  of  that  name  (distant  about  eight  miles  from  Balan- 
godde),  where  there  is  also  a  small  wihare  and  dagobah,  the 
former  of  which  affords  a  comfortable  halting-place  ;  the  country 
around,  though  beautiful  and  romantic  in  appearance,  is  well 
watered,  and  somewhat  neglected  in  point  of  cultivation.  Crossing 
the  Idalgashina  mountain  at  the  pass,  Upper  Ouva  is  entered'.  This 
pass  is  about  4400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  summit  of 
the  mountain  about  400  feet  higher.  Tbere  is  sufficient  grass  for  an 
almost  indefinite  number  of  cattle,  where  the  wild  buffalo  ranges  un- 
disturbed, and  the  country  is  but  thinly  populated.  In  this  beautiful 
and  magnificent  country,  diversified  with  hills,  undulating  and 
champaign  lands,  watered  by  numerous  perennial  mountain  streams, 
which  gradually  increase  in  size  and  depth  from  tributary  waters  in 
their  meanderings  towards  the  sea,  the  European  settler  may  choose 
his  own  soil  and  climate. 

The  country  between  Alut  Nuwara,  and  Kalupahane,  at  the  base 
of  the  Idalgashina  mountain  a  distance  of  fourteen  miles  and  a 
half,  affords  proof  of  the  ample  means  of  irrigation  possessed  by 
this  part  of  the  island  ;  and  though  the  population  is  sparse,  paddy 
is  extensively  cultivated  near  the  former  place.  The  water  necessary 
to  supply  the  growing  crops  is  conveyed  with  great  skill  and  economy 
over  the  terraced  sides  of  hills,  and  through  valleys  beneath,  chiefly 
from  the  Bellahool  and  Halgaran  oyas,  the  latter  descending  in 
cataracts  amidst  the  grandeur  of  Alpine  scenery. 

Kalupahane  was  formerly  a  military  post,  which  was  abandoned 
soon  after  the  termination  of  the  rebellion  in  1818;  but  many  of 
the  inhabitants,  who  then  deserted  it,  have  since  returned,  and  culti- 
vate crops  of  paddy  between  the  well-wooded  and  grass-covered 
hills,  with  which  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village,  about  2350  feet 
below  the  top  of  the  Idalgashina  pass,  is  studded  ;  and  the  mountain 
itself  is  covered,  from  its  base  to  about  midway,  where  the  woody 
region  commences,  with  verdure  throughout  the  year. 

About  two  miles  and  a  half  beyond  the  summit  of  the  pass,  by  a 
gradual  descent  of  several  hundred  feet,  stands  the  village  of 
Welangahena,  formerly  a  military  station,  overlooking  a  very  deep 
valley  or  ravine,  with  steep  grass-covered  sides,  and  presenting  a 
splendid  and  extensive  panorama.  Park-like  grounds,  interspersed 
with  hills  and  valleys,  covered  with  verdure,  and  surrounded  by  the 
immense  mountain  of  Pedrotallagalla,  8280  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  on  the  north-west,  the  Idalgashina  pass  on  the  south-west, 
Apotella  pass  on  the  south,  the  Bamberagam  pass  on  the  east,  and 
the  high  lands  above  Himbliatawelle  and  Passera  on  the  north-east, 
the  whole  range  possessing  a  delightfully  cool  and  healthy  climate, 
and  presenting  a  natural  amphitheatre  in  the  distance  of  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  miles,  in  all  the  varied  colours  of  the  most  beautiful  land- 
scape, and  in  the  immediate  foreground  clumps  of  flowering  jungle, 
present  altogether  a  scene  not  to  be  surpassed  in  any  other  country  of 
the  world. 


mTA?.    I,]       COUNTttY    BETWEEN    NTJWERA    ELLIYA    AND    OUVA.       577 

Retracing  our  course  to  Nuwera  Elliya,  let  us  glance  at  the 
districts  intervening  between  it  and  Badulla,  through  which  a 
road,  the  only  one  by  which  this  fine  province  is  traversed,  has  been 
opened.  One  of  the  range  of  plains  that  extend  among  the  hills  between 
Nuwera  Elliya  and  Adam's  Peak  on  the  west,  is  called  Gaura-ellia,  in 
■consequence  of  the  capture  of  a  large  and  fierce  animal,  called  the 
gaura,  about  fifty  years  ago.  The  centre  of  Ouva  is  about  forty  miles 
distant  towards  the  south-east,  and  though  perhaps  less  fortunate  in 
its  geographical  position  than  the  Saffragam  district,  is  not  inferior 
in  natural  advantages  or  scenery  to  any  other  in  the  island-  At  the 
point  where  the  road  begins  to  descend  from  the  plains  of  Maturatta 
to  the  comparatively  low  district  of  Ouva,  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
view  of  that  district  is  commanded. 

After  entering  within  the  limits  of  Ouva,  the  road  soon  degenerates 
into  a  narrow  and  occasionally  dangerous  pathway,  now  skirting  the 
faces  of  precipitous  cliffs,  nGW  waudering  along  the  bottom  of  deep 
and  gloomy  ravines.  Midway  between  Badulla  and  Nuwera  Elliya,  a 
wide  and  open  tract  of  rich  grass  land,  named  Wilson  Plains,  in  com- 
pliment to  Lieut. -General  Sir  John  Wilson,  formerly  commander  of 
the  forces  in  Ceylon,  extends  its  smooth  velvet  carpet  over  a  softly 
undulating  country.  In  the  centre  of  the  plain  stands  a  bungalow, 
built  by  a  hunting  club,  which  died  a  natural  death,  from  the  de- 
ficiency of  objects  whereon  to  exercise  its  skill  and  sportsmanship. 
After  traversing  the  extensive  Wilson  Plains,  on  whose  verge  Ra- 
wana's  canal  dashes  from  the  rocks  of  Balella  Kanda,  the  Badulla 
road  again  plunges  into  a  succession  of  cliffs  and  chasms  ;  but  their 
character  now  becomes  less  stern,  and  gradually  changes  to  the  gently 
rounded  features  and  level  plains  of  a  champaign  country. 

The  route  to  Alipoot  from  Welangahena  lies  through  Hilloya  and 
Passera,  the  first  being  a  stage  of  twelve  miles,  and  the  last  fifteen 
miles  further.  From  Passera,  once  a  small  military  post,  and  situate 
in  a  deep  valley  between  the  mountains  of  Namina-kooli-kandi  and 
Luna-galla-kandi,  the  road  to  Alipoot,  in  Lower  Ouva,  is  due  east; 
and  very  rugged  and  hilly  throughout  the  descent,  which  is  nearly 
eight  hundred  feet  in  nine  miles  ;  the  country  every  where  beautiful, 
and  although  scarcely  a  cocoa-nut  tree  is  to  be  seen,  numerous  jack, 
shaddock,  jaggery,  and  wild  talipat  trees  serve  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiency,  and  paddy  is  produced  in  a  large  quantity.  The  moun- 
tain of  Lunagalla  (Salt-rock),  which  is  about  4800  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  is  of  a  conical  shape,  and  its  summit  is  surrounded 
by  a  facade  of  quartz  rock,  which  from  below  has  a  columnar  appear- 
ance, and  reminds  one  of  basalt.  Alipoot  (Allupotta)  is  the  residence 
of  an  Assistant  Government  Agent  for  the  southern  province,  who 
has  charge  of  the  revenue  of  the  district,  and  is  also  a  District  Judge 
of  the  eastern  circuit  of  the  Supreme  Court.  It  is  no  longer  the 
station  of  a  military  command.     This  place  possesses  by  no  me%ns 

2    p 


578  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

so  cool  a  temperature  as  its  position  would  lead  one  to  expect,  par- 
taking more  of  the  climate  of  the  plains  than  of  the  mountains,  but 
it  is  remarkably  healthy  notwithstanding,  and  offers  a  strong  contrast 
to  the  lower  country  of  Welasse.  About  two  miles  from  Alipoot 
there  is  a  very  steep  descent,  which  was  formerly  fortified  by  a  very 
strong  kadavette,  where  a  few  resolute  men  could  make  a  successful 
stand  against  an  invading  army. 

The  route  from  Alipoot  to  Kattragamme  is  through  Bootelle  and 
Talawa,  in  Lower  Ouva,  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  The  first  three 
or  four  miles  is  hilly  and  rugged,  and  covered  with  jungle.  After 
this  there  is  a  little  descent,  and  the  remainder  of  the  way  is  through 
a  flat  country,  which  is  almost  wholly  covered  with  forest  and  unin- 
habited. At  Bootelle  there  was  formerly  a  military  post  occupied  by 
Malays,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  formerly  well  cultivated, 
and  is  now  pretty  populous.  Between  Bootelle  and  Talawa  is  the 
Parapa-oya,  a  fine  sweeping  stream,  with  banks  nobly  wooded. 
Talawa  is  a  beautiful  part  of  this  desert  country.  It  is  a  plain  of 
many  miles  in  extent,  covered  with  fine  grass,  and  ornamented  with 
clumps  of  trees,  resembling  the  wildest  part  of  an  English  park. 
The  prospect  from  hence  is  delightful.  The  eye  wanders  over  the 
rich  plain  to  the  long  line  of  the  blue  mountains  of  Upper  Ouva. 

Ten  miles  north  of  Kattragamme  there  is  an  immense  mass  of 
rock  by  the  roadside,  called  Gallege  by  some,  and  Kimegalle  by 
others.  It  derives  the  former  name,  signifying  rock-house,  from 
several  capacious  caverns  in  its  side,  which  afford  good  shelter  to  the 
traveller,  and  the  latter  name,  signifying  water-rock,  it  has  obtained 
from  two  deep  cavities  in  its  summit — natural  reservoirs  that  are 
never  without  water,  an  element  that  is  often  extremely  scarce  in  this 
desert,  and  hardly  anywhere  else  to  be  found. 

Returning  to  Upper  Ouva  by  the  route  of  Weleway,  the  road  leads 
through  a  very  thick  jungle  by  a  narrow  and  difficult  path  to  Yadal- 
gamme. This  place  is  a  wretched  little  temple  village,  on  the  bank 
of  a  branch  of  the  Parapa-oya,  and  in  the  midst  of  an  immense  wil- 
derness of  wood.  The  few  inhabitants  of  the  village  have  some 
cattle,  and  a  little  paddy  ground  adjoining.  Their  huts  are  fortified 
by  an  enclosure  of  strong  pallisades  against  the  attacks  of  wild  ani- 
mals, which  are  here  exceedingly  numerous.  Weleway  is  about  twenty 
miles  distant,  through  a  country,  consisting  partly  of  thick  jungle 
and  partly  of  open  grass  plains  like  those  of  Talawa,  with  which  they 
most  likely  communicate.  They  commence  close  to  Yadalgamme, 
and  extend  about  five  miles  to  the  north-west.  Their  resemblance 
to  a  park  is  strengthened  by  the  abundance  of  deer.  Between 
Yadalgamme  and  Weleway  two  streams  are  crossed,  one  very  small, 
about  half  way,  and  the  other  of  considerable  size,  the  Kirinde-oya, 
about  two  miles  from  the  latter  place.  At  a  spot  called  Undagalla- 
walia,  the  former  stream  forms  a  deep  pool,  on  the  banks  of  which 
are  some  remains  of  masonry,  which  are  supposed  by  the  natives  to 


CHAP.    I.]  ALIPOOT — DESCRIPTION    OF    LOWEK    OTJVA.  5/9 

have  formerly  belonged  to  a  tank,  by  means  of  which  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Mahagamapattoo  was  formerly  watered  and  fertilised. 
Some  circumstances,  such  as  the  level  of  the  ground  above  the  sea, 
would  seem  to  warrant  the  supposition  ;  but  when  fully  considered, 
the  unfavourable  nature  of  the  ground  for  the  formation  of  a  tank — 
on  one  side,  indeed,  a  huge  rock  or  hill  rises  out  of  the  plain  to  the 
height  of  200  or  300  feet  above  its  surface,  but  on  the  other  there  is 
no  corresponding  elevation  for  many  miles — will  satisfy  the  inquirer, 
that  the  tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  a  tank  is  either  false  or 
exaggerated.  The  few  cut  stones  now  left  are  so  neatly  wrought, 
that  it  is  more  likely  they  belonged  to  a  temple  or  palace  than  an 
embankment,  particularly  as  there  is  the  figure  of  the  moon  on 
a  fragment  of  one  stone,  and  that  of  the  sun  on  another.  From  the 
top  of  the  rocky  hill  adverted  to,  the  prospect  is  extensive.  With 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  similar  rocks  in  the  vicinity,  and  a  few 
distant  and  gentle  elevations  of  ground,  the  whole  country  to  the 
southward  and  to  the  eastward  and  westward  of  that  point,  is  a  dead 
flat,  covered  with  a  wilderness  of  jungle.  In  the  opposite  direction 
hills  and  mountains  make  their  appearance,  but  they  are  frequently 
indistinct. 

Weleway  is  a  little  plain,  about  a  mile  in  circumference,  on  the 
confines  of  the  level  country,  and  excepting  to  the  southward,  every 
way  bounded  by  hills.  It  possesses  great  natural  beauty,  but  has 
only  lately  resumed  its  former  state  of  cultivation.  This  part  of 
the  southern  province  presents  a  striking  analogy  to  the  country 
i>et\veen  Nalande  and  Trincomalee ;  both  are  low  and  nearly  flat ; 
both  overgrown  with  wood,  and  nearly  uninhabited  ;  both  extremely 
unwholesome  ;  while  both  exhibit  strong  and  indubitable  marks  of 
change,  and  of  ancient  cultivation  and  population. 

From  Weleway  to  Boolatwellegodde,  in  the  district  of  Gampaha, 
distant  about  six  miles,  the  road  traverses  a  hilly,  but  not  difficult 
country,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  with  the  monotonous  jungle 
behind.  This  country  was  sadly  laid  waste  during  the  rebellion  :  the 
villages  were  deserted,  and  the  fields  suffered  to  become  a  desert. 
Half  way  between  Weleway  and  Boolatwellegodde,  is  a  nitre  cave, 
situate  in  a  thick  jungle,  in  the  side  of  a  hill  of  difficult  discovery  and 
access.  Its  mouth  is  comparatively  small,  hardly  twelve  feet  wide, 
and  where  highest,  hardly  high  enough  for  a  man  to  stand  erect. 
The  entrance  is  irregularly  arched,  and  has  the  appearance  of  having 
been  cut  through  the  solid  rock  by  which  it  is  surrounded  and  over- 
hung. Looking  down  into  the  cave,  nothing  can  be  more  gloomy 
and  dismal  ;  the  eye  can  penetrate  but  a  very  little  way  into  its  dark 
recesses,  from  which  a  loathsome  smell  issues,  and  a  dull  confused 
noise  like  that  of  a  subterraneous  torrent.  After  a  descent  through 
a  steep,  narrow  and  slippery  passage  about  thirty  feet,  a  cave  of  va  t 
size  is  reached,  of  such  an  irregular  form,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
retain  any  accurate  notion  of  it.     The  rugged  bottom,  which  descend.- 

2  p  2 


580  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

about  fifty  feet,  is  covered  with  fragments  of  decomposing  rock  and  a 
thick  stratum  of  black  earth.  The  roof  in  general  is  too  high  to  be 
visible.  The  walls  consist  either  of  dolomite  rock  or  of  granitic 
varieties,  most  of  them  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  particularly  those 
containing  a  portion  of  calc-spar.  The  natives  maintain  that  this 
cave  is  two  miles  long,  but  this  is  doubtless  greatly  exaggerated. 
Like  the  nitre  cave  in  Doombera,  its  excavation  is  perhaps  more 
artificial  than  natural.  It  has  been  worked  for  many  years  by  the 
natives,  a  party  of  whom  come  annually  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Passera  for  the  purpose. 

The  distance  to  Kirriwannagamme  is  six  miles,  through  an  extremely 
hilly  and  rugged  country.  At  this  village  is  a  small  wihare,  finely 
situated  on  a  little  rocky  platform  on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill,  over- 
looking a  considerable  extent  of  paddy  ground  below,  and  several 
villages. 

Crossing  the  mountain  ridge  of  Upper  Ouva  by  the  Apotella  pass, 
Welangahena  is  reached.  The  distance  over  the  mountain  is  only 
about  eight  miles,  and  the  ascent  though  steep  is  not  difficult ;  the 
height  is  certainly  less  than  the  Idalgashina.  The  prospect  of  Upper 
Ouva  from  the  top  of  the  hill  here,  which  is  one  of  the  highest 
within  the  mountain  wall,  is  still  more  impressive  than  from  the 
summit  of  the  Idalgashina.  On  looking  round  the  country,  it  has 
the  appearance  of  a  magnificent  amphitheatre  sixty  or  eighty  miles 
in  circumference,  formed  of  a  succession  of  steep,  smooth  green 
conical  hills  and  of  deep  narrow  glens,  remarkably  free  from  wood, 
enclosed  on  every  side  by  mountains  varying  in  perpendicular  height 
from  four  to  six  thousand  feet. 

The  distance  of  Fort  M 'Donald,  in  the  village  of  Parnagamme, 
from  Welangahena  is  about  seventeen  miles.  All  the  way  the  country 
is  hilly,  but  not  of  the  same  character.  The  hills  the  first  part  of 
the  way,  though  rounded,  are  exceedingly  steep  and  abrupt  ;  those 
which  succeed  them  are  less  bold  and  lofty,  of  greater  sweep,  and 
rather  undulating  than  of  the  abrupt  conical  form ;  while  the  hills 
the  latter  part  of  the  way  are  more  irregular  than  either,  and  bolder 
than  the  intermediate,  though  less  so  than  the  first.  About  half  way 
is  Dambawinne,  where  the  fields  are  neatly  cultivated,  and  covered 
with  green  paddy. 

Fort  M'Donald,  so  called  from  an  officer  of  that  name,  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  decision  and  humanity  during  the  rebellion 
in  1817-18,  and  on  a  hill  near  the  fort  made  a  remarkable  stand 
against  the  whole  force  of  the  country  under  Kappitapola,  is  about 
3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  situated  on  a  low  hill  in 
the  fertile  and  extensive  valley  of  Parnagamme,  at  the  foot  of  the 
barrier  mountains  of  Upper  Ouva,  and  immediately  under  the  pass 
of  the  lofty  Dodanatukapella  mountain.  Thus  situated,  its  scenery 
is  of  the  most  exquisite  kind,  displaying  most  happily  blended  the 
grand  and  beautiful,  while  the  appearance  of  cultivation  and  popula- 


CHAP.    I.]        FORT    M'DONALD    AND    THE    COUNTRY    AROUND.  581 

tion  in  the  surrounding  country  gives  effect  to  the  picture.  The 
Dodanatukapella  being  ascended,  the  route  proceeds  over  the  moun- 
tains to  Maturatta,  sixteen  miles  distant.  The  ascent  of  the  pass 
commences  immediately  on  quitting  Fort  M 'Donald,  and  continues 
with  very  little  interruption  very  steep  up  to  its  summit,  about  two 
miles  distant,  where  tbere  are  the  remains  of  a  kadavette  a£  the  en- 
trance of  a  forest.  This  is  at  the  height  of  between  five  and  six 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  views  presenting 
themselves  from  different  points  of  the  ascent  of  this  lofty  green 
mountain,  thus  far  almost  entirely  free  from  jungle,  are  various  and 
magnificent,  particularly  of  Upper  Ouva,  almost  the  whole  of  which 
is  visible ;  and  in  the  direction  of  Wiyaloowa,  the  summit  of  whose 
mountains,  rising  above  a  stratum  of  silver  vapour,  have  a  very  sin- 
gular and  beautiful  effect.  Beyond  the  kadavette,  for  at  least  ten 
miles,  there  is  a  constant  succession  of  ascents  and  descents,  the 
general  level  of  the  road  rather  increasing  than  diminishing  in  alti- 
tude. The  greatest  elevation  it  attains  is  about  seven  miles  from 
Fort  M'Donald. 

Resuming  our  route  along  the  coast.  After  crossing  the  ferry  at 
the  Kumukan  or  Koombookan-aar,  the  traveller  enters  the  southern 
province  at  the  Mahagama-pattoo,  now  included  in  the  district  of 
Tangalle.  This  tract  of  country  is  about  fifty-five  miles  long,  and 
from  eleven  to  nineteen  broad.  It  contains  about  a  hundred  villages, 
but  so  thin  is  the  population,  that  it  scarcely  exceeds  5,000  souls. 
The  face  of  the  country,  which  now  for  the  most  part  exhibits  nothing 
but  an  inhospitable  desert  of  jungle,  and  low,  sandy,  waterless  plains, 
was  once  well  irrigated,  and  very  productive.  At  present  its  chief 
produce  is  the  salt  obtained  from  the  leways,  the  monopoly  of  which 
produces  a  considerable  annual  revenue. 

The  Great  Basses  (Baxas),  called  Ramanpaaya  by  the  Hindoos, 
are  a  ledge  of  rocks  off  the  south-east  coast,  nearly  a  mile  in  extent, 
and  about  three  leagues  from  the  shore,  elevated  a  few  feet  above 
water,  and  the  sea  breaks  very  high  on  them  in  bad  weather.  Accord- 
ing to  the  natives,  a  pagoda  formerly  stood  on  them,  and  they  are 
thought  by  some  to  have  originally  formed  part  of  the  main,  where 
various  legends  of  sunken  cities  in  this  locality  prevail.  There  is  a 
safe  channel  between  the  Basses  and  the  shore,  but  it  can  only  be 
navigated  with  caution,  and  by  daylight,  as  the  currents  are  frequently 
very  strong  and  capricious  in  their  direction.  The  Little  Basses, 
distant  from  the  former  seven  leagues  E.N.E.  is  scarcely  above  water, 
and  is  therefore  dangerous  to  approach. 

The  first  stage  from  Koombookan  is  to  Potane  7§  miles,  where 
there  is  a  large  rock  with  a  reservoir  of  water  on  it ;  from  thence 
through  low  jungle  fille'd  with  every  description  of  game  known  to 
the  island,  the  traveller  comes  to  Yalle  rest-house,  ten  miles,  which 
lies  upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Manik-ganga  or  Parapa-oya,  a  river 


582  CEYLON.  [PAKT  IT. 

which,  formed  by  the  union  of  two  small  mountain  streams  near  Ali- 
poot,  runs  towards  Bootelle  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and  from 
thence  taking  a  south-westerly  course,  passes  by  Kattragamme,  and 
once  more  changing  its  course  to  the  east,  enters  the  sea  near  Elephant 
llock.  The  water  of  this  stream,  which,  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  is  &§  translucid  as  crystal,  and  as  sweet  and  wholesome  as  if  it 
had  been  filtered,  becomes  turbid  during  the  rains  from  the  mass  of 
deciduous  foliage  borne  down  by  the  stream  from  the  mountains^  of 
Ouva,  and  the  accumulations  from  its  well-wooded  banks.  If  the 
traveller  be  anxious  to  visit  Kattragamme  dewale,  instead  of  crossing 
the  Manik-ganga,  native  guides  and  a  tom-tom  beater  to  drive  away 
the  chetahs  and  bears  should  be  procured  at  Yalle,  to  accompany  him 
through  the  jungle. 

Kattragam  (Kaddirkamam)  is  famous  for  a  number  of  temples 
erected  to  every  deity  in  the  Hindoo  calendar,  and  has  also  a  Buddhist 
wihare  and  dagobah,  but  the  principal  temple  for  which  it  is  celebrated 
is  dedicated  to  Skanda,  the  god  of  war,  who,  according  to  a  tradition, 
halted  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  in  the  neighbourhood,  on  his  return 
from  Mahendrapuri,  after  destroying  the  Asuras,  who  oppressed 
the  gods.  This  temple,  which,  from  its  reputation  and  the  unhealthy 
desert  through  which  its  votaries  have  to  pass  to  it,  one  would  have 
expected  to  find  in  the  highest  degree  magnificent,  is  on  the  contrary 
a  plain  building,  divided  into  two  apartments,  of  which  the  inner, 
into  which  an  entrance  is  forbidden  to  all  but  the  privileged  or 
sacred  few,  contains  the  image  of  the  god,  and  the  walls  are  orna- 
mented with  figures  of  different  gods  and  heroes,  richly  executed  ; 
while  the  inside  of  the  roof  is  covered  with  painted  cloths,  and  the 
entrance  to  the  inner  apartment  concealed  in  like  manner.  On  the 
left  of  the  door  there  is  a  small  foot-bath  and  bason,  in  which  the 
officiating  priest  washes  his  feet  and  hands  before  he  enters  the 
sanctum.'  So  great  is  the  veneration  in  which  the  shrine  of  this  deity 
is  held,  that  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  India  resort  to  worship  it, 
frequently  bringing  with  them  pots  of  water  from  the  Ganges  at 
Benares,  slung  on  cross-bamboos,  and  even  the  Mahommedans 
reverence  the  place  under  the  belief  that  it  was  the  favourite  resort 

1  The  Karandua  of  Eiswara  stands  on  a  platform  in  one  of  the  rooms ;  it  is 
somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  common  oven,  and  contains  a  little  image  of  the  god, 
and  a  diminutive  pair  of  slippers.  The  Kalina-madima,  another  relic,  is  greatly 
respected,  and  is  the  chief  curiosity  in  Kattragamme  ;  it  is  a  large  seat  made 
of  clay,  raised  on  a  platform,  with  high  sides  and  a  back  like  an  easy  chair  without 
legs  ;  it  is  covered  with  leopards'  skins,  and  contains  several  instruments  used  in 
the  performance  of  the  temple  rites,  and  a  large  fire  burns  by  the  side  of  it.  The 
room,  in  the  centre  of  which  it  is  erected,  is  the  abode  of  the  resident  Brahmin. 
The  Kalina-madima  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  Kalana-nata,  the  first  priest  of 
the  temple,  who,  from  his  great  piety,  passed  to  heaven  without  experiencing 
death,  and  left  the  seat  as  a  sacred  inheritance  to  his  successors  in  the  priestly 
office,  who  have  used  it  instead  of  a  dying  bed. 


CHAP.  I.]  KATTRAGAMME  AND  ITS  TEMPLE — MAHAGAMAPATTOO.    583 

of  Kheder  Nabi,  whom  they  supposed  to  have  rendered  himself  im- 
mortal by  drinking  of  "  the  water  of  life,"  which  he  discovered  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

During  the  rebellion  of  1 8 1 7-8,  access  to  this  temple  was  completely 
closed  by  the  Government,  in  consequence  of  the  treasonable  practices  of 
the  priests,  and  the  pilgrims  resorting  hither  under  the  denomination 
of  Fakeers,  Pandarams,  and  Jogis,  were  placed  under  great  restrictions 
for  the  time,  but  they  were  subsequently  relaxed,  and  a  passport  only 
was  required. 

The  temple  is  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Basnayaka 
Nilame,  and  the  revenue  arising  from  the  offerings  is  shared  among 
the  priests  who  officiate  in  the  sanctuary.  In  the  adjoining  country 
there  are  a  few  small  villages,  whose  inhabitants  are  bound  to  pay  a  part 
of  the  produce  of  their  fields  for  the  lands  they  hold  under  this  temple. 

A  grand  festival  is  held  in  July,  and  continues  for  several  days, 
and,  according  to  a  long  established  custom,  Moormen  are  obliged  to 
bear  torches  before  the  image,  when  carried  in  procession.  The 
number  of  pilgrims  is  now  fast  diminishing,  and  the  buildings  are 
fast  on  the  decay.  Ere  long  they  will  be  perhaps  level  with  the 
ground,  and  the  traveller  be  unable  to  trace  their  site. 

Skanda  has  several  names  in  Sanscrit,  but  he  is  here  commonly 
styled  Kadirama,  or  the  "  lord  of  the  rays,"  from  an  assemblage 
of  which,  emitted  from  the  «eyes  of  Siva  for  the  destruction  of 
Asurs,  he  is  supposed  to  have  sprung.  He  is  represented  with  six 
heads,  and  twelve  hands,  in  each  of  which  he  holds  a  different . 
weapon,  and  his  vehicle  (vahane)  is  a  peacock,  which  is  hence  con- 
sidered sacred  by  his  votaries.  Of  his  two  consorts,  Dewane  and 
V' alii,  the  latter  is  represented  as  having  been  nurtured  by  a  female 
Veddah,  the  Veddahs  are  therefore  particularly  attached  to  his 
worship. 

The  god  of  Kattragamme  is  not  loved,  but  feared,  and  his  worship 
inducted  on  this  principle.  The  situation  of  his  temple,  and  the 
time  fixed  for  attending  it  in  the  hot,  dry,  and  unwholesome  months 
of  June,  July,  and  August,  were  craftily  chosen.  A  merit  was  made 
of  the  hazard  and  difficulty  of  the  journey  through  a  wilderness 
deserted  by  man,  and  infested  by  wild  animals,  and  the  fever  which 
prevails  at  that  season,  was  referred  to  the  god,  and  supposed  to  be 
inflicted  by  him  on  those  who  had  the  misfortune  to  incur  his  dis- 
pleasure. 

Leaving  Kattragamme,  the  traveller,  if  he  intend  to  proceed 
direct  to  Hambantotte,  after  crossing  the  Parapa-oya  at  the  ford  in 
that  village,  will  proceed  through  the  village  of  Magaama,  and 
crossing  the  Kirinde-oya,  pass  through  Boondelle  to  Hambantotte,  a 
distance  of  thirty  miles  ;  but  as  he  would  thereby  miss  the  opportu- 
nity of  visiting  Ahamadoewe,  or  turtle  cove,  the  line  by  the  sea-coast 
will  be  preferable.  Ahamadoewe  is  ten  miles  from  Yalle.  As  soon 
as  the  turtle  season  approaches,  the  renter  of  the  fishery  assembles 


5-S4  CEYLON,  [l'AItr  IT, 

his  people  at  this  place,  where  they  construct  huts  and  a  sort  of  tern- 
porary  bazaar,  for  the  sale  of  the  usual  articles  of  their  simple  diet, 
which  are  daily  conveyed  by  the  villagers  within  eight  or  ten  mile* 
of  the  cove.  From  Ahamadoewe  to  Paltoopane,  the  distance  is  five 
miles,  and  the  face  of  the  country  is  composed  of  jungle  and  sandy 
plains,  with  an  occasional  glimpse  of  the  sea. 

This  part  of  the  district  is  particularly  subject  to  long  droughts, 
often  for  ten  or  eleven  months  together,  and  the  burnt  state  of  the  her- 
bage offers  a  melancholy  contrast  to  every  other  part  of  the  island.  The 
next  stage  is  from  Paltoopane  to  Magaama,  where  the  Kirinde-oya 
is  forded,  the  distance  is  9j  miles  ;  the  rest-house  lies  in  the  midst 
of  low  jungle,  where  mosquitoes,  ants  and  sand-flies  are  extremely 
troublesome,  and  snakes  occasionally  obtrusive.  The  Kirinde-oya 
has  its  source  in  the  hills  of  Lower  Ouva,  and  after  a  tortuous  course 
in  a  south-east  and  southerly  direction,  falls  into  the  sea  at  this 
place.  Mahagam  or  Magaama,  now  a  straggling  village,  is  situate 
near  a  large  plain,  and  has  within  even  the  last  century  presented  a 
very  different  appearance  to  its  present  state,  a  fact  attested  by  the 
remains  of  several  extensive  gardens,  where  many  varieties  of  exotic 
fruit  trees  still  remain.  The  soil  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  pepper  and  nutmeg  plantations  at  Prince  of  Wales'  island  in  the 
Straits  of  Malacca,  and  is  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  sugar, 
cotton,  pepper,  cloves,  nutmegs,  and  sufficient  paddy  might  be 
grown  for  the  consumption  of  the  whole  district  within  the  range  of 
irrigation  presented  by  the  Kirinde-oya,  exclusive  of  the  immense 
area  -that  might  be  sown  with  the  same  grain,  and  supplied  with 
water  from  artificial  tanks. 

The  ancient  city  of  Magaama,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  Koohoonoo 
Magaama,  from  its  having  been  the  capital  of  the  Roohoona  division, 
is  first  mentioned  in  Singhalese  annals,  B.C.  285,  in  connection  with 
Mahanaaga,  brother  of  Devenipeatissa,  by  whom  it  was  founded. 
On  the  left  bank  of  the  Kirinde-oya,  there  a  clear  stream,  about 
forty  yards  broad  and  eighteen  inches  deep,  with  steep  banks,  shaded 
by  large  kabuk  trees,  and  about  three  miles  along  a  ridge  slightly 
elevated  above  the  surrounding  marsh,  lie  the  principal  ruins  of 
Magaama;  to  this  ridge  is  joined  the  embankment  of  the  Tissatank  ; 
a  reservoir,  that  like  others  in  the  vicinity  has  burst,  and  in  the 
rainy  season  forms  noxious  swamps,  infested  with  crocodiles,  &c. 
The  ruins  of  the  Menik  dagobah  and  wihare,  of  the  Poega  (assembly 
hall  for  priests),  which  consists  of  forty-eight  plain  square  stone 
pillars,  one  foot  on  each  side,  and  thirteen  and  a  half  above  ground  ; 
of  the  palace  supported  by  eighty-five  pillars,  two  feet  square,  and 
fifteen  feet  high,  are  successively  seen.  Near  these  stands  an  octa- 
gonal pillar,  nine  feet  high,  and  eight  feet  in  circumference,  to  which 
the  state  elephant  was  chained  ;  and  the  marks  of  the  chain  deeply 
worn,  have  nearly  effaced  an  inscription,  on  which  the  word  Sri 
(royal)  may  still  be  distinguished.     It  is  called  the  pillar  of  Kadol, 


CHAP.    I.J        ANCIENT    CITY    OP    MAGAAMA    AND    ITS    RUINS.  585 

the  favourite  elephant  of  Dootoogaimonoo,  that  bore  him  in  all  his 
battles,  and  on  which  he  was  mounted  when  he  encountered  and 
slew  his  antagonist,  Elaala.  Yatalatissa  dagobah  is*  a  mass  of  brick 
about  seventy  feet  high ;  it  is  split  near  the  centre,  and  overgrown 
with  trees  and  brushwood ;  its  destruction  is  attributed  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, who  are  said  to  have  attempted  to  blow  it  up  with  gun- 
powder. It  was  built  by  Mahanama,  B.C.  280  ;  about  a  hundred 
stone  pillars,  seven  feet  high,  are  scattered  in  groups  around  this 
temple,  and  are  the  remains  of  separate  wihares,  Tissa-maha  wihare 
and  dagobah.  The  latter  is  even  now  more  than  one  hundred  feet 
high  ;  although  no  part  of  the  spire  or  its  base  exists,  it  has  a  small 
opening  at  a  considerable  height,  and  fragments  of  steps  leading 
towards  the  aperture  are  perceptible  on  the  east  side  of  the  ruin, 
near  which  are  two  broken  statues,  supposed  to  be  Kawanitissa,  who 
built  this  temple,  B.C.  180,  and  his  queen  Wihara  Daivi.  The 
small  dagobah  of  Sandagiri  is  of  the  same  date  as  the  Tissa  wihare, 
and  built  in  the  usual  Buddhist  monumental  form  ;  like  the  others, 
it  is  covered  with  shrubs  and  plants  :  even  forest  trees  find  a  hold 
for  their  roots  in  the  ruins  of  its  masonry,  and  derive  a  support 
sufficient  to  resist  the  parching  blasts  of  the  north-east  monsoon. 
Magaama  is  situated  eight  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Kirinde- 
oya,  and  the  fields  watered  by  its  tanks  are  said  to  have  extended 
the  whole  of  this  distance.  Kirinde  is  a  rocky  point  on  the  coast, 
remarkable  for  the  artificial  appearance  of  its  masses  of  stone,  among 
which  there  is  a  spring  of  fresh  water,  also  some  remains  of  masonry; 
and  the  outline  figures  of  the  sun  and  moon  render  probable  the 
tradition,  that  the  kings  of  Magaama  occasionally  resorted  to  this 
spot  to  enjoy  the  cooling  breeze  and  sea-bathing.  The  Muda  wihare  at 
this  place  was  built  by  Kawanitissa,  to  commemorate  the  miraculous 
escape  of  Wihara  Daivi,  his  queen,  from  her  marine  prison. 

Magaama  is  supposed  to  have  been  rightly  laid  down  by  Ptolemy 
under  the  name  of  Magrammum,  and  my  only  reason  for  hesitation 
is  confined  to  the  etymology  of  the  word  ;  as  I  cannot  understand  how 
Ptolemy's  informants  can  have  had  the  seat  of  a  subordinate  princi- 
pality represented  to  them  as  "  the  great  city." 

From  the  rest-house  of  Mahagam,  the  route  to  Hambantotte,  the 
next  stage,  is  14^  miles,  through  a  desolate  country,  in  some  places 
cultivated  with  paddy,  small  grain,  and  maize,  and  in  others  waste, 
especially  near  the  leways,  where  there  is  nevertheless  excellent 
pasturage  for  sheep,  though  none  are  there  to  be  found. 

After  crossing  the  Kirinde-oya,  which  is  fordable  except  during 
the  rains,  when  the  current  is  rapid  and  the  stream  wide,  and  only 
passable  in  boats,  the  road  lies  through  the  small  villages  of  Tel- 
loole  and  Wellegangodde.  These  are  hardly  worth  a  remark,  being 
scantily  inhabited,  and  their  cultivation  being  limited  to  yams,  paddy, 
maize  and  kurukkan.  The  road  thence  is  to  Boondelle,  upon  the 
banks  of  the  lcway  of  that  name,  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the 
sea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  bar  of  sand.     Beyond  Boondelle 


586  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

at  a  village  called  Aloot  Kangalle,  inhabited  by  fishermen,  very  fine 
surmullet,  soles,  seer-fish  and  prawns  may  be  procured  at  the  lowest 
conceivable  rate.*  This  village  is  also  situated  on  the  banks  of  a 
leway,  now  exhausted,  called  Matelle  Kalapoo,  but  the  tourist  will 
prefer  to  rest  at  Udumalle,  upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Matelle-aar, 
which  is  dry  except  during  the  rainy  season.  From  Udumalle,  which 
is  no  great  distance  from  the  great  but  useless  tank  of  Badagiri,  the 
general  route  is  between  Koholankale  and  Maha  leways  and  the 
sand  hills,  but  as  the  sea  breeze  is  preferable  to  the  monotony  of  the 
leway  downs,  by  edging  to  the  left,  the  rest  of  the  journey  by  the 
sea  beach  will  be  found  the  most  pleasant  part  of  it. 

Common  salt  is  obtained  from  the  leways,  or  natural  salt  pans, 
which  are  principally  situate  on  the  coast  of  the  Mahagamapattoo,  and 
is  of  rare  occurrence  indeed  in  the  interior,  except  in  minute  quantities 
dissolved  in  water.  Every  parrah  of  salt  contains  about  one-fourth 
of  mud  or  sand,  and  it  often  happens  that  no  more  than  half  the 
quantity  of  good  salt  is  produced  by  evaporation. 

The  salt  lakes  of  the  southern  coast  are  collections  of  water  in  the 
natural  hollows  of  the  beach,  confined  by  a  high  sand  bank,  thrown 
up  along  the  shore  by  a  tempestuous  sea.  The  lakes  from  which  the 
best  salt  is  obtained  are  the  Konakatee-leway,  the  Sitricale-leway, 
the  Maha-leway,  the  Kolankale-leway,  the  Boondelle-leway,  the 
Durava-kalapoo  and  Paltoopane  leways.  The  other  lakes  in  the 
same  district  contain  brackish  waters,  but  seldom  or  never  suffi- 
ciently concentrated  to  produce  salt.  The  seven  lakes  mentioned 
vary  in  extent  from  nine  miles  in  circumference  to  one  and  a  half. 
They  are  all  very  shallow,  the  deepest  when  its  water  is  highest 
not  exceeding  six  feet.  In  the  rainy  season  they  frequently  over- 
flow and  break  through  the  bar  of  sand,  and  at  this  season  their 
diluted  water  is  merely  brackish.  In  the  dry  season,  more  especially 
in  June  and  July,  when  a. strong  parching  south-west  wind  blows, 
and  evaporation  is  rapid,  their  waters  are  more  or  less  concentrated 
to  the  state  of  brine,  and  often  driest  up  entirely,  when  the  bottoms 
of  the  lakes  are  covered  with  a  crust  of  salt,  which  varies  from  an 
inch  to  a  foot  in  thickness. 

The  source  and  formation  of  this  salt  is  from  the  sea,  which  is 
close  at  hand,  and  evaporation  is  the  cause  of  its  production.  Thus 
in  the  soil  there  is  nothing  peculiar,  it  resembling  that  of  the  country 
in  general,  and  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  granitic  rock  ; 
the  incrustation  of  salt  that  forms  is  merely  superficial ;  the  deeper 
an  excavation,  the  less  saline  the  ground  becomes.  In  the  close 
vicinity  of  more  than  one  of  the  salt  lakes  there  are  collections  of  per- 
fectly fresh  water ;  the  more  rain  there  is  in  the  wet  season,  the  less 
salt  is  obtained,  and  occasionally  no  salt  has  formed  when  the  year 
has  been  unusually  rainy ;  the  more  boisterous  the  sea,  the  greater 
the  chance  of  a  plentiful  production  of  salt ;  and  what  is  more  than 
all,  the  saline  contents  of  the  lakes  themselves  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  sea,  of  which  common  salt  is  only  the  chief  ingredient,  and  all  the 


CHAP.    I.]       LEWAYS   OF    MAIIAGAMAPATTOO  — HAMBANTOTTE.         587 

lakes  receive  salt  either  from  the  sea  directly,  by  the  waves  breaking 
over  the  bar,  or  by  salt  water  percolating  through  the  sand.  One 
instance  may  be  found  where,  perhaps,  from  the  unusual  width  of 
the  bar,  the  salt  is  supplied  in  neither  of  these  ways,  the  lake  in  the 
rainy  season  communicating  with  another  that  is  so  supplied.  The 
formation  of  salt  may  be  accelerated  and  ensured  best  by  cutting  the 
bars  early,  and  diminishing  rapidly  the  quantity  of  brackish  water. 
This  is  a  most  important  subject.  The  leways  are  capable  of  yield- 
ing a  large  and  increasing  sum  to  the  Government,  and  the  whole 
island  is  almost  entirely  dependent  on  this  district  for  the  supply  of 
this  necessary  of  life.  The  production  of  the  lakes  has -far  from 
approached  its  maximum  ;  and  by  a  yet  more  scientific  management, 
they  might  be  made  to  yield  not  only  a  sufficient  supply  for  all  India, 
but  almost  any  quantity  of  magnesia  might  be  extracted  from  the 
residual  brine.  And  in  procuring  wood  ash,  which  this  preparation 
would  require,  it  would  be  necessary  to  burn  the  jungle  with  which 
this  part  of  the  country  is  overrun,  that  would  diminish  the  preva- 
lence of  miasma,  so  fatal  to  population,  and  check  the  increase  of 
wild  animals,  so  hostile  to  the  agriculture  of  the  district. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  vicinity  of  the  leways,  the  soil  of  the 
Mahagamapattoo  is  so  remarkably  fertile,  that  industry  and  capital 
are  the  only  requisites  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  productive  districts 
of  the  island ;  and  should  cultivation  extend,  the  country  would  be 
gradually  abandoned  by  the  wild  beasts  that  infest  its  woods  and 
jungles,  and  become  as  healthy  as  any  in  the  maritime  provinces. 
The  approach  to  Hambantotte  is  remarkable  for  the  deep  red  colour 
of  the  road,  and  the  dark  green  hue  of  the.  milky  hedge  (Euphorbia 
tirincalli)  with  which  the  enclosures  are  fenced  in.  Hambantotte, 
derived  from  the  Singhalese  words  "  Hambane,"  country  boats, 
and  "Totte,"  creek  or  small  bay,  is  situate  in  lat.  6°  6'  58"  N.  and 
long.  Sl0  14'  44"  E.  and  a  more  solitary  or  barren  situation  cannot 
well  be  conceived,  the  soil  being  totally  unfit  for  cultivation.  The 
bay  affords  good  anchorage  for  vessels  of  150  to  200  tons  burthen. 
The  town  lies  beneath  a  hilly  promontory,  projecting  seaward  towards 
the  south-east/ and  forming  the  south-west  side  of  the  small  bay, 
which  con  vexes  to  the  northward  and  eastward,  and  is  about  a  mile 
and  three-quarters  across  to  its  eastern  extremity.  The  town,  con- 
taining about  1500  inhabitants,  chiefly  consists  of  mud-built  houses 
thatched  with  cajans,  but  those  of  the  Mahommeclan  population  are 
much  superior.  The  gaol,  cutcherry,  and  Assistant  Government 
Agent's  house  are  situated  on  the  hill,  which  commands  an  extensive 
view  of  the  sea,  the  Koholankale,  Maha,  Karaganare  and  Sitricale 
leways,  and  of  the  seven  hills  of  Kattragamme,  the  local  Vatican  of 
Paganism.  The  fort  and  the  commandant's  house  are  on  the  east 
side  of  the  hill,  about  fifty  yards  from  the  sea.  This  place  is  the 
grand  depot  of  the  salt  gathered  in  the  Mahagamapattoo;  and  of  red 
dust,  which  imparts  its  colour  to  every  thing  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.     The  white  ant  (Tcrmes  fatale,  Linn.)  is  quite  in  its  element 


588  CEYLON.  [PAKT   IV. 

here,  the  red  sand  enabling  it  to  burrow  to  a  great  depth,  and  under 
the  very  foundations  of  the  houses ;  and  from  the  brickdust  appear- 
ance of  every  thing  upon  which  its  minute  particles  are  deposited  by 
the  wind,  these  destructive  insects  are  enabled  to  carry  on  their 
covered  ways  to  the  roof,  without  being  perceived  even  by  the  most 
careful  servant.  Between  the  sea  and  the  town,  the  enormous  hills 
of  sea  sand,  upon  which  a  heavy  carriage  may  be  driven  with  as 
much  facility  as  on  the  best  macadamised  road,  encroach  so  very 
rapidly,  that  houses  have  been  continually  pulled  down  and  rebuilt 
at  a  greater  distance,  to  prevent  their  being  overwhelmed,  and  the 
principal,  source  from  whence  water  was  supplied  to  the  town  has 
been  cut  oif.  The  accumulation  of  sand  must  have  been  as  rapid  as 
the  growth  of  the  adjoining  cocoa-nut  trees,  for  some  of  sixty  feet  in 
height  are,  according  to  Mr.  Bennett,  buried  up  to  the  crests,  the 
only  parts  visible  above  the  surface ;  and  the  bunches  of  nuts  lie 
upon  the  sand  as  if  they  were  the  produce  of  a  gigantic  plant,  instead 
of  being  the  fruit,  of  one  of  the  tallest  of  the  palm  family,  and  may 
be  cut  from  their  stalks  by  a  child. 

Though  the  principal  station  of  the  Mahagamapattoo,  Hambantotte 
was  till  lately  without  a  rest-house,  but  the  deficiency  was  supplied 
by  the  hospitality  of  the  local  authorities.  The  next  stage  from 
Hambantotte  is  the  rest-house  of  Wallawe,  eight  and  a  half  miles 
distant ;  the  road  lies  to  the  right  of  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Karaganare,  or  long  leway,  and  adjoining  the  high  promontory  by 
which  the  small  bay  of  Hambantotte  is  formed.  This  leway  lies 
considerably  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  might  be  filled  with  salt 
water  by  cutting  through  about  130  yards  of  sand.  It  stretches 
nearly  along  the  sea-shore  for  about  three  miles,  and  is  about  half  a 
mile  broad ;  a  small  quantity  of  very  bitter  salt  occasionally  forms 
upon  its  edges,  which  possesses  medicinal  jujoperties.  The  village  of 
Erabocke,  the  residence  of  a  Modeliar,  where  paddy,  maize,  and 
kurukkan  form  the  chief  objects  of  culture,  lies  to  the  right  of  the 
high  road,  and  is  famed  for  its  forests  of  daluk  (Euphorbia  anti- 
quorum),  which  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  afford  a 
remarkable  contrast  to  the  irregular  plains  around,  which,  when  the 
salt  has  formed,  have  a  dazzling  whiteness.  A  neglected  plantation 
of  cocoa-nut  trees,  on  the  right  of  the  road,  points  out  the  site  of  a 
former  village,  where  there  is  now  not  a  house  or  hut  to  be  seen, 
again  evidencing  the  depopulation  of  this  once  well  peopled  and  cul- 
tivated district.  The  size  of  the  trees  proves  the  care  with  which 
they  must  have  been  tended,  or  else  their  destruction  by  the  ele- 
phants, who  abound  in  this  vicinity,  would  have  been  inevitable. 
The  next  leway  is  the  exhausted  one  of  Sitricale,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  large  oval  fish-pond  ;  it  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
circumference,  and  lies  to  the  right  of  the  road  between  it  and  the 
sea,  from  which  it  is  about  250  yards  distant.  The  shore  is  here 
bounded  by  a  high  sand  bank,  and  the  intermediate  space  to  the  left 


CHAP.  I.]  THE  WALLA WE-OANGA — RESOURCES  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  589 

of  the  road  is  filled  with  thick  jungle.  About  half  a  mile  beyond  the 
Sitricale  leway,  is  the  lesser  Sitricale,  the  furthest  from  the  sea,  and 
called  by  the  natives  Koda-leawawa.  Between  this  place  and  the  small 
village  of  Pybocke,  the  country  is  frequently  inundated  ;  and  after  the 
subsidence  of  the  waters,  patches  of  white,  interspersed  with  the  bright 
green  of  the  herbage,  meet  the  eye  in  every  direction;  these  on  a  nearer 
approach  are  found  to  be  mushrooms,  which  for  size  and  flavour  are  not 
to  be  surpassed.  At  night  these  plains  appear  studded  with  fire-flies,  and 
at  sunrise  teem  with  elephants,  herds  of  wild  hogs,  spotted  deer  and 
peafowl,  and  the  adjoining  larger  patches  of  water  bordered  by  jungle, 
with  flamingoes,  spoonbills,  wild  ducks,  widgeon,  pelicans,  herons, 
toucans  and  kingfishers'.  Here  is  also  a  large  artificial  tank,  of  com- 
paratively modern  construction,  capable  of  holding  sufficient  water  to 
irrigate  100  ammomams  of  paddy  ground,  of  which  the  average 
produce  is  1G00  parrahs,  or  nearly  1,100  bushels.  Wanderope 
is  the  name  of  the  next  village  after  leaving  Pybocke,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Wallawe,  and  consists  with  one  or  two  exceptions 
s  of  scattered  cottages  and  huts,  of  which  a  few  are  tiled.  The  only 
thing  to  interest  the  antiquarian  is  a  granite  post,  like  an  old  English 
milestone,  under  an  umbrageous  Bogaha,  in  the  area  of  the  neigh- 
bouring temple,  which  is  said  to  constitute  its  title  to  the  adjoining 
lands  so  long  as  the  sun  and  moon  may  endure. 

The  Wallawe  or  Walkway  river  bears  about  E.  by  N.  \  N.  four 
leagues  from  Tangalle  ;  the  coast  between  them  is  low  and  barren 
close  to  the  sea,  but  groups  of  cocoa-nut  trees  are  seen  near  the  river's 
mouth,  and  its  banks  are  shaded  with  some  of  the  most  magnificent 
trees  in  the  world  ;  the  coast  is  high  inland,  and  may  be  approached 
to  twenty-five  fathoms  within  four  or  five  miles  of  the  shore.  The 
Wallawe-ganga  is  the  fourth  river  in  Ceylon  in  importance,  but  a 
bar  of  sand,  through  which  it  percolates,  forms  a  dam  at  its  extremity, 
except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  it  rises  full  twenty  feet  above 
its  usual  level.  At  other  times  it  is  almost  every  where  fordable  from 
about  half  a  mile  above  the  ferry  at  the  village  of  Wanderope  (which 
is  about  two  mdes  from  the  sea)  to  its  source  in  the  mountains  of 
Ouva.  The  natives  residing  on  the  banks  of  this  beautiful  stream, 
will  not  bathe  in  it  during  the  rainy  season,  on  account  of  the  quantity 
of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  carried  down  by  the  stream,  render- 
ing not  only  the  water,  but  the  air  unwholesome,  and  producing 
jungle  fever  if  drunk  or  bathed  in.  Off  the  entrance  of  the  river, 
at  the  distance  of  three  or  four  miles, 'there  is  a  rock  on  which  the 
sea  generally  breaks,  and  is  said  to  have  a  channel  with  seven  or 
eight  fathoms  water,  sandy  bottom  between  it  and  the  shore,  through 
which  small  vessels  may  occasionally  pass.  A  little  inland  from  the 
entrance  of  the  river,  stands  a  small  mountain  of  barren  aspect.  The 
light  but  rich  alluvial  soil  upon  the  banks  of  this  river  is  well 
adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  pepper,  ginger,  cotton,  turmeric, 
cardamoms,  arrow-root  and  the  canua  glauca.     Such,  however,  is  the 


590  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

neglect  of  agriculture,  that  the  most  indispensable  condiments  for 
the  natives'  food  are  not  grown  in  any  quantity  here,  where  sufficient 
to  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  whole  island  might  be  grown  on  a  part  of 
the  waste  lands  alone,  with  but  little  trouble,  beyond  planting  and 
weeding.  Land  also  may  be  obtained  at  a  merely  nominal  rent,  or 
purchased  at  a  trifle,  on  account  of  the  alleged  insalubrity  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  village  of  Wallawe  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  If 
the  improvements  of  the  district  were  to  commence  from  hence,  its 
progress  would  be  rapid.  This  is  just  the  tranquil  locality  adapted 
to  the  silk  worm,  and  the  mulberry  thrives  here  luxuriantly.  Wells 
can  easily  be  sunk,  and  the  purest  water  be  obtained  within  twenty 
yards  of  the  river. 

During  the  rains,  the  Wallawe,  becomes,  as  we  have  already  remarked, 
a  deep  and  rapid  stream,  and  can  only  be  crossed  in  boats.  The  horse- 
boat  in  general  use  at  the  Ceylon  ferries,  is  a  very  convenient  one  for 
horses  and  carriages  ;  for  being  flat  bottomed,  it  draws  only  a  few 
inches  of  water,  and  as  it  is  strongly  built,  about  eighteen  feet  in 
length,  and  six  or  seven  in  breadth  from  head  to  stern,  both  which 
are  square,  the  upper  part  abutting  about  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
bottom,  is  capable  of  conveying  a  considerable  burden.  The  common 
mode  of  ferrying  five  or  six  passengers  across  the  Wallawe  river,  is 
by  joining  two  canoes  and  placing  a  platform  over  them,  capable  of 
containing  as  many  chairs  conveniently.  This  is  also  the  best  for 
excursions  up  the  river  ;  for  a  temporary  awning  may  be  fitted  up 
in  ten  minutes,  and  a  couple  of  boatmen,  one  being  seated  in  the  bow 
of  the  near  canoe,  and  the  other  in  the  stern  of  the  off  one,  or  vice 
versa,  propel  it  along  rapidly  with  their  short  paddles,  and  seldom  fail 
to  secure  whatever  birds  may  be  shot  and  fall  into  the  water  from  the 
overhanging  trees,  without  moving  from  their  seats.  Paddy  is  sown 
in  this  district  in  October  and  November,  and  reaped  in  January  and 
February,  but  that  called  the  second  sort,  is  reaped  in  December  and 
January.  Maize  (Iringhee  Singh)  is  sown  in  August  and  September, 
and  reaped  in  November  and  December ;  the  brown  and  white  kur- 
rukkan  (Cynosurus  coracanus,  L.)  are  sown  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember, and  reaped  in  November  and  December  ;  Moong  (Phaseolus 
mungo,  L.)  and  badhama,  an  excellent  substitute  for  rice,  are  sown 
in  October  and  November,  and  reaped  in  January  and  February. 

The  Girawe-pattoo  lies  between  the  Wallawe-ganga,  its  limit 
on  the  east ;  the  Kahawatta-oya,  its  bound  on  the  west;  and  the 
Morruwa  or  Morva-korle  on  fhe  north.  It  comprises  nearly  fifty 
villages,  and  its  fisheries  are  extensive  and  afford  considerable  em- 
ployment. The  forests  abound  in  elephants,  which  were  formerly 
caught  here  in  great  numbers  for  exportation,  and  the  great  elephant 
hunts  spoken  of  by  Cordiner,  took  place  in  this  district.  The  original 
means  of  irrigation  possessed  by  this  province  were  of  the  most 
extensive  description.  Clay,  for  the  purpose  of  brick  making,  is 
abundant  in  several  localities,  and  limestone  rock  is  abundant. 


CHAP.    1.]  WANDEROPE THE    GTRAWE-PATTOO.  591 

The  pansala  at  Wanderope  is  a  very  low  building,  covered  witfl 
pantiles,  and  the  wihare  a  mere  heap  of  brick  ruins  ;   but  these  afford 
very  ample  proof  of  the  excellent  quality  of  the  materials  employed 
in  their  manufacture,   which  were  procured  in  the  vicinity  and  made 
upon  the  spot.     These  ruins,  which  are  partly  covered  with  jungle 
underwood,  lie  within  an  enclosure  on  the  left  hand,  immediately 
adjoining  the  high  road,  and  about  one  hundred  yards  from  the 
ferry  ;  but  the  Buddhists  have  not  the  means,  if  they  had  the  inten- 
tion, of  re-employing  the  materials  in  the  restoration  of  the  wihare. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  remains  of  a  Singhalese  inscription  cut  in 
stone,  but  much  defaced,  and  on  an  adjoining  pillar  are  coarse  out- 
lines of  the  sun  and  moon,  emblems  of  royalty  and  duration,  com- 
monly  attached  to  grants  of  Crown  lands  made  by  the  Kings  of 
Ceylon.     Tanks  for   irrigating  the  surrounding  country  might   be 
constructed  here,  and  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  Wallawe,  to  any 
extent ;  but  the  old  Wallawe  tank  having  been  formed  above  the 
level  of  the  river,  could  only  be  supplied  from  it  during  its  periodical 
rise  in  the  rainy  season,  when  water  is  least  wanted.     The  neglect 
of  this  province  is  attributed  by  many  to   dread  of  the  climate,  by 
others,   to  the  inteiior  having  become  the  field  of  speculation  in 
coffee  planting  and  the  sugar-cane  ;  but  the  latter,  though  successful, 
is  not  likely  to  be  carried  to  any  extent  in  comparison  with  the 
former.    Sugar  might  be  grown  with  great  success  in  the  Mahagama- 
pattoo,  where  the  cane  grows  luxuriantly,  but  the  natives  are  fearful 
of  planting  it,    except   in    small  patches  near  their  dwellings,  for 
making  syrups,  and  for  their  children's  use  in  a  raw  state,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  herds  of  elephants  that  infest  the  country.     The 
villagers  on  either  side  the  Wallawe,  appear  to  have  an  insuperable 
objection  to  the  sea  breeze ;  for  they  allow  the  underwood  to  grow 
so  closely  as  to  preclude  its  cooling  and  salutary  influence.     If  this 
were  not  the  case,  the  village  would,  become  as  salubrious  as  any  of 
the  intermediate  places  betwTeen  Tangalle   and   Colombo.     Having 
crossed  from  the  left  to  the  right  bank  of  this  river,  the  traveller 
enters  the  Girrawe-pattoo,  or  parrot  district,  and  just  before  sunset 
the  trees  on  the  banks  of  the  Wallawe,  particularly  those  of  deciduous 
foliage,  are  frequently  covered  by  these  birds.     The  rest-house  is 
about  one  hundred  yards  from  the  ferry  on  the  left  of  the  highway, 
which  there  begins  to  assume  some  sort  of  road-like  appearance,  and 
intersects  the  jungle  by  which  this  large  and  convenient  building  is 
surrounded,  but  though  the  compound  is  strongly  fenced,  it  is  sub- 
ject to  the  nocturnal  incursions  of  elephants,   which  greatly  infest 
this  road  at  that  time,  rendering  travelling  dangerous.      A  sand, 
composed  of  rubies,  sapphires  and  cats'  eyes  is  peculiar  to  this  dis- 
trict,  and  used  in  making  transverse    sections   of  the   molares   of 
elephants,  and  for  many  of  the  purposes  of  diamond  powder.    About 
a  mile  above  the  rest-house  is  the  Government  cattle  kraal,  where 
the  bullocks  belonging  to  the  salt  department  at  Hambantotte,  which 


592  CEYLON.  [PAIIT   IV. 

site  sent  to  this  distant  place  to  graze,  are  penned,  and  are  frequently 
carried  off  by  chetahs.  The  kraal  lies  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive 
plain,  which  is  crossed  to  the  left  in  the  route  by  the  sea  side — which 
is  by  far  to  be  preferred — to  the  village  of  Wellepattanvelle,  about  1|- 
miles  from  the  Wallawe,  from  whence  the  road  rises  by  a  gradual 
ascent.  From  the  summit,  the  prospect  commands  a  very  extensive 
range  of  both  sea  and  land,  including  Tangalle,  the  Mahagama-pattoo 
and  the  Kattragamme  hills  in  the  distance.  Near  the  straggling 
village  of  Loonawe,  situate  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Tam- 
boora-galle  leway,  which  lies  nearer  the  sea  than  the  Konakatte 
leway,  the  country  has  a  delightfully  verdant  appearance  after  the 
rains  ;  but  being  entirely  dependent  upon  a  small  tank,  which  is  filled 
at  that  season,  for  its  irrigation,  the  produce  is  very  limited  in  pro- 
portion to  what  it  might  be,  and  the  relics  of  former  embankments 
and  drains  in  almost  all  the  villages  of  this  district  are  plain  evidences 
that  its  former  was  much  more  extensive  than  its  present  state  of 
cultivation.  The  yield  of  paddy  is  not  more  than  eight  or  nine-fold 
here,  while  that  of  the  brown  and  white  kurukkan  and  badhama  is 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty-fold. 

After  crossing  the  wooden  bridge  over  the  Ranne-oya,  where  that 
river  is  about  twenty  feet  wide,  the  rest-house,  which  is  elevatad  a 
few  feet  above  the  K»ad  on  the  right  hand  as  one  ascends  the  hill, 
offers  shelter  from  sun  and  rain,  but  no  comfort,  being  both  hot  and 
disagreeable,  from  its  low  roof  and  small  size ;  the  rock  and  temple 
of  Kahandawia  are  here  distinctly  seen.  The  village  of  Ranne  is 
eleven  miles  from  Wallawe,  and  nine  from  Tangalle.  Crocodiles 
infest  the  river,  and  the  natives  catch  them  in  kraals,  composed  of 
strong  and  high  stakes.  The  porcupine  also  abounds  here.  About 
a  mile  and  a  quarter  from  the  bridge  on  the  right  hand,  there  is  a 
spacious  but  dilapidated  tank,  which  was  once  capable  of  irrigating 
300  ammomams  of  land,  the  annual  average  produce  of  which,  in 
the  two  harvests,  amounted  to  9600  parrahs  of  paddy,  equal  to  6200 
bushels ;  a  great  extent  of  luxuriant  rice  fields  are  now  watered  by 
the  Ranne-oya,  the  course  of  which  may  be  traced  at  some  distance 
from  the  gigantic  reeds  that  rise  above  its. banks. 

Throughout  this  part  of  the  southern  province  in  the  former 
district  of  Tangalle,  the  remains  of  innumerable  tanks,  some  of  very 
remote  antiquity,  afford  ample  proofs  of  the  skill  of  its  ancient 
population  in  the  collection  and  distribution  of  water.  Many  are 
excavated  on  level  plains,  which  were  supplied  by  dams  across  rivers, 
and  over  deep  ravines,  others  by  watercourses  carried  from  hill  to 
hill  over  valleys,  forming  extensive  reservoirs  for  irrigation,  when 
drought  precluded  a  supply  of  water  from  natural  sources.  A  few 
miles  before  one  enters  Tangalle,  the  belt  of  cocoa-nut  palms,  which 
borders  the  sea  in  myriads,  begins  and  continues  with  a  few  intervals 
all  the  way  to  Colombo,  but  not  a  palmyra-tree  is  to  be  seen.  There 
is  an  excellent  Government  house,  formerly  the   residence  of  the 


CHAP.  I.]    TANGALLE  —  THE  MORRUWA  KORLE KIRIME  CANAL.      593 

collector  at  Tangalle.  The  house  is  immediately  under  the  hill 
where  the  fort  stands,  and  has  a  spacious  verandah,  between  which 
and  the  sea  there  is  a  magnificent  row  of  trees,  (Mimusops  Elengi, 
Linn.)  There  is  no  other  civil  officer  at  Tangalle  than  the  district 
judge,  and  not  even  a  custom-house  establishment. 

Tangalle  may  be  seen  at  a  great  distance  from  the  offing,  and  is 
easily  known  by  the  small  fort  and  the  ruins  of  an  old  pagoda,  situated 
on  an  elevated  and  projecting  point  on  the  west  side  of  the  hay. 
The  bay  itself  is  of  considerable  extent,  it  being  four  miles  from 
Tangalle  Point  to  the  extreme  point  of  land  opposite.  The  shore  is 
sandy.  From  each  point  run  extensive  and  dangerous  reefs.  Within 
the  reefs  there  is  good  anchorage  and  shelter  during  the  south-west 
monsoon.  The  proper  entrance  to  the  bay  lies  between  the  western 
rock  and  a  breaker  N.N.E.  §  E.  of  it.  Between  the  rock  and  the 
breaker  is  a  channel  more  than  eight  fathoms  deep.  The  rock  is 
always  visible,  being  large,  and  rising  several  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  water.  A  vessel  should  keep  nearer  the  rock  than  the  breaker. 
Should  the  swell  be  great,  which  is  generally  the  case,  the  best 
entrance  is  midway  between  the  breakers  and  rock,  in  eight  or  nine 
fathoms,  over  a  fine  sandy  bottom.  From  thence  the  course  is 
N.W.  \  W.  direct  for  a  small  double  hill,  rising  considerably  inland, 
and  bearing  exactly  in  the  middle  of  an  opening  in  a  plantation  of 
cocoa-nut  trees,  until  in  seven  fathoms,  fine  grey  sand,  when  a  vessel 
can  either  anchor  or  run  farther  up  the  harbour,  as  circumstances 
require.  In  the  latter  case,  vessels  bearing  W.N.W.  f  W.  steer  for 
a  small  white  pagoda  on  a  small  conical  shaped  hill,  appearing  over 
the  end  of  the  cocoa-nut  grove.  Either  of  these  courses  will  bring 
them  directly  into  the  harbour.  In  the  middle  of  the  harbour  lies 
a  bank  with  two  fathoms  water  on  it,  and  a  breaker  is  seen  over  it. 
Inside  this  bank  are  four  and  a  half  fathoms  with  a  fine  sandy  bottom. 
Vessels  wishing  to  anchor  inside  of  it,  pass  it  to  the  northward, 
leaving  it  on  the  starboard  hand,  when  a  channel  will  be  found  of 
four  and  a  half  fathoms  over  a  sandy  bottom.  Between  this  and  the 
reef  running  off  Tangalle  Point,  there  is  also  a  channel,  but  the  bottom 
is  rocky,  and  the  soundings  irregular.  This  breaker  almost  always 
shews  itself,  and  can  therefore  be  easily  avoided.  Within  it  a 
vessel  is  completely  sheltered  from  the  west  and  south-west  wind,  and 
rides  in  smoothish  water  from  the  reef,  which  runs  from  the  point, 
breaking  the  force  of  the  southerly  swell.  The  landing  place,  which 
is  entirely  free  from  surf,  lies  under  the  rising  ground  upon  which 
the  fort  stands,  having  the  ruins  of  a  house  a  little  to  the  south  of  it. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  landing  place  passing  the  fort, 
is  a  well  of  excellent  water.  A  pathway  leads  direct  from  the  fort 
to  the  well,  where  water  may  be  filled,  and  the  casks  rolled  down  to 
the  beach.  A  small  jetty  built  at  the  landing  place  would  greatly 
facilitate  the  lading  of  boats.  This  bay  lies  completely  exposed  to 
the  east  and  south-east  winds,  which  are  most  severe  on  this  coast, 
and  prevail  during  October,  November,  and  part  of  December,  blowing 
with  great  violence  at  the  full  and  change  of  the  moon,  but  as  they 

2   Q 


594  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

are  of  short  duration,  ships  might  avoid  touching  at  Tangalle  while 
they  last.  The  rise  in  the  tides  is  inconsiderable.  It  is  high  water 
at  full  and  change.     The  tide  runs  N.N.W.  and  S.S.E. 

The  harbour  of  Tangalle  might  be  made  capable  of  giving  shelter 
to  large  ships,  and  is  deserving  of  attention  from  the  Government. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  occupied  in  agriculture  and  fishing.  The 
view  from  the  fort  is  beautiful  and  extensive,  and  is  an  excellent  place 
for  a  signal  station  for  communicating  with  Indiamen  making  Dondera 
Head.  The  Morruwa  Korle,  adjoining  the  Girawepattoo  on  the 
north,  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Odugaha  and  Yattigaha,  and  com- 
prises twenty  villages.  From  its  position  it  is  both  well  watered  and 
futile. 

Of  the  several  national  and  arduous  undertakings  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Ceylon,  during  Sir  E.  Barnes's  administration,  the  canal  of 
Kirime  is  justly  entitled  to  rank  with  the  foremost  in  agricultural 
importance,  and  as  a  splendid  memorial  of  skill,  talent,  and  perse- 
verance. It  was  commenced  in  1824  under  the  personal  superin- 
tendence of  an  officer  of  the  civil  service,  and  was  completed  in  1827. 
This  most  important  auxiliary  to  native  agriculture  was  begun  at 
Kirime,  about  thirty  miles  to  the  northward  of  Tangalle,  situate  at 
the  foot  of  the  lofty  mountains  called  Rameli-Kandi,  which  divide 
it  from  the  Morruwa  Korle  in  this  province,  by  constructing  a  dam 
52  feet  high,  540  long,  and  gradually  diminishing  in  breadth  to  12 
feet  from  a  base  of  160  feet,  which  was  indispensable  in  consequence 
of  the  rapid  rise  and  fall  of  the  mountain  streams  during  the  rains. 
Into  this  reservoir,  which  is  composed  entirely  of  fine  red  soil,  with 
Scarcely  a  pebble  to  be  found  in  it,  the  course  of  a  mountain  rivulet 
was  diverted,  and  the  Kirime  canal,  which  as  a  work  of  labour,  excels 
that  of  the  dam,  was  the  next  object  of  the  attention  of  the  able  and 
zealous  superintendant.  The  completion  of  these  splendid  works, 
was  followed  by  the  distribution  of  honorary  titles  and  gold  medals, 
which  were  conferred  by  his  Excellency  the  Governor  upon  the  most 
deserving  headmen,  by  way  of  marking  publicly  the  unqualified 
approbation  of  their  conduct  and  services  by  the  executive. 

Twelve  miles  inland  from  Tangalle  are  the  Buddhist  temples  of 
Mulgirigalla.  This  rock  is  about  350  feet  high,  perpendicular  on 
three  sides,,but  connected  on  the  north  with  a  low  rocky  range,  of  which 
it  forms  the  abrupt  termination.  The  small  level  spot  on  the  summit, 
from  which  there  is  an  extensive  prospect  over  the  southern  maritime 
provinces,  is  surmounted  by  a  dagobah  t  the  ascent  is  not  difficult, 
stone  steps  being  placed  wherever  the  rock  is  very  steep.  The  dwel- 
lings of  the  priests  of  the  establishment  are  situated  near  the  base  of 
the  rock,  and  behind  them,  where  there  is  an  overhanging  ledge,  the 
remains  of  the  oldest  temples  now  in  ruins  may  be  distinguished. 
The  modern  temples  are  excavated  under  a  ledge  within  a  little 
distance  from  the  summit,  and  are  in  good  repair.  The  rock  temples 
of  Mulgiri,  though  similar  in  design,  are  very  inferior  to  those  at 
Dambool :  the  old  temples  were  formed  by  Saidatissa  in  the  second 
century  before  Christ :  Kaloona  Detootissa  completed  the  new  temples 


CHAP.    1.]  ROCK    TEMPLES    OF    MTJLGIRI  —  DONDERA.  593 

in   the   seventh  century.      A  colossal  stone  image  of  Buddha,  in  a 
recumbent  posture,  is  to  be  seen  in  either  wihare. 

From  Tangalle  to  Dikwelle  the  distance  is  eleven  miles,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  road  hilly,  but  though  tolerably  good,  it  is  much 
broken  up  during  the  rains.  From  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the 
road,  the  country  appears  to  the  greatest  advantage  at  that  season 
when  the  verdure  of  the  surrounding  scenery  is  very  grateful  to  the 
European  eye.  Paddy  fields  abound  in  every  direction  Passing 
so  near  the  well  known  Dondera  Head,  or  Dewinuwara  (city  of  the 
god)  nine  miles  from  Dikwelle,  and  about  two  and  a  half  or  three 
miles  from  Matura,  the  traveller  will  find  it  well  worth  his  time  to 
diverge  to  the  left  from  the  main  road,  and  visit  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Hindoo  temple  there. 

Dondera  Head,  the  southernmost  point  of  Ceylon,   and  the  site 
of  the  Singhalese  capital  during  a  part  of  the  seventh  century,  is  a 
steep,  narrow,    and   rugged   promontory  overlooking,   and  about   a 
mile  to  the  eastward  of,  a  low  tongue  of  land  covered  with  cocoa- 
nut  trees.     At  this   place  are  a  wihare  with  a  dagobah,  its  usual 
accompaniment,  and    a    Hindoo  Dewale,1   dedicated    to    the  great 
great  Vishnu  (Govinda  of  the  Singhalese),  and  similarly  ornamented  in 
its  interior  to  the  Kattragamme  temple.    The  temples  are  delightfully 
shaded  by  cocoa-nut  and   areka  palms,  yellow  Bignonia,    (Bignonia 
Indica),  Bogaha,and  plantain  trees,  and  afford  a  cool  and  pleasant  shade 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.    The  priests  and  attendants  are  extremely 
civil  and  obliging  to  strangers,  as   if  pleased  at   the  temple  being 
noticed   by   Europeans.       Here,    interspersed     among   native   huts, 
gardens,  and  cocoa-nut  plantations,  several  hundred  upright  stone 
pillars  still  remain ;  they  are  cut  into  various  shapes,  and  exhibit 
different  sculptures,  among  others,  Rama  with  his  bow  and  arrows 
may  be  discerned  in  various  forms.     A  square  gateway,   formed  of 
three  stones,  elaborately  carved,  leads  to  a  wretched  mud  edifice,  in 
which  four  stone  windows  of  superior  workmanship,  are  proofs  that 
a  very  different  style  of  building  formerly  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present  temple.     Dondera  is    still  held  particularly  sacred  by  the 
votaries  of  Vishnu,  as  being  the  utmost  limit  which  now  remains  of 
his   conquests  when  incarnate   in   that   perfect   prince  and  warrior 
Ramachandra ;  and  an  annual  festival,  which  takes  place  in  the  full 
moon  in  July,  continues  to  attract  many  thousands  of  the  worshippers 
of  Vishnu.     Near  the  sea  shore  is  a  group  of  plain  stone  pillars,  and 
on  a  low  rocky  point  a  single  pillar,  over  which  the  sea  breaks  amidst 
hewn  stones,  the  remains  of  some  ancient  building.     This  lone  pillar 
is  supposed  to  mark   the  utmost  limits  which  remain  of  Vishnu's 
conquest  and  religion.     The  pillar  is  of  a  form  alternately  octagonal 
and  square,  and  exactly  resembles  columns  that  are  to  be  seen  on 
the  sacred  promontory  of  Trincomalee.     A  short  distance  inland,  is  a 

1  While  (Tie  famous  temple  at  Dondera  was  in  progress,  the  inhabitants  of  a 
village  in  the  \ieinity  were  ordered  to  feed  the  crows  that  resorted  thither.  Tin- 
words  used  in  calling  them,  Ka  Ka-witta,  were  uttered  so  often,  that  the  village 
assumed  the  name,  substituting  for  Ka,  Ma-Kawitta. 

2   Q.    2 


596  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

stone  building  called  Galgana,  completed  or  restored  in  the  reign  of 
Daapulo  II.,  a.d.  605,  and  consisting  of  two  rooms,  the  roof  as 
well  as  the  walls  are  of  hewn  stone,  and  exhibit  excellent  specimens 
of  masonry ;  on  the  top  there  appears  formerly  to  have  been  a 
dagobah,  but  the  ruin  is  now  covered  with  shrubs  and  creeping 
plants. 

Dondera  is  included  in  the  Wellebodde-pattoo,  a  subdivision  of 

the  district  of  Matura,  which  extends  from  thence  to  the  Kahawatte- 

oya,  having  the  Kandabodde-pattoo,  comprising  sixty  villages  to  the 

north  ;  the  Gangabodde-pattoo  on  the  west  derives  its  name  from  the 

Neela-Ganga  traversing  its  western,  and  the  Kirime-oya  its  eastern 

side.     It  is  almost  surrounded  by  hills,  and  the  soil  is  extremely 

fertile.     It  comprehends  eighty-three  villages.    Approaching  Matura 

from  the  eastward,  the  country  is  very  beautiful,  presenting  extensive 

grazing  plains  and  paddy  fields,  intersected  with  canals  and  rivulets, 

and  interspersed  with  cocoa-nut  and  areka  palms.     The  town  lies 

low,  and  the  lines  that  remain  upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Neela-ganga 

(Blue  river)  suffice  to  shew  that  under  the  Dutch,  the  fortifications 

were  very  extensive.     On  the  right  bauk  there  is  a  small  fort,  built 

of  stone,  with  five  bastions  that  command  the  bridges,  which  are 

connected  by  an  islet  and  the  ferry    There  are  several  excellent  private 

houses  at  this  place,  chiefly  of  Kabook  or  iron-stone  clay,  a  district 

Court-house,  chapel,   and  barracks.     The  Cutcherry  is  an  extensive 

building,  and  there  is  also  a  Wesleyan  Mission-house   and  chapel. 

The  country  around  Matura  is  so  extremely  fertile,  that  every  article 

of  food  is  abundant  and  cheap  ;   and  no  place  is  better  supplied  with 

fish.     The  neighbourhood  affords  the   most   delightful  walks  and 

drives,   completely  sheltered  by  a  variety  of  umbrageous  trees,  and 

dense  cocoa-nut  topes,  from  even  a  midday  sun.     The  town  lies  in 

lat.  5o  58'  N.  and  long.  80°  37'  E.  and  bears  about  E.  £  S.  from 

Red  point,  the  east  point  of  Redbay,  eight  miles  distant,  the  land 

between   them  is  moderately   elevated,  and   the   coast  very  steep, 

having  sixty  fathoms  water  in  some  places,  within  twenty  miles  from 

the  shore. 

Matura  (Maha-totta,  the  great  ferry),  in  allusion  to  the  width  and 
rapidity  of  its  river,  is  a  considerable  town,  and  the  fort  is  conspicuous 
from  seaward,  when  it  bears  N.N.W.  and  N.E.  Ships  can  anchor 
here  in  the  N.E.  monsoon,  abreast  of  the  town  in  twenty  and  twenty- 
two  fathoms,  the  bottom  is  generally  foul.  Plenty  of  wood  and  good 
water,  poultry,  fish,  fruits,  roots  and  vegetables  may  be  procured, 
the  two  former  at  the  entrance  of  the  river  or  very  near  it,  about  half 
a  mile  to  the  westward  of  the  fort ;  but  boats  entering  it,  should 
have  a  native  pilot,  as  there  are  some  dangerous  sunken  rocks  at  the 
entrance.  Matura  or  Pigeon  island,  stands  opposite  the  fort  and 
near  the  shore,  and  is  small  and  rocky,  resembling  a  haycock.  Boats 
find  shelter  under  it,  the  surf  being  generally  high  on  shore.  Canoes 
are  used  for  passing  to  the  main.  An  assistant  Government  agent  in 
charge  of  the  revenue,  and  a  district  Judge,  are  the  only  public  officers 
resident  here  during  peace.     Matura  is  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 


CHAP.  I.]    WELLEBODDE  AND  KANDEBODDE-PATTOOS MATURA.    597 

pepper,  indigo,  cardamoms,  coffee,  cotton,  ginger,  and  even  sugar,  and 
the  country  between  Matura  and  Wallawe  is  a  succession  of  rich  rice 
fields  in  the  valleys.  The  district  of  Matura  extends  from  east  to 
west  upwards  of  forty  miles,  and  eighteen  from  north  to  south,  and 
produces  as  great  a  variety  of  grasses  as  any  in  the  island,  exclusively 
of  the  esculent  species  cultivated  under  the  name  of  small  grains.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Wallawe-ganga,  and  west  by  the  Talpse 
and  Gangabodde-pattoos,  and  comprehends,  exclusive  of  the  gravets, 
fifteen  pattoos  and  464  villages.  This  district  is  perhaps  the  most 
attached  to  the  Buddhist  religion  of  any  in  Ceylon,  as  is  evidenced 
by  its  numerous  wihares  and  the  multitude  of  priests,  and  Dondera 
is  its  great  stronghold.  Matura  is  famous  for  poultry,  with  which  it 
supplies  the  Galle  and  Colombo  markets,  but  coir,  arrack,  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  its  principal  staples.  Beautiful  sofa  and  palanquin  mats  and 
carved  figures  of  the  native  castes  are  manufactured  here  for  sale  to 
the  curious,  and  the  petrified  wood  of  the  tamarind  tree,  which  is 
much  esteemed,  is  commonly  manufactured  into  snuff-boxes  and  seals, 
and  sold  at  reasonable  prices.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Neela-ganga, 
over  which  there  is  a  wooden  bridge,  the  Hat-bodin  (seven  bo-trees), 
though  now  a  cocoa-nut  tope,  retains  its  ancient  name,  and  serves  to 
point  out  the  spot  where  the  funeral  pile  of  the  murdered  poet 
Kaalidaaa  was  prepared.  The  next  stage  from  Matura  is  Belligamme, 
(Welligama)  distant  rather  more  than  eleven  miles,  and  situate  upon 
Red  Bay,  which  is  formed  by  two  beautiful  promontories,  inclosing 
several  bare  rocks  and  two  wooded  islands.  It  is  a  fishing  village, 
a  port  of  export  and  entry,  the  chief  town  of  the  Korle  of  the 
same  name,  and  is  densely  wooded  with  cocoa-nut,  bread-fruit,  jack, 
areka,  and  other  trees,  from  one  of  which,  Beli  (Cratseva  Marmelos, 
L.)  and  gamme,  village,  its  name  is  derived.  The  intermediate 
country  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  and  the  road  excellent.  Snipe 
and  teal  abound  in  the  lower  grounds,  and  a  variety  of  doves,  mango- 
birds,  bulbuls,  parrots,  and  finches  in  the  upper.  The  finest  fish 
may  be  procured  for  a  trifle,  as  well  as  green  turtle,  large  prawns 
and  crabs,  and  no  part  of  the  province  is  better  supplied  with  indi- 
genous fruits  and  vegetables.  The  rest-house  is  a  substantial  building 
of  stone,  approached  by  an  avenue  of  splendid  teak  trees. 

The  Agraboddigane,  wihare  and  dagobah,  as  well  as  the  dagobah 
in  the  midst  of  the  dense  cocoa-nut  tope  to  the  right  of  the  high 
road  to  Galle,  are  worthy  of  a  visit  from  the  traveller.  Agrabodhi- 
wiharc  is  situate  upon  a  gentle  eminence,  and  approached  by  flights  of 
numerous  and  well  worn  stone  steps.  The  recumbent  image  of  the  god 
is  on  the  left  hand  on  entering  the  sanctum,  and  is  about  thirty  feet 
long,  and  covered  with  a  beautiful  lacker,  which  has  made  the  surface 
as  smooth  as  polished  marble.  The  body  of  the  idol  is  a  light  yellow, 
(the  right  arm  and  breast  exposed),  the  eyeballs  white,  mouth  red, 
eves  and  hair  a  deep  black,  the  latter  Kaffre-like  and  woolly,  and 
upon  the  crown  of  the  head  is  a  representation  of  the  sacred  flame. 
The  robe,  in  wavy  folds  and  fitted  close  to  the  body,  is  of  sacred 
yellow  or  saffron,  and  reaches  to  the  ankles  ;  and  over  the  left  shoulder 


598  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

is  a  bright  vermilion  scarf,  which,  instead  of  falling  with  the  position 
of  the  Buddha,    retains  its    place  horizontally  to  the  waist,  as   if 
fastened  to  the  outer  robe,  or  as  in  an  erect  instead  of  a  recumbent 
figure.     Among  other  emblems,  the  sacred  Naga,  and  innumerable 
images  of  the  Hindoo  deities  are  prominently  conspicuous.     A  long 
narrow  table,  nearly  the  length  of  the  image,  before  which  is  sus- 
pended a  painted  cotton  curtain,  displays  the  fragrant  diurnal  offerings 
of  the  neighbouring  villages,  among  which,  the  Nelumbium  specio- 
sum,  the  Rat-manel-mal  of  the  Singhalese  is  one  of  the  chief  in 
point  of  beauty  and  odour.  The  walls  decorated  with  native  paintings 
in  the  primitive  style  of  outline  and  colour,  without  regard  to  shade 
or  perspective,  of  which  the  Singhalese  are  ignorant,  display  a  most 
extraordinary  historical  and    emblematical  medley.       Pagan  deities 
are  to  be  seen  holding  female  figures  in  their  arms, — kings  and  queens 
receiving  homage ;  the  former  seated  on  thrones  within  moveable 
palaces  drawn  by  elephants,  the  latter  in  chariots   of  Roman  shape, 
propelled  by  means  of  a  pole,  as  boats  are  in  shallow  water  ;  Bo  trees, 
palms,  and  lotus  flowers  intermixed,  with  executioners  in  the  act  of 
decapitating  criminals,  with  blue,  white,  and  red-eyed  devils,  some 
forcing  their  victims  into  the  flames,  others  tormenting  them  in  the 
most  excruciating  forms  ;  and  by  way  of  finish,  those  condemned  to 
endless  torment  are  enveloped  in  flame,  which  is  as  vivid  as  red  and 
yellow  paint  can  make  it.     Near  Belligamme  is  the  figure  called  the 
Kustia  Raja  (leprous  king)  :  it  stands  by  the  road  side,  is  twelve  feet 
high,  and  forms  part  of  a  great  mass  of  rock,  in  which  it  is  sculptured 
in  high  relief.     There  are  two  traditions  respecting  its  origin.     One, 
that  the  statue  represents  a  prince  from  the  continent  of  India,  who  in- 
troduced the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  taught  the  Singhalese  its  many  uses  : 
the  other,  that  a  king  afflicted  with  leprosy,  established  himself  at 
this  place  for  the  convenience  of  worshipping  at  the  adjoining  wihare 
of  Agrabodhi,  as  he  hoped  to  be  relieved  thereby  from  the  loathsome 
disease.     A  remoter  date  is  assigned  to  this  statue  than  is  Avarranted 
by  its  fresh  appearance,  or  by  the  dress  and  decorations  on  the  figure  : 
small  figures  of  Buddha  are  cut  as  ornaments  on  the  high  conical  tiara 
with  which  the  statue  is  surmounted,  and  which  formed  the  head- 
dress of  Singhalese  kings  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.     A  little  to 
the  west  of  Belligamme,  is  Nidigama  (the  sleeping  village),  so  called 
from  the  inhabitants  having  neglected  to  light  up  the  road  and  lie  in 
waiting  for  Koomara  Daas,  when  he  passed  through  the  village  in  the 
evening.     From  Belligamme  to  Galle,  seventeen  miles,  the  whole  line 
of  road  is  excellent,  and  entirely  shaded  by  dense  cocoa-nut  topes  or 
by  evergreen  and  umbrageous  sea  pomegranate  trees  (Barringtonia 
speciosa).     About  midway,  the  serpentine  lake  of  Kogalle,  which, 
during  the  rains  overflows  the  road  between  it  and  the  sea,  into 
which  it  at  other  times  flows  by  a  small  stream,  presents  one   of 
the  prettiest  and  most  tranquil  scenes  to  be  met  with  in  the  island, 
and  notwithstanding  that  it  is  scarcely  four  miles  long  and  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  broad,  it  is  well  worth  a  clay  to  visit  the  pretty  islands 
which  ornament  its  waters.    This  delightful  basin  is  surrounded  with 


CHAP.  1.]  AGRABODHI— KOGALLE  LAKE — GANGABODDE-PATTOO.  599 

a  natural  amphitheatre  of  verdant  hills  covered  to  the  very  top  with 
shrubs  and  trees  of  every  hue  that  the  most  luxuriant  foliage  can  pre- 
sent, and  from  its  translucent  bosom  rise  three  curious  rocks  called 
Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva.  From  the  island  where  the  agent  of 
Government's  bungalow  stands,  the  scenery  is  exquisite.  Thecajan- 
roofed  Bana  Maduwas  to  the  southward  of  the  lake,  from  their  extra- 
ordinary pagoda-like  shape,  have  a  very  novel  appearance  to  the 
European,  and  embowered  as  they  are  among  the  deep  green  foliage 
of  talapat,  cocoa-nut,  and  areka  palms,  shaddock  and  bread-fruit 
trees,  indicate  a  calm  and  delightful  solitude.  Pic-nic  parties  from 
Galle  frequently  visit  this  charming  spot,  and  tiffins  and  dinners  are 
occasionally  given  at  the  bungalow,  the  use  of  which  is  never  refused 
by  the  agent  of  Government  to  respectable  people  for  such  festive 
occasions.  There  are  many  crocodiles  in  the  lake,  affording  abundant 
sport  to  the  amateur,  and  upon  its  northern  and  eastern  borders 
there  is  plenty  of  game,  but  it  produces  no  other  species  of  fish  than 
has  already  been  noticed,  and  those  are  so  lightly  esteemed,  where 
supplies  from  the  sea  are  abundant,  that  they  are  never  sought  after 
by  the  fishermen.  Formerly  this  part  of  the  district  was  much  in- 
fested by  leopards,  and  children  were  frequently  carried  off  by  them 
into  the  jungle.  The  face  of  the  country  between  Kogalle  and  Galle, 
which  is  included  within  the  limits  of  the  little  pattoo  of  Talpse, 
forming  part  of  the  district  of  Galle,  is  undulating  and  extremely 
fertile ;  in  many  places  the  road  is  cut  through  hills  of  iron-stone 
clay ;  upon  descending  the  road  from  the  eastward,  and  opening  the 
harbour  of  Galle,  the  view  through  the  line  of  the  densely  shading 
cocoa-nut  trees  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  and  grateful  to  the  eye 
that  a  tropical  climate  can  present.  The  Gangabodde-pattoo  ex- 
tends from  the  gravets  of  Galle,  twenty- three  miles  into  the  interior, 
until  it  terminates  by  a  range  of  hills,  and  contains  forty-three 
villages,  the  soil  of  which  is  very  productive.  Ahangamme  (Ya- 
bangamme,  the  bed  village),  is  supposed  to  have  received  that  name 
from  Koomara  Daas  having  reposed  there,  while  on  a  tour  through 
this  part  of  the  country.  From  the  offing,  Galle  has  a  very  pretty 
appearance  when  distinctly  seen,  but  the  first  object  upon  making 
the  land  is  the  Haycock  peering  above  the  intermediate  clouds,  and 
the  next  the  reflection  of  the  cocoa-nut  trees  that  line  the  shore  in 
the  water,  long  before  the  trees  are  visible. 

This  district,  which  extends  from  the  western  limits  of  Belli- 
gamme  Korle,  to  the  Bentotte  river,  which  separates  it  from 
Pasdoom  Korle,  includes  a  tract  varying  in  length  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  miles,  and  in  breadth  from  six  to  twenty-five,  and  is  sub- 
divided into  the  Talpge-pattoo,  Gangabodde-pattoo,  Wellebodde- 
pattoo,  and  Walawitte  Korle  ;  its  area  is  about  592  square  miles, 
and  it  is  very  populous.  According  to  Casie  Chitty,  the  Malabars 
derive  its  name  from  the  circumstance  that  this  part  of  the  island 
was  set  apart  by  Rawana  for  breeding  cattle,  hence  Galle  would 
signify  a  "  pound  ;"  but  this  interpretation  appears  far-fetched,  in 
comparison  with  that  given  by  the  Singhalese  themselves.        he  soil 


000  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

of  the  district  is  in  general  rocky,  but  produces  a  great  variety  of 
grain  and  fruits  in  abundance,  including  cinnamon,  coffee,  black 
pepper,  cotton,  and  cardamoms.  In  some  parts  iron  ore  is  found, 
which  is  worked  on  some  occasions  by  the  natives.  Fisheries  are 
carried  on  along  the  coast  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  kullah  dhonies, 
small  canoes  with  outriggers,  and  fish  are  caught  both  with  nets  and 
lines  ;  the  latter  are  composed  of  well  twisted  cotton  rubbed  with 
glue. 

Point  de  Galle  is  in  lat.  6°  0'  59"  North,  and  long.  80°  17'  2" 
East.  The  town,1  which  is  the  third  in  the  island  in  importance,  and 
the  fort,  which  under  the  Dutch  was  a  commandery,  are  built  on  the 
point  which  is  rocky  and  bluff  to  seaward,  with  a  rocky  islet  near 
it,  called  Pigeon  island,  surrounded  by  smaller  ones.  The  bay  or 
harbour  is  formed  between  the  point,  and  a  piece  of  sloping  high- 
land to  the  eastward,  which  projects  farther  out  to  seaward,  than  the 
true  point.  The  entrance  of  the  bay  is  about  a  mile  wide,  the  sound- 
ings in  it  from  seven  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  fathoms,  but  from 
there  being  many  rocks  covered  with  different  depths  from  three  and 
four,  to  twelve  and  fourteen  feet  water  scattered  over  the  entrance, 
and  also  inside,  a  pilot  is  requisite  to  carry  a  ship  into  the  harbour, 
where  it  is  moored  in  five  and  five  and  a  half  fathoms  abreast  of  the 
town.  The  outer  road  is  spacious,  and  in  the  inner  harbour,  ships 
may  lie  in  perfect  security  for  a  great  part  of  the  year,  and  the  water 
is  so  deep  near  the  shore,  that  vessels  can  approach  quite  close  to  it. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  S.  W.  monsoon,  a  heavy  sea  breaks  in  it, 
and  a  rapid  current  from  the  westward  frequently  sets  ships  to  leeward 
of  the  harbour,  in  which  case  they  are  obliged  to  cross  the  line  for 
the  purpose  of  again  standing  to  the  west.  Ships  outward  bound 
from  Europe,  generally  make  this  their  first  harbour,  after  they  have 
come  in  sight  of  the  laud  at  Dondera  Head ;  and  during  the  late  war 
it  was  the  rendezvous  of  the  homeward  bound  Indiamen  waiting  for 
a  convoy.  A  splendid  light-house  has  recently  been  erected.  Ships 
from  Eastern  ports  generally  look  in  here  during  the  north-east  mon- 
soon. The  trade  with  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  is  carried  on  in 
small  vessels,  built  withiu  the  district,  comprises  its  natural  products, 
coarse  cloth,  dornatil  or  paint  oil,  earthenware,  cutlery,  mats,  gunny 
bags,  jaggery,  and  chunam,  for  mastication  and  house-building,  which 
are  exchanged  for  paddy,  cotton,  cloths,  &c. 

The  bank  of  soundings  on  the  south  coast  of  Ceylon,  gradually 
extends  farther  from  the  shore  as  you  increase  the  distance  from 
Dondera  Head.  Three  miles  off  Bentotte,  there  are  twenty  fathoms. 
Off  Galle  the  soundings  are  irregular.  A  mile  off  Belligamme,  there 
are  twenty  fathoms,  and  at  a  mile  and  three-quarters,  thirty  fathoms. 
Three-quarters  of  a  mile  off  Dondera  Head,  there  are  twenty  fathoms  ; 
at  a  "mile  and  a  quarter,  thirty.     Three  miles  off  Tangalle,  there  are 

1  The  town  of  Galle  is  indebted  for  its  emblem,  a  cock,  to  an  etymological  error 
of  the  Portuguese,  who  confounded  the  native  name  Galla,  a  rock,  in  allusion  to 
the  situation  of  the  town  and  harbour,  with  Gallus. 


CHAP.    I.]  DISTRICT    OF    GALLE,    HARBOUR,    FORT,    TOWN.  601 

twenty  fathoms,  and  at  four,   thirty.     Three  and  a  half  miles  off 
Hambantotte,  there  are  twenty,  and  at  five,  thirty  fathoms. 

The  trade  of  Galle  chiefly  consists  of  exports,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  equal  to  what  might  be  expected  from  its  natural  position. 
The  export  of  salt  fish  to  the  continent  of  India  was  formerly  large, 
but  that  trade  has  declined  considerably,  though  endeavours  have  of 
late  years  been  made  to  re-establish  it.  More  coir  rope,  cocoa-nut  oil, 
arrack,  and  chaya  root,  are  sent  from  this  province,  than  from  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  island  put  together,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  trade  in  coffee,  cotton,  rice,  ivory,  cinnamon,  and  tortoise-shell, 
is  carried  on  here.  Exclusively  of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese  mer- 
chants, there  are  here,  Moormen,  Hindoos,  Chitties,  Arabs,  Parsees, 
and  Maldivian  traders.  Ships  may  obtain  better  supplies  here  than 
any  where  else  in  the  island,  and  fish,  vegetables,  and  fruits  are  cheap 
and  abundant.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  onion  gardens,  within  and 
without  the  fort.  Shipping  is  well  supplied  with  pure  water  from  the 
well,  under  the  hill  called  Bona  Vista,  which  forms  the  east  end  of 
the  harbour. 

The  view  from  the  harbour  off  Galle  is  certainly  lovely  ;  the 
entrance  being  narrow,  the  panorama  is  uninterrupted.  To  the  right 
is  the  picturesque  fort,  with  its  old  walls  and  fortifications,  jutting  far 
into  the  sea  ;  at  the  extreme  point  is  the  flag  staff,  and  beyond  it  are 
several  rocky  islands,  upon  one  of  which  is  a  single  cocoa-nut  tree, 
which  adds  much  to  the  effect.  In  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  rising 
above  every  surrounding  object,  are  the  two  gable  ends  of  the  old 
church,  built  by  the  Dutch,  and  from  the  harbour  it  appears  shaded 
by  a  large  tulip  tree.  The  whole  place  is  shaded  by  trees,  which  ap- 
pear as  numerous  as  the  leaves,  and  make  it  look  from  sea  like  fairy 
land,  while  the  senses  are  no  less  enthralled  by  the  balmy  perfume  of 
the  hot-house  air,  which,  loaded  to  satiety  with  the  perfume  of  rich 
flowers,  is  felt  far  at  sea.  Farther  on  is  the  quay,  where  multitudes 
of  canoes  are  moored,  which  have  an  exceedingly  picturesque  appear- 
ance. On  the  left  of  the  bay  is  a  lofty  headland,  clothed  to  the 
summit  with  trees,  and  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  richest 
and  most  varied  colours,  and  the  contrast  presented  by  the  thick 
groves  of  dark  green  palms,  and  the  white  foaming  spray  dashing  over 
the  black  cliffs,  is  not  the  least  pleasing  feature  in  the  scene.  Two 
lovely  islands  are  in  the  same  direction,  partaking  of  the  features  of 
the  main  land  ;  but  the  prettiest  part  of  the  whole  is  at  the  back  of 
the  harbour ;  here  is  the  Galle  face  or  esplanade,  and  at  the  back 
three  verdant  hills  clothed  to  the  very  summit  with  cocoa-nut  trees. 
At  the  top  is  the  pretty  little  Catholic  chapel,  peeping  with  its  white 
face  through  the  trees.  At  the  foot  of  these,  and  close  to  the  har- 
bour, is  the  native  town  and  bridge,  all  of  white,  and  shaded  by 
numerous  trees.  The  ramparts  on  the  sea  face  afford  delightful 
walks  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  the  umbrageous  Suria  trees  on 
the  north  ramparts,  which,  as  well  as  some  very  fine  bread-fruit  trees, 
are  numerous  in  the  fort,  enable  one  to  walk  there  free  from  exposure 
to  the  sun  throughout  the  day,  but  it  is  maintained  by  some  that  the 


602  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

high  walls  of  the  fortifications,  by  effectually  shutting  out  the  de- 
lightful sea  breeze,  are  a  drawback  rather  than  otherwise  to  the 
salubrity  of  the  place. 

The   fort  is   more   than   a  mile  in  circumference,  commanding 
the  whole  of  the  harbour,  but  is  in  its  turn  commanded  by  a  range 
of  hills  about  700  yards  distant,   and  contains  besides  the  ordinary 
public  buildings,  a  great  number  of  houses,  occupied  by  Moorish 
families,  and   a  mosque,   a   Dutch  church,   Wesleyan   chapel,    and 
some   shops.     After   passing   an   ancient  moss-grown   Dutch  gate, 
appears  an  open  building  of  somewhat  venerable  appearance,   one 
story  high,  surrounded  by  an  airy  verandah,   with  the  figure  of  a 
cock,  and  the  date  1687  over  the  entrance.     It  is  the  queen's  house. 
The  rooms  which  are  large,  are  paved  with  stone.     The  doors  are 
made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  windows  also.     The  lines  of  defence 
on  the  land  side,  or  across  the  isthmus,   consist  of  one  bastion,  with 
a  cavalier,  two  half  bastions  with  faussebrayes,  and  two  curtains, 
containing  each  half  bastion  with  the  whole  bastion,   with  a  half 
finished  ditch  in  front  of  the  whole,  but  without  casemated  barracks 
or  store  houses.     The  salient  angles  of  the  half  bastions  are  appuyed 
to  the  harbour  aud  sea.     The  construction  of  the  fort  is  entirely 
irregular.     The  remaining  defences  consist  of  substantial  lines  built 
on  the  edge  of  the  outline  of  the  peninsula,  the  base  of  which  is 
constantly  washed  by  a  heavy  surf.     The  profile  is  irregular,  in  some 
parts  bold,  but  from  the  small  height  of  the  faussebraye,  requires  a 
wet  ditch  in  order  to  guard  against  escalade.     The  revetments  are 
composed  of  rubble  stone  and  coral,  laid  in  lime  mortar,  and  are  in 
tolerable  repair.     The  fort  is  also  tolerably  well  supplied  with  water, 
and  there  are  four  powder  magazines  within  it.    In  front  of  the  Govern- 
ment house  stands  a  superb  row  of  exotic  trees  (Mimusops  Elengi), 
which  were  originally  introduced  from  Java.     Great  improvements 
have  of  late  been  effected  in  the  pettah  and  its  bazaar,  the  former  is 
still  far  from  regularly  laid  out,  but  it  is  extensive,  and  the  houses 
are  in  general  good.     It  is  separated  from  the  fort  by  a  wide  place, 
and  consists  of  two  long  streets,  formed  of  small  one- storied  houses  : 
on  a  foundation  wall  two  feet  high,  built  of  stone,  rest  wooden  pillars, 
which  with  a  wall  of  hurdles,  support  a  broad  overhanging  cocoa-nut 
roof,  tiles  being  seldom  used,  except  by  Europeans.  At  the  back  of  the 
deep  verandah,  is  the  entrance  to  the  one  solitary  apartment.  The  pro- 
prietor sits  or  lies  on  the  raised  floor  above  the  foundation  wall, 
beside  his  wares  or  the  implements  of  his  trade.    Soon  after  the  setting 
in  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  the  annual  fleet  of  boats  arrives  from  the 
Maldives. 

The  Maledives  or  Maldives  are  dependencies  of  Ceylon,  and  the 
Raja  communicates  twice  annually  with  the  Government  agent  at 
Galle.  This  wide  stretching  archipelago  extends  from  7°  6'  North 
lat.,  to  0°  40'  South  lat.,  or  about  530  miles,  but  in  no  part  is  the 
breadth  of  the  chain  supposed  to  exceed  fifty  miles  in  a  direct  line, 
although  the  most  western  limit  of  the  northernmost  group  or 
Atoll,  is  in  72°  48'  East  long.,  and  the  most  eastern  boundary  of  the 


CHAP.  I.]        MALDIVES,  THE  ATOLLS,  AND  THEIR   CHANNELS.  603 

chain  in  73°  48'  East  long.  The  most  northern  Atoll  is  about  350 
miles  from  Cape  Comorin. 

The  sovereign  chief  of  these  islands  styles  himself  Sultan  of  the 
thirteen  Atolls,  and  twelve  thousand  islands,  but  the  actual  number 
is  believed  to  be  more  than  treble  that  number.  The  whole  archi- 
pelago is  enclosed  and  protected  from  the  sea,  which,  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  is  violently  agitated  in  these  latitudes,  by  narrow 
strips  of  coral  reef,  which  surround  them  like  a  wall.  In  many 
places  this  bulwark  against  the  angry  ocean,  scarcely  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  water  ;  in  other  places  it  forms  a  long  sandy  beach, 
perhaps  less  than  six  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  either 
circular  or  oblong.  Each  of  these  circular  enclosures  contain  open- 
ings, into  which  small  vessels  can  enter.  The  number  of  these  coral 
reefs  is  fourteen,  thirteen  of  which  lie  to  the  north  of  the  equator. 
They  lie  on  a  long  sand  bank,  to  the  edge  of  which  their  outer  sides 
extend,  and  beyond  them  there  are  no  soundings.  The  channels 
which  divide  these  Atolls,  are  in  some  places  deep  and  safe,  and  are 
passed  by  the  vessels  bound  direct  for  Ceylon,  or  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
Two  of  these  navigable  channels  are  south  of  the  equator.  The 
Adon  or  south  channel  is  between  Poona  Moluque  Atoll  (the  south 
Atoll),  and  the  island  of  Adon,  and  is  about  five  miles  long,  and  five 
leagues  wide,  and  the  Equatorial  channel  is  between  Adon  and  the  Atoll 
Suadiva,  which  is  ten  leagues  wide.  North  of  the  equator  are  first  the 
one  and  a  half  degree  channel,  which  is  seventeen  leagues  in  breadth, 
and  formed  by  the  Suadiva  Atoll,  and  the  Adoumatis  Atoll ;  it  is  the 
widest  and  safest  of  all  these  channels,  and  frequently  used  by  ships 
proceeding  eastward  in  the  westerly  monsoon.  Farther  north  is  the 
Kollomandous  channel,  formed  by  the  Adoumatis  Atoll  on  the  south, 
and  the  Kollomandous  Atoll  on  the  north  ;  it  is  only  seven  or 
eight  miles  wide,  but  it  is  safe.  The  most  northern  is  the  Kare- 
dive  channel,  which  also  appears  to  offer  a  safe  passage,  but  it  is  not 
used  at  present,  though  much  frequented  two  centuries  ago. 

Within  the  Atolls,  the  sea  is  not  agitated  by  storms,  and  there  are 
always  soundings  in  twenty  or  thirty  fathoms  water.  The  islands  are 
in  general  situated  along  the  enclosing  coral  wall,  the  central  part  of 
the  Atolls  containing  only  few  of  them.  They  are  all  small;  not 
many  of  them  exceed  a  mile  in  length  and  breadth,  and  a  few  are 
less  than  half  a  mile,  and  they  are  in  general  circular  or  lozenge-shaped. 
Many  are  mere  strips  fifty  or  a  hundred  yards  broad,  forming  a  circle 
which  incloses  a  lower  tract  filled  up  with  broken  coral  rocks,  and 
dry  at  spring  tides.  Within  this  ring  there  is  sometimes  consider- 
able depth  of  water,  from  one  to  ten  fathoms,  so  that  a  perfect 
lagoon  is  formed.  The  highest  part  of  the  islands  is  from  six  to 
fourteen  feet  above  water.  Their  surface  consists  of  sand  about 
three  feet  thick,  the  top  part  of  which  is  mixed  with  vegetable  mat- 
ter, forming  a  black,  light  sandy  soil.  Beneath  the  sand  is  a  soft 
sand-stone,  resembling  indurated  particles  of  beach-sand.  This  sand- 
stone is  about  two  feet  thick,  below  which  depth  it  softens  again  to 


604  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

sand,  and  here  fresh  water  is  found.     All  the  inhabited,  and  many 
of  the  uninhabited  have  fresh  water. 

The  surface  of  the  archipelago  is  in  general  covered  with  a  thick 
impenetrable  jungle,  among  which  there  are  many  fine  large  trees,  as 
the  banyan,  the  candoo,  and  the  bread-fruit  trees.  On  some  islands, 
the  bamboo  flourishes,  and  there  are  small  plantations  of  Indian 
corn,  sugar-cane,  and  cotton,  from  which  last,  a  small  quantity  of 
cloth  is  made.  Two  kinds  of  millet  are  cultivated,  but  the  chief 
diet  of  the  people  is  fish  and  the  cocoa-nut,  which  is  carefully  tended. 
This  palm  bears  fruit  of  the  smallest  known  species,  none  being  as 
large  as  a  common  tea  cup,  but  the  coir  is  fine,  long,  of  a  white 
texture,  very  strong,  and  is  largely  exported.  The  Male  Atoll  sup- 
ports a  few  cattle,  but  there  are  no  sheep  or  goats,  and  no  poultry 
other  than  the  common  fowl.  The  rat  is  here  a  great  plague,  and 
causes  great  damage  to  the  cocoa-nut  plantations.  The  flying  fox,  as 
it  is  called  in  India,  is  also  very  common.  Fish  is  very  abundant, 
and  salt-fish  is  a  considerable  article  of  export.  Turtle  are  plentiful, 
and  cowries  are  collected  and  exported  to  a  great  amount. 

The  climate  of  the  Maldives  is  far  from  unpleasant,  the  range  of 
the  thermometer  not  being  great.  In  December,  January,  and 
February,  the  thermometer  ranges  during  the  day  from  80°  to  84°  ; 
at  night  it  falls  to  78°,  and  rain  is  frequent.  The  easterly  winds 
set  in  early  in  December,  and  seldom  blow  strong,  but  generally  in 
pleasant  light  breezes.  Towards  the  end  of  January,  they  pass  to 
the  northward,  and  calms  are  frequent.  During  the  remainder  of 
the  year,  westerly  and  north-westerly  winds  are  by  far  the  most 
prevalent,  and  frequently  stormy. 

The  people  of  the  Maldives  are  Mahommedans,  and  are  in  all 
probability  an  Arab  graft  on  a  Singhalese,  or  it  may  be,  Malabar 
stock.  They  are  a  simple,  contented,  and  almost  exclusively  a  sea- 
faring people.  Their  mercantile  transactions  are  characterised  by  a 
spirit  of  fairness,  unusual  among  the  crafty  natives  of  the  east.  In 
conversing  with  them,  an  European  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  their 
freedom  from  guile,  the  result  of  their  sequestered  life  and  general 
occupations.  Two  languages  are  in  use  among  them,  the  vulgar  one 
which  is  peculiar  to  them— though  it  bears  a  great  affinity  to  the 
Singhalese — and  the  Arabic,  as  a  learned  language.  They  have  also 
a  peculiar  alphabet,  differing  both  from  the  Sanscrit  and  Arabic.  It 
is  written  from  right  to  left,  and  the  vowels  are  indicated  by  points. 

The  population  of  the  Maldives  is  estimated  at  between  150,000 
and  200,000.  The  sovereign,  who  is  called  Sultan,  administers  the 
government  of  the  more  distant  islets  through  his  chiefs  ;  and  sends  an 
half  j  early  embassy,1  bearing  presents  of  the  products  of  the  island, 

l  The  presentation  of  the  Nakodah — who  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  "  Am- 
bassador"— is  always  a  scene  of  great  merriment,  from  the  naivete  with  which  that 
functionary  fills  his  part  in  the  ceremonial.  After  being  escorted  to  the  Govern- 
ment house  by  a  party  of  the  Ceylon  Rifles,  preceded  by  native  music,  he  first 
respectfully   touches  his  forehead  with  the   Royal  letter,  which  he  has  thus  far 


CHAP.    I.]       EMBASSY    FROM    THE    RAJA — GINDURA-OYA.  605 

and  receiving  others  in  return.  He  resides  at  Male,  the  circumference 
of  which  is  seven  miles.  The  common  etymology  assigned  to  the  word 
"  Maldive,"  is  from  Male,  and  diva,  a  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit 
dwipa,  hut  I  would  venture  to  propose  Maha,  Laala,  and  diva,  which 
is  in  all  probability  the  root  of  Male  itself. 

The  Maldives  were  formerly  visited  by  vessels  from  the  continent 
for  cowries  and  other  produce,  but  the  facilities  offered  by  the  abun- 
dance of  the  cocoa-nut  palm  for  the  construction  of  small  craft,  has 
led  to  the  substitution  of  native  craft,  which,  secure  in  the  heaviest 
seas,  carry  komblemas,1  a  species  of  dried  scomber  (Umbella  Kadda 
Singh,)  cowries,  coir,  cocoa-nut  oil,  tortoise-shell,  &c,  to  Ceylon, 
and  the  continent,  from  whence  they  return  with  rice,  which  is  not 
grown  in  the  islands,  sugar,  silk  stuffs,  broadcloth,  hardware,  and 
tobacco.  They  arrive  at  Calcutta  in  June  or  July,  with  the  south- 
west monsoon,  and  depart  in  the  middle  of  December  with  the 
north-east  monsoon.  These  boats  are  remarkably  well  built,  and 
have  a  smart  appearance,  the  sides  being  painted  or  plastered  with 
white  and  red  streaks,  and  a  large  eye  is  painted  on  each  bow  :  the 
head  and  stern  are  alike. 

The  face  of  that  part  of  the  Southern  province  in  the  vicinity  of 
Galle  is  beautiful,  and  generally  well  cultivated  with  rice,  and  a 
variety  of  other  grains.  Intersected  by  streams  and  canals,  the 
vegetation  is  luxuriant  and  verdant  throughout  the  year,  and  the 
succession  of  distant  hills,  adds  to  the  variegated  beauty,  which 
the  landscape  every  where  presents.  Within  a  few  miles,  the  most 
favourable  situations  may  be  found,  for  an  extensive  cultivation  of 
sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  &c.  The  agent  of  Government  for  the 
Southern  province  resides  at  the  cutcherry,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
Galle  branch  of  the  Education  Commission.  The  district  court  is 
superintended  by  a  district  Judge,  with  an  assessor,  secretary,  clerks, 

borne  on  his  head,  enclosed  in  a  small  bag  of  crimson  silk,  presents  it  kneeling, 
and  with  repeated  salaams.  Then  are  introduced  the  Royal  presents,  and  the 
"  Ambassador,"  having  been  informed  that  he  shall  bear  an  answer  and  presents 
in  return  to  his  Sovereign,  is  told,  more  Asiatico,  "  that  he  may  go."  He  then 
respectfully  takes  his  departure  with  his  escort,  and  the  interests  of  his  august 
master  having  been  thus  protected,  his  Excellency  may  perhaps  be  immediately 
after  seen  bargaining  for  coir  rope  and  cocoa-nut  oil  on  the  beach.  The  cere- 
mony of  presentation  is  again  performed  towards  the  departure  of  the  fleet,  when 
the  usual  presents,  consisting  of  scarlet  cloth  (a  colour  exclusively  worn  by  the 
Sovereign),  and  a  few  pounds  of  cinnamon,  &c.  &c,  are  sent  by  him.  As  a  proof 
of  the  simplicity  of  this  people,  it  is  mentioned  by  Lieut,  de  Butts,  that  in  the 
absence  of  other  topics,  a  friend  of  his  jestingly  remarked  that  there  was  a  rumour 
of  an  approaching  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Maldives.  The  aged 
chieftain,  not  doubting  the  assertion,  started  up,  and  earnestly  begged  that  he 
would  contradict  so  unfounded  and  injurious  a  report;  "for,"  added  the  Am - 
bassador,  in  a  confidential  whisper,  "the  Sultan  of  the  Maldives  is  plenty  'fraid 
of  the  King  of  England." 

1  The  komblemas  has  just  the  appearance  of  a  ship's  block  divided  longitudi- 
nally into  several  pieces,  and  is  almost  as  hard  ;  nevertheless  it  is  in  great  demand, 
and,  after  having  been  well  soaked  and  beaten,  is  rasped  into  an  edible  consistency 
for  Sambols,  a  sort  of  olla  of  chopped  cucumber,  onion,  bilimbi,  chillies,  lime 
juice,  and  pepper,  as  an  accompaniment  to  rice  and  curries. 


006  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

and  interpreters.  The  water  within  the  fort  at  Galle  is  said  to 
possess  some  had  quality,  and  the  prevalence  of  the  distemper, 
called  goitre,  has  been  attributed  to  it. 

The  next  stage  from  Galle  is  to  Hiccode  (or  Hiccodewa  Singh), 
twelve  miles  distant  in  the  Wellebodde-pattoo.  The  Gindura,  or 
Giundura-oya,  is  four  miles  from  Galle,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  canal,  and  will  not  fail  to  attract  the  observation  of  the  traveller  by 
its  delightful  scenery,  and  will  interest  the  botanist  by  its  plants. 
It  is  navigable  for  small  boats  as  high  as  Hiniduwa.  Gindura  itself 
is  a  large  village  about  three  miles  from  Galle,  with  a  small  custom- 
house establishment ;  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  considerable  manu- 
facture of  cordage,  and  have  a  small  share  of  the  trade  of  Galle. 

No  scenery  can  be  imagined  more  picturesque  than  the  river  near 
Baddagamma,  the  Church  Missionary  station,  where  the  stream  with 
its  grassy  banks,  the  green  meads,  and  the  woody  hills  around, 
forcibly  recall  to  the  mind  the  scene  presented  by  the  Thames  in 
the  vicinity  of  Richmond,  were  the  latter  set  off  with  the  luxuriance 
and  splendid  tints  of  a  tropical  vegetation.  A  handsome  church, 
and  a  number  of  schools  have  been  constructed,  and  opened  in  this 
vicinity  by  the  Missionaries  within  the  last  few  years.  From  the 
church  steeple,  one  of  the  noblest  prospects  in  Ceylon  may  be 
enjoyed.  The  church  itself  is  a  handsome  edifice,  capable  of  con- 
taining six  hundred  people,  built  of  stone,  and  surrounded  by  a 
verandah.  The  roof  is  supported  by  iron-wood  pillars,  about  thirty- 
five  feet  high,  in  two  parallel  rows,  one  on  each  side  of  the  middle 
aisle.  The  Maplegam-ganga,  which  has  its  source  in  the  mountains 
of  the  northern  portion  of  Saffragam,  falls  into  the  Gindura,  a  little 
below  the  populous  village  of  the  same  name. 

After  crossing  the  Gindura- oya,  over  which  a  fine  bridge  has 
lately  been  erected,  the  next  village  is  the  fishing  hamlet  of 
Dodondewe,  within  the  limits  of  the  Walawitte  Korle,  and 
forming  part  of  the  district  of  Caltura,  where  there  is  a  Bana 
Maduwa,  a  little  out  of  the  high  road  on  the  right  hand,  and  a 
small  custom-house  establishment.  The  coast,  which,  to  the  south- 
east side  of  the  river  is  rugged  and  rocky,  to  the  north-west  side  becomes 
low  and  sandy.  Two  miles  off  the  shore  is  Gindura  rock,  which  is 
very  dangerous.  The  rest-houses  throughout  the  whole  line  of  road 
from  Galle  to  Colombo  are  excellent,  and  there  are  Postholders  at  the 
intermediate  stations  to  supply  refreshments  to  travellers  at  twenty- 
five  per  cent  above  the  bazaar  prices,  which  premium  is  allowed  them 
for  their  trouble,  fuel,  cooking,  &c. 

The  face  of  the  country  is  generally  flat,  but  in  certain  places 
undulating,  and  the  roads  are  excellent.  One  continued  tope  of 
cocoa-nut  trees  along  the  sea  shore  and  line  of  road,  renders  travelling 
delightful,  whether  by  day  or  night,  in  carriage,  palanquin,  or  on 
horseback.  The  country  is  intersected  by  beautiful  rivers,  whose 
banks  are  covered  with  verdant  trees,  and  paddy  fields,  and  horse 
boats  and  passage  boats  at  every  ferry,  render  travelling  any  thing 
but  irksome,  the  delay  being  very  trifling  at  either.     Hiccode  rest- 


CHAP.    1.]  BENTOTTE THE    DISTRICT    OF    SAFFRAGAM.  607 

house  is  most  pleasantly  situated,  and  a  great  resort  of  pic-nic  parties 
from  Galle.  The  road  level  and  good,  is  lined  by  myriads  of  ever 
verdant  cocoa-nut  palms,  which  form  an  agreeable  and  almost  imper- 
vious shade  to  the  meridian  sun.  The  next  rest-house  is  that  of 
Amblangodde,  (Ambalama,  a  rest-house,  and  goda,  a  bank),  seven 
miles  distant.  It  is  a  large  and  populous  village,  with  a  fine  wihare  ; 
the  inhabitants  are  exclusively  fishermen,  and  engaged  in  the  trade 
with  the  Coromandel  coast.  Crossing  the  Madampe  river  by  a  well- 
constructed  wooden  bridge,  the  traveller  arrives  at  Madampe,  a 
populous  and  flourishing  village,  and  from  thence  through  the  villages 
of  Kosgodde,  and  Balapitimodera,  where  there  is  a  small  custom- 
house, and  to  Bentotte  (Ben-tota),  the  distance  is  14f  miles.  The 
rest-house,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  is  a  strong  and 
extensive  Dutch  building,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  island,  and  most 
delightfully  situate  upon  a  level  green,  at  a  pleasant,  but  not  too 
remote  a  distance  from  the  sea,  from  whence  the  breeze  is  wafted 
over  the  river  with  a  refreshing  and  unusual  coolness,  when  contrasted 
with  its  passage  over  the  sands.  At  this  place  is  a  large  manufac- 
ture of  arrack,  and  of  the  coir  rope,  the  population  is  numerous,  and 
the  village  has  a  church.  The  means  of  irrigation  are  every  where 
so  abundant,  that  the  face  of  the  country  is  one  vast  scene  of  culti- 
vation. Coffee  grounds,  fields  of  country  hemp  (Crotalaria  Juncea), 
for  fishing  nets,  paddy  fields,  arum  (Arum  macrorhizon),  yam, 
(Dioscorea  bulbifera,  Z.),  and  sweet  potato  (Convolvulus  Batatus,  L.), 
plantain,  and  a  country  potato  very  small,  but  in  some  respects  like 
that  of  Europe  (Solanum  tuberosum),  give  an  air  of  plenty  and 
of  luxuriance  to  the  general  scenery  of  this  part  of  the  island.  The 
native  farms  and  villages  are  surrounded  by  indigenous  fruit  trees, 
including  the  shaddock,  orange,  lime  and  jambo.  The  Bentotte 
river,  over  which  an  elegant  bridge  has  lately  been  thrown,  sup- 
plies Colombo,  Galle,  and  the  intermediate  places  with  oysters; 
though  the  villagers  are  entirely  ignorant  of  feeding  them.  The 
scenery  up  this  river,  which  has  its  source  near  Hiniduwa  Kandi 
or  the  Haycock,  is  beautiful ;  the  sides  are  covered  with  the  curious 
Mangrove,  (Rhizophera  Mangle,  L.,)  and  a  variety  of  magnificent 
timber  trees,  among  which  innumerable  monkeys  play  their  destruc- 
tive gambols,  every  now  and  then  descending  to  plunder  the  fruit 
trees  of  the  adjacent  farms,  which  they  do  with  perfect  impunity. 
Hiniduwa  Kandi  itself  is  very  rugged,  and  is  ascended  by  ladders. 
The  view  from  the  summit  is  very  grand,  Colombo,  seventy  miles 
distant,  being  visible  on  one  side,  and  the  whole  sea  coast  from  that 
place  to  Matura  on  the  other.  On  a  third  the  Kandian  hills,  and 
the  mountains  of  the  interior  rising  one  above  another.  The  country 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  is  hilly,  and  thinly  populated.  Hade 
Demala  Kandi  is  another  high  hill,  similar  to  Hiniduwa,  with  a 
Buddhist  temple  on  its  summit. 

If  the  traveller  leave  Bentotte  in  a  pardie  or  covered  boat  over- 
night he  will  be  in  the  midst  of  a  fine  country  abounding  in  game 
and  intersected  by  small  streams,  where  there  is  just  room  enough 


608  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

for  a  boat  to  pass  clear  of  the  overhanging  trees  and  underwood  by 
day-light. 

A  few  miles  above  Bentotte,  there  is  an  ancient  and  massive 
wihare,  which  is  approached  by  a  wide  avenue' of  fruit  trees  and  by 
several  flights  of  granite  steps.  In  the  temple  grounds  a  variety  of 
palm  and  other  trees,  displaying  every  shade  of  foliage,  some  bearing 
fruit,  others  flowers,  present  a  delightful  change  of  scene  ;  at 
noonday  the  avenue  is  delightfully  shaded  from  the  sun,  and  the  rills 
of  pure  water  which  flow  to  the  right  of  the  road,  where  there  is  also 
an  ancient  and  sacred  well,  almost  as  cold  as  if  saltpetre  were  dis- 
solved in  it,  which  by  imparting  a  grateful  coolness  to  wine,  renders  it 
a  charming  rendezvous  for  the  parties  making  a  day's  excursion  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Here  the  naturalist  has  also  an  ample  field  to 
gratify  his  taste  in  whatever  branch  it  may  lie. 

The  district  of  Saffragam  (Habaragamuwa)  is  very  extensive,  con- 
taining 158^  square  miles,  and  upwards  of  50,000  inhabitants.  The 
surface  of  the  country  is  very  diversified,  presenting  a  succession  of 
magnificent  mountains,  rugged  hills,  beautiful  valleys,  and  immense 
forests  abounding  with  the  most  valuable  timber.  The  soil  in  general 
consists  of  a  yellowish  clay  intermixed  with  sand,  but  produces  a  large 
quantity  of  paddy  and  other  grain.  Areka-nuts,  coffee,  pepper,  jack- 
fruit,  kittul,  talapat  and  jambo  also  abound,  but  the  cocoa-nut  tree 
is  not  common  here.  The  inhabitants  are  Singhalese,  and  manu- 
facture areka-nut  cutters,  arrows,  spears,  firelocks,  silver  snuff-boxes, 
walking  canes,  umbrellas,  talapats,  and  mats  of  different  sizes  and 
descriptions,  and  a  large  quantity  of  jaggery  is  made  from  the  juice 
of  the  kittul  tree.  From  the  water  communication  furnished  by  the 
Kalu-ganga,  the  province  possesses  great  facility  for  trade.  It  exports 
immense  quantities  of  cardamoms,  turmeric,  precious  stones,  elephant's 
tusks,  deer  horns,  bees-wax,  honey,  dornatel,  dammer,  in  addition  to 
the  articles  before  named,  in  return  for  which  it  imports  cotton  stuffs, 
tobacco,  salt,  salt-fish,  &c.  The  subdivisions  of  Saffragam  are  the 
Kooroowitte  Korle,  Nawadoon  Korle,  Kolonna  Korle,  Kookula  Korle, 
Atakalan  Korle,  Kadewatte  Korle,  and  Medda  Korle. 

The  celebrated  temple  of  Saffragam  dedicated  to  Saman,  or  Laks- 
hamam,  the  tutelar  deity  of  Saffragam,  lies  contiguous  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Kalu-ganga,  close  to  Ratnapoora.  The  landing  is  by  a  row 
of  irregular  marble  stairs  from  the  water's  edge.  On  the  east  stands 
the  main  entrance,  opening  into  two  court  yards,  the  second  forming 
the  more  immediate  compound  of  the  temple,  and  rising  above  the 
level  of  the  first  nearly  twenty  feet,  the  two  occupying  an  area  of  about 
two  acres  and  a  half,  respectively  inclosed  by  a  wall  three  feet  and  a 
half  high,  the  latter  surmounted  by  a  tiled  covering  of  nearly  four  feet 
above  it.  The  ascent  to  the  temple  from  the  gateway  is  up  another 
flight  of  marble  steps,  when  a  small  covered  verandah  enclosed  again 
by  a  lesser  wall  fronting  the  first  door  is  reached  :  this  leads  into  an 
aisle  supported  by  columns,  and  at  the  west  end  stand  the  indicise  of 
Buddhistical  worship,  with  images  in  relief  on  the  opposite  wall. 
Above  this  room  rises  a  small  two-storied  apartment,  the  uppermost 


CHIP.    1.]        RATNAPOORA — GEM    FISHERY— GILLEMALLE.  609 

division  of  which  forms  the  sanctum  where  the  paraphernalia  of 
Saman  are  deposited.  The  temple  is  an  oblong  quadrangular  build- 
ing of  solid  masonry,  measuring  150  feet  from  end  to  end,  and  mid- 
way of  the  aisle  on  bbth  sides  stand  two  little  square  buildings 
respectively  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Buddha  and  Patine.  East 
of  the  outer  court  are  lines  of  huts,  the  temporary  dwellings  of  the 
thousands  who  resort  to  the  temple  during  the  pilgrimage.  To  this 
temple  are  attached  fifty  dancing  girls  called  Manikaweru,  who  during 
the  festivals  perform  certain  ceremonies,  and  are  remunerated  from 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  temple.  A  festival  takes  place  in  July 
and  lasts  fifteen  days,  when  the  Karandua  containing  a  relic  of 
Buddha  is  carried  in  procession. 

During  the  Kandian  war  this  temple  was  occupied  by  a  detachment 
of  troops,  and  a  large  quantity  of  silver  and  copper  coins  discovered  ; 
but  it  is  to  be  feared  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  those  who  were 
ignorant  of  their  value. 

Ratnapoora  (city  of  jewels),  the  principal  place  in  Saffragam  is  a 
small  fort  sixty-one  miles  south-east  of  Colombo,  with  good  barracks, 
on  the  summit  of  a  rocky  hillock,  which  rises  in  a  long  narrow  valley, 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  high  and  thickly  wooded  hills.  The  fort,  though 
possessed  of  few  means  of  defence  against  any  other  than  a  native 
force,  is  sufficient  to  protect  the  large  village  which  lies  under  its  walls 
from  Kandian  cunning  or  surprise.  The  Kalu-ganga,  so  called  from 
Kalu,  black,  in  allusion  to  the  dark  shade  over  its  waters,  is  even  here 
little  more  than  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  runs  near  the 
fort,  affording  to  this  district  the  convenience  of  water  carriage  both 
to  Caltura  and  Colombo  ;  but  this  advantage  is  in  some  measure 
counterbalanced  by  its  overflowing  its  banks  around  Ratnapoora  in  the 
rainy  season,  leaving  only  the  fort  and  a  little  rising  ground,  on  which 
stands  the  residence  of  the  assistant  agent  of  Government  for  the  dis- 
trict of  Saffragam,  above  water. 

Ratnapoora  charms  from  the  beauty  of  its  situation  ;  although 
nothing  now  remains  of  its  ancient  monuments.  Scattered  over  the 
hill  side  are  the  detached  buildings,  with  broad  roofs  and  deep 
verandahs,  which  constitute  the  town.  The  larger  houses  are  painted 
white  and  yellow,  and  have  a  foreground  of  lovely  green  turf  with 
thick  flowering  shrubs.  One  street  only  in  Ratnapoora  consists  of 
contiguous  rows  of  houses,  and  that  is  the  bazaar,  where  every 
necessary  of  life  may  be  procured  at  a  cheap  rate ;  but  here,  as  else- 
where, shops  for  the  sale  of  spices  predominate.  Ratnapoora  is  the 
seat  of  the  gem  fishery,  the  superintendant  of  which  is  a  burgher. 
At  an  opening  in  the  gay  border  of  gigantic  bamboos  with  their  ele- 
gant gold  stems,  and  near  a  small  tributary  stream  is  the  chief 
treasure  bed.  Here  natives  may  be  seen  up  to  their  breasts  working 
about  with  long  mamooties  or  mattocks.  They  stand  in  an  oblique  line 
across  the  stream,  and  shovel  up  from  its  bed  against  the  current  all 
the  mud  in  which  the  precious  stones  are  contained.  The  presence  of 
gems  is  indicated  bv  the  approximation  in  a  yellow  clay  of  the  three 

2  R 


G10  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

descriptions  of  stone  called  Borullugalle,  Gangalle,  and  Tirrowaana- 
galle.  The  slime  or  mud  being  collected  into  heaps,  and  put  into 
porous  tray-like  baskets,  the  water  as  it  flows  on,  washes  away  the 
finer  particles  of  silt,  leaving  the  coarse  gravel.  Every  half  hour 
they  dip  down,  holding  the  flat  baskets  in  their  hands,  which  they 
swing  backwards  and  forwards  in  the  water  with  much  exertion,  to 
separate  the  lighter  particles,  after  which  they  carry  them  to  the 
shore  to  examine.  Rubies  of  large  size  are  extremely  rare,  and  fine 
sapphires  yet  more  so,  but  topazes,  kirunchies,  and  yellow  and  yel- 
lowish green  sapphires,  are  abundant. 

In  hazy  weather  the  gorge,  through  which  the  Kalu-ganga  issues 
from  the  great  mountain  range,  shews  three  peaks,  of  apparently 
equal  height,  and  it  is  very  frequently  only  in  the  morning  that  two 
of  these  peaks,  called  (the  Bainah  Dirval  Gohare)  are  observed  to  be 
much  nearer  than  Samanala,  and  of  inferior  elevation.  Gillemalle 
famous  for  its  betel,  is  the  next  village  on  the  route  to  the  Peak  :  the 
road,  which  is  very  uneven  and  rugged,  and  no  slight  reproach  to  the 
Government,  considering  the  concourse  who  use  it,  the  place  to  which 
it  leads,  and  the  country  beyond,  keeps  pretty  close  to  the  river 
through  dense  jungle,  passing  under  the  shade  of  some  rocks,  sur- 
mounted by  a  Buddhist  temple,  and  crosses  a  considerable  and 
impetuous  stream,  at  times  unfordable,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Kalu-ganga.  The  most  delicious  and  exquisite  odours  are  here 
wafted  from  the  jasmine,  the  orange,  the  citron,  the  lime,  the 
areka  plants  and  flowering  trees  innumerable,  which  suffused  in  the 
morning  dew,  border  the  line  of  route.  Gillemalle  is  situated  on  a 
gentle  elevation,  round  which  the-  river  flows  ;  before  it  lies  a  rich 
cultivated  plain,  interspersed  with  gigantic  forest  trees,  from  which 
the  screaming  peacock  and  the  notes  of  the  jungle-fowl  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, and  bounded  on  all  sides  by  wooded  hills,  which  rise  into 
stupendous  mountains  towards  the  Peak.  Near  Gillemalle,  and  on 
the  right  of  a  beautiful  valley,  is  the  residence  of  Gillemale  Banda, 
a  Kandian  chief,  who  dispenses  the  limited  hospitality  within  his 
means  to  the  European.  In  passing  along  the  plain  many  com- 
fortable native  houses  surrounded  by  gardens,  containing  cocoa-nut, 
areka,  jack,  shaddock,  plantain  and  other  fruit  trees  ;  also  the  talapat 
with  its  immensely  large  fan-shaped  leaves,  and  the  bo-tree,  which, 
from  being  sacred  to  Gautama  Buddha,  is  generally  to  be  found  pro- 
tected by  a  stone  wall,  bear  evidence  of  an  improved  state  of  economy. 
Some  of  these  venerated  trees  are  surrounded  by  several  platforms, 
on  which  are  erected  little  altars  ;  and  at  these  the  natives  may  be 
seen  offering  flowers  to  the  sylvan  representative  of  the  object  of  their 
devotion. 

At  Mount  Karangodde,  a  few  miles  beyond,  and  to  the  north-east 
of  Ratnapoora,  the  scenery  is  indescribably  magnificent.  The  ascent 
to  the  first  landing  is  by  some  hundreds  of  broad  steps,  hewn  in  the 
solid  rock,  which  is  covered  with  jungle  and  pine  apple-plants,  that 
have  sprung  from  the  offsets  and  crests  of  the  fruit  casually  thrown 


CHAP.  I.]    MOUNT  KARANGODD^ — PALABADOOLLA DIABETME.     611 

there,  whose  leaves  are  from  five  to  six  feet  long,  exhibiting  the 
effect  of  shade  upon  that  plant.  On  the  first  landing  is  the  residence 
of  the  priests,  an  extensive  and  substantial  stone  building,  with  a 
large  interior  square,  protected  from  the  sun  by  wide  and  covered 
verandahs,  into  which  the  sleeping  apartments  open.  A  similar, 
but  less  inclined,  flight  of  rock  steps  leads  to  the  second  landing  place, 
where  a  rock  wihare  exhibits  Buddha's  recumbent  image,  daubed 
over  with  the  usual  quantum  of  red  and  yellow  lacker  behind  an  old 
curtain,  surrounded  with  Hindoo  deities,  and  having  an  oblong  table 
before  it,  profusely  covered  with  flowers :  one  great  attraction  to  the 
European  at  this  part  of  the  ascent  is  a  well  of  the  purest  and  coldest 
water.  From  hence  the  approach  to  the  summit  is  extremely  rugged, 
and  covered  with  the  gigantic  groundsel,  but  the  tourist  is  amply 
rewarded  for  toil,  trouble  and  danger,  by  the  magnificent  panorama 
which,  on  gaining  the  crown  of  the  mountain,  bursts  upon  the  view. 
Here  castellated  llatnapoora  and  surrounding  country,  interspersed 
with  every  variety  of  champaign,  undulating  and  hilly  lands,  inter- 
sected by  the  serpentine  and  impetuous  Kalu-ganga ;  there  the  Peak 
towering  high  above  the  clouds  to  the  north-eastward ;  and  in 
another  direction  the  various  villages  dispersed  upon  the  banks  of  the 
river  and  its  tributary  streams,  bordered  by  extensive  areka,  kittull, 
and  cocoa-nut  topes,  with  occasional  patches  of  intervening  jungle, 
scattered  among  verdant  tracts  of  pasture  land,  as  if  by  way  of  con- 
trast to  the  golden  glare  of  paddy  and  mustard  fields  in  their  ap- 
proaching maturity,  and  everywhere  teeming  with  abundance  ;  the 
nearest  plains  covered  with  innumerable  herds  of  bullocks  and  buf- 
faloes, and  the  distant  ones  with  deer  and  elephants. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  plain  near  Gillemalle  another  stream  has  to 
be  crossed ;  and  soon  after,  the  path  becomes  very  steep,  ascending 
through  a  continued  forest.  Four  and  a  half  miles  from  Gillemalle  is 
Palabadoolla,  the  last  inhabited  spot  on  this  track.  It  possesses  a  large 
and  comfortable  rest-house  for  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  the  Peak,  with 
several  mean  apartments  chiefly  inhabited  by  priests,  and  a  wihare.' 
From  thence  the  ascent  continues,  being  bordered  by  frequent  preci- 
pices, whose  terrors  are  hid  by  the  close  foliage  and  thick  underwood. 
The  natives  of  this  part  of  the  country  are  called  after  the  name  of 
their  native  hills  ;  thus,  from  Mallankandi,  Mallankandiya ;  the 
penultimate  syllable  always  serving  to  shew  the  application  of  the 
term  to  the  individual  belonging  to  any  particular  hill.  On  reaching 
the  rock  called  Nihila-hellagalla,  the  great  depth  of  the  valley  at  the 
bottom,  the  precipitous  mountain  opposite,  and  the  country  behind, 
burst  at  once  upon  the  view.     A  great  difference  here  begins  to  be 

1  In  this  temple  is  deposited  on  a  small  altar  a  celebrated  representation  of  the 
Sacred  foot.  The  tray-like  plate  is  of  copper,  about  six  feet  long  and  proportionally 
broad,  in  four  compartments,  embossed  on  the  sides  and  in  the  centre  with  orna- 
mental silver  work  in  the  form  of  double  stars  and  flowers,  many  of  which  have 
been  abstracted  by  polluted  hands.  The  outlines  of  an  image  or  two  aie  engraven 
on  the  plate. 

2  r  2 


612  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

felt  in  the  temperature,  and  the  creeping  plants  begin  gradually  to 
yield  to  the  mosses.  The  path  is  very  rugged,  serving  more  frequently 
for  the  bed  of  a  torrent  than  as  a  highway,  and  increasing  the  merits 
of  the  pilgrimage,  when  the  heavy  rains  must  make  it  difficult  to 
strive  against  the  steep  ascent  and  rapid  stream.  In  April  and  May, 
the  season  when  the  great  concourse  of  people  make  their  pilgrimage, 
there  are  generally  heavy  rains,  which  by  causing  a  sudden  rise  in  the 
mountain  torrents,  often  occasion  the  loss  of  lives ;  and  great  hard- 
ships are  borne  by  those  who,  being  detained  without  food  or  shelter, 
are  alike  unable  to  advance  to  their  destination,  or  to  return  for  sup- 
plies, until  the  waters  subside. 

At  Diabetme,  the  full  extent  of  the  grand  and  magnificent  spec- 
tacle, which  has  been  gradually  developing  itself,  begins  to  be 
perceived.  The  view  from  hence  embraces  three  fourths  of  a  circle, 
and  with  the  exception  of  water,  presents  every  variety  of  the  sublime 
and  beautiful  in  forest  and  mountain  landscape.  The  prevailing  tints 
of  the  forest  comprise  an  endless  alternation  of  the  richest  reds  and 
browns  of  every  shade,  which  are  produced  by  the  young  shoots  and 
leaves,  which  generally  appear  in  these  colours,  or  exhibit  the  palest 
green  ;  and  where  so  great  a  proportion  of  the  trees  are  evergreen, 
greatly  add  to  the  general  effect. 

The  most  striking  views  on  the  east  are  Samanala,  four  miles 
distant,  of  a  remarkably  regular  bell  shape,  rising  on  a  long  ridge  of 
mountains.  The  small  temple  on  the  summit  is  scarcely  visible.  On 
the  west  is  the  stupendous  rock,  Uno-Dhia.  To  those  who  hold  the 
awful  and  the  horrible  to  be  necessary  components  of  the  sublime, 
the  views  in  Ceylon  would  appear  defective,  from  the  general  absence 
of  water ;  and  the  softness  diffused  over  its  scenes  by  an  exuberant 
vegetation,  which  conceals  the  noblest  cataracts,  decks  with  foliage 
the  steepest  rocks,  and  clothes  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains 
with  majestic  forests. 

Diabetme  is  four  miles  from  Palabadoolla  ;  it  contains  a  scarcely 
tenantable  rest-house :  there  the  fowls  or  other  animals,  required 
during  the  traveller's  stay  on  the  Peak,  are  killed  ;  as  no  Buddhist 
would  break  the  first  commandment  of  his  religion,  and  destroy  life 
within  the  hallowed  precincts.  The  Kandy  or  north  road  is  the  only 
other  approach  to  the  Peak,  and  is  not  only  free  from  dangerous  pre- 
cipices, but  can  "scarcely  be  called  difficult.  It  was  the  route  by 
which  the  Kandian  kings  and  chiefs  always  reached  the  Peak,  and  as 
they  travelled  with  a  great  retinue,  the  pathway  was  annually  cleared 
of  the  jungle,  and  other  obstructions.  It  would  be  easy  to  unite 
the  Diabetme  with  the  Kandy  path  before  it  reaches  the  cone,  were 
it  not  for  the  scruple  against  increasing  the  facility  of  communication, 
which  by  removing  the  perils,  might  decrease  the  merits  of  the  pil- 
grimage. At  Diabetme  the  thermometer  undergoes  great  variation, 
frequently  varying  from  49°  to  60°,  between  9  p.m.  and  5  a.m. 
A  ravine,  from  which  the  ascent  continues  up  an  inclined  plane 
by   130  rude  steps  cut   in  an  immense  face  of  the   smooth  rock, 


CHAP.    1.]     THE  SEETLA-GANGA  —  LEGENDS FINAL  ASCENT.  613 

called  Dharma  Raja,  that  could  not  have  been  otherwise  gained 
except  by  a  most  circuitous  route,  is  next  reached.  On  the 
left-hand  side,  about  half  way  up,  there  is  a  grotesque  figure  of 
a  man,  and  an  inscription  cut  in  Singhalese  characters.  The  figure 
is  but  a  poor  specimen  of  native  ideas  of  symmetrical  proportion  ; 
and  the  inscription  which,  though  faintly  traced,  is  comparatively 
modern,  relates  to  the  execution  of  the  work.  On  other  rocks  are 
chiselled  figures  of  Buddha.  The  wild  areka  tree  is  interspersed  in 
the  neighbouring  jungle,  and  by  its  tall  white  stems  and  graceful  form, 
creates  an  agreeable  diversity  in  the  sombre  green  and  profuse  vege- 
tation of  the  sullen  forest,  which  in  most  parts  limits  the  view  to  the 
abrupt  path,  at  times  facilitated  by  rough  ladders  or  the  thick  jungle 
that  hems  it  in.  Uncertain  and  devious  as  is  the  path,  being  in  many 
places  worse  defined  than  the  elephant  tracks  which  cross  it,  yet  it  is 
the  chief  approach  by  which  many  thousands  of  pilgrims  annually 
reach  the  Peak  :l  it  was  the  principal  route  even  before  the  earliest 
dates  which  tradition  has  preserved,  and  every  remarkable  stone  or 
peculiar  bank  has  its  appropriate  name,  generally  blended  with  some 
myth  of  the  early  gods,  airy  spirits,  or  malignant  demons  of  this 
mysterious  region. 

On  the  summit  of  the  steps,  the  torrent  of  the  Seetla-ganga  (cold 
river)  is  perceived,  rushing  through  another  ravine  :  here  the  pilgrims 
perform  their  ablutions,  which  they  consider  to  have  the  efficacy  of 
baptism,  before  they  presume  to  approach  the  object  of  their  reve- 
rence, and  subsequently  don  their  best  attire.  The  stream  of  the 
Scetla-gauga,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  parent  stream  of  the  Kalu- 
ganga,  precipitates  itself  over  a  ridge  of  rock,  among  whose  detached 
masses  below  are  several  pools  :  the  sides  of  the  torrent  are  formed 
at  this  place  of  steep  rocks,  with  large  trees,  whose  branches  close 
across  the  stream.  The  water,  from  its  intense  coldness,  is  apt  to 
induce  a  sudden  chill  on  all  who  have  not  been  previously  exposed  to 
the  cold  of  the  mountain  air.  From  the  circumstance  that  various 
fruits  have  been  occasionally  carried  down  this  stream,  both  the 
Moormen  and  Singhalese  believe,  the  former  that  Adam,  the  latter 
that  Buddha,  had  a  fruit  garden  here,  which  still  teems  with  the 
most  splendid  productions  of  the  East,  but  that  it  is  now  inaccessible, 
and  that  its  explorer  would  never  return. 

In  passing  under  the  rock  called  Diwiyagalla,  the  marks  of  a  tiger's 
foot,  of  gigantic  proportions,  but  of  the  slightest  pretensions  as 
regards  delineation,  is  shewn,  to  which  a  fabulous  legend  is  as  usual 
attached.  For  a  mile  from  hence,  the  vegetation  of  the  forest,  though 
stunted  and  moss -covered,  is  so  thick  as  to  conceal  the  Peak,  though 

1  Philalethes  mentions  that  as  soon  as  the  pilgrim  had  reached  the  top  of  the 
Peak,  he  was  required  to  pull  the  rope  of  a  bell,  pendant  from  two  upright  stone 
columns,  on  which  a  third  stone  was  laid,  to  ascertain  whether  he  were  clean  ;  for 
if  he  were  unclean,  they  believed  the  bell  would  return  no  sound,  in  which  case 
the  pilgrim  had  again  to  descend  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  purify  himself  with 
greater  solemnity.  This  notion  is  now  thought  to  be  incorrect,  the  pulling  of  the 
bell  having  reference  to  the  number  of  times  the  pilgrim  hud  visited  the  Peak. 


614  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

immediately  over  it,  until  a  clear  space  of  ground  is  reached  at  the 
base  of  the  cone  ;  and  on  the  summit  of  the  continued  ridge,  called 
Aandiyamalle-tenne,  here  is  the  grave  of  an  Aandia  or  mendicant 
priest,  now  a  Mahommedan  saint,  who  closed  his  pilgrimage,  doubt- 
less to  his  great  content,  so  near  the  place  at  which  the  father  of 
mankind  and  the  first  of  Mahommedan  prophets,  had  in  his  belief 
been  compelled,  stans  pede  in  uno,  to  perform  so  long  and  uncom- 
fortable a  penance.  After  his  body  had  lain  for  three  months  on  this 
spot,  resisting  the  most  inveterate  causes  of  decomposition,  it  was  dis- 
covered by  a  hermit  from  the  wilds  below,  who  had  undertaken,  as  an 
additional  penance,  the  task  of  reaching  the  Peak,  through  trackless 
deserts,  thorns,  rocks,  under  caverns,  and  over  barriers  of  every  kind, 
where  man  had  never  trod  before  ;  and  he  it  was  who  came  upon  the 
dead  body,  and  performed  the  last  office  of  humanity  over  the  sainted 
dead. 

The  path  now  becomes  steeper,  and  two  or  three  chains  afford 
assistance,  which  is  hardly  as  yet  required,  till  at  length  a  point  is 
suddenly  reached,  where  it  is  necessary  to  turn  to  the  left  on  the 
brink  of  a  tremendous  precipice.  The  feelings  are  here  anything  but 
pleasant ;  a  very  slight  trepidation,  a  gust  of  wind,  or  the  least  degree 
of  stumbling,  being  sufficient  to  precipitate  a  person  into  the  untold 
depths  below.  Such  is  however  the  result  of  habit  and  experience, 
that  the  guides  and  natives  in  general  will  carry  carpet  bags  and  the 
necessary  supplies  up  the  steepest  places,  without  availing  themselves 
of  the  assistance  of  the  chains ;  the  absence  of  shoes  being  an  advan- 
tage in  this  part  of  the  journey,  and  in  an  elevation  where  the  region 
of  leeches  does  not  extend.  Repressing  his  feelings,  and  firmly 
grasping  the  iron  chains,  will  in  a  few  minutes  bring  the  traveller  to 
the  summit  of  this  steep  acclivity,  whose  ascent  has  even  been  accom- 
plished by  ladies  through  the  active  intrepidity  of  the  guides  ;  and 
an  aged  priest  was  once  conveyed  up  in  a  light  palancpiin.  The  ladder 
lies  at  the  north-west  face,  up  a  perpendicular  ascent  of  bare  rock 
forty  feet  high.  The  steps  are  about  four  inches  broad,  barely  suffi- 
cient for  the  toes  to  rest  on,  and  about  eighteen  long.  The  chains  rest 
upon  and  lie  along  the  rock,  being  only  attached  to  it  at  their  upper 
ends.  Hence  natives  have  been  blown  over  the  precipice,  and  yet 
continued  clinging  to  one  of  the  chains  during  a  heavy  gust  of  wind ; 
but  in  such  a  situation  they  could  receive  no  assistance,  and  they  all 
perished.  Natives  have  also  become  giddy  and  frightened  in  the  act 
of  looking  down  the  precipice,  and  falling,  have  been  dashed  to  atoms. 
Most  of  these  chains  are  of  very  clumsy  workmanship,  and  the  links 
are  of  different  sizes  :  some  contain  inscriptions  mentioning  who  have 
placed  and  repaired  them.  These,  though  deserving  of  gratitude, 
would  have  been  yet  more  worthy  of  it,  if  they  had  raised  the  chains 
from  the  ground,  so  that  they  might  be  used  as  a  rail. 

The  height  of  the  Peak  is  7,420  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
its  summit,  of  an  elliptic  form,  72  feet  in  length  by  34  in  breadth,  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  five  feet  high  :  immediately  within  this  a  level 


CHAP.  I.]  HEIGHT  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PEAK — PANORAMA.    G15 

space  of  irregular  breadth  runs  all  the  way  round,  and  the  centre  is 
occupied  by  the  apex  of  the  mountain,  a  solid  granite  rock  about  nine 
feet  high  at  the  highest  part ;  on  this  is  the  Sree  Pada  or  sacred  foot- 
step. 

Whether  this  much  cherished  memorial  is  rightly  attached  to 
Saman  (whence  Samanala,  Hamallel  or  Samautakuta)  by  a  prior 
claim,  the  Sri  Pada'  is  now  held  by  the  Buddhists  as  a  memorial  of 
Gautama  Buddha  ;  by  the  Mahommedans  it  is  claimed  for  Adam,2 
and  called  Baba-Aadaraalai ;  and  the  Malabars  and  other  Hindoos 
maintain  that  it  was  Siva  who  left  the  impression  of  a  monster  foot- 
step, and  call  it  Sivanolipadam. 

This  venerated  memorial  is  five  feet  seven  inches  in  length,  two 
feet  seven  inches  in  breadth,  and  the  slight  similitude  it  bears  to  the 
shape  of  a  foot,  is  produced  by  a  margin  of  plaster  coloured  to  imitate 
the  rock  :  it  is  upon  this  moulding  that  the  yellow  metal  case,  which 
is  profusely  ornamented  with  gems  of  plain  and  coloured  glass,  is 
fitted  before  the  usual  time  of  the  pilgrims'  arrival.  A  temple  built 
of  wood  surmounts  the  rock,  and  is  kept  in  its  position  only  by  several 
strong  iron  chains  fastened  to  the  stone  and  also  to  the  trees  which 
grow  on  the  steep  sides  of  the  cone.  The  roof  is  lined  with  coloured 
cloths,  and  its  margin  decked  with  flowers  and  streamers.  This 
wooden  temple,  three  feet  high,  dedicated  to  Saman ;  a  pansala 
(priest's  house),  six  feet  square,  built  of  mud ;  one  large  and  one 
small  bell  (the  former  cracked),  complete  the  catalogue  of  objects 
discoverable  on  the  summit.3  A  beautiful  pagoda  is  said  to  have  once 
stood  on  it,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  such  an  erection  now  discoverable, 
any  more  than  of  the  water  tank,4  which  the  Singhalese  called  the  tank 

1  Many  people  pretend  to  trace  the  toes  of  a  foot,  and  aver  tliat  they  point  to 
the  westward,  while  the  impress  is  that  of  the  left  foot.  This,  if  true,  would 
coincide  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  Balic  account  of  Sommona  Codom's  in 
Siam,  which  the  Siamese  call  Prabat,  or  the  venerated  foot.  M.  de  la  Loubere, 
in  his  admirable  description  of  Siam,  derives  this  from  the  Balic  words  Pra, 
venerable,  and  Bat,  foot,  as  Pad  in  Sanscrit ;  and  states  that  the  Siamese  call 
their  deity  Sommona  Codom,  the  son  of  a  king  of  the  famous  Ceylon,  who  placed 
his  right  foot  upon  their  Prabat,  and  his  left  upon  Lanka.  A  magnificent  temple 
is  erected  in  the  vicinity,  round  which  many  of  the  priests  of  the  country  dwell. 

2  The  Mahommedans  believe  that  Adam,  whose  height  was  equal  to  a  tall  palm- 
tree,  after  having  been  cast  down  from  Paradise,  which  was  in  the  seventh  heaven, 
alighted  on  a  peak  in  the  isle  Serendib  or  Ceylon,  and  remained  standing  on  one 
foot  until  years  of  penitence  and  suffering  had  expiated  his  offence,  and  formed  the 
footstep.  That  Eve,  on  the  contrary,  fell  near  Jeddah  or  Mecca,  in  Arabia ;  and 
that  after  a  separation  of  200  years,  Adam  was,  on  his  repentance,  conducted  by 
the  angel  Gabriel  to  a  mountain  near  Mecca,  where  he  found  and  knew  his  wife — 
the  mountain  being  thence  named  Arafat ;  and  that  he  afterwards  retired  with  her 
to  Ceylon,  where  they  continued  to  propagate  their  species. — Note  to  chap.  ii.  of 
Sale's  Al-Koran. 

3  Baldneus  speaks  of  sixty  statues  or  figures  having  been  discovered   in   the 
crevices  of  the  mountain. 

4  On  the  north  side  of  the  cone  is  a  spring  of  the  coldest  water,  which  may  pos- 
sibly have  led  to  the  error  in  question. 


616  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

of  fecundity,  the  water  being  said  to  have  been  drunk  by  women  who 
were  unfruitful,  and  to  whom  it  was  brought  by  the  Jogis. 

The  devotions  of  the  pilgrims  are  assisted  by  a  priest,  according  to 
a  prescribed  ritual.  It  comprises,  among  other  things,  the  utterance 
of  the  pan-sil  or  five  precepts,  and  the  tune-sarana.  It  is  customary 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony  for  relatives,  young  and  old,  to 
salute  one  another,  and  the  usage  is  accompanied  with  symptoms  of 
the  liveliest  affection.  Each  pilgrim  makes  a  small  offering  ;  these 
are  placed  on  the  sacred  impression,  and  removed  by  a  servant.  They 
are  the  perquisites  of  the  chief  priest  of  the  Malwatte  Wihare. 

The  view  from  Samanala  is  in  every  respect  the  grandest  that  can 
be  conceived,  though  chequered  somewhat  by  monotony :  in  every 
direction  are  seen  mountains  clothed  to  their  very  summits  in  eternal 
forests,  with  bare  rocks  and  precipices  of  such  huge  size,  that  even 
the  luxuriant  vegetation  which  screens  many  of  the  most  sublime  pros- 
pects, has  been  unable  to  conceal  their  awful  grandeur. 

Beyond  the  higher  mountains,  a  few  cultivated  but  distant  valleys 
may  be  indistinctly  seen  amid  the  hills,  gradually  decreasing  to  the 
sea,  which  may  be  distinguished  blending  with  the  humid  blue  haze, 
in  which  all  distant  objects  are  confounded.  Batugedera  appears  to 
be  almost  under  the  feet,  and  in  the  distance  may  be  discovered  the 
Kandian  mountains  interspersed  with  clouds. 

Over  some  of  these,  small  cascades,  shining  like  streams  of  light, 
may  be  seen  to  rush,  serving  by  their  flashes  to  attract  the  eye  to 
the  course  of  the  meandering  Mahavelle-ganga,  and  several  streamr, 
which  would  not  otherwise  be  discerned.  The  general  impression  of 
the  scene  is  a  feeling  of  dreariness,  and  an  idea  of  desolation  arising 
from  the  recollection  that  the  vast  forests  beheld  on  every  side,  have 
in  some  places  encroached  on  cultivated  districts,  and  in  many  in- 
stances over  cities,  temples  and  tanks,  scarcely  exceeded  in  magnifi- 
cence by  those  of  the.  greatest  nations  of  antiquity. 

A  peak,  called  Deiya  Guhawa  (cave  of  the  god),  on  one  side  over- 
hanging its  base,  rises  at  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Samanala, 
and  seems  but  little  inferior  to  it  in  height ;  and  by  natives  its  summit 
is  believed  to  remain  as  yet  unpolluted  by  human  footsteps.  A  self- 
confident  priest,  presuming  too  much  on  his  sacred  character,  is  said 
to  have  ascended  so  far,  that  the  light  was  observed  which  he  had 
kindled  at  night  beneath  the  overhanging  summit  of  this  haunted 
mountain ;  next  day  he  returned,  a  hopeless  maniac,  and  unable  to 
give  any  account  of  what  he  had  seen.  "There  is  nothing,"  says 
Forbes,  "incredible  in  this  story;  for  the  dreaded  mountain  is  appa- 
rently easier  of  ascent  than  Samanala  ;  and  we  need  not  be  surprised 
at  the  melancholy  fate  of  the  priest,  if  we  consider  how  strongly  the 
mind  of  a  native  (nurtured  in  the  belief  of  demons)  would  naturally 
be  acted  on  when  alone  in  an  untrodden  solitude,  haunted  by  the 
vague  terrors  of  superstition  and  the  just  dread  of  savage  animals." 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Peak,  is  the  Bhagawa-Lenna,  a  jutting 


CHAP.    1. 1       VISITS  OF  THE  BUDDHAS — A  NIGHT  ON  THE  PEAK.       61" 

rock,  under  which  all  the  four  Buddhas  are  said  to  have  rested  during 
their  visits  to  the  Peak.  The  mountain  on  this  side  is  covered, 
from  the  summit  to  its  very  base,  with  large  rhododendron  trees, 
whose  branches  extending  into  the  inclosure,  there  offer  their  superb 
crimson  flowers  to  the  shrine  of  Saman,  as  if  in  return  for  his 
guardianship.  The  Buddhas  have  certainly  shewn  that  they  were 
actuated  by  high  motives  of  policy  in  selecting  for  the  chief  place  of 
their  worship  a  spot  from  whence  such  objects  of  natural  grandeur 
and  one  of  the  fairest  portions  of  earth  are  visible.  On  Samanala's 
Peak,  as  on  a  throne  of  clouds,  no  one  can  help  being  penetrated 
with  the  most  profound  emotion  ;  and  the  mind  irresistibly  led  to  a 
contemplation  of  the  source  whence  all  this  grandeur  has  originated, 
cannot  fail  to  trace  it  to  the  Being,  whom,  whether  Buddhist, 
Mahommedau,  Hindoo  or  Christian,  he  may  respectively  worship. 

The  native  annals  record  with  due  solemnity  the  visits  of  the  four 
Buddhas  of  the  present  era,  who  left  the  impression  of  their  feet  (on 
which  are  the  mystical  symbols),  as  seals  of  their  authenticity  and 
evidences  of  their  divine  power.  The  first  of  these,  Kakusanda, 
is  supposed  to  have  visited  the  Peak,  then  called  Deiwakuta  (Peak  of 
the  god),  about  3000  years  before  Christ.  Finding  the  traces  of 
Buddhas  of  former  eras  on  the  summit,  he  would  seem  to  have  walked 
in  their  light  and  revived  their  doctrines. 

The  second  Buddha,  Konagamma,  appeared  about  2099,  B.C.  and 
the  Peak  had  even  then  obtained  the  name  of  Samantakuta1  (Peak  of 
Saman),  which,  with  little  variety,  it  has  since  preserved. 

The  third  Buddha,  Kaasiyapa,  followed  at  an  interval  of  1100 
years,  or  about  1014,  B.C.  The  fourth,  Gautama,  having  arrived  at 
Kellania  from  the  continent  of  India,  passed  on  to  the  Peak,  rested  in 
Bhagawa-Lenna,  and  from  thence  proceeded  to  Diggauakhya, 
5/7,  B.C. 

A  night  on  the  Peak  is  thus  described  by  Forbes  : — "  Varied  and 
extraordinary  scenes  of  earth  and  air  may  here  be  witnessed.  At 
first  the  moon  shining  bright,  made  the  features  of  the  nearer  moun- 

1  Called  probably  after  Saman,  the  brother  and  companion  in  arms  of  Rama, 
when  he  conquered  Lanka,  according  to  the  Singhalese  records  in  2386,  B.C.  He 
is  mentioned  in  the  Ramayan  and  by  the  Hindoos  under  the  name  of  Lakshrnan, 
Two  miles  below  Ratnapoora  is  the  principal  temple  dedicated  to  him,  who  is 
considered  the  tutelar  deity  of  this  portion  of  the  island,  and  in  the  holiest  part 
of  this  building  is  contained  the  bow  and  arrow  of  the  god.  The  figure  of  Saman 
is  always  painted  yellow,  and  in  Singhalese  traditions  this  prince  is  related  to  have 
retained  dominion  over  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  Ceylon  after  the  death 
of  Rawana,  and  to  have  been  distinguished  as  a  legislator.  The  accounts  of  Saman 
seem  to  be  involved  in  great  confusion,  owing  to  a  convert  and  follower  of  Buddha's 
bearing  the  same  name.  This  disciple  of  Gautama,  appears  to  have  retired  to  the 
Peak,  and  to  have  taken  advantage  of  the  locality  to  inculcate  the  doctrines  he 
professed.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  Saffragam  temple  of  Saman,  which  is 
either  this  or  the  one  on  the  Peak,  is  that  in  the  reign  of  Dappoola,  a.d.  795, 
a  statue  of  Ramachandra — an  incarnation  of  Vishnu — formed  of  red  sandal-wood, 
was  sent  from  Dondera  to  be  placed  in  the  temple  of  Saman  at  Safl'ragam. 


618  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

tains  appear  distinct ;  while  the  deep  valleys  looked  fathomless  from 
the  dark  shadows  that  fell  on  some  and  the  cold  grey  mists  that  lay 
in  others ;  from  these  small  clouds  occasionally  detached  them- 
selves, and  ascended,  casting  a  chilling  damp  for  the  few  seconds  that 
they  hung  around  the  sacred  pinnacle  ere  they  slowly  floated  onward 
or  sank  back  again  upon  the  mountain.  A  breeze  then  stirred,  and 
clouds  that  had  hitherto  lain  in  repose  were  at  once  in  wild  commotion, 
passing,  enveloping,  or  pressing  in  tumultuous  masses  along  the 
mountains,  which  overspreading,  they  seemed  to  engulph.  When 
these  airy  billows  rolled  and  heaved  round  the  Peak,  the  rock 
appeared  to  sink  in  the  abyss  ;  another  second  overwhelmed  me  in  a 
sea  of  vapour.  Every  circumstance  here  conspired  to  recall  the 
native  legends,  that  here  the  spirits,1  from  unrecorded  ages  down  to 
the  present  time,  hover  in  clouds  and  darkness  near  their  sacred  fane 
and  native  forests.  The  wind  fell  and  morning  dawned  on  a  smooth 
lake  of  matchless  beauty,  from  the  number  of  abrupt  and  richly 
wooded  islands  which  it  contained.  This,  far  from  being  a  creation 
of  fancy,  was  a  deception  of  nature,  and  required  the  aid  of  reflection 
and  memory  to  recall  the  true  features  of  the  scene,  and  to  assure 
me  that  it  was  but  the  troubled  vapour  of  the  night  that  had  subsided 
into  the  calm  expanse,  and  that  I  had  previously  admired  those 
islands  in  their  true  form  of  rocks,  woods,  and  mountains."  The 
thermometer  on  the  Peak  is  seldom  below  50°,  and  at  this  point  only 
a  short  time  before  and  at  the  time  of  sunrise,  in  general  fluctuating 
between  51  and  60°,  but  persons  who  are  accustomed  to  the  heat  of 
the  plains  experience  a  chilly  sensation. 

The  south-western  portion  of  Saffragam  is  generally  low  and  un- 
interesting, and  not  so  well  cultivated  as  the  other  divisions.  Within 
three  or  four  miles  of  Ratnapoora  it  greatly  improves  in  appearance, 
and  affords  a  favourable  example  of  the  scenery  of  Saffragam  :  flat 
green  meadows  occur  in  succession,  at  times  diversified  by  paddy 
fields,  bounded  by  low  wooded  hills,  and  skirted  with  a  border  of 
palms  and  fruit  trees,  under  which  the  scattered  dwellings  of  the 
natives  are  here  and  there  visible  ;  but  the  country  suffers  greatly 
from  floods. 

Between  Ratnapoora  and  Balangodde,  on  the  eastern  confines  of 
Saffragam,  twenty-nine  miles  distant,  there  is  considerable  variety  of 
country.  The  first  part  of  the  way  is  through  charming  and  ex- 
tensive meadows,  bounded  by  lofty  mountains  ;  the  chain  of  which 
Adam's  Peak  is  the  summit  towering  magnificently  on  the  left ;  the 
latter  part  of  the  road  is  hilly,  and  the  immediate  ascent  to  Balan- 
godde is  steep  and  mountainous.  The  scenery  is  in  general  of  a  very 
exquisite  character,  gradually  increasing  in  wildness  with  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  country.     The  valleys  are  very  well  watered,  and  appear 

1  The  natives  believe  that  none  but  priests  or  Europeans  can  pass  a  night  on 
the  Peak  with  impunity,  and  that  sickness,  and  perhaps  death,  would  follow  their 
violation  of  the  rule. 


CHAP. I.]  EASTERN  SAFFRAGAM —WESTERN  PROVINCE  —  CALTURA.  619 

to  be  populous  and  well  cultivated.  About  two  miles  from  Ratna- 
poora  is  tbe  village  of  Batugedera,  consisting  of  a  single  street, 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Moormen  pedlars  from  the  low  country,  who 
supply  the  natives  with  salt,  tobacco,  and  the  finer  cloths,  bartering 
them  generally  for  rice  at  a  high  profit.  At  Gonagamme,  another 
village,  there  is  a  wihare,  upwards  of  five  hundred  years  old,  but 
exhibiting  no  peculiarity.  The  country  immediately  around  Balan- 
godde  is  rather  hilly  and  covered  with  jungle,  consisting  of  guavo, 
with  forest  trees  interspersed ;  it  is  very  partially  cultivated,  and  the 
fields  being  situated  in  hollows  are  generally  hid  from  view.  The 
neighbouring  scenery  is  wild  and  picturesque,  especially  towards 
the  north,  in  which  direction  four  distinct  chains  of  mountains  have 
a  fine  effect,  rising  one  above  another,  all  of  various  colours,  the 
nearest  green,  the  most  distant  purple,  and  the  intermediate  two  of 
different  shades  of  blue. 

The  Bentotte  river  separates  the  Southern  from  the  Western  pro- 
vince. The  superficies  of  this  province  is  6032  square  miles,  and  its 
population,  which  was  329,797  in  1843,  may  be  estimated  at  358,550 
in  1848,  being  about  59  to  the  square  mile. 

The  Western  province  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  sea,  on  the 
south  and  south-east  by  the  Southern  province,  on  the  east  by  the 
Central  province,  and  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the  Northern1 
province.  The  district  of  Caltura  (Kalutotta),  extends  along  the 
most  southerly  part  of  this  province.  Its  greatest  length  from 
south-east  to  north-west  is  thirty-eight,  and  its  breadth  from  east  to 
west  eleven  miles,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  salubrious,  pleasant  and 
populous  parts  of  the  island.  The  soil  is  remarkably  fertile,  the  low- 
lands producing  three  crops  of  paddy  in  the  year,  while  the  highlands 
are  covered  with  groves  and  plantations  of  cinnamon,  cocoa-nut,  arcka, 
&c.  The  cocoa-nut-tree  affords  the  inhabitants  the  means  of  carrying 
on  an  extensive  distillation  of  arrack,  and  also  of  manufacturing 
cordage  and  jaggery.  The  district  is  divided  into  three  Korles, 
Pasdoom,  Raygam,  and  Wallawitty  ;  which  are  sub-divided  into 
ten  pattoos,  and  upwards  of  three  hundred  and  seventy  villages. 

The  next  village,  on  the  coast  route  from  Bentotte,  is  Barberyn, 
(Beruwala)  six  miles  and  three-quarters  distant,  the  road  excellent, 
occasionally  undulating  and  hilly,  but  well  shaded  with  cocoa-nut 
palms,  tamarind,  and  various  other  beautiful  trees.  Barberyn  island, 
in  lat.  6°  28'  north,  being  small  and  close  to  the  coast,  is  not 
easily  perceived  from  the  sea  except  when  passing  near.  Ships 
can  anchor  to  the  northward  of  it  in  six  or  seven  fathoms,  and  in 
a  small  bay  farther  in  ;  but  large  ships  passing  between  Caltura 
and  this  place  seldom  approach  nearer  than  two  or  three  miles  off 
shore.  Barberyn  is  a  large  fishing  villatro,  with  a  spacious  native 
bazaar.     Fish  is  salted  here  in   considerable  quantities — but  in  the 

1   See  Preface. 


620  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

usual  careless  manner  of  the  Singhalese — for  the  Kandian  markets, 
where,  notwithstanding  its  inferior  preparation,  it  is  ever  in  demand. 
The  trade  coastwise  is  considerable,  and  a  great  deal  of  coir  cord  and 
rope  is  manufactured  and  exported  coastwise,  as  well  as  cocoa  and 
areka  nuts.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  Saffragam  by  the 
Kalu-ganga.  Till  recently  there  was  no  rest-house  at  Barberyn,  but 
the  traveller  received  every  attention  from  the  officer  in  charge  of 
the  minor  custom-house  there.  Near  the  village,  upon  a  projecting 
promontory,  there  is  a  small  mosque,  which  is  more  remarkable  for 
its  delightful  site  than  for  any  particular  merit  it  possesses  as  a  place 
of  Mussulman  worship. 

From  Barberyn  to  Caltura,  distant  five  and  a  half  miles,  the  road 
is  excellent,  in  some  places  cut  through  hills  of  Kabook  clay,  and  the 
country  is  undulating  and  well  cultivated.  Nearly  equi-distant 
between  the  two  villages  there  is  an  extraordinary  lusus  naturce,  on 
the  right  hand,  in  a  double  cocoa-nut  tree,  the  heads  of  which  branch 
off  at  about  sixty  feet  from  the  ground,  like  the  letter  Y,  and  its 
average  produce  is  equal  to  that  of  two  good  trees.  It  is  considered 
by  the  superstitious  natives  an  omen  of  great  good  to  the  family  to 
whom  it  may  belong.  A  rich  undergrowth  of  yellow,  red,  and  blue 
campanulas  surround  the  old  fashioned  but  neat  dwellings,  built  in 
the  Dutch  style,  with  verandahs  at  their  sides,  which  lie  scattered  on 
this  coast  road,  and  old  Dutch  inscriptions  are  to  be  met  with  in  every 
direction  on  the  decaying  walls. 

Caltura  is  twenty-five  miles  south  of  Colombo,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Kalu-ganga.  The  coast  is  low,  and  should  not  be  approached 
under  fifteen  or  sixteen  fathoms  in  large  ships.  Both  to  the  north- 
ward and  southward  of  the  fort  there  is  foul  ground,  which  should 
not  be  approached  under  ten  fathoms.  The  Government  House  is 
a  large  and  substantial  building,  having  a  spacious  verandah  in  front 
and  rear ;  the  former  shaded  by  several  beautiful  jambo  trees,  and 
the  latter  open  to  the  ever  welcome  cool  sea  breeze  passing  over  the 
Kalu-ganga,  which  winds  between  the  grounds  and  the  sandy  ridge 
that  intervenes  between  the  river  and  the  sea  to  its  embouchure  to 
to  the  westward  of  the  village.  The  adjoining  cutcherry  is  also  a 
very  substantial  building  and  shaded  in  front  by  some  fine  specimens 
of  the  India-rubber  tree.  The  Wesleyan  mission  has  a  large  and 
commodious  house,  and  a  neat  and  well  constructed  chapel  and 
school  here,  both  of  which  are  constantly  and  well  attended.  Coffee 
of  a  very  superior  kind  is  grown  in  this  district.  Land  may  be 
purchased  at  moderate  prices  where  there  are  no  cocoa-nut  trees, 
its  value  being  usually  estimated  by  the  number  of  those  palms 
growing  upon  it.  For  cotton  the  soil  is  well  adapted,  as  well  as  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  chocolate  nut  (Theobroma  Cacao,  L.J,  which 
requires  much  shade.  The  rising  grounds  should  be  planted  with 
the  former,  and  the  valleys  with  the  latter.  Pepper  is  fond  of  shade, 
and  might  be  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  in  this  province  alone  to 
render  the  island  altogether  independent  of  the  Malabar  coast  for 


CHAP.  I.]    THE  KALU-GANGA  AND  THE  COUNTRY  ON  ITS  BANKS.    621 

that  spice  to  fill  up  the  interstices  in  the  bales  of  cinnamon  exported 
to  Europe.  The  view  from  Mount  Layard,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river,  is  beautiful,  but  one  scarcely  knows  which  of  the  two  reaches 
of  the  river  to  admire  most  :  the  old  fort,  an  island  and  the  open  sea 
over  the  sandy  ridge,  make  the  view  down  the  river  the  finest,  but 
for  the  Indian  impression  given  by  the  areka  trees  and  cocoa-nut 
topes ;  but  the  mellow  richness  of  the  scenery  up  the  river  towards 
Gal-Pathe  would  appear  to  some  most  interesting.  There  is  a  canal 
from  this  river  of  which  the  naturalist  may  advantageously  avail 
himself.  On  either  side  the  Kalu-ganga  are  extensive  paddy, 
Kurukkan,  mustard,  millet,  and  tannahal  fields. 

The  Kalu-ganga,  little  inferior  to  the  Rhine  in  breadth  or  volume, 
though  at  first  exhibiting  no  remarkable  scenery,  soon  presents,  as 
you  ascend  it,  numerous  picturesque  river  scenes,  with  rugged  banks, 
wooded  hills,  rocks  and  rapids.  The  stream  is  so  extremely  rapid, 
that  the  ascent  of  the  river  in  a  boat,  or  pardie,  is  wearisome  to  the 
last  degree,  it  having  to  be  dragged  by  a  number  of  natives  at  the 
falls,  between  the  rocks  or  Ellas,  with  rattan  ropes ;  the  return  pas- 
sage is  capable  of  being  effected  within  a  reasonable  time.  The  trade 
is  carried  on  by  pardies  between  Caltura  and  Ratnapoora,  freighted 
chiefly  by  the  Moormen  from  Barberyn,  with  salt  fish,  white  and 
coloured  cotton  cloths,  kerchiefs,  country  soap,  &c,  for  the  Kandian 
markets,  which  they  barter  for  areka-nuts,  bees-wax  and  jaggery. 
The  priests  at  the  pansalas,  near  the  river,  offer  great  accommodation 
to  the  traders,  by  permitting  depots  for  the  collection  of  areka-nuts 
on  their  grounds,  which  are  purchased  by  the  ammomam  of  25,000. 

At  Galpathe,  eight  miles  from  Caltura,  the  scenery  becomes 
romantic  and  pleasing,  with  little  mounds  or  hillocks  rising  on  either 
bank,  covered  with  rich  and  dense  foliage  Here  and  there  grassy 
vales,  contrasting  in  their  lighter  green  with  the  deeper  shades  of 
the  rising  grounds,  beautifully  diversify  the  scene.  The  left  bank  of 
the  river,  abounds  with  monkeys,  and  the  sportsman  will  find  pea- 
fowl, wild  ducks,  widgeon  and  snipes,  in  as  great  a  profusion  as  any 
locality  in  the  island,  or  perhaps  in  India.  The  numerous  little 
landing  places  on  either  side  first  indicate  to  the  tourist,  as  he  steals 
along,  the  habitations  of  the  peasants,  and  the  small  herds  of  cattle 
browsing  on  the  open  space  near  some  group  of  cocoa-nut  or  plantain 
trees,  mark  the  extent  of  their  possessions,  and  the  fruit  of  their  in- 
dustry. A  rise  in  the  floods  happens  here  occasionally,  to  the  great 
damage  of  the  grain  fields,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  years 
preceding  the  opening  of  the  new  mouth  of  the  river.  The  village 
of  Koongodde  is  devoted  to  the  growth  of  kurukkan  and  minere. 
The  back-ground  from  the  banks  of  the  river  is  flanked  by  a  con- 
tinuous range  of  hills,  broken  at  short  intervals  by  undulating  sur- 
faces, which  are  used  as  pasture  grounds,  or  rice  fields.  Rafts  are 
occasionally  seen  floating  down  the  Kalu-ganga  laden  with  vegetables, 
which  are  either  purchased  by  the  villagers  on  the  banks,  or  carried 
to  the  more  populous  sea  coast ;  the  raft  itself,  composed  of  bamboo 


622  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

and  firewood,  is  in  demand  at  Caltura  for  temporary  buildings  and 
fuel  for  the  distilleries.  The  larger  rafts,  composed  principally  of 
heavy  timber,  are  used  for  permanent  buildings.  The  agricultural 
aspect  of  the  country  as  one  ascends,  shews  no  great  marks  of  im- 
provement. The  people  seem  quite  content  to  remain  behind  the 
age,  and  have  not  a  thought  beyond  their  immediate  wants.  The 
heavy  impenetrable  jungle,  with  which  three-fourths  of  the  country 
is  covered,  bespeaks  their  indolent  character.  Blessed  with  the 
superior  advantages  of  soil  and  climate,  if  they  had  but  a  share  of 
European  energy,  they  might  look  to  the  attainment  of  means  far 
beyond  that  which  now  supply  their  coarse  and  scanty  enjoyments  ; 
but  with  the  limited  capital  they  now  hoard  up,  they  might  double 
the  interest,  and  transmit  to  their  children  the  advantages  they  may 
not  live  to  reap. 

The  first  thing  that  almost  always  marks  the  entrance  to  a  village, 
near  the  coast,  is  an  arrack  tavern.  At  Tebboene,  a  mile  beyond 
Yattewere,  the  country  assumes  a  beautiful  appearance ;  the  land- 
scape becomes  diversified  with  little  detached  cottages  peeping  through 
a  grove  of  plantain  and  other  fruit  trees.  The  village  stands  on  the 
right  bank,  and  paddy  cultivation  is  extensively  carried  on  ;  Odowere 
is  a  Chalia  village,  and  exhibits  marks  of  considerable  industry.  On 
the  right  bank  is  a  conspicuous  little  hill  called  Dewul  Kandi,  rising 
very  abruptly  within  a  few  yards  of  the  stream.  On  its  rock  summit 
are  a  little  tank,  and  the  vestiges  of  ancient  buildings,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  retreat  of  a  Kandian  prince  during  his  wars  with  the 
Portuguese.  Two  or  three  villages  distinguished  rather  for  the  vege- 
tation lavished  in  rich  and  wild  profusion  by  nature  than  the  result 
of  man's  industry,  succeed,  and  the  first  rapids  are  reached.  These 
are  occasioned  by  a  layer  of  rocks  stretching  across  the  channel, 
which  is  rather  narrow  at  this  point.  When  the  tide  ebbs  the  pas- 
sage is  difficult,  as  the  boat  has  to  pass  through  a  narrow  opening  on 
the  right,  barely  sufficient  to  admit  of  a  pardie,  and  so  shallow  that 
the  keel  may  at  times  be  heard  rattling  over  the  rocks  as  the  rush  of 
the  stream  hurries  it  along.  A  sort  of  superstitious  awe  is  attached" 
to  the  undertaking  by  the  boatmen,  who  invoke  the  aid  of  their 
deity,  Saman,  with  the  most  solemn  expression  of  countenance. 
Several  small  villages  being  passed,  Naragalle  is  reached,  where  there 
is  an  arrack  godown  that  supplies  the  taverns  of  the  vicinity.  The 
people  in  this  neighbourhood  have  already  become  greatly  addicted 
to  this  baneful  liquor,  and  it  has  increased  "the  callous  indifference  and 
listlessness  which  was  before  the  characteristic  of  the  Singhalese  in 
the  maritime  provinces.  When  to  this  is  added  the  encourage- 
ment to  gambling,  and  the  frequent  robberies  that  ensue  to  make 
losses  good,  a  frightful  picture  of  demoralization  is  seen  to  loom  on 
the  future.  The  arrack  is  not  distilled  here,  though  the  rich  heavy 
clusters  of  cocoa-nuts  shew  the  excellence  of  the  «soil  they  grow  on, 
and  the  rich  returns  it  would  give  if  the  industry  of  the  people  were 
properly  directed.  As  it  is,  the  banks  of  the  river  only  are  continuously 


CHAP.  I.]    ItAPlDS — VILLAGES — FEATURES  OF  THE  LANDSCAPE.     G23 

cultivated,  and  very  few  acres  beyond  a  mile  from  them  have  ever  been 
subjected  to  the  plough  share,  or  had  their  thick  motley  forests  fall 
before  the  woodman's  axe.  At  the  second  series  of  rapids,  a  reef  of 
rocks  again  traverses  the  stream,  and  the  rumbling  of  the  waters  as 
they  force  their  way  over  the  thick  masses  and  through  the  passage, 
may  be  heard  from  afar.  The  banks  of  the  stream  are  here  flanked 
by  massive  rocks,  over  which  the  wild  but  nimble  natives,  that  seem 
to  emerge  from  some  creek  in  them,  or  the  scarce  visible  openings 
in  the  jungle  around,  run  with  the  rope  from  the  boat  till  they  get 
up  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  right  flank,  and  then  one  at  a  time 
plunge  into  the  boiling  stream,  and  make  head  against  a  current  that 
one  would  imagine  that  no  living  creature  could  buffet,  till  they 
come  to  another  prominent  rock,  almost  in  a  line  a  head  of  the 
critical  passage  from  whence  they  pull  up  the  boat  till  it  reaches 
it,  while  two  or  more  of  them  stand  by  on  one  edge  of  the  rocks 
that  form  the  narrow  outlet,  and  some  of  the  boat's-crew  with  poles 
to  steady  it  and  keep  it  from  being  dashed  against  the  flanks  by  the 
irresistible  pressure  of  the  stream.  At  Illembe,  in  the  Raygam 
Korle,  the  cocoa-nut  thrives  on  both  bauks ;  the  village  is  famous 
for  its  rich  soil,  but  the  paddy  fields  are  liable  to  inundation,  whence 
they  are  only  cultivated  triennially.  Pasdoom  Korle  on  theother  bank 
is  wilder,  and  the  country  is  not  so  populous. 

The  village  of  Wagwatte  is  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  cocoa-nut 
topes  and  its  numerous  and  neat  little  cottages  covered  with  Illook, 
a  description  of  coarse  long  grass.  The  cleanliness  and  taste  of  these 
dwellings,  and  the  independent  tone  and  manners  of  the  people, 
indicate  strongly  their  industrial  qualities  and  superior  intelligence, 
ascribable  perhaps  to  the  proximity  of  European  capitalists  engaged 
in  sugar  and  cocoa-nut  cultivation.  After  passing  some  small 
secluded  villages,  with  the  rudest  possible  habitations,  the  scenery 
assumes  the  bold  aspect  and  the  wilder  and  loftier  appearance 
peculiar  to  the  mountain  region.  The  hills  are  capped  with  frowning 
rocks  that  look  down  their  steep  declivities  and  rear  their  tall  heads 
amid  the  solemn  stillness  of  a  dense  waste,  broken  only  at  intervals 
by  the  shrill  tones  of  the  peacock,  or  distant  cry  of  the  elk,  roaming 
in  wild  freedom  around.  Oroogalle  is  inhabited  by  the  Hakooroo 
caste,  who  enjoy  the  exclusive  right  to  the  cultivated  lands  here,  where 
paddy,  kurukkan,  minere,  amoo,  and  various  kinds  of  roots,  thrive 
well  on  the  rich  soil,  while  the  younger  branches  of  the  people  be- 
take themselves  to  the  wild  sports  of  the  forests  around.  The 
orange,  the  shaddock  and  plantain,  may  still  be  seen  here,  but  no 
longer  so  plentiful  as  hitherto.  Hill  paddy  is  sown  on  the  face  of  the 
hills,  the  rice  looks  reddish,  has  a  high  flavour,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
more  wholesome  and  nutritious  than  the  varieties  grown  in  the  low 
muddy  fields.  The  people  here  seem  to  look  with  some  mistrust  upon 
their  countrymen  from  the  coast,  who  in  landing  do  not  scruple  to  pilfer 
anything  they  can  lay  (heir  hands  upon  unperceived.  The  banks  of 
the  river  become  steeper  and  higher  as  one  ascends,  being  generally 


624  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

twenty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  stream,  yet  such  is  the  mighty  rush 
of  waters  from  the  mountain  torrents  in  the  rainy  season,  that  not 
only  are  the  banks  overflowed,  but  hardly  a  relic  of  the  cottage  roofs, 
some  twenty  leet  above,  can  at  times  be  discerned  ;  and  the  women 
and  children  and  the  elderly  men  retreat  to  the  hills  in  the  back- 
ground, while  the  younger  men  remain  perched  up  in  lofts,  placed 
on  the  larger  trees  near  the  house,  to  protect  the  fruit,  &c.  from  the 
depredations  of  those,  who  availing  themselves  of  the  occasion,  go 
about  in  canoes  to  pick  up  any  stray  property. 

Nambaapane,  a  Hakooroo  village,  boasts  a  rest-house,  situate  on 
the  site  of  an  old  Kandian  fort  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  is 
about  midway  between  Caltura  and  Ratnapoora.  It  presents  just 
such  a  spot  as  a  wine  grower  would  select  for  a  vineyard,  the 
alluvial  soil  being  both  rich  and  stony,  and  water  being  abundant. 
The  next  rapids  are  at  Pannigalle-Elle,  where  the  scenery  is  ex- 
ceedingly picturesque.  Two  beautiful  hills  overlooking  the  surge,  and 
richly  clothed  in  eternal  verdure,  offer  an  enchanting  scene  ;  here  a 
more  athletic  description  of  men  seem  as  it  were  to  drop  from  the 
surrounding  heights,  and  convey  the  boat  through  the  rocks,  strewn 
in  careless  confusion  by  the  caprice  of  nature.  It  is  needless  to  add, 
that  the  same  dexterity  is  here  shewn  in  mastering  the  impetuosity 
of  the  stream.  At  Kiri  Elle  the  density  of  the  mists  may  be 
said  to  define  the  more  humid  climate  of  the  interior.  The 
people  also  differ  in  appearance  from  those  even  at  the  last  village. 
They  are  essentially  Kandian  in  their  costume  and  idiom,  and  some- 
what migratory.  Occasionally  a  solitary  hut  is  seen  at  intervals,  and 
a  scanty  crop  of  grain,  but  the  frail  materials  of  the  hut  are  borne 
away  by  the  periodical  flood,  and  its  late  tenant  seeks  elsewhere  a 
precarious  subsistence.  Two  or  three  villages,  whose  inhabitants  live 
by  the  manufacture  of  jaggery,  succeed,  until  the  tourist  enters 
Kooroo witty  Korle,  stretching  north-east  of  the  right  bank.  Re- 
markable as  it  may  appear,  at  these  villages  and  Idangodde  the 
people  have  more  of  the  lowland  dress  and  cast  of  countenance  than 
those  below.  The  Kookool  Korle,  south-west  of  the  left  bank, 
appears  wilder  and  thinly  peopled. 

A  succession  of  villages,  none  offering  anything  worthy  of  notice 
as  far  as  Arukpittiya,  succeed.  The  country,  though  infested  by 
elephants,  is  very  fertile  and  luxuriant.  The  bazaar  at  this  village 
is  well  supplied.  This  part  of  the  country  is  remarkable  for  its  rich 
and  magnificent  groups  of  green  and  yellow  bamboo,  which  droop 
over  the  stream,  and  give  the  country  a  beautiful  rural  character. 
Their  massive  floats  lie  around  for  conveyance  down  the  river,  and 
they  form  a  considerable  article  of  trade.  Fishermen  from  the  coast 
may  here  be  seen  in  their  canoes  in  the  evening  shade,  catching  fish 
by  torchlight  with  the  iron  instrument  they  call  a  sword,  something 
like  a  horse  comb,  being  a  pronged  blade  of  iron  about  twelve  inches 
long,  with  a  wooden  handle  two  feet  long,  fastened  round  the  wrist 
of  the  fisherman,  who  strikes  the  fish  with  it,  while  another  holds 


<CHAP.    I.j        PANTURA— •  DISTRICT    OF    COLOMBO  —  MOROTTO.  G25 

the  torch  over  the  fascinated  creature  as  it  rises  to  the  surface  and 
remains  motionless  till  the  deadly  blow  is  inflicted.  Mullets  of  from 
six  to  eight  pounds  are  thus  taken.  At  Damboolowene  the  talapat 
prevails,  and  at  Dodampe  paddy  and  cocoa-nut  trees  are  extensively 
cultivated.  The  villages  between  this  place  and  Ratuapoora  are 
inhabited  by  the  Hakooroo  and  Goewanse,  who  in  this  neighbour- 
hood live  more  frequently  near  each  other  than  elsewhere  in  the 
island.  The  pride  of  caste,  though  no  longer  sanctioned  as  formerly 
by  law,  still  frets  the  surface  of  society,  and  recently  some  of  the 
low  caste  before-mentioned  were  assaulted  by  the  other  while  attend 
ing  a  marriage  in  an  attire  deemed  unfitting  to  their  low  position  in 
the  social  scale.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  they  met  with  the  punish- 
ment they  deserved.  Nevertheless,  in  this  very  neighbourhood 
lately  resided  a  Dissave,  animated  by  the  noblest  sentiments  of 
humanity,  who  not  only  discouraged  the  oppression  of  the  superior 
castes,  but  gave  a  practical  proof  of  his  sincerity  by  the  manumission 
of  every  slave  in  his  possession.  Below  Ratnapoora  the  Kalu-ganga 
divides  into  two  streams,  one  of  which  flows  due  north,  and  the  other 
in  an  easterly  direction.  The  northern  branch  is  remarkable,  now 
for  its  impetuosity,  the  rocks  through  which  it  runs,  and  the  forests 
that  border  it,  now  for  its  placid  and  tranquil  bosom.  It  receives 
the  water  from  a  great  many  rivulets  and  watercourses  as  it  descends 
till  it  meets  the  icy  waters  of  the  Seetla. 

To  return  to  Caltura.  The  country  between  this  place  and  Colombo 
becomes  more  beautiful  at  every  step  ;  nature  and  art  seem  to  conspire 
to  render  the  landscape  a  charming  one  :  picturesque  country  seats, 
a  rich  vegetation,  several  rivers  flowing  softly  between  banks  of  ex- 
quisite loveliness,  and  distant  views  of  mountains,  follow  each  other 
in  rapid  succession.  The  next  stage  from  Caltura  northwards  is  to 
Pantura  (Panadura),  situate  upon  the  south  bank  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  and  distant  ten  miles,  the  road  level,  good  and  well 
shaded.  It  derives  its  name  from  an  abbreviation  of  the  word 
"  pambunratta,"  or  "  the  country  where  lamps  were  broken,"  in 
allusion  to  a  legend  of  the  reign  of  Wijeya.  Pantura  has  two  rocks 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river  entrance,  and  the  anchorage  is  to  the 
southward,  in  ten  fathoms,  two  miles  off  shore. 

The  rest-house  at  Pantura,  which  faces  the  ferry,  is  very  substantial, 
and  the  verandah  is  generally  so  cool  as  to  afford  a  pleasant  reading- 
place  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  Fish  kraals  extend  directly  across 
the  river,  just  leaving  space  enough  for  the  pardie  boats  to  pass  and 
repass.  A  few  mats  for  palanquins  and  sofas  may  be  purchased  here, 
but  it  has  neither  scenery  nor  manufactures  to  recommend  it.  Like 
the  whole  of  this  coast  it  abounds  with  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  the 
principal  objects  of  agriculture  are  paddy  and  sweet  potatoes.  A 
district  judge  resides  here,  and  there  is  a  minor  custom-house  estab- 
lishment in  charge  of  a  supervisor. 

The  district  of  Colombo  is  divided  into  five  Korles ;  the  Salpitty 
Korle,  Ilewagam  Korle,  Hina  Korle,  Hapitigam  Korle,  and  Aloot- 

2  s 


G2(J  CEYLON.  [PABT  IV. 

koor  Korle.  These  are  subdivided  into  pattoos.  The  population 
of  the  district  is,  after  that  of  Jaffna,  the  most  numerous,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  surface,  in  the  island,  being  little  less  than  280,000, 
and  the  villages  are  upwards  of  800  in  number.  The  face  of  the 
country  is  in  general  flat,  at  times  liable  to  inundation,  and  the  soil 
varies  from  red  and  white  clay  to  a  ferruginous  sand.  Every  variety 
of  tropical  produce  is  grown  with  success  ;  and  copperahs,  cordage, 
and  arrack  are  exported  to  the  Coromandel  coast. 

After  crossing  the  river  the  road  leads  by  the  lake  and  through  the 
village  of  Morotto,  or  Morottowa,  near  to  which  are  the  cinnamon  gar- 
dens or  plantations,  occupying  an  extent  of  from  three  to  four  hundred 
square  acres.     The  village  is  chiefly  inbabited  by  carpenters,  who  fell 
jack-trees,  saw  them  into  planks,  and  work  them  into  every  article  of 
household  furniture  on  the  spot,  and  generally  after  the  most  recent 
English  patterns.     Morotto  is  fifteen  and  a  quarter  miles  distant  from 
Colombo;  the  intermediate  road  lies  through  the  large  but  straggling 
villages  of  Galkisse  and  Colpetty,  and  throughout  the  distance  is  as 
level  as  a  bowling-green,  thickly  shaded  by  a  variety  of  beautiful  and 
useful  trees,  and  the  sea  side  is  bordered  by  cocoa-nut  palms.     The 
former  village  may  be  said  to  be  one  continuous  bazaar,  and  is  very 
well  supplied  with  fish,  of  which  the  seir  is  chiefly  esteemed  for  the 
market,  and  therefore  the  most  valuable  to  the  fisherman.     This 
delicious  fish  is  caught  with  hook  and  line,  while  the  canoes  are 
apparently  skimming  the  surface  of  the  water  at  a  railroad  pace,  and 
in  such  quantities,  that,  after  supplying  the  bazaar  at  Galkisse,  the 
renter  of  the  fishery  sends  the  surplus  morning  and  evening  to  the 
Colombo  bazaar  by  Coolies,  who  actually  bend  under  the  weight  of 
their  pingo  loads.     Strangers  visiting  the  Buddhist  temple  near  this 
place  meet  with  every  attention  from  the  priest,  who  is  a  great  adept 
at  flattery  and  adulation.     Galkisse  is  of  some  importance  from  its 
proximity   to    the    Governor's    country    seat    at    Mount    Lavinia, 
formerly  a  capacious  bungalow,  but  now  a  palace  in  comparison,  the 
former  building  having  been  pulled  down  by  Sir  Edward  Barnes  and 
the  latter  substituted  in  its  place.     It  is  now,  however,  little  fre- 
quented, and  is  said  to  be  in  urgent  need  of  repairs.     There  is  a 
Protestant  church  at  this  place.     At  no  great  distance  to  the  right 
of  Galkisse  is  Cotta  (Jayawardhanapoora),  once  a  capital  of  Ceylon, 
containing  a    splendid   palace    of    blue    stone,    and    temples    and 
monasteries  for  the  priests,  all  now  in  ruins.     The  present  village  is 
on  the  banks  of  a  small  stream,  which  communicates  with  Colombo 
by  the  Kalane  on  one  side,  and  with  the  Pantura-oya  and  Caltura  on 
the  other.     In  the  rainy  season  it  overflows  its  banks,  and  inundates 
the  country  around,  rendering    communication  difficult  except  by 
water.     Cotta  is  completely  embosomed  amid  groves   of  cocoa-nut, 
areka,  and  jack-trees,  entwined  with  pepper  and  betel  vines.     The 
Church  Missionary  Institution  for  the  training  of  native  masters 
and  catechists  is  at  this  place,  and  several  periodicals  are  issued 
from  its  press.     Throughout  the  whole  line  of  road  between  Gal- 


CHAP. I.  I  COTTA COLOMBO,  POSITION,   ANCHORAGE,  ETYMOLOGY.  627 

kisse  and  Colombo,  the  traveller  may  walk  under  cocoa-nut  trees 
by  the  sea  side  without  the  least  exposure  to  the  sun.  On  the  right 
of  the  high  road,  where  cinnamon  plantations  do  not  intervene,  groves 
of  plantain  and  anatto  would  succeed.  If  the  traveller  have  leisure, 
and  sleep  at  Pantura,  leaving  before  gun-fire  with  the  view  of  break- 
fasting at  Colombo,  a  halt  at  the  Tamarind  tree,  about  three  miles 
from  the  fort,  for  a  glass  of  the  delicious  toddy,  always  to  be  had 
there  from  sun-rise  till  eight  o'clock  fresh  from  the  flower,  will 
reward  him  for  the  delay.  He  then  reaches  the  Galle-face,  and  the 
walk  through  the  beautiful  avenue  of  trees  by  which  the  whole  road 
is  lined  will  unfold  the  capital  to  his  view. 

Colombo,  the  maritime  capital  and  seat  of  Government,  is  in  lat. 
6°  57'  north, and  long.  79°  50'  east,  distant  about  368miles  south-west 
from  Madras,  and  about  six  leagues  south  south-west  from  Negombo. 
The  bottom  between  these  places  is  chiefly  mud,  with  regular  sound- 
ings, but  the  coast  should  not  be  approached  close,  on  account  of  some 
rocks  stretching  out  about  two  miles  from  the  north  point  of  the 
Kalane,  at  Mutwal  Ganga,  and  in  passing  along  shore  a  ship  should 
keep  in  ten  or  twelve  fathoms,  and  may  anchor  in  Colombo  road  in  six 
and  a  half  to  seven  fathoms,  with  the  flag-staff  or  light-house  in  the  fort 
bearing  from  south  to  south  by  east  of  the  town  one  and  a  half  to  two 
miles.  The  harbour,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  is  only 
capable  of  receiving  small  vessels,  and  the  road  where  the  large  ships 
cast  anchor,  at  upwards  of  a  mile  from  the  shore,  is  exposed  to  the 
south-west  monsoon,  but  severe  gales  seldom  occur  now,  so  that  ships 
frequent  it  all  the  year  through.  The  Drunken  Sailor  Rock  bearing 
south-west  by  west,  half  west  from  the  lighthouse,  is  two  miles  offt 
and  is  very  dangerous.  It  is  in  the  track  of  ships  coming  from  the 
southward,  when  bound  into  Colombo  roads  in  the  north-east  mon- 
soon, and  the  sea  does  not  break  upon  it  in  fine  weather.  A  steep 
bank  of  coral,  about  half  a  mile  broad,  having  fifteen  fathoms  water 
on  it,  lies  seven  miles  west  of  Colombo,  stretching  a  few  miles  to  the 
southward,  and  in  a  northerly  direction  towards  Negombo,  where  its 
surface  is  sand.  The  water  deepens  at  once  to  twenty-three  fathoms 
outside  the  bank,  and  to  twenty-eight  fathoms,  greenish  sand,  at  two 
miles  distant,  which  is  not  far  from  the  edge  of  soundings.  Within 
the  bank  are  twenty-five  fathoms,  gradually  shoaling  towards  the 
shore.  The  bar  is  a  bank  of  sand,  with  seven  feet  water  on  its  shoalest 
part.  Small  vessels  drawing  less  than  ten  feet  water,  ride  within  the 
bar,  protected  from  the  sea  and  south-west  wind.  The  sea  breaks 
heavy  on  the  bar  in  bad  weather,  rendering  the  crossing  it  from  the 
shipping  in  the  outer  road  dangerous  for  small  boats.  Pilotage  is 
not  now  charged  at  Colombo,  unless  a  pilot  be  employed,  when  the 
charge,  according  to  a  regulation  of  the  Governor  in  Council,  is  fifteen 
shillings.  The  land  about  Colombo.is  low  near  the  sea,  with  some  hills 
to  the  south-eastward,  a  little  way  in  the  country.  The  high  mountain 
with  a  sharp  cone,  called  Adam's  Peak,  is  nearest  to  this  part  of  the 
coast,  being  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance  that  it  is  from  the  east 
side  of  the  island.  2  s  2 


628  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

Colombo  is  mentioned  in  Singhalese  history  as  early  as  the 
year  495  of  the  Christian  era.  Moogallaana,  who  afterwards  reigned 
at  Anuradhapoora,  is  said  to  have  landed  here  with  an  army  from 
the  continent  and  erected  a  fort.  About  the  year  1374  it  was  fre- 
quented by  trading  vessels,  and  a  colony  of  Malabars,  under  Aareya 
Chakrawarti,  took  possession  of  the  place,  and  threw  up  fortifications, 
but  they  were  soon  expelled  from  it  by  the  minister  Alakaiswara,  who 
founded  the  city  of  Cotta  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  Portuguese  ar- 
rived in  a.d  .  1 51 0.  The  etymology  of  Colombo  is  commonly  attributed 
to  Colamba,  a  species  of  mango,  which  stood  conspicuous  at  this 
place  in  olden  time.  In  the  Sidahartha  Sangraha,  or  Singhalese  gram- 
mar, the  word  Colamba  is  mentioned  as  signifying  a  sea-port  and  also 
a  fort,  and  in  the  former  sense  it  seems  to  have  been  applied  to  the 
metropolis  of  the  island  from  its  maritime  situation  by  the  natives, 
being  corrupted  into  Colombo  by  the  Portuguese  in  honour  of  that 
celebrated  navigator. 

The  fort  of  Colombo  mounts  1 26  guns  and  six  mortars,  and  is 
garrisoned  by  a  European  force  of  forty  officers  and  850  European 
troops.  The  Gun  Lascars  and  the  Ceylon  Rifle  regiment  are  stationed 
on  Slave  Island,  where  there  are  some  good  houses,  usually  occupied 
by  the  officers  of  the  regiment.  The  latter  body,  consisting  of 
Malays,  Sepoys  and  Kaffres,  has  been  recently  augmented,  and  part 
of  it  transferred  to  Hong  Kong.  Its  present  force  at  Colombo  is 
twenty-five  officers  and  650  men,  and  it  is  now  being  recruited  by 
Kaffres  from  Mosambique,  who  are  to  receive  the  European  rate  of 
pay.  Colombo  would,  perhaps,  present  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
defence,  from  the  great  extent  of  the  works,  which  to  be  manned 
effectively  would  require  at  least  6000  troops,  and  the  fort  is  capable, 
in  case  of  emergency,  of  accommodating  10,000  persons.  The 
present  Governor  being  a  civilian,  the  forces  are  commanded  by  a 
Major-General,  who  usually  resides  at  Kew  House,  on  the  verge  of 
the  beautiful  artificial  lake,  which  adds  so  greatly  to  the  appearance 
and  health  of  Colombo.  This  residence  was  formerly  called  Blanker' s 
Garden,  having  belonged  to  a  Dutch  Major  of  that  name,  and  was 
subsequently  occupied  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  Ceylon 
regiment.  In  1812  the  ground  was  converted  into  a  botanical 
garden,  and  the  curator  occupied  the  house.  When  this  establish- 
ment was  transferred  to  Paradiniya,  the  house  and  grounds  reverted 
to  the  military,  and  have  ever  since  been  considered  as  appropriated 
to  the  commander  of  the  forces.  The  fort,  commenced  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1518,  and  completed  in  its  present  extent  and  strength 
by  their  successors,  the  Dutch,  is  situate  on  a  small  projection  of  land, 
washed  by  the  sea  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  extent,  and  embraces  a 
a  circuit  of  nearly  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  The  ramparts  are  very  strong, 
having  eight  principal  bastions,  and  a  number  of  lesser  ones,  with 
curtains,  banquets,  and  parapets,  communicating  one  with  the  other 
all  round,  but  the  exclusion  of  the  sea  breeze,  as  at  Galle,  is  no  slight 
drawback  from  this  strong  fortification.     At  the  foot  of  the  ramparts 


OHAP.  I.]    FOKT,  DEFENCES,  LAKE,  GRAVETS,  BAZAABS.       G29 

on  the  inside  is  a  broadway,  which  extends  round  the  whole  fort,  and 
is  connected  with  the  bastions  and  soldiers'  barracks  ;  and  also  affords 
at  the  different  angles  open  spaces  for  their  private  parades.  The 
whole  of  the  fort  is  surrounded,  except  that  side  which  is  next  the 
sea,  by  a  deep  ditch  or  fosse  ;  and  adjoining  the  covert  way,  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  glacis,  is  a  lake  which  communicates  with  the  Mutwal 
river.  The  best  houses  in  Colombo  are  within  the  fort.  The  Main 
or  Queen's  Street  is  wide  and  well  planted  with  umbrageous 
sooria  or  tulip  (Hibiscus  Zeilanicus)  and  bread-fruit  trees,  and  several 
of  the  houses  have  gardens  for  shrubs  and  flowers  in  front,  and  coach- 
houses and  stables  in  the  rear.  The  streets  are  well  watered  during 
the  day,  and  the  fallen  foliage  is  regularly  removed  every  morning 
and  evening.  One  may  walk  from  either  extremity  of  the  fort  to 
the  other  in  the  heat  of  the  day  without  being  incommoded  by  the 
sun's  rays.  During  dinner-time  a  large  and  heavy,  but  beautifully 
painted  board,  called  a  Punkah,  equal  in  size  to  the  table  over  which  it 
is  suspended,  is  kept  in  motion  inside  the  houses  by  a  servant  by  means 
of  strings  passing  through  the  wall.  All  the  rooms  are  quite  open  to 
the  verandah,  which  for  the  sake  of  coolness  surrounds  each  story. 

In  the  interior  of  the  fort  are  several  straight  and  regular  streets  with 
smaller  ones  crossing  at  right  angles.  Behind  the  Queen's  House, 
the  residence  of  the  Governor,  is  the  Lighthouse,  an  edifice  the  light 
of  which  is  ninety-seven  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  clear 
weather  may  be  seen  as  far  as  the  light  is  visible  above  the  horizon. 
All  the  military  offices,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Colonial  Secretary,  the 
Commissioner  of  Revenue,  the  Vice- Admiralty  Court,  with  the  General 
Post  Office,  are  within  the  fort;  there  are  besides  an  English  church, 
called  St.  Peters,  a  library,  a  medical  museum,  a  hospital,  two  hotels, 
and  numerous  shops. 

The  lake  at  the  back  of  the  fort  almost  insulates  the  town,  being 
connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Mutwal-  oya  ;  and  a  lock  having  been 
formed  at  St.  Sebastian  by  Sir  Edward  Barnes,  the  inland  navigation 
is  carried  through  the  fort  to  the  sea  beach.  In  the  centre  of  the  lake 
is  a  tongue  of  land,  denominated  Slave  Island,  from  the  use  to  which 
it  was  applied  by  the  Dutch.  That  part  of  Slave  Island  nearest  to 
the  fort  is  very  cool,  being  only  separated  from  the  sea  by  an  isthmus, 
commonly  called  the  Galle-face.  Communication  from  this  place  with 
the  fort  or  pettah  is  very  easy  by  land,  passing  over  a  very  pretty 
little  stone  bridge,  which  opens  to  the  south  end  of  the  Galle-face  near 
the  village  of  Colpetty,  or  by  boats,  which  cross  the  lake  at  all  seasons. 
There  is  now  also  communication  by  a  good  bridge  opposite  the  sally- 
port ;  a  new  road  has  likewise  been  formed  along  the  side  of  the  lake 
leading  from  St.  Sebastian  to  the  fort,  a  portion  of  a  new  road  along 
the  sea  shore  at  the  back  of  Sea  Street  and  facing  the  anchorage  is 
formed,  and  will  perhaps  ultimately  be  continued  outside  the  ramparts 
to  the  Custom  House,  and  thus  relieve  the  main  gate  of  the  fort  ot 
two-thirds  of  the  immense  number  of  vehicles  constantly  crushing 
through  it. 


630  CEYLON,  [PAKT   IV. 

The  square  comprehended  within  what  are  called  the  gravets,  is 
about  eight  square  miles  ;  the  limits  being  the  Fort,  Tankesalgade, 
Mutwal  (mouth  of  the  Kalane-Ganga),  Pass  Betal,  Qeroegodewatte, 
Maligawattc,  Demettegode,  Maraudhan  cinnamon  plantations,  Col- 
petty,  and  Galle-face.  The  term  gravets  is  a  corruption  of  the 
Kandian  word  kaddewette,  meaning  the  boundaries  of  a  city,  which 
were  surrounded  with  a  thorn  fence.  Its  primary  signification  was 
perhaps  the  bounds  within  which  certain  low  castes,  such  as  Rhodias, 
Gahaleyas,  Kinnerayas,  &c.  could  not  approach  without  the  special 
consent  of  the  Adigaar,  or  unless  the  occasion  of  certain  religious 
ceremonies  called  for  their  presence  and  services.  The  Portuguese 
corrupted  the  word  into  garvette,  the  Dutch,  in  their  rugged 
tongue,  called  it  gravetten,  and  the  British  modified  this  into  gravets. 

There  are  now  upwards  of  twenty  commercial  houses  in  Colombo. 
Some  handsome  and  well  stocked  shops  have  also  been  opened 
by  Europeans  ;  a  number  of  others  belong  to  respectable  burghers  of 
Dutch  descent,  and  Main  Street  pettah,  is  now  one  series  of  shops 
and  stores.  The  Moormen  own  the  greater  number  of  the  shops, 
the  grain  stalls  are  shared  by  Tamuls  and  Moormen,  and  a  few 
wealthy  Parsee  tradesmen  transact  an  extensive  business  in  this  street. 
Several  respectable  tradesmen  of  the  same  faith,  who  are  connected 
with  the  Bombay  trade,  are  settled  in  the  fort  as  well  as  pettah  of  Co- 
lombo. They  receive  supplies  from  the  former  place  during  the  south- 
west monsoon  and  make  their  returns,  chiefly  in  produce,  during  the 
north-east  monsoon,  and,  as  is  their  custom  elsewhere,  they  live  as  near 
as  possible  to  each  other.  The  Nateacottah  (cloth  merchants)  gene- 
rally live  in  Sea  Street,  which  swarms  with  their  Tamul  countrymen. 
Within  the  last  year  a  company  has  been  formed  to  import  ice  from 
America.  A  great  impetus  has  been  given  to  internal  and  petty 
trading  by  the  abolition  of  the  restrictions  on  auctioneers  and  auctions. 
There  are  several  bazaars  or  market-places  in  the  pettah  for  fish,  flesh  of 
every  kind,  fruits,  grain,  garden  herbs,  &c.  Beef  is  to  be  had  tolerably 
good  at  from  fourpence-halfpenny  to  sixpence  per  pound  ;  mutton 
sells  according  to  quality,  when  really  good  it  is  expensive.  Ducks  and 
fowls  are  plentiful  at  about  two  shillings  each  the  former,  and  one 
shilling  the  latter  ;  geese  and  turkeys  are  expensive.  Tropical  herbs 
and  fruit  are  abundant,  and  generally  cheap  and  good ;  mangoes 
from  the  hot  climate  and  calcareous  soil  of  Jaffna  excel ;  but  for  pine- 
apples and  oranges,  Colombo  can  compete  with  any  part  of  India. 
Fish  is  generally  of  good  quality  and  in  great  variety,  but  scarce  and 
dear.  Potatoes,  for  which  some  few  years  ago  the  island  was  altogether 
dependent  upon  Bombay  and  Madras,  are  now  cheap  and  abundant, 
and  exposed  for  sale  soon  after  daylight.  The  bazaars  are  well  and 
regularly  supplied  every  day  alike,  except  Sunday,  on  which  no  traffic 
is  now  allowed.  There  are  also  two  steam  engines  and  several  native 
presses  used  for  manufacturing  cocoa-nut  oil,  which  are  worked  by 
bullocks,  and  their  vicinity  is  forcibly  indicated  by  the  tremendous 
creaking  which  accompanies  their  movements.    The  first  foundry  ever 


CHAP.   I.]       THE    PETTAH — POLICE— PUBLIC    INSTITUTIONS.  631 

established  in  Ceylon  is  in  operation  on  Slave  Island.  The  Pettah  or  black 
town  lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  fort,  on  the  margin  of  the  sea,  is 
regularly  built  and  divided  into  fifteen  streets,  of  which  eight  run 
east  and  west,  and  the  others  cross  them  at  right  angles.  The 
houses  are  in  general  built  of  kabook,  and  neatly  washed  with  chunam, 
which  has  all  the  appearance  of  marble  ;  some  of  them  are  of  two 
stories,  and  all  are  lofty  and  have  a  good  appearance.  Several  of  the 
streets  are  lined  on  each  side  with  rows  of  the  Guilandina  Moringa, 
Hibiscus  Zeilanicus  (Sooriya  gaha,  Singh.),  the  Hibiscus  albinischus 
(Kapu  Kinaisa  gaha,  Singh.),  and  the  Melia  sempervivens  (Kas- 
samba  gaha,  Singh.) 

In  1814,  the  number  of  tiled  houses  within  the  gravets,  was  esti- 
mated at  2654.     By  virtue  of  a   regulation  passed  in  1820,  an 
assessment  was  imposed  for  lighting  and  repairing  the  streets ;  the 
amount  collected  from  1820  to  1829,  was  ^6592,  of  which  ^62140 
was  laid  out  at  interest,  with  the  view  of  accumulating  a  fund,  and 
by  a  further  regulation  in  1 830,  it  was  arranged  that  four-fifths  of 
the  amount  collected  should  be  applied  to  the  lighting  and  repairs, 
and  one-fifth  be  added  annually  to  the  accumulation  fund,  to  be  lent 
out  at  interest  under  the  direction  of  a  committee.  When  the  interest 
amounted  to  ^61200  per  annum,  the  tax  was  to  cease.     Recently  a 
town  surveyor  with  an  assistant  has  been  appointed  to  survey  and 
improve  the  town.      Improvement  was  sadly  called  for,  and  the 
scantiness  of  funds  leaves  much  yet  to  be  effected.     Vested  right  and 
the  law  of  prescription,  where  they  only  rested  on  the  ground  of 
nuisances  that  had  been  permitted  for  years  to  exist  with  impunity, 
have  been  very  properly  set  at  defiance  ;    verandahs  coexistent  with 
the  houses  to  which  they  are  attached,  where  they  encroach  on  the 
public  way,  have  been  either  removed,  or  the  owners  have  been  called 
to  pay  so  much  per  square  foot  for  the  general  improvement  of  the 
town.     This  measure  has  of  course  produced  much  excitement  and 
discontent  among  the  householders,  but  it  only  requires  firmness  and 
strict  impartiality  in  carrying  out  its  regulations  to  ensure  the  con- 
currence  of  sensible   persons.     The   streets    have   never  yet   been 
lighted  in  this  important  city,  and  the  police,  which  is  pretty  efficient, 
is  supported  by  a  tax  of  five  per  cent  on  the  value  of  buildings. 
The  force  has  been  assimilated  within  the  last  few  years  in  dress  and 
discipline  to  the  new  police  of  London,  the  present  superintendant 
having  been  chosen  from  that  body.     The  advantages  resulting  from 
clothing  Asiatics,  accustomed  to  free  and  flowing  robes,   in  the  stiff 
and  close  dress  of  Europeans  remain  to  be  seen,  but  there  can  be  no 
question  of  the  incongruity  of  the  long  hair  and  large   coat  of  the 
Singhalese  policemen,  and  the  peaked  cap  which  rests  on  them. 

The  scene  on  landing  at  the  Custom-house  during  business  hours, 
is  one  of  great  and  incessant  bustle,  boats,  bullock  bandies,  and 
coolies  hurrying  to  and  fro,  while  coffee,  cinnamon,  and  cocoa-nut 
oil  arc  being  shipped,  cotton  cloth  from  Britain  and  India  valued  and 
passed,  and  grain  from  India  and  Arracan  being  landed  and  measured. 


(532  CEYiorr.  [part  rsr. 

The  United  Service  Library,  nearly  opposite  the  Queen's  House, 
contains  a  good  selection  of  books,  upon  every  scientific  and  amusing 
subject,  the  periodical  publications  of  Europe  and  the  Indian 
peninsula,  newspapers,  &c,  but  within  the  two  last  years,  the  insti- 
tution has  lost  a  large  body  of  supporters.  The  merchants  and 
others  not  connected  with  the  services,  could  only  be  admitted  by 
ballot,  and  as  honorary  members  were  deprived  of  a  voice  in  the 
management  of  the  institution  and  the  disposal  of  the  funds,  the 
humiliation  was  too  much  to  be  borne ;  and  a  new  Hall  of  Commerce 
or  Exchange  has  been  built,  as  a  place  of  reunion  for  the  professional 
and  commercial  classes,  in  connection  with  which  is  a  small  but 
increasing  library  and  news-room,  to  which  all  persons  of  respecta- 
bility and  intelligence  are  admitted.  Assemblies  are  occasionally 
held  in  the  rooms  of  the  United  Service  Library.  The  situation  of 
that  building,  which  is  considerably  elevated  above  the  street,  and 
with  its  spacious  verandah  delightfully  shaded  by  umbrageous  trees, 
and  exposed  to  the  sea  breeze,  presents  an  agreeable  lounge  during 
the  heat  of  the  day.  The  Museum  attached  to  the  Medical  Library 
is  situated  in  Hospital  Street,  and  is  well  worthy  of  a  visit.  There  is. 
a  large  and  varied  collection  of  specimens  of  natural  history,  but  the 
arrangement  is  not  judicious.  The  Pettah  Library  is  a  very  respect- 
able institution,  with  a  large  collection  of  books,  the  subscription  is 
only  one  shilling  per  month,  but  the  rich  pay  higher  according  to 
their  means  and  inclination.  It  is  a  subject  of  regret  that  natives 
are  not  yet  admitted,  nor  have  they  formed  a  library  of  their  own. 

The  two  banks,  the  Ceylon  and  Oriental  are  side  by  side  in  Queen's 
Street,  nearly  opposite  the  Queen' 8  House,  which  they  completely  eclipse 
in  appearance.  Previous  to  their  establishment,  the  mercantile  interests 
no  less  than  private  individuals  were  made  sensibly  aware  of  the  incon- 
venience of  being  altogether  dependent  on  the  limited  sale  of  Govern- 
ment and  missionary  bills  for  remittances  to  England.  The  Savings' 
Bank  has  lately  been  a  subject  of  legislative  discussion,  and  in  its  rooms 
meet  periodically  the  members  of  the  newly  formed  Ceylon  branch  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  This  useful  institution  has  branches  at 
Trincomalee,  Jaffna,  Galle,  and  Kandy,  by  which  loans  are  advanced 
upon  good  security,  and  deposits  received,  and  business  transacted  on 
certain  days  in  every  month,  and  on  special  occasions  when  required. 
The  extension  of  this  bank  to  the  various  districts  of  the  island 
would  be  attended  with  inconceivable  advantages  to  the  native 
population,  who  might  receive  advances  at  from  eight  to  ten  per  cent, 
where  they  now  pay  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  to  the  Chitties  or  other 
usurers.  The  Council  Room  faces  the  fort  esplanade,  and  is  both 
externally  and  internally  a  handsome  building,  but  a  drawback  exists, 
in  the  existence  of  an  echo,  which  renders  the  speaker  frequently 
inaudible.  The  Colonial  Secretary's  office  is  beneath  the  Council 
Room,  and  almost  all  the  other  Government  offices  adjoin  it.  There 
are  three  or  four  hotels  within  the  fort,  the  Royal  Hotel,  formerly 
the  Government  rest-house,  is  a  splendid  building.     A  number  of 


CHAP.    I.]     PUBLIC    BUILDINGS — SCENERY  AROUND  COLOMBO.        633 

beautiful  private  residences  have  of  late  years  been  erected  along  the 
sea  shore  at  Colpetty,  and  in  the  Maraudhan  cinnamon  garden,  on 
which  has  been  mapped  out  the  plan  of  a  future  city.  The  elephant 
stables,  which  are  an  object  of  great  interest,  are  at  Kayman's  Gate. 
The  other  public  buildings  are  the  Hall  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
situate  at  Hulfsdorp,  in  the  heart  of  the  town.  A  new  edifice  is  now 
being  raised  for  this  purpose  at  a  cost  of  .£10,000.  ;  the  District 
Court  of  Colombo,  the  Court  of  Requests,  the  Fiscal's  office,  the 
Debtor's  Jail  and  the  Police  office  are  all  contiguous.  A  splendid 
new  prison  on  the  Pentonville  plan  is  on  the  point  of  completion  at 
Wellicadde,  and  a  new  lunatic  asylum  has  been  built  in  the  same 
locality.  The  Cutcherry  is  pleasantly  situated  near  the  fort,  and 
looks  out  upon  the  lake.  The  Wolfendahl  Church  stands  on  a  hill 
in  the  centre  of  the  town.  It  is  a  lofty  building,  and  was  erected  by 
the  Dutch  in  1 746,  and  now  belongs  to  the  Presbyterians.  In  it  are 
deposited  the  remains  of  the  Dutch  Governors  who  died  in  Ceylon. 
Besides  this  are  St.  Andrew's  belonging  to  the  same  body,  St. 
Thomas  belonging  to  the  Malabar,  and  St.  Paul's  to  the  Portuguese 
Protestants,  Trinity  church  to  the  English  members  of  the  Church. 
The  Romanist  churches  have  been  elsewhere  noticed.  The  Wes- 
leyans,  and  Baptists,  have  both  their  chapels,  and  the  Moors  have 
two  handsome  mosques  decorated  with  minarets  ;  the  Hindoos  also 
have  their  temples,  covered  with  rudely  sulptured  figures  of  lions, 
dragons,  &c,  but  strange  to  say,  the  Buddhists  have  none  nearer  than 
Kalane,  five  miles  distant. 

The  country  about  Colombo  is  flat,  except  a  small  part  to  the 
northward  and  eastward,  the  soil  alluvial  and  sandy  in  some  parts, 
and  iron-stone,  clay  and  gravel  in  others,  is  in  all  extremely  fertile,  the 
shores  covered  to  the  verge  of  the  sea  with  cocoa-nut  palms,  and  the 
inland  beautifully  diversified  with  umbrageous  fruit  and  other  trees, 
cinnamon  plantations,  gardens  and  pasture  lands,  intersected  by  canals 
and  a  fresh  water  lake,  and  to  the  northward  by  the  Mutwal  river  or 
Kalane-ganga  and  the  grand  canal.  Soon  after  daybreak,  when  the 
lofty  mountain  of  the  Sri  Pada  or  Adam's  Peak,  is  seen  in  the 
distance  from  the  south  esplanade  orGalle-face,the  view  of  Slave  Island 
rising  out  of  the  placid  bosom  of  the  water,  called  the  lake  of 
Colombo,  with  its  pretty  houses,  bungalows  and  other  buildings, 
interspersed  among  stately  areka,  bread-fruit  trees,  and  cocoa- 
nut  palms,  which  afford  an  excellent  shade,  the  bugles  of  the  Ceylon 
Rifle  corps  alone  breaking  the  tranquillity  of  the  scene,  affords  inde- 
scribable pleasure  to  the  recently  arrived  European.  It  is  at  this  hour 
that  on  review  days,  the  troops  are  seen  marching  to  their  ground 
on  the  race  course,  and  that  the  early  risers  of  Colombo  are  setting 
out  upon  their  morning  drives,  rides  or  walks,  many  of  them  expec- 
tant of  the  rendezvous  of  the  European  civil  and  military  officers  and 
merchants,  at  the  well  known  Tamarind  Tree,  near  the  third  milestone 
on  the  Galle  road,  to  quaff  the  wholesome  and  renovating  nectar, 
fresh  from  the  toddy  palm  before  its  fermentation,  which  isVery  rapid, 


634  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

commences.  It  is  then  that  the  natural  sieve  which  nature  presents 
in  the  envelope  of  the  petioles  in  the  cocoa-nut  fronds  is  employed  in 
one  of  its  most  useful  offices  for  straining  the  liquid  and  clearing  it 
from  the  various  insects  that  may  have  fallen  victims  to  their  love  of 
sweets  during  the  night.  The  whole  way  from  the  esplanade  to  the 
Tamarind  Tree  is  a  wide  carriage  road,  shaded  with  tulip,  cocoa-nut, 
teak,  hamhoo,  banyan,  silky  cotton,  areka,  Adam's  apple,  (Cerbera 
manghas,!/.)  andvarious  other  useful  and  ornamental  trees,  but  the  road 
generally  preferred  for  returning  to  the  fort  leads  along  the  margin 
of  the  sea,  through  a  dense  cocoa-nut  tope  to  the  verge  of  the  esplan- 
ade. Emerging  from  the  line  of  native  huts  upon  the  sea  side  of 
the  high  road,  the  splendid  fortifications  of  Colombo,  which  form  a 
prominent  part  of  the  grand  panorama,  are  viewed  with  admiration. 

There  is  a  Horticultural  Society  at  Colombo,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Governor,  but  the  Literary  and  Agricultural  Societies  have 
been  abandoned  for  want  of  support.  The  mail  coach  establishment, 
commenced  in  1832,  by  a  joint  stock  company,  conveyed  passengers 
from  Colombo  to  Kandy  (which  by  palanquins  it  took  several  days  to 
accomplish)  in  less  than  twelve  hours.  The  coach  started  from 
Colombo  every  Monday,  "Wednesday  and  Friday  morning  at  gun-fire, 
and  reached  Kandy,  a  distance  of  72  miles,  between  5  and  6  o'clock 
on  the  same  day,  and  left  Kandy  every  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and 
Saturday  at  gun-fire,  reaching  Colombo  at  5  p.m.,  the  former 
journey  being  more  up  hill  than  the  latter.  The  fare  to  and  from 
Kandy  is  £2.  10s.  for  Europeans,  but  is  somewhat  less  for  native 
gentlemen,  and  considerably  less  for  natives  in  general.  There 
are  now  two  coaches  a  day  to  and  from  Kandy,  and  the  journey  is 
performed  in  ten  hours ;  a  mail  coach  between  Colombo  and  Galle, 
fare  £2.  10s.,  and  another  between  Colombo  and  Negombo.  There 
is  also  a  Conveyance  company  between  Colombo  and  Kandy,  but  its 
success  has  been  neutralized  by  the  extensive  mortality  among  the 
cattle  employed  in  the  transit.  The  Ceylon  Widows'  and  Orphans' 
Fund  is  under  official  management  and  security,  and  greatly  benefits 
those  widows  and  orphans  whose  provident  husbands  and  fathers 
may  by  their  contributions  have  preserved  them  from  destitution. 
There  the  children  of  European  soldiers  and  others  are  boarded 
and  educated,  and  a  portion  of  3610.  is  given  with  each  girl  on  her 
marriage. 

Among  other  charitable  institutions,  there  are  the  Leper  and  Pauper 
Hospitals  in  the  Pettah  ;  a  Dispensary  recently  established  ;  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel ;  District  Committee  of  the 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  ;  Bible  Association  for 
the  Dutch  and  Portuguese  inhabitants  ;  Church  Missionary  Society, 
&c.  &c.  Colombo  Friend  in  Need  Society,  (for  the  purpose  of  reliev- 
ing the  really  necessitous  and  for  suppressing  mendicity),  under  the 
able  management  of  a  highly  respectable  and  numerous  Committee, 
over  which  the  Senior  Colonial  Chaplain  presides,  and  the  Governor 
is  Patron.  And  the  Colombo  Ladies  Branch  Society,  composed  of 
a  Committee  of  amiable  and  benevolent  ladies. 


CHAP.    I.]         KELLANIA,  LEGENDS —THE  KALA.n£-GANGA.  635 

The  country  between  Colombo  and  Seetawaka,  (Seetawade)  every 
mile  of  which  has  witnessed  the  struggles  of  the  Kandians  with  their 
European  invaders,  is  seen  to  the  greatest  advantage  on  the  Kalane, 
or  Kellania-ganga,  so  called  from  an  ancient  city,  now  a  mere  village, 
situate  on  its  right  bank,  "  Kellania  possesses  a  remnant  of  antiquity 
in  its  famous  wihare,  to  which  large  bodies  of  pilgrims  resort  in  July, 
and  in  a  dagobah,  which  was  erected  by  the  tributary  king  Yatalatissa, 
B.C.  280,  over  one  built  on  the  same  spot  by  the  Naga  king,  Maho- 
dara,  B.C.  580.  Kellania  was  probably  the  capital,  and  has  for 
ages  been  the  chief  place  for  the  worship  of  Weebeeshana,  a  hero  of 
the  Ramayana,  grandson  of  Pulastyia,  friend  of  Rama,  and  the  trai- 
torous brother  and  deified  successor  of  Rawana  on  the  throne  of 
Lanka.  At  the  time  of  Gautama  Buddha's  appearance,  Kellania 
would  seem  to  have  been  the  capital  of  a  division  of  the  island,  called 
Naga  Diwayina,  and  its  inhabitants  called  Nagas,  were  easily  con- 
verted, and  subsequently  became  zealous  adherents  to  the  doctrines 
of  Buddha,  for  which  they  were  rewarded  by  various  relics,  and  a 
second  visit  of  Buddha.  In  his  first  visit  to  Ceylon,  Gautama  con- 
verted the  Nagas,  and  settled  a  dispute  between  two  of  their  princes, 
Chulodara  and  Mahodara,  who  made  an  offering  to  him  of  the  throne 
composed  of  gold  inlaid  with  precious  stones,  which  had  been  the 
original  cause  of  their  quarrel :  over  this  throne,  a  dagobah  was 
built,  and  is  encased  in  the  one  now  standing.  At  the  request  of 
Miniasa,  uncle  of  the  Naga  King,  Mahodara,  Gautama  made  his 
third  visit  to  Ceylon,  and  left  the  impression  of  his  foot  beneath  the 
waters  of  the  river :  a  deep  eddy  in  the  stream  is  now  pointed  out  as 
the  spot :  it  is  near  the  temple,  and  the  natives  maintain  that  the 
circling  of  the  current  here  is  the  Kellania-ganga  descending  in 
homage  to  this  sacred  memorial.  Having  arranged  the  disputes  of 
the  Nagas,  and  confirmed  their  faith,  the  prophet  departed  for 
Samanala,  and  the  other  places  which  had  been  rendered  sacred  by 
the  presence    of  former    Buddhas." — Forbes,  pp.  152,  153. 

The  Kalane-ganga,  though  inferior  to  the  Mahavelle  in  magnitude, 
is  the  chief  river  of  the  island  in  importance,  is  rather  superior  to  the 
Tay  in  size,  and  is  formed  by  the  union  of  several  torrents  which 
have  their  source  in  the  western  division  of  the  mountainous  range  of 
Saffragam,  connected  with  Adam's  Peak,  and  just  within  the  limits 
of  the  Southern  Province.  It  only  takes  its  real  name  of  Kalane  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Maskelle  and  Kehelgamua-oyas  at  Weraloo- 
Ella — where  it  is  eighty-seven  feet  above  the  sea  level — whence  it  flows 
to  the  sea,  a  distance  of  forty- three  miles,  debouching  at  Modera, 
about  four  miles  to  the  north  of  the  fort  of  Colombo,  where  its  local 
name  is  Mutwal-oya.  At  this  part  the  width  of  the  river  is  consider- 
ably increased  by  a  bra'  of  sand  at  the  entrance,  which  occasionally 
acts  as  effectually  as  a  dam  in  extending  its  bed,  and  though  less 
obstructive  than  formerly,  still  serves  to  increase  the  inundation  thai 
takes  place  during  the  season  of  the  rains.  The  length  of  its  course 
is  seventy  miles ;  for  nearly  the  first  half  of  this  distance,   it  flow* 


f,36  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

through  a  thinly  inhabited  forest  covered  country,  and  here  its 
waters  are  clear,  its  bed  rocky,  and  its  current  precipitous ;  for  the 
last  forty  miles  this  river  is  navigable  for  large  boats,  and  well  adap- 
ted for  inland  communication,  for  which  it  is  much  used.  It  is 
connected  with  the  fort  of  Colombo  by  a  canal  constructed  by  the 
Dutch,  and  is  now  connected  with  the  flourishing  and  healthy 
country  lying  between  Colombo  and  the  mountains  by  several  roads. 
The  villages  on  its  banks  between  Colombo  and  Hangwelle  are  chiefly 
inhabited  by  potters,  and  the  vegetation  is  for  some  distance  very 
luxuriant,  the  trees  are  exceedingly  lofty,  and  many  of  them  yield 
the  most  fragrant  odours.  Lines  of  apparently  interminable  cocoa- 
nut  trees  succeed  each  other,  with  their  white  stems  and  tufted  tops 
reflected  on  the  water  as  in  a  mirror,  except  where  diversified  by 
some  swampy  plain  of  levelled  rice  fields,  or  low  ridges  covered  with 
brushwood.  Hangwelle  is  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  contains  a 
rest-house  within  its  small  redoubt,  which  though  of  great  import- 
ance in  the  event  of  a  Kandian  insurrection,  from  its  commanding 
the  prmcipal  routes  both  by  land  and  water  from  Colombo  to  the 
interior,  is  said  to  be  defended  only  by  a  dry  ditch,  now  choked  up 
with  vegetation,  and  is  unoccupied  by  troops. 

At  Hangwelle  the  stranger  begins  to  experience  the  difference 
between  the  damp  heat  of  the  sea  coast  and  the  sharp  air  of  the  in- 
terior. Between  Hangwelle  and  Avisahavelle  the  scenery  gradually 
improves  in  boldness  and  grandeur,  the  ground  becomes  more  broken, 
and  the  country,  owing  to  its  having  once  bordered  on  the  Kandian 
domains,  is  mostly  covered  with  bamboos,  which  form  one  of  the 
most  impenetrable  kinds  of  low  sized  jungle.  At  a  little  distance, 
a  bamboo  brushwood  resembles  gigantic  rushes,  each  of  which  when 
approached  nearer,  proves  to  be  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  common 
fishing  rod ;  as  they  are  very  tough,  pliant  and  strong,  they  act  as  an 
excellent  substitute  for  rope,  and  are  employed  in  that  way  by  the 
natives,  and  the  ferry  boat  at  Seetawaka,  is  propelled  by  a  strong 
flexible  cane  stretched  across,  and  fastened  to  the  opposite  bank. 
The  situation  of  the  village  and  rest-house  at  Avisahavelle  is  exceed- 
ingly picturesque,  occupying  a  small  spot  at  the  base  of  bluff  hills  of 
black  naked  rock,  which  rise  precipitously  from  a  surface  of  rich 
foliage,  to  a  height  of  nearly  1000  feet.  There  are  various  routes 
from  Colombo  to  Ratnapoora.  That  vid  Horona  and  Nambaapane  is 
52  miles,  but  the  route  by  the  south  bank  of  the  Kalane  is  58|  miles. 
The  face  of  the  country  along  the  latter  road  is  alternately  woody 
and  hilly,  undulating  and  champaign,  but  in  all  parts  well  irrigated, 
being  intersected  by  the  Kalane  and  its  tributaries  ;  gems  are  obtained 
in  many  of  these  by  streaming.  Four  miles  from  Hangwelle,  the 
Kandian  mountains  and  Adam's  Peak  appear  through  a  wooded 
valley,  and  form  a  magnificent  termination  to  the  view  from  this 
point.  From  Avisahavelle  in  the  direction  of  Ratnapoora,  the  road 
is  almost  level,  passing  along  a  delightful  valley,  on  one  side  of  which 
arise  a  variety  of  abrupt  rocks  and  peaked  hills,  crowned  with  wood, 


CIIAP.    r.]       A  VISAHAVELLE  — SEETAWAKA— IIUWANWELLE.  637 

while  on  the  other  and  more  inland  side,  the  range  of  mountains  is 
continuous.  The  Peak  is  here  seen  clearly  unless  hidden  by  a  dense 
mass  of  vapour,  as  well  as  the  square  pillar  like  mountain,  called 
Uno  Dhia  Parawatia  which  towers  over  ridges  of  nearer  hills,  its 
perpendicular  sides,  when  reflecting  the  setting  sun,  contrasting  pow- 
erfully with  the  verdant  covering  and  deep  shades  that  darken  the 
valleys,  the  whole  presenting  a  magnificent  spectacle. 

The  scenery  along  the  bank  of  the  Seetawaka-oya  closely  re- 
sembles an  English  park  ;  fine  glades  of  green  turf,  with  clumps, 
thickets,  and  forest  trees  of  enormous  size  combine  to  complete  the 
illusion,  till  a  thick  bamboo  jungle  serves  to  dissipate  it.  The  ruins  of 
Seetawaka,  which  is  within  the  district  of  the  Three  Korles,  and  was 
once  the  residence  of  the  centenarian  Raja  Singha,  surnamed  by  Bud- 
dhists the  Apostate,  and  for  some  time  the  capital  of  a  lowland  prin- 
cipality, are  reached  by  a  small  but  navigable  river,  a  tributary 
stream  of  the  Kellania-ganga.  Here  on  an  angular  piece  of  ground, 
formed  by  a  bend  of  the  river  and  a  ravine,  and  within  several  quad- 
rilateral inclosures,  are  situated  the  remains  of  the  Bairainde 
Kowilla,  erected  for  demon  worship  by  Raja  Singha,  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  appears  to  have  occupied  the 
centre  of  an  elevated  stone  platform  of  eighty  feet  square,  and  to 
have  been  about  thirty  feet  long,  formed  of  handsome  carved  pillars, 
supporting  a  cornice.  The  plan  of  the  pillars  of  this  building,  appears 
to  be  as  if  eight  ornamented  pillars  projected,  two  on  each  side  from 
a  plain  square  pillar.  This  building  was  overthrown  when  Seetawaka 
was  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  foundations  and  part  of  the  walls  of  one  of 
their  forts  (Kotua)  which  commanded  the  site  of  this  town  still 
remain  on  the  elevated  bank,  and  opposite  side  of  the  river.  This 
fort  was  nearly  square,  formed  of  three  walls,  one  within  the  other. 
The  material  was  kabook,  which  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  atmo- 
sphere. The  outer  wall  was  between  eight  and  ten  feet  high,  and  six 
and  eight  feet  wide.  At  the  angles  it  was  still  wider,  and  communi- 
cated with  the  inclosure  by  steps.  Within  is  a  deep  well  lined 
with  masonry.  The  second  wall  was  only  a  very  few  feet  from  the  inner, 
and  seems  to  have  been  built  for  its  defence.  The  inner  inclosure 
was  probably  roofed  and  was  the  donjon  keep  of  the  fortress. 
Part  of  the  stones  of  this  picturesque  ruin,  which  two  centuries  had 
spared,  were  many  years  ago  employed  in  the  erection  of  a  new  i*est- 
house.  In  the  adjoining  jungle  other  ruins  have  been  said  to  exist, 
including  the  remains  of  temples  and  a  royal  palace. 

Eight  miles  and  a  half  to  the  north-east  of  Avisahavelle,  and  on  the 
old  road  to  Kandy,  lies  Ruwanwelle,  which,  with  the  surrounding 
country  was  almost  a  desert  under  the  Kandian  dynasty,  but  is  now  a 
flourishing  station.  It  is  advantageously  situated  on  a  point  of  land  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Kalane-ganga,  and  the  turbid  Gooragooya-oya  ; 
a  military  post,  with  excellent  quarters  for  officers  and  men,  and  a 
bazaar  were  established  in  181 7,   which  have  attracted  a  consider- 


G38  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

able  number  of  natives  to  the  locality.  The  inferiority  of  the 
cocoa-nut  trees  grown  in  the  interior,  as  compared  with  those  on 
the  sea  shore,  is  here  strikingly  manifest,  and  certainly  justifies  the 
popular  notion,  that  the  sea  air  is  conducive  to  their  growth. 
Further,  the  natives  believe  that  they  do  not  flourish  at  a  distance 
from  their  houses,  hence  their  maxim,  "  that  they  will  not  thrive 
unless  you  walk  among  them  and  talk  among  them." 

Lower  Bulatgamme,  to  the  eastward  of  Seetawaka,  is  a  broken 
and  difficult  country,  now  beginning  to  excite  the  attention  of  the 
agriculturist,  but  till  lately  was  little  cultivated,  and  thinly  peopled. 
Thick  low  jungle,  chiefly  of  cane,  and  much  frequented  by  elephants, 
which  the  natives  avoid  by  tying  strong  poles  across  the  footpaths, 
under  which  they  can  escape,  but  by  which  their  huge  pursuer  is 
completely  stopped,  prevails  where  the  ground  is  low  and  damp,  and 
forest  where  it  is  hilly  and  diy.  Few  parts  of  the  island  are  so 
copiously  watered  as  Lower  Bulatgamme.  Besides  a  great  number 
of  small  streams,  there  are  some  of  considerable  size,  which  when 
flooded  are  not  fordable,  such  as  the  "Waha-oya,  which  nearer  its 
source  exhibits  the  character  of  a  mountain  torrent,  where  pent  up 
in  a  narrow  gloomy  valley,  its  fine  volume  of  transparent  water 
rushes  down  a  rapid  over  immense  masses  of  rock,  and  along  with  a 
variety  of  other  attractive  features,  forms  one  of  the  wildest  and  most 
impressive  scenes  in  Ceylon  ;  the  Heeke-oya,  a  most  tortuous  stream, 
the  Bibile-oya,  and  Garankette-oya. 

At  Yateantotte,  a  little  to  the  eastward  of  Ruwanwelle,  a  new  road 
has  been  opened  through  Upper  Bulatgamme  with  Gampola,  and 
Kandy ;  which  is  on  some  accounts  preferable  to  the  other  routes. 
The  country  between  Yateantotte  and  Kittoolgalle,  is  wild  and  billy, 
but  that  place  itself  is  situated  in  a  cultivated  plain,  embosomed  in 
woody  mountains.  Beyond  it  the  country  becomes  difficult  and 
exceedingly  mountainous,  but  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  is  remark- 
able. The  prospects  from  the  mountain  range,  which  is  3000  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  are  remarkably  fine.  On  the  one  side  is  to  be 
seen  Ambagamma  in  the  midst  of  cultivated  green  paddy  fields,  sur- 
rounded by  bare  green  hills,  to  the  south  a  succession  of  conical 
mountain  tops,  luxuriantly  wooded.  Ambagamma,  though  sixteen 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  is  in  all  directions  surrounded  by 
mountains,  and  the  Mahavelle  flows  past  it. 

To  return  to  Ruwanwelle,  Idamalpane  is  eleven  miles  from  hence. 
The  intervening  country  is  better  cultivated,  and  more  populous 
than  the  preceding  stage.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  way  the  road 
is  level,  and  through  meadows  or  paddy  fields,  which  possess  a  fresh- 
ness and  peculiarity  of  verdure  entirely  their  own.  Idamalpane 
was  once  a  small  military  post,  but  from  its  situation  being  com- 
manded by  the  hills,  it  was  transferred  to  Arranderre,  where  the 
Dutch  had  once  a  fort,  of  which  slight  traces  still  remain.  Hetty- 
mull  e,  also  formerly  a  small  military  post,  is  only  five  miles  from 
Idamalpane.     All  the  intervening  country  is  extremelv  hilly  if  not 


CHAP.    I.]       UPPER    AND    LOWER   BULATGAMME  —  AMANAPOORA.    639 

mountainous,  and  the  road  is  rugged,  difficult  and  wearisome.  The 
lover  of  nature  will  find,  however,  remuneration  for  his  fatigues,  in 
the  beauties  of  the  wild  scenery,  which  are  lavishly  scattered  over 
this  bold  and  romantic  part  of  the  country. 

Fort  King,  (Attapittya  Singh),  the  next  stage  inland,  is  seven 
miles  distant.  The  character  of  the  intermediate  country,  is  hilly 
and  picturesque,  and  well  cultivated.  Some  of  the  valleys  are  so 
deep  and  narrow  that  persons  on  one  hill  may  almost  converse  with 
those  on  the  other.  Fort  King,  derived  its  name  from  Captain  King, 
who  planned  and  superintended  the  works.  It  was  erected  in  1 820,  and 
was  built  in  the  most  substantial  manner  on  a  low  hill,  commanding  the 
ferry  of  the  Maha-oya,  a  considerable  stream,  on  whose  banks  many  a 
sanguinary  battle  was  fought,  between  the  Singhalese  and  Portuguese. 
In  a  picturesque  point  of  view,  the  situation  of  the  fort  is  unrivalled, 
being  surrounded  by  a  foreground  of  gentle  hills,  and  bounded  on 
every  side  by  bold  mountains,  combining  in  one  view  the  beautiful 
and  the  grand.  The  country  around  is  productive,  and  the  bazaar, 
which  like  the  fort  has  sprung  up,  where  jungle  was  before  the  sole 
occupant,  is  large  and  well  supplied.  Fort  King  would  not  seem  to 
be  occupied  at  present  by  a  military  force.  This  part  of  the  country 
is  elevated  about  G30  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  owing  to  which, 
and  its  proximity  to  the  mountains,  it  enjoys  an  agreeable  climate, 
the  nights  being  generally  cool,  and  the  days  seldom  oppressively 
hot. 

Amanapoora  is  eight  miles  from  Fort  King,  the  Ballane  mountain, 
which  is  about  .3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  intervening.  Its  as- 
cent is  laborious,  but  much  diminished  by  the  new  road.  The  traveller 
is  amply  rewarded  for  his  toil,  when  he  reaches  the  summit ;  he  there 
breathes  a  fresh  cool  air,  is  shaded  by  noble  forest  trees,  with  which 
the  whole  mountain  is  covered,  and  when  he  stops  to  rest  himself, 
he  enjoys  every  now  and  then  magnificent  prospects.  Till  the 
summit  is  reached,  there  are  only  two  small  descents  ;  one  in  a  narrow 
deep  glen  through  which  a  torrent  rushes,  and  the  other  into  a 
hollow.  The  torrent  in  the  first  glen  is  the  boundary  line  between 
the  Four  Korles  and  Yattineura.  It  is  impossible  to  conceive  a 
wilder  and  grander  tropical  scene  than  this  presents,  in  the  rocky  bed 
of  the  torrent  a  mere  glimpse  of  the  sky  is  obtained,  but  one  looks  up 
and  sees  on  each  side  a  mountain  towering  above,  and  on  each  side 
an  overhanging  gloomy  forest.  When  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is 
attained,  there  is  a  most  extensive  view  of  the  country  towards 
Colombo,  which  looks  like  a  map  laid  out  on  a  magnificent  scale, 
with  a  glow  of  colouring,  warmth  of  light,  and  charm  of  landscape 
rarely  seen  combined.  After  ascending  the  mountain,  the  road  for 
two  or  three  hundred  yards  is  nearly  level,  the  descent  is  short  and 
pretty  gradual.  There  is  an  extensive  view  of  the  country  in  front, 
extremely  hilly,  and  bounded  by  distant  and  apparently  lofty 
mountains,  but  scarcely  comparable  to  the  scenery  on  the  other  side. 
Amanapoora  is  seen  quite  close  on  a  steep  hill,  merely  divided  from 


640  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

the  Bailane  mountain  by  a  deep  glen.  Amanapoora  was  formerly  a 
considerable  military  station.  The  fort  situated  on  the  top  of  a 
precipitous  hill,  about  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  a 
very  commanding  aspect,  and  is  naturally  strong.  At  the  foot  of  the 
hill  was  a  cantonment,  consisting  of  officers'  quarters  and  soldiers' 
barracks,  and  hard  by  is  a  considerable  village  and  bazaar. 

The  country  to  some  extent  around  Amanapoora,  except  towards 
the  Ballane,  consists  of  small  green  hills  of  rather  irregular  forms, 
pretty  free  from  jungle,  and  affording  good  pasture  ;  in  the  lower 
grounds  there  are  paddy  fields,  and  at  a  distance  lofty  grey  mountains. 
Towards  the  Ballane  the  scenery  is  of  a  different  character,  every 
feature  is  grand,  particularly  that  huge  mountain,  which  is  seen 
across  the  deep  intervening  glen  and  the  lofty  Narran-galle-Kandy, 
a  little  more  distant  to  the  right,  shooting  its  angular  rocky  top  into 
the  very  clouds.  Kandy  is  twelve  miles  from  Amanapoora.  The 
country  between  the  two  places  is  hilly.  The  hills  in  general  are 
covered  with  wood,  the  valleys  which  are  narrow  and  deep  are  culti- 
vated with  paddy. 

To  return  to  the  coast  route.  After  having  crossed  the  Mutwal-oya 
by  the  bridge  of  boats,  the  traveller  comes  to  the  village  and  rest-house 
of  Jayelle  (Kanuwane),  a  distance  of  nine  and  a  quarter  miles  through 
a  fertile,  populous,  and  well  cultivated  country,  which  supplies  the 
Colombo  market  with  a  vast  quantity  of  fruit  and  vegetables  ;  from 
thence  to  Negombo  the  road  lies  chiefly  through  cinnamon  plantations. 
Every  where  the  sight  and  the  smell  are  gratified  ;  for  on  each  side  may 
be  seen  the  beautiful  crimson  Clerodendrum  infortunatum,  Linn,  (the 
Pinna-mal-geddi,  Singh.)  Coffea  triflora,  Ixora  coccinea,  Nepenthes 
distillatoria  of  the  climbing  and  dwarf  varieties  (scandens  and  nana), 
the  former  clinging  to  the  cinnamon  bushes  for  support,  and  display- 
ing its  pitchers,  some  with  the  lid  closed,  others  with  it  open,  and  in 
an  erect  position  full  of  water,  like  so  many  fly  traps,  as  if  the  liquid 
they  contained,  were  too  valuable  to  be  lost ;  the  latter  shrinking  from 
exposure  under  the  shade  of  the  overhanging  trees  and  grass,  while 
the  wild  orange,  lime,  and  shaddock  trees  ever  in  fruit  and  blossom, 
at  the  same  time  impart  the  most  delicious  fragrance  to  the  surround- 
ing atmosphere.  For  a  considerable  distance  through  the  cinnamon 
plantations,  the  road  is  sandy,  and  in  many  places  it  leads  through 
large  tracks  of  the  pure  white  quartz  sand,  to  which  the  cinnamon 
tree  is  partial. 

Negombo1  is  twenty-four  miles  distant  from  Colombo,  and  two 

1  The  Singhalese  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  name  to  Meegamuwe,  "  the  village 
of  honey,"  in  allusion  to  a  swarm  of  bees  settling  there.  The  Malabars,  however, 
with  more  reason,  derive  it  from  Nihumbala,  so  called  from  Nihumba,  the 
younger  son  of  Kumbakarna,  one  of  the  brothers  of  Rawana.  In  the  Uttara 
Kanda  of  the  Ramayana,  Valmika  relates  that  on  the  eleventh  day  of  the  siege  of 
the  citadel  of  Rawana  by  the  troops  of  Rama,  Indrajit,  the  crown  prince,  rinding 
himself  unable  to  hold  out  any  longer  against  the  besiegers,  withdrew  from  the 
place,  and  retired  with  a  part  of  his  army  to  Nihumbala,  to  make  a  YAga,  or 
offering  to  the  gods,  to  invoke  their  assistance,  and  render  himself  invulnerable. 


CHAP.    I.]  NEGOMBO — DISTRICT  OF  CIIILAW.  641 

leagues  south  south-west  of  Kaymel.  It  is  a  place  of  some  trade, 
but  resorted  to  only  by  coasters.  The  coast  between  Negombo  and 
Kaymel  forms  a  bight,  and  the  former  is  known  from  the  offing  by 
the  point  projecting  a  great  way  out,  its  being  covered  with  cocoa-nut 
trees,  and  defended  by  a  long  reef  beyond  it.  The  bight  should  not  be 
approached  by  large  vessels  nearer  than  two  leagues  off  shore,  nor 
in  less  than  eight  fathoms  water,  until  the  fort  flag-staff,  bears  south- 
east by  south,  by  which  the  rocky  ledge,  projecting  from  this  part  of 
the  coast,  and  a  rock  with  ten  feet  water  on  it,  and  six  fathoms  close 
by,  bearing  from  the  flag-staff,  or  north  point  of  the  fort,  north  north- 
west, will  be  avoided.  For  vessels  bound  to  Negombo  from  the 
southward,  the  fort  should  be  brought  to  bear  south-east,  a  ship  may 
then  steer  direct  for  it,  and  anchor  in  five  or  six  fathoms  abreast  of 
the  fort,  which  is  an  irregular  pentagon,  with  a  stone  gateway.  The 
country  about  Negombo  abounds  with  excellent  pasturage,  and  hay 
may  be  procured  to  any  extent  required,  while  an  inland  water  com- 
munication with  Colombo,  enables  the  farmer  to  ship  cattle  over-night, 
and  land  them  at  Colombo  by  daybreak  the  next  morning.  Negombo 
is  famous  for  its  fish,  kid,  poultry,  eggs,  bread-fruit ;  vegetables 
may  be  obtained  here  in  great  plenty  at  moderate  prices,  and  the 
sportsman  will  find  excellent  snipe,  curlew,  and  widgeon  shooting. 
The  water  is  extremely  brackish,  unless  it  be  procured  from  Kottidewe, 
or  Children's  Island,  where  persons  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
sinking  pitchers,  in  the  sand  over-night,  which  in  the  morning  are 
found  full  of  pure  and  sweet  water  that  has  filtered  in  the  interval. 
Very  fine  mushrooms  are  found  here  during  the  rainy  season,  and  from 
the  care  with  which  the  country  is  irrigated,  a  great  deal  of  paddy 
is  produced ;  indeed  fertility  and  cultivation  are  every  where 
conspicuous,  the  pastures  being  of  a  rich  and  delightful  green 
interspersed  with  magnificent  teak  and  fruit  trees  and  toddy  topes. 
Several  respectable  Dutch  families  formerly  resided  in  the  pettah, 
whose  gardens  were  famous  for  their  exotic  fruits,  originally  intro- 
duced from  Java  and  the  Malay  peninsula,  but  very  few  Dutch  or 
Portuguese  families  possessing  wealth  remain  in  any  part  of  the 
island,  in  comparison  with  their  former  numbers.  The  rest-house  on 
the  bank  of  the  Muli  Waddie,  or  salt  lake,  is  a  large  and  substantia! 
stone  building,  with  a  spacious  avenue  of  very  fine  teak  trees  in  its 
front.  The  revenue  and  customs  are  superintended  by  an  assistant 
Government  agent,  who  is  also  a  Judge  of  the  Colombo  District  Court 
No.  2,  South,  and  there  are  several  places  of  worship  belonging  to 
the  different  creeds.  The  neighbourhood  of  Negombo  abounds  with 
medicinal  plants. 

Five  miles  beyond  Negombo,  the  Kaymel  (Kammale-oya)  is  crossed 
at  Tope  or  Topoo  ferry,  near  which  are  fine  groves  of  teak  ;  from 
thence  to  Kirimctteane,  in  the  district  of  Cbilaw,  the  distance  is  six 
miles,  and  to  the  bridge  of  Ging-oya,  about  four  miles  and  a  quarter, 
the  road  flat  aud  sandy,  and  the  land  but  partially  cultivated.  The 
district   of   Chilaw  extends  as   far  north  as  Oedepenkarre,  and  is 

2   T 


642  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

upwards  of  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  about  seven  in  breadth.  It 
consists  of  five  pattoos,  Anoewooloondan,  Monesseram,i  Yagam, 
Oetarapalata,  Meddapalata,  and  Kaymel  pattoo.  The  face  of  the 
country  is  wild  and  dreary  in  the  north,  but  well  cultivated  and  pic- 
turesque in  the  south,  and  the  soil,  which  in  the  former  is  in  many 
parts  barren  and  sandy,  in  the  latter  is  a  rich  clay.  The  chief  pro- 
ducts are  paddy,  dry  grain,  tobacco,  pepper,  &c.  and  the  manufac- 
tures are  confined  to  salt,  cloth,  earthenware,  bricks  and  jaggery. 
This  district  was  anciently  called  Pittigal  Korle.  The  next  rest- 
house  is  that  of  Nattande,  about  a  mile  from  the  bridge  over  the 
Ging-oya.  The  naturalist  and  the  sportsman  may  find  the  most 
delightful  recreation  and  exercise  in  this  neighbourhood  ;  the  former 
in  collecting  specimens  of  the  various  aquatic  plants,  ferns,  mosses, 
land  shells,  insects,  and  birds  ;  and  the  latter  may  select  any  game 
he  pleases,  for  he  has  not  to  go  far  inland  to  find  elephants,  leopards, 
deer,  elk,  hares,  and  almost  every  variety  of  animal  and  bird  the 
country  produces.  But  if  the  tourist  be  neither  botanist,  naturalist, 
nor  sportsman,  and  desire  to  have  game  procured  for  him,  he  has  only 
to  hint  his  wish  to  the  keeper  of  the  rest-house  where  he  may  halt, 
and  a  number  of  native  sportsmen  will  soon  be  collected  about  him 
with  their  uncouth  guns,  ready  to  bring  him  whatever  game  he  may 
recpiire,  upon  receiving  a  charge  or  two  of  powder  and  shot,  and  a 
promise  of  a  similar  quantity  as  their  subsequent  reward  ;  for  as  they 
never  fire  until  too  close  upon  their  object  to  run  the  least  risk  of 
missing  it,  they  always  earn  the  promised  gratuity.  From  Nattande 
rest-house  to  the  bridge  over  the  Kaddoopitte-oya,  the  distance  is 
5f  miles,  and  half  a  mile  further  is  Madampe  (Mahadampa),  once  a 
place  of  importance,  and  the  residence  of  native  sovereigns,  but 
subsequently  a  swampy  unhealthy  locality,  tenanted  by  mosquitoes, 
jackals,  monkeys,  and  alligators,  till  Mr.  Vanderstraaten  obtained  a 
grant  of  land  from  the  Government,  and  formed  pepper  gardens 
there,  rendering  the  island  in  some  degree  independent  of  the 
Malabar  coast  for  that  spice.  The  vines  are  clustered  round  the 
stems  of  high  forest  trees,  and-  besides  producing  a  luxuriant  cool 
appearance,  form  a  pleasing  shade  over  neatly  kept  walks ;  on  one 
side  of  this  forest  garden,  extends  a  tank,  covered  with  water-lilies, 
which  with  the  base  of  the  palace  is  the  principal  memorial  left  to 
show  that  Madampe  was  a  residence  of  princes,  who  aspired  to 
independence  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Madampe  produces  large 
quantities  of  cocoa-nuts  and  paddy,  and  abounds  with  widgeon,  snipe, 
curlews,  sand-pipers,  the  large  and  small  white  and  brown  paddy- 
birds,  flamingoes,  and  other  aquatic  birds.  The  canal  contains 
abundance  of  small  mud  fish,  of  the  genus  Perca,  i.,  and  eels. 

1  The  village  of  Monesseram  (Muniyaiswara)  lies  a  little  to  the  east  of  Chilaw, 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  ancient  temple,  which  contains  some  scarcely  legible  in- 
scriptions in  the  Grantha  character.  Siva  is  worshipped  here  under  the  title  of 
"  Muniyaiswara,"  or  "  Iswara  the  Penitent ;"  but  the  shrine  is  more  particularly 
sacred  to  his  consort,  "  Parvati." 


CHAP.    I.]  MADAMPE  —  CHILAW — "DISTRICT  OF  PUTLAM.  643 

Seven  and  a  half  miles  north  of  Madampe  is  Chilaw,  on  a  penin- 
sula, formed  by  a  river  which  runs  from  north  to  south,  and  commu- 
nicating with  the  Madampe  canal,  and  the  Kaymel-oya  continues  the 
water  conveyance  to  Colombo.  The  rest-house  at  Chilaw  is  roomy 
and  any.  An  assistant  Government  agent  resides  there.  The  place 
boasts  an  old  fort  commenced  by  the  Portuguese,  and  completed 
by  the  Dutch,  and  has  a  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  church, 
manufactories  of  coarse  paper,  common  cottons,  table  cloths  and 
towels;  but  from  the  soil  being  impregnated  with  salt,  yields  little  else 
than  cocoa-nuts  and  tobacco,  though  the  country  in  the  neighbour- 
hood produces  large  quantities  of  paddy.  Chilaw  is  called  Salapam  by 
the  Malabars,  according  to  Casie  Chitty,  from  the  pearl  fishery 
formerly  carried  on  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  Halawatta  by  the  Sing- 
halese (the  Halowat  of  Ibu  Batuta),  from  a  colony  of  Chalias  having 
formed  a  settlement  in  the  place,  and  built  a  number  of  salavas  or 
halls,  in  which  they  carried  on  weaving  ;  hence  it  obtained  the  name 
of  Salavagama,  or  the  village  of  halls,  which  was  afterwards  corrupted 
into  Halawatta,  or  the  garden  of  the  Chalias.  By  others  it  is 
derived  from  Hala,  to  shake  off.  Chilaw  would  seem  to  have  been 
subject  to  the  princes  of  Madampe  during  their  local  independence, 
and  to  have  been  more  than  once  attacked  by  Malabars  and  Moors, 
but  the  latter  were  defeated  in  their  attempts  to  form  a  settlement 
here. 

Leaving  Chilaw  and  passing  over  the  Dedroo-oya,  the  rest-house 
of  Battooloo-oya  is  reached  in  12^  miles;  from  thence  to  Moondel 
is  four  miles,  and  to  Marrundamkoolle,  in  the  Putlam  district,  Zo- 
nules. There  are  artificial  leways  or  salt-pans  at  Oedepenkarre, 
Alempitty,  Pulletchacolom,  Moondel,  Aneakadda,  Pallandowe,  Per- 
rea  Natchicale,  Karativoe  island,  Calpentyn,  Chinne  Natchicale  and 
Rattande. 

The  district  of  Putlam  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Demelepattoo, 
and  comprises  six  pattoos  or  hundreds,  viz.  Putlam,  Calpentyn, 
Akkarapattoo,  Pomparippoo,  Rajawannipattoo,  Kumara  Wannipattoo. 
The  face  of  the  country  is  uniformly  flat,  and  the  soil  is  well  adapted 
for  agricultural  purposes,  except  around  Putlam,  where  it  is  im- 
pregnated with  salt,  but  the  greater  part  is  uncultivated  and  waste, 
from  the  frequent  droughts  to  which  the  country  is  subject,  and  the 
want  of  capital  for  the  repair  of  the  tanks.  It  exports  cocoa-nuts  in 
considerable  quantities,  and  the  palmyra-tree  abounds.  Tobacco  and 
cotton  are  cultivated  in  some  parts,  and  chaya  root  grows  wild  all 
over  the  district.  The  mango,  bread-fruit,  custard  apple,  yam,  sweet 
potato,  pine-apple,  guava,  pomegranate,  shaddock,  papai,  plantain 
and  grape  of  both  kinds,  all  flourish.  Its  manufactures  comprise 
salt,  coarse  cloth,  jaggery,  coir  rope,  fishing  nets,  baskets,  earthen- 
ware, ghee  and  cocoa-nut  oil.  Moors  and  Malabars  are  the  chief 
components  of  its  population.  By  the  canal  a  large  number  of 
bullocks  are  sent  to  Colombo  for  slaughter,  and  British  manufactures, 
spices,  &c.  received  in  return.     Full  employment  is  found  for  the 

2  t  2 


644  CEYLON.  [PART   IV- 

fishermen  by  the  demand  for  fish  in  the  interior,  into  the  various 
parts  of  which  it  is  distributed  from  Kurunaigalla,  to  which  it  is 
conveyed  by  the  road. 

Akkarapattoo,  denominated  in  some  maps  Navakarre,  extends  along 
the  peninsula,  from  Madikettan  Ode  to  Oedepenkarre,  is  about  29 
miles  long,  and  5  broad,  and  comprehends  42  villages,  almost  entirely 
inhabited  by  Moors.  Though  the  soil  is  sandy,  the  cocoa-nut  tree 
thrives  exceedingly  well,  and  the  whole  tract  bordering  the  gulf  is 
covered  with  that  most  useful  tree.  In  the  southern  parts,  paddy  is 
grown,  and  large  quantities  of  tobacco  are  raised  everywhere ;  the 
highlands  are  sown  with  fine  grain.  Cinnamon  grows  wild  in  the 
jungle,  but  being  of  an  inferior  quality  is  not  peeled  for  exportation. 
Salt  is  manufactured  here  in  large  quantities,  and  the  produce  of  the 
dairy  is  conveyed  to  the  Colombo  markets  by  the  canal.  The  village 
of  Nawakadoo  (Nawa,  nine,  and  Kadoo,  a  sword,)  in  this  pattoo,  is 
remarkable  for  the  pompous  visits  paid  to  it  by  the  kings  of  Kandy, 
after  their  coronation,  to  assume  the  sword  of  state  after  bathing  in 
the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood.  Palikooda,  another  village,  is  cele- 
brated for  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Anne,  to  which 
pilgrims  resort  from  every  part  of  the  island,  and  even  from  the 
Coromandel  coast. 

Calpentyn,  the  chief  town  of  the  hundred  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  gulf  of  that  name,  has  often  been  taken  for  an  island,  from  its 
being  almost  surrounded  by  water.  It  was  anciently  called  Arasadi 
from  an  arasa  (ficus  religiosa)  tree  of  great  size,  which  once  stood 
there,  but  it  was  subsequently  changed  for  Kalputti  or  Kalpitti, 
from  kal,  a  stone,  and  putti,  an  elevation.  Calpentyn  is  thought  by 
some  to  have  been  the  site  of  a  Hindoo  city,  several  remains  of  that 
people  having  been  from  time  to  time  discovered.  The  present 
Pettah  contains  but  few  large  houses,  yet  it  has  a  pretty  appearance, 
from  beiug  embosomed  in  groves  of  cocoa-nut  and  suria  trees,  and 
contains  a  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  church,  three  Gentoo 
temples,  and  three  Mahomedan  mosques.  A  small  square  fort  was 
built  here  by  the  Dutch  in  1696,  but  it  is  now  chiefly  used  as  a 
store-house.  Calpentyn  has  a  small  custom-house  establishment, 
and  is  the  station  of  a  police  magistrate.  The  harbour  being  full  of 
shoals,  is  not  accessible  to  vessels  exceeding  1 00  tons  ;  larger  craft 
unload  therefore  at  Mutwal  bay,  and  convey  their  cargoes  to  Cal- 
pentyn in  dhonies  and  ballams.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
with  the  Coromandel  coast  and  with  Colombo  (93  miles  distant), 
by  the  inland  navigation.  Though  the  soil  of  this  hundred  is 
excessively  sandy,  yet  it  is  scarcely  inferior  to  any  in  vegetation,  and 
its  gardens  produce  every  variety  of  fruit  and  vegetable,  and  vines 
both  of  the  purple  and  white  kind  flourish  here  in  great  perfection. 
The  fisheries  of  Calpentyn  have  greatly  increased  in  importance 
within  the  last  few  years,  from  an  influx  of  fishermen  from  other 
places.  The  gulf  is  rich  in  chanks  of  the  best  quality  as  well  as 
beche  de  mer,  which  has  been  occasionally  collected  and  exported  to 


CHAP.    I.]       CALPENTYN — PUTLAM,  ITS  FORMER  IMPORTANCE.        645 

Singapore  and  Penang,  and  the  naturalist  may  obtain  various 
specimens  of  shells,  mollusca,  madrepore,  pearl-oyster  spawn,  coral, 
and  the  fucus  aurylaceus.  It  is  also  well  stocked  with  fish,  and 
mullets  are  caught  in  large  quantities  on  the  north-west  coast. 
Porpoises,  dolphins  and  turtle  are  abundant ;  the  latter  are  caught 
in  the  shallower  parts  in  kraals.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Putlam, 
the  bed  of  the  gulf  is  muddy,  and  much  infested  with  sea-snakes,  the 
bite  of  which  often  proves  mortal.  Near  Calpentyn  it  is  studded 
with  several  small  islands,  and  its  bi'eadth  is  about  eight  miles,  a 
little  to  the  south  of  that  place,  between  which  and  Putlam  boats  are 
constantly  plying,  but  it  gradually  decreases  towards  the  south- 
east. The  entrance  is  by  two  passages,  one  near  Mutwal  on  the 
west,  and  the  other  near  Koodramalai  point,  where  it  forms  a  bight 
on  the  north-east,  and  it  affords  safe  anchorage  for  small  vessels  as 
far  as  Calpentyn.  Besides  the  navigation  and  fishery,  the  gulf  is 
useful  for  the  supply  of  the  leways  with  water.  Chunam  is  prepared 
here  by  burning  shells  ;  wood  oil  is  extracted  from  the  forests,  and 
chaya  root  is  met  with  in  great  abundance.  Mutwal  (Muhatwaram) 
is  a  small  island  about  ten  miles  long  and  from  two  to  three  broad, 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  Calpentyn.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  employed  in  the  fishery,  the  cultivation  of  cocoa-nut  trees,  and 
the  manufacture  of  chunam. 

Demelepattoo  (the  Malabar  province),  so  called  from  its  having 
been  under  the  government  of  Malabar  chiefs,  is  a  small  district, 
diversified  with  large  plains  and  forests.  It  possesses  an  extremely 
fertile  soil,  and  produces  a  large  quantity  of  paddy  and  fine  grain. 
Part  of  this  district  has  been  severed,  and  united  with  those  of 
Chilaw  and  Putlam. 

Pootalama  or  Putlam,  the  next  stage  from  Marrundankoole  eight 
miles  distant,  is  a  populous  village,  on  the  shore  of  a  shallow  gulf,  prin- 
cipally inhabited  by  Moormen  and  Hindoos.  It  derives  its  name  from 
Wijeyas  having  landed  there,  and  literally  means  a  society  of  young 
men,  such  as  those  of  this  adventurous  prince.  Casie  Chitty  says  it 
originally  bore  the  name  of  Magultotamuna,  or  the  port  of  marriage, 
from  that  prince,  after  having  disembarked  here,  married  Kuwani, 
who  lived  at  Tamana  Nuwara,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  it.  The 
present  name  he  derives  from  "  pudu,"  new,  and  "alam,"  salt-pans, 
in  allusion  to  the  leways  contiguous.  Putlam  is  thought  to  be  the 
Battala  of  Ibu  Batuta,  and  was  one  of  the  royal  villages  belonging  to 
the  Gabada  or  treasury  of  the  kings  of  Kandy. — (See  p.  4G6.)  When 
the  Portuguese  took  this  place  in  1536,  they  erected  a  large  church, 
and  made  it  the  head-quarters  of  propagandism.  Subsequently  the 
place  having  been  taken  by  Raja  Singha,  the  church  was  demolished, 
and  the  converts  compelled  to  renounce  their  new  creed. 

Salt  is  manufactured  at  Putlam  in  large  quantities  ;  the  coast 
being  very  flat  and  sandy,  and  evaporation  extremely  rapid  :  the 
artificial  pans,  soon  after  the  salt  has  formed,  appear  at  a  distance  as 
if  covered  with  snow.     The  face  of  the  country  is  flat,  diversified  by  a 


646  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

succession  of  rice  fields,  jungles,  and  plains,  and  abounds  in  tanks  and 
patches  of  water,  all  of  which  are  infested  with  crocodiles.  Putlam 
is  connected  with  Colombo  and  Chilaw  by  a  canal,  which  is 
formed  by  taking  advantage  of  various  streams,  and  the  lake  of 
Quiparawa,  so  called  from  the  abundance  of  Qui  fish  found  in  it. 
The  Moormen  have  one  large  and  several  small  mosques  at 
Putlam,  and  near  the  burial  ground  there  is  a  fine  specimen  of  a 
species  of  tamarind,  distinguished  from  the  common  tamarind, 
and  called  by  the  natives  Papparapooli,  or  the  giant's  tamarind;  six 
feet  from  the  ground  its  solid  stem  is  nearly  40  feet  in  circumference, 
and  at  eight  feet  it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  22  the  other  26 
feet  in  circumference.  It  is  nearly  100  feet  high,  and  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  black  rock,  but  its  age  does  not  exceed  120  years. 
The  leaves  are  used  medicinally,  and  to  feed  goats,  and  the  pulp  of 
its  oblong  fruit  is  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Putlam  was  formerly  a  place  of  considerable  trade  and  manufac- 
ture, and  the  coast  vessels  resorted  to  it  in  great  numbers,  with  large 
cargoes  of  piece  goods,  consisting  of  long  clotb,  comboys,  handker- 
chiefs, &c,  which  they  exchanged  for  areka-nuts  and  pepper.  At 
present  its  trade  is  chiefly  confined  to  Colombo  and  Kurunaigalla. 
The  manufacture  of  coarse  cotton  cloth  for  the  Kandian  market 
has  sensibly  declined  since  the  duty  on  British  manufactures 
has  been  diminished.  The  forests  around  Putlam  yield  good  timber 
of  nearly  every  kind,  and  shelter  every  description  of  game,  including 
elephants,  bears  and  chetahs. 

The  next  stages  from  Putlam  to  the  Pomparipoo-oya  are  through 
the  village  of  Nellich  aar,  distant  5  miles,  and  Wannataville,  6|  miles 
further,  and  the  Pomparipoo-oya  is  4  miles  distant.  The  face  of 
the  country  is  flat,  but  although  none  of  the  scenery  of  the  more 
elevated  parts  of  the  island  diversifies  the  prospect,  magnificent  forest 
trees  and  verdant  plains,  interspersed  with  neat  native  cottages  and 
paddy  fields,  form  an  interesting  landscape.  The  sea  is  skirted  by 
low  sands.  The  neighbouring  jungle  abounds  with  elk,  deer,  wild 
hogs,  elephants,  chetahs,  bears,  sloths,  monkeys,  and  various  other 
animals,  besides  birds  and  insects  in  great  variety.  On  every  side 
may  be  seen  vestiges  of  the  former  agricultural  importance  of  the 
district,  where  cotton  might  be  grown  in  any  quantity. 

The  country  between  Colombo  and  Kurunaigalla  affords  every 
variety  of  scenery.  At  the  Hattanagalla-oya,  the  road  approaches 
one  of  the  low  ranges  of  hills,  which  diverge  in  all  directions  from 
the  mountainous  centre  of  the  island,  and  four  miles  to  the  right  is 
situated  the  rock  of  Hattanagalla,  surmounted  by  religious  buildings, 
the  principal  of  which  was  erected  a.o.  248,  by  Grooloo  Abhaa,  to  the 
memory  of  King  Siri  Sangabo.  The  streams  as  one  ascends  into 
the  Central  province,  not  only  flow  more  rapidly,  but  their  waters  are 
crystalline  in  comparison  with  the  sluggish  and  greasy  waters  that 
steal  through  the  low  country,  which  are  saturated  with  the  slime  and 
mud  of  the  rice  fields.     Not  only  the  lower  part  of  the  irrigated 


CHAP.    I.]    COUNTRY  BETWEEN  COLOMBO  AND  KURUNAIOALLA.         64" 

valleys,  but  the  sides  of  every  rivulet,  as  it  descends  from  the  hills, 
however  steep  they  may  be,  are  formed  into  terraces,  and  when  these 
are  cultivated,  the  brilliant  green  of  the  rice  crops  serves  to  diversify 
the  general  olive  tint  of  the  Kandian  landscape.  The  watch  huts, 
from  whence  the  natives  protect  their  fields,  are  often  highly  pictur- 
esque, perched  as  they  often  are  on  overhanging  crags,  or  among  the 
branches  of  some  huge  forest  tree,  from  which  the  watchers  can 
command  a  view  of  any  intruding  elephant,  and  to  which  they  can 
flee,  if  their  discordant  yells  and  lighted  brands  prove  insufficient  to 
scare  their  giant  foe. 

Crossing  the  Maha-oya  by  the  elegant  bridge  at  Mahanella,  five 
miles  beyond  Ambapusse  (the  old  mode  was  by  a  ferry  at  Allow),  the 
traveller  continues  his  route  through  Hondelle,  8f  miles,  where  there 
is  a  large  Government  granary,  to  Kurunaigalla,  eight  miles  from  the 
latter  place.1  Allow  (Alauwe)  is  a  beautiful  spot;  the  river  is 
there  clear  and  rapid,  but  the  climate  is  variable,  and  at  times  pesti- 
lential, owing  to  its  proximity  to  water.  The  defile  of  Allow  was 
strongly  guarded  in  the  time  of  the  Dutch,  and  was  considered  by 
them  as  one  of  the  strongest  points  in  the  line  of  defence  surrounding 
the  Kandian  country.  There  is  a  tradition  of  Alauwe  having  once 
been  the  seat  of  an  independent  chief  or  prince,  probably  in  a  period 
of  anarchy  or  foreign  occupation,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  by 
the  natives  Alauwe  nuwara.  The  rest-house  stands  on  the  left  side 
of  the  river.  This  stream  rises  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  which 
separate  the  four  Korles  from  the  Central  province,  and  after  a 
tortuous  course  of  nearly  seventy  miles  in  a  west  north  west  and 
south-westerly  direction,  falls  into  the  sea  at  Kaymel,  a  little  above 
Negombo,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Kaymel-oya.  Dr.  Davy 
suggested,  that  the  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the  river  should  be  cleared 
above  Giriulla,  but  if  this  could  be  effected  as  high  up  as  Allow,  the 
benefit  would  be  still  greater.  Judging  from  the  difference  of  levels, 
and  the  nature  of  the  intervening  surface,  he  was  of  opinion  that  a 
canal  to  connect  the  Maha-oya  with  the  Didroo  was  far  from  imprac- 
ticable, and  bearing  in  mind  the  similarity  of  country,  I  would 
further  venture  to  ask  if  a  canal,  of  four  miles,  from  Allow  to  the 
Gooroogooyae-oja,  by  which  the  Didroo-oya  would  be  connected  with 
the  Kalane  and  Colombo,  and  by  a  further  inland  navigation  with 
Caltura,  in  all  more  than  eighty-five  miles  in  a  straight  line,  would 
not  amply  repay  the  sum  required  for  the  execution  of  the  work. 

To  the  left  of  the  high  road  to  Kurunaigalla,  and  on  the  direct 
road  between  that  place  and  Negombo,  is  Dambadiniya,  once  the 
capital  of  the  Mayaa  division  of  the  island.  It  stands  in  a  very  pic- 
turesque valley,   terminated  by  ranges  of  lofty  naked  hills,   rising 

l  The  route  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  p.  663,  as  far  as  Ambapusse,  from 
whence  the  road  to  Kandy,  via  Kaduganava,  diverges  to  the  right.  The  next  stage 
from  Ambapusse  is  to  the  Maha-oya,  four  and  a  half  miles,  to  Hondelle,  eight  and 
three-quarters,  to  Kurunaigalla,  seven  and  three-quarters.  The  rest-house  at 
Ambapusse  is  a  structure  of  some  pretensions,  and  is  situate  in  a  valley  formed  by 
a  semicircle  of  hills. 


648  CEYLON.  [PAET   IV. 

perpendicularly  in  a  variety  of  peaked  forms.  On  one  of  these  a 
fort  was  erected  by  the  British  during  the  Kandian  war,  but  it  was 
subsequently  abandoned.  North  of  Dambadiniya,  and  a  few  miles 
to  the  north-west  of  Kurunaigalla  is  the  village  of  Kottadeniya, 
also  a  military  post  during  the  Kandian  war.  The  country 
between  the  two  places  is  well  watered  and  fruitful.  Padenia,  further 
to  the  north,  was  also  for  a  time  occupied  for  the  same  purpose,  but 
was  in  like  manner  abandoned  for  its  insalubrity,  though  the  soil  in 
its  vicinity  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  immense  quantities  of  paddy. 

The  Dedooroo,  or  Didroo-oya,  which  flows  through  this  neighbour- 
hood is  a  considerable  stream,  which  takes  its  rise  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  in  Toompane,  and  after  receiving  the  Kospotte  and 
Mongra-oyas,  and  several  minor  streams,  pursues  its  sinuous  course 
through  the  Seven  Korles,  and  past  the  ruins  of  Panduwas  Nuwara, 
and  ultimately  disembogues  itself  into  the  sea,  two  miles  north  of 
Chilaw.  Its  flow  and  ebb  are  so  uncertain  and  abrupt,  that,  accord- 
ing to  Casie  Chitty,  the  Malabars  call  it  Maayawen-aar,  Maayawa 
being  one  of  the  titles  of  Vishnu,  in  the  character  of  "  Deluder." 

Kurunaigalla,  mdg.  Komegalle,  is  situated  near  the  base  of  a  rocky 
granite  mountain,  about  600  feet  in  height  above  the  plain,  called 
Aetagalla,  from  its  striking  resemblance  to  a  tusk  elephant.  This  is 
the  last  of  a  range,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  likeness  of  dif- 
ferent portions  of  it  to  various  animals,  beginning  at  Andagalla  (eel 
rock),  Ibhagalla  (tortoise  rock),  Kurunaikigalla1  (elephant  leader 
rock),  and  Aetagalla  (tusk  elephant  rock),  where  the  range  abruptly 
terminates.  The  palace  of  the  kings  of  Ceylon  formerly  stood  where 
the  Government  house  has  been  lately  erected,  and  from  thence  a 
path,  with  occasional  stone  steps,  leads  up  the  rock  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  passes  by  a  dagobah  and  wihare,  in  which  the  footstep 
of  Buddha,  copied  from  that  on  Adam's  Peak  (Samanala),  is  modeled. 
Still  further  on,  the  remains  of  a  wall  built  across  a  hollow,  and  pro- 
tecting a  path,  the  only  other  approach  to  the  summit  except  the  one 
from  the  lower  palace,  are  visible.  Near  this  place  are  some  small 
stone  pillars,  and  a  pond  in  the  rock,  partly  natural,  but  improved  by 
steps  of  masonry  descending  to  the  water.  On  the  bare  rock  above, 
are  the  remains  of  buildings,  which  must  have  been  intended  to  con- 
tain either  penitents  or  prisoners,  for  none  others  could  have  lived 
where  the  rock  gets  so  heated  during  the  day,  that  its  proper 
temperature  is  not  regained  until  long  after  sunset,  and  is  then  suc- 
ceeded by  chill  blasts,  or  murky  exhalations  from  the  flat  country 
beneath.  On  the  summit  are  the  remains  of  the  buildings  which 
contained  the  Dalada  relic    during  the   reigns   of  four   pious  and 

1  The  Singhalese,  whose  etymological  traditions  are  always  fanciful  and  far- 
fetched, differ  in  opinion  as  to  the  true  origin  of  the  name.  Some  derive  it  from 
the  circumstance  of  a  part  of  its  original  inhabitants  having  come  over  from 
Kurukshetra,  or  Kururatta  (the  scene  of  the  bloody  wars  between  the  Pandava  and 
Kaurava  princes),  and  settled  there  ;  others  from  Kuruni,  a  bushel,  and  galla,  a  rock, 
in  allusion  to  a  relic  of  Buddha  concealed  in  a  bushel  under  a  rock  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. 


CHAP.    I.]  THE  SEVEN  KORLES — KUBUNAIGALLA.  649 

powerless  kings  who  held  their  court  at  Hastisailapoora,  as  the  Elu 
word  Kurunaigalla  is  called  in  Pali  history.  From  the  time  that  this 
place  became  the  capital,  and  even  for  hundreds  of  years  after  its 
abandonment,  the  rocks  of  Aetagalla  and  Andagalla  were  used  in 
royal  grants  as  symbols  of  duration  ;  thus,  "  So  long  as  the  sun  and 
moon,  so  long  as  Aetagalla  and  Andagalla  endure,  this  grant  is  made, 
and  should  any  one  violate  the  injunctions  contained  in  this  per- 
petual edict,  he  will  be  born  as  a  dog  or  a  crow."  The  impression 
of  Buddha's  foot  in  the  temple  was  made  at  the  time  Kurunaigalla 
was  a  royal  residence,  that  a  princess  who  was  unable  to  undertake  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  real  Sri  Pada  might  here  make  offerings  to  a  copy. 
From  the  ruins  on  the  summit  of  Aetagalla,  the  peak  of  Samanala  is 
visible.  It  has  never  been  satisfactorily  determined  from  what  cause 
Kurunaigalla  was  selected  as  the  capital  of  Ceylon  by  the  four  kings 
who  succeeded  Praackramabahoo  III.  A  tradition  of  the  cause  of 
its  abandonment,  is  still,  however,  current  among  the  people  of  this 
district :  a  natural  son  of  one  of  the  kings,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
the  offspring  of  a  Mahomedan  woman,  succeeded  by  stratagem  in 
seizing  the  throne  on  his  father's  death  over  the  legitimate  heir,  who, 
despairing  of  success,  retired  into  exile ;  for  some  time  he  endeared 
himself  by  his  beneficence  to  the  country,  but  having  subsequently 
compromised  the  privileges  of  the  priesthood,  or  shewn  a  preference 
for  the  faith  of  his  mother,  Vashthimi  Kumaraya,  they  assembled 
on  the  summit  of  the  rock  to  celebrate  a  religious  ceremony,  and 
invited  the  king  to  honour  it  with  his  presence.  On  his  arrival, 
assassins,  who  lay  in  wait,  rushed  on  the  usurper,  and  hurled  him 
headlong  from  the  precipice.  After  the  murder  of  the  usurper,  the 
legend  runs,  that  the  ministers  made  inquiries  after  the  exiled  prince, 
and,  according  to  their  custom,  caparisoned  the  state  elephant,  and 
sent  it  blindfold  to  trace  his  retreat,  themselves  following  with  the 
usual  appendages  of  royalty.  The  sagacious  animal,  after  perambu- 
lating several  villages  in  succession,  at  length  discovered  him  at 
Kalundawe  in  the  Udapalla  Korle,  engaged  in  ploughing.  As  soon 
as  the  prince  perceived  the  state  elephant  and  the  people  in  its  rear, 
he  attempted  to  conceal  himself  under  a  rock  in  the  neighbourhood, 
fearing  that  the  usurper  was  in  quest  of  him,  but  the  animal 
approached  the  place  where  he  was  concealed,  and  making  a  profound 
obeisance  to  him  as  the  sovereign  of  the  country,  took  him  up  gently 
with  his  proboscis,  and  placing  him  on  his  back,  conveyed  him  to 
Kurunaigalla.  On  his  arrival  he  was  crowned  king  of  Ceylon  with 
great  pomp  by  the  nobles  and  unusual  joy  by  the  people.  Conceiving 
that  the  Moorish  usurper,  by  sitting  on  the  throne,  had  polluted  the 
sanctity  of  the  city,  the  young  prince  proposed  to  remove  his 
court  elsewhere,  and  abandon  Kurunaigalla.  The  people  coinciding 
in  his  views,  Dambadiniya  was  selected  as  the  future  capital,  and  from 
that  time  the  chiefs  began  gradually  to  desert  it  for  that  place,  until 
it  dwindled  down  to  a  Durawa  village,  in  which  state  it  remained,  till 
its  important  position  attracted  the  attention  of    the  British.     This 


050  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

legend  would  seem  to  be  either  an  anachronism,  or  to  have  reference 
to  the  local  sovereignty  of  an  independent  prince,  as  it  by  no  means 
agrees  with  the  more  authentic  annals.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
eastern  and  other  roads,  Kurunaigalla  has  rapidly  increased  in 
population  and  importance,  and  many  native  dealers  from  the  coast 
have  migrated  thither.  The  bazaar  is  now  well  supplied,  and  is  the 
centre  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  country  round  bring 
their  produce  to  barter  for  the  salt,  salt  fish,  and  manufactures 
imported  from  the  coast.  The  country  in  the  vicinity  is  extremely 
fertile  and  beautiful,  and  part  of  it  is  irrigated  by  a  large  tank,  the 
outlet  of  which,  unlike  those  of  Kandelle  and  Mennairia,  is  formed 
in  a  natural  manner  by  its  embankment  joining  a  low  rocky  hill. 
The  rocky  precipices,  magnificent  trees,  and  beautiful  patches  of 
bright  green  meadow,  diversified  with  the  profusion  of  jungle  foliage, 
and  the  miniature  and  well  wooded  islets,  contribute  to  produce  a 
scene  of  mingled  sublimity  and  beauty.  In  the  vicinity  of  Kurunai- 
galla are  sculptures  of  elephants,  lions,  and  an  animal  resembling  the 
unicorn.  Kurunaigalla,  though  the  head-quarters  of  the  revenue,  and 
judicial  officers  of  the  Government,  and  a  military  station,  is  much 
infested  by  elephants,  who,  regardless  of  its  rising  population,  con- 
tinue to  make  it  their  house  of  call  in  passing  into  the  low  country, 
and  vice  versd. 

Kurunaigalla1  is  the  chief  station  of  the  Seven  Korles,  and  the 
residence  of  an  assistant  Government  agent.  That  district  is  very 
extensive,  containing  the  larger  portion  of  the  Western  Province 
within  its  limits,  and  is  separated  from  the  Harisiapattoo,  in  the  cen- 
tral province,  by  the  Dik-oya  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Maha-oya,  which 
separates  it  from  the  Three  Korles  and  Four  Korles  ;  on  the  west  by 
the  districts  of  Chilaw  and  Putlam,  and  the  Demelepattoo,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  Kalawa-oya,  which  separates  it  from  Nuwera  Kalawa.  It 
was  formerly  divided  into  seven  korles  (the  seat  of  a  dissavony),  and 
subdivided  into  twenty-four  pattoos,  called  respectively  the  Eihala-dolos 
pattoo,  or  upper  twelve  pattoos,  and  the  Palaha-dolos  pattoo,  or 
lower  twelve  pattoos.  The  face  of  the  country  in  the  former  por- 
tion is  diversified  with  mountains  and  huge  abrupt  rocks  ;  the  latter 
is  in  general  fiat.  The  climate  in  most  parts  is  far  from  healthy, 
and  endemic  fever  prevails  in  some  parts,  at  certain  seasons,  which 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  influence  of  miasma,  arising  from  swamps 
and  marshes.  Kurunaigalla,  from  being  situated  to  the  westward  of 
the  mountains  in  the  vicinity,  is  sheltered  from  the  disagreeable  in- 
fluences of  the  land  wind,  while  it  has  all  the  benefits  of  the  sea 
breeze.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile,  yielding  paddy,  fine 
grain,  cotton  and  hemp,  as  also  cocoa-nuts,  jack-fruits,  limes,  and 
even  cinnamon  in  small  quantities,  which  are  exchanged  for  the 
manufactures  or  produce  of  the  coast. 

From  Kurunaigalla  to  Anuradhapoora,  the  route  lays  nearly  north, 

1  This  place  was  attacked  by  the  insurgents  in  the  recent  eiueute,  but  they  were 
driven  from  it,  after  having  done  some  injury  to  the  public  buildings. 


CHAP.  I.]  ROUTE  FROM  KURUNAIGALLA  TO  ANURADHAPOORA.   651 

and  the  footpath  is  either  through  rice  fields,  or  over  gentle  eleva- 
tions, covered  with  brushwood.  After  some  miles  the  country  be- 
comes more  level,  fewer  villages  are  seen,  and  less  cultivation,  "with 
more  extensive  jungles,  mark  the  difference  between  that  part  of  the 
country  which  has  a  constant  supply  of  river  water,  and  the  more 
northern  districts,  which  depend  upon  rain  to  fill  the  tanks,  and 
irrigate  the  fields.  Although  this  part  of  the  district  is  now  little 
better  than  a  desert,  from  the  ruined  state  of  most  of  its  numerous 
tanks,  yet  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile  wherever  irrigated,  and  in  the 
plains  around  Galgamma,  a  village  of  Malabar  Christians,  where 
there  is  a  large  tank,  a  proof  is  given  of  its  capabilities.  The  dis- 
tance to  Anuradhapoora  is  about  eighty  miles,  through  Koombakalawia, 
Hierapitia,  Madawatchy,  Kattapitia-weva,  Neelicolom  and  Epanella. 
The  rock  of  Ununugalla,  near  Hierapitia,  Yakdessagalla  (the  devil- 
dancer,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  that  character),  visible 
from  Kurunaigalla  and  Galgiriakandi,  are  the  most  prominent  fea- 
tures on  those  ridges  of  hills,  which  gradually  descend  into  the 
plains  and  jungles,  which  surround  the  ancient  capital  of  the  island. 
Near  Koombakalawia  are  situated  the  remains  of  Yapahoo  (Subha 
Pubhattoo),  for  some  time  the  residence  of  a  branch  of  the  Singhalese 
royal  race,  one  of  whom  succeeded  to  the  throne  a.  d.  1303,  and 
made  this  place  the  capital,  but  it  only  remained  so  for  eleven  years, 
when  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  an  army,  sent  by  the  King  of  Paudi 
(Madura),  which  destroyed  the  town  and  carried  off  the  Dalada  relic. 

The  streams  intersecting  the  route  are  the  Dederoo-oya,  Kimboola- 
oya,  Mee-oya,  and  Kalawa-oya.  The  Mee-oya  has  its  source  in 
Matale,  and  is  a  very  inconsiderable  stream  till  it  arrives  at  Mada- 
galla,  a  little  to  the  east  of  Galgiria-Kandi,  where  it  receives  the 
waters  of  a  ruined  tank,  and  being  joined  by  several  tributary  streams, 
it  assumes  some  degree  of  magnitude,  and  after  a  wandering  course 
through  the  Seven  Korles,  descends  into  the  district  of  Putlam, 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Welukar  or  Waliker-aar,  and 
empties  itself  by  several  channels  into  the  gulf  of  Calpentyn. 

The  superficies  of  the  Western  Province,  previous  to  its  division, 
was  4452  square  miles,  and  the  population  which  was  543,222  in 
1843,  may  be  estimated  at  the  current  rate  of  increase,  at  595,750, 
or  upwards  of  133  to  the  square  mile.  See  preface  for  its  repartition. 

The  bounds  of  the  Central  Province  have  been  already  implied  in 
those  of  the  other  provinces,  and  are  more  distinctly  indicated  in  the 
map  than  can  be  done  by  a  general  description,  however  clear  ;  suffice  it 
then  to  say,  that  the  Mahavelle  and  one  of  its  affluents  separate  it  from 
the  greater  part  of  the  Eastern  Province,  and  a  triangular  line  from 
the  remainder  ;  that  by  another  line  running  N.N.E.  it  is  separated 
from  the  Northern  Province  ;  that  by  a  continuation  of  that  line  in  a 
south  and  south-westerly  direction,  by  the  sources  of  the  Didroo, 
and  a  line  drawn  along  the  eastern  face  of  the  districts  of  Toompane, 
the  Four  Korles,  and  Upper  and  Lower  Bulatgamme,  it  is  separated 


652  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

from  the  Western  Province.  The  line  of  separation  from  the  Southern 
Province  has  been  described  under  that  head. 

Mi'itale,  the  most  extensive  district  in  the  Central  Province,  em- 
braces all  the  three  peculiarities  of  surface  by  which  Ceylon  is  distin- 
guished ;  its  southern  division  occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the 
mountain  zone,  its  central  a  part  of  the  hilly  region,  and  its  northern 
the  low  and  heated  plains.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  therefore 
very  diversified,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  is  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation.  Its  population  is  very  scanty,  probably  it  does  not  reach 
twenty  to  the  square  mile.  Matale  is  subdivided  into  the  following 
Korles  :  Ooodoogodde,  Asgirie  Korle,  &c.  &c. 

In  entering  Matale  from  the  north-east,  the  traveller  passes 
through  Haburenne,  sixteen  miles  from  Dambool.  Beyond  Habu- 
renne  to  the  north-eastward,  stretches  an  extensive  forest  as  far  as 
Gantalawe,  and  the  first  open  space  is  a  very  small  plain  near  the 
banks  of  the  Gal-oya,  whose  rocky  bed  is  frequently  dry  in  the  hot 
season.  The  neighbourhood  of  Haburenne  itself,  is  one  of  the 
hottest  in  Ceylon,  and  the  water  is  of  the  worst  quality.  The  flat 
bare  rock  of  Haburenne  was  once  the  site  of  a  dagobah  and  Buddhist 
establishment ;  no  remains  of  these  now  exist,  although  a  long  and 
partly  obliterated  inscription  in  the  Nagara  character  points  to  their 
situation.  From  this  place  the  rock  fort  of  Sigiri,  appears  like  a 
crested  helmet  resting  on  a  cushion ;  it  is  about  six  miles  distant 
from  Haburenne,  and  half  way  between  it  and  the  nearest  hills  of  the 
Matale  district.  Between  Dambool  and  Nalande,  a  distance  of 
fifteen  miles,  lies  the  Andagalla  pass,  an  abrupt  ascent  and  stony 
path,  shaded  by  magnificent  trees,  and  hemmed  in  on  either  side 
by  rocky  mountains. 

The  rock  of  Dambool,  in  which  are  the  celebrated  Buddhist  cave 
temples,  is  a  scene  of  peculiar  interest,  and  appears  to  rise  about  600 
feet  above  the  surrounding  forests  :  on  the  north  side  it  is  bare  and 
black  ;  to  the  south  its  huge  overhanging  mass,  by  some  art  and  much 
labour,  has  been  formed  into  temples,  which  are  the  most  extensive, 
perfect,  and  ancient  in  the  island.  The  oidy  easy  ascent  to  these  is 
from  the  eastern  side  ;  and  the  steep  path  first  passes  over  a  bare 
shelving  rock,  then  lies  through  a  narrow  patch  of  jungle,  emerging 
from  whence,  the  bare  rock  is  again  visible,  near  the  miserable 
modern  arch-way,  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  platform  in  front 
of  the  ancient  fanes  of  Dambool. 

The  first  of  the  excavated  chambers,  which  is  seventy-five  feet  long, 
twenty-one  wide,  and  twenty-seven  high,  is  called  the  Maha-deiyo 
dewale,  or  temple  of  the  great  god,  from  a  statue  of  Vishnu,  held  to 
possess  peculiar  sanctity,  and  before  which  the  most  solemn  oaths 
were  often  sworn  and  litigated  cases  settled  without  any  other  trial : 
this  was  when  one  of  the  parties  agreed  to  abide  by  the  oath  of  the 
other,  to  be  given  in  a  specified  form  before  this  statue  of  Vishnu, 
which  is  a  rudely  executed  figure  rather  larger  than  life,  and  in  the 
form  of  Ramachandra.      Although  the  great  fame  of  this  particular 


CHAP.  I.]  CENTRAL  PROVINCE — DISTRICT  OF  MATALE — DAMBOOL.  653 

temple  is  derived  from  this  statue  of  Vishnu,  the  chamber  contains 
also  a  monstrous  but  well  wrought  figure  of  Buddha,  recumbent,  and 
the  statue,  as  well  as  the  couch  and  pillow  on  which  he  reclines,  is 
cut  from  the  solid  rock.  This  figure  is  forty-seven  feet  long  ;  at  its 
feet  stands  an  attendant  disciple,  and  it  is  opposite  to  the  face  in  a 
dark  corner,  that  the  statue  of  Vishnu  is  placed.  This  chamber  is 
long,  narrow,  and  dark  :  Gautama  Buddha's  position  and  placid 
aspect,  the  stillness  of  the  place,  all  tend  to  impress  a  stranger  with 
the  notion  that  he  is  in  the  chamber  of  death.  The  priests  maintain 
that  such  was  Gautama,  and  such  were  those  who  were  spectators  at 
his  death. 

The  fronts  of  all  the  temples  at  Dambool  are  formed  by  a  wall 
raised  under  the  beetling  rock,  rather  more  than  four  hundred  feet 
long,  perforated  with  a  number  of  doors  and  windows,  and  sheltered 
and  defended  not  only  by  the  overhanging  concave  surface  of  rock, 
but  also  artificially  by  a  rude  verandah,  and  these  sacred  caverns  are 
partly  natural  and  partly  excavated.  The  next  temple,  the  Maha- 
raja wihare  (temple  of  the  great  king),  is  by  far  the  most  extensive 
and  magnificent  in  Ceylon,  being  painted  all  over  in  brilliant 
colours,  and  every  part  is  in  good  repair.  It  derives  its  name  from  its 
founder,  King  Wallagam-Bahoo,  who  is  supposed  to  have  assisted 
personally  in  its  formation  ;  it  is  1 72  feet  long,  75  broad,  and 
21  feet  high  near  the  front  wall,  and  is  lighted  by  numerous 
windows  and  doors  in  front.  The  height  from  this  place  gradually 
decreases  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  towards  the  floor  on  the  interior  side  ; 
but  the  bad  effect  otherwise  resulting  from  such  a  design,  is  coun- 
teracted by  a  judicious  disposition  of  the  statues,  and  the  drapery 
hung  up  to  protect  them  from  dust,  or  the  gaze  of  the  vulgar.  In 
this  temple  are  fifty  figures  of  Buddha,  many  of  them  larger  than 
life,  arranged  in  a  row  at  a  little  distance  from  the  sides  and  inner 
walls  of  the  room,  but  not  grouped.  Also  a  statue  of  each  of  the 
gods,  Saman,  in  yellow,  Vishnu,  in  blue,  and  Nata,  in  white  robes,  of 
the  goddess  Patine,  and  of  the  kings  Walagam-Bahoo  and  Kirti  Nis- 
sauga ;  the  first  is  the  rudest  figure,  and  its  dress  the  simplest  and 
the  least  ornamented ;  Kirti  Nissanga,  after  repairing  the  ruin  caused 
by  Malabar  invaders,  in  a.d.  1 193,  regilded  the  statues,  at  a  cost  of 
000,000  pieces  of  gold,  and  ornainented  the  fanes  of  Dambool  so 
gaudily  that  it  henceforward  received  the  name  of  Rangiri,  the 
golden  rock.  It  is  also  designated  in  an  inscription  of  that  date, 
cut  in  the  rock,  Swarna-giri-guhaya,  cave  of  the  golden  rock.  Within 
the  Maha-raja-wihare,  there  is  a  beautifully  formed  dagobah  which 
touches  the  roof  at  the  highest  part,  its  broad  circular  pedestal  is 
ornamented  with  four  figures  of  Buddha,  each  seated  on  the  coil  of  a 
cobra  di  capella,  and  shaded  by  its  expanded  hood  ;  and  in  a  small 
square  compartment,  railed  in,  and  sunk  two  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  floor,  a  vessel  is  placed  to  receive  water,  which  constantly  drops 
from  a  fissure  in  the  rock,  and  is  exclusively  kept  for  sacred  purposes, 
no  person  daring  to  use  it  for  any  other. 


654  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

The  whole  of  the  interior,  whether  rock,  wall,  or  statue,  is  painted 
with  brilliant  colours,  in  which  yellow  much  predominates ;  in  one 
place  the  artist  has  aimed  at  an  illustration  of  an  epoch  in  the    early 
history  of  Ceylon,   which  commences  with   the  voyage  of  Wijeya, 
who  is  pictured  in  a  vessel  with  only  the  lower  masts,   and  without 
sails ;  in  the  sea  are  seen  fishes  as  large   as  the  vessel,   and  lotus 
leaves  of  the  natural  size  are  spread  on  its  surface.     In  the  represen- 
tation of  the  great  dagobahs  at  Anuradhapoora,  the  proportions  are 
no  better  observed,  and  these  huge  works  are  pictured  as  but  little 
larger  than  the  monarchs  who    ordered    their  erection.       The  dedi- 
cation of  the  island  to  Buddha  after  the  arrival  of  the   Dalada,    is 
figured  by  a  king  guiding  a  plough  drawn  by  a  pair  of  elephants, 
attended   by   priests.      The   most   successful  attempt   at   historical 
painting,    is   one   which     depicts    the    passage    at    arms    between 
Dootoo-gaimoonoo  and  Elaala,  the  delineation  of  which  is  spirited, 
and  in  better  proportions  than  any  other  of  the  historical  compart- 
ments.     The  Malabar  king  is  described  in  the  act  of  falling  from 
his  elephant,  and  transfixed   by  the  javelin   of  his    enemy.      The 
ornamental  paintings  in  the  temples  at  Dambool  are  neatly  executed, 
where  an  attention  to  proportion  is  of  less  consequence,  and  although 
some  of  the  colours  have  not  been  renewed  for  more  than  fifty  years, 
the  whole  appears  bright  and  durable.      The  Passipilame   (western) 
and   two  alut    (new)  wihares  are  formed  on  the  same  plan,  but  are 
inferior  in  size  and  decorations  to  the  Maha-raja  wihare,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by   a   stone   wall,  the  portal  by  which  they  are 
entered  is  therefore  in  front,  and  is  a  lofty  archway,  guarded  on  each 
side  by  stone  figures,  intended  to  represent  janitors.     In  one  of  them 
is  the  statue  of  the  King  Kirti  Sri,  the  last  royal  patron  of  Dambool, 
and  a  zealous  supporter  of  Buddhism.      The  celebration  of  the  Bud- 
dhist service  in  this  primeval  temple,  and  the   loud  response  of  the 
worshippers,  are  described  by  those  who  have  attended  it  as  a  scene 
of  the  most  awe-exciting  effect . 

On  the  rocky  platform,  which  extends  in  front  of  all  the  temples, 
a  bo-tree  and  several  cocoa-nut  trees  have  been  reared,  and  have 
reached  a  great  size  in  defiance  of  their  exposed  situation,  equally 
exposed  to  tempests,  and  the  scorching  heats  and  long  droughts,  to 
which  this  part  of  the  country  is  periodically  liable.  Besides  an 
inscription  on  the  rock  over  the  entrance  to  the  temples,  and  several 
short  inscriptions  in  the  square  character,  called  Nagara,  there  is  near 
the  Maha-Deiyo  temple,  neatly  cut  in  the  rock,  a  long  inscription  in 
the  Singhalese  character,  as  in  use  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century.  It  records  the  power,  wealth,  and  meritorious  acts  of  the 
King  Kirti  Nissanga,  and  particularly  his  munificence  in  ornamenting 
the  temples  and  gilding  the  seventy-two  statues  of  Buddha  at  Dambool. i 

1  For  the  account  of  the  scenery  and  antiquities  of  Matale,  I  am  chiefly  in- 
debted to  a  local  publication  of  high  standing  ;  but  here,  as  in  some  other  places, 
the  real  contributor  was  Major  Forbes,  of  whose  vivid  and  felicitous  sketches  of 
Singhalese  scenery,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  in  too  high  terms  of  praise. 


CHAP.!.]    ROCK  TEMPLESOF  DAMBOOL—  MENIK DENNA  NUWARA.    655 

The  summit  of  the  rock  commands  a  most  extensive  view  over  the 
surrounding  country  ;  to  the  south  lie  the  mountains  of  Matale 
and  their  intermediate  valleys.  The  flat  country  immediately  around 
is  the  patrimony  of  the  temples,  and  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  priests,  seven  in  number,  who  belong  to  the  Asgirie  wihare,  to 
which  the  temples  are  attached  ;  on  the  north  and  east  lie  the 
wooded  expanse  and  abrupt  rocks  of  Nuwara-Kalawa.  The  most 
conspicuous  of  these  are  the  circular  rock  of  Sigiri,  Dahiakandi,  near 
the  fort  of  Wigittapoora,  memorable  for  its  siege  2000  years  ago, 
and  the  mountain  Ritta-galla,  elevated  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
plain,  by  which  it  is  encompassed.  The  rock  of  Dambool  was  formerly 
surmounted  by  three  dagobahs  ;  these  have  crumbled  down  and  been 
washed  away.  About  fifty  feet  below  the  summit  of  the  rock  there 
is  a  pond,  said  to  retain  water  when  the  springs  for  miles  around  are 
dried  up  in  the  dry  season.  Ou  the  west  side  of  the  rock  of 
Dambool,  are  the  ruins  of  the  Soma  Dagobah,  which  was  completed 
by  Walagam-Bahoo,  in  the  first  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
the  numerous  inscriptions  at  this  place  are  a  mixture  of  the  ancient 
Singhalese  and  Nagara  characters. 

Five  miles  north-east  of  Dambool  is  the  Meerisagona-oya,  which 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  is  a  bed  of  sand,  though  the  banks 
are  in  most  places  from  six  to  eight  feet  high,  and  are  supported  by 
matted  roots  of  trees,  more  especially  the  kabook.  During  the  north- 
east monsoon,  it  is  impassable  for  days  together,  and  is  then  an  im- 
petuous torrent.  In  a  forest  eight  miles  from  Dambool,  and  between 
the  former  precipitous  path  which  led  to  Nalande  through  the  Anda- 
galla  pass  and  the  new  road  which  winds  round  the  mountain  of 
Lenadorra,  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  town,  called  Menik  Denna 
Nuwara,  the  remains  of  two  tanks,  the  ruins  of  a  dagobah,  a  wihare 
with  numerous  stone  pillars,  a  stone  bed  (one  end  of  which  rests 
upon  a  rock,  the  other  extremity  being  supported  by  pillars)  ;  there  are 
also  stone  steps,  and  foundations  of  houses,  to  shew  that  this  was  at 
one  time  a  station  of  some  importance.  The  mountain  of  Nik-woolla 
or  Heercedewatai  Kandi  rises  behind  these  ruins,  and  a  plain  near 
its  summit  has  apparently  been  a  place  of  retreat  in  times  of  danger, 
as  it  is  strewed  with  fragments  of  pottery  ;  and  various  kinds  of  fruit 
trees,  not  commonly  found  wild,  still  flourish  on  this  bleak  plateau. 
A  pond,  which  contains  water  at  all  times  in  the  driest  seasons,  was 
doubtless  the  attraction  of  fugitives  to  this  natural  stronghold  ;  such 
ponds,  however  remarkable,  are  not  uncommonly  to  be  met  with  near 
the  top  of  the  highest  mountains,  and  even  on  the  summit  of  the  bare 
and  elevated  rocks  of  Ceylon.  The  traditions  regarding  Menik 
Denna  Nuwara  assert  that  it  was  a  residence  of  the  King  Sirisangabo, 
but  that  it  was  greatly  improved  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century  by  Sri  Danta  Kumara,  the  royal  importer  of  Buddha's  tooth. 

Twelve  miles  from  Dambool  is  the  village  of  Mahaellegamma, 
where  there  is  an  embankment  of  a  large  tank,  which  is  in  good  con- 
dition, and  contains  a  supply  of  water  sufficient  to  irrigate  a  consider- 


656  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

able  extent  of  paddy  land.  From  this  place  to  the  sluice  of  the 
Kalawa  tank  is  seven  miles. 

Nalande,  although  only  fifteen  miles  distant,  has  not  the  same 
moist  and  pleasant  climate  as  Matale  ;  even  at  a  distance  of  five 
miles  from  the  latter  place,  coffee  gardens  are  more  rare,  and  less 
productive,  cocoa-nut  trees  scarcer  and  less  luxuriant.  As  a 
military  post,  which  it  was  for  some  years,  it  proved  very  unhealthy ; 
its  small  fort  occupied  the  summit  of  a  rocky  hillock,  and  in  situation 
as  well  as  insalubrity,  resembled  many  of  the  military  positions 
origiually  selected  for  the  British  troops  in  the  Kandian  country. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Nalande  are  two  caves,  from  which  a  small  quantity 
of  saltpetre  was  prepared,  under  the  native  Government.  At 
Nalande  the  land  leech  is  not  seen ;  at  Matale  it  is  abundant. 
Beyond  Nalande  the  talapat  tree  is  seldom  to  be  met  with.  From 
Nalande  to  the  lake  of  Mennairia  is  a  distance  of  thirty- six  miles, 
through  Nyakoombura,  Gonawe,  and  Pae-colom ;  near  the  former 
place  there  is  a  small  village,  with  a  few  paddy  fields,  forming  the 
only  break  in  the  damp  and  dreary  jungle,  from  whence  issue  streams 
that  flow  into  the  sea  on  either  coast  of  the  island.  In  traversing 
the  forest  of  Wagapanaha  a  few  openings  shew  the  rugged  outline 
and  abrupt  rocks  of  the  range  of  Arrawella  kandi. 

Eyhelapola  is  about  nine  miles  from  Matale,  and  is  about  1200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  it  is  the  seat  of  the  family  of  the 
late  Adigaar  of  that  name,  consisting  of  a  large  house,  with  exten- 
sive grounds,  encompassed  by  an  elephant  fence.  Nine  miles  beyond 
is  the  village  of  Wahakotta,  on  the  range  of  hills  extending  between 
the  Seven  Korles  and  Matale.  In  the  forests  on  the  side  of  Ambokka- 
kandi,  a  mountain  forming  part  of  this  chain,  are  situated  the 
remains  of  Rangalla  Nuwara,  and  at  its  base  a  temple  of  the  same 
name  is  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Patine.  This  goddess,  and  the 
temple  of  Ambokka,  and  the  relics  it  contains,  are  supposed  to  have 
extraordinary  efficacy  in  preventing,  or  averting,  small-pox.  The 
inhabitants  of  Wahakotta  profess  the  Christian  religion,  and  are  the 
descendants  of  Portuguese  prisoners  taken  by  Raja  Singha,  and  of 
some  of  their  countrymen,  who  preferred  retiring  into  the  Kandian 
country,  in  1640,  to  remaining  under  the  Dutch  Government. 
There  is  little  difference  either  in  feature,  character,  or  colour, 
between  them  and  the  Kandians  of  pure  descent.  These  descendants 
of  Europeans  are  not  so  dark,  and  are  free  from  the  muddy  complexion 
and  rough  skin,  so  common  among  those  wearing  hats,  and  styling 
themselves  descendants  of  Europeans,  in  the  maritime  provinces. 

From  the  extremity  of  the  mountains  which  terminate  abruptly 
near  Wahakotta,  the  view  over  the  flat  country,  that  extends  to  the 
northernmost  parts  of  the  island,  is  extremely  curious,  from  the 
many  detached  rocks  and  precipitous  mountains,  which  shoot  up 
from  amidst  the  forest,  covering  the  extensive  plains  of  Nuwara 
Kalawa.  "  At  sunrise,"  says  Forbes,  "  and  for  some  time  after,  till 
the  mists  are  dispelled  by  the  sun,  partial  fogs  assume  the  exact 


CHAP.    I.]       OLLEGAMMA VALLEY  OF  MATALE — GODAPOLA.  057 

appearance  of  lakes,  some  of  these  calm  and  undisturbed,  will  at 
times  reflect  surrounding  objects  ;  while  others,  agitated  by  a  slight 
breeze,  will  seem  to  dash  their  mimic  waves  against  the  forest,  which 
appears  to  bound  these  beautiful  illusions.  The  descent  from  the 
mountainous  district  at  this  place  to  the  flat  country  beneath,  is 
through  the  wild,  wooded  and  romantic  pass  of  Kalugallahella  (or 
the  hill  of  the  Black  Rock),  which  terminates  at  Gallawella. 

A  little  to  the  north  of  the  huge  mountain  of  Artapola  Kandi, 
which  is  to  the  southward  of  Ambooka- kandi,  but  forming  a  part 
of  the  same  chain,  is  the  village  of  Ollegamma,  delightfully  situate 
in  a  fine  hilly  country,  well  adapted  for  coffee  cultivation.  About 
two  miles  from  it,  on  the  side  of  a  vast  rock  partly  covered  with  fine 
old  trees,  are  the  excavated  temples,  where  a  great  annual  festival 
takes  place.  To  reach  the  temples  a  steep  flight  of  stairs  is  ascended, 
at  the  top  of  which  is  a  fine  view  of  the  country  around.  The  images 
and  paintings  are  numerous  ;  the  former  are  rudely  executed,  but 
the  colouring  of  the  latter,  said  perhaps  erroneously  to  be  many 
centuries  old,  is  as  brilliant  as  if  only  recently  finished.  There  are 
several  inscriptions  on  the  rocks,  but  in  a  character  unintelligible  to 
the  Singhalese  of  the  present  day. 

Matale  is  an  extensive  valley,  encircled  with  mountains,  some  of 
which  are  6000  feet  in  height,  but  clothed  with  thick  wood  to  their 
very  summits.  In  the  jungles  are  to  be  found  cinnamon,  as  well  as 
various  kinds  of  citrons,  limes,  oranges,  mangoes,  custard  apples,  and 
jack-fruit  trees :  wild  plantains  and  cardamoms  abound  in  some  of 
the  forests,  and  coffee,  though  not  indigenous,  is  now  found  mixed 
with  jungle  plants,  and  is,  besides,  generally  and  extensively  culti- 
vated in  this  district.  On.  the  plain  near  the  station  of  Matale, 
commonly  called  Fort  M'Dowall  by  Europeans,  many  foundations  of 
houses  indicate  the  site  of  Walabanuwara.  It  was  here  that  the 
king  Walagambahoo  established  himself  previous  to  recovering  his 
capital  of  Anuradhapoora,  and  expelling  the  Malabar  invaders  of  his 
kingdom,  B.C.  90.  Here  also  the  rival  kings  or  candidates  for  the 
throne,  Gaja-bahoo  and  Siriwallaba,  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth 
century,  occasionally  held  their  court,  and  assembled  their  levies. 
In  a.d.  1635  Matale  and  the  adjacent  provinces  were  formed  into  a 
separate  kingdom  for  Wijeya  Paala,  who  fixed  his  court  at  Godapola, 
a  small  mount,  whose  top  is  gained  by  a  stone  staircase  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  steps  ;  the  summit  of  this  knoll  is  square  and 
surrounded  by  a  wall  with  four  gates.  The  interior  buildings  must 
have  been  of  frail  materials,  as  the  foundations  of  their  walls  alone 
remain,  and  could  be  distinctly  traced  when  lately  the  whole  site  of 
the  palace,  from  the  innermost  chamber  to  the  public  judgment-seat 
at  the  gate,  was  cultivated  with  the  surrounding  parts  of  the  royal 
domain. 

Godapola  unites  many  advantages  in  its  situation,   and  commands 
a  varied  and  beautiful  prospect,  while  its  position  on  the  verge  of  the 

2  u 


658  CEYLON.  [part   IV. 

Hunisgiri  mountains,  rendered  escape  easy  and  concealment  secure. 
In  the  forest,  which  covers  these  mountains,  and  three  miles  from 
the  palace  are  to  he  seen  the  ruins  of  a  building  called  Kandi-nuwara 
(hill  station),  which  had  been  prepared  as  a  place  of  refuge  in  times 
of  clanger,  and  was  occupied  by  the  king  before  he  finally  abandoned 
his  dominions  to  his  younger  brother,  the  ambitious  and  crafty 
Raja  Singha.  In  the  Mahommedan  village  of  Gongawelle,  a  very 
large  spring  of  pure  water  rises  in  a  basin  of  white  sand,  which  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  overshadowed  by  trees.  This  fountain  is 
accounted  for  in  ancient  legends  as  having  sprung  up  beside  Seeta 
(Lakshmi),  wife  of  Rama,  who  2400  years  before  the  Christian  era 
rested  here,  when  Rawana  compelled  her  to  journey  from  Lankapoora 
to  the  forests  in  the  interior  of  the  island. 

Two  miles  from  Matale,  on  the  side  of  the  road  to  Trincomalee, 
are  situated  the  Aluewihare  rocks,  which  look  as  if  a  portion 
detached  from  the  great  mountain  above  had  been  precipitated  into 
the  plain,  and  riven  by  the  shock  into  those  pinnacles  and  rude 
masses  which  are  heaped  together  in  so  remarkable  a  manner.  A 
single  solitary  cocoa-nut  tree  grows  in  a  recess  among  these  clefts, 
and  waves  its  thin  stem  and  scanty  leaves  over  the  highest  of  the 
rocks,  among  which  large  flights  of  blue  rock  pigeons  have  hitherto 
found  protection  from  the  sanctity  of  the  place,  and  the  tenets  of 
Buddhism.  Among  the  recesses  of  these  crags,  the  doctrines  of 
Gautama  Buddha  were  first  reduced  to  writing,  and  under  their 
huge  masses  many  temples  were  formed  at  a  very  early  period. 
These  temples  were  destroyed  by  the  British  troops  in  1803,  and 
only  two  out  of  eight  have  been  since  restored.  On  one  of  the 
highest  pinnacles  is  a  print  of  Buddha's  footstep,  similar  to  that  on 
Adam's  Peak,  from  which  it  is  imitated,  and  a  small  hollow  is  formed 
in  the  rock  near  it,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  offerings.  On  a  neigh- 
bouring crag  are  the  remains  of  a  dagobah,  and  amidst  its  scattered 
fragments,  a  stone  cut  into  twenty-five  compartments  ;  in  the  centre 
one  of  these  the  relic  of  Buddha  is  placed,  and  the  remaining  cells 
in  the  stone  contain  the  offerings  made  when  the  relic  was  deposited. 
Through  the  middle  of  the  Aluewihare  rocks,  there  is  a  broad 
natural  street  of  unequal  height ;  to  reach  this  a  flight  of  rude  steps 
is  ascended,  a  crevice  is  then  passed  through,  and  another  ascent 
ensues,  till  a  flat  rock  is  reached,  which  is  pointed  out  as  the  spot 
where  the  King  Walagambahoo  assembled  the  priests,  who  here 
compared  their  texts  or  versions,  which  were  then  or  soon  afterwards 
committed  to  writing,  and  form  the  Banapota  or  Buddhist  Bible  ;  the 
doctrines  of  Gautama  having  previously  descended  by  tradition  for 
214  years. 

In  passing  from  Kandy  to  Matale,  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles 
by  the  road,  the  Mahavelle-ganga  is  crossed  about  three  miles  from 
the  city.  At  the  ferry  before  crossing  the  green  hills  and  mountain 
peaks  of  Doombera,  and  from  the  opposite  side  looking  back,  the 
wooded  heights  and  rocky  range  of  Hantana  offer  two  equally  beauti- 


CHAP.    I.]       ROCKS  OF  ALUE-WIIIAUE ANCIENT  AMBULAMS.  659 

ful  and  very  different  landscapes.  From  the  Mahavelle-ganga  the 
road  passes  through  seven  miles  of  country,  unincumbered  with 
forests,  until  it  reaches  the  summit  of  the  Ballakadawe  hills  ;  from 
thence  the  eye  is  directed  through  a  narrow  wooded  pass  to  the 
station  of  Matale,  five  miles  distant,  and  700  feet  lower  than  the  top 
of  the  Ballakadawe  pass. 

"A  tree  of  great  size,"  says  Forbes,  "growing  near  the  stream  in 
this  forest  pass,  has  for  centuries  marked  the  limits  of  two  districts, 
and  beyond  the  memory  of  the  oldest  inhabitant  has  obtained  the 
name  of  Loku-Bambera-gaha  or  great  bee-tree.  For  eight  months 
every  year,  from  all  its  branches  that  stretch  over  the  rivulet,  one 
hundred  or  more  swarms  of  bees  may  be  seen  depending,  each  having 
one  large  semicircular  comb  of  the  thickness  of  the  branch  so  far  as 
it  is  attached,  and  gradually  diminishing  towards  the  ends  of  the 
circle.  These  insects  and  their  labour  are  considered  to  be  under 
the  protection  of  a  spirit,  and  from  that  circumstance  remain  unmo- 
lested ;  but  in  1836,  when  the  new  road  which  passes  near  the  tree 
was  repairing,  the  community  having  taken  umbrage  at  some  pioneers, 
who  were  cutting  down  a  hollow  tree  in  their  vicinity,  sallied  out, 
attacked  the  workmen,  then  the  soldiers,  and  finally  put  to  flight 
the  whole  party ;  many  of  whom  suffered  severely,  and  one  carriage 
bullock  was  stung  to  death.  For  days  after  this  attack  the  bees 
were  in  great  excitement,  flying  about  the  road  in  numbers,  but  they 
did  not  molest  passengers,  and  at  last  became  reconciled  to  the 
innovation  upon  their  prescriptive  right  of  solitude." 

From  Randy  to  the  mountains  of  Lakagalla,  the  traveller  proceeds 
a  short  distance  along  the  Trincomalee  road,  and  then  strikes  into  a 
jungle  path  on  the  right,  and  crossing  a  large  stream,  which  rises 
near  Doombera  Peak,  and  flows  by  the  base  of  the  Hunisgiri  range 
of  mountains,  enters  the  valley  of  Gantony.  He  then  turns  down 
the  valley  to  the  left  by  another  path,  which  at  a  remote  period, 
has  evidently  been  a  broad  road,  whose  formation,  though  evincing 
no  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  constructor,  in  avoiding  the  steep 
ascents  that  occasionally  occur  in  its  line  of  direction,  shews  that 
it  must  have  been  intended  for  carriages. 

"  When  a  native  king  of  the  olden  time,"  remarks  Forbes, cc  made  a 
progress  towards  Adam's  Peak,  his  carriage  must  have  been  impelled 
up  these  eminences  by  the  force  of  people  who  were  always  at  hand  ; 
as  the  inhabitants  of  every  district  through  which  the  royal  proces- 
sion passed,  were  compelled  to  attend  to  provide  its  supplies  and 
carry  the  baggage."  Wherever  a  path  crosses  or  diverges  from  this 
road,  an  ambulam  exists,  or  its  foundation  may  be  perceived.  An 
ambulam  is  generally  a  strong  shed  of  small  size,  raised  on  a  stone 
foundation,  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height,  under  its  shade  travellers 
rested  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  or  if  benighted,  its  elevated 
position  offered  them  security  against  elephants.  Near  these  huts, 
is  often  seen  the  far-extending  peepul,  with  its  ever  rustling  leaves 

2  u  2 


660  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

and  ample  shade,  or  the  light  lively  green  foliage  and  solid  trunk  of 
the  tamarind,  the  rise  of  which  may  be  referred  to  the  repast  of 
wanderers,  who  centuries  before  had  rested  at  the  ambulam.  At  a 
bend  of  the  river  at  Gigirinne,  is  an  elephant  kraal,  where  numbers 
of  that  quadruped  were  formerly  decoyed.  The  route  proceeds  along 
the  base  of  Opa^alla,  a  hill,  on  which  may  be  traced  the  foundations 
of  a  small  fort,  whose  formation  is  assigned  by  tradition  to  Yakkas, 
"  tlie  alleged  architects  of  every  ruin  in  Ceylon,  whose  origin  is 
unknown,  and  of  every  work  too  difficult  to  be  imitated,  or  too 
clumsy  to  be  acknowledged  by  the  Singhalese." 

At  Ambona,  the  stream,  along  whose  banks  the  road  has  lain,  is 
joined  by  the  Nalande-oya  (which  rises  in  the  rocky  mountains  sur- 
rounding the  romantic  vale  of  Asgiri),  and  here  changes  its  course 
from  north  to  east.  From  this  place  till  its  junction  with  the  Maha- 
velle  ganga,  at  Kotawelle  in  Tamankada,  a  distance  of  forty  miles, 
it  retains  the  name  of  Ambanganga,  and  the  spot  where  these  two 
rivers  join  is  nearly  opposite  to  Dimbulugalla,  a  solitary  mountain 
rising  from  the  plains  of  Bintenne.  At  the  entrance  of  a  large  canal 
near  Ellaherra,  completed  (if  not  constructed)  ' '  by  the  happy  vic- 
torious and  illustrious  monarch  of  Ceylon,  Praackramabahoo,"  a 
wall  of  immense  strength  has  been  formed  across  the  river,  yet 
notwithstanding  the  great  size  of  the  stones  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  this  work,  and  although  the  remains  of  the  dam  are  now 
at  considerable  distance  from  the  usual  course  of  the  river,  still  part 
of  it  is  occasionally  displaced  by  floods  in  the  rainy  season.  This 
embankment  appears  to  have  served  for  a  bridge  as  well  as  a  dam  to 
turn  water  into  the  canal.  This  canal  is  said  to  have  been  formed 
not  only  for  conveyiug  part  of  the  water  of  this  river  into  tanks,  and 
thus  increasing  the  extent  of  irrigated  lands,  but  also  for  purposes  of 
inland  navigation,  so  that  loaded  boats  might  pass  from  hence  to 
Gantalawe,  near  Trincomalee,  and  by  another  branch  of  the  same 
canal  to  the  ancient  capital  of  Pollonnaroowa.  Near  the  junction 
of  the  Heerattee-oya  with  the  Ambanganga,  are  situated  the.  dilapi- 
dated rock,  temple,  and  dagobah,  of  Gaetyagamma.  Farther  down, 
the  river  for  a  distance  of  three  miles,  winds  so  as  nearly  to  sur- 
round extensive  ruins,  now  known  by  the  name  of  Maluwava :  this 
place  is  overgrown  with  jungle,  and  the  principal  remains  are  said  to 
be  three  buildings  situated  at  some  distance  from  each  other.  One 
of  these,  founded  on  a  rock,  in  which  there  is  an  excavated  chamber, 
is  called  the  Paterippoa  ;  at  each  of  the  others  there  is  a  stone  trough  ; 
one  of  them  formed  in  the  rock,  the  other  having  been  removed  to  its 
present  site.  The  river  before  being  joined  by  a  considerable  stream, 
the  Kalu-ganga,  rushes  through  a  narrow  chasm  called  Namalku- 
mara-ella,  and  forms  a  large  and  very  deep  basin  beneath  the  fall. 
From  hence  a  hill  is  pointed  out  in  the  Tamankada  district,  on  which 
there  is  said  to  be  a  tank,  and  the  remains  of  Wijeya  Nuwara. 

Turning  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Hunisgiri  range,  by  a 


CHAP.    I.J  ANCIENT  CANAL  AT  ELLAHERRA — LAKAGALLA.  661 

path  in  some  places  overhanging  the  river,  the  district  of  Gangalla  is 
entered,  when  the  route  proceeds  through  unbroken  jungle  to  the 
flourishing  village  of  Kamberawe,  and  from  thence  to  Pallegamma, 
between  which  a  precipitous  and  elevated  range  of  wooded  hills, 
separating  Gangalla  from  Lagalla,  is  crossed :  along  the  summit  of 
the  ridge,  an  elephant  path  extends,  till  the  view  embraces  the  wood- 
encumbered  valleys  of  Lagalla,  over  which  the  grassy  slopes  and 
wooded  summits  of  mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  6000  feet. 

The  rocky  pinnacles  of  Lakagalla  next  attract  the  attention,  and 
its  precipices  are  seen  beetling  over  the  artificial-looking  crags,  called 
the  Brahmin  rocks.  The  village  of  Pallegamma,  is  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kalu-ganga,  and  the  route  proceeds  by  a  rocky  path,  through 
several  small  but  prettily  situated  villages,  to  Narrangamma  :  this  is 
a  large  village,  and  from  its  proximity  to  the  mountains,  and  its 
elevation,  combines  the  advantages  of  a  pleasant  climate  and  pic- 
turesque situation.  Amid  its  bright  green  rice  fields,  several  masses 
of  rock  are  to  be  seen,  surmounted  by  watch-huts  around  the  margin 
of  the  cultivated  lands,  a  few  of  the  houses  may  be  distinguished, 
and  the  presence  of  the  cocoa-nut  trees  shews  the  position  of  the 
remainder  of  the  village  scattered  near  the  base  of  Lakagalla.  In 
the  ascent  of  the  mountain,  a  cool  clear  stream,  which  flows  from  it, 
is  passed,  when  the  traveller  enters  a  small  level  plain,  covered  with 
rich  black  mould.  This  place  preserves  the  name  of  Uyangamma- 
tenna-wewa  (lake  of  the  garden  flat),  and  here  the  growth  of  under- 
wood is  prevented  by  the  thick  shade  of  forest  trees  and  by  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  ground  being  occasionally  inundated.  Into  this 
rock  encircled  basin,  huge  masses  of  stone,  which  occasionally  detach 
themselves  from  the  Matale  Peak,  plunge  with  a  tremendous  crash, 
and  the  natives  believe  that  such  occurrences  are  the  forerunners 
of  domestic  troubles  in  the  country. 

Forbes  opines  from  the  various  names  of  places  in  the  vicinity, 
and  the  fact  that  although  called  Lankapoora  in  the  Pali,  it  is 
called  in  the  Elu  or  Singhalese  history,  Lagalla,  that  the  site  of  the 
ancient  capital  was  around  this  mountain.  "If  the  narrow  gap 
leading  to  the  Uyangamma-tenna  were  filled  up  even  to  the  height  of 
four  feet,  the  peaks  of  Lakagalla,"  he  remarks,  "  might  again  be 
reflected  in  its  embosomed  lake."  In  the  ascent,  several  springs  of 
the  purest  water  are  found,  and  when  an  elevation  of  3000  feet 
above  the  sea  is  reached,  the  deep  narrow  valley  of  Meemoorra  on 
one  side,  and  the  districts  in  the  rear  to  the  plains  on  the  north 
and  east  of  the  Kandian  territory  on  the  other,  are  clearly  discerni- 
ble. Through  these  levels  may  be  descried  the  course  and  the 
silver  light  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga,  where  it  flows  near  the  isolated 
mountain  of  Dimbulugalla  in  the  direction  of  Trincomalee.  From 
one  side  Lakagalla  shews  three  peaks  :  one  of  them  is  so  sharp  - 
pointed  and  narrow,  as  to  resemble  a  steeple  of  surpassing  height, 
all  of  them  are  of  solid  rock.  The  upper  part  of  Lakagalla  is 
covered  with  coarse  grass,  which  spreads  in  patches  over  the  moist 


662  CETfLON.  [part  IV. 

mass  of  solid  rock  that  forms  the  summits  of  the  mountain ;  trees 
and  thickets  occupy  the  sheltered  ravines,  and  near  its  base  the  nelu 
forms  a  dark  disagreeable  jungle. 

The  route  to  Puackpitia  passes  at  a  considerable  elevation  across 
successive  ridges  of  hills,  in  most  places  free  from  jungle  ;  the  higher 
parts  of  these  open  grounds  being  covered  with  illuk  and  common 
lemon  grass,  herbage  too  coarse  for  the  pasture  of  any  animals  except 
buffaloes.  The  lower  slopes  produce,  however,  in  immense  quanti- 
ties some  of  the  finest  grass  in  the  island,  which  has  rendered  the 
milk  of  Lagalla  and  the  fatness  of  its  cattle  proverbial  among  the 
Kandians.  "  The  people  of  the  neighbouring  districts,"  says 
Forbes,  "  profit  by  its  rich  grazing  grounds,  and  drive  bullocks 
and  buffaloes  in  thousands  (when  their  services  in  cultivation,  or 
as  beasts  of  burthen  can  be  spared),  to  fatten  in  these  luxuriant 
pastures  :  neither  can  the  proprietors  prevent  this  intrusion,  as 
all  pasturage  is  common,  according  to  Kandian  custom,  unless  fenced 
in  by  the  proprietors.  Puackpitia  is  a  village  built  on  either  side  of 
a  rapid  stream,  that  dashes  through  a  narrow  cultivated  valley,  over- 
shadowed by  the  steep  Batandua  mountain  and  its  sombre  forests. 
Through  these,  the  top  of  the  hill  is  ascended  by  a  good  foot- 
path. The  forests  of  Dankandi  being  passed,  the  valley  of  Matale 
is  descried. 

The  southern  portion  of  Doombera  presents  the  same  fascinating 
scenery  as  the  northern,  though  it  is  more  closely  allied  to  the  beau- 
tiful than  to  the  sublime.  The  first  part  of  the  road  between  Kandy 
and  Taldenia,  situate  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Hulu-ganga,  consists  of  a  surface  of  green  hills  gently  rounded, 
free  from  jungle,  and  well  cultivated,  the  latter  part  is  more  rugged 
and  rocky,  and  is  in  a  great  measure  covered  with  forest.  Near 
Taldenia  is  the  Bamberra-galla-wihare,  romantically  situated  on  the 
side  of  a  steep  hill  among  great  masses  of  rock,  interspersed  with 
fruit  trees.  An  immense  overhanging  rock  forms  the  roof  and  walls 
of  the  temple,  except  the  front  wall,  which  is  of  masonry.  The 
cavity  of  the  rock  is  divided  into  two  compartments,  very  gaily 
painted.  In  the  largest  is  a  recumbent  figure  of  Buddha,  twenty- 
five  feet  long.  The  Hulu-ganga  is  here  a  considerable  stream,  and 
cannot  be  forded  during  the  rains.  A  huge  mountain  covered  with 
forest,  flanks  its  eastern  bank,  from  which  there  is  a  grand  view  of 
the  wild  and  wooded  mountain  scenery  around.  Beyond  it,  and  at 
its  eastern  base  is  the  neat  and  picturesque  village  of  Medda-maha- 
nuwara,  in  which  a  hiding  place  was  constructed  by  the  last  of  the 
Kandian  kings.  To  the  north  of  this  place  is  Hanwelle,  the  country 
between  is  mountainous  and  difficult.  The  ascent  is  first  through  a 
steep  valley,  presenting  a  remarkable  appearance,  from  the  admix- 
ture of  the  wildest  scenery,  with  the  most  artificial  cultivation  ;  and 
no  contrast  can  be  stronger  than  the  numerous  paddy  fields,  ascend- 
ing by  steps  and  terraces  the  steep  sides  of  the  mountain  and  the 
natural   features  of  the  country,  the  cloud-capped  mountain,   the 


CHAP.    I.J         LAGALLA    RANGE SCENERY    OF    DOOMBERA.  663 

overhanging  wood,  and  the  rapid  torrent.  In  the  middle  of  the 
forest  which  overtops  the  scene  of  cultivation,  was  formerly  a  strong 
Kadawette,  which  under  the  Kandian  dynasty,  was  fortified  and  con- 
stantly guarded.  It  was  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  thick  stone  wall, 
and  there  was  a  large  overhanging  rock  in  its  rear.  After  emerging 
from  this  forest,  an  open  and  bold  country  succeeds,  covered  with 
a  long,  sweet  smelling  lemon  grass.  Beyond  Hanwelle,  to  the  north 
is  a  beautiful  plain,  with  a  park-like  appearance,  from  which  a  splen- 
did prospect  of  the  mountains  towards  Kandy  behind,  and  Maha- 
veddah-ratte  in  front,  is  obtained.  The  country  between  here  and 
Meemoorra  is  remarkable  for  its  wild  solitude  and  forest  scenery  ; 
at  one  place  the  narrow  ridge  of  a  mountain,  hardly  three  feet  wide 
has  to  be  passed,  bounded  by  naked  perpendicular  precipices.  Near 
Meemoorra  is  a  nitre  cave  of  large  dimensions,  and  striking  appearance. 
It  appears  in  a  perpendicular  face  of  rock,  about  300  feet  high, 
crowned  with  forest.  The  cave  is  200  feet  deep,  and  about  SO  feet 
high,  and  100  wide  at  its  mouth,  which  is  nearly  semi-circular.  The 
cave  is  partly  natural  and  partly  artificial. 

The  route  to  Kandy,  the  capital  of  the  interior,  from  Colombo,  is 
three  and  a  half  miles  to  the  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Mutwal- 
oya,  constructed  by  Sir  E.  Barnes,  to  obviate  the  delay  to  which 
travellers  and  the  troops  were  subjected,  when  there  was  merely  a 
ferry  boat  to  convey  them.  To  Mahara,  where  there  is  a  rest-house 
on  the  right,  five  miles.  From  thence  to  the  mail-coach  station  at 
Kosrupe  is  6g  miles  ;  and  to  the  rest-house  of  Henneratgodde, 
where  there  is  also  a  barrack,  two  miles ;  to  Kellegedehaine,  mail- 
coach  station  five  miles.  From  thence  to  Veangodde,  rest-house, 
three  miles  ;  to  Walweldenia,  mail-coach  station,  about  4f  miles.  To 
Ambapusse  rest-house,  6  g  miles ;  from  thence  to  the  mail-coach 
station  at  Ambanpittia,  through  Maha-haine,  9|  miles.  To  Ootoo- 
ankandi,  a  rest-house  and  mail-coach  station,  8£  miles.  To  Kaddooga- 
nava,  rest-house,  about  seven  miles ;  from  thence  to  Paradiniya 
6|  miles,  and  to  Kandy  four  miles.     Total  distance  72  miles. 

Though  there  are  some  very  fine  and  richly  varied  scenes,  chiefly 
of  the  cultivated  kind,  between  Ambapusse  and  Ootooan  Kandi,  yet 
the  mountain  zone  cannot  be  said  to  commence  till  the  latter  place  is 
left  behind,  but  the  world  might  perhaps  be  searched  in  vain  for  a 
scene  of  greater  sublimity  than  that  viewed  from  the  summit  of  the 
Kadduganava  pass.  The  first  view  of  the  stupendous  mountains  in 
front  seems  to  debar  the  hope  of  further  progress,  yet  ravine  after 
ravine  is  passed,  and  chasm  after  chasm,  affording  the  most  delight- 
ful variety  of  prospect.  At  one  time  a  mountain  seems  to  rise  perpen- 
dicularly on  the  left,  and  descend  as  perpendicularly  on  the  right.  At 
another  a  roaring  torrent  appears  to  sweep  over  the  head,  as  though 
ready  to  carry  the  ascending  traveller  into  the  abyss  beneath.  Now 
not  a  foot  of  earth  is  to  be  seen  but  that  on  which  he  stands,  while 
on  turning  an  angle  of  the  road  a  wide  spreading  view  of  the  country 
beyond  meets  the  eye.     Fearful  chasms,    frightful  abysses,  thunder- 


664  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

ing  torrents,  and  hanging  rocks,  succeed  each  other  with  marvellous 
rapidity,  till  one  fancies  oneself  transported  into  a  different  country, 
an  illusion  hy  no  means  dissipated  by  the  delightful  freshness  of  the 
air.  A  well  proportioned  column  surmounts  the  pass,  in  honour  of 
the  military  engineer  who  superintended  this  great  work. 

Kandy  is  situate  in  latitude  7°  21'  N.,  and  in  longitude  80°  48'  E. 
in  a  spacious  and  fertile  valley,  1467  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
surrounded  by  hills  and  mountains  beautifully  wooded  and  diver- 
sified with  foliage  of  every  hue,  from  the  very  darkest  to  the  lightest 
green,  and  yellow  tints  of  the  young  and  the  deep  red  brown  of  the 
falling  leaf.  The  hundred  of  Udapalata,  near  to  which  it  is  situate, 
was  the  seat  of  a  dissavony,  and  it  included  Nillembe  Nuwara,  the 
place  to  which  Raja  Singha  retired  after  the  rebellion.  It  yields 
abundant  crops  of  paddy,  kurrukkan,  amoo,  &c. 

Kandy  (Senkada-galla)  originally  called  Siriwardhanapoora,  or 
more  commonly  Maha  Nuwara,  (the  great  city)  as  it  is  still  termed 
by  the  natives,  lies  within  the  beautiful  and  fertile  district  of 
Yattineura,  and  originally  contained  but  few  tiled  houses  in  pro- 
portion to  the  rest.  Those  belonging  to  the  chiefs  were  elevated 
from  the  ground,  and  approached  by  steps.  The  other  habitations 
were  built  of  waretchie  (sticks  and  mud),  and  thatched  with  paddy 
straw,  the  whole,  including  the  great  street,  forming  five  streets, 
all  of  which  ran  in  straight  lines,  and  did  not  cross  at  right 
angles,  and  from  their  inclination  from  the  eastward  and  westward 
towards  the  north,  appeared  as  if  the  original  intention  had  been  to 
form  the  city  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  with  its  apex  to  the  north- 
ward, and  its  base  bounded  by  the  two  artificial  lakes,  of  which  that 
called  the  New  Lake,  was  formed  during  the  reign  of  the  late  Mala- 
bar despot,  Sree  Wickrama  Raja  Singha.  The  present  city  con- 
sists of  two  main  streets,  Colombo  street,  running  east  and  west,  and 
Trincomalee  street  running  north  and  south  ;  the  principal  bazaar  is 
situated  at  the  point  of  intersection  between  these  streets. 

The  relatives  and  connexions  of  the  royal  family,  whom  the 
jealousy  of  the  reigning  sovereign  had  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
Kandian  community,  were  restricted  to  a  part  of  the  city  called 
Malabar  street,  which  takes  a  south-easterly  direction,  from  the  Da- 
lada  Malagawa,  having  the  hospital  on  its  right,  and  between  it  and 
the  lake.  Such,  however,  have  been  the  improvements  in  Kandy  since 
the  erection  of  the  pavilion  by  Sir  E.  Barnes,  which  unites  in  a  re- 
markable degree,  the  comforts  necessary  for  a  tropical  climate,  with 
an  elegant  exterior,  that  with  the  subsequent  improvements  in  laying 
out  the  grounds  by  Sir  Wilmot  Horton,  and  the  tasty  villas  which 
have  sprung  up  as  if  by  enchantment  all  around  ;  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
late  Raja  could  revisit  the  former  scene  of  his  tyranny,  whether  he 
would  recognize  the  site  of  his  own  palace  ;  for  all  that  remains  of  it 
are  the  hall  of  audience,  and  the  Pateripooa  ;  the  former  now  employed 
as  the  court-house  on  week  days,  and  as  a  chapel  on  Sundays,  and 
the  latter  as  a  military  blackhole. 


CHAP.  I.]     KANDY,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN:  PALACE:  PAVILION.     665 

The  king's  palace  occupies  a  considerable  space  of  ground.  The 
front,  which  was  about  200  yards  long,  but  of  no  great  depth,  still 
presents  rather  an  imposing  appearance,  looking  towards  the  principal 
temples,  and  rising  above  a  handsome  moat,  the  walls  of  which  are 
pierced  with  triangular  cavities  for  purposes  of  illumination.  At 
one  extremity  it  is  terminated  by  the  Pateripooa,  an  hexagonal 
building,  of  two  stories,  in  which  the  king  appeared  to  the  people  on 
important  occasions,  assembled  in  the  square  below.  At  the  other 
extremity  it  was  bounded  by  the  women's  apartments,  on  the  front 
of  which  the  insignia  of  royalty,  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  were 
carved  in  stone  :  here,  on  public  festivals,  the  king  and  the  ladies  of 
the  harem  stationed  themselves  to  witness  the  processions.  The  in- 
termediate space  was  occupied  chiefly  by  the  great  entrance  to  the 
palace  and  by  the  temple  of  the  Dalada  Malagawa,  a  little  in  the 
rear.  The  entrance,  in  front  of  which  there  is  now  a  verandah,  was 
by  a  drawbridge  over  the  moat  through  a  massive  archway  on  one 
hand,  up  a  flight  of  huge  steps,  closed  by  a  door  of  clumsy  device, 
supported  by  posts,  in  the  shape  of  dragons,  and  through  another 
archway  to  the  hall  of  audience;  and  on  the  other  hand  up  another 
flight  of  steps  to  the  temple  and  the  hexagonal  building.  The 
buildings  in  the  background,  with  the  exception  of  the  hall  of 
audience,  were  in  no  way  remarkable,  being  chiefly  sleeping  rooms, 
offices,  and  baths,  and  were  most  of  them  dark,  small  and  mean,  and 
have  since  been  removed.  The  hall  of  audience,  where  the  king 
usually  transacted  business  and  kept  his  court,  is  a  long  room  in 
which  nothing  ornamental  is  now  to  be  seen,  but  the  beautiful  carved 
pillars  of  halmila  wood  by  which  the  roof  is  supported,  which  were 
cut  and  squared  at  Nalande,  and  the  traces  of  battle  scenes  on  the 
walls,  in  which  several  leopards,  a  female  figure,  and  that  of  a  man, 
are  still  discernible  in  despite  of  the  thick  coat  of  whitewash  with 
which  some  English  would  cover  every  thing.  The  walls  of  this 
building,  like  those  of  the  ruins  in  Ceylon  of  remote  date,  are  five 
feet  thick. 

At  the  north-east  extremity  of  Kandy,  in  the  centre  of  a  lawn  car- 
peted with  the  smoothest  and  richest  turf,  adorned  here  and  there 
with  scattered  groups  of  magnolias,  or  rocu  trees,  stands  the  pavi- 
lion, the  first  of  public  buildings,  a  handsome  edifice  of  marble 
whiteness,  surrounded  by  regular  colonnades,  and  remarkable  for  the 
airy  and  elegant  style,  and  the  beautiful  proportions  of  its  archi- 
tecture. It  is  by  far  the  finest  structure  in  Ceylon,  and  commands 
a  view  of  the  whole  town,  except  Malabar-street  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, as  well  as  an  extensive  prospect  beyond  in  several  directions, 
including  the  magnificent  valley  of  Doombera,  with  the  river  winding 
beneath.  The  grounds  are  beautifully  kept,  and  the  extensive  park, 
which  stretches  along  the  sides  of  the  hills,  encircling  the  whole 
valley,  unfolds  at  every  point  an  exquisite  mountain  landscape. 
Though  not  so  large  and  commodious,  it  is  fully  equal,  if  not  supe- 
rior, in  outward  appearance   to  any  house   in  Chowringhee,  in  the 


666  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

neighbourhood  of  Calcutta,  where  all  the  most  magnificent  specimens 
of  architecture  of  which  the  city  of  palaces  can  boast,  are  centered. 
It  is  composed  of  a  centre  and  two  wings,  forming  at  the  back  three 
sides  of  a  square,  and  it  is  encrusted  with  a  preparation  of  fine  lime, 
which  takes  a  good  polish,  and  has  all  the  appearance  of  white 
marble.  A  neat  building  has  been  constructed  for  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary in  its  vicinity.  Near  it  is  the  Major-General's  residence,  for- 
merly the  quarters  of  the  Commandant,  but  now  appropriated  to 
married  officers,  a  large  and  commodious  edifice  standing  upon  a 
hill  in  the  range  forming  the  western  boundary  of  the  town,  and  com- 
manding a  fine  panoramic  view  of  Kandy  with  the  Hunisgiri  range 
and  the  Knuckles  in  the  distance.  Half  way  down  this  hill  on  a 
level  surface  is  the  royal  cemetery,  near  to  Trincomalee-street,  in- 
teresting more  from  the  circumstance  of  its  possessing  the  bodies  or 
ashes  of  kings  and  heroes,  which  were  for  many  generations  deposited 
there,  than  from  any  external  advantages  either  of  situation  or  ap- 
pearance. It  contains  a  number  of  indifferent  looking  tombstones, 
(the  best  of  which  have  lately  been  sacrilegiously  abstracted  for  door- 
steps) each  having  a  Singhalese  inscription,  as  the  monument  of  the 
august  personages  who  repose  beneath  them.  It  is  enclosed  by  a 
wall,  and  has  within  it  a  small  temple,  similar  within  and  without  to 
all  the  other  native  sanctuaries  of  the  same  dimensions. 

"  The  burial  ground  of  the  Kandian  kings,"  says  Forbes,  "  can- 
not be  viewed  without  exciting  reflections  on  the  revolutions  which 
alike  occur  to  man's  estate,  and  the  most  ancient  monarchies.  Ere 
the  last  of  one  of  the  longest  lines  of  kings  which  history  records, 
had  by  death  expiated  his  crime  by  suffering  previously  a  long  im- 
prisonment among  his  victors,  the  solid  tombs  of  his  ancestors  were 
ransacked  by  the  hands  of  avarice,  or  riven  in  suuder  and  ruined  by 
the  aggressions  of  the  jungle.  This  hallowed  spot,  where  the  funeral 
piles  were  raised,  and  the  last  solemn  rites  performed  over  the  re- 
mains of  the  solar  race,  is  now  a  wilderness  where  dank  vegetation 
reigns  supreme.  In  1828  the  tomb  of  Raja  Singha  and  Kirti  Sri 
were  nearly  perfect.  In  1837  the  former  was  a  heap  of  rubbish 
from  which  the  stones  had  been  removed,  and  the  beautiful  propor- 
tions, and  even  the  form  of  the  latter  could  no  longer  be  traced. 
Hopes  of  plunder  or  unmeaning  wantonness,  when  the  British  entered 
Kandy,  precipitated  the  fate  of  these  monuments,  whose  very  site 
may  soon  be  forgotten." 

The  Roman  Catholics  had  formerly  a  very  considerable  establish- 
ment at  Bogambera  in  the  outskirts,  with  a  magnificent  church, 
erected  by  Padre  Vaz,  but  on  the  accession  of  Narendra  Singha 
(Koondasaala)  to  the  throne,  the  establishment  was  broken  up, 
and  the  church  razed  to  the  ground.  Since  the  British  conquest, 
however,  some  adherents  of  that  faith  settled  in  the  town  and  erected 
a  chapel  for  their  use,  and  they  are  now  numerous  and  active.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  has  a  neat  residence  and  school-house, 
used  as  a  place  of  worship  on  Sundays,  erected  on  a  hill  about  the 


CHAP.  I.]    ROYAL  CEMETERY:  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS:  INSTITUTIONS.    667 

middle  of  Trincomalee-street  on  the  east  side.  A  large  and  hand- 
some edifice  has  recently  been  erected  for  the  use  of  the  Episcopa- 
lians ;  the  Baptists  have  built  a  chapel  and  mission -house  ;  a  manse 
has  been  erected  for  a  Scotch  minister,  and  a  Kirk  is  on  the  point  of 
erection.  Meanwhile  worship,  according  to  the  Presbyterian  form, 
is  conducted  on  Sundays  in  the  old  Hall  of  Audience,  the  present 
district  Court-house.  The  Mahomedans  are  a  body  of  some  import- 
ance, and  have  one  or  two  mosques. 

The  United  Service  Library,  is,  like  its  sister  institution  at  Colom- 
bo, exclusive.  The  Central  Town  Library  is,  on  the  contrary,  open 
to  all  classes.  The  engineering  works  at  Bogambera  and  in  Trinco- 
malee-street are  interesting,  from  their  shewing  the  advancement  of 
the  country.  Singhalese  mechanical  skill  and  industry  are  sadly  be- 
hind the  day  and  its  wants  ;  but  with  such  establishments  an  im- 
provement may  be  looked  for.  The  Medical  Hall,  part  of  which  is 
used  as  a  Post-office,  is  a  handsome  building.  Kandy  is  the  meeting 
place  of  the  Ceylon  Agricultural  Society,  from  which  the  colony  has 
derived  no  slight  benefit.  One  of  the  prettiest  objects  in  the  town 
is  the  Military  Magazine,  situate  in  the  middle  of  the  lake.  It  was 
used  by  the  late  king  of  Kandy  for  the  confinement  of  such  women 
of  his  harem  as  had  incurred  his  displeasure.  The  Jail  is  a  large 
square  building,  much  improved  of  late  years,  and  would  be  yet  fur- 
ther advantaged  were  the  internal  arrangements  assimilated  to  those 
of  the  new  jail  at  Colombo. 

Till  1832,  Kandy  was  chiefly  viewed  as  the  central  military  post  of 
the  interior.  Since  then  it  has  become  the  centre  also  of  its  com- 
mercial and  agricultural  operations,  and  has  been  as  much  improved 
in  appearance,  as  it  has  thereby  greatly  increased  in  importance, 
population  and  wealth.  In  1819  the  population  did  not  exceed  3000 
souls,  it  has  now  a  settled  population  of  more  than  double  that 
number,  exclusive  of  a  military  force  of  750  men.  The  accommoda- 
tion for  this  body  of  men  is  ample,  consisting  of  six  barracks  for 
English  soldiers,  capable  of  containing  500  men,  eight  for  Ceylon 
Rifles,  that  will  contain  300  men,  one  for  artillery  to  lodge  twenty 
men,  and  lines  for  gun  lascars,  sufficient  for  thirty  men.  The  military 
hospital  is  in  Malabar-street.  Instead  of  the  occupation  the  troops  are 
now  engaged  in,  forming  gardens  and  raising  vegetables,  they  would 
benefit  the  public  to  a  greater  degree  by  clearing  away  the  rank  vege- 
tation around. 

Deposits  of  magnesian  limestone  exist  in  the  vicinity  of  Kandy, 
from  which  good  lime  for  building  purposes  is  obtained.  Bricks  and 
tiles  are  baked  to  some  extent  by  the  natives,  and  there  is  a  very 
extensive  brick  kiln  kept  constantly  at  work  by  Government,  elephants 
being  employed  to  tread  the  clay,  which  is  found  deposited  in  black 
veins  beneath  silicious  sand. 

House  rent  is  very  high  at  Kandy,  having  risen  enormously  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years.     Servants'  wages  are  also  much  higher  tban 


668  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

at  Colombo,  Appoos  receiving  from  25*.  to  40*.  per  month ; 
"  Ayahs,"  from  22*.  6d.,  to  25*.  with  food.  Horse  keepers,  18*. 
to  25*. 

The  quantity  of  rice  imported  into  Kandy  for  the  supply  of  estates 
is  enormous,  but  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  carriage  have  kept  it 
at  a  high  price.  A  bushel,  which  can  be  purchased  for  3*.  6d.  in 
Colombo,  has  been  on  certain  special  occasions  three  times  that  price 
in  Kandy,  and  has  rarely  sunk  lower  than  5*.  6d.,  until  very  recently, 
when  the  pressure  on  the  money  market,  and  the  large  influx  of  rice 
to  secure  return  transport  of  coffee  to  Colombo,  induced  holders  to 
accept  of  4*.  9c?.  Very  good  beef  is  procurable  at  A\d.  per  lb  ; 
mutton  is  scarce,  as  the  land  leeches  on  the  hills  attack,  and  severely 
injure  sheep  there  depastured,  but  joints  can  be  had  from  4*.  6c?.,  to 
6*.  per  quarter.  Pork  can  be  had  at  6d.  per  lb.,  fowls  at  A\d.,  to  1*. 
Ducks  are  scarce  and  dear.  Geese  are  reared  by  the  Malay  soldiers. 
The  climate  is  far  too  damp  for  turkeys.  Vegetables  are  pretty 
abundant,  milk  scarce  and  dear.  Altogether  the  cost  of  living  to 
Europeans  is  at  present  considerably  in  excess  of  what  it  is  at 
Colombo,  especially  as  dependence  must  be  placed  to  a  great  extent 
on  supplies  of  English  beef,  pork,  butter,  &c,  which  the  cost  of 
carriage  renders  dear.  There  are  several  stores  kept  by  Europeans, 
and  well  supplied,  in  addition  to  native  shops,  boutiques,  and  bazaars, 
and  several  hotels  and  establishments  for  letting  carriages  and  horses. 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  recently  formed  Ice  Company,  the  residents 
in  the  interior  will  receive  large  and  welcome  supplies  of  fish  by  the 
coaches  from  the  coast. 

The  tunnel  on  the  Kurunaigalla  road,  one  of  the  great  public 
works  undertaken  by  Sir  Edward  Barnes,  has  lately  collapsed,  and 
the  road  now  winds  round  the  hill,  a  further  distance  of  two  miles. 
The  waste  of  treasure  and  human  life  on  this  undertaking,  would 
scarcely  appear  defensible,  but  for  the  tradition  current  among  the 
natives,  that  no  foreign  nation  could  conquer  and  retain  the  Kandian 
country,  unless  they  obtained  possession  of  Buddha's  tooth,  bridged 
the  Mahavelle-ganga,  and  bored  a  road  through  a  mountain.  The  two 
first  feats  accomplished,  Sir  Edward  Barnes  thought  it  politic  to  con- 
solidate our  empire  by  displaying  before  the  eyes  of  the  astonished 
Kandians  the  completion  of 'the  third.  In  less  than  thirty  years, 
his  successors  have  felt  the  British  power  so  firmly  based,  as  to  see 
with  unconcern  one  of  the  tests  of  dominion  destroyed,  and  volun- 
tarily to  resign  another.  Nor  can  the  recent  emeute  be  said  to  falsify 
the  grounds  on  which  they  have  acted,  for  it  was  but  the  effervescence 
of  ignorant  men  acted  upon  by  a  wily  and  falling  priesthood. 

The  first  appearance  of  Kandy  is  striking,  from  its  being  surrounded 
by  verdant  hills  rising  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  reflected 
in  the  silvery  lake.  A  morning  or  evening  ascent  of  any  of  the 
neighbouring  eminences  affords  a  panoramic  view  of  great  splendour 
and  beauty.    On  closer  inspection,  however,  the  town  does  not  justify 


CHAP.    I.]    PRICES A  TRADITION — SCENERY  AROUND  KANDY.        669 

the  first  favourable  impressions.  Situated  in  a  basin,  and  on  soil 
exceedingly  pervious  to  wet,  the  streets  are  extremely  unpleasant  in 
rainy  weather,  and  at  no  time  can  Kandy  be  considered  particularly 
clean  or  healthy.  Cholera  has  within  the  last  few  years  visited  it 
with  awful  severity,  being  particularly  fatal  to  Europeans.  But  the 
march  of  improvement  now  going  on,  will  ultimately  earn  for  it  a 
different  character.  The  lower  lake,  l'eckoned  the  focus  of  disease,  is 
being  drained  and  fitted  for  building  purposes,  a  large  circular  main 
drain  is  being  run  through  the  town,  and  the  streets  are  being  lined 
with  side  drains  and  pavements.  There  is  one  circumstance  which 
will  secure  a  rapid  improvement  in  the  appearance  of  the  buildings. 
A  few  years  ago  a  public  meeting  was  held  at  Kandy  to  memorialise 
the  Government  for  permanent  grants  in  lieu  of  the  thirty  years 
leases,  on  which  building  lots  were  held.  The  request  was  complied 
with,  but  only  on  conditions  which  will  ensure  a  certain  amount  of 
strength  and  uniformity  in  the  buildings.  There  are  some  very 
handsome  houses  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  lower  hills,  about  200 
feet  high,  immediately  overlooking  the  town,  and  this  would  become 
still  more  general,  but  for  the  scarcity  of  water.  Kandy  rests  on 
a  bed  of  gneiss,  and  basins  containing  water  are  rare,  especially  on  the 
sides  of  the  hills.  The  beautiful  lake  of  Kandy,  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  in  length,  and  ranging  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  yards 
in  breadth,  is  artificial,  having  been  formed  by  the  late  king  out  of  a 
number  of  paddy  fields,  of  which  he  deprived  the  owners,  compen- 
sating them  by  grants  of  land  in  other  quarters.  Thousands  of  per- 
sons were  compelled  to  labour  at  the  embankments,  and  many  lives 
were  sacrificed  to  the  royal  will.  In  the  centre  of  the  lake,  and  on  a 
small  artificial  island,  stands  a  sort  of  pavilion,  rising  as  if  from  the 
water  that  encircles  it.  It  was  the  bathing  place  of  the  king's 
seraglio,  and  his  favourite  summer  house,  and  is  now  used  as  a  powder 
magazine.  The  local  Government  is  engaged  in  clearing  away  an 
artificial  mound  at  Bogambera,  which  intercepts  the  view  through  an 
extensive  gorge,  and  doubtless  adds  to  the  unhealthiness  of  the 
town  by  preventing  ventilation.  The  height  of  the  Kandy  lake, 
which  adds  so  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  city,  is  1680  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  This  lake  might  be  stocked  with  excellent  fresh 
water  fish  from  the  rivers  of  Bengal,  which  could  be  conveyed  by 
the  steamers.  It  was  well  stocked  with  fish  by  the  late  king,  who 
would  never  allow  them  to  be  caught,  but  they  are  of  inferior 
quality. 

Kandy  depends  for  its  supply  of  labour  on  Tamil  immigration,  and 
this  is  now  so  full  and  steady,  that  wages,  which  within  the  last  few 
years  rose  to  an  enormous  figure,  are  now  comparatively  moderate. 
Native  overseers  obtaining  25*.  to  40*.  per  month  ;  artificers,  1*.  6d. 
to  2*.  per  day,  and  labourers  15*.  to  £\.  per  month.  On  Sundays, 
when  the  labourers  from  the  surrounding  estates  pour  in  for  supplies, 
Kandy  presents  an  animated  appearance,   Colombo  Street,   in  which 


6/0  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

the  principal  bazaars  and  shops  are  situated,  being  filled  with  a  living 
mass.  The  collection  of  heterogeneous  articles  ranged  along  its  sides, 
is  calculated  to  create  astonishment,  and  to  convey  a  very  vivid  idea 
of  the  impetus  given  in  late  years  to  native  trade  and  industry.  Here 
may  be  procured  catties  and  cumblies,  rice,  salt  fish,  curry  stuffs, 
crockery,  cloth,  and  in  short  every  article  calculated  to  supply  the 
wants  of  an  estate  and  all  employed  upon  it  from  the  European  pro- 
prietor, or  superintendent,  to  the  simple  Tamil  cooly. 

Branches  of  two  banks,  the  Bank  of  Ceylon  and  the  Oriental,  have 
been  in  operation  at  Kandy  for  some  years.  The  Bank  of  Ceylon 
was  incorporated  by  charter  the  24th  September,  1840.  Capital 
j61  25,000,  with  power  to  increase  the  same  to  ^6250,000,  and  as 
circumstances  require,  to  .=6750,000.  There  are  eight  Directors  in 
London,  two  in  Colombo.  The  terms  are  as  usual  in  such  institu- 
tions, but  there  is  a  special  clause,  empowering  loans  to  planters 
under  agreement,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  their  crops. 

The  Oriental  bank,  which  has  a  branch  at  Kandy,  has  a  capital  of 
562,000,000,  in  shares  of  s6100  each;  half  paid.  There  are  no 
Directors  connected  with  this  bank  in  Ceylon,  to  which  circumstance 
the  greater  popularity  of  the  institution  has  been  ascribed,  inasmuch 
as  there  is  a  natural  disinclination  among  the  planters  to  have  their 
operations  scanned  by  a  local  direction.  Previously  to  the  establish- 
ment of  these  branches  at  Kandy,  it  was  customary  for  mercantile 
agents  at  Colombo  to  furnish  planters  with  funds  by  Treasury  drafts 
on  Government  agents  at  out-stations,  these  were  usually  at  three  days' 
sight,  but  paid  at  sight  if  the  "  register"  of  the  drafts  had  reached 
the  Cutcherry.  There  having  been  a  considerable  trade  in  rice,  cocoa- 
nuts,  fish,  &c.  between  Colombo  and  Kandy,  planters  paid  to  a 
certain  extent  for  their  supplies  and  cash  for  coolies  by  drawing  at 
sight,  or  at  three  days,  as  might  be  agreed  on  upon  Colombo,  or  at 
a  certain  fixed  rate  of  exchange  on  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay. 
These  drafts  on  other  countries  were  remitted  to  natives  in  Colombo 
by  their  native  friends  in  Kandy,  and  the  exchange  was  invariably 
paid  by  the  planter.  The  rate  varied  from  1*.  ll^d.  to  Is.  ll^d.  per 
rupee.  The  establishment  of  branches  at  Kandy  was  considered  a 
great  convenience,  for  at  the  time  that  they  opened  much  trouble  was 
occasioned  to  the  planter  by  the  scarcity  of  silver.  A  commission  of 
one-half  per  cent,  was  charged  for  letters  of  credit  on  the  banks, 
which  rate  was  afterwards  increased  to  one  per  cent.  For  every  pur- 
pose of  remittance  and  discount,  the  banks  have  proved  of  very 
great  utility,  but  in  other  respects  it  is  to  be  feared  they  have  stimu- 
lated over-trading  and  over-cultivation,  so  that  when  the  intelligence 
of  the  monetary  pressure  in  the  mother  country  arrived  in  Ceylon, 
they  were  at  once  compelled  to  limit  discounts,  and  so  narrowed  their 
transactions,  that  many  were  seriously  injured. 

The  buildings  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  banks  are  sub- 
stantial and  handsome.  They  are  close  to  the  Esplanade,  and  oppo- 
site the  pleasant  promenades,  which  skirt  the  lake  of  Kandy. 


CHAP.    I.]    TEMPLES — HEIGHT   OF    SURROUNDING    MOUNTAINS.       671 

Between  the  Kandian  part  of  the  town  and  Malabar-street  there  is 
a  large  intervening  space,  which  contains  the  principal  temple  of  Da- 
lada  Malagawa  (palace  of  the  tooth),  a  lofty  but  unpretending 
edifice.  The  sanctuary  is  closed  with  folding  doors  of  gilded  bronze, 
into  which  a  ray  of  day-light  never  penetrates.  Within  its  sacred 
walls,  on  a  large  table  hung  with  white  shawls  and  gold  brocades, 
stands  the  shrine  of  the  Dalada,  behind  it  are  large  plates  of  gold  in- 
scribed with  a  variety  of  characters  and  emblems  ;  on  two  side  tables, 
loaded  with  gold  and  silver  brocades,  are  placed  lamps  of  silver  gilt, 
fragrant  from  the  sweet  cocoa-nut  oil,  that  feeds  their  flames.  The 
walls  are  hung  round  with  costly  Indian  shawls  of  the  most  beautiful 
design.  In  the  other  apartment  is  a  statue  of  Buddha  as  large  as 
life.  The  Hindoo  pagodas  or  Dewales  of  Patine  and  Nata,  the 
former  of  which  stands  to  the  southward  and  westward,  and  the  latter 
to  the  westward  of  the  palace,  and  between  it  and  the  pagoda  of  Patine 
are  in  separate  and  extensive  areas.  The  Maha  Vishnu  Dewale  is 
situate  nearly  north  of  the  Nata  Dewale,  and  the  Kattragamme  Dewale 
about  west  of  the  Patine  Dewale,  and  are  all  shaded  by  umbrageous 
palms  and  other  trees. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Kandy,  the  temples  are  kept  in  better  repair 
than  elsewhere,  and  the  Ganga-rama  (river  temple),  and  other 
establishments  near  the  town  are  good  specimens  of  a  complete 
Buddhist  establishment. 

The  Asgirie  wihare  adjoins  the  original  burying-place  of  the  Kan- 
dian kings,  and  is  situate  to  the  north-westward  of  the  principal  street 
from  which  one  enters  the  enclosure  of  the  Awadana  madima  or  Royal 
cemetery,  and  the  Malwatte  wihare  is  situate  on  the  south  side  of  the 
new  lake. 

There  is  a  solemnity  about  the  Malwatte  wihare,  that  is  altoge- 
ther opposed  to  the  notion  we  form  of  Pagan  worship,  or  its  temples  ; 
and  in  contemplating  the  massive  pillars  of  stone,  sixteen  cubits  high 
and  of  proportionate  circumference,  each  formed  of  one  block  only, 
which  support  the  roof  of  the  College  hall,  and  contrasting  these  and 
innumerable  other  vestiges  of  the  remotest  antiquity  with  the  best 
specimens  of  modern  Singhalese  architecture,  one  would  conclude 
that  a  different  race  reared  these  gigantic  monuments,  which  have  so 
long  set  time  and  the  destructive  efforts  of  the  ultra-barbarous  Por- 
tuguese at  defiance. 

In  addition  to  the  splendid  natural  amphitheatre,  which  Kandy 
presents,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  surrounding  scenery,  Mattan- 
Pattana,  the  hill  over  it  is  3 1 92  feet,  and  the  rocky  ridge  of  Hantaua, 
about  a  mile  farther  off,  is  4380  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Hoonis- 
giri  4  990,  the  Knuckles  6180,  Diatalawa  5030,  Aloogalla  3440,  and 
Ettapola  and  Pannegaum  about  4000  feet,  all  remarkable  features  in 
the  views  seen  from  Lady  Horton's  walk,  which  winds  round  the 
wooded  hills  immediately  behind  the  pavilion.  The  rapid  Mahavelle- 
ganga  is  seen  winding  below  ;  beyond  are  the  green  hills  and  forest- 
clad  mountains,  while  clumps  of  palmyra  and  cocoa-nut  trees,  with 
every  variety  of  foliage  continue  to  exhibit  themselves,  till   Kandy 


6/2  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

and  its  lakes  appear  in  the  hollow.  The  road  has  a  hranch  to  com- 
municate with  one  which  winds  round  the  upper  lake  of  Kandy,  an 
additional  distance  of  about  two  miles. 

Paradiniya,  three  miles  south-west  of  Kandy,  on  the  Colombo 
road,  may*  justly  boast  of  its  botanic  garden,  (presided  over  by  a 
distinguished  botanist,  who  is  indefatigable  in  tracing  out  the  riches 
of  the  island) ;  its  race-course,  and  bridge  of  satin-wood  of  a  single 
arch,  having  a  span  of  205  feet  over  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  The 
colony  is  indebted  for  the  former  to  Governor  Brownrigg  in  1819, 
and  for  the  two  latter  to  Sir  E.  Barnes.  For  police  and  assessment 
purposes,  the  gravets  of  Kandy  extend  to  Paradiniya  bridge.  Dodon- 
welle  is  about  eight  miles  from  Kandy,  through  a  delightful  but 
steep  and  rugged  country.  The  temples  there  are  of  ancient  con- 
struction, but  very  small  and  paltry,  and  are  unworthy  of  notice, 
except  by  way  of  contrast  to  the  magnificent  avenue  of  iron-wood 
trees  (Mesua  ferrea,  L.)  and  Na-gaha  Singh.  From  the  entrance,  the 
avenue  is  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  from  fifty  to 
sixty  feet  in  width,  and  at  the  extremity  is  a  circular  area  containing 
the  temples,  shaded  by  an  umbrageous  Bogaha  in  all  its  majesty  and 
luxuriance,  which  is  venerated  from  its  great  size  and  age. 

Northward  from  Kandy,  26 h  miles,  lies  Kurunaigalla,  just  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  Central  province.  From  Kandy  (the  tunnel  is  now 
disused)  to  the  Mahavelle-ganga  3  miles  ;  to  Madawallatenne  rest- 
house  8|  miles,  from  thence  to  Kospotte  Oya  6£  miles,  and  from 
thence  to  Kurunaigalla  8£  miles.  The  road  which  traverses  the 
charming  Harisiapattoo  for  some  distance,  and  then  Toompane, 
is  excellent,  and  the  country  salubrious.  The  most  magnificent 
scenery  here  meets  the  eye  in  every  direction,  forests  abounding 
with  game,  plains  covered  with  verdure  or  the  golden  tints  of  the 
ripening  paddy  crops,  and  the  Mahavelle-ganga  is  seen  meandering 
through  the  immense  area,  which  it  intersects  in  its  course  and  fer- 
tilises as  it  flows.  Madawallatenne  in  Toompane  is  an  important 
military  post,  commanding  the  entrance  into  the  Central  province 
from  the  west.  It  is  situate  on  a  rising  ground,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Girriagamme  pass,  and  at  the  head  of  the  Galgedera  pass.  These 
two  passes,  which  this  post  commands,  are  naturally  strong,  being 
narrow,  steep  and  rocky,  though  not  long,  and  are  flanked  by  wooded 
hills,  which  on  the  right  present  the  appearance  of  perpendicular 
walls.  In  addition  the  Galgedera  pass  is  rendered  more  difficult  of 
access  by  the  Deek-oya,  through  whose  rocky  bed  the  traveller  has 
to  wade.  The  route  from  hence  to  Trincomalee  by  the  new  road  is 
to  the  Dedroo-oya,  5\  miles,  over  which  there  is  a  curious  native 
bridge  for  pedestrians  of  rattan  (Calamus  rudentum,  Maha-we- 
wela  Singh.),  Ibbagamme-oya  3  miles  ;  Polegala  3  miles  ; 
Ambanpola  3  miles  ;  Himbalwana-oya  2k  miles  ;  Omaragalla  Ella 
3f  miles  ;  Gallawalla  4f  miles  ;  Tolumbagalla  2  miles  ;  Dambcola- 
oya  b\  miles;  to  the  junction  Kandy  road  2  miles.  Total  to  Dam- 
bool  33  miles.     For  route  from  hence  to  Trincomalee,  see  p.  549. 


CHA?.  I.]  COUNTRY    IN    THE   VICINITY    OF    KANDY.  6/3 

The  face  of  the  country  presents  on  every  side  a  variety  of  the 
wildest  and  most  romantic  scenery ;  hill  and  dale,  mountain  and 
valley,  forest  and  plain,  rivers,  streamlets  and  tanks  alternating  in 
endless  succession.  Elephants  and  game  of  every  description  abound 
throughout. 

The  citadel  of  Kandy,  situate  on  One-tree  hill,  communicates  by 
signals  with  Atgalle,  a  strong  military  post,  about  eight  miles  from 
Kandy  on  the  Trincomalee  road,  beautifully  situate  on  a  command- 
ing eminence,  and  during  the  rebellion  it  was  of  great  importance. 
From  Atgalle  the  mountains  of  Ilellemoette  are  distinctly  seen  over 
the  Ballane  mountain,  and  the  prospect,  like  the  generality  of  Kandian 
views,  from  the  bold  and  romantic  highlands,  over  a  beautiful  and 
fertile  country  is  transcendantly  grand.  The  culture  of  the  potato, 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  turnip  at  Atgalle  has  proved  successful ;  and 
excellent  wheat  has  for  many  years  been  grown  there. 

.  No  station  in  Ceylon  is  more  fortunate  than  Kandy  in  the  beauty 
of  the  surrounding  country.     Of  the  many  magnificent  views  in  the 
island  that  of  the  Doombera  plains  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable.     From  the  heights  to  the  eastward  of  the  town, 
the  best  view  of  this  sublime  landscape  may  be  obtained.  ,The  plains 
comprise  a  vast  extent  of  beautifully  undulating  country,  dotted  here 
and  there  with  groups  of  large  and  majestic  trees,  the  intervals  be- 
tween which  are  open  and  entirely  free  from  jungle.     The  whole 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  an  English  park  on  an  immense  scale, 
which  would  be  complete,  but  for  the  total  absence  of  cultivation, 
and  of  the  dwellings  of  man.  A  death-like  stillness  seems  to  reign  over 
this  apparently  deserted  valley,    through  the  midst  of  whose  mag- 
nificent scenery  rolls  the  Mahavelle-ganga.     Being  much  interrupted 
with  rocks  and  shoals,  no  boats  appear  on  its  majestic  stream,  and 
the  lonely  river  wanders  sullenly  through  a  region  that  appears  to 
sympathise  with  and  share  in  its  solitude.     The  dark  and  lofty  cone 
of  Hoonisgiri,  which  attains  an  altitude  of  6000  feet,  raises  itself  up 
in  the  distance,  and  supported  by  a  rugged  and  elevated  range  of 
mountains  that  fill  up  the  background,   lends  an  additional  charm 
and  grandeur  to  this  enchanting  scene.     Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
valley  of  Doombera  may  be  descried  a  slight  eminence,  crowned  by  a 
solitary  and  ancient  tree,  generally  known  as  Davie's  tree.    It  is  thus 
denominated  on  account  of  its  vicinity  to  the  site  of  the  massacre  of 
Major  Davie's  detachment  in  the  Kandian  war  of  1803. 

On  each  of  the  passes  by  which  Kandy  is  approached,  scenery  but 
little  inferior  to  that  of  the  plains  of  Doombera  meets  the  eye.  The 
Kurunaigalla  tunnel  which  ran  through  one  of  these  passes,  and  was 
540  feet  in  length,  gave  a  finishing  blow  to  the  ideas  the  Kandians 
entertained  of  ever  regaining  their  lost  nationality.  An  ancient 
legend  informed  them  that  their  country  would  never  be  subdued 
until  the  invaders  bored  a  hole  through  one  of  the  mountains  that 
encircled  the  Kandian  capital.     This  great  object  having  been  at 

2x 


(J74  CEYLON.  [PAllT    IV. 

length  accomplished,  they  believed  that  it  was  their  destiny  to 
submit  to  foreign  domination  The  road  through  the  tunnel,  which 
has  now  collapsed,  united  itself  at  the  foot  of  the  Kandian  hills  with 
the  principal  road  to  Colombo.  By  means  of  this  circuitous  route, 
troops  advancing  on  Kandy  would  turn  the  heights  near  Kaduganava, 
on  which  the  natives  used  to  place  great  reliance  as  a  strong  natural 
position  for  the  defence  of  the  capital. 

The  road  between  Kandy  and  Nuvvera-Elliya  is  to  the  Paradiniya 
bridge,  near  which  the  road  branches  off  from  that  to  Colombo,  and 
follows  the  course  of  the  valley  of  the  Mahavelle-ganga.  The 
country  continues  flat  for  some  miles,  and  little  of  interest  occurs 
until  the  large  village  of  Gampolai  is  reached,  where  there  is  a 
tolerable  rest-house  standing  on  a  rising  ground  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river,  which  is  at  that  point  confined  and  rapid,  and  commanding 
a  view  of  the  distant  blue  mountains  shortly  to  be  ascended.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  means  of  a  ferry  boat,  which  acts  as  a  substitute  for  a 
bridge.  The  country  on  the  opposite  bank  now  begins  gradually  to 
ascend,  from  the  well  watered  and  highly  cultivated  plain,  and 
assume  a  more  wild  and  romantic  aspect. 

In  the  dry  season,  the  coarse  vegetation  with  which  the  mountain 

of  Ambulawe  over   Gampola  is  overgrown,  presents  a  brilliant  and 

interesting  sight,  dotted  lines  of  ruddy  flame  at  times  rage  along  its 

whole  extent,   and  consume  it,   casting  back  a   lurid   light  on  the 

blackened  and  smouldering  surface  over  which   the  fire  has  passed. 

Lemon   grass  is  the  general  covering  of  such  parts  of  the  hills  in 

this    division    of  the  country,   as  are  not  overgrown  with  jungle  ; 

although  apparently  with  an  even  surface  about  seven  or  eight  feet 

in  height,  this  grass  groAvs  in  tufts,   and  it  is  this  peculiarity  that 

gives  to  the  conflagrations  here  that  peculiar  dotted  appearance.  The 

burning  proceeds  rapidly  against  the  wind,   as  it   bends  the  long 

grass  over  the  plains,    in   which   it   is   immediately  withered  and 

scorched ;  then  bursts   forth  in  a  blaze   succeeded  by  showers   of 

sparks  and  clouds  of  half  illumined  smoke.     In  this  manner  the 

fire  extends  itself,  a  loud  crackling  noise  being  distinguished  by  any 

one  who  is  near,  and  a  hollow  roaring  sound  being  heard  by  those  at 

a  greater  distance,  until  the  progress  of  the  conflagration  is  arrested 

by  the  dark  woods  that  occupy  every  deep  ravine.     The  roots  of  the 

grass  are  not  destroyed  by  the  raging  flames  that  pass  over  the  land, 

1  Gampola  is  mentioned  in  Singhalese  history  as  early  as  B.C.  502,  when 
Sudhodana,  a  brother  or  cousin  of  the  queen  who  then  reigned,  and  who  had  ac- 
companied her  from  Kimbulwatte-nuwara  settled  in  this  place.  About  200  years 
later,  Uttiya,  the  brother  of  Kellania-tissa  fled  to  Gampola,  when  his  intercourse 
with  the  cmeenwas  detected  at  Kellania.  In  a.d.  1347,  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  island  under  Bhuwaneka-Bahoo  IV.  and  continued  so  for  forty  years, 
it  was  then  dignified  with  the  name  of  Gangasripoora,  (the  royal  city  on  the 
river.)  A  few  carved  stones  are  the  only  remains  of  a  royal  residence,  whose  very 
foundations  are  now  obliterated. 


CHAP.    I.]      COUNTRY    BETWEEN    KANDY    ANT)    NUWERA-ELLIYA.      675 

and  after  two  or  three  days  rain  the  blackened  bushes  and  calcined 
earth  are  hid  by  herbage  of  the  most  brilliant  green,  and  in  that 
state,  young  and  tender,  even  lemon  grass  affords  good  pasture  to 
buffaloes. 

Before  reaching  Pusilava,  the  next  station,  the  steep  pass  of 
Attabagge  has  to  be  surmounted.  Near  the  head  of  this  pass  stands 
the  Pusilava  rest-house,  which  is  nearly  1 200  feet  above  the  level  of 
Kandy,  and  therefore  3000  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  At  this 
elevation  the  most  delightful  and  salubrious  temperature  is  ex- 
perienced, partaking  neither  of  the  intense  murky  heat  of  the 
maritime  districts,  nor  of  the  bitter  keen  mountain  air  of  the  lofty 
plains  of  Nuwera-Elliya.  Invalids  who  fear  the  sudden  transition 
from  the  damp  sultry  atmosphere  of  the  valleys,  to  the  chilly  sensation 
on  tbe  mountain's  brow,  frequently  establish  themselves  here,  where 
may  be  enjoyed  the  bracing  breezes  without  the  frosts  of  the  temperate 
zones,  to  acclimatise  themselves  ere  they  advance  to  tbe  summit  of 
their  ambition.  In  this  neighbourhood  some  valuable  coffee  plan- 
tations exist,  and  the  temperature  of  the  station  is  considered 
especially  adapted  for  the  full  development  and  perfection  of  the 
coffee  tree.  The  plantations  near  Pusilava  flourish  in  great  luxuri- 
ance, arising  either  from  the  favourable  nature  of  the  soil  or  climate. 
Numerous  plantations  are  scattered  also  over  the  country  between 
Pusilava  and  Nuwera-Elliya.  The  road  frequently  winds  through 
estates  almost  without  an  exception  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 
After  passing  through  Pusilava,  the  road  immediately  enters  the 
forest  of  that  name,  which  extends  for  several  miles,  and  contains 
some  majestic  trees,  the  appearance  of  which  is  not  injured  by  the 
presence  of  any  unsightly  jungle.  The  forest  of  Pusilava  from 
consisting  of  detached  trees  of  considerable  size,  affords  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  low  jungle  which  skirts  its  edges,  and  scarcely  any 
part  of  the  Kandian  provinces  combines  so  many  charms  as  that  in 
the  vicinity  of  this  picturesque  and  extensive  woodland.  At  Ilel- 
bodde  the  forest  terminates,  and  the  magnificent  valley  of  Kotmale 
spreads  its  gently  undulating  and  varied  surface  before  the  fascinated 
traveller.  The  winding  mountains  here  form  a  vast  basin,  in  the 
centre  of  which  the  various  torrents  that  descend  from  them  unite 
into  one  deep  and  rapid  stream,  which  after  winding  a  long  and 
tortuous  course,  caused  by  the  peculiar  and  almost  chaotic  formation 
of  the  country  that  it  traverses,  ultimately  discharges  itself  into  the 
Mahavelle-ganga. 

The  Mahavelle-ganga,1  the  largest  river  in  the  island,  whose  course 
we  have  already  traced  from  its  mouth  to  the  place  where  it  receives 
the  waters  of  the  Ooma-oya,  drains  about  two-thirds  of  the  Central 
Province  ;  its  principal  branch  has  its  source  near  Nuwera-Elliya,  and 

'  This  river,  whose  name  is  erroneously  supposed  by  a  contributor  to  the 
Asiatic  Researches  to  be  derived  from  Maha  Bali,  one  of  the  heroes  of  Indian 
romance,  is  from  a  Singhalese  compound — maha,  great,  and  wclle  or  velle,  sandy. 

2x2 


676  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

flowing  through  the  valley  of  Kotmale,  tinder  the  name  of  the  Kot- 
male-ganga,  joins  at  Passbage  a  smaller  branch  rising  near  Adam's 
Peak,  which  is  dignified  with  the  name  of  the  main  river,     Dr.  Davy 
very  intelligently  suggested  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  that  it  would 
he  practicable  to  connect  the  Mahavelle  and  Kalane,  the  two  most 
important  rivers  of  the  island  at  this  point,  viz.  between   Kittoolgalle 
and  Ambagamma,  by  a  good  road  of  about  eight  miles  in  length, 
from  the  spot  where  either  ceased  to  be  navigable.     "  The  interven- 
ing mountain,"  says   he,   "is  indeed   high,  perhaps  three  or  four 
thousand    feet,     which    must   be    crossed,   but  is    not    the    object 
worthy  the  labour  that  might  be  required  to  overcome  this  difficulty  ?" 
Could  this  enlightened  writer  have  viewed  the  subject  through  the 
vista  of  futurity,  and  have  foreseen  the  celerity,  perfection  and  cheap- 
ness with  which  tunnelling  is    now  conducted,   I  may  venture   to 
surmise  that  he  would  have  recommended   instead  the  clearance   of 
the  bed  of  the  two  rivers,  so  as  to  diminish  the  distance  from  which 
either  is  unnavigable,  and  would  have  finally  joined  them  by  a  canal 
bored   through  the  intervening  four  miles  of  mountain.     At  this 
lapse  of  time,  when  an  excellent  highway  already  connects  Colombo 
with  Kandv  and  Trincomalee,  and  when  a  railwav  is  on  the  eve  of 
construction,   the  policy  of   undertaking    such   a   work  might   be 
questionable,  though  it  might  possibly  still  yield  an  adequate  return 
for  the  carriage  of  heavy  goods.     Had  Ceylon  been  in  the  possession 
of  the  younger  branch  of  our  race  for  the  same  number  of  years  that 
we  have  held  it,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  maintain  that  this  work  would 
long  ago  have  been   completed.     The  Mahavelle-ganga  is  already 
navigable  for  boats  between  Kandy  and  Gampola,   and  at  no  great 
expense  a  channel  could  be  cleared  beyond  Ambagamma. 

Between  Kandy  and  Bintenne,  a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  in  which 
it  receives  a  great  accession  of  waters,  there  is  a  descent  of  upwards 
of  1 000  perpendicular  feet,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  shewn  that  this 
difficulty  could  not  be  remedied  by  locks.  At  Bintenne,  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  it  reaches  its  greatest  magnitude,  there,  when  of  a 
medium  height,  and  the  water  at  the  foot  is  about  five  feet  deep,  the 
river  from  bank  to  bank  is  540  feet  wide.  In  its  sluggish  course 
from  Bintenne  to  the  sea  through  a  comparatively  level  country,  and 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  excessively  dry,  it  doubtless  loses 
by  evaporation,  and  other  exhausting  causes  a  considerable  portion 
of  its  water. 

The  road  to  Nuwera-Elliya  winds  round  the  precipitous  slopes  of 
the  mountains,  and  at  its  salient  angles  are  many  points  from  which 
the  gaze  may  be  extended  into  the  inmost  recesses  of  what  may  be 
aptly  termed  "the  Devil's  Punch  Bowl."  Between  Pusilava  and 
Rambodde  a  glimpse  of  the  towering  cone  of  Adam's  Peak  may  be 
occasionally  obtained.  Its  distance  from  those  villages  is  upwards 
of  forty  miles,  and  its  elevation  above  them  nearly  4000  feet. 

The  vicinity  of  Rambodde  is  announced  by  the  stunning  roar  of 
the  falls  of  the  Poona-ella  and  Girinde-ella  in  its  neighbourhood,  which 


CHAP,  i]   TIIE  MAHAVELLf  AND  KOTMAI.i-GANGAS — RAMBODDE.  677 

greatly  contribute  to  complete  the  effect  of  the  surrounding  scenery. 
The  forest  above  it  rises  to  a  gigantic  height,  and  appears  nearly 
black  from  its  vast  bowers  of  dark  foliage.  This  village  is  situate  at 
the  base  of  the  apparently  inaccessible  heights  that  girdle  the  plains 
of  Nuwera-Elliya.  From  the  rest-house  the  valley  of  Kotmale  is  seen 
to  great  advantage,  and  while  the  ceaseless,  yet  soothing,  sound  of 
the  cascades  which  pour  down  on  every  side  affords  to  the  ear  that 
indescribable  pleasure  which  the  noise  of  falling  water  rarely  fails  to 
produce,  the  eye  is  gratified  by  the  surpassing  grandeur  of  their 
appearance.  These  falls  vary  considerably  in  their  volume  of  water 
at  different  periods  of  the  year.  Influenced  by  the  same  causes  as 
those  which  so  greatly  affect  the  magnitude  of  the  rivers  in  Ceylon, 
the  streams  which  supply  the  Rambodde  cascades  dwindle  to  com- 
parative insignificance  during  the  fervour  of  the  summer  heats,  but 
this  temporary  diminution  is  more  than  compensated  by  the  magnifi- 
cent appearance  they  assume  on  the  commencement  of  the  rainy 
season  ;  when  the  aspect  of  their  roaring  and  whirling  eddies  partakes 
of  the  highest  attributes  of  the  sublime.  The  vale  of  Kotmale  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  the  most  enchanting  spot  in  Ceylon.  Its 
sequestered  situation  and  sublime  scenery  recommend  it  to  the  notice 
of  the  melancholy,  equally  with  the  recent  votary  of  Hymen,  whose 
followers  may  often  be  descried  by  the  margin  of  the  foaming  torrents 
into  which  the  waters,  after  descending  the  falls,  immediately  resolve 
themselves. 

It  is  in  the  pass  of  Rambodde,  which  emerges  on  the  plains  of 
Nuwera-Elliya,  that  the  greatest  physical  obstacles  on  the  line  of 
road  between  that  alpine  station  and  Kandy  were  surmounted.  The 
elevation  above  the  plains  above  Rambodde,  from  whence  the  ascent 
commences,  is  between  three  and  four  thousand  feet.  Measured  in 
an  horizontal  plane,  the  distance  between  that  village  and  Nuwera- 
Elliya  does  not  exceed  eight  miles.  The  result  is  that  the  greatest 
portion  of  the  road  through  the  pass  is  on  an  inclined  plane,  which 
ascends  one  foot  in  twelve  or  thirteen,  an  inclination  nearly  parallel 
to  that  which  occurs  in  the  great  military  road  over  the  Simplon. 
To  keep  this  difficult  road  in  repair,  and  clear  it  of  the  slips  of  soil 
which  not  unfrequently  come  thundering  down,  a  strong  working 
party  of  Kaffres,  of  about  sixty  or  seventy  men,  are  constantly  em- 
ployed on  different  parts  of  the  pass.  The  head  of  the  pass  is  nearly 
three  miles  distant  from  Nuwera  Elliya,  and  from  thence  is  obtained 
the   first  view  of  the  plains.1     From  this  point  the  road  sensibly 

1  Though  called  a  plain,  Nuwera  Elliya  is  not  really  such,  a  ridge  of  hills  run- 
ning from  south-west  to  north-east,  divides  it  into  unequal  portions,  the  larger 
one  being  about  two  and  a-half  miles  long  by  three-quarters  broad  ;  the  other 
portion,  in  which  the  military  buildings,  consisting  of  the  commandant's  and  two 
subaltern's  quarters,  a  barrack  for  100  men,  a  hospital,  jail,  and  cutcherry  are 
situate,  is  an  extensive  ravine.  There  is  a  third  division,  of  intermediate  size, 
which  is  a  bleak  barren  waste,  the  soil  of  which  is  a  black  peat,  with  a  substratum 
of  gravel,  marl,  and  kabook,  that  is  prolific  under  cultivation.  The  whole  is  well 
supplied  with  water. 


678  CEYLON.  [PAttT    IV. 

descends,  and  at  length  debouches  suddenly  on  the  wide  and  open 
valley  in  which  the  village  of  Nuwera-Elliya  stands. 

This  place  was  little  known  until  1829,  when  some  Europeans 
having  accidentally  wandered  thither  in  the  chase,  reported  its  merits 
to  Sir  Edward  Barnes,  who  fixed  upon  it  as  a  military  convalescent 
station,  and  ordered  the  erection  of  the  necessary  buildings.  The  only 
evidence  of  former  occupancy  was  a  ruined  temple,  and  the  natives 
only  resorted  thither  in  pursuit  of  the  elk.  There  is  nothing  particularly 
fine  in  this  part  of  the  plains,  but  the  scene  strikes  forcibly  on  the  mnid 
of  the  person  first  beholding  it,  from  the  contrast  it  offers  to  the  gene- 
rality of  oriental  landscapes,  and  leaves  an  impression  not  easily  effaced 
from  the  memory.  The  thatched  cottages,  the  chimneys  with  their 
columns  of  smoke  wreathing  upwards,  and  the  keen  blast  encountered 
when  the  cover  of  the  woods  is  past,  and  you  emerge  on  the  open 
plain  among  moorlands,  are  so  entirely  dissimilar  from  any  view  or 
sensation  within  the  tropics,  that  the  novelty  is  at  first  delightful  and 
exhilarating.  This  effect  is  much  increased  by  the  appearance  of 
the  flowers  and  plants  proper  to  the  colder  climes.  On  every  side 
may  be  seen  splendid  wild  rhododendrons,  which  in  this  alpine 
region  seem  to  rival  the  best  specimens  of  those  nurtured  in  the 
valleys  of  other  lands.  The  violet,  the  geranium  and  the  rose,  all 
flourish  in  perfection  in  and  around  the  plains.  Nor  are  the  less 
strong  but  more  valuable  plants  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  any 
degree  unappreciated  or  neglected  by  the  dwellers  in  these  elevated 
plains,  where  the  fruits  and  productions  of  Europe  appear  com- 
mingled with  those  of  Asia.  In  addition  to  potatoes,  cabbages,  &c. 
strawberries  and  gooseberries  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  the 
garden  of  the  European  residents,  but  neither  peach  nor  cherry-trees 
will  bear  fruit.  The  natives  inhabiting  the  bazaar  cultivate  potatoes, 
which  they  send  to  Kandy  and  Colombo. 

The  plains  of  Nuwera-Elliya  contain  about  seven  square  miles.  A 
road  circumscribes  their  entire  extent,  and  forms  the  fashionable 
drive,  which  it  is  long  likely  to  remain.  The  centre  of  the  valley 
is  occupied  by  rich  grass  land,  through  which  a  little  river,  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  MahaArelle-ganga,  slowly  meanders.  The 
scattered  houses  of  the  European  i-esidents,  having  a  sombre  and 
melancholy  appearance  in  their  solitude,  lie  around.  Nuwera- 
Elliya  is  a  new  creation,  and  still  in  its  transition  state  from 
the  state  of  wilderness  to  the  less  sublime,  but  more  pleasing 
charms  belonging  to  cultivation.  Many  have  left  it  with  the 
most  grateful  reminiscence  of  an    invigorated1   constitution,  but    it 

1  Though  Nuwera-Elliya  is  invaluable  within  the  trojrics,  there  is  a  sense  of  dry- 
ness and  constriction  of  the  skin,  says  Dr.  Beatson,  the  inevitable  consequence 
of  diminished  atmospheric  pressure,  which  distinguishes  climate  cold  from  elevation 
from  that  where  temperature  is  the  effect  of  latitude,  rendering  the  former  inferior 
in  therapeutic  efficacy  ;  to  the  healthy  constitution,  however,  it  is  stimulant  and 
exciting,  improving  the  appetite  and  mental  organs,  and  producing  an  increase  of 
bodily  and  mental  energy.  The  diseases  most  likely  to  receive  relief  here  are 
functional  derangements  of  the  gastric,  hepatic,   enteritic,  and  nervous  systems, 


CHAP.  I.J  NUWERA-ELLIYA  AND  ITS  CHARMS,  PEDROTALLA  GALLA.  6/9 

must  be  confessed  that  the  merit  of  these  plains  rests  rather  on  the 
climate  of  the  favoured  region  wherein  they  are  located  than  on  their 
claims  to  beauty.  An  European  climate  within  the  tropics  is  not 
however  to  be  lightly  thought  of,  even  though  it  be  obtained  in  the 
presence  of  a  tame  landscape  and  a  thick  mist,  which,  owing  to  the 
elevation  and  the  attraction  of  the  encircling  mountains,  constantly 
overhangs  the  plains.  Nuwera-Elliya  is  to  Ceylon  what  the  Neil- 
gherries  and  the  more  southern  of  the  snow-capped  Himalayas  are  to 
the  presidencies  of  Madras  and  Calcutta  ;  but  it  possesses  a  great 
advantage  over  them  from  its  proximity  to  the  principal  stations  in 
the  island,  not  being  more  than  one  hundred  miles  distant  from 
Colombo.  The  accommodations  of  the  rest-house  at  Nuwera-Elliya 
being  intended  for  less  ephemeral  travellers  than  the  generality  of 
hostelries  is  therefore  much  superior.  There  are  about  a  dozen  rooms 
divided  into  three  suites  of  apartments  for  the  reception  of  different 
parties.  The  windows  look  out  on  the  plains,  and  command  a  bird's- 
eye  view  of  the  principal  houses,  which  are  occupied  by  the  Com- 
mandant of  the  station,  the  Assistant-government  agent,  and  the  few 
military  stationed  at  the  place.  Behind  the  house  are  the  sources  of 
the  rivulet  that  wanders  through  the  plains.  In  pursuing  its  impe- 
tuous course  down  the  sides  of  the  neighbouring  mountains,  the 
constant  attrition  of  the  stream  has  worn  several  natural  baths  in  its 
rocky  bed,  the  intense  frigidity  of  which  operates  like  a  charm  on 
the  relaxed  nervous  system  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands.  It 
was  at  one  period  intended  to  dam  up  this  little  river,  and  by  thus 
inundating  the  plain  through  which  it  flows,  to  form  a  small  lake.  A  • 
narrow  gorge,  through  which  the  stream  makes  its  egress  from  the 
plains,  offers  every  facility  for  the  proposed  improvement.  In  that 
event  the  place  will  attract  nearly  as  much  attention  on  the  score  of 
beauty,  as  it  now  most  deservedly  does  on  account  of  its  salubrity. 
Till  that  improvement  is  effected,  it  will  be  difficult  to  discover  pic- 
turesque scenery  in  a  broad  flat  valley,  skirted  by  a  few  desolate 
white-washed  cottages  which  are  here  in  the  worst  possible  taste. 
From  the  summits  of  nearly  all  the  craggy  heights  that  encircle  the 
Nuwera-Elliya  plains,  extensive  and  magnificent  views  may  be  ob- 
tained. These  heights  when  viewed  from  the  valley  they  surround, 
do  not  redeem  the  otherwise  tame  features  of  the  landscape,  their 
outline  being  in  general  monotonous,  rather  resembling  vast  protu- 
berances than  majestic  mountains. 

Pedrotallagalla,  (Pedura-talla-galla,)i    which  attains  an  altitude  of 

unaccompanied  by  organic  lesion,  fevers  uncomplicated  with  local  affections, 
debility  arising  from  tedious  convalescence  or  long  residence  within  the  tropics — 
almost  all  the  diseases  of  children  ;  but  the  chief  advantage  of  a  temporary 
residence  is  the  prevention  rather  than  the  cure  of  disease.  At  times  the  sun,  on 
a  cloudless  day,  is  very  powerful  here,  but  Europeans  expose  themselves  to  it 
without  danger. 

1  The  real  etymology  is,  Pedura  talla-galla,  a  mat  wove  rock,  in  reference  to  a 
rush  used  in  mat-making,  which  is  found  in  abundance  on  the  mountain. 


680  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

8280  feet  above  the  sea,  and  rise  immediately  above  the  Nuwera- 
Elliya  rest-house,  is  especially  characterised  by  the  absence  of  those 
undulations  and  lower  features,  which  so  greatly  add  to  the  effect  of 
mountain  scenery.  Its  reputation,  therefore,  rests  on  its  loftiness 
rather  than  its  external  grandeur,  it  being  the  highest  elevation  in 
the  island,  and  Adam's  Peak,  long  considered  so,  only  ranking 
fourth  in  the  scale  of  altitude.  Pedrotallagalla  is  so  frequently 
enveloped  in  thick  mist,  that  visitors  to  it  are  generally  disappointed 
in  the  object  of  their  ambition.  But  as  the  view  which  it  commands 
in  clear  weather  is  unsurpassed  for  magnificence,  few  leave  this 
district  without  trying  their  fortune.  The  ascent  is  in  many  places 
remarkably  steep  and  tiresome,  from  the  mountain  ^ath  being  fre- 
quently choked  up  with  the  surrounding  luxuriant  jungle,  that  unless 
kept  in  check  by  the  pruning-hook,  would  speedily  be  lost.  Several 
peeps  through  the  intervals  of  the  jungle  at  the  grand  scenery  of  the 
surrounding  country  may  be  enjoyed  before  you  reach  the  highest 
point  of  the  mountain,  but  when  that  is  attained,  the  magnificent 
prospect  which  is  beheld  in  every  direction,  far  surpasses  all  descrip- 
tion. Immediately  at  the  base  of  the  chain  of  heights,  which  is 
crowned  by  Pedrotallagalla,  the  plains  of  Nuwera-Elliya  stretch  away, 
as  it  were,  beneath  the  feet  of  the  spectator.  The  fine  districts  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Ouva,  which  are  considered  the  richest  parts  of 
the  island,  are  seen  more  in  the  distance,  and  behind,  in  the  back 
ground,  towers  Adam's  Peak,  which  is  visible  in  all  its  glory.  In 
whatever  direction  the  eye  wanders,  it  may  feast  on  the  gorgeous 
handiworks  of  nature  unassisted  by  art,  on  every  side  meeting  it. 
Traces  of  the  presence  of  mankind  are  no  where  distinguishable  in 
the  landscape  that  rewards  the  exertions  of  those  scaling  the  steep 
and  rugged  sides  of  Pedrotallagalla.  Mountains  upon  mountains, 
horrid  crags  and  impervious  forests  appear  to  defy  the  power  and 
progress  of  man  in  every  direction,  and  serve  to  impart  a  stern  and 
magnificent,  yet  somewhat  savage  and  awe-striking  aspect  to  the  face 
of  the  country.  The  descent  of  the  mountain  is  almost  if  not  quite 
as  fatiguing  as  the  ascent ;  so  that  the  traveller  will  experience  the 
most  gnawing  sensations  of  hunger,  unless  provided  with  food  ere  he 
reaches  Nuwera-Elliya. 

The  elevated  portion  of  the  island,  famous  in  the  Ramayana  and 
the  most  ancient  Hindoo  legends,  as  the  Asoka  Aramaya,  is  perhaps 
seen  to  the  greatest  advantage  on  the  Koondasala  road,  from  Kandy, 
where  the  varied  scenery  affords  many  beautiful  views  of  the  course 
of  the  Mahavelle-ganga,  and  over  the  green  hills  to  the  mountain 
ranges  of  Doombera  and  Matale  ;  these  sweeping  round,  confine  the 
view  down  the  river,  and  form  a  lofty  barrier  to  the  heated  plains  of 
Bintenne.  Four  miles  from  Kaudy,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
are  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  Koondasala,  the  residence  of  Sree 
Weera  Praackrama  Narendra  Singha,  the  last  king  of  the  Singhalese 
royal  race.     Dying  without  issue  in  1739,  the  family  became  extinct, 


CHAP.    I.]  KOONDASAALA — THE    ASOKA-ARAMAYA.  681 

and  a  brother-in-law  of  the  deceased  monarch,  a  prince  of  Madura, 
was  chosen  as  his  successor,  and  ascended  the  throne  by  the  name  of 
Sree  Wijeya  Raja  Singha. 

Beyond  Koondasala,  the  path  continues  near  the  bank  of  the 
Mahavelle-ganga,  whose  waters  may  be  heard  dashing  among  the 
rocks  and  echoed  by  the  woods  through  which  the  road  passes  for 
several  miles  before  reaching  the  Maha-oya,  a  stream,  which  having 
its  source  in  the  mountains  bounding  the  valley  of  Hangurankette 
to  the  southward,  runs  through  its  whole  extent.  After  passing 
this  stream  there  is  an  ascent  of  three  miles  to  the  rest-house  of 
Gonagamma,  fifteen  miles  from  Kandy,  and  in  the  Hewahette  ratte, 
a  rich  and  beautiful  country  diversified  with  high  mountains  and 
valleys,  well  cultivated  with  paddy,  and  containing  a  large  population. 
From  hence,  Hangurankette  may  be  reached  over  a  ridge  of  the 
Dhiatalawa  mountain,  5030  feet  above  the  sea  level,  from  whence 
there  is  an  extensive  view  over  the  Walapane  and  Doombera  districts, 
only  separated  by  the  Mahavelle-ganga,  which  is  seen  for  a  consider- 
able distance,  foaming  and  rushing  through  forests  in  a  succession  of 
rapids  down  to  the  plains  of  Bintenne.  Hangurankette  possesses  two 
temples,  one  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  the  other  to  the  goddess  Patine  ; 
they  are  of  mean  appearance  and  in  bad  repair,  but  serve  to  remind 
the  traveller  that  this  place  was  a  regal  residence  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  palace  was  accidentally  destroyed  in  the  rebellion  of 
1818,  and  its  foundations  cannot  now  even  be  traced.  The  following 
inscription,  however,  shews  that  its  royal  architect  had  no  deficiency 
of  lofty  epithets. 

"  Be  it  known  that  this  is  the  patent,  whereby  the  victorious  king, 
who  kept  his  court  in  the  city  of  Hangurankette,  of  illustrious  and 
royal  lineage,  and  effulgent  with  prosperity,  did,  while  abiding  at  this 
place,  dedicate  lands  in  the  Wanny  district  unto  the  sacred  bo-tree 
on  this  day,  Thursday,  the  10th  day  of  the 'increasing  moon,  in  the 
month  Wesack,  of  the  1646th  year  of  the  glorious  era  of  Saka." 

From  Hangurankette,  the  rugged  tract  winds  over  stones,  along 
watercourses,  and  through  swamps,  then  crosses  the  Bilhool-oya,  a 
mountain  torrent,  after  which  for  two  miles  there  is  a  steep  ascent  to 
Maturatta,  a  military  post,  the  commandant  of  which  had  civil  juris- 
diction over  the  surrounding  districts.  Untenable  as  a  military 
position  against  an  intelligent  enemy,  this  station  appears  to  be  only 
commendable  for  its  cool  climate.  Leaving  Maturatta,  the  traveller 
ascends  the  Halgaran-oya  plains,  about  4000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  For  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  they  are  surpassed  by  few 
spots  in  Ceylon,  but  the  whole  region  is  uninhabited. 

Turning  to  the  left  through  the  Bingulan  Talawa,  which  signifies 
an  elevated  and  open  space,  the  descent  to  the  valley  and  village  of 
Alut-nuwara  is  by  a  precipitous  path.  Alut-nuwara  derives  its  name 
of  nuwara  (city,  i.  e.  royal  residence)  from  having  been  the  place  of 
refuge  of  a  fugitive  king  :  when  pressed  by  powerful  enemies,  Singha- 


C82  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

lcse  monarchs  were  accustomed  to  seek  shelter  on  the  mountains  or 
in  the  secluded  valleys  of  this  district,  and  the  places  where  they 
resided,  have,  in  many  instances,  the  addition  of  nuwara  to  their 
names,  although  the  royal  residence  may  have  been  little  beyond  a 
Leaf  hut.  Kolagalla-nuwara,  on  the  banks  of  the  Bilhool-oya  below 
Maturatta,  is  one  of  these  stations,  and  on  the  other  side  in  a  deep 
valley  beneath  the  lofty  Pedratella  mountain,  a  small  hamlet  bears  the 
poetic  yet  correctly  descriptive  name  of  Mandara-nuwara,  "the  city 
of  shadow."  Near  Alut-nuwara  the  Halgaran  or  Kooroonda-oya 
descends  in  cascades,  and  with  several  smaller  mountain  streams, 
supplies  water  to  the  numerous  rice  fields  into  which  the  valleys, 
small  hills,  and  declivities  of  the  mountains  have  been  formed.  The 
o-oro-e  of  the  Halgaran-oya  valley  facing  the  Doombera  mountains, 
opens  from  Alut-nuwara  between  the  Yakkagalla  (Devil's  rock)  and 
a  wooded  precipice,  on  the  verge  and  summit  of  which  stands  the 
Buddhist  temple  of  "Waaterangodda ;  beneath  the  entire  slope  is 
niched  into  rice  fields  laid  out  in  terraces,  many  of  them  not  more 
than  three  feet  in  breadth,  and  looking  like  the  seats  of  this  moun- 
tain amphitheatre.  From  Alut-nuwara,  the  way  lies  over  a  moun- 
tain ridge  covered  with  grass.  The  site  of  the  ancient  station  of 
Madoolla  is  ascertainable  by  the  straight  fields  still  retaining  the 
name  of  streets,  as  Tom-tom  beater's  Street,  Potter's  Street,  &c. 
From  this  place  which  is  within  the  dissavony  of  Walapane,  so 
called  according  to  Knox,  from  the  broken  character  of  the  country, 
Gampaha  is  arrived  at  by  passing  over  a  ridge  of  hills.  The  Ooma- 
oya  which  separates  Walapane  from  Wiyaloowa,  is  a  beautiful 
stream,  which  like  most  of  the  rivers  in  Ceylon  rises  rapidly  during 
the  rains.  The  Badulla-oya  intersects  Wiyaloowa,  and  the  Medda- 
oya  separates  it  from  Welasse. 

Beyond  Bobola  is  the  primeval  forest.  Its  deep  and  awful  gloom 
is  enough  to  make  the  *  stranger  shudder.  The  huge  stems  of  its 
trees  stand  close  beside  each  other ;  creepers  of  almost  tree-like 
growth  often  bind  together  three  or  four  of  the  sturdiest  among  them, 
already  partly  dead.  Often  no  more  than  one  stem  of  ordinary 
thickness,  and  winding  round  in  a  spiral  form,  is  to  be  seen  like  a 
gigantic  cork-screw  tree.  This  is  the  stem  of  the  creeper,  the 
trunk  around  which  it  has  twined,  oppressed  by  its  weight  has 
rotted  and  worn  away,  and  it  has  been  left  alone  and  unsupported.  In 
some  places  foaming  mountain  torrents,  which  have  washed  away  the 
soil  from  the  roots  of  the  trees  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  feet, 
present  great  impediments  to  proceeding.  The  next  place  is 
Galbocka. 

To  return  to  Maturatta ;  about  three  miles  from  that  place,  on  the 
south,  a  steep  descent  begins  and  lasts  without  interruption  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  valley,  probably  little  less  than  4000  feet  below  the  loftiest 
summit  of  its  including  mountains.  This  elevated  mountain  tract 
bears  some  resemblance  to  Upper  Ouva.     Like  it  it  is  generally  en- 


CHAP.  I.]        COUNTRY  NEAR  MATUKATTA — CENTRAL  PROVINCE.        683 

closed  by  higher  mountains,  and  like  it  its  surface  is  composed  of  hills 
of  a  conical  and  undulating  form.  Its  scenery  is  of  such  a  nature  that 
any  description  of  it  would  be  feeble  and  inadequate  to  convey  a 
correct  idea  of  it.  The  most  beautiful  part  of  the  way,  and  the 
most  interesting  is  between  two  mountains,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
on  each  side  of  the  Halgaran-oya.  Here  the  country  is  compara- 
tively open.  It  is  bounded  on  one  side  by  a  mountain  ridge  covered 
with  forest,  and  on  the  other  by  the  blue  summits  of  a  few  distant 
mountains.  The  hills  between  Fort  M'Donald  and  Maturatta  are  of 
the  liveliest  verdure,  ornamented  with  a  profusion  of  rare  flowers 
and  flowering  shrubs,  and  the  hollows  between  the  hills  are  luxu- 
riantly wooded,  presenting  surfaces  of  the  richest  foliage  of  an  aston- 
ishing variety  of  colour  and  tint,  from  admixture  probably  of  different 
kinds  of  trees  in  different  stages  of  vegetation.  An  interest  is  given 
to  this  wild  and  beautiful  scenery  by  traces  of  ancient  works  on  a 
hill  to  the  right,  not  far  from  a  remarkably  bold  facade  of  rock  pro- 
jecting from  the  side  of  the  mountain  like  a  promontory,  and  by  a 
new  building  to  the  left  situated  on  a  green  declivity  skirted  by 
forest.  The  ancient  works  consist  of  trenches  and  of  low  stone  walls, 
both  as  if  intended  not  for  fortifications,  but  as  simple  inclosures. 
They  arc  attributed  to  a  native  prince  who,  according  to  tradition, 
being  banished,  stopped  passing  travellers  and  compelled  them  to 
labour  for  him.  The  forests  between  Fort  M'Donald  and  Maturatta 
have  a  very  peculiar  character,  especially  one  nearest  the  latter  place, 
whose  gloom  exceeds  imagination.  The  trees  small  but  lofty  are 
crowded  together  in  the  most  confused  manner — the  young  and  old, 
the  living  and  dead  intermixed.  But  the  melancholy  appearance 
does  not  so  much  arise  from  this  as  from  the  density  of  the  shade 
and  the  extraordinary  maimer  by  which  it  is  in  great  measure  pro- 
duced by  an  exuberance  of  mosses,  with  which  the  trunks  and 
branches  and  even  delicate  twigs  of  the  trees  in  general  are  covered. 
The  moss  hanging  in  filaments  actually  conceals  the  leaves,  and  is 
often  mistaken  for  natural  foliage.  Farther,  the  dismalness  of  the 
scene  is  increased  by  the  closeness  and  chilling  dampness  of  the  air, 
and  by  the  profound  silence  that  prevails.  The  country  beyond  this 
forest  descending  to  Maturatta  is  partly  wooded,  and  partly  open, 
only  covered  with  long  lemon-grass  and  low  shrubs.  The  prospects 
which  open  at  times  in  the  descent,  are  very  striking,  and  may 
without  exaggeration  be  called  sublime,  especially  the  view  of  the 
deep  valley,  exhibiting  at  the  same  time  an  extraordinary  assemblage 
of  clouds  and  torrents,  rocky  heights  and  wooded  mountains,  green 
fields  and  diminutive  cottages. 

The  superficies  of  the  Central  Province  is  30 16  square  miles,  and 
the  population,  which  was  206,497  in  1843,  may  be  estimated  at 
the  current  rate  of  increase  at  227,350  in  1818. 


684  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Climate— How  classified  in  Ceylon— Climate  of  Colombo  throughout  the  year — 
Humidity  .and  variableness  of  the  atmosphere  at  Kandy—  Climate  of  the 
Mahagamapattoo,  of  the  northern  and  interior  districts  of  the  Eastern  Pro- 
vince, of  the  Northern  Province,  exclusive  of  Jaffna,  and  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  Western  Province — Climate  of  the  mountain  zone — Improvement 
of  the  climate  of  Ceylon  in  general — Misrepresentations — Description  of  a 
storm,  and  its  awful  effects — Diseases — Affections  of  the  skin — Intermittent 
and  remittent  fevers,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  Beriberia,  Elephantiasis,  Goitre, 
the  small  pox,  hydrophobia,  diseases  of  the  eye,  spasmodic  cholera. 

Ceylon  possesses,  perhaps,  a  greater  variety  of  climate1  than  any 
other  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe  ;  for  the  sake  of  classification, 
it  may  be  well  to  generalize  it  under  the  three  heads  of  hot,  inter- 
mediate and  temperate,  the  reader  bearing  in  mind  that  a  consider- 
able difference  is  to  be  found  in  the  several  divisions  of  each,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  aspect  and  other  natural  causes.  The  first  prevails 
in  the  maritime  provinces  ;  the  second  in  the  hilly  region  intervening 
between  the  maritime  provinces  and  the  mountainous  belt ;  and  the 
third  in  and  about  the  centi'eof  the  southern  half  of  the  island,  com- 
prising the  mountain  zone,  most  of  which  is  included  within  the 
Central,  and  the  remainder  within  the  Southern  province.  In  reference 

1  At  Trincomalee  the  greatest  daily  variation  is  17°,  and  the  annual  range 
from  74^°  to  912°.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
maritime  provinces  is  between  79°  and  81°  ;  the  extreme  range  of  the  thermometer 
between  68°  and  90°,  and  the  medium  range  between  75°  and  85°.  The  mean 
daily  variation  of  the  temperature  at  Kandy  is  6°,  and  the  annual  range  of  the 
thermometer  from  56°  to  66°  ;  the  climate  is  therefore,  inmost  respects  European. 
In  the  hilly  districts  between  the  Western  and  Central  provinces,  seed  time  and 
harvest  never  cease,  and  while  the  heat  is  scarcely  oppressive,  cold  and  winter  are 
alike  unknown.  At  Nuwera-Elliya  the  mean  daily  variation  of  the  temperature 
is  stated  to  be  as  great  as  10°  and  from  that  to  11°  Fahrenheit,  being  more  than 
three  times  the  mean  daily  variation  on  the  coast,  and  the  diurnal  range  of  the  ther- 
mometer from  36°  to  81°.  Yet  it  is  free  from  that  piercing  wind  so  frequently 
complained  of  in  England,  and  so  productive  of  pulmonary  complaints.  Both  on 
the  Ballane  and  Idalgashina  mountains,  which  may  be  said  to  represent  the 
extremes  of  the  mountain  zone,  warm  clothing  is  necessary,  the  thermometer 
seldom  ranging  above  77°,  and  in  the  colder  months  of  January,  February,  and 
March,  it  varies  from  63°  to  70°.  At  night  a  good  fire  is  indispensable,  for  the 
thermometer  is  occasionally  below  50°,  and  the  mean  temperature  72°  in  the 
day  and  63°  in  the  night.  In  these  very  districts  ice  is  not  uncommon,  and  yet 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  and  all  other  tropical  products  are  cultivated  in  the  vicinity 
under  different  circumstances  of  climate.  During  the  north-east  monsoon  in  the 
mornings  the  level  grounds  and  Kandian  valleys  are  commonly  overspread  by  a 
dense  white  fog  above  which  the  mountains  rise  in  clear  relief  and  peculiar  beauty. 


CHAP.  II.]  CLASSIFICATION    OF    CLIMATE — AT   COLOMBO.  685 

to  the  supply  of  rain,  the  Northern  and  Eastern  Provinces  may  be 
said  to  be  occasionally  subject  to  long  continued  droughts,  and'  the 
Central,  the  Southern  portion  of  the  Western,  and  the  Southern  pro- 
vinces, are  moist  and  comparatively  cool. 

The  following  notes  of  the  weather  at  Colombo  through  the  year, 
have  been  taken  by  an  intelligent  and  experienced  observer.  January 
—  This  month  may  be  conveniently  taken  as  the  commencement  of 
the  meteorological  as  well  as  of  the  civil  year.  The  rains  which 
accompany  the  setting  in  of  the  north-east  monsoon,  are  usually  just 
over,  the  soil  is  moist,  the  sky  is  clear,  and  the  nights  cold,  with  an 
along-shore  or  land  wind  blowing,  which  must  be  guarded  against. 
February — The  along-shore  wind,  (a  strong  parching  wind  from  the 
north-east)  often  continues  to  blow  the  greater  part  of  this  month, 
night  and  day.  It  carries  off  the  moisture  of  the  ground  and  the 
skin  rapidly,  and  gives  rheumatism,  &c.  to  those  who  expose  them- 
selves incautiously  to  it.  The  difference  between  the  wet  bulb  and 
the  dry  thermometer  sometimes  amounts  to  12°.  March — The  dry 
earth  now  receives  far  more  heat  from  the  sun  than  it  parts  with  by 
evaporation  or  terrestrial  radiation.  The  weather  is  becoming  very 
warm.  The  calmness  of  the  ocean,  however,  and  the  >  alternate  sea 
breezes  by  day  and  land  winds  by  night,  give  a  pleasing  variety. 
But  the  heat  is  oppressive  compared  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  year. 
April — Indications  of  the  approach  of  the  south-west  monsoon  are  to 
be  observed  in  a  ground  swell  in  the  sea,  and  south-west  breeze,  more 
steady  than  the  sea  breeze  of  last  month  ;  the  temperature,  however, 
continues  to  rise,  and  all  who  can  afford  it,  obtain  leave  or  escape,  and 
are  among  the  mountains.  May — By  the  middle  of  this  month 
general  showers  usually  begin  to  fall.  The  wind  is  steadily  in  the 
south-west,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  month  there  are  usually  thun- 
der and  lightning  every  afternoon  in  the  south-west,  with  heavy 
showers,  each  preceded  by  a  squall.  June — It  now  rains  heavily, 
with  squalls  from  the  south-west.  The  sky  is  often  clouded  for  a 
fortnight,  but  it  seldom  rains  twenty-four  hours  without  intermission. 
July — The  rains  are  now  over,  and  a  steady  south-west  wind  blows 
day  and  night,  perfectly  balmy  and  innocent,  the  difference  between 
the  wet  and  dry  thermometer  seldom  exceeding  six  degrees.  August 
— Weather  the  same  as  July,  but  somewhat  warmer,  in  consequence 
of  the  smaller  amount  of  evaporation.  September — Weather  the 
same  as  in  July  and  August,  but  still  warmer,  in  consequence  of  the 
still  smaller  amount  of  evaporation.  These  months  are  usually  cool, 
however,  compared  with  March,  April,  and  May  ;  and  towards  the 
end  of  this  month,  heavy  showers  usually  fall,  which  are  very  accept- 
able. October — The  first  half  of  this  month  is  usually  marked  by 
rains,  which  are  very  heavy,  though  of  short  duration.  By  these 
the  air  is  cooled  and  the  soil  refreshed,  though  extensive  inundations 
often  result.  November — The  pleasant  weather  of  the  latter  part  of 
October  is  usually  continued  to  the  middle  of  this  month,  when 


686  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

thunder  clouds  gather  every  afternoon  in  the  north-east,  and  night 
rains  fall,  followed  by  land  winds.  It  is  the  north-east  monsoon. 
December— The  rains 'from  the  north-east  of  the  preceding  month 
often  continue  during  this,  usually  with  much  thunder  and  lightning, 
and  with  alternate  sea  breezes  and  land  winds,  so  that  the  new  year 
usually  sets  in  with  the  soil  saturated  with  moisture,  and  colder  than 
at  any  other  time,  from  the  enjoyment  of  which,  however,  the  along- 
shore winds  which  now  set  in  and  blowing  fresh,  detract  not  a  little. 

The  climate  of  Kandy  is  generally  much  cooler  than  that  of  Co- 
lombo, but  much  more  variable  and  trying  to  some  constitutions. 
The  range  of  the  thermometer  being  from  54°  to  87°,  the  mean  about 
740.  The  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  course  of  a  year  at  both 
places  does  not  differ  so  much  as  we  might  expect,  being  84  inches 
at  Colombo  and  90  at  Kandy.  But  the  mountain  capital  sees  the 
hills  around  it  almost  daily  enveloped  in  misty  drizzly  clouds,  which 
ever  and  anon  descend  in  showers.  In  Colombo  the  rains  are  occa- 
sionally tremendous,  but  there  are  long  intervals  of  dry  weather  on 
which  Kandy  can  rarely  count.  The  result  is  that  Kandy  is  at  pre- 
sent not  so  healthy  a  residence  for  Europeans  as  Colombo,  and  in- 
valids from  the  latter  place  find  it  beneficial  to  move  further  up 
among  the  hills.  Dysentery  and  fever  are  the  prevalent  diseases,  and 
for  the  cure  of  these  a  journey  to  the  coast  is  the  most  efficacious. 
The  Tamul  coolies  suffer  much  from  the  humid  climate  of  the  inte- 
rior, and  many  of  them  die  from  the  before-named  diseases,  which 
are  aggravated  by  their  filthy  habits,  penurious  mode  of  living,  and 
want  of  warm  clothing.  The  positively  unhealthy  districts  of  Ceylon 
are  the  Mahagamapatoo,  in  the  Southern  Province,  where  the  pre- 
valence of  jungle  and  its  accompanying  miasm,  together  with  a  sparse 
population,  and  a  backward  state  of  agriculture,  combine  to  produce 
the  never-failing  result.  Hence  the  mortality  was  formerly  so  great 
here,  that  the  Governor  on  one  occasion  withdrew  the  officers  of  the 
detachment  stationed  at  Hambantotte  for  six  months  until  the 
jungle  fever  had  subsided.  The  climate  of  the  adjoining  districts  of 
Matura  and  Galle,  though  so  damp,  that  unless  books  and  clothes 
are  frequently  exposed  to  the  sun,  they  become  covered  with  mildew 
and  decay,  is  sufficiently  salubrious.  The  northern  and  interior  dis- 
tricts of  the  Eastern  Province  are  no  less  unhealthy  than  the  Maha- 
gamapattoo,  and  from  much  the  same  causes  ;  the  greater  part  of  the 
Northern  Province,  exclusive  of  the  Jaffna  peninsula  and  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Western  Province,  may  with  some  modifications  be 
classed  under  the  same  category.  Of  the  climate  of  the  mountain 
zone  to  which  we  would  fain  draw  the  attention  of  the  small  capi- 
talist, who  is  desirous  of  adding  health  to  the  other  advantages  result- 
ing from  leaving  an  over-peopled  country,  it  is  impossible  to  speak 
in  too  high  terms  of  praise. 

The  increase  of  cultivation  has  already  produced  a  wonderful  change 
in  every  district,  improving  their  salubrity  by  rendering  the  climate 


CHAP.    II.]         CLIMATE    OF    KANDY,    ANT)    OTHER    DISTRICTS.  G87 

more  equable,  and  removing  the  standing  water,  that  great  source  of 
disease  in  tropical  countries.  With  the  clearance  of  the  dense 
jungles  and  impervious  forests,  where  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter  bad  continued  through  countless  ages  and  the  evaporation  of 
mephitic  gases  bad  been  obstructed,  malaria  has  disappeared,  and  in 
places  where  only  a  partial  clearance  has  taken  place,  a  correspond- 
ing degree  of  salubrity  has  followed,  and  disease  has  ceased  to 
be  permanent  in  its  former  habitat.  When  three-fourths,  in- 
stead of  one-fourth  of  the  island,  shall  have  been  added  to  the 
domains  of  agriculture,  Ceylon  will  rank  in  point  of  salubrity  scarcely 
below  Great  Britain  herself.  I  have  endeavoured  to  view  tins  ques- 
tion dispassionately.  Attempts  have  been  made  by  some  to  decry 
the  climate  of  Ceylon,  and  without  any  qualification,  to  class  it  in 
the  list  of  human  charnel  houses.  Others  on  the  contrary  have 
pronounced  it  a  sanatorial  Elysium.  It  is  needless  to  add,  that  both 
are  in  great  measure  incorrect.  We  have  already  pointed  out  the 
deductions  necessary  to  be  made  before  the  general  nature  of  the 
climate  can  be  accurately  determined,  and  it  only  remains  for  us  to 
state,  tbat,  taking  into  consideration  its  geographical  position,  it  has 
no  parallel  in  the  East  for  general  salubrity,  Thus  the  maritime 
provinces,  where  the  heat  would  be  otherwise  insupportable,  are 
favoured  with  an  almost  continual  sea  breeze,  rendering  them  much 
more  temperate  than  the  climate  of  the  peninsula.  Yet  the  natives, 
and  even  the  Dutch,  appear  to  have  had  an  insuperable  objection  to 
this  antidote  against  the  torrid  heat,  and  allowed  underwood  to 
grow  around  their  houses  to  exclude  its  cooling  and  wholesome  in- 
fluence- The  great  elevation  of  the  mountains  not  only  insures  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  cold  to  the  interior,  but  attracts  so  many  clouds  and 
so  much  moisture,  as  to  perpetuate  the  evergreen  of  its  forests  and 
permit  the  unceasing  cultivation  of  the  fields  over  one-half  of  the 
country.  The  side  of  the  great  Kandian  range  of  hills  nearest  to 
the  eastern  coast,  partakes,  in  part,  of  the  deficiency  of  moisture 
which  distinguishes  the  maritime  provinces  nearest  the  range,  and  it 
is  remarkable  that  on  one  side  of  these  hills  the  climate  is  moist  and 
cool,  its  vegetation  rich,  and  continually  refreshed  by  showers,  while 
on  the  other  side,  except  during  the  rainy  season,  there  prevail 
oppressive  heats  and  parching  winds.  The  coolest  season,  at  least  in 
one-half  of  the  island,  is  during  the  prevalence  of  the  south-west 
monsoon,  which  sets  in  in  May,  and  continues  till  the  end  of  October, 
when  the  sun  is  to  the  northward  of  the  equator.  The  change  of 
the  monsoon  is  generally  preceded  by  copious  and  refreshing  rains, 
which  continue  at  intervals  more  or  less  for  three  months.  The 
north-east  monsoon  is  of  shorter  duration,  beginning  in  Novem- 
ber and  continuing  till  March,  when  the  sun  has  passed  to  the 
southward  of  the  equator.  The  northern  parts  of  the  island  arc 
then  deluged  with  the  heavy  rains,  and  either  monsoon  is  attended 
with  the  most  tremendous  thunder  and  vivid  lightning  conceivable. 


688  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

The  results  of  these  awful  outbursts  of  elemental  strife  are  in 
great  measure  unattended  with  the  casualties  occurring  in  northern 
countries,  as  if  nature,  conscious  of  her  immense  power,  magnani- 
mously withheld  the  shock  from  engines  of  destruction  that  would 
infallibly  convulse  the  locality  on  which  it  might  fall. 

Previous  to  the  fall  of  these  deluges  the  sky  in  the  quarter  from 
whence  they  approach,  becomes  gradually  darkened  upward  from 
the  horizon,  and  appears  of  an  inky  hue  so  dense,  that  the  distant 
hills  look  less  solid  than  the  advancing  curtain  of  clouds.  The  plains 
seem  lost  in  dull  shadows,   and  the   mountains  are  lighted  with  a 
lurid  gleam  of  dusky  red  that  escapes  from  the  open  part  of  the 
heavens.     Every  second  this  clear   space  with  its  pale,   cold  blue 
sky  is  visible,  contracted  by  dark  swollen  masses  of  vapour,  which 
are  gradually  subduing  the  sickly  lights  that  linger  on  the  highest 
pinnacles.      At  first  during  these  symptoms  there  is  an  oppressive 
calm  under  which  in  great  measure  every  thing  in  nature  seems 
to    droop.      The   leaves   hang   listless  on  the   boughs,   the   beasts 
retire  to  the   forest  glades,  the  birds  seek  shelter  in  the  coverts  ; 
numerous    flocks    of  white  cranes    following  each    other  in   lines, 
or  forming  themselves  in  angles,  alone  attract  tbe  eye  as  they  seek 
new  ground,    and  prepare  for  the   approaching  storm.       Before  a 
breath  of  air  is  felt,  tiny  whirlwinds  are  seen  beneath  the  bushes 
twirling  round  a  few  light  withered  leaves,  or  trundling  them  along 
the  footpath.  These  fairy  hurricanes  are  succeeded  by  a  rushing  sound 
among  the  trees  overhead,  accompanied  by  the  rustling  and  falling 
of  decayed  leaves,  then  a  gentle  and  refreshing  air  suddenly  gives 
place  to  cold  breezes,  gusts,  squalls,  until  heavy  drops  of  rain  crowd 
into  descending  sheets  of  water,  transforming  steep  paths  into  cata- 
racts, and  broad  roads  into  beds  of  rivers.     Before  the  murky  cur- 
tain that  is  closing  over  the  sky,  flickers  a  cold  misty  veil,  and  a 
dull  vapour  rolls  in  advance  along  the  ground;    these  appearances 
arise  from  the  rain  drops  splashing  on  the  dusty  ground,   or  jostling 
and  splintering  as  they  descend  from  the  teeming  darkness.     The 
stream  that  before  the  storm  did  not  exceed  three  inches  in  depth, 
has  now  to  be  swum  over,   so  immense  and  sudden  is  the  rainy 
avalanche,  and  the  smallest  rivers  become  for  a  time  impassable. 
Down  these  streams  may  at  these  times  be  seen  the  dead  carcases  of 
buffaloes  rolling  and  tumbling.     Occasionally  some  one  alive,  and 
lately  swept  off,  may  be  seen  hurried  along,  while  still  plunging  and 
struggling  in  hopeless  strife  with  the  raging  waters.     The  soil  of  the 
mountains,    softened  and   saturated   by  the  continued   floods,  and 
having  no  longer  tenacity  to  retain  the  great  stones  or  loose  masses 
of  rock  that  rest  on  their  steep  sides  and  arched  summit,  they  are 
loosened,  and  rush  with  resistless  force,  crashing  through  the  forest, 
or  thundering  over  the  bare  rocks  until  they  reach  the  level  grounds, 
and  there  find  a  resting  place.     Landslips,   entombing  houses  and 
burying  their  inhabitants,  are  occasionally  happening,    and  roads, 


CHAP.    II.]    STORMS  AT  CHANGE  OF  MONSOONS— BUDDHA-RAYS.    689 

bridges  and  rice  fields,  deluged  oi'  destroyed.  The  destruction  of 
cattle  and  the  loss  of  human  life  is  frequently  great  from  the  same 
causes. 

A  peculiar  and  beautiful  meteor  is  sometimes  seen  in  Ceylon, 
called  Buddha-rays ;  it  is  supposed  by  the  natives  only  to  appear 
over  a  temple  or  tomb  of  Buddha's  relics,  and  from  thence  to 
emanate.  It  is  seen  by  day  only  in  clear  weather,  and  generally 
after  a  long  continued  drought.  Buddhists  believe  that  these  rays 
appear  in  the  heavens  as  a  sign  to  the  faithful  that  the  religion  of 
Gautama  will  endure  for  5000  years  from  the  time  of  his  death. 
These  bright  rays  are  often  sharply  defined  on  the  blue  sky,  and  will 
rise  from  one  and  sometimes  from  two  opposite  sides  of  the  horizon, 
but  this  beautiful  phenomenon  has  been  known  to  arise  from  the 
four  points  of  the  compass,  until  the  gradually  expanded  rays  crossed 
in  the  ethereal  dome. 

Few  intertropical  islands  suffer  less  from  violent  storms  and  hurri- 
canes than  Ceylon  ;  when  the  latter  occur  they  are  generally  attended 
with  thunder,  lightning,  and  heavy  rain  and  hail,  and  will  in  a  mo- 
ment unroof  a  house,  and  tear  up  from  the  roots  the  largest  trees. 
Hail  is  a  phenomenon  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  maritime  provinces, 
where  indeed  it  is  hardly  seen  once  a  century.  On  the  higher  moun- 
tains it  is  of  constant  occurrence. 

The  ailments  that  visit  the  European  immediately  on  his  arrival  in 
Ceylon  are  of  a  trifling  nature,  and  arising  as  they  do  from  a  change  of 
air,  are  generally  the  companions  of  good  health.  The  prickly  heat 
(Lichen  tropicus)  consists  of  a  troublesome  affection  of  the  skin, 
which  is  allayed  by  taking  mild  aperient  medicine,  abstaining  from 
acidulated  drinks  and  using  a  light  diet.  Fever  is  the  most  common 
disease  of  any  severity  to  which  the  newly  arrived  are  subject,  and 
commonly  arises  from  imprudent  exposure  to  the  sun  or  from  intem- 
perance. There  is  another  disease  which  acts  on  the  texture  of  the 
skin,  and  is  indicated  by  redness,  slight  swelling  and  severe  itching, 
and  in  most  cases  by  a  serous  discharge.  It  is  sometimes  accom- 
panied with  minute  irritable  pimples,  still  more  rarely  with  minute 
pustules  that  give  rise  to  small  superficial  ulcers  that  heal  readily  if 
not  neglected.  The  diseased  action  commonly  begins  between  the 
toes  and  in  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  palms  of  the  hands.  It  is  a 
wandering  malady,  and  leaves  one  part  for  another  till  it  wears  itself 
out  or  heals  spontaneously.  Exercise  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon 
it,  and  it  is  thought  would  alone  cure  it,  if  extensively  taken.  The 
itching,  which  is  often  intense,  and  always  the  most  troublesome 
symptom,  is  allayed  by  covering  the  parts  affected  with  simple  dress- 
ing after  washing  them  in  lukewarm  water. 

Intermittent  and  remittent  fever  are  common  at  certain  seasons, 
the  former  most  frequently  attacks  the  natives,  the  latter  Europeans. 
Though  remittent  fever  rarely  terminates  in  ague,  in  case  of  relapse 
ague  mostlv  succeeds  it,  so  that  it  is  not  usual  for  the  same  indi- 

2   Y 


090  CEYLON.  [PAUT  IV. 

vidual  to  experience  two  attacks  of  the  disease,  except  after  an  inter- 
val of  some  years.  Both  species  are  modified  and  diversified  by 
circumstances ;  the  fever  of  almost  every  year  and  season  and  place 
has  something  peculiar  to  mark  it ;  sometimes  there  is  a  tendency  to 
delirium,  sometimes  to  intermission  and  relapse,  and  disease  of  the 
spleen,  at  others  to  dysentery.  The  use  of  opium  would  appear  to  be 
very  beneficial  in  remittent  fever.  There  is  one  remarkable  fact  con- 
nected with  diseases  in  Ceylon,  that  its  climate  does  not  breed  or 
tolerate  any  infectious  fever.  Typhus  and  the  plague  are  both 
equally  unknown  to  the  eastward  of  the  Indus. 

Diarrhoea  is  frequent,  and  there  is  one  species  in  which  the  dejec- 
tions are  white,  the  body  becomes  debilitated,  emaciated  and 
feverish.  Dysentery  is  a  terrible  disease  in  Ceylon  from  the  severity 
of  its  symptoms,  the  rapidity  with  winch  it  runs  its  course,  the  diffi- 
culty of  checking  it,  and  its  frequently  fatal  termination ;  at  its  very 
commencement  it  is  attended  with  ulceration  ;  the  mode  of  treating 
this  disease  is  still  far  from  settled,  but  opium  acts  in  a  favourable 
manner.  Intemperance  either  in  eating  or  drinking,  the  immoderate 
use  of  fruit  and  exposure  of  the  abdomen  to  the  night  air  would 
seem  to  be  the  predisposing  causes.  Nervous  affections  are  not 
common  among  the  natives  in  their  lighter  development,  but  insa- 
nity is  not  unfrequent.  Beri-beria,  a  disease  almost  peculiar  to  Cey- 
lon, is  perhaps  to  be  traced  to  an  extraordinary  state  of  atmosphere. 
It  only  occasionally  occurs. 

Elephantiasis  (Elephant  leprosy)  is  prevalent  in  some  districts  in 
the  south  of  the  island  where  the  temperature  through  the  year  is 
uniformly  high,  and  the  air  loaded  with  moisture,  though  the  cause 
of  the  disease  is  unknown.  It  is  truly  distressing  ;  the  legs  assume 
the  shape  and  size  of  those  of  a  young  elephant,  and  the  skin,  their 
asperity  and  wrinkles  ;  these  the  sufferer  drags  slowly  along  with 
difficulty.  This  malady  is  without  cure,  unless  powerful  remedies 
are  applied  at  its  first  appearance  ;  in  which  case  instances  have  been 
known,  where  the  native  doctors,  who  are  extremely  skilful  in  the 
treatment  of  cutaneous  diseases,  have  succeeded  in  eradicating  it.  The 
native  name  for  this  complaint  is  Alia  and  Koraah,  and  arsenic  if  re- 
sorted to  in  the  incipient  stage  mixed  with  ghee  and  applied  exter- 
nally, is  the  alleged  means  of  cure.  The  two  kinds  of  this  disease, 
"  the  leprosy  of  the  joints"  and  the  tuberculated  species,  are  some- 
times here  combined.' 

1  Dr.  Davy  describes  the  symptoms  of  a  Singhalese  in  the  last  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease by  which  he  had  been  affected  fourteen  years.  The  face  and  ears  puffy,  de- 
formed with  tubercles,  and  the  latter  as  well  as  the  lips  were  enlarged.  The  eye- 
brows were  without  hair,  the  skin  of  most  parts  of  the  body  was  thickened  and 
tuberculated,  the  feet  swollen  and  ulcerated,  the  fingers  and  toes  were  disfigured 
and  several  joints  of  the  former  had  dropped  off  in  the  course  of  the  disease.  The 
patient  was  debilitated,  and  his  health  was  greatly  deranged.  Shortly  after,  he 
died,  when  the  surface  of  the  body  was  fissured  and  excoriated  in  a  hundred  dif- 


CHAP.  IV.]     DISEASES — FEVERS,  DIARRIKEA,  DYSENTERY,    &C.       691 

Goitre  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the  Galle  district.  The  same 
disease,  which  in  Switzerland  is  attributed  to  the  use  of  snow  water, 
arises  here  from  a  different  but  as  yet  inexplicable  cause.  The 
water  of  the  fort  of  Galle,  though  exceedingly  transparent,  is  objected 
to  by  all  Europeans,  except  for  culinary  service,  and  the  wells  outside 
the  town  are  resorted  to  for  the  purpose.  Neither  Europeans  nor 
the  native  males  are  affected  with  this  disease,  and  it  seems  to  be 
confined  to  native  females,  to  whom  it  gives  a  disgusting  guttural 
protuberance. 

The  small-pox  is  perhaps  the  most  awful  disease  by  which  the 
island  has  been  visited,  and  has  doubtless  been  one  great  cause  of  its 
depopulation.  Forbes  thinks  it  was  this  visitation  which  is  recorded 
by  the  native  annalists  as  the  red-eyed  demon  of  pestilence  thai 
swept  the  country  of  half  its  people  in  the  third  century,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Sirisangabo.  The  natives  term  it  Mahailada,  or  the  great 
sickness,  and  believe  it  to  be  a  direct  infliction  of  the  gods,  and  so 
terrified  were  they  a  few  years  ago  at  its  appearance,  that  near  rela- 
tions, who  were  not  on  ordinary  occasions  deficient  in  fraternal  feel- 
ing, would  leave1  their  afflicted  kinsmen  to  perish  unheeded  and  unat- 
tended, and  would  not  be  induced  by  bribes  or  entreaties  to  interfere 
with  a  corpse,  as  they  believed  marked  by  the  wrath  of  their  gods. 
In  the  forests  on  the  side  of  Ambokka  Kandi  are  situated,  says 
Forbes,  the  remains  of  Rangalla  Nuwara,  and  at  its  base  a  temple  of 
the  same  name  is  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Patine  ;  this  goddess,  and 
this  particular  temple  or  the  relics  it  contained,  were  supposed  to  be 
of  extraordinary  efficacy  in  preventing  or  averting  small-pox,  so  that 
when  that  dreadful  disease  raged  in  Matale,  the  kappuralle  (priest)  of 
Ambokka  was  in  constant  request,  and  reaped  an  abundant  harvest 
from  the  terror  and  superstition  of  his  neighbours.  Every  village  in 
the  vicinity  of  an  infected  place  by  means  of  presents  nominally  of- 
fered to  the  goddess,  the  most  valuable  of  which  were  appropriated 
by  the  kappuralle,  procured  his  presence  and  the  relics  from  the 
temple,  consisting  of  a  shield  and  bangle  (armlet),  which  were  borne 
through  the  village  followed  by  all  the  inhabitants,  and  duly  ho- 
noured by  the  noise  of  every  tom-tom,  pipe,  chanque  shell  or  trumpet 
which  they  could  procure.  The  kappuralle  had  been  at  a  former 
period  afflicted  with  the  natural  small-pox,  and  was  shrewd  enough  to 

ferent  places,  the  left  foot  was  in  a  state  of  gangrene.  After  death  the  whole  sys- 
tem appeared  to  have  been  disorganised,  and  the  ramifications  of  the  disease  ap- 
peared ecpially  minute  and  extended. 

1  The  devastations  committed  by  wild  animals  during  the  absence  of  the  fugitive 
members  of  a  family  are  described  as  heart-rending  in  the  extreme,  a  whole 
property  being  rendered  desolate.  Inoculation,  discountenanced  under  the 
Dutch,  was  introduced  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  British,  and  the  Jennerian 
improvement  followed  in  1802.  Hospitals  were  also  erected  for  the  special  re- 
ception of  persons  affected  with  the  malady,  and  medical  officers  were  allotted  to 
various  districts,  through  which  they  were  expected  to  itinerate.  The  result  bas 
been  most  encouraging,  and  the  red-eyed  demon  no  longer  decimates  the  population. 

2   Y   2 


6!>2  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

have  his  own  family  vaccinated,  though  his  supposed  temerity  in 
visiting  infected  villages,  and  his  good  fortune  in  escaping  contagion 
were  accounted  for  by  himself,  and  believed  by  the  people,  to 
arise  from  the  protection  of  the  goddess.  His  influence  was  hence 
considerable,  and  his  selfishness  led  him  to  use  every  secret  means  of 
checking  the  progress  of  vaccination  among  the  dupes  by  whom  he 
was  enriching  himself. 

Active  measures  have  been  taken  of  late  years  and  with  some 
success  to  supply  vaccinators,  and  to  induce  the  natives  to  profit 
by  their  exertions,  hence  a  scene,  such  as  I  am  about  to  pourtray, 
may  in  a  few  years  not  be  expected  to  recur.  "  I  found,"  says 
Forbes,  "  lying  in  a  field,  with  her  head  close  to  a  well,  the  body  of 
a  woman,  who  had  but  lately  expired.  Tormented  by  thirst,  and 
deserted  by  her  friends,  she  had  crept  to  the  water,  whilst  in  the 
last  agonies  of  this  loathsome  disease.  By  permission  of  her  relatives, 
I  offered  her  property,  including  a  portion  of  land,  to  whoever  would 
bury  the  body,  but  all  my  arguments  and  entreaties  would  not  induce 
any  one,  even  the  most  wretched  pauper,  to  acquire  a  competency  by 
burying  it."  The  same  writer  mentions  another  case,  where  a  man 
of  weak  intellect  and  eccentric  habits  had  two  children  lying  dead, 
whom  he  had  carefully  tended,  and  another  whose  case  seemed 
desperate.  In  a  paroxysm  of  grief,  the  old  man  caught  up  the  only 
survivor,  and  carrying  her  several  miles  over  a  mountain  before 
morning,  laid  her  down  beside  a  temple  in  another  district,  where  he 
made  his  offerings,  and  bore  back  his  charge.  The  affectionate 
parent  was  rewarded  by  the  speedy  recovery  of  his  daughter,  who 
had  probably  benefited  by  the  cool  mountain  air. 

Hydrophobia,  to  which  remedies  have  been  applied  in  Europe,  the 
natives  acknowledge  their  inability  to  cure,  though  they  can  heal  the 
wound.  Three  months  is  the  time  after  which  they  consider  any 
one  safe  who  has  been  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  but  in  this  they  are  mis- 
taken. Hydrophobia  is  a  frequent  disease  during  the  hot  season, 
and  jackalls  are  sometimes  affected  with  it,  when  they  will  attack 
man  or  any  other  animal. 

In  relieving  complaints  of  the  eye,  the  native  medical  practitioners 
are  very  skilful,  and  use  most  powerful  medicines,  though  from  their 
ignorance  of  other  branches  of  surgery,  they  are  known  sometimes  to 
do  injury.  In  Ceylon  there  is  a  disease  common  to  cattle  and  horses, 
from  which  human  beings  are  free,  it  is  a  worm  that  finds  its  way 
into  the  aqueous  humour  of  the  eye,  which  it  first  distends,  then 
dims  its  colour,  and  eventually  deprives  of  its  functions.  The  appli- 
cations used,  are  almost,  if  not  wholly,  preparations  or  portions  of 
vegetables,  which  though  causing  intense  pain,  generally  prove 
successful,  and  the  insect  being  destroyed,  the  eye  eventually  recovers 
its  transparency.  In  their  management  of  boils  and  tumours  (com- 
mon visitations  in  Ceylon)  they  are  particularly  successful,  and 
among  many  different  forms  of  treatment,  occasionally  make  most 
daring  and  extensive  use  of  the  actual  cautery. 


CHAP.    III.]       GOITRE,    SMALL-POX,    SPASMODIC    CHOLEKA.  6*9.3 

Spasmodic  cholera  is  an  epidemic,  that  has  at  different  periods, 
made  fearful  havoc  in  the  island.  In  1832,  59  out  of  a  body 
of  252  of  the  78th  Highlanders  were  carried  off  in  less  than  a  month, 
—  the  cheerful  falling  victims  no  less  than  the  desponding,  the  tem- 
perate as  well  as  the  drunkard,  though  the  latter  was  of  course  the 
soonest  victim,  to  the  fatal  malady.  This  disease  was  fed  by,  if  indeed, 
it  did  not  originate  in  the  position  and  construction  of  the  Trinco- 
malee  barracks,  to  which  an  ill-ventilated  hospital  was  attached.  In 
the  preceding  year,  a  vast  number  of  elephants  and  other  wild 
animals  had  been  carried  off  by  an  epidemic,  which  did  not  affect  the 
people.  The  natives  account  for  this  by  a  belief,  that  sickness  among 
wild  animals,  and  cattle  generally,  precedes  by  a  year  any  pestilence 
amongst  the  population  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy   of   Ceylon — Soils — Rocks,    Minerals,  Gems,    &c. — 

Springs — Salts. 

The  soils  of  Ceylon  have  certain  points  of  general  resemblance,  as 
indeed  the  geological  conformation  of  the  island  would  indicate. 
Without  an  exception  perhaps  they  are  all  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  gneiss,  of  granitic  rock,  or  of  clay-iron-stone,  or,  as  it  is 
called,  kabook  ;  the  principal  ingredients  of  which  are  quartz  in  the 
form  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  decomposed  felspar  in  the  state  of  clay, 
with  more  or  less  oxide  of  iron.  According  to  Dr.  Gardner,  kabook 
is  decomposed  gneiss.  Quartz  is,  in  most  instances,  the  predominat- 
ing ingredient,  and  often  constitutes  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the 
whole.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  rarely  to  be  detected  in  the  soil,  and 
phosphate  of  lime  never.  Carbonate  of  lime,  or  of  magnesia,  is  not 
always  found,  even  in  soil  lying  incumbent  in  dolomite  rock,  as  at 
Nalande,  or  on  limestone  rock,  as  at  Jaffnapatam. 

The  soils  of  Ceylon  do  not,  as  is  the  case  in  other  tropical  coun- 
tries, abound  in  vegetable  matter,  seldom  containing  more  than  be- 
tween one  and  three  per  cent.,  and  the  only  exceptional  case  is  that 
of  soil  at  an  elevation  of  from  four  to  five  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  where  the  temperature  is  comparatively  low,  and  the 
ground  very  damp.  Thus  among  the  mountains  of  Upper  Ouva, 
the  soil  is  black,  and  contains  between  seven  and  ten  per  cent,  of 
vegetable  matter  in  a  state  analogous  to  that  of  peat.  The  small  pro- 
portion of  vegetable  matter  that  usually  occurs,  may  with  reason  be 
referred  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  climate  producing  rapid 
decomposition,  and  to  the  heavy  rains  which  carry  off  any  accumu- 
lations. To  the  latter  cause  also  may  probably  be  assigned  the  great 
scarcity  of  calcareous  matter. 


604  CEYLON.  [1'ART   IV. 

The  best  and  most  productive  soils  in  Ceylon  are  a  brown  loam, 
resulting  from  a  decomposition  of  gneiss,  or  granitic  rock,  abounding 
in  felspar,  or  a  reddish  brown  loam,  resulting  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  clay-iron-stone.  The  power  this  soil  possesses  of  retain- 
ing water  to  a  great  degree,  is  an  excellent  quality  in  such  a  climate, 
and  to  it  may  be  attributed  its  singular  productiveness.  The  result 
of  a  well  dried  specimen  has  shewn  this  soil  to  consist  of  83-5  of 
ferruginous  clay,  and  16'5  of  water.  The  worst  soils  are  those 
which  abound  most  in  quartz,  derived  from  the  disintegration  of 
quartz  rock,  or  of  granite  or  gneiss,  containing  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  this  mineral. 

The  common  soil  of  the  coral  island  Delft,  off  the  north  coast, 
celebrated/or  its  excellent  pasturage,  is  destitute  of  calcareous  matter, 
though  it"  is  incumbent  on  a  bed  of  coral.     The  colour^  is  a  dirty 
yellow  sand,  very  fine,  slightly  cohering,  and  consisting  in  its  dried 
state  of  95  per  cent,  of  silicious  sand,    tinged  with  iron,  and  perhaps 
a  little  alumine,  2*5  vegetable  matter,   and  2-5   water.      No  less 
remarkable  are  some  of  the  soils  of  Jaffnapatam ;   thus  the  soil  of  a 
tobacco  field  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  which  had  been  manured 
by  sheep  like  a  turnip  field  in  England,  but  collected  when  perhaps 
partially  exhausted,   the  crop  not  having  been  long  taken  off  the 
ground,   consisted  of  95*5  silicious  sand,  coloured  by  iron,  with  a 
few  particles  of  calcareous  matter,  2  vegetable  matter,  2-5   water. 
The  soil  of  a  rice  field  in  the  same  district,  which  received  no  manure, 
but  was  carefully  irrigated,  and  was  of  a  light  grey  colour,  contain- 
ing a  good  deal  of  straw  in  minute  particles,  consisted  of  95*5  sili- 
cious sand  with  traces  of  iron,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  alumine,  2*5 
vegetable  matter,  and  2  water.      It  is  a  subject  of  consideration 
whether  the  fine  silicious  sand  may  not  be  drifted  by  strong  winds 
from  a  distance,  as  frequently  happens  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
during  a  south-east  wind,    but   this  does    not  wholly   account  for 
the  extraordinary  circumstance  that  in  islands,   the  foundations  of 
which  are  calcareous,  there  should  be  so  little  calcareous  and  so 
large  a  proportion  of  silicious  matter  in  the  soil.     The  action  of  the 
heavy  periodical  rains  by  gradually  washing  out  the  calcareous  mat- 
ter, would,  perhaps,  joined  with  the  other  theory,  in  a  great  measure, 
solve  the  problem. 

The  above  description  of  the  soils  of  Ceylon  is  equally  applicable 
to  the  Kandian  and  to  the  maritime  provinces.  In  reference  to 
agricultural  improvement,  the  subject  is  highly  important,  and  no 
where  is  it  more  deserving  of  attention  and  investigation  than  in 
Ceylon,  where  the  ground  is  in  its  original  state,  and  where,  with 
few  exceptions,  now  happily  becoming  more  extended,  little  or  no 
attempt  has  been  made  by  man  either  to  correct  the  defects,  or  to 
increase  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  by  the  use  of  manure. 

In  Ceylon  there  is  not  that  order  and  succession  of  rocks  to  be 
found  as  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe.     Uniformity  of  for- 


CHAP.    III.]  SOILS—  ROCKS  OF  PRIMITIVE  FORMATION.  695 

mation  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  geological  character 
of  the  island,  and  with  but  few  and  partial  exceptions,  such  as  at 
Jaffna  and  the  contiguous  islets,  and  here  and  there  along  the  shore 
about  high  water  mark,  it  may  be  said  to  consist  of  primitive  rock, 
and  unconnected  with  any  other  class  of  rock,  exclusive  of  those  of 
very  recent  formation. 

Another  remarkable  geological  fact  is,  that  though  the  varieties  of 
primitive  rock  are  extremely  numerous,  and  indeed  almost  infinite  : 
the  species  are  very  few,  and  seldom  well  defined.  The  most  pre- 
vailing species  are  granite  or  gneiss  ;  the  less  frequent  are  quartz-rock, 
hornblende  rock,  and  dolomite  rock,  which  may  be  classed  under 
the  head  of  imbedded  minerals. 

The  varieties  of  granite  and  gneiss  are  endless,  passing  often  from 
one  into  another,  and  at  times  losing  their  character  by  the  transition, 
and  assuming  appearances  for  which,  in  small  masses,  there  would 
be  a  difficulty  in  finding  appropriate  names.  These  mutations  and 
remarkable  variations  are  traceable  chiefly  to  composition,  the  pro- 
portions of  the  elements,  the  excess  or  deficiency  of  one  or  more, 
or  on  the  addition  of  new  ingredients.  Nor  should  mechanical 
structure,  variation  in  which,  though  hardly  palpable  in  reference  to 
causes,  has  an  evident  effect  in  regulating  appearances,  be  omitted. 
Regular  granite  is  rare  ;  where  found  it  is  generally  of  a  grey  colour 
and  fine  grained.  Graphic  granite  is  still  rarer.  The  quartz,  where 
it  is  found,  is  black  or  grey  rock  crystal,  and  the  felspar  highly  crys- 
talline and  of  a  bright  flesh  colour.  The  quartz  envelopes  the  felspar 
in  very  thin  hexagonal  or  triagonal  cases,  so  that  nothing  can  more 
vary  in  appearance  than  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  fracture  of 
of  the  rock.  Petrifactions  of  wood,  combining  quartz  and  felspar, 
have  been  occasionally  found  in  the  interior.  This  is  a  mineralogical 
novelty,  the  latter  substance  never  having  been  found  in  petrifactions 
of  a  similar  nature. 

Moonstone  has  also  been  found  embodied  in  porphyric  rocks  in  large 
masses,  and  is  more  beautiful  than  moonstone  hitherto  dug  from  rocks 
of  decomposed  white  clay.  Sienite  is  uncommon.  It  occurs  in  the 
interior,  rather  forming  a  part  of  rocks  of  a  different  kind  thau  in 
great  mountain  masses. 

Well  formed  gneiss  is  more  abundant  than  granite.  Its  peculiar 
structure  may  be  seen  in  many  places,  but  no  where  so  clearly  as  at 
Amanapoora  in  the  Central  province,  where  it  consists  of  white  fel- 
spar and  quartz  in  a  finely  crystalline  state,  with  layers  of  black 
mica,  containing,  disseminated  through  it,  numerous  crystals  of  a 
light-coloured  garnet.  Both  the  granite  and  gneiss  are  very  much 
qualified  by  an  excess  or  deficiency  of  one  or  other  of  the  ingre- 
dients. When  quartz  abounds  in  a  fine  granular  state,  the  rock 
often  looks  very  like  sandstone ;  of  this  there  is  an  instance  in  the 
vicinity  of  Kandy.  When  felspar  or  adularia  abound,  the  rock 
acquires  a  new  external  character  :  this  variety  is  common.     In  a 


(J96  CEYLON.  [PAltT   IV. 

few  places  the  rock  contains  so  much  of  these  minerals  that  it  might 
he  correctly  called  adularia,  or  felspar  rock.  When  mica  prevails  in 
gneiss,  which  in  Ceylon  is  very  rare,  it  acquires  not  only  the  appear- 
ance, but  very  much  the  structure  of  mica  slate.  The  instances  of 
change  of  appearance  in  the  granitic  varieties  from  the  presence  of 
unusual  ingredients,  are  neither  few  in  number  nor  unfrequent  in 

occurrence. 

The  more  limited  varieties  of  primitive  rock,  as  quartz,  horn- 
blende, and  dolomite  rock,  seldom  occur  in  the  form  of  mountain 
masses.  Quartz  is  found  in  some  places  so  abundantly  in  granite 
rocks  as  even  to  rival  mountain  masses.  It  is  generally  quite  bare, 
and  stands  erect  like  denuded  veins.  From  its  precipitousness  it 
often  exhibits  the  appearance  of  buildings  in  ruins.  The  quartz  is 
in  general  milk-white,  translucent,  full  of  rents,  and  so  very  friable 
as  to  resemble  unannealed  glass.  Pure  hornblende  rock  and  primi- 
tive greenstone  are  not  uncommon,  and  though  they  constitute  no 
entire  mountain,  form  a  part  of  many,  particularly  of  Samanala  and 
the  Kandian  mountains. 

Dolomite  rock  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  interior,  where  it 
is  found  in  veins  and  imbedded,  and  sometimes  constitutes  low  hills. 
The  varieties  of  dolomite  rock  are  almost  as  numerous  as  those  of 
granite.  When  purest  it  is  snow-white,  generally  crystalline,  com- 
posed of  rhombs  that  are  easily  separated  by  a  blow,  but  rarely 
finely  granular.  When  highly  crystalline  it  is  composed  of  about 
56  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  36*9  carbonate  of  lime,  4*1  alumina, 
1  silica,  2  water.  A  very  fine  granular  kind  is  found,  but  it  is  so 
uncommon,  that  it  was  appropriated  under  the  Kandian  dynasty  to 
the  sole  use  of  the  king.  The  great  variety  of  this  rock  arises  both 
from  the  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  of  magnesia  being 
seldom  the  same,  and  from  the  commixture  of  other  minerals.  The 
varieties  most  frequent  are  mixtures  of  dolomite  with  felspar  and 
mica,  and  even  quartz.  It  is  from  the  purer  kinds  of  dolomite  rock 
that  all  the  lime  employed  in  building  in  the  interior  is  procured. 
The  presence  of  magnesia  injures  its  qualities  as  a  cement  ;  but 
though  inferior  in  this  respect  to  the  lime  from  shell  and  coral,  it 
answers  sufficiently  well  for  ordinary  uses. 

In  external  character  and  general  structure,  the  varieties  of  primi- 
tive rock  exhibit  fewer  marked  differences  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. The  masses  that  are  exposed,  are  generally  rounded,  seldom 
rising  to  craggy  points  or  appearing  in  grotesque  shapes.  The 
nature  of  the  rock  may  often  be  surmised,  from  its  external  appear- 
ance, but  generally  cannot  be  precisely  determined  but  by  an  exami- 
nation of  a  recently  fractured  surface.  In  structure  the  granitic 
varieties  most  commonly  exhibit  an  appearance  of  stratification,  but 
is  not  easy  to  decide  positively  whether  this  appearance  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  mass  being  composed  of  strata  or  of  large  laminae 
or  layers.     Some  great  masses  of  insulated  rock,  several  hundred 


CHAP.  III.]  ROCKS    OF    SECONDARY    FORMATION.  697 

feet  in  height,  exhibit  incontrovertible  proofs  of  this  structure.  In 
these  the  same  layer  may  be  seen  extending  over  the  rock,  like  the 
coat  of  an  onion,  and  which  if  but  partially  exposed,  might  be  adduced 
as  a  strong  proof  of  stratification,  and  if  examined  in  different  places  on 
the  top  and  at  each  side,  might  be  deemed  an  extraordinary  instance 
of  the  dip  of  the  strata  in  opposite  directions.  With  this  hypothesis 
of  the  structure  of  the  rocks,  the  appearance  of  stratification  in  all 
the  granitic  varieties  may  be  easily  reconciled. 

Rocks  of  recent  formation  are  of  two  kinds,  limestone  and  sand- 
stone. The  first  is  said  to  be  confined  to  the  province  of  Jaffna, 
the  most  productive  and  populous  district  of  Ceylon,  which  is  an 
extended  level  plain  without  a  single  hill  or  valley,  and  contains 
numerous  decomposed  shells,  and  other  marine  productions  ;  it  is 
generally  grey  or  light  brown,  very  fine  grained  and  compact,  and 
breaks  with  a  conchoidal  fracture.  It  is  generally  nearly  a  pure 
carbonate  of  lime,  affording  but  slight  traces  of  the  presence  of  vege- 
table or  animal  matter,  and  containing  a  little  water.  Where  it 
occurs,  the  whole  of  the  country  is  similar,  and  elevated  but  a  few 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  by  which  it  was  once  probably 
covered.  The  recession  of  the  sea  from  this  district  is  even  now 
going  on,  many  natives  recollecting  the  waves  covering  spots  now  far 
above  high  water  mark.  It  is  proved  also  from  the  fact  of  coral 
rock  being  found  mixed  with  the  limestone  rock  several  miles  from 
the  sea.  Minute  inquiry  on  the  spot  might  elicit  some  valuable 
information  on  the  formation  of  this  rock,  which  is  still  probably 
extending  in  the  shallows  of  the  adjoining  seas,  and  along  the  coasts 
of  Jaffnapatam.  Its  formation  may  possibly  be  connected  with  coral, 
which  is  so  abundant  in  the  narrow  seas  between  Ceylon  and  the 
Indian  Peninsula,  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  islets  in  the  strait  are 
composed  of  it,  and  the  gradual  increase  of  coralline  in  the  waters  near 
these  shores  proves  the  natural  and  steady  encroachment  of  the 
land.  The  only  difficulty  is,  to  find  the  cause  of  the  solution  of  cal- 
careous matter  in  some  places,  and  its  precipitation  in  others 
adjoining. 

Sandstone,  the  other  rock  belonging  to  the  recent  formation,  may 
be  considered  to  surround  the  island  with  an  almost  uninterrupted 
chain.  It  exhibits  in  every  part  the  same  general  character,  and  is 
found  under  the  same  circumstances,  in  horizontal  beds  along  the 
shore,  chiefly  between  high  and  low  water  mark,  which  in  Ceylon, 
where  the  tide  rises  only  about  three  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  is 
a  very  limited  extent.  In  shallow  water,  it  may  extend  perhaps 
further  into  the  sea.  Towards  the  land,  it  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  beach.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  rock  is  found  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Kalane-ganga.  In  width  the  bed  varies  from  a  few  to 
fifty  or  even  a  hundred  feet.  Towards  the  sea,  it  presents  a  bold 
face,  above  twelve  feet  deep,  perpendicular  like  a  wall,  over  which 
the  waves  break,  and  which,  when  the  sea  runs  high,  as  it  does  on 


698  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

this  shore,  a  great  part  of  the  year,  is  completely  under  water.  On 
the  other  side,  towards  the  land,  the  rock  commonly  terminates  in 
sand,  the  heach  generally  rising  above  it.  This  bed  is  in  most  places  dis- 
tinctly stratified,  and  where  the  strata  are  not  deranged  by  fractures,  and 
subsidences,  they  are  quite  horizontal.  The  appearance  of  the  rock  is 
not  uniform  :  its  principal  varieties  are  a  yellowish-grey  sandstone, 
another  almost  black,  and  a  third  of  the  first  kind,  but  containing 
nodules  of  the  latter.  These  varieties  occur  in  the  same  stratum, 
and  a  vertical  section  often  exhibits  successive  layers  of  the  two  first 
kinds.  They  all  consist  of  sand  agglutinated  by  carbonate  of  lime, 
which,  from  its  texture,  appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  water. 
Thus  the  stone  crumbles  to  pieces,  and  is  reduced  to  sand  when 
heated  before  the  blow-pipe  or  immersed  in  an  acid.  The  proportion 
of  carbonate  of  lime  is  variable,  being  from  26*5  to  1 1  per  cent. 
The  larger  the  proportion,  the  harder  is  the  sandstone ;  thus  the 
last-mentioned  is  soft  and  taken  from  a  depth  in  an  incipient  state  of 
formation,  while  the  former  is  taken  from  the  surface,  is  completely 
formed  and  extremely  hard.  Irrespectively  of  the  proportion  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  the  sand  of  which  the  stone  is  formed,  is  of 
different  kinds.  The  sand  of  the  light-coloured  variety  is  chiefly 
silicious,  consisting  of  fine  water-worn  particles  of  quartz,  like  the 
sand  of  the  shore,  and  like  it,  it  occasionally  contains  shells  and 
pebbles.  The  sand  of  the  variety  nearly  black,  is  a  mixture  of  sili- 
cious particles,  and  of  particles  of  iron  glance  becoming  magnetic  by 
wasting.  It  is  extremely  hard,  the  iron  no  doubt  acting  the  part  of 
a  cement,  as  well  as  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  question  of  the  formation  of  the  sandstone  is  involved  in 
much  of  the  same  obscurity  as  that  of  the  limestone  of  Jaffnapatam, 
and  the  same  conjectures  might  be  offered  respecting  the  probable 
cause  of  the  deposit  of  the  calcareous  cement.  This  instance  of  the 
formation  of  rock  from  the  dissolved  and  disintegrated  materials  of 
old  rocks  is  not  peculiar  to  Ceylon,  as  it  is  quite  as  common  as  those 
of  decomposition  itself.  Both  the  limestone  and  saudstone  of  this 
recent  formation,  may  become  very  useful.  Very  good  lime  may  be 
made  of  the  former,  and  serviceable  millstones  perhaps  of  the  latter, 
if  it  can  be  found,  as  is  very  probable,  of  a  coarse  quality.  For 
architectural  purposes  both  stones  are  well  adapted,  more  especially 
the  saudstone  for  great  public  works,  as  it  may  be  wrought  at  little 
expense,  and  when  the  wind  blows  off  the  land,  may  be  easily 
shipped. 

The  mineralogy  of  Ceylon,  is,  in  some  respects,  remarkable  and 
curious.  The  island  is  remarkable  for  its  richness  in  gems,  and,  so 
far  as  has  yet  been  ascertained,  for  its  comparative  poverty  in  the 
useful  metals.  It  is  remarkable  also  for  the  number  of  rare  minerals 
that  it  affords,  and  for  the  small  variety  of  the  ordinary  species : 
thus  in  its  miueralogical  character,  it  accorded  with  the  taste  of  its 
late  native  rulers,  who  were  more  prone  to  display  than  any  work  of 


CHAP.  III.]  MINEBALOGY METALLIC    ORES — COAL.  699 

utility,  to  pomp  than  profit.  Its  mineral  productions  may  be  classed 
under  two  heads,  those  attached  to  granitic,  which  constitute  the 
greater  part,  and  those  pertaining  to  dolomite  rock.  The  only 
metallic  ores  that  can  be  hitherto  said  to  be  found  in  any  quantity 
deserving  of  notice,  are  of  iron  and  manganese.  Iron  in  different 
forms  is  pretty  generally  diffused,  and  somewhat  abundant.  Iron 
pyrites,  magnetic  iron  ore,  specular  iron  ore,  red  hematite,  bog-iron 
ore,  and  earthy  blue  phosphate  of  iron  are  all  found.  Red  hematite 
and  bog-iron  ore  are  more  common  than  the  other  species.  It  is 
from  these  ores  that  the  natives  extract  the  metal.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  iron  pyrites,  magnetic  ironstone  and  the  blue  phosphate,  the 
species  of  iron  occur  so  frequently  in  granitic  rock  or  its  detritus,  as 
not  to  require  notice.  The  first,  iron  pyrites,  is  found  at  Itatnapoora, 
disseminated  through  a  grey  felspar  rock,  and  in  veins  of  quartz  at 
Mount  Lavinia  on  the  sea-shore.  Magnetic  iron  ore  is  found  in 
masses,  imbedded  in  gneiss  in  the  vicinity  of  Kandy  and  in  granitic 
rocks  in  Welasse  and  Trincomalee.  The  earthy  blue  phosphate  of 
iron  is  procurable  from  a  marshy  ground  near  Colombo,  and  from  a 
bed  of  bog-iron  ore  near  Kandy.  It  is  said  to  be  used  by  the  natives 
as  a  pigment. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  no  great  bed,  and  that  no  considerable 
vein  of  iron  ore  has  yet  been  found  in  Ceylon ;  though  we  must 
remark,  that  a  full  half  i  of  the  island  is  comparatively  speaking  a  terra 
incognita  to  the  Europeans  in  Ceylon  capable  of  investigating  it.  No 
foundery  on  an  extensive  scale  could  then,  judging  from  present  ap- 
pearances, be  established  with  success.  To  the  natives  it  may  possibly 
be  worth  while  to  collect  scattered  masses  of  ore  for  their  little 
furnaces,  but  unless  an  extensive  bed  or  vein  of  ore  be  found,  the 
attempt  to  establish  a  foundery  would  be  idle.  Iron  is  melted  by 
the  natives  in  crucibles,  over  a  fire  which  is  blown  with  two  bellows. 
The  scoria  is  separated  from  it  with  tongs  made  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  melted  mass  is  poured  into  a  mould  of  clay,  after 
which  it  is  purified  further,  and  forged  for  smaller  uses.  But  one 
ore  of  manganese,  the  grey  or  the  black  oxide,  is  yet  known  in  Cey- 
lon, and  that  occurs  in  parts  of  Saffragam  and  Upper  Ouva.  Like 
most  of  the  ores  of  iron  it  occurs  finely  disseminated,  and  imbedded 
in  small  masses  in  granitic  rock ;  some  specimens  are  pure,  and  in 
some  places  a  considerable  quantity  might  be  collected.  Hitherto 
it  has  been  applied  to  no  useful  purpose,  nor  from  its  locale  and  dis- 
persed state  is  it  likely  to  be  exported  with  profit. 

1  Coal  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  the  island  by  the  Dutch  ;  but  from  the 
abundance  of  wood,  and  charcoal  being  the  only  fuel  used  by  the  native  cooks,  no 
notice  was  taken  of  the  discovery,  so  that  its  habitat  is  now  unknown.  The 
discovery  of  coal  would  now  be  considered  one  of  the  greatest  acquisitions  of  which 
this  favoured  land  could  boast.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  it  exists  in  parts  of 
the  scarcely  explored  districts  in  the  north,  where  I  venture  to  predict  the  mineral 
wealth  of  Ceylon  will  be  found  to  lie. 


700  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

From  the  nature  of  the  rocks  other  metals  might  have  been  ex- 
pected in  Ceylon,  says  a  learned  geologist,  who  mentions  that  he  has 
sought  in  vain  among  the  mountains  for  tin,  copper,  and  lead.  All 
three,  however,  are  reported  to  exist  by  persons  who  have  themselves 
discovered  them,  and  quicksilver  and  plumbago  (kalu  mirinan,  Singh.) 
which  of  late  years  has  been  largely  exported  to  England,  may  be 
added  to  the  list.  Gold  and  mercury,  which  are  said  to  occur 
native  in  Ceylon,  according  to  this  writer  are  rarely  found,  but  small 
lumps  of  the  former  have  been  at  times  met  with.  "  Did  any,"  he 
continues,  "  of  the  common,  and  what  is  more,  of  the  precious  metals 
occur  in  Ceylon  it  would  have  been  known  long  ago  ;  for  the  natives 
are  inquisitive  and  curious,  and  being  in  the  habit  of  searching  for 
gems,  and  collecting  everything  that  glitters,  or  that  is  in  the  least 
likely  to  sell,  even  bits  of  iron  pyrites  and  ores  of  iron,  it  would  be 
very  extraordinary  were  they  to  pass  unnoticed  substances  more 
attractive,  with  the  value  of  which  they  are  well  acquainted."  I 
may  cursorily  observe  that  this  remark  is  rather  applicable  to  the 
natives  of  the  southern,  than  any  of  the  other  provinces  of  Ceylon, 
and  that  the  opposite  conclusion  of  another  learned  geologist, 
embodied  in  the  note,1  is  nearer  the  truth.  Dr.  Davy's  erroneous 
conclusion  on  these  points  must  have  arisen  from  the  imperfect 
opportunities  at  his  disposal  for  the  survey  of  the  whole  island,  not 
more  than  one-third  of  which  he  ever  visited,  and  not  from  any 
want  of  sagacity  in  observing,  or  ardour  in  pursuing  the  various 
branches  of  natural  science.  Stahlstein,  or  crystallized  pyrites,  im- 
pregnated with  a  little  copper,  is  used  by  the  Singhalese  for  making 
buttons. 

Most  of  the  gems  for  which  Ceylon  is  celebrated,  occur  in  granitic 
rock  ;  for  though  found  in  alluvial  soil  and  the  beds  of  rivers,  their 
true  source  may  be  conjectured  from  the  nature  of  the  surrounding 
rocks  and  the  quality  of  the  sand  and  alluvium  in  which  they  are 
found.  The  minerals  pertaining  to  this  rock  are  of  the  quartz  family, 
quartz,  iron-flint,  chalcedony  and  hyalite.  Ceylon  affords  all  the 
varieties  of  quartz,  as  rock-crystal,  amethyst,  rose-quartz,  cat's-eye, 
and  prase.  Rock  crystal  occurs  in  abundance,  both  massive  and 
crystallized,  of  various  colours,  good  quality,  and  in  large  masses. 
Its  localities  do  not  need  noticing.  Buttons  are  made  of  it.  The 
black  crystal  is  of  a  shining  fracture,  and  falls  into  slate-like  shivers, 
which  are  transparent  at  the  edges.     It  possesses  electrical  properties. 

1  The  sciences  of  geology,  mineralogy,  &c.  in  all  their  branches  are  but  imperfectly 
understood  by  the  natives,  notwithstanding  Ceylon  is  the  depository  of  such  an 
extensive  variety  of  specimens.  Their  attention  seems  never  to  have  extended 
much  beyond  the  valuable  gems  and  the  common  ores.  As  to  a  thousand  other 
objects,  both  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  imbedded  in  the  hidden  substrata  of 
nature,  so  interesting  to  men  of  science,  they  have  allowed  them  an  almost 
undisturbed  repose,  never  having  exerted  themselves  either  to  quarry  out  a  know- 
ledge of  their  latent  properties  or  ascertain  their  intrinsic  worth. 


CHAP.    III.]         ABSENCE    OP    THE    RICHER    METALS — GEMS.  701 

The  natives  use  it  instead  of  glass  for  the  lenses  of  spectacles  ;  they 
employ  it  too  for  ornamental  purposes  and  statuary.  In  the  Maha- 
wihare,  in  Kandy,  there  is  a  small  well-executed  figure  of  Buddha  of 
this  stone.  Amethyst  (Skuandi,  Singh.)  also  is  pretty  abundant ; 
very  beautiful  specimens  of  this  mineral  are  found  in  the  alluvium 
derived  from  the  decomposition  of  gneiss  and  granitic  rock  in  Saf- 
fragam  and  the  Seven  Korles.  The  largest  specimens  are  cut  for 
buttons,  and  the  smaller  for  a  smaller  sized  button.  The  more 
saturated  the  colour  is  in  them,  the  riper  they  are.  They  were 
probably  once  in  a  fluid  state,  and  previous  to  their  crystallization 
were  tinged  with  a  violet  colour,  which  incorporated  itself  with  a  part 
or  else  with  the  whole  of  the  fluid.  It  is  of  a  purple  violet  colour, 
differing  much  in  the  degrees  in  which  they  are  coloured.  Some  are 
so  saturated  as  to  appear  almost  black.  They  seldom  reach  the  size 
of  a  walnut ;  the  larger  they  are  the  paler,  and  less  esteemed.  Crys- 
tals of  it,  containing  apparently  two  distinct  drops  of  water,  have 
been  found.  Rose-quartz,  which  is  pretty  common,  is  often  found  in 
the  same  place  as  amethyst. 

Ceylon  produces  the  finest  cat's-eyes  ("Wairodi,  Singh.)  in  the  world ; 
indeed,  the  only  kiud  that  is  highly  esteemed  and  that  brings  a  high 
price.  The  best  specimens  of  this  singular  mineral  have  been  found 
in  the  granitic  alluvium  of  Saffragam  and  Matura.  It  is  a  hard 
stone,  approaching  more  or  less  to  white  or  green,  semi-diaphanous, 
with  a  streak  of  the  breadth  of  a  line  in  the  middle,  whiter  than  the 
stone  itself,  and  throws  its  light  to  the  side  that  it  is  turned.  It  is 
a  pseudo-opal,  averaging  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut.  Prase  is  a  variety 
of  quartz  that  seldom  occurs  in  the  island.  The  second  species, 
iron-flint,  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Central  Province,  Saffragam,  and 
Lower  Ouva.  Some  varieties  of  it  much  resemble  hornstone.  The 
third  species,  chalcedony,  undoubtedly  exists  somewhere  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  interior,  as  fragments  of  it  have  been  observed  in  the 
possession  of  the  natives.  The  fourth  species,  hyalite,  is  extremely 
rare,  being  met  with  only  in  a  nitre  cave  in  Doombera,  partially  en- 
crusting a  granitic  rock. 

Belonging  to  the  schorl  family  are  two  species,  the  topaz  and 
schorl  (Purperagan,  Singh.)  The  former  is  generally  known  as  the 
white  or  water  sapphire.  It  is  commonly  white,  or  bluish,  or  yellow- 
ish white ;  much  water-worn,  and  perfect  crystals  of  it  are  very  rare. 
It  occurs  in  many  places  in  the  alluvium  of  granitic  rock,  about  the 
size  of  a  large  nut,  and  is  clearer  than  white  crystal.  Schorl  is  not 
abundant ;  common  schorl  is  perhaps  an  exception,  it  is  to  be  seen  in 
many  places  in  the  granitic  rocks,  and  in  places  in  Lower  Ouva, 
mixed  with  quartz  and  felspar,  it  constitutes  a  rock  of  considerable 
magnitude.  Tourmaline  is  rare,  and  the  common  varieties  of  green 
(patje  turemali),  a  name  given  both  to  chrysolites  with  tetraedal 
prisms,  and  even  sometimes  to  the  chrysoprasi.  It  is  often  opaque, 
and  various  shades,  bordering  on  yellow,  blue,  and  black,  are  classed 


702  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

under  it ;  honey  yellow  (kaneke  turemali),  is  a  topaz  of  a  greenish 
yellow  in  appearance,  resembling  amber ;  some  are  more  saturated 
and  ripe,  almost  of  an  orange  colour.  Red  (pana  turemali),  is  a 
quartz  ;  when  laid  on  a  table  it  appears  opaque  ;  held  to  the  light  it 
has  a  pale  red  hue.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  grain  of  rice  to  a  pea. 
They  are  seldom  crystallized,  and  most  of  them  are  worn  smooth  and 
polisbed  from  the  action  of  the  water.  Blue  (neela  turemali),  is  a 
quartz  ;  white  (sudu  turemali),  is  a  topaz  of  a  pale  yellow,  called  the 
Matura  diamond.  It  is  not  perfectly  transparent ;  for  this  reason,  it 
is  often  calcined  in  the  fire,  which  has  an  effect  on  the  colour  but  the 
stone  is  made  clearer.  It  is  then  enveloped  in  fine  lime  and  burned 
with  rice  chaff.  It  is  cut  for  setting  in  rings,  &c.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last,  most  of  these  are  of  an  indifferent  quality,  and 
their  locality  is  unknown.  Some  writers  have  maintained  that  both 
the  emerald  and  beryl  are  found  in  Ceylon.  The  former,  says  Davy, 
is  certainly  not  found,  and  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  the  existence 
of  the  latter,  most  of  those  offered  for  sale  being  imported  ;  and 
those  said  to  be  found  in  the  island  being  improperly  so,  as  affording 
an  excuse  for  a  higher  price  than  that  asked  for  those  of  the  con- 
tinent, which  are  contemptuously  called  "  coast  stones." 

Of  the  garnet  family  three  species  occur,  in  gneiss  or  granitic  rock, 
viz.  the  garnet,  pyrope,  and  cinnamon  stone.  The  common  garnet  is 
abundantly  disseminated  through  gneiss  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
country.  Its  crystals  are  in  general  indistinct,  small,  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  iron,  and  are  very  apt  to  decompose.  The  best  and 
most  perfect  crystals  of  this  mineral  are  in  quartz  rock.  The  precious 
garnet  occurs  but  in  few  places,  and  not  in  first-rate  quality.  It  is 
contained  in  hornblende  rock  at  Trincomalee. 

Cinnamon  stone,  though  an  abundant  mineral  in  this  island,  to 
which  it  exclusively  pertains,  is  found  only  in  few  places,  and  chiefly 
in  the  Matura  district.  It  occurs  in  granitic  alluvium  in  small  ir- 
regularly shaped  pieces,  and  in  large  masses  of  several  pounds  weight. 
Near  Belligam  a  large  detached  rock  is  partly  composed  of  this 
mineral ;  the  other  ingredients  of  the  rock  are  felspar,  tablespar, 
quartz,  hornblende,  and  graphite.  "  The  thick  jungle,"  says  Dr. 
Davy,  "  round  the  spot  where  this  interesting  rock  stands,  prevents  a 
minute  examination  of  the  neighbouring  country  ;"  but  his  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  this  rock  had  been  detached  from  a  vein  or  bed 
included  in  gneiss  or  granitic  rock  in  the  hill  above.  Another  mineral 
of  a  doubtful  nature,  disseminated  in  small  masses,  occurs  in  many 
places,  as  at  Colombo,  Mount  Lavinia,  &c.  It  is  semi-transparent, 
and  never  crystallized,  and  has  the  fracture  and  lustre  of  cinnamon- 
stone.  It  certainly  belongs  to  the  garnet  family,  and  is  probably 
merely  a  variety  of  cinnamon  stone ;  from  which  it  appears  to  differ 
chiefly  in  being  of  a  redder  hue,  and  in  this  respect  approaches 
pyrope. 

The  zircon  family  is  richer  in  Ceylon  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 


CHAP.   III.]       LOCALITIES  OF  GEMS — TIIEIK  USES  AND  VALUE.       703 

world.  It  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  districts  of  Matura  and  Saf- 
fragam,  more  especially  to  the  former,  and  is  indicated  by  the  popular 
name  '  Matura  diamond,'  which  is  applied  to  its  finest  varieties  by 
the  dealers  in  gems.  Besides  the  well  known  species,  common  zircon 
and  hyacinth,  a  third  species,  massive,  opaque,  uncrystallized,  and  of 
a  dark  brown  colour,  some  specimens  of  which,  from  Saffragam,  have 
been  known  to  weigh  two  or  three  ounces,  has  been  also  found.  The 
natives  are  completely  ignorant  of  the  true  nature  of  zircon.  The 
yellow  varieties  are  sold  by  them  as  a  peculiar  kind  of  topaz ;  the 
green  as  tourmaline  ;  the  red  hyacinth  as  inferior  rubies  ;  and  the  very 
light  grey  as  imperfect  diamonds.  All  the  varieties  on  sale  are  found 
in  the  beds  of  rivers,  or  in  alluvial  ground  derived  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  gneiss  or  granitic  rock.  It  is  to  be  seen,  however,  in  its 
original  site  in  these  districts  sparingly  disseminated  through  quartz 
and  schorl  rocks,  or  quartz  and  felspar  with  tablespar  and  graphite. 
The  zircon  in  some  parts  of  the  mass  so  largely  preponderates  as 
almost  to  entitle  the  rock  to  be  called  zircon  rock.  The  mineral  in 
such  a  case  is  crystalline,  and  most  commonly  green  or  brown  ;  the 
rock  is  remarkable  for  its  heaviness,  and  for  the  resinous  lustre  of  its 
fracture. 

For  the  ruby  family  (Lankaratte,  Singh.)  Ceylon  is  no  less  cele- 
brated. Four  species  of  it,  spinell,  sapphire,  corundum  and  chryso- 
beryl  occur  in  gneiss  or  granitic  rock.  Spinell  is  comparatively 
rare,  though  there  are  some  small  and  most  beautiful  crystals  of  it 
found  in  the  interior,  and  it  is  found  in  specimens  of  clay  iron-ore  in 
parts  of  the  Central  Province,  where  gneiss  prevails.  Sapphire  is 
common  though  widely  scattered ;  it  occurs  in  great  perfection  and 
in  considerable  abundance  and  magnitude  in  the  granitic  alluvium  of 
Matura  and  Saflragam,  and  about  Nuwera-Elliya ;  the  principal 
varieties  being  the  blue,  purple,  red,  yellow,  white  and  star-stone. 
Barbosa  remarks  that  the  Singhalese  in  his  day  bleacbed  sapphires 
in  such  perfection  that  they  might  be  taken  for  the  finest  diamonds. 
Fragments  of  blue  sapphire  of  indifferent  quality  have  been  found  as 
large  as  a  goose's  egg.  The  purple  variety  or  the  oriental  amethyst 
is  rare.  A  green  variety  is  still  rarer,  and  when  found  perhaps  owes 
its  colour  to  a  blending  of  blue  and  yellow,  two  colours  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  same  stone.  The  black  sapphire  is  no  less  rare. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  some  other  mineral  included  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  sapphire,  such  as  crystals  of  iron  glance,  or  a  small 
mass  of  crystallized  mica.  Corundum  is  less  frequently  met  with 
than  the  sapphire,  being  rarely  found  except  in  Ouva,  where  it 
is  found  in  the  bed  and  in  the  banks  of  a  small  stream  ;  the 
sand,  gravel,  and  pebbles  among  which  the  corundum  occurs,  in 
their  nature  correspond  with  varieties  of  granite,  gneiss  and 
hornblende  rock.  The  corundum  is  often  found  in  large  six-sided 
prisms,  it  is  commonly  of  a  brown  colour,  whence  it  is  called  by  the 
natives  koroondu  galle,  (cinnamon  stone).     Occasionally  it  is  to  be 


704  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

met  with  partially  or  entirely  covered  with  a  black  crust,  perhaps 
merely  the  stone  with  an  unusual  proportion  of  iron.  The  corundum 
and  sapphire  arc  so  closely  akin,  that  the  natives  have  even  observed 
the  similarity.  The  two  minerals  are  linked  together  by  the  coarse 
and  opaque  varieties  of  the  latter,  which  are  common  enough  in 
Saffagram.  Chrysoberyl  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  and  is  said  to  be 
brought  from  Saffragam.  The  more  perfect  crystals  of  all  the 
varieties  of  ruby,  sapphire,  corundum  and  chrysoberyl,  exhibiting  in 
every  direction  smooth  facets  like  the  garnet,  the  diamond,  and  so 
many  other  minerals,  seem  to  shew  that  they  are  contemporaneous 
in  their  formation  with  the  rock  from  whence  they  are  derived ;  that 
they  have  crystallized  in  its  substance ;  and  that  they  are  not  de- 
tached till  it  undergoes  disintegration  or  decomposition,  when  they 
are  washed  by  the  heavy  rains  and  torrents  with  the  detritus  of  their 
parent  rock  to  lower  ground  to  reward  the  perseverance  of  the  native 
explorers  who  might  search  in  vain  in  the  mountain  mass.  Corun- 
dum is  the  only  species  of  this  family  that  is  not  esteemed  as  a  gem, 
and  the  only  one  that  is  applied  to  any  purpose  of  utility.  In  its 
powdered  state  it  is  extensively  employed  by  the  lapidary  in  cutting 
and  polishing  stones,  and  by  the  armourer  in  polishing  arms.  It 
enters,  too,  into  the  composition  of  an  excellent  hone  made  by  the 
natives,  consisting  chiefly  of  this  mineral  in  very  fine  powrder,  and  of 
kapitia,  a  peculiar  kind  of  resin. 

Of  the  felspar  family,  it  is  highly  probable  that  several  species 
exist  in  the  island.  Tablespar  has  been  already  alluded  to,  and  the 
subdivisions  of  felspar  viz.  adularia  (including  glassy  felspar),  Labra- 
dor-stone, common  felspar,  and  compact  felspar.  These  minerals  are 
common  in  gneiss  and  granitic  rock,  with  the  exception  of  Labrador 
stone,  which  is  seldom  found,  and  then  in  a  bed  of  graphic  granite. 
Adularia  is  very  abundant  in  some  parts  of  the  interior,  particularly 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kandy,  where  it  is  occasionally  the  predo- 
minating ingredient  of  the  rock. 

Of  the  hornblende  family,  two  species  occur,  common  horn- 
blende, the  constituent  of  the  rock  of  this  name  and  glassy  tremolite 
which  has  been  observed  at  Trincomalee  in  a  narrow  vein  of  quartz 
in  gneiss. 

Pitchstone  is  perhaps  the  only  mineral  of  the  family  of  this  name  to 
be  found  in  Ceylon,  a  small  vein  of  it  occurs  near  Trincomalee  in 
granite.  Mica  or  glimmer  (Mirinan,  Singh.),  as  a  constituent  part 
of  granite  and  gneiss  is  abundant,  besides,  it  often  occurs  in  large 
plates  imbedded  in  these  rocks.  It  is  collected  by  the  natives,  who 
use  it  for  purposes  of  ordinary  decoration,  and  for  ornamenting  tala- 
pat  parapluies.  Common  chlorite  is  occasionally  to  be  met  with 
both  at  Galle  and  Trincomalee  disseminated  through  quartz.  Green 
earth  is  more  rare ;  it  is  found  in  Lower  Ouva,  where  it  is  pretty 
abundant  near  Alipoot  in  small  veins,  and  includes  masses  in  clay 
derived  from  the  decomposition  of  a  granitic  rock.     This  mineral 


CHAP.  IIT.]  MINERALS;  MAGNESIAN,  CALCAREOUS,  INFLAMMABLE.  705 

is  of  an  unusually  light  colour,  varying  from  green  to  light  apple- 
green. 

Magnesian  minerals  are  far  from  abundant  in  Ceylon,  and  are  per- 
haps confined  to  dolomite,  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  talc.  The 
very  rare  mineral,  native  carbonate  of  magnesia,  has  been  discovered 
in  a  nitre  cave,  accompanied  with  dolomite  and  encrusting  and  in- 
cluded in  gneiss.  The  best  specimens  of  it  were  of  a  pure  snow- 
white,  earthy  texture,  rather  harsh  to  the  touch,  destitute  of  smell 
when  breathed  on,  and  not  adhesive.  A  specimen  of  it,  examined  by 
Dr.  Davy,  contained  86  carbonate  of  magnesia,  5  water,  9  silica, 
with  some  slight  traces  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

This  mineral  is  perhaps  co-temporary  with  the  rock  in  which  it 
occurs,  and  not  deposited  subsequently  from  water.  It  has  long 
been  used  by  the  natives  of  the  adjoining  country  in  whitewashing 
their  temples.  Talc  is  very  rare  in  Ceylon.  It  has  been  met  with 
at  Doombera  in  a  nitre  cave,  where,  with  calcspar,  felspar  and  quartz, 
it  entered  into  the  composition  of  a  highly  crystalline  rock. 

Calcspar,  anhydrous  gypsum,  and  calcsinter  are  the  only  pure 
calcareous  minerals  to  be  found  in  Ceylon.  The  two  former,  well 
crystallised,  have  been  met  with  at  Doombera  nitre  cave.  They 
occur  in  the  compound  rock  just  alluded  to  in  reference  to  talc. 
Calcsinter  is  not  uncommon  ;  encrusting  rocks  of  dolomite  and 
gneiss,  it  abounds  in  Matale,  and  is  plentiful  in  Lower  Ouva,  and  in 
many  places  in  the  vicinity  of  dolomite  rock,  from  which  in  all  pro- 
bability it  is  derived. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  the  inflammable  class  of  minerals  that 
occur  in  Ceylon,  graphite  and  sulphur  Graphite  in  minute  scales  is 
very  commonly  disseminated  through  gneiss,  and  it  occasionally 
occurs  imbedded  in  this  rock  in  small  masses.  In  the  latter  form, 
it  is  found  to  some  extent  in  parts  of  Upper  Saffragam,  and  might 
probably  be  found  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  collected  and  exported 
profitably.  Sulphur  is  extremely  rare  in  Ceylon,  indeed  its  very  ex- 
istence is  not  indisputably  proved.  A  specimen  of  this  mineral  was 
some  time  ago  picked  up  in  Doombera,  which  contained  a  large  por- 
tion of  sulphate,  a  small  portion  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  slight  traces 
of  alum.  The  stone  itself  was  composed  chiefly  of  quartz,  felspar 
and  oxide  of  iron,  and  of  some  grey  crystalline  grains.  Had  the 
specimen  been  broken  from  a  rock,  little  room  for  doubt  would  have 
remained,  but  even  as  the  case  stood,  it  appeared  more  likely  to  be 
native  sulphur  than  an  artificial  accidental  impregnation,  for  which 
indeed  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  account.  The  mineral  pro- 
ductions occurring  in  the  dolomite  rock  are  of  two  kinds,  those  pecu- 
liar to  it  and  hitherto  found  in  no  other  rock  in  Ceylon,  and  those 
common  to  it  and  to  granitic  rock.  Belonging  to  the  latter,  the  fol- 
lowing minerals  may  be  enumerated.  Iron  pyrites,  mica,  white  clay, 
probably  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  felspar  and  graphite. 
With  the  exception  of  mica,  none  of  these  minerals  are  common  or 

2  z 


706  GEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

abundant  in  dolomite.  The  mica  is  generally  of  a  light  brown  or 
straw-colour,  translucent  and  crystallised  in  small  six-sided  prisms. 
The  minerals  peculiar  to  dolomite  are  three  in  number,  Ceylanite, 
apatite  and  a  bright  yellow  mineral,  perhaps  a  variety  of  cinnamon- 
stone.  Ceylanite  is  pretty  abundant  in  this  rock  and  very  generally 
disseminated  through  it.  It  occurs  crystallised  and  amorphous,  and 
exhibits  a  variety  of  colours,  as  bright  azure-blue,  resembling  the  blue 
sapphire,  violet,  pink-red,  grey  and  white.  Its  crystals  are  generally 
very  small.  The  fine  sapphire  blue  Ceylanite  is  almost  confined  to 
one  locality.  Of  the  pink-red,  some  good  specimens  have  been  met 
with  from  a  vein  of  dolomite  in  Saffragam,  on  the  banks  of  a  stream 
that  flows  into  the  Kalu-ganga.  Ceylanite  of  the  other  colours  is 
common,  particularly  in  the  dolomite  rock  near  Kandy  and  Badulla, 
where  it  generally  occurs  amorphous,  or  very  indistinctly  crystallised. 
Apatite,  of  a  bright  sapphire- blue  colour,  is  frequently  to  be  seen  in 
dolomite,  disseminated  in  very  minute  particles.  It  occurs  in  one 
place  well  crystallised,  in  six-sided  prisms  in  few  places.  The  bright 
yellow  mineral,  perhaps,  a  variety  of  the  cinnamon-stone,  which  it 
resembles  in  its  general  properties,  and  has  never  been  seen  crystal- 
lised, is  not  uncommon  in  dolomite  in  the  vicinity  of  Kandy.  This 
result  is  difficult  to  ascertain  from  the  small  particles  in  which  it  is 
found.  Though,  then,  the  number  of  minerals  hitherto  found  in  do- 
lomite rock  is  small,  it  is  highly  probable  more  may  yet  be  found  to 
reward  the  mineralogist,  who  may  search  in  the  quarries  of  the  inte- 
rior, where  it  is  broken  for  making  lime. 

Mineral  or  medicinal  waters  do  not  abound  in  Ceylon,  owing  pro- 
bably to  the  peculiar  geological  structure  of  the  island.  The  hot 
springs  of  Kannya,  near  Trincomalee  (see  pp.  543-4),  are  situated  in 
low  ground,  abounding  in  quartz.  The  bottoms  of  all  the  wells  are 
formed  of  quartz,  sand  and  gravel,  without  encrustation,  and  clear, 
except  in  those  where  the  water  is  not  quite  clear,  and  in  these  there 
is  a  little  mud.  The  depth  of  the  wells  ranges  from  one  to  five  feet, 
and  from  one  to  four  feet  in  width.  They  do  not  discharge  much 
water,  comparatively  speaking.  The  water  of  all  has  no  smell 
or  peculiar  taste  :  it  has  the  same  specific  gravity  as  distilled  water, 
and  nothing  but  slight  traces  of  common  salt,  a  little  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  azote  are  perceptible  ;  a  current  of  air  bubbles  may  be  per- 
ceived rising  from  the  bottom  of  some.  The  temperature  of  the 
wells  constantly  changes,  ranging  from  about  85°  to  110°.  Though 
the  temperature  of  each  differs,  yet  it  is  probable  that  all  are  supplied 
with  water  from  the  same  source.  This  may  be  reconciled  by  con- 
sidering the  quantity  of  water  discharged,  which  is  greatest  in  the 
hottest  springs.  The  singular  nature  of  these  springs  ;  the  purity 
of  their  water ;  their  high  temperature,  its  fluctuations,  the  quan- 
tity of  azotic  gas  so  nearly  pure  disengaged,  are  circumstances  that 
cannot  fail  to  interest  the  natural  philosopher,  who  ponders  on  the 
causes  of  the  mysterious  and  awful  phenomena  that  are  thus  shewn 
to  exist  beneath  the  earth's  surface. 


CHAP.  III.]  MINERAL  WATERS HOT  AND  CHALYBEATE  SPRINGS.  707 

Two  very  hot  springs  are  found  in  the  Veddah-ratte  of  Bintenne, 
and  one  in  Welasse.  The  former  lie  in  the  midst  of  an  immense  jungle, 
in  an  extremely  unhealthy  country,  swarming  with  wild  animals.  The 
temperature  of  their  water  is  said  to  be  too  high  to  be  borne  by  man, 
and  sufficiently  high  to  dress  meat  and  vegetables,  a  use  to  which  it  is 
applied  by  the  Veddahs  ;  there  is  in  both  springs  a  constant  bubbling. 
The  water  of  the  hot  spring  in  Welasse  is  clear,  too  hot  for  the  hand 
to  bear,  and  constantly  emits  air  bubbles.  Slight  traces  of  common 
salt,  vegetable  matter,  and  carbonic  acid  may  be  detected  in  both. 
Of  the  two  warm  springs  in  the  province  of  Ouva,  the  one  at  Badulla 
is  1861  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  where  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  about  69°  ;  the  other,  in  Lower  Ouva,  is  about  1061  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
76°.  The  Badulla  spring  is  a  very  fine  one,  and  supplies  the  inha- 
bitants with  excellent  water ;  the  well  is  about  five  feet  deep,  and 
eight  or  nine  in  circumference,  discharging  a  stream  of  transparent 
water,  that  on  rising  rapidly  through  the  sand  in  the  bottom,  pro- 
duces considerable  commotion,  which  is  occasionally  increased  by  the 
disengagement  of  air.  The  temperature  of  the  water  is  high,  perhaps 
about  90°.  The  other  spring  is  quite  neglected ;  it  is  copious  and 
clear,  has  no  peculiar  taste  or  smell,  and  like  the  other,  air  bubbles 
now  and  then  appear  in  it.  Two  warm  springs  are  found  also  in  the 
Central  Province,  and  others  are  probably  discoverable  elsewhere. 

"  In  many  parts  of  the  country,"  remarks  Davy,  "  particularly  in 
the  interior,  there  are  appearances  of  chalybeate  springs  :  the  water 
is  often  seen  covered  with  an  ochreous  crust,  and  its  channel  marked 
by  a  similar  deposit.  This  crust  I  have  found  to  be  a  mixture  of 
hydrate  of  alumine,  and  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  with  a  little  vegetable 
matter.  The  water  itself,  immediately  as  it  issues  from  the  earth, 
gives  no  indications  of  iron,  when  freed  by  filtration  from  a  few 
ferruginous  particles  suspended  in  it ;  whence  it  seems  highly  pro- 
bable that  these  springs  are  not  genuine  chalybeate,  and  not  dis- 
coloured by  iron  dissolved  bv  means  of  an  acid,  but  onlv  bv  the 
peroxide  in  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension  washed  out  of  the 
ground,  where  it  had  probably  formed."  No  true  medicinal  spring 
can  yet  be  said  to  have  been  found.  In  the  Seven  Korles  the  water 
of  Yapahoo  is  said  to  effect  cures  in  certain  diseases,  but  a  specimen 
seen  by  Davy  did  not  confirm  such  a  character. 

"  With  the  exception  of  these  springs,"  says  Davy,  "  the  great 
depth  of  the  harbour  of  Trincomalee,  which  in  some  places  not  far 
from  shore  is  unfathomable,  and  the  occurrence  of  iron  ores  at  times 
bearing  a  slight  resemblance  to  lava,  there  are  no  circumstances  that 
can  suggest  even  the  idea  of  volcanic  action  in  Ceylon,  and  much 
less  prove  that  such  an  action  has  taken  place,  and  that  Samanala 
is  one  of  the  results  of  such  an  operation."  Without  venturing  so 
far  as  to  controvert  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Davy,  in  reference  to  the  last 
mentioned  point,  or  to  prefer  positive  proofs  of  the  presence  of  vol- 
canic agency,   it  is  but  right  to  state  that  there  arc  other  collateral 


708  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

circumstances  that  might  be  added  to  those  already  bearing  in  favour 
of  the  supposed  agent.  Experience  has  shewn  that  Dr.  Davy, 
though  deservedly  eminent,  and  in  general  to  be  relied  on,  somewhat 
lost  sight  of  his  habitual  caution  in  determining  this  and  other  mat- 
ters from  the  casual  and  desultory  course  of  inquiry  he  had  the 
means  of  pursuing.  If  then  he  may  be  pronounced  in  general  trust- 
worthy, the  reader  will  perceive  that  we  have  been  fully  alive  to  the 
points  in  which  experience  has  proved  his  opinion  to  be  erroneous. 
The  general  springs  and  streams  of  the  island  are  remarkable  for  the 
purity  of  their  waters.  Those  in  the  mountains  differ  from  rain- 
water only  by  their  containing  slight  traces  of  common  salt  and  of 
vegetable  matter,  and  occasionally  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  suspended 
day. 

The  saline  productions  of  Ceylon  are  not  numerous,  consisting  of 
nitre,  nitrate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  alum,  and  common  salt. 
With  the  exception  of  the  last,  these  salts  have  been  found  nowhere 
but  in  the  interior,  and  in  certain  caves,  where,  from  remaining  un- 
exposed to  the  heavy  tropical  rains,  they  may  be  seen  intact.  Common 
salt,  on  the  other  hand,  is  seldom  or  never  found  in  the  interior,  ex- 
cept in  minute  quantities,  dissolved  in  water.  The  only  known 
exception  is  at  the  nitre  cave  at  Maturatta,  where  it  is  found  in  the 
solid  form  mixed  with  silica  and  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  forms 
a  white  crust  on  a  small  portion  of  dolomite  rock,  decomposing  fel- 
spar and  mica.  Nitre  and  nitrate  of  lime  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
The  names  of  nearly  thirty  places  might  be  mentioned  where  salt- 
petre is  produced  and  has  been  manufactured.  The  caves  are  gene- 
rally remote  from  inhabited  places,  being  situated  in  the  wildest  and 
most  desolate  parts  of  the  country,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  this 
salt  will  be  found  in  other  places  when  the  interior  is  more  explored 
by  Europeans.  Most  of  the  nitre  caves  are  very  similar  as  regards 
geological  formation  ;  the  rock  in  which  they  occur  contains  felspar 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  from  the  decomposition  of  the  former  of 
which  the  alkaline  base  of  the  salt  is  generally  derived,  and  the  acid 
principle  is  generated  by  the  peculiar  influence  of  the  latter  on  the 
oxygen  and  azote  of  the  atmosphere.  Thus,  wherever  air  can  have 
access,  saltpetre  cannot  be  perceived  except  superficially  ;  is  never 
unaccompanied  by  nitrate  of  lime  or  magnesia  ;  in  no  rock  not  con- 
taining lime  and  felspar  ;  that  the  richness  of  the  rock  in  general  has 
been  proportional  to  the  abundance  and  intimate  mixture  of  these 
two  ingredients.  Besides  the  important  facts  of  the  presence  of 
atmospheric  air,  lime,  and  an  alkaline  mineral,  there  are  other  cir- 
cumstances which  greatly  aid  in  the  operation  of  forming  the  salt, 
such  as  humidity,  and  the  presence  of  a  little  animal  matter. 
Humidity  may  be  absolutely  necessary,  for  how  otherwise  can  spots 
in  a  nitre  cave,  which,  with  this  exception,  seem  to  possess  every 
requisite  for  the  production  of  salt,  be  accounted  for.  Animal  matter 
is  by  some  considered  the  chief  source  of  nitre,  and  the  dung  of  bats, 
with  which  the  caves  are  more  or  less  infested,  has  been  assigned  as 


CHAP.  III.]   SALTS,  \ITRE,   ALUM,   SULPHATE  OF  MAGNESIA,  ETC.  709 

the  cause.  That  this  is  a  merely  co-operative,  and  not  an  essential 
circumstance,  is  proved  by  the  nitre  cave  near  Doombera,  where  a 
rich  impregnation  of  saltpetre  is  found  in  a  very  compounded  rock, 
consisting  of  calespar,  felspar,  quartz,  mica,  and  talc,  in  a  humid 
state,  exposed  to  the  air  and  slowly  decomposing,  and  free  from  bat 
dung  or  other  animal  matter.  Added  to  this,  no  traces  of  this  salt 
are  discoverable  in  bat  dung.  The  composition  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive nitre  rock  near  Doombera,  which  was  free  from  animal  mat- 
ter, was  found  to  consist  of  60  v  earthy  matter,  insoluble  in  dilute 
nitric  acid,  26  '5  carbonate  of  lime,  9*4  water,  02  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesia, 0'7  nitrate  of  magnesia,  2-4  nitrate  of  potash. 

The  nitre  earth  from  the  great  cave  in  Lower  Ouva,  near  Wella- 
way,  was  found  to  consist  of  51*2  carbonate  of  lime  and  earthy 
matter,  1  animal  matter,  easily  soluble  in  water,  25*7  animal  matter  ; 
of  difficult  solubility,  15*3  water,  35  nitrate  of  lime,  3*3  nitrate  of 
potash,  with  traces  of  common  salt  and  sulphate  of  lime. 

Nitrate  of  lime  is  never  met  with,  except  in  combination  with  nitre. 
Sulphate  of  magnesia  is  seldom  or  never  found,  the  only  instance 
being  the  cave  near  Doombera.  In  the  same  cave,  and  nowhere  else, 
alum  is  discoverable  in  a  minute  quantity.  The  acid  of  both  these 
salts  is  probably  derived  from  decomposing  pyrites  and  the  magnesia 
of  the  sulphate  by  decomposing  talc.  This  sulphate  forms  with  the 
nitre,  and  crystallises  with  it.  It  is  rejected  by  the  ignorant  natives 
in  their  preparation  of  saltpetre. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Natural  history  : — Vertebrated  animals  —  Mammalia — Elephants  of  Ceylon, 
thought  by  some  to  be  a  distinct  species,  alluded  to  by  Pliny,  Dionysius,  &c. 
— Cuvier's  definition — Tusk  Elephants — Ceylon  ivory — Intelligence  and 
sagacity  of  Elephants  exaggerated,  but  their  docility  great — Rogue  Elephants 
— Elephant  charmers — Injury  done  by  Elephants  to  the  crops  of  the  peasants 
— A  great  Elephant  Hunt,  under  Mr.  North,  in  its  several  stages— An 
Elephant  kraal — Various  modes  pursued  in  different  localities — Atmaddoos  and 
Gasmaddoos — Elephant  stables — Training — Employed  as  executioners  under 
the  Kandian  kings — Kept  also  as  playthings  — Frequent  insanity  of  Ele- 
phants— Numbers  now  beginning  to  decrease,  owing  to  the  premium  offered 
for  their  extirpation — Qualities  requisite  in  the  sportsman — Modes  of  pro- 
curing the  game ;  one  by  encircling  the  herd,  another  by  the  sportsman  enter- 
ing the  jungle  himself — Mistakes  sometimes  made  as  to  the  degree  of  vitality 
in  a  prostrate  Elephant,  and  its  frequently  fatal  results— Death  of  Major 
Haddock  by  a  Tusk  Elephant — How  revenged — Barrels  best  adapted  for  the 
sport — An  Elephant  charge — Parts  where  a  wound  proves  mortal— Best 
time  of  the  day  for  Elephant  shooting — Elephants  greatly  tormented  by 
flies — Description  of  the  remaining  animals  of  Ceylon — Birds — Fishes — 
Reptiles — Invertebrated  Animals — Insects,  viz.  Coleoptera,  Diptoptera, 
Hymenoptera,  Neuroptera,  Hemiptera,  Lepidoptera,  Diptera  -Myriapoda — 
Crustacea — Leeches — Shells — Plants  of  Ceylon. 

Ceylon  has  been  renowned  from  the  earliest  times  for  its  breed  of 
elephants.    It  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  :   "  Elephantos  ibi  multo  majores 


710  CEYLON.  OABT    IV. 

et  bellicosiores'  quam  quos  fert  India,"  and  Dionysius  styles  it 
Mrjrepa  Aaniyerewv  EXe^airwv.  It  would  seem  also  that  so  highly 
did  the  princes  of  the  Peninsula  prize  the  elephants  of  Ceylon,2  both 
for  size  and  docility,  that  they  formed  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  the  island  trade.  Cuvier  thus  defines  the  difference  be- 
tween the  African  aud  Ceylon  or  Asiatic  elephant:  "ElephasCapensis, 
fronte  convexa,  lamellis  molarium  rhomboidalibus."  "Elephaslndicus, 
ftonte  plano-concava,  lamellis  molarium  arcuatis  undatis." 

The  larger  number  of  Ceylon  elephants,  more  especially  tuskers, 
have  part  of  their  head  and  ears  of  a  flesh-colour,  speckled  with 
small  brown  spots,  and  some  are  mottled  nearly  all  over.  White 
elephants  have,  however,  seldom  or  never  been  known  in  the  island, 
though  common  enough  in  Siam.  Not  more  than  one  in  fifty  ele- 
phants have  tusks,  and  the  formation  of  those  differs  little  from  the 
common  elephant.  All  tuskers  are  males,  but  this  proposition,  as 
has  been  already  shewn,  cannot  be  inverted  ;  the  vast  majority  having 
short  tushes  like  the  females,  which  always  incline  downwards,  and 
never  project  more  than  six  or  eight  inches  beyond  the  mouth. 
Tusks,  on  the  contrary,  in  all  cases,  incline  upwards  from  the  centre, 
though  sometimes  almost  straight,  and  those  of  a  full  grown  elephant 
vary  from  two  to  seven  feet  in  length.  Some  tusks  are  curved,  some 
turned  out,  others  project  straight  forward  or  across  one  another  in 
front  of  the  trunk.  The  weight  of  tusks  is  as  various  as  their  appear- 
ance, and  in  no  way  depends  upon  their  length,  ranging  from  40  to 
150  pounds,  but  60  is  the  common  average. 

Ceylon  ivory  is  considered  the  most  valuable  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  being  whiter,  and  of  finer  grain  than  any  other.  Elephants 
tusks  are  occasionally  found  buried  in  the  jungle,  but  whether  by 
the  natives  for  concealment,  or  by  the  animals  themselves,  is  still  pro- 
blematical, though  it  is  known  that  they  will  often  fall  on  their 
tusks,  and  shiver  them  to  the  sockets.  It  has  not  yet  been  decided 
whether  the  elephant  of  Ceylon  is  the  smallest  of  the  race,  as  men- 
tioned by  Tavernier,  and  whether  its  courage  exceeds  all  others,  nor 
is  his  assertion  proved  in  reference  to  the  first  elephant  the  female  pro- 
duces alone  bearing  tusks,  for  in  that  case  they  must  inevitably  be 
more  numerous.  The  modus  copulandi  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
horse.  The  elephant  seldom  exceeds  ten  feet  in  height,  and  rarely 
even  nine,  yet  we  are  assured  by  Finlayson,  that  the  elephants  of 
Ceylon  are  larger  than  those  of  the  Ultra-Gangetic  peninsula,  and 
tame  are  in  general  larger  than  wild  elephants.  Their  intelligence 
and  sagacity  has  been  much  exaggerated,  aud  the  ease  with  which 
they  have  thrown  down  and  pulled  up  trees,  or  removed  timber,  at 

1  The  elephants  engaged  in  the  Persian  wars,  the  wars  of  Pyrrhus,  the  Punic 
wars,  and  indeed  in  all  the  struggles  between  the  various  nations  of  the  east,  were 
procured  from  Ceylon,  from  whence  they  were  shipped  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  to 
the  various  ports  on  the  Red  Sea,  by  the  Phoenicians. 

2  I  have  heard  it  remarked  by  a  naturalist  of  some  authority  that  he  believed 
the  Ceylon  to  be  a  distinct  species  of  the  Asiatic  elephant. 


CHAP.  IV.]    ELEPHANTS — PLINY,    D10NYS1US SPECIFICATION.       711 

the  direction  of  the  keeper,  who  communicates  his  ideas  on  the  sub- 
ject to  them  by  means  of  an  iron  instrument  like  a  boat-hook,  has 
been  cited  as  an  example,  but  the  real  agent  at  work  is  their  enor- 
mous strength.  The  cocoa-nut  trees,  which  are  thrown  down  by 
wild  elephants,  are  upset  by  continual  shaking,  produced  by  pressing 
their  heads  against  those  plants  which  are  least  able  to  resist;  but  a 
goat  will  shew  more  ingenuity,  and  contrive  to  reach  leaves  or  the 
top  of  such  plants  as  he  may  covet,  in  comparatively  more  difficult 
positions  than  can  be  done  by  an  elephant.  Their  sparing  the  lives 
of  human  beings,  which  has  been  assigned  to  magnanimity,  is  now 
thought  to  be  traceable  to  stupidity  and  ignorance  of  their  own 
power,  aud  how  to  apply  it ;  for  they  have  oftener  failed  than  suc- 
ceeded in  their  fierce  but  awkward  attempts  to  kill  persons  com- 
pletely in  their  power.  The  ease  with  which  half-trained  elephants 
have  been  re-caught,  after  having  escaped  into  the  jungle,  is  a  proof 
also  that  their  instinct  is  not  of  a  superior  kind  ;  for  so  far  from  be- 
coming more  wary  from  being  partially  trained,  they  are  rather  the 
reverse  They  are  fond  of  climbing  steep  hills,  and  do  not  shun 
slippery  rocks,  on  which,  from  their  clumsiness,  they  are  necessarily 
in  peril ;  indeed,  they  are  frequently  known  to  be  killed  by  falling 
down  precipices.  If  not  theu  pre-eminently  sagacious,  elephants  are 
peculiarly  docile,  though  there  is  great  difference  among  them  both 
in  temper  and  tractability,  and  some  few  are  found  to  be  so  sulky 
and  ferocious  as  to  be  entirely  useless.  In  all  the  sense  of  smell  and 
hearing  is  acute,  while  that  of  sight  is  dim,  particularly  in  a  bright 
light,  which  they  generally  avoid.  On  plain  ground  their  long  step 
or  shufliing  trot  does  not  exceed  the  speed  of  an  active  man,  and 
sportsmen  have  in  an  open  path  escaped  by  their  speed  from  a  pur- 
suing elephant,  but  in  jungle,  the  pace  of  an  elephant  is  but  little  re- 
tarded by  forcing  through  brushwood  so  thick  as  to  be  impervious 
to  man.  The  marks  of  elephants  and  their  paths  are  as  abundant 
in  most  of  the  elevated  and  thickly  wooded  regions  of  the  interior, 
as  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  thus  disproving  the  general  impres- 
sion that  these  animals  are  unfitted  to  endure  any  great  vicissitudes  of 
climate  ;  for  they  will  range  over  every  part  of  the  island,  voluntarily 
clambering  to  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains,  and  undergoing 
a  change  of  temperature  frequently  nearly  50°,  and  an  elevation 
approaching  from  water  level  to  8000  feet. 

The  skin  of  the  elephant  is  not  so  impervious  as  might  be  expected, 
being  pierced  by  a  large  grey  fly  about  au  inch  in  length,  with  power- 
ful fangs.  When  elephants  emerge  from  the  jungle,  they  are  gene- 
rally of  a  dusky  red  colour,  from  the  quantity  of  sand  and  red  earth 
with  which  they  cover  their  hides,  as  a  preventive  against  the  jungle 
tick,  and  their  much  dreaded  foe,  the  mosquito. 

Au  elephant  found  alone  is  in  general  called  hora-alia,  or  rogue 
elephant.  The  Singhalese  believe  them  to  be  turbulent  members 
expelled  by  the  unanimous  will  of  the  herd.  Also  that  they  are 
destructive  to  crops   and   dangerous  to  people,  and  they  are  alike 


712  CEYLON.  O^RT  IV. 

dreaded  by  their  own  kindred,  and  by  the  inhabitants  near  their 
haunts,  as  they  seldom  range  more  than  ten  or  fifteen  miles,  and  are 
generally  to  be  found  in  the  same  forest.  Rogue  elephants  have  killed 
many  people  ;  for  their  dread  of  man  being  once  overcome,  homicide 
seems  to  become  to  them  a  favourite  amusement,  and  they  have  been 
known  to  remain  quiet  and  concealed,  contrary  to  their  usual  habit, 
which  is  to  be  always  in  motion,  until  a  victim  comes  within  their 
reach,  and  without  provocation  to  trample  or  otherwise  put  him  to 
death,  and  then  leisurely  retire  into  the  forest.  During  the  Kandian 
rebellion,  great  numbers  of  native  baggage  porters  were  alleged  to 
have  been  killed  by  rogue  elephants,  when  carrying  loads  of  rice. 
Formerly  elephants  were  so  numerous  in  some  neighbourhoods,  that 
a  rough  ladder  was  placed  against  every  large  tree  on  the  sides  of  the 
paths,  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  travellers.  "  In  1835,"  says  Forbes, 
"  the  Kapuralle,  priest  of  Vishnu,  a  shrewd  and  intelligent  man, 
met  his  death  while  endeavouring  to  sustain  his  character  of  elephant 
charmer  in  the  face  of  a  wounded  and  savage  rogue  elephant.  The 
Kapuralle  had  accompanied  a  party  of  gentlemen,  who,  coming  acci- 
dentally upon  the  elephant,  wounded  him  with  balls,  but  not  mor- 
tally; the  animal  continued  to  charge  the  party  ;  the  Kapuralle  stood 
forward,  and  while  holding  up  his  hand  in  an  imposing  attitude,  was 
seized  by  the  uplifted  arm,  which  was  torn  from  his  body,  and  the 
elephant  passed  on,  leaving  him  a  mangled  corpse."  Elephants  will 
frequently  enter  villages  in  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Provinces  at 
night,  and  removing  the  thatch  from  houses  containing  a  store  of 
paddy,  deliberately  help  themselves,  and  walk  off  leisurely  before 
daybreak . 

The  damage  done  to  paddy  fields,  bo-trees,  of  whose  leaves  they 
are  remarkably  fond,  and  cocoa-nut  topes  in  the  course  of  a  night  is 
so  great,  that  whenever  these  destructive  animals  are  known  to  be 
near,  watchmen  are  stationed  under  a  shed,  upon  a  platform  fixed 
upon  four  lofty  poles,  having  a  rustic  ladder  at  one  side,  or  against 
trees  commanding  a  view  of  the  whole  field,  to  give  an  alarm  upon 
their  approach.  In  cases  where  one  of  the  herd  is  mutilated  or 
killed,  its  carcass  is  an  object  of  aversion  and  irritation  to  the  others, 
who  will  stroke  or  butt  it;  yet  the  Singhalese  maintain,  that  they  have 
the  greatest  affection  for  their  young  of  all  irrational  creatures,  and 
the  female  will  cherish  and  assist  the  young  of  any  one  of  the  herd 
equally  with  her  own.  In  crossing  a  stream,  which  is  here  in  gene- 
ral swift,  they  will  combine  with  their  trunks  to  convey  their  young 
ones  over.  They  are  fond  of  lying  and  tumbling  in  the  water,  and 
swim  well. 

The  Southern  Province  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  great  elephant 
hunts  under  the  Dutch  and  the  early  British  rule,  and  while  the 
Honourable  F.  North  was  Governor,1  two  thousand  men  would  be 

l  As  the  aim  of  this  work  is  completeness  in  all  its  parts,  it  would  seem  to  be 
only  consistent  to  give  the  reader,  in  a  condensed  form,  an  account  of  the  former 


CHAP.  IV. J     ELEPHANT    CHARMERS —  INJURIES    TO    THE    CROPS.      713 

employed  under  the  system  of  Raja  Karia,  for  three  months,  in 
driving  300  elephants  into  a  kraal,  to  the  oppression  and  destruction 

mode  of  capturing  elephants,  more  especially  as  it  is  now  seldom  adopted,  and 
then  only  in  a  modified  form,  and  is  contained  in  a  work  now  rare  and  almost  un- 
known. There  were  three  great  inclosures  in  the  district  of  Matura  for  ensnaring 
elephants,  which  were  used  alternately,  as  the  foliage  of  the  thickets  was  so  com- 
pletely destroyed  as  not  at  once  to  afford  the  necessary  food.  When  a  capture  had 
been  determined  on,  natives  were  sent  into  the  forests  to  mark  in  what  spots  the 
elephants  ranged  in  the  greatest  numbers.  As  soon  as  the  locale  of  two  or  three 
herds  had  been  ascertained,  an  order  was  issued  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict to  surround  the  forest  in  which  they  fed,  with  a  chain  of  fires,  which  were 
kept  constantly  burning,  and  commenced  thirty  miles  from  the  snare.  To  sup- 
port this,  three  thousand  men  were  employed  for  two  months.  The  fires  were 
raised  four  feet  from  the  ground  on  moveable  stands,  formed  of  four  perpendicular 
sticks  and  twigs  wattled  across  them,  on  which  earth  was  laid  to  receive  the  fuel, 
and  covered  with  a  sloping  roof  of  cocoa-nut  leaves  to  ward  off  rain.  Placed  at 
first  about  four  hundred  paces  from  each  other,  they  were  gradually  drawn  nearer, 
till  at  last  the  distance  between  them  did  not  exceed  ten  paces.  The  chain  ap- 
proached the  snare  at  the  rate  of  from  a  furlong  to  a  mile  daily,  which  was  effected 
by  cutting  off  corners  of  the  ground,  out  of  which  the  elephants  had  departed.  At 
length  the  people  entered  at  opposite  sides  into  a  foot-path  in  the  woods  with 
hurdles  of  fire,  and  a  mutual  communication  being  opened  the  enclosure  was 
diminished.  Their  vigilance  now  augmented,  as  the  efforts  of  the  elephants  to 
escape  increased  with  the  narrowing  of  the  space.  The  shouts  and  flames  how- 
ever sufficed  to  repulse  them  whenever  they  attempted  to  charge.  Were  it  not  for 
this  timidity,  no  barrier  of  the  stoutest  timber  could  withstand  the  shock  of  these 
enormous  animals  rushing  on  impetuously  in  a  compact  and  impenetrable  phalanx. 
At  the  end  of  two  months  they  were  enclosed  in  a  circle,  of  which  the  wide  entrance 
of  the  snare  formed  a  part,  and  were  at  last  brought  near  to  it.  The  grand  busi- 
ness of  the  campaign  was  then  considered  terminated,  and  the  unthinking  herd 
were  in  the  power  of  their  captors. 

Now  the  various  persons  who  intended  witnessing  the  scene  to  ensue,  resorted 
to  the  place  selected  for  the  purpose,  where  the  utmost  silence  was  recpiired  to  be 
observed.  This  was  a  critical  stage  of  the  proceedings ;  for  accustomed  as  the 
elephants  had  been  to  the  fires  and  noise  of  the  people,  it  was  to  be  feared  that 
being  less  terrified  by  these  than  by  their  captivity,  they  might  attempt  to  break 
out  of  the  narrow  ring  into  which  they  had  been  pressed.  To  guard  against  this, 
a  party  of  natives,  armed  with  muskets,  squibs,  and  rockets,  acted  in  concert 
with  the  men  stationed  on  the  line  of  fires,  now  forming  a  sweep  of  three-quarters 
of  a  mile.  The  funnel-like  enclosure  had  a  palisade  six  hundred  feet  broad,  run- 
ning across  a  little  way  within  its  wide  end,  and  containing  four  open  gates,  at 
which  the  elephants  entered.  The  enclosure  was  formed  of  the  strongest  trees  in 
the  island,  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter,  bending  inwards,  sunk  four 
feet  into  the  ground,  and  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  high  above  it,  at  a  distance 
of  sixteen  inches  from  each  other,  and  crossed  by  four  rows  of  powerful  beams 
bound  fast  to  them  with  pliant  canes.  To  this  palisade  were  added  supporters 
more  inclined,  several  feet  asunder,  to  augment  the  strength  of  the  fence.  The 
part  of  the  fold  in  which  the  elephants  were  at  first  confined,  was  1800  feet  in 
circumference,  but  it  communicated  with  a  smaller  fold  100  feet  in  length  and 
40  broad,  through  which  a  rivulet  five  feet  in  depth  flowed.  The  elephants 
entered  this  place  of  confinement  at  only  one  gate,  and  the  fence  gradually  con- 
tracted beyond  the  water,  ending  in  a  strong  passage  five  feet  broad.  The  signal 
having  been  given,  the  wild  roaring  of  the  elephants,  the  shouts,  muskets  and 
rockets  of  the  drivers,  betokened  their  approach.  Then  crashed  the  forest,  and 
the  tumultuous  herd,  in  pushing  forward,  levelled  every  tree  which  opposed  their 
passage.  The  people  followed,  with  their  lights,  each  waving  in  their  hand  a 
blazing  torch,  which  illuminated  the  foliage  around  ;  at  times  a  strong  elephant 


711  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

of  the  animals,  and  to  the  danger  and  ruin  of  the  men's  health,  so 
long  detained  in  pestiferous  jungles,  and  with  no  corresponding  advan- 

would  dart  through  his  pursuers  and  effect  his  escape,  but  the  others  were  now 
within  the  enclosure,  and  the  gates  were  secured  and  closed.  Large  stakes  were 
driven  into  the  ground,  connected  together  with  transverse  beams,  &c.  and  fresh 
boughs  were  strewed  over  the  various  parts  of  the  palisade  to  deceive  the  elephants 
as  to  the  structure  of  the  fence. 

A  chain  of  fire  and  torches,  was  now  formed  within  the  enclosure  to  drive  them 
into  the  smaller  fold  at  the  narrow  end  of  the  snare.     The  drivers  easily  passed  in 
and  out  through  the  interstices  of  the  pale,  and  escaped  or  advanced  at  pleasure. 
The  gate  of  the  water  fold  was  formed  of  horizontal  round  sticks,  fastened  together 
with  ropes  and  pliant  twigs,  and  rolled  up  like  a  curtain,  which  were  cut  on  a 
given  signal  by  axes.    The  pliable  nature  of  this  door  added  greatly  to  its  strength, 
and,  with  the  vigilant  activity  of  the  spearmen,  never  failed  to  resist  the  attempts  of 
the  distracted  elephants  to  burst  it  open.     As  soon  as   a  sufficient  number  had 
been  driven  into  the  water  snare,  the  barricade  was  dropped  down,  and  the  ani- 
mals were  so  closely  wedged  together  as  scarcely  to  have  the  power  of  motion. 
The  remainder  of  the  herd  were  left  for  a  time  to  range  at  greater  freedom  within 
the  larger  prison.     The  appearance  of  a  great  number  of  enormous  animals  within 
so  small  a  compass,  was  a  strange  and  moving  spectacle.     Pressing  heavily  upon 
each  other,  incapable  of  any  movement  but  convulsions  of  distress,  their  parox- 
ysms of  anguish  were  of  the  most  piteous  kind  :  from  the  water  toil  to  the  dis- 
charging passage,  the  ground  rose,  and  the  elephants  ascended  part  of  it  on  steps 
formed  in  the  bank.     The  gallery  was  so  narrow,  as  only  to  admit  one  animal  at 
a  time.  In  entering,  they,  imagining  that  they  had  discovered  an  opening  through 
which  they  could  escape,  eagerly  ran  to  the  end,  and  being  checked  and  unable  to 
wheel  round,  attempted  to  return  by  moving  backwards,  but  bars  let  down  behind 
them  secured  them  fast.     When  but  few  remained  they  had  to  be  pricked  with 
spears  from  the  top  of  the  fence,  and  burning  torches,  rockets  and  muskets  were 
used  before  they  could  be  forced  out  of  the  water.     The  moans  of  their  friends  in 
distress,  and  their  never  seeing  any  of  them  return,  filled  them  with  dread,  and 
caused  them  to  prefer  their  present  condition.     When  at  length  compelled  to  move, 
they  would  press  so  much  upon  one  another  that  many  of  the  young  were  drowned, 
and  some  of  the  full  grown  crushed  to  death.     Every  exertion  was  made  by  them 
to  regain  their  liberty,  but  their  powers  were  greatly  lessened  by  the  pressure  of 
the  surrounding  water,  and  the  incumbrance  of  their  unwieldy  bodies  crowding  in 
all  directions  upon  each  other.     The  confinement  in  the  discharging  passage,  by 
contracting  the  powers  of  their  prodigious  strength,  permitted  the  binding  their 
legs  without  danger.     The  transverse  beams  also  prevented  the  elephants  from 
rearing  on  their  hind  legs,  and  enabled  the  people  to  pass  cordage  round  their 
necks.     Here  their  efforts  to  regain  their  freedom  were  made  with  extraordinary 
violence,  often  raising  their  fore  legs,  they  crushed  the  beams  laid  acros  their  backs, 
and  shook  the  whole  fabric  to  its  foundation.     The  people  on  the  top  opposed 
them  with  sharp-pointed  spears,  and  additional  bars  were  shoved  in  above  them, 
and  fastened  down  with  ropes.     Great  ropes  formed  with  nooses  were  laid  down 
to  catch  their  hind  legs,  and  drawn  tight.  Meanwhile  a  man  stood  before  the  gate, 
tickling  the  trunk,  or  otherwise  turning  their  attention.     When  the  wild  elephant 
was  completely  harnessed,  two  tame  ones,  trained  to  the  business,  were  brought  to 
the  gate,  and  placed  one  on  each  side  of  it.     These,  surveying  their  prisoner,  and 
feeling  his  mouth  to  see  whether  he  had  tusks  or  not,  laid  hold  of  his  proboscis  to 
ascertain  what  degree  of  resistance  he  was  likely  to  make.     Ropes  being  then 
passed  through  the  collar  of  the  wild,  and  fastened  to  those  of  the  tame  elephants, 
the  bars  of  the  gate  were  unloosed  and  drawn  out,  when  the  wild  captive  darted 
forward  between  his  tame  keepers  ;  he  could,  however,  only  advance  a  little  way  ; 
as  the  ropes  securing  his  hind  legs,  still  continued  fastened  to  the  strong  stakes  of 
the  toil.     Thus  he  remained,  until  the  riders  mounted  on  the  tame  elephants  had 
drawn  tight  the  cords  which  bound  him  to  the  necks  of  his  sagacious  conductors. 


CHAP.  IV.]        GREAT  ELEPHANT  HUNT A  KRAAL.  "15 

tage  to  the  community.  Gangs  of  elephant  catchers  from  Bengal, 
under  the  command  of  a  military  officer,  were  formerly  employed  in 

The  knots  of  these  he  would  try  to  undo  with  his  trunk,  and  aim  a  destructive 
blow  at  the  agents  of  his  captivity.  They,  however,  were  vigilantly  observant  of 
his  motions,  and  never  failed  to  prevent  him  from  doing  any  mischief,  by  gently 
lowering  his  proboscis,  and  if  he  continued  long  refractory,  battered  him  with  their 
heads,  and  brought  him  to  the  most  perfect  submission.  The  nooses  of  the  ropes 
were  then  opened,  his  hind  legs  left  at  freedom,  and  himself  entirely  disengaged 
from  the  snare.  His  tame  keepers  still  pressed  close  to  his  side,  and  proceeded 
leisurely  to  the  garden  of  stalls,  where  they  delivered  up  their  charge  to  experience 
another  species  of  hardship.  On  the  march  the  riders  struck  up  a  rustic  lay, 
which,  with  their  position  on  the  necks  of  the  tame  elephants,  of  which  they  kept 
hold  by  short  inverted  spear  hooks  struck  perpendicularly  into  their  collars,  helped 
to  form  an  unique  spectacle. 

On  reaching  their  destination,,  the  tedious  process  of  fastening  them  began. 
This  was  done  with  expertness  and  ease,  for  the  tame  elephants  continued  close  on 
each  side  of  him,  and  acted  their  part  with  so  much  judgment,  that  their  wild  com- 
panion kept  as  quiet  as  a  lamb.  When  an  elephant  was  not  very  formidable  nor 
unruly,  it  was  sufficient  to  place  him  lengthways  between  two  large  trees  about 
forty  feet  from  each  other,  and  binding  his  hind  legs  in  contact  together,  to  fasten 
them  close  to  one  of  the  trees  with  five  or  six  turns  of  thick  rope,  and  to  bind  one 
fore  leg,  to  which  greater  freedom  was  given  by  the  length  and  slackness  of  the 
cordage.  His  disengagement  from  his  tame  guardians,  was  the  most  trying 
moment  to  a  wild  elephant.  While  guided  and  soothed  by  them,  he  stood  tranquil 
and  gentle,  appearing  to  forget  his  sorrows,  but  as  soon  as  they  had  marched  away, 
finding  himself  closely  bound,  a  solitary  and  helpless  prisoner,  he  was  agitated 
with  despair,  broke  out  into  a  roaring,  which  made  the  forest  tremble,  and,  in  the 
fury  of  his  grief,  often  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his  exertions  to  regain  his  liberty.  The 
tempting  provender  laid  before  him  he  tossed  contemptuously  away,  or  trampled 
with  indignation  under  his  feet.  But  the  cravings  of  hunger  at  length  induced 
him  to  eat,  he  became  gradually  more  resigned,  and  fed  tranquilly  at  the  end  of  a 
few  hours. 

When  of  large  size,  and  apparently  fierce  and  stubborn,  they  were  led  to  stalls 
erected  for  the  purpose.  Four  strong  stakes  were  driven  into  the  ground  in  a 
front  line,  with  two  large  trees,  which  helped  to  support  them,  and  thence  hori- 
zontal bars  were  made  fast  across  them,  uniting  the  upright  posts  together.  These 
were  likewise  strengthened  by  a  second  line  of  stakes  joined  in  the  same  manner, 
and  all  were  secured  by  ropes  like  the  yards  of  a  ship.  The  head  of  the  wild  ele- 
phant entered  in  between  the  two  middle  stakes,  and  was  enclosed  above  and  below 
by  two  of  the  cross  bars.  On  the  backs  of  tame  elephants,  posted  between  the 
stakes  and  trees,  five  or  six  men  were  employed  fastening  his  neck,  and  as  many 
more  busy  tying  his  legs  in  the  most  complete  and  secure  manner,  and  binding 
the  ropes  to  the  large  trees,  generally  living  ones.  In  defiance  of  the  web  cast 
around  him,  the  huge  animal  would  at  times  shake  the  whole  fabric  to  its  founda- 
tion, making  the  loftiest  trees  to  tremble  to  their  very  roots,  and  bellow  so  tre- 
mendously as  to  fill  the  spectators  with  terror. 

The  casualties  on  these  occasions  were  numerous.  Some  strangled  themselves 
in  their  exertions  to  get  loose,  others  fell  down  between  the  tame  ones,  and  though 
those  sagacious  animals,  aware  of  their  hazardous  situation,  knelt  to  the  ground 
to  prevent  their  suffering,  and  used  every  means  in  their  power  to  induce  them  to 
rise,  yet  they  often  fell  victims.  Some  fell  down  in  the  discharging  passage,  and 
though  a  strong  fire  were  kindled  around  their  bodies,  and  forced  them  to  move,  as 
the  business  of  the  hunt  would  be  retarded  by  the  choking  up  of  the  passage, 
they  would  proceed  but  a  few  paces  and  die.  One,  perhaps,  would  in  the  face  of 
every  precaution  get  loose,  and  though  soon  surrounded  by  a  thousand  armed 
men,  break  through  the  line  and  escape.  At  times,  three  or  mere  of  the  larger 
elephants  would  charge  up  to  the  end  of  the  narrow  passage,  pressing  one  alter 


716  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

procuring;  elephants  for  the  East  India  Company's  service.  The 
Ceylon  elephant  establishment  was  attached  to  the  Civil  Engineer 
and  Surveyor- General's  department. 

There  are  several  modes  of  snaring  elephants  in  Ceylon  ;  the  most 
simple,  and  yet  most  dexterous,  is  noosing  them  in  an  open  forest. 
With  this  view,  the  hunters  having  ascertained  the  position  of  one, 
steal  up  to  leeward,  carrying  their  atmaddoos,  or  ropes  of  bullock's 
hide,  with  a  noose  at  one  end.  Having  closed  upon  tbe  enemy's 
flank,  they  watch  for  the  time  of  his  starting  off  or  turning  round, 
near  some  fallen  tree  or  other  impediment,  to  slip  the  noose  under 
one  of  his  hind  feet,  simultaneously  running  round  a  tree  with  the 
other  end  of  the  rope.  Checked  and  tripped,  the  animal  stumbles, 
and  ere  he  can  rally,  additional  hide  ropes  are  fastened  to  his  other 
legs,  which  are  afterwards  entangled  by  cords  made  from  the 
kittul,  or  sugar  palm-tree,  aud  twisted  from  one  foot  to  another,  in 
the  form  of  a  figure  of  eight.  The  elephant  is  then  fixed  to  the 
nearest  tree,  and  a  shed  erected  over  him,  unless  tame  ones  can  be 
procured  to  escort  him  to  the  stable. 

Another  and  less  dangerous  mode  of  capturing  elephants  is,  by 
laying  a  large  noose  of  gasmaddoo,  a  thicker  kind  of  rope,  called 
"  tree  snares,"  to  distinguish  it  from  atmaddco,  or  hand  snares,  in  a 
path,  covering  it  slightly  with  earth,  and  fixing  the  other  end  to  a 
shady  tree,  in  which  a  man  lies  hid,  who  holds  a  leading  rope 
attached  to  the  noose.  The  elephants  being  driven  towards  the 
snare,  if  any  of  them  put  a  foot  within  the  noose,  it  is  raised  around 
his  leg  by  the  man  who  is  on  watch :  by  the  animal's  exertions  to 
escape,  the  noose  is  tightened,  and  the  hunters  coming  up,  the 
capture  is  completed.  This  mode  is  dangerous  as  respects  the 
animal,  which  will  often  overstrain  itself  before  the  hunter  can 
come  up. 

another,  crashing  the  intervening  bars,  and  shaking  the  whole  structure.  But 
the  activity  of  the  hunters  in  separating  them  by  new  rollers  lashed  together  with 
ropes,  and  the  dexterity  of  the  spearmen  in  mounting  the  toil  and  penetrating 
their  foreheads,  prevented  the  terrible  effects  that  might  otherwise  have  ensued. 
Now  and  then  a  man  would  tumble  down  in  the  passage,  and  would  be  immediately 
trampled  to  death  under  the  elephants'  feet. 

An  elephant  has  often  been  tamed  in  eight  days,  but  where  obstinate,  in  not  less 
than  two  months.  His  first  abhorrence  of  the  human  species  was  diminished  by 
seeing  his  wants  regularly  supplied  through  that  channel ;  he  soon  gained  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  his  keeper,  and  at  last  followed  his  commands  with  the 
most  implicit  obedience.  The  cries  of  a  captive  elephant  had  all  the  expressions 
of  sorrow,  grief",  and  despair.  The  female,  from  natural  causes,  felt  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  yoke  with  keener  sensibility,  and  more  frequently  fell  a  sacrifice  in  the 
struggle  than  the  male.  Though  the  Singhalese  were  expert  in  this  operation, 
they  seldom  secured  more  than  twenty  animals  in  a  day. 

The  grandeur  of  this  spectacle  principally  consisted  in  the  crowd  of  elephants 
confined  within  a  narrow  compass,  the  enormous  size  of  that  quadruped,  the 
danger  of  the  pursuit,  and  the  striking  example  it  afforded  of  the  supremacy  of 
human  intellect.  When  sufficiently  docile,  the  whole  body  of  elephants  were  sent 
to  Jaffna,  where  they  were  sold  by  public  auction,  and  thence  transported  to  the 
continent,  in  open  boats  adapted  for  the  purpose.  Elephant  kraals  were  at  times 
formed  in  other  parts  of  the  maritime  provinces,  as  occasion  required. 


CHAP.  IV.]        MODES  OF  CAPTURE ATMADDOOS,  GASMADDOOS.        717 

In  the  Kandian  provinces,  both  the  systems  of  capturing  elephants 
and  driving  them  into  kraals,  and  then  using  the  gasmaddoos  and 
atmaddoos  were  formerly  practised  together.  In  the  Doombera  dis- 
trict near  Kandy,  there  were  kept  a  herd  of  half  tame  elephants  for 
the  purpose  of  inducing  passing  herds  to  continue  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
kraal  formed  at  a  short  distance  from  the  villages  of  the  elephant 
hunters.  Two  or  three  good  tusked  elephants,  of  a  large  size,  two 
female  decoys,  a  large  body  of  people,  bearing  a  due  proportion  of 
pipes,  tom-toms,  hide  ropes  and  hunters'  spears,  formed  what  was  the 
requisite  array,  and  all  the  necessary  apparatus  for  driving  in  and 
securing  a  herd  not  exceeding  twenty  elephants. 

The  enclosure  for  catching  elephants,  commonly  called  a  kraal,  is 
composed  of  trees,  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  of  a  triangular  form, 
sunk  three  or  four  feet  into  the  ground,  and  rising  twelve  feet  above 
it :  on  the  outside  of  these  upright  timbers,  trees  are  placed  length- 
ways, and  tied  to  each  post  by  jungle  ropes  (tough  creeping  plants)  ; 
these  longitudinal  pieces  are  farther  supported  by  trees  with  forked 
ends  sloping  from  them,  and  resting  in  the  ground  at  some  distance 
from  the  fence.  The  space  between  the  upright  timbers  is  left  of 
sufficient  size  to  admit  of  a  man  passing  through,  and  in  choosing 
the  situation  and  arranging  the  plan  of  the  enclosure,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  entrance  should  be  at  a  spot  where  the  elephants 
are  in  the  habit  of  passing,  and  that  the  kraal  should  have  a  copious 
supply  of  running  water.  As  elephants  cannot  be  driven  far  without 
a  great  expenditure  of  human  labour  and  risk  of  accidents,  small 
kraals  are  preferable  to  large  ones,  and  the  sides  of  a  ravine,  ledges 
of  rock,  or  other  natural  barriers,  may,  in  general,  be  made  available. 
An  enclosure  of  fragile  construction  has  availed  for  this  purpose 
when  the  hunters  have  found  it  to  their  interest. 

The  kraal  having  been  completed,  and  the  people  arranged,  so  as 
to  surround  the  herd,  driving  is  commenced  by  firing  a  few  blank 
shots,  followed  by  the  rolling  pattering  sound  of  tom-toms  and  shouts 
from  the  beaters.  On  the  large  trees  persons  are  stationed  to  give 
notice  of  the  elephants'  movements,  and  prevent  their  resting  under 
the  shade  ;  for  if  the  day  be  clear,  and  the  underwood  low,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  dislodge  them  from  the  protection  of  a  forest  tree  with  thick 
foliage.  To  gain  this  point,  the  watchers  would  not  hesitate  to  lower 
themselves  down  from  a  branch,  of  which  they  still  retained  hold, 
upon  the  backs  of  wild  elephants,  and  regain  their  position  in  the 
tree,  while  the  animals  were  effectually  and  speedily  dislodged  by  the 
loud  shout,  sharp  goad  and  unlooked  for  descent  of  these  watchers. 
When  the  herd  approaches  the  kraal,  the  decoys,  which  are  without 
any  trappings  whatever,  are  taken  in  front,  and  they,  following  the 
keepers,  who  are  on  foot,  become  leaders  to  the  wild  ones,  who,  thus 
seduced,  enter  the  snare,  while  the  hunting  tusk  elephants  being 
close  on  their  track,  move  up,  and  the  gate  is  fastened  under  their 
protection  and  by  their  assistance.  At  the  same  time  the  hunters 
spread  themselves  around  the  fence  ready  to  resist  the  first  efforts  of 


718  CEYLON,  [PART  IV. 

the  animals  ;  for,  frightened  by  the  tumult,  and  enraged  at  their  en- 
trapment, they  sometimes  charge  furiously  at  the  barricades,  but  are 
soon  repelled  by  sharp  sticks,  blunt  spears,  and  smoking  brands. 
They  have  beenknown,  however,  to  disregard  all  obstacles,  and  rush 
with  such  violence  against  the  enclosure,  as  to  force  a  portion  asunder, 
and  falling  upon  the  watchers  outside,  to  injure  several  of  them. 
The  Vederalles  (native  doctors)  are  skilful  in  amputation,  though  their 
whole  surgical  apparatus  consists  of  a  knife,  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  a 
searing  iron.     In  general  the  violent  excitement  of  the  leaders  of  a 
herd  on  their  entrapment  is  soon  over,  and  the  whole  draw  up  with 
their  heads  in  a  line  in  the  thickest  brushwood  within  the  enclosure. 
Occasionally  some  one   more  valiant  than  the  rest,   after  various 
scrapes  of  his  feet,  having  duly  elevated  his  trunk  and  sounded  a 
charge,  rushes  forward  as  if  irresistible,  but  a  few  pricks  from  spears 
directed  against  his  feet  and  proboscis  are  sufficient  to  send  the  single 
champion  sulky  and  discomfited  back  to  his  ranks.  There  is  scarcely 
a  more  awkward  figure  to  be  found  than  an  elephant  charging,  with 
his  great  triangular  ears  set  out  like  studding-sails  from  a  huge  head, 
in  front  of  which  ascends  the  trunk  like  a  funnel  of  a  steam  engine, 
while  the  main  body  comes  lumbering  after,  terminated  by  a  half- 
cocked  scanty  scrubby  tail.     The  tails  of  elephants  ranging  in  thick 
jungles,  are  generally  denuded  of  hair,  or  at  most  but  a  few  broken 
stumps  near  the  extremity :  when  the  hairs  are  thick,  and  seven  or 
eight  inches  in  length,  they  are  used  for  forming  bracelets  and  other 
ornaments,  and  being  difficult  to  procure,   are  proportionably  es- 
teemed.    Amidst  the  confusion  and  shouting  by  the  people  about 
the  kraal,  the  note  of  a  Kandiau  pipe  may  be  distinguished,  an  in- 
strument supposed  to  soothe  the  captive,    and   it    does   appear  to 
produce  some  effect  in  restoring  them  to  tranquillity.     Nothing,  on 
the  contrary,  excites  their  anger  so  much  as  the  barking  of  a  dog, 
and  the  intrusion  of  that  animal  into  a  kraal,  has  infuriated  a  whole 
herd.     At  night  fires  are  kept  burning  round  the  enclosure,  and 
against  its  supporting  beams  the  hunters  and  watchers  bivoviac  next 
day,  the  wives  and  families  of  the  men,  having  donned  their  gayest 
and  best  attire,  bring  their  husbands'  provisions,  and  display  their  own 
ornaments   to   the    surrounding   throng.      The    elephant    catchers 
having  completed  their  preparations,  the  entrance  is  unfastened,  the 
hunting  elephants  introduced,  and  with  their  protection,  the  people 
fix  their  gasmaddoos  and  arrange  their  hand  snares.  A  tame  elephant 
is  brought  up  close  to  the  wild  one  that  is  to  be  secured,  who  is  as- 
sailed from  under  cover  of  his  civilized  brother  :  one  of  the  hunters 
pricks  the  animal's  foot ;  if  he  lifts  it,  another  whips  a  noose  under, 
and  raising  it  up,  pulls  the  cord  tight ;  if  successful,   a  shout  an- 
nounces the  feat,  as  a  premium  is  bestowed  on  each  of  those  who  fix 
the  two  first  ropes.     These  prizes  are  generally  dress  clothes.     It  is 
the  duty  of  the  two  riders  that  are  placed  on  each  trained  elephant, 
and  hold  short  inverted  spear  hooks,  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible, 
any  annoyance  to  the  hunters,  and  it  is  a  very  remarkable  fact,  that 


CHAP.  IV.]  ELEPHANT  STABLES,  TRAINING — USES  OF  ELEPHANTS.   7\0 

the  wild  elephants  seldom  offer  to  molest  a  tame  one  or  his  riders 
under  any  provocation.  After  having  secured  one  of  the  herd,  and 
tied  him,  so  that  he  can  harely  put  one  foot  before  another,  a  tame 
elephant  is  brought  up  on  each  side,  and  to  these  he  is  fastened  in 
such  a  manner  that  he  can  neither  resist  nor  lie  down,  the  hunter 
turning  them  by  means  of  the  spear  and  by  pressing  it  to  their  skin, 
makes  them  move  in  any  direction  required  :  the  three  then  move 
off  in  state,  and  according  to  ancient  custom,  if  the  captive  be  a  tusk 
elephant,  the  pipes  and  tom-toms  play  before  him  until  he  reaches  the 
stable. 

Elephant  stables,  when  filled  with  animals  recently  caught,  present 
a  most  unpleasant  sight :  in  front  the  appearance  is  that  of  a  number 
of  malefactors  in  the  stocks,  the  animals  being  so  fixed,  as  to  be 
unable  to  move  their  heads  or  legs ;  the  latter  are  bound  to  four 
separate  posts,  and  their  heads  project  from  between  two  large  beams 
that  reach  to  the  top  of  the  building.  The  cords  with  which  they 
are  bound  produce  numerous  soi'es,  and  to  prevent  flies  from  irritat- 
ing these  and  annoying  the  animals,  fires  of  green  wood  are  kept 
smouldering  in  every  part  of  the  building.  In  such  a  miserable  po- 
sition, few  would  survive,  if  they  were  not  taken  to  water  and  allowed 
to  lie  in  it  for  several  hours  every  day,  and  as  this  cannot  be  done 
without  the  assistance  of  tame  elephants,  it  is  useless  and  cruel  to 
catch  too  many  at  one  time ;  for  the  number  will  depend  on  the  nu- 
merical strength  of  those  already  trained  and  attached  to  the  hunting 
department. 

Elephants,  from  the  period  of  their  capture  until  tame  enough  to 
be  fastened  to  one  post  only,  are  not  permitted  to  lie  down  in  the 
stable,  and  the  time  required  to  make  them  sufficiently  tractable  for 
this  indulgence,  varies  from  one  to  three  months,  according  to  the 
disposition  of  the  animal  and  skill  of  the  keepers.  When  removed 
from  the  stables  to  the  water,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  keepers  daily  to 
scrub  their  elephants  with  rubbers  formed  by  cutting  across  the 
fibrous  covering  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  sometimes  a  rough  stone  is  used 
instead  of  this  instrument  of  luxury,  and  appears  to  gratify  the 
animal  in  no  slight  degree. 

Under  the  native  sovereigns  in  the  Kandian  country  elephants 
without  tusks  were  seldom  captured,  as  they  were  not  used  in  state 
processions,  nor  had  any  been  trained  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
but  few  as  a  means  of  conveying  baggage,  until  the  British  set  the 
example  of  employing  the  strength  of  elephants  to  clear  forests  and 
move  heavy  bodies.  The  general  weapon  of  offence  against  elephants 
in  ancient  times  in  the  Kandian  territories  would  appear  to  have 
been  bows  and  arrows,  and  the  natives,  by  dodging  about  the  trees, 
contrived  to  escape  the  animal's  charges. 

By  the  assistance  of  female  decoys  and  the  inhabitants  surround- 
ing and  driving  the  herd,  elephants  were  sometimes  brought  into  the 
town,  and  their  capture  completed  under  the  eye  of  the  king  in  the 
square   before   the  palace   at  Kandy,  but  the   speckled  and  tusked 


720  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

alone  were  retained.  Knox  adds,  that  if  the  elephants  canght  did 
not  please  the  king,  he  ordered  their  liberation,  but  if  they  did,  he 
selected  some  spot  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  whither  they  were  to  be 
driven  with  the  females,  for  without  them  they  would  not  stay,  and 
there  they  were  kept  until  the  king  ordered  their  secural,  which 
might  not  take  place  for  three  or  four  years,  during  which  interval 
headmen  and  watchers  were  set  over  them,  and  if  they  should  chance 
to  stray  beyond  the  royal  bounds,  they  immediately  brought  them 
back,  apprehensive  of  the  king's  displeasure,  which  was  little  short 
of  death.  These  elephants  did  great  damage  to  the  country,  eating 
up  the  corn  or  trampling  it,  throwing  down  cocoa-nut  trees,  and 
frequently  houses  ;  nor  could  they  be  resisted,  as  it  was  considered 
to  be  the  king's  will,  and  the  result  of  their  devastation  frequently 
was  that  they  were  liberated  and  sent  back  to  the  woods,  being  caught 
for  no  use  or  benefit  but  for  the  king's  recreation  and  pastime.  This 
was  by  no  means  so  difficult  an  undertaking  as  might  at  first  sight 
appear,  for  the  approaches  to  the  capital,  and  even  the  paths  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  palace,  were  more  likely  to  deter 
travellers  than  to  excite  suspicion  in  an  elephant  following  his  Dalilah. 
It  appears  that  the  Kandian  kings  made  use  of  them  as  executioners, 
first,  by  treading  on  the  culprit,  and  then  running  their  tusks 
through  the  body,  and  tearing  it  in  pieces.  For  this  they  were  fur- 
nished with  a  sharp  iron  and  a  socket  with  three  edges,  which  they 
put  on  their  tusks,  for  the  king's  elephants  had  all  the  ends  of  their 
tusks  cut  to  strengthen  and  increase  them  in  size.  The  keepers  would 
sometimes  force  the  elephants  to  take  water  in  their  trunks,  and 
then  to  squirt  it  at  somebody,  and  with  such  force  that  a  man  could 
hardly  stand  against  it. 

If  it  be  intended  to  use  the  tree  snares  in  catching  elephants,  they 
are  driven  towards  the  place  where  the  noose  is  concealed  under  a 
slight  covering  of  earth  or  leaves  ;  they  however  carefully  avoid  the 
spot  where  the  earth  appears  disturbed,  and  may  be  seen  with  their 
huge  snouts  pointed  up  and  smelling  at  the  man  who  watches  in  the 
tree  above,  holding  a  line  communicating  with  the  noose.  While 
thus  engaged,  a  push  from  a  tame  elephant  sends  some  of  them 
staggering  into  the  snare,  which  is  immediately,  by  pulling  the  lead- 
ing rope,  raised  up  round  one  of  their  legs,  the  first  step  the  animal 
takes  tightens  the  noose,  and  the  rest  of  the  herd  being  driven  away, 
the  farther  securing  of  the  captive  is  easily  accomplished. 

So  accustomed  formerly  were  the  natives  of  the  interior  to  elephants, 
that  those  persons  who  were  unconnected  with  the  hunting  establish- 
ment might  be  seen  crossing  through  the  kraal  rather  than  go  a  few 
yards  further  by  the  outside  of  the  enclosure  ;  and  on  their  way,  if 
charged  by  any  of  the  captives,  the  people  seemed  to  calculate  "to  a 
nicety  the  pace  necessary  to  insure  a  safe  retreat,  and  skipped  through 
between  the  barricades,  while  the  pursuer's  head  was  met  by  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  spear  points  to  prevent  his  rushing  against  the 
timbers.     A   case    has   happened   where   a   fierce    and   very   large 


CHAP.    IV.]         COOLNESS  AND  CONFIDENCE  OF  THE    PEOPLE.  721 

elephant  has  charged  towards  the  entrance  before  it  could  he  closed  ; 
the  hunting  elephant,  who  should  have  defended  the  post,  fled ;  the 
people  followed,  with  the  exception  of  one  old  man  who  remained 
unmoved  supporting  a  great  beam  poised  on  its  end,  which  his  party 
had  been  in  the  act  of  placing  when  the  charge  commenced.  Con- 
fident in  his  own  intrepidity  the  old  man  looked  round  in  triumph, 
then  gradually  lowered  the  piece  of  timber,  and  so  well  did  he  judge 
both  time  and  distance,  that  the  furious  animal  was  brought  up  by 
her  forehead  being  dashed  right  against  the  end  of  the  descending 
beam.  The  shock  actually  shook  the  ground  for  some  distance,  and 
the  half-stunned  animal  recoiled  for  several  paces,  while  the  headman 
reassembled  his  fugitive  followers,  who  were  now  as  eager  to  shew 
their  zeal  as  before  they  had  been  backward  in  displaying  their 
courage.  Spears  used  in  elephant  hunting  should  have  their  handles 
of  a  tough  light  wood,  ten  fe6t  in  length,  and  for  heads  have  iron 
balls,  from  which  a  small  point  projects,  but  not  so  far  as  to  permit 
it  to  pierce  entirely  through  the  thick  skin  of  an  elephant.  With  com- 
mon spears  dangerous  wounds  have  been  sometimes  given,  and  sores 
formed  which  are  aggravated  by  the  discipline  of  the  stable.  Spears 
are  no  efficient  protection  to  the  hunters,  and  are  apt  to  induce 
recklessness,  yet  all  are  most  anxious  to  have  them.  A  man  has 
been  known,  when  run  at  by  an  elephant,  to  place  his  spear  against 
the  animal's  forehead  and  allow  himself  to  be  pushed  back  till  he  has 
made  his  exit  between  two  trees  of  the  enclosure.  At  times,  from 
a  sudden  panic,  the  movements  of  the  more  experienced  hunters 
have  been  impeded  by  the  inexperienced,  and  their  spears  shivered  ; 
the  animal  has  seized  them  in  its  trunk  and  griped  them  so  severely 
as  to  draw  blood  from  their  mouths  and  ears,  till  a  ball  sent  through 
the  elephant's  head  has  released  them.  At  other  times  they  have 
been  caught,  thrown  down,  and  shuffled  first  between  the  forefeet, 
and  then  through  the  hind  ones  of  a  wild  elephant,  and  killed,  or 
their  ribs  have  been  broken,  and  their  bodies  roughly  grated. 

The  capture  of  a  herd  of  elephants  by  torch-light  is  one  of  those 
scenes  never  to  be  forgotten.  Surrounded  on  every  side  by  blazing 
chides,  confused  by  the  noise  of  tom-toms,  and  the  screeching  of 
Kandians,  the  bewildered  animals  rush  into  the  snare,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  hunting  elephants  come  up  and  occupy  the  gate  by 
which  the  herd  has  entered  until  the  beams  can  be  secured.  The 
hunters  immediately  close  around  the  barricade,  intimidating  the 
enraged  captives  by  waving  lighted  brands  in  whatever  direction 
they  rush.  After  a  few  violent  efforts  the  whole  herd  will  draw 
up  closely  pressed  together  in  a  small  spot  of  thick  brushwood,  from 
which  their  eyes  may  be  seen  glaring  at  the  blaze  of  torches  which 
lights  up  the  surrounding  forest. 

When  any  of  the  tame  male  elephants  become  furious  (which  they 
do  periodically),  they  are  bound  to  a  tree  with  a  strong  iron  chain, 
and  supplied  with  food  and  water,   but  cannot  be  unloosed  till  the 

3   A 


722  CEYLON.  [PAKT   IV. 

symptoms  abate  :  the  time  of  this  infirmity,  which  is  a  species  of  mad- 
ness, and  is  preceded  by  an  oily  discharge  from  their  cheeks,  varies 
from  four  days  to  four  weeks,  and  is  said  to  continue  longer  in  tuskers 
than  other  elephants.  When  this  season  is  approaching  they  be- 
come dangerous  even  to  their  keepers,  and  there  are  few,  if  any,  of 
the  old  hunting  elephants  that  have  not  killed  persons  employed 
about  them,  often  with  peculiar  trickery  and  cunning.  Sometimes 
when  secured  to  a  tree,  and  as  the  keeper  has  barely  stood  within 
reach,  the  elephant  has  suddenly  seized  him  at  the  moment  another 
elephant  was  passing  and  pressed  the  unfortunate  man  against  this 
animal  until  one  of  the  thick  blunt  tusks  has  passed  through  the 
keeper's  body.  At  other  times  the  tame  elephant  has  in  a  capricious 
and  irritable  mood,  contrived  to  unseat  his  riders  by  violent  exertions 
in  the  midst  of  a  herd  of  wild  ones,  when  the  men  would  run  the 
greatest  risks  of  death. 

Under  the  forced  labour  system  various  classes  of  labour,  such  as 
hunters,  trainers,  leaf-cutters,  and  elephant  doctors,  were  always  em- 
ployed. Since  1831  the  government  of  Ceylon  has  permitted,  nay 
encouraged,  the  destruction  of  these  animals,  which  in  certain  dis- 
tricts rendered  useless  the  labours  of  the  agriculturist,  by  breaking 
through  the  fences  of  the  paddy  fields,  and  a  premium  is  given 
in  some  districts  for  elephant's  tails,  which  being  minced  into  a 
thousand  pieces  to  prevent  imposition,  are  then  buried.  The 
decrease  in  numbers  of  this  comparatively  useless  animal,  is  doubt- 
less owing  to  this  cause,  and  the  thinning  they  undergo  at  the  hands 
of  the  sportsman  ;  but  while  thousands  of  square  miles  of  fertile  but 
uncultivated  land  remain,  they  will  find  a  covert  from  extinction. 
The  dead  carcass  of  an  elephant  is  sufficient  to  induce  an  effluvia  in 
its  vicinity  for  two  months,  and  becomes  the  nightly  prey  of  jack- 
alls  and  other  beasts,  who  fight  for  the  precious  morceaux  amidst 
terrific  howling.  Hence  the  natives  will  endeavour  to  frighten  away 
an  elephant  from  their  villages,  if  they  chance  to  hear  of  a  sports- 
man being  in  the  locality,  or  they  would  be  unbearable.  Elephants 
petit-toes  pickled  in  strong  toddy,  vinegar  and  cayenne  pepper,  are 
by  some  considered  an  Apician  luxury. 

The  magnificent  sport  of  elephant  shooting  demands  the  most 
unflinching  aim,  the  most  imperturbable  coolness,  great  promptitude, 
and  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  animal's  organization,  in  a  sports- 
man, or  he  will  not  only  fail  in  bagging  them  (as  it  is  here  facetiously 
called),  but  probably  be  truncated  by  the  animal.  The  brain  of  an 
elephant  occupies  but  a  small  space  of  the  head,  the  bones  of  which 
are  thin  and  very  light.  The  fore  part  of  the  head — in  front  of  the 
brain — for  a  thickness  of  eight  inches,  is  formed  of  cells,  separated 
by  thin  plates  of  bone  :  this,  with  the  muscles  necessary  to  move 
their  trunks  and  support  their  enormous  heads,  is  the  cause  why 
sportsmen  have  always  missed  their  game  when  distant  more  than 
a  few  paces. 

The  mode  in  which  elephants  are  procured  for  sportsmen  is,   by 


CHAP.  IV.]  QUALITIES  REQUISITE  IN  A  SPORTSMAN — MISTAKES.    723 

encircling,  or  rather  semi-circling  the  herd  with  a  numher  of  persons 
who  drive  them  forward  with  tom-toms.  It  is  a  moment  in  which 
every  conceivable  form  of  excitement  is  concentrated ;  the  signal 
being  given  generally  by  persons  stationed  on  trees,  who  can  see  the 
whole  proceedings,  the  sportsman  taking  his  station  on  the  sheltered 
side  of  the  cl^er,  as  otherwise  from  the  keen  sense  of  smell  of  these 
animals  they  would  avoid  breaking  out  of  the  jungle  near  his  ambush. 
The  beaters  commence  operations :  then  follows  a  distant  shout  upon 
the  breeze,  and  then  silence  for  a  considerable  time,  while  the  beaters 
are  cautiously  advancing  into  the  position  just  abandoned  by  the 
elephants,  as  the  latter  will  sometimes  shew  unmistakeable  signs  of 
keeping  their  ground. 

This  concluded,  the  shouts  near  upon  the  ear,  and  the  sound  of 
the  tom-toms  is  distinguished ;  the  general  effect  of  the  long  con- 
tinued shouting,  and  the  noise  of  the  approaching  elephants,  is  that 
of  the  rushing  sound  and  heavy  fall  of  a  great  volume  of  water  ;  but 
as  the  mass  approaches,  the  breaking  of  branches,  the  beating  of 
tom-toms,  the  wild  shouts  of  the  people,  and  the  crash  of  decayed 
and  falling  trees  can  be  distinguished  from  the  ponderous  tread  of 
the  advancing  herds,  as  they  press  through  the  yielding  forest.  The 
elephants  are  now  near  the  sportsman,  who  is  advantageously  posted, 
remaining  perfectly  still  lest  the  elephants  should  be  turned  back  ; 
and  for  the  same  reason  the  leader  of  a  herd  should  be  allowed  to 
pass,  as  the  others  will  endeavour  to  follow  at  all  hazards  and  in  the 
same  direction,  while  there  will  be  a  greater  chance  of  sport.  The 
beaters  close  in,  and  loud  shouts  of  people  propel  the  animal  forward 
to  become  a  mark  for  his  human  enemy.  Out  of  a  herd  of  twenty 
from  six  to  eight  will  generally  fall  before  the  sportsman,  who  will  carry 
away  their  tails  as  a  trophy  ;  and  106  elephants  have  been  bagged 
in  three  days  by  four  sportsmen,  but  accidents  frequently  occur  to 
the  inexperienced  that  in  some  degree  mar  the  otherwise  insurpass- 
able  pleasure  of  the  sport,  and  laughable  scenes  have  occurred  by 
young  sportsmen  proceeding  to  dock  the  elephant's  tail  before 
making  sure  of  his  death.  A  case  once  occurred  where  a  sportsman 
having  shot  an  elephant,  apparently  in  full  vigour,  was  surprised  to 
find  its  deficiency  in  that  respect ;  his  companion  coming  up  soon 
after,  produced  the  trophy,  and  was  requested  to  point  out  the 
carcass  from  which  he  had  cut  it.  He  proceeded  to  the  spot,  but 
the  marks  of  blood  alone  remained  to  vouch  for  his  having  amputated 
the  tail  of  a  live  elephant. 

The  present  mode  of  shooting  elephants  is  for  the  sportsman  him- 
self to  enter  the  jungle  ;  this  is  more  sportsmanlike,  and  the  only 
risk  is  to  himself  and  immediate  followers. 

Instances  have  been  known  where  what  has  been  considered  a  life- 
less trunk  and  been  treated  accordingly,  has  on  a  sudden  sprung  up 
and  dealt  death  on  its  persecutors.  Major  Forbes  thus  describes  an 
occurrence  of  this  sort.     "  We  were  leisurely  descending  the  hill  and 

3  a   2 


724  CEYLON.  [PAKT   IV. 

approaching  the  bulky  mass  —  a  dead  elephant  -  as  we  had  for  the 
last  twenty  minutes  supposed  it  to  be.  Around  the  carcass  fifty  or 
sixty  people  had  assembled,  and  were  squatted  on  their  haunches 
chewing  betel.  Suddenly  we  saw  them  spring  to  their  feet,  and  the 
assembly  appeared  to  be  rapidly  diverging  from  the  late  centre  of 
attraction.  We  could  now  distinguish  the  elephant  rdfrving  on  the 
ground,  then  heard  him  blowing  shrilly  through  his  trunk,  and  per- 
ceived that  he  was  attempting  to  rise.  We  had  discharged  our  good 
guns,  and  they  were  not  reloaded,  so  that  three  cut  down  muskets 
were  all  we  had  left,  except  one  single  barrel,  which  had  been  given 
to  a  young  boy  to  carry,  and  he  was  still  far  behind.  The  elephant 
wras  already  on  his  knees ;  no  time  was  to  be  lost :  we  rushed  for- 
ward and  discharged  the  three  muskets  close  to  his  head.  Luckily 
for  us  he  moved  off  in  the  opposite  direction  from  where  we  stood. 
At  this  moment  the  gallant  little  native  boy  came  up  and  thrust  the 
single  barrel  into  my  hand.  I  fired  ;  the  elephant  dropped  on  his 
knees,  and  in  that  situation  remained  full  half  a  minute,  then 
recovered  himself  and  dashed  into  the  jungle  near  to  where  he  first 
broke  cover.  While  we  were  loading  our  guns  the  beaters  again 
surrounded  the  jungle.  This  was  only  completed  when  we  saw  the 
elephant  dash  through  the  bamboo  thicket,  which  yielded  before  his 
furious  charge  and  weighty  body,  as  if  it  was  but  a  field  of  water- 
reeds.  His  trunk  was  now  erect,  and  emitting  a  loud  and  long  con- 
tinued squeal,  he  directed  his  headlong  force  against  a  withered  tree 
which  grew  on  a  rocky  bank.  The  tree  was  broken  and  hurled  to 
the  ground.  The  day  was  now  far  spent,  and  the  animal  appeared 
so  furious  that  the  beaters  were  recalled,  and  we  were  about  to  pro- 
ceed homewards  when  the  modeliar  was  informed  that  there  was  the 
mangled  body  of  a  man  lying  near  the  tree  which  the  elephant  had 
cast  down.  We  were  not  long  in  getting  a  path  cleared  to  the  place, 
and  in  having  the  unfortunate  man  removed  to  the  outside  of  the 
jungle  ;  he  was  still  alive,  but  insensible  and  dreadfully  mangled. 
One  native  asserted  that  he  was  near  when  the  accident  happened, 
and  saw  the  elephant  strike  the  man  as  he  was  falling  from  the  tree, 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  wounds  I  believe  they  were  occasioned  by 
the  man  being  pitched  from  a  considerable  height  and  alighting  head 
foremost  among  broken  rocks.  The  man  survived  three  days  ;  the 
elephant  died  the  same  night,  after  making  his  way  to  a  neighbour- 
ing stream." 

The  death  of  Major  Haddock,  to  whom  a  stone  pillar,  with  an 
inscription,  marking  the  spot  on  which  the  melancholy  catastrophe 
occurred,  was  erected  by  Sir  W.  Horton,  was  caused  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : — The  elephant  he  was  in  pursuit  of,  after  being  severely 
wounded  and  driven  back  into  the  forest,  reappeared  close  to  him, 
when  he  immediately  fired  and  moved  to  one  side :  his  servant,  who 
had  stood  behind  him,  then  fired,  and  the  animal  turned  off  towards 
Major   Haddock,   whom  he  seized,   threw   down   and  trampled   to 


CHAP.  IV.]  ACCIDENTS  UNFREQUENT BARRELS  BEST  ADAPTED.    725 

death.  This  was  the  work  of  a  moment ;  for  the  servant  flew  to  the 
spot,  and  while  he  was  raising  the  mangled  remains  of  his  master, 
the  elephant  slowly  retreated.  Shortly  after  another  officer  was 
killed  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner,  by  a  tusker  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood. Two  of  his  brother  officers  having  determined  to  revenge 
his  death,  effected  it  in  the  following  manner  :' 

A  sportsman,  fairly  equipped  for  elephant  shooting,  ought  to  have 
at  least  four  barrels,  consisting  of  two  double-barrelled  guns,  carry- 
ing balls  of  an  ounce  and  a  third  in  weight,  and  of  strength  sufficient 
to  take  a  large  charge  of  powder.  Plain  are  to  be  preferred  to  rifle 
barrels,  as  they  occupy  less  time  in  loading,  which  is  sometimes  of 
great  consequence,  and  smooth  barrels  carry  balls  with  sufficient 
accuracy ;  for  shooting  at  a  distance  is  seldom  or  never  successful  in 
this  sport,  and  it  is  not  advisable  to  fire  until  you  are  within  fifteen 
yards  of  the  animal,  and  half  that  distance  is  preferable ;  as  then 
your  shot,  if  it  fail  to   kill,   will  in   all  probability  check  him  for  a 

1   "The  elephant  having  been  constantly  watched,  no  delay  took  place  in  point- 
ing out  his  position  ;  but  owing  to  heavy  rain,  it  was   not  till  the  afternoon  that 
they  could  go  in  search  of  him.     Shortly  after  entering  a  dense  bamboo  jungle, 
they  discovered    him   slowly  approaching  them,  anil  having   allowed  him  to  come 
pretty  close,  botli  gentlemen  tired  together  at  his  head.     The   atmosphere  being 
exceedingly  damp  and  heavy,  the  smoke  hung  around  for  some  seconds,  during 
which  they  were  in  the  most  anxious  suspense,  from  their  ignorance  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  elephant,  till  on  its  clearing   a  little,  they  saw  him  still  advancing  on 
them,  when,  on  receiving  the  contents  of  their  two  remaining  barrels,  he  turned 
round  and  fell  on  his  knees.     Quickly  recovering   himself,  however,  he  retreated 
rapidly  through  the  jungle,  closely  followed  by  his  pursuers,  who  again  tired  three, 
shots  at  him  without  any  apparent  effect,   his  position  rendering  it  exceedingly 
difficult  to  see  a  vulnerable  spot.     The  fourth  shot,   fired  as  the  elephant  turned 
half  round,  took  effect  somewhere  in  the  side  of  his  head,  and  again  brought  him 
to  his  knees.     A  halt  now  took  place,  to  load  the  guns,  and  the  sportsmen  ran 
on  the  elephant's  track,  tor   nearly   half  a  mile,   at   their  utmost  speed,  without 
letting  a  sight  of  him,  till  at  last,   on   reaching  the  commencement  of  a  slight 
descent,  he  was  discovered  about  twenty  yards    off,   still  retreating,  but  on  seeing 
his  pursuers,  he  wheeled  round  and   rushed  furiously  at  them.     The  one  in  front 
tired  both  barrels  deliberately  into  his  head,  but  without  stopping  him  for  an  in- 
stant, and  had  barely  time   to   throw  himself  to  one  side  of  the  path  of  the  infu- 
riated animal,  whose  trunk  was  within  sLx  feet  of  him.     At  this  instant,  his  friend, 
who  was  about  six  yards  behind,  tired  at  the   right  temple  of  the  elephant,  and 
the  next  moment  had  to  crouch  to  one  side  to  allow  the  brute  to  pass  him,  which 
he  did.  almost  touching  his  companion,  without  appearing  to  notice  him.  Directlv 
he  had  passed,  one  of  them  ran  for  a  yard  or  two  across  the  jungle,  hoping  to  get 
a  side  shot  at  his  head,  and  in  this  he  succeeded  ;  for  the  moment  he  crossed  the 
path,   so  as  to  come  on  the  left  side  of  the  elephant,  the  brute  wheeled  round  to 
get  at  him,  and  when  in  the  act  of  doing  so,  he  fired  his  last  barrel,  which  taking 
effect,   immediately  behind  the  left  ear,   produced  instant  death.     On  examining 
tlu-  head,  it  appeared  that  the  shot  fired  at  the  right  temple,  when  one  of  them 
jumped  to  one  side  had  providentially  knocked  out  the  elephant's  right  eye  ;   and 
as  both  gentlemen  fortunately  took  to  their  own  left  in  getting  out  of  the  brute's 
path,  this  circumstance  accounted  for  their  escape.      Had   they  taken  the  other 
side,  one,  if  not  both,  must  have  perished.     This  elephant  was  one  of  the  largest 
ever  seen." — Colombo  Observer,  1838. 


726  CEYLON.  [PAltT    IV. 

sufficient  time  to  allow  of  exchanging  your  gun  and  hitting  again. 
Brass  balls  are  recommended  by  old  sportsmen,  or  the  American 
plan  of  cutting  a  small  portion  of  the  surface  of  two  balls  flat,  and 
screwing  them  together,  is  equally  useful.  As  the  sportsman's 
attention  must  be  entirely  occupied  in  forcing  through  the  jungle, 
and  keeping  a  good  look  out,  his  followers  should  have  good  nerves, 
sufficient  activity,  and  some  experience  ;  if  this  is  the  case,  there  is 
little  risk,  as  his  follower  will  hand  him  the  loaded  gun  immediately 
on  hearing  the  other  discharged. 

This  is  done  by  those  accustomed  to  it  in  such  a  way  that  the 
sportsman  is  not  required  to  withdraw  his  eye  from  the  animal, 
whose  advance  might  not  allow  him  time  to  return  to  his  proper 
position,  and  take  a  steady  aim.  When  an  elephant  charges,  he 
rushes  headlong  forward  with  the  trunk  upright,  at  the  same  time 
making  a  wild,  loud,  long  continued  noise,  resembling  the  sound  of 
a  bad  trumpet,  and  very  different  from  the  deep  hollow  growl  which 
he  utters  when  alarmed  or  slightly  irritated.  It  is  necessary  to  know 
those  parts  of  an  elephant's  head,  by  hitting  which  your  ball  can  reach 
the  brain  ;  for  this  occupies  but  a  small  space  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  their  skulls.  It  is  also  necessary  to  bear  in  your  eye  the 
height  of  the  elephant  before  you  relative  to  the  position  in  which 
you  stand.  A  tall  elephant  advancing  straight  upon  you,  if  the 
ground  be  level  and  his  head  erect,  cannot  receive  a  mortal  hit,  and 
it  was  in  this  way  that  one  near  Gampola,  famed  for  the  number  of 
natives  he  is  said  to  have  killed,  always  advanced ;  certain  it  is,  that 
__  he  had  often  escaped  the  vengeance  due  for  his  numerous  victims, 
and  was  at  last  killed  while  charging,  up  a  steep  hill,  at  a  gentleman 
who,  with  only  one  gun,  accidentally  encountered  him  in  the  dusk  of 
the  evening.  Luckily,  however,  advancing  with  the  head  erect  when 
they  approach  any  obstacle  is  not  usual  with  elephants,  and  it  seems 
natural  for  them  to  lower  their  heads  and  curl  up  their  trunks  when 
resolved  on  removing  any  thing  that  obstructs  their  progress. 
Through  fear  of  mutilating  their  trunk,  they  seldom  strike  with  any 
great  force  when  they  make  use  of  it,  though  a  wounded  elephant 
has  been  known,  in  running  away,  to  strike  and  kill  with  one  blow 
of  its  trunk,  an  unlucky  buffalo  that  crossed  its  path  ;  and  on  an- 
other occasion,  an  elephant  that  had  turned  and  broken  through  the 
line  of  beaters  at  an  elephant  hunt,  reached  up  in  passing,  and  killed 
a  man  who  had  taken  refuge  in  a  tree.  The  man  had  hold,  with 
both  his  hands,  of  a  branch  above  that  on  which  he  stood,  and  could 
easily  have  raised  himself  higher,  but  he  was  looking  down,  and  con- 
sidered himself  beyond  reach  of  danger  ;  it  was  at  this  moment  that 
the  elephant,  stretching  up,  struck  the  man  with  such  force  as  to 
break  both  his  thighs,  and  hurl  him  to  the  ground ;  the  elephant 
took  no  further  notice  of  his  victim,  but  passed  on  :  the  man  lived 
but  a  few  minutes.  A  herd  of  elephants  never  charges  en  masse, 
although  affection  for  their  young  may  induce  some  of  the  females, 


CHAP.    IV.]  AN  ELEPHANT  CHARGE—  TIME  FOR  SHOOTING.  727 

if  closely  pursued,  to  turn  upon  the  sportsman  ;  and  on  reaching  very- 
thick  jungles,  they  generally  turn  round,  either  from  feeling  them- 
selves secure  of  a  retreat,  or  afraid  of  being  taken  in  forcing  their 
entrance. 

In  shooting  elephants,  by  forcing  up  to  them  in  the  jungle,  the 
forenoon  is  the  best  time,  as  then  they  are  least  inclined  to  move 
from  the  shade,  under  which  they  may  be  seen  flapping  their  ears, 
crossing  and  rubbing  their  legs,  swinging  their  bodies  ;  in  short, 
always  moving,  unless  alarmed1  or  listening,  in  which  case  they  seem 
to  trust  most  to  their  sense  of  smell,  and  move  their  trunk  in  every 
direction,  trying  to  fix  the  point  from  whence  they  may  expect  dis- 
turbance. If  the  wind  should  favour  them,  after  a  short  time  the 
trunk  will  be  found  pointed  in  the  proper  direction,  and  the  whole 
endeavour  to  steal  off  as  quietly  as  they  can,  but  never  allowing  any 
of  the  young  ones  to  fall  behind. 

In  dry  weather,  and  daring  the  heat  of  the  day,  elephants  are 
seldom  to  be  found  without  a  leafy  branch  held  in  their  trunk,  with 
which  they  switch  off  the  flies,  by  which  they  are  especially  tor- 
mented. When  lying  down,  they  sleep  soundly,  and  may  be  easily 
surprised,  but  they  do  not  often  indulge  in  this  mode  of  rest,  and  gene- 
rally recline  against  a  tree,  on  which  they  have  been  rubbing  themselves 
with  the  red  earth  scattered  over  their  bodies  ;  the  trees  are  so  marked 
as  to  enable  those  who  are  employed  in  watching  them  to  form  an 
idea  of  the  size  of  the  largest  elephants  in  the  herd.  The  elephant 
hunters  are  seldom  mistaken  as  to  the  size  and  numbers  of  a  herd, 
though  they  may  not  have  fallen  in  with  it,  as  they  can  trace  the 
foot  marks  on  the  hardest  soil.  If  the  sportsman  has  alarmed  the 
herd,  he  should  make  a  dash  forward  before  they  have  time  to  turn 
themselves  round  and  commence  their  retreat.  If  unsuccessful  in 
this,  and  unable  to  get  a  shot  at  their  heads,  an  active  man,  by  fol- 
lowing them  closely,  may  sometimes  succeed  in  overtaking  them,  and 
causing  them  to  turn  upon  him. 

When  elephant  shooting  was  in  its  infancy,  the  sportsman  who  re- 
turned to  his  native  country,  and  had  anticipated  no  little  pleasure 
from  the  credit  his  achievements  in  this  untrodden  field  would  bring 
him,  was  woefully  disappointed  when  he  found  that  the  relation  of 
his  deeds  was  met  by  laughter  that  could  not  be  suppressed,  and 
looking  round  saw  incredibility  in  every  eye,  and  having  "  practical" 
men  to  deal  with,  was  fain  to  explain  away  what  would,  if  persisted 
in,  at  once  have  ruined  his  character  for  veracity. 

"  The  Elk,"  (Cervusuni color)  or  Gona  Rusa.  —  Is  a  shy  and  appa- 
rently solitary,  though  really  a  gregarious  animal,  which  soon  detects 

1  An  elephant  may  be  approached  to  leeward  within  reach,  and  sportsmen 
have  been  known  to  clap  their  hands  and  shout,  and  upon  the  animal's  looking 
round,  plant  a  two-ounce  ball  in  the  centre  of  the  os  frontis,  or  immediately  be- 
liiinl  the  ear,  when  in  a  moment  the  mighty  animal  would  roll  lifeless  on  the 
earth. 


728  CEYLON.  [PART   IV. 

the  approach  of  an  intruder,  and  shrinks  from  his  presence  into  the 
thickest  covert.  In  appearance,  it  closely  resembles  the  Scottish  red 
deer,  but  is  soon  tired,  and  remains  at  bay,  making  a  feeble  resistance 
to  the  hounds.  The  colour  is  a  dark  dusky  brown,  approaching  to 
black  on  the  neck,  belly,  and  hind  part  of  the  thigh.  When  full 
grown,  it  attains  to  the  height  of  five  feet.  It  differs  from  the  stag 
kind  by  its  short  mane  on  the  neck  and  throat.  Those  attempted  to 
be  tamed  have  been  playful  and  harmless,  till  the  second  year,  after 
which  they  have  become  vicious,  and  it  is  never  safe  to  come  near  it 
in  the  rutting  season.  It  is  found  in  great  plenty  near  all  the  woods 
and  thickets  of  the  island.     The  Singhalese  call  it  Gona. 

Axis  Deer  —  (Cervus  axis,  or  Axis  niaculata),  Muwa,  Singh. 
Is  to  be  met  with  in  great  numbers  in  the  Northern  Province,  ven- 
turing out  to  graze  in  the  open  country,  only  before  sun-rise  and 
after  sun-set,  and  affording  good  sport  to  those  who  are  fond  of 
coursing.  These  deer  are  prettily  spotted,  the  colour  being  a  choco- 
late brown,  are  in  general  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet  high, 
and  more  elegantly  formed  than  the  fallow  deer,  which,  how- 
ever, they  much  resemble  :  they  are  easily  tamed,  but  the  males  be- 
come dangerous  when  old,  and  even  the  does  are  apt  to  butt  and  bite 
when  they  are  full  grown.  Albinos  are  not  uncommon  in  this  species 
of  deer,  with  peculiar  red  eyes.  There  are  two  species,  the  spotted 
and  middle  sized  ;  the  latter  is  never  spotted.  It  has  rough  and 
strong  horns,  trifurcated.  In  a  state  of  nature  both  are  exceedingly 
shy  and  timid,  but  become  bold  and  ferocious,  and  not  to  be  trusted, 
when  domesticated.  The  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed,  having  little 
fat  upon  it,  and  being  very  dry.     The  male  only  has  horns. 

The  Indian  Samver,  or  Musk  Deer,  called  in  India  Meminna, 
hence  its  Linnean  name  Moschus  Meminna — in  Ceylon,  Mooua  ?  is  no 
larger  than  a  common  hare,  viz.  one  foot  five  inches  long,  five  pound 
weight,  of  an  cinereous  olive  colour  ;  throat,  breast,  and  belly  white  ; 
sides  and  haunches  spotted  and  barred  transversely  with  white  ; 
ears  large  and  open  ;  tail  very  short.  It  is,  nevertheless,  as  beauti- 
fully made,  and  as  perfect  in  form  as  the  larger  species,  and  has 
tusks.  It  is  considered  fit  to  eat. 

Stylocerus  Muntjak— the  size  of  the  roebuck,  horns  small,  with 
only  one  anterior  snag  ;  standing  upon  elevated  pedicles  ;  long  canines 
in  most  males;  deep  suborbital  sinus  ;  small  muzzle  ;  colour  fulvous. 
Pariar  Dog.  — These  animals,  are  all  mongrels,  and  rank  per- 
haps the  lowest  in  the  canine  scale,  holding  a  similar  position  to  that 
of  vagrants  and  vagabonds  among  the  human  castes,  but  are  en- 
dowed with  great  sharpness  of  wits  and  facility  of  digestion,  which 
enables  them  to  exist  where  the  higher  bred  animal  would  starve. 
When  pressed  by  hunger  they  will  feed  on  fallen  jack  fruit,  and  the 
most  juvenile  of  the  species  will  display  a  precociousness  in  providing 
the  ways  and  means,  which  is  truly  wonderful.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  these  dogs  is  wretched  in  the  extreme,  lank  sides,  lame  legs, 


CHAP.  IV.J     DEER,  BUFFALO,  WILD  HOG,  AND  CHEETAH.     729 

blind  eyes  and  blotched  bodies  being  a  characteristic  of  the  race.  The 
length  of  the  body  is  about  twenty-two  inches,  of  the  tail  sixteen  ;  the 
latter  tapers  to  a  point.  The  nose  is  long,  thick,  and  blunt  at  the  end. 
The  claws  are  more  like  those  of  a  cat  than  a  dog  :  the  colour 
cinereous  yellow;  belly  ash-coloured;  the  legs  almost  entirely  brown; 
the  hair  close  set  and  soft.  One  kind  look  is  sufficient  to  attach  one 
of  these  dogs  to  a  stranger  for  ever  ;  yet  such  is  the  inveteracy  of 
habit,  that  these  dogs,  when  adopted  and  placed  in  good  quarters, 
where  they  soon  become  fat,  cannot  break  off  their  partiality  for 
marauding  excursions,  in  which  indeed  they  are  frequently  killed. 
To  diminish  the  number  of  this  next  to  useless  animal  the  Govern- 
ment has  lately  imposed  a  small  tax  on  the  owners,  greatly  to  their 
annoyance. 

The  Gaura,  or  Gauvera  of  Knox,  formerly  supposed  to  have  been 
a  large  and  fierce  animal,  that  had  once  existed,  but  had  subsequently 
become  extiuct  in  Ceylon,  but  of  which  several  localities  retain  the 
name  ;  as  the  Gaura-flat,  Gaura-ellia,  &c.  is  nothing  more  than  the 
Ceylon  buffalo  {Bos  bubalus),  a  variety  of  the  Malabar.  This  animal 
is  commonly  found  in  the  thinly  inhabited  districts  of  the  flat  coun- 
try :  it  is  strong  and  fierce,  and  the  form  of  the  head  is  such,  that 
a  ball  fired  against  it,  is  apt  to  glance  off.  Hence  the  shoulder 
is  the  mark  for  the  sportsman's  fire ;  but  to  secure  a  fair  shot, 
the  best  way  is  for  two  persons  to  place  themselves  so  that  one 
may  be  opposite  to  the  side  of  the  animal,  when  it  charges  at  the 
other  in  front.  A  wild  buffalo,  when  charging,  advances  in  a  curved 
line,  with  the  head  down,  and  inclined  sideways  in  such  a  manner 
that  one  horn  is  advanced.  Their  courage  and  perseverance  in  attack 
is  as  remarkable  as  their  tenacity  of  life  :  good  guns  of  a  large  size 
are  therefore  absolutely  requisite.  The  wild  buffalo  differs  so  much 
in  spirit  and  appearance  from  the  tame,  that  a  person  ignorant  of 
their  common  origin,  might  readily  take  them  for  two  distinct  species  : 
this  arises  from  domestication  and  labour.     See  p.  563. 

Wild  Hog  (Phacochcerus),  Singh.  Wal  uru — Is  a  variety  of  the 
Malabar  hog.  This  animal  has  great  strength  and  ferocity,  and  will 
make  up  for  any  traveller  it  may  see  approaching.  The  only  re- 
markable feature  about  the  animal  is  the  snout,  which  nature  seems 
to  have  particularly  adapted  to  the  employment  designed  by  it,  which 
is  that  of  ploughing  up  the  ground  in  search  of  roots.  It  is  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  Ceylon,  especially  in  the  jungle,  where  large 
herds  are  not  unfrequently  met  with,  which  are  not  to  be  molested 
with  impunity,  though  perfectly  inoffensive  when  not  disturbed.  Its 
usual  size  is  that  of  the  common  hog  of  Europe.  The  colour  is  in 
general  black,  inclining  to  grey  on  the  neck  and  shoulders.  The 
flesh  being  dry  and  of  a  high  flavour,  is  not  much  relished  by 
Europeans,  but  the  natives  are  exceedingly  partial  to  it. 

The  Cheetah  (Felis  jubuta)  Kotia,  Singh. — Is  very  destructive 
to  cattle  :    it  is  sometimes  eight  feet  in  length,  yet  it  seldom  attacks 


730  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

human  beings,  unless  when  wounded,  and  in  self-defence.  Children 
have  been  seized,  but  doubtless  from  the  animal's  anticipation 
of  an  attack  from  them ;  as  they  have  been  generally  abandoned 
when  grown-up  people  were  perceived.  Cheetahs  are  destroyed 
in  the  Kandian  province  by  spring-guns  or  by  cross-bows,  set  with 
large  bladed  arrows,  and  caught  in  enclosures  having  a  fallen 
gate,  and  formed  round  some  animal  they  have  recently  destroyed. 
They  are  also  caught  in  pitfalls  and  by  a  platform,  supporting  a  great 
weight  of  stones,  suspended  over  some  bullock  recently  killed,  the 
whole  being  so  constructed  as  to  descend  and  secure  any  animal 
which  passes  underneath.  The  best  way  to  destroy  cheetahs,  is  to 
employ  natives  who  are  accustomed  to  watch  and  shoot  these  destruc- 
tive animals,  as  they  will  not  only  guess  the  time  of  their  approach 
to  a  certainty,  but  kill  the  intruder  with  equal  precision.  A  cheetah, 
when  wounded,  is  able  to  spring  and  strike  a  man  down,  and  will 
strip  the  member  it  seizes  of  its  flesh.  This  animal  is  so  fond  of 
preying  on  dogs,  that  they  will  seize  them  when  running  before  their 
master,  and  dash  back  with  them  into  the  jungle.  The  mere  smell 
of  a  cheetah  will  produce  a  panic  in  cattle  ;  as  also  the  imprint  of  its 
feet,  and  they  will  start  off  kicking  and  plunging.  The  Ceylon 
cheetah  has  some  peculiarities  distinct  both  from  the  panther  and 
leopard,  one  of  which  is  that  it  cannot  entirely  retract  its  claws  into 
their  sheath. 

There  are  several  species  of  the  Viverrinse  and  Felidse,  including 
Felis  rubiginosa.  It  is  a  brownish  yellow  cat,  with  dark-brown 
streaks  on  the  forehead,  and  spots  along  the  back.  The  remainder 
are  undescribed. 

Bear  (Pi-ochilus  labiatus) — The  Ceylon  bear,  though  of  small  size, 
is  fierce,  and  much  dreaded  by  the  natives,  some  of  whom  have  been 
terribly  disfigured,  where  they  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  escape 
with  life  from  the  strong  arms  and  sharp  teeth  of  these  animals. 
Major  Forbes  relates  an  interesting  anecdote,  wherein  a  military 
officer  was  attacked  by  two  of  these  formidable  animals,  one  of  which 
he  struck  so  severe  a  blow  with  a  brandy  bottle,  the  contents  of  which 
dashed  over  his  face,  that  the  bear  made  a  precipitate  retreat,  fol- 
lowed by  his  companion. 

"  Sloth"   (Manis   'pentadactyla.') 

Porcupine  (Hystrix  Leucura.) — This  animal  is  one  of  the  most 
destructive  to  the  agriculturist,  as  it  will  destroy  the  labour  of  years 
in  a  very  short  time.  Its  favourite  food  is  the  heart  of  young  cocoa- 
nut  trees,  which  it  is  difficult  to  guard  against  its  attacks  :  as  it 
will  burrow  under  and  destroy  the  plant,  even  if  surrounded  with 
stones  and  a  wall.  They  are  also  very  destructive  to  fences,  through 
which  they  easily  gnaw  a  passage.  If  disturbed  in  their  pursuit 
(and  they  are  the  most  capricious  of  animals)  a  porcupine  will  cut  a 
new  gap  every  succeeding  night  for  a  week  before  hitting  on  one  that 
will  serve  them  for  a  permanent  approach.     They  can  be  entirely 


CHAP.    IV.]  BEAR,   PORCUPINE,  CHAKAL,  BABOONS.  731 

domesticated,  but  will  sometimes  absent  themselves,  and  then  return 
to  their  old  haunts.  They  are  fond  of  crickets,  for  which  they  sniff 
about  a  house,  and  soon  remark  any  change  in  the  position  of  the 
furniture  of  a  room.  The  porcupine  is  one  of  the  most  fretful  of 
animals,  and  when  indulged  with  perfect  liberty,  will  constantly 
exhibit  some  act  of  pettishness  or  passion.  When  hunted  by  dogs, 
and  they  have  seen  no  chance  of  escape,  they  have  been  known  to 
turn  upon  their  pursuers  and  maim  them  with  their  sharp  quills. 
The  hystrix  has  frequently  bezoar  stones  in  its  stomach,  which, 
scraped  to  a  fine  powder,  are  here  often  administered  in  all  kinds  of 
disorders.  These  stones  consist  of  very  fine  hair,  which  has  con- 
creted with  the  juices  of  the  stomach,  and  laying  one  over  the  other, 
consist  of  rings  of  ditferent  colour.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  hen's 
to  a  goose's  egg,  are  perfectly  globular,  and  entirely  brown.  The 
reign  of  its  pretended  alexipharmic  qualities  is  now  over  as  regards 
Europeans.  Tavernier  mentions  that  he  gave  five  hundred  crowns 
for  one,  which  he  sold  to  advantage. 

The  Hare  (Lepus  nigricollis)  -  is  very  abundant,  but  is  seldom 
eaten,  being  considered  unwholesome,  It  is  often  caught  for  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  it  leap,  and  then  released  or  given  to  the  dogs.  It 
would  quite  overrun  the  fields  but  for  the  Jackal,  its  great  destroyer, 
which  robs  it  of  its  young,  and  surprises  the  old  ones  when  asleep. 

The  Malabar  Jackal  is  to  be  found  in  every  jungle  ;  it  resembles 
the  European  fox,  except  that  the  hair  of  its  coat  is  somewhat  longer, 
and  of  a  greyer  colour. 

The  Malabar  Goat  is  a  delicate  animal,  that  browzes  on  the  rocks  : 
it  is  more  sought  after  than  any  other  game,  for,  contrary  to  the  gene- 
ral nature  of  the  goat,  its  flesh  is  tender  and  excellent  when  broiled. 

A  species  of  Chakal  either  the  Corsac  or  Adive  (the  Nougi  hari 
of  the  Malabar s).  It  is  not  larger  than  the  common  weasel,  and  the 
tail  descends  three  inches  lower  than  the  feet  when  it  is  completely 
pendulous.  All  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  the  tail  are  of  a 
greyish  fawn,  and  the  lower  of  a  yellowish  white. 

Baboons  (Ce?-copithecus  latibarbatus). — Purple-faced  monkey. 
With  a  great  triangular  white  beard,  short  and  pointed  at  the 
bottom  ;  face  and  hands  purple  ;  body  black  ;  tail  much  longer 
than  the  body,  terminated  with  a  dirty  white  tuft.  (Simia  Silenus,  L.) 
Wanderoo,  Singh.  Nil  Bundar  of  the  Hindoos.  This  species  of  mon- 
key is  large,  of  a  dark  grey  colour,  almost  black,  with  long  white 
beards,  which  give  them  a  sedate  appearance.  The  face  is  long, 
with  a  greenish  mane,  and  like  that  of  a  dog.  The  tail  terminates 
with  a  tuft  of  hair,  like  that  of  a  lion  ;  large  canine  teeth.  Their 
habits  are  grave,  and  their  voices  hoarse.  This  ape  frequently  voids 
a  stone  from  its  gall-bladder,  called  Bezoar,  which  is  very  scarce.  It 
is  commonly  called  ape-stone,  and  is  smooth  on  the  outside. 

There  are  two  other  monkeys  nearly  allied  to  the  above,  published 
in  Bligh's  collection. 


732  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

Cercopithecus  Pileatus  —  Rilawah  or  Rollewai,  Singh, — are  of  a 
reddish  fawn-colour,  with  the  hair  on  the  top  of  their  heads  standing 
erect  like  an  upright  crest,  besides  which  it  has  a  peculiar  and  appro- 
priate character  in  the  rim  of  the  under  lip  being  of  a  deep  black 
colour,  forming  a  remarkable  contrast  with  the  light  tan-colour  of  the 
surrounding  parts  :  their  appearance  is  sober,  but  their  manners  do 
not  correspond,  as  they  are  restless,  inquisitive,  and  unsurpassingly 
mischievous.  From  this  hallowed  race,  which  roam  up  and  down 
the  country  in  large  parties,  the  peasant  often  receives  great  damage  ; 
as  they  will  rob  him  of  his  fruit  and  rice,  &c.  They  have  been 
known  to  snatch  hold  of  a  native  child,  and  run  up  a  tree  with  it,  and, 
after  admiring  it  for  some  time,  bring  it  down  unhurt,  and  lay  it 
gently  down  on  the  same  place  where  they  took  it  up — a  circum- 
stance, thought  by  the  natives  to  forebode  gooH  fortune  to  the  child. 
The  mother  handles  her  young  cub  and  lays  it  to  her  breast  for 
suckle,  far  more  like  a  human  creature,  than  a  brute.  The  natives 
have  been  frequently  shot  by  each  other  in  mistake  for  these  animals, 
whom  they  highly  reverence,  and  will  never  pursue. 

Stenops  Gracilis  {The  Slender  Loris), — the  Lemur  Loris  of 
Shaw,  and  the  Loris  Macauco  of  Pennant.  The  fur  reddish,  with  a 
white  spot  on  the  forehead.  Loris  Ceylonicus  :  fur,  brownish  black  ; 
back,  quite  black  ;  cutting  teeth. 

The  common  Rat  (Mus  decumanus)  and  the  common  Mouse,  both 
abound,  the  former  is  most  destructive  to  the  young  coffee  plants. 

Musk  Rat  or  Shrew  (Mygale).—  This  animal  abounds  in  the 
maritime  provinces,  and  is  a  great  nuisance  from  its  strong  smell.  In 
appearance,  the  musk-rat  is  more  like  a  small-sized  light-coloured 
mole,  and  may  be  heard  uttering  a  most  particularly  shrill,  but  faint 
squeal,  as  it  goes  along  the  edge  of  a  wall,  and  behind  the  furniture, 
searching  for  crickets.  So  searching  and  subtle  is  its  smell,  that  it 
is  said  to  taint  the  wine  in  any  bottles  it  may  have  passed,  but  this 
opinion  is  thought  by  some  to  be  fallacious,  "and  the  smell  to  arise 
from  a  previous  contact  with  the  cork,  before  the  wine  is  bottled,  or 
with  the  mouth  of  the  bottle.  It  has  a  long  slender  nose  :  the  upper 
jaw  extends  far  beyond  the  lower  :  whiskers  long  and  white :  feet 
naked  and  pink-coloured.  Length,  from  nose  to  tail,  nearly  eight 
inches  :  tail  thick  at  the  base,  tapering  to  a  point. 

There  are  three  or  four  varieties  of  Squirrels,  viz.  the  Sciurus  Cey- 
lonensis,  S.  trivittatus,  and  the  S.Macrourus  or  Dandoeloena.  The 
palm  squirrel,  Sciurus  trivittatus,  lives  chiefly  in  the  cocoa-nut  trees, 
and  is  very  fond  of  the  liquor  extracted  from  the  palms.  Upper  part 
of  the  body  grey- brown,  marked  with  three  longitudinal  bands,  of  a 
pale-white  ;   length  of  the  body,  almost  six  inches. 

Sciurus  Macrourus  (Dandoeloena  or  Roekea,  Singh).— This  squir- 
rel, in  appearance,  differs  little  from  the  other  species,  except  in 
size,  and  by  its  wonderful  leaps  or  flights,  which  it  commences  at  the 
close  of  the  evening,  now  leaping  from  branch  to  branch,  and  ascend- 


CHAP.  IV.]  MONKEYS,    MUSK-EAT,    SQUIRRELS,    BATS.  733 

ing  the  highest  bough  of  the  loftiest  trees.  It  assumes  every  variety 
of  form  in  its  different  gyrations,  now  appearing  quite  flat,  about 
eighteen  inches  square,  and  with  a  long  tail  projecting  from  the 
middle  of  one  side  :  without  the  slightest  exertion  or  noise,  the 
animal  will  float  through  the  air  to  its  object,  only  its  flight  is  still 
getting  lower,  until  depressing  its  tail,  when  near  and  a  little  below  the 
place  it  is  about  to  light  on,  the  creature  glides  upon  the  branch,  and 
in  its  original  shape  resumes  its  course  along  the  boughs  of  the  trees. 
Flying  squirrels  do  much  mischief  in  the  cocoa-nut  grounds.  They 
average  about  two  feet  three  inches  in  length,  including  the  tail,  and 
resemble  the  cat  in  appearance  :  they  are  easily  tamed.  The  ears 
are  tufted  with  black  hairs :  the  end  of  the  nose  is  pink-coloured  : 
the  cheeks,  legs,  and  belly,  are  of  a  dull  yellow,  between  the  ears  is  a 
yellow  spot :  the  crown  of  the  head  and  the  back  are  black  :  from 
each  ear,  is  a  bifurcated  line  of  the  same  colour,  pointing  down  the 
cheeks  :  the  upper  part  of  the  feet  is  covered  with  black  hairs,  the 
lower  part,  naked  and  red.  The  tail  is  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the 
body,  of  a  light  ash  colour,  and  extremely  bushy.  The  part  near  the 
body,  quite  surrounded  with  hairs  :  on  the  remainder  the  hairs  are 
separated  and  lie  flat. 

The  Pteromys  Petaurista,  is  of  a  chestnut-colour,  with  the 
hairs  tipped  with  white  on  the  shoulders  ;  whitish  grey  underneath  ; 
thighs  red  ;  feet  brown,  tail  black  and  cylindrical. 

There  are,  also,  three  varieties  of  the  Bat,  viz.  the  Cordate  bat, 
with  its  heart-shaped  appendage  to  the  nose,  and  the  striped,  Ves- 
pertilio  picta  (Keriwoula,  Singh.)  :  no  tail;  a  web  between  the  hind 
legs,  broad  and  long  ears,  length  two  inches,  a  small  short  nose  ; 
wings  striped  with  black,  and  sometimes  with  tawny  and  brown  ; 
varies  in  colour  ;  the  upper  part  of  the  body  being  sometimes  of  a 
clear  reddish- brown,  the  lower  whitish  ;  and  the  Pteropus  medius, 
without  a  tail,  with  long  extended  toes  to  the  fore  feet,  connected 
by  thin  broad  membranes,  extending  to  the  hind  legs  ;  has  large 
canine  teeth  ;  four  cutting  above,  the  same  below,  a  sharp  black  nose  ; 
large  naked  ears ;  pointed  tongue,  terminated  by  sharp  aculeated 
papillae  ;  exterior  toe  detached  from  the  membrane  ;  claw  strong  and 
hooked ;  talons  very  crooked,  strong,  and  compressed  sideways ; 
head  of  a  dark  ferruginous  colour  ;  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  and 
under  side,  of  a  much  lighter  and  brighter  red ;  on  the  back,  the 
hair  shoi'ter,  dusky  and  smooth.  This  very  large  and  hideous 
looking  animal,  commonly  called  the  flying-fox,  abounds  in  most 
parts  of  Ceylon,  and  may  be  seen  in  thousands,  suspended  by 
the  wings  from  the  branches  of  some  decayed  tree  :  they  may  be 
always  perceived  in  the  evening  hovering  round  fruit  trees,  and  at 
night  may  be  known  by  the  flapping  of  their  leathern  wings,  and 
their  offensive  smell.  They  generally  move  in  flocks,  and  will  strip 
a  mango-tree  of  its  fruit  in  a  few  hours.  The  Pteropus  margiuatus 
is  another  species. 


734  CEYLON.  [part  IV, 

In  addition  to  these  the  Rhinolophus  spcoris,  and  another  variety 
are  also  found. 

The  common  Indian  Genette  is  also  found  here.  The  Mangusta 
Mungos  has  been  elsewhere  described.  There  are  two  or  three 
varieties  of  it.    Seep.  752.    The  Otter  (LutraDukhanensis  of  Sykes.) 

TheCetaceee  comprise  the  Gladiator  Dolphin,  (Delphinus  gladiator, 
Ciiv.),  Grampus  (D.  orca,  Cuv.),  Common  Porpoise  (D.  phocsena, 
Cuv.),  Dolphin  (D.  Delphis,  Cuv.)1 

Bieds  of  Ceylon. 

Malabar  or  Wreathed  Hornbill  (Buceros  Malabaricus) 

Called  in  Ceylon  "  the  year  bird,"  being  supposed  to  have  an  annual  addition 

of  a  wreath  to  its  bill.     They  make  a  great  noise  when  they  fly,  are  sluggish  in 

their  motions,  perch  on  the  highest  trees,   feed  on  berries,  and  are  reckoned  a 

very  sweet  food.   They  swallow  raw  flesh,  and  devour  rats,  mice  and  small  birds. 

B.  Bengalensis. 

Bill,  smooth,  large,  black-brown  ;  wing,  blue-grey  ;  coverts,  black  tipped. 

Bhinoceros  bird,  or  Hornbill  (B.  Singhalensis) . 

Called  Dubbeld  Bek  by  the  Dutch,  from  its  singular  recurvated  accessory  beak  : 
three  feet  long,  nearly  three  broad,  and  almost  as  big  as  a  turkey.  Bill,  ten 
inches  long-,  and  two  and  a  half  thick  at  base.  On  the  top  of  the  upper  mandible 
is  an  appendage  as  large  as  the  bill  itself,  and  turning  upwards  contrary  to  the 
direction  of  the  bill,  both  of  the  mandibles  of  which  bend  downwards.  This 
curved  horn  is  eight  inches  long  and  four  broad,  varied  with  white  and  black, 
and  divided  longitudinally  by  a  line  of  black  on  each  side  :  head,  neck,  back, 
breast,  and  upper  part  of  the  belly,  black  :  lower  part  a  dirty  white  :  tail  twelve 
inches  long  :  the  feathers  white  at  the  base  and  ends,  and  black  in  the  middle  : 
legs  and  claws  a  dull  grey.  Supposed  to  feed  on  flesh  and  carrion,  and  to  chase 
rats  and  mice,  and  after  pressing  them  flat  with  the  bill  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
toss  them  up  in  the  ah,  and  swallow  them  in  their  descent.  This  is  the  Kaendatta 
of  the  Singhalese. 

"  Jackdaw"   (Corvus  sp.     Pennant). 

Is  the  largest  of  the  genus,  weig-hs  three  pounds,  and  is  two  feet  long  and  four 
broad  :  bill,  strong  and  thick,  nearly  three  inches  long,  and  covered  with  bristles 
for  two-thirds  of  its  length,  completely  hiding-  its  nostrils :  colour  of  its 
plumage  a  fine  rich  g'lossy  blue-black  :  under  parts  of  a  dull  and  more  dusky  hue. 
The  Bishop  of  Norwich  thus  describes  this  bird  : — "  In  the  island  of  Ceylon  these 
birds  are  exceedingly  impudent  and  troublesome,  and  it  is  found  very  difficult  to 
exclude  them  from  the  houses,  which,  on  account  of  the  heat,  are  built  open,  and 
much  exposed  to  intruders.  In  the  city  of  Colombo,  where  they  are  in  the  habit 
of  picking-  up  bones  and  other  things  from  the  streets  and  yards,  and  carrying 
them  to  the  tops  of  the  houses,  a  battle  usually  takes  place  for  the  plunder,  to  the 
great  annoyance  of  the  people  below,  on  whose  heads  they  shower  down  the 
loosened  tiles,  leaving  the  roofs  exposed  to  the  weather.  They  will  frequently 
snatch  bread  and  meat  from  the  dining-table,  even  when  it  is  surrounded  with, 
guests,  always  seeming  to  prefer  the  company  of  man  ;  as  they  are  continually 
seen  hopping  about  near  houses,  and  are  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  woods  and  re- 
tired places.     They  are,  however,  important  benefactors  to  the  natives,  making- 

1  I  must  apologise  to  the  naturalist  for  the  somewhat  unmethodical  manner  of 
my  classification,  an  evil,  which  has  arisen  from  circumstances  I  could  not  alto- 
gether control,  but  which  will  be  remedied  in  a  future  edition.  This  he  would  the 
sooner  excuse,  if  he  were  made  fully  aware  of  the  great  variety  of  sources  to 
which  I  have  been  compelled  to  have  recourse. 


CHAP.  IV.]  BIRDS    FOUND    IN    THE    ISLAND.  735 

ample  compensation  for  their  intrusion  and  knavery ;  as  they  are  all  voracious 
devourers  of  carrion,  and  consume  all  sorts  of  dirt,  offal,  and  dead  vermin  ;  in 
fact,  carrying-  off  those  substances,  which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  in  that  hot 
climate  produce  the  most  noxious  smells,  and  give  rise  to  putrid  disorders.  Hence 
they  are  much  esteemed,  their  mischievous  tricks  are  put  up  with,  and  they  are 
never  suffered  to  be  shot  or  otherwise  molested." 

Jungle  Crow. 

This  bird  closely  resembles  the  magpie :  its  body,  head,  and  tail  are  black ; 
wings  of  a  light  brown  colour,  and  its  eyes  bright  red.  It  vociferates   "  ouk,  ouk." 

Purple-shouldered  Pigeon  (Columba  Phoenicoptera). 
Front,  pale  green  :  head  and   neck,  fine  light  purple  :  breast,  orange  :  back, 
scapulars,  and  belly,  light  green  :  vent,  scarlet :  quills,  dusky.     Girrawe.  Singh. 

Pompadour  Pigeon  (Vinago  Aromatica.    Shaw). 

Cuvier  makes  this  Colomba  pompadora,  and  a  variety  of  phaenicoptera.  The 
general  colour  of  this  bird  is  a  fine  pale  green  :  the  male  is  distinguished  by 
having  the  coverts  of  the  wings  of  a  fine  pompadour  colour.  They  are  found  in 
vast  multitudes  in  the  banyan  and  wariugen  trees,  when  their  fruits  are  ripe, 
and  are  caught  with  bird-lime  by  the  natives,  who  prepare  the  twigs  against  their 
arrival.  They  are  excellent  food,  and  are  often  shot  by  Europeans.  Waringen 
Grothebein.  Singh. 

Spotted  Green  Pigeon  (C.  maculata). 

Cinnamon  Pigeon  (C.  Cinnamomea). 

Great-tailed  Pigeon  (C.  Macroura).  Also  the  black  capped  pigeon, 
(Ptilinopus  melanocephalus.) 

Tail  as  long  as  body,  white  tipped  :  body,  cinnamon,  beneath  whitish. 

Ring  Dove  (C.  palumbus). — Turtle  Dove  (C.  Turtur). 

Bamboo  Dove  (Palumba  Bambutina). 

Black-backed  Goose  (Anas  Melanotos). 

Notwithstanding  that  Ceylon  swarms  with  crocodiles,  yet  no  country  abounds 
more  with  aquatic  birds  to  which  nature  has  given  a  quickness  of  sight  and  an 
instantaneous  locomotive  power  that  enables  them  to  elude  the  jaws  of  an  enemy, 
which  it  is  well  known  cannot  turn  without  difficulty.  It  is  by  a  fine  instinct  that 
the  lesser  and  more  agile  species  of  duck  frequent,  in  innumerable  flocks,  the 
shores,  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  marshes,  and  are,  with  the  crocodiles,  joint 
tenants  of  the  waters  ;  while  the  larger  and  heavier  fowl  avoid  those  places,  and, 
dividing  into  small  families,  haunt  only  the  lakes  and  streams  that  lie  in  the  deep 
recesses  of  the  lofty  and  craggy  mountains,  protected  by  the  cataracts,  that  pre- 
vent the  approach  of  their  enemy.  This  goose  is  very  common  and  is  equal  in 
size  to  our  wild  goose  :  the  bill  is  long  and  black  ;  at  the  base  is  a  knot,  which  in 
old  birds  is  very  large.  The  head  and  neck  are  white,  marked  with  small  black 
spots  :  the  breast  and  belly  of  a  pure  white  :  the  back  and  wings  are  black,  but  the 
ends  of  the  primary  feathers  of  a  fine  variable  green.  The  tail  is  sharp-pointed 
and  black  :  the  legs  of  the  same  colour. 

Anhinga  (Plotus  Melanogaster,  Linn.) 

This  bird  sits  on  the  shrubs  that  overhang  water,  and  in  a  country  where 
every  one's  ideas  are  filled  with  serpents,  often  terrifies  the  stranger,  by  shooting- 
out  its  long,  slender  neck,  which  in  his  first  surprise,  he  takes  for  the  darting 
of  some  fatal  reptile.  Its  body  is  about  the  size  of  that  of  the  common  duck, 
but  the  neck  is  extremely  long  :  the  bill  straight,  long-,  and  sharp  pointed  ;  the 
upper  part  of  a  pale  blue,  and  the  lower  reddish.  The  eye  is  very  piercing.  The 
brail,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  breasl  air  of  a  light  brown:  each  side  of  the 
head,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  marked  with  a  broad  white  line.  The  crop 
is  very  large.  The  back,  scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wings  arc  marked  length- 
ways in  equal  portions  with  stripes  of  black  and  white.  The  <|iiill  feathers,  belly, 
thighs,  tail,  of  a  deep  black  ;  the  tail  remarkably  long  and  slender.    The  legs  and 


736  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

feet  of  a  pale  green  ;  the  four  toes  united  by  webs,  after  the  manner  of  those  of 
the  cormorant. 

Spotted-billed  Duck  (Anas  Poicilorhynchos). 

The  bill  of  this  species  is  black,  tipped  with  yellow,  and  marked  on  each  side 
of  the  base  with  a  red  spot :  a  white  line  passes  from  thence  to  and  beyond  the 
eye.  The  cheeks  and  under  side  of  the  neck  and  body  white,  more  and  more 
clouded  from  the  chin  to  the  vent,  which  is  totally  black  ;  the  wings,  back,  and 
tail  are  black,  each  feather  slightly  edged  with  white  ;  some  of  the  tertials  wholly 
white  :  the  speculum  of  a  variable  green,  bounded  above  and  below  with  a  narrow 
line  of  white.     Also  Anas  arcuata. 

Wild  Duck. 

Pea  Fowl(Pavo  cristatus). 

Are  to  be  met  with  in  numbers,  at  nearly  every  open  space  in  the  jungle  where 
water  is  to  be  found.  They  are  naturally  wary,  and  if  they  have  been  disturbed, 
it  requires  great  caution  to  get  near  enough  for  a  shot  at  them.  The  morning-  is 
the  best  time  for  pea-fowl  shooting,  as  they  keep  near  the  edge  of  the  jungle  in 
the  evening,  and  in  the  forenoon  they  retire  to  some  thick  dark  copse,  generally 
overhanging  water,  and  there  rest  during  the  heat  of  the  day  :  it  is  then  the 
natives  kill  them  at  roost. 

Jungle  Fowl  (Gallus  Lafayettii),  Wal  Keekula.  Singh. 
The  appearance  of  the  male  bird  approaches  the  red  dunghill  cock,  but  has 
more  glossy  plumage,  and  a  yellow  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  red  upright  comb. 
The  female  is  much  smaller  in  proportion,  and  in  colour  resembles  the  heath  hen 
of  the  moors.  This  bird  continually  reminds  one  of  its  presence  by  a  shrill  double 
call,  somewhat  resembling  the  cry  of  the  partridge,  but  unlike  the  crowing  of  a 
cock.  It  is  very  pugnacious,  and  two  jungle  cocks  have  only  to  meet  to  give 
battle  to  each  other.    In  taste  it  resembles  a  pheasant. 

Red-tailed  Gallinule.   R.  Phoenicurus. 

Forehead  bare,  flesh-coloured  ;  plumage  above  black  ;  vent  and  under  tail 
coverts,  ferruginous-red. 

Crested  Gallinule  (Gallinula  cristata). 

Forehead  and  crown  bare,  reddish,  rising  into  a  knot  on  the  back  part ;  body 
and  wings  greenish  ash-colour  :  beneath,  pale  ash. 

Ortolan  (Emberiza  sp.) 

Coromandel  Quail  (Coturnix  textilis). 

Found  here  as  well  as  in  the  Dekkan. 

Widgeon  (Anas  Penelope.) 

Woodcock  (Scolopax  Rusticola,    Linn.) 

Curlew  (Numenius  sp.) 

Is  as  large  as  a  duck,  with  white  plumage,  and  black  legs  and  beak. 

Teal — Jack  Snipe  (S.  Gallinula,  Linn.) 

Grey-sand  Piper  (Triuga  squatarola,  Linn.) 

Large  and  small  white,  large  and  small  brown  Paddy  Birds.  (Loxia 
oryzivora.) 

This  genus  resembles  the  heron  in  shape,  and  comprises  five  or  six  species, 
varying  in  size.     Their  name  is  derived  from  their  general  habitat.  Koka,  Singh. 

"  Bitterns" — Tetrao  bicalcaratus  (Ceylon  Partridge  of  Latham.) 

Red-legged  Partridge  (Perdix  Janninus.) 

The  same  as  the  Perdix  bicalcaratus  of  Forster,  or  double-spurred  partridge  : 
the  bill  of  the  male  is  red  :  from  that  to  the  region  of  the  eyes  is  a  naked  red 
space.  The  head  is  varied  with  black  and  white  streaks.  The  whole  neck  above 
and  below  is  black,  elegantly  marked  with  sagittal  lines,  the  points  tending  up- 
wards. The  thighs  white.  The  primaries  dusky,  edged  with  rufous.  The  back 
covered  with  rufous  feathers,  dusky  on  each  sides  of  their  shafts  :  tail  dusky  : 


CHAP.    IV.]  BIRDS    FOUND    IN    THE    ISLAND.  737 

leg's  red,  on  each  a  pair  of  strong-  sharp  spurs.  The  head  of  the  female  is  cinereous  : 
the  colour  of  the  hack  and  helly  rufous,  brightest  below.  The  tail  dusky.  Legs 
red  and  unarmed.     Haben-Kukella,  Singh. 

Indian  Parrot  (Psittacus  orientalist 

Small  size.  Bill  bright  orange :  skin  round  the  eyes  of  a  pale  flesh  colour  : 
top  of  tbe  head  red  or  deep  orange  :  rest  of  the  body  green,  or  palest  beneath  : 
lower  half  of  the  rump  and  upper  tail  coverts  red,  like  that  of  the  head  :  inside  of 
the  quills  and  under  the  tail  bluish  green  :  legs  and  claws  flesh-colour. 

Ceylon  Parakeet  (P.  Zeylanicus.) 

Pigmy  Parakeet  (P.  Pygmaeus.) 

Length  six  inches  :  body  small :  bill  whitish  :  cere  dusky  :  tail  cuneated  :  the 
tops  of  all  the  feathers  of  a  greenish  yellow  :  legs  lead  colour. 

Alexandrine  Parakeet. 

Red-headed  Cnckoo  (Cuculus  Pyrrhocephalus.)  Malkoha,  Singh. 

Is  found  in  the  woods,  and  lives  on  fruits.  Length  sixteen  inches  :  the  bill 
much  arched,  strong',  and  of  a  greenish-yellow  colour  :  the  crown  of  the  head  and 
part  of  the  cheeks  are  of  a  bright  crimson,  entirely  surrounded  by  a  band  of 
white.  The  hind  part  of  the  head  and  neck  black,  marked  with  small  white  spots  : 
the  fore  part  of  the  neck  entirely  black  :  the  back  and  wings  black  :  the  tail  very 
long,  composed  of  feathers  of  unequal  lengths,  their  lower  part  black  :  the  ends 
white.     The  breast  and  belly  white  :  legs  of  a  pale  blue. 

Cuculus  dicruroides  is  another  species. 

Cheela  Falcon  (Falco  Cheela.) 

Rhomboidal  Falcon  (F.  Rhombeus.) 

Black  and  white  Indian  Falcon  (F.  melanoleucos.) 

Length  sixteen  inches.  Bill  black  :  head,  neck,  back,  scapulars,  quill  feathers, 
and  some  of  the  middle  coverts  of  the  wings  are  black  :  the  rest  of  the  coverts, 
those  of  the  tail,  the  tail  itself,  the  breast,  and  the  belly,  are  of  a  pure  white.  It  is 
not  known  whether  it  is  trained  for  falconry.  Claws  black.  Kaloe  Koeroelgoya, 
Singh. 

Brown's  Hawk  (F.  Badius,  Lath.) 

About  thirteen  inches  long.  Bill  blue,  with  a  black  tip  :  iris  yellow  :  upper 
part  of  the  head,  hack,  and  tail  coverts  brown  :  scapulars  brown,  with  white  spots  : 
quills  dusky,  with  pale  brown  edges  :  fore  part  of  the  neck  and  the  under  parts 
white,  covered  with  numerous  semicircular  yellow  lines :  tail  pale  brown  :  legs 
pale  yellow  :  claws  black. 

Ceylonese  eared  Owl  (Strix  Ceylonensis.) 

About  one  foot  eleven  inches  long,  and  weighs  two  pounds  nine  ounces.  Bill 
horn  colour  :  irides  yellow :  parts  above  of  a  pale  reddish  brown,  beneath  yellowish 
white  :  ears,  short  and  pointed  :  prime  quills  and  tail  barred  with  black,  white, 
and  pale  red  :  legs  naked  to  the  knees.     Raja- Alia,  Singh. 

Coromandel  eared  Owl  (S.  Coronianda.) 

Indian  eared  Owl  (S.  Bakkamana.) 

This  elegant  bird  is  called  Bakkamana  by  the  Singhalese.  The  irides  are 
scarlet  :  the  horns  take  their  source  from  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  point  to  the 
sides  of  the  head  :  on  their  inner  side  they  are  dusky,  on  their  exterior,  white. 
The  bill  is  dusky,  surrounded  with  long  bristles.  The  circle  of  feathers  round  the 
eyes  is  of  a  very  pale  ash  colour  :  the  external  circle  of  a  yellowish  brown.  The 
head  is  of  a  deep  ash  colour,  the  back,  dusky  :  coverts  of  the  wings  grey,  marked 
with  narrow  lines  of  black,  pointing  downwards  :  the  quill  feathers  regularly 
barred  with  black  and  white:  the  breast  buft'-coloured,  marked  with  small  sagittal 
black  spots  :  the  legs  feathered  half  way  down  :  the  naked  part  of  a  reddish 
yellow. 

Devil's  Bird  (Strix  Gaulama  or  Ulania,  Singh.) 

A  species  of  Owl.     The  wild  and  wailing  cry  of  this  bird  is  considered  a  sure 

3     13 


738  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

presage  of  death  or  misfortune,  unless  measures  be  taken  to  avert  its  infernal 
threats  and  refuse  its  warning'.  Though  often  heard  even  on  the  tops  of  their 
houses,  the  natives  maintain  that  it  has  never  been  caught  or  distinctly  seen,  and 
they  consider  it  one  of  the  most  annoying-  of  the  evil  spirits  which  haunt  their 
country.  Knox,  in  his  credulity,  pronounced  it  to  he  a  devil.  It  is,  probably,  a 
species  of  owl,  but  certainly  its  cry  is  far  more  like  that  of  a  human  being-  in  dis- 
tress than  any  other  species  of  that  melancholy  and  ill-omened  family. 

Tufted  Flycatcher  (Muscicapa  comata.) 

Is  very  common  in  the  interior,  and  may  be  seen  flitting-  about  in  the  thick 
copses  and  dark  ravines.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow,  with  a  black  head, 
and  a  tail  live  times  its  own  length,  composed  of  very  flexible  feathers  of  pure 
white  :  the  disproportioned  length  of  this  bird's  tail  gives  it  the  appearance  of 
having  a  narrow  piece  of  cloth  fastened  to  it ;  hence  arises  its  native  name,  Redi- 
hora,  cloth  stealer.  It  is  called  by  Europeans  the  Ceylon  bird  of  Paradise.  The 
bill  is  black,  and  crooked  at  the  point :  head,  crested  :  hind  part  of  the  neck, 
back,  wings,  and  tail,  black  :  rump,  sides  of  the  neck,  breast,  and  belly,  white. 

Red- vented  Flycatcher  (M.  Hsemorrhoa.) 

This  bird  has  a  rufous  back  and  tail,  and  two  feathers  exceeding  the  others  in 
length  by  nearly  nine  inches  :  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body  clouded  brown  : 
breast  and  belly,  white  :  vent,  red  :  tail,  black  :  legs,  dusky  :  bill,  bluish  :  head, 
black. 

Yellow-breasted  Flycatcher  (M.  Melanictera.)     Malkala  kourlu, 

Singh . 

Size  of  a  goldfinch.  Bill,  grey :  head  and  cheeks,  black  :  back  and  wing 
coverts  cinereous  brown,  mixed  with  yellow :  breast,  yellow  :  quills  and  tail 
dusky,  edged  with  pale  yellow  :  legs,  pale  blue.  It  is  much  admired  for  its  notes 
by  the  natives. 

Cinnamon  Flycatcher   (M.  Cinnamomea.) 

Eight  inches  long.  Bill,  straight  and  black  :  plumage  in  general  of  a  yellowish 
cinnamon-colour,  variously  shaded  on  the  upper  parts  :  under,  much  paler,  almost 
yellow.     The  quills  dusky,  marked  with  ferruginous. 

Flammeous  Flycatcher  (M.  flaramea.) 

The  bill,  head,  neck,  fore  part  of  the  back,  and  lesser  coverts  of  the  wings, 
black  :  rest  of  the  back,  bright  orange  or  flame  colour  :  primaries,  partly  black, 
partly  orange  :  breast  and  belly  orange,  sinking  into  pale  yellow  below  :  tail 
dusky,  yellow  towards  the  point:  legs,  black.  The  upper  part  of  the  head  and 
whole  back  of  the  female  is  ash-coloured  :  about  the  cheeks  and  throat,  dusky  : 
breast,  orange  :  belly,  white  :  across  the  primaries  a  flammeous  band,  bounded 
above  and  below  with  black  :  tail,  black  above. 

Malabar  Lark  (Alauda  Malabarica.) — Skylark  (A.  arvensis.) 

Cinnamon  Creeper  (Certhia  Cinnamomea.) 

Length,  five  inches.  Bill,  slightly  bent,  and  black  ;  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long- :  upper  part  of  the  plumage  cinnamon-colour  :  under,  white :  legs, 
dusky. 

Green  Gold  Creeper  (C.  omnicolor.) 

Green,  with  a  shade  of  all  colours. 

Indigo  Creeper  (C.  parietum  ) —Yellow-billed  Creeper  (C.  lepida.) 
— Tufted  Creeper  (C.  Erythrorynchos.) 

Ceylonese  Creeper  (C.  Zeylanica.) 

Size  of  a  wren,  four  inches  long.  Bill,  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  black  : 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  of  a  dull  brownish  olive  :  the  under  parts  yellow  : 
but  the  throat,  fore  part  of  the  neck,  and  breast,  are  of  a  beautiful  deep,  bright 
violet :  quills,  brown  ;  the  edges  of  the  feathers  dull  olive  :  tail,  the  same  colour 
as  wings  :  legs  and  claws  black. 

Loten's  Creeper  (C.  Lotenia.) 

Five  inches  long.     Head,  neck,  back,  rump  scapulars,  and  upper  tail  coverts 


CHAP.  IV.]  BIRDS    FOUND    IN    THE    ISLAND.  739 

are  green  gold :  beneath,  from  the  breast  to  the  vent,  velvet  black,  which  is 
separated  from  the  green  on  the  neck  by  a  transverse  bright  violet  band  :  the 
lesser  wing  coverts  are  of  the  same  colour,  middle  coverts  are  green  gold  :  greater 
coverts  are  very  fine  black,  edged  with  green  gold  on  the  outer  edge  :  the  quills 
are  the  same  colour :  legs,  black.  The  female  differs  in  having  the  breast,  belly, 
sides,  thighs,  under  wing,  and  tail  coverts,  of  a  dirty  white,  spotted  with  black  ; 
called  by  the  natives  Angala-dian. 

Yellow-crowned  Thrush  (Turdus  Ochrocephalus.)  Tsutju  crawan. 
Singh. 

Size  of  the  common  thrush.  Bill,  black  :  crown  of  the  head  and  cheeks,  pale 
yellow  :  breast  and  belly  cinereous ;  the  first  marked  with  white  and  dusky 
sagittal  lines :  greater  quills,  tail,  and  legs,  dull  green.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
power  of  mimicking  every  note  that  is  whistled  to  it. 

Long-tailed  Thrush  (T.  macrourus.) 

Size  of  a  lark,  eleven  and  a  half  inches.  Bill,  slightly  notched  near  the  tip  : 
colour,  black  :  head,  neck,  back,  and  wing  coverts,  glossy  purplish  black  :  rump, 
white  :  the  under  part,  from  the  breast  ferruginous  orange  :  quills,  dusky  black  : 
the  tail  is  cuneiform  in  shape  :  the  two  middle  feathers  being  six  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  outer  ones  only  two  and  a  half  inches.  The  four  middle  feathers  are 
wholly  black,  the  next  on  each  side  half  black,  half  white  ;  and  the  three  outer 
ones  wholly  white  :  legs,  pale  yellow  :  claws,  black. 

Ceylon  Thrush  (T.  Zeylanicus  ;  Lanius  Erythropterus,  Swainson.) 

Size  of  a  blackbird.  Bill,  black  :  crown  of  the  head  cinereous  olive  ;  from 
thence  to  the  tail,  a  fine  olive  green  :  chin  and  throat  yellow  :  belly,  vent  and 
thighs  yellow,  tail  cuneiform,  the  two  midddle  feathers  are  like  the  back  :  the 
others  are  black,  with  yellow  tips  :  legs  blackish.  In  the  female,  the  upper  parts 
are  greenish  yellow :  the  throat  grey,  and  the  breast  and  belly  greenish-yellow, 
but  paler  than  the  upper  parts. 

Common  Kingfisher  (Alcedo  sp.) 

Length  seven,  and  breadth  eleven  inches  :  bill  long  and  black,  but  the  base  of 
the  lower  mandible  is  yellow. 

Violet  Kingfisher  (A.  Coromanda.) 

A.  Bengalensis. 

Blue-green  above  :  rufous  beneath  ;  head  striped  blue  and  rufous.  Four  and 
a  half  inches. 

Pied  Kingfisher  (A.  rudis.) 

Eleven  inches  long  :  bill,  black,  and  nearly  three  inches  long  :  head,  and  hind 
part  of  the  neck,  covered  with  black  feathers,  edged  with  white  on  each  side  : 
back,  wings,  and  upper  part  of  the  body,  are  spotted  irregularly  with  black  and 
white  :  the  breast  and  sides  the  same  :  throat,  and  under  parts  to  the  tail,  wholly 
white  :  quills  spotted  white  and  black. 

Smyrna  Kingfisher  (Halcyon  Smyrnensis.) 

Length,  eight  and  a  half  inches.  Bill  more  than  two  inches  long  and  red  : 
irides  whitish.  Head,  neck,  breast  and  belly,  sides,  thighs,  under  wing,  and  tail 
coverts  of  an  elegant  chestnut :  throat  white  :  the  lesser  wing  coverts  dull-green  : 
the  greater  coverts,  farthest  from  the  body  of  the  same  colour,  on  the  outside  and 
tips,  but  blackish  within.  Quills  the  same  :  tail  feathers  blackish,  but  the  two 
middle  ones  are  wholly  of  a  dull-green,  and  the  outer  edges  of  the  rest,  of  the 
same  colour,  but  all  of  them  are  blackish  on  the  under  side  :  the  legs  are  red  :  the 
claws,  blackish. 

White-headed  Ibis  (Tantalus  Leucocephalus.) 

In  size,  it  is  much  superior  to  our  largest  curlews.  The  bill  is  yellow,  very  long 
and  thick  at  the  base,  and  a  little  incurvated.  The  nostrils  very  narrow  and 
placed  near  the  head  :  all  the  fore  part  of  the  head  is  covered  with  a  pure  yellow, 
and  seems  a  continuance  of  the  bill,  and  the  eyes  are  in  a  very  singular  manner 
placed  very  near  its  base.     The  rest  of  the  head,  and  the  plumage,  are  of  a  pure 

3    B    2 


740  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

white  :  a  transverse  broad  band  of  black  crosses  the  breast :  the  quill  feathers 
and  coverts  of  the  wings  are  black  :  the  coverts  of  the  tail  are  very  long-,  and  of  a 
fine  pink-colour.  They  hang  over  and  conceal  the  tail.  The  legs  and  thighs  are 
very  long,  and  of  a  dull  flesh-colour  :  the  feet,  semi-palmated  or  connected  by 
webs,  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  It  makes  a  snapping  noise,  with  its  bill,  like  a 
stork,  and  its  fine  rosy  feathers  lose  their  brilliant  colour  during  the  rainy 
season. 

Black-headed  Ibis  (T.  melanocephalus.) 

Maldivian  Pratincole. 

Taken  at  open  sea,  in  the  latitude  of  Ceylon,  and  the  Maldives.  Nine  inches  long. 
Bill  black  :  the  head,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body,  the  colour  of  umber :  under 
wing  coverts,  red-brown  :  throat  white,  surrounded  with  a  black  band,  and  each 
feather  has  a  longitudinal  black  line  :  the  quills  and  tail  are  black  :  the  rump, 
belly,  and  vent  white. 

The  Frigate  Pelican  (Tachypetes.) 

Is  found  about  the  coasts,  as  well  as  the  Pelicanus  Onocrotalus  of  Linnaeus. 

White  Albatross  (Diomedea.) 

Green  Wagtail  (Motacilla  viridis.) 

Four  inches  long  :  head,  cinereous  :  neck,  back  and  breast,  pale  green  :  wings 
and  tail  cinereous,  edged  with  white  :  belly  white. 

Pink  Warbler  (Sylvia  Caryophyllacea.) 

Size  of  the  willow  wren.  Bill  reddish  :  general  colour  of  the  plumage,  a  pale 
pink  :  wings  and  tail  inclined  to  dusky  :  legs,  red. 

Green  and  Yellow  Fig-eater  (S.  Zeylanica.) 

The  Zosterops  palpebrosus  of  Horsfield. 

Length,  four  inches  and  a  half.  Bill  brown,  plumage  above  changeable  green  : 
beneath  the  neck,  orange :  breast  and  belly,  yellow.  Var.  (Erithina  Atricapilla. 
Head  black,  upper  parts  olivaceous  :  breast  and  belly,  yellow :  tail  tipped  with  white. 

Black-necked  Warbler  (S.  nigvicollis.) 

Length,  four  and  a  half  inches.  Bill,  a  trifle  bent,  and  of  a  bluish  grey  colour  : 
crown  and  nape,  black  :  back,  green  :  beneath,  wholly  of  a  light  yellow  :  wings, 
black,  crossed  with  two  bars  of  white, 

Tailor  Warbler  (S.  sutorea.) 

This  bird,  says  Pennant,  is  remarkable  for  its  nest.  It  has  a  greater  shyness 
than  any  other  :  it  will  not  trust  its  nest  even  to  the  extremity  of  a  slender  twig, 
but  makes  one  more  advance  to  safety,  by  fixing  it  on  the  leaf  itself.  It  picks  up 
a  dead  leaf,  and  strange  to  relate,  sews  it  to  the  side  of  a  living  one  :  its  slender 
bill  being  its  needle,  and  its  thread  some  fine  fibres  ;  the  lining,  feathers,  gossamer 
and  down.  Its  eggs  are  white  :  the  colour  of  the  bird  light -yellow  ;  its  length, 
three  inches  ;  its  weight  only  three-tenths  of  an  ounce  ;  so  that  the  materials  of 
the  nest,  and  its  own  size,  are  not  likely  to  draw  down  a  habitation  that  depends 
on  so  light  a  tenure. 

Cinnamon  Warbler  (S.  cinnamon) ea.) 

Very  like  the  red-tail.  The  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  hoary :  the  throat, 
black  :  breast,  belly,  and  rump,  crimson  :  the  quills  black  :  tail,  black  :  the  four 
middle  feathers  obliquely  rufous  on  the  sides. 

Olive  coloured  Warbler  (S.  olivacea.) 

Size  of  a  hedge  sparrow.  Bill,  whitish,  beset  with  pale-yellow  feathers  ;  the 
head,  upper  parts  of  the  body,  wings  and  tail  olive  :  breast  and  belly,  white.  It 
jerks  up  the  tail  so  high  as  to  make  an  acute  angle. 

Gaur  Bunting  (Emberiza  Asiatica.) 

Olive  Bunting  (E.  olivacea  ) 

This  species  is  scarce  bigger  than  a  wren,  being  only  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
long.  The  bill  grey  brown  :  the  head  and  upper  parts  of"  the  body  are  olive-green  : 
throat,  orange  ;  fore  part  of  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  breast,  black  :  the 
est  of  the  under  parts  olive  grey  :  quills,  brown,  edged  with  olive-green. 


CHAP.  IV.]  BIRDS    FOUND    IN    THE    ISLAND.  741 

Picas  Ceylonensis. 

Forehead,  with  long  sharp  feathers,  scarlet :  chin  and  throat  black. 
Red-winged  Woodpecker  (P.  miniatus.) 

Commonly  called  the  Carpenter,  from  the  noise  it  makes  in  boring  trees.  The 
bill  is  of  a  dusky  blue,  the  head  of  a  deep  dull  red,  and  adorned  with  a  long  crest 
pointing  backwards  :  on  the  chin,  is  a  spot  of  yellow.  The  hind  part  of  the  neck, 
the  back,  the  coverts  and  secondary  feathers  of  the  wings,  are  of  the  colour  of 
red-lead.  The  fore  part  of  the  neck  is  of  a  rose  colour :  the  belly,  white.  The 
quill  feathers,  black,  marked  with  large  white  spots  :  the  coverts  of  the  tail, 
green  :  the  tail  consists  of  sharp  pointed  feathers,  like  the  European  kind,  and  is 
of  a  deep  blue. 

Malacca  Woodpecker  (P.  Malaccensis.) 

Lesser  spotted,  and  another  variety,  (P.  Minor.) 

Bill  one  inch  in  length,  of  a  lead-colour.  It  has  white  spots  on  the  head,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  back  is  black,  the  under  yellowish  :  throat  and  breast 
brown,  irregularly  spotted  with  white  :  tail  brown.     Kirella.  Singh. 

Ceylon  Finch  ( Fringilla  Zeylanica.) 

Small  sized  :  bill  and  head  black  :  the  whole  body  yellow,  inclining  to  green  on 
the  back  :  the  under  parts  white  and  dusky :  quills  and  tail  dusky  :  the  outer 
edges  yellow. 

Green-rumped  Finch  (F.  butyracea.) 

Bill,  bluish  :  head,  hind  part  of  the  neck,  upper  part  of  the  back  and  tail 
black  :  cheeks,  chin,  and  the  rest  of  the  under  parts,  light  yellow  :  vent,  yellow  : 
wings  black :  on  the  coverts  a  white  spot :  lower  part  of  the  back  and  thighs 
green  :  legs,  grey. 

Red-crowned  Barbet  (Bucco  rubrocapillus.) 

Size  of  a  goldfinch  :  length  five  and  a  half  inches  ;  prime  quills,  dusky  :  breast, 
yellow  :  belly,  white  :  tail,  green  :  the  exterior  feathers  dusky  :  legs  pale  red. 

Yellow-cheeked  Barbet  (B.  Zeylanicus  ) 

Same  size  as  the  last.  Bill  red  :  head  and  neck,  pale  brown  :  back,  pale 
green  :  belly,  pea  green  :  tail,  green :  legs,  pale  yellow  :  the  middle  of  each 
feather  spotted  with  white.     Kottoreya,  Singh. 

Blue  Barbet  (B.  Gerini.) 

Green  Barbet  (B.  viridis.) 
Top  of  head  and  back  of  neck,  olive  green :  body  and  wings  green :  paler  beneath. 

Yellow-fronted  Barbet  (B.  flavifrons.) 

Yellow  Grosbeak  (Loxia  flavicans  ) 

Baya  of  the  Hindoos.  Size  of  a  canary  bird.  Bill,  short  and  thick  :  head,  neck, 
breast,  belly  and  vent  yellow  ;  top  of  the  head  the  same,  but  paler  :  back,  wings, 
and  tail,  greenish  yellow  :  quills  and  tail  margined  with  yellow  :  legs,  pale.  This 
bird  which,  in  some  respects,  resembles  our  yellow-hammer,  is  remarkable  for  its 
pensile  nest,  and  their  curious  position  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches  of  trees. 

Yellow-rumped  Grosbeak  (L.  Hordacea.) 

Size  of  the  white  wagtail.  Head,  neck,  and  rump  fulvous  :  temples  white  ;  from 
thence  to  the  bill,  the  breast,  wings  and  tail  black  :  shoulders,  thighs  :  and  tail 
feathers  grey. 

Eastern  Grosbeak  (L.  undulata.) 

Brown  Grosbeak  (L.  fusca.) 

Size  of  a  Canary  bird.  Bill,  short,  thick  and  of  a  lead  colour  :  the  head  and 
upper  parts  of  the  body  brown  :  lower,  of  a  pale  ash  colour  :  quills,  dusky  black  : 
tail  the  colour  of  the  quills  with  palish  ends  :  legs,  pale. 

Ash-headed  Grosbeak  (L.  Indica.) 
Malabar  Grosbeak  (L.  Malabarica.) 

Size  and  shape  of  a  tit-mouse.  Bill,  black  :  throat,  white  :  body,  Cinereous  :. 
quills  and  tail  black  :    vent,  whitish. 


742  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

Dwarf  Grosbeak  (L.  minima.) 

Size  of  a  wren  :  bill,  short  and  thick  :  the  upper  parts  of  the  quills,  white  at  the 
base  :  secondaries,  white  on  the  inside  towards  the  base  :  tail,  even. 

Black  Tanager  (Tanagra  atrata.) 

Size  of  a  thrush  :  the  colour  of  the  plumage,  wholly  black,  with  a  gloss  of  blue 
on  the  back  :  bill,  and  legs,  black :  is  a  Lamprotornis  ? 

Ceylon  Rail  (Rallus  Zeylanicus) 

Larger  than  the  common  rail :  bill,  red  :  head,  dusky  :  neck,  back  and  tail  fer- 
ruginous :  prime  quills,  black;  fore  part  of  the  neck,  breast  and  belly,  reddish, 
clouded  with  brown  :  legs,  red. 

Cape  Rail  (R.  Capensis.) 

This  bird  is  also  found  in  Ceylon,  and  is  nearly  the  size  of  the  Crake  gaUinule  : 
head,  neck,  back  and  upper  part  of  the  breast,  ferruginous :  lower  parts  of  the 
breast,  belly,  thighs,  vent,  quills  and  tail,  undulated  with  black  and  white  :  two 
middle  tail  feathers  ferruginous  :  legs,  of  a  deep  blood  red. 

Boulboul  Shrike  (Lanius  Boulboul.) 

Size  of  a  field  fare  :  bill,  yellow,  and  crooked  at  the  end  :  head,  neck,  back  and 
tail,  black  :  breast  and  belly,  ash  colour :  legs,  yellow. 

There  is  another  variety.     (L.  Melanotus.) 

"Common  Hoopoe"  or  Widow  Bird. 

Is  about  twelve  inches  long,  nineteen  broad.  Bill,  black,  slender  and  incur - 
vated  :  neck,  a  pale  reddish  brown  :  breast  and  belly,  white,  but  in  young  birds 
marked  with  narrow  dusky  lines  pointing  down :  back,  scapulars  and  wings 
crossed  with  broad  bars  of  white  and  black  :  rump  white.  The  tail  consists  of 
only  two  feathers,  white,  marked  with  black,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  :  the  legs 
are  short  and  black  :  this  bird  is  said  to  have  two  or  three  broods  in  a  year,  and 
to  lay  the  eggs  in  the  holes  of  trees.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage.  There  are  two 
species ;  one  of  which  the  natives  call  Ratoo  Pili  Hora  ;  the  other,  Sudu  Pili 
Hora,  both  are  elegant  little  birds. 

Mango  Bird  or  Golden  Oriole.     (O.  melanocephalus.) 

So  called,  from  its  feeding  on  the  fruit  of  that  tree. 

Sun  birds  (Cinnyridse.) 

Ceylonese  Starling.     (Pastor.) 

Bill,  black  :  head,  pale  yellow  :  breast,  light  grey,  marked  with  oblong  yellow- 
ish white  spots  :  back  and  belly,  grey,  marked  with  white  and  dusky  semicircular 
lines  :  quill  feathers,  dull  green  :  tail,  ban-ed  with  pea  green  and  black :  legs, 
bluish  grey.     Is  said  to  whistle  in  a  mocking  way. 

Grand  Lory  (Psittacus  Grandis.) 

The  largest  of  all  the  Lorys,  being  thirteen  inches  long  :  bill,  black  :  head  and 
neck,  a  fine  red  :  lower  part  of  neck,  near  the  back,  violet  blue  :  breast  richly 
clouded  with  red,  blue,  violet  and  green  :  quills,  and  edge  of  the  wing,  from  the 
shoulder,  sky  blue  :  rest  of  the  plumage,  a  deep  red  :  half  of  the  tail,  red,  and  the 
end  yellow  ;  legs,  ash-coloured. 

Bee-Eater  (Merops  apiaster.) 

And  the  greater  Red  Start,  are  both  found  here. 

Short-Tailed  Pye. 

Approaching  the  size  of  a  blackbird  :  bill,  a  brownish  flesh-colour.  Head  par- 
tially black.  Beneath  from  the  throat  to  the  tail,  is  a  buff-colour,  reddish  near 
the  vent :   legs,  reddish  yellow  :  quills  and  tail,  black. 

Grey-Tailed  Roller  (Irena  vagabunda.) — Fairy  Roller  (I.  puella.) 
— Indian  Roller  (I.  Indiea.) 

Fasciated  Couroucou  (Trogon  fasciatus.) 

This  species  is  rare.  Rantvan-kondea,  Singh.  Length,  ten  inches  :  bill, 
black,  thick,  strong  and  arched,  the  base,  beset  with  bristles  :  the  orbits,  naked, 
'and  of  a  deep  blue  :  the  irides,  yellow  :   head  and  neck,  of  a  deep  dusky  blue, 


CHAP.  IV.]  BIRDS    FOUND    IN    THE   ISLAND.  743 

fading-  into  a  pale  orange-colour.  The  back,  is  tawny  :  the  coverts  of  the  tail 
grey  :  the  coverts  of  the  wings  and  the  scapulars  elegantly  barred  with  narrow 
undulated  lines  of  black  and  white  :  the  quill  feathers  dusky,  striped  with  white, 
on  their  outward  webs.  The  tail  is  very  long,  tipped  with  black,  and  composed 
of  feathers  of  unequal  lengths,  the  exterior  being  the  shortest.  The  legs  and  feet, 
small  and  dusky,  the  toes  disposed,  two  backwards,  and  two  forwards ;  as  in  the 
woodpecker  tribe. 

Spotted  Couroucou  (T.  maculatus.) 

Size  of  a  nut-hatch.     Bill,  brown  :  neck,  breast  and  belly,  pale  brown  :  edges 
of  wings,  white  :  tail,  dusky  ;   barred  with  white. 

The  Heme.  —  Brahmin  Kite.  —The  Vulture.  —  Sparrow.  —  Fla- 
mingo (Phoenicopterus  ruher.)  —  Crane.  —  Bomhay  Goat-Sucker 
(Caprimulgus  Asiaticus.) — Indian  Plover  (Charadrius  Indicus.)  — 
Indian  Jacana  (Parra  Indica.) — Swallow  (Hirundo  esculenta.)  — 
Ilaliaetus  Pondiceriensis. — Bracbypterus  Zeylonensis.  —  Gecinus  chlo- 
rogaster. — Iora  Zeylanica. — Zosterops  palpebrosus.  —  Phyllonus. — 
Pycnonotus  flaveolus.  —  P.  Haemorrhous. — Tephrodornis  Pondieeria- 
nus.  — Dicrurus. — Campephaga  Sykesii.  — Pericrocotus  flammeus. — 
P.  peregrinus.  —  Praticola  caprata.  —  Brachyurus.  —  Pomatorhina 
Horsfieldii. — Malacocercus  striatus.  —  Anthus  Malayensis. —  Den- 
drophila.  —  Turtur  duratensis. — Totanus  glareola.  —  Ortygometra 
Zeylanica. — Porzana  phcenicea  — Tigrisoma.  — Ardeola  malaccensis. 
—  Ardetta  cinnamomea.  —  A.  Sinensis.  —  Herodias  intermedia.  — 
Hydrophasianus  sinensis.  —  Rhynchsea  bengalensis.  —  Gallinula 
stenura. — Palseornis  Alexandri. — P.  torquatus. — P.  Cyanocephalus. 
— Athene  castanopterus.  —  Ninox  Scutellatus. — Eurystoma  orientalis. 
— Phcenicophaus  viridirostris.  —  Centropus  philippensis. — Gracula 
religiosa. — Acridotheres  tristis.  —  Nectarinia  Zeylanica. — Spoonbill. 

Dicrurus  LeucopliEeus. 

Grey  lead  colour  ;   tail,  long,  forked,  nine  inches  long. 

Fishes. 

Seirfish,  Cybium  guttatum  (Sora-malu,  Singh),  a  species  of  Scomber. 

This  is  generally  considered  the  finest  flavoured  of  the  finny  race  that  swarm 
in  tbese  seas  ;  it  has  a  good  deal  of  the  flavour  of  salmon  ;  its  sole  habitat  is  salt 
water,  and  its  colour  is  white. 

Synanceia  brachio  is   found  in  the  seas  round  Ceylon. 

Kalandah  (Singh.) 

A  species  of  Gadus  ;  a  Merlangus  or  whiting. 

Several  species  of  the  Pegasus,  Linn. — Fistularia  paradoxa. — 
Albicore  or  Thunny  (Scomber  Thynnus,  Linn.) — Bonetta  (S. 
Pelamis,  Linn.) — Scad,  Scomber  Trachurus. — Mackarel,  gen.  Scom- 
beroidse. — Gadus  carbonarius,  Coal-fish. 

Pomfret  Bull's  eye  (Holocentrus  ruber)  Ratoo  Pahaya,  Singh. 

Body,  head,  and  fins  bright  red.  Scales  partially  tinged  with  gold.  Is  found 
at  certain  seasons  in  abundance  on  the  southern  coast  of  Ceylon  in  deep  water. 
It  is  greatly  esteemed  by  the  natives  as  an  article  of  food,  and  reaches  a  consider- 
able size,  frequently  nearly  two  feet  in  length.  The  flesh  white  and  solid.  For 
splendour  and  beauty,  tins  fish  is  almost  unsurpassed. 

Snook  or  Cape  Salmon,  Inguru  Parawah  (Scomber  Heberi.) 
Body  smooth  and  silvery,  shot  with  gold,  a  tinge  of  grey  (probably  caused  by 
the  removal  of  the  silver  by  the  hands  of  the  fishermen),  graduated  from  the  buck 


744  CEYLON.  [PAUT    IV. 

to  the  lateral  line,  which  is  much  curved  above  the  pectoral  fin,  and  thence 
passes  in  a  straight  line,  strongly  serrated,  to  the  centre  of  the  caudal  fin.     Pec- 
toral tin  elongated  and  curved:  dorsal  fin  divided  in  two,  with  spines  of  various 
lengths  :  two"  spines  detached  in  front  of  the  anal  fin,  the  extremity  of  the  upper 
division  nearly  black.     Head  large:  shoulders  high:  eye,  full  and  prominent. 
Fins  different  tinges  of  yellow.     This  fish  is  found  in  deep  water,  and  is  much 
esteemed.     It  frequently  exceeds  two  feet  in  length. 
Sea  Perch  (Perca  marina,    Linn.) 
Bearded  Ophidium  (Ophidium  barbatum,  Linn.) 
Pampas  (Stromateus  Paru,  Linn.) 
Swordfish  (Xipbias  Gladius,  Linn.) 

Grows  to  the  length  of  thirty  feet.  It  is  at  perpetual  enmity  with  the  whale 
tribe,  and  a  most  dangerous  enemy ;  for  it  will  sink  beneath  those  monstrous 
animals  and  rising  with  great  force,  transfix  them  with  its  vast  snout.  There 
have  been  instances  in  which  it  has  mistaken  a  ship  for  one  of  the  cetaceous 
o-enus.  An  East  Indiaman  once  had  its  bottom  pierced  through  by  a  swordfish, 
and  the  weapon  quite  embedded  to  the  very  base  in  the  timber.  The  fish  was 
killed  by  the  violence  of  the  shock  ;  but  had  it  been  able  to  withdraw  the  sword, 
the  vessel  must  have  sunk  in  consequence  of  the  leak. 

Gemmeous  Dragonet  (Callionymis  Lyra,  Linn.)  —  Kurtus  (Kurtus 
Indicus,  Linn.)— Dorado  (Coryphsena  Equisetis,  Linn.) — Doree 
(Zeus  Faber,  Linn.)  —  Sole  (Pleuronoctes  Solea,  Zmrc.)--Red  or 
Sur  mullet  (Mullus  barbatus,  Linn.) — Striped  Sur  mullet  (Mullus 
Surmuletus) . — Great  Garfish  (Esox  osseus,  Linn.)  —Poisonous 
sprat  (Clapea). — Rock  Cod,  several  species — Skate  (Raia  Batis, 
Linn.) — Rays,  great  variety  of — Sting  Ray  (Raia  pastinaca,  Linn.) 
—Sharks.— White  Shark  (Squalus  Carcharias,  Linn.) — Sawfish 
(S.  Pristis,  Linn.)  Depta  Mora,  Singh. — Perca  Pulchella  (Holo- 
centrus  diadema.) 

Tik-Girawe,  Singh.  (Labrus  aureo-maculatus.) 

Body  light  brown,  inclining  to  yellow,  a  white  line  vertically  passing  from  the 
back  to  the  commencement  of  the  anal  fin  ;  from  this  white  division  to  the  snout 
there  are  numerous  black  spots,  those  on  the  plates  of  the  head  surrounded  by  a 
circle  of  blue,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  white  division  on  the  back  there  are 
three  brilliant  orange  spots  diminishing  towards  the  caudal  fin,  which,  with  the 
anal  and  dorsal  fins,  are  variously  spotted  with  black,  and  marked  with  a  yellow 
band  on  their  extremities.  It  is  a  beautiful  species,  and  thence  called  in  Ceylon 
the  spotted  parrot.  Lateral  line  very  visible,  bow-shaped,  convexing  under  the 
sixteenth  ray  of  the  dorsal  fin,  and  thence  extending  in  a  slightly  curved  line  to 
the  sixth  or  seventh  ray  of  the  caudal  fin.  Is  rarely  taken ;  delights  in  rocky 
coverts  ;  seldom  eaten  by  the  natives,  being  at  times  held  unwholesome.  Attains 
sometimes  the  length  of  eighteen  inches. 

Jul  Potobara,  Singh.  (Tetrodon  Ocellatus.) 

Body  variously  spotted  :  a  large  black  mark  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  fin,  sur-? 
rounded  by  stripes  and  dots,  extending  in  regular  elliptical  forms  toward  the 
pectoral  and  caudal  fins.  The  eye  placed  high,  and  distant  from  the  mouth  : 
small  blue  and  pink  stripes  intermingled  with  spots  on  either  side  of  the  mouth 
and  eyes.  Xo  ventral  fin.  Found  in  great  abundance  on  the  coasts.  From  a 
supposed  resemblance  of  the  colour  of  the  belly  to  that  of  the  rind  of  the  "  Jul," 
a  fruit  known  to  Europeans  by  the  name  of  Wood  Apple,  when  ripe,  the  natives 
have  designated  it  accordingly.  It  seldom  exceeds  five  or  six  inches  in  length, 
and  is  not  eaten,  being  considered  poisonous. 

Tik  Kossah  (Gerranus  Tankervillse.) 

Body  yellow,  with  longitudinal  streaks  of  pale  red.  A  large  irregularly  formed 
stain  approaching  to  black,  above   the  lateral  line,  and  towards  the   caudal  fin. 


CHAP.    IV.]  FISHES    FOUND    OFF   THE    COASTS.  745 

Head  of  a  dull  purple  hue,  spotted  with   darker  tones  of  purple.     Fins,  various 
shades  of  yellow,  with  reddish  rays.     This  fish  inhabits  rocky  spots,  averages 
seventeen  inches  in  length,  and  is  firm  fleshed  and  wholesome. 
Radiya  (Chsetodon  Tyrwhitti. ) 

Body  yellowish  on  the  upper  part,  graduating  to  a  pale  grey  beneath  ;  fine 
perpendicular  equi-distant  dark  stripes  graduated  below,  dark  spots  intervening. 
Dorsal  fin  striated  between  each  spine  with  grey  or  yelloAv,  the  upper  parts 
terminating  diagonally  in  bluish  grey.  Head  of  the  prevailing  grey,  with  a  pink 
hue,  and  dark  mark  on  the  chief  plate.  Eye  near  the  mouth :  iris  silvery,  but 
remarkably  dull.  This  fish  inhabits  rocky  spots,  rarely  exceeds  five  inches  in 
length,  and  is  esteemed  a  wholesome  food.  Is  occasionally  found  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  mouths  of  fresh  water  rivei>,  and  beyond  the  influence  of  the  tides. 
Panoo  Girawe  (Scams  quinque  fasciatus),  or  worm  Parrot. 
Body  dark  purple,  approaching  to  black,  with  five  perpendicular  light  stripes  ; 
three  touching  on  the  dorsal  fin,  the  third  also  touches  the  anal  fin,  the  other  two 
near  the  caudal.  The  head  beautifully  variegated  with  pink,  green  and  yellow 
interspersed  with  markings  of  black,  somewhat  representing  a  highly  coloured 
map.  Eye  projecting,  iris  golden,  surrounded  by  black,  strongly  marked  on  the 
upper  part.  This  splendid  fish  has  been  known  to  reach  the  length  of  thirty 
inches ;  its  flesh  is  delicately  white,  firm,  and  wholesome.  It  derives  its  native 
name  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  vertical  stripes  of  yellow  and  green  on  its 
body  to  a  species  of  Palm  worm. 

Laboo  Girawe  (S.  Pepo-or  Magrathii.) 

Body  covered  with  scales,  resembling  a  regularly  mai'ked  net  or  trellis-work  of 
yellow,  on  a  blue  ground,  graduating  towards  the  under  parts.  Head  yellow, 
with  various  forms  and  spots  of  blue.  Eye  brilliant ;  iris  golden  ;  caudal  fin 
dark  green,  vertically  tinged  with  reddish  brown  ;  dorsal  and  anal  fins  reddish 
brown,  bordered  with  dark  green.  Pectoral  and  ventral  fins  yellowish  brown, 
the  front  rays  green ;  no  spines.  Laboo  is  the  name  of  a  species  of  gourd  or 
pumpkin,  to  which  the  marks  and  colour  of  the  fish  have  a  resemblance. 

Balance    Shark,   or    Hammer  head    (S.  Zygsena,   Linn.) — Zope 
(Squalus    Galeus,    Linn.)  —  Blue    Shark    (S.   glaucus,     Linn.)  — 
Shagreen  or  basking  shark  (S.  Maximus,  Linn.) — Squalus  malleus. 
Sea  Dragon  (Pegasus  draconis,  Cuv.) 
Sepelawah  (Perca  argentea.) 

Body  silvery,  back  bluish,  graduating  towards  the  lateral  line,  which  is  strongly 
marked.  Fins  pale  yellow  ;  the  caudal  singularly  marked  with  fine  black  longi- 
tudinal stripes.  The  lower  plate  of  the  head  marked  with  radii.  The  iris  large, 
black,  and  brilliant.  This  fish  inhabits  the  deep  waters  of  the  surrounding  seas, 
and  is  found  on  the  shores  of  Ceylon  at  certain  seasons,  when  driven  into  shallow 
water  by  larger  fishes  of  which  it  is  the  prey  :  it  is  then  taken  by  the  fishermen 
in  large  quantities  within  the  shoal  water  of  the  coral  banks.  Rarely  exceeds 
seven  inches  in  length,  and  is  excellent  food. 

Lena  Girawe  or  Squirrel  Parrot  (Scarus  Georgii  quarti.) 
Body  green,  with  three  longitudinal  bright  red  lines,  between  which,  on  the 
green  parts,  are  various  irregularly  placed  touches  of  red  ;  the  form  of  each  scale 
on  the  green  portions  is  defined  by  an  edging  of  blue.  The  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
have  each  a  stripe  of  red  passing  between  their  stripes  of  green,  and  each  ray  of 
the  caudal  fin  is  touched  with  red  at  its  base,  and  terminates  in  a  tinge  of  yellow, 
between  the  predominating  green.  Head  irregularly  marked  with  bright  red  ; 
sharply  defined.  This,  the  most  splendid  of  the  Parrot  fish,  is  found  in  rocky 
spots.  About  eighteen  inches  in  length.  Is  not  sought  for  food.  Derives  its 
Singhalese  name  from  the  three  longitudinal  stripes  which  distinguish  the  beautiful 
but  common  Lena  or  Squirrel  of  the  Singhalese. 

Gini-Maha  or  Great  Fire  (Scorpsena  volitans.) 

Pectoral  fins  Longer  than  the  body;  the  colours  stronger  on  the  spinous  rays 


746  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

than  on  the  others  ;  the  connecting1  membrane  bluish  and  brown  ;  one  spinous, 
bluish,  spotted  with  white.  Some  say  it  is  never  used  as  food ;  but  the  native 
fishermen  maintain  that  it  may  be  eaten,  and  that  its  flesh  is  white,  solid,  and 
nutritive.  Linnaeus  describes  the  flesh  as  delicious  ;  but  he  is,  perhaps,  in  error 
hi  his  opinion  that  it  possesses  the  power  of  flying',  the  pectoral  fins  not  appearing1 
sufficiently  united  or  proportioned  to  the  body  to  admit  of  volitation. 

Seweya  (Acanthurus  vittatus.) 

Body  striated.  This  fish  is  scarce  on  the  southern  coast,  inhabiting  rocky  loca- 
lities ;  not  in  request  as  an  article  of  food.  Seldom  exceeds  sixteen  or  seventeen 
inches  in  length,  and  is  well  armed  near  the  caudal  fin  with  a  sharp  curved 
spine,  which  it  raises  or  depresses  at  pleasure,  but  seldom  exhibits  except  excited 
or  enraged.  When  depressed  it  is  scarcely  visible  within  its  scabbard,  which  in 
appearance  resembles  a  recent  incision  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  Specimens  vary 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  blue  and  yellow  streaks  near  the  caudal  fin. 

Koppra  Girawe  (Gomphosus  fuscus,  or  Porpus  Parrot  Fish.) 
Body  brown.     Gills,  dorsal  and  anal  fins  brownish  red.     This  fish  "inhabits 
rocky  situations.     The  Singhalese  sometimes  eat  it ;  but  it  is  not  nutritious. 

Kola  Handah  or  Leaf  Moon  (Chsetodon  vespertilio.) 
Dorsal  and  anal  fins  broad.  Caudal  fin  with  a  brown  band.  Head  without 
scales,  iris  golden,  mouth  small,  lips  thick,  lateral  line  arched.  This  fish  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  rocky  spots,  but  generally  in  deep  water.  It  attains  a  large 
size,  and  derives  its  native  name  from  the  resemblance  it  bears  in  the  dorsal  fin 
to  the  leaf  of  a  marine  plant,  and  in  the  shape  of  the  body  to  that  of  the  moon. 
Is  considered  unwholesome  by  the  natives,  from  its  partiality  for  copperas  and 
other  food. 

Pookoorowah  (Holocentrus  Argenteus.) 

Body  silvery,  with  reddish  brown  longitudinal  lines.  Pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal 
fins  yellow,  tinged  with  red.  Dorsal  fin  neutral  tint.  Caudal  fin,  dark  indigo, 
inclining  to  black.  This  is  a  very  delicious  fish,  seldom  exceeding  twelve  or 
thirteen  inches  in  length,  and  is  fond  of  rocky  situations. 

Gal-Lellah  or  Stone  Plank  (Chsetodon  vagabundus.) 
Body  striate,  snout  cylindrical.  Body  pale  yellow,  with  brownish  purple  lines ; 
above  the  eyes  a  black  band  ;  another  at  the  end  of  the  trunk  ;  and  a  third 
through  the  middle  of  the  tail.  Scales  of  the  body  large  ;  of  the  head  small. 
Flesh  good.  Inhabits  rocky  situations  ;  about  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  long  ;  is 
eaten  by  the  natives.  In  some  specimens  the  purple  lines  on  the  body  are 
straight ;  in  others,  nearly  so,  or  partially  curved. 

Kaha  Bart  iky  ah  (C.  Brownriggii.) 

Tail  entire.  Body  and  fins  yellow ;  above  the  lateral  line  bright,  small.  Body, 
beneath  the  lateral  line,  and  fins,  yellow ;  a  deep  black  spot  at  the  extremity  of 
the  dorsal  fin.  Lateral  line  marked  by  the  termination  of  the  yellow  and  bright 
blue  of  the  body.  From  its.  small  size — not  exceeding  two  inches  in  length — not 
eatable. 

Ratoo  Gini  Maha,  Great  Red  Fire  (Scorpsena  miles.) 
Spines  round  the  eyes  and  partially  on  the  lateral  line  near  the  head.  Head 
large,  with  six  cirri  on  the  gills.  Pectoral  fin  with  large  irregular  black  spots. 
Ventral,  anal,  dorsal,  and  caudal  fins  with  small  black  spots.  Inhabits  rocky 
situations,  and  is  described  as  a  most  voracious  animal.  The  Singhalese  fisher- 
men vary  in  opinion  with  respect  to  its  fitness  for  food.  The  S.  miles,  besides 
its  colour,  differs  from  S.  volitans  in  the  length  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  in  the 
former  are  not  so  long  as  the  body,  in  the  cirri  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  in  the 
formation  of  the  membranes  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  though  in  this  animal 
they  are  more  united,  are  certainly  not  sufficiently  proportioned  to  the  body  to 
admit  of  volitation. 


CHAP.    IV.]  FISHES    FOUND    OFF   THE    COASTS.  747 

Ratoo-polobarab,  or  Mol-Kolah,  Rice  pounder  (Balistes  aculeatus) 
— B.  viridis. 

First  dorsal  fin  three-rayed.  Tail  entire,  with  two  rows  of  recumbent  spines 
at  its  base,  three  in  each  row.  Ventral  spine  strong-toothed.  Fins  short,  first 
dorsal,  very  broad,  and  serrate  forwards.  Frequents  rocky  spots.  Is  eaten 
by  the  natives  ;  but  from  its  insignificance,  and  its  almost  impenetrable  skin,  is 
not  sought  after  by  the  fishermen.  This  fish  seldom  exceeds  ten  inches  in  length, 
and  when  that  size,  the  green  colour  of  the  body  gives  place  to  a  darker  hue, 
and  the  fine  orange  of  its  lines  and  fins  become  of  a  dusky  yellow. 

Kara-Hamoowah  (Acanthurus  hirudo.) 

Body  strongly  marked  with  five  black  stripes,  three  of  them  resembling  leeches. 
Lateral  line  much  curved,  and  armed  near  the  caudal  fin  with  a  sharp  spine. 
Inhabits  rocky  situations.  Seldom  exceeds  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  is  esteemed 
wholesome  by  the  Singhalese.  The  sharp  spine,  horizontally  situated  near  the 
caudal  fin,  and  pointing  towards  the  head  of  the  animal,  can  be  raised  or 
depressed  at  pleasure  ;  but  when  recumbent,  is  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Mal-Girawe  (Sparus  Ilardwickii.) 

The  body  marked  with  six  perpendicular  dark  stripes  intersected  with  horizon- 
tal lines  of  purple,  green,  red,  yellow,  blue  and  grey,  in  gaudy  colours.  The 
head  is  variegated  with  red  and  green  marks,  radiating  from  the  eye.  The  Mal- 
Girawe  owes  its  name  to  the  brilliant  variety  of  its  colours,  mal  signifying  flower. 
This  fish,  though  not  sought  after  by  the  fishermen,  is  not  objected  to  as  food.  It 
seldom  exceeds  fourteen  inches  in  length ,  and  loves  rocky  situations. 

Dewi  Boraloowah  (Bodianus  Cuvieri.) 

The  body  marked  with  strong  brown  longitudinal  lines  ;  the  head,  back,  and 
tail,  bright  yellow,  alternating  with  the  brown  stripes  of  the  body.  This  is  a 
wholesome,  but  very  scarce  fish,  inhabiting  rocky  situations  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Ceylon.     Seldom  exceeds  eighteen  inches  in  length. 

Hembili  Girawe,  Basket  Parrot  (Sparus  decussatus.) 

The  back  green,  gradually  softening  into  a  yellow  tinge  towards  the  lower  fins  ; 
the  body  regularly  marked,  like  wicker-work,  by  graduated  purple  and  grey  tints. 
The  head,  green,  ornamented  with  orange-coloured  stripes  and  spots.  The  fins 
and  tail  yellow.  The  Hembili-Girawe  derives  its  name  from  a  sort  of  pouch  or 
basket,  in  which  the  natives  carry  their  betel  leaf,  chunam  (shell  lime)  tobacco, 
and  areka-nut,  called  Hembili ;  Girawe,  the  Singhalese  name  for  parrot,  is  a  term 
indiscriminately  applied  by  the  natives  to  a  variety  of  splendid  fishes  with  which 
the  coast  of  Ceylon  abounds.  This  fish  is  edible,  but  not  sought  after  for  that 
purpose.  It  inhabits  rocky  situations,  and  seldom  exceeds  fourteen  or  fifteen 
inches  in  length. 

Ankatilla  (Balistes  biaculeatus.) 

Body  silvery  throughout.  The  fins  of  a  dull  yellow,  except  the  first  dorsal, 
which  is  black  towards  the  base.  Lateral  line  from  the  head  to  near  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  dorsal  fin,  arched.  This  fish  derives  its  specific  name  from  the  pe- 
culiar structure  of  the  ventral  fin.  It  is  found  principally  on  the  northern  coast. 
The  outer  skin  is  without  scales  and  very  tough.  This  fish  seldom  exceeds  twelve 
or  thirteen  inches  in  length,  and  is  considered  wholesome  food. 

Ratoo-Girawe  (Labrus  formosus.) 

Body  grey,  irregularly  marked  with  circular  black  spots.  Head  bright  yellow, 
intersected  by  two  beautiful  diagonal  lines  of  blue,  verging  towards  sea-green,  one 
of  which  ranges  with  the  eye.  The  first  dorsal  spine  twice  the  length  of  the  fin, 
and  of  a  bright  red  colour,  which  passes  through  the  extremity  of  the  fin,  above 
and  through  the  centre  of  which  passes  a  greenish  blue  line  ;  the  caudal  fin  is 
curiously  adapted,  having  its  radii  circular  at  the  base,  and  alternately  ornamented 
with  circular  black  dots  ;  rather  more  than  half  of  the  fin  is  bright  red,  the  re- 
mainder semi-transparent  white,  inclining  to  a  very  pale  yellow.  Lateral  line 
very  visible,  convexing  towards  the  head  and  also  under  the   fifteenth  ray,  from 


748  CEYLON,  [PART    IV. 

the  termination  of  which  it  proceeds  in  a  direct  line  to  the  centre  of  the  caudal 
fin.  This  fish  is  one  of  the  most  heautiful  of  its  species.  It  is  scarce,  and  not 
sought  for  as  food.  Its  flesh  is  firm,  white,  and  nutritious.  It  is  generally  found 
in  rocky  situations,  and  has  heen  known  to  reach  twenty-four  inches. 

Gal-Handah  (Chsetodon  araneus.) 

Body  very  obtuse,  perpendicularly  striped  with  dark  grey,  approaching  to 
black  ;  the  first  stripe  taking  .part  of  the  dorsal  fin,  the  shoulder,  and  the  eye  ; 
the  second  about  one-third  of  the  centre  of  the  dorsal  fin,  stretching  forward  to  the 
pectoral,  and  terminating  with  the  ventral  fin  ;  the  third  stripe  takes  a  portion  of 
the  dorsal  fin,  crossing  the  body  and  terminating  with  the  anal  fin  :  the  caudal 
fin  is  coloured  like  the  stripes,  the  intervals  are  white,  tinged  with  blue.  The 
iris  silvery.  Lateral  line  very  visible  and  arched,  convexing  towards  the  eye. 
This  is  a  singular  and  much  admired  fish.  Found  among  rocks,  where  it  can 
escape  from  larger  fish  of  prey.  Flesh  delicate  and  white,  and  much  esteemed. 
About  three  inches  in  length. 

Nil  Talapat-Girawe  (Gomphosus  viridis.) 

Body  dark  green.  Snout  elongated.  The  pectoral  fin  marked  with  a  black 
streak  ;  the  other  fins  of  a  paler  green  than  the  body.  Eyes  rather  dim ;  iris 
golden.  This  fish  is  very  scarce  on  the  southern  coasts.  It  is  found  in  rocky 
situations,  but  is  not  sought  after  by  the  fishermen  as  an  article  of  food.  The 
dorsal  fin  of  this  fish  is  thought  to  resemble  the  young  leaf  of  the  talapat  tree  when 
spread. 

Green  Talapat  Parrot  Fish. 

Remarkable  for  losing  its  green  colour  after  exceeding  ten  or  twelve  inches. 

Dewi  Koraleyah,  Singh.  (Chsetodon  Atro-maculatus. ) 

Body  silvery,  apparently  shot  with  a  lilac  and  pink  hue  above  the  lateral  line, 
and  irregularly  marked  with  black  spots  of  various  forms.  The  fins  remarkably- 
prominent,  and  with  radii  strongly  indicated  ;  the  spines  on  the  dorsal  and  lower 
fins  very  powerful ;  the  pectoral  fin  pale  yellow.  The  general  appearance  inele- 
gant and  formidable.  Lateral  line  very  visible,  and  arched.  This  fish  is  found 
on  rocky  situations  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  as  high  as  the  tide  flows.  Its 
flesh  partakes  of  the  flavour  of  trout,  and  is  much  esteemed.  It  is  found  wherever 
the  sea-weed,  called  by  the  Singhelese  "  Pendah,"  grows,  of  which  it  is  particu- 
larly fond,  and  with  this  weed  anglers  bait  their  hooks  for  it. 

Kaha  Laweyah,  Singh.  (Perca  flavo-purpurea.) 

Body,  from  the  eye  to  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  purple  ;  gradually  lighter  towards 
the  latter  part:  the  remainder  of  the  body,  and  all  the  fins,  bright  yellow  ;  the  upper 
part  and  lower  extremity  of  the  caudal  fin  touched  with  an  irregular  black  spot ; 
the  ventral  has  also  a  large  and  a  smaller  spot  in  conformity  with  the  caudal  fin. 
The  iris  of  the  eye  is  golden.  The  teeth  are  numerous.  The  general  appearance 
of  this  fish  is  spendid  and  graceful.  Is  principally  found  on  the  eastern  coast. 
Its  flesh  is  considered  excellent.  It  inhabits  rocky  situations,  and  is  found  only 
in  deep  water. 

Pol  Kitchyah,  Singh.  lAnthias  Clarkii.) 

Body  dark  purple,  approaching  to  black,  divided  by  three  white  streaks  ;  the 
first  curves  from  the  front  of  the  dorsal  fin  near  the  eye,  and  terminates  on  the 
lower  plate  ;  the  second  streak  crosses  the  body  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
dorsal  to  the  front  spine  of  the  anal  fin  ;  the  third  streak  curves  inwards  from  the 
outer  rays  of  the  caudal  fin.  Part  of  the  head,  the  body  between  the  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins,  and  the  caudal  fin  are  bright  yellow,  tinged  with  orange  ;  dorsal 
and  anal  fins,  purple.  Mouth  situated  high  ;  iris,  golden.  This  fish  is  scarce  ; 
its  name  is  derived  from  the  beautiful  Java  sparrow.  It  is  rarely  more  than  four 
inches  long,  and  is  good,  firm,  and  wholesome. 

There  is  also  a  Balistes,  the  kangewena  of  the  Singhalese,  with  one 
horn  on  the  forehead  ;  it  grows  to  the  length  of  twTo  feet,  and  is 
esteemed  good  eating. — Balistes  maculosus,  or  Pottoe  bora  elegantly 
spotted,  also  a  good  fish,  grows  to  the  length  of  fifteen   inches. — 


CHAP.    IV.]  FISHES    FOUND    OFF    THE    COASTS.  749 

Balistes  truncatus,  seemingly  cut  in  two,  like  our  Mola. — A  Diodon, 
a  singular  species,  armed  with  strong  short  spines.  The  Ikon 
Toetomba,  or  box  fish  of  the  Malayans. — Among  the  fresh-water 
fish  are  the  Cat  fish  (angoloowa,  Singh.)  ;  the  Eel,  Barbet,  Grey 
mullet,  and  the  Mud  fish,  of  the  Perca  genus 

Dschirau-Malu  (Labrus  Ze,  lauicus.) 

The  Ceylon  wrasse.  This  species  resembles  in  form  (he  elegant  European 
species,  the  L.  Pavo  and  L.  Julis.  The  head  is  blue  ;  the  coverts  of  the  gills  green, 
marked  with  purple  lines ;  the  whole  body  of  a  rich  green,  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  purple,  edged  with  pale  sky-blue  ;  on  the  middle  of  the  pectoral  fin  is  an  ob- 
long purple  spot,  environed  with  light  blue  :  the  tail  is  lineated  ;  the  base  blue  : 
the  two  side  rays  purple  :  the  intervening  rays  yellow.  The  size  about  a  foot  and 
a  half.     Is  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Reptiles. 

The  Ophidia  of  Ceylon  are  numerous.  Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  14,  15,  21,  23,  are  said  by  the  Singhalese  to  be 
venomous  ;  the  rest  are  harmless.  Noya,  Naga,  or  hooded  snake  ; 
Cobra  di  Capello. 

This  snake,  though  of  the  deadliest  and  largest,  frequently  attaining  to  six  feet 
in  length,  is  much  venerated  by  the  Singhalese,  being  thought  to  have  an  amiable 
disposition  as  regards  mankind.  It  varies  much  in  colour,  those  of  a  light  hue 
are  called  high  caste,  and  those  of  a  dark,  low  caste  snakes;  and  was  formerly  an 
object  of  worship.  Accordingly  it  is  never  killed  like  the  other  species,  which  are 
gibbeted  on  branches  of  trees.  The  Nagas  inhabiting  the  western  coast  of  Ceylon, 
and  converted  by  Gautama,  were  probably  worshippers  of  this  snake.  The  bite  of 
the  hooded  snake  is  not  necessarily  fatal  to  other  animals,  fowls  for  instance ;  and 
in  its  effect  varies  a  good  deal,  according  to  circumstances  not  easy  to  calculate ; 
the  poison  is  capable  of  being  soon  exhausted,  the  symptoms  produced  by  it, 
though  not  uniformly  the  same,  pretty  generally  correspond,  and  along  with  the 
appearances  on  dissection  indicate  that  the  lungs  are  the  principal  scene  of  action. 
In  four  experiments  with  fowls,  by  Dr.  Davy,  three,  where  the  animals  were  seve- 
rally bitten  on  the  left  pectoral  muscle,  breast,  and  thigh,  were  fatal  ;  and  one, 
where  a  cock  was  bitten  on  the  comb,  harmless.  Three  experiments  on  do°s 
all  proved  innocuous.     For  a  detailed  account,  see  Davy. 

Berawa  Naga.  — Koboe  Naga  is  said  by  the  Singhalese  to  be  the 
Naga  (Cobra  di  Capello,  or  Coluber  Naja,  Linn.) 

In  its  last  stage,  and  that  every  time  it  has  expended  its  poison,  the  reptile  loses 
a  joint  of  its  tail,  until  it  changes  its  nature,  and  assumes  wings  like  the  pectoral 
fins  of  the  Hying  fish,  at  which  time  the  head  and  mouth  resemble  the  toad's.  This 
transformation  is  credited  by  the  most  intelligent  of  the  natives.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  various  species  of  Nagas,  and  the  Tik  polonga,  the  bite  of  no  other 
snake  in  Ceylon  is  known  to  be  positively  fatal  to  man,  and  recovery  follows  in 
the  case  of  the  former  as  often  as  death.  The  poison  of  each  kind  of  snake  beinf 
peculiar,  requires  a  different  mode  of  treatment ;  a  circumstance  not  always  kept 
in  view. 

Soeloe  Naga.— Deput  Naga,  Dia  Naga  according  to  the  Sing- 
halese, is  amphibious,  living  six  months  in  water,  during  whichperiod 
it  is  venomous  ;  and  for  six  months  on  land,  when  it  is  entirely  harm- 
less.—Polonga.  -Lee  Polonga. — Nidi  Polonga;  mortiferous  sleep  is 
said  to  follow  the  bite  of  this  snake.  — Pala  Polonga. 

The  Tik  Polonga,' 

1  A  legend  illustrative  of  the  contrast  which  exists  between  the  dispositions  of 
the  Cobra  and  the  Tik-polonga,  the  former  of  which  is  considered  a  benevolent, the 


750  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

Is  difficult  of  procural,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  dangerous  snake  in  the  island. 
"When  full  grown  it  is  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  and  very  thick  in  proportion. 
The  head  is  small,  and  nearly  triangular  ;  the  tail  tapering,  round,  and  short. 
The  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  a  dark,  dull  brownish  grey  ;  of  the  under,  light 
yellow.  The  belly  is  not  spotted,  but  the  back  is  regularly  marked.  In  some 
specimens  the  marks  are  oval ;  and  in  some  more  pointed,  and  rather  trapezoidal ; 
in  others,  surrounded  with  a  white  margin  ;  in  a  fourth,  lightest  in  the  middle. 
This  snake  is  rather  indolent  and  inactive.  It  is  averse  to  attack,  lies  coiled  up, 
and  when  irritated,  hisses  furiously,  and  darts  forward.  The  difference  between 
a  harmless  and  poisonous  snake  may  be  said  to  consist  in  the  former  being  pro- 
vided with  a  double  row  of  teeth,  and  the  other  with  a  single  row  and  two  fangs, 
each  of  which  is  perforated  with  a  canal ;  that  at  the  base  of  the  tooth  communi- 
cates with  the  poison-duct  from  the  poison-gland,  and  terminates  in  a  longitudinal 
opening,  just  below  the  point  of  the  fang,  which  is  solid.  The  action  of  the  poison 
of  this  snake  is  peculiar,  judging  from  the  symptoms,  and  the  appearances  on  dis- 
section, it  seems  to  affect  the  blood  and  muscular  system  principally,  tending  to 
coagulate  the  former,  and  convulse  and  paralyse  the  latter.  In  six  experiments, 
in  each  of  which  the  bite  affected  a  different  member,  it  proved  almost  immediately 
fatal. 

Pimbera  or  anaconda,  is  of  the  genus  Python,  Cuv.,  and  is  known 
in  English  as  the  rock  snake. 

This  snake  has  been  known  to  attain  twenty-five  feet  in  length,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  a  man.  It  twines  round  its  prey  like  the  boa,  but  is  not  much  dreaded  by 
the  natives,  as  it  seldom  seizes  any  animal  larger  than  a  jackal.  A  couple  of 
horny  processes,  in  form  and  curvature  not  unlike  the  spurs  of  a  common  fowl, 
penetrate  the  skin,  and  project  a  little  anterior  to  the  anus  ;  in  this  it  differs  from 
the  genus  Coluber,  which  it  resembles  in  abdominal  scuta  and  subcaudal  squamae. 
These  horny  spurs  are  useful  to  the  animal  in  climbing  trees  and  retaining  its 
prey.  They  vary  slightly  in  colour,  but  are  generally  a  mixture  of  brown,  and 
yellow  ;  the  back  and  sides  are  strongly  and  rather  handsomely  marked  with  irre- 
gular patches  of  dark  brown,  with  very  dark  margins.     The  jaws  are  powerful, 

latter  a  malevolent  being,  runs  as  follows : — "  In  the  isle  of  Serendib  there  is  a  happy 
valley,  that  men  call  the  vale  of  Kotmale.  It  is  watered  by  numerous  streams, 
and  its  fields  produce  rice  in  abundance  ;  but  at  one  season  great  drought  prevails, 
and  the  mountain  torrents  then  cease  their  constant  roar,  and  subside  into  rivulets, 
or  altogether  disappear.  At  this  period  when  the  rays  of  the  noontide  sun  beat 
fiercely  and  hotly  on  the  parched  earth,  a  tik-polonga  encountered  a  cobra  di 
capello.  The  polonga  had  in  vain  sought  to  quench  his  burning  thirst,  and  gazed 
with  envy  on  the  cobra,  who  had  been  more  successful  in  his  search  for  the  pure 
beverage.  '  Oh  !  puissant  cobra,  I  perish  with  thirst ;  tell  me  where  I  may  find 
the  stream  wherein  thou  hast  revelled.'  '  Accursed  polonga,'  replied  the  cobra, 
'  thou  cumberest  the  earth,  wherefore  should  I  add  to  the  span  of  thy  vile  existence. 
Lo,  near  to  this  flows  a  mountain  rill,  but  an  only  child  is  disporting  herself 
therein,  while  her  mother  watches  the  offspring  of  her  heart.  Wilt  thou  then 
swear  not  to  injure  the  infant,  if  I  impart  to  thee  where  thou  mayest  cool  thy 
parched  tongue.'  '  I  swear  by  all  the  gods  of  Serendib,'  rejoined  the  polonga, 
'  that  I  will  not  harm  the  infant.'  '  Thou  seest  yonder  hamlet ;  in  front  of  it 
gushes  forth  a  spring  of  water,  that  abates  not  during  the  intensity  of  the  summer 
heat.'  The  polonga  wended  his  way  to  the  spot,  and  there  beheld  a  dark-eyed 
girl  bathing  in  the  rushing  waters.  Having  quaffed  the  delicious  liquid,  he  re- 
pented him  of  his  oath  touching  the  infant.  His  evil  soul  prompted  him  to  kill  her, 
and  as  she  lay  beneath  the  shade  of  a  leafy  tamarind  tree,  he  approached  and  in- 
flicted a  mortal  wound.  As  he  retired  from  his  dying  victim,  he  again  met  the 
cobra,  who  seeing  blood  on  his  fangs,  and  perceiving  the  cause,  thus  addressed 
him.  '  Hast  thou  forgotten  the  sacred  oath  thou  swearest  unto  me  ?  The  blood  of 
thy  victim  cries  for  vengeance.  Thou  shalt  surely  die.'  And  darting  his  fan°-s 
into  the  body  of  the  polonga,  he  slew  him  instantly." 


CHAP.  IV.]  OPHIDIA THEIR    RESPECTIVE  CHARACTERS.  751 

and  capable  of  great  dilatation,  and  they  are  armed  with  large,  strong- sharp  teeth, 
reclining  backwards.  As  the  muscular  strength  of  this  snake  is  immense,  and  its 
activity  and  courage  great,  it  has  been  known  to  attack  man  :  deer  it  overpowers, 
and  swallows  entire.  The  natives  have  the  most  absurd  notions  respecting  it ;  hold 
that  when  young  it  was  a  polonga,  and  had  poisonous  fangs,  but  at  a  certain  age  it 
loses  them,  acquires  spurs,  and  becomes  a  pimbera.  Its  spurs  they  suppose  poisonous, 
and  that  the  animal  uses  them  in  striking-  its  prey.  Parturition  they  believe  to  be 
fatal  to  the  female,  owing  to  the  bursting-  of  the  abdomen,  and  that  hence  the 
males  avoid  them,  and  choose  female  nag-as. 

Ahedoella.  The  movements  of  this  snake  are  rapid,  and  from 
its  power  of  springing,  it  is  called  a  flying  snake. 

Mapilla.     The  Karawilla 

Is,  after  the  hooded  snake,  the  most  common  of  the  poisonous  kind  in  Ceylon. 
It  averages  a  foot  in  leng-th,  the  back  is  of  a  dull,  reddish  brown  colour  :  belly,  a 
silvery  white,  greyish  towards  the  tail.  On  each  side,  between  the  ridg-e  of  the 
back  and  the  boundary  line,  between  the  back  and  the  belly,  there  are  two  rows 
of  black  velvety  spots.  The  head  is  nearly  triangular  and  is  compressed,  darker 
than  the  body,  and  free  from  spots.  The  jaws  are  very  dilatable.  The  fang  teeth, 
long-,  slender,  and  sharp.  It  lies  coiled  up,  its  head  projecting  at  right  angles 
nearly  to  its  body.  When  provoked,  it  hisses,  darts  its  head  with  great  rapidity, 
at  the  irritating  object,  and  wounds  almost  to  a  certainty.  It  is  active,  and  when 
frightened,  and  anxious  to  escape,  moves  with  great  rapidity.  From  experiments, 
it  would  appear  that  the  bite  of  the  Karawilla  is  rarely  fatal  to  small  animals ; 
that  its  poison  is  not  easily  exhausted  ;  that  the  symptoms  it  produces  are  pretty 
uniform,  and  different  from  those  produced  by  the  naga,  the  diseased  action 
being  more  local  and  much  more  inflammatory,  commencing-  in  the  part  bitten, 
spreading  progressively,  losing  its  force  as  it  extends,  and  seldom  or  never  proving 
fatal  except  it  reaches  a  vital  organ.  In  the  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Davy, 
dogs  bitten  by  it,  though  suffering  intense  pain,  much  swollen  in  the  affected  part, 
and  discharging  an  ichorous  fluid,  recovered  in  a  few  days,  and  of  three  fowls 
bitten,  two  recovered. 

Pala  Panoowa. — Dia  Berya. — Garrendiya  (rat  snake).  —  Ahare 
Kocka.  —  Wal-Garwendiya. — Doenoo-Karawilla  — Mai  Karawilla. — 
Tib-Karawilla. —  Kan-Koenda.  —  Galgoloowah  —  Hotambeyah.  — 
Etetullah. — Mai  Karabeta.  —  Mai  Polon. — Matribilla.  —  Duberriya. 

Boodroo  Pam  of  Russell, 

Is  extremely  rare,  and  has  no  native  name.  When  full  grown,  it  exceeds 
two  feet  in  length,  the  head  is  large,  and  irregularly  heart-shaped,  neck  small, 
body  thin,  sides  compressed,  and  tail  abrupt  and  tapering.  It  has  two  large 
cavities,  one  on  each  side,  between  the  eye  and  the  nostril,  the  diameter  of  each 
of  which  is  about  the  tenth  of  an  inch.  Its  lower  surface  is  yellow  variegated 
with  green  ;  its  upper,  bright  apple  green.  This  colour  is  confined  to  the  scales  ; 
the  cutis  beneath  is  black,  consequently  where  the  scales  are  close,  black  is  ex- 
cluded, and  where  they  do  not  completely  overlap,  the  green  is  shaded  with 
black.  Above  the  upper  jaw  is  a  line  of  black  scales,  and  a  few  appear  along  the 
ridge  of  the  back. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  traveller  in  crossing  or  proceeding  along  the 
rivers  of  Ceylon,  discovers  bags  of  matting  tied  at  the  mouth,  and  floating  with 
the  stream ;  these  should  be  opened  with  caution,  as  they  generally  contain  a 
naga  or  sacred  snake,  that  some  superstitious  Buddhist  has  cast  upon  the  waters, 
with  a  stock  of  provisions,  consisting  of  boiled  eggs  and  rice,  on  a  similar  principle, 
to  that  execrable  practice  of  the  Romish  Church,  in  the  case  of  recreant  nuns, 
who,  walled  up  with  a  portion  of  bread,  were  doomed  to  as  sure,  though  fingering 
a  death,  as  if  the  demon  superior  had,  with  her  own  hands,  perpetrated  the  murder. 
In  like  manner  the  Buddhists,  while  objecting  from  religious  or  superstitious 
motives  to  kill  the  naga,  deem  it  no  oft'ence  to  send  it  upon  an  aquatic  cruise 
without  a  possibility  of  escape  from  its  covert,   conscious  that,  in  the  event  of 


752  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

meeting  with  Europeans,  it  will  be  taken  up  and   dispatched  prior  to  being  de- 
posited in  their  cabinets. 

The  Ichneumon  or  Mongoose,  mentioned  in  due  order  in  p.  734. 
(Goodoowa,  Singh.)     Herpestes,  sp. 

Is  the  mortal  enemy  of  all  venomous  snakes,  which  it  is  supposed  to  distinguish 
from  harmless  ones  by  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  It  resembles  the  common  ferret  in 
shape  and  size,  and  when  young,  its  fur  is  of  a  pencil  grey,  which  changes  in 
time  to  an  iron  grey,  tipped  at  the  extremities  with  brown.  The  eyes  are  of  a 
bright  flame-colour,  ears  small  and  rounded,  nose  long  and  slender,  body  thicker 
than  others  of  the  genus  :  tail  very  thick  at  the  base,  tapering  to  a  point;  legs, 
short  ;  the  hair  hard  and  coarse.  If  placed  in  a  room  with  closed  doors,  the 
snake,  when  perceiving  its  antagonist,  will  be  as  sensible  of  its  power  in  that  case, 
as  the  mongoose  will  be  aware  of  its  inability  to  oppose  it,  and  while  the  one 
expands  its  hood,  and  rapidly  darts  backwards  and  forwards  its  forked  tongue  in 
its  excitement,  the  other  will  exhibit  its  sense  of  danger,  and  will  endeavour  to 
escape.  But  remove  both  of  the  belligerents  into  a  compound,  and  after  taking 
precautions  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  snake,  you  will  suddenly  see  the  altered 
position  of  affairs.  The  mongoose  first  hastening  away  for  a  moment  to  furnish 
itself  with  the  antidote  which  instinct  has  revealed  to  it,  quickly  returns,  and 
boldly  prepares  itself  for  the  contest.  After  several  detours,  it  will  gradually 
near  its  opponent,  which  is  fixedly  watching  it,  as  if  under  the  influence  of  the 
same  fascination  which,  in  its  own  turn,  it  has  pi-oduced  in  other  animals.  On  a 
sudden  the  mongoose  may  be  seen  crouching  with  its  nose  close  to  the  ground, 
and  having  watched  his  opportunity,  springs  forward,  and  in  a  second  has 
fastened  his  teeth  in  the  back  of  the  cobra's  neck,  which  is  never  itself  the 
assailant.  The  huge  reptile  twisting  itself  in  every  direction,  fruitlessly  endea- 
vours to  encircle  the  mongoose  in  its  folds,  and  lashes  its  tail  against  the  ground  ; 
the  snake  now  begins  to  shew  signs  of  exhaustion,  whilst  its  little  foe  bravely 
retains  its  hold,  till,  at  length,  the  overpowered  monster,  after  receiving  a  final 
hug,  is  relinquished  when  life  has  become  extinct.  The  mongoose,  though  gene- 
rally uninjured  by  the  contest,  on  quitting  the  snake,  will  again  repair  to  its  vege- 
table antidote.  The  name,  and  even  the  properties  of  this  plant  are  unknown. 
Thus  some  maintain  that  it  is  the  Ophiorhiza  Mungos,  Linn.  (Mendi.  Singh.), 
because  almost  every  part  of  the  tree  is  employed  by  the  native  doctors  in  healing 
snake  bites  ;  others  have  it,  that  it  is  the  Ophioxylon  serpentinum,  which  is  every 
where  abundant.  Others,  that  it  is  a  variety  of  Mimosa  octandra  or  sensitiva 
(nakulishta  or  desired  of  Ichneumons,  Singh.)  Both  these  plants  are  of  the  Eka- 
wariya  family  of  the  Singhalese  botanists,  though  the  stems  of  each  differ  in  theit 
properties. 

It  has  also  been  affirmed,  that  the  root  and  leaf  of  the  Eupatorium  Ayapana  have 
been  used  by  the  mongoose,  and  that  a  pan  of  hot  water,  in  which  a  decoction  of 
its  aromatic  leaves  was  infused,  along  with  the  imbibing  a  similar  liquid,  has  cured 
a  native  whose  wounded  leg  was  suspended  over  it.  A  yet  more  insignificant 
animal  than  the  mongoose,  is  capable  of  destroying  the  Cobra  di  Capello,  which  may 
be  kept  alive  for  years  upon  eggs,  frogs,  and  mice.  Thus  instances  have  occurred, 
where  live  mice  have  been  placed  along  with  a  live  snake,  to  serve  as  food,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  reptile,  but  the  result  has  been  the  reverse ;  for  instinct,  having 
taught  the  little  animals  that  the  only  means  of  preserving  their  own  lives  was  by 
anticipating  then-  enemy,  they  have  effected  it  by  eating  its  eyes,  and  depriving 
it  of  sight,  from  which  it  could  not  survive,  while  they  remained  uninjured. 

The  pretended  snake  charmers  or  samp-wallahs  are  Hindoos,  who  provoke  the 
Cobra  to  bite  at  red  rags,  by  which  means  it  expends  its  venom,  or  lull  it,  by  play- 
ing the  Horanawa  or  country  pipe,  while  another  beats  with  his  right  hand  upon  the 
Oodikea,  or  by  singing,  or  stroking  it,  though  it  can  be  only  temporarily  innocuous, 
for  so  long  as  the  cylindrical  fangs  and  poison  ducts  remain  perfect,  its  power  to 
inflict  mischief  will  be  restored  by  a  reaccumulation  of  the  venom.  Great  caution 
is  required  in  purchasing  a  Cobra  di  Capello  from  itinerant  snake  charmers,  for  no 
reliance  can  be  put  on  their  profession  of  the  harmlessness  of  the  reptiles,  for  their 


CHAP. IV.]     OPHIDIA  AND   THEIR  ENEMIES — SNAKE-CHARMING.     753 

calling  being  deceptive,  and  dependent  on  the  gullibility  of  their  audience,  so  is  also 
their  mode  of  dealing ;  for  they  have  been  known  to  deceive,  in  more  than  one 
instance,  to  the  great  risk  of  the  deceived  purchaser.  The  purchaser  should  see 
that  the  fangs  and  poison  ducts  have  been  extracted.  They  are  carried  about  in 
circular  baskets,  and  when  these  are  opened  for  the  occasion  of  display,  the  musio, 
or  rather  discord,  is  quickened ;  the  snakes  move  about  the  space  allotted  to  them 
with  part  of  their  bodies  erect,  and  the  rest  of  their  lengths  coiled,  but  their  hoods 
expand  and  their  forked  tongues  continually  project  and  retract.  The  snakes  are 
irritated  to  strike  at  the  charmer's  arms  and  knees,  and  blood  flows,  but  he  avoids, 
with  great  agility,  the  attacks  of  the  animal  when  really  enraged,  after  which  he 
takes  the  reptiles  by  the  neck,  and  holds  their  mouths  close  to  his  forehead,  in 
which  position  they  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  he  declares  they  are  innocuous  or 
kutcha.  In  point  of  fact,  the  Samp- wallah  saturates  his  hands  and  face  with  a 
vegetable  juice,  to  which  the  snakes  are  repugnant,  while  his  confidence,  courage 
and  acquaintance  with  the  disposition  of  the  snake,  which  he  knows  to  be  averse  to 
use  the  fatal  weapon  nature  has  given  it  for  its  defence,  except  in  extreme  danger, 
and  never  to  bite  without  much  preparatory  threatening,  inspire  in  him  a  feeling  of 
security.  Eau  de  Luce,  has  been  successfully  used  in  healing  the  bite  of  the  Cobra 
in  various  stages  of  the  patient's  sufferings,  but  it  should  be  administered  at  an 
early  period  after  the  bite  ;  thus,  in  two  cases,  where  persons  had  been  in  strong 
convulsions,  and  had  lost  the  use  of  their  speech,  foaming  at  the  mouth  in  a  dread- 
ful manner,  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  muriatic  acid  dropped  and  rubbed  into  the 
punctures,  made  by  the  snake's  fangs,  and  fifty  drops  of  Eau  de  Luce,  in  a  little 
water,  proved  efficacious,  and  they  recovered  in  a  few  hours.  Oil  has  been  of  use 
both  when  applied  externally  or  internally.  Sometimes  a  bite  will  almost  imme- 
diately produce  fatal  effects,  even  in  half  an  hour  the  face  will  become  so  disfi- 
gured as  not  to  appear  human,  the  mouth  covered  with  saliva,  and  the  part  bitten, 
swollen  to  a  monstrous  size.  Snakes,  though  comparatively  abundant  in  certain 
localities,  are  seldom  encountered  by  man,  probably  from  a  desire  to  shun  his  path, 
like  all  animals ;  the  Polonga  is  the  least  active  in  removing  from  his  approach, 
while  its  poison  is  most  deadly.  Sometimes  they  will  be  found  in  unoccupied 
houses,  when  they  are  frequently  difficult  to  remove.  In  the  Mahagamapattoo 
they  are  scarce,  it  is  said,  owing  to  their  being  destroyed  by  the  pea  fowl,  with 
which  the  plains  and  trees  abound,  and  which  are  partial  to  them  as  food.  The 
groundless  fear  which  some  strangers  first  entertain  on  reaching  Ceylon  is  soon 
dissipated,  and  they  finally  cease  to  think  of  them. 

Thunberg  describes  the  serpent-stone  as  an  infallible  antidote  against  the  bite 
of  serpents,  but  according  to  Dr.  Davy,  a  large  degree  of  qualification  must  be 
applied  to  this  remark.  It  is  manufactured  by  the  natives,  and  is,  generally,  of 
the  shape  of  a  bean.  It  is  prepared  from  the  ashes  of  some  root  which  is  burnt, 
and  from  a  particular  sort  of  earth.  These  two  ingredients  being  mixed  together, 
are  burnt  a  second  time,  and  reduced  to  a  paste,  which  is  then  moulded  into  the 
required  form,  and  dried.  All  have  not  the  same  colour,  the  over  burnt  being  of 
a  lighter,  and  the  under  burnt  of  a  darker  grey :  frequently  they  are  variegated 
with  black  and  grey  spots.  The  stone  is  pierced  through  with  fine  holes,  and 
is  so  brittle,  that  it  will  break  in  pieces  if  it  falls.  One  of  these  stones  is  placed 
upon  the  wound  of  one  bitten  by  a  serpent,  over  which  it  is  bound  tight,  and  left 
there  till  all  its  pores  are  filled  with  the  expressed  poison.  In  this  case  it  is  said 
to  drop  off  of  its  own  accord,  like  a  glutted  leech,  and  if  it  be  then  steeped  in 
sweet  milk,  the  poison  is  supposed  to  be  extracted  from  it,  or,  otherwise,  the  stone 
is  applied  fresh  to  the  wound.  Great  virtue  is  attributed  to  this  stone  in  malignant 
and  even  putrid  fevers,  if  a  small  quantity  scraped  fine  is  taken  in  wine. 
Counterfeit  serpent  stones  are  frequently  made  in  imitation  of  real  ones,  and 
possess  no  virtue,  the  true  ones  may  be  known  by  their  fastening  to  the  palate 
and  forehead,  when  a  man  is  warm,  and  by  their  emitting  small  bubbles  when 
put  into  water.  According  to  Dr.  Davy,  there  are  three  different  lands  of  these 
stones,  one  of  partially  burnt  bone,  another  of  chalk,  and  the  third  resembles  a 
bezoar,  consisting  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter. 

Ceylon  crocodile  (Crocodilus  porosus.)  Kimbolah,  Singh.  (Kay- 
man,  Portuguese.) 

Is  a  very  sluggish  animal.     They  are  caught  in  nets  by  the  natives,  as  well  as 

3  c 


754  CEYLON.  [part.  IV. 

in  traps,  and  with  baited  hooks.  The  first  is  the  best  sport ;  for  when  dragged  on 
land,  they  offer  aim  for  the  gun  or  spear.  The  crocodile  possesses  great  strength, 
and  is  alike  dreaded  by  men  and  animals.  It  has  been  occasionally  caught  in  the 
jungles,  which  it  passes  on  its  way  to  the  rivers,  when  the  tanks  become  dry. 

Natives  have  been  seized  when  bathing,  by  crocodiles,  and  swallowed  whole, 
and  when  the  animal  has  been  captured1  and  opened,  the  putrified  body  has  been 
discovered  within.  Frequently,  however,  they  will  carry  off  their  prey,  and  after 
life  lias  departed,  deposit  it  and  repose  beside  it,  hi  some  dark  and  caverned 


1  Crocodiles   are  frequently  caught  in  kraals,  composed  of  strong  and  high 
stakes.     These  animals  are  to  be  found  in  every  small  piece  of  water,  in  those  flat 
districts,  in  which  the  population  is  scanty.     In  the  mountainous  regions  they  are 
seldom  seen,  but  where  they  abound  it  is  dangerous  for  a  person  to  rest,  as  they 
have  been  known  to  eye  a  person  in  the  water,  and  crawling  up  the  bank,  cany 
him  off,  while  asleep,  from  fatigue.     An  instance  has  been  known  where  a  man, 
crossing  a  river  in  a  small  canoe,  has  been  seized  and  dragged  underneath  the 
water  by  a  crocodile.     They  destroy  great  numbers  of  deer,  young  cattle,  and 
animals  of  all  kinds,  which  come  to  drink,  or  he  down  to  cool  themselves  in  the 
rivers  and  ponds.     In  hunting  or  coursing,  it  is  advisable  to  ride  well  up  with  the 
dogs,  and  fire  on  approaching  water,  as  otherwise  the  dogs  run  a  great  risk  of 
being  seized  ;  in  fact,  this  is  so  common  an  occurrence,  that  the  pleasure  of  hunt- 
ing is  greatly  diminished,  and  the  difficulty  of  preserving  good  dogs  increased. 
Crocodile  charmers,  from  their  acquaintance  with  the  habits  of  the  animal,  are 
always  successful  in  conducting  a  party  through  deep  water,  without  accident. 
The  party  being  assembled  on  the  bank,  wait,  while  the  incantations  which  are 
accompanied  by  a  splashing  of  water,  are  in  progress,  and  on  receiving  an  intima- 
tion that  the  crocodiles  are  effectually  muzzled,  rush  in  together,  taking  care  to 
create  a  sufficient  disturbance  to  frighten  the  cowardly,  slothful  reptiles,  and  im- 
parting no  less  safety  than  confidence  in  their  prowess.     From  the  manner  in 
which  the  natives  of  Putlam,  and  some  other  places,  venture  into  water  where 
crocodiles  abound  and  drag  them  to  the  bank  by  means  of  a  strong  net,  it  may  be 
inferred  that  they  are  neither  active  nor  courageous.  This  is  an  extraordinary  and 
interesting  sight,  but  it  is  not  without  surprise  and  anxiety  that  the  stranger,  after 
noticing   the  movements  of  several  crocodiles,  sees  the  net  arranged,  and  the 
hunters,  generally  Moormen,  wade  up  to  their  necks  in  the  water,  and  form  a 
semicircular  line  round  the  spot  where  the  animals  had  been  last  observed,  which, 
on  perceiving  the  unusual  commotion,  instinctively  lower  their  heads  beneath 
the  surface.     Those  engaged  in  dragging  the  net  move  their  legs  rapidly,  while 
others  keep  striking  on  the  surface  of  the  water  with  poles,  the  space  within  the 
net  being  gradually  contracted,  till  the  crocodiles  are  landed,  when  the  party  on 
the  bank,  armed  with  spears  and  guns,  commences  the  work  of  destruction.     The 
most  vulnerable  part  of  a  crocodile  is,  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  left  exposed 
when  the  reptile  moves  its  fore  legs,  but  the  spear  should  be  so  formed  as  to  be 
easily  extracted,  with  a  view  to  striking  a  deadlier  blow,  in  case  the  first  should 
have  been  futile.     The  persons  employed  in  dragging  (though  inside  the  net)  or 
beating  up  the  game,  manifest  no  appearance  of  fear,  and  make  no  great  exertion 
to  get  out  of  the  way,  when  the  reptiles  plunge  and  attempt  to  regain  a  deep 
cover,  which  they  will  do  on  finding  themselves  in  shallow  water,  and  closely 
surrounded.  "  The  best  way  of  destroying  crocodiles  is,"  says  Forbes,  "  by  means 
of  hooks,  baited  with  flesh,  attached  to  a  strong  cord  not  hard  twisted,  but  com- 
posed of  many  small  strings  which  get  between  the  wide  set  teeth  of  the  animal, 
and  cannot  then  be  gnawed  ;  a  block  of  wood  to  which  the  lines  are  attached, 
serves  as  a  float,  and  points  out  the  place  to  which  the  crocodile  has  retired  after 
swallowing  the  bait.  An  attendant  having  laid  hold  of  this  float  pulls  very  gently, 
until  the  animal's  head  appears  above  water  ;  then  a  shot,  directed  between  the 
head  and  neck,  breaks  the  spine,  and  renders  the  creature  powerless ;  after  which 
it  is  dragged  ashore,  and  the  tackling  recovered.     In  this  manner,  several  hun- 
dreds have  been  killed,  by  a  sportsman,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  in  one  district. 
Although  the  hard  and  irregular  surface  of  a  crocodile's  skin  is  apt  to  cause  a  ball 
to  glance  off,  yet  there  is  no  part  of  one  that  would  resist  an  ordinary  sized  ball  if 
properly  directed." — Pp.  274-5. 


CHAP.  IV. j   CROCODILES. SHELLS. INVERTEBRATED  ANIMALS.    755 

channel,  until  they  can  devour  it  piecemeal.  The  Ceylon  crocodile  differs  greatly 
from  the  Lacerta  Gangetica,  the  head  being  long  and  flat  towards  the  extremity 
of  the  jaws,  the  eyes  very  small,  and  so  placed  within  their  orbits,  that  the  outer 
part  when  shut,  is  not  above  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  parallel  with  the 
opening  of  the  jaws  ;  the  nose  is  directly  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw,  and 
about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  from  the  extremity  of  it ;  the  neck  is  carinated,  and 
both  the  head  and  back  are  covered  with  a  hard  coat ;  the  tail,  rough,  with  two 
lateral  crests  ;  but  the  belly  is  not  musket  proof.  The  size  of  the  crocodile  varies 
considerably ;  some  of  the  larger  size  reaching  seventeen  and  even  twenty  feet  in 
length,  while  others,  little  exceed  half  that  size.  Whatever  is  once  seized  by  the 
crocodile,  can  never  escape  ;  for  there  are  alternate  cavities  between  the  teeth  in 
both  jaws.  The  upper  jaw  has  upwards  of  thirty  sharp-pointed  teeth,  and  half 
that  number  of  a  smaller  size  in  the  lower.  The  crocodile  lays  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  eggs,  which  are  white,  and  of  the  size  of  a  goose's  egg,  but  more 
oblong  and  convex  at  the  extremities. 

Among  the  other  Singhalese  reptiles  may  be  specified,  Lacertee. — 
Argyrophis  Bramiciris.  —  Cabrita  Leschenaultii.  —  Siluboura  Cey- 
lonica.  —  Hemidactylus  Leschenaultii.  —  Hemidactylus  frenatus. — 
Lyriocephalus  scutatus. — Ceratophora  Stoddartii,  Calotes  versicolor. 
Among  the  Batrachia  are  Epicrimn  glutinosum,  Tree-frogs  (Hyli),  &c. 

Ceylon  turtle,  or  Hawk's-bill  (Testudo  Imbricata),  Lili-kas-hewa, 
Singh. — Green  turtle,  (Testudo  Mydas),  or  Gal-kas-hewa,  Shigh. 
— Fresh  water  turtle,  or  Kiri-ba.  —  Two  species  of  Tortoise,  Testudo 
stellata  and  Emys  Seba. 

Great  varieties  of  Shells  are  to  be  obtained  in  Ceylon,  but  they 
principally  belong  to  the  following  Linnpean  and  Lamarckian  genera  : 
— Anomia,  Area,  Buccinum,  Bulla,  Cardium,  Chama,  Chione,  Caro- 
colla,  Carinaria,  Cerithium,  Columbella,  Conus,  Cyprsea,  Dentalium, 
Donax,  Glycimeris,  Harpa,  Haliotis,  Helix,  Mya,  Mactra,  Murex, 
Mytilus,  Nautilus,  Nerita,  Ostrea,  Pholas,  Pinna,  Pleurotoma,  Ptero- 
ceras,  Sufula,  Solen,  Strombus,  Spondylus,  Tellina,  Teredo,  Turbo, 
Trochus,  Venus,  Voluta. 

Ceylon  is  equally  rich  in  the  Invertebrated  animals.  Among  the 
Ceylonese  Coleoptera  are  many  fine  species  of  Cicindelas  (Tiger 
Beetles.) — Colliuris. — Tricondyla. — Physodera. — Helluo,  &c. 

Elateridse  of  the  genera  Campsosternus  Templetonii,  Westw.  me- 
tallic green. — Alaus  sordidus,  Westw.  and  other  species. 

Buprestidse  of  the  genera  Sternocera. — Chrysochroa.1 — Chrysos- 
dema. — Belionota. 

Cetoniadse  of  the  genera  Coryphocera. — Agestrata.  —  Clinteria. — 
Macronota. — Tseniodera. — Protsetia. 

Brentidse  and  Curculionida3. — Taphroderes.  —  Hypomeces. — Ca- 
landra. 

Longicorns  of  the  genera  Trictenotoma  Templetonii,  Westw. — 
Hamaticherus. — Cerambyx  Telephoroides,  Westw. 


1  So  rich,  splendid,  and  various  are  the  beetles  of  Ceylon,  that  they  have  been 
used  in  the  decorations  of  ladies'  dresses,  and  with  their  many  twinkling  rays 
have  added  such  a  lustre  to  the  garment  to  which  they  have  been  attached,  as  to 
excite  universal  admiration.  The  firefly,  of  Ceylon,  is  a  species  of  beetle  (Lam- 
pyris),  which  emits  a  light  scarcely  inferior  to  that  (if  heaven  in  brilliance.  It  is 
found  everywhere  in  the  interior.  Mure  than  one  instance  lias  occurred,  where 
the  eccentric  motions  of  this  insect,  from  being  mistaken  for  the  flickering  of  a 
more  regular  light,  has  led  to  accidents. 

3  c  2 


756  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

Chrysomelidse  of  the  genera  Eumolpus,  Chrysochus,  &c. 

Among  the  Lepidoptera,  are  the  following  :  — 

Papilionid.e  : — Ornithoptera  Haliphron,  Boisd?—  PapilioPolym- 
nestor,  Fab. — P.  Ohio,  Fab. —  P.  Helenus,  Linn.  —  P.  Temple- 
toni,  Boubleday. — P.  Agamemnon,  Linn.  —  P.  Eurypilus,  Linn. — 
P.  Sarpedon,  Linn.  ? — P.  Epius,  Linn. — P.  Polydorus  F.—P.  Hector, 
Linn. — P.  Mutius,  Fab. — P.  Pammon,  Linn. — P.  Dissimilis,  Linn. 

Piebid.e: — Pontia  Nina,  (Fab.)  —  Pieris  Eucharis,  (Drury.) — 
—P.  Valeria,  {Cram.)— P.  Phryne,  (Fab.)— P.  Paulina,  (God.)  — 
P.  Sererina,  (Cram.),  and  2  new  species. — Iphias  Glaucippe,  (Linn.) 
— Idmais,n.  sp. — Thestias  Pirene,  (Linn.)  —  T.Mariamne,  (Cram.)  — 
Terias  Hecahe,  (Linn.,)  and  1  new  species.— Callidryas  Hilaria, 
(Cram.)-C.  Alcmeone,   (Fab.)  —  C.  Pyranthe,  (Linn.) 

Danaid^:  :  — Euplcea  Prothoe,  Boisd. — E.  Cora,  (Fab.)— E.  Mi- 
damns,  (Linn.),  and  2  new  species.  —  Danais  Chrysippus,  (Linn.) — 
D.  Plexippus,  (Linn.) — Hestia  Lynceus,  (Drury.) — H.  Jasonia, 
(]Jrestwood.) 

KcKMLDm  : — Acrsea  Violse,  Fab. 

Nymphalid^e  : — Cethosia,  and  1  new  species. — Argynnis  Niphe, 
(Linn.)  -A.  Phalanta,  (Fab.) — A.  Erymanthis,  (Fab.),  and  1  new 
species. — Vanessa  Asterie,  (Linn.) — P.  (Enone,  (Linn.) — P.  Orithyia, 
(Linn.) — P.  Callirhoe,  Iliibn. — P.  Cardui,  (Linn.) — P.  Charonia, 
(Cram.) — P.  Lemonias,  (Linn.)  —  P.  Laomedia,  (Linn.) — Salamis 
Iphita,  (Fab.),  and  1  new  species. — Cynthia  Arsinoe,  Fab. — Minetra 
Gambrisius,  (Fab.) — Limenitis  Aceris,  (Fab.)  L.  heliodora,  (Fab.) — 
L.  Procris,  (Fab.) — Diadema  Bolina,  (Linn.) — D.  Auge,  (Cra?n.)  — 
Adolias,  and  3  new  species.  — Charaxes  Bernhardus,  (Fab.) — C. 
Paphon,  (Westw.) — Amathusia  Philarchus,  (Westw.) 

Satyrid.e  : — Hipparchia,  3  new  species,  Leda  (Linn.) — Satyrus 
Chenu  (Guerin.) — Libytheid^  :  Lybithea,  1  new  species. — Bib- 
lid^e.  Ergolis,  1  new  species. — E.  ariadne,  (Linn.)  —  E.  coryta, 
(Cratn.)  —  Melanitis  undularis,  (Fab.)  —  LYCiENiD.E  :  Emesis,  new 
species,  Loxura  Atymnus,  Horsf. — Polyommatus  Nyseus,  Guerin. — 
Rosimon.— Ethion,  9  new  species.  —  Nila,  1  new  species. — Thecla, 
Jarbas  and  Forbes,  7  new  species. — Narada,  Horsf.  8  new  species. 
— Amblypodia  Hercules,  Klug,  2  new  species. — Loxura. — Hespe- 
ria,  13  new  species. 

SpHiNGiDiE  : — Sphinx  Nessus,  Cram.  Fab. — Nerii,  Linn.  2  new 
species. — Morpheus,  var  ? — Dyras,  Bdw. — Casuarina,  var.  —  Actseus, 
var.  no  specimen. —  Norma. — Lycetas,  Cram.  —  Celerio,  Linn. — 
Thyclia,  Linn.  1  new  specimen,  Vigil.  Guer.  —  Convolvuli,  Linn. — ■ 
Acherontia  Satanas,  Bdw. — Macroglossus  passalus,  and  one  new 
species. — Sesia  Hylas,  Linn. — Deilephila  Cyrene,  Westw.  C.  O.  E. 
t.  6.  f.  1. — Bombycid.e  : — Limacodes  graciosa,  Westw.  Cab.  Ore. 
Ert.  t.  24.  f.  1.— L.  laeta,  Westw.  p.  50. 

There  are  three  or  four  distinct  species  of  Bees  in  Ceylon.  The  wax 
contains  no  elements  of  acidity  like  the  wax  of  Europe  ;  one  of  these 
is  the  carpenter  bee  (Xylocopa).  There  is  also  the  carpenter  wasp, 
a  species  of  Eumenes. 

-The  cockroach  (Blatta  orientalis.)     The  black-footed  bug  (Cata- 


CHAP.  IV.]  COLEOPTERA,    LEPIDOPTERA,    MYRIAPODA.  7b7 

cantlins  nigripes)  and  C.  aurantius.  The  green  bug  (Cimex  viridis), 
Cicada,  and  other  species  of  Hemiptera,  abound.  The  mosquito 
(Culex  molestus)  is  as  troublesome  in  Ceylon  as  elsewhere.  The 
dragon-fly  is  here  magnificent. 

The  white  ant  (Termes  fatale,  Linn.)  is  one  of  the  greatest  pests 
in  the  island,  and  will  devour  or  undermine  almost  any  article  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact,  the  greatest  vigilance  is  therefore  neces- 
sary, or  the  most  fatal  consequences  may  ensue,  buildings  have 
been  known  to  have  been  overthrown  from  their  foundations,  and 
what  would  almost  appear  impervious  to  their  approach  has  even- 
tually yielded.  The  myriads  of  this  insect  that  acquire  wings  and  take 
flight  after  rains,  are  beyond  all  calculation  ;  for  attracted  by  the 
lights,  open  or  latticed  windows,  afford  no  obstruction  to  the  irruption 
of  their  overwhelming  hordes. 

The  nest  of  the  white  ant  is  called  "  old  boiled  rice"  by  the  natives, 
it  is  a  curious  substance,  reminding  one  of  the  honey  comb,  but 
crumbles  to  pieces  on  the  slightest  touch. 

The  Mygale  has  legs,  four  inches  in  length,  and  the  body  is 
covered  with  thick  black  hair.  It  is  said  to  form  a  web  strong 
enough  to  entangle  the  smaller  species  of  birds  on  which  it  feeds, 
but  this  opinion  is  thought  to  be  exaggerated.  The  long  bodied 
spider  (Tetragnatha)  is  also  found. 

Ticks  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  dry  parts  of  Ceylon. 

They  are  one  of  the  greatest  torments  within  the  tropics,  completely  overspread- 
ing a  person,  and  biting-  him  most  pertinaciously.  They  are  banded  together  in 
lumps,  containing-  several  thousand,  and  remain  attached  to  some  leaf,  which,  if 
touched  by  an  unwary  passenger,  discharges  a  shower  of  these  pestilent  vermin, 
which  prick  like  red-hot  needles,  and  cause  intolerable  itching.  Ticks  are  in 
general  about  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  are  round,  hard,  flat,  and  adhere  to  the 
skin  of  men  or  animals,  into  which  they  introduce  themselves,  disregarding  all 
attempts  to  kill  or  remove  them. 

Among  its  Myriapoda  are  species  of  the 

Genus  Cermatia.  IlUger,  C.  nobilis,  Templeton,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.  Vol.  iii. 
1843;  C.  dispar.  Temp.  Myriapoda  of  Ceylon,  (privately  printed,  Ceylon). — 
Lithobius,  Leach,  L.  umbratilis,  Temp.  id. — Scolopexdra,  Linn.  S.  crassa, 
Temp.  id. ;  S.  subspinipes ;  S.  pallipes,  Temp.  id.  ;  S.  tuberculidens,  Newport, 
An.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  xiii. ;  S.  Ceylonensis,  Newp.  Lin.  Trans,  xix.  ;  S.  flava, 
Newp.  Lin.  Trans,  xix. ;  S.  trigonopoda,  'Templeton,  not  Leach  ;  S.  olivacea,  Temp. 
loc.  cit.  ;  S.  brevis,  Temp.  id. — S.  abdominalis,  Temp.  id.  ;  S.  morsitans  is  not 
uncommon,  and  when  it  rains,  issues  from  its  place  of  concealment  and  creeps  in 
shoals  into  the  houses  where  doors  are  open. — Cryptops,  Leach,  C.  sordidus, 
Temp.  id. ;  C.  assimilis,  Temp.  id. — Heterostoma,  Newport,  II.  spinosa,  Newp. 
Lin.  Trans,  xix. — Geophilus,  Leach,  G.  triangularis,  Temp.  loc.  cit. ;  G.  specio- 
sus,  Temp.  id. — Zephroxia,  Gray,  Z.  conspicua,  Temp.  id.  ;  Z.  nigra,  Temp.  id. 
— Z.  hirsute,  Temp.  id.  —  Cambala,  G-ray,  C.  catemdata,  Temp.  loc.  cit. — 
Polytu.smi  s,  Latreille,  P.  granulatus,  Temp. id. — Craspedosoma,  Leach,  C 
juloides,  Temp.  loc.  cit.;  C  praeusta,  Temp.  loc.  cit. — Julus,  Linnaeus,  J.  ater, 
Temp.  id. ;  J.  dorsalis,  Temp.  id.  ;  J.  pallipes,  Temp,  id.;  J.  flaviceps,  Temp.  id.  ; 
J.  pallidus,  Temp.  id. 

Phe  Centipedes  are  common  ;  the  bite  is  unpleasant,  but  not  dangerous.  The 
black  scorpion  (Scorpio  ater)  emits  a  severe  sting-,  but  not  dangerous  to  persons 
iu  good  health.     Brown  scorpion  (Scorpio  australis)  is  also  found  here. 

Crustacea. — Crayfish.—  Prawns. — Crabs,  Soldier  Crab.  —Shrimp 
(Cancer  fulgens,  Linn.) 

Among  the  Leeches  are  the  Land  leech  (Ilirudo  Zeylanica.) 

This  small  but  troublesome  animal,  which  abounds  in  every  uncultivated 
place  where   there  is  long   grass,  but   chiefly  in  such  parts   of  the  interior  as 


758  CEYLON.  [fart  it. 

are  exempt  from  a  continuance  of  dry  weather,  the  excessive  heat  and  drought 
of  the  maritime  districts,  and  the  cold  of  the  mountains  being  alike  uncongenial 
to  its  taste,  is  one  of  the  greatest  pests  in  Ceylon,  as  they  will  ferociously  fasten 
themselves  on  the  feet,  hands,  and  even  neck.  The  wounds  caused  by  them 
will  be  irritated,  if  they  are  plucked  off  too  forcibly  or  suddenly ;  touching  them 
with  brandy,  or  even  salt,  gunpowder  or  lime  juice  will  quickly  remove  them. 
These  vermin  are  of  a  brown  colour,  their  ordinary  size  is  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  they  can,  however,  stretch 
themselves  to  two  inches  in  length,  and  are  then  sufficiently  small  to  pass  through 
the  stitches  of  a  stocking.  They  move  quickly,  are  difficult  to  kill,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  turn  them  from  their  bloody  purpose ;  for  while  in  the  act  of  pulling 
them  from  the  legs,  they  will  cling  to  the  hands,  and  fix  immediately  on  touching 
the  skin  :  they  draw  a  great  deal  of  blood,  which,  with  considerable  itching  and 
sometimes  slight  inflammation,  is  the  chief  annoyance  their  bites  give  to  a  man  in 
good  health,  but  animals  which  are  less  able  to  resist  their  attack,  suffer  more 
severely,  and  sheep  will  not  thrive  where  they  are  found.  In  cases,  where  there 
is  a  bad  habit  of  body,  or  a  debilitated  constitution,  which  cannot  afford  to  lose 
blood,  leech  bites  will  frequently  fester,  become  sores,  and  even  degenerate  into 
ulcers,  that  in  some  instances  have  occasioned  the  loss  of  limb,  and  even  of  life. 
Several  of  the  troops  both  native  and  foreign,  who  served  in  the  late  war,  were  placed 
hors-de-combat,  in  this  manner,  and  in  many  cases,  it  was  found  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  amputation.  Lime  juice,  vinegar,  acids,  or  stimulants,  will  remove  the 
itching  of  leech  bites  and  prevent  ulceration,  but  prevention  being,  in  all  cases, 
better  than  cure,  the  traveller,  &c.  should  provide  himself  with  leech  gaiters  or 
nankeen  pantaloons,  with  feet  attached,  which  should  be  made  with  well  joined 
seams,  and  to  tie  round  the  waist. 

Indigenous  Plants1  of  Ceylon  according  to  Linnean  arrangement. 

Class  1.  MONANDRIA.  Order  Monogynia  ;  Of  the  Cannece  are  Canna 
indica  (But-sarana),  C.  coccinea  (Wagapul-but-sarana),  C.  lutea  (Kaha-but 
sarana) ;  Maranta  paniculata  (Gseta-oluwa),  M.  spicata  (Hulan-keeriya). — Of 
the  Scitaminece ;  Hedychium  coronarium  (Ela-mal)  ;  Globba  racemosa,  a 
deciduous  herbaceous  plant,  perennial,  ornamental,  with  yellow  flowers  ;  Alpinia 
allughas    (Alu-gas),  A.   Galanga  (Ma-kaluwala),  A.   sericea   (Ran-keeriya),    A. 

1  Ceylon  is  particularly  distinguished  by  the  rich  varieties  of  its  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  the  natives  have  evinced  greater  industry  in  the  cultivation  of  this 
branch  of  knowledge,  upon  principles  of  their  own,  than  in  any  other  department 
of  natural  philosophy.  One  object  of  attraction,  the  medicinal  properties  of  their 
plants,  has  no  doubt  been  the  stimulus  to  exertion,  and  has  had  the  effect  of 
making  almost  every  native  in  some  degree  acquainted  with  the  botanical  theories 
of  his  own  country.  Besides  which,  native  authors,  in  every  species  of  composi- 
tion, have  given  force  and  beauty  to  their  writings  by  a  constant  allusion  to  this 
delightful  science :  historians,  mythologists,  moralists,  and  poets  have  each  laid 
the  vegetable  world  under  contribution  for  some  of  their  most  impressive  and 
instructive  figures.  It  is  supposed  that  the  Singhalese  once  had  a  complete 
system  of  Botanical  arrangement,  but  it  no  longer  remains,  the  uses  of  the  diffe- 
rent parts  of  a  flower  being  their  only  knowledge.  The  flowers  of  Monaecious 
plants  they  divide  into  Nikan-mal  or  useless  flower,  and  Gedi-mal  or  fruit  flower, 
and  Dnecious  plants  into  Mal-gaha  or  flower  tree,  and  Gedi-gaha  or  fruit  tree. 
Their  present  division  of  genera  approaches  more  nearly  to  a  natural  arrangement 
by  families ;  thus  the  grasses  are  included  under  the  genus  Tana ;  the  esculent 
greens,  under  Paid ;  the  edible  roots,  under  Ala ;  and  the  mosses  under  Pasi. 
There  are,  however,  exceptions  ;  thus,  Ktebella  coincides  with  the  Linnaean  divi- 
sion of  Agyneia  ;  Tolabo  with  Crinum  ;  Puwak  with  Areka  ;  Bowitiya  with  Me- 
lastoma,  &c.  Generally  speaking,  the  Singhalese  names  of  plants  indicate  their 
qualities,  as  Rat-mul,  red  root  ;  Kiriwa-l,  milky  creeper  ;  Kotala-mal,  jug  flower, 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  corolla  to  a  jug,  and  from  Wila  marsh  or  tank,  a 
large  genus  that  delights  in  such  situations.  One  proof  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  Singhalese  have  kept  exotic  plants  distinct  from  indigenous,  is  the  con- 
stant prefix  of  Rata  (foreign)  to  the  former. 


CHAP.  IV.]    CRUSTACEA,  LEECHES,  ETC. — INDIGENOUS  PLANTS.     759 

calcarata  (Kaeti-keeriya)  ;  Zingiber  Zerumbet  (Wal-inguru),  Z.  purpureum 
(Ratu-wal-inguru),  Z.  cylindricum  (Heen-ratu-wal-inguru)  ;  Costus  speciosus 
(Tebu-gas)  ;  Ksempferia  rotunda  (Sau-kenda),  Amomum  villosum  (Heen-niya- 
dandu),  A.  echinatum  (Boo-keeriya)  ;  Curcuma longa  ( Haran-kaha),  C.  zedoaria 
(Wal-kaha) ;  Phrynium  capitatum  (iEt-baemi-keeriya). — Of  C/ienopodece,  Sali- 
cornia  indica. — Of  the  Nyctayinee  are  Boerhaavia  glutinosa  (Pita-sudu-paki). 

Class  2.  DIANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  the  Jasminecp  are  Nycran- 
thes  arbor-tristis(Sepala-gaha)  ;  Jasminum  pubescens  (Boo-pichcha),  J.  undu- 
latum  (Wal-gata-pichcha),  J.  angustifolium  (Wal-saman  pichcha),  J.  auriculatum, 
J.  azoricum  (Wal-pichcha),  J.  grandiflorum  (Saman-pichcha).  The  Jasminum 
zeylanicum  is  an  ornamental  evergreen,  climber,  six  feet  high  with  white  flowers. — 
Of  the  OleincB  are  Linociera  cotinifolia  (Heen-geri-seta),  L.  purpurea  (Geri- 
ceta). — Of  the  Acanthaceee  are  with  anthers  simple,  Justicia  Ecbolium  (Kawu- 
tumba),  J.  paniculata  (Heen-bin-kohomba),  J.  echioides  (Ha-kan),  J.  viscosa; 
with  anthers  double,  corolla  bilabiate,  J.  nasuta  (Anitta),  J,  bivalvis  (Ayiyapana), 
J.  bycalyculata  (Maha-nelu)  ;  anthers  double,  corolla  ringent,  J.  adhatoda1 
Adatoda),  J.  gendarussa  (Kalu-waeraniya),  J.  betonica  (Sudu-puruk-gas),  J. 
moretiana,  J.  repens  (Sulunayi),  J.  procumbens  (Manayi),  J.  pectinata.  J. 
purpurea,  J.  sanguinolenta  ;  Calyx  single,  corolla  nearly  equal,  J.  montana  (heen- 
nelu) ;  Elytraria  crenata  (Wabset-adiya)  E.  lyrata  (Heen-aet-adiya). — Of  the 
Verbenacece  are,  Stachytarpheta  indica  (nil-nakuta),  S.  urticifolia. — Of  the 
Lentibularice  are,  Utricularia  vulgaris  (Kaha-mal-diya-pasi),  U.  stellaris(Baru- 
diya-pasi),  U.  coerulea  (Nil-monarsessa ),  U.  bifida  (Kaha-indinnaru),  U.  uli- 
ginosa  (Nil-indinnaru),  U.  nivea  (Sudu-indinnaru). —  Of  the  Scrophularince,  are 
Gratiola  lobelioides.  G.  veronicifolia  (Kana-kok-wila),  G.  ciliata  (Dati-wila),  G 
Monnieria  (Lunu-wila),  G.  rotundifolia,  G.  lucida,  G.  parviflora  (Bin-wila),  G. 
integrifolia,  G.  oppositifolia  (Dara-wila),  G.  trifida  (Ela-rat-wila)  G.  tenui- 
folia  (Heen-wila),  G.  cordifolia,    (Handa-pat-wila),  G.  grandiflora  (RaSwila),  G. 

hyssopioides,  G.  juncea  (Bin-sawan). Or.  2.   Digynia  — Of  Graminece,  are 

Anthoxanthum  indicum  (Heen-pini-baru),  A.  Avenaceum  (Pini-baru-tana).  Or.  3. 
Trigynia. — Of  the  Piperacece  are  Piper  sylvestre  (Wal-gam-miris)  P.  malamiris 
(Mala-miris),  P.  longum  (Tippili),  P.  difFusum  (Wal-tippili),  P.  subpeltatum 
(Mala-labu ),  and  several  varieties  of  P.  betel. 

Class  3.  TRIANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  the  Valerianea,  are  Vale- 
riana villosa(Heen-kapuru). — Of  Olacinece,  Olax  zeylanica  (Maella),  O.  scandens  ; 
Fissilia  Psittacorum.—  OiAcerinep,  Hippocratea  indica,  H.viridiflora(Diya-kirindi). 
— Of  the  CommelinecE,  are  Commelina  paludosa  (Gira-pala),  C.  cuculata  (Diya-me- 
neriya),  C.  nudiflora,  C.  diffusa  I  Tana-pahl). — Of  the  Juncece,  are  Xyris  indica(Ran- 
mota). — Of  the  Cyperacece,  are  Schamus  Bobartite  (Is-gedi-tana),  S.  nemorum 
(Goda-hiri) ;  Rhynchospora  aurea;  Scirpus  (with  spikes, single,  terminal)  pygmseus 
(Heenkola-gaeta-pan),  S.  polytrichioides(Goda-gseta-boru-pan),  S.  fluitans  (Len- 
dititana),  S.  atropurpureus  (Heen-gasta-pan),  S.  capitatus  (Ela-g(Eta-boru-pan),  S. 
plantagineus(Boru-  pan),  S. spiralis,  (Kamaranga-pan,)  S  nutans  (Goma-talu-tana) ; 
with  umbels  lateral,  S.  lateralis  (Gajta-  pan),  S.supinus  (Mooda-ga3ta-pan),  S.arti- 
culatus  (Maha-ga3ta-pan),S.  squarrosus(Heen-wa;li-gata-pan),  S.  capillaris  (Kuru- 
mini  tana),  S.  glaucus  (Elu-boru-pan),  Umbels  terminal;  S.  glomeratus  (Ooru- 
hiri),  S.  globosus  (Hal-pan),  S.  arvensis,  S.  miliaceus  (Moodu-hal-pan),  S.  quad- 
ratus(Dara-hal-pan),S.  dichotomus,  S.  ciliaris,  (Palu-tana),  S.  aestivalis, S.cinnamo- 
metorum  ;  Cyperus  arenarius  (Moodu-kalanduru),  C.  kyllinga?oides  (Wel-set- 
kahinduru'),  C.  pygmoaus  (Heen-wel-oet-kalanduru),  C.  Haspan.  C.  pumilus 
(G6-hiri)  C.  rotundus  (kahinduru),  C.  Pangorsei,  C.  canescens  (Ela-hiri)  C. 
Santonici  (Wel-tun-hiri),  C.  iria  (Wel-hirij,  C.  umbellatus  (Na?ndun-hiri) ; 
Mariscuspaniceus(Wel-mal-kalanduru),  M.  umbellatus  (Ma-wal-mal-kalanduru), 
M.  Cyi>erinus  (Goda-wal-mal-kahinduru)  ;  Kyllingia  monocephala  (Sudu-mottu- 
tana),  K.  brevifolia  (Amu-mottu-tana),  K.  triceps. — Of  the  Graminece,  are  Pom- 
mereulla  cornucopia  ;  Cenchrus  muricatus.  Or.  2.  Digynia.  Of  the  Graminea 
are  Saccharum  spontaneum  (Nala-tana),  S.  damonum   (Rambuk-gas),   S.    muti- 

1  The  Singhalese  attribute  to  this  plant  the  imaginary  power  of  attracting  the 
foetus. 


760  CEYLON.  [PART  IV. 

cum  (Wal-stewandara),  S.  cylindricum  (Iluk-tana)  ;  Perotis  latifolia  (Ela- 
balal-tana)  ;  Leersia  ciliata  (Wenu-tana)  ;  Paspalum  scrobiculatum  (Wal-amoo); 
Panicum  (with  spikes  simple),  polystachyon  (Balu-tana)  P.  helvolum  (Rat-wal- 
kawudu),  P.  muticum  (Eeti-tana)  ;  with  spikes  alternate,  secund  P.  brizoides  (Ha- 
tana),  P.  fluitans  (Wal-bada-amu),  P.  flavidum  (Heen-wal-maraku),  P.  colonum 
(Heen-maruku),  P.  cruscorvi  (Wel-niaruku),  P.  compositum.  Spikes  alternate, 
scattered,  P.  aristatum  (Ratu-bata-tana),  P.  paspaloides  (Wal-bin-amu),  P. 
grossarium  (Sudu-bata-tana),  P.  elatius  (Beru-tana).  Spikes  fascicled,  P. 
cimicinum  (Boo-deni-tana)  ;  Panicled,  P.  Ischeemoides  (/Etora-tana),  P.  mili- 
aceum  (Wal-meneri) ,  P.  arborescens  (Nala-gas),  P.  curvatum,  P. trigonum  (Deni- 
tana),  P.  repens  (Bata-daella),  P.  brevifolium.  P.  contractual.  P.  patens  (Wal- 
tana),  P.  plicatum  (Rasli-tana),  P.  hirsutum  (Boo-bata-dnella) ;  Digitaria  umbrosa, 
D.  ciliaris  (Boo-tut-tiri),  D.  linearis  (Hee-tana) ;  D.  longiflora  (Heen-konteru),  D. 
distachya  (Konteru) ;  Milium  ramosum  (Heen-kurulu-tana) ;  Agrostis  panicea 
Boo-balu-tana)  A.  diandra  (Gawara-tana) ;  Melica  nervosa  (G6-tana),  M.barbata; 
Poa  bifaria(Karalkuru-tana),P.  Cynosuroides(idal-kuru-tana),  P.amabilis  (Kooni- 
tana).  P.  chinensis,  P.  tenella  (Heen-ela-balal-tana)„'P.  reclinata  (Mal-aatora- 
taua),  P.  glaucoides  (Ela-kuru-tana)  ;  Eleusine  coracana  (kurukkan,  five 
varieties),  E.  cegyptia  (Putu-tana)  E.indica  (Wal-mal-Kurukkan)  ;  Avena  sativa. 
Aristida-setacea  (iEt-tuttiri) ;  A.  biflora  (Pini-tuttiri),  A.  biaristata  (Ooru-tuttiri)  ; 
Rottbcellia  thomsea  (Bin-puruk-tana),  R.  compressa  (Puruk-tana),  R.  muricata 
(Gona-puruk-tana) ;  Orthopogon  compositus,  uninteresting,  apetalous.  Or.  3. 
Trigynia. — Of  the  Eriocaulece,  are  Eriocaulon  quinquangulare  (kok-mota),  E. 
sexangulare  (Heen-kok-mota),  E.  setaceum  (Penda-kok-mota). — Of  the  Cary- 
ophylloce,  are  Mollugo  oppositifolia,  M.  stricta,  M.  pentaphylla  (Telika-pala)  M. 
spergula  (Andahera). 

Class  4.  TETRANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  the  Rubiacece,  are 
Hedyotis  fruticosa  (Wseraniya),  H.  auricularia  (Ma-boo-gseta-kola),  H.  racemosa 
(Paepiliya).  H.  maritima  (Moodu-bfcmi-tiriya),  H.  pumila  (Wel-kawudu-dala), 
H.  diffusa  (CEmbul-pala),  H.  herbacea,  H.  setacea,  (Nil-w8eli-wa3nna),  H.  gramini- 
folia  (Nil-kawudu-dala),  H.  stricta  (Ma-kawudu-dala)  ;  Spermacoce  hispida 
(Heen-moodu-gata-kola),  S.  scabra  (Gfeta-kola)  ;  Hydrophylax  maritima 
(Moodu-gaBta-kola),  Knoxia  zeylanica  (Ela-rat-mul),  K.  corymbosa  (Kayippu- 
gas),  Oldenlandia,  verticillata  (Ul-wseraniya),  O.  depressa,  O.  biflora  (Heen- 
kawudu-dala),  O.  pentandra,  O.  umbellata  ;  (Sayan-mul),  Rubia  secunda  (Manda 
mandina  wsela) ;  Ixora  coccinea  (Ratambalii)j  three  varieties,  I.  parviflora 
(Ma-ratambala),  I.  alba  (Sudu-ratambala) ,  I.  latifolia  (Ma-pat-ela-ratambala)  ; 
Pavetta  indica  (P;iwatt;i). — Of  Verbenacece,  Callicarpa  lanata. — Of  Gentianea, 
Exacum  pedunculatum,  E.  sessile,  E.  diffusum,  E.  heteroclitum,  E.  connatum. — 
Of  Plantaginece,  Plantago  asiatica- — Of  Sarmentacece,  Cissus  vitiginea  (Ma-to- 
wsella),  C.  suberosa  (Wal-to-wajlla),  C.  latifolia  (Wal-diya-labu),  C.  verrucosa 
(Wad-maediya),  C.  villosa  (Boo-wal-wa?l-midi),  C.  repanda  (Heen-to-wiella), 
C.  quadrangularis  (Wsel.-heerBessa),  C.  dentata,  C.  crenata  (Wal-gonika),  C. 
carnosa  (Wal-rat-diya-labu),  C.  pedata  (Tun-angilla) ;  Samara  laeta  (Kora- 
kaha). — Of  Terebintacece,  are  Fagara  triphylla  (Lunu-an-kenda) — Of  Incerta, 
are  Monetia  barlerioides  (Katu-niyada). — Of  Qnayrarice,  are  Ludwigia  oppositi- 
folia.— Of  Salicarice,  are  Ammannia  octandra,  A.  baccitera,  A  debilis. — Of 
Urticece,  are  Dorstenia  radiata. — Of  Aroidece,  are  Pothos  scandens  (Potse),  P.  el- 
Uptica  (CEt-potaj). — Of  Eleagnece,  are  Elxjagnus  latifolia  (Katu-cembilla). — Of 
Santalacece,  are  Santalum  album  (Rat-kikiri). — Of  Daphne a,  Cansiera  scandens 
(GStta-mura).  Or.  2.  Digynia. — Of  Convolvulacece,  are  Cuscuta  reflexa  (Kaha- 
aga-mula-na3ti-w3sla).  Or.  4.  Tetragynia. — Of  Borayinea,  are  Coldenia  pro- 
cumbens.  —  Of  Alismace<e,  are  Potamogeton  lateralis  (Mal-kekatiya) . 

Class  5.  PENTANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.  Of  Rubiacea  are  Canthium 
parviflorum  (Kara-gaba)  ;  Nauclea  orientalis  (^Embul-bak-mee),  N.  macrophylla 
(Kana-bak-mee),  N.  parvifolia  (Hadamba),  N.  cordifolia  (Kolong-gaha),  N.tri- 
flora  ;  Psychotria  asiatica,  P.  scandens  (Wal-gonika),  P.  herbacea  (Agukarni)  ; 
Dentella  repens  (Pati-aemiya)  ;  Coffea  triflora  (Gas-pichclia)  ;  Morinda  umbellata, 
M.  citrifolia  (Ahu-gaha),  M.  scandens  (Ma-kiri-waela)  ;  Mussaenda  frondosa. — Of 
Boraginece  are  Heliotropium  indicum  (Ek-SEetiya),H.  parviflorum, H.  Zeylanicum, 


CHAP.  IV.]  INDIGENOUS  PLANTS.  761 

H.  persicum  (Ayirawana)  ;  Cynoglossum  decurrens  ?  (Goda-katu-handa),  C.  ova- 
tum  (Boo-katu-handa)  ;  Borago  indica,  B.  Zeylanica  (You-tumba)  ;  Tournefortia 
argentea  (Garan-gaha)  ;  Anchusa   tenella,  a  plant  with  white  flowers.      Of  Pri- 
mulaceae,  Cyclamen  indicum  (Oorala). — Of  Gentianece,  Meuyanthes  indica  (Ma- 
yembala),   M.    cristata  (Heen-sembala),   M.  biflora   (Renu-olu),   M.  campestris 
(Bin-olu). — Of  PrimidacecByHottoma.  indica  ;  Anagallis  esculenta  (kakkutu-pala), 
— Of Plumbagineee  are  Plumbago  zeylanica  (Ela-nitol),  P.  rosea  (Rat-nitol). — Of 
Convolvidacece,  there  are  of  the  twining  species,   Convolvulus   marginatus  (Potu- 
pala),C.  medius  (Heen-madu),  C.  tridentatus  (Hawari-madu),  C.  obscurus  (Boo- 
tael-kola),  C.  flavus  (Kaha-tad-kola),  C.  Batatas  (Batala),  five  arieties,  C.  maxi- 
mus  (Rasa-tsel-kola),  C.  triflorus  (Apasu  madu),  C.  bifidus  (maha-madu),  C.  ma- 
labaricus  (Boo-wasa-tsel-kola),  C.  anceps,  C.  turpethum  (Trasta-walu),  C.  gran- 
diflorus  (Alanga),   C.   speciosus    (Ela-wadla),  C.   nervosus    (Heen-dumuda),   C. 
paniculatus   (Ha-angilla) ;   Stem  prostrate  or  not  twining';  C.  repens  (Bin-tam- 
buru),  two  varieties,   C.  reptans  (Kankun),  C.  pes  caprse  (Moodu-bin-tamburu), 
Ipomaea  bona  nox  (Kalu- alanga),  I.   campanulata  (Ma-handa),  I.  bepaticifolia 
(Nil-diwi-pahuu),    I.  pes  tigridis   (Sudu-diwi-pahuru),  I.  Zeylanica  (Giritilla),  I. 
scabra    (Boo-giritilla). — Of  Campanulacece,    Campanula   zeylanica ;    Sphenoclea 
zeylanica    (Maha-muda-mahana)  ;    Lobelia   zeylanica  (Peti-wila),   L.   aromatica 
(Rasnee-gaha). — Of   Goodenovice,    Sca?vola    lobelia   (M;i-takkada),  S.   kcenigii 
(Heen-takkada). — Of  Solanecs  are  Datura  fastuosa(Kalu-attana),  two  varieties,  D. 
metel    (Sudu-attana) ;    Solandra    oppositifolia    (/Etamburu) ;    Physalis   flexuosa 
(Amukkara),   P.  angulata  (Ma-mottu),  P.  minima  ( Heen-mottu ) ;   Solanum  ver- 
bascifolium  (Hsekarilla),  S.  nodiflorum,  S.  nigrum  (Kaen-we-riya),  two  varieties; 
S.    melongena    (Wam-batu),    four  varieties,  S.  incanum    (Katu-wam-batu),   S. 
ferox  (Mala-batu),  S.  jacquini  (Katu-wsnl-batu),  S.  indicum  (Tib-batu),  S.  sodo- 
meum  (Kara-batu),  S.  trilobarum  (Wael-tib-batu),  S.giganteum  (Gona-tib-batu); 
Capsicum  annuum,  two  varieties ;  C.  grossum,  C.  frutescens,  three  varieties,  C. 
minimum.     I  am  unable  to  say  whether  this  genus  is  indigenous  to  Ceylon.     Of 
Apocynece  are  Strychnos  Nux  vomica  (Goda-kaduru),  S.  potatorum  (Ingini),   S. 
colubrina,  S.    biennis  (^Eta-kirindi),   S.  recurva    (Katu-kmndi)  ;    Fagrtea  zey- 
lanica; Carissa  carandas  (Ma-karamba),  C.  spinarum  (Heen-karamba). — Of  Myr- 
sinece  are  Ardisia  humilis  (Lunu-dan),   A.  solanacea  (Balu-dan),    A.  longifolia 
(Ma-balu-dan). — Of  Gentianece   are  Chh-onia   trinervia  (Gini-hiriya).     Of  Cor- 
diacece,  Cordia  myxa  (Lolvi) ;  Ehretia  aspera,    E.  laivis,  E.  buxifoUa  (Heen-tam- 
bala). — Of  Sapotea>,  Bumelia  octandra  (Koska'tiya). — Of  Rhamni,  Elueodendrum 
glaucum    (Bat-hik)  ;    Zizyphus  lineata,    Z.  Napeca  (Ma-eraminiya),    Z.  jujuba 
(Ilanda),   Z.  ^Enoplia  (Heen-eraminiya),  Z.  rotundifolia,  Z.  lucida,  Z.  spinosa  ; 
Celastrus  emarginatus  (Katu-pila) ;  Evonymus  zeylanicus  ;  Ceanothus  zejdanicus, 
C.  asiaticus  (Tel-hiriya) ;  Ventilago  madraspatana  (Kola-wakka)- — q$  Solanacece, 
Scopolia  aculeata  (Kudu-miris). — Of  Ochnacece,  are  Walkeria  serrata  (Bo-ksera). 
— Of  Terebintacece,  are  Mangifera  indica  (ffitamba),  eleven  varieties. — Of  Grossu- 
lacea,   Ribes  serratum  (Mseti-bembiya), — Of  Myrsinacece,  are  ^Egiceras  major 
(Heen-kadol),  M.  minor  (Wanda-kilala) ;  Embelia  paniculata(Wa3l-a9mbilla),   E. 
robusta. — Of  Violacece,  are  Viola  enneasperma  (Heen-yotu-waenna),  V.  suffruticosa 
(Ma-yotu-wsenna),  V.  hastata,  V.  crenata. — OiBalmminea,  are  with  one  flowered 
peduncles,  Balsamina  cornuta  ;  Impatiens  latifolia  (Ratu-kudalu),  I.  oppositifolia 
(Heen-wel-kudalu),  with  many  flowered  peduncles,   I.  triflora  (Wel-kudalu),   I. 
biglandulosa,   I.  repens  (Gal-demata),   I.  bulbosa  (Ala-kudalu),   I.  serrata. — Of 
Meliacece,  are  Leea  sambucina  (Bur-ulla). — Of  Caprifoliacea',  Hederaterebinthi- 
nacea  (Ma-itta-wajla),  H.  emarginata  (Heen-itta-wala). — Of  Viniferce,  Vitis  in- 
dica.— Of  Amaranthacem,  Achyranthes  aspera  (Gas-karal-sa;b6,  three  varieties,  A. 
lappaoea  (Mielkaral-sajbo),  A.  prostrata  (Bin-karal-ssebo),  A.  echinata,  A.  muri- 
cata,  A.  angustifolia,  A.  corynibosa,  A.  diandra  ;  Celosia  albida  (Kiri-hsenda),  C. 
argentea,  C.  cristata  (Kukulu-karal-mal),  two  varieties,  C.  corymDosa (Sudu-waeli- 
wsenna),  ('.  Nodiflora  (Weni-wtella) ;  Illecebium  lanatum  (Pol-kudu-pala)  I.  ja- 
vanicum,  I.  sessile   (Mukimu-wsenna). — Of  Rubiacece,  Gardenia  gummifera,  G. 
uliginosa  (.l'A-kukuru-mim),  G.  dametorum  (Wseli-kukuru-man).    G.  fra 
(.NLigeta-kulu),  G.  micranthus  ;  Webera  corymbosa!  Md-tarana),  W,cerifera(La- 
kada-tarana),  W.  lucida  (Ma-stru),  W.  lanceolata^Gal-s'ru),  W.  internodis  (Heen- 


762  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

seru). — Of  Apocynece,  Cerbera  manghas  (Gon-kaduru),  C.  parviflora  (Moodu- 
kaduru)  ;  Vinca  rosea  (Woeli-wara),  three  varieties ;  Nerium  odorum,  five 
varieties,  N.  zeylanicum  (Sudu-iddu),  N.  divaricatum  ;  Wrightia  antidysenterica  ; 
Echites  fragrans  (Boo-wal-anguna ),  E.  laevigata  (Wal-anguna),  E.  scholaris 
(Ruk-attana),  E.  lanceolata  (Kiri-walla)  ;  Ichnocarpus  frutescens  (Heen-kiri- 
wsela),  I.  paniculata  (Gerandi-dool)  ;  Plumeria  acuminata  (Alariya)  ;  Cameraria 
zeylanica  (Patta- walla),  C.  oppositifolia  (Gas-muediya)  ;  Taberna.-Montana  dicho- 
toma  (Divi-kaduru),  T.  coronaria  (Watu-sudda) ,  three  varieties.  Of  Par onychiea, 
are  Lahaya  corymbosa,  a  curious  under  shrub  with  white  flowers.  Or.  2.  Digynia. 
— Of  Asclepiadece,  are  Stapelia  adscendens  (Heen-gal-heersessa),  S.  umbel- 
lata  (Ma-gal-Heeraessa) ;  Periploca  esculenta,  P.  sylvestris ;  Hemidesmus1  indicus 
(Irimusu),  three  varieties;  Sarcostemma  viminale  (Muwa-keeriya) ;  Da>niia 
reticulata;  Calotropis  gigantea  (Moodu-warii);  Gomphocarpus  volubihs  (Maeda- 
kangu)  ;  Asclepias  lactifera,  Asclepias  maculata  (Ma-pat-anguna)  ;  A.  Gigantea? 
Marsdenia  asthmatica  (Boo-hangulu),  M.  vomitoria  (Kiri-hangulu),  M.  tena- 
cisshna  (muruwa-dool)  ;  Hoyacarnosa  (Kiri-gonika),  H.  viridiflora  (Kiri-anguna), 
H.  alexicaca  (Kan-kumbala),  H.  hirsuta  (Bin-nuga),  H.  reticulata  (Wal-anguna), 
H.  parviflora  (Heen-aramaessa) ;  Ceropegia  candelabrum  (Wsel-mottu),  C.  tube- 
rosa, C.  biflora,  C.  juncea ;  Gymnema2  Sylvestre,  eight  feet  high,  with  green 
flowers,  G.  lactiferum,  G.  asthmaticum,  G.  alexiaca. — Of  Chenopodece,  Salsola 
nudiflora,  S.  indica. — Of  Amaranthacem,  Gomphrena  Globosa  (Raja-pohottu), 
three  varieties. — Of  Ulmaceee,  are  Ulmus  integrifolia  (Dada-hirilla). — Of  Con- 
volvulacece,  Hydrolea  zeylanica  (Diya-kirilla. — Of  Umbelliferce,  Hydrocotyle 
asiatica  (Heen-gotu-kola),  H.  capitata  (Ma-gotu-kola)  ;  Bupleurum  nervosum 
(Wal-eenduru)  ;  Sium  lobatum  (Peti-kapuru),  S.  triternatum  (Wal-assam6da- 
gan).  Or.  3.  Trigynia. — Of  Portidacece,3  Tamarix  indica.  Of  Caryophyllece, 
Pharnaceum  Mollugo  (Heen  telika-pala),  P.  Distichum,  P.  triflora  (Pat-pada- 
gan),  Alsine  nervosa  (Kukulu-paki),  three  species  of  Basella,  rubra,  alba, 
cordifolia.  Or.  5.  Pentagynia. — Of  Convolvulacece ,  Evolvulus  alsinoides, 
E.  hirsutus  (Wisnu-kranti),  E.  capitatus.  Of  Droseracece,  Drosera  Burmanni 
(Wata-ressa),  D.  indica  (Kandu-lessa),  D.  lanata.  Of  Portulacece,  Gisekia 
pharnacioides  (iEti-rilla-pala). 

Class  6.  HEXANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia. — Of  Musacea,  Musa  paradi- 
siaca  (Anawalu-kesel),  several  varieties;  M.  sapientum  (Kesel),  nearly  thirty 
varieties  of  this  species  are  either  indigenous  or  cultivated ;  M.  rosacea,  four 
varieties  cultivated  ;  M.  troglodytarum  (Nawari-kesel),  four  varieties ;  M.  superba. 
— Of  CommelinecB,  Tradescantia  cristata(Bol-hinda),  three  varieties  ;  T.  axillaris, 
T.  paniculata  (Wal-diya-meneri),  T.  tuberosa,  T.  malabarica ;  Pontederia 
vaginalis  (Diya-habarala),  P.  hastata  (Diya-beraliya),  Cyanotis  cristata,  a  bien- 
nial, blue  flowers.  —  Of  Amaryllidece,  Pancratium  zeylanicum  (Wal-loonu)  ; 
Crinum  zeylanicum,  C.  asiaticum  (Heen-tolabo),  C.  Toxi-carum  (Ma-tolabo)  ; 
Amaryllis  zeylanica  (Goda-manel) ;  Burmannia  disticha  (Ma-diya-jawala),  B. 
triflora  (Heen  diya  jawala).  —  Of  Liliacea,  Gloriosa  superba  (Niya-gala). — 
Of  Asphodelecs,  Anthericum  Japonicum  (Goda-wilanda-waenna),  A.  tube- 
rosum; Asparagus  falcatus  (Hata-wariya),  A.  sarmentosus ;  Dracaena  termina- 
lis  (Wsedi-kok-gaha) ;  Dianella  ensifolia  (Ma-monara-patan),  D.  graminifolia 
(Heen-monara-patan). — Of  Hypoxidece,  Curculigo  recurvata(Waga-pol),  C.  lati- 
folia  (Heen-bin-tal),  C.  angustifolia  (Boo-bin-tal),  C.  pauciflora  (Ma-bin-tal). — 
Of  Hemerocallidea,  Sanseviera  zeylanica  (Ma-niyanda) ;  Polyanthes  tuberosa,  three 
varieties. — Of  Aroidece,  Acorus    calamus  (Wada-kaha).  —  Of  Palmce,  Corypha 


1  Th.  ijfMKTvg  and  StafioQ  bondage,  in  allusion  to  the  incomplete  coherence  of 
the  anthers  with  the  stigma,  by  which  the  genus  is  chiefly  distinguished  from 
Periploca. 

2  The  yvfivog,  naked,  and  v?ifiu,  a  thread,  or  in  botanical  language,  stamen, 
in  allusion  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  latter.  The  milk  of  one  species  is 
used  instead  of  the  vaccine  ichor,  and  the  leaves  are  employed  in  sauces  instead  of 
cream. 

3  Roots  venomous.  Plant,  beautiful,  so  called  from  its  poison  being  as  potent 
as  that  of  the  Naga. 


CHAP.  IV.]  INDIGENOUS    PLANTS.  763 

umbraculifera  (Tala-gaha) ;  Calamus  rotang  (Heen-we-wsela),  C.  verus  (Tam- 
botu-we-wcela),  C.  niger  (Kukulu-we-waela),  C.  rudentum  (Ma-we-wsela). — Of 
Loranthea:,  Loi-anthus  biflorus,  L.  bicolor,  L.  longiflorus,  L.  elasticus,  L.  loni- 
ceroides,  L.  pubescens,  L.  incanus,  L.  spatulatus. — Of  Graminece,  Bambusa  arun- 
dinacea  (Una-lee),  three  varieties,  B.  spinosa  (Katu-una-lee),  B.  stridula  (Bata-lee). 
Or.  2.  Digynia. — Paddy,  Ooru-wee  (Oryza  sativa,  Linn.);  akuramba, pointed ;  an- 
garaeli, horny-plaited ;  Amba,  Mango ;  kahat a, astringent ;  yEndi-gam,  iEndi  -village ; 

jEL,orHvEL, ■,JEndi-gam,JEndi-village;  cernbala,  acid;  Indi,Date;  Indi-pat, 

Date-leaved;  Ooru,Piy's;  kamburu, brown;  kara, saltish;  kalu,  black;  kalu-kara, 
black  sea-coast ;  kaha,  yellow ;  kahata,  astringent ;  kiri,  milky ;  kiri-baru,  milky  - 
pendulous;  kilulpat,  kitul-leaved ;  kudu,  bent ;  kuru,  short ;  kurulu,  Bird's ;  kot, 
spiked;  komadu,  melon ;  kali, ,•  yana-kudu,  thick-skinned ;  yal-bada,  rocky- 
bank ;  Girdtudu,  Parrot-beaked;  Gurulu,  hawk;  tatu,  winged;  tat u-pat,winyed- 
-leaved;  Tala-mal,  Sesamum-flower ;  tulunu,  sharp;  Del-pat,  Del-leaved ;  Diwa, 
sacred;  Diwa-rdja,  sacred  king's  ;  doluwa,  watercourse  ;  do,  shining  ;  do -tea  - 
tuwa,    shininy    snipes;    Nala,    reed;     Nala-mal,    Reed-flowered ;     Nuya-pat, 

Banyan-leaved;  pat,  leafy ;  piinna, ;  pot,  spotted ;  Pol,  cocoa-nut ;  Poson, 

June;  batu,  round;  baru,  pendulous ;  mada,mud:  ma,  yreat ;  md-pat,  great- 
leaved ;  Mee-pat,  Bassia-leaved ;  Moodu-kiri,  sea-milky;  Monara,  Peacock's ; 
M6-pat,  soft  leaved;  Radd,  washerman's;  rat,  red;  rat-kara,  red  sea- 
coast;  rat-tatu,  red-winy ed ;  rat-pat,  red-leaved ;  Rdwana,  Rdwan's ;  Ruwan, 

yolden  ;  Lena,  squirrels ;    Watuwd,  snipe's ;  wanyu,  hooked ;  san-kunda, ; 

Saman,  Saman's;  Sani,  duny  ;  sihin,  fine ;  sudu,  white  ;  sudu-kiri,  white-milky ; 

sudu-mee-pat,  white  bassia  leaved;  suwanda,  fray  rant ;  hdti, ;  hdl,  rice; 

hanati,  fine-stemmed  ■  yEn  or  ^Eliya, — white;  Kaka-pot,  yellow -husked ;  yal- 
bada,  rocky -bank ;  tisald,  three-anyled ;  Ndla,  reed;  Ndran,  orange  ;  bara-pot, 
heavy -spotted ;  bdla-mee-pat,  early  bassia-leaved ;  md,  yreat ;  Mee-pat,  Bassia- 
leaved;  mora-kain,  mora-cluster :  rat-pat,  red-leaved ;  ha:l,rice;  Uankuli, ■ 

Ooru,  Pigs  ;   Kachchipota, ;  kalu,  black  ;  kahata,  astringent ;  kunda, ; 

kalu,  black;  rat,  red;  Kumara,  Prince's;  kalu,  black;  sudu,  white;  kumba, 
pot;  kiri,  milky;  rat,  red;  kuru,  dwarf;  ata,  arm;  paya,foot;  maha,  yreat  ,- 

kurumba,  tender  cocoa-nut ;  giri, ;  kurulu,  birds ;  kurulu-tudu,  Bird's  beak; 

kot-wila,  spiked-marsh;  kalu,  black;  sudu,  white ;  komadu,  melon  ;  kolo, ; 

kos-aeta,  jack  seed  ;  kalu,  black  ;  sudu,  white ;  kohu,  coir  ;  galpa,  rock-bank  ;  gini- 

ratna,  fire-red  ;    giris, ;    Gurulu,  hawks  ;    tulunga,  sharp  ;  dak,  beautiful ; 

danahala,  alms  ;  kalu,  black ;  sudu,  white ;  dena,  meadow;  dewaraeddiri,  sacred 
two-cropped:  kohu,  fibrous  ,-  doluwa,  watercourse;  md,  great;  Niiran,  orange ; 

kiri,  milky;    kotti,   ;    Maha,  yreat,    nsehunseti,    sprigless ;    pat,   leaved; 

kitul,  kitul ;  Del,  bread  fruit ;  Mee,  Bassia  ;  bula-mee,  early  Bassia ;  Hinyul, 

;  patu,   flat;   pannati,  leafless;   kalu,  black;    sudu,  white;   podi,  small; 

pola, ;   Poson,  June  ;    Balal-wane,  Cat's  hard  ;    mala-wariya  ;   ma,  great ; 

kalu,  black;  kaha,  yellow;  kuru,  dwarf;  yoda,  land;  bdla,  early;  maha, 
great;  rat-kunda,red ;  sudu,  white  ,•  Muttses,  Pearl ;  maha,  yreat ;  sudu,  white; 

Muruna,  Murunas  ;  Mookala,  late  or  forest ;  yal, ;  kara,  sea-coast :  batu- 

kiri,  round-milky  ;  maha-kiri,  yreat-milky ;  moodukiri,  sea-milky  ;  hati, ; 

rata,   foreign  ;   Rada,  washerman's ;  Raja,  king's  ;  Rawana,   Rawana's ;  rayana, 

:  ruwan,  golden  ;  Lena,  squirrel's  ;  wangu,  hooked  ;  watuwa,  snipe's  ;  walu, 

Plantain;  yoda-honara,  land;  td,  ;  poo,  flower ;  madata,  mud;  Honara, 

;  we-kola,  Rattan-leafed  ;  sani,  dung  ;  sihin,  fine;  sudu,  white  ;  hdl,  rice; 

suwanda,  fragrant;  handiran,  jointed-gold  ;  kalu,  black;  kahata,  astrinyent; 
rata,  foreign;  sudu,  white;  kal,  rice;  heenati,  fine-stemmed;  kalu,  black; 
gam-bada,  village-border ;  podi,  small ;  Hunu,  Chunam ;  kaha-pat-teli,  yellow- 
leaved  white  ;  kalu-honarawalu,  black  ;  sudu-heenati,  white,  fine  stemmed  ;  sudu- 
honarawalu,  white  ;  heen-honarawalu,  fine  ;  Kurukkan,  Coracan  ;  karal,  podded  ; 
kiri,  milky  ;  kumburu,  mud  ;  pas-mas,  five  months  ;  mookalan,  forest ;  wal-mal, 
wild-flowered  ;  hanahu,  sheathed  ;  ha-mas,  six  months  ;  Imetada,  sixty  days  ;  kalu, 
black;  kobo,  large.  Or.  3.  Trigynia. — Of  Polyyonre,  Rumex  vesicarius  (Soori). 
— Of  Jitucea  ,  Flagellaria  indica  (Goyi-wa?l),  three  varieties.  Or.  6.  Hexagynia. 
Of  Alismaceee,  Damasonium  indicum. 

(.lass  7.    HEPTANDKIA.    Or.  1.    Monogvnia. — Of  Legumtnosic,  Jonesia 


764  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

pinnata  (Diya-rat-mal). — Of  Aroidete,  Dracontium  polyphyllum  (Kana-kidaran), 
D.  spinosum  (Ma-kohila),  D.  pertusum  (Nil-waella),  D.  pinnatifidum  (Dada- 
kehel). 

Class  8.  OCTANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  Melastomacea; ;  Osbeckia 
zeylanica,  O.  crenata. — Of  Combretacccr,  Combretum  decandrum  (Hara-palanda). 
—  Of  Malpighiacerz,  Vitmannia  elliptica  (Samadara). — Of  Sapindaceee ;  Ornitro- 
phe  serrata  (Moodu-kobbap),  O.  Cobbe  (Boo-kobbte),  O.  allophylus ;  Dimocarpus 
pupilla  (Rasa-mora) ;  Molinsea  canescens ;  Melicocca  trijuga,  evergreen  tree,  twenty 
feet  high — Of  Sapotew,  Mimusops  Elengi  (Moona-mal),  M.  kauki,  M.  hexandra 
(Palu-gaha). — Of  Salicarice,  Grislea  tomentosa ;  Lawsonia  inermis  (Maritondi) ; 
L.  spinosa. — Of  Terebintacecc,  Jambolifera  pedunculata  (An-ksenda) ;  Amyris 
zeylanica  (wseta-hik-gaha),  A.  agallocha  (Gugul),  Balsamodendrum  zeylanicum, 
medicinal  evergreen  tree,  thirty  feet  high. — Of  Rutacees,  Cyminosma  pedunculata 
(On-solu). — Of  SantalacetB,  Memecylon  capitellatum  (Waelikaha)  ;  M.  tinctorium 
(Daedi-kaha),  M.  edule.  Or.  3.  Trigynia. — Of  Polygonece,  Polygonum  bar- 
batum  (Ratu-kimbul-wamna),  P.  tomentosum  (Sudu-kimbul-wsenna),  P.  chinense 
(Meean-wsela),  P.  recurvum  (Patul-wtenna). — Of  Sapindacecz,  Cardiospermum 
Halicacabum  (Wsel-penela)  ;  Sapindus  laurifolius ;  S.  emarginatus  (Gas-penela.) 
Of  Crassulacecs,  Calanchoe  laciniata  (Kaha-akka-pana),  C.  pinnata  (Ratu-akka- 
pana) . 

Class  9.  ENNEANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia. — Of  Laurince,  Laivrus  Cin- 
namomum  (Kurundu),  four  varieties,  L.  Cuhlaban  (Wal-kurundu),  L.  cassia 
(Dawul-kurundu)  ;  Cassyta  filiformis  (Nil-aga-mula-noeti-waela).  —  Of  Terebin- 
tacem,  are  Anacardium  occidentale  (Watu-kaju)  ;  Oi Laurince,  Tetranthera  apetala 
(As-bombi),  T.  caidiflora  (Rat-koehya). 

Class  10.  DECANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia. — Of  LeguminostP,  Sophora 
tomentosa  (Moodu-murunga),  S.  heptaphylla ;  Bauhinia  parviflora  (Mayila),  B. 
purpurea(Kobo-neela),  three  varieties;  B.  acuminata  (Sudu-kob6-neela),B.  tomen- 
tosa (Petan),  three  varieties  ;  Cynometra  cauliflora  (Namnam),  C.  ramiflora  (Gal- 
msendora)  ;  Cassia  absus  (Boo-tora),  C.  Tagera  (Poeni-tora),  C.  Sophera  (Ooru- 
tora),  C.  Tora  (Peti-tora),  C.  glauca  (Wal-aehsela),  C.  Sumatrana  (Aramana), 
C.  debilis(O-mara),  C.  alata  (iEt-tora),  C.  auriculata  (Rana-wara),  C.  mimosoides 
(Heen-bin-siyambala) ;  Cathartocarpus  fistula  (JLhada-gaha),  C.  rosea  (Wa-gaha) ; 
Poinciana  elata ;  P.  pulcherrima  (monara-mal),  two  varieties  ;  Csesalpinia  mimo- 
soides (Goda-wawul-aBtiya),  C.  sappan  (Patangee),  three  varieties;  Guilandina 
Bonduc  (Kalu-wawul-setiya),G.  Bonducella  (Wavl-kumburu),  G.  paniculata  (Diya- 
wawul-aatiya  ;  Hyperanthera  moringa  ;  Adenanthera  pavonina  (Madatiya-mara), 
A.  bicolor  (mas-moru)  ;  Prosopis  spicigera. — Of  Oclinacece,  Gomphia  zeylanica, 
an  evergreen  shrub,  four  feet  high,  with  yellow  flowers. — Of  Malpighiacece  (Puwak- 
gediya-wa?la).  —  Of  Aurantiacece,  are  Murraya  exotica  ( iEtteriya) ;  Limonia 
(spiny)  monophylla  (yaki-naran)  ;  L.  citrifolia  (Gas-pamburu),  L.  scandens  (katu- 
-balu-diwa),  L.  trifoliata  (Kasturi-dehi),  L.  cinnamomum  (Tun-pat-kurundu), 
L.  acidissima.  Unarmed,  L.  pentaphylla  (We-kurundu),  L.  arborea  (Heen- 
dodan-pana),  Bergera  Koenigii  (Watu-karajfincha).  —  Of  Meliaceee,  Swietenia 
febrifuga  (kokun),  S.  chloroxylon1  (Buruta)  ;  Melia  azedarach  (Lunu-midella),  M. 
azadirachta  (Margosa)  ;  M.  parviflora  (Hal-bembiya),  L.  pumila(Bin-kohomba.) — 
Of  Zygophyllere,  Tribulus  lanuginosus  (Sembu-nerenchi). — Of  Onagrarice,  are 
Jussieua  repens  (Beru-diya-nilla),  J.  tenella,  suffruticosa,  erecta,  villosa  and  par- 
viflora.— Of  Melastomacece ,  are  Melastoma  aspera  (Heen-bowitiya),  three  varieties, 
M.  mallbathrica  (Ma-bowitiya),  M.  repens  (Wsel-bowitiya),  M.  octandra,  M. 
buxifolia. —  Of  Rhodoracece,  are  Rhododendron  arboreum  (ma-rat-mal). — Of 
Ericece,  Andromeda  fiexuosa  (Wael-kapura) . — Of  Samydacece,  Casearia  ovata 
(Wal-moona-mal).  Or.  3.  Trigynia. — Of  Erythroxylece  are  Erythroxylon 
monogynum  (kukul-masssa),  E.  lucidum  (Bata-kirilla).  Or.  5.  Pentagynia. — 
Of  Terebintacece,  Averrhoa  Bilimbi  (Bilin),  A.  carambola  (Kamaranga)  ;  A. 
acida;   Spondias  mangifera  (^Eniba-'raella). — Of  Caryophyllece,  Bergia  verticillata 

1  The  satin  wood  is  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern  province.  In  appearance  the 
trunk  is  like  the  teak  :  the  wood  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  ornamental  furniture.  It 
is  of  a  beautiful  colour,  rather  yellow,  and  takes  a  fine  polish. 


CHAP.  IV.]  INDIGENOUS  PLANTS.  765 

Gseta-puruk-wila). — Of  Oxalidece,  Oxalis  repens  (Heen-cembuluebiliya),  O.  sen- 
sitiva  (Gas-nidi-kumba). 

Class  11.  DODECANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  Sapotea,  Bassia 
longifolia  (Tel-mee,  or  Ilipi),  B.  neriifolia  (Gan-mee),  B.  latifolia  (Kiri-hsem- 
biliya). — Of  Rkizophorete,  Rhizophora  gymnorhiza  (Rat-kadol),  R.  candel  (Ela- 
kadol),  R.  mangle  (Pat-kadol). —  Of  Guttiferce,  Garcinia  celebica,  G.  cambogia 
(Goraka),  four  varieties. — Of  Salicarice,  Pemphis  Acidula. — Of  Capparideee, 
Cratueva  tapia,  C.  religiosa  (Lunu-warna). — Of  Tiliacece,  Triumfetta  Bartramia 
(Heen-patta-sepala),  T.  annua  (Wiel-aepala. — Of  Portulacetz,  Portulaca  oleracea 
(Genda-kola) ,  three  varieties,  P.  quadrifida  (Heen-genda-kola),  P.  axillaris  (Heen- 
sarana).  Or.  2.  Digynia. — Of  Rosacea,  Agrimonia  zeylanica.  Or.  3.  Tri- 
gynia. — Of  Euphorbiacece,  E.  antiquorum  (Daluk),  E.  neriifolium  (Paluk),  E. 
Tirucalli  (Gas-nawa-bandi),  E.hirta  (Boo-dada-keeriya),  E.pilulifera  (Sudu-boo- 
dada-keeriya),  E.  thymifolia  (Bin-dada-keeriya),  three  varieties,  E.  parviflora 
(Ela-dada-keeriya),  E.  maritima  (Moodu-dada-keeriya).  Or.  4.  Tetragynia. 
— Of  Fluviales,  Aponogeton  rnonostachyon  (Kekatiya),  A.  crispum  (Kokatiya), 
an  aquatic  perennial,  flowers  white. 

Class  12.  ICOSANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  Cacti,  Cactus  pendulus 
(Wsel-nawa-handi). — Of  Myrtacece,  Psidium  pyriferum  (Sudu-pera),  P.  pomi- 
ferum  (Ratu-pera),  P.  pumilum  (Heen-pera) ;  Eugenia  malaccensis  (Watu- 
jambu),  E.  janibos  (Rata-jambu),  E.  sylvestris  (Wal-jambu),  E.  zeylanica  (Ma- 
tcembiliya),  E.  uniflora,  E.  parviflora  (Heen-taembiliya),  E.  laurina  (Bombu) ; 
E.  acutangula,  E.  racemosa,  Stravadia  alba  (Ela-midella),  S.  rubra  (Diya-midella), 
S.  integrifolia  (Godamidella)  ;  Myrtus  communis ;  M.  tomentosa  (Sudu-kotala), 
M.  zeylanica  (Goda-maranda),  M.  adrosaemoides ;  Calyptranthes  (Flowers  termi- 
nal), Jambolana  (Alu-bo-dan),  C.  cordifolia  (Panu-kaera) ,  C.  caryophyllata  (Gseta- 
dan) ;  2.  Flowers  lateral,  C.  cumini  (Ma-dan),  C.  caryophyllifolia  (Bata-domba) ; 
Scolopia  pusilla  (Katu-kui'undu),  Soneratia  acida  (Gedi  Kilala).  Or.  5.  Penta- 
gynia. — Of  Ficoidce,  Sesuvium  pedunculatum  (Ma-sarana). — Of  Rosacea,  Mes- 
pilus  japonica  (Lokwat).  Or.  10.  Poi/ygynia. — Of  Rosacea,  Rubus  parvifolius 
(Rodu-kaetambilla),  R.   paniculata  (Nara-boota>),  R.  moluccanus  (Wad-boots). 

Class  13.  POLYANDRIA.  Or.  1.  Monogynia.— Of  Aurantiacea,  iEgle 
Marmelos  (Beli),  three  varieties. — Of  Capparidea?,  Capparis  zeylanica ;  C.  hor- 
rida,  C.  parviflora,  C.  grandis. — Of  Paparveraceaj,  Argemone  mexicana. — Of 
Tiliacea,  Berria  ammonilla  (Hal-milla). — Of  Nympheacece,  Nymphsea  stellata 
(Tel-olu),  three  varieties;  N.Lotus  (iEt-olu),  three  varieties:  the  flowers  of 
this  plant  are  of  a  deep  rose  colour,  the  roots  are  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  the 
seeds  chewed  by  children.  —  Of  Bixinea>,  a  variety  of  Bixa  orellana.  —  Of 
Ochnacea,  Ochna  squarrosa  (Bo-ksera),  Vatcria  indica  (Hal.),  three  varieties. 
— Of  Guttiferce,  Calophyllum  inophyllum  (Teldomba),  C.  Calaba  (Greta-keena), 
C.  acuminatum  (Walu-keena). — Of  Tiliacece,  Grewia  orientalis  (Wcel-koeliya), 
G.  lasvigata  (Gas-kaaliya),  G.  asiatica  (Dawaniya),  G.  tiliaefolia  (Ma-pat-kteliya)  ; 
Corchorus  olitorius,  C.  acutangutus  (Jala-dara),  C.  capsularis,  Microcos  pani- 
culata (Kohu  kirilla)  ;  Dipterocarpus  turbinatus  (Hora-Gaha).  Or.  4.  Tetra- 
gynia.— Of  Dilleniacece  are  Delima  sarmentosa  (Korossa  wcela).  Or.  5. 
Pentagynia. —  Of  Dilleniacea,  Wormia  dentata,  ornamental  evergreen  tree, 
twenty  feet  high,  with  yellow  flowers.  Or.  10.  Polygy'nia. — Of  Dilleniaca, 
are  Dillenia  integra,  D.  speciosa  (Honda-para),  D.  retusa,  D.  dentata  (Goda- 
para),  D.  aquatica  (Diyapara). — Of  Magnoliacece,  Liriodendron  liliifera  (Halu- 
halhi)  ;  Michelia  graveolens  (Suwanda-sapu). —  Of  Nympheacece,  Nelumbium 
speciosum,  three  varieties  (nelun).  —  Of  Annonacea,  Uvaria  zeylanica  (Palu- 
-kaBn)  ;  Unona  tripetaloidea  (Naeta;wu),  U.  uncinata,  U.  esculenta  (Panubam- 
bara)  ;  Guatteria  suberosa  (Kalati),  G.  Korinti  (Mee-wa^nna),  G.  Montana,  G. 
dulcis  (Palu-weera),  G.  pumila  (Heen-kotahi)  ;  Annona  asiatica,  used  for  a 
red  dye. — Of  Ranunculacece ,  are  Naravelia  zeylanica  (Narawoela),  Ranunculus 
zeylanicus. 

Class  14.  DIDYNAMIA.  Or.  11.  Gymnospermia.— Of  Labiatcv,  Nepeta 
indica  (Ma-gal-kappra-walli) ;  Lavandula  carnosa  (Gal-kappra-waLli)  ;  Mentha 
auricularia  (Hajma-nilla),  M.  pcrilloides  (Gan-kollan-kola)  ;  Perilla  ocymoides  ? 
(Wal-kollan-kola),  Ballota  disticha  (Heen-yak-wanassa) ;   Leucas zeylanica  (Gaeta- 


766  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

tumba),  L.  indica  (Sudu-tumba),  L.  biflora;  Leonotis  nepetifolia  (Ma-yak-wa- 
anssa) ;  Ocymum  thyrsifolium, O.  gratissimum (Gas-taki),  O. minimum  (Heen-tala), 
O.  tenuiflorum,  O.  polystacbyon  (Karal-taki),  O.  mentboides,  O.  scutellarioides 
(Rat-taki)  ;  Plectrantbus  elongata  (Wal-kappra-walli) ;  Scutellaria  indica.  Or 
12.  Angiospermia. — Of  Scrophulariacece,  Rhinantbus  indicus ;  Gerardia  del- 
phinifolia  (Renu-heedilla),  another  species;  Torenia  asiatica  (Wael-kotala),  T. 
hirsuta,  T.  stricta ;  Stemodia  camphorata  (Gona-kola),  three  var.  ;  S.  lutea 
(Kaha-gona-kola)  ;  Buchnera  asiatica  (Sudu-dadinnaru) ,  B.  euphrasioides  (Da- 
dinnaru),  tliree  varieties. — Of  Pedalincc,  Martynia  lanceolata,  M.  nervosa,  M. 
crenata  ;  Sesamum  indicum  (Tun-pat-tala) ;  S.  orientale  ;  iEginetia  indica  ; 
Pedalium  murex  (JEt-nerenchi) .  —  Of  Biynoniacece,  are  Bignonia  chelonoides 
(Ela-palol},  B.  salina  (Lunu-madala)  ;  Spatbodea  longiflora  (Diya-danga) ;  S. 
indica  (Totilla). — Of  Verbenacece  are  Gmelina  asiatica  (Gseta-demata)  ;  G. 
arborea  (^Et-demata)  ;  Premna  integrifoha  (Ma-midi),  P.  serratifolia  (Heen- 
micb),  P.  tomentosa  (Boo-seru),  P.  villosa  (Lee-kola-pala),  P.  procumbens ; 
Zapania  nodiflora  (Hiramana-daetta)  ;  Volkameria  scandens ;  Clerodendrum 
infortunatum  (Gas-pinna),  C.  serratum  (Ken-hamda),  C.  phlomoides,  C.  inerme 
(Wsel-boo-haenda)  ;  Vitex  pubescens,  V.  altissima,  V.  Leucoxylon,  V.  trifolia 
(Meean-milila),  V.  negundo  (Sudu-nika),  V.  pinnata. — Of  Elceocarpacecv,  Diceros 
longifolius  (Gas-kotaki),  D.  aquaticus  (Rsewul-puruk-wila),  D.  paniculatus 
(Puruk-wila). — Of  Acanthacece,  Ruellia  fasciculata,  R.  undulata,  R.  ringens  (Nil 
paruk),  R.  zeylanica  (Dara-paruk),  three  varieties,  R.  variabilis  (Sudu-paruk) 
Barleria  longifoha  (Katu-ikiri),  B.  prionitis  (Katu-karandu),  B.  buxifolia  (Katu- 
nelu),  B.  cristata;  Thunbergia  fragrans  ;  Acanthus  maderaspatensis ;  DUivaria 
ilicifolia  (katu-ikili)  is  foundin  swampy  soil. 

Class  15.  TETRADYNAMIA.  Or.  14.  SiLiauosA.— Of  Capparidece,  Cleome 
heptaphylla,  C.  pentaphylla  (Awusada-wela-koku,  C.  icosandra  (Boo-wal-aba), 
C.  viscosa  (Wal-aba),  C.  dodecandra,  C.  febna,  C.  monophylla  (Ran-manissa), 
C.  zeylanica. 

Class  16.  MONADELPHIA.  Or.  17.  Triandria.  — •  Of  Leyuminosce, 
Tamarindus  indica  (Ma-siyambala).  —  Or.  19.  Pentandria.  —  Of  Byttne- 
riacecB,  Waltheria  indica  (Heen-sepala),  W.  angustifolia ;  Melochia  pyramidata, 
M.  concatenata  (Ma-gal-koora)  ;  M.  corchorifoba  (Heen-gal-koora.).  Or.  22. 
Octandria. — Of  Aroidece,  Pistia  stratiotes  (Diya-parandael).  Or  24. — Of 
Connaracece,  Connarus  asiaticus  (Ela-radaliya),  C.  pinnatus  (Ratu  radaliya), 
C.  santaloides  ( Goda-kirindi) .  Decandria. — Of  Chlenaceis  affines  ;  Hugonia 
mystax  (Ma-gsetiya) ,  H.  villosa  (Boo-gaetiya).  Of  Connaracece  are  Ompha- 
lobium  indicum,  an  evergreen  shrub,  eight  feet  high,  flowers  a  pale  red.  Of  Leg. 
pap.  Lot  gen  ;  Heylandia  Hebecarpa,  perennial  trailer,  flowers  yellow.  Of  Ley. 
Pap.  Hed.  Euh.  Zornia  diphylla,  Z.  Ceylonensis,  curious  annual,  flowers  yellow. 
Or.  25.  Dodecandria. — Of  Bombacece,  Hehcteres  Isora  (Leeniya-gaha).— Of 
Bytteneriacece,  are  Pentapetes  phcenicea,  Pterospermum  suberifolium  (Ma-we- 
langa),  P.  canescens.  Or.  27.  Polyandria. — Of  Bombacece,  are  Adansonia 
digitata;  Bombax1  pentandrum  (Pulun-imbul),  B.  Ceiba  (Katu-imbul),  B.  hep- 
taphyllum  (Ma-telambu),B.  Gossypinum  (Ela-imbul).  OiMyrtacece,  Barringtonia 
speciosa  (Moodilla). — Of  Malvacece  are  Sida acuta  (Gas-baewila),  S.  lanceolata  ;  S. 
spinosa;  S.  rhombifolia  (Koti-kan-bsewila),  S.  alnifolia  (Kirandi-beewila),  S.  peri- 
plocifolia  Wilwsera),  S.  persica  ?  (Boo-anoda),  S.  asiatica,  S.  populifolia  (Ma- 
anodu),  S.  hirta  (Wal-anoda),  S.  radicans  (Bin-aepala)  ;  Malva  tomentosa  ;  Urena 
lobata  (Patta-aepala)  ;  U.  tricuspis  (Boo-patta-sepala),  U.  sinuata  (Heen-patta- 
sepala) ;  U.  heterophylla  ;  Gossypium  indicum  (Sinhala-kapu),  Hibiscus  populneus 
(Sooriya-gaha),  H.tibaceus  (Beb-patta),  H.  rigidus  (Siri-wadi-baswila),  H.  ficul- 
neus  ;  H.  canna-binus  ;  H.  surattensis  (Napiritta),  three  varieties,  H.  Abelmoschus 
(Kapu-kinissa),  H.  truncatus,  H.  tubulosus,  H.  vitifolius  (Ma-sepala)  ;  Pavonia 
zeylanica  (Gasbaewila) ;  Mesua  ferrea  (Na-gaha). 

Class  17.  DIADELPHIA.     Or.  22.  Octandria.— Of  Polyyalece,  Polygala 


1  A  tree  growing  to  the  size  of  our  walnut,  bears  long  pods  filled  with  seeds, 
wrapped  in  a  fine  short  down  too  short  for  spinning,  but  serving  when  dressed  for 
stuffing  beds. 


CHAP.  IV.]  INDIGENOUS  PLANTS.  767 

theezans,  P.  triflora,  P.  glaucoides,  P.  ciliata.  Or.  24.  Decandria.  —  Of 
Legnminosa',  Dalbergia  arborea  (Magul-karanda),  D.  lanceolaria  (Nedun),  D. 
zeylanica,  D.  scandens  (Wsel-kalatiya),  D.  filiformis  (Bokala-wafla),  Pterocarpus 
bilobus  (Gan-malu),  P.  santalinus  ;  Abrus  precatorius  (Olinda),  four  varieties; 
Erytbrina  indica  (Wseta-erabodu),  E.  picta  (Yak-erabodu) ;  Butea  frondosa  (Gas- 
ksela),  B.  superba  (Wsel-kada)  ;  Aspalathus  indica;  Crotalaria  (with  leaves 
C.  micrantha,  C.  juncea  (hana),  simple,  linifolia;  C.  retusa  (Kaha-andana-hiriya), 
C.verrucosa  (Nil-andana-hiriya),  C.  biflora,  C.  Nana,  C.  nummularia,  C.  humifusa 
(leaves  compound),  C.  laburnifolia  ( Yak-beriya) ;  Pbaseolus  caracallafMoodu-mse), 
P.  trilobus  (Bin-ma;),  P.  radiatus  (Ulundu-mae)  ;  Dolichos  rotundifolius  (Wal- 
awara),  D.  virosus  (Moodu-awara),  D.  medicagineus  (Ma-wal-kollu),  D.  scara- 
bseoides  (Heen-wal-kollu) ;  Stizolobium  giganteum  (Kana-pus-wasla),  S.  pruriens1 
(Wsel-damaniya),  S.  rugosum  (Kapiri-pus-woela);  Glycine  tenuiflora,  G.  parviflora, 
G.  javanica,  G.  viscidum  (Gas-gonika);  Cylista  tomentosa  (Heen-goradiya),  C. 
esculenta  (Ma-goradiya)  ;  Clitoria  ternatea  (Katarodu),  three  varieties;  Lathyrus 
odoratus,  two  varieties  ;  Sesbania  aculeata ;  Smithia  sensitiva  ;  iEschynomene 
aspera  (Ma-diya-siyambala),  JE.  indica  (Heen-diya-siyambala),  J&.  pumila  (Bin- 
siyambala)  ;  Stylosanthus  mucronata ;  Hedysarum  (leaves  simple)  nummulari- 
folium,  H.  moniliferum,  H.  gangeticum,  H.maculatum,  H.  vaginale  (Aswaenna), 
H.  triquetrum  (Baloliya),  three  varieties:  leaves  conjugate,  H.  diphyllum,  H. 
conjugatum  :  leaves  ternate  ;  H.  pulchellum  (Ham-pilla),  H.  umbellatum,  H. 
biarticulatum  (Undu-piyali),  H.  heterocarpum  (vEt-undu-piyali),  H.  gyrans,  H. 
obtusum,  H.  capitatum  (Gas-lsetiya),  H.  heterophyllum  (Boo-undu-piyah)  ,  H. 
triflorum  (Heen-undu-piyali)  :  leaves  pinnate  ;  H.  sennoides;  Flemingia  lineata  ; 
F.  semialata  (Wal-undu),  F  strobilifera  (Ham-pinna),  F.  biflora  (Gas-kollu),  F. 
viscosa;  F.  polysperma  ;  Indigofera  cinerea  (Alu-awari),  I.  enneaphylla  (Bin- 
awari),  I.  glabra,  I.  hirsuta.  I.  tinctoria(Nil-awari),  I.  atropurpurea  (Ma-awari); 
Galega  villosa  (Boo-pila),  G.  maxima,  G.  purpurea  (Gam-pila).  G.  tinctoria  (Alu- 
pila),  G.  senticosa  ;  Psoralea  corylifolia;  Trifolium  indicum ;  Trigonella  indica. 
Of  Leg.  pap.  lied.  Cor.  Euh.  Desmodium  capitatum,  a  shrub  with  purple 
flowers.  Or.  27.  Polyandria — Of  Aurantiacece  are  Citrus  acida  (Delii),  three 
varieties  ;  C.  medica,  three  varieties  ;  C.  aurantium  (Dodan),  three  varieties  ;  C. 
nobilis  (Naran),  three  varieties;  C.  decumana  (Jamb61u),  four  varieties. — Of  Mal- 
vacece,  Durio  Zibethinus  (Katu-moda). — Of  Hyperacece.  Hypericum  Campestre 
(Sanda-raja),  H.  auritum  Ooru-kan),  H.  mysurense. 

Class  19.  SYNGENESIA.  Or.  30.  Polygamia  iEauALis.— Of  Composites 
Sonchus  oleraceus  ?  (Gal-potu-kola)  ;  Prenanthes  sarmentosa,  P.  sonchifolia  ; 
Vernonia  anthelmintica  (Sanni-nayan)  ;  Spilanthes  Pseudo-acmella  (Heen-ak- 
maella),  S.  acmella  (Ma-akma;lla)  ;  Bidens  chinensis  (Wal-te-kola)  ;  Lavenia 
erecta ;  Cacalia  sonchifolia  (Boo-kadu-para),  C.  sagittata  (Wal-kadu-para),  C. 
maritima  (Mudu-kadu-para),  C.  laciniata ;  Ethulia  divaricata  (Heen-muda- 
mahana)  ;  Mikania  tomentosa  (Wel-daha-wiya),  M.  volubilis  (Ma-kihimbiya)  ; 
Eupatorium  zeylanicum  (Wsel-pupula)  ;  Ageratum.  Or.  31.  Polygamia  su- 
perflua. —  Of  Composites,  are  Artemisia  indica  (Wal-kolondu),  A.  maderaspa- 
tana  (Wael-kolondu)  ;  Gnaphalium  indicum  (Ma-sudana)  ;  Baccharis  indica ; 
Conyza  balsamifera  (Le-wtersella),  C.  prolifera,  C.  cinerea  (Heen-monara-ku- 
dimbiya),  Inula  indica  ;  Tagetes  erecta,  two  varieties  (Yak-mal)  ;  Cotula  minima 
Heen-kimbu),  C.  bicolor  (Ma-kimbu)  ;  Eclipta  prosrrata  (Sudu-kirindi)  ;  Siges- 
beckia  orientalis  ;  Verbesina  biflora  (Moodu-gam-palu),  V.  calendulacea  (Ran- 
wan-keekirindiya),  V.  dichotoma  (Agada).  Or.  34.  Polygamia  segregata. — 
Of  Composite,  Elephantopus  scaber  (iEt-adiya) ,  Sphaeranthus  indicus  (iEt-muda- 
mahana). 

Class  20.  GYNANDRIA.  Or.  15.  Monandria.— Of  Orchidecc,  Orchis, 
viridiflora,  O.  cubitalis,  O.  strateumatica ;  Habenaria  undulata  (Sudu-goda- 
bindara) ;  Malaxis  Rheedii  ;  Geodorum  dilatatum  ;  Aerides  odoratum  ;  A.  tenui- 
folium  ;  Dendrobium  crumenatum  (Sudu-pareyiya-mal),  D.  macrostyachum,  a 
parasite  with  green  flowers,   Cymbidium  aloifolium   (Wisa-dooli) ,  C.  ovatum,  C. 

1  Pods  hairy,  attach  themselves  to  the  hands  and  cause  itching,  celebrated  as  a 
vermifuge. 


768  CEYLON.  [part   IV, 

prtemorsum,  C.  spatulatum  ;  Limodorum  virens  (Kcena-hilla),  L.  carinatum  ; 
Epidendrum  amabile:  Vanilla  aromatica  (Heen-nilwadla).  Or.  16.  Diandria. 
— Of  Stylidece ,  Stylidium  uliginosum.  Or.  20.  Hexandria. — Of  Aristolo- 
cJiice ;  Aristolochia  indica  (Sat-sanda). 

Class  21.  MONJ3CIA.  Or.  15.  Monandria.— Of  Fluviales ;  Caulinia 
indica  (Katu-penda);  Chara  zeylanica. — Of  Urticece;  Artocarpus  incisa  (Rata- 
del),  A.  pubescens  (Wal-del),  A.  integrifolia  (Heralee),  six  varieties.  Or.  16. 
Diandria. — Of  Aroidece ;  Lemna  minor  (Diya-panshi).  Or.  17.  Triandria. 
— Of  Aroidece;  Typha  latifolia  (Hambu-pan). — Of  Graminece,  Heteropogon 
hirfus  (Ee-tana)  ;  Coix  lacbryma  (Kirindi-mana). — Of  Cyperacece ;  Scleria  tesel- 
lata,  flowers  panicled  (Wel-karawu) ,  S.  hirsuta  (Boo-karawu),  S.  litbosperma, 
S.  zeylanica,  S.  majus,  S.  alata  (Goda-karawu),  S.  latifolia  (Ma-potu-pan) 
flowers  headed;  S.  stricta  (Baka-munu-tana),  S.  axillaris. — Of  Euphorbiacea ; 
Tragia  involucrata  (Wsel-kahambiliya),  T.  mercurialis  (Gas-kuppumeniya),  T. 
ckamselea. — Of  Laurince ;  Hernandia  sonora  (Palatu-gaha).  Or.  18.  Tetran- 
dria. — Of  Onagrarice ;  Serpicula  verticillata  (Katu-diya-pasi). — Of  Urticece  ; 
Bcehmeria  alienata,  B.  interrupta  (Gas-kahambiliya)  ;  Urtica  heterophylla  (Gseta- 
kahambiliyti),  U.  stimulans  (Ma-ussa),  U.  verrucosa  (Gas-dool),  U.  aquatica 
Ma-diya-dool),  U.  latifolia  (Moodu-ksenda).  Or.  19.  Pentandria. — Of  Com- 
posite ;  Xanthium  orientale  ? — Of  Cucurbitacece ;  Luffa  foetida  (Dara-woeta- 
kolu). — Of  Amarantacece  ;  Amarantbus  polygamus  (Sulu-koora-tampala),  A. 
polygonoides  (Koora-tam-pala),  A.  spinosus  (Katu-tam-pala).  Or.  20.  Hexan- 
dria.— Of  Rubiacece;  Guettarda  speciosa,  (Nil-picbcha). — Of  Palmce ;  Cocos 
nucifera  (Pol),  ten  varieties  ;  Elate  sylvestris  (Ma-indi).  Or.  27.  Polyandria. 
• — Of  Onagrarice ;  Myriophyllum  indicum. — Of  Alismacece ;  Sagittaria  obtusi- 
folia. — Of  Begoniacece  ;  Begonia  tenera  (Bin-hakambala),  B.  malabarica  (Ma-ha- 
kambala),  B.  rupestris  (Boo-hakambala). — Of  Aroidece,  Arum  pentaphyllum 
( Wal-kidaran) ,  A.  minutum  (Ati-udayan),  A.  Colocasia  (Gahala)  ten  varieties ; 
A.  macrorhizon  (Habarala),  five  varieties  ;  A.  divaricatum  (Polong-ala),  A.  trilo- 
batum  (Panu-ala),  A.  spirale,  A.  auriculatum,  A.  fcetidum  ?  Caladium  ovatum 
(Ma-ketala),  C.  nymphaeifolium  (Alu-habaralu). — Of  Palmce,  Caryota  urens  (Kit- 
tool),  three  varieties;  C.  horrida  (Katu-kittool),  C.  mitis  (D6-talu).  Or.  28. 
Monadelphia. — Of  Euphorbiacece,  Acalypha  betulina,  A.  indica  (Wsel-kup- 
pameniya),  A.  lanceolata  ;  Stillingia  populnea,  an  ornamental  tree,  fourteen  feet 
high,  with  yellow  flowers,  Croton  Tiglium  (Jaya-pala),  C.  coccineum,  C.  punc- 
tatum  (Gal-kseppetiya),  C.  aromaticum  (Gas-kseppetiya),  C.  lacciferum  (Wcel- 
kseppetiya),  C.  rhombifoUum  (Wal-kseppetiya),  C.  moluccanum  (Boo-koeuda)  ; 
Ricinus  communis  (Endaru),  two  varieties ;  R.  mappa  (Pat-ka?nda)  ;  Agyneia 
obliqua  (Ma-kajbella),  A.  multilocularis  (Heen-kaebella),  A.  latifolia  (Ma-pat- 
koebella)  ;  Sapium  indicum  (Msekiliya)  ;  Phyllanthus  maderaspatensis  ;  P.  stel- 
latus  (Diya-hunu-kirilla),  P.  pubescens  (Boo-hunu-kirilla),  P.  rhamnoides  (Gas- 
kayila),  P.  multiflorus  ( Wtel-kayila) ,  P.  Nh-uri  (Pita-wakka),  P.  urinaria  (Bin- 
nelli),  P.  emblica  (Awusada-nelli),  P.  pomacea  (Wal-murunga) ,  P.  myrtifolius. 
— Of  Palmce,  Areka  catechu  (Puwak),  three  varieties  ;  A.  Dicksonii,  or  sylves- 
tris, (Lenataeri-puwak)  ;  Nipa  fruticans  (Gin-pol). — Of  Cucurbitacece,  Tricho- 
santhes  anguina  (Podi-wilanga),  T.  caudata  (Patola),  T.  cucumerina  (Dum- 
meella),  three  varieties,  T.  incisa  ;  Momordica  charantia  (Karawila),  four  varie- 
ties ;  M.  muricata  (Batu-karawila),  M.  luffa  (Titta-waeta-kolu),  M.  cylindrica 
(Wseta-kolu) ,  four  varieties ;  M.  dioica  (Tumba  karawila) ,  Cucurbita  umbellata 
(Boo-dumma-lla),  Cucumis  maderaspatanus  (Kcekiri),  three  varieties  :  C.  Colocyn- 
this  (Yak-komadu)  ;  Bryonia  grandis  (Ken-ksekiri),  B.  umbellata  (Kawudu- 
kEekiri),  B.  cordifolia  (Heen-kaskiri),  B.  Garcini,  B.  laciniosa  (Gon-kcekiri),  B. 
palmata  (Tittahondala). — Of  the  Sterculiacece,  Heritiera  littoralis,  Sterculia  Bal- 
anghas  (Nawa-gaha),  S.  urens,  S.  fcetida  (Telambu-gaha). 

Class.  22.  DliECIA.  Or.  15.  Monandria. — Of  Pandanece,  are  Pandanus 
odoratissimus  (Wteta-keyiya),  P.  humilis  (Dunu-keyiya),  P.  fascicularis  Moodu- 
keyiya),  P.  pumila  (Heen-keyiyii),  P.  scandens  (Oya-  keyiya).  Or.  16.  Dian- 
dria.— Of  Hydrocharidece,  Vallisneria  octandra  (Diya-hawari).  Or.  17.  Trian- 
dria.— Of  Palmce,  Phoenix  farinifera  (Heen-indi).  Or.  18.  Tetrandria. — Of 
Rubiacece,  Trophis  aspera  (Gaeta-nitul),  T.  spinosa  (Katu-timbul). — Of  Loran- 


CHAP.    IV.]  INDIGENOUS    PLANTS.  76[) 

thece,  Viscum  orientale,  V.  compressum,  V.  tomentosum.    Or.  19.  Pentandria. 

— Of  Terebintacea,  Canarium  balsamiferum  (Mala-kaekuna).— Of  Antidesmece, 

Stilago  lanceolaria ;  Antidesma  alexiteria,  A.  zeylanica  (Walocmbilla),  A.  pubes- 

cens  (Boo-sembilla). — Of  Passiflorece,  Modecca  tuberosa  (Ala-hondala)  :  Zanonia 

indica  (Wal-rasa-kinda). — Of  Urticece,  Cannabis  sativa  (Mat-kansha).     Or.  20. 

Hexandria. — Of  Ebenacece,  Maba  buxifolia,  (Kalu-habaraliya). — Of  Smilacece, 

Smilax  zeylanica  (Heen-kabarossa),  S.  latifolia  (Mti-kabarossa). — Of  Dioscorece, 

Dioscorea  pentaphylla  (Katuwala),  D.   triphylla  (Gonala),   D.  aculeata  (Katu- 

kukulala),   D.  alata  (Kahata-kodol),   D.  bulbifera  (Panu-kodol),   D.  sativa;  D. 

oppositifolia  (Hiritala). — Of  Palmte,  Borassus  flabelliformis  (Tal-gaha).    Or.  23. 

Di.ecia  Enneandria. — Of  Lanrince,  Litsoea  trinervia  (Dawul  Kurundu).    Or. 

24.  Decandria. — Of  Cucurbitacew,  Carica  papaya, four  varieties.  Or.  25.  Dode- 

candria. — Of  Hylrocharidece,  Stratiotes  acoroides. — Of Menispermece,  Cocculus 

peltatus,  C.  Burmanni  (Kehi-pittan) ;  C.  orbicularis  (Diyanutta),  C.  cordifolius  ; 

Menispermum   fenestratum. — Or.   26.    Icosandp.ia. — Of    Tiliacece,   Flacourlia 

nivea  (Heen-katu-pila). — Of  Euphorbiacece,  Rottleria  tinctoria  (Ham-parandur  Ua), 

R.  paniculata.     Or.  27.  Polyandria. — Of  Cycadece,  Cycas  circinalis  (Maddu- 

gaha). — Of  Ebenacece,  Erubryopteris  glutinifera  (Ma-timbiri).     Or.   28.  Mona- 

delphia. — Of  Euphorbiacece,   Excoecaria  agallacha  (Tela-keeriya),  E.  camettia  ; 

Cluytia  retusa   (Ma-pat-ka?ta-kala),    C.    collina    (Madura). — Of  Menispermece, 

Cissampelos  hernandifolia   (Wsela-titta),    C.  convolvulacea   (Weni-wada),  three 

varieties. —  Of  Myristacece,  Myristica   tomentosa    (Mala-boda),    M.    salicifolia 

(Heen-eeriya),   M.    iriya   (M;t-eeriya)  ;    Horsfieldia  odorata,    (Ruk-gaha).  —  Of 

Nepenthece,  Nepenthes  disrillatoria  (Biindura). 

Class  23.  POLYGAMIA.  Or.  35.  Mon.ecia.— Of  Rubiacece,  Ophiorrhiza 
mungos  (Waleka-weriya). — -Of  Apocynece,  Ophioxylon  serpentinura  ^Ratu- 
eka-weriya). — Of  Grammes,  Andropogon  caricosus  (GiTta-mhna),  A.  crinitus, 
A.  acicularis  (Rat-tuttiri),  A.  squarrosus,  A.  Nardus  (Watu-ssewa-ndara),  A. 
cymbarius  ( Kara- wata-m ana),  A.  schasnantlius  (Pengiri-manaJ,  A.  binatus ; 
Chloris  barbata  (Mayura-tana)  ;  Ischsemum  rnuticum  (Bada-mal-tana),  I.  aris- 
tatum  (Heen-kudu-moetta),  I.  barbatum  (Ma-kudu-rairtta). — Of  Urticece,  Parie- 
taria  indica  (Ma-telika-palii),  P.reclinata  (Kseti-palu). — Of  Chenopodece,  A  triplex 
coriacea.  —Of  Combretacece,  Terminalia  catappa  (Kottamba),  three  varieties,  T. 
alata  (Kombook),  T.  Bilirica  (Bulu),  T.  chebula  (Aralu). —  Of  Aurantiaceae, 
Feronia  elephantum  (Diwul). — Of  Terebintacere,  Ailanthus  excelsa. — Of  Euphor- 
biaceee, Briedelia  spinosa  (Katu-kseta-ksela). —  Of  Laurina  affines,  Gyrocarpus 
asiaticus  (Hema-gaha). — Of  Ulmacece,  Celtis  orientalis  (Gudur.iba). — Of  Legu- 
minosce,  Inga  bigemina  (Gaskalatiya),  I.  nodosa,  I.  umbellata  ;  Mimosa  rubicaulis, 
M.  entada  (Heen-pus-wada) ;  Desmanthus  virgatus  (Gas-nidi-kumba),  D.  cine- 
reus ;  Acacia  scandens,  (Ma-pus-weela),  A.  odoratissima,  A.  vera,  A.  ceesia,  A. 
pennata  (Goda-hinguru). — Of  Guttiferce,  Stalagmitis  cambogioides  (Kana-go- 
raka).  Or.  36.  DiiECiA. — Of  Graminece,  Spinifex  squarrosus  (Ma-rawana-rewula ). 
— Of  Sapindacece,  Schleichera  trijuga(/Embul-kon). — Of  Flacourtia?iece,  Hydno- 
carpus  inebrians  (Ma-makulu). — Of  Terebintaceie ,  Semicarpus  latifolium  (Kiri- 
badulla),  S.  obovatum  (Kalu-badulla). — Of  Urticece,  Ficus  Carica,  F.  glomerata 
(Gan-attikka),  F.  religiosa  (Bo-gaha),  F.  parasitica  (Wsel-adiaetu),  F.  benjamins 
(Dehi-nuga),  F.  nitida  (Pauu-nuga),  F.  politoria  (SewanamDediya),  F.  bengalensis 
(Ma-nuga),  F.  cotinifolia,  (Boo-nuga),  F.  oppositifolia,  (Kota-dimbuhi),  F. 
indica,  (  Kiripadla),  F.  stipulata,  F.  repens  debilis. — Of  Ebenacece,  Diospyros 
Ebenaster'  (Kaduni-b.'riya),  D.  ebenum  (Kaluwara),  D.  hirsuta  (Kalu-msediriy a) . 
Class  24.  CRYPTOGAM1A.  Or.  38.  Gonopterides.  Of  Euuisetace^:. 
Equisetum — f  Aswalgatana).     Or.    39.    Stachiopterides.    Of  Lycopodiace^e  ; 

1  Diospyros  Ebenaster  in  many  respects  resembles  Calamander,  though  of 
lighter  colour  and  inferior  beauty  D.  Ebenum  is  jet  black,  fine  grained,  takes  a 
high  polish,  and  is  much  used  in  making  tables,  chairs,  &c.  The  wood  is  extremely 
heavy,  and  the  furniture  made  of  it  is  very  dear.  It  is  chiefly  found  in  the  jungles 
of  the  eastern  province. 

3  i) 


770  CEYLON.  [PART    IV. 

Lycopodium    phlegmaria  (Ma-hsedaya'),  L.  mirabile  (Kuda-hredaya),  L.  repens 
(Binhsedaya),  L.  rupestre  (Len-pahuru),  L.  cermium  (Badal-wanassa),  L.  ornitho- 
podioides   (Balal-pahuru),  L.  canaliculatum   (Md-pana-datta),  L.    ciliare  (Heen- 
pana-daetta),   L.  serratum  (Gas-ha>daya),    Bernhardia  dichotoma  (^Et-hawari). 
Or.  40.  Filices. — Ophioglossice,  Ophioglossum  ovatum   (Ek-pati-benduru),  O. 
pendulum  (Pati-benduru)  ;  Botrychium  ternatum  (Kaerawu-waersella),  B.zeylani- 
cum    (Ken-kok-wsersella).     Of  Poli/podacea,  Hydroglossum  pinnatifidum  (Ma- 
pamba),  H.  fiexuosum  (Heen-pambaj,  H.circinnatum  (iEt-pamba)  ;Mertensia  dicho- 
toma (Wil-ka-killa)  ;  Schizsea  digitata. — Alsophilacomosa,  A.crinita  ;  Trichomanes 
rigidum  and  T.  intermarginale,  T.  filicula  ;  Acrostichum  arifoliurn,  A.  quercifolium, 
A.  appendiculatum,  A.  esculentum  (Ksera-koku-wa'rsella) ;  Hemionitis  Boryana  ; 
Polypodium  acrostichoides,    P.    nervosum,    P.  phymatodes   (Wad-benduru),    P. 
quercifolium  (Gas-benduru) ;  Aspidium  splendens  (Watu-wsradla),  A.auriculatum, 
A.  pteroides,  A.  unitum  (Riila-wa^raeila),  A.  arboreum  (iEt-miwana),  A.  speluncae, 
A.  viviparum  (Ganga-miwana)  ;  Lowaria  scandens  (Wsel-barandara)  ;   Asplenium 
nidus,   A.  falcatum,  A.  ambiguum,   A.  esculentum    (Miwana-pala) ;  Pteris   pilo- 
selloides  P.  elliptica,  P.  scolopendrina,  P.  palustris,  P.  serrulata,  P.   crenata,  P. 
thalictroides  (Pilihudu-pala),    P.   quadrialata,    P.  tripartita,   P.  lanuginosa  (An- 
kaskilla) ;    Blechnum   orientale   (Pattra-wseraella)  ;    Adiantum  lanulatum  (Kaha- 
waeradla),  A.  caudatum ;    Cheilanthus    tenuifolia ;    Davallia   patens,  D.  pedata, 
D.  affinis,  D.  Emersoni,  D.  contigua,  D.  elegans,  D.  Khasiyana,  D.  lonchitidea, 
D.  inaaqualis,  D.  hirta,  a  very  beautiful  and  distinct  fern,   with  something  of  the 
rigid  habit  &c.  of  the  Polystichum  group  of  Aspidium,  D.  polypodioides,  almost 
hispid  beneath,    D.  tenuifolia,    Lindssea  cultrata,    L.  Walkerse,    L.   caudata,    L. 
ensifolia  ;   Dicksonia  zeylanica ;  D.  deltoidea  ;  Cyathea  simplicifolia  ;    C.  sinuata, 
fronds  simple,  lanceolate,  very  much  elongated,  sinuated  at  the  margin,  C.  Walkerae. 
Or.  43.  Hydropterides.     Marsilea  coromandelina  (Diya-sembulajbiliya). 
Timber,  and  the  more  valuable  trees  of  Ceylon. 

The  jack  tree,  Artocarpus  integrifolia,  (Jaca),  (see  p.  7C8),  grows  to  a  very  large 
size,  and  is  not  only  the  most  useful,  but  also  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Ceylon 
forest  trees,  from  the  great  size  of  its  spreading  top,  and  the  deep  shade  of  its 
dark  green  leaves.  It  produces  an  extraordinary  quantity  of  fruit  from  its 
branches,  its  trunk,  and  even  from  its  roots.  The  fruit  has  a  rough  green  covering, 
and  contains  a  great  number  of  kernels  about  half  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg ; 
these,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  are  contained  in  a  luscious  yellow  covering,  which 
is  too  strong  tasted  for  Europeans,  but  before  it  ripens,  the  kernels  when  cooked 
form  a  good  vegetable,  and  are  very  commonly  the  foundation  of  the  curries  used 
by  the  labouring  Singhalese.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  fruit  varies  from  one 
to  fifty  pounds  weight,  and  contains  from  two  to  three  hundred  kernels,  each,  more 
than  double  the  size  of  an  almond  ;  that  of  the  smaller  sort  is  larger  than  tlie  finest 
oranges.  The  wood  of  the  jack  tree  is  generally  used  in  making  furniture,  and 
much  resembles  the  commonest  kinds  of  mahogany. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  trees  which  produce  the  bread-fruit,  one  of  which  yields 
a  smaller  fruit  without  seed,  while  the  fruit  of  the  other  is  larger,  of  more  general 
growth,  and  in  higher  repute.  The  fruit  is  all  over  prickles,  with  a  thick  and 
soft  rind  ;  the  internal  part  of  the  fruit  only  is  used  for  food  by  man,  and  the  rind 
is  left  for  the  pigs.  The  larger  sort  of  bread-fruit,  which  is  almost  universally 
used  in  Ceylon,  is  called  by  three  different  names,  according  to  the  period  of  its 
growth.  When  it  has  reached  the  size  of  an  ostrich's  egg,  and  is  a  month  old,  it 
is  called  "  polios  ;"  hereli,  when  it  is  half  ripe  and  of  the  size  of  a  cocoa-nut ;  the 
pulpy  esculent  part  is  then  still  of  a  white  and  milky  cast.  At  both  these  periods, 
the  fruit  cannot  be  eaten  without  previous  preparation.  When  perfectly  ripe,  it 
is  called  warreka  ;  the  pulpy  part  is  then  fit  for  use,  and  that  which  environs  the 
seed  has  a  sweetish  taste,  is  yellow,  and  without  any  preparation  is  both  eatable 
and  relishing.  The  seeds  may  be  eaten  either  alone  like  chesnuts,  or  together  with 
the  pulpy  part  of  the  fruit  itself  prepared  in  different  ways.  They  are  used  both 
boiled  and  roasted  ;  the  lower  classes  generally  boil  and  eat  them  with  the  scrapings 
of  cocoa-nut  and  salt,  and   the  rich  employ  them   in  fattening  pigs,  geese,  and 


CHAP.    TV.]     TIMBER  AND  OTHER  TREES — THE  TALAPAT   PALM.      7/1 

Other  fowls.     Fifteen  dishes  are  capable  of  being  prepared  from  the  fruit  of  this 
beneficent  tree. 

Calamander,  or  variegated  ebony,  Diospyros  hirsuta.  (Seep.  769.)  (Kalumin- 
drie,  from  Kalu,  black,  and  mindrie,  flowing,  Singh.)  This  beautiful  wal-gaha,  or 
forest  tree,  is  now  scarce,  from  the  ruthless  manner  in  which  it  has  been  felled 
whenever  found,  owing  to  the  elegance  of  the  wood,  and  the  consequent  demand  for 
furniture  made  of  it.  Calamander,  with  its  alternate  shades  of  black,  clouded 
like  marble,  and  light  brown,  is  much  the  prettiest  of  all  the  varieties  of  wood 
found  in  Ceylon.  It  is  extremely  hard,  and  receives  a  very  high  polish.  The 
Ophioxylon  serpentinum  (see  p.  769)  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  besides  being  used 
as  an  antidote  against  the  bite  of  serpents,  is  employed  in  ardent  and  malignant 
fevers.  Cups  of  the  wood  will  yield  a  part  of  their  virtue  if  wine  be  poured  into 
them  :  this  is  drunk  as  a  stomachic.  Water  likewise  extracts  a  green  tincture 
from  it.  The  wood  resembles  that  of  the  oak  in  colour,  and  by  its  pores,  which 
are  frequently  so  yielding  as  to  let  water  filter  through  them. 

TheTalapat  tree,  Corypha  umbraculifera.  (Talagaha,  Singh.)  (See  p.  7G3.)  The 
size  of  this  chief  of  the  race  of  palms,  in  favourable  situations,  varies  from  80to  110 
feet  in  height  without  the  flower,  which  in  some  instances  gives  an  addition  of  nearly 
25  or  30  feet.  The  trunk  of  the  tala  is  straight,  but  retains  a  mark  wherever  there 
has  been  a  leaf,  and  the  circumference  near  the  ground  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet. 
The  tala  seldom  lasts  more  than  100  years,  for  with  the  moment  of  its  perfection, 
commences  also  its  decay  ;  the  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  chesnut  and  useless 
for  any  other  purpose,  is  produced  in  great  numbers,  ripens  by  degrees  as  the 
flowers  decay  ;  the  leaves  then  wither,  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  the  roots 
decay,  and  the  only  remaining  part  of  the  stem  lies  prostrate  on  the  ground, 
about  twelve  months  after  it  first  began  to  shoot  up  the  great  spike  which  is 
the  covering  of  the  flower.  This  spike  and  its  branches  are  from  two  to  three 
months  in  reaching  their  full  size  ;  the  flower,  which  is  yellow,  and  of  a  strong  and 
oppressive  smell,  then  begins  to  appear  from  the  extreme  point,  and  when  it  bursts 
from  the  sheath,  makes  an  explosion  like  the  report  of  a  cannon  ;  from  this  time 
until  all  the  minute  stalks  and  numberless  flowerets  are  disclosed,  elapse  about 
three  months  more  ;  the  remainder  of  its  existence  is  but  a  course  of  rapid  decay. 
When  this  tree  is  cut  down  for  the  sake  of  the  seed,  the  pith  yields  a  sort  of  meal, 
of  which  the  natives  make  a  cake,  which  tastes  something  like  the  finest  bread. 
It  serves  also  as  an  occasional  substitute  for  rice.  The  leaves  are  largest  when  the 
tree  is  about  20  years  of  age,  and  are  comparatively  small  when  it  has  attained  its 
utmost  size,  and  exerts  all  its  vitality  to  develop  its  flowers  and  perfect  its  fruit. 
The  leaf  is  of  a  form  which  enables  it  without  any  preparation  to  be  folded  like  a 
fan  ;  it  is  15  or  16  feet  across,  and  (with  the  addition  of  the  stalk)  from  the  point 
of  the  leaf  to  the  extremity  of  the  stalk  where  it  is  united  to  the  tree,  is  sometimes 
25  feet.  These  leaves  are  used  as  umbrellas,  and  for  thatching  houses,  and  such 
is  their  circumference  that  it  is  large  enough  to  preserve  from  six  to  a  dozen 
persons  from  wet  in  a  pouring  rain.  When  it  is  dried  it  is  very  tough,  but  at  the 
same  time  supple  and  flexible.  Though  nearly  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  it  is  so 
light  that  a  person  may  carry  it  a  great  way  without  fatigue.  In  its  full  expanse 
it  has  a  circular  appearance,  but  when  cut  in  pieces,  it  has  a  triangular  form. 
When  a  man  lays  it  on  his  head  in  a  journey,  with  the  points  projecting  outwards, 
it  serves  to  protect  him  through  the  bushes  and  thorns,  while  in  other  situations 
it  assists  in  shading  him  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun.  One  of  these  leaves 
cut  off  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  nearly  the  same  in  breadth,  decorated  with 
various  elegant  embellishments,  is  carried  over  the  heads  of  people  of  distinction, 
both  native  and  European,  instead  of  an  umbrella.  They  are  also  formed  into 
tents,  and  when  prepared  in  strips  from  two  to  three  inches  broad,  and  20  to  30 
in  length,  they  form  the  leaves  of  Singhalese  books,  called  olas.  The  immense 
quantity  of  seed  produced  by  every  tree  is  spread  by  animals  over  a  great  extent 
of  country,  and  the  seeds  all  spring  up,  but  few  survive  ;  as  the  young  leaves  are 
devoured  the  moment  they  appear  by  every  animal  feeding  on    vegetables. 

Mee-tree.  (See  p.  765.)    The  flowers  of  this  tree  have  a  heavy  and  disagreeable 
smell,  the  colour  is  white,  and  they  sometimes  fall  in  such  profusion,  as  to  cover 

3d2 


7/2  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

the  ground  for  several  inches  in  depth.  Tn  the  districts  where  mee-trees  are 
abundant,  the  natives  assert  that  if  rains  wash  down  and  accumulate  quantities  of 
flowers  on  the  surface  of  the  tanks,  a  noxious  effluvia  proceeds  from  the  mass,  and 
gives  rise  to  malignant  fevers.  This  the  natives  endure  on  account  of  the  oil 
yielded  by  the  fruit  of  the  tree. 

The  kabuk,  or  kombook,  a  species  of  terminalia,  flourishes  on  the  banks  of  all 
streams  in  the  level  and  dry  districts,  and  is  even  found  at  an  elevation  of  2000 
feet.  It  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  is  a  strong  and  durable  timber,  of  a  red 
colour.  By  natives  it  is  believed  that  water  will  always  be  found  by  digging  near 
kabuk  trees. 

Nelu.  (Seep.  759.)  Is  a  brittle  jointed  plant,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties 
in  Ceylon.  It  flowers  once  in  eight  years,  and  then  decays  ;  the  blossom  smells 
strongly  of  honey,  and  attracts  a  large  number  of  bees  in  consequence.  On  the 
joints  of  the  nelu  plants  may  frequently  be  seen  clusters  of  the  large  deep  bell- 
shaped  flowers  of  some  parasite,  with  yellow  hearts  and  scarlet  edges  ;  these  have 
no  separate  leaves,  and  appear  so  general  and  so  completely  united  to  the  nelu 
roots,  as  to  induce  a  belief  among  the  natives  that  they  are  two  different  flowers 
proceeding  from  the  same  plant.  It  forms  the  chief  jungle  of  the  highlands,  and 
is  from  12  to  15  years  in  coming  to  maturity. 

Bogaha.  (See  p.  769.)  The  trees  of  Buddha  form  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
characteristics  of  Ceylon  ;  they  are  most  commonly  met  with  in  travelling  through 
the  central  province  ;  they  are  generally  of  great  age,  and  guarded  from  injury  by 
superstition,  while  their  huge  trunks,  rendered  cavernous  through  age,  seem  ap- 
propriate emblems  of  an  ancient  worship.  Two  or  three  terraces,  built  up  with 
stone  and  rilled  with  earth,  surround  the  sacred  bo-tree,  on  every  side  of  which 
are  raised  rough  miniature  temples  of  stone,  about  two  feet  high,  including  the 
little  cupolas  with  which  they  are  surmounted.  The  long,  broad  and  beautiful 
leaves  of  this  tree,  which  are  in  the  shape  of  a  heart,  are  reported  to  have  often 
furnished  a  cooling  shade  and  soft  repose  to  Buddha,  when  relaxing  from  the 
devout  labours  of  his  mission.  Hence  tradition  has  consecrated  it  to  his  memory, 
and  so  holy  was  it  esteemed  that  the  form  of  its  leaves  was  not  permitted  to  be 
painted  on  any  article  of  furniture,  but  what  was  designed  for  the  palace  of  the 
king  of  Kandy. 

Palmyra,  or  Fan  Palm,  (Borassus  Willd.)  (Singh  Talgaha.)  (Seep.  769.)  The 
leaves  of  this  tree,  as  well  as  those  of  the  talapat  tree,  are  used  instead  of  paper  by 
the  natives,  and  all  their  olas,  or  books  treating  of  religion  and  the  healing  art,  are 
transcribed  on  them,  but  in  a  langixage  elevated  above  the  common  idiom.  The 
leaves  of  both  these  palm  trees  lie  in  folds  like  a  fan,  and  the  slips  stand  in  need  of 
no  other  preparation  than  merely  to  be  separated  and  cut  smooth  and  even  with  a 
knife,  after  having  been  slowly  dried  in  the  shade  and  rubbed  with  oil.  Their  mode 
of  writing  upon  them,  consists  in  carving  the  letters  with  a  fine  pointed  style,  and, 
in  order  that  the  characters  may  be  the  better  seen  and  read,  they  rub  them  over 
with  an  ink  made  of  lampblack,  or  some  other  substance,  and  a  solution  of  gum, 
so  that  the  letters  have  altogether  the  appearance  of  being  engraved.  The  iron 
point  made  use  of  on  these  occasions,  is  either  set  in  a  brass  handle,  which  the 
Moormen  and  others  carry  about  them  in  a  wooden  case,  and  which  is  sometimes 
six  inches  in  length,  or  else  it  is  formed  entirely  of  iron,  and  together  with  the 
blade  of  a  knife  designed  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  leaves  and  making  them 
even,  set  in  a  knife  handle  common  to  them  both,  into  which  handle  it  shuts  up, 
so  that  it  may  be  carried  by  the  owner  about  with  him,  and  be  always  ready  at 
hand.  On  such  slips  all  the  letters  and  edicts  of  the  Dutch  Governmeut  used  to 
be  written,  and  sent  round  open  and  unsealed.  When  a  single  slip  was  not 
sufficient,  several  were  bound  together  by  means  of  a  hole  made  at  one  end,  and 
a  thread  on  which  they  were  Strang.  If  a  book  had  to  be  made  for  the  use  of  the 
wiharts  or  any  other  purpose,  they  sought  for  broad  and  handsome  slips  of  talapat 
leaves,  upon  which  they  engraved  the  characters  very  elegantly  and  accurately, 
with  the  addition  of  various  figures  delineated  upon  them  by  way  of  ornament. 
All  the  slips  had  then  two  holes  made  in  them,  and  were  strung  upon  an  elegantly 
twisted  silken  cord,   and  covered  with  two  thin  lacquered  wooden  boards.     By 


CHAP.    IV.]  PALMYRA,    KITTOOL    AND    AREKA    TREES.  7/3 

means  of  the  cords  the  leaves  are  held  even  together,  and  by  being  drawn  out  when 
required  for  use,  they  are  separated  from  each  other  at  pleasure.  Occasionally 
their  books  were  made  of  thin  copper  plates. 

The  Kittool-gaha,  Caryota,  (see  p.  768.)  grows  very  straight,  but  not  so  tall  as 
the  cocoa-nut  tree.  It  contains  a  pith  like  the  talapat  tree,  which  yields  an  uncom- 
monly sweet  sap  of  very  pleasant  taste  and  wholesome  qualities.  A  tree  of  the 
ordinary  size  will  yield  several  quarts  a  day.  From  this  juice,  after  boiling,  a  brown 
sugar,  called  jaggery,  is  prepared,  and  when  particular  care  is  used,  it  is  scarcely 
inferior  to  white.  The  leaves  of  this  species  of  palm  resemble  those  of  the  areca, 
and  are  attached  to  a  strong  skin,  which  is  as  hard  as  a  board,  but  full  of  fibres. 
These  they  employ  as  thread,  and  make  into  cordage.  The  leaves  keep  falling  oft* 
as  long  as  the  tree  continues  to  grow,  but  when  it  has  attained  its  full  growth,  they 
adhere  for  many  years  to  the  stem,  and  no  fresh  ones  are  produced.  When  the 
buds  on  the  top  become  ripe  and  wither  away,  they  are  annually  succeeded  by 
others  which  keep  continually  growing  lower  and  lower  down  the  branches  till 
they  reach  the  stem.  The  tree  is  then  worn  out,  but  will  still  remain  for  eight  or 
ten  years  before  it  rots.  Of  C.  urens  there  are  three  varieties.  There  are  also 
two  other  species,  horrida  (Katu-kittool)  and  mitis  (D6-talu). 

Areka  Catechu  or  Betel  Nut  (Puwak-gaha,  Singh.)  (See  p.  768).  This  tree  is 
principally  found  on  the  south  and  west  sides  of  the  island.  It  cannot  be  said 
to  grow  wild,  being  generally  found  in  the  vicinity  of  houses,  but  it  is  seldom 
planted,  the  nuts  when  ripe  falling  on  the  ground  and  sowing  themselves.  This 
tree  is  very  straight  and  tall,  but  of  no  great  girth  ;  the  nuts  grow  in  bunches  at 
the  top,  and  when  ripe  are  red,  and  have  a  beautiful  appearance ;  when  gathered 
they  are  laid  in  heaps  until  the  shell  be  somewhat  rotted,  and  then  dried  in  the 
sun,  upon  which  the  process  of  shelling  commences.  These  trees  vary  in  their 
yield  from  300  to  1000  nuts;  they  bear  but  once  a  year  generally,  but  there  are 
green  nuts  enough  to  eat  all  the  year  long ;  the  leaves  of  this  tree  somewhat 
resemble  those  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree  ;  they  are  five  or  six  feet  long,  and 
smaller  leaves  sprout  from  their  sides,  like  the  feathers  on  each  side  of  a  quill. 
The  Singhalese,  in  consequence,  call  the  large  leaves  the  boughs,  and  the  small 
ones  the  leaves ;  they  fall  off  annually,  and  the  skin  on  which  they  grow  with 
them.  This  skin  is  a  sort  of  medium  between  bark  and  leather,  and  is  of  great 
service  to  the  natives,  whom  it  serves  for  basons  to  eat  rice  out  of,  and  to  tie  up 
provisions  for  a  journey,  being  capable  of  containing  either  oil  or  water,  by  being 
doubled  up  in  the  middle,  and  rolled  like  a  purse.  These  skins  vary  in  size 
according  to  the  trees,  generally  they  are  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  breadth.  The  wood  will  split  from  one  end  to  the  other,  though  it  is 
hard  and  strong ;  it  is  much  used  for  laths  to  houses  and  for  fences.  Formerly 
there  was  a  considerable  trade  in  this  article  with  the  Coromandel  coast,  from 
whence  the  natives  brought  back  manufactured  goods  and  other  necessaries  in 
return,  but  this  has  ceased  for  more  than  a  century.  The  common  price  was 
20,000  for  a  dollar.  The  chewing  this  nut  has  much  of  the  same  effect  on  the 
natives  as  opium,  &c.  on  an  European,  when  taken  to  excess,  it  will  produce 
stupor,  and  even  intoxication,  and  when  eaten  green,  diarrhoea. 

Cocos  Nucifera  (Pol-gaha,  Singh.)  (see  p.  768),  delights  in  a  sandy  soil,  and  the 
nearer  to  the  sea,  the  quicker  its  growth,  and  the  more  productive  its  yield.  It 
requires  little  or  no  attention,  except  being  secured  from  the  inroads  of  cattle  ;  for 
fanned  by  the  winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  gains  strength  by  exposure,  and  though 
its  average  height  ranges  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet,  it  frequently  exceeds  a  hundred. 
Its  diameter  at  the  base  is  from  two  to  three  feet,  and  the  root,  which  is  com- 
posed of  strong  flexible  fibres,  spreads  in  a  circle,  and  of  these  some  sink  down 
deep,  and  others  creep  along  the  surface  of  the  soil.  One  of  these  beautiful  and 
verdant  circles,  formed  of  feathery  fronds  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet  in  length, 
radiating  from  a  common  centre  at  the  top  of  a  tapering  stem,  eighty  feet  high, 
is  one  of  the  most  charming  objects  in  nature.  The  fronds  are  supported  at  the 
base  by  diagonal  and  horizontal  layers  of  strong  elastic  fibres,  capable  of  sustain- 
ing great  weight,  and  so  closely  united  as  to  form,  when  gently  stretched,  an 
excellent  substitute  for  a  hair  sieve  for  straining  liquids.     This  fibrous    support 


774  CEYLON.  [part  IV. 

lies  in  laminse  between  the  branches  which  it  envelops,  as  well  as  the  Incipient 
ones  even  to  their  rudiments,  or  what  is  called  the  cabbage,  and  seems  providen- 
tially adapted  for  the  security  of  the  passing  traveller  from  the  constant  dangers 
that  would  otherwise  attend  him  while  traversing  the  cocoa-nut  topes,  as  the 
groves  are  called,  from  the  sudden  falling  of  decayed  branches,  which  its  very 
firm  adhesion  to  the  trunk  prevents,  but  it  is  not  made  into  gunny  bags,  as 
some  authors  have  stated,  and  is  merely  used  for  straining  toddy  and  other 
licpiids,  and  for  kindling  fires. 

The  finest  arrack  in  the  world  is  distilled  by  the  Singhalese  from  the  toddy  in 
a  fermented  state,  which,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  becomes  an  intoxicating 
beverage,  owing  to  the  rapidity  of  the  process.  One  hundred  gallons  produce 
by  the  simple  chymical  process  of  the  Singhalese,  twenty-five  of  arrack  (Pol- 
wakere),  which,  when  taken  new,  is  injurious,  but  gradually  acquires  wholesome 
properties.  Toddy  is  also  used  by  bakers  for  the  purposes  of  yeast.  Pine- 
apples steeped  in  arrack,  impart  a  delicious  flavour,  and  reduce  its  strength  to 
that  of  a  Hqueur  tinrivalled  for  making  the  nectarial  punch,  or  puntjee  of  the 
Hindoos. 

Lamp-oil  is  made  from  the  kernel  of  the  ripe  cocoa-nut,  after  it  has  been 
exposed  to  the  sun  on  mats,  until  it  has  become  rancid  and  discoloured  (in 
which  state  the  natives  call  it  Kopperah),  by  means  of  a  simple  press  turned  by 
bullocks,  and  oil  for  culinary  purposes  by  boiling  the  fresh  pulp,  and  skimming 
is  as  it  rises.  The  former  is  now  made  into  candles  and  soap,  and  the  oil-cake 
or  poonac,  is  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  poultry. 

Vinegar  is  made  by  putting  toddy  drawn  in  dry  weather  into  jars,  and  keeping 
them  closely  covered,  but  exposed  to  the  sun,  for  a  month ;  the  toddy  is  then 
strained,  and  replaced  in  the  same  jar  with  a  little  bird  pepper  (Capsicum 
frutescens,  Linn.),  a  small  piece  of  the  red  ghorka,  and  of  moringa  pod  (Hype- 
ranthera  moringa)  ;  the  jars  are  then  laid  in  the  earth  for  a  month  or  five  weeks, 
and  thus  a  very  excellent  vinegar,  little  inferior  to  that  made  from  white  wine,  is 
produced,  which  serves  for  making  pickles  from  the  young  shoots. 

Jaggery,  a  species  of  sugar,  is  made  by  suspending  a  clean  and  dry  calabash, 
or  chatty,  instead  of  one  in  common  use  for  toddy  drawing,  and  containing  some 
chips  of  the  bark  of  the  Shorea  robusta  (Halghas,  Singh.),  which  will  induce 
sweetness  in  the  toddy.  Eight  gallons  of  it,  boiled  over  a  slow  fire,  produce  two 
gallons  of  syrup,  called  Penni  by  the  Singhalese ;  which,  being  again  boiled,  pro- 
duces a  coarse  strong-grained  brown  sugar,  named  as  before  said,  that  is  well 
adapted  for  crystallization  or  refining  in  England ;  this  is  formed  into  cakes  in 
bottoms  of  cocoa-nut  shells  by  way  of  moulds  ;  which  having  been  enveloped  in 
pieces  of  dried  plantain  leaf  are  hardened  and  preserved  from  humidity  by  being 
suspended  where  smoke  has  free  access  to  them.  A  cocoa-nut  tree  planted  near 
the  sea  generally  blossoms  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  year,  but  in  elevated  situations 
of  the  interior,  it  is  six  or  seven  years  before  this  takes  place,  and  from  thence 
forward  for  sixty  years  and  upwards  this  most  prolific  palm  will  continue  to  pro- 
duce fruit  in  abundance,  unless  the  tree  be  devoted  entirely  to  the  toddy  drawer, 
in  which  case  it  ceases  to  produce  fruit. 

The  maturity  of  cocoa-nuts  reserved  for  planting  is  indicated  by  the  brown 
colour  of  the  husk  ;  they  are  then  plucked,  and  having  been  laid  aside  for  a  few 
days,  are  ranged  in  rows,  and  partly  covered  with  earth,  or,  as  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  suspended  from  the  branches  of  trees  until  vegetation  has  com- 
menced. In  about  three  months,  more  or  less,  the  plant  will  have  appeared,  and 
in  less  than  five  months  from  that  time  will  have  attained  the  height  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  inches,  and  have  thrown  out  three  or  four  foliaceous  fronds.  The  best 
time  for  transplanting  is  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the  plants  receive  that 
abundant  nourishment  which  their  nature  recpiires. 

The  Singhalese  are  so  extremely  superstitious  that  they  invariably  throw  a 
little  salt  into  the  holes  before  they  place  the  young  plants  in  them,  and  they 
observe  great  regularity  in  forming  their  topes  by  making  holes  for  the  plants  in 
parallel  lines  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  apart,  about  three  feet  deep,  of  the 
same  diameter  at  the  top,  and  in  the  shape  of  inverted  cones  for  the  purpose  of 


CHAP.  IV.]  THE    COCOA-NUT  TREE    AND    ITS   USES.  775 

collecting  the  necessary  moisture.     If  the  salt  were  omitted,  they   would  not 
expect  the  plant  to  flourish. 

The  green  fronds  split,  and  their  pinnated  leaves  interwoven,  make  covers  for 
plants,  baskets,  and  cajan,  or  thatch,  and  when  burnt  produce  a  superior  alkali. 
The  young  pinnae,  which  are  white  and  tough,  make  beautiful  brushes,  brooms, 
mats,  baskets,  and  boxes  for  ladies'  work,  and  from  the  strips  of  the  leaf  Eolian 
harps  are  made  ;  while  tablets  for  writing  upon,  with  an  iron  stylus,  are  formed 
from  the  leaflets,  and  translucent  lanterns  from  the  young  leaves. 

The  stem  is  at  first  of  a  very  spongy  nature,  and  full  of  tough  perpendicular 
and  ligneous  fibres  ;  and  until  it  is  about  twenty  years  old,  is  applicable  only  to 
the  purposes  of  gutters,  water  pipes,  and  fences,  but  when  it  becomes  old  it  is  fit 
for  rafters,  shingles,  ornamental  cabinet  work,  rice  pounders,  walking  sticks,  and 
for  building  country  vessels  of  from  80  to  200  tons  burthen,  called  Dhonies. 
Drums  are  formed  from  the  crest  of  the  trunk.  The  water  of  the  green  cocoa- 
nut  is  a  delicious  drink,  if  it  be  plucked  before  sunrise;  it  is  also  used  by  house 
plasterers  for  its  adhesiveness  in  mixing  their  white  and  coloured  washes,  and 
conjointly  with  jaggery  and  shell  lime  for  stucco. 

The  pulp  of  the  young  cocoa-nut  is  an  admirable  vegetable  blanc  mange,  and 
the  kernel  of  the  seed  cocoa-nut,  after  vegetation  has  commenced,  is  among 
the  delicacies  of  a  Singhalese  dessert.  It  is  spongy,  but  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
and  greatly  esteemed  by  the  natives.  The  expressed  juice  of  the  pulp  of  the  ripe 
nut  is  properly  the  milk,  and  is  obtained  by  first  rasping  it  with  an  instrument 
called  Hieromane,1  then  soaking  it  in  water  and  pressing  it  through  a  cloth, 
when  it  forms  an  ingredient  in  all  good  curries.  The  cabbage  is  delicious 
whether  fricasseed  or  pickled,  or  in  its  raw  state,  when  it  is  as  sweet  and  crisp  as 
the  Catappa  almond. 

A  bunch  of  cocoa-nuts  seldom  exceeds  fifteen  or  twenty  good  ones,  and  from  trees 
growing  in  sandy  situations,  the  fruit  is  gathered  four  or  five  times  a  year.  The 
external  husk,  after  having  been  soaked  in  water  for  a  certain  period,  is  beaten 
out  into  a  fibre  called  Koir,  of  which  yarn,  ropes,2  cables,  brooms,  plasterers' 
brushes,  and  stuffing  for  beds,  sofas,  mattrasses,  saddles,  &c,  and  bags  are  manu- 
factured. Cocoa-nut  shells  are  made  into  cups,  basons,  lamps,  sportsmen's  liquor 
flasks,  ladles,  skimmers,  spoons,  lampblack  and  charcoal,  which  last  forms  an 
excellent  dentifrice  when  pulverised. 

A  powerful  oil  is  extracted  from  the  bark  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  which  is  em- 
ployed as  a  liniment  in  cutaneous  diseases,  and  considered  by  the  Singhalese 
doctors  eminently  efficacious,  provided  a  free  use  of  the  green  cocoa-nut  be  strictly 
adhered  to  as  a.  principal  article  of  diet,  and  an  ointment  is  prepared  from  the 
kernel,  which  is  a  certain  cure  for  the  ringworm  in  children.  The  list  of  articles 
manufactured  from  the  cocoa-nut  tree  has  been  enumerated  at  one  hundred  and 
upwards,  and  the  Tamuls  have  a  poem  descriptive  of  its  various  uses. 

The  root,  which  is  sometimes  masticated  instead  of  areca-nut,  is  considered 
by  native  practitioners  so  efficacious  in  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers,  that  it 
is  almost  invariably  employed  by  them.  Small  pieces  of  it  are  boiled  with  dried 
ginger  and  jaggery,  and  the  decoction  is  given  to  the  patient  at  regular  intervals. 
The  same  decoction,  when  used  as  a  gargle,  is  mixed  with  the  oil  of  the  nut  freshly 


1  "The  Hieromane,"  says  Mr.  Bennett,  "  is  the  best  kind  of  grater  that  can  be 
employed  to  reduce  the  kernel  for  culinary  purposes,  because  it  obviates  the 
necessity  of  breaking  the  nut-shell  in  pieces,  or  the  previous  removal  of  the 
kernel  from  it,  which  in  its  ripe  state  is  difficult.  It  consists  "of  a  circle  of  notched 
iron  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stout  piece  of  wood  cut  in  a  peculiar  shape,  (which 
custom  has  induced  the  Singhalese  to  consider  the  most  convenient  for  this 
domestic  purpose,)  and  considered  by  Europeans  to  resemble  a  boot-jack." 

2  This  rope,  from  its  strength  and  elasticity,  and  its  possessing  the  peculiar 
property  of  being  best  preserved  for  use  in  sea  water,  is  well  adapted  for  mooring, 
and  is  used  for  running  rigging  in  the  India  shipping.  It  is,  notwithstanding, 
considered  inferior  to  rope  made  from  Laccadive  Koir,  though  it  admits  of  im- 
provement  in  the  manufacture  and  its  mode  of  preservation. 


776  CEYLON.  [PAKT   IV. 

made,  and  generally  affords  considerable  relief  to  the  patient  in  cases  where  pus- 
tules have  formed  in  the  mouth  or  glands  of  the  throat. 

In  hemorrhoids,  the  expressed  juice  of  the  leaves,  mixed  with  fresh  oil  of  the  nut, 
and  taken  internally,  is  considered  a  sovereign  remedy  ;  and  in  ophthalmic  com- 
plaints, the  external  application  of  the  expressed  juice  of  the  nut,  mixed  with  new 
milk  from  the  cow  or  goat,  mitigates,  if  it  do  not  entirely  remove  inflammation. 
The  juice  of  the  flower  is  of  so  astringent  a  nature,  that  it  has  the  same  effect  as 
a  solution  of  alum  upon  the  inside  of  the  mouth  ;  this  mixed  with  new  milk  and 
taken  in  small  quantities,  not  exceeding  a  wine-glass  full,  but  at  regular  periods, 
affords  almost  immediate  temporary  relief,  and  if  persevered  in,  effectual  cure,  in 
that  most  debilitating  disease  in  tropical  climates,  Lues  Gonorrhsea.  The  shade  of 
the  cocoa-nut  tree  is  salutary  ;  for  wherever  cocoa-nut  topes  are  found,  very  little 
underwood  is  met  with.  Accidents,  which  might  be  expected  to  be  of  constant 
occurrence  through  the  fall  of  cocoa-nuts  on  passers  by,  seldom  or  never  occur, 
and  still  rarer  prove  fatal. 

Trees  intended  for  toddy  drawing  are  prevented  from  producing  fruit  by  the 
following  process :  the  toddy  drawer  first  ties  the  spathe  in  three  places,  with 
strips  of  the  tough  white  pinnse  of  the  young  fronds,  which  are  of  a  beautiful  white 
when  they  first  shoot  up  perpendicularly,  but  soon  change  to  a  straw  colour  ; 
these  are  concave  towards  the  heart  of  the  crest,  and  when  they  are  successively 
forced  from  their  position  by  new  fronds,  they  gradually  expand  their  pinnated 
leaves,  and  ultimately  become  horizontal.  The  old  fronds  have  a  strong  mid-rib, 
with  the  footstalks  nearest  the  tree  proportionably  thick  ;  these  embrace  the  stem, 
and  as  they  gradually  fall  off,  after  hanging  for  weeks  together  by  their  fibrous 
support,  or  are  pulled  down  for  fuel,  torches  or  chules,  and  fences,  they  leave 
successive  and  very  visible  scars.  The  purpose  of  tying  the  spathe  is  to  prevent 
its  expansion  ;  it  is  then  cut  transversely  to  the  extent  of  about  two  inches  from 
the  point,  and  beaten  with  an  ebony  or  iron-wood  baton  by  the  toddy  drawer  for 
five  or  six  mornings  and  evenings  successively.  The  next  operation  is  to  remove 
a  portion  of  the  footstalk  of  the  spathe,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  depression  for  the 
juice  to  flow  freely,  and  it  is  kept  in  that  position  by  attaching  it  to  an  inferior 
branch  ;  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  days  the  toddy  drawer  suspends  a  calabash,  or 
earthen  pot  called'a  chatty,  from  the  decapitated  spathe  so  as  to  receive  the  juice 
as  it,  exudes  from  the  flower,  and  this  he  repeats  every  morning  and  evening, 
taking  off  a  slice  of  the  flower  as  occasion  requires  while  any  part  of  it  remains. — ■ 
Toddy  begins  to  ferment  soon  after  the  power  of  the  sun  is  felt. 

This  delicious  liquid,  combining  a  pleasant  but  slight  degree  of  sweetness,  with 
a  still  less  degree  of  acidity,  when  fresh  and  of  peculiar  flavour,  is  called  toddy  by 
Europeans  ;  Ra,  by  the  Singhalese ;  and  Suri,1  or  Sura,  (palm  wine),  by  the 
Hindoos,  and  being  considered  a  gentle  aperient  is  very  often  resorted  to  at  early 
dawn  by  the  bon-vivant  to  remove  the  unpleasant  effects  of  the  previous  night's 
libations.  There  are  five  varieties  of  this  palm  at  Ceylon,  and  the  grounds 
adjoining  the  wihares  generally  contain  the  best  specimens  of  the  indigenous 
species.  The  nuts  present  different  shades  of  colour,  from  the  Koroomba,  or  water 
cocoa-nut,  to  that  which  approaches  or  has  arrived  at  maturity.  The  peculiar 
shape  and  bright  orange  colour  of  the  king  cocoa-nut  is  remarkable,  yet  it  is  seldom 
procurable  at  the  bazaars.  It  is  occasionally  presented  by  the  priests  or  headmen 
by  way  of  compliment  to  Europeans.  The  next  in  beauty  is  of  an  orange  colour, 
but  not  of  the  beautiful  pear  shape  of  the  first.  The  third  is  of  a  pale  yellow, 
rather  cordiform,  and  the  fleshy  substance  of  its  husk,  which  is  between  the 
epidermis  and  the  nut,  is  edible  in  its  green  state.  The  fourth  is  the  common 
cocoa-nut  so  common  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  ;  and  the  fifth  is  the  Maldive, 
or  dwarf  cocoa-nut,  about  the  size  of  a  duck's  egg  ;  this  is  rare  and  highly  prized. 
No  country  in  the  world  produces  the  cocoa-nut  tree  to  such  perfection  as  Ceylon, 
either  as  regards  height,  or  any  other  of  its  qualifications. 

Lemon-grass  (A.ndropogon  Schaenanthus).  This  plant  gives  out  a  strong 
flavour  of  lemon  when  bruised. 


1  The  word  "  Sura,"  in  Sanscrit,  signifies  both  wine  and  true  wealth. 


APPENDIX, 


i. 

Narrative  of  the  Visit  qflambulus  to  Taprobane,  as  given  by 

Diodorvs  Siculus. 

Iambulus,  the  6on  of  a  merchant,  and  a  youth  of  enterprising1  habits, 
in  following-  his  father's  calling,  was  made  captive  in  his  travels,  and 
carried  into  Ethiopia.  A  custom  prevailed  in  that  country  of  purging 
the  land,  by  sending  away  two  of  the  inhabitants  on  board  a  ship, 
which,  when  provisioned,  was  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  waves,  the  crew 
being  forbidden  to  return  under  pain  of  "death.  Iambulus,  thus 
expelled,  arrived  at  Ceylon  at  the  end  of  four  months,  and  found  the 
island  to  be  of  a  circular  form,  and  5000  furlongs  in  circumference.  On 
nearing  the  shore,  the  natives  came  to  meet  them,  and  bringing  their 
ship  into  harbour,  hospitably  received  them.  "  Unlike  Europeans,"  says 
Iambulus,  "  both  in  person  and  mode  of  living,  tbey  were  tall,  bending 
their  bones  like  nerves,  and  as  the  nervous  parts  after  motion  return  to 
their  former  state,  so  did  their  bones.  Their  bodies  were  tender,  but 
their  nerves  were  stronger  than  ours,  for  what  they  grasped,  none  could 
wrest  from  them.  They  had  no  hair  other  than  that  on  their  heads, 
eyebrows,  and  chins,  yet  were  they  comely  and  well  shaped.  The 
holes  of  their  ears  were  much  wider  than  ours,  and  had  something  like 
little  tongues  growing  out  of  them.  Their  tongues,  too,  were  singular 
and  remarkable,  the  effect  both  of  nature  and  art ;  for  they  had  partly  a 
double  tongue,  for  being  naturally  a  little  divided,  it  was  cut  further 
inwards  by  art,  so  that  it  seemed  two  as  far  as  the  very  root ;  there  was 
therefore  great  variety  of  speech  among  them  ;  they  could  imitate  the 
chattering  of  birds,  and  what  was  yet  more  wonderful,  they  could  speak 
perfectly  to  two  men  at  once,  both  by  answering  what  was  said,  and 
aptly  carrying  on  a  continued  discourse. 

"The  climate  was  temperate  and  excellent,  and  though  lying-  under  the 
equator,  was  neither  pinched  with  cold,  nor  scorched  with  heat,  and 
fruits  they  had  ripe  all  the  year  long.  The  days  and  nights  were  of  an 
equal  length,  and  there  was  no  shadow  atnoonday,  the  sun  being  directly 
in  the  zenith  over  head.  They  lived  divided  into  tribes  and  distinct 
societies,  and  in  plains  where  they  were' plentifully  supplied  with  food 
from  the  earth.  Such  was  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  that  it  grew  a 
surplus  stock  of  corn,  and  a  fruit  which,  on  gathering,  they  steeped  in 
hot  water,  till  it  swelled  to  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  eg-g,  then  bruising  it 
and  rubbing  it  skilfully  in  their  hands,  they  kneaded  it  into  dough,  and 
baked  and  ate  it.  It  was  sweet  and  excellent  to  the  taste.  Their  hot 
and  cold  baths,  for  curing  and  preventing  distempers,  were  sweet  and 
pleasant.  They  were  learned  in  all  sorts  of  sciences,  especially  astro- 
logy. Their  speech  contained  twenty-eight  letters,  and  seven  charac- 
ters, every  one  of  which  were  formed  in  four  ways.  They  wrote  not 
across  the  sheet  as  we,  but  began  at  the  top  of  the  leaf,  and  went  on  in 
a  direct  line  to  the  bottom.  They  were  long  lived,  often  reaching  150 
years.     The   lame  or  weak   (according  to  the  severe  law  of  their  coun- 


778  APPENDIX. 

try)  were  put  to  death.  One  of  their  laws  fixed  a  certain  number  of 
years  for  a  man's  life,  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  poisoned  himself 
with  an  herb  of  a  double  nature,  on  which,  if  any  one  lay  down,  he 
silently  passed  away  and  died,  without  any  sense  of  pain,  as  if  in  sleep. 
The  men  never  married,  but  made  a  promiscuous  use  of  women,  and  bred 
up  the  children  so  begotten,  as  common  to  them  all,  and  with  equal 
care  and  affection.  The  children  were  often  changed  by  their  nurses 
in  infancy,  that  they  might  not  be  known  to  their  mothers,  and  there 
being"  thus  no  ambition  among  them,  they  lived  in  peace  and  amity. 
There  were  small  beasts  among  them,  the  flesh  of  which  was  good,  and  the 
blood  had  rare  properties.  The  body  was  round  like  a  tortoise,  divided  by 
two  streaks,  which  ran  down  the  back,  at  each  end  of  every  streak  they 
had  an  eye  and  a  mouth,  so  that  they  had  four  eyes,  and  four  mouths,  but 
their  food  was  conveyed  through  one  throat,  and  thence  into  the  belly, 
the  common  receptacle  of  all.  They  had  but  one  gut,  and  but  one  of 
the  other  inner  parts.  The  feet,  placed  round  the  body,  and  which  they 
used  for  moving  on  what  side  they  please,  were  numerous.  The  virtue  in 
the  blood  of  this  little  creature  was  such,  that  it  instantly  closed  all  cuts 
and  gaping  wounds  in  the  body,  that  had  still  life  in  it,  and  if  any 
member  (that  was  not  vital)  were  cut  off,  the  application  of  this  blood 
would  (while  the  wound  continued  green)  heal  it  up  again.  Every 
caste  kept  large  birds  of  a  singular  nature,  wherewith  to  try  the  courage 
of  their  children,  placing  them  on  the  birds'  backs,  and  as  many  of 
them  as  sat  fast  when  the  birds  flew,  they  brought  up,  but  the  timid 
they  cast  away,  as  unable  to  endure  hardship,  and  as  deficient  in  a 
generous  spirit. 

"  In  every  tribe  or  society,  the  eldest  governed  the  rest  as  king,  and  all 
yielded  him  perfect  obedience.  If  the  first  put  himself  to  death,  after 
he  had  lived  out  his  due  time,  the  next  in  age  succeeded  in  the  chief 
authority. 

"  The  seas  round  the  isle  were  rough,  causing  high  tides,  but  the  water 
of  the  rivers  was  fresh  and  sweet.  The  bear  star,  and  many  others  visible 
with  us,  were  never  seen  here.  These  islands  (I  suppose  he  alludes  to  the 
isles  off  the  north  coast)  were  seven  in  number,  of  equal  size  and  distance 
from  each  other,  and  the  same  laws  and  customs  prevailed.  Though  they 
afforded  plenty  of  food,  yet  the  people  used  it  not  profusely,  but  were 
frugal,  and  gathered  no  more  than  they  wanted.  Flesh  was  eaten,  &c. 
but  they  were  ignorant  of  sauces  and  luxuries,  and  the  savours  contrived 
for  curious  palates.  For  gods  they  worshipped  the  whole  frame  of 
heaven  ;  next  to  that  the  sun,  and  then  all  celestial  bodies.  They  caught 
fish  and  fowl  in  various  ways,  and  had  abundance  of  fruit  trees,  vines, 
and  olive  trees.  The  serpents,  which  were  large,  did  no  harm  to  any, 
but  their  flesh  was  even  thought  good  and  sweet.  Their  garments 
were  of  a  soft  fine  cotton,  contained  in  reeds  and  canes.  This  cotton  was 
dyed  with  the  shell-fish  called  Ostreses,  and  being-  made  up  into  bales, 
and  wrought  in  among  the  wool,  made  purple  garments.  The  isle 
produced  strange  and  even  incredible  creatures.  Their  diet  was  regular 
but  varied,  on  some  days  fish,  others  fowl,  on  some  flesh,  on  others  olives, 
or  meaner  diet.  They  assisted  each  other  in  their  callings.  Some 
employed  themselves  in  fishing,  others  in  manufacture,  &c.  Some  held 
public  offices.  On  festivals  and  times  of  invocation  upon  their  gods, 
they  celebrated  their  praises  in  acclamations  and  songs,  especially  the 
sun,  to  whom  they  dedicated  their  islands.  Their  dead  they  carried  to  the 
sea  shore  at  the  fall  of  the  tide,  covering  them  with  a  little  sand,  that  at 
the  full,  heaps  of  sand  night  be  raised  upon  them.     The  canes  whence 


APPENDIX.  779 

they  gathered  fruit  to  eat,  were  the  compass  of  a  crown  in  thickness  ; 
they  believed  them  to  increase  towards  the  full  of  the  moon,  and 
decrease  at  the  new  moon.  The' water  of  their  hot  springs  continued 
so,  unless  mixed  with  cold." 

Iambulus  was  expelled,  and  after  sundry  adventures,  ultimately 
arrived  in  Greece,  where  he  put  into  writing  an  account  of  his  voyage. 

Some  writers  have  cast  doubt  both  on  the  identity  of  the  narrator,  and 
the  authenticity  of  his  narrative.  On  the  first  little  remark  is  required  ; 
for  it  is  unimportant  from  what  source  Diodorus  derived  his  informa- 
tion; but  on  the  latter  we  may  observe,  that  Ceylon  was  at  that  time  next 
to  a  terra  incognita  to  the  writers  in  question,  who  contrived  to  dogmatise 
in  a  matter  in  which  they  have  only  displayed  their  ignorance.  To 
me,  bating  the  tincture  of  fable,  and  the  love  of  the  marvellous  pervad- 
ing it,  the  narrative  appears  remarkably  coincident  with  the  account 
of  Knox  some  2000  years  later. 


II. 

One  point  noticed  by  most  ancient  writers  on  Taprobane,  Pliny 
among  the  rest,  is  the  long  duration  of  human  life,  a  hundred  years 
being  considered  in  no  way  extraordinary.  Pliny  relates,  in  reference 
to  its  geography,  that  Megasthenes  reported,  that  there  was  a  great 
river  that  divided  it  in  twain  ;  and  that  the  people  dwelling  on  its 
hanks  were  called  Palteogoni1  or  aborigines  (Yakkas  ;  if  so,  an  extraor- 
dinary fact).  That  Eratosthenes  had  taken  its  measure,  which  he  found 
to  be  7000  stadia  in  length,  and  5000  in  breadth.  That  the  passage 
from  the  Prasian  country,  in  vessels  of  large  burden,  was  at  one  time 
twenty  days,  but  when  bamboo  boats  and  lighter  tackling  were  substi- 
tuted, seven  days.  The  sea  between  the  island  and  continent  he 
describes  as  full  of  shallows  and  shoals,  but  there  were  certain  channels 
without  soundings,  and  so  straight  and  narrow,  that  a  ship  could  not 
turn  within  them,  and  to  avoid  the  difficulty  had  prows  at  both  ends 
pointed  each  way.  Their  course  was  not  regulated  by  the  stars,  but  by 
the  direction  taken  by  birds,  which  they  carried  out  with  them  for  the 
purpose.  Pliny  then  alludes  to  the  monsoons,  and  mentions  that  in  the 
time  of  Claudius,  a  freedman  of  Annius  Plocamus,  who  farmed  the  cus- 
toms of  the  Red  Sea,  whilst  cruising  on  the  Arabian  coast,  was  driven  by 
a  storm  beyond  the  shores  of  Carmania,  and  after  being  tossed  about 
for  fifteen  days,  arrived  at  an  harbour  called  Hippuros,  in  Taprobane. 
On  landing,  he  met  with  great  courtesy  from  the  local  prince,  and  in 
return,  he  explained  to  him  the  power  and  resources  of  the  Romans.  The 
chief  was  struck  with  their  love  of  justice,  and  the  equality  in  the  weight 
of  their  coins,  notwithstanding  the  impressions  shewed  that  they  were  the 
work  of  various  persons.  He  accordingly  despatched  four  ambassadors, 

1  To  those  who  for  a  moment  consider  the  medium  through  which  Pliny- 
derived  his  information  of  Taprobane,  it  will  appear  strange  that  any  of  the 
commentators,  much  as  they  have  contrived  to  involve  every  thing  by  a  misplaced 
ingenuity,  could  have  for  a  moment  doubted  the  etymology  of  this  word,  and 
traced  its  root  to  Bali,  the  Indian  Hercules.  The  infliction  of  wading  through 
the  geographical  commentators  of  the  French  and  English  schools,  I  have  endured 
with  great  patience,  but  with  the  exception  of  MM.  Gosselin  and  Larcher,  who 
occasionally  make  a  successful  hit,  the  rest  offer  hardly  a  ray  of  enlightenment  in 
consequence  of  their  total  ignorance  of  the  theatre  they  have  attempted  to  describe. 


780  APPENDIX. 

and  one  of  his  chiefs  among  the  rest  to  Rome.  These  ambassadors 
informed  the  Romans  that  their  island  contained  500  towns,  and  that 
the  south  coast  possessed  an  excellent  haven,  at  no  great  distance  from 
Palesimundum,1  the  principal  cityof  the  realm,  and  that  the  population 
was  200,000  in  number.  That  in  the  interior  of  the  island  there  was  a 
lake,  more  than  200  miles  in  circumference,  dotted  with  numerous 
islets,  and  that  out  of  it  issued  two  rivers,  Palesimundus  and  Cydara  ; 
that  the  promontory  stretching-  nearest  to  India  from  their  island,  was 
called  Colaicuin,  that  it  was  four  days'  sail  from  the  former,  and  that 
several  islands  lay  between.  The  water  of  the  strait  they  described  as 
of  a  greenish  hue  (to  the  astronomical  errors  of  the  ambassador  it  is 
needless  to  allude).  They  then  referred  to  the  Seres,  with  whom  they 
had  commercial  transactions,  and  mentioned  the  mode  of  barter  with  the 
wild  people,  whom  I  take  to  mean  the  Yakkas,  as  they  are  described  as 
giants  of  horrible  form,  and  speaking  an  unintelligible  jargon.  The 
ambassadors  went  on  to  declare,  that  though  they  had  more  wealth  than 
the  Romans,  the  latter  turned  theirs  to  better  account.  The  manner  of 
building  their  houses,  and  the  price  of  provisions,  were  both  correctly 
described.  The  king  was  chosen  by  election,  and  if  he  acted  tyranni- 
cally, he  was  exposed  to  the  wild  beasts,  but  not  put  to  death  by  his 
subjects.  Pliny  would  seem  to  repeat  much  of  the  information  already 
given  by  Solinus,  and  contained  in  p.  7. 


III. 

Though  the  Hindoos  do  not  generally  identify  Lanka  with  Ceylon, 
but  believe  it  to  be  a  distant  region,  yet  the  testimony  of  a  Fakeer,*who 
visited  the  island  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  whose  narrative 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fourth  vol.  of  the  Asiatic  Researches,  singularly 
corroborates  the  unanimous  opinion  of  European  orientalists,  and  con- 
firms in  a  remarkable  degree  the  more  specific  researches  of  Forbes  into 
the  locality  and   scenes   of  the  Ramayana.     "  From  Jaggernauth,   our 
traveller  returned  by  nearly  the  same  route  to  Ramisher  (Ramisseram), 
whence  he   passed  over  into  Silan  (Ceylon),  and  proceded  to  its  capital, 
Khundi  (Kandy)  noora  (Nuwara),  whose  king  is  called  Khundi  Maha 
Raja,  and  from  thence  to  Katlgang  (Kattragam),  on  the  Manik-ganga, 
where  there  is  a  temple  of  Kartikiya,  son  of  Mahadeiyo,  to  which  he 
paid  his  respects,  and  then  went  on  to  visit  the  Sreepad,  or  divine  foot, 
situated   upon   a  mountain   of  immense  height,  on  one  part  of  which 
there  is  an  extensive  miry  cavity,  called  the  Bhoput  tank   (there  is  a 
tradition  among  the  natives  of  a  plain  called  the  Bhoput  Talawa,  near 
Nuwera  Elliya),  called  also  the  tank  of  Ravan,  one  of  the  former  kings 
of  this  island,  well  known  in  Hindoo  legends  from  his  wars  with  Rama, 
and  from  whom  this  Tapu  (island)  may  probably  have  received  its 
appellation  of  Taprobane  (i.e.  the  isle  of  Raban).     Leaving  this   tank, 
our  traveller  proceeded  to  Seeta  Koonda,  where  Rama  placed  his   wife 
during   his    war  with   her  ravisher  Ravan,   and    then    ascended  the 
Sreepad,  where  on  the  top,   and  on  a  flat  surface,  is  a  bungalow,  built 
over  a  print  of  the  divine  foot,  after  worshipping  which  he  returned   by 
the  same  route." 

1   Considering   the  source  of  Pliny's  information,  the  etymology  I  venture  to 
propose  for  this  much  disputed  word  is  Pulo  -  Saman-du,  i.  e.  dib  (island  ) 


APPENDIX.  781 

IV. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  SINGHA  DYNASTY.— See  p.  26. 

Although  the  following-  early  myth  us  of  the  Singha  family,  is  to 
the  last  degree  absurd,  yet  as  it  is  gravely  recorded  in  all  the  native 
histories,  and  implicitly  believed  by  the  natives,  it  cannot  legitimately  be 
excluded  by  the  historian. 

The  Raja  of  Kalingoo  (Northern  Circars),  having  given  his  daughter 
in  marriage  to  the  Raja  of  Waggoo  (a  principality  of  Madhyadaisaya 
or  the  Magadha  empire,  which  comprised  South  Bahar  and  the  Gan- 
getic  provinces),  that  princess  gave  birth  to  a  beautiful  daughter,  whose 
union  with  a  lion  on  her  arriving  at  a  certain  age  was  predicted  by  the 
astrologers.  Informed  thereof,  the  king  ordered  her  to  be  strictly  con- 
fined within  the  palace,  and  jealously  watched.  Inflamed,  however,  by 
sensual  desire,  she  contrived  to  escape,  and  making  for  the  road  to 
Lalaa  (another  principality  of  Maghada),  joined  a  company  of 
merchants  bent  on  the  same  direction.  While  passing  through  the 
wilderness,  a  lion  burst  forth  upon  them,  and  seeing-  the  beauty  of  the 
princess,  caught  and  carried  her  into  his  lair,  and  there  enjoyed  sexual 
intercourse  with  her.  Twins,  the  one  a  male,  and  the  other  a  female, 
were  the  result  of  the  union.  When  the  former  had  arrived  at  years 
of  discretion,  he  ventured  to  interrogate  his  mother,  with  respect  to  the 
startling  difference  between  herself  and  his  sire.  She,  in  reply,  unfolded 
the  whole  tale  of  his  birth,  and  the  cause  of  the  union,  whereupon  her 
son,  seizing  the  first  occasion  on  which  his  sire  was  absent  in  search  of 
food,  opened  the  door  of  the  cave,  and  walked  a  distance  of  several 
miles.  Then  returning  to  the  cave,  he  took  his  mother  and  sister  upon 
his  shoulders,  and  directed  his  course  for  the  city  of  Wag-goo  Ratte, 
where  he  arrived  in  safety.  That  city  was  then  governed  by  a  cousin 
of  his  mother's,  and  the  princess,  presenting  to  him  her  two  children, 
took  up  her  residence  there. 

On  the  return  of  the  lion  to  his  cave,  he  became  greatly  distressed  at 
the  loss  of  his  wife  and  children,  and  leaving  his  retreat,  approached 
the  city  and  slew  some  people  in  the  outskirts.  The  tidings  being 
brought  to  the  king,  he  sent  a  party  to  destroy  the  animal,  but  the 
latter,  breaking-  forth  with  a  terrible  roar,  fell  upon  and  killed  several, 
and  dispersed  the  rest.  The  failure  of  the  enterprise  served  but  to 
stimulate  the  royal  will,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  beat  of  drum, 
that  the  vanquisher  of  the  lion  should  be  rewarded  with  an  allotment  of 
territory.  The  lion's  son,  hearing  thereof,  eag-erly  stepped  forth,  and 
offered  his  services,  and  taking  his  bow  and  arrows,  and  approaching 
the  cave  of  his  sire,  called  to  him  to  come  forth.  The  lion,  though 
aware  of  his  mission,  and  grieved  at  his  ingratitude,  could  not  refrain 
from  meeting  him.  On  coming  near,  three  arrows  were  successively 
shot  at  him  by  the  son,  but  the  points  of  all  were  inverted,  and  fell 
harmless  to  the  ground.  On  his  seizing  the  fourth  arrow,  the  lion 
could  no  longer  restrain  his  fury  at  his  parricidal  offspring,  and  eyeing 
him  fixedly,  resolved  to  tear  him  in  pieces.  While  thus  engaged,  the 
son  shot  the  fourth  arrow,  which,  wounding-  him  in  the  forehead,  caused 
instant  death.  In  his  last  agony,  he  forgot  the  parricide  in  the  son,  and 
calling-  him  tenderly,  laid  his  head  on  his  lap,  and  making  affectionate 
mention  of  his  wife  and  daughter,  expired. 


782  APPENDIX. 


After  cutting  off  the  lion's  head,  and  presenting  it  to  the  king,  a  new- 
city,  called  Sinhaba-poora  Nuwara,  was  apportioned  to  the  young 
prince,  and  taking  his  sister  to  wife,  he  begat  a  numerous  offspring,  the 
first-born  of  which  was  Wijeya,  whose  subsequent  life  is  recorded  in 
pp.  26,  27,  &c. 


V. 

LOVE  OF  THE  PRINCE  SALI. 


Sali  was  son  of  Dootoogaimoonoo   (see  p.  43),  and  from  the  very 
hour  of  his  birth  was  begirt  with  a  halo  of  miraculous  accompaniments. 
The  courtly  page  of  the  historiographer,  not  content  with  assigning  to 
him  the  ordinary  endowments  of  princes,  hesitates  not  to  ascribe  to  him 
a  combination  of  every  manly  virtue.     Delighted  with  his  accomplish- 
ments, the  king  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  viceroy,  and  built  him  a 
stately  palace  at  the  south-end  of  Anuradhapoora.     On  a  certain  day, 
Sali,  attended  by  a  numerous  retinue,  betook  himself  to   the  pleasure 
gardens,  where  a  crowd  of  young  chieftains  were  disporting  themselves 
among  the  flowers.     Attracted  by  an  asoka  tree  of  surpassing  beauty, 
he  approached  it,  and  looking  up,  beheld  among-  the  boughs,  a  maiden 
who  had  climbed  it  for  the  flowers  hanging  from  its  branches.     The 
splendour  of  her  naked  form,  as  it  shone  in  contrast  with  the  deep 
green  of  the  surrounding  foliag'e,  and  the  flowers  that  bedecked  her, 
seemed  as  it  were  an  embodiment  of  lightning,  or  like  the  full  moon  in 
a  dark  cloud.     The  courtiers,  enraptured,  began   severally  to  be  seized 
with  desire,  and  accosted  her.     "  Beloved,  who  and  whence  art  thou  ? 
Art  thou  a  daughter  of  man  or  goddess  ?  for  never  in  the  world  was 
beauty  seen  like  thine.     Tell  us  who  are  thy  parents,  and  whether  thou 
art  married  or  unmarried  V    "  Lords,"  replied  the  maiden,  "  I   am  the 
daughter  of  the  chief  of  the  Chandalls  (a  low  caste)."     Sali,  hearing 
the  same,  beckoned  her  to  alight  from  the  tree,    exclaiming,  "  The 
precious  stones  and  the  pearl  are  never  rejected  by  man,  though  they 
be  found  lying  in  a  heap  of  excrement;  wherefore  should  this  damsel, 
though  she  be  born  in  the  caste  of  the  Chandalls  ?"     Thereupon  con- 
ducting her  to  a  linen  conveyance,  he  escorted  her  to  his  palace,  and  as 
no  woman  in  Lanka  equalled  her  in  beauty,  named  her  Asoka-malla, 
from  the  tree  on  which  she  was  found.     Fame,  with  her  thousand 
tongues,  suffered  no  long  time  to  elapse,  ere  the  whole  city  of  Anurad- 
hapoora had  learnt  the  tale  of  Sali's  amour  with  the  Chandall  maiden, 
till  it  finally  came  to  the  ears  of  the  king.  Dootoogaimoonoo,  displeased 
thereat,  sent  for  the  favourite  lady  of  his  harem,  and  said,  "  Go  to  my 
son,  and  tell  him,  Lord,  thy  father  will  get  thee  a  princess  of  the  royal 
or  of  the  Brahmin's  caste  for  thy  wife,   and  thou  shalt  be  proclaimed 
king,  wherefore  forsake  this  daughter  of  the  Chandalls,  and  stain  not 
the  royal  caste."      Sali    declared  his  unalterable   attachment  to  the 
damsel,  and  replied,  "A  woman  in  pregnancy  cannot  be  satisfied  with 
the  ripe  mango,   while  she  desires  the  pomegranate;  so  will  not  I  be 
content  with  a  goddess,  much  less  a  woman,  except  this  very  one." 
The  king,  learning  his  resolution,  sent  for  the  priests  skilled  in  sooth- 
saying, and  bade  them  go  and   examine  Asoka-malla,  and  report  on 
the  tokens  of  fortune  she  possessed.     On    coming  into  her  presence, 


APPENDIX.  783 

the  Brahmins  were  amazed  at  the  tokens  of  beauty  and  good  fortune 
in  her  person,  and  returning-  to  the  king,  intoxicated  at  the  sight  of 
her  charms,  exclaimed,  "  O  king,  Asoka-malla  is  blessed  with  a  body 
the  colour  of  gold,  her  large  eyes  resemble  the  petals  of  the  blue 
mahanel,  and  the  soft  soles  of  her  feet  the  petal  of  the  red  tank  flower. 
Endowed  thus,  she  is  certainly  propitious,  and  is  fit  for  the  chief  consort 
of  Sakreya."  Seized  with  the  contagion,  the  king  became  desirous  of 
seeing  her,  and  sent  word  of  his  intention  to  the  prince.  Sali,  glad 
thereat,  called  Asoka-malla,  and  said,  "  Beloved  one,  the  king  is  this 
day  coming  to  the  palace,  I  think,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  thee,  delay 
not  therefore  in  due  preparation."  Hastening  therefore  to  prepare  the 
choicest  viands,  she  advanced  with  her  husband  to  meet  the  king 
and  his  ministers,  at  the  entrance  of  the  palace,  and  deporting  them- 
selves with  great  respect  and  obeisance,  they  stood  aside  in  an  humble 
posture.  The  king,  touched  by  the  beauty  with  which  she  was  illu- 
mined, accosted  her  :  "  Art  thou  then  that  happy  maiden,  Asoka-malla  V 
"  I  am,"  said  she,  "  my  lord."  The  sweet  scent  which  issued  from  her 
mouth  at  the  utterance  of  these  words,  in  a  moment  filled  the  palace, 
and  the  king,  taking  his  seat,  was  served  by  her  in  person.  Repenting 
of  the  intention  he  had  formed  of  depriving  his  son  of  this  excellent 
maiden,  after  beholding  her  enchanting  qualities,  he  called  the  prince, 
his  son,  and  giving  them  advice  for  the  future,  placed  them  upon  a  heap 
of  gold,  and  performing  the  marriage  ceremony,  returned  to  his  palace. 
Sali,  far  from  becoming  palled  with  the  charms  of  his  wife,  continued 
to  enjoy  the  most  perfect  happiness,  and  she,  spending  her  time  in  acts 
of  charity,  balanced  the  sufferings  of  the  unfortunate  from  the  supera- 
bundance of  her  own  good  fortune.  Before  his  death,  Dootoog-aimoonoo 
sent  for  Prince  Sali,  and  said,  "Son,  thou  may'st  succeed  to  the 
throne,  and  reign  by  protecting  the  world  and  our  religion."  But  he, 
aware  of  the  alternative,  and  preferring  Asoka-malla  to  the  kingdom, 
refused  it.  The  legend  of  the  amour  of  Sali  is  still  current  among  the 
Singhalese,  and  is  probably  one  of  the  most  authentic  in  their  history. 


VI. 

KANDIAN  COURT  ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  officers  of  the  palace  were  as  numerous  and  miscellaneous  as  the  general 
wants  of  the  monarch  on  whom  they  attended.  The  following  summary  will 
afford  an  insight  into  the  arrangements  of  the  Kandian  court.  The  Gajenayaka 
nilanie  (elephant  chief),  was  the  first  officer  of  the  domestic  household.  He  had 
the  superintendence  of  the  royal  elephant  keepers,  of  whom  a  register  was  kept 
hy  the  Kooroone  lekam,  a  subordinate  officer.  The  functions  of  all  the  different 
Lekamships  were  originally  of  a  military  nature.  Each  lekamship  was  under  the 
control  of  a  Lekam  mahatmeya,  whom  the  King  called  Mohottala  and  hy  a 
Lekamy  mohandixam,  and  certain  petty  officers.  The  six  lekams  first  on  the  list 
had  each  the  command  of  a  certain  number  of  men,  whose  duties  were  very 
similar,  and  consisted  principally  of  carrying  messages,  and  conveying  the  king's 
orders.  The  Koodituakkoo-lekam  commanded  the  king's  artillery,  consisting  of 
j in-alls.  The  Bondikkulla-lekam  was  at  the  head  of  a  department  instituted  by 
tin;  last  king,  to  take  charge  of  the  iron  cannon  belonging  to  his  majesty.  The 
Madoowa-lekam  had  the  command  of  a  class  of  men  whose  duty  it  was  to  guard 


784  APPENDIX. 

the  capital  at  fourteen  different  stations,  armed  with  muskets.     While  they  were 
posted  around  the  environs  of  the  city,  the  king's  Malabar  troops  kept  sentry  round 
the  palace  and  protected  his  person.     The  Aspantia  mohandiram  nilame  was  the 
master  of  the  horse,  and,  with  other  subordinate  officers,  had  the  superintendence 
of  the  royal  stables.     The  Hoodooharakpantia  mohandiram  nilame  was  intrusted 
with  the  care  of  the  king's  herd  of  white  cattle,  which  were  brought  from  the 
Indian  peninsula,  and  were  highly  esteemed  on  account  of  their  colour.     The 
Patteavidane  nilame  had  the  general  control  over  theking's  cattle  in  different  partsof 
the  country,  under  the  care  of  the  Pattea  people.  The  Maha-aramoodaly-wannakoo 
nilame,  the  king's  chief  treasurer,  was  one  of  the  first  officers  in  the  household. 
There  were  five  Lekams,   and  the  same  number  of  Kanganamas  under  him,  ap- 
pointed by  the  king,  and  dignified  with  the  title  of  Mahatmeya,  or  Nilame  ;   they 
were  the  king's  receivers  and  paymasters  general,  and  had  charge  of  all  the  royal 
treasures,  over  which  they  were  expected  to  exercise  the  greatest  vigilance.     The 
Mahagabada  nilame  was  the  royal  storekeeper,  and  took  post  after  the  treasurer ; 
his  office  was  to  see  that  the  royal  dues  in  kind  were  properly  paid  and  taken 
care  of.     He  had  under  him  four  lekams  and  four  Kanganamas,  appointed  by  the 
king  at  liis  nomination,  besides  four  Gayballanaralles  and  a  number  of  workmen. 
The  duty  of  the  lekams  was  to  keep  an  account  of  the  things  stored  and  issued  ; 
that  of  the  Kanganama  to  guard  and  open  and  shut  the  doors  ;  that  of  the  gay- 
ballanaralles to  take  care  of  the  things  within  as  regarded  packing,   unpacking, 
and  preservation,  and  the  workmen  were  employed  in  the  ordinary  business  of 
the  store,  &c.     The  Udagaba  nilame  had  the  superintendence  of  the  king's  pri- 
vate store  for  the  reception  of  the  dues  of  the  royal  villages,  and  derived  his  name 
from  the  circumstance  of  his  store  being  built  on  higher  ground  than  the  preced- 
ing ;  from  these  two  stores  the  king's  household  was  supplied  with  every  neces- 
sary. The  Maha-haiti-penange  mohandiram  nilame  commanded  the  Appohamies, 
or  gentlemen  in  waiting  on  the  king,  and  had  under  liim  a  lekam-mahatmeya  and 
a  kanganama  nilame  ;  the  duty  of  the  former  was  to  take  care  of  the  jewels  that 
the  king  was  in  the  daily  habit  of  wearing,  while  that  of  the  latter  was  to  command 
the  guard  of  appohamies  about  the  king  under  the  direction  of  the  mohandiram. 
Formerly  the  number  of  these  appohamies  was  not  limited  bythe  late  king  ;  after  the 
war  of  1803  their  number  was  reduced  to  forty-eight.     The  situation  was  consi- 
dered honourable,  and  was  in  great  request,  and  was  always  held  by  the  sons  of 
chiefs  and  people  of  rank,  whom  the  king  promoted  to  higher  posts  as  vacancies 
ensued.     Then'  principal  duty  was  to  be  in  attendance  to  receive  his  majesty's 
orders  and  communicate  them  to  the  chiefs  ;  when  called,  they  approached  the  king 
moving  on  their  knees,   but  after  having  received  their  instructions,  they  were 
permitted  to  rise  and  retire.     They  had  no  direct  stipend,  except  that  their  lands 
were  exempted  from  paying  duty  to  the  Gabadawe. 

The  Attepattoo-madoowa  mohandiram  nilame,  like  the  last  officer,  had  the  com- 
mand of  forty-eight  appohamies,  who  were  also  the  sons  of  chiefs.  It  was  their 
duty  to  be  in  waiting  in  the  attepattoo-madoowa,  a  room  near  the  king's,  to  convey 
his  messages  and  carry  his  "  g-olden  arms"  in  public.  It  must  not  be  inferred 
that  these  arms  were  really  of  gold  ;  the  term  was  one  of  reverence,  and  was  a  com- 
mon oriental  court  expression. 

The  Ranauda-madoowa  lekam  mahatmeya,  with  the  aid  of  forty-eight  young 
men  of  quality,  kept  a  register  of  the  royal  arms,  and  took  care  that  they  were 
preserved  in  good  order  by  the  different  kinds  of  smiths  attached  to  the  depart- 
ment. The  Audagewannakoo  nilame,  with  two  lekam  and  two  kanganama 
nilamies  under  him,  had  the  charge  of  all  the  king's  muskets,  swords,  and  iron 
and  brass  instruments.  The  Diawadene  nilame  had  the  care  of  the  royal  bath, 
and  when  the  king  used  it,  it  was  his  office  to  wash  and  comb  and  dress  his  ma- 
jesty's hair.  Under  him  were  ten  Satambis,  and  the  same  number  of  Panuvida- 
karayos  ;  the  former  acted  as  the  petty  chiefs  of  the  people  (about  500  families) 
that  were  attached  to  the  bath.  Two  satambis  were  required  to  he  in  constant 
attendance  in  the  palace  ;  and  at  the  new  year,  when  the  king  performed  a  cere- 
monial ablution,  the  presence  of  the  whole  ten  was  required.     Their  duty,  besides 


APPENDIX.  785 

taking  care  of  the  bath,  was  to  pour  water  on  the  king',  and  those  of  the  best 
families  might  touch  him  and  wash  his  feet.  The  pannivida-karayos  were  em- 
ployed in  carrying-  messages  to  summon  the  services  of  the  people  of  the  bath. 

The  Haloowadene  nilame  had  the  superintendence  of  the  king's  wardrobe,  and 
was  expected  to  lend  his  services  in  the  attiring  of  royalty.  The  ordinary  dress 
of  the  late  king  was  a  shirt,  a  jacket  over  it  with  long  sleeves,  and  a  rich  topetty 
in  the  Singhalese  fashion,  or  a  loose  trowsers  in  the  Malabar  :  he  wore  a  high 
four-cornered  cap  of  a  particular  form,  and  ornamented  with  tassels.  The  Bat- 
wadene nilame  was  the  king's  caterer  ;  he  had  under  him  two  Madapparalles  and 
many  Piaharalles.  The  business  of  the  former  was  to  dress  the  royal  table  and 
arrange  the  dishes :  the  latter  were  master-cooks,  who  presided  in  the  royal 
kitchen.  The  king's  table  was  covered  with  a  white  cloth,  and  furnished  with  a 
service  of  gold  plate.  When  all  was  prepared,  the  table  was  brought  before  his 
Majesty,  sitting  with  a  white  carpet  under  his  feet,  and  a  white  canopy  over  his 
bead.  The  batwadene  nilame,  using  knives  and  forks  and  spoons,  helped  the  king, 
who  ate  with  his  fingers  off  a  fresh  plantain  leaf  that  was  laid  on  a  gold  plate. 
His  principal  aliment  was  different  kinds  of  curries ;  his  drink,  water,  and  the  liquor 
of  the  cocoa-nut.  He  always  dined  alone,  except  on  special  occasions,  when  he 
admitted,  as  a  great  mark  of  his  favour  and  affection,  a  favourite  queen  to  execute 
the  office  of  the  batwadene  nilame,  who  was  then  dismissed,  and  no  one  else  allowed 
to  be  present. 

The  Panivida-karoona  nilame  had  the  preparation  of  betel,  and  setting  it  before 
the  king.  The  ingredients  of  the  royal  betel,  independent  of  the  leaf  which  gave 
name  to  the  whole,  were,  the  areka  nut  in  four  states,  dried  whole,  dried  in 
slices,  fresh,  and  macerated  in  water  ;  chunam  or  lime  ;  mandandoo,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  the  buds  and  roots  of  an  aromatic  plant ;  cardamums  ;  camphor ;  kypoo, 
which  is  an  astringent  exactly  resembling  catechu  ;  katchoondam,  a  compound 
of  different  perfumes  ;  and  extract  of  liquorice.  The  king  never  masticated  all 
these  at  once,  but  used  them  variously  compounded  according  to  his  fancy. 

The  Baitge  mohandiram  nilame  was  at  the  head  of  the  king's  physicians,  about 
fifty  in  number,  and  had  the  charge  of  the  medical  stores,  to  which  forty  assistants 
were  added  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  medicinal  plants,  and  making  medicinal 
preparations  under  the  prescription  of  the  physicians.  Some  of  the  physicians 
attended  particularly  to  one  disease,  and  some  to  another  :  thus,  some  to  diseases 
of  the  eye,  some  to  the  treatment  of  boils,  and  some  to  the  removal  of  charms. 
There  was  no  distinction  among  them  of  surgeon  and  physician.  Some  received 
their  education  at  Kandy,  and  were  taught  the  art  by  the  Baitge  mohandiram  ; 
others  were  taught  in  the  country,  and  having  acquired  reputation  for  learning- 
and  skill,  were  summoned  to  the  capital.  It  was  only  the  mohandiram  nilame  and 
the  most  respectable  of  the  physicians,  who  were  permitted  to  have  a  personal 
interview  with  the  king  in  cases  where  their  advice  was  required,  and  it  was  only 
in  cases  of  great  emergency  that  any  of  them  were  admitted  to  see  the  queens ;  in 
general  they  had  to  prescribe  for  the  disease  as  described  to  them.  If  they  suc- 
ceeded, they  were  rewarded  by  a  gratuity  ;  but  if  they  failed,  they  had  none. 

The  two  Koonam-madoowa  lekam  mahatmeyas  were  the  superintendents  of  the 
king's  palanquin,  and  were  required  to  be  constantly  at  their  post.  Ten  Satambis 
were  appointed  under  them  who  did  duty  alternately,  two  at  a  time.  The  bearers 
of  the  royal  palanquin,  consisting  of  three  or  four  hundred  families,  were  under 
their  immediate  orders. 

The  Soodalia  mohandiram  nilame  and  Mauroowalia  mohandiram  nilame?,  each 
commanded  a  class  of  fencers  ;  one  called  Soodalia,  and  the  other  Mauroowalia, 
terms  applied  to  the  people  generally,  the  whole  country  having  been  formerly 
divided  between  the  two  parties.  The  champions  on  one  side  or  party  were 
always  opposed  to  those  of  the  other;  their  engagements  were  single  combats, 
either  with  the  fist,  or  with  sword  and  shield,  or  with  clubs.  Formerly  ihey 
exhibited  before  the  court  like  gladiators,  endeavouring  to  draw  blood  and  inflict 
wounds.  The  bloody  combat  was  at  length  discontinued,  as  it  gave  rise  to  serious 
quarrels  and  feuds  among  the  people.     Of  each  set  of  fencers  there  were  ten 

3   E 


780  APPENDIX. 

maitrcs  $  amies  in  different  parts  of  the  country  to  instruct  all  who  were  desirous 
to  leam  their  art. 

The  Naitoom-elangame  mohandiram  nilame  had  the  superintendence  of  the 
king's  company  of  dancers,  who,  according-  to  the  Malabar  fashion,  were  women. 
It  being-  distasteful,  from  its  indelicacy,  in  the  opinion  of  the  natives,  they  were 
seldom  employed  at  court. 

The  Kawiekara-madoowa  mohandiram  nilame  had  the  direction  of  the  king's 
company  of  singers.  The  late  king  was  fond  of  music,  and  his  band  frequently 
performed  before  him,  playing  on  certain  instruments  simultaneously  with  vocali- 
zation. 

The  Wahala-elangame  mohandiram  nilame  had  the  command  of  about  thirty 
men,  performers  of  different  kinds,  some  accomplished  in  slight-of-hand  tricks, 
some  in  vaulting,  some  in  walking  on  sticks,  and  others  in  dancing,  &c. 

The  Tamboroo-purampeetoo-kara  mohandiram  nilame  commanded  the  king's 
drummers  and  trumpeters ;  hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  both  the  instruments 
from  which  it  was  derived  were  borrowed  from  the  Portuguese. 

The  Sinharack-kara  mohandiram  nilame  had  charge  of  a  company  of  tom-tom 
beaters,  formed  by  the  late  king  for  his  own  use  ;  it  was  their  duty  to  beat  these 
discordant  instruments  at  the  palace  at  eight  intervals  during  the  day. 

All  these  officers,  who  received  their  appointments  from  the  king,  were  privi- 
leged to  enter  the  hall  of  audience  and  appear  before  the  throne.  In  no  court 
perhaps  was  there  ever  a  greater  display  of  barbarous  pomp  than  in  the  Kandian, 
or  greater  adidation  paid  to  a  monarch,  or  more  rigorous  attention  to  unmeaning- 
etiquette. 


VII. 

TENURE  OP  LANDS,  &c. 


The  tenure  of  land  in  Ceylon  was  perfectly  feudal  under  the  native  dynasty. 
All  the  land  belonged  to  the  king  bylaw,  as  the  descendant  of  the  first  king  who 
conquered  the  island,  and  expelled  the  demons,  by  whom  he  found  it  inhabited  ; 
and  where  it  had  all  been  granted,  or  was  still  occasionally  granted  by  him  to 
certain  castes  or  families,  it  was  under  the  imposition  either  of  personal  services 
to  be  performed,  or  of  certain  shares  of  the  produce,  or  it  was  granted  to  indivi- 
duals for  one  life,  subject  to  the  will  of  the  crown,  or  as  a  compensation  for  exe- 
cuting the  duties  of  certain  public  offices,  and,  consequently,  held  only  as  long  as 
the  individual  held  those  offices.     The  power  of  the  chiefs  was,  therefore,  greatly 
circumscribed,  and  it  was  only  by  antagonistic  influences,  such  as  the  imbecility 
of  the  supreme  power,  that  the  all-controlling  influence,  naturally  in  the  hands  of 
the  lord  and  disposer  of  the  soil,  was  in  any  degree  modified.  The  chain  of  duties 
and  services  thus  established,  bound  every  class  and  every  individual,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  rank,  and  was  a  great  moving  machine,  applied  to  enforce 
the  civil  and  judicial  administration  of  government,  to  regulate  the  pursuits  of 
agriculture,  or  to  carry  on  an  offensive  and  defensive  war ;  and  though  resembling- 
in  some  measure  the  duties  and  services  established  by  the  feudal  law  in  Europe, 
differ,  in  that  the  latter  were  introduced  with  a  view  to  check  and  keep  within 
proper  boundaries  the  power  of  barons,  who  were  nevertheless  actual  lords  of  the 
soil,  and  held  in  servitude  the  population  attached  to  that  soil,  while  in  the  former 
the  sole  right  to  the  land  was  centred  in  the  king  or  lord  paramount  ;  from 
which  it  must  be  evident  that  the  real  foundation  of  the  two  systems  (the  one 
being  an  allodial,  the  other  a  feudal  tenure)  was  essentially  different,  and  in  like 
manner  also  their  effects.     These  facts  will  serve  as  a  key  to  the  otherwise  inexpli- 
cable endurance  with  which  the  natives  groaned  under  the  oppressive  rule  of 
some   of  their   monarchs,  and    though  satisfied  of  obtaining-  freedom  from  the 
galling  chain  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  European  invader,  invariably  kept  aloof 
from  his  standard. 


APPENDIX.  787 

All  lands  in  the  Singhalese  provinces  were  distinguished  by  some  peculiar  deno- 
mination, indicating-  whether  they  still  remained  under  the  immediate  occupancy 
of  Government,  or  whether,  and  upon  what  conditions  they  had  been  granted  to 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  nature  of  the  tenure  under  which  they  held  it.  The 
variety  of  these  tenures  was  great.  In  the  first  class  were  all  those  lands 
which  had  not  been  alienated  by  Government  for  a  life,  or  during  the  performance 
of  certain  services,  or  granted  in  fee-simple  and  made  inheritable  upon  condition 
of  merely  paying  a  certain  share  of  the  produce  to  Government,  but  had  been  im- 
mediately retained  by  it. 

1st,  Moottettoo-lands,  of  which  the  Government  has  retained  possession,  and 
which  continue  to  be  cultivated  on  its  account,  and  the  rice  produced  in  them 
was  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  king-  and  his  household.  2ndly,  Ratneinde-lands, 
also  unalienated  by  Government  and  still  cultivated  on  its  account.  3rdly,  Rat- 
mahara  Government  lands  cultivated  or  capable  of  cultivation.  Sometimes  these 
lands  were  waste  tracts  of  jungle,  which  the  natives  took  possession  of,  cleared 
and  cultivated  without  previously  asking  Government  leave  :  in  that  case  those 
lands  were  subject  to  the  payment  of  one-half  of  the  produce,  which  was  generally 
of  dry  gram  of  inferior  quality.  When  these  lands  were  granted  by  Government 
for  cultivation,  the  conditions  naturally  depended  on  the  agreement  made  between 
the  parties  at  the  time.  In  general,  they  were,  that  the  holder  should  enjoy  tin' 
revenue  for  the  first  five  years  without  paying  any  tax  to  Government,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  that  period,  should  pay,  if  on  high  soil,  one-tenth,  and  if  on  low  soil, 
one-fourth  of  the  produce  to  Government.  Other  lands  similar  to  these  were 
called  Chenas,  and  were  generally  elevated  spots  of  land  covered  with  low  jungle. 
The  natives,  with  or  without  leave  of  Government,  set  fire  to  the  jxmgles,  worked 
the  ground  in  a  very  superficial  manner  after  fencing  it  in,  and  sowed  it  with  dry 
grains,  and  after  collecting  the  first  year's  crop,  abandoned  it  again  for  eight  or 
ten  years,  until  the  jungle  grew  again  so  as  to  make  the  ashes  a  sufficient  manure 
to  yield  another  crop.  If  worked  without  the  consent  of  Government,  it  was  sub- 
ject to  the  payment  of  one-half  of  the  produce ;  if  with  it,  it  then  payed  according 
to  agreement.  The  cultivator  had,  however,  no  actual  or  even  qualified  right  of 
possession,  unless  leave  of  occupation  had  been  solicited  of  the  king  through  one 
of  his  ministers.  That  obtained,  a  security  or  title  was  given  by  the  king  under 
the  name  of  a  sanus*  or  deed  of  gift.  This  instrument  was  generally  of  copper, 
occasionally  of  silver  gilt,  and  some  were  of  stone,  on  which  the  royal  signature, 
such  as  "  Sree"  was  inscribed.  The  land  thus  granted,  could  be  sold  or  given 
away  by  the  occupier  without  asking  permission,  except  he  wished  to  make  a 
present  of  it  to  a  wihare,  when  it  was  usual  to  petition  the  king  in  the  following 
manner  :    "  I  am  desirous  of  making  this  present  to  the  wihare  for  my  good,  and 

*  Here  is  the  exordium  of  a  sannas  granted  by  King'  Kirti-Sri :  "  Our  Buddha 
who  acquired  Nirwane,  who  came  into  the  world  like  other  Buddhas  ;  from  whom 
is  derived  the  food  of  life  (religion),  who  is  celebrated  for  his  thirty-two  great  manly 
beauties,  and  for  the  eighty-two  signs  connected  with  them,  and  for  the  light 
which  shines  a  fathom  round  his  body,  and  for  the  beams  of  light  that  dart  from 
the  top  of  his  head  ;  who  is  the  preceptor  of  three  worlds,  and  acquainted  with 
the  past,  present,  and  future  ;  who  during  four  asankeas  of  kalpes  so  conducted 
himself  as  to  be  an  example  of  the  thirty  great  qualities  ;  who  subdued  Ma  ivy  a. 
and  his  attendants;  in  the  eighth  year  from  thence  rose  into  the  air,  spread 
beams  of  light  of  six  different  colours  round  bis  person,  and  stamped  the  impres- 
sion of  his  foot,  bearing  the  noble  marks  Chakkra-laksana,  and  the  one  hundred 
and  eight  auspicious  tokens,  on  the  rock  Samanta-koota-parwatia  ;  which  is  cele- 
brated for  the  cold  and  lovely  waters  of  its  rivers,  for  its  mountain  torrents  and 
its  flowery  groves,  spreading  in  the  air  their  sweet-scented  pollen,  which  is  tin' 
crown  of  the  virgin  island,  rich  in  mines  of  all  precious  stones,  like  a  maid  decked 
with  jewels,  kc.  &c." 

3    E    2 


788  appendix. 

I  pray  your  Majesty  will  permit  me,  as  it  is  equally  for  yours."  The  necessity  of 
this  request  arose  from  the  fact,  that  land  granted  to  a  temple  was  lost  to  the  king-, 
temple  lands  paying'  no  dues.  If  the  original  cultivator  died  intestate,  or  was 
guilty  of  rebellion,  the  land  returned  to  the  king,  who  could  dispose  of  it  in  three 
different  ways  ;  he  might  give  it  to  a  wihare,  when  it  would  be  exempt  from  all 
dues  and  services  ;  or  he  might  bestow  it  on  a  favourite  or  a  deserving  officer  as  a 
reward  to  be  held  at  the  royal  pleasure,  exempt  from  duties ;  or  he  might  give 
the  land  to  an  indifferent  person  without  any  exemption.  4thly,  Mallapalla,  land 
that  was  formerly  granted  under  a  tenure  subject  to  personal  services  to  Govern- 
ment, and  which  reverted  to  it  from  failure  of  male  issue  to  perform  those  services. 
5thly,  Nellipalla,  land  granted  under  the  same  tenure  as  the  former,  and  also 
reverting  to  Government  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  holders  to  perform  the 
services  under  which  they  were  bound  by  that  tenure.  When  cultivated,  both 
kinds  paid  one-half  of  the  produce. 

The  second  class  consisted  of  lands  alienated  by  the  sovereign ;  the  possession 
of  which  had  been  granted  to  families,  and  made  saleable  or  heritable  by  male  or 
females  ;  the  produce  of  such  lands  being  subject  to  the  payment  of  a  share  to 
Government. 

1st,  Parveny,the  general  denomination  of  all  lands  ceded  by  the  sovereign. 
Sometimes  these  lands  were  acquired  by  purchase,  at  other  times  by  gift. 
These  lands  were  frequently  granted  originally  under  service  tenure  ;  but  these 
services  having  been  neglected,  and  yet  possession  kept  of  the  land,  the  right 
to  it  became  confirmed  by  prescription,  which,  under  tbe  Singhalese  law. 
required  three  full  generations ;  under  the  Dutch  it  was  restricted  to  thirty 
years,  and  by  the  British  Government  to  ten.  When  this  land  consisted  of 
gardens  or  plantations  of  trees,  it  paid  nothing  to  Government;  when  of  rice 
fields,  it  was  divided  into  two  heads,  viz.  Otto-Parveny,  heritable  and  saleable 
land,  held  in  fee-simple,  and  paying  to  Government  one-tenth  of  the  produce  ; 
or  Anda  Farveny — land  of  tbe  same  description,  but  paying  one-half  instead 
of  one-tenth. 

Otto  Kombra  Parveny,  Owitte  Parveny,  and  Kanoys  Parveny,  were  lands  of 
the  same  kind  as  the  above,  held  in  some  parts  of  the  Chilaw  district  in  fee- 
simple,  under  the  condition  of  paying  one-fifth  of  their  produce  to  Government. 
Karwoodeny  Parveny,  lands  similarly  held,  but  paying  one-fifth  of  the  pro- 
duce, and  distinguished  by  a  different  name,  from  being  covered  with  low 
jungle,  and  impregnated  with  salt  water. 

The  third,  and  last  class,  was  composed,  first  of  the  lands  granted  in  accom- 
modesans,  namely,  under  the  tenure  of  personal  service  ;  in  compensation  of 
the  services  which  certain  individuals  were  bound  to  perform  for  Government. 
These  lands  were  inalienable  by  the  holder,  either  by  will,  sale,  or  mortgage, 
and  the  possession  was  not  transferable  by  inheritance,  but  the  land  reverted  to 
Government  when  the  person  to  whom  the  accommodesan  was  granted  died,  or 
was  removed  from  his  office.  Under  the  native  Princes,  and  the  Portuguese  and 
the  Dutch  Governments,  almost  every  native  officer,  high  or  low,  was  paid  by 
similar  grants  of  land  in  accommodesans,  by  which  title  they  held  them  without 
paying  any  share  of  their  produce  to  Government ;  and  in  several  districts  or 
villages,  where  Government  had  no  lands  to  grant  under  that  tenure  to  native 
officers,  it  resigned  to  them  part  of  the  share  to  which  Government  was  entitled 
upon  the  produce  of  the  other  fields  belonging  to  that  village  or  district. 
Secondly,  Divil  Parveny,  or  lands  granted  under  personal  service  tenure,  and 
also  termed  Weddawassan,  or  service  land.  The  possession  of  these  lands  was 
granted  sometimes  to  certain  castes,  at  other  times  to  families,  free  of  paying 
any  tax  to  the  sovereign,  but  binding  the  occupant  to  perform  certain  personal 
services  in  return  for  that  grant.  These  lands,  on  the  non-fulfilment  of  the 
imposed  service,  or  in  default  of  male  issue,  to  perform  these  services,  returned 
to  Government,  and  became  Mallapalla,  or  Nellipalla.  The  Weddawassan  and 
Divil  Parveny  could  not  be  made  liable  to  seizure  for  payment  of  the  debts  of 


APPENDIX.  789 

tlie  occupant,  and  at  his  death  reverted  undivided  to  the  male  heir.  In  this 
manner  the  Singhalese  civil  and  military  service  was  paid,  and  was  therefore 
no  pecuniary  charge  to  Government. 

A  regulated  number  of  public  servants  were  summoned  out  of  each  rank  at 
a  time,  and  they  were  relieved  from  that  service  at  the  expiration  of  fifteen 
days,  when  others  were  called  for.  These  public  servants,  moreover,  were  not 
bound  to  personal  attendance  in  any  korle  or  province  but  their  own,  unless 
paid  for  it.  The  people  employed  in  hunting  elephants  were  obliged  to  serve  in 
different  korles  without  salary. 

The  tenure  of  land  in  the  northern  province,  inhabited  by  Malabars,  was 
totally  different  and  much  more  simple.  The  Government  share  on  paddy 
fields  was  invariably  one-tenth  of  the  gross  produce.  Although  the  right  of 
the  sovereign  upon  the  soil  was  equally  acknowledged  in  these  provinces,  it  was 
les9  positively  so.  It  is  related,  that  the  kings  of  Kandy,  after  subjugating  the 
Malabar  Princes,  distributed  their  land  among  the  chiefs  who  had  followed, 
and  whose  families  fixed  themselves  in  the  lands  they  had  thus  acquired  ; 
many  of  them,  however,  were  afterwards  dispossessed  of  them,  either  for  mis- 
conduct, or  through  the  intrigues  and  private  views  of  theAdigaais  and  Dissaves, 
and  they  were  granted  to  others,  who  offered  a  better  remuneration. 


VIII. 

ABRIDGED  ACCOUNT  OF  KNOX'S  CAPTIVITY  IN  CEYLON, 
AND  HIS  ULTIMATE   ESCAPE. 

In  1657,  the  Anne  frigate,  of  London,  Captain  Robert  Knox,  left 
England  for  Fort  St.  George,  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
to  trade  from  port  to  port  in  India.  While  lading  for  their  return  to 
England,  a  violent  hurricane  forced  them,  while  lying  in  the  roads  of 
Masulipatam,  to  cut  away  their  mainmast,  which  so  disabled  the  ship, 
that  she  could  not  proceed,  and  she  was  ordered  to  make  for  the  bay  of 
Kotti-aar  in  Ceylon,  and  there  to  trade  until  she  had  refitted.  At  first 
they  were  shy  of  the  natives,  as  the  English  had  not  yet  opened  a  trade 
with  them,  but  being  unmolested,  and  even  welcomed  by  the  local  chief, 
they  at  length  laid  aside  suspicion.  At  length,  the  king  of  Kandy  heard 
of  their  arrival,  and  as  the  captain  had  not,  through  ignorance  of  the 
Singhalese  customs,  sent  to  apprize  him  of  the  object  of  his  arrival,  he 
despatched  a  dissave  with  a  small  force,  who  sent  to  the  captain  to  come 
on  shore,  intimating  that  he  had  a  letter  from  the  king.  His  request 
was  complied  with,  when  he  asked  the  party  sent,  who  they  were,  and 
how  long  they  should  stay  ?  They  replied,  that  they  were  English, 
should  not  stay  longer  than  thirty  days,  and  asked  leave  to  trade.  He 
replied,  that  the  king  was  glad  that  the  English  had  come  into  his 
country,  had  directed  him  to  assist  them,  and  had  sent  a  letter  to  be 
delivered  to  none  but  the  captain  himself.  As  they  were  twelve  miles 
from  the  ship,  they  told  him  the  captain  could  not  come  so  far,  but  if  he 
would  accompany  them  to  the  ship,  the  captain  would  there  wait  upon 
him,  and  receive  the  letter,  to  which  the  dissave  agreed.  The  same  day 
the  dissave  sent  to  say  that  he  was  sending  a  present  to  the  captain, 
and  if  they  wished  to  send  a  letter,  they  could  do  so.  This  raised  their 
suspicions,  and  in  their  letter  they  advised  the  captain  to  let  none  come 
on  shore,  until  he  saw  them.     This  letter  was  not  delivered.     The  next 


790  APPENDIX. 

morning',  the  present,  consisting'  of  cattle,  fruit,  &c,  was  brought  to  the 
sea  side,  and  delivered  to  the  captain,  who  was  invited  on  shore,  and  told 
that  the  dissave  was  coming. 

The  captain,  mistrusting  nothing,  came  up  in  his  boat  with  seven  of 
the  men,  and  sat  down  under  a  tamarind  tree  till  he  should  arrive.  On 
a  sudden  he  was  surrounded  and  seized  by  a  party  of  soldiers,  who 
carried  him  without  violence  before  the  dissave  on  their  shoulders.  The 
next  day,  the  crew  of  the  long  boat  who  had  come  on  shore  to  cut 
timber  for  the  mainmast  were  also  seized,  and  on  resisting,  were  bound 
with  withs.  Ropes  were  afterwards  brought  out,  at  which  the  men 
were  greatly  terrified,  supposing  they  were  about  to  be  hung,  but  they 
were  only  used  for  securing  them  better,  and  were  loosened  when  they 
became  more  quiet,  and  had  got  further  up  the  country.  The  parties 
were  not  allowed  to  communicate  with  each  other.  The  house  wherein 
the  captain  was  confined  was  hung  with  white  calico,  as  a  mark  of 
respect,  and  all  had  as  good  food  provided  as  the  country  afforded.  The 
boats  and  a  part  of  the  crew  being  secured,  their  next  aim  was  to 
secure  the  ship ;  the  dissave  therefore  informed  the  captain,  that  they 
were  detained,  that  the  king  might  send  letters  and  a  present  to  the 
English  nation  by  him,  and  that  the  ship  must  not  sail  till  the  king 
was  ready,  and  requested  the  captain  to  send  and  order  her  up  the  river, 
lest  the  Dutch  should  fire  her  in  the  bay.  Concealing  his  dislike,  the 
captain  replied,  "  that  unless  he  could  send  two  of  his  men  on  board 
with  orders,  the  crew  would  not  obey  him,  but  would  quickly  sail 
away."  At  length  the  dissave  consented,  and  the  captain  sent  two  of 
his  men,  the  natives  carrying  them  in  a  canoe  to  the  ship  ;  these  he 
ordered  the  crew  to  treat  kindly,  and  set  on  shore,  keeping  the  canoe, 
and  to  secure  the  ship  till  further  orders. 

The  men  remaining,  and  the  ship  not  coming  up,  the  dissave  angrily 
demanded  the  reason.  The  captain  replied,  "that  being  detained  on 
shore,  the  men  on  board  would  not  obey  his  command."  On  hearing 
this,  he  bade  him  send  his  son  with  the  same  orders,  he  being  security 
for  his  return.  The  captain  ordered  Robert  to  see  the  guns  shotted,  and 
to  tell  the  crew,  that,  as  they  valued  their  lives,  they  should  keep 
watch,  and  suffer  noboat  to  come  near  after  dark,  and  charged  him,  as  he 
should  answer  it  at  the  great  day,  to  return,  and  not  leave  him  in  that 
condition,  which  he  solemnly  promised  to  do.  Having  drawn  up  a 
letter  to  clear  his  father,  stating  on  the  part  of  the  crew,  "  that  they 
would  not  obey  the  captain,  but  were  resolved  to  stand  upon  their  own 
defence,"  he  returned  and  delivered  it  to  the  dissave,  who  ceased  to  urge 
the  point,  and  gave  him  leave  to  send  for  what  he  pleased  out  of  the 
ship,  stating*  that  the  king's  order  for  his  release  would  soon  come. 
Fearing  that  he  had  nothing  before  him  but  a  sad  captivity,  the  captain 
ordered  the  ship's  departure,  of  which  the  king-  hearing,  recalled  the 
dissave.  The  captives  were  now  carried  higher  up  the  country  ;  and 
hence  was  a  plan  which  they  had  formed  of  seizing  a  Moorish  vessel 
which  lay  in  the  river  (wliich  had  been  captured  in  the  same  manner 
as  their  vessel  would  have  been  but  for  the  firmness  of  Knox),  and 
making  their  escape,  frustrated.  In  their  new  quarters  they  were 
as  well  treated  as  before  ;  indeed  the  people  on  the  coast,  who,  from  their 
former  subjection  to  the  Porfug'uese,  had  imbibed  European  manners, 
were  courteous  and  pitiful,  and  their  behaviour  contrasted  strongly 
with  that  of  the  highlanders,  who  were  rude  and  insolent  in  comparison. 


APPENDIX.  791 

At  length  their  condition  altered  for  the  worse,  in  consequence  of  an 
order  for  their  separation  into  different  villages,  Knox  and  his  father 
being  made  the  only  exception.  Before  parting,  the  united  party  supped 
together.  Their  escort  conveyed  their  clothes,  and  behaved  kindly, 
desiring  them  to  proceed  at  what  rate  they  pleased,  and  took  care  that 
they  should  be  plundered  of  nothing.  The  road  lay  through  forests, 
so  that  for  four  or  five  nights,  they  reposed  under  the  shade  of  trees. 
Their  food  was  dried  flesh,  salt  fish,  and  rice,  besides  venison,  and  honey 
from  the  trees.  On  reaching  the  inhabited  part  of  the  country,  they 
got  boiled  rice,  flesh  and  every  kind  of  fruit.  Though  they  were 
billeted  upon  the  people,  yet  the  novelty  of  their  appearance,  and  their 
manner  of  eating,  prepossessed  them  in  their  favour. 

In  September,  1660,  Knox  was  placed  in  a  village  about  thirty  miles 
to  the  north  of  Kandy,  to  wait  the  king's  summons.  The  choice  of  a 
hut  being  offered  them,  they  selected  one  roofed,  but  un walled,  the 
others  being  dark  and  dirty,  wherein  were  placed  a  sort  of  bedstead, 
with  a  mat  upon  it  for  the  father,  and  a  mat  upon  the  ground  for  the 
son.  They  were  now  scarce  of  money,  for  though  they  could  have 
procured  a  supply  from  the  ship  at  first,  they  refrained,  conceiving  that 
it  would  be  appropriated  by  their  captors.  Their  food  was  supplied  as 
regularly  as  could  be  expected,  considering*  that  the  prevalence  of  ague 
and  jungle  fever  rendered  the  people  frequently  unable  to  bring*  it.  At 
length  the  fever  extended  to  them,  and  the  father  grew  worse,  in  his 
grief  that  he  had  induced  his  son  to  return,  contrasting  his  younger 
days  spent  amidst  dangers  he  had  escaped,  with  his  latter  days  spent  in 
hopeless  captivity.  A  black  servant,  whom  they  had  brought  from 
Porto  Nova,  seeing  moreover  their  helpless  state,  obeyed  their  com- 
mands as  he  pleased.  The  elder  Knox,  reduced  to  a  skeleton  by 
abstinence  from  food,  at  length  died,  after  blessing  his  son,  and  giving 
directions  respecting  his  affairs  and  his  burial.  Though  himself  weak 
and  sick,  Knox  wrapped  up  his  corpse  ready  for  burial,  and  asked  the 
assistance  of  the  natives  to  carry  him  to  the  grave  ;  they  sent  him  back 
a  great  rope,  used  for  tieing  their  cattle,  that  he  might  drag  it  into  the 
woods,  saying,  "  they  could  not  further  help  him,  unless  he  would  pay 
for  it."  This  insolence  sadly  dispirited  him,  as  he  had  nothing  to  dig  a 
grave  with,  and  the  ground  was  dry  and  hard.  At  length  he  procured 
assistance,  and  performed  the  sad  offices  of  sepulture.  The  news  of 
his  father's  death  being  carried  to  the  court,  messengers  were  sent  to 
inquire  into  the  cause,  and  as  to  what  he  had  left  behind,  but  not  with 
a  view  to  its  seizure,  and  to  direct  that  he  should  have  the  best  food 
that  could  be  provided,  lest  he  should  also  be  carried  off. 

In  this  manner  he  spent  several  months  with  his  black  attendant, 
with  nothing  to  divert  his  mind  but  some  books  he  had  brought  with 
him.  His  ague  having  left  him  at  the  end  of  sixteen  months,  for  a 
change  of  diet  he  amused  himself  with  angling  for  small  fish  in  the 
brooks.  While  thus  engaged,  an  old  man  passed  by  and  questioned 
the  boy  as  to  his  master's  ability  to  read.  Being  answered  in  the 
affirmative,  the  old  man  intimated  that  he  had  got  a  book,  when  the 
Portuguese  left  Colombo,  which  he  would  sell,  if  his  master  pleased. 
Knox  despatched  the  boy  with  the  old  man,  supposing  it  was  some 
Portuguese  book,  and  was  startled  in  no  slight  degree,  when  the  boy 
ran  up  to  him,  and  cried  that  it  was  a  Bible.  Flinging  down  his  rod  in 
his  joy,  he  took  and  opened  it,  when  his  eyes  fell  on  the  30th  and  31st 


792  APPENDIX. 

verses  of  the  10th  chapter  of  Acts,  so  remarkably  applicable  to  his  own 
case.  He  now  feared  lest  the  owner  should  ask  more  than  he  could  pay, 
and  in  his  joy  was  about  to  proffer  all  he  had,  but  was  stopped  by  his  boy, 
who  offered  to  procure  it  at  a  small  price,  if  he  would  only  seem  to  slight 
it  in  the  eyes  of  the  old  man,  and  it  was  eventually  obtained  in  exchange 
for  a  knitted  cap.  Knox  was  soon  after  permitted  to  communicate  with 
the  other  captives,  who  had  been  placed  in  different  villages  to  the 
westward  of  Kandy,  and  had  been  billeted  upon  the  inhabitants,  and 
though  the  guards  were  at  first  watchful,  yet  in  time  they  allowed  them 
to  stay  two  or  three  days  with  one  another. 

They  were  now  astonished  that  they  had  never  been  called  upon  to 
labour,  and  had  been  kept  only  to  eat,  but  the  king's  order  was  to  feed 
them  well,  and  look  afterthemtill  he  should  send  for  them.  They  soon 
therefore  began  to  think  themselves  privileged,  and  the  natives  their 
servants,  and  would  no  longer  be  content  with  their  former  food,  but 
■would  throw  the  vessels  in  which  it  was  brought  at  the  heads  of  the 
natives,  unless  it  pleased  them,  and  they  bore  it  patiently.  As  their 
clothes  were  now  almost  worn  out,  they  consulted  on  the  best  means 
to  procure  native  garments,  and  resolved  to  put  themselves  on  half 
rations,  and  barter  the  other  half  for  clothing.  Some  of  them  having 
learned  to  knit,  the  whole  party  took  to  that  mode  of  industry,  to 
supply  themselves  with  clothing,  &c,  but  the  supply  exceeding  the 
demand,  the  trade  grew  unprofitable.  The  sailors,  however,  had  now 
regained  their  spirits,  and  where  they  did  not  receive  the  full  allowance 
of  food,  would  enter  the  houses,  and  carry  off  what  goods  they  found, 
until  the  people  came  to  redeem  them  with  the  full  quota  of  provisions. 
On  another  occasion,  one  of  them  went  to  buy  pots  of  a  potter,  and 
not  meeting  with  them  at  his  own  price,  became  abusive,  and  was 
roughly  handled,  on  which  he  made  complaint  before  a  magistrate,  as 
being  a  person  belonging  to  the  king.  The  result  was,  that  the  potter  was 
condemned  to  be  bound,  and  the  Englishman  told  to  go  and  beat  him  in 
full  satisfaction,  and  the  pots  were  given  up  to  him  without  payment. 
Again,  at  a  feast,  when  they  wanted  more  wine,  and  sent  money  to 
procure  it,  a  native  refused  to  sell,  upon  which  they  went  with  clubs 
to  take  it  by  force,  when  the  natives  set  on  them,  and  beat  them.  But 
the  English  fought  so  stoutly  as  to  break  several  natives'  heads,  and 
the  latter  went  in  a  body  before  the  magistrate  to  complain.  He  asked  if 
they  had  ever  sold  them  wine  before  ;  they  replied,  yes.  He  then  asked 
why  they  refused  to  sell  it  on  this  occasion :  that  they  were  rightly 
served,  and  laughed  at  them. 

By  this  time,  Knox  had  learnt  a  little  of  Singhalese,  which  enabled 
him  to  converse  with  the  natives,  and  intimate  that  he  would  prefer  his 
food  raw,  to  obtain  a  double  quantity  as  the  others.  After  many  pro- 
tests on  the  part  of  the  natives,  who  reminded  him  that  it  was  not 
seemly,  that  he  as  an  officer  should  take  the  duties  of  a  menial,  and 
that  he  would  be  shortly  sent  for  by  the  king,  and  promoted  to  some 
place  of  honour,  he,  after  much  ado,  obtained  his  request,  and  was  thus 
enabled  to  provide  himself  with  native  clothing.  He  now  bethought 
himself  of  increasing  his  house  room,  and  having  selected  a  pleasant 
site  in  one  of  the  king's  cocoa-nut  gardens,  built  himself,  by  the  help  of 
the  natives,  a  suitable  residence,  the  walls  of  which,  in  ignorance  of  the 
Singhalese  law,  he  whitened  with  lime  ;  in  doing  this  he  committed  a 
capital  offence,  the  use  of  this  wash  being  forbidden  to  all  but  royal 


APPENDIX.  793 

houses  and  temples.  But  being  a  stranger,  no  notice  was  taken  of  it. 
He  now  began  to  keep  hogs  and  hens,  which  thrived  well ;  the  cocoa- 
nuts  in  his  garden  also  afforded  him  oil  for  lamps,  and  for  frying  hia 
meat  in,  and  the  caps  which  he  learnt  to  knit,  supplied  him  with  all  other 
necessaries.  In  this  manner  they  lived,  seeing  very  little  hopes  of 
release.  Some  of  the  party  had  attempted  to  escape  before  they  knew 
which  way  to  go,  and  were  taken  by  the  inhabitants,  who  suspected  all 
whites  they  met  travelling  in  the  country  to  be  runaways,  and,  unless 
they  could  give  a  satisfactory  answer,  would  carry  them  back,  where 
they  would  be  kept  prisoners  under  guard,  perhaps  for  their  lives,  with- 
out any  other  allowance  of  food  than  that  they  could  obtain  by  begging. 
The  captors  were  no  gainers  by  their  zeal,  for  they  were  often  appointed 
to  feed  and  watch  them  until  the  king  called  for  them,  when  he 
promised  to  reward  them.  But  this  promise  was  never  kept,  being 
never  again  thought  of,  while  they  were  little  less  prisoners  than  those 
they  had  captured,  as  they  dared  not  go  home  without  leave.  After 
some  years'  stay,  they  endeavoured,  by  giving  the  dissave  of  the  district 
a  fee,  to  obtain  leave  of  absence,  and  this  was  their  sole  reward. 

Besides  Knox  and  his  crew,  another  party  of  English  had  been 
taken  captive  in  landing  from  their  boats  for  refreshment  and  to  buy 
provisions,  their  vessel  having  been  lost  on  one  of  the  Maldives.  The 
Singhalese  plundered  them  of  every  thing  but  their  clothes,  and  when 
they  were  carried  before  the  king,  he  demanded  whether  the  English 
were  at  war  with  the  Dutch,  and  if  they  could  beat  them.  They 
replied,  yes,  and  had  done  it  lately;  on  which  the  king  ordered  them 
all  some  clothes,  and  selected  two  young  men  for  his  own  service.  This 
party  was  lodged  in  the  city  of  Kandy,  and  their  food  was  dressed 
and  brought  them  twice  a  day  from  the  palace.  This  reception  led 
them  to  look  forward  to  their  liberation  :  they  therefore  questioned  an 
old  Portuguese  priest  on  the  point,  mentioning  how  they  had  been 
treated.  But  he  told  them  the  plain  truth,  which  was,  that  it  was  not 
customary  to  release  white  men.  At  this  they  were  offended,  and  began 
abusing  him  as  a  Papist  and  Jesuit,  thinking  that  his  predictions 
accorded  with  his  wishes.  Their  provisions  were  good  considering 
the  country,  but  they  thought  otherwise,  and  contrary  to  the  king's 
order ;  and  that  he  might  perceive  how  they  were  used,  each  man  took 
the  limb  of  a  fowl  in  his  hand,  and  marched  through  the  streets  with  it 
to  the  court,  as  a  proof  to  the  courtiers  of  their  ill  fare,  thinking  the 
king  on  hearing  through  them  of  their  treatment,  might  order  better 
rations  for  the  future.  But  this  proved  sport  to  the  nobles,  who, 
knowing  the  country  diet,  laughed  at  their  ignorance  for  complaining 
where  they  had  so  little  cause,  and  in  fact  the  men  themselves  were 
ashamed  of  their  proceedings,  when  they  came  to  understand  the 
country.  As  they  were  unaccustomed  to  so  little  flesh,  and  had  no 
money  to  buy  more,  they  resolved  to  slaughter  some  of  the  native  cows, 
but  doubting  whether  it  would  be  right  to  take  them  without  leave, 
they  applied  again  to  the  priest,  who  gave  them  a  dispensation,  and 
told  them,  "that  as  the  Singhalese  were  their  enemies,  and  had  taken 
their  bodies,  it  was  lawful  for  them  to  satisfy  their  bodies  with  their 
goods;"  and  to  illustrate  this  logic,  bade  them  bring  him  some,  that  he 
might  partake  with  them.  On  another  occasion,  a  similar  incident 
occurred.  The  party  in  question  were  located  in  a  house  that  had  formerly 
belonged  to  a  nobleman,  whom  the  king  had  cut  off,  and  escheated  his 


704  APPENDIX. 

property.  In  his  grounds  stood  a  jack  tree  full  of  fruit.  Such  was  the 
absolute  power  of  the  king1,  that  his  servants  could  enter  any  man's 
grounds,  and  gather  any  quantity  for  the  use  of  his  elephants.  Some 
natives  entering  on  this  errand,  and  beginning  to  pluck  the  fruit,  were 
stopped  and  turned  out  of  the  garden,  though  there  were  a  great  many 
more  than  the  party  required.  The  officers  overlooked  the  offence,  but 
the  party  were  shortly  after  removed  to  a  house  and  garden  without 
trees,  and  thus,  because  they  would  not  allow  the  king  a  few,  they  lost 
all. 

The  two  young"  men  who  had  been  taken  to  court,  soon  became  such 
favourites,  as  to  be  kept  always  in  the  king's  presence,  and  he  would 
often  affably  converse  with  them  respecting  their  king  and  country. 
One  of  these,  in  his  anxiety  to  hear  from  home,  obtained  a  secret 
audience  with  the  Dutch  ambassador,  of  which  the  king  became 
informed,  and  ordered  him  to  be  watched  and  caught  in  the  act. 
This  being  done,  the  king  was  very  angry ;  for  he  permitted  no  one 
to  hold  intercourse  with  the  ambassadors  at  his  court,  much  less  those 
residing  in  the  palace.  Had  a  native  transgressed  this  rule,  he  would 
have  been  impaled,  but  the  young  man  in  question  was  banished  to  the 
mountains,  where  he  was  well  treated,  and  married  a  native  woman. 
Shortly  after,  in  gathering  a  jack  from  a  tree  with  a  crook,  it  fell  down 
on  his  side,  and  bruised  him  so  severely,  as  to  cause  his  death.  The 
other  youth  yet  remained  in  favour,  and  was  promoted  over  all  the 
native  servants  in  the  palace.  At  last,  having-  broken  one  of  the  king's 
china  dishes,  he  became  so  alarmed,  that  he  fled  for  refuge  to  a 
wihare.  This  greatly  incensed  the  king,  who  was  annoyed  at  his 
supposing  that  the  priests  could  secure  him  against  his  displeasure. 
However,  he  did  not  violently  drag  him  from  thence,  but  sent  and  bade 
him  not  be  alarmed  for  so  small  a  matter,  but  return  and  act  in  his 
place  as  before.  Obeying  the  summons,  he  was  immediately  laid  hold 
of,  and  his  arms  being  tightly  bound  above  the  elbows  behind,  swelled 
alarmingly,  and  the  cords  cut  through  the  flesh  into  the  bones.  Next 
day  the  king  ordered  the  ropes  to  be  loosened  from  his  arms,  and  chains 
being  put  on  his  legs,  that  he  should  be  kept  in  one  of  his  noble's  houses, 
and  there  fed  and  cured.  At  the  end  of  six  months  he  was  cured,  but 
no  strength  was  left  in  his  arms.  He  was  now  again  taken  into  favour, 
and  resumed  his  former  office,  and  the  king  often  pitied  his  folly  in 
having  thus  caused  his  own  ruin.  Not  long  after  he  again  offended 
the  king.  A  Portuguese  had  been  sent  for  to  Kandy,  to  be  taken  into 
the  king's  service.  Wishing  to  avoid  it,  he  wrote  to  the  young*  English- 
man, and  entreated  him  to  use  his  interest  in  his  behalf.  Being 
ignorant  of  Portuguese,  the  latter  handed  it  to  another  to  read,  who, 
on  learning'  the  contents,  thought  it  best  to  keep  out  of  the  affair,  and 
concealed  the  letter.  On  subsequently  informing-  the  king  thereof,  the 
Portuguese,  Englishman,  and  himself,  because  he  had  not  informed 
before,  were  all  three  seized  and  torn  to  pieces  by  elephants.  After  this 
occurrence,  the  king-,  supposing  that  the  English  would  become  dis- 
contented or  ill  treated  by  the  natives,  sent  special  injunctions  that  they 
should  be  of  good  cheer,  and  not  be  discouraged.  Thus  jealous  was  the 
king  of  letters.  When,  therefore,  the  captain  of  the  wreck  before 
spoken  of,  received  some  letters,  and  learnt  that  it  was  known,  he 
judged  it  best  to  go  to  court  and  present  them  himself.  Presenting  the 
letters,  which  he  professed  to  have  received    long  ago,  he  observed, 


APPENDIX.  "95 

" '  that  when  he  received  them  he  was  ignorant  of  its  illegality,  and  as 
soon  as  he  had  learnt  his  error,  he  consulted  a  Portuguese  priest  of 
experience,  who  advised  him  to  defer  carrying  them  to  the  king,  until 
a  more  convenient  opportunity  arose.  On  his  attempting  to  bring  them 
afterwards,  he  was  prevented  by  the  guards,  and  that  was  his  first 
chance.''  The  king  on  hearing  this,  was  not  displeased,  but  bade  him 
read  them  in  English,  and  listened  attentively,  as  though  he  understood 
every  word.  At  the  conclusion,  the  king  handed  him  a  letter  from  the 
Agent  at  Fort  St.  George  that  he  had  intercepted,  and  asked  him  as  to 
the  contents,  which  related  to  the  victory  gained  by  the  English  over 
the  Dutch,  when  Obdam,  Admiral  of  Holland,  was  slain.  The  num- 
ber of  English  ships  being  mentioned  at  150,  the  king  inquired  as  to  the 
number  of  guns  and  men  they  carried.  The  Englishman  computed 
the  number  of  men,  whereupon  the  king  demanded  the  total,  which  he 
was  about  to  cast  up  on  the  sand  with  his  finger,  when  the  king 
anticipated  him  by  naming-  it. 

This  defeat  of  the  Dutch  pleased  the  king,  who  was  particular  in  his 
inquiries  about  it,  and  pretended  that  he  would  send  a  letter  to  Fort  St. 
George,  requesting  the  Englishman  to  inform  him  of  a  trusty  bearer. 
This  he  did,  but  he  was  objected  to  by  one  of  the  nobles,  who  asked  him 
if  he  knew  of  no  other,  at  which,  suspecting  their  design,  which  was  to 
learn  wrho  had  brought  his  letters  to  him,  he  answered  them  accord- 
ingly. On  leaving,  the  king  privately  told  him  he  would  send  him 
home  secretly,  or  otherwise  he  would  dismiss  him  with  drums  and 
honour.  But  he  never  kept  his  word,  and  the  messenger  he  had 
named  was  sent  a  prisoner  into  the  country  and  kept  in  chains,  under 
the  belief  that  he  had  brought  the  letters.  Jn  1664,  the  Governor  of 
Fort  St.  George,  and  the  Dutch  ambasasador,  treated  for  the  release  of 
the  captives,  and  the  king'  again  promised  to  send  them  away,  and 
commanded  them  all  to  be  brought  to  Kandy,  where  the  two  parties 
met,  and  were  overjoyed  for  a  time  at  the  prospect  of  a  speedy  release. 
A  few  days  after  their  arrival  they  were  summoned  to  court,  and  the 
nobles,  by  the  king's  order,  informed  them  that  it  was  his  Majesty's 
pleasure  to  grant  them  their  liberty,  and  to  send  them  home  to  their 
country,  either  with  the  Dutch  ambassador,  or  in  the  boat  Sir  E.  Winter 
had  sent,  at  which  they  bowed  and  thanked  his  Majesty.  Knox  pre- 
ferred going  with  the  Dutch  ambassador,  fearing  the  boat's  insufficiency, 
and  the  excuses  for  delay  that  might  hence  be  made.  The  nobles  here 
offered  very  great  rewards,  in  the  shape  of  lands,  money,  slaves,  and 
honours  to  all  who  would  stay  and  serve  his  Majesty,  but  all  refused. 
They  were  then  ordered  to  depart,  till  they  had  carried  their  answer 
to  the  king.  When  they  returned,  the  same  offers  were  again  made 
and  refused,  and  each  man  was  interrogated  as  to  his  trade,  handicrafts- 
men and  trumpeters  being  most  desired  by  the  king.  They  had  now 
to  wait  at  the  palace  gate  daily,  an  order  having  been  given  that  they 
should  personally  appear  before  his  Majesty. 

Meanwhile  happened  a  general  rebellion  of  the  people,  who  assaulted 
the  palace  in  the  night,  but  their  courage  failing-  them,  they  stopped 
short  at  the  royal  apartments,  in  which  the  king  remained  till  day 
break,  and  fleeing  to  the  mountains,  escaped  out  of  their  hands.  The 
captives  were  now  in  danger;  for  the  natives,  thinking  they  might 
oppose  their  designs,  had  resolved  on  cutting  them  off,  but  being 
reminded  that  the  king  might  hear  the  noise  thereby  occasioned,  and 


796  APPENDIX. 

their  designs  be  thereby  frustrated,  they  determined,  as  they  were 
ignorant  of  what  had  transpired,  and  were  quiet  in  their  apartments,  not 
to  harm  them.  The  people  of  the  city  having-  followed  the  king-,  and  aban- 
doned their  houses  and  property,  the  English  were  permitted  to  ransack 
the  houses,  and  select  what  plunder  they  might  find.  They  were  now 
carried  away  by  the  insurgents,  who  endeavoured  to  cheer  them  by 
intimating  that  the  king's  ill  government  in  detaining  foreigners,  dis- 
couraging trade,  and  his  cruelty  to  his  subjects,  were  the  causes  of  the 
insurrection,  and  that  having  been  informed  that  it  was  contrary  to  the 
custom  of  other  countries  thus  to  act,  they  assured  them  as  soon  as 
matters  were  settled,  they  should  be  no  longer  detained.  On  Christ- 
mas day,  the  English  were  summoned  to  the  palace  at  Kandy,  and 
money  and  clothes  presented  to  them,  with  a  view  to  enlisting  them 
into  the  service  of  the  insurgents,  who  designed  to  follow  in  pursuit  of 
the  king.  But  the  flight  of  the  prince,  their  captive,  so  amazed  and 
discouraged  them,  that  the  gifts  were  scattered  about  the  court,  and  the 
whole  body  took  to  their  heels,  some  of  them  slaying  each  other  to 
make  it  appear  that  they  had  either  remained  loyal,  or  were  making- 
amends  for  having  joined  the  rebellion.  Knox  and  party  seized  the 
opportunity  of  collecting  the  money  thus  scattered,  as  their  provisions 
had  of  late  been  neglected  by  the  natives,  and  provided  themselves  with 
necessaries.  They  were,  however,  alarmed  lest  the  king  might  hear  of 
their  proceedings,  and  retired  to  their  lodgings.  Shortly  after  they 
were  summoned  by  a  noble  (who  had  drawn  out  his  men  and  proclaimed 
his  adhesion  to  the  old  king)  to  aid  him  in  seizing  the  rebels,  who  hav- 
ing escaped,  they  returned  to  the  city,  and  were  dismissed  with  a  pro- 
mise from  the  leader  that  he  would  acquaint  the  king  how  ready  they 
were  to  fight  for  him,  if  there  had  been  occasion.  Accordingly,  when 
the  king  heard  of  what  they  had  received  from  the  rebels,  this  antidote 
was  also  mentioned,  on  hearing  which  he  was  satisfied,  and  said,  "  Since 
my  absence  they  have  been  without  food,  and  have  been  driven  to  take 
what  they  did  from  want."  The  tumult  being  appeased,  the  king  reco- 
vered his  authority.  And  all  this  transpired  in  five  days.  They  were 
now  distressed  for  food,  requiring  fresh  orders  from  the  king,  and  were 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  begging.  At  length  the  king  heard  of  their 
distress,  and  ordered  them  to  be  billeted  in  the  country  as  before,  but 
said  nothing  about  sending  them  away  as  he  had  promised.  They 
were  now  placed  one  in  a  town,  as  before,  and  were  better  off  than  they 
had  ever  been,  from  their  knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
people.  They  resumed  also  their  former  employments,  and  were  suffered 
to  wander  about,  but  not  to  approach  the  coast.  The  suspicions  of  the 
natives  as  to  their  escape  had  now  abated,  many  of  the  English  having 
married  Singhalese  women,  by  whom  they  had  families. 

Quartered  to  the  west  of  Kandy,  and  nearer  the  sea  than  before, 
Knox  cherished  a  hope  of  escape,  and  to  avert  the  suspicions  of  the 
people,  who,  as  a  stranger,  watched  all  his  movements,  he  built  himself 
a  hut  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  and  commenced  going  about  the  country 
as  a  pedlar.  Knowing  that  he  was  his  own  cook,  the  natives  earnestly 
advised  him  to  marry,  saying,  it  would  be  a  help  to  him,  and  that  it  was 
not  suitable  for  a  young  man  to  live  alone  in  a  house,  and  if  the  kino- 
should  send  him  hereafter  to  his  own  country,  their  manner  of  marriage 
would  allow  his  leaving  his  wife.  Knox  affected  to  weigh  their  advic^j, 
and  excused  himself,  under  the  plea  that  he  would  look  for  one  he  could 


APPENDIX.  797 

love,  never  dreaming  of  marrying  there.  Thus  passed  two  years,  during 
which  no  opportunity  of  escape  presented  itself.  In  1666,  the  Dutch 
built  a  fort  on  the  other  side  of  the  ridge  of  mountains  near  him,  but 
though  only  a  few  miles  off,  he  could  not  communicate  with  them, 
watch  being  kept  at.  every  outlet.  Some  years  after  the  Kandians  sur- 
prised this  fort,  and  carried  the  garrison  prisoners  to  Kandy  :  the  Dutch 
invasion  led  the  king  to  give  orders  for  the  removal  of  the  English  to 
Kandy  Uda,  lest  they  should  make  their  escape.  Knox  thus  saw  him- 
self deprived  of  his  little  estate,  and  all  the  fruits  of  his  industry  sacri- 
ficed. They  were  now  brought  up  into  a  village  on  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain, where  three  of  them  were  placed  in  one  house,  the  other  English 
despairing  of  their  release,  having  married  native  women  :  on  their  first 
arrival,  they  were  very  much  dejected,  it  being  a  dismal  and  isolated 
place,  and  one  to  which  the  king  used  to  send  malefactors  designed  for 
execution. 

At  length,  the  king,  apprehensive  that  they  would  become  sad  at 
changing  a  pleasant  country  for  one  so  desolate,  sent  a  considerate 
message  through  the  headman  of  the  place,  and  enjoined  upon  the 
people  "  that  they  should  not  deem  them  malefactors,  but  men  whom 
he  highly  esteemed,  and  meant  to  promote  to  great  honour,  and  that 
they  should  entertain  them  accordingly:  and  if  their  means  did  not 
suffice,  it  was  the  king's  order  that  they  should  sell  their  cattle  and 
goods,  and  even  their  wives  and  children,  sooner  than  they  should  want 
their  due  allowance,  and  if  they  had  not  thatched  houses  to  put  them 
in,  that  the  English  should  take  theirs."  Knox  and  his  party  reassured, 
now  saw  the  king's  motive  in  placing  them  there,  which  was  as  instru- 
ments of  vengeance  on  the  people,  who,  being  attached  to  the  court 
during  the  late  rebellion,  had  plundered  the  king's  palace  in  his  absence. 
The  services  they  had  to  perform  for  the  king  were  to  carry  his  palan- 
quin, and,  as  keepers  of  the  king's  cattle,  to  bring  milk  every  morning 
to  the  palace.  In  this  village  the  captives  remained  three  years,  several 
times  repairing  to  the  court  to  obtain  a  license  of  removal,  but  in  vain, 
till  they  were  quite  weary  of  the  place,  and  the  place  and  people  weary 
of  them,  as  they  were  troublesome  guests,  from  the  authority  given 
them,  and  required  their  food  good,  and  to  be  regularly  brought. 

Leave  having  been  refused  to  Knox  to  visit  his  old  quarters,  he  resolved 
to  take  it,  and  hired  a  guide,  whose  prisoner  he  assumed  to  be,  to  carry 
him  through  the  military  posts.  On  arriving  at  his  former  abode,  by 
pretending  that  his  servant  was  sent  down  by  the  magistrate  to  see  that 
his  debts  were  duly  paid,  he  recovered  some  of  them.  Being  no  longer 
in  dread  of  the  king's  command,  as  he  found  that  it  was  forgotten  in 
time,  he  went  to  the  headman  of  the  district,  to  inquire  whether  he 
could  lawfully  purchase  a  piece  of  land  that  was  for  sale,  and  being  an- 
swered, after  some  inquiries  as  to  the  owner,  that  he  might  act  as  he 
thought  tit,  he  purchased  it  for  five  dollars,  the  writings  of  his  new 
property  being*  inscribed  on  a  talapat  leaf,  and  witnessed  by  seven  of 
the  principal  men  of  the  village.  This  land  was  about  ten  miles  to  the 
south  of  Kandy.  He  now  built  a  house  upon  the  land,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  three  of  his  countrymen,  and  the  natives  approved  of  their 
proceedings,  thinking  it  would  tie  them  to  the  country.  Knox  now 
thought  it  was  time  to  return  to  his  former  quarters  on  the  mountain  ; 
leaving  his  comrades  in  possession  of  the  new  abode  ;  he  visited  it,  but 


798  APPENDIX. 

soon  after  returned,  and  the  rest  of  his  companions  left  that  place.  He 
now  commenced  planting  his  little  estate  with  fruit  trees,  which  soon 
yielded  an  abundance  for  all,  Knox  having-  permitted  three  of  his  com- 
panions whom  he  had  found  here,  to  live  with  him.  It  was  previouslv 
agreed,  however,  that  they  should  all  remain  single,  to  prevent  the  dis- 
sension that  would  be  caused  by  the  introduction  of  women.  In  this 
manner  they  lived  contentedly  and  amicably  for  two  years,  taking  it  in 
turn  to  keep  at  home,  while  the  rest  went  about  their  business,  and  occa- 
sionally visited  their  other  companions  who  were  farther  removed.  Thev 
could  now  walk  where  they  pleased  among  the  mountains,  as  the  people, 
seeing  most  of  them  were  married,  had  laid  aside  suspicion.  At  length, 
two  of  Knox's  companions  grew  tired  of  a  single  life,  and  married  native 
women,  as  the  rest  had  done.  He  was,  however,  as  averse  as  ever  to 
an  union  with  heathen  women,  and  considered  the  Singhalese  marriages 
little  better  than  whoredom,  the  parties  not  being  united  by  a  Christian 
priest,  nor  could  the  better  logic  of  the  others  persuade  him  to  the 
contrary. 

Most  of  the  English  now  betook  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  rice, 
and  breeding  cattle,  others  distilled  arrack  for  sale,  or  traded  about  the 
country,  exchanging  in  one  part  the  commodities  of  the  other.  One  of 
Knox's  countrymen  having  been  assaulted  by  a  native,  the  whole  body 
went  to  court  to  complain  and  demand  satisfaction  from  the  adigaar. 
The  offender,  finding  that  it  might  go  hard  with  him,  bribed  the  judge, 
but  so  pertinaciously  did  the  English  follow  up  the  complaint,  that  he 
was  imprisoned,  and  was  not  released  till  he  had  again  bribed  the  judge. 
The  king  now  took  one  of  the  English  into  his  service,  giving  him  the 
command  of  1 ,000  men,  and  the  direction  of  his  artillery,  besides  the 
defence  of  several  villages.  This  man  was  one  of  the  few  Europeans 
who  ever  died  a  natural  death  in  the  Kandian  service.  The  Dutch 
having  erected  a  small  fort  in  the  Kandian  country,  the  king  sent  a 
native  force  to  dispossess  them.  Finding  that  they  could  make  no  im- 
pression, he  invited  the  foreigners  to  enter  his  service,  and  invest  it 
promising  them  ample  rewards.  About  thirty  Portuguese,  English, 
and  Dutch  renegades  were  enrolled,  but  before  they  had  arrived,  the' 
fort  had  yielded.  The  king,  remembering  that  they  had  received  his 
gifts  without  having  encountered  his  enemies,  kept  them  for  several 
years  at  his  gate  without  any  pay  or  allowance,  and  it  was  only  by 
handing  over  the  original  gifts  to  others  to  take  their  place,  that  'they 
finally  escaped. 

The  breeding  of  goats,  hens,  and  hogs,  &c.  now  furnished  Knox  with 
every  necessary  the  country  afforded.  He  had  now  brought  his  house 
and  grounds  to  such  perfection,  that  few  noblemen's  seats  in  the  land 
excelled  it,  having  fenced  it  in  with  thorn  gates  in  the  usual  native 
mode,  and  built  himself  an  open  bungalow  for  enjoying  the  air.  He 
was  already  the  envy  of  his  neighbours,  who  continually  resorted  to 
him  to  beg  or  borrow,  and  confessed  that  God  had  been  more  bountiful 
to  him  as  a  stranger,  than  to  themselves.  Having  discovered  that  ad- 
vances of  corn,  for  the  native  seed  time,  was  a  profitable  speculation 
and  an  easy  way  of  living,  Knox  embarked  in  the  trade.  The  trouble' 
of  collecting  the  debt  was  commensurate  to  the  profit ;  for  unless  the 
creditor  watched  when  his  debtor's  field  was  ripe,  and  claimed  his  due 
in  time,  other  creditors  would  step  in  and  clear  the  land.     In  this  man- 


APPENDIX.  799 

ner  many  were  left  without  payment  at  all  till  the  next  year,  when 
the  debt  was  doubled.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  return  was 
remunerative. 

The  people  among  whom  Knox  and  his  friends  had  been  quartered 
in  the  mountains  had  hitherto  continued  his  allowance,  but  finding  that 
he  prospered  above  themselves,  they  refused  to  send  it  any  longer. 
Knox,  therefore,  went  to  the  court  and  appealed  to  the  adigaar,  who 
ordered  him  to  come  monthly  to  the  king's  palace,  and  receive  his 
allowance  out  of  the  king's  stores.  His  frequent  appearance  at  court 
caused  him  to  be  noticed  by  the  courtiers,  who  wondered  that  he  had 
not  been  taken  into  the  king's  service,  as  he  appeared  capable.  They 
assured  him  that  henceforward  he  would  fare  well,  for  the  king-  should 
be  apprised  of  his  merits.  On  hearing  this,  Knox  resolved  to  forsake 
the  court  and  give  up  his  allowance,  as  he  dreaded  nothing  so  much  as 
the  service  in  question.  Soon  after,  a  soldier  was  despatched  to  him  by 
the  adigaar,  with  an  order,  that  he  should  immediately  hasten  to  the 
court,  and  appear  before  the  king,  and  the  bearer  was  authorised,  in 
case  of  delay,  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  the  local  officers.  On  his 
arrival,  he  found  that  a  neighbour  and  friend,  who  knew  his  manner  of 
life,  had  recommended  him  to  notice  out  of  good  will.  Reporting'  him- 
self to  that  chief,  he  asked  him  the  cause  of  the  summons.  He  replied, 
"  Here  is  good  news  for  you ;  you  are  to  appear  in  the  king's  presence, 
where  you  will  find  favour  and  honourable  employment  greater  than 
any  of  your  countrymen  have  yet  enjoyed."  Having  considered  what  was 
the  best  reply  to  make,  he  reminded  him,  that  his  nation  had  never 
done  any  violence  or  wrong  to  his  king,  either  in  word  or  deed.  That 
the  cause  of  his  coming  into  the  island  was  not  like  that  of  other 
strangers,  who  were  either  enemies  taken  in  war,  or  by  distress  were 
driven  to  seek  relief  from  the  king's  liberality,  or  had  fled  from  fear  of 
punishment ;  whereas  he  came  to  trade,  and  to  give  an  account  to  the 
dissave  of  the  reason  of  their  putting  into  Kotti-aar  ;  that  his  detention 
had  made  him  unhappy,  his  heart  being  always  absent  from  his  body. 
Moreover,  that  he  was  unfit  for  employment  from  bodily  infirmity.  He 
was  then  asked,  if  he  could  not  read  nor  write  English?  the  king  not 
requiring  manual  labour  from  him.  He  replied,  that  having  come 
ashore  when  he  was  young,  he  had  forgotten,  through  want  of  practice, 
what  he  then  knew.  He  added,  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  custom  of 
kings  to  detain  men  that  came  into  their  countries  upon  peaceable 
errands,  much  less  to  compel  them  to  serve  them  beyond  their  ability. 
The  smiles  with  which  he  first  greeted  Knox  were  now  exchanged  for 
frowns,  and  he  told  him  to  go  and  to  tell  his  tale  to  the  adigaar,  which 
he  did  ;  but  that  officer  not  being  at  leisure,  paid  no  attention,  and  Knox 
departed  as  before  to  his  house  in  the  country  to  procure  food,  no  remu- 
neration having  been  allowed  for  his  attendance.  He  was  again  sent 
for  to  court,  and  blamed  by  his  countrymen  for  refusing"  the  offer  that 
had  been  made  him.  Hearing,  on  arrival,  no  more  of  the  matter,  he 
again  returned  home,  his  stock  of  provisions  being-  exhausted.  He  now 
returned  to  his  former  employments,  cooking  his  own  food,  and  fetch- 
ing both  wood  and  water,  but  reflecting  how  helpless  he  would  be 
when  age  should  overtake  him,  he  took  one  of  his  countrymen's 
children  to  assist  him  in  his  employments. 

In  travelling  about  the  country,  he  frequently  entered  into  conversa- 
tion with  the  people  respecting  the  roads  and  districts,  and  the  position 


800  APPENDIX. 

of  the  watchers,  and  the  commodities  in  demand  in  the  respective  loca- 
lities. Suspecting1  nothing,  they  gave  him  every  information,  and  he 
began  to  comprehend  that  the  best  way  of  escape  was  by  travelling 
northward,  where  the  country  was  thinly  inhabited.  Furnishing  him- 
self with  such  wares  as  were  saleable  in  those  parts,  such  as  tobacco, 
pepper,  garlic,  combs,  all  sorts  of  iron  wares,  they  bent  their  course 
thither.  They  found  the  tracks  intricate  and  difficult  (there  being  no 
highways),  some  from  one  village  to  the  other,  some  into  the  fields, 
others  into  the  woods,  with  which  the  country  so  much  abounded,  that 
a  man  could  only  see  just  before  him.  The  change  in  the  direction  of 
these  paths,  and  their  abandonment  to  the  jungle  after  the  crop  had 
been  taken  off,  increased  the  difficulty,  while  it  was  dangerous  to  inquire 
the  way,  lest  they  should  be  suspected  of  intending  an  escape.  Guides 
were  generally  engaged  by  the  Singhalese  of  other  districts  to  conduct 
them.  At  length,  having-  surmounted  all  difficulties,  they  reached  the 
district  of  Newarakalawa.  Their  wares  being  sold,  they  could  not  pro- 
ceed further,  nor  devise  excuses.  They  were  afraid,  also,  lest  their 
neighbours,  perceiving  their  long  absence,  should  give  the  alarm.  In 
this  manner  they  went  into  this  district  eight  or  ten  times,  but  were 
prevented  from  reaching  the  coast  by  the  drought,  which  compelled 
them  to  drink  putrid  water :  this  brought  on  jungle  fever  and  ague, 
which  carries  off  numbers  of  Sing-halese.  At  length  they  learnt  an  an- 
tidote in  the  shape  of  a  leaf,  which  being  beaten  to  powder  wifh 
jaggery,  intoxicated  the  brain,  and  expelled  the  nauseous  effects  of  the 
water. 

Thus  gaining  experience  by  every  journey,  they  got  farther  and 
farther,  realising  the  Singhalese  proverb,  "  the  beggar  and  the  merchant 
are  never  out  of  their  way,  for  the  one  begs,  and  the  other  trades, 
wherever  he  goes."  In  this  district  he  met  with  his  black  servant, 
whom  he  had  parted  with  years  before,  and  who  had  now  a  wife  and 
children  :  he  was  of  great  service  in  conductiug  him  along  the  paths, 
having  lived  many  years  in  the  vicinity.  Perceiving  him  to  be  poor, 
and  unable  to  maintain  his  family,  Knox  offered  him  a  reward  to  guide 
them  down  to  the  Dutch,  shewing  him  that  he  might  return  again 
without  its  being  known.  He  at  once  consented  to  the  proposal,  but 
advised  its  postponement  during  the  harvest  time,  as  from  the  number 
of  people  in  the  fields,  it  could  not  be  so  well  contrived  as  in  the  two 
following  months.  When  the  time  arrived,  and  everything  was  pre- 
pared for  their  departure  on  the  next  day,  Knox  was  seized  with  violent 
pains,  which  rendered  him  unable  to  move.  On  his  recovery,  he  was 
accompanied  by  another  of  the  English  for  greater  security,  having  to 
travel  in  the  night  through  the  woods.  But  though  they  took  him 
with  them,  they  did  not,  as  he  had  a  wife,  divulge  their  aim,  till  they 
had  proceeded  further,  lest  he  should  acquaint  her  with  it.  Their  guide 
having  absented  himself  previous  to  their  arrival,  they  could  not  carry 
out  their  design  on  that  occasion.  For  many  years  the  drought  which 
pervaded  the  northern  province,  and  prevented  the  tillage  of  the  ground, 
hindered  their  design,  as  water  could  scarcely  be  procured  in  the  towns, 
much  less  in  the  woods. 

In  September,  1679,  taking  advantage  of  the  full  moon,  they  again 
set  forth,  furnished  with  such  arms  as  they  could  safely  carry,  and  with 
several  sorts  of  wares  to  sell  as  before ;  leaving  an  old  man  at  the  house 
to  look  after  the  goats,  &c.     Passing  through  the  thinly  populated 


APPENDIX.  801 

country  of  Neuwarakalawa,  and  its  jungles  full  of  elephants,  tigers,  and 
bears,  they  made  for  Anuradhapoora,  the  last  inhabited  spot  in  the 
king's  dominions,  where  a  watch  was  always  kept.     Having  heard  that 
the  collectors  of  the  revenue  were  at  that  time  in  the  district,  they 
retired  to  a  more  secluded  part  of  the  country,  lest  they  should  be  dis- 
covered and  sent  back  by  them,  employing  the  interval  in  knitting  caps. 
As  soon  as  they  had  departed,  they  resumed  their  route,  having  kept 
the  greater  part  of  their  goods  to  barter  for  food,  and  to  serve  as  a  pre- 
tence.    Their  way  now  lay  of  necessity  through  the  headman's  yard  of 
the  district,  whose  duty  it  was  to  examine  all  passers.     This  greatly 
alarmed  them.     First,  because  he  was  a  stranger  and  would  feel  con- 
vinced that  they  as  prisoners  were  beyond  bounds.     There  being  no 
mode  of  escaping  him,  they  resolved  to  put  on  a  bold  face,  and  to  appear 
as  if  they  had  leave  to  travel  where  they  would.     They  had  brought 
knives  with  fine  carved  handles,  and  a  red  Tunis  cap  to  sell  or  give  him 
as  occasion  required,  knowing  that  they  would  have  to  pass  by  his 
house ;  and  to  prevent  suspicion,  they  had  sold  their  wares  on  the  road, 
bargaining  for  payment  on  their  return.     Having  reached  his  house, 
they  went  and  sat  down  in  the  ambulam,  to  which  the  headman  came, 
and  sat  down  by  them.    Making  him  a  present  of  tobacco,  they  shewed 
him  the  wares  they  had  brought,  telling  him  that  their  expenses  were 
greater  than  were  met  by  the  king's  allowance,  and  that  as  dried  flesh 
was  the  chief  commodity  of  that  district,  and  they  had  failed  to  procure 
the  articles  they  were  used  to  carry  back,  they  would  be  glad  to  barter 
or  buy  some,  promising  for  the  future  to  bring  him  any  necessaries  he 
might  require.     To  this  he  replied,  that  he  was  sorry  they  were  come 
at  such  a  dry  time,  when  deer  could  not  be  caught ;  but  if  rain  fell,  he 
would  soon  be  able  to  supply  them  with  flesh.     In  the  meantime,  he 
advised  them  to  go  to  the  villages  and  see  if  they  could  procure  any. 
This  reply  satisfied  them  that  he  had  no  suspicions  of  their  design,  and 
they  were  glad  at  the  dearth  of  flesh,  which,  by  obtaining,  they  would 
have  had  no  excuse  for  proceeding-  farther. 

They  were  now  six  miles  from  Anuradhapoora,  from  whence  it  was  a 
further  distance  of  two  days' journey  to  the  country  inhabited  by  the 
Malabars.  Of  these  people  they  were  no  little  afraid,  as  there  was  a 
correspondence  between  them  and  the  King  of  Kandy,  and  they  might 
send  them  back.  Wishing  to  exhibit  no  symptoms  of  haste,  thev 
remained  at  the  headman's  two  or  three  days,  one  staying  at  the 
governor's  house  to  knit,  while  the  others  went  about  the  towns  to  seek 
for  flesh.  The  ponds  in  the  country  being  now  dry,  there  was  every- 
where an  abundance  of  fish,  which  the  natives  dried  over  the  fire : 
these  they  now  oiFered  for  sale,  but  Knox  refused  them,  saying,  they 
would  not  bring  so  great  a  profit  as  flesh,  which  they  would  wait  for. 
Meanwhile,  the  king  having  quarrelled  with  and  imprisoned  some  of 
his  nobles,  sent  down  soldiers  to  the  headman  to  order  him  to  keep  a 
strict  guard  at  the  watches,  that  no  suspicious  or  disaifected  persons 
might  pass.  The  fugitives  were  greatly  alarmed,  lest  they  should  be 
ordered  to  return ;  but  the  former  departed  after  the  delivery  of  their 
message,  and  spoke  kindly  to  them.  In  return,  they  professed  to  lament 
that  they  could  not  return  in  their  good  company,  for  they  were  neigh- 
bours. They  bade  them,  however,  carry  their  remembrances  to  their 
countrymen.  The  next  morning  they  resolved  to  proceed,  packed  up 
every  thing  necessary,  left  the  remainder  of  their  goods  behind  them, 

3    F 


802  APPENDIX. 

giving  the  headman  some  gunpowder  to  shoot  deer  for  them,  while  they 
went  on  as  they  told  him  to  Anuradhapoora  in  quest  of  flesh.  The  head- 
man, if  he  had  indulged  any  suspicions,  could  not,  after  this,  retain 
them,  and  they  left,  hefore  others  could  arise. 

Although  they  knew  not  the  road,  and  dared  not  ask,  they  passed 
through  a  desolate  wood,  and  came  up  with  the  Malwatte-oya,  which 
it   struck   them   might  run    into  the    sea,    and  serve  them   if    other 
routes  failed.     Anuradhapoora,   Knox  describes  as  more  of  a  territory 
than   a  town,  being    situate    in   a  vast  plain,   unlike  any   other  in 
the  island,   in  the  midst  of  which  was  an  artificial  lake,  which  served 
the  inhabitants  for  irrigating  their  fields.     This  plain  was  environed 
with   woods,  and  dotted  wTith  small  towns   inhabited   by    Malabars. 
Hearing  a  cock  crow,  they  advanced  to  the  quarter  whence  the  sound 
had  issued,  and  entered  one  of  these  places.     Sitting  under  a  tree,  they 
began  to  cry  their  wares,  for  they  were  afraid  of  rushing  into    the 
yards,  as  among  the  Singhalese,  lest  they  should  frighten  the  people. 
The  latter  were  astonished  at  their  appearance,  but  neither  party  could 
understand   each    other's  language,   till  one    who    spoke  Singhalese 
accosted  them,  and  asked   them   whence  they  came?     They  replied, 
from  Kandy-Uda.     This  they  disbelieved,  supposing  they  had  come 
from  Manaar.     They  led  them,  therefore,  before  the  chief,  who  again 
questioned  them  through  an  interpreter,  and  to  test  them,  asked  the 
news  at  court,  inquiring  who  were  governors  of  such  and  such  places, 
and  what  was  become  of  certain  noblemen,  whom  the  king  had  lately 
cut  off,  &c.  &c.     To  all  these  queries  they  gave  a  satisfactory  answer, 
on  which  he  asked  who  had  given  them  leave  to  come  down  so  low. 
They  replied,  the  king  himself,  fifteen  years  before,  who  had  declared 
that  they  were  no  longer  prisoners.     To  prove  the  truth  of  their  state- 
ments, they  reminded  him  of  the  distance  they  had  already  come,  and 
their  passage  through  several  provinces.     The  governor  was  now  satis- 
fied that  they  were  innocent  traders,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  they  had  brought  commodities  to  dispose  of.  The  people  were  glad 
of  their  coming,  and  desired  them  to  stay  two  or  three  days,  till  they 
could  procure  dried  flesh  for  them,  which  they  consented  to  do,  hoping 
by  that  time  to  learn  the  position  of  the  watch  and  the  roads.     Having 
purchased  a  number  of  necessaries  for  the  journey,  they  found  that  a 
watch  was  placed  on  the  great  road  leading  to  Jaffnapatam.     Had  they 
known  the  spot,  their  design  was  to  slip  away  at  night,  the  peojole  being 
then  afraid  to  travel,  and  on  coming  up  to  the  watch,  to  slip  aside  into 
the  woods,  and  having  passed  it,  to  strike  into  the  road  again.  But  this 
project  did  not  appear  feasible,  as  they  would  have  been  missed  in  the 
morning  and  pursued ;  nor  did  their  making  for  the  woods  and  steering 
their  course  by  the  sun  and  moon,  appear  more  prudent,  as  the  drought 
had  dried  up  the  pools.     They  resolved,  therefore,  to  retrace  their  steps 
to  the  Malwatte-oya. 

Taking  their  leave  of  the  Governor,  who  had  kindly  entertained  them, 
they  told  him  they  were  returning  back  to  the  headman,  to  whom  they 
had  given  the  gunpowder  to  shoot  deer,  and  doubted  not  he  had  by  that 
time  obtained  flesh  enough  for  their  lading  home,  on  which  they  retired 
with  the  good  wishes  of  the  people.  To  avoid  the  discovery  of  their 
route,  they  remained  in  the  town  till  it  was  so  late,  that  they  knew  none 
would  venture  to  travel  afterwards  through  fear  of  wild  beasts,  while,  if 
pursued,  they  would  have  several  hours  start.     The  moon  was  now 


APPENDIX. 


803 


eighteen  days  old,  and  they  were  furnished  with  every  necessary,  viz. 
ten  days'  provisions,  talapat  leaves  for  tents,  deerskins  for  shoes  to 
prevent  thorns  running'  into  their  feet,  as  they  travelled  through  the 
woods,  and  axes  and  knives  to  defend  themselves  against  chetahs  or 
bears.  Having  reached  the  river,  they  now  left  the  road,  and  struck 
into  the  woods  by  its  side,  being  careful  to  tread  backwards  in  any 
places  where  footsteps  could  be  traced.  Rain  coming  on,  they  pitched 
their  tents,  and  prepared  themselves  for  the  journey.  Having  thrown 
away  their  wares,  retaining  only  food,  they  travelled  for  three  or  four 
hours,  till  they  fell  in  with  a  huge  elephant,  whom  they  could  not  scare 
away.  They  were  forced,  therefore,  to  kindle  a  fire,  and  wait  till  morn- 
ing. Looking  around  them,  nothing  appeared  but  wilderness,  and  no 
signs  of  inhabitants,  which  led  them  to  think,  that  they  had  passed  all 
danger  of  detection,  and  might  safely  travel  by  day. 

A  bend  of  the  river  in  a  northerly  direction  brought  them,  to  their 
surprise,  in  the  midst  of  several  villages,  before  they  were  aware,  on  ac- 
count of  the  density  of  the  woods  obstructing  their  view.  They  were 
much  alarmed  at  hearing  the  men's,  voices  near  them,  knowing,  that  if 
they  had  fallen  into  their  hands,  they  would  have  been  carried  back 
to  the  king,  and  beaten  and  plundered.  But  to  return,  after  they  had 
passed  so  many  paths  and  fields  where  people  resorted,  they  did  not 
consider  advisable,  and  that  the  danger  might  be  greater  than  in  going 
forward.  Spying  a  great  tree,  which  they  found  to  be  hollow,  they 
crept  into  it,  and  sat  there  for  several  hours  in  the  mud  and  wet,  and  when 
it  was  dark  they  crept  out  and  hastened  across  the  great  road  they  had 
so  long  been  expecting"  to  find,  keeping  close  to  the  river  side.  Hearing 
shouting  behind  they  thought  they  were  pursued,  but  they  soon  found 
by  the  crackling  of  the  underwood  and  small  trees,  that  they  were  on 
the  track  of  elephants.  This  reassured  them  ;  for  they  knew  the  people 
would  not  dare  to  pass  before  those  animals.  In  this  condition  they 
pitched  their  tents,  and  making  a  frugal  repast,  laid  down  to  sleep,  the 
shouting"  of  the  people,  who  lay  watching  the  corn  fields,  being  con- 
tinued all  night.  Next  morning  they  resumed  their  route,  as  soon  as 
the  moon  began  to  shine,  and  passed  out  of  the  inhabited  country  into 
that  occupied  by  the  Veddahs,  by  whom  they  ran  the  risk  of  being  shot 
if  discovered. 

All  along  the  sides  of  the  river  till  they  reached  the  Malabar  districts, 
they  had  discovered  the  tents  of  these  wild  men,  made  of  the  boughs 
of  trees,  which  in  some  places  had  only  been  recently  left,  as  they  could 
see  by  the  bones  of  cattle  and  shells  of  fruit  scattered  about.  Once, 
about  noon,  while  sitting  down  upon  a  rock  by  the  river  side,  they  had 
nearly  been  discovered  by  some  of  the  women,  who  came  down  laughing 
and  chattering  to  the  river  to  wash,  on  which  they  hastened  away,  lest 
they  should  be  discovered.  Thus  they  kept  travelling-  from  morning-  to 
night  for  some  days,  following  the  bend  of  the  river,  which  was  difficult, 
from  the  bushes  and  thorns  on  its  banks.  The  lower  they  got  down  the 
river,  the  less  water,  so  that  at  times  they  passed  over  its  dry  bed  for 
more  than  a  mile,  and  in  other  places  three  or  four  streams  would  meet 
together.  They  frequently  encountered  bears,  hogs,  deer,  and  wild 
buffaloes,  all  of  which  took  to  their  heels  as  soon  as  they  saw  them.  The 
river  was  full  of  alligators,  and  the  upper  part  of  it  nothing  but  rocks. 
Here  and  there  was  a  mass  of  hewn  stone  pillars  standing-  upright,  and 
other  heaps  of  hewn  stone,  the  remains  of  buildings,  and  in  three  or  four 

3  F  2 


804  appendix. 

places  were  the  ruins  of  stone  bridges,  some  portions  yet  standing  upon 
stone  pillars.  In  some  places  were  points  like  wharves  built  out  into  the 
river,  but  of  no  use  for  traffic,  the  river  being1  so  full  of  rocks  that  boats 
could  never  come  up  into  it.  The  woods  in  this  northern  province  were 
short  and  scrubby.  In  the  evenings  they  used,  on  pitching-  their  tent, 
to  make  a  great  fire  on  both  sides  of  it,  to  prevent  the  approach  of 
wild  beasts,  whose  howls  they  constantly  heard. 

They  now  arrived  at  the  Kurundu-oya,  which  separated  the  king's 
country  from  the  Malabar  districts.  They  saw  no  sign  of  inhabitants 
here ;  the  woods  were  thorny  and  scrubby,  with  clefts  and  broken  land, 
but  the  river  grew  better,  being  clear  of  rocks,  and  dry,  water  being 
only  found  in  the  holes.  They  marched,  therefore,  along  the  bed. 
Next  day  they  came  among  the  inhabitants,  whose  footsteps  they 
traced  on  the  sand,  and  heard  the  jingling-  of  the  bells  on  the  cattle's 
necks.  They  kept  on  their  way,  however,  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  the 
banks  being  impassable  from  the  herds  of  elephants  who  came  down  to 
water,  wishing  to  shun  the  people,  whose  chief,  though  paying  tribute 
to  the  Dutch,  was  better  affected  to  the  king  of  Kandy,  and  might  in 
consequence  send  them  back.  They  saw  crops  of  kurukkan  in  the 
fields,  but  no  villages. 

In  turning  a  point,  they  came  up  with  two  Brahmins,  who  were  sit- 
ting under  a  tree  boiling  rice,  who  seemed  astonished  and  alarmed  at 
their  appearance.  They,  no  less  fearful,  thought  it  better  to  treat  with 
them  than  to  escape,  thinking  they  might  have  bows  and  arrows,  while 
they  were  only  armed  with  axes  and  knives.  Making  a  stand,  they 
asked  leave  to  approach  in  Singhalese,  which  the  Brahmins  did  not  un- 
derstand, while  Tamul  was  equally  unintelligible  to  the  English.  Per- 
ceiving they  were  unarmed,  Knox  laid  down  his  own  arms  and 
approached  them,  signifying  whence  they  had  come,  and  whither  they 
were  going.  They  seemed  to  commiserate  his  condition,  and  wondered 
at  his  escape,  lifting  up  their  hands  and  faces  to  heaven.  They  next 
offered  him  a  share  of  their  frugal  repast  of  rice  and  herbs,  in  return  for 
which  he  presented  them  with  some  tobacco.  He  now  signified  his 
desire  to  be  led  within  the  Dutch  settlements,  but  they  were  unwilling, 
saying  his  g-reatest  danger  was  past,  and  that  he  could  reach  them  that 
night.  At  length,  persuaded  by  his  importunities,  one  of  them  con- 
ducted him  about  a  mile,  and  after  another  present  led  them  a  mile  fur- 
ther, and  then  left  them,  telling  them  they  were  out  of  danger,  and  he 
could  go  no  further.  Their  money  being  thus  thrown  away,  they  feared 
to  exasperate  him  by  demanding  it  back,  but  kept  on  their  route  down 
the  river  until  night,  and  spread  their  tent  upon  a  bank  under  a  tree, 
where  they  were  disturbed  by  elephants,  whom  they  eventually  drove 
off  by  flinging  firebrands  at  them.  The  next  morning,  at  daybreak, 
they  continued  their  progress  down  the  river,  but  were  somewhat  im- 
peded by  the  looseness  of  the  sand.  The  country  here  was  as  smooth 
as  a  bowling-  green,  but  the  grass  was  burnt  up  for  want  of  rain. 

At  length  they  met  a  man  proceeding  slowly  in  their  direction ;  after 
considering  their  position,  and  concluding-  they  had  reached  the  Dutch 
territory,  they  at  length  accosted  him,  and  asked  him  to  whom  he  be- 
longed. He  replied,  in  Singhalese,  to  the  Dutch,  and  that  all  the  country 
was  under  their  command;  that  they  were  out  of  all  danger,  the  fort  of 
Arippo  being  but  six  miles  off.  They  now  began  to  rejoice,  and  explained 
their  case,  assuring  him  that  the  commandant  at  the  fort  would  reward 


APPENDIX.  805 

him,  if*  he  would  conduct  them  thither.  But  whether  he  doubted  that, 
or  expected  present  payment,  he  excused  himself  on  the  plea  of  urgency, 
but  advised  them  to  leave  the  river,  as  it  wound  about,  and  to  make  for 
the  villag-es,  where  the  people  would  direct  them.  The  variety  of  paths 
baffling  their  efforts,  and  the  land  being  so  exceedingly  low  that  they 
could  see  nothing  but  trees  ;  after  much  wandering  they  sat  down  under 
a  tree,  waiting  until  the  sun  set  or  some  people  came  by.  At  length 
some  Malabars,  one  of  whom  spoke  Portuguese,  was  finally  prevailed 
upon  by  the  present  of  a  knife  to  conduct  them  to  a  village,  from  whence 
a  man  was  sent  with  them  to  the  next,  and  so  on  to  Arippo,  which  they 
reached  on  October  the  18th,  1679,  after  a  captivity  of  nineteen  years 
and  a  half,    Knox  having  been  nineteen  when  taken  prisoner. 

In  this  their  flight  through  the  woods  and  desolate  wilderness,  they  had 
had  little  fear  of  wild  beasts,  and  had  slept  soundly  every  night  in  the 
midst  of  them,  a  proof  how  repellent  of  fear  is  habit.  The  Dutch  were 
greatly  surprised  at  their  arrival,  it  being  the  first  escape  yet  made  from 
Kandy,  and  entertained  them  kindly,  sending  them  to  Manaar  on  the 
following  day.  At  Manaar  they  were  brought  before  the  commandant, 
who  was  equally  courteous.  Every  thing  seemed  strange  to  them,  who 
had  so  long*  dwelt  in  straw  cottages,  and  were  used  to  sit  on  the  ground 
and  eat  their  meat  on  leaves,  now  to  sit  on  chairs  and  partake  of  Eu- 
ropean luxuries,  and  that  in  such  guise,  that,  except  for  their  natural 
colour,  they  seemed  unfit  to  eat  with  the  captain's  servants.  After 
dinner,  the  captain  interrogated  them  as  to  Kandian  affairs,  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  Dutch  envoys,  to  all  of  which  they  replied.  Pie  then  pro- 
mised to  send  them  by  a  vessel  sailing  to  Jaflhapatam,  to  the  commander 
of  which  he  would  recommend  them,  and  from  thence  they  could  pro- 
ceed to  Fort  St.  George.  After  making  them  a  present  of  money,  he 
dismissed  them,  and  they  began  to  inquire  if  there  were  no  Eng-lishmen 
among  the  troops.  Having  discovered  a  Scotchman  and  Irishman,  they 
were  invited  by  them  to  their  quarters,  and  hospitably  treated.  The 
news  of  their  arrival  being  spread  about  the  town,  they  became  an  ob- 
ject of  curiosity,  and  the  people  came  to  inquire  about  their  relations  im- 
prisoned at  Kandy.  Their  passage  to  Jaflhapatam  being  delayed,  they 
received  rations  at  the  castle  until  the  arrival  of  the  Governor,  who, 
having  to  set  sail  for  Colombo  on  the  next  day,  carried  them  with  him. 

On  landing  they  inquired  if  there  were  any  Englishmen  in  the  city. 
News  of  their  arrival  having*  been  circulated,  several  of  their  country- 
men came  to  welcome  them.  Being  barefooted,  in  a  Singhalese  dress, 
with  great  long  beards,  they  excited  much  attention,  and  drew  crowds 
after  them  in  passing  through  the  streets,  till  they  reached  the  houses 
of  their  countrymen,  by  whom  they  were  hospitably  received.  Next 
day  the  Governor,  Van  Goens,  son  of  the  Governor-General  of  Batavia, 
sent  for  them  to  his  house,  and  welcomed  them  out  of  their  long  captivity, 
telling  them  that  he  had  endeavoured  to  procure  their  liberation  equally 
with  that  of  his  own  people,  but  unsuccessfully.  For  which  they  thanked 
him,  telling  him  they  knew  it  to  be  true.  The  Governor  perceiving 
Knox  spoke  Portuguese,  began  interrogating  him  respecting  the  king 
and  country,  of  the  reason  of  his  own  landing  at  Kotti-aar,  to  which  he 
replied.  They  then  inquired  if  the  Kandian  monarch  had  any  issue  ;  he 
told  them,  none.  Who  were  the  next  in  importance?  He  answered, 
the  king  had  destroyed  all  the  more  powerful  chiefs.  How  the  people 
stood  affected  towards  him  '     He  replied,  ill,  on  account  of  his  cruelty. 


806  APPENDIX. 

If  they  had  never  been  brought  into  his  presence  ?  He  replied  in  the 
negative.  What  military  strength  he  possessed  ?  He  answered,  little 
for  aggression,  but  much  for  defence,  owing  to  the  woods  and  moun- 
tains. What  army  he  could  raise  on  an  emergency  ?  He  replied,  about 
30,000  men.  Why  he  would  not  make  peace  with  them,  when  they 
sought  it,  and  endeavoured  to  conciliate  him  by  presents?  He  replied, 
because  living  securely  in  the  mountains,  he  feared  nothing,  and  cared 
not  for  commerce.  What  was  the  safest  means  of  sending  spies  or  in- 
telligence to  Kandy  1  He  told  them,  by  Jaffnapatam,  and  by  the  Mala- 
bars  who  frequented  Neuwarakalawa.  What  would  become  of  the  country 
after  the  king's  decease  ?  He  answered,  that,  the  king  having  no  issue, 
it  might  fall  into  their  hands.  How  many  English  had  served  the  king, 
and  whether  he  had  any  acquaintance  with  the  great  men  at  court.  He 
answered,  that  he  was  in  too  humble  a  sphere  to  be  noticed  by  them. 
How  the  common  people  used  to  speak  of  them  ?  He  replied,  that  they 
used  to  praise  their  administration.  Whether  the  king  did  ask  his 
ministers'  advice,  or  rule  according  to  his  own  will?  He  answered,  he 
is  so  great,  that  he  does  not  require  advice.  If  the  king  knew  before- 
hand of  the  arrival  of  the  French  embassy  ?  He  replied,  he  thought 
not,  as  the  people  were  surprised  at  it.  If  he  knew  any  means  by  which 
the  prisoners  at  Kandy  might  be  liberated.  He  told  them  none,  except 
war.  They  asked  also  as  to  the  manner  those  condemned  to  death  were 
executed,  the  mode  in  which  he  was  surprised,  and  his  treatment ;  in 
what  parts  of  the  country  he  resided,  his  age,  and  whither  he  now  pro- 
posed to  g'o.  To  all  of  which  he  answered.  They  questioned  him  also 
as  to  the  number  of  Englishmen  left  behind,  and  how  their  ambas- 
sadors and  other  officers  of  rank  were  treated;  also,  what  the  king 
thought  of  Dutch  deserters.  He  replied,  that  he  looked  upon  them 
as  rogues.  He  then  satisfied  them  as  to  his  mode  of  escape  and  his 
route. 

The  Governor  having  inquired  their  destination,  they  answered  Fort 
St.  George.  He  told  them,  however,  that  there  would  be  no  vessel 
sailing  that  way  for  some  time,  and  that  he  wished  them  to  accompany 
him  to  Batavia,  that  the  Governor-General, his  father,  might  see  them. 
Then  calling  an  officer,  he  gave  orders  as  to  their  treatment,  and  directed 
that  they  should  be  furnished  with  European  clothing  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, regardless  of  the  objections  of  Knox,  who  merely  required  a  tem- 
porary loan.  The  Governor  further  supplied  them  with  money  for  their 
expense  in  the  city.  During  his  stay  in  Colombo,  Knox  wrote  to  his 
late  fellow-prisoners  at  Kandy,  describing  in  detail  the  route  he  had 
taken,  and  advised  them  to  steer  the  same  course  when  opportunity 
offered.  This  letter  the  Governor,  having  had  translated  into  Dutch  for 
the  use  of  his  countrymen,  also  promised  to  see  conveyed.  Knox  was 
now  requested  to  write  on  paper  a  statement  similar  to  that  he  had  al- 
ready made,  and  sign  it,  which  he  did.  The  Governor  invited  him  to 
all  his  entertainments  during  his  stay,  where  he  was  sumptuously 
treated.  At  length  they  sailed  for  Batavia.  The  reception  they  met 
with  from  the  Governor-General,  was,  if  possible,  kinder  still.  As  soon 
as  they  were  introduced,  he  took  them  by  the  hand,  and  thanked  God 
for  their  miraculous  deliverance,  assuring  them  that  he  had  neglected 
no  means  for  their  deliverance.  He  loaded  them  also  with  presents, 
and  ordered  them  to  be  quartered  at  the  house  of  one  of  his  officers. 
Knox  was  frequently  invited  to  his  table,  where  the  greatest  state  was 
observed. 


APPENDIX.  807 

Becoming  polished  by  his  intercourse  with  such  persons,  Knox  now 
cut  off  his  beard,  which  he  had  hitherto  permitted  to  grow.     He  was 
again  examined  as  to  the  localities  of  the  Kandian  country,  and  his  re- 
plies committed  to  writing'  by  the  secretaries.     The  Governor-General's 
youngest  son  being  about  to  set  sail  for  Holland  in  command  of  the 
Dutch  fleet,  Knox  was  offered  a  passage,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Ad- 
miral's table.     The  arrival  of  two  English  merchants  from  Bantam 
changed  the  plan,  and  returning  with  them,  they  gave  him  a  passage 
by  a  ship  of  their  own,  then  lying  in  the  roads  bound  for  England,  where 
he  arrived  safe  in  September,  1680.    Soon  after  his  arrival,  Knox  wrote 
to  the  French  ambassador  to  inform  him  of  the  captivity  of  the  French 
envoy  and  suite,  who  had  been  sent  by  De  la  Haye  to  treat  with  the 
king,  and  offered  to  give  any  information  he  required,  which  was  thank- 
fully accepted  and  forwarded  to  the   French  Government.     His  de- 
scription of  Ceylon,  and  narrative  of  his  own  life  and  adventures,  having 
been  submitted  to  the  patrons  of  literature,  including  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  and  Dr.  Hook,  the  former  testified  to  the  truth  and  integrity  of 
his  statements,  and  the  latter  edited  his  work,  prefixing  to  it  a  preface 
of  his  own.     At  a  Court  of  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company,  it 
was  recorded,  "  that  they  esteemed  Captain  Knox  a  man  of  truth  and 
integrity,  and  that  his  relation  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  which  some  of 
them  had  perused  in  manuscript,  was  worthy  of  credit,  and  they  had 
therefore  encouraged  him  to  publish  it."  Finally,  Knox  was  solicited  to 
re-enter  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  appointed  com- 
mander of  a  merchant  vessel  trading  to  Tonquin. 


IX. 

MISSION  OF  PADRE  VAZ. 

The  following  sketch  of  the  mission  of  Padre  Vaz,  a  Portuguese 
priest  in  Ceylon,  is  taken  from  a  Portuguese  work,  written  by  Padre 
Dorego,  which  we  have  shorn  of  most  of  its  absurd  fables  and  the  mira- 
culous appliances  with  which  Romanists  love  to  invest  the  more  pro- 
minent of  their  ecclesiastics.  Sufficient,  however,  will  remain  to  shew 
that  Vaz  was  a  man  of  no  ordinary  character  and  strength  of  mind. 

After  a  series  of  remarkable  adventures  on  his  passage  from  Goa  to 
Ceylon,  during  which  he  learned  the  Tamul  language,  he  finally  arrived 
at  Jaffnapatam,  but  not  before  a  violent  storm  had  forced  the  ship  in 
which  he  sailed  into  Manaar  (known  to  the  Portuguese  as  the  Island  of 
the  Martyrs),  and  left  him  penniless  and  without  food  for  several  days. 
Recovering  his  strength  by  the  alms  he  begged  at  the  latter  place,  he 
proceeded  by  sea  to  Jaffna  ;  there  a  woman  took  compassion  on  his  for- 
lorn condition,  and  permitted  him  to  lie  under  her  humble  verandah ; 
but  the  sufferings  he  had  recently  undergone  had  destroyed  the  tone  of 
the  stomach,  and  brought  on  a  violent  dysentery.  His  hostess  was 
violently  censured  by  her  neighbours  for  letting  the  pilgrim  remain 
near  her  house ;  and  as  he  was  too  reduced  to  be  able  to  walk,  they  took 
him  up  and  threw  him  down  in  a  distant  place,  where  he  was  exposed 
to  all  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  "  Oh  !"  observes  the  biographer, 
"  that  these  inhuman  men  could  have  been  told  that  a  time  would  come 


808  APPENDIX. 

when  this  very  sick  man,  whom  they  now  threw  out  of  their  district, 
would  harbour  them  in  his  house,  and  become  a  general  attendant  on 
the  sick  ;  that  he  would  bear  on  his  own  shoulders  their  putrid  and  dis- 
eased bodies  ;  and  that  he  whom  they  now  despised  as  the  worst  among 
the  living,  should  ultimately  save  innumerable  lives."  The  Padre, 
whose  servant  was  also  disabled  by  illness,  now  thought  his  last  hour 
was  come,  and  commended  his  soul  to  God  ;  but  he  was  not  yet  to  die, 
for  a  woman  who  chanced  to  pass  him,  and  saw  him  lying  on  the  bare 
ground,  scorched  by  the  sun  by  day  and  exposed  to  the  cold  by  night, 
brought  him  a  mess  of  rice,  which  revived  him,  and  led  him  to  seek  an 
opportunity  for  discovering  himself  to  the  Catholics,  in  order  to  com- 
mence his  apostolical  ministry.  The  Catholics  were  at  this  period  vigi- 
lantly watched  and  persecuted  by  the  Dutch  ;  the  fear  was  then,  that 
in  making  himself  known,  he  might  fall  into  wrong  hands,  as  the  people 
of  the  two  creeds  lived  among  each  other. 

In  walking  through  the  streets,  to  notice  the  actions  of  the  people, 
and  ascertain  the  religion  they  professed,  he  was  recognized  by  the 
Protestants  as  a  Catholic  stranger  by  the  rosary  of  the  Virgin  round  his 
neck,  and  insulted  and  pushed  about.  At  length  he  was  encouraged  to 
ask  at  the  house  of  a  person  by  whom  he  had  been  generously  relieved, 
and  whose  religion  he  suspected,  if  he  was  desirous  of  finding  a  minis- 
ter to  administer  to  him  the  holy  sacraments.  With  a  sigh  he  replied, 
that  he  was  unworthy  of  so  great  a  mercy ;  and  suspecting  that  the  men- 
dicant was  a  priest  in  disguise  by  his  attention  to  spiritual  matters  and 
the  modesty  of  his  behaviour,  he  communicated  the  same  to  another 
Catholic.  The  latter  told  him,  that  if  he  was  a  priest  he  ought 
to  declare  it  openly,  and  comfort  the  few  Catholics  in  the  country, 
and  that  he  would  carefully  secrete  him  from  the  observation  of 
the  Dutch.  Vaz  then  shewed  him  his  patent,  and  at  once  com- 
menced his  ministry  by  administering  the  sacraments  nightly.  He 
was  next  removed  to  a  charge  in  the  country,  where  he  voluntarily 
submitted  himself  to  a  lay  elder  of  the  Christians  there,  as  being  better 
acquainted  with  the  customs  of  the  people,  and  went  about  from  place 
to  place  through  swamps  and  jungles,  making  many  converts  amonc 
the  heathen  by  the  austerity  of  his  manners.  His  voluntary  poverty 
was  such  that  he  would  not  accept  money ;  his  modesty  such,  that  in 
confessing  women  he  would  avert  his  eyes  :  and  his  temperance  such, 
that  besides  frequently  abstaining  from  food,  he  lived  on  the  coarsest 
diet.  Catholicism  appeared  to  revive  throughout  Jaffna,  and  the  Dutch 
attributed  it  to  the  arrival  of  some  Jesuit  in  disguise. 

VanRheede,  knowing  that  the  Catholics  assembled  at  night  in  certain 
houses,  formed  a  plan  for  surprising  them  and  taking  them  prisoners. 
This  he  effected,  demolished  the  altars,  destroyed  the  sacred  images, 
cruelly  beat  some,  heavily  fined  the  richer  members,  and  condemned 
the  remainder  to  hard  labour.  Vaz,  who  was  a  perfect  Proteus  in  dis- 
guising himself,  escaped,  and  avoiding  the  public  roads,  and  travelling 
only  by  night,  concealed  himself  in  the  jungle,  and  crossing  over  to 
Ceylon  arrived  at  Putlam,  then  belonging  to  the  King  of  Kandy,  and  a 
place  of  some  commerce.  Here  was  a  church  built  by  the  Portuguese, 
and  many  native  Christians.  Among  these  Vaz  laboured  for  some  time, 
till  he  longed  to  visit  Kandy,  where  were  detained  several  Portuguese 
Christians  and  native  converts.  The  danger  was  that  he  would  never 
return  when  once  there,  but  be  detained  as  a  Portuguese  spy.     Vaz, 


APPENDIX.  809 

however,  undaunted,  applied  for  permission  to  enter  through  a  Portu- 
guese, who,  unfortunately  for  him,  was  connected  with  the  envoy  of 
France,  there  detained,  who  being  a  Calvinist,  was  hostile  to  his  faith 
and  slandered  him  to  the  king.  On  approaching  Kandy  he  was  accord- 
ingly taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  a  close  dungeon  in  the  suburbs  of 
the  city,  where  he  had  nearly  perished  of  hunger.  At  length  the  king 
sent  for  him  to  examine  him,  and  inferring  from  his  demeanour  that  he 
was  not  a  spy,  ordered  him  to  be  taken  back  to  prison,  but  to  be  main- 
tained from  the  royal  revenue.  Vaz,  meanwhile,  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  Singhalese,  in  which  he  made  himself  a  proficient.  The  rigour 
of  his  confinement  was  soon  diminished,  and  he  was  allowed  more 
liberty  ;  he  therefore  built  himself  a  hut,  and  placing  therein  an  altar, 
and  erecting  a  cross,  prostrated  himself  before  it,  and  performed  all  the 
services  of  the  church  unmolested.  Not  long  after  a  Portuguese, 
who  had  presented  a  piece  of  embroidery  to  the  king,  was  told  he 
might  ask  any  favour  he  might  desire  in  return.  This  he  did,  request- 
ing an  interview  with  Vaz,  to  whom  he  wished  to  unburthen  his  con- 
science in  prison.  This  was  granted  but  for  once,  but  was  finally 
repeated,  till  at  last  all  who  wished  gained  entrance  to  him.  At  the 
end  of  two  years  he  was  allowed  to  walk  about  the  city,  but  not  to  cross 
the  river.  Vaz  now  erected  a  large  church  at  Bogambera,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Portuguese  residents,  and  contrived  on  several  occa- 
sions to  cross  the  Mahavelle  to  visit  the  flock  under  his  charge.  The 
Buddhist  priests,  jealous  of  his  success,  combined  with  the  French  Pro- 
testants to  traduce  him,  and  pressed  the  king  to  destroy  the  new  fabric 
as  being  a  place  of  resort  for  those  who  had  designs  upon  his  kingdom 
and  the  Buddhist  faith.  Unsuccessful  in  their  endeavours,  they  began 
to  maltreat  the  Catholics  themselves,  and  only  ceased  when  the  perse- 
verance of  that  body  shewed  that  they  were  not  to  be  dissuaded.  A 
drought  is  now  alleged,  by  his  biographer,  to  have  come  to  the  aid  of 
Vaz,  and  the  Buddhist  priests  being  unable  to  mitigate  it,  application 
was  made  to  him,  and  with  a  successful  result.  Conversions  to  the 
faith,  before  rare,  were  now  numerous,  and  Vaz  obtained  additional 
privileges.  Vaz  now  visited  several  parts  of  the  island,  including  Jaff- 
napatam,  and  entering  Colombo  in  the  garb  of  a  mendicant,  there 
ministered  to  the  people  of  his  faith.  The  Dutch,  gaining  imperfect 
information  of  his  proceedings,  ordered  search  to  be  made  after  him, 
but  he  had  fled,  and  after  visiting  several  places  on  the  coast  and  inte- 
rior, returned  to  Kandy.  He  was  now  strengthened  by  the  arrival  of 
other  priests,  over  whom  he  was  appointed  Vicar-General,  with  the 
further  superintendence  of  the  churches  dispersed  throughout  the 
island. 

The  small-pox  now  visited  Ceylon,  and  made  fearful  ravages.  The 
people,  believing  that  all  persons  labouring  under  the  disorder  were  pos- 
sessed by  the  devil,  avoided  them  as  they  would  him ;  the  father  ran 
away  from  his  children,  the  wife  from  her  husband,  leaving  them  to 
perish  without  food  :  the  sick  perished,  therefore,  as  much  from  hunger 
and  panic  as  from  the  virulence  of  the  disorder.  The  dead  became  so 
numerous  that  they  were  left  unburied,  or  carried  to  distant  places, 
while  the  poor  wretches  affected  were  driven  by  the  government  into 
the  jungle.  When  the  contagion  had  reached  Kandy,  the  king  left  it, 
as  the  stench  of  the  dead  bodies  in  the  streets  was  unbearable.  Vaz 
resolved  to  visit  both  Christians  and  Pagans,  and  being  furnished  with 


810  APPENDIX. 

provisions  from  his  followers  in  Colombo,  relieved  their  distress.  He 
also  followed  the  sick  into  the  jungles,  and  building-  huts  as  well  as 
time  and  place  would  permit,  there  sheltered  them  from  the  elements 
and  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts  :  in  a  word,  he  contrived  to  supply  every 
want,  temporal  and  spiritual,  performed  the  most  menial  services, 
opened  hospitals  in  the  deserted  houses,  and  dared  every  thing  for  their 
relief.  The  result  was  that  numbers  who  were  saved  joined  the  church, 
and  had  their  children  baptized.  For  a  year  did  the  pestilence  con- 
tinue, and  so  long  did  Vaz  labour  unceasingly  in  his  benign  mission. 
Cheered,  however,  by  the  happy  result  of  their  efforts,  his  strength 
was  in  no  way  reduced,  and  Vaz  next  succeeded  in  converting  one  of 
his  bitterest  enemies,  who  had  constantly  endeavoured  to  poison  the 
mind  of  the  king  against  him,  but  who,  being  deserted  by  his  relations, 
was  left  destitute  and  relieved  by  the  father. 

The  admirable  conduct  of  Vaz  had  already  gained  him  the  confidence 
of  the  king,  who  was  only  prevented  from  rewarding  him  by  being 
assured  that  he  was  too  disinterested  to  accept  anything.  On  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  malady  Vaz  proceeded  to  visit  the  coast,  and  is  said  by  his 
biographer  to  have  been  again  saved  by  a  miracle  from  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch  near  Colombo.  Vaz  escaped  to  Seetawaka,  where  he  heard 
that  one  of  his  coadjutors  had  been  expelled  by  the  king,  and  that  a 
miracle  had  been  performed  in  behalf  of  his  faith  in  Saffragam,  the 
Dissave  of  which  had  been  deposed  from  his  office  for  attempting  to 
demolish  a  chapel.  By  bribes  and  intercessions  however  he  regained 
his  post,  and  again  determined  to  erect  a  granary  over  the  site  of  that 
fabric.  This  time,  however,  he  was  seized  with  a  paralysis  that  no 
efforts  of  the  priests  of  Buddha  could  remove,  and  in  despair,  confessing 
his  crime,  he  assured  the  Christians  that  he  would  no  longer  interrupt 
them,  and  requested  their  intercessions  for  the  removal  of  the  disease. 
This  was  granted,  and  he  recovered  the  use  of  his  limbs. 

In  Kandy  his  enemies  still  continued  their  attaeks  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  him  from  the  capital :  the  priests  of  Buddha  complained  of  the 
diminution  in  their  incomes  through  the  increase  of  Christianity,  and 
at  last  the  united  body  urged  so  many  motives  of  policy,  and  hinted  at 
so  many  suspicions  of  treasonable  desig-ns,  that  the  king  yielded,  and 
the  church  at  Bogambera  being  demolished,  the  priests  were  ordered 
to  leave  the  country.  The  chief  agent  of  this  subversion  was,  like  all 
the  enemies  of  Vaz,  punished  by  a  Divine  judgment;  but  still  the  reli- 
gion, now  persecuted  in  every  quarter,  appeared  on  the  point  of  being 
exterminated.  On  arriving  near  Kandy  he  was  forbidden  from  passing 
the  river,  and  returned  to  his  brethren,  but  finally  resolved  to  return  or 
perish  in  the  attempt.  By  another  miracle  the  malevolence  of  his 
enemies  was  averted  ;  and,  through  the  intervention  of  a  domestic,  Vaz 
was  again  admitted  to  his  former  privileges  by  the  king* ;  a  new  church 
of  larger  dimensions  was  reared  in  the  place  of  the  former  structure, 
and  a  hospital  built  in  its  vicinity.  Passing  over  the  miraculous  con- 
version of  a  young  noble,  who  subsequently  relapses,  is  again  converted, 
and  becomes  instrumental  to  the  conversion  of  numerous  others,  we 
come  to  a  persecution  of  the  Christians  by  means  of  a  report  that  they 
used  cow's  blood  in  their  baptismal  rites ;  a  number  of  them  being  seized, 
and  their  property  confiscated,  the  king  is  informed  by  another  miracle, 
through  Buddhist  agency,  of  the  falsity  of  the  charge,  though  the 
weight  of  convicting  evidence  appeared  overpowering.    To  relate  all  the 


APPENDIX.  811 

undertakings  of  Padre  Vaz,  and  to  unfold  the  full  tale  of  his  energy, 
boldness,  austerity  and  devotion,  would  be  incompatible  with  our  design ; 
suffice  to  say,  that  the  Dutch  were  never  able  to  eradicate  the  faith 
thus  planted  by  his  courage,  and  Catholicism  continued  to  increase  in 
Ceylon  till  it  arrived  at  its  present  position. 


EMBASSY  OF  GENERAL  MACDOWAL  TO  KANDY. 

On  his  arrival  at  Seetawaka,  the  General  sent  across  the  river  to 
inform  the  Adigaar,  who  lay  encamped  on  the  opposite  side  with  several 
thousand  Kandians,  that  he  intended  passing  over  next  clay.  A  vast 
number  of  Kandians  flocked  down  to  the  water's  edge  to  see  the  troops, 
no  such  appearance  having  been  presented  to  them  for  years  before,  and 
were  not  a  little  surprised  at  the  quickness  and  facility  with  which  the 
ponderous  g"uns  and  artillery  waggons  were  drawn  over.  The  descent 
was  so  great  that  the  bullocks  were  obliged  to  be  taken  from  the 
waggons,  and  the  troops  employed  to  draw  the  artillery  through  the 
water,  while  the  ammunition  was  transported  on  the  heads  of  lascars 
and  pioneers.  Encamping  close  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  at  a  Kandian 
village,  where  was  a  choultry,  and  several  rang'es  of  buildings  erected 
on  purpose  for  the  reception  of  ambassadors  and  their  followers  when  they 
repaired  hither  to  have  an  interview  with  Europeans,  the  General  re- 
ceived a  visit  from  the  Adigaar,  who  came  preceded  by  a  Kandian,  car- 
rying the  king's  letter  wrapped  up  in  a  white  cloth,  and  bearing  it  over 
his  head,  a  mark  of  profound  respect  always  paid  to  the  royal  colour. 
The  General  in  return  delivered  Governor  North's  letter  to  the  Adigaar. 
Next  evening  the  Adigaar  came  in  great  state,  by  torch-light,  to  pay  a 
visit  of  ceremony  to  the  General,  when  the  conference  continued  for  an 
hour  on  complimentary  matters.  Their  conversation  was  carried  on 
standing,  and  was  very  tedious.  The  Adigaar  promised  to  send  the 
General  500  of  his  people  to  convey  the  presents  intended  for  the  king 
of  Kandy,  and  to  assist  the  Singhalese  peasants  in  the  service  of  the 
embassy,  in  transporting  baggage  and  provisions,  but  this  promise  was 
never  fulfilled.  Two  days  after,  the  Adigaar  again  waited  on  the 
General  in  his  usual  state,  being  accompanied  by  several  of  the  chief 
men,  and  about  300  of  his  guards.  Their  great  guns  were  carried  on 
men's  shoulders,  being  little  more  than  muskets  of  a  very  wide  bore, 
with  blocks  of  wood  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  barrel,  near  the 
breech.  Those  guns,  when  about  to  be  fired  off,  were  simply  placed  on 
the  ground,  while  the  muzzle  was  elevated  by  the  piece  of  wood.  Im- 
mediately opposite  the  street  leading  to  the  place  of  audience,  stood  a 
very  fine  Bo-tree,  around  which  was  a  sort  of  platform.  As  the  Adigaar, 
and  his  train  were  to  pass  that  way,  several  of  the  officers  had  planted 
themselves  on  this  elevated  spot  to  view  the  procession.  The  Adigaar 
chancing  to  observe  them,  expressed  great  indignation,  and  desired  that 
they  should  be  ordered  down,  as  no  one  ought,  in  his  presence,  to  be 
placed  higher  than  himself,  who  personated  a  king,  with  whom  none 


812  APPENDIX. 

was  on  a  level,  and  before  whom,  as  a  descendant  of  the  g-olden  sun,  all 
should  fall  prostrate.  The  General  was  here  informed,  that  the  nature 
of  the  country  would  prevent  the  progress  of  the  horses  and  waggons 
up  to  Kandy.  The  General  having  ordered  the  pioneers  to  make  a 
road  in  their  front  for  the  artillery,  as  the  paths  through  which  the 
march  lay,  besides  being  exceedingly  narrow,  were  so  full  of  precipices 
and  ravines,  that,  without  smoothing  the  one  and  tilling  up  the  other,  it 
was  absolutely  impossible  to  proceed,  the  Adigaar  sent  to  express  his 
disapprobation  of  this  measure,  and  remonstrated  against  any  of  his 
master's  territory  being  infringed  upon  in  the  slightest  degree,  though 
he  knew  they  must  either  repair  the  road  or  abandon  their  intention  of 
proceeding  further. 

Everything,  indeed,  shewed  the  ill-will  of  the  minister.  The  whole 
track,  which  it  was  intended  they  should  pursue  in  their  progress  to 
Kandy,  was  marked  out  by  twigs  and  bushes  set  up  at  proper  distances. 
It  was  well  known  that  a  far  easier  road  than  that  pointed  out  was 
known  to  the  Adigaar,  and  that  he  had  pitched  upon  the  most  difficult 
and  intricate,  in  order  that  they  might  suffer  the  more  in  their  march. 
The  circumspection  with  which  they  were  constantly  watched,  shewed 
how  little  confidence  the  Kandians  reposed  in  the  good  faith  of  Euro- 
peans. At  the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  from  the  encampment 
lay  a  large  body  of  the  King's  troops,  which  kept  a  few  miles  ahead  of 
them  the  whole  way,  and  always  remained  just  out  of  their  view.  None 
of  the  officers  were  allowed  to  approach  them,  or  to  have  an  opportunity 
of  observing  their  numbers.  Besides  the  regular  troops,  the  whole  inha- 
bitants of  this  part  of  the  country  were  assembled  in  arms,  and  lay 
around  in  every  direction,  and  whenever  any  officer  walked  out  from 
the  encampment,  he  seldom  failed  to  perceive  Kandians  skulking 
about  the  woods  in  the  vicinity.  Great  difficulty  now  began  to  be  felt 
in  dragging  the  guns  through  the  ravines  and  defiles,  and  the  pioneers 
and  troops  had  to  clear  away  the  stumps  of  trees  and  pieces  of  rock 
which  obstructed  the  road  at  every  step. 

Hitherto  the  river  had  been  navigable  for  boats;  which  enabled  them 
to  have  a  large  proportion  of  stores  and  provisions  conveyed  by  water, 
as  it  ran  in  a  direct  line  with  their  march.  Above  Ruwanwelle,  it  was 
shallow,  rocky,  and  narrow,  and  even  native  canoes  could  not  proceed 
without  the  greatest  difficulty.  The  natives  appeared  very  displeased 
at  their  bringing  artillery  into  their  country,  or  stirring  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  camp,  although  permission  had  been  obtained  from  the 
court  at  Kandy  to  have  this  embassy  more  splendid  and  numerous  than 
any  which  had  preceded  it,  and  though  orders  had  been  issued  to  give 
them  the  most  friendly  reception.  It  was,  indeed,  reported,  that  the 
King  found  himself  at  that  time  in  rather  a  precarious  situation  from 
the  internal  divisions  and  factions  among  his  subjects,  which  made  him 
wish  that  the  escort  should  be  as  strong  as  possible.  But  the  Adigaar's 
intrigues,  and  his  hostility  to  the  English  prevailed  enough  to  overrule 
the  King's  orders  and  counteract  his  intentions.  The  weather  continu- 
ing still  unfavourable,  and  there  being  no  prospect  of  procuring  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  people  to  carry  the  provisions  and  stores  requisite  for 
the  whole  escort,  while  the  roads  between  them  and  Kandy  were  so 
dreadfully  bad,  as  to  render  any  attempt  to  proceed  with  their  baggage 
and  artillery  almost  impracticable,  the  General  was  induced  to  leave  the 


APPENDIX.  813 

artillery  with  the  Europeans  and  the  greater  part  of  the  native  troops 
at  this  encampment,  and  to  proceed  to  Kandy  with  two  companies  of 
Sepoys  and  two  of  the  Malay  regiment. 

Having  procured  the  Adigaar's  leave  to  make  shooting  excursions 
with  people  acquainted  with  the  country  to  conduct  them,  they  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing-  several  of  their  villages,  most  of  which  they  found 
deserted  by  their  inhabitants.  On  the  approach  of  a  red  coat,  the 
alarm  was  instantly  given,  and  the  natives,  men,  women,  and  children, 
fled  directly  into  the  woods.  It  was  not  till  after  some  time,  that  they 
could  induce  the  first  to  remain  in  their  habitations,  and  they  found  it 
very  difficult  to  procure  hogs,  fowls,  and  fruits,  from  the  natives, 
although  such  articles  were  in  great  abundance  in  the  country,  which 
surprised  them  the  more,  as  the  King's  officers  had  issued  express 
orders  directing  them  to  be  supplied  with  every  sort  of  necessaries. 
They  were  more  disposed  to  attribute  this  to  the  country  people  them- 
selves than  to  any  deceit  on  the  part  of  the  court.  The  Kandians,  indeed, 
particularly  the  lower  orders,  shewed  little  inclination  to  have  any  con- 
nexion with  them.  Their  dread  and  hatred  of  Europeans,  occasioned 
by  the  numberless  aggressions  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  had  become 
too  rooted  to  be  easily  removed.  Hence  arose  that  distrust  and  dislike 
towards  them  which  they  took  every  opportunity  of  shewing.  No 
sooner  had  they  heard  of  the  departure  of  the  embassy  from  Colombo, 
than  they  immediately  began  to  assemble  in  great  numbers  on  their 
frontiers,  under  the  idea  that  they  were  approaching  with  hostile  inten- 
tions, until  a  message  from  the  King  quieted  their  fears :  the  militia 
then  received  orders  immediately  to  join  the  regular  troops,  and  in  no 
way  to  molest  the  English  on  their  route. 

The  General  having  now  arrived  at  the  place  where  it  was  determined 
he  should  reside,  while  he  transacted  the  business  of  the  embassy,  ex- 
pected that  he  had  overcome  the  almost  insuperable  difficulties  that  lay 
in  his  way,  and  that  the  fatigues  of  his  tedious  march  would  have  been 
compensated  by  a  frank  reception  and  ready  admittance  into  the  royal 
presence.  But  it  was  the  study  of  the  Kandians  to  impress  the  ambas- 
sadors with  the  highest  ideas  of  their  dignity  and  their  condescension 
in  receiving  overtures  from  an  European  Government.  With  this  view 
so  many  ceremonies  attended  each  introduction  into  the  royal  presence, 
that  little  business  could  be  transacted,  and  such  a  space  elapsed  between 
each  interview  that  the  General  was  only  admitted  to  three  during  his 
month's  stay.  But  previous  to  any  interview,  it  was  no  easy  matter  to 
adjust  the  ceremonies  of  introduction.  It  had  been  customary  for  the 
kings  of  Kandy  to  demand  prostration,  and  several  other  degrading- 
tokens  of  submission  from  the  ambassadors  introduced  to  them.  The 
Dutch  ambassadors  had  always  submitted  to  be  led  into  the  capital 
blindfold,  and  to  prostrate  themselves  before  the  monarch,  and  one 
British  embassy  had  failed  from  a  refusal  to  comply  with  these  humi- 
liating terms.  Even  after  Colombo  had  been  captured  by  the  British, 
and  the  Dutch  expelled,  the  Kandian  monarch  would  not  recede  from 
his  lofty  pretensions,  and  Mr.  Andrews,  sent  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany on  a  mission  to  Kandy,  shortly  after  we  had  taken  possession  of 
the  island,  was  obliged  to  kneel,  on  being  admitted  into  the  royal 
presence.  Nay,  to  such  an  extravagant  pitch  was  this  rojral  prerogative 
carried,  that  when  Trincomalee  had  been  taken  by  General  Stewart, 
and  the  King  was  in  consequence  prevailed  upon  to  send  ambassadors 


814  APPENDIX. 

to  Madras,  these  persons  very  modestly  desired  Lord  Hobart  to  pros- 
trate himself  before  them,  and  to  receive  the  king's  letter  on  his  knees. 
This  request,  however,  his  Lordship  declined  to  comply  with,  and 
replied,  "  that  as  they  were  so  much  in  the  habit  of  kneeling-,  and  so 
fond  of  prostration,  a  custom  which  his  countrymen  never  adopted, 
their  best  plan  to  prevent  the  omission  of  this  essential  ceremony, 
would  be  to  prostrate  themselves  before  him,  who  held  the  supreme  au- 
thority there ;"  and  this  alternative,  after  they  found  his  Lordship  would 
not  submit  to  the  other,  they  actually  assented  to.  General  Macdowal, 
understanding  that  this  ceremony  was  expected  at  his  introduction,  pre- 
viously informed  his  Majesty,  through  the  Adigaar,  that  he  could  not 
on  any  account  submit  to  it.  The  King  long  objected,  but  the  General 
positively  refused  compliance,  and  informed  the  minister  that  his  sove- 
reign acknowledged  the  superiority  of  no  potentate  on  earth,  and  that 
sooner  than  degrade  him  in  the  person  of  his  representative,  he  would 
return  to  Colombo  without  being  presented.  The  King,  not  daring  to 
come  to  an  open  breach  with  us,  upon  this  waved  his  prerogative,  but 
in  order  to  reconcile  this  derogation  from  his  dignity  to  his  own  feelings, 
he  informed  the  General  that,  it  was  his  royal  will  to  dispense,  in  his 
case,  with  the  usual  ceremonies  required  of  ambassadors  at  their  intro- 
duction, as  he  came  from  his  brother  the  King  of  Great  Britain,  whose 
great  power  and  strength  he  acknowledged  to  be  far  above  that  of  the 
Dutch,  or  the  East  India  Company. 

This  important  matter  having  been  thus  adjusted,  and  the  time  ap- 
pointed for  the  first  audience  having  arrived,  the  Adigaar,  with  a  nume- 
rous attendance,  lighted  by  a  great  blaze  of  torches  (audience  having 
been  always  given  here  by  night),  came  to  the  edge  of  the  river  to 
conduct  the  General  to  the  royal  presence.  The  General,  on  his  part, 
crossed  the  river  in  the  boats,  which  were  in  readiness,  attended  by  his 
staff,  and  the  gentlemen  belonging  to  the  embassy  with  a  small  escort. 
The  way  up  the  city  was  very  fatiguing,  and  the  escort  was  not  a  little 
incommoded  by  the  crowd  of  natives  who  eagerly  pressed  to  gaze  on 
them.  This  circumstance  and  the  glare  of  the  torches  prevented  them 
from  having  an  accurate  view  of  the  city.  The  General  was  led  up  with 
much  ceremony  and  gravity  by  the  Adigaar  and  the  next  chief  officer 
present,  and  placed  along  with  the  Adigaar  on  the  uppermost  step  of 
the  throne.  Although  the  rest  of  the  hall  was  well  lighted,  that  part 
where  the  king  sat  was  contrived  to  be  made  more  obscure  than  the 
rest,  with  the  view  of  impressing  a  greater  awe  on  those  who  approached 
him.  He  was  by  no  means  so  portly  or  well-looking  as  the  Adigaar 
and  several  of  the  officers  around  him,  being  very  black,  with  a  light 
beard,  and  of  a  very  youthful  appearance.  He  was  dressed  in  a  robe  of 
very  fine  mnslin  embroidered  with  gold,  fitted  close  at  the  breast,  with 
several  folds  drawn  round  the  waist,  and  flowing  down  from  thence  like 
a  lady's  gown.  His  arms  were  bare,  from  the  elbows  downwards.  On 
his  fingers  he  wore  a  number  of  very  broad  rings  set  with  precious 
stones  of  different  sorts,  while  a  number  of  gold  chains  were  suspended 
round  his  neck,  over  a  stiff  frilled  piece  of  muslin,  resembling'  the  ruff 
worn  in  the  seventeenth  century.  His  head  was  covered  with  a  turban 
of  muslin  spangled  with  gold  and  surmounted  by  a  crown  of  gold,  an 
ornament  by  which  he  was  distinguished  from  all  the  other  Asiatic 
princes,  who  were  prohibited  by  their  religion  from  wearing  this  badge 
of  royalty,  and  whose  ornaments,  when  they  used  any,  consisted  simply 


APPENDIX.  815 

of  a  sprig  or  feather  of  precious  stone.  His  waist  was  encircled  with  a 
rich  sash,  to  which  was  suspended  a  short  curved  dagger  or  sabre,  the 
handle  richly  ornamented,  and  the  scabbard  of  gold  filigree  work.  The 
only  difference  discernible  between  the  dress  of  the  Adigaar  and  Sove- 
reign was,  that  the  former  did  not  wear  a  crown,  although  his  turban 
was  surmounted  by  something  like  a  ducal  coronet. 

After  General  Macdowal  had  been  presented  in  form  to  his  Majesty, 
and  a  numerous  string  of  ceremonies  had  been  gone  through,  the  King 
proceeded  to  inquire  after  the  health  of  his  Britannic  Majesty  and  the 
state  of  his  affairs ;  to  all  which  the  General  replied.  The  conversation 
was  carried  on  with  the  most  profound  gravity  and  reserve.  Even  the 
most  trifling  circumstances  were  mentioned  in  whispers  with  as  much 
ceremony  and  importance  as  if  the  fate  of  empires  depended  upon  them. 
The  King-  directed  his  speech  to  the  Adigaar,  who  stood  on  the  step  below 
the  throne,  and  who  repeated  his  Majesty's  words  to  the  Maha  Mode- 
liar,  who  had  come  up  with  the  embassy  as  Singhalese  interpreter ;  he 
in  turn  gave  it  in  Portuguese  to  a  Frenchman,  who  repeated  it  in  that 
language  to  the  General.  Thus  the  conversation  was  carried  on  by  five 
different  persons  and  in  three  different  languages,  and  the  replies 
returned  by  the  same  channel.  The  tedious  length  to  which  such  a 
conference  must  have  been  protracted  may  be  easily  conceived,  and 
though  it  lasted  nearly  three  hours,  this  first  interview  was  entirely 
occupied  with  complimentary  matters.  During  the  conference,  rose- 
water  was  frequently  sprinkled  around  from  curiously  wrought  vessels 
of  gold,  and  perfumes  were  handed  about  on  salvers  of  gold  and  silver 
filigree  work.  The  oppressive  heat  of  the  room,  however,  joined  to  the 
powerful  exhalations  of  the  scented  oils  burnt  in  the  lamps,  and  the 
rank  smell  of  cocoa-nut  oil  with  which  the  natives  present  were  univer- 
sally anointed,  overcame  the  effects  of  all  these  precautions,  and  almost 
stifled  the  European  gentlemen,  who  were  allowed  to  remain  at  one  end 
of  the  hall  where  the  General's  guard  were  stationed.  After  this  audi- 
ence, some  days  elapsed  before  another  could  be  obtained,  as  it  was  a 
standing  maxim  with  the  Kandians,  never  to  hurry  forward  affairs,  or 
to  betray  any  symptom  of  anxiety  for  their  being  brought  to  a  conclu- 
sion. Their  adherence  to  this  principle,  on  the  present  occasion,  cost 
them  no  slight  uneasiness,  as  their  suspicions  were  too  violent  to  allow 
their  minds  to  enjoy  any  rest  while  the  embassy  continued  in  the  country. 


XL 

OFFICIAL  BULLETIN. 

British  Head-quarters,  Kandy,  2nd  March,  1815. 
Tins  day  a  solemn  conference  was  held  in  the  Audience  Hall  of  the  Palace  at 
Kandy,  between  his  Excellency  the  Governor  and  Commander  of  the  Forces,  on 
behalf  of  his  Majesty  and  of  H.  R.  II.  the  Prince  Regent  on  the  one  part,  and 
the  Adigaars,  Dissaves,  and  other  principal  chiefs  of  the  Kandian  provinces,  on 
the  other  part,  on  behalf  of  the  people,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  Mohottales, 
Eoraals,  Vidahns,  and  other  subordinate  headmen  from  the  different  provinces, 
and  :i  great  concourse  of  inhabitants.  A  public  instrument  of  treaty,  prepared 
in  conformity  to  conditions  previously  agreed  on  for  establishing1  his  Majesty's 


816  APPENDIX. 

government  in  the   Kandian  provinces,    was  produced,    and    publicly  read   in 
English  and  Singhalese,  and  unanimously  assented  to. 

The  British  flag  was  then,  for  the  first  time,  hoisted,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  British  dominion  in  the  interior  was  announced  by  a  royal  salute  from  the 
cannon  of  the  city.  All  the  troops  in  garrison  were  under  arms  on  the  occasion 
of  this  important  event. 

By  his  Excellency's  command, 

(Signed)  Jas.  Sutherland, 

Deputy-Secretary. 

Official  Declaration  of  the  Settlement  of  the  Kandian 

Provinces. 

Led  by  the  invitation  of  the  chiefs,  and  welcomed  by  the  acclamations  of  the 
people,  the  forces  of  his  Britannic  Majesty  have  entered  the  Kandian  territory 
and  penetrated  into  the  capital.  Divine  Providence  has  blessed  their  efforts 
with  uniform  and  complete  success.  The  ruler  of  the  interior  provinces  has 
fallen  into  their  hands,  and  the  government  remains  at  the  disposal  of  his  Majesty's 
representative.  In  this  sacred  charge,  it  is  his  earnest  prayer  that  the  Power 
which  has  vouchsafed  thus  far  to  favour  the  undertaking,  may  guide  his  councils 
to  a  happy  issue  in  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  people,  and  the  honour  of 
the  British  Empire. 

Under  circumstances  far  different  from  any  which  exist  in  the  present  case,  it 
would  be  a  pleasing  duty  to  favour  the  re-establishment  of  a  fallen  prince,  if  his 
dominion  could  be  fixed  on  any  principles  of  external  relation  compatible  with 
the  rights  of  the  neighbouring  government,  or  his  internal  rule  in  any  reason- 
able degree  reconciled  to  the  safety  of  his  subjects. 

But  the  horrible  transactions  of  the  fatal  year  1803,  forced  upon  the  recollec- 
tion by  many  local  circumstances,  and  by  details  unknown  before — the  massacre 
of  150  sick  soldiers  lying  helpless  in  the  hospital  of  Kandy,  left  under  the  pledge 
of  public  faith,  and  the  no  less  treacherous  murder  of  the  whole  British  garrison, 
commanded  by  Major  Davie,  which  had  surrendered  on  a  promise  of  safety,  im- 
press upon  the  Governor's  mind  an  act  of  perfidy  unparalleled  in  civilized  war- 
fare, and  an  awful  lesson  recorded  in  characters  of  blood,  against  the  momen- 
tary admission  of  future  confidence;  while  the  obstinate  rejection  of  all  friendly 
overtures  repeatedly  made  during  the  intermission  of  hostilities,  has  served  to 
evince  an  implacable  animosity  destructive  of  the  hope  of  a  sincere  reconcilia- 
tion. 

Of  this  animosity  a  glaring  instance  was  exhibited  in  the  unprovoked  and 
barbarous  mutilation  of  ten  innocent  subjects  of  the  British  Government, 
by  which  seven  of  the  number  lost  their  lives  ;  a  measure  of  defiance  calculated 
and  apparently  intended  to  put  a  final  negative  to  every  probability  of  future 
intercourse. 

If,  therefore,  in  the  present  reverse  of  his  fortunes  and  condition,  it  may  be 
presumed  the  King  would  be  found  more  accessible  to  negotiation  than  in  for- 
mer times,  what  value  could  be  set  on  a  consent  at  variance  with  the  known 
principles  of  his  reign  ?  or  what  dependence  placed  on  his  observance  of  con- 
ditions which  he  has  hitherto  so  perseveringly  repelled  ? 

Still  less  could  the  hope  for  a  moment  be  entertained  that  any  conditions  of 
safety  were  capable  of  being  established  on  behalf  of  the  inhabitants,  who  had 
appealed  to  his  Majesty's  Government  for  protection,  and  yet  more  hopeless  the 
attempt  to  obtain  pardon  or  safeguard  for  the  chiefs,  who  had  deemed  it  a  duty 
paramount  to  every  other  obligation  to  become  the  medium  of  that  appeal. 

How  far  their  complaints  have  been  groundless,  and  their  opposition  licen- 
tious ;  or,  on  the  contrary,  their  grievances  bitterly  and  intolerably  real,  may 
now  be  judged  by  facts  of  unquestionable  authenticity. 

The  wanton  destruction  of  human  life  comprises  or  implies  the  existence  of 
general  oppression  :  in  conjunction  with  that,  no  other  proofs  of  the  exercise 


APPENDIX.  817 

of  tyranny  require  to  be  specified  ;  and  one  single  instance,  of  no  distant  date, 
will  l)c  acknowledged  to  include  everything  that  is  barbarous  and  unprincipled 
in  public  rule,  and  to  portray  the  last  stage  of  individual  depravity  and 
wickedness,  the  obliteration  of  every  trace  of  conscience,  and  the  complete 
extinction  of  human  feeling. 

In  the  deplorable  fate  of  the  wife  and  children  of  Kheylapola  Adigaar,  these 
assertions  are  fully  substantiated,  in  which  was  exhibited  the  savage  scene  of 
four  infant  children,  the  youngest  torn  from  the  mother's  breast,  cruelly  but- 
chered, and  their  heads  bruised  in  a  mortar  by  the  hands  of  their  parent,  suc- 
ceeded by  the  execution  of  the  woman  herself  and  three  females,  whose  limbs 
being  bound  and  a  heavy  stone  tied  round  the  neck  of  each,  they  were  thrown 
into  a  lake  and  drowned. 

It  is  not,  however,  that  under  an  absolute  government  unproved  suspicion 
must  usurp  the  place  of  fair  trial,  and  the  fiat  of  the  ruler  stand  instead  of  the 
decision  of  justice  ;  it  is  not  that  a  rash,  violent,  or  unjust  decree,  or  a  revolt- 
ing mode  of  execution  is  here  brought,  to  view  ;  nor  the  innocent  suffering 
under  the  groundless  imputation  of  guilt ;  but  a  bold  contempt  of  every  prin- 
ciple of  justice,  setting  at  nought  all  known  grounds  of  punishment,  dispensing 
with  the  necessity  of  accusation,  and  choosing  for  its  victims  helpless  females 
uncharged  with  any  offence,  and  infants  incapable  of  a  crime. 

Contemplating  these  atrocities,  the  impossibility  of  establishing  with  such  a 
man  any  civilized  relations  either  of  peace  or  war,  ceases  to  be  a  subject  of 
regret,  since  his  Majesty's  arms,  hitherto  employed  in  the  generous  purpose  of 
relieving  the  oppressed,  would  he  tarnished  and  disgraced  by  being  instru- 
mental to  the  restoration  of  a  dominion  exercised  in  a  perpetual  outrage  to 
every  thing  which  is  sacred  in  the  constitution  or  functions  of  a  legitimate 
government. 

On  these  grounds  his  Excellency  the  Governor  has  acceded  to  the  wishes  of 
the  chiefs  and  people  of  the  Kandian  provinces-,  and  a  convention  has  in  con- 
sequence been  held,  the  result  of  which  the  following  public  act  is  destined  to 
record  and  proclaim. 

Proclamation. 

At  a  convention  held  on  the  2nd  day  of  March,  1815,  and  the  Singhalese 
year  1736,  at  the  palace  in  the  city  of  Kandy,  between  his  Excellency  Licut.- 
Gen.  Robert  Brownrigg,  Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief  in  and  over  the 
British  settlements  and  territories  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  acting  in  the  name 
and  on  behalf  of  his  Majesty  George  HE,  and  H.  R.  H.  George  Prince  of 
Wales,  Regent  of  the  United  Kingdom,  on  the  one  part,  and  the  Adigaars, 
Dissaves,  and  other  principal  chiefs  of  the  Kandian  provinces  on  behalf  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  Mohottales,  Koraals,  Vidahns,  and 
other  subordinate  headmen  from  the  several  provinces,  and  of  the  people  then 
and  there  assembled  on  the  other  part,  it  is  agreed  and  established  as  follows  . 

]'.  That  the  cruelties  and  oppressions  of  the  Malabar  ruler,  in  the  arbitrary 
and  unjust  infliction  of  bodily  tortures  and  the  pains  of  death  without  trial,  and 
sometimes  without  an  accusation  or  the  possibility  of  a  crime,  and  in  the 
general  contempt  and  contravention  of  all  civil  rights,  have  become  flagrant, 
enormous  and  intolerable  ;  the  acts  and  maxims  of  his  government  being 
equally  and  entirely  devoid  of  that  justice  which  should  secure  the  safety  of  his 
subjects,  and  of  that  good  faith  which  might  obtain  a  beneficial  intercourse  with 
the  neighbouring  settlements. 

2.  That  the  Raja  Sri  Wikraina  Raja  Singha,  by  the  habitual  violation  of  the 
chief  and  most  sacred  duties  of  a  sovereign,  has  forfeited  all  claims  to  that  title 
or  the  powers  annexed  to  the  same,  and  is  declared  fallen  and  deposed  front 
the  office  of  king  ;  his  family  and  relatives,  whether  in  the  ascending,  descend- 
ing or  collateral  line,  and  whether  by  affinity  or  blood,  arc  also  for  ever  excluded 
from  the  throne,  and  all  claim  or  title  of  the  M:dabar  race  to  the  dominion  of 
the  Kandian  provinces,  is  abolished  and  extinguished. 

3.  That  all  male  persons  being  or  pretending  to  he   relations  of  the  lati 

:i  g 


818  APPENDIX. 

Raja  Sri  Wickrama  Raja  Singha  either  by  affinity  or  blood,  and  whether  in 
the  ascending,  descending  or  collateral  line,  are  hereby  declared  enemies  to 
the  Government  of  the  Kandian  provinces,  and  excluded  and  prohibited  from 
entering  these  provinces  on  any  pretence  whatever,  without  a  written  permis- 
sion for  that  purpose  by  the  authority  of  the  British  Government,  under  the 
pains  and  penalties  of  martial  law,  which  is  hereby  declared  to  be  in  force  for 
that  purpose ;  and  all  male  persons  of  the  Malabar  caste  now  expelled  from 
the  said  provinces  are  under  the  same  penalties  prohibited  from  returning 
except  with  permission  before- mentioned. 

4.  The  dominion  of  the  Kandian  provinces  is  vested  in  the  Sovereign  of  the 
British  Empire,  and  is  to  be  exercised  through  the  Governors  or  Lieutenant- 
Governors  of  Ceylon  for  the  time  being,  and  their  accredited  agents,  saving 
to  the  Adigaars,  Dissaves,  Mohottales,  Koraals,  Vidahns,  and  all  other  chief 
and  subordinate  native  headmen  lawfully  appointed  by  authority  of  the  British 
Government,  the  rights,  privileges  and  powers  of  their  respective  offices,  and 
to  all  classes  of  the  people,  the  safety  of  their  persons  and  property,  with 
their  civil  lights  and  immunities,  according  to  the  laws,  institutions  and  cus- 
toms established  and  in  force  among  them. 

5.  The  religion  of  Buddha,  professed  by  the  chiefs  and  inhabitants  of  these 
provinces,  is  declared  inviolable,  and  its  rights,  ministers  and  places  of  wor- 
ship, are  to  be  maintained  and  protected. 

6.  Every  species  of  bodily  torture,  and  all  mutilation  of  limb,  member  or 
organ,  are  prohibited  or  abolished. 

7.  IV  o  sentence  of  death  can  be  carried  into  execution  against  any  inhabitant 
except  by  the  written  warrant  of  the  British  Governor  or  Lieutenant-Governor 
for  the  time  being,  founded  on  the  report  of  the  case  made  to  him  through  the 
accredited  agent  or  agents  of  the  Government  resident  in  the  interior,  in 
whose  presence  all  trials  for  capital  offences  are  to  take  place. 

Subject  to  these  conditions  the  administration  of  civil  and  criminal  justice 
and  police  over  the  Kandian  inhabitants  of  the  said  provinces,  is  to  be  exer- 
cised according  to  established  forms  and  by  the  ordinary  authorities  ;  saving 
always  the  inherent  right  of  Government  to  redress  grievances  and  reform 
abuses  in  all  instances  whatever,  particular  or  general,  where  such  interposition 
shall  become  necessary. 

Over  all  other  persons,  civil  or  military,  residing  in  or  resorting  to  these 
provinces,  not  being  Kandians,  civil  and  criminal  justice,  together  with  police, 
shall,  until  the  pleasure  of  the  Home  Government  may  be  otherwise  declared, 
be  administered  in  the  following  manner  : 

First,  All  persons  not  being  commissioned  or  non-commissioned  military 
officers,  soldiers,  or  followers  of  the  army  usually  held  liable  to  military  disci- 
pline, shall  be  subject  to  the  magistracy  of  the  accredited  agent  or  agents  of 
the  British  Government,  in  all  cases  except  charges  of  murder,  which  shall  be 
tried  by  special  commissions  to  be  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  Governor 
for  that  purpose  :  provided  always,  as  to  such  charges  of  murder  wherein  any 
British  subject  may  be  defendant,  who  might  be  tried  for  the  same  by  the  laws 
of  the  United  Kingdom  in  force  for  the  trial  of  offences  committed  by  British 
subjects  in  foreign  parts,  no  such  British  subject  shall  be  tried  on  any  charge 
•  of  murder  alleged  to  have  been  perpetrated  in  the  Kandian  provinces  other- 
wise than  by  virtue  of  such  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Secondly,  Commissioned  or  non-commissioned  military  officers,  soldiers,  or 
followers  of  the  army  usually  held  amenable  to  military  discipline,  shall  in  all 
civil  and  criminal  cases  wherein  they  be  defendants,  be  liable  to  the  laws, 
regulations  and  customs  of  war,  reserving  to  the  Governor  and  Commander-in- 
Chief,  in  all  cases  falling  under  this  ninth  article,  an  unlimited  right  of  review 
over  every  proceeding,  civil  or  military,  had  by  virtue  thereof,  and  reserving  also 
full  power  to  make  such  particular  provisions  conformably  to  the  general  spirit 
of  the  said  article,  as  may  be  found  necessary  to  carry  its  principle  into  full 
effect. 


APPENDIX.  819 

Provided  always,  that  the  operation  of  the  several  preceding  clauses  shall  not 
be  contravened  by  the  provisions  of  any  temporary  or  partial  proclamation 
published  during  the  advance  of  the  army,  which  provisions  in  so  far  as  they 
are  incompatible  with  the  said  preceding  articles,  are  hereby  repealed. 

The  royal  dues  and  revenues  of  the  Kandian  provinces  are  to  be  managed 
and  collected  for  his  Majesty's  use,  and  the  support  of  the  provincial  establish- 
ment according  to  lawful  custom,  and  under  the  direction  and  superintendence 
of  the  accredited  agent  or  agents  of  the  British  Government. 

His  Excellency  the  Governor  will  adopt  provisionally,  and  recommend  to  the 
confirmation  of  H.  R.  H.  the  Prince  Regent,  in  the  name  and  on  the  behalf  of 
his  Majesty,  such  dispositions  in  favour  of  the  trade  of  these  provinces  as  may 
facilitate  the  export  of  their  products,  and  improve  the  returns  whether  in 
money,  salt,  clothes,  or  other  commodities,  useful  and  desirable  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Kandian  country. 

God   save  the  Kino. 

By  his  Excellency's  command, 
(Signed)  J  as.  Sutherland, 

•     Deputy-Secretary. 


XII. 

PROCLAMATION. 

By  his  Excellency  Lieutenant-General  Sir  Robert  Brownrigg,  Bart.,  Knight 
Grand  Cross  of  the  most  honourable  Military  Order  of  the  Bath,  Governor 
and  Commander-in-Chief  in  and  over  the  British  Settlements  and  Territories 
in  the  island  of  Ceylon  and  its  dependencies. 

The  chiefs  and  people  of  the  Kandian  nation,  no  longer  able  to  endure  the  cruel- 
ties and  oppressions  which  the  late  King,    Sri  Wikrama  Raja  Singha  tyrannically 
practised  towards  them,  invoked  the  aid  of  the  British  Government  for  their 
relief,  and  by  a  solemn  act  declared  the  late  King  deposed,  and  himself  and  all 
persons  descending  from,  or  in  any  manner  related  to  his  family,  incapable  of 
exercising  regal  authority  within  the  Kandian  provinces,  which  were  ceded  to 
the  dominion  of  the  British  Sovereign.    The  exercise  of  power  by  the  representa- 
tives of  his  Britannic  Majesty,  from  the  date  of  that  convention  (the  2nd  March, 
1815),  till  the  hour  that  insurrection  broke  out,  in  October,  1817,  was  marked 
with  the  greatest  mildness  and  forbearance  towards  all  classes;  the  strictest 
attention   to  the  protection  of  the  rites,  ministers,  and  temples  of  the  religion 
of  Buddha  ;    and   a  general  deference  to  the  opinions  of  the  chiefs,  who  were 
considered  the  persons  best  able,  from  their  rank  and  knowledge,  to  aid  the 
Government  in  insuring  the  happiness  of  the  mass  of  its  new  subjects.     In  ex- 
acting either  taxes  or  services  for  the  State,  an  extraordinary  and  unprece- 
dented laxity  was  allowed  to  take  place,  that  the  country  might  with  more  ease 
recover  from  any  evil  effects  sustained  by  the  contrary  practice  of  the  late  King. 
In  assessing  punishments  for  offences,   even  where  a  plot  to  subvert  the  Go- 
vernment was  proved,  the  spirit  ever  characteristic  of  the   British   rule,  was 
strongly  to  be  contrasted  with  the  ancient  and  frequent  occurrence  of  executions, 
preceded  by  the  most  cruel  and  barbarous  tortures. 

Under  the  mild  regimen  of  the  British  Government,  the  country  appeared  to 
rest  in  peace  :  cultivation  was  increased,  and  Divine  Providence  blessed  the 
exertions  of  the  labourers,  and  rewarded  them  by  plenteous  crops  ;  yet,  all  this 
time  there  were  factious  and  intriguing  spirits  at  work,  seeking  for  an  oppor- 
tunity to  subvert  the  Government,  for  no  purpose  but  to  assume  to  themselves 
absolute  power  over  the  lives  and  properties  of  the  people,  which,  by  the  equal 
justice  of   British  authoritv,  were  protected  from  their  cruelty  and  avarice. 

3   G   2 


820  APPENDIX. 

These  plotters  against  the  State  were  found  among  the  very  persons  who  had 
been  restored  to  honours  and  security,  by  the  sole  intervention  of  British  power  ; 
and  the  opportunity  of  raising  disturbance  was  chosen  when,  relying  on  the 
merited  gratitude  of  the  whole  Kandian  nation,  the  Government  had  diminished 
the  number  of  troops  ;  and  the  insurgent  leaders,  unconscious  or  forgetful  of 
the  extensive  resources  of  the  British  empire,  thought,  in  setting  up  the  standard 
of  rebellion,  as  easily  to  effect  their  purpose  of  expelling  the  English  from  the 
country,  as  the  people  had  been  deluded  to  prostrate  before  the  phantom,  whose 
pretensions  they  espoused  merely  to  cover  their  own  ambitious  views,  of  sub- 
jecting the  nation  to  their  arbitrary  will.  After  more  than  a  year  of  conflict, 
which  has  brought  misery  and  destruction  on  many,  the  efforts  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  the  bravery  of  the  British  troops,  have  shewn  the  Kandians  the  folly 
of  resistance,  and  that  in  the  Government  alone  resides  the  power  of  protecting 
them  in  the  enjoyment  of  happiness.  The  flimsy  veil  which  the  rebel  chiefs 
threw  over  their  ambitious  designs,  was  torn  aside  by  themselves,  and  the 
Pageant,  whom  the  people  were  called  to  recognise  as  the  descendant  of  the 
gods,  exposed  as  the  offspring  of  a  poor  Singhalese  empyric.  After  such  a 
display  to  the  public  of  depraved  artifice  and  cruel  deception,  the  Government 
might  reasonably  hope,  that  a  sense  of  the  misery  brought  on  them  by  delusion, 
should  prevent  the  great  body  of  the  people  from  listening  to  any  one  who 
should  henceforth  attempt  to  seduce  them  into  rebellion  against  its  beneficent 
rule.  But  it  is  also  incumbent  on  it,  from  a  consideration  of  past  circumstances, 
and  the  fatal  results  of  the  blind  obedience  which  the  people  have  thought  due 
to  their  chiefs,  instead  of  to  the  Sovereign  of  the  country,  to  reform,  by  its 
inherent  right,  such  parts  of  the  practice  of  administration,  as  by  occasioning 
the  subject  to  lose  sight  of  the  majesty  of  the  Royal  Government,  made  him 
feel  wholly  dependent  on  the  power  of  the  various  chiefs,  which,  to  be  legal, 
could  only  be  derived,  by  delegation  to  them,  from  the  sovereign  authority  of 
the  country. 

His  Excellency  the  Governor  now  therefore  calls  to  the  mind  of  every  person, 
and  of  every  class  within  these  settlements,  that  the  Sovereign  Majesty  of  the 
King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  exercised  by  his  representative  the  Governor 
of  Ceylon,  and  his  agents  in  the  Kandian  provinces,  is  the  source  alone  from 
which  all  power  emanates,  and  to  which  obedience  is  due;  that  no  chief  who  is 
not  vested  with  authority  or  rank  from  this  sovereign  source  is  entitled  to  obe- 
dience or  respect ;  and  that,  without  powers  derived  from  Government,  no  one 
can  exercise  jurisdiction  of  any  kind,  or  inflict  the  slightest  punishment;  and, 
finally,  that  every  Kandian,  be  he  of  the  highest  or  lowest  class,  is  secured  in 
his  life,  liberty,  and  property,  from  encroachment  of  any  kind,  or  by  any  person, 
and  is  only  subject  to  the  laws,  which  will  be  administered  according  to  the 
ancient  and  established  usages  of  the  country,  and  in  such  manner,  and  by  such 
authorities  and  persons,  as  in  the  name  and  on  the  behalf  of  his  Majesty  is 
herein  declared. 

The  general  executive  and  judicial  authority  in  the  Kandian  provinces  is 
delegated,  by  his  Excellency,  to  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  and,  under  their 
general  superintendence,  to  resident  agents  of  Government,  in  such  dissavonies 
of  the  said  provinces  in  which  it  may  please  him  to  place  such  agents,  with 
more  or  less  authority  or  jurisdiction  as  by  their  several  instructions  may  be 
vested  in  them,  and  of  which  tlfe  present  disposition  and  arrangement  is  herein- 
after contained. 

The  Adigaars,  Dissaves,  and  all  other  chiefs  and  inferior  headmen,  shall 
perform  duty  to  Government,  under  the  orders  of  the  said  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners and  British  agents,  and  not  otherwise.  No  person  shall  be  entitled  to 
discharge  any  office,  either  of  the  higher  or  lowe"r  class  of  headmen,  unless 
thereto  appointed  by  a  written  instrument,  signed,  in  respect  to  superior  chiefs, 
by  the  Governor,  and  for  inferior  headmen  by  the  Resident,  or  provisionally 
by  any  agent  of  Government  thereto  duly  authorized,  except  in  certain  villages 
or  departments,  which  will  be  allotted  for  personal  services  to  the  Dissaves,  in 


APPENDIX.  821 

which  the  Dissave  shall,  as  before,  have  the  sole  privilege  of  making  appoint- 
ments. Honours  shall  be  paid  to  all  classes  of  chiefs  entitled  to  the  same  under 
the  former  Government,  in  so  far  as  the  same  is  consistent  with  the  abolition 
which  the  British  Government  is  resolved  to  effect  of  all  degrading  ;forms, 
whereto  both  chiefs  and  people  were  subjected  under  the  ancient  tyranny,  and 
which  a  liberal  administration  abhors.  All  prostrations,  therefore,  from  or  to 
any  person,  including  the  Governor,  are  henceforth  positively,  as  they  were 
before  virtually  abolished,  and  the  custom  that  chiefs  or  others  coming  into  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign  authority  should  remain  on  their  knees,  is  also 
abrogated.  But  all  chiefs  and  other  persons  coming  before,  meeting  or  passing 
any  British  officer,  civil  or  military,  of  rank  and  authority  in  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
shall  give  up  the  middle  of  the  road  ;  and,  if  sitting,  rise  and  make  a  suitable 
obeisance,  which  will  be  always  duly  acknowledged  or  returned,  it  is  also 
directed,  that  on  entering  the  Hall  of  Audience,  every  person  shall  make  obei- 
sance to  the  portrait  of  his  Majesty,  there  suspended ;  and  as  well  there,  as  in 
any  other  court  of  justice,  to  the  presiding  authority,  ;  and  it  is  further  directed, 
that  when  his  Excellency  the  Governor,  as  his  Britannic  Majesty's  representa- 
tive, travels,  he  shall  be  attended  by  all  the  persons  in  office  belonging  to  each 
province,  the  same  as  they  attended  the  former  Kings  of  Kandy,  except  that 
the  Dissaves  may  always  use  palanquins  beyond  the  Mahavelle-ganga,  within 
which  limit  the  Adigaars  only  have  this  privilege;  and  that,  when  any  of  the 
members  of  his  Majesty's  Council,  or  the  Commissioners  for  the  Kandian  pro- 
vinces, or  the  Commander  of  the  troops  in  those  provinces,  travel  on  duty,  they 
be  met  and  attended  in  such  province  in  the  same  manner  as  the  great  Dissaves 
were  and  are  to  be  attended  in  their  provinces;  likewise  the  resident  agents, 
and  the  officers  commanding  the  troops  in  each  province,  are  there  to  be  simi- 
larly attended,  and  receive  like  honours.  The  chiefs  holding  the  high  offices 
of  first  and  second  Adigaar  will  be  received  by  all  sentries,  whom  they  may  pass 
in  the  day,  with  carried  arms,  and  by  all  soldiers  off  duty,  or  other  Europeans, 
or  persons  of  European  extraction,  by  taking  off  their  hats,  and  by  all  natives, 
whether  Kandians  or  not,  by  rising  from  their  seats,  leaving  the  middle  of  the 
street  clear,  and  bowing  to  the  Adigaars  as  they  pass,  and  to  all  other  Dissaves 
and  other  chiefs,  all  natives  coming  into  their  presence,  meeting,  or  passing 
them,  are  to  make  a  proper  inclination  of  the  body  in  acknowledgment  of  their 
rank.  The  Adigaars,  Dissaves,  and  other  chiefs,  shall  further  be  entitled  to 
proper  attendance  of  persons  of  the  different  departments,  in  such  number  as 
shall  be  determined  by  his  Excellency,  on  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners ;  provided  that  where  such  persons  are  not  belonging  to  the  villages  or 
departments  allotted  to  the  Adigaars  or  Dissaves,  the  application  for  their 
attendance  when  required,  must  be  made  to  the  Resident  at  Kandy,  or  to  the 
agents  of  Government  in  the  provinces  in  which  such  agents  may  be  stationed. 

The  persons  entitled  to  sit  in  the  Hall  of  Audience,  or  in  the  presence  of  the 
agents  of  Government,  are  those  chiefs  only  who  bear  commissions  signed  by  the 
Governor,  or  to  whom  special  license  may,  by  the  same  authority,  be  given  to 
that  effect.  Of  these  only  the  two  Adigaars,  or  persons  having  the  Governor's 
letter  of  license,  can  sit  on  chairs;  the  others  on  benches  covered  with  mats  of 
different  heights,  according  to  their  relative  rank,  in  the  courts  hereinafter 
mentioned  of  the  agents  of  Government;  when  the  assessors  are  Mohottales  or 
Koraals,  they  may  sit  on  mats  on  the  ground.  As  well  the  priests,  as  all  the 
ceremonies  and  processions  of  the  religion  of  Buddha,  shall  receive  the  respect 
which  was  shewn  them  in  former  times  ;  at  the  same  rime  it  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood, that  the  protection  of  Government  is  to  be  denied  to  the  peaceable  exer- 
cise by  all  other  persona  of  the  religion  which  they  respectively  profess,  or  to 
the  erection,  under  due  license  from  his  Excellency,  of  places  of  worship  in 
proper  situations. 

The  Governor  abolishes  all  fees  payable  for  appointments  either  to  Government 
or  to  any  chief,  except  for  appointments  in  the  temple-villages,  which  will  be 
made  by  the  Resident,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Dewe  nilame  or  Basnaike, 


822  APPENDIX. 

nilames,  appointed  by  the  Governor,  the  Dewe  nilame  or  the  Basnaike  nilame 
receiving  the  usual  fee.  Also,  all  duties  payable  heretofore  by  the  Gabbedawas 
ararrmdall  awudege,  and  all  other  duties  or  taxes  whatsoever,  are  abolished, 
save  that  now  declared  and  enacted,  being  a  tax  on  all  paddy  lands  of  a  portion 
of  the  annual  produce,  under  the  following  modifications  and  exceptions 
according  to  the  following  rates:— The  general  assessment  of  tax  on  the  entire 
paddy  lands  of  the  Kandian  province  is  fixed  at  one-tenth  of  the  annual  produce, 
to  be  delivered  by  the  proprietor  or  cultivator  at  such  convenient  storehouse,  in 
every  province  or  district,  as  shall  be  appointed  under  the  instructions  of  the 
revenue  agent. 

To  mark  the  just  sense  which  his  Excellency  has  of  the  loyalty  and  good 
conduct  of  the  chiefs  and  people  of  Oodanoora,  the  Four  Korles,  the  Three 
Korles,  and  the  following  Korles  of  Saffragam,  to  wit  Kooroowite  Korle, 
Nawadoon  Korle,  Kolonna  Korle,  Kukula  Korle,  Atakalan  Korle,  the  Uduwak 
Gampaha  of  Kadewatte  Korle,  the  Medda  Korle,  except  certain  villages;  and  the 
following  Korles  of  the  Seven  Korles,  viz.  Trigandahaye,  except  certain  villages; 
Oodapola  Korle,  Kattugampaha  Korle,  Oodookaha,  Kattugampola  Korle, 
Medapattoo  Pitigal  Korle,  Yagame  Korle,  Rakawah  Pattoo  Korle,  Angamme 
Korle,  Yatekuha  Korle,  and  of  the  villages  Pubilia,  Kougahawelle  and  Nika- 
welle  lying  in  the  Oodoogodde  Korle  of  Matale ;  the  Governor  declares  that 
the  rate  of  taxation  shall  only  be  one-fourteenth  part  of  the  annual  produce. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  may  be  known  that  the  leaders  in  revolt  or  dis- 
obedience shall  meet  punishment,  all  lands  which  may  have  been  declared 
forfeited  by  the  misconduct  of  the  proprietors,  shall,  if  by  the  mercy  of  the 
Government  restored  to  their  former  owners,  pay  a  tax  of  one-fifth  of  the 
annual  produce. 

The  Governor,  desirous  of  shewing  the  adherence  of  Government  to  its  stipu- 
lations in  favour  of  the  religion  of  the  people,  exempts  all  lands  which  now  are 
the  property  of  temples  from  all  taxation  whatever,  but  as  certain  inhabitants  of 
those  villages  are  liable  to  perform  fixed  gratuitous  services  also  to  the  Crown, 
this  obligation  is  to  continue  unaffected.  All  lands  also  now  belonging  to  the 
following  chiefs,  whose  loyalty  and  adherence  to  the  lawful  Government  merits 
favour,  viz.  Molligodde  maha  nilame ;  Molligodde  nilame'  ;  Ratwatte  nilame  ; 
Kadoogamoone  nilame;  Debigamme  nilame;  Mulligamme  nilame,  lately  Dissave 
of  YVelasse;  Eknelligodde  nilame  ;  Mahawalletene  nilame  ;  Doloswalle  nilame; 
Eheyleyagodde  nilame  ;  Katugaha  the  elder ;  Katugaha  the  younger;  Dam- 
boolane nilame  ;  Godeagedere  nilame;  Gonegoddenilam6,  formerly  Adikaran 
of  Bintenne  ;  shall  be  free  of  duty  during  their  lives,  and  that  their  heirs  shall 
enjoy  the  same  free  of  duty,  except  with  regard  to  such  as  paid  pingo  duty, 
which  shall  now  and  hereafter  pay  one-tenth  to  the  Government  of  the  annual 
produce,  unless  when  exempted  under  the  next  clause.  All  lands  belonging  to 
chiefs  holding  office,  either  of  the  superior  or  inferior  class,  and  of  inferior 
headmen,  shall,  during  the  time  they  are  in  office  be  free  of  duty.  All  lands 
belonging  to  persons  of  the  castes  or  departments  allotted  to  the  cutting  of 
cinnamon  shall  be  free  of  duty  ;  also  lands  held  by  persons  for  which  they  are 
bound  to  cultivate  or  aid  in  the  culture  of  the  royal  lands,  and  also  the  lands  of 
such  persons  who  may  be  allotted  to  the  performance  of  personal  service  to  the 
Dissavesby  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  and  of  those  who  perforin  Katepurale 
or  Attepattoo  service  gratuitously,  it  being  well  understood  that  the  persons 
last  mentioned  have  no  right  or  authority  whatever  to  exact  or  receive  fees  or 
fines  of  any  kind  when  sent  on  public  duty,  which  they  are  required  to  per- 
form expeditiously  and  impartially.  The  Veddahs,  who  possess  no  paddy 
lands,  shall  continue  to  deliver  to  Government  the  usual  tribute  in  wax. 

All  presents  to  the  Governor  or  other  British  authorities  are  strictly  pro- 
hibited. In  travelling,  every  officer,  civil  or  military,  chiefs,  detachments  of 
troops,  or  other  servants  of  Government,  on  notice  being  given  of  their  intended 
march  or  movement,  are  to  be  supplied  with  the  provisions  of  the  country  in 
reasonable  quantity,  and  on  payment  being  made  for  the  same  at  the  current 
price.     All  fees  on  hearing  of  cases  to  Dissaves  or  others,  except  as  hereafter 


APPENDIX.  823 

mentioned,  which  are  for  the  benefit  of  Government,  shall  be  and  are  abolished. 
The  services  of  the  Adigaars,  Dissaves,  and  other  superior  chiefs  to  Government 
shall  be  compensated  by  fixed  monthly  salaries,  in  addition  to  the  exemption 
of  their  lands  from  taxation.  The  services  of  the  inferior  chiefs  shall  be  com- 
pensated as  above  by  exemption  from  taxation,  and  they  shall  receive  one- 
twentieth  part  of  the  revenue  paddy,  which  they  shall  collect  from  the  people 
under  them,  to  be  allotted  in  such  portions  as  the  Board  of  Commissioners  shall 
under  the  authority  of  Government  regulate. 

All  persons  shall  be  liable  to  service  for  Government  on  the  requisition  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  and  agents  of  Government,  according  to  their  former 
customs  and  families  or  tenure  of  their  lauds,  on  payment  being  made  for  tlieir 
labour,  it  being  well  understood  that  the  Board  of  Commissioners  under  his 
Excellency's  authority  may  commute  such  description  of  service  as  under 
present  circumstances  is  not  usefully  applicable  to  the  public  good,  to  such 
other  as  may  be  beneficial,  and  provided  further  that  the  holding  of  lands  duty 
free  shall  be  considered  the  payment  for  the  service  of  the  Katepurale  and 
Attepattoo  dapartments,  and  persons  allotted  to  the  Dissaves'  service  ;  and 
also  for  the  service  to  Governmentof  certain  persons  of  the  temple-villages,  and 
in  part  for  those  which  cut  cinnamon;  and  also  that  the  duty  of  clearing  and 
making  roads,  and  putting  up  and  repairing  bridges,  be  considered  a  general 
gratuitous  service  falling  on  the  districts  through  which  the  roads  pass,  or 
wherein  the  bridges  lie  ;  and  that  the  attendance  on  the  Great  Feast,  which 
certain  persons  were  bound  to  give,  be  continued  punctually  and  gratuitously. 
The  washermen  also  shall  continue  to  pat  up  white  cloths  in  the  temples,  and 
for  the  chiefs  gratuitously.  All  Kadewettes  and  ancient  barriers  throughout 
the  country  shall  be  from  henceforward  discontinued  and  removed,  and  the 
establishments  belonging  to  them  for  their  maintenance  and  defence  abolished  ; 
the  services  of  the  persons  usually  employed  therein  being  applied  to  such  other 
more  beneficial  purpose  as  the  Board  of  Commissioners  shall  determine.  And 
it  being  necessary  to  provide  rules  for  the  service  of  certain  persons  who  were 
to  perform  duty  to  the  person  of  the  King  of  Kandy,  viz.  palanquin  bearers, 
talapat  bearers  and  torch  bearers,  it  is  ordered  by  the  Governor  that  such 
persons  being  paid  for  the  same,  shall  be  bound  to  serve  in  their  respective 
capacities  the  Governor,  the  members  of  his  Majesty's  Council,  any  General 
officer  on  the  staff  of  this  army,  the  Commissioners  for  Kandian  affairs,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Kandian  provinces,  and  the  officer  commanding  the  troops  in 
the  interior. 

And  for  ensuring  the  due  execution  of  all  the  above  ordinances  relative  to  the. 
collection  of  the  revenue,  and  performances  of  public  duty  by  all  chiefs  and 
others,  his  Excellency  directs  that  the  Board  of  Commissioners  at  Kandy, 
individually  or  collectively,  and  the  Agents  of  Government  in  the  provinces, 
shall  punish  all  disobedience  and  neglect  by  suspension  or  dismissal  from  office, 
fine  or  imprisonment,  as  particular  cases  may  require,  provided  that  no  person 
holding  the  Governor's  commission  may  be  absolutely  dismissed,  but  by  the 
same  authority,  and  no  other  chief  but  by  the  Honourable  the  Resident;  but 
the  Commissioner  and  other  agents  duly  authorized  by  instructions  from  the 
Governor  may  suspend  chiefs  of  the  superior  or  interior  order  on  their  responsi- 
bility for  disobedience  or  neglect  of  the  orders  or  interest  of  Government  ; 
reporting  immediately,  as  the  case  may  require,  to  the  Governor  or  the  Resident 
their  proceedings  for  approval  or  reversal.  And  in  order  that  justice  may  be 
duly,  promptly,  and  impartially  administered  throughout  the  Kandian 
provinces  to  all  classes,  his  Excellency  the  Governor  is  pleased  to  declare  his 
pleasure  touching  the  same,  and  to  delegate  and  assign  the  following  juris- 
diction to  the  public  officers  of  Government,  for  heaiing  and  determining  cases 
wherein  Kandians  are  concerned  as  defendants,  either  civil  or  criminal. 

Every  agent  of  Government  shall  have  power  and  jurisdiction  to  hear  and 
determine  alone  civil  cases,  wherein  the  object  of  dispute  shall  not  be  land,  and 
shall  not  exceed  in  value  fifty  rix-dollars,  and  also  criminal  cases  of  inferior 


824  APPENDIX. 

description,  such  as  common  assaults,  petty  thefts  and  breaches  of  the  peace, 
with  power  of  awarding  punishment  not  exceeding  a  fine  of  25  rix-dollars, 
corporal  punishment  with  a  cat-and-nine-tails  or  rattan,  not  exceeding  thirty 
lashes,  and  imprisonment  with  or  without  labour  not  exceeding  two  months, 
to  which  terms  of  imprisonment  and  fine  such  agents  are  also  limited  in 
punishing  neglect  or  disobedience  of  orders  according  to  the  provisions  above 
detailed. 

The  Second  or  Judicial  Commissioner  shall,   sitting  alone,  have  power  to 
hear  and  determine  civil  cases,  wherein  the  object  in  dispute  shall  not  be  land, 
and  shall  not  exceed  100  rix-dollars  in  value,  and  also  criminal  cases  of  inferior 
description,  with  power  of  punishment  as  in  the  last  clause  conferred  on  Agents 
of  Government.     The  second  Commissioner,  or  such  Agents  of  Government  in 
the  provinces  as  the  Governor  shall  delegate,  shall  hold  at    Kandy   and  in  the 
provinces  a  court  for  the  trial  of  all   other   civil   cases,  and  of  criminal   cases 
except  treason,  murder  or  homicide,  with  powers  in  criminal  matters  to  assess 
any  punishment  short  of  death  or  mutilation  of  limbs  or  member  ;  which  court 
shall  consist  in  Kandy  of  the  Second  Commissioner  and  two  or  more  chiefs,  and 
in  the  provinces  of  the  Agent  of  Government  and  one  or  more  Dissaves  of  the 
province,  and  one  or  more  Mohottales  or  principal  Koraals,  so  that  there  shall 
be  at  least  two  Kandian  assessors  or  two    Mohottales  or  Koraals  where  no 
Dissave  can  attend.    The  decision  of  the  courts  in  the  provinces  shall  be  by  the 
Agent  of  Government,  the  Kandian   assessors  giving  their  advice,  and  where 
the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  such  assessors  differs  from  the  opinion   of  the 
Agent  of  Government,  there  shall  be  no  immediate   decision,  but  the  pro- 
ceedings shall  be  transferred  to  the  court  of  the  Second  Commissioner,   who 
may  either  decide  on  the  proceedings  had  in  the  original  court,  or  send  for  the 
parties  and  witnesses  and  re-hear  the  case,  or  take  or  order  the  Agent  to  take 
further  evidence  and  shall  decide  the  same. 

Appeals  also  shall  lie  from  the  decisions  of  such  Agents  to  the  court  aforesaid 
of  the  Second  Commissioner;  in  civil  cases  if  the  appeal  is  entered  before  the 
Agent  in  ten  days  from  his  decree,  and  the  object  in  dispute  be  either  land  or 
personal  property  exceeding  150  rix-dollars  in  value,  in  which  case  execution 
shall  stay,  and  the  proceedings  be  transmitted  to  the  said  Commissioner's 
court,  which  shall  and  may  proceed  in  the  same  as  in  the  cases  mentioned  in 
the  former  article.  That  appeals  also  may  be  allowed  upon  order  of  the 
Governor  or  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  although  not  entered  in  ten  days,  if 
application  be  made  in  a  year.  The  decisions  in  the  court  of  the  Second 
Commissioner  shall  be  by  him,  the  Kandian  assessors  giving  their  advice,  and 
if  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  such  assessors  shall  be  different  from  his,  the 
case  whether  originally  instituted,  or  in  appeal,  or  reference  from  the  Agent  of 
Government,  shall  be  transferred  to  the  Collective  Board,  and  by  them  reported 
onto  the  Governor,  whose  decision  therein  shall  be  conclusive  and  without 
appeal ;  but  that  in  civil  cases  decided  by  the  Second  Commissioner,  either  in 
original,  or  brought  before  him  by  appeal  or  reference  ;  appeal  shall  lie  to  the 
Governor,  if  entered  before  the  Second  Commissioner  in  ten  days  from  his 
decree,  and  if  the  object  in  dispute  be  either  land  or  personal  property  exceeding 
in  value  150  rix-dollars,  in  which  case  execution  of  the  decree  shall  be  stayed, 
and  the  proceedings  be  transmitted  to  the  Governor.  But  appeal  may  be 
allowed  by  the  order  of  the  Governor  on  application  within  one  year  from  the 
elate  of  the  decree.  Appeals  to  the  Governor  will  be  disposed  of  by  him  in 
correspondence  with  the  Board  of  Commissioners.  In  criminal  cases  no 
sentence  either  by  the  Second  Commissioner  or  the  Agents  of  Government  shall 
be  carried  into  effect,  if  it  awards  corporal  punishment  exceeding  100  lashes, 
imprisonment  with  or  without  chains,  or  labour  exceeding  four  months,  or  fine 
exceeding  50  rix-dollars,  unless  after  reference  to  the  Governor  through  the 
Board  of  Commissioners,  which  will  report  on  the  case  and  sentence,  and  after 
his  Excellency's  confirmation  of  such  sentence. 

The  Honourable  the  Resident  may,  when  he  thinks  needful,  assist  and  pre- 


APPENDIX.  825 

side  in  the  Court  of  the  Judicial  Commissioner,  and  the  Resident  may  also 
hold  a  court  for  hearing  cases,  to  consist  of  himself  and  two  Kandian  chiefs,  or 
assessors,  under  the  provisions  respecting  references  and  appeals  and  limitation 
of  execution  of  sentences  in  criminal  cases  prescribed  to  the  Judicial  Commis- 
sioner, and  to  preserve  regularity,  the  records  of  such  the  Resident's  judicial 
proceedings  in  each  case  shall  be  deposited  with  the  Judicial  Commissioner  on 
the  conclusion  of  the  same. 

In  all  cases  of  treason,  murder,  or  homicide,  the  trial  shall  be  before  the 
courts  of  the  Resident,  or  of  the  Second  Commissioner  and  his  Kandian  asses- 
sors, whose  opinion,  as  to  the  guilt  of  the  defendent  and  the  sentence  to  be 
passed  on  any  one  convicted,  is  to  be  reported  through  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners, with  their  opinion  also  to  the  Governor  for  his  determination.  All 
cases  criminal  or  civil,  in  which  a  superior  chief  is  defendant,  shall  be  originated 
and  heard  before  the  Resident  or  Second  Commissioner,  and  all  other  cases 
shall  be  instituted  before  the  jurisdiction  in  which  the  defendant  resides. 
Provided  that  in  civil  cases  the  plaintiff  may  appoint  an  attorney  to  prosecute 
in  his  behalf,  as  the  defendent  may  to  defend  his  case.  In  civil  cases  the 
losing  party  may  be,  by  the  Second  Commissioner  or  Agentof  Government,  dis- 
crctionally  ordered  to  pay  a  sum  to  Government  of  one-twentieth  part  of  the 
value  of  the  object  in  dispute,  not  exceeding  in  any  cases  50  rix-dollars.  The 
First  and  Second  Adigaar  shall  and  may  execute  civil  jurisdiction  over  allKate- 
purales  and  their  property,  subject  to  appeal  to  the  Second  Commissioner,  and 
also  over  such  other  persons  and  property,  as  the  Governor  may,  by  special 
warrant,  assign  to  thejurisdiction  of  either  of  these  two  great  officers,  subjectto 
appeal  as  before  mentioned  ;  and  the  Second  Commissioner  or  any  Agent  of 
Government  may  refer  cases  for  hearing,  and  report  to  him  in  his  court  to  the 
Adigaars,  Dissaves,  or  Mohottales.  The  Adigaars  shall  have  jurisdiction  to 
punish  disobedience  of  their  orders  and  petty  offences,  by  inflicting  corporal 
punishment,  not  exceeding  fifty  strokes  with  the  open  hand,  or  twenty-five 
with  a  rattan  on  the  back,  or  by  awarding  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceed- 
ing fourteen  days.  The  Dissaves  or  chiefs,  holding  the  Governor's  commission, 
may  also  punish  offences  by  corporal  punishment,  not  exceeding  twenty-five 
strokes  with  the  open  hand,  and  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding  seven 
days  ;  and  similarly  the  principal  Mohottales,  Lianaraales,  and  Koraals,  being 
in  office,  may  inflict  corporal  punishment  for  offences  on  persons,  over  whom 
they  might  have  exercised  such  jurisdiction  under  the  former  government,  not 
exceeding  ten  strokes  with  the  open  hand,  and  may  imprison  such  persons  for 
a  term  not  exceeding  three  days,  provided  that  the  several  persons  on  whom  the 
above  power  is  exercised,  shall  be  duly  and  lawfully  subject  to  the  orders  of 
such  Adigaar,  Dissave,  Chief,  Mohottale,  Lianaraale,  or  Koraal,  and  that  no 
such  power  shall  be  exercised  on  persons  holding  office,  or  on  persons  of  the 
low  country,  foreigners,  or  on  Moormen  of  the  Kandian  provinces,  and  in  all 
cases  where  imprisonment  is  awarded  for  a  term  exceeding  three  days,  the 
prisoner  be  sent,  with  a  note  of  the  sentence,  to  the  Second  Commissioner,  or 
the  nearest  agent  of  Government,  to  be  confined. 

To  insure  a  due  and  uniform  administration  of  justice,  it  is  ordered  by  his 
Excellency,  that  all  evidence  before  the  Resident,  the  Second  Commissioner,  or 
other  agent  of  Government,  in  a  civil  or  criminal  case,  shall  be  taken  on  oath, 
which  oath,  in  the  case  of  Kandian  or  Hindoo  witnesses,  shall  be  administered 
after  the  evidence  is  taken  (the  witness  being  previously  warned  that  such  will 
be  the  case)  at  the  nearest  dewale,  before  a  Commissioner  or  Commissioners 
ordered  by  the  Court  to  see  that  the  witness  declares  solemnly  that  the  evidence 
he  has  given  is  the  truth  and  nothing  but  the  truth  ;  that  no  exemption  can  lie 
to  this  mode  of  giving  evidence,  except  where  Buddhist  priests  are  examined, 
and  that  every  person,  except  a  priest,  giving  evidence,  must  stand  while  he 
delivers  it. 

The  people  of  the  low  country,  and  foreigners  coming  into  the  Kandian  pro- 
vinces shall  continue  subject  to  the  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  agents 


826  APPENDIX. 

of  Government  alone,  with  such  extension  as  his  Excellency  may,  by  ipeclal 
additional  Instructions,  veit  In  inch  agents,  and  under  the  limitation  ai  to 
execution  of  sentences  in  criminal  cases  herein  before  provided  as  to  Kandians 
in  the  42nd  clause,  until  reference  to  the  Governor  through  the  Board  of  Com- 
missioners, except  in  cases  of  treason,  murder,  and  homicide,  in  which  such 
persons  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  jurisdiction  now  provided  for  Kandians, 
mill  the  Hiiinc  Line  shall  be  pursued  In  cases  wherein  a  Kandian  Moorman  shall 
be  defendant. 

Ami  Imh  Excellency  takes  this  occasion  to  confirm  the  provisions  of  hie  Pro 
clamatlon  of  the  2nd  March,  ihih,  respecting  the  Moormen,  but  to  explain 
that  they  are,  nevertheless,  when  living  In  the  villages  wherein  also  Kandians 
reside,  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Kandian  chief  or  headman  of  the  village  on 
pain  of  punishment,  l>.y  the  Agent  of  Government,  for  disobedience,  notwith- 
standing any  thing  contained  in  the  said  Proclamation.  According  to  such 
known  rules,  justice  will  be  accessible  t,<>  every  man,  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor, 
with  all  practicable  convenience,  and  the  confident  knowledge  <>i'  Impartiality 
of  decision.     And  to  give  effect  td  this  plan  for  the  administration  of  justice, 

and  to  collect.  the  public  revenue,  and  to  ensure  the  execution    of  public  duties, 

ins  Excellency  is  pleased  to  assign  to  the  Immediate  control  mid  exercise  of 
jurisdiction  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  the  following  provinces:  the  Four 
Korles;  Mata.16 ;  Oodapalata,  including  Upper  Bulatgamme;  Oodnnoora;  Yati« 
neura:  Tumpanne,  Harlssiapattoo  ;  Doomberaj  Hewahette;  Kotmal6j  the  part 
of  Walapane,  lying  west  of  the  Kuda  and  Ooma -oya  and  the  Hooroole,  Tamlra- 
wane,  Mamlniya  and  Ollagalla  pattoos  of  Newera  Kalawa;  in  all,  which  the 
higher  Judicial  duties  and  the  collect  ion  of  revenues,  will  be  made  by  the  Com« 
missloners  of  the  Board  ;but  in  those  limits  there  will  be  besides  two  Agents  of 
Government  to  hear  minor  cases  at.   Attaplttla  in  the  Four  Korles,  and  at 

Nalaudc  in   Mnlalo.     There  will  he  an  Agent  of  Government   resident   in    Onva, 

to  whose  immediate  jurisdiction  are  assigned  the  provinces  of  Ouva,  Welass6, 
Hi n ten i ie,  Wiyaloowa,  and  the  royal  village  of  Madulla ;  all  civil  ami  criminal 

cases    will  he    heard  by  him,   with    the    exceptions    mentioned,    and    under    the 

rules  detailed  abovOi    He  will  i^ivc  orders  to  collect  rovenue, perform  public 

service,  suspend  mid  banish     headmen    for    disobedience,  and     exercise    general 

powers  of  Government  in  those  limits,  subject  to  tho  superintendence  of  the 
Hoard  of  Commissioners.    Similarly   an  A  gen  l  of  Government  in  the  Seven 

Korles   will    exercise    jurisdiction  over  that  province,  and  the  northern  part,  of 

Newera  Kalawa.    An  Agent  of  Government  In  Saffragam  will  perform  like 

duties  in  I  bat  province.  An  Agent  of  ( iovei  nnient  will  reside  in  the  Three 
Korles  with  like  power,  and  the  collector  of  Trineomalee  will  bear  all  eases 
and  collect,  the  revel ,    and    ean-e  public  s.  ivice  to  be  peilnnned  in  the  same 

manner  in  Tamankada. 

in  all  matters  not  provided  for  by  this  proclamation  or  other  proclamations 
heretofore    promulgated  by  the  authority  of   the    British  Government,  his 

Excellency  reserves  to  himself  ami  his  successors  Hie  power  of  reforming  abuses, 

and  making  such  provision  as  is  necessary(  beneficial  or  desirable,  lie  also 
reserves  fall  power  to  alter  the  present  provisions,  as  may  hereafter  appear 
necessary  and  expedient,  and  he  requires  in  his  Majesty's  name  all  officers,  civil 
nmi  military,  all  Adlgaars,  Dissaves,  and  other  chiefs,  ami  ail  other  of  his 
Majei  ty's  subjects,  to  be  obedient,  aiding  and  assisting  in  the  execution  of  these 

or  other  his  orders  as  lhe\   shall  answer  to  the  contrary  at    their  peril. 

Given  at  Kami  v,  In  Ceylon,  this  SI  st  day  of  November,  huh. 

By  his  Excellency's  command, 
(Signed)  1 1  bokgh  Lusig  nan. 

Secretary  lor  Kandi.in  Provinces. 

God  s.w i'.  tim;  Kino. 


MI'I   M>1\. 


82; 


Mil. 

Tiik  Singhalese  language  oontains  Beven  short  towels  with  their  corresponding 
long  one-;,  and  thirty-four  oonaonants,  standing  as  follows,  in  the  Singhalei  ■ 
alphabet  i  — 

Vowels.— ft,  a;  t,  I;  ii,  Q  ;  ilti,  ilu;  irtt,  iru ;  8,  5, ai j  5,  <>u. 

Consonants.-  ka,  kha;  ga,  gha;  nya.oha,  ohha;  ja,  jhaj  gnya.  ta,  tha;  da, 
dha  ;  na.  'ta,  'tha,  'da,  'dha,  'na,  pa,  pha  ;  ba,  bha,  ma.  \a,  ra,  la,  wa,  sa,  sha,  bo, 
ha,  'la. 

in  repeating  these  vowels  or  oonsonants,  tin'  word  "  yanu,"  is  added  to  each, 
as,  "  ii  yanu,  "  5  yanu,"  "  I  yanu,"  "  i  yanu,"  ami  so  on.  Besides  these  are 
the  dipthongs,  ai,  eu,  on,  eiu,  bb,  a-,  bbiu,  bbou,  ■<".  ey , 

There  are  also  twelve  symbols,  substitutes  for  vowels  ami  dipthongs,  and  for 
the  letters  n,  r,  y,  and  w,  and  in  some  poaitions  they  double  the  oonsonants. 
These  symbols  art'  sometimes  written  above  the  letters,  sometimes  below,  and 
before  ami  after  the  letters.  Nouns  an-  divided  into  animate  ami  inanimate,  ami 
aro  thus  deolined  : — 

\  MM  \  I  1      \oe  N. 


Singular» 

N.       Horn,  thiol'. 
Ac.      I  loia,  thiol. 

<  ton,  I  lora-go,  of  thief. 
/».      Hora-ta,  to  thief. 
I  .      Mom,  thief. 
.l/>.    1  lora-gen,  from  tbief. 

i 
Singular. 

\.,S   I  .   Tola.' Look. 

lo,         I'oia,  book. 
0.         Pote,  of  book. 

/).  Pol. i   ta.  to  book. 

lb.        Poteu,  from  book. 


Plural. 
A .     I  lorn,  thieves. 
//<•.     I lornn,  thieves. 
( -rn.  1  torun-go,  of  thie\  ei . 

/>.       I  loi  nn-ta,  lo  t  bievOS. 

I  .      I  lorn,  thieves. 

,l/i.      I  lonin-j'.on,  1'rom  tlnev  01 
i     NOUN, 

Plural. 
N.%  r.  Pot,  books. 

lo,  I'ot,  or  potwal,  hooks. 

( ■'.  l'o(  wala,  of  books. 

/ '.         Potwalata,  to  hooks. 
Al>.        Potwalin,  from  hooks. 


ill,-  similarity  of  origin  between  a  vast  number  of  Singhalese  words,  and  the 
■ame  in  the  Latin, Greek,  ami  wow  English  languages,  will  be  al  onoe perceptible 
to  the  reader,  from  the  following    pecimen  : — 


i  NOLI8H 

i   \ i i\. 

S I N  0 1 1  m  i 

ii . 

ENGLISH, 

i  \ 1 1\ . 

BINOMAL1    i 

God. 

1  >ens. 

1  lewij  o. 

Rays. 

Radius. 

Robs. 

1  >a.N  . 

Dies. 

1  >a\\  asa. 

Water, 

w  atura 

INIonlli 

Menses. 

IMasa. 

Bubble. 

Bibulus. 

Bubula. 

Serpent, 

Serpens. 

Sarpaya. 

Ship. 

N  avis. 

Nrewa. 

Father, 

Pater. 

Pitra. 

Stand. 

Si,.. 

Sitinawa. 

. 

Abba. 

Appa. 

^  oung, 

.1  n  veins. 

Yowu  ana  va 

Mother. 

Mater. 

Mitra. 

1  ooth. 

I  >rns  entis 

Danta. 

Daughter. 

Filia. 

Dutra. 

Thou. 

In. 

Til. 

1         M, 

R.ex-8 

RSia. 

Receive. 

— 

1  labanawa 

Foot. 

Pea-edia. 

I'ada. 

Bind. 

— 

Bandinaw  a. 

1  o      no 

Do. 

Denawa. 

m  \u  i:  \  i  a 

1    N..I    1    .11. 

i  v  i  i  N . 

Bl  NO  It  A 1  i     i 

One. 

1   nils. 

Kkai. 

Two. 

Duo. 

I  lekai. 

Three 

I  re 

. 

funai,  oi 

In. 

828  APPENDIX. 

The  names  of  animate  nouns,  whether  masculine  or  feminine,  generally  termi- 
nate with  a  long  -rowel,  a  long  a  or  I.  Those  of  inanimate  nouns,  with  a  short 
a.  There  a^s  only  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural.  The  adjectives  never  vary 
in  termi-.ation,  whatever  gender  the  noun  is  to  which  they  are  applied.  There  is 
a  'j-n.'at  number  of  pronouns  for  the  second  and  third  person  singular,  which  are 
used  by  the  speaker  according  as  he  wishes  to  shew  respect,  or  otherwise,  to  the 
person  he  addresses.  Of  the  second  person  singular,  there  are  no  less  than  thir- 
teen different  words,  and  one  of  the  most  difficult  things  for  a  foreigner  to  under- 
stand is  the  proper  use  and  application  of  these  words,  so  as  not  to  offend  on  the 
one  hand,  or  yield  too  much  respect  on  the  other.  The  following  are  the  Singha- 
lese varieties  for  our  second  person  singular, "  Thou.''  1.  To;  2.  Tama  ;  3.  Umba  ; 
4.  Nuba;  5.  Oba  (the  two  last  seldom  used  vivd  voce) ;  6.  Umbadaa  ;  7.  Umbahe; 
8.  Tamuse;  9.  Tamunncehoe  ;  10.  Tamunna.nse  ;  11.  Tamunwahanse  ;  12.  Nuba- 
wahanse ;   13.  Obawahanse. 

The  verbs  have  four  voices,  called  the  volitive,  involitive,  causative,  and  reci- 
procal. There  is  no  passive  voice.  To  express  the  passive,  it  is  necessary  either 
to  give  a  different  turn  to  the  sentence,  or  to  call  in  the  aid  of  another  verb.  The 
volitive  expresses  an  act  willed  by  an  animated  being,  as,  "  he  splits  a  tree." 
The  involitive,  a  natural  or  accidental  effect,  as  "  the  tree  splits  (of  itself).''  The 
causative  expresses  the  performance  of  an  act  by  the  agency  of  another,  as,  "  he 
gets  the  tree  split."  The  reciprocal  expresses  an  act  which  takes  effect  on  the 
agent,  as,  "  he  healed  himself." 

The  position  of  words  in  a  sentence  is  very  different  from,  indeed,  the  very 
reverse  of,  the  method  adopted  in  all  the  western  languages.  Thus,  Genesis 
xlv.  3,  4: 

3  Yosaep         tamage     suhodarayanta     katbakota  mama      Yossepya       mage 

3  Joseph     of  himself       to  brethren         speaking      I         Joseph  (am)     of  me 

piya     tawama    jiwatwa     innawadgeyi   sesuwaya.    Sahodarayo     uttara     denta 
father       yet  alive  is  asked.        Brethren       answer   to  give 

breruwa       ohu     idiriye     kselambi       sitiyaya. 
being  unable  him     before     troubled         were. 

4  Yossepda      sahodarayanta    ma    langata    ewyayi    kiwaya :   owunda     ohu 
4  Joseph  and       to  brethren        me    near  to     come         said :      they  and    him 

langata  giyaya.  ewita   ohu   topi    Misarayata      wikkawa    topage  Sabodarawu 
near  to      went      then      he      ye       to  Egypt     having  sold    of  you        brother 

Yosaep   mamayayi  kiwaya. 
Joseph       I  (am)         said. 

In  these  sentences  will  be  perceived  the  manner  in  which  the  Singhalese  get 
over  what  we  may  consider  a  great  defect  in  their  language,  but  which  to  those 
acquainted  with  it  is  a  beauty,  the  want  of  the  pronoun  relative.  This  is  obviated 
chiefly  by  the  use  of  compound  epithets  and  participles.  Thus,  the  "  Gospel 
which  I  preached,  which  ye  received,  and  wherein  (in  which)  ye  stand,'' is 
thus  rendered  by  the  Singhalese  :  "  I-to  you-having-proclaimed  ;"  "  you- 
having-received ;"  "  you-being-established  ;"  all  agreeing  with  the  word  "Gos- 
pel," which  comes  last.  For  the  above  illustrative  notice  of  the  Singhalese  lan- 
guage, I  am  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Selkirk,  lately  attached  to  the  Church  Mis- 
sion, in  Ceylon. 


XIV. 

ABSTRACT  OF  THE  CHARTER  OF  JUSTICE  OF  1833. 

Article  1.  Revokes  the  three  charters  of  George  III.   which  established  a 
Supreme  Court  and  a  High  Court    of   Appeal. —  2.     Abolishes     Provincial 


APPENDIX.  829 

Courts,  Courts  of  the  sitting  Magistrates,  of  the  Judicial  Commissioner,  of  the 
Judicial  Agent,  of  the  Agents  of  Government,  the  Revenue  Courts,  and  the 
Court  of  the  Mahabadde. — 3.  Abolishes  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  Go- 
vernor and  Judicial  Commissioner  in  the  Kandian,  and  the  Minor  Courts  of 
Appeal  in  the  maritime  provinces. — 4.  Takes  away  from  the  Governor  the 
power  of  establishing  any  court,  except  in  the  terms  of  the  Charter,  but  leaves 
intact  the  local  courts  of  native  arbitrators,  called  Gamsabae. — 5  &  6.  Establishes 
a  Supreme  Court,  presided  over  by  a  Chief  Justice  and  two  Puisne  Judges, 
to  be  appointed  by  letters  patent  issued  under  the  island  seal,  in  pursuance  of 
warrants  under  the  royal  sign  manual. — 7.  Permits  the  Governor,  in  certain 
casualties,  to  name  a  successor  to,  or  substitute  for,  a  Judge,  by  letters  patent 
under  the  island  seal. — 8.  Permits  the  temporary  suspension  of  a  Judge,  by  an 
order  of  the  Governor,  under  the  island  seal,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  majo- 
rity of  the  Executive  Council,  but  only  upon  the  most  evident  necessity,  and 
mature  deliberation,  and  after  the  most  early,  complete,  and  authentic  infor- 
mation of  the  grounds  of  such  proceedings  have  been  furnished  to  the  said 
Judge,  and  a  report  of  the  same  must  be  sent  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  a 
full  statement  be  entered  on  the  minutes  of  the  Executive  Council  of  the 
grounds  of  suspension,  and  the  evidence  on  which  it  is  founded,  a  copy  of 
which  must  be  forwarded  to  the  said  Judge  ;  and  the  Crown  reserves  to  itself 
the  power  of  confirming  or  disallowing  such  suspension. — 9.  Gives  the  Chief 
Justice  precedent  rank  analogous  to  that  enjoyed  by  the  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Queen's  Bench  in  England. — 10.  Gives  the  Puisne  Judges  rank  after  the  Com- 
mander of  the  Forces,  and  the  same  as  that  enjoyed  by  the  Puisne  Justices  of 
the  Queen's  Bench,  and  in  respect  of  each  other,  according  to  the  priority  of 
appointment. — 11.  Directs  the  use  of  a  special  Seal  for  the  Supreme  Court,  to 
be  kept  by  the  Chief  Justice,  or  in  case  of  hi9  suspension,  by  the  substitute 
appointed  by  the  Governor.— 12.  Forbids  the  acceptance  of  any  other  office  by 
any  of  the' three  Judges,  except  that  of  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Vice-Admiralty, 
or  of  Commissioner  for  prize  causes  and  other  maritime  questions. — 13.  Ap- 
points a  Registrar  and  Keeper  of  the  Court  Records,  and  such  other  officers  as 
may  seem  necessary  to  the  Chief  Justice,  with  the  approval  of  the  Governor. — 
14.  The  Crown  reserves  to  itself  the  appointment  of  all  the  subordinate  officers 
of  the  Court,  except  the  Clerk  and  Private  Secretary  of  the  Judges,  who  hold 
the  same  at  its  pleasure,  but  are  liable  to  suspension  by  the  Court  for  due 
cause. — 15.  Empowers  the  Supreme  Court  to  enrol  as  Advocates  or  Proctors  of 
the  Supreme  Court  all  persons  of  good  repute  and  sufficient  qualifications,  and 
in  case  of  a  refusal  to  admit  any  person,  the  reason  thereof  shall  be  declared 
in  open  Court,  and  no  person  is  entitled  to  plead  in  such  Court  but  those  so 
enrolled. — 1G.  Divides  the  island  for  judicial  purposes  into  the  district  of  Co- 
lombo and  three  circuits,  called  the  Northern,  Eastern,  and  Southern  circuits, 
the  first  of  which  comprised  all  the  maritime  districts  north  of  Colombo  ;  the 
second,  all  the  Kandian  provinces  and  the  maritime  districts  on  the  eastern 
coast ;  and  the  third,  all  the  maritime  provinces  south  of  Colombo,  including  the 
Mahagamapattoo;  but  gives  the  Governor  power  to  alter  or  modify  such  divi- 
sions on  the  requisition,  in  writing,  of  the  Judges.— 17.  Authorises  the  Go- 
vernor, with  the  concurrence  of  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  to  subdivide 
the  said  circuits  into  districts,  and  to  alter  and  modify  them  from  time  to  time 
as  required. — 18.  Assigns  a  Court  to  every  district,  to  be  hohlcn  by  a  District 
Judge,  and  three  Assessors,  the  former  appointed  by  letters  patent  of  the  Go- 
vernor, under  the  island  seal,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Crown. — 19. 
Directs  the  selection  of  the  Assessors  from  natives  or  otherwise,  who  shall  be  of 
age,  of  good  repute,  and  fitting  ability;  and  reserves  to  the  Crown  the  right  of 
appointing  a  permanent  Assessor  in  the  respective  districts. — 20.  Directs  the 
appointment  of  the  subordinate  officers  of  the  said  Courts,  and  the  admission  of 
Advocates  and  Proctors  after  the  same  rule  as  in  the  Supreme  Court. — 21.  The 
Supreme  Court  to  be  holden  at  Colombo  for  the  district  of  that  name,  and  the 
District  Courts  to  be  holdeu  at  the  most  convenient  place  within  each  district. — 


830  APPENDIX. 

22.  Constitutes  each  of  the  District  Courts  a  court  of  civil  jurisdiction,  with 
full  power  to  hear  and  determine  all  pleas,  suits,  and  actions  in  which  the 
defendant  is  resident  within  the  district  where  they  are  brought,  or  where  the 
cause  thereof  shall  have  arisen,  or  the  act  in  question  been  performed  ;  and  in 
a  case  where  the  Judge  himself  should  be  concerned,  the  matter  is  cognizable 
in  the  Court  of  the  adjoining  district. — 23.  Appoints  each  of  the  District  Courts 
to  be  a  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction,  with  full  power  to  inquire  into  offences 
committed  within  its  bounds,  and  to  determine  all  prosecutions  arising  there- 
from, except  in  cases  where  the  accused  would  be  subject,  on  conviction,  to 
death  or  transportation,  or  imprisonment  for  more  than  a  year,  or  a  whipping 
of  more  than  one  hundred  lashes,  or  a  fine  exceeding  ten  pounds. — 24.  Assigns 
to  the  said  Courts  the  care  and  custody  of  the  persons  and  property  of  idiots 
and  lunatics  within  their  respective  districts,  and  the  appointment  of  guardians, 
and  to  make  order  for  the  maintenance  of  such  persons,  and  the  proper 
management  of  their  estates,  and  to  take  proper  securities  from  guardians,  and 
call  them  to  account  for  any  balance,  to  enforce  its  payment,  to  make  order 
for  its  secure  investment,  and  to  remove  such  guardians  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire.— 25.  Gives  also  to  the  said  Courts  full  power  to  appoint  administrators  of 
the  estate  and  effects  of  intestate  persons,  or  who  may  not  have  chosen  an 
executor  thereof,  and  power  to  decide  upon  the  validity  of  any  document  ad- 
duced as  the  last  will  of  any  person  who  may  have  died  within  their  respective 
districts,  and  to  record  the  same,  and  grant  probate  thereof;  with  like  power 
to  appoint  administrators  in  cases  where  the  executors  thereby  appointed  shall 
not  appear  to  take  out  probate,  or  having  appeared,  shall  have  died  subse- 
quently, or  become  incapable.  Empowers  the  said  Courts  also  to  take  proper 
securities  from  the  administrators  of  intestates,  or  of  the  wills  of  deceased  per- 
sons, for  the  faithful  performance  of  such  trusts,  with  full  power  to  call  all  such 
executors  to  account,  and  to  charge  them  with  any  balance  due  to  the  estates  of 
such  persons,  and  to  enforce  the  payment  thereof,  and  to  make  order  for  its 
secure  investment,  and  to  replace  the  said  administrators  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire.— 26.  Empowers  the  District  Courts  to  try,  as  in  ordinary  cases,  all 
causes  affecting  the  revenue,  except  where  the  rights,  powers,  and  jurisdiction 
of  the  Court  of  Vice-Admiralty  is  involved,  or  where  the  punishment  to  be 
awarded  would  exceed  that  of  ordinary  cases. — 27.  Declares  that  the  several 
jurisdictions  thus  vested  in  said  Courts  shall  be  an  exclusive  jurisdiction,  and 
shall  not  on  any  pretext  be  assumed  by  any  other  Court,  except  where  actions 
or  prosecutions  be  brought  by  way  of  appeal  before  the  Supreme  Court. — 28. 
Directs  that  every  final  judgment  of  the  said  Courts,  and  interlocutory  order 
having  the  effect  of  a  6nal  judgment,  and  every  order  postponing  the  final  deci- 
sion of  a  cause  there  pending,  be  pronounced  in  open  court,  and  that  the  Judge 
shall  state  to  the  Assessors  what  are  the  questions  at  law  and  fact  in  any  case 
before  them,  and  his  own  opinion,  with  the  grounds  thereof;  and  that  the 
Assessors  shall,  in  open  Court,  declare  their  opinion,  and  give  their  vote  upon 
every  question  for  adjudication,  whether  relating  to  any  matter  of  law  or  fact, 
and  in  case  of  difference  of  opinion  between  such  Judge  and  the  majority  or  the 
whole  of  such  Assessors  in  a  matter  of  law  and  fact,  the  opinion  of  the  Judge 
shall  prevail,  and  be  taken  as  the  judgment  of  the  whole  Court;  but  a  record 
shall  be  preserved  of  the  case,  and  of  the  votes  of  such  Judge  and  Assessors 
upon  each  such  question. — 29.  Appoints  the  Supreme  Court  a  Court  of  appel- 
late jurisdiction  for  the  correction  of  all  errors  in  fact  or  law  committed  in  the 
District  Courts,  and  assigns  it  the  sole  and  exclusive  cognizance,  by  way  of  ap- 
peal, of  all  matters  originally  brought  before  the  same.  Further  grants  it 
authority  to  hold  an  original  jurisdiction  for  inquiring  into  all  crimes  and 
offences  committed  throughout  the  island,  and  for  trying  and  determining  all 
prosecutions  against  parties  charged  therewith,  and  ordains  that  its  civil  and 
criminal  sessions  shall  be  holden  by  one  of  the  Judges  in  each  of  the  circuits 
aforementioned. — 30.  Directs  that  each  sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
be  held  twice  a  year  within  the  circuits,  at  such  places  and  time,  as  the  Governor 


APPENDIX.  831 

shall,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Judges,  appoint ;  but  that  they  shall  be  so 
arranged  that  all  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  shall  not  be  simultaneously 
absent  from  Colombo,  and  that  all  such  Judges  shall  be  resident  there  at  the 
same  time,  not  less  than  twice  a  year.  Gives  the  Judges  the  right  of  choosing 
the  circuits  by  seniority. — 31.  Directs  that  at  every  civil  session  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  each  circuit,  three  Assessors  shall  be  associated  with  the  Judge,  and 
that  every  criminal  session  shall  be  holden  before  a  Judge  and  thirteen  jury- 
men.— 32.  Gives  to  the  Judge  and  three  Assessors,  and  the  Judge  and  thirteen 
jurors,  when  on  circuit,  all  the  powers  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court. — 33.  Em- 
powers the  said  Court,  at  its  civil  session  on  circuit,  to  determine  all  appeals 
from  any  district  Court  within  its  limits,  and  to  affirm,  alter,  or  modify  every 
judgment  according  to  law,  or,  if  necessary,  to  remand  any  case  to  the  District 
Court  for  a  further  hearing,  or  for  the  admission  of  further  evidence,  and  in 
hearing  an  appeal  therefrom,  to  admit  or  reject  new  evidence  as  justice  may 
require. — 34.  Empowers  the  Court  of  Civil  Sessions  on  circuit  to  issue  mandates, 
in  the  nature  of  writs  of  mandamus  procedendo,  against  any  District  Court 
within  its  limits,  and  to  order  the  transfer  of  any  case  to  any  other  District 
Court,  if  it  shall  appear  that  there  is  sufficient  reason  to  conclude  that  justice 
would  not  be  done  in  the  Court  it  which  it  had  been  commenced  ;  and  the  Dis- 
trict Court  to  which  the  same  is  transferred  shall  have  the  same  jurisdiction  as 
that  in  which  the  case  had  been  commenced  had. — 35.  Directs  that  the  Judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  and  Assessors,  in  civil  cases  on  circuit,  shall  severally  give 
their  opinion,  and  vote  according  to  the  rule  laid  down  in  Art.  28,  for  the  Dis- 
trict Judges.— 36.  Directs  that  at  every  criminal  session  of  the  Supreme  Court 
on  circuit,  such  Court  shall  determine  all  appeals  from  the  District  Courts 
within  its  limits,  and  shall  confirm,  alter,  and  modify  the  same  according  to 
law.  Gives  it  power  to  admit  or  reject  new  evidence,  asjustice  may  require, 
ami  empowers  it  in  certain  cases  to  transfer  a  prosecution  from  one  District 
Court  to  any  other  within  its  limits,  under  the  rule  laid  down  in  Art.  34. — 37. 
Prohibits  the  suspension  of  any  sentence  in  the  District  Courts  in  criminal 
cases  with  a  view  to  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court,  unless  the  District  Judge 
shall  see  fit  to  make  such  an  order. — 38.  Ordains  that  at  every  criminal  sessions 
of  the  Supreme  Court  on  circuit,  those  cases  in  which  it  has  original  jurisdic- 
tion, and  which  the  Queen's  Advocate  or  his  deputy  may  elect  to  prosecute  be- 
fore it,  shall  be  heard  and  determined  by  the  same. — 39.  Ordains  that  all  crimes 
and  offences  cognizable  before  the  Courts  constituted  by  the  Charter  shall  be 
prosecuted,  and  all  fines  and  penalties  be  sued  for  and  recovered  in  the  name  of 
the  Queen's  Advocate  or  his  deputy,  by  information  exhibited  without  the  pre- 
vious finding  of  any  inquest  or  grand  jury,  but  permits  the  Supreme  Court 
to  regulate  the  mode  in  which  minor  offences  shall  be  prosecuted  in  the  District 
Courts. — 40.  Directs  that  all  criminal  cases  at  the  sessions  of  the  SupremeCourt 
be  decided  by  thirteen  jurors,  and  that  in  case  of  non  agreement,  the  verdict  of 
the  majority  shall  be  taken  as  that  of  the  whole. — 41.  Directs  that  all  questions 
of  law  arising  at  the  said  criminal  sessions  shall  be  decided  by  the  Judge,  who 
shall  pronounce  his  decision  in  open  Court,  and  assign  the  grounds  of  the  same, 
but  he  can  refer  the  same  for  the  decision  of  the  collective  Court  at  general 
sessions. — 42.  Respites  the  execution  of  any  person  sentenced  to  death  at  the 
criminal  sessions,  until  the  case  shall  have  been  reported  by  the  Judge  to  the 
Governor. — 43.  Directs  the  Judge  on  circuit  to  issue  his  mandate  to  the  fiscals 
or  keepers  of  prisons  within  its  limits  to  report  the  persons  in  their  custody, 
charged  with  an  offence,  and  the  said  fiscals  are  required  to  certify  and  trans- 
mit a  calendar,  specifying  the  time  when  such  persons  were  committed,  by 
whose  authority,  and  on  what  charges.  And  to  the  said  list  shall  be  annexed  a 
copy  of  the  informations  taken  against  them  on  oath.  And  if  need  be,  accord- 
ing to  the  exigency  of  such  mandate,  the  fiscal  shall  bring  the  said  persons  in 
their  custody  before  the  said  Judge,  wherever  he  may  be  holding  the  criminal 
sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court,  together  with  the  witnesses,  whose  names  are 
endorsed  on  the  commitments,  to   be  dealt  with  according  to  law.     Further, 


832  APPENDIX. 

any  cases  of  committal  on  a  criminal  charge,  arising  during  the  session,  shall  be 
inserted  in  the  said  list  by  an  officer  of  the  Supreme  Court  for  trial. — 44.  De- 
clares that  any  of  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  remaining  at  Colombo  shall, 
within  the  limits  of  its  district,  exercise  the  same  jurisdiction,  and  hold  the 
same  civil  and  criminal  sessions  as  those  on  circuit. — 45.  Ordains  that  when- 
ever any  question  at  law  pleading,  evidence,  or  practice  shall  arise  at  any  civil 
or  criminal  session  of  the  Supreme  Court  on  circuit,  or  within  the  district  of 
Colombo,  that  shall  appear  to  the  Judge  to  be  doubtful  or  difficult,  he  shall  re- 
serve the  same  for  the  decision  of  his  brethren  collectively  at  a  general  session 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  which  shall  be  held  from  time  to  time. — 46.  Requires 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  while  on  circuit,  to  examine  the  records  of  the 
different  District  Courts,  and  if  they  find  contradictory  or  inconsistent  decisions 
have  been  given  by  the  different  Courts,  or  by  the  same  Court  at  different  times, 
upon  any  matters  of  law,  evidence,  pleading,  or  practice,  to  report  thereon  to 
the  collective  body  at  the  general  sessions  ;  and  after  due  consideration,  to  pre- 
pare the  draft  of  a  declaratory  law,  and  transmit  it,  under  the  seal  of  the  Court, 
to  the  Governor,  who  shall  lay  it  before  the  Legislative  Council  for  considera- 
tion. Ordains  the  establishment,  by  the  Judges,  of  such  general  rules  and 
orders  for  the  removal  of  doubts  in  matters  of  pleading  or  practice  as  occasion 
may  require. — 47.  Authorizes  the  Judges  on  circuit,  or  at  the  general  session 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  to  issue  mandates,  in  the  nature  of  writs  of  habeas  corpus, 
to  bring  up  the  body  of  any  person  imprisoned  within  the  said  island  and  its 
dependencies,  and  to  discharge  or  remand  him,  or  otherwise  deal  with  him  ac- 
cording to  law,  and  to  issue  injunctions  to  prevent  any  irremediable  mischief 
from  ensuing  before  the  applicant  for  the  same  could  prevent  the  same  by 
bringing  an  action  in  any  District  Court.  Forbids  the  Supreme  Court  from 
granting  an  injunction  to  prevent  any  party  to  a  suit  in  a  District  Court  from 
appealing  to  a  court  of  appeal,  or  from  suing  in  any  District  Court,  or  from  in- 
sisting upon  any  ground  of  action,  defence,  or  appeal. — 48.  Permits  the  Judges 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  by  general  rules  and  orders,  to  require  the  District  Courls 
to  transmit  to  them  at  Colombo  their  records  in  any  cases  upon  which  appeals 
may  have  been  entered.  Empowers  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  to  hear, 
witla  the  consent  of  both  parties,  such  appeals  at  general  session,  and  to  de- 
cide the  same  in  a  summary  way,  and  without  further  argument  to  remit  such 
records,  with  their  decision,  to  the  District  Courts,  to  be  carried  into  effect. — 
49.  Authorizes  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  collectively,  at  general  ses- 
sions, to  form  such  general  rules  of  Court,  as  shall  seem  meet,  both  as  to  the 
time  and  place  of  holding  any  general  sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  any 
civil  or  criminal  session  of  the  same,  on  circuit,  or  in  the  district  of  Colombo, 
and  the  several  District  Courts,  as  shall  not  be  inconsistent  with  the  authority 
granted  to  the  Governor  by  Art.  32,  together  with  such  rules  as  to  the  form  and 
manner  of  proceeding  to  be  observed  in  the  said  different  Courts,  and  as  to  the 
practice  and  pleadings  upon  all  actions  and  criminal  prosecutions,  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  fiscals  and  other  officers  of  the  Court,  the  process  of  the  said  Courts, 
the  mode  of  executing  the  same,  the  qualifications,  summoning,  impanelling, 
and  challenging  assessors  and  jurors,  arrest  on  mesne  process  or  in  execution, 
taking  of  bail,  duties  of  gaolers,  the  mode  of  prosecuting  appeals  from  the  Dis- 
trict Courts,  the  admission  of  advocates  and  proctors,  and  the  administration  of 
justice  in  general,  and  to  revoke,  alter,  or  amend  the  same  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. But  no  rules  must  be  repugnant  to  the  charter,  and  all  must  be  framed 
to  promote,  as  far  as  possible,  the  discovery  of  truth,  and  economy,  and  expe- 
dition in  the  dispatch  of  business,  and  must  be  drawn  up  in  plain  and  succinct 
terms,  and  promulgated  in  the  most  public  and  authentic  manner,  and  must  be 
previously  transmitted  to  the  Crown  for  its  approbation  or  disallowance  under 
the  seal  of  the  Court. — 50.  Permits  a  party  to  any  civil  suit  oiw  action  in  the 
Supreme  Court  to  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council  against  any  final  judgment  or 
order  of  the  same,  subject  to  the  following  rules  :  1st.  That  before  any  such 
appeal  be  brought,  such  judgment  or  order  be  reviewed  by  the  Judges  collectively 


APPENDIX.  833 

at  the  general  sessions,  which  Judges  shall  regulate  the  form  and  manner  of 
proceeding  in  bringing  such  judgment  or  order  by  way  of  review  before  them, 
and  shall  thereupon  pronounce  judgment  according   to  law,  the  judgment  of 
the  majority  being  taken  for  that  of  the  whole.     2ndly.   Every  such  judgment 
or  order  appealed  against  shall  affect  a  sum  above  the  value  of  £500.  or  in- 
volve the  title  to  property,  or  some  civil  right  of  equal  value.     3rdly.  The  party 
aggrieved  by  such  judgment  or  order  shall,  within  a  fortnight  after  it  shall  have 
been  pronounced,  apply  to  the  Supreme  Court  at  general  sessions,  by  petition, 
for  leave  to  appeal.     4thly.  If  such  leave  to  appeal  shall  he  prayed  by  the  party 
adjudged  to  pay  any  sum  of  money,  or  to  perform  any  duty,  the  said  Supreme 
Court  shalldirect  that  the  judgment  be  carried  into  effect,  if  the  party  respon- 
dent shall  give  security  for  the  immediate  performance  of  any  judgment  pro- 
nounced  by  the   Privy  Council   upon    such  appeal ;  and  a  postponement  of 
execution  must  be  shewn  to  be  well  founded  by  the  appellant,  and  he  must 
give  security  for  the  performance  of  any  judgment  pronounced   by  the  Privy 
Council,  to  the  Supreme  Court.     Cthly.  Security  shall   be  given  by  the  appel- 
lant for  the  prosecution  of  the  appeal,  and  the  payment  of  all  such  costs  as  are 
awarded  by  the  Privy  Council  to  the  respondent,  and  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
determine  the  nature,  amount,  and  sufficiency  of  the  securities  to  be  so  taken. 
7thly.     In  cases  where  immovable  property  is  at  stake,  and  the  judgment  ap- 
pealed against  shall  not  change  or  affect  the  actual  occupation  thereof,  no 
security  shall  be  demanded  from  either  party;  but  if  otherwise,  then  such  secu- 
rity shall  not  exceed  the  amount  required  to  secure  the  restitution  free  from  ail 
damage  or  loss  of  such  property,  or  of  the  intermediate  profit,  which,  pending 
such  appeal  may  accrue  from  its  occupation.     8thly.  In  any  case  where  the 
subject  of  litigation  shall  consi>t  of  money  or  personal  debt,  the  security  to  be 
demanded  from  either  party  shall  either  be  a  bond   of  equivalent  value  to   the 
property  in  dispute,  and  entered  into  by  one  or  more  sufficient  sureties,  or  by 
way  of  mortgage,  or  voluntary  condemnation  of  some  immovable  property  within 
the  island  of  the  full  value  of  the  amount  in   dispute  above  all  mortgages  and. 
charges  affecting  the  same.     Othly.  The  security  to  be  given  by  the  appellant 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  appeal,  and  the  payment  of  costs  shall  in  no  case 
exceed  £300.     1  Othly.  If  the   appellant    shall    have  completed  his   securities 
within  three  months  from  the  date  of  his  petition  for  leave  to  appeal,  then  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  allow  such  appeal,     llthly.  Any  person  feeling  aggrieved 
by  any  order,  or  any  proceedings  of  the  said  Supreme  Court  respecting  the 
security  to  be  taken  upon  such  appeal,  shall  be  authorised  to  apply  to  the 
Privy  Council  for  redress  in  the  premises. — 51.  Reserves  to  the  Crown  the  right 
to  receive  an  appeal  on  the  petition  of  a  person  aggrieved  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  under  certain  conditions. — 52.  In  all  eases  of  appeal  allowed  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  it  shall,  on  the  application  of  the  appellant,  certify  and  trans- 
mit to  the  Privy  Council  a  true  copy  of  all  proceedings,  evidence,  judgments, 
&c.  in  the  case,  so  far  as  they  have  relation  to  the  appeal,  under  the  seal  of  the 
said  Court. — 53.  Directs   that  the  Supreme  Court  shall  carry  into  immediate 
effect  the  judgments  and  orders  of  the  Privy  Council  in  all  cases  of  appeal  in 
the  same  manner  as  any  original  judgment  or  decree  of  its  own. — 54.  Revokes 
all  laws,  customs,  and  usages  repugnant  to  this  charter. — 55.  Declares  that  any 
person  lawfully  administering  the  government  for  the  time  being,  shall  be  con- 
sidered the  Governor. — 50.  Ordains,  that  at  the  expiration  of  two  months  after 
the  arrival  of  the  charter  in  the  island,  the  Governor  shall,  by  proclamation, 
announce  its  operation  therein,  and  any  suit  or  action  then  depending  before 
any  court,  shall  be  subject  to  its  provisions,  and  be  removed  to  the  Court 
thereby  established. — 57.  Reserves  the  full  right  of  revoking,  altering,  and 
modifying,  the  said  charter  to  the  Crown,  as  it  may  think  fit,  by  letters  patent 
under  the  great  seal. 

3    H 


834  APPENDIX. 

XV. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CHARTER. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  certain  provisions,  deemed  essential  for  the 
prompt  and  effective  action  of  the  Government  in  relation  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  a  Supplementary  Charter  was  issued  in  1843,  by 
which  the  Governor  was  empowered  to  provide  for  the  furtherance  of 
that  object  by  certain  laws  or  ordinances,  passed  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Legislative  Council,  and  for  altering-  and  amending-  the 
constitution  of  the  Supreme  or  any  other  court,  and  the  limits,  territorial 
or  otherwise,  of  their  jurisdiction,  and  the  time  and  places  of  holding 
them,  the  number  and  functions  of  the  officers  employed,  the  powers 
and  authority  of  the  Judges,  and  all  other  matters  incident  thereto,  or 
which  may  to  them  appear  necessary  for  the  economical,  prompt  and 
effective  administration  of  justice,  civil  or  criminal,  and  such  laws  shall 
have  the  same  force  as  all  other  laws  and  ordinances,  provided  they  be 
in  such  a  manner  and  form,  and  subject  to  all  such  rules  as  shall  be  in 
force  in  reference  to  any  other  law  of  the  local  Legislature,  and  shall 
not  have  force  until  they  be  ratified  by  the  Crown,  unless  passed  unani- 
mously by  the  Legislative  Council,  and  unless  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  certified  under  their  hands  to  the  Governor,  that  it  is 
expedient  that  such  law  should  take  effect,  and  should  not  be  suspended 
till  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown  be  known.  But  in  any  case  wherein  any 
such  unanimous  votes  of  the  Legislative  Council  be  given  in  favour  of 
the  immediate  operation  of  any  such  law,  then  the  same  shall  take  effect 
within  the  said  island,  and  shall  have  force  immediately  after  the  date 
and  enactment  thereof,  subject  to  disallowance  by  the  Crown,  if  it  should 
be  so  advised. 

The  extreme  inconvenience,  under  any  circumstances,  of  a  previous 
reference  to  the  Crown  before  the  enforcement  of  an  ordinance,  led  to  a 
representation  from  the  local  Government,  and  the  issue  of  another 
Supplementary  Charter  in  1846,  by  which  so  much  of  the  Charter  of 
1843,  as  required  the  previous  consent  of  the  Crown  to  an  ordinance  for 
the  better  administration  of  justice,  was  revoked,  and  the  Governor  was 
empowered  to  annul,  by  any  ordinance  passed  by  the  Legislative  Council, 
any  provisions  of  the  previous  Supplementary  Charter,  subject  to  its 
disallowance  by  the  Crown. 

I  have  been  indulged  with  an  inspection  of  the  instructions  furnished 
to  Lord  Torrington  by  the  Crown,  but  as  they  are  in  the  main  identical 
with  those  issued  in  times  past  to  preceding  Governors,  and  the  tenor  of 
the  original  instructions  is  nearly  similar  to  those  issued  for  all  the 
Crown  colonies,  I  refer  those  requiring  information  to  pp.  326-32  of  my 
work  on  Mauritius.  In  reference  to  Ceylon,  I  may  add,  that  a  supple- 
mentary instruction  revokes  a  previous  one,  forbidding  the  naturalisation 
of  aliens,  except  under  certain  conting-encies,  and  that  another  gives 
additional  facilities  for  the  payment  of  Crown  lands,  which  was  before 
confined  to  the  Surveyor  General's  department  at  Colombo. 

An  ordinance  promulgated  in  1844  divides  the  island  into  three 
judicial  circuits,  called  the  Northern,  Midland  and  Southern  circuits, 
'^he  Northern  circuit  comprehends  the  Northern  and  Eastern  provinces, 
and  the  districts  of  Chilaw,  Putlam,  Calpentyn,  and  the  Demellepattoo, 
in  the  Western  Province.  The  Midland  circuit  comprises  the  Central 
Province,  the  Western,  except  such  parts  as  are  comprised  in  the 
Northern  and  Southern  circuits,  and  the  district  of  Saffragam,  in  the 


APPENDIX.  835 

Southern  province,  except  that  portion  attached  to  the  district  of  Galle- 
The  Southern  circuit  comprehends  the  Southern  province,  except  that 
part  of  Saffragam  attached  to  the  Central,  and  a  portion  of  the  Western 
province. 

The  Northern  circuit  is  subdivided  into  six  districts :  -Chilaw  and 
Putlam,  Court  held  alternately  at  each ;  Manaar  and  Silawatorre,  Court 
held  alternately  at  each;  Nuwara  Kalavva,  Court  at  Anuradhapoora ; 
Jaffna,  Court  at  Jaffnapatam  ;  Trincomalee  ;  Batecalo. 

The  Midland  circuit  is  subdivided  into  seven  districts :  Colombo, 
Negombo,  Kandy,  Kurunaigalla,  Badulla,  Matale,  Ratnapoora. 

The  Southern  circuit  is  subdivided  into  four  districts  :  Caltura,  Galle, 
Matura,  Hambantotte. 

Police  Courts  and  Courts  of  Requests  are  held  at  the  following  places  : 
at  Colombo  for  that  district ;  at  Negombo  ;  at  Caltura ;  at  Bentotte  for 
part  of  the  Galle  and  Caltura  districts ;  at  Ratnapoora  for  that  district ; 
at  Galle  ;  at  Matura ;  at  Tangalle  for  part  of  the  district  of  Ham- 
bantotte ;  at  Hambantotte  ;  at  Chilaw  and  Putlam  for  part  of  those  dis- 
tricts ;  at  Calpentyn  for  part  of  the  district  of  Chilaw  and  Putlam  ;  at 
Manaar  ;  at  Anuradhapoora  for  Nuwara  Kalawa  ;  at  Jaffna  for  part  of 
that  district  and  the  Wanny  ;  at  Point  Pedro  for  Oodoopitty  and  Katte- 
welle  and  Point  Pedro ;  at  Chavagacherry  for  the  parishes  adjacent; 
at  Kayts  for  the  islands;  at  Moellitivoe  for  the  adjacent  districts  of  the 
Wanny;  at  Trincomalee ;  at  Batecalo;  at  Kandy;  at  Kurunaigalla  ;  at 
Kaigalle  for  the  Three  Korles  and  Lower  Bulatgamme  and  the  district 
adjacent ;  at  Matale  ;  at  Nuwera  Elliya  for  that  district;  at  Badulla. 


XVI. 

Abstract  of  Ordinance  enacted  by  the  Governor  of  Ceylon,  with  the  advice 
of  the  Legislative  Council,  to  meet  the  general  desire  of  the  Public, for  a 
definite  arrangement,  and  to  make  provision  for  more  easily  ascertaining 
the  boundaries  of  Estates,  and  protect  the  Crown  against  the  conse- 
quences of  double  sales.    Dated  January  17th,  1844. 

The  liability  is  restricted  to  parties  holding  grants  from  the  Crown  or  deeds  to 
which  maps  and  surveys  are  annexed,  but  provision  is  made  for  extending  its  opera- 
tion to  all  lands  which,  in  process  of  time,  shall  be  surveyed  by  the  Government  agents. 
By  the  second  clause  they  are  empowered  to  make  surveys  of  estates  held  by  prescrip- 
tion or  under  instruments,  to  which  correct  surveys  are  not  attached,  as  it  was  manifest 
that  the  respective  limits  of  the  natives  could  not  have  been  marked  out  without  excit- 
ing numerous  disputes  and  disturbances,  which  the  judicial  tribunals  would  have 
been  unable  to  arrange  without  first  procuring  surveys,  which  must  have  been  delayed 
for  an  indefinite  period,  the  cost  of  which  surveys  are  to  be  defrayed  by  the  owners  of 
estates,  and  the  Crown  is  then  to  grant  a  disclaimer  to  any  right  to  the  property  in 
the  manner  prescribed  by  the  seventh  clause  of  the  Ordinance,  No.  12  of  1840,  for 
preventing  encroachments  upon  Crown  lands.  To  enable  the  Government  agent  to 
ascertain  whether  persons  hold  under  such  titles  as  will  bring  them  within  the  act,  he 
may,  as  often  as  he  thinks  fit,  demand  an  inspection  of  their  title  deeds  ;  a  refusal  at 
any  time  will  expose  the  person  making  it  to  penalty  of  five  pounds.  The  right  of 
action  is  taken  away  for  any  trespass  on  lands,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  not  clearly 
defined  along  their  whole  line,  unless  the  trespass  or  injury  to  the  property  has  been 
wilfully  committed.  Any  person  having  held  land  for  three  years,  under  a  grant  from 
the  Crown  erroneously  made,  if  he  has  entered  and  kept  up  the  boundaries,  and  culti- 
vated the  same,  may  retain  the  land  so  cultivated  and  improved,  to  the  exclusion  of 

3h2 


836 


APPENDIX. 


the  original  grantees,  on  payment  to  the  latter  of  the  value  of  the  land  at  the  time  the 
grant  was  so  erroneously  made,  which  value  is  to  be  determined  by  arbitration.  If 
the  second  grantee  has  not  been  three  years  in  possession,  then  the  original  grantee 
may  re-enter  on  paying  three-fourths  of  the  improved  value  of  the  land,  less  the  value 
of  the  land  in  its  uncultivated  state,  and  if  the  first  grantee  decline  to  enter,  then  he 
may  recover  from  the  second  grantee  the  value  of  the  land,  and  one-fuurth  the  value 
of  the  improvements  ;  but  if  the  first  grantee  knew  the  second  grantee  to  be  cultivating 
the  land,  and  fraudulently  omitted  to  claim  it,  the  second  grantee  may  demand  a  con- 
veyance to  himself  of  the  land,  on  payment  of  its  value  at  the  time  of  the  second  grant. 
These  appear  to  be  the  provisions  relating  to  grants  of  land  erroneously  made  by  the 
Crown.  Those  which  affect  the  title  to  any  land  whatever,  the  property  of  individuals, 
not  held  direct  from  the  Crown,  and  having  been  entered  upon  when  in  an  uncultivated 
state,  and  held  adversely  to  the  rights  of  the  proprietor,  would  appear  to  be  as  follows  : 
Where  a  person  has  held  possession  of  any  such  land  for  not  less  than  two,  nor  more 
than  five  years,  having  entered  on  the  same  "  without  fraud,  and  in  perfect  good  faith," 
the  proprietor  shall  not  be  entitled  to  re-enter  except  on  payment  to  the  party  who  has 
ousted  him  of  possession  of  three-fourths  the  improved  value  of  the  land,  less  the  value 
of  this  land  in  its  uncultivated  state.  There  are  provisions,  as  in  the  case  of  lands 
obtained  direct  from  the  Crown,  forgiving  to  the  proprietor  the  value  of  the  land  in  an 
uncultivated  state,  if  he  decline  to  re-enter,  and  also,  against  any  fraud  on  the  part  of 
the  proprietor,  if  he  conceal  his  claim  to  the  land,  knowing  that  it  is  being  brought 
under  cultivation  at  the  expense  of  another  party.  There  are,  also,  clauses  which 
provide  for  keeping  up  the  boundaries  of  estates,  and  for  an  inspection  by  the  Surveyor- 
General,  to  ascertain  their  sufficiency,  and  for  settling  disputes  and  questions  of  value 
by  arbitration,  for  the  exemption  from  the  operation  of  the  Act  of  Minors  and  Luna- 
tics, and  for  imposing  penalties  for  removing  land  marks. 


XVII. 

NEWSPAPER  PRESS. 


The  newspaper  press  in  Ceylon  consists  of  three  journals  issued  bi- 
weekly— the  Observer,  Examiner,  and  Times,  all  published  at  Colombo  ; 
the  Government  Gazette,  at  ditto ;  and  the  Morning  Star,  a  bi-monthly 
publication,  in  Tamul  and  English,  published  at  Jaffna,  and  designed 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Tamul  people.  The  subscription  price  to  the 
last-named  publication  is  Is.,  and  the  circulation  averages  700  on  the 
island  and  continent.  Of  the  three  Colombo  papers,  the  Observer  is 
the  most  liberal  or  illiberal,  it  is  hard  to  say  which.  The  Examiner  is 
more  moderate  in  its  tone,  and  the  Times  cultivates  the  good  opinion  of 
the  powers  that  be.  Unfortunately,  the  pent-up  passions  of  journalism 
here  too  seldom  finding  vent  in  forcible  argument  or  legitimate  discus- 
sion, degenerate  into  a  rabid  animosity  or  bootless  contention  ;  and  the 
fourth  estate,  divesting  itself  alike  of  dignity  and  usefulness,  has  ceased 
to  influence  public  opinion  in  the  colony,  or  to  re-act  favourably  upon 
the  friends  of  the  colony  at  home.  This  is  all  the  more  to  be  deplored, 
as  it  has  tended  to  retard  the  concession  of  free  institutions,  has  operated 
in  many  respects  most  perniciously  upon  the  native  mind,  by  exhibit- 
ing to  its  view  a  debased  standard  of  thought  and  feeling,  and  has 
abstracted  public  attention  from  the  true  interests  of  the  colony  to 
pointless  personalities  or  unseemly  partizanship.  And  yet  in  the  face 
of  these  evils,  evils  that  cannot  be  too  deeply  reprobated,  there  is  a 
large  degree  of  latent  talent  and  energy  that,  directed  into  a  proper 
channel,  would  bid  fair  to  place  the  press  of  Ceylon  high  in  the  list  of 
what  I  may  call  the  lay  mission  of  civilization.      For  example  :  the 


APPENDIX.  837 

editor  or  editors  of  the  Observer  have  the  clearest  and  soundest  notions 
of  political  economy ;  they  have  undertaken  the  thankless  task  of 
probing-  the  causes  that  have  led  to  the  present  temporary  depreciation 
in  coffee  estates,  and  that  with  a  courage  that  cannot  be  too  highly 
praised,  but  so  warped  does  the  mind  become  in  the  unbridled  conflict 
of  party,  that  the  same  mind  that  you  would  gladly  see  preside  in 
economical,  you  would  be  tempted  to  pull  from  its  chair  in  political 
discussion. 


XVIII. 

TAXES.— DUTIES.— FEES. 

Land  Revenue.1 — Tax  on  Paddy.]  The  receipts  classed  under  this  head  are  derived 
from  the  tax  of  one-half,  one-third,  one-fourth,  one-fifth,  one-tenth,  or  one-fourteenth 
of  the  produce.  In  the  Central  province,  this  tax,  till  1826,  had  been  exclusively 
levied  by  an  annual  assessment  of  the  crop  of  each  harvest,  and  had  been  chiefly 
collected  in  kind.  In  the  districts  adjacent  to  the  crown  of  Kandy,  the  annual 
assessment  was  then  commuted,  with  the  consent  of  the  proprietors,  for  the  annual 
payment  of  a  given  quantity  of  grain  ;  which  arrangement  continued  in  force 
till  the  end  of  1830,  when  that  system  was  further  improved  by  giving  the  pro- 
prietors the  option  of  that  commuted  fixed  assessment,  either  at  a  fixed  rate  in 
money,  or  in  kind.  The  term  of  the  first  settlement  having  expired  with  the 
year  1832,  the  proprietors  had  the  option  of  either  renewing  the  settlement  on 
the  same  conditions  for  another  term  of  three  years,  or  of  reverting  to  the  former 
system  of  annual  assessment.  The  renewal  of  the  commutation  assessment  was  ac- 
cepted throughout  the  former  commuted  districts.  As  the  end  of  1833  the  renewed 
commutation  also  expired,  and  a  notice  was  issued  that  the  assessment  might  either  be 
renewed  for  twenty-one  years,  or  that  the  tax  might  be  redeemed  in  perpetuity  by  pay- 
ing ten  years'  purchase  of  the  commuted  annual  tax.  The  permission  to  redeem  has 
been  availed  of  by  the  proprietors  to  some  extent,  but  such  of  them  as  are  not  pre- 
pared to  redeem,  have  accepted  the  commutation  assessments  for  periods  varying 
from  five  to  twenty-one  years.  In  the  Colombo  district  the  commuted  paddy  tax, 
was  rented  experimentally  in  the  beginning  of  1841  in  six  or  eight  villages  only,  and  the 
system  was  subsequently  authorized  to  he  extended.  The  commutation  system  prevails 
in  all  the  other  provinces,  except  the  Matura,  Tangalle  and  Ilambantotte  divisions  of 
the  Southern  province,  in  which  it  has  not  yet  been  introduced. 

I  By  a  singular  anomaly,  the  land  in   Ceylon  having  the  greatest  claim  to  exemption  from 
taxation  is  most  heavily  taxed  :  I  refer  to  the  paddy  lands  ;  all  lands  producing  coffee,  pepper, 
&c.  being  exempt.     The  prevailing  system  of  collection  is  such,  also,  as  to  aggravate  the  evil  in 
every  possible  way.     When  the  crop  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  enable  an  estimate  to  be  formed 
of  its    probable  produce,  the   Government  assessors   proceed  to  calculate  its  value,  with  direct 
reference  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  period  of  the  harvest,  and  the  appearance  of  the  grain, 
and  a  return  is  made  to   the  Agent  of  the   Province  of  the  amount  liable  upon  every   field, 
according  to  the  nature  of  its   tenure.    The   farm    of  the  tax  of  each   district  is  then  sold  by 
public  auction  for   ready  money   to  the   highest  bidder,  who  is  empowered  to  collect  it  under 
certain  conditions  and  restrictions,  set  out  in  his  contract.     As  the  harvest  approaches  maturity 
the  cultivator  is  obliged  to  give  five  days'  notice  to  the  renter  of  his  intention  to  cut,  two  days* 
notice  if  he  finds  it  necessary  to  po.-tponc,   and,  if  the  crop  be  not  threshed  immediately  on 
being  severed,  the  renter  is  entitled  to  a  further  notice  of  the  day  fixed  for  that  purpose;  and 
for  any  omission  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor  the  renter  has  a  stringent  remedy  by  suing   for 
a  penalty   in  the    District  Court.    The  same  process  pursued  for  the  collection  of  this  tax  is 
equally  resorted  to   for  the  realization   of   the   tax  upon    dry   grain  in  the   uplands  and  hills, 
differing  only  in  the  proportion  which  is  claimed  by  the  Government.     The  discouragement  to 
the  extension  of  agriculture,  inseparable  from  a  system  so  vexatious  and  oppressive,  is  shewn 
by  a  return  of  the  produce  of  the  taxes  for  the  last  ten  years,  during  which,  while  every  other 
description  of  cultivation  has  been   rapidly  advancing,  this  has  been  all  but  stationary.      The 
immediate  abolition  of  this  tax  is  therefore  recommended  by  Sir  E.  Tennant,  and  the  substitution 
in  its  stead  of  an  acreable  land  tax,  to   be  collected  by   Government  officers  from  all  lands,  as 
likely  to  compel  land  jobbers  to  cultivate  or  else  dispose  of  their  estates,  to  put  an  end  to  I  he 
present  unwise  exemption  of  the  headmen  from  the  paddy  tax,  to  include  in   some  degree  the 
tenants  of  the  temples,  and  modify  their  at  present  degraded  condition  and  servile  tenure,  and 
to  levy  a  moderate  assessment  on  cofiee  and  cinnamon  plantations,  when   the    duties  on  those 
exports  shall  have  been  withdrawn. 


838  APPENDIX. 

Tux  on  fine  Grain."]  By  the  proclamation  of  1803,  and  ordinance  of  1840,  a  tax  of 
one-tenth  is  imposed  on  the  produce  of  all  high  lands,  i.  e.  lands  not  producing  paddy. 

Tax  on  Gardens.]  This  revenue  is  derived  from  the  produce  of  Government  gardens, 
either  rented,  or  collected  in  auraany. 

Tithes  redeemed.]  A  measure  adopted  by  Government  in  1813,  under  the  convic- 
tion that  the  proprietors  of  paddy  lands  would  cultivate  them  more  carefully  and  with 
greater  advantage  to  the  public,  if  subjected  to  one-tenth  only  instead  of  half  and 
quarter.  The  redemption  is  effected  by  the  owner  paying  the  estimated  value  of  the 
difference  of  tax  for  eight  or  ten  years  at  one  payment.  Under  instructions  from  the 
Home  Government,  preparations  are  in  progress  for  the  general  redemption  of  the 
land-tax  upon  the  same  principle,  and  it  is  already  in  progress  in  the  Central  province. 

Land  Customs.]  Taxes  levied  at  ferries,  bridges,  canals,  and  the  lock  and  cart  tolls 
established  from  time  to  time  under  the  authority  of  Government,  according  to  the 
ancient  Dutch  laws.     Sea  Customs. — See  Tariff. 

Cinnamon.]  The  proceeds  of  cinnamon,  the  collection  of  the  plantations  retained 
by  Government.  All  the  cinnamon  gardens  have  been  sold  off  except  a  portion  of  the 
Marandhan  near  Colombo,  which  is  reserved  for  gradual  sale  in  building  lots.  By  the 
Ordinance  of  1 842,  the  duty  was  reduced  to  one  shilling  per  pound,  and  now  stands  at 
fourpence.  Two  hundred  bales  of  cinnamon  were  put  up  at  every  monthly  sale,  and  sold 
without  reserve  to  the  highest  bidder  ;   but  this  will  from  henceforth  be  discontinued. 

Licences.]  Arrack  and  Toddy.  Tax  on  the  consumption  of  these  articles,  or  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  retailing,  generally  farmed  in  the  several  provinces.  To  cut 
timber,  issued  chiefly  in  the  eastern  districts. 

Stills.]  The  duty  on  liquors  distilled  is  two  shillings  a  gallon. 

Weights  and  Measures.]  These  are  supplied  by  the  Commissariat,  and  sold  at  the 
several  cutcherries  to  individuals  requiring  them. 

Chanks.]   A  duty  of  one- tenth  of  the  value  of  chanks  dug  on  public  lands. 

Salt.]  The  retail  trade  from  the  Kaymel  river  in  the  Western  province  to  the  Ma- 
tnra  district  in  the  Southern  province,  has  been  recently  thrown  open.  The  importa- 
tion of  salt,  except  by  license  under  the  authority  of  the  Governor,  is  prohibited  by 
the  Ordinance  of  1840. 

Stamps  and  Judicial  Receipts.]  Amount  of  stamps  sold  at  the  several  cutcherries, 
and  by  the  Commissioner  of  Stamps.  Amount  of  stumps  sold  injudicial  process,  and 
paid  into  the  cutcherries  by  the  several  District  Judges  throughout  the  island. 

Fines  and  Forfeitures.]  Fines  levied  and  sums  obtained  for  articles  confiscated  and 
sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  Crown  by  the  Supreme  Court  and  District  Judges. 

Pearl  Fishery]  Can  only  be  considered  a  casual  revenue.  The  banks  are  protected, 
and  the  possession  of  certain  nets  and  instruments  within  certain  limits,  which  might 
otherwise  be  used  to  the  detriment  of  the  pearl  banks,  prohibited. 

Lands  and  Houses.]  Under  this  head  are  receipts  from  the  monthly  rent  of  Govern- 
ment houses  and  lands  occupied  by  individuals,  the  proceeds  from  sales  of  Government 
houses,  gardens,  waste  grounds,  &c,  and  the  collections  made  at  the  several  Govern- 
ment rest-houses  in  the  island  from  travellers  occupying  the  same. 

Assessment  of  Houses.]  This  tax  is  levied  from  occupants  of  houses  at  Colombo  and 
Galle.  The  Ordinance  of  1843  repeals  the.  enactments  formerly  in  force,  and  fixes 
the  tax  payable  on  all  houses  at  ten  per  cent,  on  the  annual  value  thereof,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  providing  a  fund  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  a  police  force  within  the 
towns  and  limits  therein  specified.  The  actual  amount  now  directed  to  be  levied  is 
seven-and  a-half  per  cent.  The  sum  received  in  1845  was  £4008,  expended  £5116; 
and  for  many  years  the  expenditure  has  exceeded  the  receipts. 

Government  Gazettes,  $c]  Receipts  accruing  from  the  sale  of,  and  advertisements 
inserted  in  the  Government  Gazette,  also  from  the  sale  of  the  Ceylon  Almanac,  Ordi- 
nances, &c. 

XIX. 

CURRENCY,  &.c. 

The  coin  in  circulation  in  Ceylon  under  the  Dutch  Government  (for  no 
vestige  remains  of  any  Portuguese  currency),  was,  besides  the  various 


APPENDIX.  839 

monies  current  in  Holland,  a  colonial  copper  coin  in  stivers,  now  called 
pices.     The  value  of  the  latter  was  arbitrary,    eighty   of  them  being 
made  equal  to  a  silver  ducatoon,  and  received  at  that  rate  at  the  Trea- 
sury. This  stiver,  differed  from  the  Dutch  coin  of  the  same  name,  sixty- 
six  of  which  were  equal  to  the  ducatoon.  The  remittances  of  the  Dutch 
settlers,  or  public  servants  to   Holland  and  Batavia,  were  effected  in 
Government  bills,  from  which  the  Government  derived  a  fixed  profit 
of  eleven  per  cent.,  or  by  the  bills  of  public  servants,  w7ho  were  entitled 
to  receive  their  fixed  pay  in  Holland  ;  and  to  the  continent  of  India  in 
specie  in  return  for  cloth,  &e.  which  specie  being  Indian,  was  coined  at 
Tutacorin.     In  consequence  of  the  deficiency  of  the  colonial  revenue,  as 
compared  with  the  expenditure,  and  the  increased  military  force  ren- 
dered necessary  for  the  defence  of  the  colony  by  the  American  war,  a 
forced  paper  currency,  called  credit  brieven,  was  introduced  at  Ceylon 
in  the  year  178-3,  by  Governor  Van  der  Graff,  pay  able  on  presentation  in 
Ceylon  copper  coin,  at  the  rate  o.f  forty-eight  stivers  for  each  rix-dollar. 
While  all  public  payments  were  thenceforward  made  in  paper  money, 
gold  and  silver  coins  were  for  the  first  time  sold  by  his  order  at  public 
auction,  and  at  a  considerable  profit,  which  occasioned  the  first  step  in 
the  depreciation  of  the  Ceylon  currency  ;  the  copper  coin  becoming- 
thin,  the  standard,  regulated  the  value  of  the  whole  currency,  instead  of 
the  ducatoon,  as  was  formerly  the  case.     Though  great  profits  fell  to  the 
otherwise  scantily  paid  servants  of  the  Company  from  this  source,  yet 
the  disarrangement  of  every  branch   of  industry  caused  thereby,  and 
the  factitious  enhancement  of  prices,  ill  repaid  the  Government  for  the 
temporary  relief.     The  changes  effected  in  the  currency  after  the  island 
fell  under  the  Government  of  the  English  East  India  Company  only 
tended  to  aggravate  the  evil ;  one  of  the  first  of  these  was  the  issue  of 
a  new  copper  coin  of  the  same  weight  and  quality  as  the  Dutch.     But 
the  revenue  being  inadequate  to  the  expenditure,  it  became  necessary 
to  drawr  on  Madras  for  star-pagodas  or  bills  to  make  up  the   deficiency, 
and  again  to  depreciate  the  copper  currency  of  Ceylon  to  equalise  it  with 
the  former.     The  silver  ducatoon  had  already  risen  fifty  per  cent,  in 
value,  and  as  we  shall  shortly  see  continued  to  rise.    The  civil  servants, 
whose  pay  was  at  first  fixed  in  pagodas,  were  apparently  g-ainers  by  this 
state  of  things,  but  the  value  of  commodities  soon  accommodated  itself 
to  the  new  value  of  the  rix-dollar,  fanam  and  stiver,  and  the  Dutch 
inhabitants  were  in  consequence  seriously  distressed.    The  natives  being 
very  unwilling"  to  accept  the  star-pag"oda  at  the  rate  fixed,  the  Govern- 
ment was  compelled  to  pay  their  servants  in  bills,  which  were  at  times 
difficult  of  negotiation  at  the  current  relative  value  of  money.     In  1800 
the  currency,  though  still   greatly  depreciated,  became   more  fixed, 
meanwhile  the  credit  brieven  had,  by  the  Dutch  capitulation,  been  trans- 
ferred into  a  funded  debt  at  no  great  sacrifice  to  the  holders,  and  was 
withdrawn  from   circulation.     An   alteration   was  again  effected  on  the 
transference  of  the  colony  to  the  Crown,  by  the  issue  of  silver  rix- 
dullars  somewhat  diluted,  and  paper    rix-dollars    equal  to  forty-eight 
stivers,  and    the    exchange  with  the    three  Presidencies,  which  was 
slightly  altered,  was  maintained  at  the  same  rate  with  England. 

The  exchange  had  been  kept  up  by  Government  at  a  fixed  rate  till 
1805,  and  the  colony  had  been  well  supplied  with  bills  owing  to  the 
Kandian  war,  &c,  which  obliged  the  local  Government  to  draw  largely 
upon  the  British  Treasury  ;  but  in  that  year,  it  being  found  that  a  pre- 
mium was  paid  for  private  bills  by  the  merchants,  Government  bills  on 
the  Presidencies  of  India  were  sold  at  public  auction  to  the  highest 
bidders. 


840  APPENDIX. 

By  the  issue  of  silver  rix-dollars,  a  new  copper,  and  paper  currency 
m  Treasury  notes  from  1802,  the  currency  was  again  deteriorated  ;  the 
first  indeed  was  diluted,  the  second  was  lighter  than  before  ;  but  as  bills 
on  England  were  granted  by  the  local  Government  for  rix-dollars  at  their 
nominal  not  their  real  value,  and  bills  on  Madras  at  four  rix-dollars  the 
star-pagoda,  it  was  not  for  some  time  felt,  as  no  Ceylon  coin  was  mean- 
while exported.  On  becoming  a  Crown  colony,  the  pay  of  the  civil 
servants  was  altered  from  star-pagodas  into  rix-dollars,  four  of  which 
were  equal  to  one  pagoda.  They  were  now  liable  to  suffer  by  all  the 
changes  in  the  currency,  but  for  some  time  this  was  averted  hy  Govern- 
ment receiving  them  back  in  exchange  for  foreign  coins  or  bills  at  the 
same  rate  at  which  they  were  issued.  When,  however,  this  rule  was 
broken,  the  whole  currency  of  the  island  fell  down  to  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  pure  silver  or  copper  in  the  coin. 

A  new  coinage  of  silver  rix-dollars  was  issued  in  1808,  with  ten  per 
cent,  alloy  more  than  in  the  former  coinage,  with  a  view  to  prevent  its 
exportation,  by  which  the  value  of  the  currency,  chiefly  consisting  of 
paper  money,  was  further  deplorably  depressed,  and  bills  were  no  longer 
granted  to  public  servants.    An  extreme  and  alarming  depression  of  the 
exchange  took  place  in  1812-13,  in  consequence  of  the  total  exportation 
from  the  island  of  all  the  silver  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  copper  coin 
during  a  scarcity  of  food.     The  star-pagoda  then  rose  to  seventy-five 
and  eighty  fanams,  instead  of  forty-eight,  as  in  1802,  and  no  good  bills 
could  be  obtained  on  England  at  other  than  ruinous  rates.     A  new  rate 
of  pay  was  therefore  established  for  the  public  servants  in  consequence 
of  the  fall  of  the  exchange,  which  had  taken  place  previous  to  1811. 
Every  measure  adopted  after  the  disturbance  of  the  currency  by  Van 
derGraif  will  be  seen  to  have  increased  the  evil,  and  in  1813  the  depre- 
ciation of  the     Ceylon    stiver  from    its  original    value  was  210   per 
cent.     No  slight  auxiliary  of  the  calamities  thus  entailed  on  the  colony 
was  the  unfavourable  balance  of  trade ;   this,  though  greatly  diminished, 
still  continues  to  a  large  extent,  but  the  evil  is  now  modified  by  cir- 
cumstances not  then  in  operation.1     Though  the  importation  of  rupees 
within  the  last  few  years  has  been  large,  the  greater  part  is  almost 
immediately  re-exported,  or  hoarded  and  carried  back  by  the  coolies, 
who,  with  the  rice  importers,   refuse  to  receive  payment  in  any  other 
form.     The  rupee  in  Ceylon  should  not  therefore  exceed  in  legal  value 
the  same  coin  on  the  continent.     The  injunction   of  the  Home  to  the 
Colonial  Government,  to  give  currency  to  it  only  at  its  sterling  value  of 
Is.  lO^d.  was  disregarded,  and  it  was  fixed  at  2s.  in  order  to  retain  it  in 
the  colony,  and  avoid  the  expense  which  the  Government  would  have 
had  to   incur  by  being  compelled  to  import  a  large  quantity.     Though 
still  disapproving  of  the  policy  of  this  measure,  yet  in  consideration  of 
the  interests  which  had  grown  up  in  the  meantime,  and  to  avoid  the  in- 
convenience of  repeated  changes  in  the  currency,  the  Home  Government 
has  allowed  that  valuation  to  continue.     Although  the  English  currency 
is  that  in  which  accounts  are  calculated  in  Ceylon,  the  currency  actually 
jn   circulation    consists     in    great  measure  of  rupees ;  it  is  therefore 
recommended  by  the  Committee  on  the  Finance  and  Commerce  of  the 
jsland,  that  Indian  should  be  substituted  for  British  currency. 

1  Since  the  above  was  written,  I  learn  that  a  premium  of  nearly  12  per  cent,  is 
now  paid  for  good  bills  on  England.  To  a  few  this  system  is  no  slight  profit,  to 
the  many  I  know  it  to  be  intolerable.  The  evil  cannot  be  wholly  obviated,  while 
the  balance  of  trade  remains  in  its  present  disproportion,  but  I  have  yet  to  learn 
that  it  could  not  be  modified  by  a  combined  interposition  of  Government  and 
ether  classes. 


APPENDIX.  841 

The  amount  of  paper  currency  now  in.  circulation  is  44,031  notes  of 
£1  each  ;  20,932  of  £2  ;  106  of  £5  ;  50  of  £50  ;  3  of  £25,  and  5  of  £20, 
giving-  a  total  £87,400.  The  value  of  the  paper  is  nearly  the  same  as 
the  precious  metals  it  represents,  but  as  the  amount  of  the  paper  in  cir- 
culation is  limited  to  a  sum  which  is  now  unequal  to  the  public  demand, 
Government  paper  money  is  occasionally  at  a  small  premium. 


XX. 

MILITARY   EXPENDITURE. 


Although  the  present  charge  incurred  by  the  colony  for  its  military 
establishments  is  capable  of  being  reduced  by  the  consolidation  of  the 
two  Queen's  regiments  of  six  companies  each,  now  in  Ceylon,  into 
one  regiment  of  ten  companies,  by  which  the  entire  staff  of  one  would 
be  saved,  yet  there  are  no  just  grounds  why  the  mother  country  should 
be  saddled  with  any  additional  burthen,  if,  indeed,  there  are  not  ample 
reasons  why  she  should  not  be  further  divested  of  that  borne  at  present. 
To  one  like  myself,  who  has  formed  a  strong  opinion  on  the  monstrous 
nature  of  the  burthen  endured  by  the  mother  country,  in  contributing 
even  half  of  the  amount  required  for  the  defence  of  her  colonies,  seeing 
the  relative  circumstances  of  the  people  of  either,  the  observation  of  Sir 
E.  Tennant,  that  the  colony  has  actually  paid  a  few  thousands  more 
during  the  last  eight  years  towards  her  military  defence  than  Great 
Britain,  is  calculated  to  excite  a  smile.  The  argument  based  on  the 
principle,  that  Ceylon  is  hardly  served  in  comparison  with  other 
colonies,  may  be  fitting  enough  when  brought  within  that  vicious 
circle  of  argumentation,  from  which  our  colonial  policy  is  only  now 
beginning  to  extricate  itself,  but  it  must  at  once  be  scouted  by  all  pre- 
pared to  argue  on  high  and  elevated  principles  of  policy.  The  line 
must  somewhere  be  broken,  and  Ceylon,  with  her  inexhaustible,  though 
at  present  hidden  wealth,  is  quite  competent  to  set  an  example.  I  will 
yield  to  none  in  the  ardency  of  my  attachment  to  my  fatherland  ;  I  am 
equally  eager  to  uphold  the  rights  of  its  colonies ;  but  I  maintain  that  it 
is  in  the  interest  of  neither,  that  the  one  should  endure  a  burthen,  which 
in  the  aggregate  is  beyond  her  strength,  and  that  the  latter,  to  whom 
individually  it  is  after  all  a  paltry  consideration,  should,  for  the  wretched 
and  meanly  wrung  boon,  be  prepared  to  retain  the  contemptuous  indif- 
ference of  the  majority  of  their  countrymen. 

The  most  ordinary  capacity  may  venture  to  take  the  highest  ground 
on  this  question  against  all  comers.  I  have  ventured  to  sound  the 
depths  of  that  indifference.  To  me  it  was  long  incomprehensible;  1  had 
searched  history  in  vain  for  a  parallel.  The  expression  of  that  indif- 
ference is  embodied  in  as  great  a  variety  of  popular  forms,  as  the  in- 
difference itself  is  entertained  by  a  variety  of  classes.  The  tradesman 
tells  you  "  he  does  not  care  twopence  for  those  colonies ;"  the  capitalist, 
that  he  will  not  there  risk  his  wealth,  for  they  do  not  pay  their  way  ; 
the  philosopher  sighs  over  the  abortion  of  the  first  of  the  nations.  Even 
the  statesman,  inured  as  he  is  to  a  formula  of  expression  different  to  that 
of  the  world  in  (general,  shudders  as  he  lends  his  countenance  to  the 
unnatural  system.  Each,  in  their  several  gradations,  finds  that  the  pro- 
position stamped  in  the  clearest  characters  on  the  face  of  nature,  "  her 
colonies  were  made  for  England,"  has  by  a  monstrous  process  of  reason- 
ing been  converted  into,  "  England  was  made  for  her  colonies  "  and  the 


812 


APPENDIX. 


indignation  naturally  arising  at  such  a  violation  of  the  first  elements 
of  economy,  though  it  may  periodically  gall  and  chafe,  as  some  supple- 
mentary estimate  is  required  to  be  thrown  into  that  whirlpool — an  ab- 
sorbent not  improvised  be  it  observed,  but  deliberately  constituted — has 
finally  sunk  to  a  huge  platitude  of  indifference,  and  a  contempt  for  the 
object  that,  under  other  circumstances,  it  would  have  been  their  highest 
pride  to  cherish.  I  rejoice,  therefore,  that  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury 
have  refused  to  countenance  the  attempts  repeatedly  made  to  fasten 
£24,000  a-year  on  the  Queen's  Chest,  and  I  trust  that  they  will  continue 
to  withhold  their  sanction  from  any  measure  of  so  pernicious  a  tendency. 
The  dislike  of  the  people  of  Ceylon  to  the  payment  of  this  specific  sum, 
is  grounded  partly  on  their  ignorance  of  the  colonial  accounts,  which 
are  not  there  made  public,  and  partly  on  the  knowledge  that  it  was 
imposed  by  Lord  Glenelg  in  1838,  in  consequence  of  the  large  additions 
temporarily  made  to  the  revenue  from  the  pearl  fishery  and  the  cinnamon 
duty,  elements  of  revenue  now  comparatively  unproductive. 

If,  however,  they  can  suggest  any  means  other  than  those  already 
adduced,  consistent  with  the  safety  of  their  own  persons  and  property, 
by  which  a  reduction  in  this  item  may  be  effected,  they  will  receive 
their  share  of  the  benefit  thence  accruing,  and  none  will  rejoice  more 
than  myself  that  a  further  balance  is  at  liberty  to  be  applied  to  purposes 
of  public  improvement. 

Statement  of  the  Military  Charges  defrayed  in  Ceylon  by  the  Queen's 
Chest  and  the  Colonial  Funds  from  1838  to  1845  inclusive. 


Years. 

By 

Queen's  Chest. 

By  Colony. 

Total. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

1838 

83,099 

69,881 

153,580 

1839 

84,244 

72,635 

156,880 

1840 

61,423 

70,795 

132,213 

1841 

55,938 

68,539 

124,478 

1842 

57,451 

67,561 

125,013 

1843 

54,818 

64,993 

119,812 

1844 

55,376 

65,362 

120,739 

1845 

50,658 

75,899 

126,557 

Total 

£503,610 

555,669 

1 

1,059,280 

The  above  colonial  payment  includes  the  cost  of  provisions,  forage, 
fuel  and  light,  or  money  allowances  in  lieu  tbereof,  the  pay  of  general 
staff  officers  and  the  colonial  allowances  to  officers  on  duty  in  general, 
and  a  part  of  the  pay  of  the  troops.  Thus,  to  a  Colonel,  £45.  9*.  per 
month ;  Lieutenant-colonel,  £32.2*.;  Major,  £23. 19s.; Captain, £13. 16*. ; 
Lieutenant,  £8.5*. ;  Second  ditto  or  Ensign,  £6. 6s. ;  Paymaster,  £13.165. ; 
Surgeon,  £17.  10*. ;  Assistant  ditto,  £12.  10*. ;  Adjutant,  £10.  4*. ; 
Quarter-Master,  £10.  4*.  An  additional  allowance  is  also  made  to 
officers  in  command  of  corps;  also  to  officers  in  command  of  garrisons, 
except  Colombo,  Trincomalee,  Kandy  and  Galle. 


APPENDIX. 


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APPENDIX. 


XXII. 

TARIFF. 


IMPORTS. 

Books  (printed), maps, bullion, 
coin,  pearls,  precious  stones, 
coal,  coke,  copperah,  garden 
seeds  and  plants,  horses, 
mules,  asses,  neat  cattle,  and 
other  live  stock,  iron  tanks, 
casks,  staves,  headings,  and 
hoops,  ice,  types,  instru- 
ments, musical  and  scientific, 
machinery,  implements,  and 
tools  for  agriculture  and 
any  kind  of  manufacture, 
regimental  clothing  and  ac- 
coutrements, specimens  il- 
lustrative of  natural  history, 
timber,  wearing  apparel  and 
personal  baggage     . 

Ale,  porter,  and  all  other  malt 
liquors  in  casks,  per  imp.  gall. 

Ditto  in  bottles,  per  doz.  quarts 

Gunpowder,  per  lb. 

Opium,  per  lb. 

Paddy,  per  bushel 

Rice,1  per  bushel 

Spirits  and  liqueurs,  per  imp. 
gall.  .... 

Tea,  per  lb.  . 

Wheat,  grain,  peas  and  beans, 
per  bushel 

Wine  in  bottles,  per  imp.  gall. 

Ditto,  not  in  bottles,    do. 

Ditto ,  the  produce  of  any  British 
possession,  per  imp.  gallon 

Goods,  wares,  and  merchandise, 


£.  s.  d. 


£.  s.  d. 


Free. 


0  0  2\ 


(J 

3 

0 

1 

0 
3 

7 

0 

I 

6 
6 

(t 

0 

7 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0  0  6 


not  otherwise  charged  with 
duty,  being  the  growth,  pro- 
duce, or  manufacture  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  or  of  any 
of  her  Majesty's  possessions 
abroad,  for  every  £100.  of 
the  value  thereof  in  this 
market       .  .  .  .500 

Ditto,  being  the  growth,  pro- 
duce, or  manufacture,  of  any 
foreign  state,  for  every  ,£100. 
value  thereof  in  this  market     10  0  0 

EXPORTS. 

Books  (printed),  bullion,  coin, 
pearls  and  precious  stones, 
horses,  mules,  asses,  neat 
cattle,  and  other  live  stock, 
instruments  (musical),  iron 
tanks,  casks,  staves, headings 
and  hoops,  plants  and  seeds, 
specimens  illustrative  of 
natural  history,  wearing  ap- 
parel and  personal  baggage       Free. 

Cinnamon,  per  lb.  .         .004 

Ditto  oil,  per  oz.    .  .  .       0  0  4 

Goods,  wares,  and  merchandise, 
of  the  growth,  produce,  or 
manufacture  of  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  not  being  subject  to 
other  export  duty,  nor  par- 
ticularly exempted  from  ex- 
port duty, for  every  £100.  of 
the  value  thereof         .         .     2  10  0 


1  This  tax  is  thus  referred  to  by  Sir  E.  Tennant  in  his  able  report  : — "  This  impost  is  really 
levied  in  a  twofold  shape— as  a  land  tax  within  the  colony,  and  import  duty  from  without. 
In  proportion  to  the  first  cost  of  the  article  in  India,  it  ranges  from  50  per  cent,  on  the  lowest 
descriptions  to  25  per  cent,  on  the  highest  qualities  of  rice.  It  was  formerly  regarded  with 
favour  as  a  protection  to  the  home  grow  er,  but  it.  now  presses  with  equal  weight  on  the  cultivator 
and  casual  consumer.  As  an  encouragement  to  native  cultivation  it  has  proved  abortive;  the 
disproportion  between  the  demand  and  the  home  supply  being  greater  now  than  ever  since  our 
arrival  in  Ceylon,  and  a  large  part  of  the  agricultural  population,  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
interior,  are  compelled,  not  only  on  the  failure  of  their  own  crops  from  drought  or  inundation, 
but  habitually  to  subsist  on  the  imported  rice,  with  all  its  charges  for  duty,  freight,  and  carriage, 
which  raise  it  more  than  cent,  per  cent,  above  the  cost  of  that  produced  at  home.  Owing  to  the 
sheer  dependency  of  the  natives  upon  the  supply  of  rice,  the  failure  in  the  crops,  or  a  sudden 
advance  in  the  cost  of  rice  above  the  amount  of  their  wages,  is  productive  of  the  most  disastrous 
consequences,  and  such  as  cannot  be  estimated  by  an  European  example  of  the  effects  of  scarcity. 
There  the  labourers' wages  are  necessarily  spent  on  other  articles  besides  food — -on  rent,  clothing, 
furniture,  and  fuel,  in  any  one  of  which  he  can  retrench  if  the  cost  of  the  other  is  increased; 
but  here,  where  the  whole  of  the  labourer's  gains  are  converted  into  the  precise  quantity  of  food 
which  will  supply  the  wants  of  himself  and  family,  every  advance  on  its  value  over  his  means 
is  productive  of  instant  distress,  and,  if  aggravated  to  an  extreme,  is  sure  to  be  followed  by 
disease  and  extensive  mortality  ;  results  which  have  only  been  averted  on  several  occasions  by 
the  precautions  of  Government."  The  present  high  rate  of  wages  would  not  seem  to  render  the 
abolition  at  once  advisable,  he  therefore  recommends  its  gradual  reduction,  to  begin  from  7rf  to 
id,  as  the  present  state  of  the  revenue  will  not  admit  of  a  bolder  experiment.  Even  this 
reduction  would  have  a  sensible  effect  upon  the  market,  by  inducing  other  parties  than  those 
at  present  enjoying  the  monopoly  to  enter  into  the  trade. 


APPENDIX. 


845 


XXIII. 

IMPORT,  EXPORT,  REVENUE,  &c. 

Analysis  of  principal  Articles  imported  into  Ceylon  during  the  year  1845. 


Name  of  Article  imported. 

Value. 

Name  of  Article  imported. 

Value. 

£. 

£. 

Apparel,  Wearing 

3,399 

Oilman  Stores 

3,268 

Arms  and  Ammunition 

4,730 

Pepper  and  Spices 

1,391 

Books 

3,799 

Provisions         .              .              . 

1,397 

Bullion 

441,156 

Saddlery  and  Harness 

6,498 

Coal  and  Coke 

13,675 

Salt  Provisions 

2,515 

Confectionery  and  Preserves 

2,630 

Seeds 

2,635 

Cotton  Goods 

234,643 

Shell,  Tortoise 

1,801 

Cotton  Thread 

3,117 

Silk  Goods 

6,947 

Curry  Stuffs     . 

5,121 

Spirits 

7,344 

Cutlery  and  Hardware 

11,868 

Stationery 

2,838 

Earthenware    . 

9,932 

Sugar,  Soft 

4,458 

Fish     . 

16,266 

Tea      . 

3,474 

Furniture 

2,251 

Tobacco  and  Cigars 

5,103 

Glass 

4,303 

Umbrellas 

2,396 

Grain,  Gram,  and  Peas 

8,368 

Wines,  French 

5,608 

Paddy 

71,076 

Madeira 

4,460 

Rice 

380,402 

3,226 

•  i  uriugai                .                 • 

Wheat    . 

6,230 

Spanish 

12,777 

Gunnies  and  Twine 

6,227 

Teneriffe 

1,485 

Haberdashery  and  Millinery 

27,859 

Wood 

6,673 

Malt  Liquor     . 

16,475 

Woollens 

2,655 

Manure 

1,410 

Minor  Articles 

29,450 

Marine  Stores 

2,387 

Value  of  Articles  producing  less 

Medicines 

3,747 

than  £100.  duty       . 

67,021 

Metal,  wrought  and  unwrought: 

Value  of  other  Articles  imported 

Brass 

6,796 

free 

2,852 

Copper     . 
Iron 

7,269 
5,627 

Plate  and  Jewellery 

2,515 

Total  Value  of  Imports     £ 

1,491,549 

Statement  of  Articles  exported,  producing  more  than  £100.  duty. 


Name  of  Article  exported. 

Value. 

Name  of  Article  exported. 

Value. 

£. 

£. 

Arack 

5,641 

Tobacco  and  Cigars 

16,826 

Areca-nuts 

31,838 

Wood 

14,298 

Cinnamon 

40,821 

Articles    producing    less    than 

Coffee 

363,259 

£100.  duty 

62,713 

Cocoa-nuts 
Coir  Rope 

6,417 
8,655 

Oil,  Cocoa-nut 

15,936 

Total 

£566,407 

84  6 


APPENDIX. 


Value 

of  Exports  from 

,  and  Imports  into 

Ceylon,  from  1825  to  1839. 

EXPORTS. 

IMPORTS. 

Years. 

Value. 

Year9. 

Value. 

Years. 

Value. 

Years. 

Value. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

1825 

224,388 

1837 

296,023 

1825 

296,301 

1837 

541,239 

1826 

262,942 

1838 

258,411 

1826 

309,747 

1838 

490,083 

1827 

318,570 

1839 

331,696 

1827 

343,309 

1839 

510,664 

1828 

245,983 

1840 

409,947 

1828 

323,933 

1840 

733,512 

1829 

324,783 

1841 

368,383 

1829 

340,200 

1841 

679,670 

1830 

274,810 

1842 

463,445 

1830 

349,581 

1842 

794,758 

1831 

152,293 

1843 

421  083 

1831 

282,987 

1843 

1,034,531 

1832 

160,110 

1844 

531,586 

1832 

351,222 

1844 

1,366,037 

1833 

132,570 

1845 

583,100 

1833 

320,891 

1845 

1,495,127 

1834 

145,833 

1846 

467,620 

1834 

372,725 

1846 

1,011,289 

1835 

199,268 

1847 

961,116 

1835 

352,077 

1847 

1,421,787 

1836 

334,519 

1836 

411,167 

I  have  returns  of  the  value  of  Exports  and  Imports  of  Ceylon  as  late  back  as 
1806,  but  as  they  would  only  affect  the  trade  of  the  maritime  provinces  up  to 
1815,  in  which  year  the  interior  came  into  our  possession,  and  inasmuch  as  the 
commercial  weight  of  the  united  territory  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  sensibly 
felt  till  1825,  I  have  thought  it  best  to  commence  with  that  year. 

Aggregate  of  Imports  into  Ceylon,  from  1839  to  1844. 


Countries  from  whence 
imported. 

1839. 

1840. 

1841. 

1842. 

1843. 

1844. 

United  Kingdom 
Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

and  Mauritius 
India,  British      .     . 
Foreign  European    . 
Native  States 
Islands  in  the  Indian 

All  other  places  . 

£. 
152,882 

2,100 

443,893 

49,013 

4,142 

2,850 
2,110 
5,133 

662,123 

£. 

127,148 

3,922 
533,944 

57,858 
4,358 

1,475 

749 

4,196 

£. 
230,002 

3,397 

438,449 
56,607 

4,872 

2,133 

657 

7,105 

£. 
199,312 

601 

562,139 

52,549 

6,463 

3,438 
1,670 
5,139 

£. 
257,508 

2,303 

700,410 

54,575 

304 

6,055 
5,843 
2,157 

£. 
242,538 

1,091 

1,052,008 
38,984 

13,519 

7,744 
4,837 

From  all  parts     .     . 

733,747 

743,222 

831.311 

1,029,515 

1,360,721 

Aggregate  of  Exports  from  Ceylon  from  1839  to  1844. 


Cou  ntries  to  w  hich  exported. 

1839. 

1840. 

1841. 

1842. 

1843. 

1841. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

United  Kingdom 

228,266 

297,580 

280,804 

344,303 

330,189 

417,098 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

and  Mauritius 

5,912 

4,882 

8,504 

8,764 

2,107 

6,091 

India  British 

130,041 

100,595 

98,544 

95,745 

85,027 

103,929 

Foreign  European    . 

3,836 

5,294 

6,169 

4,573 

3,872 

2,599 

South  Sea  Islands    . 

987 

500 

1,974 

4,003 

1,229 

2,177 

All  other  places  .     . 

6,182 

1,513 

2,198 

758 

55 

273 

Total  to  all  parts     . 

375,224 

410,363 

398,093 

458,146 

422,479 

532,167 

Specie  imported   1840,   £174,948.  ;   1841,  ,£110,796.  ;   1842,  £172,31 1. ;   1843, 
£314,386.;  1844,  £517,795  ;  1845,  £441,156.  ;  1846,  £381,842. ;  1847,  £454,972. 


APPENDIX. 


847 


Statement  of  the  Revenue  and  Expenditure  of  Ceylon,  from  1821  to  1847 

inclusive. 


Yrs. 

Revenue. 

Expendi- 
ture. 

Surplus. 

Defi- 
ciency. 

Yrs. 

Revenue- 

Expendj_ 
ture- 

Surplus. 

Defi- 
ciency. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£ 

£, 

£. 

£. 

£. 

1821 

459,fi99 

481,854 

— 

22,155 

1835 

371,995 

323,277 

48,718 

— 

1822 

473,669 

458,346 

15,323 

— 

1836 

406,787 

352,986 

53,801 

— 

1823 

355,406 

476,242 

— 

120,836 

1837 

371,994 

390,706 

— 

18,712 

1824 

387,259 

441,592 

— 

54,333 

1838 

339,437 

359,074 

— 

19,637 

1825 

355,320 

495,529 

— 

140,209 

1839 

372,013 

383,592 

— 

11,579 

182G 

278.350 

394,229 

— 

115,879 

1840 

331,200 

355,298 

— 

24,098 

1827 

264,735 

411,648 

— 

146,913 

1841 

344,465 

361,326 

16,861 

1828 

305,712 

339,516 

— 

33,804 

1842 

322,369 

327,103 

4,734 

1829 

389,534 

344,757 

44,777 

— 

1843 

383,118 

325,155 

57,963 

— 

1830 

403,475 

347,029 

56,446 

— 

1844 

444,348 

374,876 

69,442 

— 

1831 

420,170 

346,565 

73,605 

— 

1845 

454,146 

448,232 

5,914 

— 

1832 

369,437 

338,100 

31,337 

— 

1846 

416,403 

498,205 

— 

81,801 

1833 

437,555 

331,764 

105,791 

— 

1847 

437,502 

476,192 

— 

38,690 

1834 

377,952 

334,835 

43,117 

— 

Heads  of  Expenditure  for  1846— Governor  and  Civil  Establishment,  £197,090. 
Judicial  and  Police,  £53,310.  Survey  and  Roads,  £24,958.  Public  Works, 
£44,949.  Military  and  Military  Works,  £75,645.  Ecclesiastical  Establishment, 
£7,418.  Education,  £8,182.  Pensions,  £25,191.  Charities,  £3,806,  Miscel- 
laneous, £8,671.     Arrears  of  former  years,  £48,985.     Total  £498,205. 

The  Heads  of  Revenue  for  1846;  the  latest  obtainable  are  as  follows  : — Mono- 
polies, including  the  distillation  and  sale  of  arrack,  wines,  spirits,  and  the  sale  of 
salt,  £96,857.  Taxes  on  the  cultivation  of  corn,  £44,004.  Import  and  Export 
duties,  £140,279.  Regular  Revenue,  including  tolls,1  stamps,  postage,  &c. 
£60,765.     Casual  Revenue,  £55,790.     Arrears,  £18,698.     Total,  £416,403. 

The  annual  average  taxation  per  head,  in  Ceylon,  is  4*.  \Qd, 

1  No  better  proof  of  the  increasing  activity  of  the  colony  can  be  afforded  than  that  given  by 
the  license  duty  levied  on  carts  plying  for  hire  in  the  towns  of  Colombo  and  Galle,  which  in 
1830  produced  £86  ;  in  1846  £'1,4C7.  It  is  proposed  to  extend  this  system  to  other  districts  of 
the  island,  and  to  include  public  carriages  of  every  description,  as  well  as  barges  on  the 
navigable  rivers  and  canals. 


Custom  dues  paid  in  all  the  Ports  of  Ceylon  on  Exports  and  Imports. 


Years. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

1833 

64,419 

1838 

135,196 

1843 

124,932 

1834 

103,030 

1839 

116,901 

1844 

154,843 

1835 

114,394 

1840 

— 

1845* 

144,423 

1836 

141,049 

1841 

107,321 

1846 

140,379 

1837 

134,958 

1842 

91,635 

1847 

150,080 

*  Expenses  of  the  Customs'  Establishment  during  1845,  £9,256,  14s. 


848 


APPENDIX. 


Receipts  and  Expenditure  of  the  Pearl  Fishery  of  Ceylon,  for  the 
years  1799  to  1845  inclusive. 


Years. 

Receipts. 

Expendi- 
ture. 

Years. 

Receipts. 

Expendi- 
ture. 

Years. 

Receipts. 

Expendi- 
ture. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£ 

£. 

1799 

32,063 

7,188 

1824 

300 

1835 

40,346 

5,586 

1801 

15,022 

2,200 

1825 

300 

1836 

25,816 

5,826 

1803 

16,315 

1,057 

1826 

200 

1837 

10,631 

2,373 

1804 

77,020 

2,347 

1827 

200 

1838 

1,205 

1806 

41,284 

1,339 

1828 

30,523 

1,651 

1839 

160 

758 

1808 

84,257 

1,963 

1829 

38,273 

1,166 

1840 

231 

614 

1809 

27,246 

655 

1830 

22,256 

926 

1841 

1,510 

223 

1814 

105,187 

3,634 

1831 

29,336 

1,204 

1842 

139 

1815 

584 

159 

1832 

4,581 

1,100 

1843 

2 

1816 

926 

550 

1833 

32,050 

7,559 

1844 

105 

248 

1820 

3,040 

483 

1834 

200 

1845 

195 

1823 

300 

Revenue  to  Government  from  Cinnamon, 

from  1799 

to  1845  inclusive. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

£. 

1799 

12,456 

1811 

70,321 

1823 

9,761 

1835 

81,763 

1800 

12,821 

1812 

69,086 

1829 

76,871 

1836 

126,425 

1801 

5,194 

1813 

60,003 

1825 

111,474 

1837 

119,260 

1802 

23,266 

1814 

60,033 

1826 

59,231 

1838 

79,204 

1803 

24,943 

1815 

65,509 

1827 

26,283 

1839 

106,369 

1804 

52,325 

1816 

111,033 

1828 

36,045 

1840 

60,116 

1805 

63,431 

1817 

121,540 

1829 

94,939 

1841 

43,459 

1806 

60,000 

1818 

.   130,688 

1830 

95,041 

1842 

13,949 

1807 

60,025 

1819 

84,751 

1831 

106,434 

1843 

47,396 

1828 

63,064 

1820 

109,433 

1832 

147,549 

1844 

79,417 

1809 

60,012 

1821 

139,823 

1833 

165,270 

1845 

26,889 

1810 

60,010 

1822 

155,367 

1834 

114,900 

From  1802  to  1822  inclusive,  the  monopoly  was  in  the  hands  of  the  East 
India  Company.  From  1834  to  1845  inclusive,  the  revenue  arose  from  the 
export  duty,  and  the  Cinnamon  sold  by  Government. 


Vessels  entered  inwards,  and  cleared  outwards,  to  and  from  the  ports 
of  Ceylon,  from  1837  to  1847  inclusive. 


INWARDS. 

|           OUTWARDS. 

Years. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men.    ' 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men. 

1837 

1,470 

76,368 

15,575 

1,304 

79,562 

12,181 

1838 

1,594 

96,292 

16,907 

1,692 

95,667 

16,584 

1839 

1,804 

105,838 

18,169 

1,743 

100,166 

16,326 

1840 

1,849 

103,005 

18,060 

1,871 

104,015 

18,127 

1841 

1,883 

109,606 

18,694 

1,998 

109,187 

17,916 

1842 

2,077 

130,327 

20,806 

1,975 

124,692 

19,603 

1843 

2,279 

140,853 

22,496 

2,334 

139,622 

22,511 

1844 

2,834 

165,329 

27,102 

2,763 

155,354 

25,934 

1845 

3,281 

196,364 

31,200 

3,207 

189,815 

30,000 

1846 

2,969 

211,946 

32,753 

2,966 

211,424 

.,32,912 
6  4,974 

1847 

3,111 

228,738 

35,711 

3,062 

228,998 

APPENDIX. 


849 


Coffee  cxporteclfrom  Ceylon  from  the 
year  1831  to  1847  inclusive. 


Years. 

1831  . 

1832  . 

1833  . 

1834  . 

1835  . 
183G  . 
1837* 

1838  . 

1839  . 


Quantity. 

Years. 

cwt. 

17,287 

1S40  . 

33,719 

1841  . 

18,901 

1842  . 

21,124 

1843  . 

22,071 

1844  . 

52,835 

1845  . 

43,164 

1846  . 

49,541 

1847* 

41,863 

Quantity. 

cwt. 

63,162 

80,584 

119,805 

94,847 

133,957 

178,603 

173,892 

245,000 


Cinnamon  exported  from 
Ceylon  from  the  year  1835 
to  1845  inclusive. 

Years.  Quantity. 

lbs. 

1835        ....  330,321 

1836 724,364 

1837 558,110 

1838 398,176 

1839 596,592 

1840 389,373 

1841 317,919 

1842 121,145 

1843 662,704 

1844  ....  1,057,841 

1845 405,669 


Revenue  from  Sale  of  Crown  Lands.f 
In  1833, 146  acres  of  land  were  sold  by  Government ;  in  1834,  377;  in  1835,  434. 


1836 

3,919  acres 

produced 

1837 

3,661 

3» 

1838 

10,401 

»» 

1839 

9,570 

», 

1840 

30,788 

1841 

78,685 

»  , 

184*2 

48,533 

J  J 

1843 

59,800 

)» 

1844 

20,415 

93 

1845 

19,062 

>t 

1846 

4,182 

1847 

3,545 

£4,742 

14 

(» 

5,465 

2 

0 

7,474 

14 

0 

8,239 

16 

0 

19,994 

12 

(I 

29,712 

3 

0 

25,956 

5 

0 

29,600 

18 

0 

26,534 

0 

0 

37,946 

13 

0 

A  large  and  increasing  demand  would  immediately  spring  up  for  certain  lands 
in  Ceylon  that  are  now  unsaleable,  if  the  price  were  reduced ;  at  present  it  is 
prohibitive. 


*  The  duty  in  favour  of  Ceylon  over  foreign  coffee  in  the  home  market  was,  in 
1837,  39*.  2d.  per  cwt. ;  in  1847,  it  was  18s.  8d.  per  cwt.  I  had  obtained  an 
elaborate  estimate  of  the  outlay  and  receipts  on  a  coffee  estate  of  300  acres  of 
average  fertility,  and  that  from  a  source  on  which  I  could  rely  ;  but  as  this  branch 
of  agriculture  is  now  labouring  under  a  state  of  depression  (I  hope  but  temporary), 
and  cannot  fail  to  fluctuate  considerably,  even  within  the  next  few  months,  I  have 
deemed  it  prudent  to  abstain  from  inserting  it  here,  and  will  confine  myself  to 
remarking,  that  if  any  of  my  readers  will  do  me  the  honour  to  apply  for  this,  or 
any  other  information,  I  shall  be  most  happy  to  afford  it.  The  same  desire  of 
not  consciously  misleading  the  intending  emigrant,  will  lead  me  to  forbear  from 
fixing  a  definitive  estimate  of  the  cost  of  clearing  per  acre,  as  so  great  a  variety  of 
circumstances  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration — such  as  whether  the  land  to  be 
cleared  is  jungle  or  forest  (generally  the  latter),  whether  done  by  contract  or  by 
hired  labour,  in  what  locality  performed — that  such  an  estimate  could  not  fail  to 
be  fallacious  in  its  application  to  all  contingencies.  Thus,  jungle  has  been  cleared 
by  contract  as  low  as  14$.  per  acre,  and  the  clearance  of  forest  has  frequently 
cost  as  much  as  £\4.  The  average  perhaps  would  give  about  ,£J3.  for  the  former, 
and  £8.  for  the  latter.  The  Singhalese  of  the  interior,  while  reluctant  <■>  engage 
in  regular  and  continuous  labour,  will  at  all  times  gladly  contract  for  the  clearance 
of  jungle,  it  being  alike  congenial  to  their  tastes  and  their  pride.  The  result  is, 
that  a  field  of  competition  is  thus  opened  between  them  and  the  Tamul  labourer, 
of  which  the  colonist  can  avail  himself  to  advantage. 

f  Only  one  scpiare  mile,  or  640  acres,  are  sold  at  one  time. 

3   i 


850 


APPENDIX. 

Agriculture.— Return  of  the  Produce,  Stock,  ftc. 


NAME  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

Central 
Province. 

Northern 

Province. 

Eastern 
Province. 

Southern 
Province. 

Western 
Province. 

Total. 

CROPS. 

Nature  of  the  Crop,  and  the  number  of  Acres  of  Land  in  each  Crop. 

Paddy. 

59,130 

100,992' 

32,460 

121,212 

67,931 

381,726 

Fine  Grain. 

15,238 

34,880 

1,268 

34,820 

10,446 

96,652 

Coffee. 

17,255 

4,238 

10,276 

31,760 

Pepper. 

20 

2 

6 

84 

1,189 

1,302 

Mustard. 

77 

1 

A 

3 

101 

Grain. 

352 

778 

22 

104 

1,257 

Indian  Corn. 

830 

13 

263 

8, 

150 

1,265 

Peas. 

1,088 

64 

22 

1,174 

Gingeley. 

100 

1,286 

32 

7 

1,426 

Cotton,  lbs. 

769 

667 

173 

53 

184 

1,806 

Tobacco. 

125 

6,465 

865 

44 

537 

8.037 

Pasture. 

282,961 

27,143 

84,490 

394,594 

Total  No.  of  acres 
in  each  crop. 

93,896 

429,138 

62,274 

245,000 

90,844 

921,153 

No.  of  acres  of 
uncultivated  land. 

3,439,424 

14,282 

243,454 

1,003,906 

4,701,067 

.    o 

8  Jj 
O     a 
H     5 

»    1 

Horses. 

855 

140 

45 

130 

1,403 

2,553 

Horned  Cattle. 

123,400 

155,938 

14,562 

74,925 

144,422 

513,247 

Sheep. 

500 

54,519 

248 

61 

1,750 

57,078 

Goats. 

15,115 

35,592 

1,214 

1,522 

5,593 

59,036 

PRODUCE. 

Nature  of  the  Produce,  and  the  quantity  of  each. 

Paddy,  bushels. 

2,612,900 

1,076,030 

188,562 

1,201,369 

2,129.886 

7,208,747 

Fine  Gram. 

242,500 

284,309 

16,946 

54,015 

100,088 

697,858 

Coffee. 

225,200 

8,552 

54,701 

288,453 

Pepper. 

1,075 

32 

22 

330 

18,094 

19,553 

Mustard. 

45C 

7 

83 

209 

749 

Grain. 

5,30C 

3,454 

60 

3,189 

12,003 

Indian  Corn. 

8,40C 

15 

4,138 

235 

561 

13,349 

Peas. 

5,33C 

251 

468 

6,050 

Gingeley 

6,00C 

7,644 

13E 

2C 

4,563 

18,362 

Cotton,  lbs. 

79,50( 

1     105,166 

18,26C 

12,332 

77,286 

292,548 

Tobacco,  lbs. 

200,73^ 

1,370,91£ 

.1,069,03: 

3,74£ 

6,972,04c 

.9,616,478 

APPENDIX. 


851 


Average  Prices  of  various  Produce  and  Merchandize,  $c. 


rwe 

\  Soi 


estern  Province 
Southern  do. 
•    Eastern     do. 


Wheat 
Flour. 

/  Northern  do. 


190  lbs'(.  Central 
C  Western 
Wheat,   1  Southern 
per  imp.s.  Eastern 
bushel,  j  Northern 

V  Central 
{"  Western 

Wheatenl  Southern 
Bread,  s  Eastern 
per  lb.   i  Northern 
V.  Central 
C  Western 
Horned  \  Southern 
Cattle,  \  Eastern 
each.    /  Northern 

V  Central 
Western 


Horses, 
each. 


Sheep, 
each. 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


Goats, 
each. 


Southern 

Eastern 

Northern 

Central 
{"Western 
l  Southern  do. 
n  Eastern  do. 
/  Northern  do. 
V  Central  do. 
f  Western  do. 
\  Southern  do. 
-    Eastern      do. 

Northern  do. 

Central      do. 

/'Western    do. 

o    .         «  Southern  do. 
Swine,    1  „ 

*      J  Eastern      do. 

J  Northern  do. 

\  Central      do. 

/"Western    do. 

Milk    per  1  Soutliern   do- 
bottle      \  Eastern      ^0. 

i  Northern  do.pr.gal. 
f  Central      do. 
C  Western     do 


I 


Butter; 

Fresh, 
per  lb. 


Butter, 

Salt, 

per  lb. 


Cheese, 
per  lb. 


\  Southern  do. 
<  Eastern  do. 
I  Northern  do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 


V  Central 
r  Western 
\  Southern 
J  Eastern 
J  Northern 
^  Central 
Western 
Southern 
Eastern 
Northern 
Central 


£.     s. 
1   16 


4  18     0 


3  13 
0  10 


0  10 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0     0 

0  0 
3     0 

1  8 

2  12 
2  8 
2   10 

25  0 
30  0 
40  0 
9  5 
20  0 
0  5 
0  1G 
0  7 
0  3 
0  4 
0  10 
0  7 
0  10 
0  2 
0  9 
0  12 

0  15 

1  15 

0  18 

1  17 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0     0 


0 

H 

44 

21 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


Pork, 
per  lb. 


f  Western  Province . 

t.     f      \  Southern   do. 

,.'     /Eastern 
per  lb.  \  Northem 

6  v.  Central 

0  ^Western    uu 

i  Southern  do. 

0  0      Mutton,  )         (per  leg  or  sh.) 

per  lb.  ^  Eastern     do. 

/  Northern  do. 

^  Central      do. 

C  Western    do. 

1  Southern  do. 

<  Eastern     do. 

h  Northern  do. 

V.  Central      do. 

C  Western    do. 

0.  1  Southern  do. 

ilice,  per  /  ™    t  j 

,      v  1    \  Eastern     do. 

0  Northern  do. 

V  Central  do. 
C  Western    do. 

Coffee,  \  .Southern  do. 
per  n  Eastern  do. 
bushel.   /  Northern  do.pr.lb 

V.  Central      do. 

C  Western    do. 

1  Southern  do. 

<  Eastern  do. 
i  Northern  do. 
V.  Central  do. 
^Western  do. 
1  Southern  do. 

\  Eastern  do. 
#  Northern  do. 

V  Central  do. 
C  Western  do. 
l  Southern  do. 

<  Eastern  do. 
a  Northern  do. 

V  Central      do. 

{"Western    do. 

l  Southern  do. 
IV\  me,  per  /  „     ,  , 

,     ' ,      \  Eastern      do. 

i  Northern  do.pr.gal. 

v  Central      do. 

{Western    do. 

Brandy,  *  Southern  do. 

per       \  Eastern     do. 

bottle.    I  Northern  do.pr.gal. 

^-  Central      do. 

C  Western    do. 

j.  \  Southern  do. 

1    r'tl      ^  Eastern     do. 

*    J  Northern  do.pr.gal. 

V  Central  do. 
r  Western    do. 

Tobacco,  Southern  do. 

.,     '■/  Eastern     do. 

^        '    J  Northern  do. 

V_  Central      do. 
______ 


Tea, 
per  lb. 


Sugar, 
per  lb. 


Salt, 

per 

bushel. 


0 

1 

C 

0 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

8 

0 

6 

0 

0 

2 

6 

0 

2 

G 

0 

2 

3 

0 

2 

6 

0 

2 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

2 

G 

£.  s. 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  12 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  3 


(I 

0 
0 

0       13 

0  13 

0  14 

1  10 
0  0 
0  18 
0  7 
0  8 
0  5 
0  8 
0  9 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0  0 
0     3 


0  10 
0  4 
0  2 
0  4 
0  3 
0  15 
0     4 


0  0 
0  0 
0     2 


2i 

31 
2\ 

6 


0 
41 

2 

4h 

2l 

2\ 

3f 

3 

6 

6 

8 

0 

7 

6 

0 

0 

0 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5 

7* 

G 

8 

9 

0 

7i 

8 

8 

6 

0 

3 

9 

0 

0 

6 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

32 

0 
9 
3 

(i 
] 
3 
5 

n 


852  APPENDIX. 

XXIV. 

STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  Imperial  standard  for  Colonial  weights  and  measures,  is  that  adopted  by  the 
Government  and  Europeans,  in  all  their  transactions,  hut  as  the  Dutch  and  native 
standards  of  dry  measure  are  frequently  used  by  other  classes,  they  are  here  subjoined, 
as  being  likely  to  prove  useful  to  the  capitalist  designing  to  settle  in  the  island. 

Weights  were  very  little  employed  by  the  Singhalese  except  by  gold  and  silversmiths 
and  their  medical  men.  By  the  former  the  weights  used  were  a  seed,  and  a  brass 
weight  (the  kalande)  equal  to  twenty-four  seeds.  The  seed  is  red,  hard,  and  heart- 
shaped,  the  produce  of  a  large  tree  called  by  the  natives  Madatea-gaha.  It  averaged 
about  3"6-  grains. 

The  Dutch  parah,  is  a  cube  of  1 1  5^y  inches  in  depth  and  breadth,  which  was  divided 
into  24  seers,  and  the  seer,  a  cylinder  of  depth  4-35  inches,  equal  to  its  diameter  4-35 
inches,  subdivided  into  half  and  quarter  seers.  The  internal  measure  of  a  standard 
parah,  is  a  perfect  cube,  of  1  i  Ac77jth  inches;  the  seer  is  a  perfect  cylinder,  depth,  4.35 
inches,  diameter  4.45  inches  ;  the  weight  of  the  parah  measure,  according  to  the  Cus- 
tom house  account,  is,  for  coffee,  from  35  to  50  lbs.  pepper,  2 7  to  30  lbs. ;  salt,  52  to 
55  lbs. ;  paddy,  (rice  in  the  husk)  30  to  33  lbs  ;  rice  42  to  46  lbs  ;  the  candy  or  bahar, 
500  lbs.  avoirdupois,  or  461  Dutch  troy  weight. 

Native  Dry  Measure. 

4  (cut)  chundoos,  1  (cut)  measure  or  seer, — 4  4-5  seers,  1  coorney, — 2  1-2  coor- 
nies,  1  markal, — 2  markals,  1  parah, — 8  parahs,  1  ammonam, — 9.  3"8  ammonams, 
1  last. 

The  specific  parts  of  this  measure  varied  both  in  proportion  and  name  in  the  Kan- 
dian  Provinces.  Thus  their  smallest  measure  of  quantity,  whether  dry  or  liquid 
was  the  hundua,  equal  to  a  handful ;  two  hunduas,  were  equal  to  one  nellea  ;  four 
nelleas,  to  one  punchy-laha,  and  one  and  a-half  punchy-laha,  to  one  lochoo-laha.  Ten 
lochoo-lahas,  were  equal  to  one  pala,  and  four  palas  to  one  ammonam.  These  last  were, 
however,  merely  nominal,  to  express  large  quantities.  The  lochoo-laha  was  the 
largest  dry  measure  in  actual  use,  and  the  nellea,  equal  to  eight  hunduas,  the  largest 
liquid  measure.  Both  kinds  were  used  in  measuring  grain  and  oil.  For  grain,  the 
measure  was  made  of  rattan,  for  oil  of  bamboo  :  their  measures  varied,  and  no  two 
were  to  be  found  exactly  alike. 

When  these  measures  prevailed,  standard  gauges  were  deposited  for  reference  in 
every  cutcherry,  as  a  protection  against  fraud  through  defective  weights,  a  precaution 
absolutely  requisite,  where  the  natives  would  frequently  place  the  wooden  measures  in 
boiling  water,  then  dry  them  in  the  sun,  and  complete  their  roguery  by  coating  the 
interior  surface  with  a  thick  layer  of  transparent  dammer  or  pine  resin. 

The  bale  of  cinnamon  consists  of  about  ninety-two  and  a  half  pounds. 

Liquid  measure.  Gallons  with  their  multiples  and  sub-multiples  :  150  gallons 
make  one  leaguer. 

Long  measure,  linear  or  cloth  measure,  land  measure,  are  according  to  the  imperial 
d. 

Kundian  Measure  of  Surface. 

Eight  lahas  make  1  coornie  (10  j|  square  perches);  10  coornies  make  1  peyla  (2 
square  roods,  29  -§  square  perches)  ;  4  peylas  make  1  ammonam  (2  acres.  2  square 
roods,  31\  square  inches).  The  measurement  of  land,  however,  is  not  calculated  for 
the  specific  area,  but  from  the  quantity  of  seed  required  to  J)e  sown  on  it,  and  in  some 
measure,  according  to  its  fertility,  an  ammonam  of  land  being  that  which  requires  an 
ammonam  of  seed. 


APPENDIX. 


853 


The  native  measures  of  space  were  very  singular.  In  estimating  the  distance  be- 
tween place  and  place ;  the  shortest  measure  in  common  use  was  the  whoo,  a  loud 
hollo  :  two  of  which  were  considered  equal  to  an  attakme  ;  four  of  the  latter  to  a  gow, 
and  five  gows  made  a  day's  journey,  varying  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles.  The 
banda  and  the  bandera-bamba,  which  were  occasionally  used,  were  rather  more  precise 
measures  of  distance.  The  former  was  considered  equal  to  the  space  between  the  arms 
extended,  measuring  from  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  was  about  six  feet,  and  the  latter 
about  nine  feet,  was  l he  height  to  which  a  man  could  reach  above  his  head  with  his 
hand.  Five  hundred  bandera-bamba  were  equal  to  an  attakme.  In  addition  to  the 
above,  they  had  other  measures  both  larger  and  smaller.  Their  smallest  measure  was 
the  seventh  part  of  a  vecte  (a  grain  of  paddy)  ;  seven  veetes  were  equal  to  oneangula ; 
seven  angulas  to  one  veata;  nine  veatas  to  one  doona  (about  nine  English  feet)  ;  500 
doonas  to  one  attakme  ;  four  attakmes  to  one  gow,  and  four  gows  to  one  yoodoona. 
Carpenters  and  some  other  artificers  had  measures  of  their  own.  The  carpenter  s 
angula  was  equal  to  the  space  between  the  second  and  third  joint  of  the  forefinger,  and 
his  wadduranea  was  composed  of  twenty-four  angulas,  and  divided  into  four  parts. 

Coill'i. 

Singhalese  coins  are  rare,  the  money  of  the  continent,  brought  over  by  the 
Malabars,  being  the  chief  native  currency.  Thunberg  describes  one  of  the  Singhalese 
coins  as  very  remarkable  on  account  of  its  form,  &c.  :  it  was  current  on  the  coasts  of 
Malabar  and  Coromandel.  It  was  struck  by  the  King  of  Kandy  in  various  sizes  and 
rates  of  value,  and  was  commonly  called  Laryn.  Davy  mentions  it,  also,  under  the 
name  of  riddy  or  rheedy.  It  consisted  of  a  silver  cylinder  of  wire,  hammered  out  and 
bent  together  in  the  middle,  the  ends  being  afterwards  turned  up  like  a  hook,  and  the 
upper  end  distinguished  either  with  certain  letters  or  stars,  or  else  with  engravings. 
To  counterfeit  this  was  a  capital  crime.  One  was  valued  at  twelve  and  another  at 
nine  Dutch  stivers,  and  smaller  sizes,  equal  to  seven-pence  English,  and  equivalent  to 
sixty-four  Kandian  challies  were  in  vogue.  According  to  iVlr.  Dundas  Campbell,  the 
editor  of  Mr.  Boyd's  works,  a  coin  called  Tangom  Massa,  struck  by  the  Portuguese 
for  circulation  in  Ceylon,  value  nine-pence.  They  were  of  the  finest  silver.  The 
Indian  pagodah  is  the  only  gold  coin  now  to  be  met  with.  An  antique  gold  coin,  called 
a  Dambadiniya  rbatra  was  found  some  years  ago  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  place  in 
the  Seven  Korles,  which  was,  probably,  struck  there,  when  it  was  a  royal  residence.  In 
size  and  appearance  it  resembled  the  Dambadiniya  chally. 

A  leaden  coin  representing  a  low  value,  was  also  issued  by  the  Singhalese  monarehs. 
Coins  have  also  been  found  belonging  to  an  Hindoo  dynasty,  one,  a  gold  coin,  exhibit- 
ing as  the  device,  a  male  figure  seated  in  the  1  ndian  manner,  with  dhoti ;  left  hand 
raised,  and  face  looking  to  the  left ;  on  the  side  in  the  Nagara  character.  "  Sri  Lankes- 
war ;"  reverse  a  rude  standing  figure,  with  a  flowing  robe;  right  hand  extended  over 
two  emblems  ;  left  hand,  supporting  a  crown  or  globe ;  beneath,  a  scroll.  Also  a 
copper  coin  very  similar,  but  of  ruder  execution.  The  chally  was  a  copper  coin,  of 
which  there  are  two  kinds.  Dutch  challies,  which  are  common,  and  Dambadiniya 
challies,  which  are  rare.  1  he  characters  on  this  ancient  coin,  have  a  nearer  similitude 
to  hieroglyphics  than  letters,  as  a  proof  of  which  the  natives  cannot  decypher  or 
explain  their  meaning.  As  every  necessary  and  luxury  could  be  obtained  through  the 
medium  of  baiter,  money  was  not  required  by  the  Singhalese  for  any  but  extraordinary 
occasions,  and  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  coin  in  circulation,  through  the  whole 
country,  would  not  equal  that  of  a  small  provincial  town  in  England.  Thus  the  total 
revenue  in  specie  of  the  late  king,  who  exacted  as  much  as  possible,  did  not  exceed 
£1500  sterling.  The  undermentioned  foreign  coins  are  received  at  the  following- 
rates: —  Every  sort  of  English  money  is  now  in  use;  besides  which,  there  are  rix 
dollars  of  English  coinage,  value  Is.  6d.  each;  Spanish  and  American  dollars,  value 
•is.  2d.  each  ;  Company's  rupees,  value  2s.  each  ;  Silver  two-anna  pieces,  value  Sd. 
each;  two-pice  pieces  of  English  coinage,  value  3  farthings  each  ;  one,  1  i  ;  half,  ;. 
Dutch  copper  challies  taken  as  prize  at  Kandy.  Little  or  no  gold  coin  is  now  in  cir- 
culation, and  though  a  very  considerable  amount  of  silver  coin  is  annually  imported, 
the  greater  part  is  almost  immediately  exported  for  rice  and  cloth. 


854 


With  England,  at 

With  Madras,  at 

With  Bombay,  at 

With  Calcutta,  at 

And  100  siccas  per  106  Com 

pany's  rupees 
With  Mauritius  and  Penang,  at 


APPENDIX. 

Course  of  Exchaiige. 

s.     d. 

.       1     6 

per  rix  dollar 

.       1    11 

per  rupee 

.       1    11 

per  ditto 

.       2     1 

per  sicca  rupee 

4     4  per  Spanish  dollar  J 


Accounts  are  kept 
in  pounds,  shil- 
lings, and  pence. 


The  rates  of  exchange  with  Great  Britain  and  foreign  countries  have  been  fixed  ac- 
cording to  the  relative  value  of  the  Ceylon  rix-dollar  to  the  British  and  foreign 
countries. 

Rates  of  Postage.* 

Overland  letters  cost  in  Colombo,  single  postage,  one  shilling,  newspapers  and  price 
currents  one  penny.  One  of  the  fortnightly  mails2  comes  direct  to  Galle.  The  rates 
of  island  postage  for  letters  have  recently  been  very  considerably  reduced.  Single 
postage  from  Colombo  to  the  most  distant  portion  of  the  island  is  no  more  than  six- 
pence in  lieu  of  one  shilling  and  sixpence,  and  one  shilling,  the  rates  which  formerly 
obtained.  Newspapers,  pamphlets,  and  price  currents,  not  exceeding  one  ounce  in 
weight,  are  still  carried  for  the  original  moderate  charge  of  one  penny. 

Port  dues  have  recently  been  reduced  from  fourpente  to  twopence  per  ton  of  the 
registered  tonnage  of  any  ship  or  vessel  anchoring  in  any  port  of  the  island,  excepting 
chartered  transports,  vessels  belonging  to  Government,  vessels  in  ballast,  or  with  car- 
goes for  exportation. 

Vessels  employed  between  one  port  and  another  of  the  island  are  allowed  to  compound 
for  port  dues  for  twelve  months  at  Is.  per  ton. 

No  coasting  vessels  are  liable  to  pay  port  dues  within  thirty  days  from  the  date  of  the 
last  payment  thereof. 

The  Master  Attendant  and  Pilots  are  authorised  to  receive  the  following  fees  for  pilot- 
ing every  square-rigged  vessel,  sloop,  or  schooner,  at  the  Ports  of  Colombo,  Trincomalee, 
and  Galle. 

Jolombt 
rincom 

ialle 

The  above  rates  of  pilotage  are  chargeable  to  all  vessels  going  into  the  inner  har- 
bour of  Trincomalee  and  the  harbour  of  Galle,  whether  they  make  a  signal  for  a  pilot 
or  not.  In  Colombo  and  Back  Bay  at  Trincomalee,  the  charge  is  only  made  if  the 
vessel  makes  the  signal  and  a  pilot  actually  repairs  on  board. 

'  The  Post-office  receipts  were,  for  1845,  £7,385,  expenditure,  £6,389.;  1846,  receipts,  £7,576, 
expenditure,  £7,448.  ;but  it  is  expected  that  the  small  surplus  will  be  absorbed  by  the  extension 
of  communication  into  new  and  rising  districts.  The  steamer  Seaforth  is  now  no  longer  em- 
ployed in  conveying  the  Ceylon  mails  to  Bombay,  but  a  contract  has  been  opened  with  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company,  whose  vessels  stand  off  Colombo,  as  well  as  put  into  Galle  • 
and  the  Bombay  passage  every  fortnight,  is  in  like  manner  performed  by  contract ;  the  colonial 
steamer  is  therefore  at  liberty  for  the  purpose  for  which  she  was  designed,  the  supervision  of 
the  pearl  banks,  which  have  been  injured  by  the  fishermen. 

*  The  average  passage  from  England  to  Ceylon,  by  the  vessels  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Company,  is  of  123  days'  duration  ;  and  a  first-class  passenger  is  charged,  male,  £113. ;  female, 
£122. ;  whole  cabin  throughout,  for  a  gentleman  and  his  wife,  £290;  ditto,  for  best  reserved 
cabin,  £335.;  children,  5  years  and  under  10,  £05.;  above  2  and  under  5,  £45.;  servants- 
European,  female,  £46. ;  male,  £44. ;  native,  female,  £32. ;  male,  £28.  These  charges  include 
every  thing  but  extra  baggage  in  the  overland  route. 


Colombo, 


Trincomalee 


s 


» 


Vessels  of  600  tons  and  upwards 
400     ,,    and  under  600 
200     „    and  under  400 
100     j,    and  under  200 
,,         under  100 
Vessels  of  600  tons  and  upwards 
,,        400  „    and  under  600 
„        200  „    and  under  400 
„         100  ,,    and  under  200 
,,        under  100 


£.  s. 

d. 

£• 

s. 

d. 

0   15 

0 

3 

^20 

0 

o 

4 

0 

0 

a   1  10 

0 

CS 

3 

0 

0 

S  i  i 

0 

ffi 

2 

2 

0 

8    0    10 

6 

1 

1 

0 

m    0     6 

0 

O 

-  -4 

0 

15 

0 

3     0 

0 

2     5 

0 

1   10 

0 

1     2 

6 

0  15 

0 

APPENDIX.  855 

Rates  of  Wages. 

The  wages  of  servants  at  Colombo  have  risen  within  the  last  ten  years  very  con- 
siderably. House  servants  receive  from£l.  to  £i.  per  month;  cooks  £1.  to£l.lOs., 
and  horsekeepers  18s.  to  £1.  5s.  The  paucity  of  washerwomen,  their  high  charges, 
dilatoriness  and  the  rapidity  with  which  their  mode  of  washing  destroys  clothing  are 
sources  of  grievous  complaint.  They  charge  10s  for  washing  100  pieces  of  clothing, 
agreements  by  the  month  being  in  proportion.  The  following  are  the  rates  at  present 
paid  for  labour  by  the  Royal  Engineer's  Department: — Overseers  Is.  3d.  per  day; 
Artificers  Is.  3d. ;  ditto  middling  Is.;  ditto  inferior  9d.;  labourers  8d.  and  inferior 
Gd.  per  day  ;   carts  2s.  per  day. 

Predial  labourers  may  be  procured  in  the  country  districts  as  low  as  4|<L  per  diem. 

The  following  Table  will  shew  the  average  Rate  of  Wages : 


£ 

s. 

d. 

C  Western  Province 

,  per  diem     (1 

0 

G 

\  Southern 

>> 

0 

0 

6* 

c  Servants. 

^  Eastern 

>5 

<> 

1 

0 

J  Northern 

M 

per  month  0 

7 

G 

i 

(_  Central 

>> 

per  diem     0 

1 

0 

C  Western 

>» 

o 

0 

6 

1  Southern 

>} 

o 

0 

6 

Predial. 

/  Eastern 

JJ 

o 

0 

0 

J  Northern 

>> 

per  month  0 

9 

0 

{  Central 

)J 

per  diem     0 

1 

0 

r  Western 

FJ 

o 

1 

0 

1  Southern 

■  9 

o 

1 

0 

Mechanics. 

/  Eastern 

>9 

o 

2 

0 

J  Northern 

>> 

per  month  1 

2 

6 

i 

^  Central 

>■> 

per  diem     0 

2 

0 

XXV. 

RETURN  OF  THE  NUMBER  OF  CHURCHES  AND  CHAPELS  BE- 
LONGING TO  THE  VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  BODIES  IN  CEYLON, 
AND  THE  MEMBERS  OF  THE  SAME.— RETURN  OF  SCHOOLS, 
SCHOLARS,  AND  MONEY  GRANTED  IN  AID  THEREOF. 

In  the  Western  Province  are  eleven  places  of  worship  belonging  to  the  Establish- 
ment, capable  of  containing  upwards  of  3000  persons.  Service  is  also  performed  at 
the  school-rooms  of  twenty- two  villages  by  the  Church  Missionaries  and  Catechists 
to  1000  natives. 

To  the  Romanists  belong  155  chapels,  holding  59,660  persons,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  sixteen  Missionaries.  To  the  Wesleyans  twelve  chapels  ;  to  the  Baptists 
twelve  chapels. 

In  the  Southern  Province  are  six  churches  or  chapels  belonging  to  the  Establish- 
ment, holding  upwards  of  2000  persons.  Service  is  also  performed  in  nine  school- 
rooms to  500  persons.  To  the  Romanists  two  churches,  holding  1600  persons ;  to 
the  Wesleyans  seven  chapels  ;    to  the  Baptists  one. 

In  the  Eastern  Province.  To  the  Establishment  two  churches  holding  350  per- 
sons ;  to  the  Roman  Catholics  seventeen  chapels,  holding  4330  persons,  under  the  care 
of  one  Missionary;    to  the  Wesleyans  three  chapels. 

In  the  Northern  Province.  To  the  Establishment  three  churches,  holding  700 
persons,  and  service  is  performed  also  at  seven  schools  under  the  superintendence  of 
two  Missionaries  and  three  Catechists;  to  the  Roman  Catholics  160  chapels,  holding 
37,040  persons,  and  superintended  by  five  Priests ;  to  the  Wesleyans  four  chapels. 


856  APPENDIX. 

The  American  Mission  has  several  stations  in  this  Province  with  about  1000  audi- 
tors ;  the  whole  superintended  by  five  Missionaries,  assisted  by  thirty  natives. 

In  the  Central  Province.  To  the  Establishment  two  churches,  and  service  is  per- 
formed in  nine  schools  under  the  superintendence  of  two  Missionaries  and  two  Cate- 
chists  ;  to  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  three  chapels. 

The  Western  Province  contains  the  following  Public  Schools  ; 

The  Colombo  Academy  and  model  school  attached  to  it,  containing  233  scholars  ; 
superintended  by  two  masters  and  five  assistants  ;  salary  of  Principal  £500  ;  total  Go- 
vernment contribution  £1,073  less  £336,  raised  by  voluntary  effort ;  mode  of  in- 
struction comprises  the  usual  branches  of  an  English,  classical  and  mathematical  edu- 
cation. The  Colombo  central  school  in  the  Kort,  and  Normal  class  attached  to  it, 
contains  57  scholars ;  receives  Government  aid  of  £356  ;  is  superintended  by  one 
master;  mode  of  education,  commercial.  The  public  schools  devoted  to  elementary 
education  are,  St.  Peter's  school,  Fort,  master  and  assistant,  102  scholars  ;  Govern- 
ment aid,  £87.  Dutch  consistorial,  boys  and  girls'  school,  Pettah,  master,  two  assist- 
ants ;  mistress,  two  assistants;  scholars— male  175,  females  84;  Government  aid 
i£?33l.  Colombo  female  seminary,  mistress  aud  three  assistants  ;  scholars  58  ;  Go- 
vernment aid  £186.  St.  Paul's  boys  and  girls'  school,  Pettah,  master  and  assistant- 
master  and  mistress  ;  scholars  — male  50,  female  40  ;  Government  aid  £246.  Grand 
Pass  school,  master  and  assistant ;  scholars  84  ;  Government  aid  £90.     St.  Thomas's 

boys  and  girls' school,  master   and    two   assistant-masters  and  mistress;   scholars 

male  101,  female  38  ;  Governmeut  aid  £207.  Mattacooly  boys  and  girls'  school, 
master  and  assistant,  mistress;  scholars — male  50,  female  10;  Government  aid  £63. 
Marandhan  girl's  schoolmaster  and  mistress;  scholars  15;  Government  aid  £27. 
Wellicadde  gaol  school,  master  ;   scholars  20  ;  Government  aid  £36. 

There  are  fifteen  other  public  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  with  fifteen  masters  and  six 
assistants,  and  six  mistresses,  attended  by  nearly  700  scholars,  and  receive  £889. 10s. 
Government  aid.  Besides  these,  there  is  an  orphan  school  at  Colpetty,  superintendaut- 
mistress,  and  writing  master;  scholars  21  ;  Government  aid  £36.  Six  boys  and 
girls'  military  schools,  in  the  Fort,  with  two  English  and  two  native  masters  and  three 
assistants,  and  a  mistress;  scholars — male  164,  excluding  71  adults,  female  14;  Go- 
vernment aid  £64,  several  being  supported  by  subscription. 

The  Church  Mission  Free  schools  are,  the  Institute  at  Cotta,  with  three  masters  ; 
scholars  25.  English  boys  and  girls'  school  at  ditto,  masters  three  ;  mistress ;  scholars 
— male  79,  female  100.      Boys'  Singhalese  school  at  ditto;  master  ;  scholars  24. 

Besides  these  they  have  twenty-eight  Singhalese  and  one  Tamul  school  at  other 
stations  in  the  province,  containing  632  male,  and  258  female  scholars. 

\  he  Webleyan  Mission  has  also  sixteen  Free  schools  at  Colombo,  under  thirteen  mas- 
ters and  three  mistresses  ;  scholars — male  616,  female  97.  Nineteen  schools  in  the 
A'egombo  district,  under  twenty-four  masters  and  one  mistress;  scholars — male  507, 
female  61.  Eleven  schools  in  the  Caltura  district;  masters  14;  scholais — male  471, 
female  32. 

The  Baptist  Mission  has  seven  schools  at  Colombo,  coutaining  237  scholars,  and 
twenty-two  at  other  stations  in  the  Province,  with  765  scholais. 

The  private  schools  are  one  male  school  in  Wolfendahl-street  under  three  masters; 
scholars  144  ;  Government  aid  £100  ;  and  three  female  schools,  with  five  mistresses, 
and  1 1 9  scholars. 

Southern  Province. — Public  schools,  Galle  central  and  elementary  school,  master 
and  assistants  ;  scholars  90;  mode  of  education,  commercial  ;  Government  aid  £287. 
Normal  school,  scholars  4  ;  Government  aid  £40.  Two  Elementary  schools  at  ditto 
for  boys  and  girls,  with  two  masters  and  two  assistants,  and  a  mistress  ;  scholars  1 10  ; 
Government  aid  £146.  Ratnapoora  school,  master ;  scholars  19;  Government  aid 
£36.  Bentotte  school,  master  ;  scholars  31  ;  Government  aid  £38.  (Amblangodde) 
Ballepittymodera  school,  master  ;  scholais  25  ;  Government  aid  £S6.  Belligam 
school,  master  (no  returns).  Matura  school,  master  ;  scholars  60  ;  Government  aid 
£100.  The  Church  Mission  has  a  seminary  at  Baddagama,  master  ;  scholars  15. 
English  school  at  ditto,  master  ;  scholars  1 4.      Singhalese  boys  and  girls'  school  at 


APPENDIX.  857 

ditto,  master  and  assistant,  mistress  and  ditto ;  scholars — male  40,  female  115.  Six 
Singhalese  schools  at  other  stations,  scholars — male  154,  female  40.  The  VVesleyan 
Mission,  eighteen  schools  in  the  Galle  district  under  eighteen  masters  and  three  mis- 
tresses ;  scholars — male  682,  female  i97.  Eleven  schools  in  the  Matnra  district, 
under  eleven  masters  and  two  mistresses;  scholars — male  385,  female  68.  Baptist 
Mission,  five  schools  in  the  Matura  district  ;  scholars  120.  Private  schools,  one  at 
Galle,  the  Bona  Vista  in  the  Talpepattoo,  master  and  three  female  assistants  ;  scholars 
— male  20,  female  30  ;  Government  aid  £90. 

Eastern  Province. — Public  schools:  Trincomalee  boys  and  girls'  school,  master  and 
assistant-mistress  ;  scholars — male  46,  female  36;  Government  aid  .£106.  Batecalo 
school,  master ;  scholars  24;  Government  aid  £12.  A murodegalle  school,  master  ; 
scholars  26;  Government  aid  £'12.  Chaplain's  boys  and  girls'  school,  Trincomalee, 
master  the  Government  chaplain  (no  returns).  Ceylon  rifle  regimental  school,  master  ; 
scholars  31.  Wesleyan  Mission  Trincomalee  English  boys' school,  scholars  30.  Two 
Tamil  at  another  station,  scholars  80.  Batecalo  English  boys  and  girls'  school, 
scholars — male  40,  female  30.  Tamil  boy's  school,  scholars  26.  Nine  ditto  at  other 
stations,  234.  Private  schools,  Trincomalee  district  :  Eleven  native  schools,  scholars 
135,  supported  by  voluntary  effort.  Batecalo  district,  twenty- eight  schools,  scholars 
588.      Self-supporting. 

Northern  Province.  —  Five  public  schools  with  five  masters  and  four  assistants,  1.56 
scholars;  Government  aid  £232.  Church  Mission,  Seminary  at  Chundicully,  master, 
scholars  20  Day  school  at  ditto,  master,  scholars  19.  Girls' boarding-school  at 
Nellore,  matron  and  monitors,  scholars  30.  Day  school  at  Nellore,  master,  scholars  50. 
Boys'  English  school  at  Nellore,  master,  scholars  70 .  Twenty-one  Tamil  schools  ac 
other  stations  ;  scholars — male  878,  female  7.  Wesleyan  Mission  :  Jaffna  English  boys' 
school,  scholars  100  ;  ditto  girls,  scholars  32  ;  Tamil  ditto,  scholars  30.  Five  Tamil 
at  other  stations  in  the  district  ;  scholars — male  369,  female  83.  Point  Pedro  English 
boys'  school,  scholars  52  ;  Tamil  ditto,  scholars  50  ;  ditto  girls,  scholars  24.  One 
English  and  one  Tamil  at  another  station,  scholars  160.  American  Mission  Semi- 
nary at  Batticotta,  a  principal  and  three  professors,  assisted  by  six  English  or  native 
instructors,  scholars  113,  self-supporting.  One  female  boarding-school  at  Oodooville, 
a  male  and  female  superintendent  and  native  ditto,  three  native  teachers,  one  female 
ditto,  scholars  10n.  Female  boarding-school  at  Varany,  male  and  female  superintendent 
and  three  native  teachers,  scholars  20.  English  and  Tamil  day-school  at  Batticotta, 
native  teachers  and  two  assistants,  scholars  38  ;  ditto  at  Tillipally,  master,  scholars 
27  ;  ditto  at  Valvetty,  master,  scholars  17  ;  ditto  at  Oodooville,  master,  scholars  20 ; 
ditto  at  Manepy,  master  and  assistant,  scholars  22  ;  ditto  at  Panditeripo,  master,  scho- 
lars 15  ;  ditto  at  Chavagacherry,  native  teacher,  scholars  9  ;  ditto  at  Varany,  native 
master,  scholars  8.*  Seventy-five  Tamil  schools  in  thirteen  parishes;  scholars — male 
17 -It,  female  1036. 

Private  schools,  Jaffna,  two  masters,  scholars  59.  One  hundred  and  ten  native 
schools,  scholars  2497.  Manaar,  Pessalle,  master,  scholars  19.  The  Wanny,  seven 
native  schools,  scholars  53.J 

Central  Province. — Public  Schools.  Kandy,  master,  scholars  49;  Government  aid 
£70.  Matalc  school,  master  and  assistant,  scholars  21  ;  Government  aid  £48.  Ba- 
dulla  school,  master,  scholars  39  :  Government  aid  £57  ;  four  military  schools,  with 
two  masters,  two  native  teachers  and  a  mistress  ;  scholars  140  ;  Government  aid  £80. 
Church  Mission-Girls'  seminary  at  Kandy,  mistress  and  two  assistants,  scholars  14. 
English  school  at  Kandy,  master  and  assistant,  scholars  40.  Singhalese  school  at  ditto, 
two  Native  teachers,  scholars  25.  Four  Singhalese  and  three  Tamil  schools  at  other 
stations,  scholars — male  134,  female  7.  Baptist  Mission  :  two  schools  at  Kandy, 
S(  holars  55  ;  two  at  other  stations,  scholars  47.  Matale,  two  ditto,  scholars  35.  Pri- 
vate schools  :  Kandy,  189  native  schools  (no  returns)  ;  Badulla,  36  ditto  ;  Nuwara 
Elliya,  4  ditto. 

Gaols,  Prisoners,  &c. 
Prisoners  under  sentence  of  transportation  were,  till   lately,  sent  to  Van  Diemeu's 
Land  ;  they  are  now  exchanged  with  the  convicts  from  the  Straits  settlements. 


858  APPENDIX. 

The  common  gaol  at  Hulftsdorf,  in  Colombo,  is  capable  of  containing  12  prisoners 
in  separate,  and  195  in  mixed  cells.  In  Michaelmas,  1843,  there  were  88  male  and 
2  female  coloured  persons  convicted  for  felony,  and  3  untried;  and  31  males  and  2 
females  convicted  of  misdemeanours  within  its  walls,  besides  13  untried  coloured  per- 
sons, and  8  debtors.  During  the  year  143  males  and  3  females  were  under  hard  labour 
in  the  prison,  and  44  not  employed.  The  greatest  number  under  confinement  at  any 
one  time  in  the  year  were  1  66  persons.  The  total  cases  of  sickness  during  the  year 
were  30?  ;  at  any  one  time  40  ;  deaths  during  the  year  6.  Visited  by  the  Fiscal  and 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Gaol  divided  into  six  classes  :  one  for  prisoners  sen- 
tenced to  hard  labour ;  one  for  simple  imprisonment,  and  one  for  untried  prisoners; 
one  for  female  prisoners ;  one  for  debtors  ;  and  one  for  lunatics.  Food  supplied  by 
contract  at  2-gni.  per  day  to  natives,  and  7\d.  per  day  to  Europeans.  Clothing  is 
provided  by  Government.  A  new  mat  is  allowed  to  natives  every  three  months,  and 
ordinary  bedding  to  Europeans.  Hours  of  labour,  from  6  h.  to  10  h.  30  m.  a.m.,  and 
from  12  h.  30  m.  to  5  h.  p.m.  Prisoners  employed  in  breaking  stones  for  macadamiz- 
ing roads,  cooking  for  the  prison,  keeping  the  gaol,  courts,  and  environs  in  order,  and 
making  roads.  The  construction  of  the  gaol  does  not  at  present  admit  of  a  strict 
classification,  but  it  is  in  contemplation  to  make  it  so.  Prisoners  are  permitted  to 
see  their  friends  in  the  presence  of  an  officer  of  the  gaol,  but  there  is  no  regular  chap- 
lain, though  there  are  no  restrictions  to  religious  teachers.  Whipping  is  resorted  to  in 
cases  of  insubordination,  and  irons  for  escaping.  There  are  23  insane  persons  kept  in 
separate  buildings  in  the  gaol. 

A  new  prison  has  lately  been  erected  at  Wellicadde,  on  the  plan  of  the  Pentonville 
prison,  where  a  large  number  of  criminals  are  at  present  confined. 

The  common  gaol  at  Ratnapoora  in  Saffragam,  consists  of  eight  rooms,  five  of  which 
are  appropriated  to  the  prisoners,  and  capable  of  containing  from  35  to  40  persons. 
Total  number  of  prisoners  in  confinement  at  Michaelmas,  1843,  12.  Greatest  number 
at  any  one  time  in  the  year,  33 ;  of  these  1 7  were  under  hard  labour  out  of  the  prison 
and  16  not  employed.  Total  cases  of  sickness,  8.  Remarks  under  gaol  at  Colombo, 
here  inapplicable ;  no  clothing  or  bedding  here  allowed  ;  a  classification  of  prisoners 
is  observed. 

The  common  gaol  at  Kurunaigalla  can  accommodate  40  prisoners.  Greatest  number 
of  prisoners  at  any  one  time  in  1843,  29.  Total  committed  during  the  year,  46.  Total 
cases  of  sickness  during  the  year,  8.  This  gaol  is  ill  adapted  for  the  due  classifica- 
tion of  prisoners.  Weekly  allowance  to  Europeans  remanded  for  further  examination, 
5s.  6d.  per  week ;  hard  labour,  &c.  3s.  6d.  ;  burghers  under  hard  labour,  &c.  Is.  9d.  ; 
Natives,  2s.  in  the  former,  and  Is.  9d.  in  the  latter  case.  Allowance  of  clothing  as  at 
Colombo.  Fever  and  dysentery  appear  to  be  the  common  complaints  at  all  three  gaols. 
This  prison  is  too  slightly  constructed  to  afford  security,  and  no  dependence  is  to  be 
placed  on  the  persons  employed  as  turnkeys,  on  account  of  the  low  scale  of  remune- 
ration. 

The  common  gaol  at  Galle  is  capable  of  containing  90  prisoners,  and  has  two  sepa- 
rate cells.  The  Bridewell,  also,  within  the  fort  has  room  for  50  prisoners.  At  Michael- 
mas, 1843,  there  were  19  tried  coloured  felons  and  9  untried  ;  7  convicted  of  misde- 
meanours, and  2  untried  for  ditto.  In  the  latter,  9  untried  felons  and  2  debtors.  Total 
number  of  prisoners  in  confinement  at  any  one  time  in  the  year,  in  the  former — whites 
1,  coloured  36  ;  in  the  latter — coloured,  12.  Total  number  of  prisoners  committed 
during  the  year,  22.     Total  cases  of  sickness,  91. 

Common  gaol  at  Matura  within  the  fort  can  contain  150  prisoners  ;  has  no  separate 
sleeping  cells  ;  consists  of  three  wards,  one  for  the  accommodation  of  convicts  and  pri- 
soners for  trial,  one  for  females,  and  one  for  debtors,  with  two  hospitals.  At  Michael- 
mas, 1843,  there  were  4  male  and  3  female  tried  felons,  and  21  untried  ;  2  untried 
persons  for  misdemeanours.  Greatest  number  in  confinement  at  any  one  time  in  the 
year,  30.  Number  of  persons  under  hard  labour  during  the  year,  59.  Total  cases  of 
sickness  during  the  year,  14. 

Common  gaol  at  Tangalle  within  the  fort  can  hold  100;  no  separate  cells.  At 
Michaelmas,  1843,  contained  2  tried  and  1  untried  felons;  3  tried  and  7  untried  for 


APPENDIX.  859 

misdemeanours,  and  3  debtors.  Greatest  number  in  confinement  at  any  one  time  in 
the  year,  16.  Total  number  committed  during  the  year,  65.  Total  cases  of  sickness 
during  ditto,  3. 

Common  gaol  at  Hambantotte  can  contain  300  persons  ;  has  no  separate  cells. 
Five  wards  and  an  hospital.  Such  convicts  under  hard  labour  as  are  required  for  the 
public  works  at  the  station  are  kept  in  this  prison.  Total  number  of  commitments 
during  1843,  3  ;  employed  at  hard  labour,  50.  Total  cases  of  sickness  during  the  year, 
174.  Observation — The  Bridewell  at  Galle  was  established  to  extend  the  system  of 
classification  ;  petty  offenders,  women  and  prisoners  committed  for  trial,  are  alone  con- 
fined here.  The  visitation  of  the  gaol  is  in  the  same  hands  as  in  the  Western  Pro- 
vince. The  gaol  at  Galle  is  spacious  and  airy,  as  also  the  Matura  ;  the  dietary,  or 
weekly  allowance  is  5s.  3d.  at  the  four  places  for  Europeans,  3s.  6d.  for  burghers,  and 
Is.  9d.  for  natives.  Clothing  and  bedding  are  supplied.  Hard  labour  consists  of 
employment  in  all  the  public  works  ;  the  only  classification  in  each  is,  that  the  worst 
characters  are  confined  together  and  apart  from  the  better  disposed.  There  is  no  ap- 
pointed religion?  instruction,  but  missionaries  have  unrestricted  access.  Fever  and 
dysentery  are  the  prevailing  complaints. 

Eastern  Province. — The  common  gaol  at  Trincomalee  will  hold  125  prisoners,  and 
has  besides  six  cells.  Line  gaol  at  ditto  will  hold  75  prisoners,  aad  has  one  separate 
cell.  Prisoners  in  confinement  at  former,  Michaelmas,  1843,  6  tried  felons  and  19 
convicted  of  misdemeanours  ;  debtors  in  latter,  8.  Greatest  number  of  prisoners  in 
confinement  at  any  one  time  in  the  year,  at  the  former  29,  at  the  latter  12.  Total 
number  of  commitments  during  the  year,  39  at  the  former,  and  32  at  the  latter.  Under 
hard  labour  out  of  the  prison,  43.     Total  cases  of  sickness  during  the  year,  84. 

Common  gaol  at  Batecalo,  situate  at  the  Isle  Pooliantivoe,  can4hold  74  prisoners  ; 
has  no  separate  cells.  Greatest  number  confined  at  any  one  time  during  the  year,  8  ; 
number  of  commitments  in  1843,  23.  Dietary — Europeans  7\d.  per  diem,  burghers 
4grf.  and  natives  Sfrf.  Clothing  and  bedding  supplied.  Prisoners  employed  at  any 
public  works  required. 

Common  gaol  at  Jaffnapatam  will  accommodate  312 ;  has  no  separate  cells.  In  con- 
finement, Michaelmas,  1843,  tried  felons  47  ;  untried  13;  for  misdemeanours — tried 
48  males,  13  females ;  untried  4  ;  debtors  8.  Greatest  number  confined  at  any  one 
time  during  the  year,  15G.  Total  number  of  commitments  during  the  year,  under  18, 
males  20,  females  3  ;  above  18,  males  284,  females  42.  Under  hard  labour  in  the 
prison — males  6,  females  24  ;  out  of  the  prison,  238.  Total  cases  of  sickness  in 
1843,  195. 

Common  gaol  at  Mannar  will  contain  40  prisoners  ;  no  separate  cells.  At  Michael- 
mas, 1843,  confined — tried  felons  4  ;  misdemeanours — tried  6,  untried  1.  Greatest 
number  of  prisoners  confined  at  any  one  time  in  1843,  22.  Number  of  commitments 
in  1843,  66.     Total  cases  of  sickness  1843,  39. 

Common  gaol  at  Mulletivoe,  situate  within  the  fort  at  Mulletivoe,  will  hold  25  pri- 
soners ;  no  separate  cells.  Total  number  of  commitments  1843,  44;  total  cases  of 
sickness,  1843,  10. 

Common  gaol  at  Anuradhapoora  will  contain  12  prisoners;  no  returns.  The  gaol 
at  Jaffua  was  formerly  military  quarters  ;  there  is  a  due  classification  of  prisoners. 
Dietary— Europeans,  for  debt,  5s.  3d.  per  week,  for  trial  ditto  ;  under  hard  labour,  &c. 
3s.  6d.;  burghers,  debtors,  3s.  6d.  under  hard  labour,  2s.  7Jd.;  under  sentence,  Is.  9d.; 
natives,  Is.  2d.  ;  debtors  under  hard  labour,  Is.  3§d.  No  clothing  or  bedding  allowed. 
Employed  on  the  construction  and  repair  of  the  roads  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  at 
Manaar  and  Mulletivoe,  on  public  works  at  Anuradhapoora,  and  clearing  the  vicinity 
of  underwood.  No  religious  instruction,  the  prisoners  being  mostly  heathens.  Fever 
is  the  prevalent  disease.  The  gaol  at  Jaffna  might  be  considered  crowded  by  Europeans, 
but  is  not  so  with  reference  to  natives.  The  appearance  of  the  prisoners  shew  they 
are  not  unhealthy  ;  those  under  hard  labour  are  extremely  stout  and  healthy,  a  suffi- 
ciency of  food  of  a  better  description  than  that  procurable  at  home,  is,  with  regular 
exercise,  the  cause  of  this.  Imprisonment,  even  with  hard  labour,  is  not  made  suffi- 
ciently disagreeable  to  the  natives,  and  there  are  difficulties  in  making  it  so,  from  the 
characters  of  the  persons  employed  as  attendants. 


860  APPENDIX. 

Central  Province. — Common  gaol  at  Kandy  has  17  separate  cells,  and  will  contain 
200  prisoners.  Prisoners  confined  at  Michaelmas, 184.S — felons  tried  32,  untried  30  ;  for 
misdemeanours— tried,  25,  untried  9;  debtors,  7.  Greatest  number  of  prisoners  in  con- 
finement at  any  one  time  in  1843 — males  163,  females  9.  Number  of  commitments 
1843,  368.  Under  hard  labour  out  of  the  prison  266.  Total  cases  of  sickness  1843, 
214. 

Common  gaol  at  Matale  has  15  separate  cells,  will  contain  30  prisoners.  In  con- 
finement, Michaelmas,  1843,  10  untried  for  misdemeanours.  Greatest  number  of  pri- 
soners at  any  one  time  in  1843,  9. 

Common  gaol  at  Badulla  has  four  separate  cells,  will  contain  50  prisoners.  Number 
confined  at  Michaelmas,  1843;  for  misdemeanours — tried  17,  untried  4;  debtors,  2. 
Greatest  number  at  any  one  time  in  1843,31.  Total  cases  of  sickness  during 
1843,  50. 

Common  gaol  at  Nuwera  Elliya  has  eight  separate  cells,  will  contain  16  prisoners. 
Greatest  number  in  confinement  at  any  time  in  1843,  44.  A  due  classification  of 
prisoners  is  observed  at  Kandy.  Dietary,  5s.  3d.  per  week  Europeans  ;  natives  Is.  6§d. 
Europeans  are  furnished  with  clothing,  and  the  natives  with  mats  and  blue  cotton 
cloth.  The  average  amount  of  expense  for  clothing  an  European  is  £l  per  annum, 
for  a  native,  12s.  Employed  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  streets,  roads,  or  public 
buildings.  Gaol  at  Kandy  visited  by  the  missionaries.  Fever  and  dysentery  chief 
diseases. 


XXVI. 

GENERAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  APPENDIX. 

There  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  of  moral  character  among  the 
Singhalese  domestics  familiar  to  the  residents  in  Ceylon — their  almost 
habitual  dishonesty  in  matters  not  committed  to  their  care,  and  for 
which  they  do  not  consider  themselves  responsible,  and  their  scrupulous 
honesty  as  to  those  entrusted  to  them  ;  this  has  led  to  the  custom  of 
each  guest  at  a  dinner  party  bringing  his  servant,  so  that  when  plate  is 
cleaned,  each  servant  is  put  into  a  separate  apartment  to  perform  it. 

Names  of  the  Singhalese  Months. — Doorootoo-masse,  January;  Navan- 
masse,  February  ;  Meddun-dinne,  March  :  Bak-masse,  April ;  Wesak- 
masse,  May;  Poson-masse,  June  ;  Esselle-masse,  July  ;  Nikini-masse, 
August;  Binnerre-masse,  September;  Wak-masse,  October;  Il-masse, 
November:  Oondoowak-masse,  December. 

Days  of  the  Week.- — Erie-da,  Sunday;  Sandoo-da,  Monday;  Ange- 
harroowa-da,  Tuesday;  Bada-da,  Wednesday  ;  Brahaspattin-da,  Thurs- 
day ;  Sikkoora-da,  Friday ;  Sewnesoora-da,  Saturday. 

Throne  of  the  Kandian  Kings. — The  ancient  throne  of  the  Kan- 
dian  sovereigns  for  the  last  century  and  a  half,  resembled  an  old 
arm-chair,  such  as  is  not  unfrequently  seen  in  England.  It  was 
about  five  feet  high  in  the  back,  three  in  breadth,  and  two  in 
depth  ;  the  frame  was  of  wood,  entirely  covered  with  thin  gold  sheet- 
ing- (studded  with  precious  stones),  the  exquisite  taste  and  workman- 
ship of  which  did  not  constitute  the  least  of  its  beauties,  and  vied 
with  the  best  modern  specimens  of  the  works  of  the  goldsmith.  The 
most  prominent  features  in  this  curious  relic  were  two  golden  lions 
or  sphinxes,  forming  the  arms  of  the  throne  or  chair,  of  very  uncouth 
appearance,  but  beautifully  wrought,  the  heads  of  the  animals  being 
turned  outwards  in  a  peculiarly  graceful  manner.  The  eyes  were  formed 


APPENDIX.  861 

of  entire  amethysts,  each  rather  larger  than  a  musket  hall.  Inside  the 
hack,  near  the  top,  was  a  large  golden  sun,  from  which  the  founder  of  the 
Kandian  monarchy  was  supposed  to  have  derived  his  origin.  Beneath, 
about  the  centre  of  the  chair,  and  in  the  midst  of  some  sun-flowers,  was 
an  immense  amethyst,  about  the  size  of  a  large  walnut ;  on  either  side 
there  was  a  figure  of  a  female  deity,  supposed  to  be  the  wife  of  Vishnu 
or  Buddha,  in  a  sitting  posture,  of  admirable  design  and  workmanship; 
the  whole  encompassed  by  a  moulding  formed  of  bunches  of  cut  crystal, 
set  in  gold:  there  was  a  space  round  the  back  (without  the  moulding) 
studded  with  three  large  amethysts  on  each  side,  and  six  more  at  the 
top.  The  seat  inside  the  arms,  and  half  way  up  the  back,  was  lined  with 
red  velvet.  The  footstool  was  also  very  handsome,  being  ten  inches  in 
height,  a  foot  broad,  and  two  feet  and  a  half  long  :  the  top  was  crimson 
silk,  worked  with  gold;  a  moulding  of  cut  crystal  ran  about  the  sides 
of  it,  beneath  which,  in  front,  were  flowers,  studded  with  fine  amethysts 
and  crystals.  The  throne  behind  was  covered  with  finely  wrought 
silver  ;  at  the  top  was  a  large  embossed  half  moon,  of  silver,  surmount- 
ing the  stars,  and  below  all  was  a  bed  of  silver  sun-flowers.  The  sceptre 
was  a  rod  of  iron,  with  a  gold  head,  an  extraordinary  but  just  emblem 
of  his  government. 

Spirit  of   emulation    among    the    Natives. — One    remarkable    and 
pleasing  trait  in   the  character  of  both   the    Singhalese  and  Tamul 
population,  is  the   facility    with   which  they  can   be  stimulated,  un- 
der  the    influence    of   emulation,    to     accomplish    improvements    for 
the   benefit   of    their    respective    localities;    hence    it  occurs  to   me, 
that  therein  lies  an  important  engine  for  the  restoration  of  the  tanks, 
that   cpiestion    of  all-absorbent  interest    to   those   who   desire   to   see 
the  industry  of  Ceylon  placed  on  a  sure  basis ;  and  I  have  little  doubt, 
that,  under  the  guidance  of  energetic  and  popular  assistant  agents,"  if 
but  one  village  were  to  set  the  example  of  undertaking  the  repairs  of 
its  tank,   every  village  in  the  northern  province  would  immediately 
follow  the  example,  and  it  is  far  from  improbable,  that,  under  the  im- 
pulse thus  awakened,  the  cost  of  the  skilled  labour  required  in  addition, 
would  be  readily  borne  by  the  united  community.     For  the  furtherance 
of  this  end,  I  would  suggest  that  the  tank  so  repaired  should  take  the 
name  of  the  headman  superintending  its  execution,  and  that  the  names 
of  those  assisting  in  the  work  should  be  inscribed  on  a  stone,  according 
to  their  respective  merits,  in  the  most  prominent  point  of  view.     Of 
this  pleasing  susceptibility   I  have  many  instances  before  me,  but  let 
one  suffice.     A  handsome  bridge  was  erected,  by  the  headmen  in  the 
vicinity,  over  the  Hingoo  oya,  in  the  Four  Korles,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Captain   Gordon — hence  called  Gordon's  bridge — whose 
emulation  had  been  excited  by  the  voluntary  erection  of  a  smaller  bridge 
by  the  chiefs  of  another  Korle.     The  Portuguese  amply  availed  them- 
selves of  this  amour  propre,   and  by  permitting  the  higher  castes  to 
assume  Portuguese  names,  and  bestowing-  the  title  of  Dom  with  great 
profusion,  they  secured  their  good-will  under  critical  circumstances.   So 
absurdly,  however,  has  the  title  been  multiplied,  that  it  has  become 
ridiculous  to  the  last  degree,  and  I   see  no  other  mode  of  abating  the 
nuisance,  and  compelling  this  heterogeneous  body  to  doff  its  borrowed 
plumes,  than  by  imposing  a  tax  on   the  whole,   and  thus  reducing  it 
within  ordinary  proportions. 


802  APPENDIX. 

Establishment  of  the  Wesleyan  Mission. — The  establishment  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  mission  in  Ceylon  was,  even  while  in  embryo,  beset  with  features 
of  romantic  incident,  strangely  inconsistent  with  the  prosaic  character 
of  that  body  at  home.  Dr.  Coke,  a  gentleman  educated  at  Oxford,  of  in- 
dependent fortune  and  an  ardent  temperament,  had  long  conceived  the 
design  of  planting,  in  Ceylon,  a  missionary  offshoot  of  that  rising  sect, 
to  the  interests  of  which  he  had  devoted  the  best  part  of  his  life,  with  the 
ultimate  view  of  extending"  its  operations  to  the  Peninsula.  With  these 
aims — aims  long  frustrated  by  the  straitened  resources  of  the  connexion 
—  he  finally  guaranteed  the  whole  expenses  of  the  outfit  and  establish- 
ment of  the  mission  ;  and  selecting  seven  missionaries,  embarked  along 
with  them,  intending-  to  superintend  the  undertaking".  After  passing 
the  line,  he  was  seized  with  a  violent  attack  of  illness,  which  the  con- 
stitution at  his  advanced  age  had  not  sufficient  strength  to  encounter, 
and  he  soon  after  expired,  leaving  the  whole  of  his  followers  in  a  state 
of  destitution.  To  detail  all  the  painful  circumstances  of  such  a  situ- 
ation, in  the  midst  of  ocean,  would  scarcely  fall  within  our  province  ; 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  remark,  that  that  situation  was  aggravated  to  the 
last  degree  by  the  failure  of  their  leader  to  give  them  any  previous  in- 
sight into  his  pecuniary  arrang-ements,  while  the  comparatively  infan- 
tile state  of  their  society  forbade  a  resort  to  the  means  of  relief,  that, 
under  other  circumstances,  would  have  been  obtainable.  Observations 
such  as  these  would  apply  in  all  their  force  to  the  case  of  persons  who 
should,  in  despair,  resolve  to  abandon  their  undertaking  and  return 
home,  they  would  be  almost  inapplicable  to  the  case  of  persons  resolving" 
to  persevere  and  go  through  their  work ;  yet  even  fortune  is  at  the 
beck  of  intensity  of  will,  and  that  displayed,  as  in  this  case,  she  appeared 
smiling,  and  raising  up  friends  for  them  on  deck,  accompanied  them  on 
the  passage,  procured  assistance  for  them  from  a  perfect  stranger  at 
BoYubay,  sent  them  with  letters  of  credit  to  the  isle  of  their  aspirations, 
bespoke  a  reception  there  on  which  they  had  little  reason  to  calculate, 
and  apportioning"  to  each  his  peculiar  sphere,  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
important  and  increasing  field  now  occupied  by  the  followers  of  Wesley 
in  Ceylon. 

Olas. — The  ola,  or  prepared  talapat,  on  which  Singhalese  books 
are  written,  iscutinto  pieces,  about  eighteen  inches  long  and  two  broad. 
Some  of  the  books  contain  two  or  three  hundred  of  these  leaves.  About 
three  inches  from  each  end,  a  space  of  about  an  inch  square  is  left,  and 
a  hole  is  made  in  the  leaf  through  which  a  string"  is  passed.  The  two 
backs  are  two  pieces  of  wood,  so  that  every  book  is  literally  in  boards. 
The  letters  are  cut  into  the  leaf  with  a  sharp  pointed  iron  stile,  or  brass 
stile  with  steel  point,  and  in  order  to  make  the  letters  legible,  a  prepa- 
ration of  charcoal  and  oil  is  smeared  over  them,  by  which  they  become 
black,  while  the  leaf  retains  its  original  colour.  A  great  length  of  time 
is  requisite  to  copy  a  book  of  ordinary  magnitude,  though  those  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  writing,  are  able  to  write  with  great  rapidity.  The 
leaves  are  numbered  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Some  of  their 
books  are  very  valuable,  as  the  edges  of  the  leaves  and  the  whole  of 
the  boards  are  covered  with  gold.  A  native  copyist  is  always  known 
by  his  having  a  very  long  nail  on  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand,  in 
which  a  notch  is  made  for  the  stile,  as  thick  as  a  pen,  to  rest  on  while 
writing. 


APPENDIX.  863 

Yakha  Superstitions. — The  ancient'superstitions  of  the  Yakkas,  though 
long-  stifled,  and  even  apparently  expelled  before  the  rising  and  more 
intellectual  system  of  Gautama,  resumed  their  sway  over  the  minds  of 
the  people,  the  instant  its  influence  began  to  falter  and  ceased  to  be  ex- 
clusive, and  have  now  recovered  their  pristine  vigour.  The  kapuas 
(devil  dancers)  have  each  their  kowila,  or  small  temple,  and  gain  a  live- 
lihood by  prescribing  medicine,  usually  the  commonest  simples,  to 
which  the  ignorance  of  their  patients  lends  a  supernatural  efl'ect.  They 
are  also  soothsayers ;  and  previous  to  their  incantations,  generally  work 
themselves  up  to  a  state  of  inspired  furor,  which  to  their  dupes -ap- 
pears, when  coupled  with  the  dramatic  appliances  these  crafty  sons  of 
hell  unsparingly  call  into  requisition,  a  veritable  embodiment  of  the 
demon  or  demons  to  which  their  destiny  is  linked. 

Influence  of  Buddhism. — There  is  one  point  we  omitted  to  notice  in 
our  sketch  of  Singhalese  art,  the  remarkable  progress  of  the  people  in 
every  branch  of  refinement  that  followed  the  establishment  of  the  re- 
ligion of  Buddha.  They  scarcely  appear,  says  Mr.  Upham,  to  have 
entered  on  the  career  of  civilization,  ere  we  find  them  under  Pandu- 
wasa  and  his  successors,  founding'  cities,  temples,  and  lakes — excava- 
tions rivalling  the  most  remarkable  works  of  antiquity,  and  scarcely 
surpassed  by  the  wonders  of  Egypt — all  duly  recorded  in  annals  pre- 
served for  three  and  twenty  centuries.  From  these,  we  learn  that  a 
people  long"  regarded  in  Europe  as  savages,  were  comparatively  civilized 
before  the  discovery  of  Great  Britain,  and  her  aboriginal  barba- 
rians. No  less  remarkable  is  it  that  we  owe  the  preservation  of  the 
Singhalese  annals  to  the  fact  that  their  religion  was  blended  with 
their  history ;  thus,  as  long  as  Buddhism  flourished,  the  history  is 
precise  ;  when  it  waned,  the  latter  becomes  vague. 

Proverbs  of  the  Singhalese. — I  had  intended  to  give  some  specimens 
of  the  proverbs  and  jatakas  of  the  Singhalese,  but  space  will  not  permit, 
and  I  must  confine  myself  to  remark,  that  nothing  can  bear  a  closer 
affinity  to  the  apophthegms  of  Solomon  than  many  of  these  maxims. 

Excursion  Boats. — The  boats  used  for  excursions  up  the  rivers  of 
Ceylon,  in  general  consist  of  two  canoes,  about  five  feet  apart,  connected 
by  a  small  platform  of  split  bamboos,  over  which  a  roof,  covered  with 
cocoa-nut  leaves,  is  erected ;  the  rowers  are  seated  at  the  extremities 
of  the  craft,  and  when  favoured  by  the  stream,  impel  her  with  con- 
siderable rapidity  ;  but  the  ascent  of  a  Ceylon  river  is  one  of  the  most 
tedious  of  undertakings,  and  is  almost  intolerable  to  an  European. 

Native  Suspension  Bridges. — The  suspension  bridges  of  Ceylon  are 
almost  without  a  rival  for  their  singularity,  simplicity,  and  perilous 
appearance.  They  are  formed  of  the  calamus  rudentum  (wanduru-we- 
wsela),  which  is  occasionally  three  hundred  yards  long",  and  of  uniform 
thickness,  and  being  equally  light  and  tough,  combines  every  qualifi- 
cation for  this  particular  purpose.  A  number  of  canes  being  fastened 
round  two  large  trees,  growing  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a  river  (the 
diameter  of  their  stems  determining  the  breadth  of  the  structure), 
small  slips  of  the  same  material  are  placed  across  to  complete  the  road- 
way. A  cane  is  then  tied  at  the  proper  height  to  form  the  hand  rails, 
which  are  united  to  the  bridge  by  small  sticks  that  form  a  mutual  sup- 


864  APPENDIX. 

port  and  retain  the  rails  in  their  proper  position.  Fastenings  are  then 
let  down  from  all  the  branches  which  project  in  the  direction  of  the 
bridge  across  the  river,  to  diminish  the  vibration  and  support  the  struc- 
ture. The  approach  is  generally  by  ladders  tied  together,  like  the  rest  of 
the  work,  with  jungle  creeping  plants.  Though  the  European  shudders 
as  he  passes  over  these  aerial  bridges,  the  natives  trip  confidently 
along  them  with  the  heaviest  pingo  loads,  such  is  their  flexibility  of 
limb. 

Major  Rogers. — The  late  Major  Rogers,  the  far-famed  elephant  shot, 
had  killed  his  two  thousand  elephants  before  he  ceased  to  count  the  num- 
ber he  had  slain,  and  though  he  had  been  a  thousand  times  within  an  inch 
of  death,  and  several  times  grated,  miraculously  escaped  from  that  source 
of  danger  ;  yet  was  it  reserved  for  him  to  fall  before  a  stroke  of  light- 
ning, a  visitation   seldom   fatal   in   Ceylon.     The  manners    of  Major 
Rogers  bordered  on  those  of  a  lady  in  refinement,  yet  so  strong  was 
his  passion  for  elephant  shooting,   that  he  would  apply  the  reproach  of 
the  Roman  to  himself,  if  he  lost  a  day,  without  bearing  a  trophy  of  some 
sort  home  with  him ;   his  night's  residence  was   often  under  a  few 
heaped  up  logs  of  wood,  the  roof  of  a  native  hut,  or  better  still,  a  ban- 
yan tree.     The  interior  of  his  house  contained  an  endless  variety  of 
trophies.     Once,  while  bathing  in  a  river,  after  a  shooting  excursion, 
his  clothes  were  carried  off  by  monkeys,  which  habilitated  themselves 
as  well  as  they  could  in  them,  and  decamped,  leaving  the  luckless 
sportsman  in  puris  naturalibus,  under  a  tropical  sun,  nor  was  he  rescued 
until  he  had  lain  up  to  the  neck  in  water  for  several  hours,  when  his 
friends  at  length  proceeded  in  search  of  him.   The  average  annual  num- 
ber of  deaths  caused  by  elephants   is  about  twelve,  that  by  snakes 
fifteen  ;  the  latter  often  arise  from  the  reptile  entering  houses  when 
their  holes  have  been  filled  by  the  rains,  or  by  creeping  through  a  win- 
dow when  searching  for  rats  and  lizards,  concealed  in  the  cocoa-nut  leaf 
thatch. 

Winds,  Rains,  Mists. — The  south-west  wind  is  felt  more  generally 
over  the  island,  and  prevails  more  steadily  than  the  north-east :  thus 
at  Colombo  and  Trincomalee,  on  the  opposite  shores,  the  south-west 
wind  blows  almost  constantly  for  five  months  in  succession ;  but  the 
north-east  hardly  half  the  time  at  the  former  that  it  does  at  the  latter 
place.  The  south-west  wind  does  not  reach  Trincomalee  till  it  has 
crossed  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  and  passed  over  a  great  extent  of 
low  and  unwholesome  country  ;  it  is  therefore  injurious,  but  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  north-east  monsoon,  this  place  is  comparatively 
healthy.  At  Jaffna,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  higher  than  else- 
where, from  the  district  being  free  from  wood  and  cultivated,  and  the 
land  wind,  instead  of  blowing  over  a  green  surface  of  shaded  forest, 
passes  along  the  sandy  beach  and  the  low  sandy  tract  of  the  western 
coast ;  yet  the  climate  is  healthy.  The  western  coast,  unlike  any 
other,  is  seldom  a  month  without  rain,  hence  it  is  seldom  parched, 
and  its  aspect  is  so  perpetually  fresh  and  verdant,  as  to  excite  the  ad- 
miration of  strangers  from  less  favoured  parts  of  India.  The  propor- 
tion of  rain  falling  in  Ceylon  is  three  or  four  times  as  great  as  that  in 
England.  At  times,  after  sunrise,  the  mists  that  have  formed  in  the 
higher  mountain  hollows  of  the  interior  are  displaced  by  the  wind,  and 
poured  in  immense  volumes  into  the  warmer  valleys,  producing  a  sud- 


APPENDIX. 


865 


den  dullness  and  extreme  humidity  of  air,  far  from  agreeable,  together 
with  an  extraordinary  reduction  of  temperature. 

Uclanevra  and  Yattineura. — The  Rattes  of  Udaneura  and  Yattineura 
appear  to  have  been  specialities  under  the  Kandian  kings,  and  from 
their  population  and  fruitfulness,  and  the  circumstance  that  they  were 
the  seats  of  the  principal  nobles,  were  privileged  above  the  other 
provinces,  and  their  governor  was  always  selected  out  of  their  own 
body.  Hence  the  old  Kandian  apophthegm,  that  if  they  wanted 
a  king,  they  might  take  any  man  of  either  ratte  from  the  plough,  and 
after  submitting  him  to  an  ablution,  he  would  from  his  quality  and 
descent,  make  a  competent  ruler. 

Dietetics.— -By  those  familiar  with  the  climate  of  Ceylon,  a  generous 
diet,  courage,  and  sufficient  exercise,  both  for  body  and  mind,  are  said 
to  be  the  only  requisites  for  health  and  enjoyment.  Chinese  um- 
brellas sold  at  every  bazaar,  and  very  cheap,  are  an  effectual  protection 
against  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  being  formed  of  paper,  covered  with 
thick  black  varnish,  are  easily  carried. 

Eastern  Road. — The  eastern  road  from  Dambool  to  Trincomalee  was 
traced,  under  the  direction  of  Captain  Atchison,  from  the  tops  of  trees. 
In  his  report,  he  remarks,  that  the  ruins  of  tanks,  wihares,  deserted 
villages,  &c.  prove  that  the  vast  wilderness  of  beautiful  and  valuable 
forest  trees  through  which  the  road  passes,  heretofore  supposed  a  track- 
less desert,  fatal  to  the  existence  of  man,  and  destitute  of  water  and  in- 
habitants, once  contained  a  considerable  population,  by  whose  labours 
an  extensive  tract  of  irrigated  lands  was  regularly  cultivated. 

Ganga  Bandera. — The  offerings  made  to  the  Ganga  Bandera,  one  of 
the  malignant  spirits  of  Ceylon,  comprise  the  formation  of  a  miniature 
canoe,  ornamented  with  a  canopy  of  cocoa-nut  leaves  ;  under  these  are 
placed  betel,  rice,  flowers,  &c.  and  such  other  articles  as  may  be  thought 
acceptable  to  the  fiend.  After  certain  ceremonies,  the  trail  bark  is 
launched  upon  the  nearest  river,  where  several  may  be  seen  gliding- 
down  the  stream  or  aground  on  the  sand-banks. 

Varieties  of  hue  in  the  Maritime  Districts. — The  great  variety  of 
hue,  feature  and  dress,  observable  among*  the  people  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  as  compared  with  the  uniformity  of  those  of  the  interior,  is 
one  of  the  first  objects  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  stranger.  In  the 
former  every  shade  from  white  to  the  deepest  black  prevails.  The  Por- 
tuguese, who  have  sprung  from  intermarriages  with  the  natives,  have 
long  arrived  at  the  latter  stage,  and  the  Dutch  intermixture  is  gradu- 
ally yielding  to  the  same  influence.  The  complexion  of  the  Kandians 
is  more  healthy  than  that  of  the  lowlanders,  but  that  of  the  latter  is  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  the  European  cross,  and  even  the  dingy  white  of  many 
of  the  European  residents. 

Rest- Houses. — The  rest-houses  of  Ceylon,  there  called  ambulams,  in 
India  choultries,  are  subject  to  the  control  of  Government,  and  under 
the  management  of  post-holders,  who  receive  a  certain  per  centage  on 
every  article  they  supply  to  the  traveller.  They  vary  greatly  in  accom- 
modation ;  those  in  the  remoter  districts  are  mere  mud  huts,  the  floors 
of  which  are  in  general  coated  with  cow  dung  to  keep  off  insects,  and 
here  the  traveller  is  subject  to  a  wholesome  self-denial.     In  the  more 

3    K 


866  APPENDIX. 

accessible  districts,  comparative  comfort  is  within  the  reach  of  those 
who  have  a  large  purse,  and  even  to  those  who  love  a  simple  fare. 
Mosquito  curtains  are  indispensable  to  the  traveller  who  takes  his  bed 
with  him,  not  only  to  keep  off  that  plague  of  the  tropics,  but  to  neu- 
tralise the  malaria  of  the  unhealthy  districts. 

Singhalese  Pottery.' — The  pottery  of  Ceylon,  though  unrivalled  for 
elegance  of  form,  is  extremely  inconvenient  from  its  brittle  tendency, 
and  the  impossibility  of  detecting  impurities  in  vessels  of  the  heightthey 
generally  run,  and  with  such  narrow  necks,  is  a  difficulty  which  is  only 
equalled  by  the  impossibility  of  cleaning  them  when  discovered. 

Parasites.  —  The  creeping  and  parasitical  plants  of  Ceylon  are  of 
extraordinary  magnitude  and  form,  and  as  soon  as  ever  they  have  fairly 
clasped  the  loftiest  trees  in  their  embrace,  the  latter  exhibit  unmistake- 
able  signs  of  despair  and  decay.  The  crisis  is  hastened  by  the  insect 
tribes,  till  at  last  the  burly  wonder  of  the  vegetable  world  yields  at  the 
first  touch  of  the  elephant,  or  even  the  pigmy  hand  of  man. 

Fees  to  Medical  Practitioners. — The  mode  of  remuneration  to  a  me- 
dical practitioner  in  the  Kandian  country,  though  calculated  to  draw 
forth  his  utmost  skill,  shews  the  suspicion  with  which  ignorance 
clothes  his  profession,  and  the  little  reliance  he  has  upon  the  gratitude 
of  the  patient  for  a  fitting  gratuity.  In  every  case  a  deposit  is  made  of 
the  fee,  which  is  seldom  in  money  ;  this  is  returned  in  case  of  failure, 
except  in  extreme  cases. 

Kalpauruksha. — An  almost  obsolete  Buddhist  festival,  called  Kal- 
pauruksha,  is  said  to  be  occasionally  celebrated  in  Ceylon.  The  tree  of 
that  name  figures  in  their  account  of  the  creation.  For  the  purpose  of 
the  festival  a  substitute  is  procured  from  the  forests,  which  on  being 
fixed  in  the  ground,  is  decked  with  the  motley  offering's  of  the  people, 
after  which  the  priests  address  them  in  a  suitable  discourse. 

Tides. — The  rise  of  the  tides  in  Ceylon  hardly  exceeds  three  feet,  and 
the  harbours  are  inlets  of  the  sea,  in  no  way  depending  upon  the  tides, 
and  altogether  unconnected  with  the  rivers. 

Indian  History. — The  Mahawanse,  besides  containing  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  Singhalese  annals,  includes  fragments  of  Indian  history, 
more  especially  of  the  period  when  Buddhism  was  the  prevailing  reli- 
gion of  Hindostan  ;  it  also  alludes  to  the  Buddhist  prince,  contemporary 
with  Alexander  the  Great,  and  Seleucus,  called  Sandracottus  in  the 
Greek,  Chandragupta  in  the  Sanscrit,  and  Chandagutta  in  the  Pali 
annals.  The  reason  of  this  solitary  reference  to  continental  history  is 
to  be  found  in  the  cessation  of  intercourse  between  the  two  countries  on 
the  extinction  of  Buddhism  in  India. 

Native  Hyperbole. — The  specific  exaggerations  occurring  in  the 
Singhalese  annals,  may  be  considered  perhaps  nothing  more  than  the 
terms  used  to  denote  general  magnitude ;  thus  laksha  would  be  syno- 
nymous with  our  word  countless,  &c. 

History  of  the  Buddhas  antecedent  to  Gautama. — From  the  circum- 
stance that  every  Buddha  has,  on  arriving  at  the  Buddhahood,  been  in- 
vested by  his  followers  with  the  infinite  titles  of  his  predecessors,  and 
other  causes  equally  detrimental  to  a  clear  solution  of  uncertainty,  their 
respective  histories  are  exceedingly  vague  and  obscure,  though  their 


APPENDIX.  867 

parentage  and  places  of  birth  are  handed  down,  as  well  as  the  princes 
their  protectors  ;  and  the  origin  of  each  is  traced  through  such  count- 
less involutions,  that  sober  reason  gives  up  in  despair  the  attempt  to 
trace  anything  in  the  shape  of  consistency,  and  with  tolerable  composure 
learns  that  the  Buddhas  are  incomprehensible  ;  that  their  doctrines  are 
incomprehensible,  and  that  the  magnitude  of  the  fruits  of  faith  to  those 
who  have  faith  in  this  incomprehensible,  is  also  incomprehensible. 

Extracts  from  the  Damma  Padan. — As  the  bee  collects  nectar  and 
departs  without  injuring  the  beauty  or  the  odour  of  the  flowers,  so  the 
sage  sojourns  among  men  ;  he  views  their  ways,  and  learns  wisdom 
from  their  folly. — As  the  lily  growing  from  a  heap  of  manure  acciden- 
tally cast  upon  the  highway  delights  the  soil  with  the  delicacy  of  its 
fragrance,  so  the  wise,  the  disciples  of  the  all -perfect  Buddha  shine 
among  the  foolish,  and  are  grateful  to  the  gods. — The  wise  man  becomes 
so  by  the  consciousness  of  his  own  folly,  but  the  foolish  is  rendered 
more  so  by  his  pretensions  to  wisdom. — True  nobility  is  not  of  one's 
parentage  but  of  a  virtuous  and  noble  soul. — That  is  the  most  skilful  of 
charioteers,  who  can  guide  the  chariot  of  his  own  anger. — There  is  no 
fire  so  fierce  as  lust ;  nothing  has  a  grasp  so  pertinacious  as  hatred  ;  no 
net  can  be  compared  with  folly,  and  no  flood  is  so  rapid  as  desire. — Sin 
is  frequently  clothed  in  the  garb  of  virtue,  but  its  effects  unclothe  it. — 
He  is  a  more  noble  warrior  who  conquers  himself  than  the  warrior  who, 
in  the  field  of  battle,  overcomes  thousands  of  thousands. — As  the  solid 
rock  stands  unshaken  by  the  storm,  so  the  wise  man  is  unmoved  by 
contempt  or  applause. — The  worldly-minded  man  who  applauds  religion 
and  understands  its  precepts,  but  does  not  practise  them,  is  like  the 
herdsman  of  another's  cattle  ;  he  tends  the  flock,  but  receives  not  their 
produce. — Religion  is  the  path  of  immortality ;  irrelig'ion  the  path  of 
death. — The  righteous  die  not,  but  the  wicked  are  even  now  as  dead. — 
As  a  man  elevated  upon  a  mountain  surveys  in  calmness  the  plains  below, 
so  does  the  virtuous  man  behold  without  envy  the  actions  of  the  sinful 
multitude. — Let  man  perforin  those  actions  of  which  futurity  will  never 
cause  him  to  repent. 

Kandian  Cordon.— No  slight  auxiliary  of  the  cordon  formed  by  the 
Kandian  kings  around  their  territories  for  the  exclusion  of  the  European 
invader,  was  the  miasm  emitted  from  the  rank  veg-etation  around,  which 
give  rise  to  a  deadly  fever  that  few  could  long  withstand. 

The  Portuguese  Policy. — The  Portuguese,  after  they  had  wrested  the 
trade  of  Ceylon  from  the  Indo-Moors  and  Arabians  by  their  naval  supe- 
riority, for  they  levied  heavy  duties  on  the  Indian  merchants,  appear 
to  have  chiefly  aimed  at  procuring  rich  exports  of  its  productions,  on  the 
sale  of  which  depended  the  revenues  of  the  government  and  its  ser- 
vants, but  they  interfered  little  in  the  civil  administration  of  the  colony. 
The  institutions,  laws  and  customs  of  the  natives,  their  distinctions  of 
rank,  and  even  their  habits  and  public  ceremonies  were  preserved  by 
them  with  a  most  jealous  care,  and  even  imitated,  yet  proselytism  was 
followed  with  an  activity  and  perseverance  their  successors  dare  not 
attempt.  Thus  Portugal,  too  sparely  populated  to  supply  the  demand 
for  troops  for  the  defence  of  the  island,  by  permitting  intermarriages 
between  her  troops  and  the  native  women,  raised  an  adequate  force 
with  little  or  no  expense,  but  no  positive  reliance  could  be  placed  on  such 

3   K   2 


868  APPENDIX. 

troops.  Their  pride  and  insolence,  joined  to  this  policy,  accelerated 
their  fall ;  all  manual  labour  was  by  them  considered  degradation,  and 
every  sort  of  labour  was  consigned  to  slaves.  A  Portuguese  considered 
himself  degraded  by  anything  but  a  military  employment.  They  did 
not  even  entirely  man  their  own  ships.  This  was  all  very  well  as  long 
as  they  had  native  enemies  to  contend  against,  but  when  they  had  to 
encounter  the  Dutch,  their  inferiority  was  at  once  apparent. 

Dutch  Policy. — Van  Imhoff  was  the  first  to  permit  a  trade  between 
the  ports  of  Ceylon  and  India,  and  thus  to  raise  a  custom's  revenue  in 
the  island.  Land  customs,  or  Alfandigo,  was  previously  the  chief  item 
of  revenue. 

Burghers. — The  burghers  of  Dutch  descent  were  ehiefly  reduced  in 
circumstances  from  losing  their  employments  after  the  conquest  of  the 
island  by  the  British,  At  the  same  time  prices  rose  to  an  extravagant 
rate,  and  brought  many  of  them  to  destitution.  Many  of  them  took 
to  trade,  but  soon  found  the  native  capitalists,  who  now  entered  the 
field  of  competition,  dangerous  competitors,  for  their  wants  being 
fewer,  and  having-  the  advantage  both  in  buying  and  selling,  they  could 
afford  to  trade  upon  much  smaller  profits.  They  have  now  for  some 
years  been  gradually  improving  in  circumstances ;  full  employment  is 
found  for  all  of  them  willing  to  accept  it,  and  this  is  only  fitting  towards  a 
people,  whose  traditions  and  sympathies  are  so  interwoven  with  our  own. 

Atheology  of  Buddhisvi.—Mr.  Upham  justly  remarks,  that  notwith- 
standing the  supposed  atheology  and  materialism  of  the  Buddhistical 
system,  Maha  Brahma  is  the  supreme  of  the  universe,  when  a  Buddha 
is  not  living  in  the  Kalpe ;  and  though  a  Buddha  is  sometimes  want- 
ing, a  Maha  Brahma  is  always  to  be  found  ;  moreover,  its  books  teach 
that  both  in  the  Brahma-Loka  and  the  Asooi'ia-Loka  are  refuge  heavens 
for  souls  progressing  from  the  metempsychosis  towards  Nirwane, 
wherein  they  are  preserved  from  any  catastrophe,  which,  during  the 
termination  of  a  Kalpe,  may  occur  to  the  Sakwalla,  or  world  at  large. 
This  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Romish  purgatory,  or  our  hades.  In 
another  place  he  remarks,  that  nothing  can  more  fully  mark  the  primi- 
tive character  and  the  unquestionable  antiquity  of  Buddhism  than  the 
potency  and  attributes  given  to  the  evil  spirit,  Wasawartymarya  and 
his  Asoorias.  The  latter,  like  the  Titans  of  Greece,  are  unmixedly  evil 
and  uniform  enemies  of  the  Supreme,  but  the  great  enemy  of  the  Buddha 
is  made  to  attend  his  assembly,  and  offer  his  homage. 

Cup  of  Buddha. — The  legend  of  the  cup  of  Buddha  is  as  follows  : — 
When  Gautama  became  Buddha,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  have 
a  drinking  vessel  of  a  particular  kind;  in  consequence,  the  four  gods 
ruling- over  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  Patine,  Weebeeshana,  Saman, 
and  Kandi  Kumara,  made  each  of  them  one  and  brought  it  to  Buddha, 
upon  which  he  told  them  that  one  was  enough,  and  desired  them  to  set 
them  one  on  top  of  the  other,  which  they  did,  and  so  they  became  one. 

Maitre  Buddha. — The  fourth  heaven,  Toisite,  being  the  abode  of  the 
fifth  expected  Buddha,  Maitre,  all  who  are  born  into  his  heaven  will 
appear  on  earth  with  him,  and  enter  into  Niwane.  Thus  it  becomes  an 
object  of  the  most  intense  desire  to  a  believer  of  Gautama. 

Ruwanwelle  Ddgobah.— The  description  of  the  Ruwanwelle  ddgobah 
in  the  Raja  Ratnacari,  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  temple  of  Bel  in 


APPENDIX.  869 

the  Apocrypha.  If  we  recall  the  whole  account,  setting  forth  the  nightly 
visits  of  the  priests  and  their  wives  and  children,  to  feed  on  the  viands 
offered  to  Bel,  and  the  entrance,  so  concealed,  as  to  be  even  unknown  to 
the  king,  we  shall  see  that  it  was  built  in  conformity  with  t!.<j  practice 
of  the  Buddhist  priests,  and  the  formation  of  their  temples.  It  has  been 
conjectured,  that  the  well  known  Egyptian  colossi  of  the  Memnonian 
plains  are  Buddhist  forms.  The  dragon  form  of  Bel  and  of  Dagon,  are 
perfectly  descriptive  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Nagas  or  snake  deities 
of  Buddhism. 

C«j)itatio?i  Taxes. — There  were  formerly  several  sort  of  capitation 
taxes  in  Ceylon,  one  called  Ouliam  was  of  a  most  oppressive  nature, 
and  constantly  drove  the  Moormen  and  Chetties  subject  to  it  into  the 
Kandian  territories.  It  practically  amounted  to  a  tax  on  labour,  and 
was  levied  in  a  manner  that  forbade  the  person  affected  by  it,  from 
alleviating  the  burthen  by  transferring  any  portion  of  the  amount  to 
the  article  he  produced,  or  to  his  employer,  while  taking  ordinary 
casualties  into  account,  it  abstracted  one-seventh  of  his  income,  and 
even  if  paid  in  labour,  abstracted  an  equal  share  of  his  industry.  Another 
sort  of  capitation  tax,  was  the  joie  or  jewel  tax,  which  was  chiefly 
levied  on  the  people  of  the  northern  and  eastern  districts,  and  though 
causing  a  large  amount  of  trouble  and  litigation  to  the  executive,  like 
the  Ouliam,  brought  no  corresponding  revenue  to  the  Government. 
These  taxes  have  been  long  abolished. 

Civil  Fund. — The  civil  fund  of  Ceylon  was  established  by  Mr.  North, 
with  a  view  to  provide  a  competency  for  retired  civil  servants ;  it  was 
raised  partly  from  stoppages  from  the  pay  of  civil  servants,  the  interest 
of  the  same  being  annually  added  to  the  principal,  and  partly  by  a 
contribution  from  Government.  Of  this  fund  the  Secretary  to  Govern- 
ment, the  President  to  the  Board  of  Revenue,  and  three  other  persons 
were  trustees.  By  virtue  of  these  regulations  all  civil  servants,  once 
in  receipt  of  £2000  per  annum,  were  entitled  to  £600  per  annum  on  re- 
tiring; all  receiving  £1500  to  £500.     It  is  now  abolished. 

Arula  Tenure. — The  term  Anda  refers  to  fields  where  the  seed-corn  is 
first  taken  out  of  the  crop,  and  then  the  Government  share,  the  re- 
mainder being  divided  between  the  owner  and  the  cultivator.  The  same 
rule  is  observed  in  those  fields  which  pay  to  Government  any  larger  share 
than  one-tenth.  But  in  those  which  pay  one-tenth,  and^are  called  otto 
fields,  the  Government  is  entitled  to  that  share,  previous  to  any  deduc- 
tion being  made  for  seed.  The  whole  remaining  nine-tenths  are  divided 
into  two  equal  shares  between  the  owner  and  the  cultivator.  The  seed- 
corn  in  some  instances  belongs  to  a  third  person,  who  receives  not 
onky  the  quantity  supplied  by  him,  but  something  additional  in  com- 
pensation for  its  use. 

Mr.  Bertolacci. — Much  of  the  valuable  information  contained  in  Sir 
E.  Tennant's  report,  is  based  on  that  contained  in  Mr.  Bertolacci's  ad- 
mirable work  on  the  finance  and  commerce  of  Ceylon  published  in 
1817.  In  this  work  the  acuteness  and  intelligence  of  the  Italian  in  the 
field  of  economical  science,  is  strikingly  conspicuous. 

Additional  names  of  Ceylon. — Besides  the  names  given  to  Ceylon  in 
pp.  1 — 3,  there  may  be  added  Ilangei,  the  Malabar  name  ;  Teva  Lanka, 
tho  Siamese ;  Lankapoore,  the  Javanese ;  all  from  the  Sanscrit  word 


870  APPENDIX. 

Lanka,  holy  or  resplendent.     The   Burmese  call  it  Theho  or  Zehoo  Te- 
nasserim,  the  land  of  delights. 

Egyptian  Commerce  with  Ceylon  under  the  Emperors. — The  Egyptian 
fleet  of  12CCvessels  sailed  annually  from  Myos  Hormos  (a  port  on  the 
Red  Sea)  to  the  ports  of  Musiris  and  Borace  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and 
from  thence  to  Ceylon,  the  limit  of  their  navigation.  Hither  were, 
therefore,  brought  the  fine  cloths  and  other  costly  commodities  of  Ben- 
gal, Orissa,  the  Carnatic,  China,  and  the  eastern  islands,  which  were 
exchanged  for  gold,  silver,  or  European  manufactures.  In  December  or 
January  the  fleet  sailed  from  Ceylon  on  its  return  to  Egypt,  laden  with 
silks,  muslins,  spices,  and  aromatics,  pearls  and  precious  stones.  When 
the  Greeks  lost  the  trade,  it  was  for  some  time  engrossed  by  the  Per- 
sians at  Ormuz. 

Oils. — Ceylon  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  oils  it  produces. 
Besides  those  already  mentioned  there  may  be  added  the  j^unnai, 
turpentine,  makkool,  koola,  and  castor. 

Chunk  Fishery. — The  chank  fishery  once  employed  600  divers,  and  a 
supervisor  was  employed  by  Government.  There  are  two  sorts  of  chanks, 
red  and  white,  the  one  called  payel,  the  other  patty. 

Postal  Communication. — The  geographical  position  of  Ceylon  has 
rendered  it  a  point  of  signal  importance  to  the  great  arrangements  now 
in  process  of  formation  for  the  establishment  of  improved  postal  com- 
munication between  Great  Britain  and  the  East  on  the  one  part,  and  the 
inter-colonial  communication  on  the  other.  Ceylon  is  already  the 
centre  of  operations  for  the  mails  from  China,  the  Straits  settlements, 
Beng-al,  Madras,  as  well  as  of  the  French,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  posses- 
sions of  Pondicherry,  Java,  Manilla,  &c,  and  when  steam  communica- 
tion shall  have  been  opened  with  the  Australian  colonies  (intercourse 
between  the  two  countries  is  now  very  indirect,  being  through  Calcutta), 
its  importance  will  be  proportionably  apparent.  Letters  are  sent  to  India 
overland,  as  well  as  by  the  steamers,  and  are  conveyed  for  eight  months 
of  the  year  through  Jaffna  and  Point  Pedro,  and  by  catamarans  to  Point 
Kalymere  on  the  opposite  coast,  and  for  the  other  four  months  through 
Manaar  and  Talmanaar,  whence  they  are  passed  over  in  hired  boats  to 
Ramisseram,  and  reach  Madras  in  from  eight  to  ten  days,  and  Calcutta 
and  Bombay  in  from  seventeen  to  twenty  days.  Letters  by  the  steamers 
reach  Madras  in  three  and  Calcutta  in  nine  days  from  Galle,  and  Bom- 
oay  in  five  days  from  ditto.  Letters  from  and  to  Mauritius  are  sent  in 
schooners  from  Galle,  as  opportunity  offers,  or  by  vessels  in  search  of 
freight.  Letters  for  the  Cape  are  sent  by  homeward  bound  vessels. 
The  inland  communication  is  a  daily  one  between  Colombo  and  all  parts 
of  the  island,  as  well  as  between  all  the  chief  stations  one  with  the 
other.  From  Kandy  to  Trincomalee  the  mails  are  conveyed  by  foot 
messengers,  and  in  like  manner  from  Matura  to  Tangalle  and  Ham- 
bantotte  and  from  Colombo  to  Jaffna,  the  passage  between  which  occu- 
pies four  days,  owing  to  the  absence  of  European  superintendence,  the 
presence  of  wild  animals  and  the  deep  streams  intersecting  the  route. 
The  chief  item  of  the  postage  revenue  is  the  overland  correspondence, 
the  local  correspondence  being  necessarily  confined 'in  great  measure  to 
Europeans,  indeed,  the  natives  are  rather  a  hindrance  than  otherwise, 
seldom  prepaying  their  letters,  which  thus  become  dead  letters.  The 
Postmaster-General  has  recently  been  raised  to  the  second  class  of  the 
civil  service  with  a  salary  of  £650,  in  lieu  of  £450  as  formerly ;  he  has 


APPENDIX.  871 

the  management  of  the  mails  of  the  Western  Province,  and  the  overland 
correspondence  ;  those  of  the  Central  are  under  his  deputy,  and  those  of 
the  other  provinces  are  controlled  by  their  respective  Government  agents 
in  communication  with  him. 

Farther  Particulars  on  the  localities  of  Coffee  Estates.— The  quan- 
tity of  land  brought  under  coffee  cultivation  by  European  capitalists 
since  1834,  will  probably  exceed  120,000  acres ;  but  lands  have  been 
purchased  with  the  intention  of  being  so  employed  to  the  extent  of 
400,000  acres.  In  nearly  every  particular  the  cultivation,  though  on 
this  extended  scale,  has  been  essentially  an  experiment.  The  possibility 
of  procuring  labour,  the  means  of  transport,  the  quality  of  the  crop  and 
its  favour  in  the  home  market,  were  all  points  to  be  ascertained  by  ex- 
perience, equally  with  the  climate,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  geniality 
of  the  temperature,  the  treatment  of  the  plant  and  its  probable  duration, 
as  no  other  producing  country  presented  a  direct  analogy  either  in  the 
character  of  these  requisites,  or  in  the  proportion  of  their  combination. 
Soils  apparently  favourable  were  cleared  and  planted,  but  abandoned 
after  proofs  of  unfitness.  The  richest  grass  land  generally  failed  to 
produce  a  crop  of  coffee,  and  it  is  only  forest  land,  not  lying  over  clay 
or  any  impervious  basis,  that  can  be  said  to  succeed.  The  same  land  has 
been  cleared  in  the  lower  ranges  of  hills  and  converted  into  plantations, 
but  though  the  coffee  tree  grew  luxuriantly  and  rapidly,  it  failed  to 
yield  fruit  in  proportion,  and  soon  ceased  to  bear,  demonstrating  the 
necessity  of  altitude  and  its  accompaniments  of  moisture  and  tempera- 
ture. From  the  native  coffee  growing  best  under  the  shade  of  other 
trees,  the  early  plantations  were  so  formed,  but  contrary  to  calculation 
the  result  was  unsatisfactory,  and  the  trees  were  removed.  A  combi- 
nation of  rich  soil,  a  lofty  elevation,  a  warm  sun  and  regular  rains,  have 
now  been  ascertained  to  be  the  main  desiderata  :  but  even  with  these 
combined,  the  estates  on  different  aspects  of  the  same  mountain, 
though  with  equal  soil,  and,  to  all  appearance,  alike  in  climate  and 
temperature,  have  been  found  to  exhibit  totally  different  results  ;  those 
to  the  north-east  and  south-west  having  the  full  advantage  of  the  rains 
in  the  two  monsoons,  while  those  of  the  opposite  extremes  are  partially 
deprived  of  it.  Again,  some  estates  with  every  favour  of  altitude  and 
moisture  have  been  swept  by  untimely  winds  to  the  destruction  of  the 
trees,  and  in  some  districts  which  are  affected  only  by  one  monsoon, 
and  lose  the  benefit  of  another,  the  coffee,  though  in  external  appear- 
ance equal  in  every  particular  to  the  best,  has  been  found  so  deficient  in 
solidity  after  being  cleared  of  the  pulp,  as  to  require  one-third  more  by 
measurement  to  make  a  given  weight,  the  difference  being  neverthe- 
less chargeable  with  a  due  proportion  of  every  attendant  expense.  Ex- 
perience has  shewn  that  these,  and  an  infinity  of  other  and  minuter 
particulars,  each  more  or  less  affecting  the  cost  of  production,  and  the 
quality  and  price  of  the  produce,  are  incident  to  particular  localities,  and 
the  discovery  led  to  the  total  or  partial  abandonment  of  the  ill-situated 
estates,  and  the  proportionate  extension  of  those  positions  ascertained 
to  be  more  favoured,  and  as  the  gross  quantity  of  land  already  brought 
under  coffee  cultivation,  or  purchased  with  a  view  to  it,  bears  but  a 
small  proportion  to  the  great  extent  now  known  to  be  suitable  to  it,  but 
hitherto  unapplied,  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude  not  merely  that 
an  enhanced  value  has  been  given  by  the  experiment  to  those  situations 


872  APPENDIX. 

which  enjoy  the  requisite  combination  of  advantages,  but  that  these  arc 
of  so  considerable  an  expanse  as  to  present  an  ample  field  for  investment, 
and  to  supply  the  fullest  demand  which  is  likely  to  arise  in  the  European 
market  for  the  coffee  of  Ceylon.  The  increased  difficulty  till  lately  felt 
of  procuring1  a  continuous  supply  of  Tamul  labourers,  and  the  detention 
that  ensued  in  the  conveyance  of  coffee  to  Colombo  for  shipment,  owing 
to  the  scarcity  of  bullock  bandies,  an  evil  far  from  entirely  obviated 
at  present,  together  with  the  tightness  of  the  money  market  at  home, 
and  the  unsettled  state  of  the  question  of  protection  have,  till  lately, 
so  greatly  embarrassed  the  coffee  planter,  that  he  ceased  to  extend  his 
operations  in  any  way. 

The  character  of  Ceylon  coffee  is  rapidly  rising  on  the  Continent  as 
well  as  in  England,  and  orders  have  been  executed  on  French  account, 
although  from  the  absence  of  French  vessels,  the  coffee  has  to  be  first 
shipped  to  Pondicherry.  Native  coffee  is  still  broug'ht  to  market  in 
small  quantities,  but  during  the  last  three  years,  its  export  has  greatly 
diminished,  owing  to  its  indifferent  quality  and  low  price  in  the  London 
market.  This  is  ascribable  to  the  inaptitude  of  the  native  character  for 
conducting  its  cultivation  with  energy  and  success.  Their  plants  are 
never  pruned  or  manured,  and  the  produce  is  usually  sold  on  the  tree 
by  anticipation  to  Moormen  pedlars,  who  hasten  to  gather  it  before  it 
is  ripe,  lest  it  should  be  pillaged  if  left  to  arrive  at  maturity.  The 
fruit  is  thus  neglected  during  its  growth,  and  being  collected  prema- 
turely, it  never  attains  its  due  size  and  weight ;  in  addition  to  which,  it 
is  so  injured  subsequently  in  colour  and  appearance  by  its  careless  and 
imperfect  preparation  for  the  market,  that  it  seldom  brings  a  price  more 
than  half  that  of  plantation  coffee,  and  has  fallen  gradually  in  value 
from  905  per  cwt.  in  1840  to  28s  per  cwt.  in  1847.  A  few  Singhalese 
headmen  have,  within  the  last  few  years  established  small  coffee  plan- 
tations in  imitation  of  the  English,  but  as  the  situation  and  soil  were  not 
chosen  with  skill  and  experience,  they  have  not  been  altogether  suc- 
cessful, which  is  the  more  to  be  deplored,  as  discouragements,  which 
would  scarcely  affect  a  more  energetic  race,  are  all  but  fatal  to  enterprise 
amongst  a  people  so  apathetic. 

Defences  of  Colombo. — The  Dutch  improved  the  defences  of  Colombo 
after' a  plan  suggested  by  Coehorn,  in  which  every  advantage  was  taken 
of  the  rocky  nature  of  the  ground  towards  the  sea,  and  of  the  lake  on 
the  land  side,  which  supplies  the  ditch  with  water  by  means  of  sluices, 
and,  skirting  the  glacis,  all  but  joins  the  sea  on  both  sides,  being  only 
separated  from  it  at  those  points  by  a  causeway,  by  cutting  through 
which,  and  opening  the  sluices,  the  fort  can  be  completely  insulated. 
There  are  but  few  places  on  the  sea-side  where  boats  can  land  with 
safety,  on  account  of  the  rocks  and  a  high  surf  always  running  more 
or  less,  except  at  the  common  landing-place  in  the  harbour,  which  is  de- 
fended by  strong  batteries ;  and  the  swell  in  crossing  the  bar  at  its 
mouth  is  dangerous  for  common  boats  at  most  times.  There  is  no  hill 
or  high  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  sufficiently  elevated  to  command 
the  place,  but  the  rising  on  the  Galle  face  esplanade  rendered  it  neces- 
sary that  the  bastions  on  that  side  should  be  raised  beyond  the  usual 
height,  which  required  the  construction  of  counter-guards  to  cover  the 
lower  part  of  their  escarps,  and  they  so  far  remedy  this  defect,  affording 
moreover  a  second  tier  of  guns.    The  works  of  the  fort  are  about  two 


APPENDIX.  873 

miles  in  extent,  containing  four  large  bastions  on  the  land  side,  with 
their  counter-guards  and  ravelins,  and  seven  strong  batteries  towards 
the  sea  adapted  to  the  rocky  line  of  the  coast.  They  are  capable  of 
mounting  300  pieces  of  ordnance  of  all  descriptions,  although  only 
about  half  that  number  are  mounted  in  times  of  peace.  The  want  of 
bomb-proof  buildings  and  casements  is  the  chief  deficiency  in  the 
defences  of  the  fort,  and  one  which  would  be  seriously  felt  in  the  event 
of  a  bombardment  from  large  ships,  or  in  a  siege.  At  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  fort  is  the  English  burying  ground,  enclosed  by  a  strong 
fence  of  bamboos,  over  which  a  sentinel  is  placed.  The  graves  are  here 
decorated  with  geraniums  and  various  flowers.  The  water  of  the  wells 
in  the  houses  within  the  fort  is  so  brackish  as  to  be  unfit  to  drink  or  for 
culinary  purposes,  and  the  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  water  from 
springs  outside  the  fort  by  puckalles. 

Vedduhs. — In  a  work  recently  published,  it  is  mentioned,  that  the 
Singhalese  were  frequently  accustomed  to  shoot  the  Veddahs  for 
amusement,  and  a  party  was  actually  proposed  to  be  formed  during  Sir 
W.  Horton's  government  for  this  object. 

The  Elephant . finder. — The  elephant  finder  is  personally  acquainted 
with  every  herd  of  elephants  encamped  within  a  dozen  miles  of  him. 
Formerly  the  services  of  an  elephant  finder  were  dispensed  with,  but  so 
numerous  and  frequent  have  been  the  invading  parties  on  the  territorial 
domain  of  those  animals,  that  they  have  in  a  great  measure  been  scared 
from  the  plain  to  the  denser  parts  of  the  jungle. 

Salt. — A  slight  export  of  salt  took  place  from  Ceylon  to  the  continent 
of  India  in  1846,  during  a  temporary  relaxation  of  their  monopoly  by 
the  East  India  Company,  but  ceased  on  its  renewal. — Ceylon  would 
prove  a  formidable  competitor  to  the  British  trade  with  India  in  this 
article,  if  in  India  the  import  duty  were  removed.  At  present  the 
Company,  by  reducing  the  price  of  their  very  inferior  commodity, 
appear  resolved  to  keep  all  competitors  out  of  the  market:  this  is 
unjust  as  regards  Ceylon,  which  has  recently  removed  all  discrimina- 
ting duties  operating  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Company's  territories. 

Fees  payable  by  land  purchasers. — The  fees  charged  for  surveying  are 
for  one  acre  5s. ;  for  two,  8s.  5d. ;  for  three,  lis.  4d. ;  for  four,  14s.  Id. ; 
for  five,  16s.  8d.,  and  so  on  in  proportion  ;  for  640  acres  £31.  16s.  2d. 
For  preparation  of  plans,  Gs.  lOd.  for  one  acre,  and  in  proportion  for  an 
additional  quantity. 

Parties  making  application  for  the  sale  of  any  land  are  requested  to 
make  a  deposit  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Government  agent,  of  the 
probable  cost  of  boundary  clearing  and  the  fees  for  survey.  All  crown 
I :i nd  is  sold  by  auction,  and  no  waste  land  is  exposed  for  sale  at  a  price 
below  20s.  per  acre.  The  other  regulations  are  such  as  obtain  in  the 
Australian  colonies. 

Upwards  of  thirty  thousand  acres  have  been  recently  surveyed  in  the 
mountain  zone,  but  from  the  Government  having  fixed  the  price  at  a  rate 
that  every  one  knows  cannot  be  maintained,  except  for  land  in  the  out- 
skirts of  towns  and  near  high-roads,  no  sales  are,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, effected  in  this  part  of  Ceylon :  the  cessation  in  the  land  sales 
generally  commenced  in  1846,  owing  to  the  tightness  of  the  money 
market  at  home  and  the  impending  removal  of  protection,  nor  can  they 
be  expected  immediately  to  revive. 


874  APPENDIX. 

Appropriation  of  Surphts  Revenue. — The  balance  in  the  Colonial 
Treasury,  December  31st,  1846,  was  £141,992,  the  whole  of  which  has 
been  since  absorbed  by  the  deficiency  in  the  revenue  in  1847  and  1848, 
as  compared  with  the  expenditure. 

Extent  of  Roads. — There  are  now  2358  miles  of  road  open  in  Ceylon, 
of  which  786  miles  have  been  opened  during  the  last  seven  years. 

Experiments  in  horticulture. — The  tea  plant  has  lately  been  cultivated 
to  some  extent  at  Pusilava,  and  with  considerable  success,  but  the  great 
difference  between  the  price  of  labour  in  Ceylon  and  China  is  likely 
to  prevent  its  profitable  pursuit.  A  plantation  of  cloves  and  nutmegs  has 
recently  been  formed,  and  cardamoms  and  ginger  might  be  cultivated  ■ 
to  any  extent.  Cotton  of  the  best  qualities  may  be  grown  to  any 
extent  in  the  Wanny.  At  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Paradiniya  exten- 
sive nurseries  have  been  formed  for  the  propagation  and  distribution  of 
useful  trees  and  plants,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  which  have  been  sold 
at  a  trifling  price. 

Mineralogical  novelties. — Among  the  mineralogical  novelties  is  tin, 
which  has  been  lately  discovered  in  the  Saffragam  district,  by  a  Swiss 
geologist.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  it  may  yet  be  opened  in  considerable 
quantities.  Copper  ore  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  south,  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  water  carriage  ;  quicksilver  has  been  discovered 
at  Cotta  in  small  quantities,  and  anthracite  coal  in  Saffragam,  but  it 
could  scarcely  be  worked  with  economy  in  that  district. 

Kuolin  or  decomposed  felspar  of  a  fine  white  quality  and  even  tex- 
ture, has  been  recently  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  district  of 
Galle.  It  is  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds  of 
pottery  and  paving  tiles. 

Progress  of  Christianity. — The  progress  of  Christianity  is  thus  al- 
luded to  in  the  last  Blue  Book  of  the  colony.  Of  the  Reformed  religion 
the  most  numerous  sections  among  the  Europeans  and  their  descen- 
dants, and  the  wealthier  Singhalese,  are  those  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, the  Wesleyans,  the  Baptists,  and  Presbyterians  of  the  Scotch  and. 
Dutch  Churches.  The  latter  having  been  the  established  form  of  wor- 
ship when  Ceylon  was  a  colony  of  Holland,  the  Dutch  Consistories  have 
still  been  left  in  the  possession  of  the  churches,  and  the  most  beneficial 
impulse  has  been  given  to  the  extension  of  Christianity  among  the 
natives,  by  the  liberality  with  which  they  have  at  all  times  given  the 
use  of  their  buildings  to  the  Clergy  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  the 
coffee  districts  the  majority  of  Europeans  employed  in  the  superinten- 
dence of  estates  are  Scotchmen  and  Presbyterians  ;  it  is,  therefore,  re- 
commended, as*  it  would  not  only  be  difficult,  but  superfluous,  to  find 
funds  for  the  erection  of  separatejplaces  of  worship,  that  they  should  be 
jointly  used  by  the  ministers  of  the  Churches  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Vernacular  Schools. — As  respects  education,  it  is  observed,  that  it 
would  be  more  useful  at  present  to  establish  vernacular  than  English 
schools,  until  the  standard  of  intelligence  shall  have  been  raised,  when 
they  could  be  again  replaced  by  the  latter;  education  in  the  vernacular, 
especially  of  females,  being  more  likely  to  improve  the  character  and 
usefulness  of  the  natives  than  attempts  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish in  places  where  there  is  no  demand  for  it,  and  where  the  little  that 
is  learnt  at  school  is  forgotten  on  leaving  it.     The  paucity  of  good  and 


APPENDIX.  875 

useful  books  in  the  Singhalese  language,  is  also  dwelt  on.  Thirty 
vernacular  schools  have  therefore  at  once  been  opened.  The  education 
of  the  native  youth  in  theology  and  medicine  at  Calcutta  seems  to  have 
been  attended  with  considerable  expense  to  the  colony,  and  with  very 
indifferent  success.  It  is  proposed,  therefore,  for  the  future  to  carry  on 
the  former  at  Colombo,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Bishop,  and  the  latter 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  medical  department. 

Cholera.— Ceylon  was  visited  by  cholera  in  1846  to  a  formidable  ex- 
tent, the  total  number  of  cases  being  6,338,  of  which  3,881  proved  fatal. 
Also  in  the  same  year  by  the  small-pox,  the  total  number  of  cases  being 
1,917,  of  which  399  proved  fatal.  Vaccination  has  now  been  extended  to 
every  district  but  the  sparsely  peopled  ones  of  the  north-east,  and  the 
ravages  of  the  small-pox  have  been  strikingly  reduced,  seldom  proving 
fatal  to  any  but  the  lower  classes  of  Moormen  in  the  towns  and  villages, 
whose  prejudices  in  favour  of  fatalism  restrain  them  from  resorting  to 
this  precaution. 

Singhalese  Industry. — The  fatal  policy  of  the  Singhalese  monarchs, 
which,  by  forbidding  the  alienation  of  land  to  private  parties,  rendered 
property  in  land  unattainable,  and  prohibited  commerce,  has  effectually 
prevented  the  accumulation  of  money  by  any  of  the  native  landowners. 
This  spirit,  though  checked,  still  lives  in  its  results,  and  at  the  present 
moment,  though  there  are  chiefs  who  are  proprietors  of  land  to  a  consi- 
derable extent,  and  who  enjoy  a  corresponding  rank  and  influence  in 
their  several  localities,  there  is  not  a  single  Singhalese  capitalist  in 
Ceylon.  What  is  worse  still,  the  upper  classes  have  not  only  no  means 
but  no  inclination  to  embark  in  active  pursuits,  while  the  lower  classes 
universally  refuse  to  labour,  or  to  enter  into  the  service  of  any  but  their 
immediate  chiefs.  The  native  Singhalese  are  equally  unconnected  with 
the  external  or  internal  commerce  of  the  island,  all  of  which  is  con- 
ducted by  Moormen,  Malabars,  Parsees,  &c,  and  by  the  capital  of  the 
British  merchants  and  planters ;  and  the  Singhalese  themselves  see  these 
inspiriting  and  enriching  operations  going  on  from  day  to  day  for  the 
advantage  of  foreigners,  without  an  apparent  emotion  at  their  own  ex- 
clusion, or  an  effort  to  participate  either  as  employers  or  labourers  in  the 
the  general  benefits,  which  are  increasing  around  them.  The  conclusion 
is,  therefore,  irresistible,  though  depressing,  that  for  some  time  to  come, 
and  till  education  can  stimulate  to  energy  and  awaken  ambition,  it  can 
only  be  through  the  agency  of  strangers  and  foreign  capital  that  the 
resources  of  Ceylon  are  to  be  developed,  and  its  prosperity  advanced. 

Revision  of  the  Financial  System  of  the  Colony. — In  1847  a  request 
was  made  to  the  principal  civil  servants  of  the  colony  to  furnish  the 
Governor  with  a  minute  of  their  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  changes 
capable  of  being  beneficially  effected  in  its  financial  system.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  request,  a  detailed^  expose  of  the  working  of  the  pre- 
sent system  has  been  laid  before  the  world.  And  truly  it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  any  thing  more  clumsy  and  worse  adapted  to  any  country,  not 
to  mention  a  colony  of  such  rising  importance.  We  have  already  re- 
ferred to  the  principal  items  of  its  revenue;  with  respect  to  the  heads  of 
expenditure  less  requires  to  be  said,  for  they  will  henceforth  be  subject 
to  some  sort  of  local  revision.  The  mode  of  disbursement  is,  however, 
ludicrous  in  the  extreme,  the  maximum  of  labour  being  brought  to  bear 
on  matters  of  a  minimum  importance.    Thus,  if  a  flat  ruler,  or  a  pewter 


3/6  APPENDIX. 

inkstand,  be  required  for  the  Jaffna  cutcherry  at  the  northern  extre- 
mity of  the  island,  a  missive  is  dispatched  to  the  Colonial  Secretary  at 
Colombo  by  "the  local  authorities,  requesting-  an  authorisation  to  purchase. 
An  answer  is  returned,  upon  which  a  quadruplicate  record  is  made  of  the 
valuable  article  thus  added  to  the  projierty  of  the  colony,  and  one  or 
more  copies  are  cautiously  deposited  in  the  colonial  archives,  to  satisfy 
the  eager  inquiries  of  an  admiring  posterity.  In  this  way  every  such 
article  is  enhanced  threefold  in  actual  cost,  for,  under  an  improved  sys- 
tem, one  half  of  the  clerks  employed  in  this  useless  labour  might  at  once 
be  dispensed  with.  Another  matter  requiring  alteration  is  the  monthly 
disbursement  of  their  salaries  to  every  official,  a  system  pursued  in  no 
other  colony,  and  apparently  designed  for  the  employment  of  clerks, 
who  at  the  time  of  its  establishment  could  be  employed  in  no  other 
way. 

Zake  of  Colombo. — Thelake  forms  one  of  the  greatest  attractions  of  the 
place,  and  by  its  margin  stand  some  of  the  most  delightful  residences  of 
the  island,  while  its  waters  afford  the  favourite  and  healthful  recreation 
of  boating.  An  annual  regatta  was  established  some  years  ago,  and  on 
these  occasions  the  lake  puts  on  a  most  gay  and  animated  appearanee, 
the  number  of  yachts  and  sailing  boats  having  considerably  increased 
in  consequence. 

Dhonics. — The  large  dhonies  built  on  the  Pantura  river  (the  brigs 
and  schooners  used  in  the  coasting  trade  are  mostly  built  at  Cochin), 
are  launched  when  the  bank  of  sand  at  its  mouth  is  cut  to  prevent  it 
overflowing  the  country  during  the  rains.  The  construction  of  these 
vessels  is  curious,  not  a  nail  is  used,  but  the  planks  are  sewed  together 
with  strong  koir  cord,  passed  through  holes  bored  opposite  each  other 
near  the  edge  of  the  planks,  and  crossed  thrice  diagonally  from  one  hole 
to  the  other,  a  layer  of  loose  koir,  covered  with  strips  of  dried  cocoa-nut 
leaf  being  lirst  laid  along  the  seams,  the  work  is  completed  or  secured 
by  a  coating  of  dammer,  a  resinous  substance  answering  the  purposes  of 
tar.  The  registered  tonnage  of  the  colony  is  35,000  tons ;  this  description 
of  property  is  on  the  increase,  in  consequence  of  the  demand  for  timber 
and  cattle  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  and  the  large  tracts  of  land 
planted  with  cocoa-nuts  in  the  northern  and  eastern  districts. 

Manufacture  of  Koir. — The  export  of  koir  is  checked  by  the  rude- 
ness of  the  process  of  manufacture  and  the  want  of  proper  machinery. 
Women  are  seen  in  pens  up  to  their  knees  in  water  beating  out  the 
koir  from  the  husk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  which  has  been  previously  well 
soaked.  It  is  then  cleaned  and  laid  out  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  dis- 
posed in  layers  on  which  stones  are  placed,  from  whence  it  is  drawn  out 
by  the  hand  and  twisted  into  the  yarn  from  which  the  rope  is  made. 

Cutcherries. — The  cutcherries  of  Ceylon  are  the  local  treasuries.  The 
agents  have  the  sole  management  of  them,  and  to  these  the  native  head- 
men of  the  district,  who  hold  situations  under  Government,  attend  daily 
to  make  their  reports  and  receive  their  orders.  Respectable  young  men 
aspiring  to  Government  offices,  obtain  admission  into  the  cutcherry  as 
volunteers  to  be  initiated  into  public  business,  and  by  their  talents  and 
assiduity  to  recommend  themselves  to  the  notice  and  patronage  of  the 
Government  agent. 

Coolie  Emigrants. — It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  an  ordi- 


APPENDIX.  877 

nance  is  now  in  force  in  Ceylon,  prohibiting  natives  of  India  from 
entering  into  any  contract  in  the  island  for  labour  to  be  performed  in 
any  other  British  or  Foreign  colony,  or  from  emigrating  from  thence  to 
any  such  colony. 

Increase  of  Population. — Under  this  head  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
the  rate  of  increase  in  the  population  of  the  island,  must  henceforth  be 
enlarged  every  day,  as  the  fullest  encouragement  is  now  given  to  its 
generative  powers.  The  Singhalese  never  expatriate  themselves.  Small- 
pox is  decisively  checked  ;  the  people  are  never  enlisted  either  for  the 
land  or  sea  services  :  none  of  them  are  engaged  in  foreign  trade  ;  mar- 
riages take  place  extremely  early,  and  peace  and  plenty  now  reign 
around :  indeed  the  only  want  of  the  island  is  capital.  Of  land  there  is 
still  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  a  population  of  five  times  the  amount. 
Whites— male,  5073  ;  female,  3031.  Coloured — male,  777,795  ;  female, 
727,205.  Aliens  and  resident  strangers,  42,491.  Population  to  the 
square  mile,  62-98.  Employed  in  agriculture,  405,962  ;  manufactures, 
40,507 ;  commerce,  49,277.  In  the  Blue  Book  for  1847,  I  find  the 
above  estimate  of  the  population  for  that  year,  which  has  been  framed 
with  great  care  under  the  auspices  of  Sir  E.  Tennant,  but  I  must  again 
observe  it  is  only  an  estimate,  not  the  result  of  a  census. 

King  ofKandy. — The  last  King  of  Kandy  was  finally  sent  to  Nellore, 
where  he  died  of  dropsy  in  1832.  His  embarkation  from  Colombo  is 
said  to  have  been  quite  of  adramatic  character,  and  the  last  of  the  race 
of  the  sun  maintained  a  most  dignified  and  imperturbable  coolness 
through  the  whole  proceeding-. 

Chenas. — I  observe  among-  the  Dutch  records  an  intimation  of  the 
prejudicial  effects  of  this  wasteful  system  on  the  lands  within  their  terri- 
tories, and  I  allude  to  the  subject  here  because  I  am  desirous  of  calling 
the  attention  of  Government  to  an  evil  which  has  already  rendered  all 
but  valueless  a  great  part  of  what  was  originally  land  of  first-rate 
quality  in  the  Kandian  provinces.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive 
a  system  fraught  with  greater  evil,  and  which,  while  it  gives  the 
smallest  return  to  the  cultivator  for  the  maximum  of  trouble  and  annoy- 
ance, strips  the  country  of  some  of  its  finest  timber,  and  exhausts  the 
soil  to  a  degree  that  the  tenant  with  an  expiring  lease,  and  of  the  most 
revengeful  feelings,  could  not  hope  to  imitate  in  this  country. 

Rural  timidity. — The  traveller  cannot  fail  to  remark,  that  in  propor- 
tion as  his  distance  from  Colombo  increases,  so  do  the  outward  signs  of 
respect  shewn  him ;  in  some  secluded  districts  he  will  excite  fear,  the 
natives  actually  scampering  off  the  moment  they  descry  him. 

Effect  of  change  of  Monsoon. — It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  a  stranger 
arriving  at  Colombo  shortly  after  the  setting  in  of  the  S.W.  monsoon 
with  its  strong  sea  breezes,  may  reside  there  four  or  five  months  with- 
out seeing  the  vestige  of  a  mountain,  when  all  at  once  the  N.E.  mon- 
soon having  set  in,  and  driven  back  the  clouds  and  mists  by  Avhich  it 
was  enveloped,  the  magnificent  range  over  which  Samanala  towers 
strikes  him  with  astonishment  and  admiration.  From  the  peculiar  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  mountain,  though  about  thirty-five  miles  off  in 
a  straight  line,  scarcely  appears  a  third  of  the  distance,  while  the  stratus 
or  stream  of  white  mist  arising  from  the  valleys,  and  extending  half  way 
up  the  mountain  by  the  contrast,  aids  the  deception. 


878  APPENDIX. 

Recent  Entente  in  the  Seven  Korku  and  Matale,  with  Comments 
thereon.— It  will  doubtless  be  expected  by  some  of  my  readers  that  I 
should  advert  in  a  more  particular  manner  than  I  have  as  yet  done,  to 
the  recent  emeute  in  the  districts  of  Matale  and  Kurunaigalla.  This  I 
should  have  been  hardly  tempted  to  do  in  reference  to  so  ridiculous  a 
manifestation,  but  for  the  opportunity  it  presents  to  offer  a  word  of  ad- 
monition to  those,  who  Betting  themselves  up  as  the  patrons  of  the  Kan- 
dian  people,  have  in  the  discharge  of  that  self-appointed  office,  sedu- 
lously taken  care  to  forg-et  the  only  means  by  which  that  people  can 
become  really  happy,  really  prosperous,  and  I  may  add,  really  free.  The 
emeute  itself  would  seem  to  have  sprung  from  a  medley  of  conflicting 
passions,  such  as  the  history  of  party,  even  in  this  country,  could  never 
shew  arrayed  for  a  political  combination  against  the  most  unpopular  of 
ministers,  and  was  a  combination  of  a  part  of  the  remnant  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  last  generation  (few,  if  any,  of  the  new  school  being  implicated), 
of  the  more  infatuated  of  the  priests  (that  body  being  equally  dissatisfied 
with  the  withdrawal  of  the  countenance  and  support  of  Government  to 
their  religion  and  piece  of  discoloured  ivory,  as  to  the  contemplated  en- 
forcement of  one  of  the  new  taxes  on  themselves  who  have  been  hitherto 
exempt),  and  of  the  people  who  have  been  equally  deceived  by  the 
abovementioned  chiefs  as  by  their  priests  with  respect  to  the  amount  of 
imposts  to  be  levied,  a  recent  attempt  by  the  Colonial  Secretary  to  obtain 
the  actual  returns  of  the  current  year,  instead  of  an  annual  repetition  of 
those  of  the  five  or  six  years  preceding  having,  from  the  queries  being 
arranged  under  thirty-two  heads,  been  tortured  into  an  intention  of 
levying  a  corresponding  number  of  taxes. 

The  result  of  this  discordant  accord — accord  only  so  long  as  the  three 
elements  of  mischief  saw  their  objects  unaccomplished,  four  elements  I 
should  say  (for  oh,  parody  of  Paris !  the  bandit  was  as  ready  here  to 
grasp  the  opportunity  of  inverting  the  law  of  meum  and  tuum,  as  the 
forcat  with  thee),  was  an  outbreak,  and  the  temporary  seizure  of  the 
towns  of  Matale  and  Kurunaigalla  by  the  insurgents,  who  forthwith 
commenced  the  work  of  devastation,  at  once  gutting  every  public  and 
plundering  every  private  building-  of  its  contents,  seizing  the  neigh- 
bouring estates  in  full  right  of  seizin  and  soccage  for  a  scion  of  the 
hakooroo  caste,  whom  the  Dambool  priests  had  anointed  and  set  up, 
blocking  up  the  roads,  and  in  short  acting  in  every  way  as  they  thought 
calculated  to  subvert  English  rule  in  the  island,  ridiculous  as  such 
means  may  appear  to  an  European.  Small  detachments  of  troops  being 
sent  against  the  rebels,  they  fled  in  most  cases  after  a  brief  skirmish, 
leaving  in  the  various  encounters  a  total  of  fifty  slain  and  an  equal 
number  of  wounded,  together  with  about  a  hundred  prisoners,  most 
of  whom  were  at  once  tried  by  martial  law,  (the  same  having  been  pre- 
viously declared  in  Kandy  as  well  as  in  these  districts,)  and  several  of 
the  ringleaders  were  at  once  shot,  the  others  transported,  while  those 
less  deeply  implicated  have  been  tried  before  the  Supreme  Court  at 
Kandy  and  since  sentenced  to  death,  their  moveable  and  immoveable 
property  confiscated  by  the  Crown,  and  distributed  among  the  sufferers 
by  their  conduct.  In  this  manner  was  tranquillity  restored  by  the 
energetic  action  of  the  Government,  and  the  cool  and  judicious  dispo- 
sition of  the  military  force,  recalling  the  truth  of  Forbes's  remark,  that 
if  a  stern  and  decided  example  had  been  made  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
rebellion  of  1815,  it  would  have  been  instantly  quelled.     The  causes  of 


APPENDIX.  8/9 

this  outbreak  are  far  more  numerous  than  the  elements  which  set 
it  to  work.*  To  a  people  to  whom  superstition  is  a  rule  of  conduct 
in  the  place  of  a  passing  phantasy,  an  alleged  prediction  in  a  native 
book,  declaring  that  a  people  corresponding-  to  the  Eng-lish,  should 
hold  Ceylon  for  thirty-four  years  and  then  be  expelled,  if  after  an 
outbreak  of  fourteen  days  duration  they  should  fail  of  successfully 
quelling  opposition,  coupled  with  the  voluntary  resignation  of  the 
Dalada,  and  the  accidental  collapse  of  another  test  of  power,  was 
amply  sufficient  to  induce  them  to  try  their  luck  once  more,  uncon- 
scious as  they  appear  to  have  been  of  the  hostile  influences  that  have 
for  years  been  gradually  rising  to  militate  against  their  independence. 
For  example,  the  Tamul  coolies,  who  were  expected  to  hold  aloof  from 
danger,  if  not  to  succumb  before  it,  maintained  their  ground  in  every 
instance,  and  defended  every  plantation  on  which  they  were  eng'aged, 
subsequently  entering  the  deserted  villages,  and  plundering  the  native 
cottages  of  every  article  on  which  they  could  lay  their  hands,  the  most 
intense  hatred  existing  between  the  two  people.  But  the  more  intelli- 
gent of  the  disaffected  Singhalese,  if  the  term  can  be  applied  to  a  people 
so  apparently  devoid  of  intelligence,  were  not  likely  to  remain  long  un- 
affected by  the  rumours  of  European  convulsions,  and  even  to  the  lower 
classes,  who  for  nearly  ten  months  of  the  year  are  energetically  em- 
ployed in  the  elevating  pursuit  of  masticating-  betel,  it  could  not  fail  to 
filter  through,  from  their  daily  increasing  intercourse  with  Europeans. 
A  spirit  of  disaffection,  if  not  conspiracy,  is  shewn  to  have  swayed  the 
chiefs,  and  priests  engaged  in  the  plot  for  upwards  of  two  years  ;  in  this 
the  people  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  participators ;  none  on  earth 
have  lost  so  little  and  gained  so  much  as  they;  their  very  prejudices 
have  been  treated  with  the  most  indulgent  tenderness ;  a  most  organized 
system  of  deception  must  have  been  therefore  adopted  to  bring  them 
again  within  the  toils  they  have  for  some  time  rather  ostentatiously 
shewn  they  had  escaped. 

The  actual  enforcement  of  three  taxes,  and  the  inquiries  already 
alluded  to,  may  have  been  taken  as  an  earnest  of  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment made  by  mendacious  headmen,  and  have  led  the  people  into  open 
revolt.  Of  the  just  grounds  for  this  dissatisfaction  it  will  soon  be  shewn 
to  the  reader  there  are  little  or  none.  After^deducting  from  the  revenue  of 
Ceylon  the  sums  receivedfor  casual  and  contingent  revenue,  the  amount 
of  actual  taxation,  direct  and  indirect,  averages  4s.  lOd.  per  head  for 
the  whole  population.  It  is  needless  to  add,  that  a  large  proportion  of 
this  taxation  is  paid  by  the  European  and  Tamul  capitalists,  and  that 
even  the  Singhalese  landowner  has  nothing  to  complain  of  under  this 
head.  But  for  the  mass  of  the  Singhalese  and  Tamul  people  of  Ceylon 
the  rate  of  taxation  is  ludicrous  in  tha  extreme,  not  exceeding,  even  if 
it  reach,  Is.  lOd.  per  head,  and  the  whole  taxation  of  a  family  of  eight 
persons,  might  be  discharged  by  a  few  days  labour  per  annum  on  any 
coffee  estate,  inasmuch  as  the  women  receive  little  less  wages  than  the 
men.  So  far  then  from  the  Government  halting  on  its  course,  it  must 
gradually  increase  the  present  rate  of  taxation,  if  it  desire  the  speedy 

*  Since  the  above  was  printed,  intelligence  has  been  received  of  a  revival  of  the 
outbreak  in  the  same  provinces,  and  troops  have  again  been  dispatched  to  the  scene 
of  insurrection,  but  it  recpurcs  no  great  consideration  to  predict  the  hopelessness  of 
all  such  attempts. 


880  APPENDIX. 

opening1  of  the  country,  and  what  is  more  important  still,  the  improve- 
ment of  this  apathetic  people.  Education,  unaccompanied  by  an  in- 
creasing and  skilfully  levied  taxation,  will  leave  the  Kandian  wiser, 
perhaps,  but  scarcely  more  industrious,  a  century  hence  than  now. 
Taxation,  were  it  gradually  brought  to  an  equitable  assessment,  so  as 
in  no  respect  to  choke  the  industry  of  the  people,  might  be  increased 
even  threefold  without  bearing  much  harder  upon  them  than  now. 
Those  then  who  tell  a  people,  emerging  as  these  are  from  the  midnight 
of  barbarism,  that  they  are  burdened  like  willing  bullocks  with  a  load 
they  cannot  endure,  must  either  labour  under  some  strange  hallucina- 
tion, or  they  manifest  a  most  culpable  spirit  of  dishonesty.  The  pro- 
gress of  a  nation  in  the  onward  march  to  civilization  has  fitly  been 
made  a  difficult  one,  the  path  is  here  and  there  strewed  with  a  few  roses, 
hut  the  thorns  are  more  numerous  still.  The  Kandians  have  as  yet 
learnt  no  more  than  the  alphabet  of  our  civilization,  all  has  so  far  been 
colour  de  rose,  it  is  high  time  they  were  told  that  the  next  course,  the 
syllabic  one,  requires  something  in  the  shape  of  men  to  encounter  it, 
and  that  the  insensate  apathy  with  which  they  can  loiter  away  their 
time  for  ten  out  of  the  twelve  months,  is  not  the  mode  by  which  it  is  to 
be  overcome.  On  the  other  hand,  though  we  are  very  far  from  relying  on 
the  statements  put  forth  by  some  writers,  that  the  Kandians  are  unable  to 
pay  in  money  the  small  sum  required  under  the  new  taxes,1  yet  we  cannot 
6hut  our  eyes  to  the  fact,  that  the  wretched  system  of  barter  to  which  this 
people  are  compelled  to  resort  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  coin,  is 
likely  to  prove  an  effectual  clog-  to  every  means  taken  to  elevate  their  con- 
dition. The  remedy  for  this  evil  is  to  be  found  in  the  accomplishment 
of  the  undertaking  we  have  ventured  to  point  out  as  the  greatest  boon 
in  every  sense  the  Government  can  now  confer  on  Ceylon  (we  allude  to 
the  repair  of  its  tanks) ;  and  when  this  shall  have  been  done,  an  increased 
taxation,  which  should  stimulate  and  not  repress  the  industry  of  the 
people,  would,  after  education,  prove  one  of  the  highest  elements  of 
their  moral  renovation.  Nothing  can  for  any  length  of  time  prevent 
the  progress  of  the  European  and  Tamul  settler  in  Ceylon  ;  it  remains 
to  be  seen  whether  the  Singhalese  is  to  melt  away  before  their  onward 
progress. 

1  1.  A  tax  on  dogs,  levied  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  uuisance  so  sensibly- 
felt  from  the  presence  every  where  of  this  useless  and  mischievous  animal. 

2.  A  license  duty  of  2s.  6d.  on  all  guns,  established  as  much  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  the  use  of  them,  as  for  purposes  of  revenue. 

3.  A  road  tax  of  3s.  on  every  male,  which  can  be  commuted  for  six  days  labour 
on  the  roads. 

4.  A  slight  assessment  on  shops  and  boutiques  in  the  towns. 

Previous  to  the  establishment  of  these  imposts,  the  export  duties  had  been 
abolished,  with  the  exception  of  the  4d.  per  lb.  levied  on  cinnamon,  and  the  Go- 
vernor has  been  authorised  by  the  Crown  to  submit  the  expenditure  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  Legislative  Council. 


INDEX. 


Aaiuva  Chakkrawarti,  77,  78,  464,465, 

499,  513,  514,516 
Abhaya,  reign  of,  50 
Abu  Zeidal  Hasan, narrative  of  a  visit  to 

Ceylon  in  the  9th  century,  81,  82 
Adam's  Bridge,  19,  49,  503-509 
Adam's  Peak,  610,  612-618 
Addagaimoonoo,  reign  of,  47 
Adigaars,  their  rank  and  duties,   346, 

354-356 
Agathamerus's  description  of  Salice,  9 
Agraboddigane  wihare,  597 
Agriculture  of  the  Singhalese,  362-367 
Akkara-pattoo,  East,  564 
Akkara-pattoo,  West,  644 
Alakaiswara  Adigaar,  78 
Alipoot,  577,  578 
Allaputty,  519 
Allow,  647 

Alue-wihare,  rocks  of,  658 
Alut  Sal  festival,  336 
Alvarengo  Lopez  Suarez  erects  a  fort  at 

Colombo,  86 
Amanapoora,  639,  640 
American  Missions,  432-435 
Analativoe,  519 
Analysis  of  principal  articles  imported 

into  Ceylon  in  1845,  845 

exported  from  ditto  in  1845,  845 

Ancient  names  of  Ceylon,  1-3,  869 
Ancients,  knowledge  of  Ceylon  by,  4- 

17 
Anda  tenure,  869 
Animal  kingdom,  709-758 
Annius  Plocamus,  driven  on  the  coasts  of 

Taprobane,  7 
Anoola,  reign  of,  46 
Anuradhapoora,  13,  28,  29,  32,39-40, 

45,  46,  50,  54,  64,  529-535,  801,  802 
Architecture,  282,283 
Area  of  Ceylon,  3 
Areca  palm,  773 

Arrian's  mention  of  Pala?simundus,  9 
Arts,  282-284 
Asoka  Aramaya,  23,  680 
Asoka  Malln,  782,  783 


Astrology,  276,  277 

Astronomy,  277 

Atheology  of  Buddhism,  868 

Avisahavelle,  636 

Awurudha  festival,  334 

Azevedo,    Don    Jerome   de,    expedition 

into  the  Kandian  territories,  101,  102 
Baboons,  731 
Baddagamma,  606 
Badulla,  570-572 

Banapota,  or  Buddhist  Bible,  44,  279 
Banks,  632,670 
Barberyn,  619,  620 
Barbosa's  visit  to  Ceylon,  83 
Barnes,  Sir  Edward,  208,  209 
Bassas,  Great  and  Little,  581 
Batecalo,  37-43,   102,  103,    111,    116, 

327,  373,  396-405,  443,  559-565 
Batiyatissa  I.,  reign  of,  47 
Bats,  733 
Batticotta,  516 
Bears,  730 
Bees,  756 
Beligamma,  597 
Bentotte,  607,  608 
Betel,  mastication  of,  261 
Bhuwaneka  Bahoo  VI.,  78,  79 
BhuwanekaBahoo  VIL,  89,  90 
Bintenne,  district  of,  566 
Birds  found  in  the  island,  734-743 
Bo-gaha,  772 

Boschouder,  Marcellus  de,  109,  110 
Botany,  knowledge  of,  758 
Boyd,  Mr.  Hugh,  embassy  of,  to  Kandy, 

136-140 
Bretto,  Lopez  de,  87 
British  arrival,  occupation,  government, 

135-214,325,427-429,430-435,440- 

444,  446-449,  482,  522,  811 
Brownrigg,  Sir  Robert,  186-208 
Buddha,  legend  of  the  cup  of,  868 
Buddha-rays,  689 
Buddhas, historic  doubts  respecting, 866, 

887 
Buddhism,  beneficial  influence  of,  on  the 

Singhalese,  864 
3    L 


884 


INDEX. 


Kalan6-ganga,  635-637 

Kalawa-oya,  489,  490 

Kallaar,  492,  493 

Kalpauruksba,  festival  of,  866 

Kalu-ganga,  620-625 

Kalupahane,  576 

Kandelle,  lake  of,  549-551 

Kandian  cordon,  867 

Kantlian  kings,  337-347 

Kandian  rebellion,  194-205 

Kandian  war,  153-192 

Kandy,  664-675 

Kandy,  route  to,  from  Colombo,  663 

Kannya,  Lot  wells  of,  543,  706 

Kappitipola,  Dissave  of  Ouva,  sedition 
of,   199,  203 

Kapuralle,  qualifications  of,  307,308 

Karadive,  517,  518 

Karadive,  isle  of,  491 

Karawe  caste,  236,  237 

Karetcbypattoo,  520 

Kartikiya  festival,  335-336 

Katadenia,  158 

Katiua  Pinkama  festival,  335 

Kattragamme,  582,  583 

Kattu-colom-pattoo,  542-549 

Kaudelle,  ruins  of  tbe  tank  of,  553 

Kinihirridaila,  reign  of,  47 

Kirti  Nissanga,  reign  of,  72,  73 

Kirti-sree  Singba,  reign  of,  133,   134 

Kitsiri  Majan,  reign  of,  53 

Kittool  palm,  773 

Knox,   Robert,  captivity  and  escape  of, 

789-807 
Kogalle,  lake  of,  598,  599 
Koir,  preparation  of,  876 
Kombookan-aar,  581 
Kondatchie,  410,  411,493 
Koodremale,  491-492 
Koomara  Daas,  reign  of,  56,  57 
Koomara  Samy,  tbe  pretender,  207,  208 
Koondasala,  .reign  of,  131 
Koondasala,  680  681 
Koorle-pattoo,  561 
Koster,  murder  of,  117 
Kotti-aar,  bay  of,  547,  548 
Kotti-aar,  district  of,  551,  552 
Kshoodrawanse,  236-241 
Kurunaigalla,  648-650 
Kustia  Raja,  or  leprous  king,  598. 
Lacertas,  755 

Lagalla,  range  of,  661,  662 
Lakagalla,  peaks  of,  661,  662 
Lanerolle,  M.  de,  French  ambassador  to 

tbe  Court  of  Kandy,  129,  807,  809 
Languages  of  Ceylon,  272-275,  827,828 
Lanka,  1,  17-19,  22,  23,  25,  26,  780 
Laws  of  the  Singhalese,  215-222 


Leeches,  757-753 

Leelawatee,  Queen,   reign  and   vicissi- 
tudes of,  73 

Legislative  Council,  composition  of,  426 

Lppidoptera,  list  of,  756 

Leways,  586,  587 

Lorenzo  d'Almeida's  discovery  of  Cey- 
lon, 85 

Ludovico  Barthema,visitof,  to  Ceylon, 83 

Maatsuyker,  finesse  of,  119 

Macdowal,  General,  embassy  to  Kandy, 
151,  152,  811-815 

M'Kenzie,  Rt.  Hon.  Stewart,  212,213, 
231,232,  371 

Madampe,  remains  of,  642 

Madeipaliyar,  465 

Madge,  Captain,  heroism  of,  169 

Madooll'a,  682 

Magaama,  ruins  of,  33,  584,  585 
Magaama-pattoo,  581-592 
Magnesian  minerals,  705 
Mahacboola,  45 
Maha-elliya,  574 
Maha-oya,  647 

ftlahasen,  52-53,  306,  489,490,  553,554 
Mabavel!e-ganga,  13,  567,  568,  675,676 
Mabawanse,  28,  31,  36,  39,  42,  47,  48, 
55,  56,  67,  74,  76,  77,  280,  281,  324 
866 
Mahawanse,  or  great  dynastv,  53 
Maitland,  Sir  T.,  181,  206,  228,  370 
Malabar  invasions,  36-40,   44,   49,  50, 
54,  55,  59,  60,  61,  63,  64-66,  73,  74, 
77,  78,  463,  497,  498 
Malays,  75-76,  152,  161-165,  482,  483 
Malayaa  Ratte,  361 
Mallagam,  515,  516 
Maldivian  archipelago,  602-605 
Mammalia,  709-734 
Manaar  channel,  500 
Mannar  island,  500-503 
Manaar,  straits  of,  499 
Manaar,  501 
Mandetivoe,  518 
Manmoone-pattoo,  563 
Mantotte,  496-499 
Mantotte,  district  of,  499,  500 
Manufactories,  mills,  &c.  843 
Manufactures,  268-271 
Marcian   of    Heraclea's   description    of 

Sal  ice,  9,  10 
Marco  Paolo's  visit  to  Ceylon,  82 
Marriage,  ceremonies  of,  250-253 
Marriage  of  a  king,  343,  344 
Mascarenhas,  Don  Philippe  de,  117 
Matale,  district  of,  652-662 
Matura,  town  of,  596,  597 
Maturatta,  682-683 


INDEX. 


885 


Maundeville,  Sir  John,  visit  to  Ceylon, 

82,  436 
Maya  Dunnai,  88-92 
Mayaa  Ratte,  361 
Measures  and  weights,  852-853 
Medical  science,  state  of,  in  Ceylon,277- 

279 
Medical  practitioners,  remuneration  of, 

866 
Mee  trees,  771-772 
Mennairia,  tank  or  lake  of,  553 
Meteorology,  684-686,  689 
Mihindoo,  31-i}3 
Mihintalai,  36,  47,535-537 
Military  strength  of  the  Kandian  kings, 

352,  354 
Military  expenditure,  841-842 
Mineralogy,  698-700,  874 
Mineral  waters,  706-708 
Modeliars,  358,  359 
Moelitivoe,  540,541 
Mohandiram,  359 
Mohottales.  358,  359 
Molligodde  Adigaar,  184,185, 187-189, 

192,  194,  201 
Monkeys,  731,  732 
Monsoons,  effect  of  change  in,  877 
Monteith,  Gen.,  important  work  of,  508- 

509 
Months,  Singhalese,  860 
Moogallaana,  reign  of,  56 
Mookwas,  466-409 
Moors  of  Ceylon,   197,   199,236,237, 

470-480 
Mootoo  S'amy,  Prince,  148, 157-164 
Morality   of  the   Buddhistical   system, 

304, 305 
Mulgiri,  rock  temples  of,  594 
Music,  282 
Musk-rat,  732 
Mynapoda,  757 
Nadukadoepattoo,  559,560 
Ndgara,  273 

Nagas,  snake  worshippers,  635 
Naland6,  656 
Nalloer.  501,562 
Namina-Kooli-Kandi,  571,  572 
Nanaatan,  district  of,  494-496 
Nanamura  festival,  335 
Nayntivoe,  isle  of,  519 
Nedoentivoe,  519,  520 
Neeln-patta-dara  heresy,  62 
Negorabo,  116-119,  640,  641 
Nellore,  parish  of,  516 
N  el  u,  jungle  tree,  772 
Newspaper  press,  836,  837 
Nicolo  de  Conte,  83 
Nitre  caves,  708,709 


North,  Hon.  Mr.,  administration  of, 
146-181 

Nuwera  Elliya,  078,  679 

N  uwera  Klliya,  country  between  it  and 
Kandy, 674-677 

Nuwera  Klliya,  country  between  it  and 
Badulla,  577 

Nuwera  Kalawa,  527-540 

Oaths,  native  mode  of  administering, 
217,  445 

Obsequies  ofaKandian  monarch,  341,342 

Odoricus's  visit  to  Ceylon,  82,  83 

Officers  of  the  Kandian  Court,  783-786 

Official  declaration  of  the  settlement  of 
the  Kandian  provinces,  816-819 

Oils,  870 

Olas,  863 

Oodooville,  516 

Ophidia,  749-751 

Ophioxylon  serpentinum,  771 

Ordeal,  modes  of,  217,  218 

Ordinance  for  defining  the  bounds  of  es- 
tates, &c.  835,  836 

Ordination  of  priests,  313,  314 

Origin  of  regal  authority  according  to 
the  Singhalese,  337,  338 

Origin  of  the  Singhalese,  20-22 

Outcastes,  241-243 

Ouva,  districts  of,  570-373,  577-580 

Ovid,  mention  of  Toprobane  by,  5,  6 

Padeviel  colom,  542 

Palace  of  the  kings  of  Kandy,  665 

Palajsimundi  oppidum,  locale  of,  511 

Pali, or  Maghada  language, 272,273,280 

Pallawarajen  kattoe,    district  of,  510 

Palmyra  palm,  772 

Pandarian  Wanniya,  174 

Pandukabbaya,   28-30 

Panduwasa,  28 

Panowa-pattoo,  565 

Pantura,  120,  625 

Pnradiniya,  672 

Parasitical  plants,  866 

Parsees  of  Ceylon,  484 

Patine  Deiyo,  259 

Paumban  passage,  504-509 

Pearl,  description  of  the,  410,  414-416 

Pearl  fishery,  409-419 

Pedrotalla-galla  mountain,  679,  680 

Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company,  pas- 
sage by  vessels  of,  to  Ceylon,  854 

Perraherra  festival,  328-333 

Pihitee  Ratte,  361 

Pilame  Talawe,  first  Adigaar,  147-183 

I'ihime  Talawe,  183,203 

Pilotage,  rates  of,  854 

Planetary  worship,  308 

Plants  of  Ceylon,  758-776 


886 


INDEX. 


Pliny's  description  of  Taprobane,  8, 
779-780 

Poengertivoe,  519 

Poetry  and  Poets,  275,  281,  282 

Point  Pedro,  517 

Pollock,  Captain,  defeat  of  the  King  of 
Kandy  by,  172,  173 

Pollonnaroowa,  60,  61,  65,  75-77,  554- 
558 

Pomparippo,  district  of,  439,  490 

Pomponius  Mela,  6 

Pooliantivoe,  isle  of,  562 

Poonaryn,  parish  of,  510 

Pootoor,  515 

Population  of  the  island,  53,  450,  451, 
843  ;   increase  of,  877 

Porativoe,  563 

Port  dues,  854 

Portrait  of  Raja  Singha  II.  34 

Portuguese,  arrival,  conquest  and  occu- 
pation, 79-124,  143,  325,  409,  429, 
436,437,  439,480,481,  501,502,545 

Portuguese  language,  273,  274 

Portuguese  policy,  867,  868 

Postage,  rates  of,  854 

Postal  communication,  870 

Potato,  cultivation  of,  372-373 

Pottery,  27 1 ,  866 

Praackramabahoo  I 

Praackramabahoo  II 
76,77 

Prices    of    produce 
average  of,  851 

Priesthood,  Buddhist,  312-321 

Primitive  formation,  rocks  of,  695-697 

Proclamations  establishing  British  rule, 
817-819  ;  subsequent  to  the  rebellion, 
819-826 

Produce,  return  of,  850 

Property,  laws  of,  221 

Provinces,  Northern,  489-540;  East- 
ern, 540-569;  Southern,  569-619; 
Western,  619-651  ;  Central,  651-683 

Ptolemy's  description  of  Salice,  8,  9 

Punishments  under  the  Kandian  dynasty, 
218,219 

Pusilava,  675 

Putlam,  645,  646 

Pybus,  Mr.,  embassy  of,  136 

Quiparawa,  lake  of,  646 

Railway  from  Colombo  to  Randy,  396, 

406-408,  424 
Rajadhi  Raja  Singha,  reign  of,  134,  147, 

328 
Raja-karia,  209-211 
Raja-Ratnacari,  extracts  from,  39,  74 
Raja  Singha  I.  92-97 

Raja  Singha  II.  111-130 


67-72 
III.  and  IV.   75, 

and    merchandise, 


Raja-wali,  extracts  from,  39, 74,  85. 90, 

93,  95 
Rama,  22-25,  595 
Ramayana,  24 
Rambodde,  676-677 
Katnapoora,  609 
Ilawana,  King  of  Lanka,  23-5 
Receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  Pearl 

Fishery  from   1799  to  1845  inclusive, 

848 
Reptiles,  749-755 
Rest  houses,  865,  866 
Revenue  of  Ceylon  from  1821   to  1847 

inclusive,  847 
Revenue  from  cinnamon  from  1799  to 

1845  inclusive,  848 
Rhodias,  186,  241-243 
Ribeiro's  History  of  Ceylon,  124 
Rice  names,  255-256 
Roads,  404-406,  874 
Rocks,  varieties  of,  694-693 
Rogers,    Major,   the  celebrated  sports- 
man, adventures  of,  864 
Roohona,  28,  33,  37,  44,  49,  54,  55,  62, 

63,  64,65,  68,  69,  70,  361,  560 
Rufus  Festus'  description  of  Taprobane, 

10 
Rumph,  administration  of,  131,  132 
Ruwanwelle,  173,  637,638 
Ruwanwelle  dagobah,  863,869 
Saffragam,  174,  179,608-619 
Saidatissa,  reign  of,  43,  564 
Sali,  Prince,  43,  782,  783 
Sale  of  Crown  lands,  mode  of,  873 
Saline  productions,  586,708,  709 
Salt,  export  of,  873 
Sangamittra,  the  priestess,  32-36 
Sanus,  specimens  of  a,  467,  787 
Schools  and  scholars,  return  of,  855-857 
Sciences,  275-279,  700,  758 
Secondary  formation,  rocks  of,  697,  698 
Seetawaka,  637 
Seminaries,  Buddhist,  312 
Senerat,  reign  of,  108-113 
Serpents,  749-751 
Serpent  stone,  753 
Seven  Korles,  647-651 
Shells,  755 
Shipping  employed  in  the  trade  of  the 

island  from  1837  to  1847,  843 
Sholen,  464 

Sigiri,  rock  of,  538-540 
Silk,  cultivation  of,  374 
Singha  dynasty,  origin  of,  26,  781 
Singhalese,   their  manners  and  customs, 
character  and  appearance,  244-268  ; 
Costume,  461-463  ;    language,  827  ; 

Industrial  state,  875 


INDEX. 


887 


Siri  Sangabo's  reign  and  dethronement, 

51,52 
Slavery,  223-233 
Small-pox,  691,  692,  809,  810 
Snake  charmers,  752,  753 
Soils  of  Ceylon,  693,  694 
Solinus  Polyhistor's  description  of  Ta- 
probane. 6-8,  410 
Souza's,    Pedro  Lopez    de,    expedition 

against  Kandy,  98-101 
Spilbergen,  102-106 
Squirrels,  732,  733 
Sri  Wickrama  Raja  Singha,  147-192 
Statuary,  283 
Stewart,  Gen.,  capture  of  the  island  by, 

141-144 
Stock,  return  of,  850 
Storms,  687-689 

Strabo's  description  of  Taprobane,  6 
Subha,  usurpation  of,  48,  49 
Submersion  of  parts  of  the  island,   17, 

19,  34 
Suffren,  Adm.,  gallant  conduct  of,  140, 

141 
Sugar  planting,  374,  375 
Sula-wanzae,  or  lower  dynasty,  53 
Superstition,  288,  289 
Suspension  bridges,  native,  864 
Talapat  palm,  771 
Tambalagam-pattoo,  549 
Tamuls,  463-466 
Tangalle,  592-594 

Tanks,  368-372,  494-496, 500,  509, 510, 
523-526,  528,  529,  532,  537,  540, 
541,549-551,553,554,565,566,584, 
585,  586,  591,  592,  643,650,651, 
861 
Taprobane,   1,  2,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,   12, 

13,  15,  16,  17,81 
Tariff  as  in  1848,844 
Taxes,  837,838,  880 
Temple  lands,  402,  404 
Tenna-Marre-waddie-pattoo,  542 
Tenure  of  lands,  786-789 
Theory  of  the  tides,  291-292 
Thesa  Walama,  448 
Throne  of  the  Kandian  kings,  860,  861 
Tillipalle,  515 
Tides,  rise  of  the,  866 
Tissa,  30-35 


Tobacco,  cultivation  of,  373,  374 
Toisite,  the  fourth  heaven,  868 
Torrington,  Lord  Viscount,  143,  144 
Trial  by  jury,  448,449 
Trikoil,  temple  of,  564 
Trincomalee,  141,395,  396,  544-549 
Trincomalee,  battle  off,  140-141 
Udaneura  and  Yattineura,  Rattesof,  865 
Udaya,  tyrannical  reign  of,  63 
Van  Angelbeck,  Governor,  143 
Van  der  Graff,  Governor,  135,  248,  839 
Van  Eck,  Governor,  133 
Van  Goens,  Admiral,  129 
Van  Imhoff,  Governor,  133 
Vaz,  Padre,  career  of,  807-811 
Veddahs,  22,  308,  309,  452-461,  873 
Venetian  commerce  with  Ceylon,  83 
Vernacular  schools,  874,  875 
Versluys,  government  of,  132 
Vertativoe,  district  of,  509,  510 
Vuist,  Governor,  132 
Wages,  rates  of,  854,  855 
Wahala  Pinkamas,  festival,  335 
Walagambahoo,  reign  of,  43-45 
Waliyakun  festival,  336 
Wallawe-ganga,  589-592 
VVannapane,  514,  515 
Wanny,  country  of  the,  520-527 
Wardens  of  temples,  359 
Wasabha,  reign  of,  48,  49 
Waswassana,  season  of,  315,316 
Waste  lands,  400-403 
Weaving,  native  mode  of,  271 
Weights  and  measures,  852-853 
Wejaya-bahoo,  reign  of,  65-67 
Welasse,  district  of,  569 
Wesleyans,  mission  of  the,  443,  862 
Wickramabahoo,  reign  of,  67 
Wigittapoora,  remains  of,  537,  538 
Wihare,  description  of  a,  318 
Wijeya,  origin  and  reign  of,  26-28 
Wilbawe,  a  Kandian  pretender,  203 
Wilson  Plains,  577 
Wimala  Dbarma  (Don  John),  94-108 
Wimala  Dbarma  Suria  II.  130, 131 
Winds,  rains,  mists,  864,  865 
Wytoolian  heresy,  50,  52,  58 
Xavier,  mission  of,  to  Ceylon,  436,  437 
Yakkas,  25-27,29,  30,  451-454,  566 
Yakka  superstitions,  863 


THE    END. 


KORHAN,    PRINTER,    MAIDEN    LANE,   COVENT  GARDEN. 


ERRATA. 


Vol.  I. 
P.  2,  1.  20,  for  Katys  read  Kayts. 
P.  27,  I.  10,  for  Neurecaleva  read  Nu- 

wara  Kalawa. 
P.  42,   1.  12  from  ^bottom,  for  Mettiyo 

rend  Maitre. 
P.  43,   1.  14,  for  Lower  read  Lowa. 
P.  44, 1.  1  from  bottom,  for  what  be  read 

what  may  be. 
P.  45,  1.  5,  for  dogabahs  read  dagobahs. 
P.  50,  I.  2    of  note,  for   Pancea  read 

Panowa. 
P.  68, 1.  1  ,for  Suffragam  read  Saffragam. 
P. 75,  heading,ybr  PraackramabahooIII. 

read  II. 
P.  109,  1.  2    of  note,  for  Panna   read 

Panowa. 
P.  125, 1.  21,  for  Van  de  Graff  read  Van 

der  Graff.     135,1.  5,  ditto. 
P.  168,  1.  20,  for  Gonorooa   read  Gan- 

nooroowe,  &  passim. 
P.  171,  I.  2,  for  Cogel  read  Kogalle. 
P.  185, 1.  25,  for  the  sequel  was  far  ex- 
ceeded, read  the  sequel  far  exceeded 

them. 


P.  312,  1.  10  from  bottom,  for  nialcoo 
read  nayaka — -for  unanci,  unnanse. 

P.  354,  1.  6  of  heading,  fir  ilame  read 
nilame, 

P.  473,  1.  16  from  bottom,  for  Mohamet 
read  Mahomet. 

Vol.  II. 

P.  555, 1.  20,  insert  King  before  Upatissa. 
P.  608,  1.  1,  place  comma  before,  by  day- 
light, 1.  11,  delete  which,  and  for 

renders,  read  render. 
P.  641,  1.  9  from  bottom,  for  South  read 

North. 
P.  647,  1.  8  from   bottom,  for  Gooroo- 

gooyae  read  Gooroogooya. 
P.  676,  1.  11  from  bottom,  for  foot  read 

ford. 
P.  843, /or  whites, male 4,358 read  3,353. 
P.  846,  1.  1,  for  from  1825  to  1839  read 

from  1825  to  1847. 
For  Exports  for  1846,  read  for  467,620 

read  679,286. 
For  Imports  for  1846  for  1, 01 1,289 read 

1,372,701. 


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