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ASTOR,  LENOX  AND 

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OOPYRiOKr  BY 
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1887. 


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■    prefaceT 


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«^#-- 


1  VOLUME  treats  of  the  Medieval  World 
I  ■  -»^ff'-=  i^  ''  '  '"''^^  '"  culturf.and  is  the  thin!  of  the  series 
iV^iiwBr^l  entitled  "'The  History  of  Civimzation."  As  tix- 
plained  in  the  preceding  voliinic,  tlif  Medieval  and 
Modern  Worlds,  as  far  as  the  Jiistory  i)f  culture  ia 
concerned,  are  entirely  taken  up  with  the  consid- 
^^3^-^^e)  eration  of  Aryan  civilization.  Strictly  Kpeaking^ 
there  are  no  broad,  well  marked  divisions  uf  Aryan 
history  and  culture.  The  Aryans  were  the  last 
great  people  ia  emerge  into  the  light  of  history. 
Their  growth  in  political  power  and  culture  has  been  slow  but 
ever  onward,  until,  at  present,  their  ranks  include  all  the  most 
powerful  and  progressive  nations  of  the  world. 

We  will,  in  this  volume,  treat  of  that  period  of  Aryan  develop- 
ment which  culminated  in  the  Discovery  of  America,  the  Invention 
of  Printing  and  the  Protestant  Reformation.  In  Part  I.,  wo  treat 
of  the  Political  Development  of  the  Aryans  during  the  period  of 

(3) 


w 


4  PREFACE. 

time  just  mentioned.  We  have  tried  to  present  a  connected 
account  of  this  development  in  the  five  chapters  devoted  to  this 
part  of  the  work.  Although  we  must  let  this  part  speak  for  itself, 
yet  we  can  not  refrain  from  speaking  of  the  main  assertion  sought 
to  be  supported  in  these  chapters. 

It  has  been  very  generally  asserted  that  the  Ayrans  were  Asiatic 
people;  but  of  late  years  an  opposite  theory  has  sprung  up,  and  is 
supported  by  some  of  the  best  scholars  of  the  day.  In  brief,  this 
theory  teaches  that  Europe  is,  and  always  has  been,  the  home  of 
the  Aryans;  that  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  co-working  of  many 
causes,  was  first  evolved  the  Aryan  people.  The  literature  on  this 
subject,  though  rapidly  growing,  is  at  present  mostly  confined  to 
foreign  writers,  and  we  have,  unfortunately,  been  unable  to  examine 
it  very  extensively ;  yet  but  a  very  brief  examination  is  required 
to  show  that  this  theory  possesses  many  elements  of  strength,  and 
we  have  little  doubt  that  before  many  years  it  will  be  one  of  the 
accepted  conclusions  of  science. 

After  having  thus  outlined  the  political  development  of  the 
Aryans,  we  turn  to  consider  their  development  in  culture.  In  this 
part,  we  strive  to  make  apparent  the  fact,  that  Aryan  development 
has  flowed  on  in  an  ever-widening  and  deepening  stream.  We  aim 
to  show  that  the  general  idea  in  regard  to  the  so-called  "  Dark  Ages" 
is  not  correct.  There  has  been  no  retrograde  movement  in  Aryan 
culture.  The  freshness  and  vivacity  of  Grecian  culture  may  have 
disappeared,  but  just  so  does  the  charm  of  morning  disappear  before 
the  pressure  of  mid-day.  The  concluding  chapter  of  this  part — 
Aryan  Religion — is  a  continuation  of  Primitive  Religion  of  Volume 
II.  Regarding  religion  as  one  of  the  principal  factors  of  civiliza- 
tion, it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  trace  the  development  of  Aryan 
^religion.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  the 
Aryans  played  a  most  important  part  in  the  worUUs  history. 

Regarding  Europe  as  the  home  of  the  Aryan  people  gives  us  a 
new  insight  into  the  nature  of  Aryan  civilization.    There  is  being 


PREFACE,  5 

evolved  in  America  to-day  a  new  type  of  people,  possessing  distinct 
racial  characteristics,  and  they  will  probably  some  day  evolve  a 
distinctive  civilization.  Just  so  we  are  to  regard  the  Aryans  of 
Europe.  Probably  centuries  of  time  elapsed  before  this  race  type 
wag  fully  developed,  and  many  other  centuries  passed  over  befon* 
they  had  assimilated  the  culture  of  Asia,  and  had  fairly  start c<i 
forward  in  their  own  career.  Prolonging  our  mental  vision  back 
some  thousand  of  years  before  the  Christian  Era,  we  can  dimly 
make  out  the  same  succession  of  events  in  Western  Asia,  which 
resulted  in  the  Semitic  civilization. 

Considering  Egypt  as  really  part  of  Asia,  the  civilization  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America  will  correspond,  in  a  general  way,  to  the 
Ancient,  Medieval,  and  Modern  Worlds  in  culture.  This  last  division 
has  not  yet  become  distinct ;  we  still  call  ourselves  Aryans,  and  our 
culture  is  not  materially  different  from  that  of  Europe.  Some 
centuries  hence  this  distinction  will  probably  become  fully  appar- 
ent. It  is  only  by  thus  taking  broad,  general  views  that  we  begin 
to  form  adequate  ideas  as  to  the  march  of  events  in  the  world's 
history.  Compared  with  these  great  movements — the  slow  rise  of 
races  of  men  to  a  commanding  position  in  the  culture  history  of 
the  world,  their  culmination  and  decline — how  utterly  insignificant 
is  the  life  of  the  individual  I 

In  reference  to  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  the  same  general 
plan  was  pursued  as  in  the  preceding  one.  Mr.  Allen  was  assisted 
by  the  two  gentlemen  already  named,  viz. :  Willis  Bouqhton,  B.  A., 
University  of  Michigan,  and  Emil  Reich,  D.  C.  L.,  University  of 
Vienna.  While  we  have  to  thank  them  for  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  work  in  general,  we  wish  to  make  a  special  acknowl- 
edgment to  Mr.  Houghton  for  his  services  in  Part  I,  and  a  similar 
acknowledgment  is  due  Dr.  Reich  in  reference  to  Chapters  VI,  VII 
and  VIII.  The  author  and  his  assistants  have  aimed  in  all  cases  to 
present  the  latest  and  best  sustained  views  of  scholars  in  the  various 
fields  they  have  touched  upon.     Where  we  have  differed  from  the 


6  PREFACE. 

conclusions  generally  given,  we  have  only  done,  so  after  a  full  con- 
sideration of  all  the  facts  of  the  cases ;  and  in  all  such  instances, 
we  have  aimed  to  give  in  foot  notes  the  authorities  and  reasoning 
followed. 

We  take  occasion  once  more  to  return  our  sincere  thanks  to  Mr. 
A.  W.  Whelpley,  Librarian  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Library,  and 
his  corps  of  assistants.  The  same  kind  assistance  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  volume  was  continued  in  this.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  much  of  the  value  of  this  work  is  owing  to  the  voluminous 
material  to  be  found  in  this  library.  We  trust,  that  all  who  read 
this  volume  will  find  much  to  commend,  little  to  disprove,  and 
that  such  of  our  readers  as  never  gave  much  thought  to  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  Aryan  people  will  be  tempted  to  pursue 
the  subject  further.  We  assure  them  that  they  will  never  regret 
such  a  course. 

Cincinnati,  June  1,  1888. 


CONTBNTS^ 


PART  I. 

Chapter  i.  ^ 

THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS. 

Ihtboduction — Aryan  Linguistic  Family — Geographical  Lootp 
ti<m  of  the  Aryans — The  Evidence  o(  Language — Aryan  Migration 
— Celtic — Cimmerian — ^Dorian — Thracian  —  The  Phrygians — The 
BlaYonians — Aryan  Influence  in  Eastern  Asia — ^Ainos — Coreane— 
Polynesians — Hindoos — Iranians — Asiatic — Asiatic  Origiii  of  the 
Aryans— Difficulties  of  this  Theory — ^European  Origin — ^The  Evi- 
dence of  Ethnology — Of  Language — Advantage  of  the  Bnropean 
Theory — Conclusion Page  19 

Chapter  ii.  " 

THE  ASIATIC  ARYANS. 

Introduction — Oriental  Peculiarities — Oeographical  Distribu- 
tion— The  Afghans — The  Galchas — The  Iranians — Zoroaster — Maz- 
deism — The  Rise  of  the  Persians — Cyrus — Cambyses — Darius — Re- 
organization of  the  Empire — Mt.  Behistun — Xerxes — Traits  of  the 
Persians — Disposal  of  the  Dead — Art  Among  the  Persians — Descrip- 
tion of  Ruins — Conquest  of  Alexander — The  Parthian  Empire — The 
Neo-Persian  Empire — Religious  Reform — The  Indians — Description 
of  the  Country — Early  History  of  the  Country — Asoca — The  Vedic 
Literature — The  Caste  System  in  India — Science  in  Ancient  India — 
Philosophy  in  Ancient  India — Buddhism — Ruins  in  India — Con- 
clusion  88 

Chapter 


THE  HELLENIC  ARYANS. 

Pelasgians — The  Hellenes — Aryans  of  Asia  Minor — The  Phryg- 
ians— Explorations  at  Hissarlik — Ancient  Troy — Relics  from  His- 
sarlik — Cyclopean  Walls — Phoenician  Influence — Early  Germ.iu 
Influence — Ancient  Hellas — The  Heroic  Age — The  Argonautic  Ex- 
pedition— The  Poems  of  Homer — Beginning  of  History  in  Greece — 

Political  Life  in  Ancient  Greece— Religion  in  Ancient  Greece — The 

(7) 


8  CONTENTS. 

Amphictyonic  League — ^Early  Settlements — ^The  Dorian  Migration 
— The  Rise  of  the  Spartans — The  Period  of  Argolic  Supremacy — 
Spartan  Supremacy — Development  of  Athens — Stories  of  Solon — 
Important  Cities  of  Ancient  Greece — Greek  Colonies — Other  Aryan 
Peopl(j — The  Cimmerians— The  Persian  Invasion — Age  of  Pericles 
— Triumph  of  Sparta  Over  Athens — Rise  of  Thebes — Rise  of  Philip 
•t*  Macedon — Alexander  the  Great — Conclusion.  .        Page  185 

Ghapter  IV.  ' 

THE  ROMAN  ARYANS. 

First  Glimpses  op  Italy — Geographical  Description — Phoeni- 
cians in  Italy — First  Aryans  in  Italy — Greek  Colonies  in  Italy — 
Celtic  Influence  in  Italy — The  Latin  Tribes — The  Confederacy  of 
Alba  Longa — Physical  Surroundings  of  Ancient  Rome  —The  Etrus- 
cans— Legends  of  Ancient  Rome — Gallic  Invasion  of  Rome — Archi- 
tecture of  Ancient  Rome— Rise  of  Roman  Power — War  with  Carth- 
age— Extension  of  Roman  Territory — Capture  of  Carthage — Internal 
Troubles  at  Rome — Marius  and  Sulla — War  with  Mithridates — 
Gladiatorial  Contests — Spartacus — First  Triumvirate — Rise  of  Caesar 
to  Power — Second  Triumvirate — Antony  and  Cleopatra — The  For- 
mation of  the  Empire — The  Beginning  of  the  Decline — The  Divis- 
ion of  the  Empire — ^Review  of  the  Growth  of  Rome  in  Territory — 
Conclusion 259 

Ghapter  v.  " 

THE  RISE  OP  MODERN  NATIONS. 

Introduction — The  First  Appearance  of  the  Huns — The  Migrar 
tion  of  the  Goths — Invasion  of  the  Western  Empire  by  the  Teutons 
— Fall  of  Gaul — Atilla — Gothic  Conquest  of  the  Western  Empire — 
Rise  of  the  Franks— The  Saracens — Charles  Martel — Charlemagne — 
The  Final  Separation  of  the  Two  Empires — The  Basilian  Dynasty 
in  the  East — Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire — The  Triple  Division  of 
Charlemagne's  Empire — Italy  under  the  Karlings — Change  of  the 
Western  Empire  to  the  German  Empire — Rise  of  the  Italian  Cities 
— Outline  Sketch  of  Germany — The  Hohenstaufen  Dynasty — Fred- 
eric Barbarossa — Rise  of  Austria — Outline  Sketch  of  France — The 
Norsemen — Rise  of  Normandy — The  Capets — Appearance  of  Modem 
/'ranee— Sketch  of  Spanish  History— Cas^tile  and  Aragon— Charles 
v.— The  Small  States  of  Switzerland,  Belgium,  and  Holland  Ex- 
plained—Sketch of  Russian  History — The  Muscovites — Peter  the 
Great— Hungary,  Litnuania,  and  Poland — Sweden  and  Norway — 


COI^ENTSL  9 

Denmark — Outline  of  English  History — Aelfred—  The  Norman  Con- 
quest— The  Plantagenets — The  Magna;  Charta— Henry  VIII. — Gen- 
eral Condusions Page  830 


PART  II. 

Chapter  vi.  ' 

ORBBK  CIVILIZATION. 

Intboductiow  —  Importance  of  Grecian  Culture  —  Factors  of 
Grecian  Culture — Influence  of  Tribal  Society — City  Life — Family 
Life  in  Ancient  Greece — In  Classical  Greece— Condition  of  Women 
at  Athens — In  Sparta — Explanations  of  the  Same — Daily  Life  of  an 
Athenian — The  Value  of  Athenian  Citizenship — Consequences  of 
the  Condition  of  Women  in  Athens — Education  in  Athens — Thea- 
ter* of  Athens — Greek  Games — Greek  Public  Meals — Music  and 
Dancing — Public  OflBcial  Life — The  Ecclesia — The  Court  of  Areopa- 
gus— The  Senate — Greek  Philosophy — Thales — ^The  Pythagoreans — 
Xenophanes — Parmenides  — Heraclitus — Empedocles — Democritus 
— The  Skeptics — Sophists — Socrates — Plato — Aristotle — The  Epicu- 
reans— ^The  Stoics — Grecian  Science — Astronomy — Mathematics — 
Greek  Art — Temple  Architecture — Painting — Phidias.  .        433 

Chapter  vii.  ' 

ROMAN   CIVILIZATION. 

Influence  op  the  City  op  Rome — First  History  of  Rome — 
Description  of  Rome — The  Houses — The  Fora — Slavery  in  Ancient 
Rome — Different  Classes  of  Slaves — Treatment  of  Slaves — Manumis- 
sion of  Slaves — The  House  Sons — House  Daughters — Marriage  in 
Ancient  Rome — The  Status  of  Married  Women — Ceremonies  of 
Marriage — Education  in  Rome — Compared  with  Greek  Education — 
Public  Life  in  Rome — Public  Games— Races — Gladiatorial  Games — 
The  Coliseum — The  Gladiators — Influence  of  these  Games  on  the 
People— The  "  Ludi  Magni  "—Public  Baths—  Meals  and  Foods  of  the 
Romans — Use  of  Wine  in  Rome — The  Dress  of  Romans — The  Toga 
— The  Tunica — Special  Articles  of  Dress  Female  Dress — Roman 
Literature — Cicero — Tacitus  —  Finances  in  Rome  —Taxes — Com- 
merce— The  Government  in  Ancient  Rome — Normal  Development 
of  Tribal  Government — Roman  Civil  Law — Tlie  Vast  Influence  on 
Our  Civilization — Conclusion. 620 


10  PBEFAOE. 


(CHAPTER  VIII. 

CULTURE  OP  THE  MIDDLE  AQE8. 

Imtroduction — Right  Ideas  as  to  the  Middle  Ages — Feudalism 
— Its  Origin — Feudal  Tenure — Ceremonies  Attending  the  Transfer- 
ence of  a  Fief — Duties  of  the  Vassal — Military  Service — Feudal 
Incidents — Reliefs — Fines — Forfeitures — Aids — Feudal  Nobility — 
Origin  of  Classes — Freemon — Villeins — Medieval  Slavery — Feudal- 
ism a  Development  of  Tribal  Society — Feudal  Jurisdiction — Wager 
of  Battle — Origin  of  this  Custom — Rise  of  Free  Cities — Chivalry — Its 
Origin — Influence  of  the  Church  in  this  Matter — The  Page  and  His 
Duties — Squires  and  their  Duties — Modes  of  Conferring  Knighthood 
— The  Ancient  Ceremony — The  Shortened  Ceremony  of  Later  Times 
— Classes  of  Knights — The  Tournament — Knight  Errantry — Estima- 
tion of  Feudalism — Picture  of  the  Middle  Ages — The  Crusades  and 
their  Influence — Powers  of  the  Church — Estimation  of  Church  In- 
fluence— Church  Influence  in  the  Matter  of  Advancing  Knowledge 
— Trade  in  the  Middle  Ages — Social  Life,  etc. — Conclusion.     Page  606 

GHAPTERnxT' 

ARYAN    RELIGION. 

Introduction — Mythology — Origin  of  Myths — Eclipse  Myths — 
Nature  Myths — The  Myth  of  the  Dawn — Aryan  Mythology — The 
Sky  God — Aryans  of  Asia — The  Vedic  Age — Brahmanism — Rise  of 
Philosophy — The  Sankhya  System — The  Yoga  Branch — TheVedanta 
School — The  Doctrine  of  Illusion — Iswara — Mazdeism,  Origin  of — 
Mazdean  Literature — Dualism — Ahura  Mazda — The  Auieshospands 
— Development  of  Mazdeism — Zrvan  Akarana — Peculiarity  of  Greek 
Development — The  Ionic  School  of  Philosophy — Pythagoras— Socra- 
tes— Plato — The  "World  of  Ideas ^' — Comparison  with  Hindoo 
Thought — World-Soul — Contact  between  Aryan  Thought  and  Juda- 
ism— Angels — Satan — Primitive  Feast — Greek  Mysteries — The  Eleu- 
sinian  Myth — Nationality  of  Buddha — Initiation  into  Brahmanism 
— Organization  of  his  Order — The  Laymen — Sayings  of  Buddha- 
Initiation  into  the  Order — Political  Development  of  Buddhism- 
Esoteric  Buddhism—The  "Tathagatha,'*  The  "  Great  Vehicle  "  Move- 
ment— ^Baddhaghosa — The  Legendary  Buddha — Spread  of  Buddhism 
— General  Conclusions 707 


^ 


^» 


LIST   OF 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


-n«- 


2. 
3. 
4. 
6. 

6. 

pf 

8. 

9. 
10. 
]L 
12. 
13. 

14. 
15. 
If.. 
17. 
IS. 

li*. 
20. 
'2L 

23. 

24. 


25. 


26. 

27. 
28. 
29. 


FAGE. 

Anton j's  Oration  over  CsBsar.. . 

Frontispiece. 

Ornamental  Title  Page 

Map  of  Aryan  Europe 27 

Lithuanian  Forest 29 

Celtic  Warriors 31 

Gn>up  of  Caucasians 39 

Gn-ek   Brigands 40 

The  A  i  n«;s 40 

C-<»rejins 48 

DLspersif»nof  the  Aryans  (map).  oO 

Polynesian  Chief 51 

Cambodian 52 

Aryan     Encampment    on     the 

Shores  oi  the  Caspian 54 

Slavonian  Man 62 

Slavonian  Woman (>»> 

(  eltiberian 69 

Germans  Crossing  the  Rhine  . .  73 

Tomb  of  Scythian  Kings 78 

Steppes  of  Russia 83 

The  Tadj  Mahal 90 

8*  ene  on  the  Upper  Ox  us 92 

Ethnic  Map  of  Asia 94 

A   Mountain  Pass  in  Afi^han- 

istan 97 

Armenian  Women — Haik  Ary- 
ans   99 

Knrdis    Hunter — West    Iranic 

Aryan 102 

Cyms  the  Great 106 

So  called  Tombof  Cyrus 109 

Darius  Hystaspes Ill 

Kuiui*   (tf  Palace    of    Dariusat 

Suia 113 


PAOX. 

30.  Tomb  of    Darius  at    Naksh-i- 
Rustam 115 

31.  Various  Forms  of  Fire  Altan..  116 

32.  Darius  Codomanns 118 

33.  Mount  Behistun 119 

34.  Stairway   at    Persepolis — Lion 
Devouring  a  Bull 120 

I    35.  Stairway    at    Persepolis  —  Per- 

I  sian  (luardsnian 1 21 

36.  liepresentationtifAhura Mazda.  123 

I    37.    1  he  Angel  Serosh 124 

I    38.  Masonry  ut   Persepolis 126 

39.  Genvral  View  of  Kiiins  ot  Per- 

I  sep«)lis 127 

j    40.  Palace  of  Darius    Restored)...  128 

41.  Ruins  of  Palace  of  Xorxes 129 

I    42.  Gateway  to  ''Hall  of  Orie  Hun- 
dred Colunins" 130 

'    43.  Column    from    "Hall    of    One 

I  Hundred  Columns" 131 

I    44.  Artaxerxes 133 

.    45.  Sapor  1 136 

i    46.  Architectural    Columns,  Sjisna- 

nian  Period   137 

[    47.  Palace  of  Chosroes  1 138 

'    48.  Fh>wered  Panel  from  Takht-i- 

Bosian 140 

49.  Ornamentation  of  Mashita  Pal- 
ace   14' 

I    50.  Jain  Temple 1  ^ 

51.  Source  of  the  Ganges 1 4 

52.  Scene  at  Benares loO 

53.  Raja  and  his  Court 152 

54.  An  Indian  Princess 155 

55.  Banyan,  or  Sacred  Fig  Tree. . .  161 

(11) 


UST  OF  ILilTTIunOXS. 


ta  y.s. 

•i1      f'&.Ai.'t;  of    K Allan *.*? 

1.'    •  rf»?Ai  S«iichi  liate l*f 

•»♦    I'.uit-liiint  I'riiwtii  from  iVyl.s.  1** 

M-'MQuiiiN Is.'' 

-■•'     il  i.-ltUi,  lalaiul  uf  Java..  :Si 

■ . i     \l  li .   H  irrtve Hiid  hf  r  CoL^i-.5rtw  !  >4 

:;    .'    .ilii?*!  Axeii  fnmt  Hifc^rL.k  Z:K 

.*.  I  .-..  i.lrr  III    FeU|tar   ....  *:V 

■I.    .£j.Af.ik '.*■'. 

ilfl.  M"  dt  f '."•  fri»m  Tri»v L\  . 

17    I'w.  lirailinl   iKKiilM*  .  V.': 

rt?«.    \.r  p  Us  at   Alh«i*. ...  IV* 

fW    U*  a  «  *iaie  at  Myw!:»« .  ;'.*: 

.'il.   .i.-it- aAUlic    KxifdilK'i:  ,  1..^ 

:\.  twiaru  ipi»iu  Tri»y i. 

.•:i.  f;*    trt  War  Herw!>..  i  * 

nv.  rv  iviwitfia  of  Ai^:..   «.-. 

tV.|.hi —' 

■;4.  Pif  Kif  e  Eiwrs _  --> 

:i\   «  n»;i*  v»a  ihe  Funeral  1-*^  rt  i  i 

7W.  li^'i'l.u* -- 

77.  S».u"a  Isolating  hia  La«>.  il-^ 

71*.  Siiott  aad  Cnaaua -'•;^ 

71».  .\ac»ai  Aihena -;  ' 

Ml.  V\m  kHrth«non  at  AcbeD9>.  :.'.-.'- 

HI.  AOmm  und^r  Ptericli**.  --- 

HB.  Miiuadok  at  Marathon.  i-»^ 

HI.  l*«nciM -■• 

HI  Alh*niaii  Fleet  before  Syrac-s*  -y 

Hi.  BMl  i«f  AUMLander -^ 

Hi.  AleKander  and  Aruioiie.  ^:^ 

Iff.  BattUof  biua ->- 

'4PI.  SCji|»  of  the  Bonian  Bnipii^  --  > 

•en  Lapiudine  Wolf -_* 

i«i    Hap  of  Borne. -.^ 

•I.  ianiu -_: 

H.  5Uni«canGr»Tea..    -. 
^  .^initua  Coodtiaa*^  ii*  N.-     ^ 
loDaaA 

4»    >-TieUa  a3«i  **  ^^  "-^ 

V  '     '  UaiUft  A  Btamk. 

<%.   til     lan    "^niBWi 

IT        ^ 


.iU*i^ 


PAGK. 

:  il   It  tti»  A?ma 299 

:  .•f    I •pn:i.  (»f  SpanacuR. 301 

1 .'"    •.  .ix);;iiefn  (»f  Ganl 308 

l.>^    ^iiLbzi:m<*:?  II.   Cr:i<«iDg    the 

ItErciMK-.ief   303 

-i'U    ^'a>!;a7  \.  r.»!*i:  c  lb*  Rubicctn. .  306 

: : ..    T..n.!-  ..:  ».  lesL- 308 

■ . .    Suii'.iJi   :d  2c-«:-*   309 

I ".  Il    C ;  ir.r;  ;i:   A  :iir::s:  .> 311 

::&   Sttv--.  i:.   r  .■:: -.-ri: 312 

I'.n    Ttt.;».i?A-.  1                .315 

j;.    V.i.U!«.'itLp-  -•:  rftir.ir.  ..    ..  317 

,'.1.    In.mr.:.    -.:.-=                         .    .  319 

.Ti-:i.:.:>  :V21 

1>    "l4.p»..x;£  .  :    .Jt*^:--     :  2r--a.n..  3;J5 
Lis     iva*-  :  .  -. :     .!....-:  r-:2i;,..ti. 

.1  •I  •}•>« 

-U.       ^.I.-.i     i.'     -It     Zii.T_r       -I     '.ha- 

.   lir                       ^  .540 
lL-1      .M..^.-:-    .'    -■.•  .»«    S^.:r.  ;;  i»  to 

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1.    l-ifc:.:iiL  T    V--            -       -:^5 

.:•.    T't,    i..i^  :     .,.           .-  .'67 

.  .  :»J8 

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f 

■i73 


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•i*'.       haJr 


•      t  «;  ...         Hi 

.i-jt;ra      .    .    .     ;89 

:91 

■•■•id  ... 

-ai-    ''u*c  i.v»  At  r'rjs**,*. 
4idk    *2r>iJ7  'I   Ivan  .nu»  Kazan 

403 

404 

M)b 

40© 
sMoiner  »eacain|{  niui 

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l-^K..  <«a<a>i  aat^JBaiin  hia  gmaj.  409 


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.97 

.    \Q1 


rii». 


I- 


LBT  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


18 


PAGE. 

161.  Cnate  the  Great  and  his  Cour- 

tien 411 

152.  Trial  of  Queen  Catherine 414 

153.  William  the  Conqueror 416 

154.  Burial  of   William  the  Con- 

queror .   416 

155.  I>eath  of  Becket.. 418 

156.  John 420 

157.  John     Swearing     Vengeance 

against  hia  Sarona 421 

158.  Erasmus 425 

159.  Olympic  Games 432 

160.  Grove  of  Altis 437 

161.  Siege  Machines 439 

162.  Types  of  Greek  Women 442 

168.  Home  Life  of  Greek  Women.  444 

164.  Discus  Thrower 446 

165.  Solon 447 

166.  GrsTes  of  Cjrene 449 

167.  Wedding  March 451 

168.  Greek  Festiyal 453 

169.  Music  and  Dance. 456 

170.  Entrance  to  the  Garden  of  a 

Rich  Greek 469 

171.  Eutmiice  to  a  Greek  Theater.  462 

172.  Burnl    Festivities  among  the 

Greeks 463 

173.  Delphi  and  Parnassus. 464 

174.  Uerouotus  Reading  Historj..  466 

175.  Helmets,  Head  CoTerings,  and 

Weapons 468 

176.  Arrangement  for  a  Meal 470 

177.  Living    Room     in     a    Greek 

Htjuse 472 

178.  Dwelling  of  a  Rich  Greek  ...  474 

179.  OmaijieDtal  Articles   used   in 

Grefk  Ufe 476 

180.  Scjthic  Festival  Scene 480 

181.  Gathering  of  the  Areopagus..  482 

182.  Funeral  Customs    among  the 

Greeks 484 

183.  Greek  Art -Vases  and  Ewers..  486 

184.  Hesiixl...- 488 

185.  Euripides.  490 

186.  Aeschylus 492 

187.  Hipparchus  at  Alexandria. . .  496 

188.  Sophocles. 499 

189.  Aristophanes. 500 

190.  Death  of  Socrates 501 

191.  Aristotle 502 

192.  Greek    Art— Phidias    in    hU 

Studio 504 

193.  Htppocratea 505 

194.  FiftT^ared  Greek  Boat 506 

195.  Greek     Art— Hector     taking 

Leave  of  Andromache....  507 

196.  Doric  Colnmn 508 

197.  Ionic  Column 510 

198.  Temiik  of  Diana  at  Epheaus. .  511 


I 


PAOK. 

199.  Pallas  Athene,  after  Phidia.i..  513 

200.  Olympian  Zeus,  after  Phidias.  514 

201.  Greek  Art— Fight  of  Achilles.  516 

202.  Greek  Art— Capture  of  Helen.  518 

203.  Bacchus 519 

204.  Destruction  of  P()iiii>eii 

(Double) 520,621 

205.  Entrance  to  a  Roman  Iloune. .   628 

206.  The  Forum 530 

207.  Household  Chanel 532 

208.  Roman  Slave  Market 534 

209.  A  Roman  Villa 537 

210.  The  Atrium 640 

211.  A  Roman  Citizen 543 

212.  Roman  Matron 646 

213.  Wall  Ornament  at  Pompeii..  649 

214.  Furniture,  etc.,  in  the  Koom 

of  a  Rich  Roman 661 

216.  Copying  Manuscripts  in  Rome.  663 

216.  Circus  Maximus 555 

217.  Chariot  Race 558 

218.  A  Roman  Triumph 561 

219.  Colosseum  at  Rome 563 

220.  Dving  Gladiator    565 

221.  The    Amphitheater    in  Pom- 

feii 566 
ting  Gladiators 569 

223.  Roman  Lictors 572 

224.  Roman  Soldien 574 

225.  Roman  Dining  Hall 576 

226.  Taking  the  Toga  Virilis 577 

227.  HouBehold  UtenHilH 680 

228.  Roman  Lady  at  her  Toilet. . .  582 

229.  Roman  Books  and  RoIIh 683 

230.  Sallnst 686 

231.  Ancient  Roman  Hhip 686 

232.  Funeral  Ceremonies 687 

233.  Specimens  of  Roman  Art....  690 

234.  Place  of    Fating  the  Funeral 

Meal 591 

236.  OfferinKs  to  Man* 692 

236.  Naval  Battle 696 

237.  Audience  with  a  Roman  Em- 

peror   697 

238.  A  Bakery  in  Rome 600 

239.  Roman  Judgment  Hall 602 

240.  Henrv      VI U.     Condemning 

Anne  Bolevn  ( Double)  .60H,  609 

241.  Feudal  Castle'in  Rouen 614 

242.  Storming  a  Fortified  Town  in 

the  Middle  Aj;efl 619 

243.  Suit  of  Armor <i*2:i 

244.  Chairs  of  the  Middle  Ages. . .  r,25 
246.  Medieval  Tournament (>2'.» 

246.  Bedstead  of  the  Middle  AgiH.  ()3-J 

247.  King  Going  to  a  Touniaujcnt.  (W5 

248.  English  Medieval  Contunies. .  iVSH 

249.  Punishing  Offenders 642 

250.  Knight  Templar 647 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

56.  Palace  of  KailaB 176 

67.  Great  Sanchi  Gate 176 

58.  Buddhist  Priests  from  Ceylon.  178 

59.  Buddhist    Temple,  Himalaya 

Mountains 180 

60.  Monolith,  Island  of  Java 182 

61.  Mapof  Greece  and  her  Colonies.  184 

62.  Homer 192 

63.  Polished  Axes  from  Hissarlik.  195 
G4.  Cylinder  of  Felspar 199 

65.  Hissarlik 200 

66.  Whorls  from  Trov 201 

67.  Owl-Headed   GoJdees 202 

68.  Acropolis  at  Athens 207 

69.  Lion^s  Gate  at  Mycenae 209 

70.  Argonautic  Expedition ,  213 

71.  Return  from  Troy 215 

72.  Trojan  War  Heroes 217 

73.  The    Priestess    of    Apollo    at 

Delphi 222 

74.  The  Five  Epors 228 

75.  Crcesus  on  tne  Funeral  Pyre. .  230 

76.  Hoplites 231 

77.  Solon  Dictating  hb  Laws.  . . .  234 

78.  Solon  and  Crcesus 236 

79.  Ancient  Athens 237 

80.  The  Parthenon  at  Athens 2:^9 

81.  Athens  under  Pericles. 244 

82.  Miltiades  at  Marathon 245 

83.  Pericles 247 

84.  Athenian  Fleet  before  Syracuse  249 

85.  DUfltof  Alexander. 250 

86.  AJexander  and  AristoUe 253 

87.  Battle  of  Issus 255 

88.  Map  of  the  Roman  Empire  . .  258 

89.  Capitoline  Wolf 268 

90.  Mapof  Rome 270 

91.  Janus 272 

92.  Etruscan  Graves. 273 

93.  Brutus    Condemning  his  Son 

to  Death 275 

94.  Cornelia  and  her  Sons 270 

95.  The  Gauls  in  Rome. 278 

96.  German    Women    Defending 

their       Wason        Castles 
Against  the  Komans 281 

97.  Entrance  to  the  Capitol 284 

98.  Appian  Way 286 

99.  Facade    of    Jupiter    Sta tor's 

Temple 287 

100.  Hannibal  Swearing  Vengeance 

on  Rome 290 

101.  Hannibal 291 

102.  Proclaiming    Libirtv    to    the 

Greeks '. 292 

108.  Return  of  Rt>g[ulutf 294 

1 04.  Celtic  Warriors  Devoting 
thcni selves  to  War  against 
the  Romans 297 


PAOI 

105.  In  the  Arena.  ......««••••.., 

106    Death  of  Spartacus. 801 

107.  Conquest  of  Oaul 

108.  Mohammed  II.  Crossing  the 

Dardanelles 

109.  Cssar  Crossing  the  Rubicon. . 

110.  Tomb  of  C8»ar 

111.  Suicide  of  Brutus 

112.  Court  of  Augustus. 811 

118.  Street  in  Pompeii S19 

114.  Trajan's  Arch 816 

115.  Mausoleum  of  Hadrian 817 

lid.  Imperial  Rome. S19 

117.  Romans    Warring    with    the 

Germans 

118.  Landing  of  Cesar  in  Britain.. 

119.  Bas-relief  of  Buddhist  Temple, 

Island  (if  Java. 

^20.  Arrival  of  the  Huns  in  Eu- 
rope   

121.  Incoming  of  the  Barbarians... 

122.  Stilicho  and  the  Goths 

123.  Atilla  at  the  Battle  of  Cha- 

lons    840 

124.  Odoacer  Compels  Romulus  to 

Abdicate 841 

125.  Map  of  Europe 34S 

126.  TheAlcaxarin  Spain 819 

127.  Defeat    of    the    Saracens   by 

Charles  Martel 

128.  St.  Sophia  nt  Constantinople.. 
1*29.  Clovb  and  the  Vaae  of  Soia- 

sons 

130.  Fall  of  Constantinople. 

131.  The  Huns  in  Germany 

132.  Leaning  Tower  at  Pisa 

133.  The  Rialto  at  Venice 807 

134.  The      Norsemen       Menacing 

Italy 

135.  Mongols  Crossing  the  Voln... 

136.  Barbarossa     Asking    Aid    ojf 

Henrv 87S 

137.  Maurauding  Norsemen. 877 

138.  The  Vikings 

139.  Hall  in  the  Alhambra 

140.  Cliarles  V 

141.  On  the  Road  to  the  Field  of 

Gold 

142.  Duke  Alva  at  Brussels 897 

143.  Entry  of  Ivan  into  Kasan  . . .  899 

144.  Peter  the  Great 401 

145.  Death  of  Louis  II.  of  Hun- 

gary   ••••  408 

146.  John  Sobieski 404 

147.  Gustavus 40i 

148.  Aelfred 406 

149.  Aelfred'a  Mother  teaching  him 

Saxon  SongB. 407 

150.  Aelfred  the  Great  in  hie  Study.  400 


13 .» 


Lmrr  of  illustrations. 


18 


IVL 


XkL 
1ST 


U* 


l«t. 
Itt 


IM. 


l«ft 

i«: 

ITU 

in. 

IT* 


174 
ITS 

1— 


I-- 


1/1 


IK 

liT 

4^ 


PAOK. 

Cte«ftt  tkft  Qnmx  and  hk  Goiir- 

tkn 411 

TtiaI  of  Ooccn  C«llieruie 414 

WUliaai  IM  Cooqiieror 416 

Bftxtal  of   William  the  Con- 

({Wfor 416 

IlfeAihuf  Beck«C. 418 

420 

Veofeance 

kk  Baroitt 421 

426 

OlTvipicGuMi 4S2 

Gf«'T«  ol  Ahit 437 

J«>fE«  Maekinc* 439 

TTfc*  of  Greek  Women 442 

Ha»<  LUe  of  Greek  Women.  444 

Diane  Thrower 446 

SoiMi 447 

Gnv«»  of  Cyrme. 449 

W«Hldinf  March 461 

Oi««k  F«dTal 468 

M»r  ana  Dance. 466 

Eniraace  tu  the  Garden  of  a 

iCcb  Greek 469 

Exktraiioe  to  a  iireek  Theater.  462 
Bcrai    Fcativiiiea  among  the 

itrrekit 463 

rMphi  and  Parnutaa. 464 

HcRH«f»iiM  Heading  Uittorj..  466 
Helm.^*.  Head  Coyeringi,  and 

UVaprins 468 

Arrar..j*-ii  rni  fur  a  Meal 470 

I..T.nie     R^.f/m     io     a    Greek 

li    iMf 472 

!•»•   ;  i,£  if  a  Rich  Gre«k  . . .   474 

•  »rT-x-.»r.ijil   Articles    used    in 

••r^  k  life 476 

-*rATt  ...  j.^tivi^|  Scenr 480 

•  rA:r.*rr-»r  •  f  ih*-  Arefjpagus..  482 
f  ^'.^T^A  *  u^ti^m*    amonf(    the 

««-^kt 484 

•r-^*  Art     Vaf^andEwer*..  486 

H-,  -:        488 

r-  *  *  i»i"3« ^yv 

•  "^^  "  7 '  ■'* 4yz 

H.(f  arrhu*  at  Alexandria.  . .  4% 

•*  j.:."ri#* 49V 

Ari*t.*phan<^ 600 

W»iri  .  f  S<K:ratcA   501 

A .".••otlr    602 

^sn^k    Art— fhidia*    io     hii 

>fidf. 604 

H.;;-*rat#^ 5(»6 

t  "T     ir^i  i^reek  Boat 506 

•irr«K       \rt — Hector      taking 

IjeiTeof  AoHromache. . . .  507 

N.nr  «  olumn 608 

I  r.i-  <  otumn 510 

T«c(,ie  of  Diana  at  Epbcsua. .  51 1 


,7    ! 


199. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 

206. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 

216. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
221. 

222. 

223. 

224. 

226. 

226. 

227. 

228. 

229. 

230. 

231. 

232 

233. 

234. 

235. 
236. 
237. 

238. 
239. 
240. 

241. 
242, 

243. 
244. 
245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 
260. 


PAOK. 

Pidlaa  Athene,  aftv  Phidias..  613 
OljmpianZeua,  after  Phidias.  614 
Greek  Art— Fight  of  Achillea.  616 
Greek  Art— Capture  of  Helen.  618 

Bacchus 619 

Deitruction  of  Pompeii 

(Doubled 620,621 

Elntrance  to  a  Roman  House. .  628 

The  Forum 530 

Household  Chapel 532 

Boman  Slave  Market 534 

A  Roman  Villa 537 

The  Atrium 640 

A  Roman  Citixen 643 

Roman  Matron 646 

Wall  Ornament  at  Pompeii..  649 
Furniture,  etc.,  in  the  Room 

of  a  Rich  Roman 661 

Copyinff  Manuscripts  in  Rome.  663 

Circus  Maximus. 666 

Chariot  Race 668 

A  Roman  Triumph 661 

Colosseum  at  Rome 663 

Dying  Gladiator   666 

Tiie   Amphitheater    in  Pom- 

n«i 666 

Fignting  Gladiators 669 

Roman  Lictors. 672 

Roman  Soldiers 674 

Roman  Dining  Hall 676 

Takinc  the  Toga  Virilis. 677 

Housenold  Utensils. 680 

Roman  Lady  at  her  Toilet. . .  682 

Roman  Books  and  Rolls 683 

Salliist 586 

Ancient  Roman  Ship 686 

Funeral  Ceremonies 687 

Specimens  of  Roman  Art....  590 
Place  of    Eating  the  Funeral 

Meal 691 

OflTerinpi  to  Mam 692 

Naval  Battle 696 

Audience  with  a  Roman  Em- 
peror    697 

A  Bakery  in  Rome 600 

Roman  Judgment  Hall 602 

Henrv      VI 11.     Condemning 
Anm*  Boleynf  Double  1. 608,  609 

Feudal  Ca-Hile  in  Rouen 614 

Storming  a  Fortitied  Town  in 

the  Middle  Ajjwi 619 

Suit  of  Armor <)23 

Chairs  of  the  Middle  .Age»^. . .   <>25 

Medieyal  Tournament 62*.> 

Bedstead  of  the  Middle  Agvu.  03J 
King  Going  to  a  Tournament .  6H5 
English  Medieval  Cof*tume8. .  t>38 

Punishing  Offenders 642 

Knight  Templar 647 


14 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

251.  A  Tournameni 649 

252.  Supentitions    of     the     Dark 

Age8(  Double) 652,  668 

26S.  Knighihood 656 

254.  Procession    in    the    fiitcenth 

Century 668 

255.  Entrance  to  i\w  Tournament.  661 
-'m\.  An  Ajwthecurv'sfcsliop  in  Old- 
en Times  .' 662 

.  07.  School  in  Uldeii  Timeu 664 

25?.  Execution  in  Middle  Agt^n. . .  666 

%y\f,  HhU  in  llousi*  of  a  Lord 069 

26i».  Tho  First  Pn.of 671 

261.  The  Firet  Printing  Press 075 

262.  The  Al.-h  mist 677 

263.  May  Fe-iiival  in  Middle  AgiS.  679 

264.  House  of   a  ICicii   Kurghcr  of 

tlie  Fiftceuih  CVniurv 081 

265.  TreatiiK'iit  of  llenaics  in  the 

Middle  Ap  s 684 

266.  Ik)ok-makin;j:   i:i   the   Middle 

Ages..... 680 

267.  Strei't  Sho.vs   in    li.e    Mi<ldle 

A^es 688 

268.  Attack  on  a  (.'aravuii    (llMj 

269.  Street  Seems   in   the   Middle 

Ages 09:5 

270.  Carpenter  Shop  in  Olden  Time.  61)4 

271.  Feudal  Castle  at  Rouen 097 

272.  Eleusinian  Feast 700 

273.  Death  of  Socrates 710 

274.  Assembly  of  the  Gods  on  Mt. 

Oljinpus 714 


275.  Diana. 

276.  Apollo 

277.  Primitiye  Worship  among 

(lermans 

278.  Mars 

279.  German  Funeral  Sacrifice. 

280.  Juno 

281.  Minerva 

282.  Temple  at  Benares 

283.  Druid  Sacrifice 

284.  Temple   of    the   Pan-Hellc 

^uti  at  Aegina 

285.  Pythagoras 

286.  Socrates 

287.  Xcnophon 

288.  Diogenes 

289.  Plato 

290.  Epicurus 

291.  ZcMio 

292.  Festival  of  the   Pan-Hello 

Zeus  at  Aegina 

293.  Raj)e  <»f  Persephone 

294.  Temple  of  Jagannath 

295.  Pluto  and  Persephone 

290.  IVmeUT 

297.  Statue  of  lUiddha 

298.  Huddhist  Temple— China. 

299.  Ang<«)r-\Vat- Siam 

800.  Bas-lielief,  Angcor-Wai. . 
301.  Buddhist   Temple— Island 

Java. 


S   FULL-FA&E  ILLUSTRATIONS.   ?: 


"N^" 


PAGB. 


L  Antony's  Oration  over  Caesar, 

2.  Ornamental  Title  Page. 

3.  Dispersion  of  the  Aryans  (Map), 
i   The  Tadj  Mahal, 
0.   Jain  Temple, 

6.  Map  of  Greece  and  Her  Colonies, 

7.  The  Acropolis  at  Athens,     . 

8.  Crcesus  on  the  Funeral  Pyre, 

9.  Map  of  the  Roman  Empire,   . 
10.   German  Women  Defending  their  Wagon  Castles, 
n.   Mohammed  II.  Crossing  the  Dardanelles, 

12.  Map  of  Europe,  Twelfth  Century, 

13.  Clovis  and  the  Vase  of  Soissons, 
K    Marauding  Norsemen,    . 

15.  On  the  Road  to  the  Field  op  Gold, 

16.  Trial  of  Queen  Catherine, 

17.  Olympic  Games,       .... 

18.  Greek  Festival,     .... 


Frontispiece. 


50 

89 
143 
184 
207 
230 
258 
281 
303 
343 
359 
377 
395 
414 
432 
453 

(15) 


16  FULLPAOe  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

19.  ScYTHic  Festival  Scene, 480 

20.  HippARCHUs  AT  Alexandria, 496 

21.  Destruction  op  Pompeii  (Double  Page),      .        .         512, 513 

22.  Roman  Triumph, 561 

23.  Henry  VIII.  Condemning   Anne   Boleyn   (Double 

Page), 608,609 

24.  Medieval  Tournament,      *  .  .        .        .        .        629 

25.  Superstition  of  the  Dark  Ages  (Double  Page),         652,  653 

26.  The  Alchemist, 677 

27.  Eleusinian  Feast, 706 

28..    German  Funeral  Sacrifice, 734 

29     Temple  of  Jagannath, 7. t 


Part  L 


History    of  tine    Political 

Development  of  thie 
Aryan  People. 


1.     Primitive  Aryans. 
II.     Asiatic   Aryans. 

III.    Hellenic  Aryans. 
IV.     Roman  Aryans. 


V.     Rise  of  Modern  Nations 

17 


The  hand  upon  thy  dial,  Timei  now  marks 
The  hour  of  chaoge.     The  Orient,  eflfete 
With  opulence,  is  crumbling  fast  to  dust 
Lo  from  its  ruins,  Phenix  like,  appears 
A  new  born  race. 

A  heritage  is  their&. 
O'er-reaching  all  the  earth.     The  East  gives  up 
Its  hoarded  wealth.    The  West  invites  them  come 
And  occupy  its  boundless  fields.     The  Earth 
Unbosoms  mines  of  jewels  rare,  while  at 
The  touch  of  their  deft  hands  fair  beauteous  forms, 
Almost  divine,  spring  from  the  senseless  rock. 
With  keen  and  searching  minds,  they  penetrate 
The  realms  of  endless  thought.     In  search  of  truth. 
They  enter  quiet  Nature's  holy  walks 
And  study  God's  most  subtle  laws. 

Behold 
When  Iran  comes,  a  Universe  bursts  forth 
In  welcome  strains,  and  rich  profusion  crowns 
The  ardent  zeal  of  that  aspiring  race. 

WlLJLIS  BouaHTON. 


THE  PBIUITIVK  AHTAHS. 

tyT»"i--'TH>v— Arj-Bn  Uoguifltic  Fmmily— <')*cqiT«pblc»l  Location  oftb* 
Ari  >■>•— Ttir  Kvlflence  of  tAn§:uage — Arvan  Mlgratioiu — t'eltle— 
finiriirfiaii— Dorian— Thracinn— The  Phrygians  —The  Slavoniana— 
Aryan  InAarDC*  in  Eastern  Asia^Ainos — Coreatu — Polynesians — 
Uiu'i'JM— Iranian*— Afiatic— Asiatic  Origin  of  the  Aryans— Diffi- 
-"illiMof  thlti  Theorj'- European  Oriirin— The  Eri- 
•  !i  tirtf  ^•^  Flbnolt^y — Of  Lan^age — Advantage  of 
tliti  European  Theory— Conclusion. 

MANY  ways,  Nature  teaches  ua  that 
time  is  long,  aod  that  she  can  not  be 
harried  to  her  final  results.  In  the 
'  fullness  of  time,  the  results  of  her  meth- 
ods of  work  are  revealed,  and  the  time 
taken  to  produce  a  given  result  is.  in  a 
sense,  commensurate  with  its  impor- 
taacr.  This  is  to  be  seen  when  we  consider  some  of  the 
tkeoriea  of  modern  seienoe.    They  tell  ns  of  countless  agee 


20  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

during  which  our  earth  swung  in  space,  a  glowing  orb  of 
light.  They  speak  of  eras,  exceeding  in  time  the  ability 
of  the  human  mind  to  conceive,  during  which  our  planet 
was  fitting  as  an  abode  for  sentient  beings.  They  have  to 
say  of  the  long  infancy  of  the  human  race,  of  its  slow 
advance  in  culture,  of  its  triumph  over  many  obstacles, 
and  of  the  final  appearance  of  that  better  day,  when  ideas 
of  truth  and  justice  and  such  an  advanced  stage  of  justice 
and  enlightoimient  had  been  reached  that  we  speak  of  man 
as  civilized.  But  all  this  took  many  millenniums  of  years 
to  accomplish. 

Since  then,  many  centuries  have  been  tolled  off  in 
rapidly  passing  years.  From  a  distance,  taking  a  mental 
survey  of  the  entire  field,  making  reasonable  allowance  for 
that  which  is  yet  obscured  by  darkness,  we  can  detect 
certain  great  planes  of  culture  Avith  clear  traces  of  ad- 
vance from  one  to  the  other.  Closer  inspection  shows  us 
that,  exi)lain  it  how  we  will,  the  people  in  these  successive 
stages  of  advance  are  also  separated  by  racial  diflFerences. 
We  have  the  culture  of  the  Turanian  races,  foUow^ed  in 
time  by  the  strangely  tropical  growth  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile,  which  wiis  in  turn  succeeded  by  the  Semitic  culture 
of  Western  Asia. 

It  further  appears  that  different  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface  have  been  at  different  times  the  seats  of  the  most 
advanced  culture.  In  this  respect,  both  Asia  and  Africa 
hold  an  important  position  in  the  culture  history  of  the 
world.  There  was  the  early  home  of  Civilization,  there 
first  the  light  of  history  broke  through  the  clouds  of  pre- 
historic times.  The  time  was  now  at  hand  when  the  seat 
of  learning  and  culture  was  to  depart  forever'  from  the 
countries  of  its  birth,  to  reappear  with  added  lustre  in  a 
country  beyond  the  blue  billows  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  21 

narrow  strait  of  the  Bosporus,  the  tossing  waves  of  the 
Euxine.  That  country  was  Europe.  There,  for  some 
thousands  of  years,  a  sturdy  people  had  been  passing 
through  the  various  stages  of  Barbarism. 

That  long  period  was  now  past.  The  hills  and  vales 
of  classic  Greece  had  now  caught  and  focussed  the  light 
of  Oriental  culture.  And  sunny  Italy,  too,  had  seen  the 
daylight  in  the  East,  and  was  laying  the  foundation  of 
its  world-wide  culture.  These  countries,  however,  formed 
but  the  most  advanced  outpost  of  the  Aryan  people 
The  grassy  steppes  of  Russia,  the  vast  forests  of  Germany 
the  fiord  valleys  of  Norway,  were  likewise  the  homes  of 
numerous  kindred  tribes,  though  some  centuries  were  to 
elapse  before  they  were  to  come  to  their  full  inheritance. 
Let  us  now  take  up  this  country ;  study  its  people  in  their 
collective  sense;  and  learn  of  their  condition  in  that  prim- 
itive long-ago,  before  they  commenced  to  move  out  of  their 
common  home  ;  trace  some  of  these  migrations  to  distant 
portions  of  Asia;  and,  in  short,  study  the  devel()})nient  and 
scope  of  the  Aryan,  or,  as  we  might  call  it,  EUr()i)ean 
Civilization.  We  have  to  inquire  first,  who  were  the 
Aryans,  where  were  they  when  history  dawns  upon  them, 
and  where  did  they  come  from  ? 

It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  common  understanding 
that  the  various  languages  of  Europe  are  all  mure  ur 
less  connected.  There  are  many  points  of  resemblance  in 
the  grammar,  and  even  many  of  the  words  are  the  same. 
Interest  in  this  matter  was  aroused  to  a  still  greater  pitch 
when  India  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  The 
English  officials,  scattered  in  various  capacities  throughout 
the  country,  quickly  became  aware  of  the  fact,  that,  not 
only  was  this  language  spoken  in  India  to-day  in  some 
respects  an  European  language  ;  but  they  make  the  further 


22  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

discovery,  that,  in  the  hands  of  the  priestly  caste,  there 
were  many  volumes  written  in  a  tongue  that  but  few 
could  understand,  though  the  books  themselves  were  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos. 

When  a  few  scholars  ventured  to  study  this  language, 
they  found  to  their  surprise  that  it,  in  many  respects,  re- 
sembled the  modern  languages  of  Europe.  That  language 
was  the  Sanskrit,  and  scholars  at  once  set  about  its  study. 
And,  from  that  study,  have  come  many  theories  concerning 
the  Hindoos  and  the  Europeans,  and  their  connection  with 
this  ancient  language.  In  short,  a  new  science  was  given 
to  the  world,  the  science  of  Philology,  or  the  comparative 
study  of  language.  As  a  result  of  that  study,  we  put 
into  one  class  by  themselves,  as  forming  a  closely  related 
linguistic  group,  all  the  people  of  Europe,  with  but  few 
exceptions,*  and  some  of  the  people  of  Asia — ^suchas  the 
Persians,  Afghans,  and  Hindoos  and  some  of  the  but  half- 
civilized  tribes  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  mountains.  We  can 
say  of  the  language  of  all  these  people,  that  their  gram- 
mars are  substantially  the  same,  and  that  they  possess 
great  stores  of  common  words.  These  words  occur  with 
a  slightly  different  dress  according  to  the  general  pecul- 
iarities of  the  individual  language.  That  is  to  say,  the 
common  word  appears  in  a  slightly  different  dress  accord- 
ing as  it  is  used  by  English  speaking  people  or  Germans 
or  Russians  or  Indian  Brahmins.  But,  in  all  these  cases, 
the  real  part  of  the  word,  the  root — ^the  nucleus — can 
be  quite  easily  traced  from  language  to  language. 

In  another  place,  we  have  made  the  Aryans  a  princi- 
pal division  of  the  White  Race.*  All  understand  that 
this  classification  is  one  of  convenience  only.  Of  course, 
as  the  various  bands  separated  from  their  common  home, 

1  Bee  This  Series,  Vol.  U.  p.  88,  note  2.       s  Ibid.  p.  S2. 


THB  FEIMITIVB  JLB  YAI^S.  23 

they  must  have  become  intermixed  with  other  people. 
Keane  asserts:  ^^The  Aryan  stock  itself,  whatever  its 
original  constitution,  has  everywhere  become  so  intermixed 
with  non- Aryan  people  already  in  possession  of  the  land 
that  the  very  expression,  *  Aryan,'  has  almost  lost  its 
ethnical  value. ^" 

This  collected  group  of  people  has  not  always 
been  called  Aryans.  Some  scholars  have  called  them 
"  Indo-Germans."  Others  have  used  the  name  "Indo- 
Europeans."  The  term,  Aryan^  is  a  comparatively  late 
name  for  the  great  family  of  nations.  It  is  derived  from 
the  Sanskrit  word,  arya,  which  means,  literally,  noble.* 
It  is  also  the  name  of  a  small  country  near  where  the 
Asiatic  Aryans  (The  Indians  and  Iranians)  first  made 
their  home  upon  reaching  Central  Asia.  Darius,  the 
first  great  Persian  king,  has  rendered  the  name  immortal 
by  announcing  to  the  world  in  his  funeral  inscription  at 
Naksh-i-Rustan :     "  I  am  Darius,  the  great  king,  the  king 

of    kings Aryan   of  Aryan    ofispring."*     We  shall 

adopt  it  throughout,  for  it  is  the  most  convenient  term,  if 
not  the  most  appropriate. 

In  wondering  at  the  marvelous  works  of  the  past,  and 
the  more  marvelous  legends  that  cluster  around  every- 
thing that  is  ancient — myths  that  have  been  palmed  off 
upon  the  world  as  historical  facts — we  are  apt  to  overlook 
the  fact  that  we  are  living  in  the  midst  of  a  far  more  en- 
lightened world  than  the  ancients  ever  dreamed  of.  We  in- 
credulously wonder  at  the  ancient  splendor  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia;  we   marvel   at  the   architectural   remains   «»"' 


*  III  Raiiisiey*8  **Europe,'*  p.  55.      Compare  with  our  remarks,  Voi 
II.p.  ZZet9eq. 

t  MuUer:  **  Science  of  Language/'  Vol.  I.  p.  237. 

>  Dr.  Oppert  in  ''Records  of  the  Past/'  Vol.  IX.  p.  75. 


24  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Egypt.  We  forget,  that  the  Aryans  began  where  all  the 
rest  left  off,  and  that  Aryan  Civilization  is  far  more  wor- 
thy of  our  admiration.  The  Aryans  have  never  yet  been 
given  full  credit  for  the  work  which  they  have  accomp- 
lished. Let  us  turn  for  a  time  from  a  slavish  worship  of 
antiquity,  let  us  consider,  that,  if  we  wish  to  study  art  we 
visit  Greece  and  Rome;  if  we  wish  to  view  the  philos- 
ophy of  the  past,  we  must  study  Aryan  classics ;  or,  if  we 
wish  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  any  of  the  important  or  vital 
questions  of  the  present,  we  turn  to  the  Aryan  scholars  of 
to-day.  Even  in  religion,  the  Aryans  have  furnished  the 
world  with  the  three  most  admirable  systems  of  religion 
that  have  ever  stirred  the  hearts  of  men.  These  are  Zo- 
roasterism,  Buddhism  and  Christianity.  As  for  the  last, 
we  shall  see  that  it  is  and  always  has  been  pre-eminently 
an  Aryan  religion.  Though  of  Semitic  origin,  it  was  dis- 
carded by  the  Hebrews.  In  short,  all  we  can  say  of  an- 
cient culture  is  that  it  was  the  foundation  on  which  Aryans 
built  the  massive  superstructure  of  our  present  Civiliza- 
tion. The  Aryans  to-day  include  the  progressive  race  of 
the  world.  The  science  and  religion  of  the  world  to-day 
are  Aryan.  Let  us  then  endeavor  to  come  to  a  full  under- 
standing of  the  Aryan  people  and  their  culture. 

The  various  Aryan  people  have  not  always  been  known 
by  the  particular  names  which  they  now  bear.  In  ancient 
times,  one  important  branch  was  the  Celts.  Though  there 
is  now  no  separate  nationality  known  by  that  name,  it  was 
once  applied  to  a  great  people  who  roamed  over  a  large  part 
of  Western  Europe.  There  were  two  groups  of  Celts,  Gallic 
(spelled  also  Gaedhelic)  and  Cimric.  The  Irish  are  the 
descendants  of  the  former,  and  the  Welsh  of  the  latter.^ 
Historians  have  so  often  applied  the  name  Gauls  to  the 

1  Keane,  Op.  cit.  p.  669. 


TME  FBIMlTIVa  ARYANS.  36 

Gdts  tluit  the  names  may  be  interchanged  freely,  remem- 
kriag  that  Gaols  are  always  Celts  but  that  the  reverse 
seed  not  be  the  case.    Among  the  first  German  tribes  to 
come  into  contact  with  civilised  people,  were  the  Teutons. 
Tcotonie  is  a  word  that  has  ever  since  been  preserved  and 
J  be  applied  to  all  Grerman  people.    The  name  ^^  Ger- 
**  had  just  come  into  use  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  as 
lie  tells  us  in  his  Gtermania,^  and  it  has  ever  Since  clung  to 
the  Teatons  who  have  lived  beyond  the  Rhine.    From  the 
third  to  the  fifth  century  a.  d.,  when  the  Western  Roman 
Empire  was  about  to  fidl  to  pieces,  a  number  of  entirely 
new  German  tribes  came  into  prominent  notice.    These 
were  the  Saxons,  Goths,  Franks,  Vandals,  Burgundians, 
Boevi,  Lombards,    Angles,  and  others  less  prominent.* 
The  Slavonic  Aryans,  represented  by  the  modem 
Runans,  are  a  later  people  and  form  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  Aryan  family.     Along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
there  exists  to-day  a  peculiar  people.  They  are  called  Lithu- 
anians or  Letts.     Though   not  a  numerous  people,  they 
hare  a  language  that  is  nearer  the  typical  Aryan  than  any 
other  existing  form  of  speech.     We  know  almost  nothing 
aUiut  them,  historically,  and  so  can  only  guess  alike   at 
the  date   when   they  came  thither   and  of  the  road  by 
which  they  came.    The  most  illustrious  of  the  early  Aryans 
wi-n\  of  course,  the  Greeks  and  Latins.     Thus  far,  we 
ha\'e  mentioned  those  Aryans  who  dwelt  in  Europe.   Eu- 
n»|if  has  ever  been  pre-eminently  the   Aryan  continent, 
but  the  Persians  and  the  Indians  may  be  mentioned  as 
the  nifist  striking  examples  of  Asiatic  Aryans.    A  con- 
venient grouping  of  the  Aryans  would  be  the  Greco-Latins, 
the  Celts,  the  Teutons,  and  the  Slaves. 


I  OlAp.  II. 

«  r^wouui:  ''HIttorieal  Geography/'  p.  86, 87  and  97. 


26  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Now  it  must  not,  for  an  instant,  be  supposed  that  the 
various  branches  of  the  Aryan  family  have  grown  and  de- 
veloped side  by  side,  each  keeping  pace  with  all  the  rest, 
and,  finally,  all  together  growing  into  our  present  Civili- 
zation. Such  an  idea  would  be  far  from  the  true  one.  Each 
one  of  the  great  nations,  that  have  arisen  from  the  primi- 
tive Aryan  stock,  has  had  its  own  period  of  growth  and  its 
own  peculiar  form  of  development.  The  so-called  young- 
est, or  Slave,  family  is  still  in  its  infancy  and  no  one  can 
prophesy  what  its  future  may  be.  The  very  first  of  what 
we  may  call  Aryan  civilization  that  appears  to  us  in  his- 
tory was  that  of  the  Trojans,  who  were  nearly  related 
to  the  Greeks  and  Germans  as  we  shall  see  later.*  It 
was  some  six  centuries  after  Troy  had  met  her  fate  be- 
fore the  Persians  arose  to  a  commanding  position  among 
the  nations  of  the  world.  Greece  and  Rome  and  the 
Neo-Persian  civilization  followed  in  quick  succession, 
only  to  be  superseded  by  the  Romance  and  Germanic  (in- 
cluding English)  civilizations  of  our  own  time,  upon 
which  the  sun  in  its  daily  course  never  sets.  The  light  of 
Aryan  civilization  first  dawned  on  the  East,  and  there  it 
first  attained  its  meridian  height.  From  that  time  until 
this,  it  has  gone  steadily  forward  toward  the  West,  jour- 
neying backward  for  one  brief  period  only,  when  the  Per- 
sians arose  to  a  commanding  place  among  the  nations  of 
the  world  in  the  time  of  Darius  the  Great.  It  crossed 
the  Atlantic,  illumined  the  New  World,  and  the  waves  of 
the  Pacific,  that  break  on  the  shores  of  Asia,  will  soon, 
let  us  hope,  glow  refulgent  with  its  light. 

Before  endeavoring  to  locate  the  historical  homes  of 


1  The  reader  wiU  find  this  fuUy  treated  in  Bohliemann's  '^imoa" 
and  *'TroJa.''  We  wiU  speak  of  it  in  detaU  when  we  oome  to  speak  of 
the  Greeks. 


TM£  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  27 

the  sereral  families  of  the  Aryan  race,  we  must  familiarize 
ourselves  with  the  geography  of  Europe,  for  we  shall  find 
that  the  stage  of  Aryan  life  and  civilization  has  been  prin- 
cipally upon  European  soil.  From  the  accompanying  map, 
we  will  see  that  Southern  Europe  is  a  series  of  peninsulas, 
projecting  southward  into  the  Mediterranean.  Three  of 
these  peninsulas  are  more  prominent  than  the  rest.  They 
are  Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain.     The  first  was  known  to  the 


Map  of  Aryan  Europe. 
ancients  as  Hellas,  the  second  as  Italia,  and  the  third  as 
Hispania,  or  sometimes  Iberia.  The  Black  Sea  was  known 
as  the  Eusine.  Between  Hellas  and  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  was  the  Aegasan  Sea.  The  Hadriatic  (or  Adriatic) 
was  the  same  as  at  present,  while  the  we-itern  coast  oi 
Italy  bore  the  name  of  Tyrrhenian  sea  from  the  Greek 
name  for  the  Etruscans. 

North  of  Hellas  were  Macedonia  and  Epiros,  Thrace 


28  TJffE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  Illyria,  ranging  in  pairs.  The  latter  pair  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  northern  land  by  the  Balkan  mountains. 
The  Alps  formed,  then  as  now,  the  northern  semi-circular 
boundary  of  the  head  of  the  Italian  penisula.  North  of 
these  two  mountain  ranges  was  the  home  land  of  the 
numerous  German  tribes,  and  north  of  Hispania  was  the 
country  which  Caesar  called  Gaul.  Roman  Britain  corres- 
ponded  pretty  well  to  modern  England.  Wherever  we 
have  occasion  to  mention  the  great  rivers  of  Europe,  such 
as  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  Danube,  Elbe,  Vistula,  Volga,  Don, 
Dneiper,  and  Ural,  we  will  use  the  modern  names  for 
them. 

In  a  general  sense,  wo  may  describe  the  location  of 
the  principal  Aryan  groups  at  the  dawn  of  history  as  fol- 
lows :  The  Mediterranean  basin,  including  its  great  lake, 
the  Black  Sea,  was  the  theater  of  action  for  the  Greco- 
Latins.  The  Rhine  and  Vistula  rivers  naturally  divide 
Central  Europe  into  three  great  regions,  roughly  corres- 
ponding to  the  other  three  great  divisions  of  the  Aryans. 
The  Rhine,  in  ancient  times,  formed  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween the  Celt  and  the  Teuton,  while  the  Vistula,  in  more 
modern  times,  separated  the  Teuton  from  his  Slavic  kins- 
man. In  very  ancient  times,  however,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  Germans  were  confined  to  the  territory  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  but  they  afterwards  crowded  farther 
east. 

Of  course  there  must  have  been  a  time  once,  when 
there  were  no  well  marked  divisions  among  the  Aryans. 
We  have  also  seen  that  there  was  once  d  time  when  Eu- 
rope was  in  the  firm  posession  of  Turanian  people.  If,  then, 
we  were  permitted  to  glance  down  the  long  vistas  of  time, 
we  finally  come  to  a  period  when  the  Aryans,  as  such,  can 
first  be  distinguished.    That  time  was  long  before  historic 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  29 

eras.  The  glaciers  had  come  and  gone ;  the  Neolithic  Age, 
had  come  with  its  unnumljered  hosts  of  Turanian,  jieople, 
who,  after  populating  these  fair  lands  for  unknown  ages, 
Were  now  passing  away  before  the  superior  culture  of  the 
advanciiig  Aryans.     Tiie  Bronze  Age  was  fast  approaching 


Lithuanian  Forest 
its  culmination.  The  physical  features  <»f  the  countrv  were 
much  th(^  same  us  now,  l)ut  nature  was  i)ermitted  to  hold 
wild  and  universal  dominion  over  almost  the  entire  land. 


30  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 

Man  had  not  yet  learned  to  hew  down  the  forest  trees 
to  drain  the  marsh  tracts.    The  steppes  of  Russia  were 
pasture    hinds   for  innumerable  flocks   and  herds.     Th 
forests  of  the  north,  and  the  marshes   of  the  lake  regie 
were  the  homes   of  the  buffalo,  the  bear,  and  the  boar, 
and  were  still   inhabited  by  fierce   Turanian  tribes.     We 
know  but  little   about  the  Aryan  population  there  until 
long  after  historic  times. 

As  time  passed  and   migrations  went   forward,  the 
primitive  Aryans  split  up  into  the  great  divisions  we  have 
roughly   outlined.     In  th^   forest  or  marshy  region,  just 
described,   were  located  the  Slaves  or  Sarmatian  people. 
Ancient  Germania,  with  its  great  Hercynian  forest  and, 
Teutoberger  wald,  so  fatal  to  Varus  and  his  legions,  wa* 
the  home  of  all  Teutonic  nations.     It  was  a  country  gen^; 
erally  bristling  with  forests,    or  reeking  with    swamps.^^'! 
There  were  river  valleys,  however,  that  yielded  rich  har- 
vests of  grain,  and  every  tribe  had  its  flocks  and  herds. 
The  men  were  hunters  and  warriors.     Their  homes  were 
the  forests  where  they  concealed  their  straw-thached  huts, 
or  in  whose  secret  depths  they  waited  the  approach  of  their 
foes. 

The  Rhine  formed  a  natural  barrier  between  the  TeUf 
tons  and  the  Celts,  and  its  shores  were  their  common 
fighting  ground.  The  latter  floated  their  small  crafts  down 
the  Rhone,  and  occupied  the  valleys  and  passes  of  the 
Pyrenees.  They  pastured  their  flocks  and  gallopped  their 
horses  through  the  valleys  of  France.  They  snatched  the 
forests  of  Britian  and  the  bogs  of  Ireland  from  the  abor- 
igines, and  they  swept  down  the  valley  of  the  Po  on  their 
plundering  expeditions.     Though  they  had  fixed  habita- 


1  Tacitus:  *'Germania,"  Chap.  v. 


TM£  PBIMITIVD  ARYANS. 


31 


ns,  they  >vere  the  most  unsettled  and  warlike  of  the 
:ient  An-ans,  and  would  desert  their  homes  on  the 
;htest  provocation  to  wander  about  in  search  of  new 


Celtic  Warrlore, 
As  we  propose  in  this  chapter  to  learn  all  we  can 
bout  the  primitive  Aryans,  it  will  be  well  to  understand 
hat  historians  are  wont  to  imagine  a  time  when  the 
iceators  of  these  varied  and  widely  separated  peoples  all 
'welt  together  in  some  peculiarly  favored  land.  Pictures 
•ftliis  primeval  Aryan  home  have  been  painted  in   the 


'  Cwur:  "Q&lUc  War,"  Book  vlli.  clupter  28. 


32  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

most  glowing  colors  that  language  can  furnish,  and  one 
needs  wonder  why  some  of  the  ruder  tribes  of  antiquity- 
should  have  so  fallen  from  the  state  of  culture  that  the 
primitive  Aryans  are  represented  as  attaining.  Let  us 
remember,  therefore,  that,  when  we  study  of  the  prim- 
itive Aryans,  we  are  but  passing  through  the  shadowy 
lands  of  legend  and  myth,  and  that  many  of  the  pen  pictures 
that  we  find  are  almost.purely  imaginary.  Linguistic  his- 
tory tells  us  all  that  we  know  of  the  primitive  Aryans  in 
their  primeval  home.  We  can  rely  upon  it,  and  upon  it 
only.  It  tells  us  that  all  these  nations  had  a  common 
origin  and,  therefore,  a  common  ancestry.  This  would 
necessitate  their  coming  from  a  common  country  ;  but,  as 
to  where  that  country  was,  language  tells  us  nothing.' 

Now,  in  a  word  or  two,  wo  can  explain  how  we  gain 
our  information  of  the  life,  habits,  and  degree  of  culture 
that  the  primitive  Aryans  had  attained  before  any  of  their 
descendants  had  left  their  home-land.  By  comparing  the 
Aryan  dialects,  we  find  that  they  have  identical  words 
(observing  the  vowel  and  consonant  changes  according  to 
Grimm's  law)  for  father,  mother,  brother,  and  sister;  and, 
in  fact,  they  had  the  same  endearing  terms  to  express 
almost  all  of  our  family  relations.  So  we  are  sure  that  the 
Aryan  home  in  all  its  purity  existed  in  those  prehistoric 
times.  So,  likewise,  we  learn  that  they  had  their  house- 
hold gods,  the  spirits  of  departed  ancestors .  They  must 
have  had  all  the  beliefs  accompanying  such  a  worship. 
They  had  advanced  to  the  stage  of  worshiping  the  great 
nature  fetiches.  The  clouds,  the  lightning,  the  sun,  moon 
and  stars,  in  fact,  anything  in  nature  phenomenal,  startling, 
or  inexplainable,  may  have  been  personified  and  worshiped. 


1  Whitney :  Am.  Cyclopedia. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  33 

A  similar  system  of  tribal  government  was  common  to 
all  of  them.  They  had  their  herds  of  domestic  animals, 
and  understood  the  cultivation  of  some  of  the  cereals. 
They  dwelt  in  villages  and  in  thatched  huts.  These  villages 
are  said  to  have  been  joined  by  roads,  probably  similar 
to  the  Indian  trails  so  common  among  the  aboriginal 
Americans.  Over  these  paths,  the  primitive  peddler  may 
have  borne  his  pack  of  foreign  wares  to  exchange  for  native 
produce.  The  common  word  for  sea  would  tend  to  locate 
the  primitive  home  near  some  large  body  of  water  on 
which  they  rowed  their  skiffs.  Words  for  the  oyster  and 
pearl  were  common  to  them  all.  So,  likewise,  we  know 
that  they  dwelt  in  a  land  where  snow  and  ice  were  com- 
mon, and  where  the  birch  and  fir  trees  grew ;  but  we  find 
no  indications  of  Oriental  luxury  and  enervating  climate. 
As  the  primitive  Aryans  were  but  slightly  acquainted 
with  metals,  they  could  have  possessed  only  the  rude 
weapons  common  to  the  closing  stages  of  the  Neolithic  Age. 

Thus  much  does  language  teach  us  of  a  primitive 
Aryan  people,  before  they  commenced  their  migrations. 
If  we  try  to  penetrate  further  into  the  past,  language  re- 
fuses to  be  our  guide.  It  will  tell  us  nothing  by  which  we 
can  locate  their  primeval  home  on  the  map.  When  we 
try  to  follow  the  route  of  any  Aryan  i:)eople  back  to  the 
land  from  which  they  came,  language  is  silent  and  will 
not  cast  a  ray  of  light  upon  these  long  forgotten  paths,  li 
we  attempt  to  approximate  a  date  at  which  the  dispersion 
took  place,  we  find  that  language  furnishes  us  no  reliable 
data  to  build  upon,  after  wo  ascend  into  the  realms  of 
prehistoric  times.  We  can  only  conclude,  then,  that  all 
the  highly  colored  pictures  of  primitive  Aryan  life  owe 
mure  to  the  imagination  of  the  artist  than  to  the  infor- 
mation drawn  from  language. 


34  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

Some  of  these  pictures  are  falsely  drawn  by  allowing 
some  of  the  historical  Aryan  people  to  sit  as  models^ 
though  they  must  be  clothed  in  their  most  primitive  his- 
torical garments.  One  will  describe  the  j^rimitive  Greek, 
another  the  Latin,  and  a  third  the  Hindoo,  as  a  typical 
primitive  Aryan.  This  is  wrong  and  gives  us  erroneous 
ideas  of  that  primeval  land  and  people.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, not  follow  this  method.  We  shall  take  each  of  the 
more  primitive  of  the  Aryan  families  and  try  to  form  an 
idea  of  their  mode  of  life  when  they  first  appear  in  history. 
In  doing  so,  we  shall  use  only  legitimate  sources  of  infor- 
mation such  as  language,  ethnology,  archaeology,  and,  per- 
haps here  and  there,  draw  some  imformation  from  legends, 
wherever  there  appears  to  be  a  thread  of  historical  light 
to  guide  us. 

But,  first  of  all,  let  us  institute  a  search  for  the  prim- 
itive home  land  of  the  Aryans  of  which  so  much  has  been 
written.  None  of  the  Aryan  traditions  aflford  us  any  light. 
Our  scholars  are  not  agreed  on  this  point,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, we  have  several  hypotheses  to  choose  from.  As  an 
aid  in  this  matter,  let  us  study  the  historical  migrations  of 
the  various  branches.  The  general  directions,  in  which 
the  movements  have  taken  place,  may  give  us  some  useful 
hints ;  if  we  can  trace  two  or  more  lines  back  to  an  inter- 
section,  we  may  come  upon  this  much  sought  for  country. 
We  will,  therefore,  begin  with  the  purely  historical  move- 
ments of  these  people,  and  journey  backward  into  the  lab- 
yrinth of  their  past  wanderings  as  far  as  we  can  find  a 
thread  of  light  to  guide  us. 

For  our  purpose,  it  is  not  necessary  to  notice  all  the 
modern  or  historical  movements  of  the  Aryans.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  migrating  movements.  Ordinarily  the 
migration  of  races  is  a  very  slow  process.     It  may  be 


THE  PBIMITIVE  ABYANS.  36 

ikened  to  a  gradual  spread  of  species  from  some  center  of 
lispersion.    It  results  in  a  mixture  of  races.    The  stronger 
race  will  predominate  and,  almost  always,  give  its  language 
and    culture  to  the  weaker  people,  who  become,  in  fact, 
serfs  or  slaves.     This  will  account  for  the  mixed  ethnical 
character  of  all  the  people  of  Europe.     In  fact,  there  are 
no  pure  races  anywhere.     Another  form  of  migration  was, 
however,  quite  common  among  people  in  tribal  life.  When 
a  territory  became  so  densely  populated  that  the  land  was 
unable  to  support  its  population,  it  was  not  uncommon 
for  a  vast  horde,  perhaps  several  tribes,  to  start  on  a  long 
journey  in  search  of  new  homes.     In  this  case,  they  took 
with  them  their   wives   and    children,  their   flocks   and 
krds,  and  all  their  movables.    It  took  the  form  of  a  great 
military  expedition,  and  sometimes  they  journeyed  a  long 
distance  before  they  reached  a  land  enticing  enough  to  hold 
them.    If  they  found  a  desirable  locality,  before  eflecting 
a  permanent  settlement,  they  had  to  conquer  the  tribes 
already  in  possession  of  the  country.     Such  a  result  was 
assure  to  lead  to  a  mixture  of  people  as  the  first  one. 
Shortly  after  the  Christian  Era  we  find  the  legions 
of  Rome  strongly  guarding  that  portion  of  their  empire 
bordering  on  G-ermania.      For  some  centuries,  they  thus 
held  back  the  ever  swelling  flood  of    Germanic  people. 
But  the  time  at  length  came  when  Imperial  Rome  could 
no  longer  protect  her   frontiers,  and  the  great  streams  of 
Gothic  people  forded  the  rivers  and  poured  over  the  moun- 
tains upon  the  lands  of  the  Roman,  Greek,  and  Celt.^  This 
great  migration  of  Teutonic  people   occurred  during  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  resulted,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  in  the  destruction  of  the  Western  Empire  of  Rome. 


! 


Freeman,  Op.  cit.  p.  87  et  seq. 


I 
i 


36  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

It  was  also  the  first  step  toward  the  origin  of  modern 
nations.  At  present,  however,  we  are  concerned  only  with 
the  general  direction  of  this  great  movement  of  Aryan 
people.  .  The  Germans  crossed  the  Danube,  the  Alps,  and 
the  Rhine,  and,  journeying  to  the  south  and  west,  secured 
there  new  homes.  It  required  less  than  two  centuries  for 
them  to  establish  their  power  over  all  of  Western  Europe 
and  even  to  conquer  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa. 

Passing  rapidly  along  toward  ancient  times,  we  find 
the  Celts  at  the  height  of  their  power  during  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries  b.  c.  During  those  two  centuries,  we 
find  that  they  are  continually  pouring  through  the  passes 
of  the  Alps,  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Po,  and  threaten- 
ing to  deluge  Rome  herself.  Near  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,^  we  detect  a  great  movement  of  Celts  to 
the  south  and  east.  Stopping  on  their  journey  for  a  season 
or  two,  they  gathered  the  wealth  and  plundered  the  in- 
habitants of  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  Then  they  moved 
onward,  crossed  the  Hellesi)ont,  and,  finally,  were  induced 
to  settle  in  Asia  Minor.  There  they  have  dwelt  ever 
since,  having  founded  the  prov'ince  of  Galatia.  They  were 
preceded  by  another  army  of  Celts  who  burned  Rome 
in  390  w,  c,  and  thence  turned  toward  the  east,  settling 
in  Thrace. 

This  is  about  as  far  as  we  have  historic  light  for  the 
njovemonts  of  Aryan  people  in  Western  Europe.  But, 
as  we  shall  see  in  a  following  (chapter,  the  probabilities 
are,  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Aryan  population  of  Central 
Italy  were  Colts.  Let  us  notice  that  all  the  movements 
of  th(^  ancient  i)opulation  of  Italy  were  toward  the  south. 


1  Somo  identify  these  CJaulH   with  the  army  that  burned  Borne  in  890 
B.  c.     Others  claim  that  it  was  a  later  movement,  280  B.  c 


their  in:ar  kit=-?irrt.  uh-  Tinteaoa  tuL  jn-^^it-t  -.-a. 
Af^oeaD  a&d  Ca^eac  Sea**  W*  ii»T^  uZ  t^jct-ot—  TUiic 
bat  r«{i*TiallT  tbe  iormer.  i-.naed  k  i^tab^-i'i^  lotc  wtc^i^ 


i  Book  W   dwf .   1. 

I  Am  Cytlfifjrtit  ■ 

>  •«*«  B«wUiMoii :    -*  HemdcCMi.'"  V«i.  ZZL  )^  1 
flBTn  ;    -  BHtidoCiu.'     Book  1  Amf.   14.  MMe  1.  1 
.  l^io4ii«>.  I<»)3.  Oiinb  thai  Bcndoua  n 
b/  Ibc  ClBiDprlMW  to  Ifae  rI^  of  Ibc  L,fdi>a  ctee!.  J 
iMi  niifii  m  fix  11  to  tbr  nisa  of  Gj^o,  «87-tf  >.  C- 

*  R*vUiuMi:  "Bcndotna,"  VoL  III.  y  aiL 

•  fcnbo.  Book  i.  Ouv-  S,  McilM  ZL 


I.  ^  t^  I 


38  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WOULD. 

people.  Strabo  says  that  they  "  were  once  sovereigns  of 
the  Bosporus/'^  and,  again,*  that,  after  Trojan  times,  their 
invasions,  together  with  other  people  mentioned,  *' threw  , 
everything  into  confusion."  To  some  of  these  invasions, 
a  much  higher  antiquity  is  given.  Eusebius  mentions  one 
as  occurring  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century  B.  c.^  Though 
Herodotus  does  not  mention  this  particular  incursion,  he 
does  regard  the  Cimmerians  of  sufficient  importance  to 
give  their  name  to  a  portion  of  the  Bosporus.  He  men- 
tions, besides,  Cimmerian  castles  and  a  Cimmerian  ferry.* 
If  we  (*an  at  all  depend  upon  the  accounts  of  these 
ancient  historians,  Cimmerian  and  Thracian  Aryans  were 
for  several  centuries  a  terror  to  the  most  enlightened  por- 
tions of  Asia  Minor.^  Right  here,  it  may  not  be  inappro- 
priate to  remark,  that,  were  we  to  seek  for  the  origin  of  those 
Aryan  characteristics  and  racial  qualities,  peculiar  to  the 
Alarodians  of  Caucasia,^  we  would  find  that  these  various 
incursions  of  Thracians  and  Cimmerians  could  point  to 
the  source  of  this  Aryan  influence,  and  explain  the 
origin  of  this  branch  of  the  White  Race.  Then,  if  the 
Hittites  were  akin  to  the  Alarodians,  as  some  autho rs  be- 
lieve, we  at  once  detect  a  i)ossible  source  of  that  more 
than  Turanian  energy  with  which  they  ruled  Asia  Minor. 
Here,  notice  in  particular,  that  for  many  centuries  pre- 
ceding the  fourth  century  b.  c,  Germanic  tribes  were  con- 
stantly threatening  Asia  Minor  from  the  north  by  way 
of  Caucasia  and  the  Hellesi^ont.  No  doubt  from  time  to 
time,  they  eifected  a  lodgment  in  that  country.  We  have 
had  occasion  to  mention  the  fact,  that,  as    early  as  the 


1  Book  vil.  Chap.  4,  section  3. 

2  Book  xiii.  Chap.  8,  section  7. 

8  Rawlinson:  **  Herodotus,"  Vol.  I.  p.  290. 

*  Bookiv.  Chap.  12. 

*  Bee  This  Series  Vol.  II.  p.  798.  o  Ibid.  p.  400  et  seq. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS. 


39 


.o  of  the  eijjlith  century  n.  c,  they  lunl  estublisiiwl 
zji'lvfs  at  Sinope,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
ki.  5sea.' 


Group  Cf  C9-j::93l3RB. 

At  an  earlier  date  still,  there  was  the  Dorian  mifrra- 
II  into  the  Pel()]niimesus,  wht-Ti  frreat  tribes  of  Dorians,  a 
i-cian  people,  came  (Inwn  from  the  nortli  {"Twelfth  Cen- 
■y  II.  c.)  anil  drove  larjro  nuinber.-*  of  Ii.nians,  and  Ae.>. 
IIS  across  the  Aejiraean  into  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  tUo 


/ 


40 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOSLD. 


Islea  of  the  sea,  only  to  follow  them  at  a  later  date.  As 
we  shall  see  in  a  following  chapter,  this  movement  was 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  tribes  from  the  north  ;  the  Epi- 
rots  encroaching  upon  the  Thessalians,  and  these  in  turn 
pressing  upon  the  Boeotians,  and  there  is  no  doubt,  but  the 
Teutons  were  at  the  same  time  coming  down  the  Danube 
and  crossing  the  Balkan  mountains  to  take  the  place  of  the 
people  whom  they  crowded  forward. 


Qreek  Brigands. 
If  the  storied  siege  of  Troy  by  the  allied  Greeks  bear 
any  meaning  to  the  historian,  it  is,  that  there  was  an  ever 
southward  pressure  of  Grecian  tribes  that  finally  jioured 
anenormousmigrationupontho  coiistsof  AsiaMIimr.  The 
result  of  this  migration  was  the  destruction  of  IHus  and 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  41 

the  ravaging  of  all  the  towns  along  the  northern  coast 
The  conquerors  of  Troy  probably  took  immediate  possess- 
ion of  the  adjoining  territory  where  the  most  of  them  settled. 
The  wanderers  that  may  have  turned  back  toward  their 
fatherland  were  but  few  compared  with  the  hosts  that  first 
set  out  upon  these  adventures.  The  poet  makes  Achilles 
boast  of  having  stormed  and  conquered  a  number  of  cities 
before  force  enough  had  assembled  upon  the  plains  of  Troy 
to  attack  the  principal  Trojan  stronghold.  Here,  too,  we 
must  note  the  constant  tendency  of  the  Aryans  to  spread 
toward  the  south  and  east. 

At  an  extremely  early  date,  the  Thracians  were  a  great 
and  widespread  people.  Herodotus^  says  that  they  were 
the  most  numerous  of  all  people  except  the  Indians.  In 
fact,  their  importance  was  so  noticeable  that  some  ancient 
writers  "divide  the  world  into  Asia,  Libya  (Africa), 
Europe,  and  Thrace".^  They  were  blue-eyed  and  rod- 
haired — "a  most  martial  and  highly  musical  ])i'()i)l(',  niiicli 
given  to  Bacchic  habits,  but  also  to  ])liilosopliical  specula- 
tion."^ All  historical  evidence  points  to  the  fact,  that  tliey 
were  the  ancestors  of  the  Mysians  and  the  Pliryuians,  the 
latter  of  whom  were  the  acknowledwd  ancestors  of  the 
Trojans.'*  The  Thracians  are  themselves  said  to  be  of  (fer- 
manic  origin.^  All  those  people,  then,  wore  Aryans.  Tlu^ 
ancestors  of  the  PhrvG^ians  must  have  niiirrated  tVoni 
Europe  into  Asia,  for  it  is  an  admitted  fact  that  none  of  the 
Arvans  west  of  the  Halvs  river  could  have  entered  Asia 

Minor  in  anv  other  wav.^ 

«.  %i 

When  we  come  to  assiirn  a  date  to  tln^  niijjrrations  that 


1  Book  vii.  Chapter  73. 

2  Karl  BUnd  in  '*Troja"  p.  358.  3  Ibid.  p.  3.59. 
*  Strabo,  vii.  chapter  3,  sec.  12.  o  Blind,  Op.  cit.  p.  354. 
6  Sayce:  **Ancient  Empires,"  p.  211-12. 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

3ught  the  ancestors  of  the  Phrygians  across  the  He' 
nt,  the  "research  of  the  spade"  at  Troy  has  enable< 
/  "penetrate  into  a  past,  of  which  German  tradition 
:)rgotten  the  very  existence".'     At  the  beginning  of 
welfth  century  b.  c,  *  the  great  city  of  Troy  was  floui 
ing  in  all  the  splendor  of  Oriental  grandeur.     For   j 
before  this  time,  the  Babylonian  caravan  had  made  its 
across  the  country  and  brought  wares  to  the  Mediterrar 
sea-board.     The  Hittite  merchant  was,  no  doubt,  a  conn 
sight  on  the  streets  of  Ilios.     In  the  thirteenth   cent 
the  historical  inscriptions  of  Ramescs  III.  tell  us  of  GTi 
and  Trojan  allies  among  the  foes  of  Egypt. ^     When 
Libyans  made  war  upon  Menephthah/  in  the  fourtec 
century,  the  Trojans  united  their  forces  with  the  enem; 
their  old  Egyptian  foe.     When  the  Hittites  made  war  u 
the  great  Pharioh,  Rameses  II.  in  the  fourteenth  centi 
the  Dardanian  Trojans  had  already  identified  themsc 
with  the  enemies  of  Egypt  and  joined  the  Hittite  ex 
tion.^     This  foreign  Greek  and  Trojan  element  amon 
enemies  of  Egypt  is  mentioned  on  the  monuments 
before  the  epoch  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  or  abo^ 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  b.  c* 

Thus  in  our  search  for  the  first  appearance  of  thf 
gian  Aryans  in  Asia  Minor,  we  must  go  back  of  t] 
of  Troy.     We  must  pass  over  the  reigns  of  the  nij 
and  eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasties.     Still  we  find 
Aryans  are  sought  as  allies  by  Asiatic  powers, 
of  the  Neolithic  Age  had  not  set  on  the  shores  of 
iterranean,  when  the  Aryans  first  erected  a  citad 

1  Sayce:  Preface  to  **Troja/'  p.  ix. 

>  Troy  was  destroyed  about  1180  b.  c. 

8  Bnigsch,  **IHo8,''  Appendix  ix.  p.  748. 

^  See  our  remarks  on  tliis  subject  ^This  Series''  Vol.  J 

»  Ibid.  p.  394.  0  Brugseh,  Op.  cit.  p.  748. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  43 

siirlik,  the  site  of  Troy.^  Do  we  try  to  go  back  farther, 
we  are  lost  in  the  gloom  of  antiquity.  Still  the  Phrygian, 
ancestors  of  the  Trojans,  must  have  crossed  the  Hellespont 
at  a  much  earlier  date.  To  what  a  remote  age  does  this 
point,  and  yet,  how  plainly  are  we  told,  that  even  then  the 
German  tribes  were  pressing  down  upon  the  Thracians  who 
in  turn  were  forced  to  cross  into  Asia  and  there  find  homes. 
Of  a  truth,  these  Aryans  must  have  been  in  Southern 
Europe  at  a  very  early  date  in   the  history  of  mankind. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  none  of  the  movements  we 
have  been  considering  are  those  of  the  Slavonian  Aryans. 
Where  were  they  during  this  long  period  of  time?  While 
the  Celts,  the  Grecians,  and  various  Germanic  people 
were  making  these  great  migrations,  apparently  radiating 
from  Central  Europe,  were  the  Slaves  living  in  contented 
quietness?  Or  were  they  also  sending  out  great  immigra- 
ting bands,  and  winning  for  themselves  new  homes  by 
foreign  conquests?  Let  us  see  what  the  probabilities 
are. 

The  first  historical  appearance  of  the  Slaves  was  not 
until  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  They  were  at  that 
time  situated  in  Central  Russia.  The  increasini^  pressure 
of  Turanian  tribes,  sallying  out  of  the  wilds  of  Siberia, 
impelled  the  Slaves  toward  the  west  and  south.  They 
crossed  the  Danube  river  and  the  Balkan  mountains,  am! 
settled  in  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  How  long  a  time,  now, 
before  the  sixth  century,  had  the  Slaves  been  living  in 
Central  Russia?  The  probabilities  are,  from  that  same 
primitive  long-ago,  when  the  Phrygian  Aryans  crossed 
the  Hellespont  and  intrenched  themselves  on  Hissarlik, 
at  Troy. 


1  Sayce,  Op.  cit.  p.  xii. 


44  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

Scholars  who  have  studied  this  question  assuM  us. 
that,  from  the  very  earliest  times,  the  Slaves  were  con- 
fronting the  Germans  on  the  east>  and,  in  fact,  were  slowly 
pressed  east  by  them.  Sayce  calls  our  attention  to  th<5 
significant  fact,  that  both  the  capitals  of  modern  Germany, 
Berlin  and  Vienna,  stand  on  ground  that  was  once  Slar 
vonic/  Latham  declares  there  was  once  a  time  when 
Slavic  dialects  were  common  everywhere  between  the 
Elbe  and  the  Dnieper  rivers.*  Quatrefages  tells  us  that 
the  Germanic  race  clashed  with  the  Slaves  in  the  basin  of 
the  Oder.  His  conclusion  is :  "  The  Slaves  settled  on 
the  Vistula  at  a  pre-historic  period  and  possessed  its 
entire  basin. "^  In  fact,  everything  seems  to  point  to  the 
conclusion  that,  at  the  same  early  date  at  which  the  first 
great  divisions  of  the  Aryans  appeared  in  Europe,  the  Slaves 
were  located  in  Russia,  and  for  unknown  centuries  they 
wandered  back  and  forth  on  its  grassy  steppes.  Unless 
they  differed  from  the  other  Aryans,  they  must  have  also 
sent  forth  from  time  to  time  great  bands  of  migrating 
people.  .  Where  could  these  bands  go  ?  To  the  west  and 
south-west  were  numerous  Germanic  people,  of  all  Aryans 
the  moat  energetic,  who  as  just  stated,  instead  of  yielding 
before  the  Slaves,  gradually  forced  them  east  from  the 
Elbe.  To  the  south,  were  the  numerous  and  warlike  Thra* 
cians,  Cimmerians,  and  Scythians,  preventing  any  move- 
ments in  that  direction.  One  course  only  was  open  to 
them.  Passing  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea  they  could 
easily  invade  Asia,  and  possess  themselves  of  the  terri- 
tory contiguous  to  the  Caspian.  Let  us,  then,  turn  to  Asia 
and  see  what  traces  we  can  find  of  Aryan  people  in  that 


1  **  Science  of  Language/'  Vol.  II.  p.  94. 

«  •*  Man  and  his  Migrations,''  p.  180. 

3  **  Prussian  Race,"  London,  1872,  p.  12. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  46 

great  continent,  and  the  directions  of  their  movments. 
Asia  has  always  been  preeminently  the  home  of  the 
Yellow  Races,  as  Europe  has  been  of  the  Aryans.  We 
have  seen  in  Western  Asia,  that  the  Semites  gained  ix)s- 
session  of  the  country  and  have  seen  that  supremacy 
passing  into  the  hands  of  the  Aryans ;  yet  time  has 
brought  around  the  first  conditions  again,  and  once  more 
a  Turanian  people  are  rulers  in  that  section.  Compar- 
atively speaking,  but  a  small  part  of  Asia  was  ever  in 
the  hands  of  the  Aryans.  In  historical  times,  we  find 
them  in  possession  of  Northern  India,  Persia,  Armenia,  the 
Bactrian  country,  and  the  adjacent  mountains.  It  is  fur- 
ther true  that  we  find  traces  of  Aryan  blood  in  South- 
eastern Asia  where  we  had  least  expected  to  find  them.  Only 
in  very  recent  times  are  conditions  changing,  and  Aryan 
culture  and  influence  are  on  the  increase. 

Let  us  refer  first  of  all  to  traces  of  Aryan  influence 
in  Eastern  and  Southeastern  Asia.    In  Treating  of  China, 
we  made  mention  of  the  Chows,  as  an  invading  and  con- 
quering people,  who  appeared  on  the  eoiitim^s  of  China 
about  the  twelfth  century  n.  c.     It  is  stated,  on  excellent 
authority,  that  these  Chows  were,  in   i)art,  Aryans.^     But 
at  a  far  earlier  time,  other  invading  people  had  passed  east 
through   the  Gates  of  Kasligar  and  overrun  portions  of 
China.     It  is  supposed  that  these  people,  the  Jungs,  were 
abo,  in  part,  of  Aryan  blood.*    It  is  further  supposed  that 
the  so-called  aboriginal  tribes  of  China  are  quite  largf 
descendants  of  these  partially  Aryanized  people.' 

J  Kingmill  in  J.  R.  A.  S.,  1878,  p.  301.     De  LaCou] 
ihe  Shans/*  preface,  p.  xxxix. 

«  See  De  La  Couperie.  J.  K.  A.  8.  1885,  p.  467,     K< 
"Am*,' p.  713. 

»  See  "This  Series,"  Vol.  II.  p.  439,  where  thlf 
ttd  Gate  are  given. 


'  >'*i 


46 


THE  MEDIEVAL     WOMLU. 


We  have  also  learned  of  the  wide  extension  of  white 
blood  in  South-eaatern  Asia.  We  can  not  aay  that  the 
source  of  this  element  in  the  ethnology  of  this  far  away 
people  was  Aryan,  and  yet,  to  our  mind,  this  presents  the 


The  Alnos- 
easiest  solution.     These  Aryan  tribes,  who  thus  wandered 
far  to  the  Orient,  became,  in  time,  so  hoplessly  mixed  with 
the  surrounding  people  that  they  lost  their  distinctive  race 
qualities.     It  is,  for  instance,  only  of  late  years,  that  we 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  47 

have  recognized  in  the  Ainos  of  Japan  a  white  people.* 
They  probably  come  the  nearest  to  proving  an  exception 
to  the  remark,  that  there  are  no  "  White  Savages."  We 
are  only  acquainted  with  them  in  modem  times,  when 
they  have  long  been  gromid  under  the  cruel  dominion  of 
the  Japanese.  They  are  now  rapidly  approaching  extinc- 
tion. Once  the  sole  inhabitants  of  the  chain  of  islands  ex- 
tending south  of  ELamtchatka  and  including  the  Japanese 
islands,  they  have  been  compelled  to  retire  before  a  more 
civilized  people,  coming,  some  from  the  mainland,  others, 
perhaps,  from  the  islands  of  Polynesia. 

It  seems,  also,  that  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Corea 
belonged  to  the  white  stock.^  They  were  gradually  outnum- 
bered and  absorbed  by  the  yellow  stock,  owing  to  the  con- 
stant migration  from  the  Chinese  province  of  Pechilli. 
The  typical  features  of  the  whites — oval  features,  light  com- 
plexion, blue  eyes,  etc. — are  plainly  discernible  in  some 
instances.  It  is  said  :  "But  for  the  speech  and  costume  one 
might  often  fancy  one  self  surrounded   by  Europeans."^ 

In  regard  to  the  further  extension  of  this  eastern 
branch  of  the  White  Race,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  we 
are  speaking  of  a  subject  which  is  as  yet  far  from  being  a 
settled  one.  However,  modern  research  seems  to  estab- 
lisli  the  fact,  that,  within  comparatively  recent  times,  they 
s]»read  themselves  very  extensively  over  the  Islands  of 
Polynesia — in  fact,  that  the  present  inhabitants  of  Polynesia 
are,  at  the  base,  a  White  Race.  Where  the  older  writers 
speak  of  the  Malayo- Polynesian  people,  we  have  to  change 


1  Bee  Flowers  in  **Nature,''  Vol.  31.  p.  364  ;  Keane  in  **  Nature/' 
Vol.  27.  p.  36.5,  389:  Keane  in  Standford's  '*Asia,"  p.  712.  Qualifying: 
the  above,  see  Recluse:  **  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants,'*  Vol.  II.  of  "Asia,*^ 
p.  389. 

3f  Keane  in  **Nature''  Vol.  26.  p.  345. 

«  Recluse:  **Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,''  **A8ia,"  Vol.  II.  p.  346. 


48 


TBE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


the  expression  considerably.  The  Malays  are,  in  reality,  a 
much  mixed  people,  in  which  white,  black  and  mixed  ele- 
ments are  found.' 

This  more  or  less  mixed  White  Eace  peopled  the  islands 
of  Polynesia  from  the  west.  .This  question  has  been  very 
careftdly  studied  by  such    men  as  Wilks,  Quatre&ges, 


Coreans- 
Mariner  and  others.  It  is  even  possible  to  sketch  the 
successive  migrations  which  carried  the  colonists  to  the 
various  islands.  To  determine  this,  information  has  been 
sought  from  many  sources.  The  historical  songs  and  tra- 
ditions fif  the  natives  have  boon  collected  and  studied,  the 


I  Quvt 
t,  p.  251. 


efiigfn:   "Hnman  SpeetoB,"  p.  433,    Keane  In  "Xnture,"  Vol. 


r 


-1 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  51 

.nguages  have  been  compared,  and  all  points  bearing  on 
le  ethnology  of  the  people  have  been  examined.  The 
iland  of  Boeroe,  between  Celebes  and  Ceram,  is  usually 
msidered  the  starting  point.  In  fact,  all  recent  autho- 
ties  are  agreed  on  this  point.  It  remains  only  to  point 
at  how  all  explorers  have  praised  the  fine  personal  appeal  - 


Polynesian  Chlel. 
Dce  of  the  true  Polynesian  Islanders.  They  arc  invariably 
escribed  asbeing  possessed  of  fine  symmetrical  proportions, 
ill  in  stature,  and  with  handsome,  regular  features.  Their 
air  is  smooth  but  not  lank,  often  curly  and  wavy,  and  the 
eard  is  naturally  full,  though  often  artifieally  removed, 
'hey  are  furthermore  declared  to  be  of  a  cheerful  and 
lyous  temperament,  of  a  frank  and  truthful   disposition,  ' 


62 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


and  of  a  kindly  nature.     All  this  forms  a  type  distinct  from 
the  typical  Yellow  Races  of  Asia. 

As  we  have  remarked,  we  have  no  assurance  that  the 
Aryans  were  the  source  of  this  white  element.  Yet  we 
must  notice  that,  from  an  extremely  early  time,  we  have 
evidence  of  Aryan  tribes  marching  east  through  the  Gates 


Cambodian- 
of  Kaahgar  to  debouch  on  the  plains  of  China.  We  have 
seen  these  tribes  steadily  pressed  to  the  south  by  fresh  mi- 
grations of  Mongolian  people  in  China.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible to  escape  the  conclusion  that  the  white  element 
in  Cambodia  was  derived  from  that  source.  At  a  later 
time,  we  see  the  Polynesians  starting  from  the  islands  near 


THE  PSIMITIVB  ABYANS.  53 

he  coast  of  Farther  India^  setting  out  on  their  great  mi- 
ctions that  finally  peopled  the  Islands  of  the  Piicific. 
This  migration  being  so  recent  in  time  that  we  can  gather 
he  details  of  it  from  native  songs  and  traditions. 

Turning  to  the  movements  of  the  Aryans  in  Western 
V^ia,  we  find  that  they  played  quite  an  important  role  in 
listory.  They  fall  mostly  into  two  great  divisions,  the 
Indians  and  the  Iranians,  and  of  the  latter  the  Persians 
rom  the  greater  part.  We  know  that^  at  an  early  date,  the 
Persians  branched  off  from  the  Indians  who  were  then 
[welling  in  and  about  the  Hindoo  Koosh  mountains  some- 
what to  the  north  and  east  of  historical  Persia.  The 
\.ryan  ancestors  of  the  Indians  first  journeyed  through 
he  passes  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  mountains,^  and  took 
>ossession  of  the  PiBUfiA>,  or  the  north-western  portion  of 
uodem  India.  Thence,  they  followed  the  river  courses  to 
he  south  and  east.  While  Aryan  blood  does  not  form  a 
narked  characteristic  of  the  southern  Hindoo,  the  north- 
Tn  part  of  modern  Hindoostan  is  decidedly  Aryan ;  and 
Vryan  culture,  language,  and  influence  have  penetrated  to 
he  remotest  shores  of  the  peninsula.  The  date  at  which 
he  first  Indian  tribes  entered  India  will,  perhaps,  never 
ye  known.  This  much  is  true,  however,  that  they  were  a 
>eople  separated  from  their  kindred  before  their  literature, 
Lnown  as  the  Vedic  literature,  began  to  crystallize  into  its 
listorical  shape.  The  Persians  had  a  literature  of  their 
>wn,  but  it  was  a  later  formation.  As  some  of  the  Vedic 
lymns  relate  to  about  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c,  we  are 
;afe  in  inferring  that  the  Vedic  Age  extended  back  at  least 
is  early  as  that  date.^ 


1  Thomas  in  J.  R.  A.  8.,  1883,  p.  878-86. 

»  Muller:    "Science  of  Language,''  Vol.  I.  p.  210, 147,  New  York, 
881.    There  Hb  also  good  authority  for  saying,  that  the  Indians  separated 


u 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 


Now  the  Persians  or  Iranians  were  a  colony  of  In- 
dians tliat  separated  from  the  latter,  while  they  were  en- 
camped at  the  foot  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh.'  This  separation 
must  necessarily  have  taken  place  at  an  earlier  date.  The 
Persians,  turning  toward  the  south  and  west,  must  have 
driven  out  and  occupied  the  homes  of  a  more  pnmitiTe 


Axyan  Encampmsot  cm  the  Shores  of  the  Oasplan. 
people.     The  earliest  traditions  of  the  Indians  and  Ira- 
nians point  to  a  home  on  the  source  of  the  Oxus  and  Jax- 


themselven  from  th«  Iranians  in  the  Bactrian  land,  the  former  Journey- 
ing toward  the  Punjab.  The  period  of  the  separation  la  oft«n  placed  at 
2000  B.  c,  or  Homc-  time  previouH  to  that  date.  See  Whitney;  "American 
Cyclopedia."  Vol  I.  p.  1=100,  also  Duncker:  "History  of  Antiquity,"  Vol- 
IV.  p.  2T,  (EiigllHh  Edition). 
'  Muller,  Op.  fit.  p.  248. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  65 

artes.^     Here  they  dwelt  before  they  crossed  the  Hindoo 
Koosh.*     This   takes   us  back  to  a  very  remote  period, 
many  centuries  before  our  era.     For  MuUer  tells  us  that 
"  along  the  Caspian,  and  in   the  country  washed   by  the 
Oxus  and  Jaxarte^,  Aryan   and   non-Aryan   tribes  were 
mingled  together  for  centuries.''^    It  will  thus  be  seen, 
that,  as  far  as  the  movements  of  the  Aryans  in  Asia  can  be 
traced  back,  they  seem  to  converge  toward  the  territory  to 
the  east  of  the  Caspian.     Can  it  possibly  be,  that  there  is 
any  connection  between  these  Aryans  and  the  Slavonians? 
To-day  we  know  it  to  be  a  fact,  that  Russian  influence  is 
spreading  far  and  wide  in  Asia.     Can  it  be,  that  such  has 
been  the  course  of  history  ever  since  the  Slaves  found 
themselves  cramped  for  room  in  Russia?    When  the  Ger- 
man  tribes  pressed  the  Slaves  to  the  east  of  the  Elbe,  did 
they  discharge  themselves  upon  Asia?     Can  it  be,  that, 
whereas  we  find  the  Russian  and   the  English   (a  Slavic 
and  a  Germanic  people)  confronting  each  othor  in  almost 
hostile   array  in  Asia,    we   are   but   witnessing   the  final 
moves  in  that  great  inter-racial  game   begun  ages  before 
the  dawn  of  history,  in   the   valley  of  the   Elbe   in   Ger- 
many, from  which  narrow  field  the  Germans  moved  to  the 
West,  the  Slaves  to  the  East,  and   are  now   met   for  the 
final  test  of  strength  in  mid- Asia? 

This  would,  indeed,  be  a  reasonable  theorv  if  w(* 
eould  find  any  satisfactory  ground  for  concluding  that  tlio 
Iranians  and  Indians  were  more  closelv  related  to  the 
Slavonians  than  to  the  other  members  of  the  Aryan  fam- 
ily.  Language  certainly  seems  to  afford  some  help  in  this 
matter.  We  have  already  mentioned,  that  Sanskrit  was 
the  original  tongue  of  the   Indians  and    Iranians.     Now, 


1  Ibid.  p.  :i:>9.  2  j.  k.  a.  8.  1883. 

3  •*  Science  of  Language,''  Vol.  I.  p.  243. 


66  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

almost  all  scholars  unite  in  establishing  the  close  relation- 
ship between  the  Letto-Slavic  dialects  of  the  Letts,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  Sanskrit.  They  almost  uni- 
versally claim  for  the  former  a  nearer  relationship  than 
can  be  ascribed  to  any  other  of  the  Aryan  languages,^ 
It  is  further  pointed  out,  that  the  Scyths  and  Sarmatians, 
who  dwelt  on  the  plaifis  of  Russia  in  ancient  times,  used 
a  dialect  that  had  many  points  in  common  with  the  Ira- 
nian dialect.^  One  curious  bit  of  proof  is  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  Morgan.  It  seems  that  the  Slavonian  people  in  Eu- 
rope have  certain  peculiarities  in  their  system  of  relation- 
ship not  met  with  in  any  other  of  the  European  Aryans, 
but  they  do  re-appear  in  the  tribes  of  India.^  Thus  we 
find  considerable  to  induce  us  to  believe  that  the  Iranians 
and  Indians  of  Asia  are  more  closely  connected  with  the 
Slavic  Aryans  of  Europe  than  with  the  remaining  Aryans. 
In  fact,  this  is  admitted  by  all  scholars  of  note. 

Now  Asia,  from  the  earliest  times,  was  the  home  ol 
the  Yellow  Races.  If  the  Slaves  were  confined  in  Russia 
until  they  gathered  strength  to  sweep  all  before  them,  their 
invasion  of  Asia  must  have  resulted  in  a  great  disturbance. 
Now  we  have  seen,  that,  about  the  twenty  third  century  B. 
c,  there  was  a  very  great  disturbance  among  the  people  in 
Western  Asia,  and,  strange  to  say,  the  lines  of  these  move- 
ments seem  to  diverge  from  the  Caspian  basin.  Then  it 
was,  that  Turanian  tribes,  marching  east  through  the  Gates 
of  Kashgar,  followed  the  course  of  the  Hoangho  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  Chinese  culture.*     It  was  at  this  time, 


1  Sayce:  **  Science  of  Language,"  Vol.  II.  p.  94.  Whitney:  *'  Study 
of  Language,"  p.  215.  Latham:  •*  Comparative  Philology/*  p.  610- 
Freeman:  ^'Historical  Geography  of  Europe,"  p.  16,  London,  1881. 

»  Sayce:  ''Comparative  Philology-,"  p.  396. 

3  "Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity,"  p.  43. 

4  This  Series  Vol.  II.  p.  424  et  seq. 


,  dut  thr  Elamite  tribes  suddenly  invaded  Mesopotar 
mia  and  conquered  Chaldca.'  Then  It  was,  that  Asshur 
went  ciut  from  Acwid  and  laid  the  foundatitin  of  Assyria, 
mad  at  that  time,  also,  the  Hebrew  people  took  up  their  line  ( 
of  march  from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  West. 
Aod,  as  already  p»iinteil  out,  the  waves  of  migration  carried 
lh^^  Hyksos  kings  into  Egypt. 

MiTien  we  refliHit,  that  the  date  of  these  movements 
cornspondd  remarkably  well  with  the  presumed  tirst 
■ppe»rance  of  the  Aryans  in  Asia,  and  when  wo  observe 
farther,  that  theao  movement*!  are  just  such  as  we  would 
ena-rt  t)  follow  from  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  great 
IhKt  of  Ar}'ans  forcing  their  way  among  thickly  settled 
Turanian  tribes ;  it  seems  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion, 
that  it  wai>  ut  this  time  (2300  b.  c.)  that  the  Slavouiaa 
Arraus  W>Tv  all  before  tlieni,  and  marched,  a  resistless 
bosi,  from  Russia,  by  way  of  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Caspian,  into  Asia. 

As  a  result  of  our  examination  into  the  movements  of 
Aryan  people,  as  far  as  known  in  history,  we  conclude 
that  the  lines  of  these  movements  converge  in  the  territory 
ar-'und  the  Baltic  in  Europe.  Here  seems  to  have  been 
th'-  |«"^int  from  which  they  marched,  some  to  the  west, 
others  to  the  south,  still  others  to  tlieeast;  and,  as  we  have 
s*.vn.  Europe  was  not  the  only  field  of  their  activity.  In- 
d«-d  this  seems  to  have  always  been  their  center  of  dis- 
lt'Tfi'u>ti.  not  only  of  prehistoric  times,  but  of  historic  times, 
and  U  true  oftoday.  We  are  therefore  prepared  to  believe 
that  the  original  home  of  the  Aryan  Race  was  that  por- 
tion of  Europe  immediately  adjacent  to  the  Baltic  aea. 

Yet,  when  we  turn  to  examine  the  writings  of  our 


58  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

scholars  on  this  point,  we  are  surprised  to  find  that  this  is 
not  the  generally  accepted  view.  They  speak  and  write  of 
the  Aryans  as  originating  in  Asia.  They  picture  forth  a 
series  of  migrations  by  which  they  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  Europe.  Our  surprise  is  somewhat  abated  when 
wc  discover  that  it  is  only  the  older  writers  who  are  nearly 
unanimous  in  favor  of  the  Asiatic  Origin.  Of  late  years, 
the  tide  seems  to  be  setting  just  as  strongly  the  other  way. 
As  this  question  is,  for  our  purpose,  a  very  important  one, 
let  us  see  what  our  scholars  have  to  say  on  this  point* 
Many  suppose  that  Philology  has  fully  settled  this  question. 
Let  us  first  examine  this  point.  The  classical  or  literary 
language  of  the  Indians  is  called  Sanskrit.  This,  together 
with  Latin,  Greek,  Teutonic,  Celtic,  and  Letto-Slavic, 
forms  a  great  sisterhood  of  languages  that  was,  at  some 
time  in  the  jmst,  derived  from  a  single  more  primitive  form 
of  speocli,  that  was  probably  used  by  our  primitive  fore- 
fathors  in  their  primeval  home.  This  lost  and  forgotten 
tongue  is  si)()ken  of  as  the  primitive  Aryan  language,  and 
many  attempts  have  been  made  to  reconstruct  it. 

Scholars  are  divided  as  to  which  known  dialect  comes 
nearest  to  this  primitive  tongue.  Some  regard  the  Letto- 
Slavic  dialects  as  the  nearest  co-geners  of  the  typical  lan- 
guage, while  others  claim  that  place  of  honor  for  the 
Sanskritic.  On  this  claim  alone,  some  philologists  wish 
to  locate  the  home  of  the  primeval  Aryan  tribe  as  near  as 
they  can  to  the  region  where  the  Sanskrit  was  first  found 
to  be  in  use.  But  as  further  study  proves  that  all  the 
people  who  use  Sanskrit  dialects  have  moved  from  some 
unknown  i)lacc  to  their  present  abodes,  they  have  further 
to  decide  on  some  suitable  i)lace  for  the  common  starting 
point.  They  have,  therefore,  settled  upon  an  indefinite 
point  in  Central  Asia,  somewhere  near  the  the  shores  of 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  59 

the  Caspian  Sea.  The  only  ground  for  this  choice  being, 
that  such  a  location  is  near  the  Sanskrit  speaking  people. 
The  claims  of  the  Letto-Slavic  dialects  to  a  closer  rela- 
tionship to  the  primitive  tongue  than  any  other^  being 
utterly  ignored. 

In  regard  to  physical  surroundings,  the  choice  is  not  a 
very  happy  one.  This  region  has  been,  from  the  very 
dawn  of  history,  totally  unsuitable  for  the  production  and 
support  of  such  a  hardy,  energetic,  and  vigorous  race  as 
the  Aryans.  If  the  Trans-Caspian  territory  and  the  lands 
along  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  were  the  primitive  home  of 
the  Arvans,  we  must  needs  transform  it  from  a  barren 
table  land  and  sandy  desert  waste  to  fertile  fields,  and 
cover  it  with  cereals  and  meadows,  suitable  for  the  main- 
tenance of  men  and  animals  indigenous  to  temperate 
lands.* 

But  let  us  inquire  more  particularly  into  this  argument 
of  language.     All  must  admit  that  the  results  of  comi)ara- 
tive  philology,  if  rightly  understood  and  applied,  are  a  great 
help  in  tracing  the  early  history  and  culture  of  a  people. 
Yet  it  is  not  an  infallible  guide,  and  we  must  take  into 
consideration  other  sciences,  such  as   Anthropology  and 
Ethnology.     Of  late  years,  there  is  a  tendency  to  question 
:       some  of  the  conclusions  so  confidently  urged  by  philolo- 
'       gists.^    But  those  who  appeal  to  Caesar  must  stand  by 
Caesar  s  judgment.     We  have  seen  that  good  grounds  ex- 
\      ist  for  claiming  that  the  Letto-Slaves  are  nearer  the  origi- 
nal Aryans  in  speech  than  any  other,  why  not,  then,  seek 


^- 


f 


^  On  this  point  consult  Latham:  *' Comparative  Philology,"  p.  610. 
Whitney:  ''Study  of  Language."  p.  215.  Freeman:  "Historical  Geogra- 
phy,' p.  15.     Sayce:  **  Science  of  Language,"  Vol.  II.  p.  94. 

*  Vambery :  * 'Travels  in  Central  Asia." 

8  See  the  whole  subject  discussed  in   ** Anthropological  Review,'' 


60  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

for  the  home  in  their  neighborhood  ?  But  this  is  not  all. 
Such  an  eminent  philologist  as  Professor  Whitney  shows 
that  "language  does  not  at  all  prove  that  the  Indo-Per- 
sian  common  abode  is  nearest  to  the  original  abode  of  the 
family."^ 

Closely  examined,  the  Asiatic  theory  comes  to  some 
startling  conclusions.  It  is  universally  admitted  that 
the  Asiatic  Aryans  (we  include  under  this  term  all  the 
Aryans  in  Asia  east  of  the  Ilalys  river)  are  only  immi- 
grants in  the  regions  which  they  have  occupied  since  his- 
torical times  began.  It  is  supposed  that  the  primeval 
tribe  of  Aryans,  from  whose  loins  the  entire  race  has 
sprung,  dwelt  close  by  the  side  of  the  modern  homes  of 
these  Asiatic  Aryans.  From  this  small  band,  we  are  told 
that  all  the  various  European  families  hived  oif,  swarm 
after  swarm,  and,  as  by  a  bee-line,  journeyed  toward  their 
European  homes.  Should  we  sound  the  roll-call,  and  j^ass 
in  review  the  innumerable  tribes  of  Aryans  who  have 
been  known  to  history — the  hosts  of  Celts  that  covered 
the  mountains  and  plains  of  the  Southwest;  the  armies 
of  the  Teutons  of  the  central  lands ;  the  hordes  of  un- 
trained Scythians  and  Thracians ;  the  more  cultivated 
Greeks  and  Romans ;  and  the  Slaves  of  later  times — 
the  whole  of  Europe  would  not  be  a  field  of  sufficient  size 
for  us  to  muster  this  enormous  army  upon. 

When,  therefore,  we  are  asked  to  believe,  that  all  of 
these  people  are  the  descendants  of  a  small  primitive 
band  that  resided  near  the  southern  shores  of  the  Casi)ian 
Sea,  and  that  one  great  army  after  another  of  emigrants 
left  this  primitive  home  and  journeyed  toward  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic ;  when  we  consider,  besides,  that  each  and* 


1  Am    Cyclopedia. 


THS  J>MIMITIVB  ABTANS. 


61 


svery  one  of  the  various  and  several  brancfees  of  this 
great  fEunily  must  have  journeyed  at  least  two  thousand 
miles  before  coming  to  a  halt ;  when  we  further  consider, 
that  not  one  of  these  many  armies  along  this  whole  dis- 
tance dropped  one  single  memento  by  which  modern  re- 
searchers have  been  able  to  point  out  the  way  by  which 
they  reached  the  continent  of  Europe:  when  we  consider 
these  and  many  other  obstacles  that  oppose  themselves  to 
the  Asiatic  theory,  we  can  readily  believe  that  it  is  not  even 
probable,  that  such  great  armies  of  people  could  have  left 
Central  Asia  since  the  close  of  the  Neolithic  Age,  and 
penetrated  to  the  heart  of  Europe  without  causing  such  a 
commotion  in  the  affairs  of  ancient  people  that  some  slight 
murmur  of  their  distant  tread  would  be  wafted  from  the 
wings  of  time  to  the  listening  ears  of  modem  historians. 
If  we  consider  the  relative  importance  of  the  Aryans 
in  the  two  countries,  equally  striking  results  are  before  us. 
The  Asiatic  Aryans  play  no  part  in  the  affairs  of  that  con- 
tinent until  centuries  after  the  European  Aryans  had  be- 
gun to  make   their  power  felt  in  the  Mediterranean  dis- 
trict.   In   fact,  it   is  doubtful   whether  they  were   ever 
known  among  Oriental  people  until  the  appearance  of  Zo- 
roaster.    This  means,  then,   that  the  primitive  band  of 
Asiatic  Aryans  that  settled,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hindoo 
Koosh  mountains,  dwelt  there  in  peace  and  comparative 
Eolation  for  a  long  time  before  they  could  muster  warriors 
^^ough  to  spread  out  and  command  the  notice  of   the 
Neighboring  people.^    It  was  not  until  the  times  of  Cyrus 
^nd  Darius,*  that  the  Asiatic  Aryans  gain  a  place  in  his- 
^ry.     Now,  if   these  were  the  primitive  Aryans,  the 
'  -^ans  per  excellence^  from  whose  loins  had  sprung  even 

1  Madam  Clemence  Royer  in  ''Anthropologla,"  1878-5,  p.  693. 
^  Sixth  Century  b.  c. 


k;*^-^^ 


63  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

in  that  age,  the  bont  and  siiicn  and  muscle  of  Europe-it 
is  not  probable  that 
they  would  have  so 
soon  sunken  to  a 
position  of  such 
utter  insignificance 
unknown  and  un- 
heard of.  In  num- 
bers, the  Asiatic 
Aryans  have  ever 
been  but  as  a  hand- 
ful compared  with 
the  Europeans. 
And  further,  in  re- 
gard to  the  former 
having  come  &x)m 
Europe,  we  can  but 
see  the  logic  of  Dr. 
Latham,  who  says : 
"A  mile  is  a  mile, 
and  a  league  is  a 
league,  from  which- 
ever end  it  is  meas- 
ured, and  it  is  no 
farther  from  tho 
Danube  to  the  In- 
dus than  it  is  from 
the  Indus  to  the 
Slavonian  Man.  Danube.      In  Zoo- 

logy and  Botany,  tho  species  is  always  deduced  from  the 
area  of  the  gunus,  rather  than  the  genus  from  the  area  of 
the  species."'    It  is  much  more  probable,  that  tho  handful 

1  "  Comparative  Philology."  p  (.12. 


r~"0 

"r^ 

^ 

|m 

1 

1 

H 

1 

1 

^ 

1 

1 

^3^^ 

B 

m 

THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  63 

3f  Asiatic  Aryans  should  have  migrated  from  Europe, 
than  that  almost  the  entire  population  of  Europe  should 
have  come  from  this  one  small  and  historically  unknown 
portion  of  Asia. 

It  is  a  fact  worth  pondering  over,  that  those  who 
accept  the  Asiatic  theory  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  t 
I  the  routes  by  which  the  Europeans  entered  their  present 
homes.  Some  would  have  them  journey  by  the  way  of 
the  Caucasus  and  the  Hellespont.^  There  are  those  who 
select  two  routes  of  migration ;  one  by  the  way  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  other  around  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Caspian.*  There  are  still  others,  who,  recognizing  the  fact, 
that  there  are  absolutely  no  indications  to  prove  that  any 
of  them  came  by  the  way  of  Asia  Minor,  and  being  un- 
able to  find  a  convenient  time  since  history  began  to  rush 
these  great  migrating  bands  across  the  Hellespont,  make 
them  all  travel  around  the  Caspian,  and  enter  Europe 
through  the  plains  of  Russia.®  Keane  meets  this  point 
with  the  statement,  that  the  journey  through  Asia  Minor 
occurred  in  the  Neolithic  Age,  prior  to  the  rise  of  the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Empires/  Schliemann^  has 
shown  that  the  first  Aryan  dwellers  at  Hissarlik  were  still 
in  the  Neolithic  stage  of  culture,  and,  as  they  were  mem- 
bers of  an  Eastern  wave  of  Aryan  migrations  from  Euroj^e 
into  Asia,  we  consider  the  point  strained  more  than 
will  bear. 

Those  who  support  the  Asiatic  theory  are  forced  to 
manufacture  explanations  for  certain  migrations  of  Aryan 


1  WincheU:  '^Preadainites,''  also  BawUnson :  "Herodotus,**  Vol.  IV. 
p.  70. 

s  Keane  in  Ramsey's  '^Europe,**  p.  558.  Muller:  ''Science  of  Lan- 
guage," Vol.  I.  p.  244. 

3  Sayce:  "Comparative  Philology,"  p.  38*. 

*  Op.  cit.  and  "Anthropological  review,"  18d3,  p.  159.    ^  "Illios." 


TSE  PRIMITIVE  JMYASS. 


65 


tbe  Aryans,  relating 
to  the  moTements  of 
the  heareDly  bodies, 
that  this  race  of  peo- 
ple must  have  dwelt 
at  one  time  no  further 
Moth  than  -49°  20* 
north  latitude.*  As 
tliis  is  a  considerable 
distance  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  has 
always  been  the  home 
of  the  Yellow  Races, 
it  seems  difficult  to  be- 
lierethat  there  could  I 
>l8o  have  been  the  | 
iome  of  the  Arj'ans. 

Prof.  Sayce,  who  I 
holds  to  the  Asiatic  | 
origin  of  the  Aryans, 
tliinka  the  European 
Aryans  were  all  living 
together  in  a  common 
home  in  Europe.'  He 
o'oes  even  further  than 
'hat,  and  restricts  the 
«nter  of  their   final  j 

tlispersion      to    some  Slavonian  Woman, 

point  "  westward  of  a  line  drawn  from  Konij^burg  to 
Crimea."     If  this  be  the  case,  some  strange  conclusions 


'  Vendldad,"  1.4-27;  "Bundahlsh,"    xxv.  4;  altio  cousult  Coudert 
"aelhindMoab,"  London,  1885,  p.  223. 
t  "Comparative  Philologj',"  p.  869. 


64  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOELD. 

tribes,  that  their  theory  forces  them  to  admit.  In  their 
attempts  to  set  forth  the  motives  for  the  stupendous  mi- 
grations that  must  have  occurred,  they  mention  almost 
every  phenomenon  of  nature,  from  earthquakes  to  the 
sinking  of  the  level  of  the  Caspian  Sea.^  They  have 
given  to  Bactriana  a  climate,  temperature,  and  fertility  of 
soil  that  it  does  not  possess.  They  have  made  it  the  great 
"center  of  communications  between  internal  Asia  and 
,  western  countries,"*  and  such  it  has  never  been.  They 
have  transformed  the  Trans-Caspian  region  into  another 
garden  spot  like  the  flowery  vale  of  Cashmere.  Neither 
has  the  snow  line  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  been  a  barrier  to 
these  primitive  people,  nor  has  the  sandy  desert  in  which 
the  Oxus  loses  itself  failed  to  furnish  abundant  pasturage 
for  their  flocks  during  these  peculiar  journeys. 

The  Asiatic  theory  fails  to  account  for  many  of  the 
circumstances  connected  with  the  primitive  Aryan  home, 
and  the  migrations  that  we  know  that  the  Aryans  made. 
There  is  not  a  tribe  of  Aryans  in  Asia  of  whom  we  can 
not  say,  that  they,  or  their  ancestors,  were  immigrants  in 
the  region  which  they  now  inhabit.  No  scholar  or  histo- 
rian has  yet  been  able  to  point  to  a  place  on  the  map  of 
Asia  and  say,  that  there  the  Aryans  were  dwelling  when 
their  history,  real  or  legendary,  began.  All  are  but  pil- 
grims of  usurpers  in  the  land  that  they  call  their  own. 
This  cannot  be  asserted  of  the  Grerman  and  Lettish  tribes 
of  the  Baltic  region.  This  ha«  always  been  their  home, 
so  far  as  legend,  language,  or  history  tell  us.^  Now  the 
astronomer  proves,  from  lingering  superstitions,  conmion  to 


1  Thomas  in  J.  R.  A.  8. 1883,  p.  369.     Keary:    **Dawn  of  Hiatory,'* 
p.  61. 

a  ** Anthropological  Review, »»  1868,  p.  160. 
«  **Ameriean  Antiquarian, '»  July,  1887,  p.  283 


THE  PJinfTTIV/:  AliYAXS. 


the  Aryans,  relating 
to  the  movementa  of 
the  heavenly  bodies, 
that  this  race  of  peo- 
jile  must  have  dwelt 
..t  one  tnne  no  further 
south  than  49°  20' 
north  latitude.*  As 
this  is  a  considerable 
distance  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  has 
always  been  the  home 
of  the  Yellow  Races, 
it  seems  difficult  to  be 
lieve  that  there  could 
also  have  been  the 
home  of  the  Aryans 
Pi-i)f.  Sayce,  who 
holds  to  the  Asiatic 
origin  of  the  Arj'ans, 
thinkd  the  European 
Arymis  were  all  living 
together  in  a  commoD 
home  in  Europe."  lie 
i:oos  even  further  than 
ihat,  and  restricts  the 
(X'uter  of  their  final 
disjiersion  to  some 
point  "  westward  (if  ; 
Crimea. 


Slavonian  Woman. 
line  drawn  from   Koni.irsburg  to 
If  this  be   the  case,  some  straiise  conclusions 


1  Veuilidafi,"  1.4-27;   "Bundahish," 

"Hethatid  Moab,"  IxindoD,  JK80,  p.  22.1. 

1  "Comparative  Philologj',"  \\.  360, 


66  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WOULD. 

t 

follow.     We  would  have  an  example  of  an  enormous  hiNl^ 
of  emigrants,  issuing  in  a  body  from  the  heart  of  Asu|^i 
journeying   in  a  body  for  nearly  three  thousand  mileSi  ^ 
showing  no  cause  for  their  departure  from  their  primevalL « 
homes,  and  leaving  no  memfentoes  to  mark  the  routes  thatr 
they  took ;  or,  here  would  be  the  solitary  and  phenominal  _ 
example  among  rude  tribes,  of  a  long  series  of  migrations^;!::, 
all  starting  from  about  the  same  point,  covering  centurieil;:: 
of  time,  and  all  converging  toward  the  same  region,  th^ij^ 
last  ones  destroying  all  vestiges  of  their  movements,    lihr 
such  proves  to  be  the  correct  theory,  it  stands  as  a  solitary  | 
example  among  the  movements  of  mankind,  while  in  a  tri-  :| 
bal  state  of  society,  and  will  need  strong  evidence  to  estab*  \ 
lish  its  truth  and  make  it  acceptible  to  the  historian.  \ 

At  the  risk  of  wearying  our  readers,  let  us  push  the  ] 
investigation  a  little  further.  As  we  have  already  stated, 
migrations  generally  are  of  two  kinds.  It  may  occasion- 
ally happen,  that  a  restless  band  of  warriors  will  take 
their  wives,  flocks,  and  possessions,  and  make  quite  a  long 
military  expedition,  and,  finally  conquering  some  people, 
take  possession  of  their  homes.  Ordinarily,  however,  the 
migrations  of  a  people  take  the  form  of  a  gradual  spread 
outward  from  some  center  of  dispersion,  lasting  through 
centuries  of  time.  Caesar,  for  example,  found  German 
tribes  crossing  the  Rhine  and  occupying  lands  in  the  Gal- 
lic territory;  but  we  must  observe,  that  only  a  tribe  or  two 
crossed  each  season.  So  Grecian  and  Thracian  tribes 
took  gradual  possession  of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  many  generations  before  they  had  Aryanized  the 
country.  The  Indians  have  not  yet  Aryanized  the  penin- 
sula of  Hindoostan,  although  they  must  have  entered  the 
Punjab  many  centuries  ago. 

Let  us  go  backward  in  time  many  ages,  to  the  time 


vhen  the  Turanii-  'jr.'--^   .-all-^:  -j 
4heir  own.  and  wi-i-rr^i  i:  t-JH  tr 

'tinent  of  Ernvj^?  iil!-fii  zt.  -jl-^.'t-  t 
confusion  of  these  irihe*  :  -±-frv  Tt- 
ionnation.  a  distic't  r-i-'rl-e:  yi^-  is 
in  America  tr-iay  :he  Az:-rrj,uz, 
aiose  near  the  Baltic  th.^  zrst  Att"! 
and  blue  eyed. 

Nourished  by  the  ppniti-'iis 
hardened  by  the  winter  ■  f  a  xVi  := 
began  to  increase  and  muItiplT  J 
here,  the  weaker  tribes  wviv  :■  T'^i 
home  to  the  borders  of  the  Aryan 
migrations,  they  met  only  Tuririiz 
everj^where  occurred.  Usually  the 
strong  enough  to  change  or  .\jyarize  :h.r-  :•:•  :  "e  *-::£ 
whom  they  mingled.  Oei.'asi":::i]!y.  i.  «■-.■.-...-  -.1-  .v.— .;,-..* 
must  have  lx?en  swallowed  u['  ('y  -.:,-.-  Tur-r-.-i:-  ai  — 
they  went  out  to  conquer.  Al!  hist-  rv  :r.;:'.:i:'.-*  :i-:  :l.s 
spread  was  gradual  in  all  southerly  ■I:re<.ti- :.?  ir. :  :.  w-ri 
the  east.  If  our  suppositinti,  ht-rc  jtai<;ii.  \:-  ->  rrv:.  w? 
ought  ti)  find  the  purest  Aryan  types  near  the  ■id  :.■.■::-.■> 
land,  and  its  we  journey  away  from  this  tvnicr  it  sh'-uld 
jpTiw  weaker.  This  conclusion  is  supporteil  liy  the  l>ot 
I  tthttologists  of  to-day.  In  a  tabic  we  give  the  ethnical  di- 
ription  of  various  European  people.  An  examination  of 
I  same  shows  us  how  true  it  ia,  that,  as  wc  journey 
hiwsy  from  the  shores  of  the  ~  '  "  " 
weaker.  Thus 
ihe&ed  that  the  Baltic 
i  Aryftits. 


the  H^^^^^Mt^^^^ 


68 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


TABLE. 


PEOPLE. 


East 

Gtermans 


South 
Gtermans 


East 

Russians 


English 


South 
Scandina- 
vians 


Great 

Russians 


Bulgarians 


Hung^ 

rians 


North 

Italians 


Spanish 

South 

French 

North 
Scandina- 
vians 


ETHNIO    DESOBIPnON. 


Slavo-Teutonio 


Celto-Teutonic 


Letto-Teuto-Slavio 


Celto-Teutonic 


Teuto-Nord 


Finno-Slavic 


Ugro-Slavic 


Ugro-Teuto-Slavic 


Liguro-Celtic-Italic 


Celt-Iberian 


Ibero-Celtic 


Norse-Finno-Lapp 


BACE  FACTORS. 


ARYAN 


Slaves 
Teutons 


Celts 
Teutons 


Letts 

Teutons 

Slaves 

Celts 
Teutons 


Teutons 
Norse 


Slaves 


Slaves 


Slaves 
Teutons 


Celts 
Italics 


Celts 


Celts 


Norse 


TURANIAN 


Finns 


Uigers. 


Uigers 


Ligures 


Iberians 


Iberians 

Finns 
Lapps 


TRB  PBIMITIVB  ARYANS. 


Hdr  central  part  of  Europe,  they  met  nothing  but  Tura^ 
nians.  These  Turanians  were  of  various  types.  Those  of 
the  South  weresmall,  dark,  and  round-headed;  while  those 
of  the  North  seem  to  have  been  long-headed,  and  slightly 
inclined  toward  the  blonde  type.'  The  point  that  we  wish 
particularly  to  notice  is,  that  the  farther  the  vanguard  of 
Aryan  migration  spread  from  the  home  land,  the  more 


Celtibeplan. 
marked  becomes  the  Turanian  influence,  for  intermixture 
occurred  all  along  the  line.  We  would  look,  then,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Aryan  world  for  a  people  whose  blood  was 
Vfrj-  weakly  tinged  with  the  Aryan.  Such  do  we  find  to 
tife  been  the  case  when  history  dawns  upon  Europe.    We 


'Elton:  "Originfl  of  English  History,"  London,  1882,  p.  151  e(  ee?. 
8if.  0.  CampbeU,  B.  A.  A.  8.  for  1886,  p.  842.  Flowers  in  "Nature,"  Feb. 
*.l88fi,  p.  330. 


«   4 

70  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


observe  that  many  of  the  far-away  tribes  of  Celts 
strongly  Turanian;  as,  for  example,  the  Celtiberians  of  Spain, 
the  Welsh,  and  the  Irish ;  in  fact,  the  unsettled  character. " 
of  the  whole  people  shows  a  marked  Turanian  elemeni 
In  the  South,  were  the  mysterious  Pelasgians,  who  were  a 
peculiar  people,  that  have  left  many  indications  of  their  ; 
Aryan   descent,  though   strongly  Turanized.     When   we. 
enter  the  Slavic  territory,  we  find  there,  at  the  dawn  of  hia*  - 
tory,  Scythians  and  Sarmatians,  who  were  so  strongly  Tuiv  ■ 
anian  that  they  are  almost  always  regarded  as  such,  but  .: 
their  language  has  been  found  to  have  been  of  the  Aryan 
type.' 

We  have  here  probably  an  explanation  of  the  origin 
of  the  various  Aryan  families.  A  certain  degree  of  mixture 
with  certain  Turanian  tribes  would  change  the  primitive  ^ 
Aryans  into  Celts.  So  a  mixture  with  other  Turanian  tribes 
gave  rise  to  the  Pelasgians  and  Sarmatians.  But  as  the 
purer  Aryan  tribes  continued  to  advance  in  all  directionSi 
they  continually  recruited  those  that  had  preceded  them. 
So  we  find  that  there  were  all  shades  of  Aryans,  from  Celt 
to  Teuton,  from  Pelasgian  to  Teuton,  from  Sarmatian  to 
Teuton.  But  as  the  first  baptism  of  Teuto-Aryan  tribes 
over  the  Turanians  was  succeeded  by  another  and  another 
— we  know  not  how  many — the  Celt  became  Aryanixed 
to  the  Latin,  the  Pelasgian  to  Greek  and  Thracian,  the 
Sarmatian  to  Salvonian.  It  is  now  known*  that  the  Scy- 
thians and  Sarmatians  of  Herodotus'  time  used  a  language  • 
closely  allied  to  that  of  the  Asiatic  Aryans,  thus  pointing 
directly  to  the  route  that  the  latter  took  to  reach  the  sour- 
ces of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  the  Grates  of  Kashgar,  and 


1  Bayce:    ^'Comparative  Philology,"    395-6.    Keane  in  8tandfoid% 


THE  PRIMITIVS  AM  YAN8.  71 

I  Pui^ab.  The  Indians,  Iranians,  and  Chinese  Aryans 
t  not  as  pure  in  blood  even  as  the  Galchan  tribes  of  the 
adoo  Koosh;  but,  as  their  ancestors  were  all  cut  off  from 
\  fittherland  by  the  same  inroad  of  Turanians  from  the 
lerian  plains,  they  show  many  marks  of  likeness. 

The  change  in  language  to  form  the  various  dialects 
of  course,  easily  explained.  Any  tribe  that  becomes 
aewhat  separated  from  its  parent  tribe  will  soon  devel- 
a  dialect  of  its  own.  The  Celts  had  more  than  one  dia» 
t,  so  did  the  Latins,  the  Greeks,  the  Teutons,  and,  in 
t,  almost  every  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  Aryan 
:e.  None  of  them  at  present  speak  or  use  the  primitive 
Lgue.  It  has  died  out,  just  as  has  the  Old  Prussian,  and 
t  as  Lettish  is  now  doing.  Still  we  can  trace  the  origin 
the  various  members  of  the  race  by  a  similarity  of  dia- 
ls ;  and,  as  we  would  expect,  they  all  rise  from  a  Teu- 
ic  base :  thus,  the  Latin  is  said  to  be  closely  related 
the  Celtic,^  the  Celtic  to  Grerman;*  the  Phrygian  to 
racian,  the  Thracian  to  German  f  the  Pelasgian  to  Geek, 
J  Greek  to  German  ;*  the  Indian  and  Iranian  (or  Sans- 
tic)  to  the  Slavic,  the  Slavic  to  German  and  Lettish.' 
e  Lettish,  Slavic,  and  Sanskritic  dialects  rank  nearest 
ill  to  the  typical  Aryan.  This  is  just  as  we  would  suppose, 
their  ancestors  took  less  part  in  the  racial  warfare  of 
ly  times,  and  roamed  freely  across  the  plains  of  Russia 
many  centuries  before  they  became  separated,  and  the 
iskritic  family  became  isolated  from  its  kindred. 

We  are  now  better  able  to  understand  a  number  of 
mtific  and  linguistic  points  that  have  puzzled  the  an- 


i  Bhys:  •*Celtlc Britain."  «  Whitney  in  Am.  Cyclopedia. 

»  Keane  in  Standford^s  "Europe,"p.  665.  Blind  in  "Troja/'p.  860  et  «eg. 
*  Whitney  in  Am.  Cyclopedia.  Keane,  Op  cit. 
i  Whitney,  Op.  cit.  Sayce:  "  Comparative  Philology,"  p.  96-6. 


72  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

thropologist  and  the  ethnologist.  We  can  see  why  **the 
primitive  Slaves  differ  from  the  Germans  and  Celts,  their 
brethren  by  origin,  only  by  very  slight  shades,"^  for  all 
were  so  slightly  separated  from  the  fatherland.  We 
can  understand  why  it  is  that  the  gulf  is  widest  between 
the  Celtic  and  Sanskritic  dialects,*  for  they  represent  the 
breadth  of  Aryan  migration  in  either  direction.  We  can 
see  why  it  was  so  easy  for  the  Celts  to  almost  universally 
adopt  the  language  of  their  children,  the  Romans,  and  why 
the  Romance  languages,  are  almost  universally  built  upon 
an  ethnically  Celtic  foundation.*  We  can  see  how  such 
a  mixture  of  Aryans  and  Turanians  could  arise  as  to  pro- 
duce the  Celto-Slavonic-Lithunians.* 

If  this  theory  of  the  rise  and  spread  of  the  Aryan 
tribes  be  correct,  we  can  easily  solve  one  of  the  ethnologi- 
cal problems.  We  are  told  that  the  Gralchans  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  have  typical  Aryan  skulls,  and  from  this 
it  is  argued,  that  all  the  Aryans  must  have  come  from 
thence.^  Such  a  result  does  not  follow.  Quatrefag&  tells 
us  that  the  ancient  Slaves  had  also  a  typical  Aryan  skull/ 
Wherever  their  descendants  have  led  an  isolated  life,  we 
would  expect  to  find  this  type  of  skull.  The  Galchans 
have  lived  just  such  a  life  in  the  passes  of  the  Hindoo 
Koosh.  Turning  to  Europe,  we  learn  that  the  great  passes 
of  the  Alps  in  Savoy  have  been  in  the  possession  of  a  peo- 
I)le  probably  descended  from  the  Slaves,^  and  here,  again, 
we  meet  with  this  typical  skull. 


1  Quatrefages:  **The  Prussian  Race,"  p.  14. 

2  Rhys:  **Celtic  Britain/'  p.  1. 

8  Keane  in  Stanford's  **Europe,*'  p.  654. 

*  Keane,  Op.  eit.  Petermann's  **Mittheilungen,"Band  28, 1887,  p.  7. 
B  Keane  in  Stanford's  *' Asia/'  p.  158. 

•  "Prussian  Race,"  p.  14 

"^  Latham:  ^^Comparative  Philology,"  p. 095. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  73 

After  having  thus  minutely  reviewed  all  the  facts 
and  evidence  that  we  can  find,  that  relate  to  the  primitive 
home  or  the  early  wanderings  of  the  Aryans,  we  are 
forced  to  the  conclusion,  that  it  all  testifies  against  the 
Asiatic  theory.  While  eminent  philologists  still  hold  to 
that  theory,  we  have  the  authority  of  others  just  as  emi- 
nent for  claiming,  that  philology  does  not  even  require  the 
home  of  the  Aryans  to  be  located  in  Asia,  much  less  does 
it  prove  that  it  was  there.  We  find,  that,  as  early  as  the 
Neolithic  Age,  the  Celts  were  wandering  over  the  plains 


Qermana  crossing  the  Rhine, 
of  Southern  and  Northern  Europe,  and  Aryans  of  Teu- 
tonic origin  had  even  reached  the  plains  of  Troy  by  the 
close  of  that  Age.  All  the  evidence  that  we  have  been 
able  to  gather  in  regard  to  the  migrations  of  Aryan  peo- 
ple, does  not  go  back  of  a  time  when  they  were  not  moving 
in  southerly  and  easterly  directions  from  Central  Europe. 
We  can  find  no  westerly  movenients  until  we  pass  the  im- 
aginary line  drawn  from  Konigsburg  to  Crimea,  for  the 
movements   of  the   Celts  have,  as  a  general   thing,  been 


74  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

from  northeast  to  southwest  over  the  plains  of  Europe. 
The  earliest  Aryan  migrations  that  were  recorded  relate 
to  European  Aryans  who,  appearing  along  the  shores  of 
Asia  Minor,  had  begun  to  interfere  with  Egyptian  affairs. 
Next,  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  Aryans  passing  through  Kash- 
gar  into  China;  and  soon  the  Persians  and  Indians  appear 
upon  the  scene,  spreading  their  authority,  influence,  and 
peculiar  characteristics  southward  from  the  base  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh.  We  find  in  all  this  not  one  single  iota  of 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  Asiatic  theory. 

Looking  at  it,  then,  from  every  direction  and  going 
back  beyond  the  earliest  pre-historic  times,  the  picture  is  the 
same — great  bands  of  Teutonic  people  are  crowding  out- 
ward from  the  German  and  Lettish  fatherland.'  When 
we  consider  that  the  Teutonic  nations  are  to-day  the 
Aryans  par  excellence  the  world  over  ;  when  we  consider 
that  they  furnish  not  only  the  bone  and  sinew  and  muscle 
of  the  civilized  world,  but  the  men  of  thought  and  learn- 
ing as  well ;  then,  when  we  are  forced  to  admit  that  they 
are  the  known  ancestors  of  the  great  mass  of  modem 
Aryan  nations,  we  ought  no  longer  to  hesitate  to  give  the 
Teuton  his  place  in  history.  The  Lettish  and  Old  Prus- 
sian dialects  are  pointed  out  to  us  as  more  closely  related 
to  the  typical  primitive  Aryan  than  any  others  that  ex- 
ist. Keane'  says  of  it,  that,  **  although  betraying  more 
numerous  points  of  contact  with  Slavonic  than  with  any 
other  Aryan  language,  it  also  exhibits  some  marked  affini- 
ties with  the  Hellenic,  Teutonic,  Iranic,  and  Indie  bran- 


1  Quatrefages  claims  that  the  Letts  are  Aryans  in  language  only,  but 
have  become  so  intermixed  with  Turanian  people  that  they  are  physi- 
cally Turanized.  ["The  Prussian  Race,"  London,  1872,  p.  20.]  Prof. 
Keane,  speaking  of  them  ethnically,  calls  them  Celto-Slavonic,  and  we 
Judge  that  he  is  nearer  right.  (Ramsay's  "Europe,"  p.  6&B}. 

*  Ramsay's  "Europe/'  p.  576-6. 


FH*  PJtUllTIVE  AHTANS. 

We  most,  then,  be  drawing  pretty  close  to  the 
primeTal  homeland.  If  the  Lithuanians  be  Ar^'ana  in 
language  only,  they  must  live  close  to  the  border  line  of 
tho  falherUnd  of  the  race. 

Max  Mulier  says,  that,  before  their  separation,  the 
Aiyaoa  led  *'a  life  such  as  Tacitus  describes  that  of  the 
ADcicnt  Germans ;"'  and  Tacitus'  description  of  the  Ger- 
man people  will  correspond  almost  exactly  with  a  great 
ppjporlion  of  the  philologists'  imaginary  descriptitus  of 
the  primitive  Aryans.  Their  land  was  the  land  of  the 
bini,  the  fir,  and  the  beech.'  The  climate,  the  soil,  and 
tbc  prodactionM  of  the  land  are  just  what  were  necessary 
iar  tbc  priKluction  and  maintenance  of  such  a  hardy  race 
■•  tlu5  Aiynna.  Then  why  should  we  look  to  Asia  for 
the  primeval  home  of  the  Aryans,  when  all  evidence 
punta  toward  the  German  fatherland  and  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic  Sea? 

In  fa<-t,  h»«>k  at  the  matter  as  we  will,  we  can  come 
to  no  other  conclusion  than,  that  the  Aryans  commenced 
iht'ir  migrations  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Baltic  Sea  in 
Europe.  The  Asiatic  theory  seems  to  us  to  be  largely  a 
"taken-for-granted"  theory.  It  was  assumed  that  Wes- 
ti-m  Asia  was  the  home  of  the  human  family,  and  espec- 
ially uf  the  White  Races.  It  was  assumed  that  from  that 
I-tint  the  Hamitcn  and  Semites  went  west,  and  the 
Arj-ans  moved  into  Europe.  At  present,  we  ought  to 
have  no  hesitation  in  demanding  proof  instead  of  assump- 
tions. When  we  reflect  that  the  science  of  language  is 
mu-rly  silent  on  this  point ;  when  we  reflect,  further,  that 


I  "licleOMor  Language,"  Vol.  I.  p.  234. 

*  ttejrec:  "CoinpUktlve  Pbilolog;,"  p.  396^.  As  we  aluUI  see  later 
ibv  AmiMie  Arjruu,  being  desceocUiita  of  tbe  BUves,  probably  never 
tawd  of  tlM  BMeb 


76  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Idle  probabilities  are,  that  the  Semites  and  Aryans  were 
never  co-dwellers  in  some  common  home,  and  that  the 
Semites  probably  took  their  rise  in  Abyssinia;^  when  we 
read,  that  the  traditions  of  the  Aryans  point  back  to  a 
time  when  they  were  living  to  the  north  of  49**  20'  n.  l., 
which  in  Asia  would  carry  them  into  the  Altai  Mountain 
region,  and  that  this  has  always  been  the  home  of  the 
Yellow  Races ;  when  we  perceive  that  not  one  argument 
can  be  given  for  the  Asiatic  orgin,  which  can  not  be  at 
once  applied  just  as  strongly  in  favor  of  Europe ;  when 
an  examination  discloses  that  our  later  writers,  with  the 
results  of  modern  research  before  them,  are  rapidly 
coming  in  favor  of  the  European  origin ;  when  we  recall 
that  all  the  movements  of  Aryan  people  as  far  as  known, 
appear  to  diverge  from  the  Baltic  section  of  Europe — 
when  we  take  all  the  forgoing  into  consideration,  we  need 
have  no  hesitancy  in  deciding,  for  the  present  at  least,  and 
until  better  informed,  that  Europe  not  only  is,  but  always 
has  been,  the  home  of  the  Aryan  people. 

In  coming  to  this  conclusion,  it  is  satisfactory  to  learn 
that  this  has  all  evidence  of  being  the  **  coming  theory." 
The  belief  of  the  European  origin  of  the  Aryans  is  fast 
gaining  favor.  Among  the  first  who  dared  to  champion 
this  theory  was  Dr.  Latham,  to  whose  works  we  shall 
make  occasional  reference.  He  has  never  been  without 
followers,  and  of  late  years  there  has  arisen  a  strong  be- 
lief in  the  truth  of  his  theory.  Professor  Hommel  de- 
clares, that  this  theory  is  fast  becoming  a  dogma,*  although 
he  does  not  yet  feel  inclined  to  support  it.  Other  eminent 
scholars^  recognize  the  fact  that  this  European  theory  is 


1  Thi8  Series.  Vol.11,  p.  644. 

8  **Archiv  fur  Anthropologie.^'  Band  xv.  supplement,  1885,  p.  167-8. 

*  **American  Antiquarian/'  July,  1887. 


fcrt  gaining  popularity,  and  in  regard  to  it  say  that  "the 
claima  of  Eoroiie  are  becoming  a«  great  and  apjiear  to  be 
ms  well  defended  as  Asia.'" 

Now  that  Wf  hare  chosen,  at  least  for  the  present, 
the  European  theory,  we  are  at  liberty  to  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  the  civilization  of  these  jiriniitive  Aryans.  Wv 
are  told  that  philology  gives  us  much  information  about 
the  degree  of  nilture  that  they  had  attained  ;  but  writers 
have  indulged  in  such  fanciful  sketches  of  the  life  of  Uieao 
early  people,  that  we  can  accept  none  of  tliem  as  based 
apon  a  sufficiently  sure  foundation.  The  most  that  wo 
can  *ay  is.  that  tliey  were  a  hardy  race,  inured  to  rigor- 
utu  winters.  They  were  already  far  past  Savagery,  having 
*1I  the  principal  domestic  animals  that  we  have,  practicing 
the  arts  of  weaving  and  agriculture,  b<?ing  aetjuainted 
with  one  or  two  metals  (whether  iron  is  not  certain), 
and  p<»8»<-ft.-inc  some  of  the  cereals;  "  it  wiis  rather  pisto- 
ml-ag-ricukural  ihaii  iiutiiadic  in  iU  wuy  uf  life."'  Accept- 
injL'  these  statements,  then,  as  proved  by  linguistic  history, 
our  mi>3t  satisfactory  way  of  further  studying  the  life  of 
the  primitive  Aryans  is  to  pass  each  great  group  in  review 
and  leam  what  we  can  of  their  civilization  when  history 
dawns  upon  them.  Even  here,  we  will  often  find  ourselves 
in  the  shadowy  lands  of  tradition  and  myth,  but  we  will 
tr>' to  glean  all  the  knowledge  that  we  can  about  tlies- 
early  people. 

As  the  Latins  and  Greeks,  with  their  descendants, 


■  B«eui*Ttlc]«  b7E.  P.  Evfttis,  In  "AtUntio  Monthly"  for  1888, 
f.  4U.  who  kdopt*  th«  EuropcKn  origin.  Wu  might  reinKrlE  that,  when 
«•  MMDmeooed  to  prepare  "ThiH  Berlen,"  we  sujiposef)  It  wu  nettled  (hat 
Uw  Arjuia  cuiM  from  A^la  The  flnt  two  volunieM  were  written  with 
that  Ui  vkw.  Yet  when  we  sit  down  to  lnveitlgiit«  thii  theory,  W*  Osd 
Muwlm  obliged  to  »b«uidon  it,  and  accept  the  nxw  nc*at  tbac^. 

B  wutMr,  Op.  fltt. 


78 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 


are  later  and  historical  members  of  the  great  Aryan 
race,  they  will  be  treated  in  separate  chapters.  There  re- 
mains, then,  three  great  primitive  members  of  this  group, 
the  Celts,  the  Slaves,  and  the  Teutons.  To  them  we  must 
look  for  our  information  of  the  character  and  cultxzre  of 
'  lie  primitive  Aryan  people.  The  Slaves,  the  youngest 
member  of  the  Aryan  race,  according  to  the  Asiatic  theory, 
becomes  a  very  important  family  when  studied  &om  the 


Tomb  of  Scythian  Kings. 
standpoint  of  the  European  theory.  They  then  become 
the  ancestors  instead  of  the  children  of  the  Asiatic  Aryans. 
They  belong  to  the  blonde  division  of  the  race,  are  tall,  lithe, 
and  well  proportioned.  The  "Western  Slavic  tribes  were 
undoubtedly  among  the  purest  of  Aryans,  because  of  a 
continuous  baptism  of  Teutonic  people  to  which  they  were 
subjected.     This  is  proved  by  the  shape  of  their  skulls,* 

1  Quatrefages,  "PruBBlaii  Race,"  p.  14. 


TKB  PBIMITIVB  A B  VANS.  79 

well  as  hy  the  almost  typical  character  of  their  lan- 


Among  the  earliest  historical  Slaves,  were  some  of  the 
tribes  whom  Herodotus  describes  as  Scythians.  This, 
lioweFer,  most  have  been  many  centuries  after  the  Asiatic 
Arrans  had  become  cut  off  by  the  hordes  of  Turanians 
tliateame  into  the  Caspian  basin  from  the  North  and 
between  the  seventeenth  and  twentieth  centuries 
and  whose  movements  probably  forced  the  Jung 
eMtwird  to  the  confines  of  China. ^  We  find  tliat 
trihea  of  Scythians  furthest  removed  from  the 
by  ooDstant  intermixture  with  Turanians,  be* 
wy  mncli  corrupted.  Not  so  with  a  few  tribes  who 
had  ben  ftned  to  seek  protection  in  the  mountain  fast- 
tt  the  Hindoo  Koosh.  There  they  remain  to  the 
dqr*  These  were  the  Galchan  tribes,  who,  by 
KTipg  m  iaolation,  have  retained  the  blonde  features,  blue 
cv«|€ur  eomplexion,  and  light  hair,'  which  they  inherited 
from  their  Slavic  ancestors.  They,  too,  have  preserved 
some  of  the  purest  ethnical  features  peculiar  to  the  Aryan 
race,  as  they  have  an  almost  typical  Aryan  skull'  Their 
language  shows  a  similarity  to  the  Iranian  dialect,  and  is 
thus  proved  to  be  closely  allied  to  that  used  by  Scyths 
and  Sarmatians. 

The  Indians  and  Iranians  were  crowded  down  among 
th*^  darker  Turanian  people  of  the  South,  and  show 
njarke<I  indications  of  intermixture  with  them.  They 
Ik^-Ioiij:,  therefore,  to  the  southern,  or  dark-featured  group 
of  Aryans;*  ethnologically  they  can  not  be  very  purely 


I*  Vol.  II.  p.  4»4. 

*  K<-ane,  in  HUnford'H  **Aiiia,"  p.  706. 

•  Kt-mn<s  ill  Sunford's  '*£uro|>e/*  p.  668. 
«  <'anipU*ll,    B.  A.  A.  8..  iHHfi.    p.  841. 


80  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD 

Aryan,  for  the  Turanian  people  with  whom  they  have 
mingled,  have  always  been  in  great  preponderance  over 
the  Aryan.  Caste  in  India  may  have,  however,  preserved 
the  Aryan  features  in  the  higher  grades,  but  even  this 
argument  is  open  to  serious  objections^  ^  we  shall  see 
in  another  chapter.  The  modern  dialects  of  India  and 
Persia  are  by  no  means  typical  Aryan  dialects ;  but  each 
people  have  developed  a  distinct  religious  system,  the 
sacred  teachings  of  which  have  been  faithfully  treasured 
up  in  the  language  which  their  ancestors  used,  when  they 
dwelt  together  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh. 
This  is  the  Sanskrit,  and  it  alone  tells  us  of  the  Aryan 
origin  of  the  Indians  and  Iranians.  It  is  understood  by 
only  a  few  of  the  more  highly  educated  priests,  who,  pre- 
vious to  the  entrance  of  the  English  into  India,  jealously 
guarded  this  knowledge. 

The  Sanskrit  has,  thus,  been  preserved  as  one  of 
the  purest  Aryan  dialects,  but  we  can  not  claim  so  much 
for  the  racial  peculiarities  of  the  people.  We  have  no 
historical  records  of  the  Iranians  before  the  time  of  Darius 
I.  of  Persia,  although  Zoroaster  must  have  prea<;hed  his 
great  religious  reform  many  centuries  before  that  time. 
Of  the  Indians,  we  know  only  that  Darius  and  afterward 
Alexander  the  Great  made  military  expeditions  into  the 
Punjab  and  along  the  Indus.  Their  own  political  history, 
however,  begins  with  the  reign  of  Asoca  about  250  B.  c. 
In  the  religious  world,  they  were  widely  known  through 
the  spread  of  Buddhism,  the  first  missionary  religion. 
Previous  to  the  time  of  Buddha  (about  500  b.  c),  they 
lived  in  seclusion;  the  Brahmins  conversing  about  "life 
and  death,  "^  Kshatriyas  fighting  their  tribal  battles,  the 


1  MiiHer:  *'£arly  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  26. 


THE  PSntlTIVB  ARYANS. 

TaiBTaa  ftttondtng  to  their  commercial  and  other  pursuits, 
and  the  Sudras  servants  to  all  the  others.  The  Slaves, 
^omi  as  such,  did  not  come  into  historical  prominence 
oatil  ihc  seventh  centurj'  A.  d.;  and,  from  that  time,  we 
mom  look  to  hiatory  for  a  record  of  their  growth  into  the 
iDodeni  Ruifsian  nation. 

The  Celts  and  Teutons  play  quite  an  important  part 
in  thf  affairs  of  early  Europe.  Rome  had  not  yet  become 
mi»trv3s  of  the  Latin  colonies  when  she  was  burned  by 
ioTadiitg  Celts.  It  was  the  pressure  of  the  Thracian  and 
German  tribes  fmm  the  north  that  started  the  Dorian 
mignitioii  into  the  Pelojwnnesus,  and  entirely  changed  the 
nature  of  the  population  of  Hellas.  The  Celts,  as  we 
hare  seen,  wprcad  away  to  the  west  and  south,  and  had  so 
filled  up  thi«  territory  as  to  make  It  appear  crowded  to 
their  restless  natures.  They  had  already  begun  to  push 
towiinl  the  east,  and  one  large  band  had  cut  its  way  into 
A*iii  Miii'-T,  bi'fon-'  Rome  became  a  power  in  the  world. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  b.  c,  the  Celts 
were  in  the  height  of  their  power  as  history  knows  them. 
They  were  spread  over  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland 
when  these  lands  became  first  known  to  the  eastern 
WMrld. 

When  we  undertake  to  describe  the  Celts  and  the 
Teutons  separately,  as  they  appeared  at  the  dawn  of  their 
histor.%  many  difficulties  arise.  Those  Celts  that  were 
farthest  8e[wirated  frt)m  the  German  lands  were,  of  course, 
strongly  tainted  with  Turanian  blood.  As  we  approach 
the  border  line  of  the  purer  Teutonic  tribes,  ancient  au- 
thorities either  failed  to  distinguish  as  to  which  were 
Teuton  and  which  were  Celt,  or  else  they  did  not  know. 
It  L"  also  a  fact,  that  some  of  the  Celtic  tribes  were 
»  nenrty  like  the  Germans  in  physical  appearance  as  to 


82  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD.  ! 

compel  even  those  who  believe  in  the  Asiatic  origin  of 
Aryans  to  admit,  that  they  were  "descended  from 
German  stock."^    This  all  shows  how  firmly  the  primiti^ 
Aryan  features,  passing  through  the  Teutonic  people,  s] 
ded  into  the  Celt  and  thence  into  the  Turanian. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  Celts  were  physically 
powerful  than  the  Teutons,  and  were  strongly  mixed 
the  dark  races  of  the  south.  But  wherever  they 
reached  the  north  far  enough  to  mingle  with  the 
Turanians,  the  resulting  people  were  fair  with  flaxen 
This  happened  both  in  Europe  and  in  the  British  L 
Then,  too,  we  are  apt  to  gain  from  ancient  authoril 
many  erroneous  ideas  in  regard  to  both  Celts  and  Ti 
tons.  We  are  told  that,  in  Britain,  naked,  painted  savagil 
came  out  to  battle  in  scythed  chariots  drawn  by  favT 
horses.  We  are  also  expected  to  believe  that  naked  aavsi* 
ges  came  out  of  the  forests  to  successfully  contend  wtt 
the  powerful  Roman  legions.  This  is  far  from  the  tnttf 
and  is  no  more  worthy  of  belief  than  the  statement  of 
Tacitus  in  regard  to  a  battle  between  the  Romans  ud 
Britons :  ''About  ten  thousand  of  the  enemy  were  alain; 
on  our  side  there  fell  three  hundred  and  sixty  men."*  If  we 
will  bear  in  mind  that  our  first  knowledge  of  these  peo|^e 
comes  through  their  sworn  enemies,  the  Romans,  we  oia 
a(Hrount  for  many  statements  that  bear  upon  their  fiuXM 
the  marks  of  falsehood. 

The  Celts,  though  less  powerful,  were  more  restless 
than  the  Teutons.  They  have  been  called  the  nervous 
race.     They  were  ready  to  move  at  all  times,  though  they 


^  QuatrefagcR:  '^Prussian  Ilace/'  p.  13. 

«  Ibid. 

8  Elton:  **Orlgln8/'  p.  Ih'lct  nrq. 

*  *' Agrlcola,*'  chapter  87.    riiureh's  translation. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  ARYANS.  83 

Ted  to  dwell  in  towns.  They  seemed,  to  delight  in 
nd  fought  mounted  on  horses.  In  all  this,  we  see 
aranian  influence.  The  Teuton,  on  the  other  hand, 
migrated,  but  nearly  always  in  search  of  new  homes. 
>lts  were  by  no  means  savages,  however.    They 


Steppes  of  Rusele. 

tall,  pale,  and  light-haired."  "The  women  were 
&rly  toll  and  handsome."    They  wore  the  same 

as  the  men,  which  consisted  of  "a  blouse  with 
3,  confined  in  some  cases  by  a  belt,  of  trousers  fitting 
it  the  ankle,  and  a  tartan  plaid  fastened  up  at  the 
ier   with  a  brooch.      The   Gauls   were   experts  at 


84  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

making  cloth  and  linen.  They  wove  their  stuffs  for  sum* 
mer,  and  rough  felts  or  druggets  for  winter  wear."^  They 
had  also  learned  \o  weave  in  diverse  colors  and  make  the 
cloth  appear  "as  if  it  had  been  sprinkled  with  flowers.'* 
"  The  favorite  color  was  red  or  a  pretty  crimson."  They 
were  fond  of  every  kind  of  ornament  and  wore  necklaces, 
collars,  bracelets,  and  beads.  "The  chieftain's  clothes 
were  a  flaming  and   fantastic  hue ;  his  hair  hung  down 

like  a  horse's   mane and   both   hair   and   moustachea 

were  dyed  red."*  They  had  almost  all  of  our  domestic 
animals.  They  were  very  hospitable,  entertaining  their 
guests  with  feasts,  at  which  the  bard  was  always  present. 
Though  they  sometimes  dwelt  in  rudely  thatched  houses, 
they  had  learned  to  build  cities  with  walls  and  streets  and 
market-places."  They  even  fought  with  iron  broad-swords 
at  the  battle  of  Amo,  in  the  fourth  century  B.  c.^  Surely 
these  were  not  rude  and  uncultivated  savages. 

The  Teutons  have  always  dwelt  in  the  land  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe.  But,  in  ancient  times,  when  we 
crossed  the  Rhine,  we  passed  through  a  region  whose  pop- 
ulation was  of  a  Teuto-Celtic  nature,  and  finally  came 
among  a  people  that  might  be  called  pure  Celts.  When  we 
crossed  the  Elbe,  we  found  a  similar  mixture  of  Teuto- 
Slavonic  people  before  we  come  upon  the  purer  Slaves.* 
But  as  the  Celtic  population  on  the  southwest,  the  Slavic 
on  the  east,  and  the  Pelasgic  on  the  south,  became  bap- 
tized again  and  again  with  a  population  direct  from  the 
German  fatherland,  we  are  told  that  the  ancient  Germans 

• 

spread  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  of  Central  Europe  with 
Teutonic  people.  This  plainly  indicates  that  the  people 
who  dwelt  on  the  borders  of  ancient  Germania  became^ 


1  Elton:  "Origins,"  p.  WZetaeq. 

>  Ibid.  8  Ibid.         *  Latham:  ♦*Comparative  Philology,"  p. 683.. 


Tax  rsiMiTrvE  asyass.  8C 


J 

^■■offAiyuuEcd  aathcybccamo  more  Tcutonizod.  Towartl 
^nbe  wert.  however,  there  seems  to  h»ve  been  an  earlier 
^■■mI  a  ftrongw  stream  of  Teutonic  migration,  which  crowdcjd 
^■htFiiuis  towiirdthe  nurth  into  Scandinavia,  nnd,  prmtfing 
^fenrwd  eren  into  Scotland,  may  have  Teutonizetl  the  Pict* 
lo  jome  extenL' 

The  andcnt  Teutons  were  distinguished  hy  Ihoir 
'*VAj  stature,  their  robust  limbs,  their  fair  comploxion, 
aad  their  flaxen,  flowing  hair."*  They  have  never  yet  n^ 
oeiTed  their  place  in  hist*,>rj-.  Their  eiviliwilion  haa  been 
■nder-ertimated.  We  have  contemplated  theui  too  much 
through  Roman  and  monkish  spectaeloH.  "  We  have 
talked  of  his  (the  Teuton's)  forcstx,  till  welmve  forgotten 
his  oomfieldA :  and  spukcn  of  his  feats  as  a  hunter,  till  wo 
have  oTcrlooktMl  his  labum  us  a  henlsmaii.  We  linve  Imv 
iieved  thnt  all  well  eijuipped  and  disciplined  armicM,  with 
all  their  weapons,  clothing,  and  commissariat,  could  como 
ootof  the  wilderness,  or  what  is  yet  more  incredible,  that 
nakcvt  barbnrinm  could  defeat   the  legions  and  slnmi  the 

niif!*  iif  a  wfll  urj^Hiiizud  uivilizatiun }Ie  (the  Teuton) 

L-  tin-  mus4;ular  and  material  man  of  Kurope. . .  .  lie  is 
prtMiriinently  the  strong  man  of  the  world. . . .  He  is  na- 
tun*-.  n-!K>uree,  when  her  nervous  race;^,  Ct-Itie  atjd  Classic, 
b;iv.-  Iifcomc  effete,  that  is  wire  drawn  and  ovcrhred, 
\iM-<\  up.  Then  she  resorts  to  him  for  a  fresh  supply  of 
Mn-iiLtb  and  stature,  Iwnc  and  muscle. ..  But  the  Teut<»M 
i-  tint  all  bone  and  muscle.  lie  has  also  a  goo<ily  i)rain, 
wt-U  arched,  and  of  the  largest  volume.  He  far  trans- 
cends the  classic  man,  both  in  elevation  of  principles  and 
warmth  of  affection.  He  regenerated  the  South  morally 
as  well  as  physically.*" 


I  ^elth:  "HUtorrof  ScotUnd,"  EdinbuTR.  ISSe,  Vol.  I.  p.  84  e( «e?. 
I,  Op.  cit.       •  ■'AnthropotoglcklKevl«w,"1888,  p.2ft-T. 


86  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

Although  the  writer,  from  whom  we  have  just  quoted, 
has  done  partial  justice  to  the  Teuton,  he  has  failed  to 
understand  the  real  origin  of  this  Teutonic  pre-eminence. 
He  has  failed  to  perceive  in  the  Teuton  the  Aryan  par 
excellence^  by  whom  the  whole  civilized  world  has  been 
regenerated.  It  is  very  strange  that,  in  the  light  of  all 
this  evidence,  so  many  of  our  scholars  are  even  yet  trying 
t^  make  for  the  Aryans  a  home  land  in  the  scorched  and 
eflfeminating  regions  of  Central  Asia.  While  in  the  heart 
of  Europe,  in  a  region  almost  surrounded  by  the  Rhine, 
the  Maine,  and  the  Elbe,  have  dwelt,  since  European  his- 
tory began,  this  hardy  German  people,  whose  warriors 
taught  the  Roman  legions  lessons  in  the  arts  of  war,  whose 
women  taught  the  Roman  matrons  lessons  in  virtue  and 
industry.  They  were  not  an  ignorant  and  uncultivated 
people,  for  they  had  their  Runic  form  of  writing  for  six 
centuries  before  our  era.^  Thus  they  were  keeping  pace 
with  the  civilizations  of  the  South  and  East.  Let  us  then 
forget  the  pictures  that  the  prejudiced  and  misinformed 
classic  writers  have  left  us  of  the  ancient  Teutons,  and 
gain,  if  we  can,  truer  impressions  of  these  strong  and 
worthy  people — the  ancestor  of  our  own  English  speaking 
race. 

In  treating  of  these  primitive  Aryan  people  and  their 
primeval  home,  we  have,  perhaps,  wandered  somewhat 
from  the  old,  beaten  track,  which  the  historian  is  wont  to 
follow ;  and  we  only  hope  that  we  have  escaped  some  of 
the  ruts  into  which  he  has  invariably  fallen.  We  have 
studied  faithfully  the  two  theories  of  the  origin  of  the 
Aryans,  and  have  found  all  evidence  pointing  to  the 
European  theory.     Seeing  no  other  way  open  to  us,  we 

1  Keane  in  BtaDford's  **£urope/'  p.  572.    Taylor:  **Greek and  Gtoth," 

p.  41  ei  aeq. 


THE  PRIMITIVB  AETANS. 


87 


have  adopted  that  theory ;  and  we  have  found  it  sufficient 
to  explain  every  question  that  puzzles  the  writer  from  the 
Asiatic  standpoint.  We  must  now  hasten  on  to  consider 
some  of  the  more  prominent  members  of  the  race  sepa- 
rately. It  is,  indeed,  a  satisfaction  to  believe  that  the  por^ 
tion  of  the  world,  that  to-day  sees  the  Aryan  race  at  the 
very  summit  of  modem  Civilization^  watched  over  the 
cradle  of  the  Aryan  people  in  their  infancy,  and  gave  them 
nourishment  as  they  grew  into  perfect  manhood.  We  will 
turn  first  to  follow  the  footsteps  of  those  that  wandered 
forthest  from  this  primeval  home  into  the  mountains,  des- 
erts, and  jungles  of  the  Orient,  and  then  will  return  to  con- 
sider those  people  who  have  always  dwelt  nearest  their 
fatherland.^ 


1  As  theae  pages  are  passing  throogh  the  press,  our  attention  has 
been  cailed  to  Biddolph's  ^Tribes  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh,''  Calcutta,  1880, 
ftnd  we  are  interested  in  noticing  that  Russian  officers  boldly  claim  a 
Slavic  origin  for  the  Aryan  tribes  in  that  section ;  thus  confirming  the 
conclusions  set  forth  in  this  chapter. 


.( 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 


THE  ASIATIC  ARYANS 

iNTBODCCTioN  —  Oriental  Peculiarities  —  Oeogntphical  DUtrlbatlon — 
The  Afghans— The  Oolchos— The  I  mo  ians— Zoroaster— Bfasdeiua— 
The  Biae  of  the  Persians— Cyrua — Cambyses- Darius— Be-orgmnlia- 
tloD  of  the  Empire — Alt.  Behistuu—Xerxes— Traits  of  the  TanUaa 
-Disposal  of  the  Dead— Art  among  the  Persians — Descrlptloii  of 
Buins— Conquest  of  Alexander— The  Parthian  Empire— The  Seo- 
Persian  Empire— Religious  Reform— The  Indians— Desorlptlon  of 
the  Country— Early  History  of  the  Country—Asoca— The  Vedio  Lit- 
erature—The Caste  System  in  India— Science  In  Ancient  India- 
Philosophy  in  Ancient  India— Buddhism— Ruins  In  India— Con- 
ciuslon. 


TRAVELER  in  Central  Aaia  is 
struck  by  the  Oriental  peculiarity 
of  his  surroundings.  The  people 
are  mostly  dark  in  hue,  and 
treacherous  in  character,  dress- 
ing in  a  manner  peculiar  to  the 
Orient.  The  beast  of  burden  is  the  camel,  and  the  cara- 
van takes  the  place  of  our  railroad  train.  The  desert  is 
as  familiar  to  the  Asiatic  as  the  prairie  is  to  the  American, 
while  bitter,  brackish  pools  take  the  place  of  the  refresh- 
ing lakes.  The  rivers  start  from  the  mountains  on  a  joy- 
ous, rapid  course,  but  are  soon  choked  and  strangled  by 
the  burning,  drifting  sands  of  the  constantly  changing 
deserts.  Only  now  and  then,  is  the  current  strong  enough 
to  plow  its  way  in  an  ever  shifting  channel  to  some  lake 
or  sea ;  the  most  of  them  losing  themselves  in  the  sands 
of  the  desert.     The  great   Oxus  river  is  one  of  the  few 


^..^ 


I     THENEWYOHK 
I  PUBLIC  LIDJlAnY 


ASTOR,  LENOX  AND 
ntCCM  FOUNDATIOmI 


THB  ASIATIC  ABTASS.  91 


M  thit  ia  able  to  keep  an   outlet  clear,  but  even  it  is  con- 
■    BUatly  changing  its  channel;    and  the  pittiless  desert 
f    tpproMhea  to  within  two  milea  of  its  banks,  as  if  by  stealth 
to  snatch  the  vital  spark  from  every  living  thing. 

But  among  the  mountains,  within  sight  of  the  snow 
line,are8omehappy  valleys,  that,  drinking  the  waters  from 
the  mountain  streams,  blossom  forth  with  a  luxurious  her- 
bage during  the  few  months  of  summer  that  these  regions 
enjoy.  Such  is  the  rose  covered  "Vale  of  Casmere," 
the  haven  for  the  tourist  dw^ng  the  hot  and  blasting 
months  of  the  Indian  {(ummer.  And,  aa  we  follow  the 
Oius  down  toward  its  mouth,  we  find  .that  many  districts 
have  been  reclaimed  from  the  desert  by  a  system  of  arti- 
ficial irrigation  by  means  of  canals.  Such  regions  are 
remarkable  for  the  fertility  of  soil,  and  stan<l  out  in  tlio 
siuTDnnding  deserts  as  veritable  garden  spni,s  where  "the 
white  houses  are  like  bowers  buried  in  foliage  and  flowers; 
the  nightingale  warbles  in  every  rose-bu^li."'  Such  r^ 
giona  are,  however,  but  few  miles  in  extent,  and  are  liable 
.it  any  time  to  be  restored  to  the  desert  should  the  fickle 
rivtT  rhange  its  channel. 

But  such  oases  in  the  desert  continent  of  Asia  are 
only  rare  exceptions  to  the  great  barren  regions  of  the 
*>-ntraI  taUe  lands.  When  the  rivers  loose  their  courses 
in  the  sands  of  the  deserts,  they  often  give  rise  to  brackish 
malaria  breeding  marshes.  So  well  known  are  these 
rhanicteristics  that  many  proverbs  are  current  descriptive 
"f  these  features.  "  If  you  want  to  die  go  to  Kunduz ;"' 
■■.Salt  water,  burning  sands,  venomous  flies,  and  scorpions, 
such  Is  Andkhoi,  and  such  is  hell,"  are  common  expres- 


1  RmIimc:  -Tb*  Emrtb  Kod  Uk  InhablUnto,"   Mew  York,  1864,  VoL 
I.  P.3B6. 

■  A  riT«  In  NOTtbern  ArghaKi'lHii. 


^ 


92  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

sions  ill  that  country.  Nor  are  the  mountain  valleys  always 
pleasant.  On  the  contrary,  we  often  come  to  great 
stretches  of  country  that  are  cold  and  bleak,  and  can  hardly 
be  said  to  possess  even  a  temperate  climate.  So  marked 
is  this  feature  that  the  Afghan  language  is  said  to  be 
•■  hard  and  gutteral,  as  if  the  cold  winds  blowing  from  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  compelled  the  people  to  speak  with  half- 
closed  lips.'"  Still,  this  is  the  very  region  that  some  think 
was  the  cradle  of  the  Arj'an  race,  from  whence  issued  the 
great  migrating  bands  that  finally  filled  all  Europe. 


Scene  on  the  Upper  0xu8. 
However  that  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  this 
territory,  for  some  centuries,  tribes  of  Aryans  and  Tnra- 
nians  wandered  to  and  fro  contending  for  supremacy, 
gradually  mingling  their  blood  to  form  one  united  people. 
We  have  suggested  that  the  first  appearance  of  the  Aryans 

1  Recluse,  Op.  eft.  Vol.  IV  p,  84. 


^1 

w  ^A  m^  «ralfe  Meat 

;  vftidh  dw  Aijus  ««m  lHge)ir  tb*  mm- 
AB  UrtHT,  fcmniwf,  toiciKS  Uut,  &«a  tiiae  to 
I  ef  Moagotie  pet^ik  tasoed  from  the 
k  of  XoftktfB  Aaia,  ttriring  «I1  \vforo 
Aadao  dw  time  fiaaUy  cune  whoa  the  Arv^n  aud 
StBu-JkJjmm.  trifaoB  of  tlie  Oxua  and  JaiHit*^  liaudii^  wvr« 
SacveJ  in  tmn  U>  gixe  war  beforv  ailvHiKiug  hor\K<s  of  Tu- 
nauB  peoptf,  who,  pressing  wstwaixl  tow^nl  tbo  north* 
am  ^ora  of  the  Caspian,  cut  ihe  SKtvic  jHVplo  iuti>  two 
pvto;  ftrang  one  back  toward  the  Arvau  homvkuil,  Aud 
dririqg  tbe  other  npon  the  t^Uo  lauil  of  rauiir,  »ii«l  into 
the  aoaactain  &etiicas<»  of  the  HiitdiK*  Kwi^h  n>gioit.  \vtu>iv 
ihiej  have  since  dwelt  in  security  ami  iiKU'[H>iul('n<v. 

Aa  we  iboll  df  vote  this  chapter  exchisively  to  the 
Asialie  An'ans,  it  may  Ik<  ofailvautjigi-  to  u»  to  tlr^t  timler- 
«lAAd  jttst  what  people  may  be  inclmled  umUr  that  heiui 
aad  indicate  the  lamU  which  they  iuhnhil.  Tlien^-  iipju'itr 
to  be  Htc  indcfiendent  branchi*:*  of  the  Arytiu  fmiiilY  in  tho 
AsUtic  division  of  the  race.  These,  taken  m  Iheonicrof 
their  importance,  are  the  Wc»t  Iranlc,  Indie,  Ktist  Inmie, 
'  inl'-ha.  and  ILiik  liniiicli.s.'  Tlu>  Indie  iriini[>rine»  the 
maoT  tribes  of  Aryans  who  dwell  in  tlio  peniiiBulu  of  1 1  lii> 
dooetan  and  who  speak  dialects  of  the  nneient  Stitmkrit 
language.  The  West  Iranic  branch,  aUo  eidled  Ai^ho- 
mcnian,  includes  tho  Parsi  and  Nco-Persiiin,  Itidiich,  Kur* 
dL^h  and  Ossctian.  To  tho  East  Irnnic  hrancli,  b(>lnn|( 
the  Bactrians  and  Afghans,  ur  ]*n»litn,  ])ooplu.     Among  tho 


■  Kmm  to  BUaford'a  "Aila,"  p.  700. 


/^ 


94 


THE  MEDIBVA.L    WOBLD. 


Oalchas,  may  be  mentioned  the  Karateghin,  Darwaa^ 
"Wakhi,  Siah-Fosh,  Kafir,  and  Chignangi.  The  ancient 
and  modem  Armenian  are  called  Haik,*  and  will  need  but 
occasional  mention  in  this  work. 


Ethnic  Map  of  Asia. 
The  Afghans  are  an  extremely  interesting  people  and 
have  become  ofgreat  political  importance  of  late  on  account 
of  the  region  that  they  occupy.     In  their  midst,  lies  the 


L  TBE  ASTATIC  ARYAXS.  86 

Bfeqiuted  border  line  betveen  Husaian  and  English  domin- 

^Bn  in  Central  Asia;  and  thus,  these  poor  pt- opic  are  placed 

nrtween  two  great  fires,  that,  in  meeting,  may  finally  sweep 

them,  as  a  separate  people,  out  of  existence.     In  ancient 

times,  the  A/ghans  occupied  only  the  Kabul  valley,'  through 

which  the  Indie  tribes  may  have  passed  on  their  way  to  the 

PuDJaK*     They  have  been  indentified  with  the  Paktyes 

whom  Herodotus*  mentions  as"  dwelling  here  in  509  b.  c* 

Tlieir  language  is  of  the  Iranit^  ^yp*'-     Thus,  it  connects 

tlan  with  theancicnt  Slaves,  and  fully  identifies  them  witli 

lie  Aryan  race,  though  in  physical  appearance  they  show 

maoj  Turanian  characteristics.     They  belong  to  the  dark 

trpe,  and  thus  again  indicate  their  mixture  with  the  Tu- 

nniam. 

In  many  ways,  huwDver,  the  Afghans  show  their 
Ajyan  de««;nt.  They  have  "robust  frames  and  muscular 
encrg)-."  They  are  as  bold  as  they  are  strong,  anri  have 
ever  gloried  in  their  independence.  "  Let  our  blood  flow, 
if  iieed.f  W,  but  we  will  have  no  master,"  is  their  motto. 
■■  They  are  iikillful  artisans,  hospitable,  generous,  and  even 

truthful The  man  who  shuts  his  door  to  the  stranger 

i:-  tiM  Afghan."  says  the  national  proverb."  They  still  re- 
tain the  tribal  form  of  government,  and  all  the  usual 
trilial  divisiuns  exist  in  full  vigor.  The  joint-family  is 
a  .'■till  existing  institution,  and  the  house-father  is  a  much 
rt-spectcd  person  of  considerable  power.'  "  Their  women 
are  much    respected,  and  manage  the  household  with  in- 


-  Ke*oe  lu  "NkIuk,"  Jbu.  22,  1880,  p.  Z78. 
'  ThomM  la  J.  R.  A.  B.  1883,  p.  3'H  tl  teq. 

*  Book  111.  Chftptor  10S. 

*  Kmii«,  Op.  clt.  Iteclus«:  "AsiB,"  Vul   IV.  p.  St. 

*  RmIum,  Op.  clt.  p.  &>. 

*  TbU  Bttim,  Vol.  II.  p.  lea 


96  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

telligence  and  firmness."  "  Go  to  India  for  wealth,  to 
Kashmir  for  pleasure,  but  to  the  Afghans  for  a  wife,"  is 
an  Oriental  proverb  that  illustrates  this  point.  But  there 
is  another  side  to  their  character.  They  regard  "  every- 
thing as  fair  in  war,"  and  so  show  no  mercy  to  their  ene- 
mies. *'God  shield  you  from  the  vengeance  of  the  elephant, 
cobra,  and  Afghan,"  is  a  prayer  that  the  Mussleman  has 
long  since  learned  to  repeat. 

There  is  another  type  of  people  in  Afghanistan  per- 
haps more  interesting  to  us,  in  an  ethnic  sense,  than  the 
dark  Aryans  of  the  Southwest.  These  are  known  as 
Galchas,  and  dwell  in  the  immediate  Hindoo  Koosh  re- 
gion and  to  the  northward.  They  may  have  dwelt  in  these 
wild  and  mountainous  regions  since  the  Turanians  first 
cut  them  off  from  their  Slavic  fatherland.  They  are  the 
purest  physical  type  of  Aryans  to  be  found  in  Asia.  Their 
skulls  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Savoyards.^  As  to  their 
language  equally  significant  remarks  are  made.  Professor 
Keane^  tells  us  that  the  language  of  the  Galchas  '*  may 
possibly  prove  to  hepre^  rather  than  iVJ?^Sanskritic."  In 
which  case  w^e  have  here  an  Aryan  people  who  are  ethni* 
cally  connected  with  the  Slaves,  and  who  use  an  Aryan 
language  of  a  more  ancient  type  than  the  Sanskritic, 
though  inclined  toward  the  Iranic'  They,  too,  dwell  in 
the  very  region  toward  which  all  the  Vedic  and  Avestic 
traditions  point,  as  the  land  through  which  the  ancestors 
of  the  Indians  and  Iranians  journeyed  before  they  reached 
their  present  homes.     When  we  further  remember  that 


1  Keane  iu  "Nature,"  Jan.  22,  1880,  p.  277.  Also  same  author  in 
Stanford's  "Europe,"  p.  658.  We  have  already  referred  to  this  ethnio 
problem  on  page  72. 

»  "Nature,"  1.  c.  p.  278. 

8  Keane,  in  Stanford's  "Asia,"  p.  700,  note  1. 


THE  ASIATIC  ABYAyS. 


97 


till*  Mncient  Slaves,  or  Sar-  I 
niAtians,  lused  an  Iranian  I 
dimlect  connected  with  that  | 
of  tht)  Persians  and  Al- 
^lans,'  it  seems  evidi;nt  I 
that  in  the  remote  past,  the  f 
territoiy  of  the  Slavic  tribes  I 
Ksched  from  the  Vistula  I 
to  the  Kiodoo  Koosh.  In  I 
the  Galcfaus,  then,  we  have  I 
the  ancestors,  and  not  the  I 
cfailfireiifufthe  Indians  and  I 
Iranians.  We  are  here  \ 
building,  not  upon  theory, 
but  the  proof  lies  before  us  I 
tike  the  pages  of  un  open  I 
book. 

Thwse  Galehas  are  typi- 
cal Slavic  Ar}'ans  in  many  I 
othc-r    respects    than    lan- 
guage and    shape  of   the  I 
skull.     Here  wc  find  also  | 
Ibt-'  blonde  type  so  pecu- 
liar to  the  ancient  Slaves.^  I 
"  The  fair  or  clicatnut  tj-pe  I 
is  foand  almost  exclusive- 1 
It    amid     the    Kafiristan  I 
hig^iUndffrs.'^      Professor  I 
K«»ne*    says  of   tho  same  I 
people  that  they  have  "reg-   a  Mountain  Paea  la  Afghanieton. 


■  HajTM :  ■'  CompsntlTe  Pbilology,"  p.  S96. 

■  QBfttnfafM:  "PniMUn  Bsc«,"  p.  14-16. 

a  BaeloM:  "AaU,"  Vot  JV.  )>.  »4.  *  "NUore,"  Jan.  22, 1880. 


y 


98  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ular  features,  blue  and  black  eyes,  hair  varying  from 
brown  to  black,  broad,  open  forehead,  tall  and  well  made." 
The  Kafir  women  are  beautiful  and  the  men  handsome ; 
and  the  English  report  that  the  Kafirs  look  like  kinsmen 
and  allies.^ 

In  the  Hindoo  Koosh  region  itself  we  meet  with  Gal- 
chan  tribes  whose  complexion  is  still  lighter  and  fairer. 
They  have  blue  eyes  and  light  hair.  They  are  considered 
superior  to  all  the  people  about  them  and  "have  preserved 
their  old  customs,  recalling  those  of  Zoroastrian  times."* 
They  are  by  no  means  ignorant,  for  many  of  the  school- 
masters of  Turkestan  are  from  Karateghin.  Naturally 
industrious,  they  are  engaged  in  salt  mining,  weaving, 
metal-working,  and  gold-washing.  They  trade  with  many 
of  the  cities  in  this  region,  principally  Kokan,  Bokhara^ 
and  Kashgaria.  They  have  always  retained  their  inde- 
pendence, preferring,  like  the  race  in  general,  to  live  in 
their  cold  mountain  homes  rather  than  submit  to  the  com* 
mands  of  any  master.  Between  the  English  and  the 
Russians,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  long  they 
will  retain  their  independence,  or  even  their  purity  of 
race  and  language. 

The  Indians  and  Western  Iranians  are  usually  sup- 
posed to  have  wandered  away  together  from  the  slopes  of 
tlie  Hindoo  Koosh.  Then  a  separation  took  place,  some 
of  the  tribes  journeying  to  the  Southeast  into  Hindostan, 
and  some  to  the  Southwest  into  Persia.  Max  Muller  be- 
lieves that  it  was  the  reform  of  Zoroaster  that  caused 
the  separation  of  these  people  into  two  branches.'  But,  so 
long  as  the  Kabul  valley  lay  open  to  them,  as  soon  as  the 


1  Fisher:  ** Afghanistan/' London,  1878,  p.  77-8, 
a  Recluse:  "Asia,"  Vol.  I.  p.  254-5. 
*  "Science  of  Language,  Vol.  I.  p.  212. 


THE  ASIATIC  ARYANS. 


Aryans  took  possession  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  there  is  no 
reason  why  some  tribes  should  not  have  early  wandered 
into  the  Punjab,  and  why  the  migrations  of  the  Indie 
tribes  should  not  have  been  slow  and  continued  through 


Apmenian  Women — Halk  Aryems. 
many  generations.  At  the  same  time,  some  of  the  primi- 
tive tribes  may  have  pushed  oflf  toward  the  west  and 
south  across  Afghanistan  and,  finally,  into  Persia  and 
Media.  Such  movements,  would  be  in  accordance  with 
tvliat  we  know  of  the  migration  of  jirimitive  people.     The 


2i5203A 


100  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

language  of  the  Afghans  is  also  classed  as  intermediate 
between  the  Indie  and  Iranic  dialects,^  while  the  Iranic 
are  more  closely  allied  to  the  Galchan  dialects  than  are 
the  Indie*  Thus  is  revealed  the  fact,  that  the  general 
direction  of  the  tribes  of  Aryans  that  reached  Irania  was 
down  through  Afghanistan,  and  that  they  separated  from 
the  Galchas  at  a  later  date  than  did  the  Indians. 

The  Iranians  and  Indians  have  each  an  ancient  lit- 
erature, in  which  have  been  preserved  their  legends  and 
religious  myths  since  they  left  the  slopes  of  the  Hindoo 
Koosh.  They  are  recorded  in  ancient  dialects  that  are  of 
great  importance  in  the  study  of  philology,  though  they 
are  now  classed  with  the  dead  languages.  From  the  East 
Iranic  branch,  the  Bactrians  furnish  us  with  the  Zend 
dialect ;  from  the  West  Iranic  branch,  the  Persians  fur- 
nish us  with  the  Parsi  and  Pehlevi  dialects ;  while  the 
Sanskrit  is  the  ancient  dialect  of  the  Indie  branch.  The 
Vedic,  or  classical  literature  of  the  Indie  branch,  is  writ- 
ten in  Sanskrit;  while,  of  the  Avestic  or  Iranian  classic 
literature,  the  oldest  parts  are  written  in  Zend,  the  more 
recent  additions  or  explanations  in  Pehlevi,  and  the  latest 
additions  or  explanations  in  Parsi  ;*  but  all  of  these  dia- 
lects have  long  since  become  antiquated.  We  must,  from 
the  start,  understand  that  the  Vedas  form  the  Bible  of 
the  Indians,  and  the  A  vesta,  that  of  the  ancient  Iranians. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  Iranians,  it  is  necessary 
to  speak  to  some  extent  of  their  religion,  since  their  first 
history  is  gathered  from  their  religious  books.  Only  an 
outline  of  this  religion  is  required  at  this  point,  we  will 
analyze  and  compare  it  later.     In  the  dim  light  of  a 


1  Keane  in  Stanford's  **ABia,"  p.  706.  ^  Ibid.  note, 

s  VSThitney:  ''OrienUl  and  and  LinguisUo  Stadles,'*  Kew  York,  1888, 
p.  171. 


THE  ASIA  TIC  AB  TANS.  101 

distant  past^  a  personage  by  the  name  of  Zarathushtra, 
commonly  known  as  Zoroaster,  appears  as  a  great  religious  ^ 
reformer.  We  will,  for  the  present,  not  question  whether 
he  be  an  historical  personage  or  not,  though  his  origin 
and  life  are  veiled  in  mystery,  and  no  historian  can  fix 
the  date  of  his  birth,  or  that  of  his  death.  In  fact,  an- 
cient historians  mention  as  many  as  six  philosophers,  by 
the  name  of  Zoroaster,  assigning  to  each  a  separate  nation- 
ality.^  The  particular  Zoroaster,  to  whom  reference  is 
probably  made,  was  designated  by  the  family  name  of 
Spitama,  and  the  land  of  Bactria  was  the  probable  scene 
of  his  life  and  teachings.  The  age  in  which  he  flourished 
is  also  a  mooted  point  and  ranges  all  the  way  between 
2400  and  600  b.  c.  While  a  number  of  our  best  linguistic 
scholars  assert  that  he  could  not  have  lived  at  a  later 
date  than  1200  or  1000  b.  c.;'  other  authorities  claim  to 
1)e  very  liberal  in  admitting  the  composition  of  the  Avesta 
to  have  been  as  early  as  700  b.  c.  Passing  by  all  these 
questions  for  the  present,  we  must  be  content  to  ascertain, 
as  best  we  can,  the  effect  of  the  teachings  going  by  his 
name  upon  the  later  civilization  of  the  Iranians. 

It  must  have  taken  a  long  period  of  time  for  the 
tribes  of  Aryans  to  grow  and  spread  themselves  over  the 
ancient  countries  of  Bactria,  Parthia,  Media,  and  Persia, 
until  they  had  completely  Aryanized  the  Turanian  pojn 
lation  of  those  regions.  But  such  seems  to  have  beei» 
accomplished  by  the  time  of  Zoroaster.  Probably  the 
ideas  which  Zoroaster  formulated  and  preached  had  been 


1  "History  of  the  PaniB,"  Vol.  II.  p.  167. 

»  Rawlinson:  "Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,"  p.  78.  "History  of 
the  Parsis,"  Vol.  II.  p.  148.  Whitney:  "Oriental  and  Lingoistic  Stud- 
ies,'' p.  165.  J.  R.  A.  S.  for  1885,  p.  349.  Introduction  to  '* Sacred  Books 
in  the  East,"  Vols.  IV.  and  XXXI.  King,  in  the  latest  edition  of  "Gnos- 
tics and  their  Remains,''  pla^-es  him  at  1200  B.  c. 


102  TSE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

slowly  developing  for  ages,  and  had  even  entered  into 
the  lives  and  practices  of  the  priestly  class.  Then,  even 
as  now,  the  principles  of  a  reform  seem  to  have  grown  until 
the  minds  of  the  people  were  ready  for  it.  At  an  op- 
portune date,  Zo- 
roaster is  supposed 
to  have  appeared ; 
and,  as  the  result  of 
his  labors,  the  re- 
ligion  that  he 
preached  hecame 
the  principal  re- 
ligion of  the  Ira- 
nians. It  is  now 
known  as  Mazde- 
ism.  As  was  but 
natural,  it  became 
t  much  changed  and 
l  corrupted  before  it 
"^"^  assumed  the  form 
'  of  the  religion  of 
i  the  present  Parsi 
5  conamunityofBom- 
<f.  As  it  spread 
westward  from 
tnbe  to    tribe,    it 

Kurdish  Hunter-West  Iranlc  Aryan.  seems  to  have  ab- 
sorbed many  foreign  elements  from  the  native  religions 
which  it  supplanted.  And  so  it  grew  until,  in  a  later 
day,  it  became  tlio  ruling  religion  of  one  of  the  greatest 
nations  of  ancient  tinu's. 

The  relifrioii  oi'  Zoroaster  has   been   preserved  to  us 
in  the   sacred   Mritiiigs  of  the  Parsis  under  the  title  of 


THB  ASIATIC  ABTAN8.  103 


the  Zend-Avesta.    Sanskrit  scholars  recognize  in  it,  as  in 
all  cases  of  ancient  sacred  literature,  a  growth  of  litera- 
ture extending  over  many  generations.  The  first  part  only, 
known  as  the  Gktthas,  is  attributed  to  Zoroaster ;  and  the 
language  in  which  it  is  written  appears  to  be  two  or  three 
centuries  older  than  the  ordinary  Avesta  language.^    It 
claims  to  be  a  record  of  the  revelations  made  to  that 
prophet^  and  the  doctrines  .which  he  taught.'    The  other 
parts  of  the  Avesta  were  added,  from  time  to  time,  by 
priests  and  by  teachers,  claiming  to  be  aided  by  inspira*. 
tion.    When  the  disciples  of  Zoroaster  arrived  in  Media, 
they  were  confronted  by  the  Magi,  the  priestly  body, 
formed  by  the  coalescing  of  the  numerous  Shamans  of  an 
earlier  age.     The  result  was  a  union  of  these  two  relig- 
ions.   When  the  Sassanian  dynasty  arose  in  Persia,'  the 
Zoroastrian  religion,  after  having  been  neglected  for  ages, 
was  for  the  last  time  made  the  state  religion,  and,  under 
thQ  careful  protection  of  the  Persian  rulers,  continued  to 
flourish  until  the  Mahommedan  conquerers  forced  it  from 
itsf  native  soil  at  the  point  of  the  sword.    The  most  earnest 
and  loyal  Mazdean  worshipers  either  died  for  freedom  of 
conscience,  or  fled  to  the  mountains,  or  to  foreign  lands, 
where  they  could  worship  their  own  gods  in  peace.     And 
in  our  own  day,  respected  by  all  nations  for  their  habits 
of  industry  and  honesty,  they  constitute  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  commercial  communities  on  the  coast  of  India. 
Very  briefly  expressed,  we  may  say  that,  in  theology, 
Mazdeism  taught  that  there  was  only  one  god,  and  that 
his  name  was  Ahura  Mazda.     He  was  the  creator,  ruler, 
and  preserver  of  the  universe.     Thus  at  its  foundation  the 


1  *»Hi8tory  of  the  Parsis,*'  Vol.  II.  p.  166. 
«  Whitney,  Op.  cit.  p.  167. 
S  A.  D.  226. 


104  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

religion  was  monotheistic.  But  it  recognized  two  all- 
powerful  controlling  spirits,  one  good  and  one  bad,  that 
were  forever  warring  with  each  other  for  supremacy. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  dualistic  form  of  worship.*  In  practi- 
cal ethics,  Mazdeism  taught  that  truthfulness,  honesty,  and 
virtue  were  commendable.  It  condemned  idolatry.  It 
recommended  a  settled  mode  of  life  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  land.  It  taught  immortality,  and  that  the  future  life 
of  the  virtuous  was  to  be  much  more  happy  and  desirable 
than  that  of  the  vicious.  No  doubt,  this  religion  was  in 
advance  of  the  time,  and  the  standard  of  right  and  wrong 
was  but  seldom  attained  by  its  followers  ;  but  we  find  in 
these  writings  the  words  of  those  inspired  with  a  desire  to 
advance  and  better  the  condition  of  mankind. 

With  such  a  system  of  belief,  the  tribes  of  Iranians 
encroached  upon  the  territory  of  the  Turanians.  Their 
most  earnest  prayers  were  for  the  help  of  their  god  against 
the  Turanians.  It  was  a  continued  struggle  between  Iran 
and  Turan.  There  were  many  tribes  of  each  roaming 
at  will  over  a  vast  stretch  of  country.  Whenever  a 
tribe  of  Aryans  became  j)owerful  through  the  conquest 
of  its  Turanian  neighbors,  its  chieftain  did  not  hesitate 
to  extend  his  authority  over  his  weaker  Aryan  brothers 
also.  Thus  in  early  times,  in  Western  Asia,  was  waged 
a  continued  tribal  warfare,  in  which  the  Aryans,  as  a 
whole,  seemed  to  finally  gain  the  ascendency. 

In  another  place, ^  we  have  shown  that  the  great  Sem- 
itic power  of  Assyria  had  become  aware  of  the  growing 
power  of  the  Aryans  to  the  north  and  east  of  it.  We 
have*  now  rc^ached  the  same  period  from  the  Aryan  side. 
The  ^ledian  empire  of  Cyaxares,  that  divided  with  Nabo- 

1  ♦•History  of  the  ParRi«,"  Vol.  II.  p.  184-6.    Darmestet:   '*Hacred 

Hooks  of  the  ku.st,"  Vol.  IV.  p.  Ivil. 


T^ 


•nC  ARYANS.  106 


polwsar  the  Assyrian  power,  was,  in  name,  Aiyan,  though 
the  people  were  probably  not  very  pure  in  blood.  Bat 
the  pure  Persians  were  pressing  on  from  the  rear.  We 
must  not  forget  that  Assurbanipal  had  conquered  and 
ravaged  tiie  old  kingdom  of  Elam,  or  Anzan.'  When 
Assyria  disappeared  as  a  pditical  power,  a  tribe  of  Aryan 
Persians,  under  liie  lead  of  Achemenian  chiefs,  entered 
A"''4>-"  and  speedily  became  the  ruling  power  in  that  sec-/ 
tion.  Daring  the  entire  pepod  of  the  second  Babylonian 
empire,  we  know  but  little  of  Aryan  movements;  but  they 
seem  to  have  been  gradually  extending  their  power  and 
influence  over  all  that  section. 

Daring  iJI  this  period  of  migration  and  conqueat, 
these  Aryan  tribes  seem  to  have  continued  their  simple; 
pastoral  lives.  It  was  only  the  overflowing  of  the  parott 
hive,  that  led  to  these  migrations  at  first,  and  each  migra* 
ting  tribe  often  stopped  on  their  way  to  refresh  their 
flocks  on  some  good  pasture  land  or,  in  its  season,  to 
raise  a  crop  of  grain  before  proceeding  upon  their  journey. 
Thus  was  passed  time  enough  to  conquer  and  Aryanize  all 
the  tribes  of  people  with  whom  they  came  in  contact 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  wherever  the  Aryan 
tribes  were  weaker  than  the  Turanians,  the  former  were 
the  ones  that  became  absorbed.  Thus  mixture  and  inter- 
mixture continued  until  the  historian  finds  himself  in 
doubt  as  to  who  were  Iranians  and  who  Turanians.  But 
wherever  the  Aryans  prevailed  they  introduced  the  prin- 
ciples of  Mazdeism;  and,  wherever  they  went,  they  insti- 
tuted a  more  settled  mode  of  life  than  was  common  among 
the  Turanians.  This,  in  itself,  tended  to  a  more  stable 
growth  in  social  condition  and  strength ;  and,  at  a  time 


t  Vol.  II.  p.  796  et  *eq. 


106 


fHE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


when  the  various  empires  of  Western  Asia  were  decaying, 
we  find  in  Persia  the  germ  of  new  empires  destined  to 
rule  the  world. 


Cyrus  the  Great- 

We  liJivo  now,  in  this  hurried  review,  arrived  at  the 

fornialinn  of  the  Persiiaii  Kinpiro.     "The  Persians"   is  a 

general  iianiejriven  h*  a  iniif>n  of  ten  Aryan  tribes,  of  which 

the  Parsaiiiulae  irilte  was  tlie    ruling  one.'     In  this  tribe 


1  Tliia 


,  V..I.II.  1..  111,1 


TUB  ASIATIC  ARYAITS.  107 

the  Achemenian  gens  vas  the  principal  one.  There  seenu 
to  be  historical  evidence  for  the  statement,  that  Teispes 
was  the  first  ruling  chief,  who  extended  Aryan  influence 
westward  to  the  Persian  Chilf.  Later  kings  proudly  claim 
the  honor  of  descent  from  him.  But  Cyrus  appears  as 
the  real  founder  of  Persia.  It  is  claimed  for  him  that  he 
was  a  grandson  of  Teispes.  There  was  probably  consider^ 
able  Turanian  blood  ,  not  only  in  the  reins  of  Cyrus,  but 
in  t^ose  of  hia  people  as  well.  But  he  was  now>at  the 
head  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Elam,  one  that  vied  in  an- 
tiquity with  that  of  Babylon  itself,  and  one  of  the  last  to 
succumb  to  the  powor  of  Assyria.  It  is  not  strange,  then, 
that  Cyrus  should  indtdge  in  pleasingthoughts  of  conquest 
and  g\ors,  of  once  more  raising  Anzau  to  the  height  of 
power.  But  around  the  first  years  of  Cyrjie,  myths  have 
so  clustered  tliiit  it  is  difficult  to  decide  what  is  history 
and  what  is  myth.' 

It  seems  to  have  been  his  first  aim  to  extend  his  rule 
over  all  the  various  Aryan  people  in  Western  Asia.  This 
involved  the  overthrow  of  the  Median  kingdom  founded 
l^  Cyaxares,  at  that  time  ruled  by  Aatyages.  Here  again 
mytli  has  been  busy.  But  it  seems  that  about  549  b.  c. 
Cyrus  overthrew  this  Median  power.'  Some  years  were 
spent  in  consolidating  his  conquests  in  this  section  of  Asia. 
But  as  a  final  result,  we  know  that  tiot  only  the  Median 
kingdom  of  Cyaxares,  but  the  Aryan  states  in  Asia 
Minor  were  all  brought  under  tribute  to  this  new  Persian 
power. 

1  See  Sayoe:  "Ancient  Empires."  New  material  for  the  hlatorjof 
tfala  formative  time  la  ao  recent  that  Justi:  "Geechlchte  dea  Alten 
Peraien^'ln  Onken'a  "  Algemelne  Geaohlohte,"  atill  gives  credeaoe 
to  the  old  atoriea,  p.  16  ei  teq. 

*  The  defeat  of  the  Medea  is  referred  to  In  a  Babylonian  InacriptioD. 
see  "Anoient  Empires." 


108  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Of  course,  any  power,  that  aspired  to  a  very  extended 
sway,  must  sooner  or  later,  come  in  contact  with  Babylon. 
The  glorious  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  had  passed  into 
history  before  Cyrus  had  commenced  to  extend  the  boun- 
daries of  his  empire.  The  successors  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
were  not  by  any  means  his  equal ;  and  it  was  probably 
apparent  that  the  star  of  Babylonia  was  as  rapidly  sinking 
to  final  extinction,  as  it  had  risen  to  its  meridian  height. 
When  such  a  state  of  affairs  exists,  there  is  always  a 
discontented  party ;  and  when  Cyrus  was  planning  the 
downfall  of  Babylonian  power,  he  seems  to  have  intrigued 
with  the  discontented  party  in  Babylon.  His  intrigues 
were  successful ;  and  when,  after  his  conquests  over  the 
various  Aryan  powers  in  Asia  Minor,  his  forces  appeared 
before  Babylon,  the  city  gates  were  open  to  him,  and, 
almost  without  opposition,  his  soldiers  entered  the  city. 
And  thus  Persian  supremacy  supervened  in  Western 
Asia.  They  now  wielded  the  power  once  held  by  Assyria. 
The  whole  history  of  the  conquest  of  Babylon  is  recorded 
on  a  terra  cotta  cylinder  only  recently  discovered,  so  that  we 
have  historical  evidence  of  this  period  in  Persian  history.^ 

From  this,  we  learn  that  there  was  no  long  siege  of 
Babylon.  Cyrus  appears  as  the  ally  of  a  disaffected  ele- 
ment. His  success  is  claimed  as  an  evidence  of  favor  from 
the  gods  of  Babylon.  Cyrus  acknowledges  himself,  as 
the  servant  of  Bel  and  Merodach.  He  showed  a  great 
deal  of  tact  in  not  antagonizing  the  religious  culture  in 
Babylon.  This  kindness  was  even  extended  to  the  Jewish 
captives.  With  his  consent,  a  portion  of  them,  as  an  or- 
ganized church,  went  back  to  their  ruined  city,  Jerusa- 
lem, and  there  established  Judaism.*    Cyrus  ruled  until 


A  Budge:  '^Babylonian  Life  and  History,"  p.  78. 
a  Vol.11,  p.  761. 


THS  ASIATIC  ABYAA'S. 


109 


S9  &.  C,  add  it  is  not  positively  known  when  or  how  he 
dkd.  There  is  a  plain  marble  tomb  of  ancient  dale  stand- 
t^  on  the  plain  of  Mei^b,  which  has  for  centanes  been 
aDfld  the  "  Tomb  of  C,\tus.^'  It  is  claimed  that  it  bears 
Ik  iaaeription  :  "0,  man,  I  am  Cyrus  who  won  domin- 
ioofcrthc  Persians,  and  waa  king  of  Asia.  Grudge  not 
tlik  mooument  to  me.'"  Recent  re8eaTx;he8  have  proved 
Uitt  this  tomb  can  be  none  other  than  that  of  a  female ; 
ud  while  the  natives  claim  that  it  is  the  tomb  ofSolo- 


mm'n  mother.  Dr.  Oppert  asserts  that  it  is  the  tomb  of 
|f    "Kw&audaDa.  the  beloved  wife  of  Cjtus,  and  the  mother 
-t  Ciuibyuts."^ 

Cambyaea  succeeded  his  father  as  ruling  chief- 
tain without  any  manifest  opposition,  though  one  of 
ht4  first  acta  was  to  put  his  brother.  Smerdi.".  to  death. 
Cambvsea  spent  his  short  reign  in  extending  the  rule  of 
Persia  over  the  states  of  Western  Asia,  and  especially 
Egypt.     In  this  he  was  successful.     It  is  related  of  him 


I  "d4ar7  of  P«nte,"  p.  97. 

■  or  Um  PaM,"  Vol.  VII.  p.  S9  ftlM  Vol.  IS.  p.  m. 


110  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

how  he  killed  the  divine  bull,  Apis,  in  Egypt.  All  this 
is  myth.  Like  his  father,  Cyrus,  he  was  careful  to  con- 
ciliate the  religious  culture  of  his  conquered  peQpIe.^ 
Cambyses  died  in  Egypt  from  the  eflFects  of  a  wound  in«» 
flicted  by  his  own  sword,  whether  as  a  result  of  accident 
(^r  otherwise  is  not  positively  known/ 

The  period  immediately  preceding  and  following  the 
death  of  Cambyses  is  very  far  from  being  understood  at 
present'  A  revolution  was  under  way,  headed  by  the 
Turanian  element  among  the  people  of  Anzan  and  Media. 
The  grounds  of  this  revolution  were  partly  social  and 
partly  religious.  The  priestly  caste,  the  Magi,  the  united 
Shamans  of  the  older  period,  were  largely  instrumental  in 
this  affair.  Still  they  did  not  go  about  it  openly.  A 
Magian  priest  by  the  name  of  Gomates,  holding  some  im- 
portant position  of  trust,  was  palmed  off  on  the  people  as 
Smerdis,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  the  one  whom  Cambyses  had 
secretly  put  to  death  when  he  ascended  the  throne.  It 
was  the  news  of  this  revolution  which  occasioned  the 
suicide,  if  such  it  were,  of  Cambyses  in  Egypt.  However 
that  may  be,  the  death  of  Cambyses,  for  the  time  being, 
rendered  this  attempt  a  success.  Gomates,  securely  hidden 
within  the  palace  walls,  reigned  as  Smerdis.  But  the 
real  power  at  the  head  of  the  government  was  the  Magian 
priesthood.  Gomates  has  gone  into  history  as  the  false,  or 
Pseudo-Smerdis. 

Of  course  such  a  state  of  affairs  could  not  last  long. 
Sooner  or  later,  the  Parsagadae  tribe,  the  ruling  tribe  of 
the  Persians,  would  demand  through  their  gentes  in  coun- 
cil assembled,  to  be  heard  in  the  aflFairs  of  government. 


1  Sayce:  ** Ancient  Empires.^'  8ee  Justi:  **Gk»soliicbte  des  Alien 
Persiens,"  p.  49;  though  Dr.  Just  I  still  gives  credence  to  the  kUling  of 
the  bull.  Ibid.  p.  60.  ^  8re  end  of  chapter. 


Tic  nnh  was,  that  ther  determined  to  rid  themselres  of 
the  Hsorper,  and  to  eiercise  the  right  of  electing  one  of 
Uicir  Dumber  to  the  ofBce  of  king.'    Their  choice  fell  npon 

•  Jbrios.  son   of    Hrstaspes,  who   was 

Toang  and  ener^tic  and,  above  all,  a 

member  of  the  Achemenian  gens,  iu 

which   the  office  of  ruling   chieftain 

■wms  to  hare  been  hereditary.   Danus 

pmudlr  publishes  in  one  of  bis  in- 

•mptions :     "  There  are  eight  of  my 

rac«  who  havo  been  kings  before  me. 

1  am  the  ntath ;  for  a  very  long  time  \ 

w« haw  been  kings.""    This  right  of  ] 

the  ccnocil,  to  onseat  a  ruler  and  select 

a  diief  to  his  place,  is  a  relic  of  a 

Vorely  tribal  state  of  society,  and  seems 

to  hare  been  reot^oized  and  exercised    cariue  nyoLaop=*. 

pTfa  <lown  to  the  last  days  of  the  Neo-Pcrsian  empire. 

The  oldest  son  generally  succeeded  the  father  as  chief ; 
^i.  in  case  of  doubt  or  dispute,  and  sometimes  of  the 
OBpopularity  of  the  heir,  this  council  of  chiefs  of  the 
riridus  gentes  of  a  tribe  would  come  forward  and  assert 
Uiu  anrient  ri^^ht  Sa]K)r  II.  was  thus  elected  chieftain, 
fi"en  before  his  birth,  to  the  exclusion  of  an  older  brother. 
Knlkul  wii*  dep<'t«'d  tiy  tliis  council  and  Zamasp  was  givtii 

the  crown.*    Chosroes  i.  assumed  the  ofl&ce  of  emperor, 

when  this  council  claimed  that  it  was  a  "constitutional 

axiom  that  no  one  had  the  right  of  taking  the  Persian 

crown  until   it  was  assigned  to  him  by  the  assembled 

I  ThiB  Serin,  Vol  II.  p.  ie&.  Bee  also  RBwltasoD:  "Herodotus," 
Vul.  II.  p.  477,ftDd  not«. 

t  fUwlinaon't  TraiulfttloD  of  the  Beblstun  Inscription  In  "Beoorda 
oftbePut,"     Vol.  I.  p.  111. 

■  fUwUnaon :  "Brren  Or«st  HoDKrcblee,"  Vol.  11.  p.  4S0. 


y 


112  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

nobles."^    Even  the  last  ruler  of  the  Neo-Persian  empL 
received  his  crown  by  right  of  election  after  a  period 
internal  disaflfection.*    In  many  other  ways,  do  we  find 
customs  of  tribal  life  clinging  to  the  government  of  earl] 
nations,  proving  that  it  was  rarely  possible  for  them 
establish  a  purely  artificial  form  of  government,  withoutr* 
retaining  or  introducing  many  of  their  earlier  custonuk 
The  Persian  Empire,  as  founded  by  Cyrus  and  ex- 
tended by  Cambyses,  was  simply  one  of  those  huge  con* 
glomerations  of  tribes  and  people  built  up  on  the  shakj 
foundation  of  tribal  society.    We  have  pointed  out  what 
plain  traces  all  Aryan  people  still  possess  of  a  formeor 
tribal  state.®    It  has  been  impossible  for  any  government 
to  entirely  break  up  the  system  of  tribal  life  among  the 
Asiatic  Aryans.     The  occupation  of  many  tribes  as  herds- 
men is  entirely  opposed  to  any  other  system  of  living,  and 
the  mountainous  nature  of  their  country  has  always  tended 
to  the  same  result.    At  the  first  appearance  of  an  invading 
army,  the  weaker  tribes  could  flee  to  mountain  fastnesses, 
where  they  could  defend  themselves  against  "enormous  odds 
of  invaders  and  could  find  abundant  pasturage  for  their 
flocks.     So  in  both  Persia  and  India  to-day,  we  find  these 
still  uncultivated  tribes  of  Aryans  leading  a  wandering 
and  adventurous  life  within  a  few  miles  of  populous  and 
thrifty  cities  and  villages,  neither  accepting  the  adopted 
religion  of  their  brethren  nor  submitting  to  be  ruled  by 
them.  They  still  worship  the  old  nature  gods  or  fetiches  of 
their  forefathers  and  live  in  freedom  and  independence.* 


1  Ibid.  448.  9  Ibid.  p.  641. 

8  Vol.  II.  p.  165  et  aeq. 

^  To  illustrate  this  point,  we  quote  from  Recluse,  who  deftcribes  the 
wild  Afghan  tribes  as  follows:  "Whether  swayed  by  Ameer,  Khan,  or 
Jirga,  the  Afghan  still  fancies  himself  free.  *  We  are  all  equal,'  they  are 
constantly  assuring  the  English  traveler,  and  on  his  boasting  his  mon- 


TUB  ASIATIC  ARYAS'S. 


113 


L  Darius  effected  a  complete  reorganization  of  the 
peniao  Empire.  He  made  Siisa  the  capital  city,  and  di^i- 
tbe  empire  into  about  twenty  satrapies  each  ruled  by 
■strap  appointed  by  the  emperor.  Sometimes  this 
ip  waa  a  native  prince,  but,  more  often,  he  was  sent 
by  the  emperor  to  rule  the  province.  Communication 
reen  these  provinces  was  maintained  by  means  of  roads 
mU  met  at  Susa.     A  royal  scribe  was  stationed  with 


Hulni  of  Palace  cf  Darlua  et  Suaa- 
■rery  satrap  whose  duty  it  was  to  occasionally  report  the 
■•^nditiun  of  affairs  to  the  emperor,  and,  to  render  his  au- 
hority  more  secure,  the  emperor,  from  time  to  time,  sent 
in  inspector  with  an  armed  force  to  visit  each  satrapy, 
riiu.-*.  wa-s  his  authority  maintained  throughout  the  empire 


.1  M3l  luntituiion*,  'we  prefer  our  disneDiionn'  thejr  reply.  'Let  our 
.  --1  (low.  if  need  Ik?,  Iml  we  will  have  no  master.'  And  if  local  feuda 
-r-  fr>-|Ui-nt,  lilt-  Iribea  at  a  liUtancc  from  tlio  large  cltlei  encajie,  on  tli« 
••■  hxii'i,  nut  only  froai  a  fyHleiii  of  utiliiiiited  o[)i>rt;iiHlon,  but  alto 
-  Ml  til-'  k'l'Dfral  revolutions  whii'li  decimute  the  Inhabltantti  of  some 
!ti--f  Aiiailc  lands  Hubjeet  to  capriciuux  autocrats."  "Earth  and  It* 
uu^ilatiU,"  Vol.  IV.  p.  35. 


114  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  a  heavy  tribute  exacted  from  every  satrapy.  The 
government  thus  became  "a  highly  centralized  bureaucracy, 
the  members  of  which  owed  their  offices  to  an  irresponsible 
despot/'  The  emperor  was  this  despot  and  the  fountain  of 
all  law.^  Even  that  constant  element  of  tribal  society,  the 
council — consisting,  in  the  case  of  the  Persians,  of  the  seven 
chiefs  of  the  seven  gentes  of  the  Parsagadae  tribe — for  the 
time  being,  largely  disappeared,  seemingly  tolerated  only 
out  of  respect  for  ancient  customs.* 

With  such  a  government,  and  a  revenue  amounting 
to  at  least  twenty-one  millions  of  dollars  in  silver  and  gold, 
Darius  was  able  to  organize  and  maintain  enormous  armies, 
so*it  is  not  strange  that  his  reign  was  one  of  great  military 
success.  It  lasted  from  521  b.  c.  to  486  b.  c,  a  period  of 
thirty-five  years.  During  that  time,  he  conquered  nearly 
every  tribe  of  people  west  of  the  Indus  river,  and  south 
of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  mountains.  He  did  not  stop  with 
the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  merely,  but  crossed 
over  into  Europe,  and  added  Thrace  to  the  Persian  Em* 
pire.  Though  twice  defeated  in  his  attempt  to  conquer 
Greece,  lie  was  in  the  midst  of  much  vaster  preparations 
for  a  new  invasion  of  that  country,  when  the  vital  force 
gave  out  and  he  was  buried  in  a  magnificent  tomb  at 
Naksh-i-Rustam. 

The  Magian  revolt  being  suppressed  by  Darius,  as 
we  would  expect,  Mazdeism  was  made  the  religion  of 
the  empire.  Darius  is  said  to  have  ordered  a  collection 
of  the  writings  of  Zoroaster  to  be  made.     But  the  relig- 


1  "Ancient  Empires,*'  p.  247-50. 

9  Sayce  Bays:  *'A  council  consisting  of  the  seven  leading  famiUes 
and  a  hereditary  sub-nobility  sat  without  the  will  of  the  king,  but  this 
relic  of  a  period  when  Persia  had  not  yet  become  an  empire  had  neither 
power  nor  influence  against  the  bureaucracy  that  managed  the  govern- 
ment.*'   **Ancient  Empires,**  p.  248. 


TBX  ASIATIC  ABTAXS. 


that  was  institated  as  the  state 
Afaxdcism  aa  uiu:ht  hy  tiie  grart 
u  a  cormpt  rellgioa  formeil  ligr  tke 
iam  (the  worship  of  the  plrwcmla,  amA  wm  if^ 
r,  and  air)  with  Mazdeiam.  S«r  fid  tibe  niki 
Id  Magiaa  priests  disappear.  Ad«T  thor  ■■■ki 
ipt  to  gain  gDVCTiiiiieiital  aMhcci^ 
'•<  hare  changed tfadrpoGcj, 


Tcmt  cf  torl'^ifi  at  S&te:-.-;-E::ra=, 

jlendingof  the  3Iazdean  spiritoalimc  and  doalifty- 
lip  with  their  own  cnlt    In  this  way  ther  snec*^*?. 

■minir  a  combination  of  the  two  reUrioiis  uiid^r  tL^ 
■  •f  Z'<roastrianism.  But  having  securird  iL*;  oSee 
est  as  the  peculiar  right  of  tfaeir  own  par.i-Tular  Mrt, 
priests  of  the  Dew  religion  then  prr,<ceeded  Vi  *fr*xt 
fire  altars  on  the  tops  of  the  hi:jhe=t  m'^iilaiBs ; 
•ailing' 'i"»"n  fire  from  heaven  thn-ui'h  the  iii-ttnina. 
k- I't  it  <-'>ii:*l;tntIy  Immini'  aii-l  !>acn:-<lly  ^niarded^  lest 
'■•.rrupi'-i  e\.ii  )'y  tin-  litiiiKin  l-n-'ath. 


y 


116  rHE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  striking  natural  objects  to 
be  found  in  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  Pendaii 
land  is  the  imposing,  precipitous  face  of  Mount  Behistnn^  -^ 
situated  in  the  western  part  of  Persia  twenty-seven  miles 
east  of  Kirmanshah.    Rising  above  the  surrounding  plain 
to  a  height  of  fifteen  hundred  feet,  it  presents  its  precipi* 
tons  face  to  the  approaching  traveler,  and  stands  out,  like 
a  great  natural  monument,  to  proclaim  to  passing  genera- 
tions the  life,  conquest,   and  the  deeds  of   prowess  ac- 
complish by  Darius  the  Great,  by  the  grace  of  the  Zoroaa* 
trian  god,  Ahura  Mazda.     The  center  of  the  face  of  this 


Various  Forms  of  Fire  Altars. 

rock,  at  the  height  of  four  hundred  feet  above  its  base, 
was  polished  into  a  smooth  tablet,  one  hundred  feet  high 
by  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long.  All  cracks  and  crevi- 
ces were  filled  with  lead,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
silicious  varnish.  Upon  the  face  of  this  rock,  was  sculp- 
tured in  bas-relief  a  representaton  of  Darius  attended  by 
the  nine  conquered  chieftains,  upon  the  neck  of  one  of 
whom  he  is  resting  his  foot.  These  are  mentioned  in  the 
inscription  as  the  Asiatic  rulers  who  revolted  against 
Darius,  and  were  conquered  by  him.^ 


1  There  were  Gomates,  the  Magian:  Atrines,  the  Susian;  Nebochod- 
rosflor,  the  Ba))ylonlan ;  MarteR,  a  Persian;  Phraortes,  a  Median;  Bitrat* 
achmes,  the  Sagartiaii ;  Phraatet*,  the^kirgian;  Veisdates,  the  Persian; 
and  Aracus,  the  Armenian.    **Reconl8  of  the  Past,'*  Vol.  I.  p.  124. 


Y 


ihe  n'maioder  of  this  tablet  is  recorded  the  his- 

terfat  the  reign  of  Darius,  ectting  forth  his   conquests 

ud  his  power,  in  three  hmguages — the  Persian.  Median, 

tad  Assyrian — in  all  of  which  the  caneiform  alphabet  i 

ued.     There  are  several  hundred  lines  of  these  inscrip- 

tioos.  written  under  the  directions  of  Darios  himself^  and 

jjlinf;  down  imprecations  upon  the  head  of  him  v1m> 

dared  to  deiacc  or  to  add  thereto.    For  twenty-three  c 

tvries.  has  this  rock  stood,  like  an  open  book,  inviting  ti 

tnqoiiitive  to  como  and  read.  But  the  historian  bin. 

OD  from  age  to  age,  trying  to  build  up  a  bistory  ham  t 

menta  of  m^'tbological  lore,  ignorant  or  regardlesB  of  iheat 

neofda.      In  the  middle  of  our  own  ceDtnrr,  Sir  Hemrj 

KawliuoB  scaled  the  diff,  and  reclaimed  to  the  worid  tUs 

Tafattlde  ooDtcmporaaeons  record  of  the  historr  of  Per- 

■a'l  great  oonqneror.     From  this  record,  Peraiaa  biODtr 

\m  been  reoonstmcted,  and    placed  on  a  sore  and  nfe 

fcosdation. 

Xcnes,  aon  and  aucceasor  of  Darins,  reigned  twtaty- 
oitf  years,  and  also  Tainly  endeaTortocooqaerGreece.  H<v 
haweva,  succeeded  in  maintaining  intact  the  vai 
esganised  by  bis  father,  and  he  rulvd  with 
fggy  and  ability.  His  death  occurred  in  409  b.  c.  TW 
seven  emperors,  who  in  succession  followed  Xerxea,  ^Si 
Tcry  little  to  enhance  the  ^lory,  or,  to  incnaae  Ike  terr  ■ 
tory  "f  ihe  empire.  Tht.-ir  oumHiied  icign  corqid  ^ 
period  of  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-fiTe  jtan  frjm 
-leS  to  321  B.  c' 

Even  in  the  time  of  Xerxes  I^  germs  tA  d^eav  r^^ma 
to  take  root  and  grow.     The  omamcfntation  of  t^  fAi*w 


*4»r«;  BagdlMMw,  alx  montlu;  Duioa  II..  IVy^sra;    Xnmtten**  i\ 


118  TSE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

of  Darius  represent  the  king  as  hunting  the  lion,  and 
fighting  with  and  killing  fabulous  monsters  ;  while,  in  tJ 
palace  of  Xerxes,  attendants  are  represented  as  bringij 
towels  and  delicate  dishes  to  satisfy  the  whims  of  an  effei 
inate  prince.'    This  early  sign   of   effeminacy  increast 
intil,  when  Alexander  arrived  with  his  conquering  arm 
he  met  with  little  or  no  resistance.     The  Macedonian  co 
queror  brought  with  him  scarcely  thirty-five  tiiouaai 
soldiers ;  yet,  when  he  met  the  Persians  on  the  battlefie 
of  Arbela,  where  Darius  Codomanus  mustered  an  am 
claimed  to  number  oi 
million   soldiers,  he 
said  to  have  slain  thr 
hundred  thousand  mei 
Although  the  Greek  a 
,  thors,  who  have  recor 
ed  the  history  of  Ale 
ander's  conquests,  m 
have  falsely  stated  1 
number  of  soldiers  t' 
opposed  him  in   tt 
various  engagement 
is  evident,  that  the 
pire  had  become  d 
DariuB  Codomanue.  ganized,  and   that 

ji^ersians  had  no  such  leader  as  Darius  Hystaspes, 
dared  to  carry  Persian  arms  into  Greece  itself.  Thi 
quest  by  Alexander  put  an  end  to  what  is  known  ; 
first  Persian  Empire,  which  had  lasted,  as  we  see, 
two  centuries. 

As  united  under  Darius  and  his  immediate 


1  BawUuBOD,  Vol.  IV.  p.  266. 
fl  Ibid.  p.  66. 


TBS  ASIATIC  ASYANS. 


119 


vs,  the  Penum  Empire  was  still  a  country  uf  luug  dis- 
aacBB  and  occupied  by  tribes  of  people,  who  waited  only 
or  a  favorable  opportunity  to  rise  and  declare  their  iode- 
wadence.  Tliis  Htatt?  of  affairs  was  made  manifest  in  a 
■arked  d^ree,  by  tho  successful  retreat  of  the  ten  thou- 
taikd  Greek  mcreenary  troops,  who  accom]>anied  Cjtus 
'hm  Toungor  in  his  unsuccessful    expedition  against  his 


1 


Mount  Behletun. 

(»pr>th<-r.  th*'  Empenir  Xentes.  On  the  death  of  C\tu9  at 
ih'-  liatik-  of  Cunaxa,  they  found  themselves  hundreds  of 
mil*-*  awiiy  frrtui  home,  their  leaders  murdered,  and  them- 
■<-lvr-t  -umtunded  by  enemies.'  Electing  Xenophon  as 
th«-ir  l<-a<lfr,  they  began  their  memorable  retreat  and  buc- 
rt*d«-d  in  n*arhing  their  native  Greece.  Had  the  country 
thp'Uirfi  which  they  passed  been  inhabited  by  people  thor- 


^ 


130 


THi^  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


\ 


oughly  in  sympathy  with  the  Persian  government,  i  j 
body  of  ten  thousand  hostilo  men  could  never  have  passed  | 
through  the  heart  of  this  countr}^,  which  seems  to  hara 
been  able  to  raise  army  after  army  of  hundreds  of  thon-  ! 
sands  of  men  with  comparative  ease.  While  living  in  t 
fear  of  the  power  of  tho  Persian  monarch,  the  variom  L 
tribes  inhabiting  tho  empire  were  in  a  state  of  constant  * 
uneasiness,  and  the  ruling  monarch  had  to  be  constaDUf 
on  the  watch  to  suppress  incipient  revolts. 


stairway  at  FereepoUa,  Lion  Devouring  a  Bull. 
In  regard  to  the  personal  traits  of  character  of  the 
Persians,  we  have  to  admit  that  tiey  were  not  only 
cruel  but  apparently  set  very  little  value  on  human  life. 
This  is  at  least  true  of  the  ruling  house.  The  majority  of 
the  emperors  reached thethrone  and  maintained  the  same, 
only  by  a.  series  of  bloody  dewls.  Darius  himself  gained 
supreni!u;y  by  tho  murdi>r  of  Grouiates,  and  the  massacre 
of  the  Miigi ;  wlu'tu'vcr  a  cliicftaiu  displayed  uncommon 
energy  in  lujiintaiiiing  u  revolt,  tho  great  "  King  of  many 


TUE  ASIATIC  AKYAyS.  J,21 

^'^  cmosed  to  be  recorxicnl  i\i^i  tu>,  nfU-r  mutilating 
tra^  of  Uid  prisoner,  cuuseti  the  iiiisoniblo  (!a[it.ivu  to 
h^lT"^*  lo  bu  iralauL'  ituor  ami,  tinally,  tu  ha  c-nioitled.' 
Ke«  wAi  murderotl  by  two  courtiers  itt  ttio  instigation 
is  wife.  Artaierxcs,  \\'\a  tliinl  mi\  and  successor, 
Ted  poMCBninn  of  (be  tliruiiu  by  Uic  murder  of  two 
Juts.  Hu  successor,  Xerxes  11.,  wan  ausuauinatcd  by  a 
■ifuUujr,  ftirty- 

(Uya  Alter  his 
nion    to   the 
M.who,  iQ  turn, 
1  six    months, 
ma  mnrderedC 
Bother  brother,  n 
K  CjTiH  the^: 
igervu  kiDedS 
•ttle,  while  at-i 
iting   to    eup-  [ 
it  his  brother  on  [' 

throne.*    This  r; 

Iter    of    crime  \. 

dbeoxt.n.!,-,U  .,,     ^  ,^ 

aefiit..-iy,  hwi-  V.V'.^y '?/>  1 

Igh     has     been  Stairway  at  Fereepolle.PerelanOuardamen. 

t*^  show  that  the  state  of  society  was  certainly  %'ci  / 

Thf  religion  of  the  old  empirt',  foriiicd,  an  we  have 


Dmriui  ujK  of  PhraortM:  '■  I  cut  ofTlioili  IiIm  now,  bdcI  earn,  kiid 
Oftw  ■&•]  Aroursf^l  him.  H<-  whh  hi-ld  cIiuIik-iI  ut  my  iloor,  all  tli* 
km  tieb«l<l  bini.  Afterward  ftt  Ki-liutiiiin,  tliiri:  I  crutifleil  lilm; 
tw  mra  who  were  hUcblff  follouir-t  ut  Ki-lmtatiH  wllhin  tbe  clt»- 
vXH-utrd  ilitm."  '■R«rar<lN  oftiii?  I'lmt,"  Vol,  I.  p.  119.  TtaeMms 
hm'Dt  B«BltMl  another  i>f  hio  ca|itlvvM  uIho. 
"AdcIcoI  EiDpin;*,''  p.  2ii2  3. 


/ 


122  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

seen,  by  the  union  of  Magism  and  Mazdeism,  had  mi 
ceremonies  calculated  to  impress  the  masses  of  the  peo 
The  priestly  body  was  very  numerous  and  influent 
Clothed  in  long  white  robes  and  tall  felt  hats,  with  V 
air  and  stately  bearing,  carrying  their  divining  rods 
their  hands,  processions  of  these  Magi  were  wont 
wind  through  the  streets  of  the  Persian  capital  and 
the  mountain  sides,  there  to  practice  their  weird  inca 
tions  around  the  never  dying  fires  on  the  sacred  mouni 
altars.  *  These  altar  fires  also  reminded  the  Iranian  p 
ant  of  his  own  sacred  vestal  fires  ;  and,  under  the  ir 
ence  of  superstitious  dread  of  the  priestly  magic,  no  I 
strong  enough  to  prevent  the  union  of  these  two  religi 
could  be  made  and  enforced. 

Worshiping  the  elements,  fire,  earth,  air,  and  w; 
were  regarded  as  sacred.  It  was  a  problem  to  them  1 
to  dispose  of  the  human  body  after  death,  until  they  stl 
upon  the  plan  of  erecting  lofty  ^'towers  of  silence"  on 
mountain  tops.  There,  between  the  heavens  and 
earth,  they  placed  their  dead  that  the  flesh  might  be 
voured  by  the  vultures  of  the  air  and  thus  be  prevei 
from  defiling  the  elements.  This  custom  of  disposing 
the  dead,  however,  had  not  become  incorporated  into 
Mazdean  religion  at  the  time  of  Darius,^  or  of  his  sue 
sor,  Xerxes  ;  for  both  of  these  emperors,  though  champi 
of  that  faith,  were  buried  in  costly  and  elaborate  r< 
tombs,  ruins  of  which  can  be  seen  by  the  modern  trav 
in  Persian  lands.*  In  another  place,  we  have  shown  ] 
Fetichism  gives  rise  to  idolatry.  Inasmuch  as  Fetich 
was  common  to  all  people,  it  has  been  almost  impose 


1  See  Mnis:  **  Zend- A  vesta,"  Part  III.  In  '*Sacred  Books  of  the  E 
Vol.  XXXI.  p.  xxxl. 

*  **Sacred  Books  of  the  East,*'  Vol  IV.  p.  xlv. 


THB  ASIATIC  AMTASrS.  IS 

D  supplant  idolatry.  This  hju  been  llie  tsxfaoBoat  cf  j2 
B^atems  of  belief.  So  we  are  not  mu^ublmI  to  dmd  &st. 
idthougfa  idolatry  was  forluddm  by  ZoroastaL  sdO  ax  de 
time  of  Darius  images  had  been  already  made  lonfmaHix 
peculiar  ^fay-Ht^n  divinities  and  azigdE.  On  lite  &g*-  vf 
luB  tomb,  Darios  is  represented  as  wordiijiaTig  Ormaac. '.? 
kAliiira  Masda.  Tbe  only  image  ct  Has  god  liat  w*  £itd 
•  is  tbe  winged  circle  surmounted  by  aa  inKonjidei^-  ^'^^""'^ 
r  figure  like  theaccompanvingctit.  Tliisid«a  scanE  Vj  iistv 
I  been  adopted  ^m  Assyria.'  Tboe  is,  h<weT«r.  i^«& jnoid, 
[  on  one  of  the  square  pilUrsetectedbyOrT^axPaaai^^ae^ 


M 


th«'  fi^nre  of  a  t-olijssal  man  with  four  w;:,:.-*  ie=:Li:.i-  fr.'ca 
\i\A  .-h'^ul'lers.  and  is  supposed  to  r-:;pre&*-Ll  tLe  a:^*-]. 
•■S.'n>:-h."  who  in  the  Mazdean  religion  meeia  tii»r  |,i.-.i.» 
N'ul  ami  L-r^'orti*  it  acrorfs  the  Bridge  of  Death  t/^the  Pir*- 
,1l«-  U-VMod.*  This  also  represents  a  hvbrid  stvle  of  art, 
a.4  th.'  figure  is  clothed  in  a  purely  Egyptian  stvle.'  X^hhtr 
t)i<-  Iranian  nor  the  Majrian  st  this  time  luid  temples  for 
ih^ir  iX'ttU,  but  believed  rather  in  paying  rererenoe  to  their 

I  S-e  .uU  V..1.  II.  pp.  7M,  8M. 

•  Swr  V..1.  II    pp.  278,288. 

*  "Five  (imit  MoDMcbIn,"  Vol.  IV.  P*rt  3S3-4. 


124  _  TBE  MEDIEVAL  WOSLP. 

deities  in  the  pure  open  air,  where  the  horizon  was  t' 
temple  walls,  the  mountains  were  their  altar  foundati 
and  the  vault  of  heaven,  the  star-bespangled  dome  of  ] 
ure's  beautiful  and  sublime  cathedral.' 


The  Augsl  Seroeh- 
The  ancient  Persians  never  reached  any  great  dej 


'  Bayce  remarks  on  the  winged  figure  as  foUowa:  "Egyptiai 
fluence  may  perhaps  be  detected  lo  the  propylae  through  whicb 
royal  pftlaces  were  approached,  as  well  as  In  the  headdress  of  the 
who  has  the  attributes  of  the  winged  Aslatlo  goddessou  one  nf  the  p. 
of  the  tomb  falsely  ascribed  to  Kyros  (Cyrus)  at  Mu^hab,"  ("An 
Empires,"  p.  272.) 


TBB  ASIATIC  ARYANS.  125 

in  art  and  architecture.  They  were,  in  the  main, 
And  thus  originated  a  mixed  style  of  architecture, 
Amrisg  very  little  skill  or  originality.  Their  religion,  as 
(brbode  idolatry,  and,  in  that  way,  was  removed  the 
Bourre  of  insniratlon  to  the  artist ;  for,  under  the 
iMpired  chisel  of  the  ancient  sculptor,  the  rough  murb. 
Uotkgave  form  to  the  ideal  conceptions  of  divine  grace 
ladrirtue,  and  tmnsformed  itself  into  images  of  surpassing 
iwutT  and  loveliness.  The  poetical  muse  of  both  the 
IrunaiM  and  the  Indians  seems  to  have  guarded  her  do- 
BBnion  with  jealous  care,  and,  while  ginng  tlicni  a  rich  and 
Bwonably  pure  form  of  worship,  in  the  same  breath,  seems 
to  bare  forbidden  the  entrance  of  her  sister  divinities  into 
tlie  fields  of  Iranian  nature  worship.  It  ih  true,  that  the 
i*«g«  of  war  and  of  the  elements  have  left  veiy  few  rc- 
BUMof  ancient  Persian  architecture ;  l>nt  those  remains 
P^n  the  costliness  and  magnificence  of  Fontian  {wlaces, 
wd,  at  the  "ame  time,  display,  to  a  certain  degree,  a  coarse- 
ly and  a  la^k  of  [xdijth  in  their  flnish. 

The  richest  field  of  ruins  that  cjin  be  found  in  Persia 
••^arthe  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  PersepoHs.     Hero 
'^'  built  in  succession  the  three  great  palaces  of  three 
pfx    PerBtan  emperors,  Darius  I.,  Xerxes  I.,  and  Arta- 
^^ntt  III.,  the  Sassanian.     Here  also  may  Iw  found  the 
r'liii.t'tf  the  "Hall  of  One  Hundred  Columns"  and  the 
'ireat    Hall  of   Audience,"  all   of  which  buildings  are 
'tiii  to  have  been  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
a'injnken    revelrj',  in  order   to  please   Thais,  a  beautiful 
f-ll'.wfr  of  his   court.      These  ruin.'i  are   grouped  on  an 
fTtfimviu^  platform,  rising  in  terraces  to  a  height  of  forty- 
firo  feet  above  the  plain.     The  surface  of  the  third  ter- 
nce  Is  seven  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long,  by  four  hun- 
dred broadf  and  on  this  were  erected  the  three  palaces  And 


126 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


two  large  halls  just  referred  to.^  This  whole  platfoin 
is  built  of  solid  masses  of  hewn  stone,  often  of  enor 
mous  size,  though  irregular  in  shape,  these  blocks  were 
closely  fitted  to  each  other  so  as  to  present  the  appearance 
of  the  accompanying  cut.  The  top  of  the  platform  ocx 
which  the  builA- 
ings  were  erected^ 
.  was  reached  by  s 
series  of  flights  of 
_  broad  stairs,  sloi^ 
^  ing  so  gradually 
that  they  could  be 
ascended  and  de* 
scended  by  a  traT- 
eler  on  horseback. 
The  parapet  walls 
of  the  staircase 
Masonry  at  PereepoUe.  were  elaborately 

covered  with  ornamentation  and  sculptures,  representing 
Porsian  guardsmen,  a  Hon  devouring  a  bull  (seecuts  pagee 
120-1),  or  some  mythological  event. 

The  palace  of  Darius  seems  to  have  occupied  the  most 
exalted  position  of  any  of  the  buildings  on  the  platform. 
It  was  built  on  a  separate  terrace  of  its  own,  about  four- 
teen feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  third  main  terrace, 
the  western  edge  of  which  it  occupied,  facing  the  south.  It 
covered  a  space  of  one  hundred  andthirty-fivebyone  hun- 
dred feet.,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  one-storied  edifice  about 
twcnty-fivofeethigh.  The  kingly  guest,  passing  up  adouble 
flight  of  stairs,  would  enter  the  palace  through  a  deep  por- 
tico, adorned  with  enormous  columns  surmounted  by"dou- 


1  For  further  dettilla  of  tbU  field  of  ruins,  ■ 
Oreut  Moiiarehiea,"  Vol,  IV. 


I  BawllDson:  "F1t« 


rarjf  ASIATIC  ABYANS.  127 

ble  griffin"  and  "  double  bull "  capitals  of  elegant  design 
and  execution.  On  eiUier  side,  a  guard-room  opened  into 
the  portico,  and  the  Persian  soldiers  stationed  here  fup> 
nished  a  protection  against  intruders.  Next,  he  would  be 
ushered  into  a  square  hall,  the  roof  of  which  was  supported 
by  sixteen  pillars  arranged  in  four  rows.  On  the  three  r>.- 
maing  sides  of  this  hall,  were  suites  of  compartments,  the 
doors  of  which  bear  the  only  specimens  of  sculptures  that 


Gteneral  View-Ruineof  PeraepoUe- 
adorn  the  room.  This  was  the  great  hall  of  Darius,  "th 
great  king,  the  king  of  many  kings,  the  king  of  the 
nations."'  The  ordinary  Asiatic  monarch  was  content  to 
live  in  no  such  close  quarters  as  these.  If,  however,  the 
grand  central  hall,  though  only  fifty  feet  square,  were  be- 
decked in  true  Oriental  style,  it  would  have  presented  no 
mean  appearance.       And  it    probably   was  so  adorned. 

1  loBcription  at  Nakhah-i-BuBtam. 


128  TSE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 

The  columns  were,  no  doubt,  slender  and  graceful,  and 
plated  with  gold  and  silver.  The  beams  and  rafters  of 
the  ceiling  were  regularly  arranged  at  right  angles,  and 
likewise  coated  with  precious  metals.  The  cold  stonewalls, 
broken  here  or  there  by  window  or  door,  were  sinfiilarly 
ilecked  and  further  bespangled  with  jewels,  curtains  of 
brilliant  hues  hung  across  the  entrances.  The  floors  were 
paved  with  many  colored  stones,  and  in  places  covered 
with  magnificent  carpets.  An  elevated  golden  throne, 
under  a  canopy  of  purple,  adorned  the  upper  end  of  the 


Palace  of  Darlue— Reatored. 
hall.     We  can  thus  see  how  elegance  of  form  and  richness 
of  adornment  may  have  more  than  compensated  for  the 
wjint  of  that  grandeur  which  results  from  mere  size. 

The  palace  of  Xerxes  stands  on  the  same  main  plat- 
form, and  is  built  after  the  plan  of  that  of  Darius,  though 
double  the  size ;  but  there  are  a  nxmiber  of  gateways  guard- 
ing the  various  entrances  to  the  platform,  or  palace,  that 
aro  remarkable  for  their  size  and  ornamentation.  They 
were  halls  of  great  size  and  may  have  been  "throne  rooms 
where  the  monarch  held  his  court  on  grand  occasions." 
The  largest  of  these  was  eighty-two  feet  square,  surrounded 


TMX  ASIATIC  AMTA^TB. 


119 


fcywiBi  sixteen  feet  thick,  the  roof  beiag  Mip|W*eA  iy 
ternuaaive  pilUnt  nearly  sixty  feet  hi^  Tke  apa>l. 
Wilt  vaa  entered  through  two  portals  thim-Kx  feet  U^ 

ud  twelve  feet  wide,  and  these  were  fljuiked  wttk  1 
d  iTilossal  bulls,  some  nf  which  were  winged  and  1 
baded,  similar  tu  those  of  Assyrian  wor^Emacship. 


Ruins  of  Palace  of  Z=rz=2. 
The  ruins  of  two  structures  of  en-^rrnoiL*  'Iir/i/^j*iofi* 
may  .-tlso  be  found  on  this  same  platform.  TVi^^^r  wr 
tw..  pillared  halls,  probably  used  for  public  gath'-firj^?!. 
when'  the  emperor  presided  before  great  a.^i^'inV/lif*  fA 
pe<jple.  Both  were  similar  in  8baf»e  and  fjnMlnjfrti'/n  t/j 
thf  (rateways.  One  is  called,  by  the  arr;ha*^^»l'>(firt,  th*; 
•■  Hall  of  One  Hundred  Columns,"  becauw;  the  vnA  'A 
th'*  main  audience  room  was  sup[x>rted  by  that  nuniVT*/f 
Ittfty  marble  pillars,  arranged  in  ten  rows  in  an  envltmnr*; 
two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  feet  square.  The  ^Kjrtirtt  was 


130  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

one  hundred  and  eighty-three  feet  deep,  and  also  supported 
hy  columns.  The  "  Great  Hall  of  Audience,"  though 
sindilar  in  design,  was  even  grander  in  proportions.  The 
ruins  of  this  enormous  huilding  cover  an  area  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  long  by  two  hundred  and  forty-six 
I  road.  The  central  square  alone  covered  over  twenty 
thousand  square  feet.  The  roof  of  this  part  was  sup- 
ported by  thirty-six  pillars,  arranged  in  six  rows.     But  the 


Gateway  to  "Hall  ol  One  Hundred  Colmnne." 
most  remarkable  feature  of  the  building  was  the  height  of 
its  columns.  These  all  towered  above  the  platform  to  the 
uniform  altitude  of  sixty -four  feet  and  were,  besides,  of  a 
much  more  ornamental  and  complex  style  of  architecture 
than  any  that  we  have  previously  examined,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  accompanying  cut. 

We  have  taken  a  hasty  glance  at  the  most  remarka- 
ble relics  of  ancient  Persian  grandeur.  It  is  humiliating 
to  record,  also,  that  it  was  Aryan  against  Aryan  that  finally 
led  to  the  downfall  of  these  proud  cities  and  lofty  halls. 


TBB  ASIATIC  ARYANS.  131 

[  No  amonnt  of  labor  or  wealth  can  repair  the  ruin  of  & 
\  single  ni^t  of  reveby  on  tiie  part  of  the  Macedonian 

conqueror,  iluch  of  the  jp-andeur  of  these  proud  old 
emperors  has  disappeared,  but  enough  remains  for  ua 
to  dimly  realize  what  must  have  been  their  power  and 
resources,  to  enable  them  to  send  forth 
■their  vast  armies  to  new  victories  and  fiir^ 
ther  conquests,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to 
cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  They  i^ere 
able  to  quarry  blocks  of  marble. so  mas- 
sive that  it  would  baffle  our  own  enlight- 
ened age,  with  all  its  arts  and  mechanical 
skill,  to  remove  them  from   their  native 

The  first  Persian  Empire  was,  aa  sta- 
ted, brought  to  an  end  by  the  conquest 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  career  of 
the  great  Macedonian  is  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  and 
exerted  a  very  great  influence  on  the  cul- 
ture ot  Western  Asia.  We  are  here  not  "Han "■Tone  Hun- 
concerned  with  giving  even  an  outline  of  '^'^  Coiumne-" 
his  conquests.  We  want  only  to  sketch  the  fortunes  of 
the  Persians.  It  suflfiees  to  say,  that  more  than  five  hun- 
dred years  pass  away  before  we  come  to  the  New  Persian 
Empire.  Alexander  himself  soon  passed  off  the  stage  of 
action.  The  Syrian  kingdom  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  which 
at  first  included  the  greater  part  of  Alexander's  kingdom, 
in  fact,  all  of  the  Asiatic  conquests  except  Lower  Syria 
and  Western  Asia  Minor,  for  the  'time  being,  ruled  over 
most  of  the  territory  of  ancient  Persia. 

But  this  kingdom  lost  power  and  territory  almost  from 
the  first.    As  it  declined,  there  grew  up  the  Parthian  King- 


132  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

dom.  Parthia  was  properly  the  country  to  the  south-east  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  was  formerly  one  of  the  satrapies  of 
Persia.  Its  inhabitants  were,  probably,  never  very  pure 
Aryans;  and  probably,  in  the  course  of  time,  new  arrivals 
of  Turanian  people  came  from  the  north.  At  any  rate, 
the  ruling  people  in  Parthia  were  Turanian  as  is  shown 
by  their  customs,  language,  features,  and  other  traits. 
Parthia  became  independent^  about  fifty  years  after  the 
fall  of  Persia ;  a  century  later,  it  was  at  the  height  of  its 
power;  and  for  four  centuries,  all  the  territory  of  ancient 
Persia,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  was  a  part  of  her  territory. 
We  can  say  in  a  few  lines  all  that  we  deem  necessary 
of  the  Persians  during  these  five  centuries  of  vassalage. 
Under  Greek  rule,  we  do  not  find  the  Persians  greatly 
oppressed.  They  were  not  forbidden  to  worship  according 
to  their  own  religion.  But  Mazdeism  was  neglected ;  and, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  devotion  of  the  people,  and  the 
zeal  of  the  Magi  and  priests,  it  must  have  lost  much  of 
its  hold  upon  the  nation.  Neither  was  the  Parthian  yoke, 
seemingly,  a  hard  one.  Persia  was  made  a  satrapy  and 
was  ruled  by  its  own  prince  who  was  possibly  a  descend- 
ant of  the  royal  Achemenian  line  of  chiefs.  The  Parthian 
emperors  do  not  seem  to  have  interfered  with  Mazdeism. 
In  fact,  Mazdeism  seems  to  have  been  promoted  and  even 
to  have  been  the  favored  religion  of  the  empire,  at  least 
under  several  of  the  early  Parthian  rulers.*  But  during 
the  •  later  days  of  Turanian  rule,  Mazdeism  fell  into  dis- 
repute. The  Magi  were  neglected ;  idolatry  was  intro- 
duced ;  the  sacred  fires  were  allowed  to  go  out ;  the  fire- 
temples  themselves  were  destroyed ;  the  rulers  demanded 
to  be  worshiped  as  gods ;  and  many  other  rites  were  insti- 
tuted, that  seemed  extremely  sacrilegious  to  the  true  fol- 

1  249  B.  c.  2  "Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  Vol.  IV.  p. 


■  •gainrt 


TUB  ASIATIC  ABYASS.  133 

I  of  Zoroaster.'  Such  a  state  of  affairs  alone  has 
iBffi4!ieQt  t*)  cause  many  a  great  uprisiog  and  rebel- 
i  (.•mperors  and  kin^,  as  all  past  history  will 
{lore.  FiiT  ninnkind  will  sacrifice  more  for  liberty  of 
fnwrietKC  than  for  any  other  right  or  advantage;  and 
il  w»  Ijircrely  under  the  banner  of  a  religious  reformer. 
Uut  ihc  NetuPersian  empire  arose  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
pnl  throne  of  Cyrus  and  Darius. 

The  individual  who  was  destine<l  to  raise  Persia  from 
ber  loDg  subject  stAtc,  and  to  re-'>»tabli>i|i  tlie  ancient  re- 
Ipon  of  the  land  is  generally  called  .^rta.\erxcs  though 
also    named  Anlesiiir.     He  was  ajv 
]x>inttHl  satrap  of  Persia  by  the  Par- 
thian emperor.   Artabanus.     WTjile 
claiming  to  Im  a  dtwendaiit  of   the 
I  royal  Achemenian  family,  the  prob- 
abilities are  that  he  was  not  of  such 
(IcKcent,  but  the  mx\  of  a  Persian  sol- 
dier bearing  the  name,  Sassiiii.  How. 
ever  lliJit  in.'iy  lie,  he  wiist    i-ertainly 
an   able-    Hiid   aiiibitiuii»    111:111.     iuat 
Anaxeneo-  sueli   a    [MTson  a.s   would  be    apt  to 

lietly  L'ather  the  forces  of  Persia,  and  test  the  question 
•trtTiLih  with  the  ruling  |»ower,  Parthia.  In  this  con- 
j»l.  h'-  "'f  course  made  use  of  every  advantage  he  could; 
ki  ri->t  the  least  in  im{)ortance  would  be  the  aid  of  the  still 
amenm."  and  influential  priesth(Kxl,  the  Magi.  In  his 
Torta.  he  was  successful ;  and,  in  the  year  227  A.  D.,  the 
artbian  power  was  overthrown,  and  the  Neo-Peraian 
DptR  appeared  on  the  scene.  Speaking  generally,  it  ii 
iid«d  the  territory  of  ancient  Persia,  east  of  the  Euphrates. 
Aa  this  rerolt  was  so  lai^ly  a  religious  one,  it  is 


•*8«vcD  OrvM  UoduchlM,"  Vol.  III.  p.  S 


I 

I 

134  TffE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD.  ' 

\ 

not  strange  that  we  hear  of  a  reformation  taking  plaoe  A 
as  regards  Mazdeism.    At  this  time,  '^  Western  Asia  was  'if 
a  seething  pot,  in  which  were  mixed  up  a  score  of  contra-  % 
dictory  creeds,  old  and  new,  rational  and  irrational,  Sabe-  ^ 
ism,  Magism,  Zoroastrianism,  Grecian  Polytheism,  Terap  \ 
|iliim-worship,  Judaism,  Chaldean  Mysticism,  Christian-  ^ 
ity."^    Artaxerxes  began  at  once  a  system  of   religious  -= 
persecution.     Temples  of   worship,   not  Mazdean,  were 
ordered  closed  ;  idols  were  destroyed ;  and  the  Magi  were 
assigned  lands  that  placed  them  in  positions  of  pecuniary  ] 
independence.     It  was  seemingly  his  intention  to  unite 
all  these  various  and  conflicting  beliefs  into  one  common   \ 
form  of  worship,  that  of  Mazdeism.. 

In  order  to  best  accomplish  his  purpose,  Artaxerxes 
caused  a  council  of  priests  to  be  assembled  at  his  court  for 
the  double  purpose  of  reviving  pure  Mazdeism,  and  col-  * 
lecting  into  one  volume  whatever  of  former  writings  and 
collections  had  been  preserved  through  the  vicissitudes  of 
wars  and  the  enmity  of  hostile  rulers,  as  well  as  to 
gather  and  add  thereto  all  that  could  be  gleaned  from  the 
memories  of  the  priesthood  of  the  entire  land.  It  is  said, 
that  more  than  forty  thousand  priests  assembled  in  an- 
swer to  his  call.*  This  grand  concourse  of  sacred  teachers, 
clad  in  their  long  robes,  as  pure  and  white  as  the  histori- 
cal ermine  of  the  judge's  gown,  flocking  toward  the  Per- 
sian court,  must  have  filled  the  common  tribesmen  with  su- 
perstitious awe  and  reverence  for  their  sacred  teachings,  and 
must  have  crowned  their  pious  ruler  with  praise  and  almost 
adoration.  This  enormous  assembly  of  the  priesthood 
seems  to  have  been  governed  by  a  like  desire  to  formulate 
a  pure  and  perfect  form  of  religion.     They  proceeded  to 

I  RawlliiBon:    'Reven  Great  Monarchies/*  Vol.  III.  p.  271, 
«  •*Hi8tor.v  of  the  Pariils,"  Vol.  II.  p.  If6. 


TSS  ASIA  TIC  ABTAHR. 

ft  from  their  Dombor  first  s  oommittee  of  loor  Hba^ 
\  then  of  four  hundred,  from  these  lorvt^  and  fiBaOf 
I  thtfse  seven,  each  time  striving  to  cfaotwe  those 
ciftlljr  dtstinguiahed  for  kaming  aod  pieiv.  To  these 
B,  was  given  the  task  of  compiling  a  reriaed  edition  of 
Soroostrian  crccd^  and  this  edition  sUadi  to-di^s» 
ori^  in  all  Paru  comroonities,  althoo^  there  waeam 
I  apringiag  ap  a  more  liberal  sehotrf  of  inteipRtcn, 
are  discarding  many  of  the  old  snpentitiom  pcaetaccs 
rtr  fare&tber*. 

ntis  final  CMtamtttee  of  aeren  met  and  choae  aa  their 
«■  a  yuuQg  and  piooB  priest  named  Arda  Vint  *bo 
iMAmcted  to  prepare  a  rollection  of  all  the  leachingp 
le  Maxdean  faith,  and  to  blot  out  all  practieea  that 
I  crril,  itnjnoaa,  and  harmfiil.     It  if  claimed  for  him 

he  ^>ent  aereo  days  in  a  trance,  duTiBg  which  all 
e  religioaa  {«eeq>tB  were  revealed  to  bio.  Thti  maj 
n  ibat  he,  with  the  aid  of  six  aasiataals,  managed  to 
wl  from  the  aaaembled  thoosanda  all  the  then  exiffting 
inga,  traditions,  and  scraps  of  wi^om  that  clostered 
ind  thf  name  of  Zoroaater,  and  these,  combined  with 
teachings  of  the  Magi,  he  conden^sed  into  a  osefnl  vol- 

of  ralnable  [H«ceptB.  The  result  of  thia  work  did 
«  means  give  to  the  people  the  pure  Zoruastrian  doc- 
■a.  but  the  book  uf  Aida  Viraf  seems  to  hare  fumL<>hed 
lod,  united  srstem  of  religious  worship  and  moral 
epta,  which  then  became  the  religion  of  the  emf>ire. 
1,  no  doubt,  contained  all  that  was  good  in  Mazdeism. 
pam.  and  the  many  other  beliefs  that  had  crept  into 
Persian  territory.  The  blended  religions  were  accep- 
\ft  the  people  in  general ;  and,  from  that  time  until 
appearance  of  Mohammedanism,  the  new  faith  was 
mly  preached  by  the  priests,  but  also  enforced  by  the 


136  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

government.  We  have  given  a  short  historical  outl 
of  the  growth  of  Mazdeism,  but  a  discussion  of  the  pi 
ciples  uf  this  system,  and  its  place  in  the  rankB  of  « 
parati\'e  religions,  we  will  reserve  for  another  chapt 
The  Xei>-PersiaH  empire  existed  for  about  fourh 
dred  and  twenty-five  years,  and  during  that  time,  twei 
eight  monarchs  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  sat  on 
throne.  But  few  of  them,  however,  ruled  with  any  gi 
degree  of  energy  or  distinction.  The  tirst  of  them  • 
Sapor  I.,  Artaxerxes'  immediate  : 
cesser.  He  is  known  in  history  as 
only  Persian  that  succeeded  in  brin^ 
Roman  emperor  (Valerian)  to 
I  court  as  captive.  He  held  the  rein: 
government  with  a  strong  hand, 
proved  himself  one  of  the  most  abh 
the  Persian  rulers.  His  mother  is  i 
Sapor  I.  to  iiave  been  thedaughter  of  Artaba: 

the  last  Parthian  emperor.^  Emperor  Chosroes  I.,  h 
ever,  who  Ijegan  his  reign  A.  D.  521,*  not  only  was  ablt 
maintain  the  Persian  empire  unbroken,  but  extended 
conquests  into  neighboring  provinces  and  caused  the 
man  emperors  to  fear  him  and  respect  his  rights.  Ab 
all  his  predecessors,  did  he  succeed  in  enshrining 
memorj'  in  the  liearts  of  the  Persians  by  his  endeai 
to  rule  with  mildness  and  to  better  the  condition  of 
subjects.  He  built  and  populated  cities;  and  loving tr 
ditions  relate  that  he  was  followed  from  one  end  of 
empire  to  the  other  by  armies  of  architects  and  build 
who  were  instructed  to  repair  the  humble  cottage  of 
peasant  as  well  as  the  walls  of  stately  royal  balls. 

1  RawUDsOD,  Vol.  III.  p.  279. 

•  ''History  of  the  PaMta."  p.  8,  9, 70, 


TJTK  ASTATIC  ASYAXS. 


137 


He  iosUtated  a  number  of  rcforrru,  that  pUeed  P«t- 

I JB  ttlranoe  of  oontemporaiy  nations.     He  willjjiii^y 

d  A  troaty  with  Rome,  that  guaranteed  pro>teetk«  t« 

f  Cfcrirtiwia  residing  id  PersiA,   aOowcd  eommeraJ 

I  between  the  two  empires,  and  'prtniAed  tk*t 

I  fiitare  disputes  arising  between  the  two  emjiiw  wm 

>  be  settled  t>,r  courts  of  arbitration.     I^adii^  that  big 
*  wa«  broken  up  intu  Xoo  many  satrapiea,  be  dirided 

>  into  four  district>s  eacli   preaidnl  over  >nr  a  ricnuy, 
■  to  receive  reiiorUt  fmm  tbe  watrtf^  mad,  in  bis 

,  n^rt  to  the  emjieror.    He  regnJated  tbe  land  tax 


tof!Dcuunu^>  ngrirultuTe.  A  rt-'fonn  in  tin-  wlminis- 
of  the  Pi-raian  armj  ta  also  nsprilMi)  to  Ch'jirrr^^ 
PXHJ  soldier  and  offlcer  was  encoumgeil  by  a  [nayuteni 
to  tbe  rank  to  which  he  bel«nja;e«i.  Tb»*  tfpasory 
>o  longer  be  robbed,  neither  ntuld  any  Hildier,  piv 
r  oAeer,  draw  man  than  his  rightful  [loy  Ijy  miarej^- 
Tberc  was  likewise  a  refcrm  made  in  the 
of  justice,  whereby  the  ri^is  of  eT»TT 
■Ijeet  were  considervd  as  saocd  as  those  of  the  emperor 
Amtell  Thf^ogh  very  jealons  in  regard  U>  his  own  rifdiU 
■  aapenr,  we  find  this  wise  monartb  so  c«r^)  ^  tbe 


138 


TMS  U£DI£!VAL  WOBLD, 


rights  of  his  subjects  as  to  In  no  way  trespass  again 
them  to  gratify  his  own  desires. 

During  this  reign,  we  also  notice  a  great  step  in  wL 
Vance  for  Persia.  Although  tho  emperor,  himself,  was  i 
believer  in  Zoroastrianism  he  was  very  tolerant  towinj 
believers  in  other  religions.  One  restriction  only  seems  ft 
have  been  placed  upon  the  followers  of  other  gods  and  tlol 
was  forbidding  proselytism.  He  invited  travelers,  sage^ 
philosophers, and  the  learned  of  all  nationalities  to  bis  court 
and  has  the  credit  of  founding  the  first  Persian  universiq 


jt^iace  of  unoeroea  I- 
at  Shapoor,  where  medicine,  philosophy,  rhetoric,and  poeti] 
were  studied.  Thus  we  see  the  Iranians  passing  througi 
their  period  of  highest  development  and  enlightement 
during  the  reign  of  one  who  was  cruel  toward  his  enemies 
relentless  in  his  punishment  of  offenders  of  the  law,  and 
severe  in  the  penalties  attached  to  the  violations  of  hji 
laws.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  was  only  sufih  a  atrong 
and  fearless  mind  combined  with  a  firm  hand,  that  conU 
hope  to  institute  and  maintain  such  reforms  at  such  a  tim* 
in  this  greatest  of  Oriental  Empires.^ 


1  Bawlinsoa'i  Vol.  III.  p.  448,  et  teq. 
Vol.  I.  p.  10. 


"Hlitorr  of  the  Pknli,* 


TUB  ASIA  TIC  ASYJJfS-  139 

l>arii)g  tbe  latier  part  of  the  ^'eo-PenuA  period,  nt 
ardxitecturc  received  a  great  deal  of  atteataon  tbroo^- 
cntire  empire.  jV  r^nemeat  sod  a  degne  of  qP' 
itAtian  never  Wfure  known  »eem  tobaw  bem  tatT»- 
The  rvmjuDs  of  foar  palaces  are  taaoi.  These 
sitaat«d  at  SerbiMao,  Fimzabwi,  CUmpba^  aad 
IfaabitB,  the  third  of  which  was  the  palaee  of  Choana  L 
mi  th«  last  that  of  Chosroea  II.  OdIt  a  small  portioa  of 
be  palace  of  the  first  Chosroes  remains  standing,  bat  tUi 
it  to  have  bctin  &  massive  erection,  filled  with  apart- 
lU  amiigcd  and  funushed  on  the  grandest  scale.  AH 
i  teraain  of  the  walls  may  be  seen  from  the  actnmpuiT. 
hg  cut  aboQt  one-fDurth  uf  the  original  eodasnre.  Tbe 
tamw  ornamentation  of  oil  the  Sajgaaian  palaces  was  bj 
aniied  recesses,  and  cornices.  "Theinbefioror- 
raa  probably,  in  a  great  mearaTCr  by  staea^ 
perhaps,  gilding.  All  this,  howerer,  if  it 
tabued,  has  disappeared." 

Tbe  Maahita  palace,  of  Chosroes  II.,  thoo^  some- 
IIr  finaJler  than  that  at  Ctesiphon,  is  said  to  far 
atK»l  the  others  in  beaaty  of  onuunentatioD.  The  face 
^  this  building  presents  specimens  of  the  most  elaborate 
Tunu^ntation  knownto  thoancicnt>t.  Figures  of  peacocks 
^parn^ts  are  mingled  with  those  of  the  lion  and  the  wild 
Wr  in  the  greatest  profusion;  and,  midst  the  whole,  are  in< 
hftvino)  branches  and  vines  bearing  rich  clusters  of  fruits 
Mi  nearly  concealing  the  groups  of  smnlItT  binU  and  an^ 
■ih.  It  is  indeed  a  delicate  piore  of  workmanship,  and 
Aidi.ru  times  can  scarcely  produce  anything  na  elabomto. 
XmWast  of  Kirmanshah,  there  are  the  ruins  of  an  an .. 
kaMroasTaUit-t-Ilottan,or"RoofoftheGardens,"thatneed 
^KisI  mention  on  account  of  its  baa  reliefs,  said  to  be  little 
Mhortothe  best  Roman  art  Thecourtofthel&ter  Saaaan* 


136 


the 


Sapor  I. 
l;i.st    P:irt| 


i)i.-iiiitiiiii  the  ll 
comiui'sth!  into  i 
man  fiinxToi'sl 
all  Ills   in'cih 
memory  in  thij 
to  rule  with 
subjects.     lie 
ditioiw  relate 
empire  to  the  cl 
who  were  instil 
peasant  as  well 

1  Rawlinsoii,  \  I 
■  "History  of  1 1 


THr.  ASfAT/r  AHYASA. 


141 


idlv  receivctl  Itv  their  m'trc  ftrrUio«i«  bntfam,  ssd 
«n  lauds  on  which  to  renr  their  fire  alUm,  Tbejr  kmt 
B  a  wealthy  nn<i  irspcTicil  njiumunity,  ufwfndiaivto 
ToanJ  th(<  incrc-hatit  ]>rin>T»i  of  IVjcqIaj,  TItM  ftHow 
Jie  grvat«»t  i)f  Oriental  ctiipircs;  but  th*  record*  of  lU 
ife  and  the  proud  name  thai  it  will  avvt  b«*r  in  U«(orfr 
t  endnre  until  the  iuouiituu«,  that  aluui  lure  ii 


Ornamentation  of  Msehlta  ^^>.-x 
*  'tniirirlcs  that  occurrerl  in  thf-Jr  fawtn'-MWH,  whall  have 
i8«I  to  exiut,  and  all  hi«t/»ry  b«r  buri'*d  in  ol»Iivion, 

Wf  have  now  given  a  very  bri'.'f  jiccount  of  the  «n- 
at  IVmianK,  l^-forc  i»a««iny  on  to  the  AryaiH  ai  India, 
us  n-.tc  the  strongetit  iMtint  \n  the  eultiin-  <>f  the  Per- 
M.  It  is  in  the  field  of  religion.  Zoroaster,  or  the  r^ 
m  going  by  his  name,  exerted  a  very  great  influence 


142  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

throughout  Western  Asia,  Nor  was  its  influence  c 
fined  to  Asia.  Zoroaster  was  known  among  the  Gre< 
as  a  great  eastern  sage  and  philosopher,  and  a  numl 
of  Greek  writers  left  treatises  on  his  doctrines.* 
deed  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  even  to  the  pres< 
day  Mazdean  doctrines  color  the  prevailing  religious 
liefe  of  the  world. 

When  we  turn  to  consider  the  Aryans  of  India, 
have  before  us  a  very  interesting  field,  and  one  that  is  : 
yet  fully  understood.  There  are  not  wanting  those  ¥ 
think  w^  have  in  India  relics  of  the  oldest  civilization 
the  world,  that  here  was  the  real  cradle  of  the  Arj 
race.  And  yet  we  fail  to  find  any  satisfactory  foundat 
for  such  an  hypothesis.  From  India  as  a  center,  very  gr 
influences  have  gone  out  in  the  field  of  religion,  as  will 
shown.  But  the  probabilities  are  that  the  Aryans  x 
comparatively  late  arrivals  in  India,  and  it  seems  una 
to  assign  any  very  high  value  to  the  Dravidian  civili 
tion  which  they  superceded.* 

We  have  seen  that  the  pressure  of  Turanian  trib 
advancing  from  the  north,  probably  forced  the  Sla' 
Aryan  tribes,  that  had  -wandered  into  the  regions  east 
the  Caspian  Sea,  over  the  table  lands  of  Pamir  into  t 
Hindoo  Koosh  region.  But  sooner  or  later,  the  ancestt 
of  the  Indo-Aryans  discovered  the  head-waters  of  t 
great  rivers  of  India  and  followed  them  down  ii 
fertile  plains,  spending  no  doubt  many  seasons  on  th< 
journey,  during  which  they  grew  their  crops  of  grain  a 


:  '^Sacred  Books  of  the  East/'  Vol.  IV.  p.  xlvU. 

s  In  apparent  contradiction  to  the  above,  we  must  state  that  th 
are  not  wanting  many  evidences  of  a  very  ancient  civUisation  in  Inc 
We  recall  that  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  we  have  lean 
of  a  period  of  Turanian  culture  in  Mesopotamia.  It  may  sometime 
■hown,  that  the  Dravidian  culture  in  India  was  considerably  advano 


PUBLIC  tlBHART 


&iSSSl^'^'^f\ 


TiU>^tl 


TcfreslKd  thenudTca  «^  !«£  m 

ihnHizh  the  Knnnaa 

Ike  first  tiiDe,  Ike  gmi  t 
I    TiUrr,  thrav^  wUch  fte  pot  i 
I    ^vna  hsTB  fina  tine  oHi^iBd  ^ 

Iikl'u,  we  find  Ike  fiacfrAos  «f  &•  laia^braam  a 


movorerthe  ler^    ]IalRH«f  s<faKHC,«i&  i 

Wsa,  she  UaTeiWB  ■  I 

A(7  aug  of  tius  BoUe  iticn^  »  O^  iMfc  I 

tblnd  vUdi  it  dnni,  aad  aide  «v  i| 

*bo  Kad  pvTVKtfhr,  in  tbesr  tvm,  4-MmJ  i 
•wion  of  these  rich  «Dd  coTeted  f-iiiis. 

The  tribes  of  Arjuki  »bo  £r«:  -^^liw^tf  Ii.5ii 
w  energetic  and  hardT  tw»  ^A  j'r<.<l^  ix  iiiti  r*: 
'"Pmor  to  the  older  inhahitacu.  wbca  tix^  -ici^ 
pl«t«l  or  swallowed  op.  8d3,  w*  art  ::».A  v>  jw 
**ni  as  very  much  in  France  rf  the  f«^=i±»"*  Jlrr*aa. 
The  area  of  lodiA  ia  aboat  ooe  zn^-'y^  trt  Lxbini 
'Wud  sqoare  mllea.  It  U  diridal  br  Dr.  H.xi=«r  iift> 
""fe  sectioDA.  There  is  fir^t  the  noniiera  or  ^^Tr-^t 
*'^i'jn,  an  elerated  moontainoa*  trv^  wIkow  rm  tfe: 
pnt  rivere  of  India.    This   'n  iA^ywfA  br  t^  "Hrer 


-  SE^ 


■»i  Btyloubudlr  Trrr  »nrirat,  tfatt  tb«  AT7««t  pi^>'4   4*  Mm«  y^w- 

tTv  I  nk  Pit  (h«  TanaUsa  la  ladift  ta  *x<n  tWir  yiULH  kdaniev  m> 
lh«  OrMof  RllckNucnltan. 

lJaaTMlB.A.S.nBI.p.aii.  »nu.f.*i. 


146 


TME  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


plain,"  tlio  section  watered  by  the  Himalaya  rivers.  Ex- 
tending from  the  Indian  ocean  on  the  west,  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  on  the  east,  it  comprises  one  of  the  most  densely 
populated  regions  in  the  world.  Everj^  square  mile  has 
Ut  feed  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  people,  or  one-fifth 
mure  than  England  with  all  her  manufactories."  The 
great  rivers  of  India  (the  Indus,  the  Brahmapootra,  and 


Source  of  the  Qangea. 
the  SiH-red  Ganjics,  whose  source  is  in  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Himalayas)  with  their  tributuries,  cover  the  whole 
.niiitrywith  a  veritable  network  tf  streams  with  fickle 
changing  channels.     This  great  Bengal  region,  though 


1  UuuUr,  p.  3. 


TJTE  ASIATIC  ARYANS. 


147 


densely  populated,  is  very  fertile  and  capable  of  pn^Juciiig 
two  anil  even  three  crops  a  year.* 

Sloping  upward   fnun  these   river  plains,  the  third 

ivci'in  iif  India  succeeds  the  second,  fonnin^r  an  e;st/rn>!jvf- 

trianLOilur  table  land  }><>pulated  with   non-Aryan  ra/rf-y,  of 

mnn.    It  is  a  land  of  mountain  pe?ik.«  and  denM;  fonr-tjp; 

it-*  I'lark  soil  is  vcrv  fertih*.     Tlie  inhabitanth  have  n> 

clainHil  .S4>nie  ix»rti(>ns  of  it  troni  th'*  fon-.-t-. :  hiA  y^,  w^; 

tifiii  iici*asional  villages  and  cultiv;it'*d    li^-M-   iriUf^ipirp/A 

h'tirt-en  forest  tracts,  so  d<Mi.se  that   .S;in.-krjr  j>'/"t-  w^^re 

voDt  to  8pe:ik  of  this  table  land  ••a.-*  biiri^-d  ijn'J'Tf'/P'>.t>i/'* 

India  has  Wen  calle^l   "a  ;rrcat  uiu-'um  of  nu'^r^s  in 

viiieh  we  can  study  man  from  hi.*  low^-j-t  to  hir  \i'rj]i^'fX 

Stages  of  culturr/'*     Wt'  have  bri^'fly  ntV-rnvl  to  tb"  foo/^t 

important  of  these  races,  and  hav<-  j-j#^;k'n  of  tli'-ir  arriv?*! 

in  India  and  their  gra<lual  ^'Xt^^n.-ion  ov<'r  the  ''otir>trv, 

absorbing,  or  driving,  still  fiirth^T  .^outli  thor*  -tjJi  Jovi^rr 

tri'>e«  ^^ho   pnredid  tlnMu.*    y*M'f\\'\irj  \:.  •:.<     •.  ;k'    of 

th«*s«*  I>ravidians,  tip' Aryan.*  lin^iily  ;ij»|;":;r' o     *  *;;f   /.' ;j/i- 

w:it»-r*  of  the  LTt-at   In'linn  ri\»  r.-  -x:  'i  *-*>],'\  *-  ri:.-    wv   rO- 

inif.or  di-^jMissi'^sinL^  in  tlM-ir  tuni.  ^.t-jmi;.!;  .  -j;."  - '.  *' v  ./'J 

lh»"  S4>uth.     \\  h«-n  tin-   KiiL'li'li   '-"i  'I'J*  '■"■"  '->*•*  ^* '    -l-  '  '^ 

th»-y  iwiMipit.'il   th»'  ni»rtli<Tii  j»;irt  <•:'  \l .i.''.'f*>-*''.Ji   .-.: '-.    v.«-r<; 

irnidually    .•*pr»*aiHn;/   t-.w.jpl    K.-irth^r    I:.'i..j        U  <r   tjfi'l 

al-'»  that    the  ."^iiUth'Tn  hah'  •;!*  r'^vlou   \v,i.-   ij.jj.jly,!' 'j    ov 

Arvanr«. 

\\'»'  have  almost  no  dat/-  from  whi'-h  to  n-'kon  the 
th'-  antiouitv  of  th»*  Arvan.-*  iii  In^iia.  li^M-k  ol*  th*-  <ir:-.t 
h>TMri«vil  dat<'  (ritmwrXi'il  with  th*-  nli;jriou-  nlorni  of 
Bud'iha  in  the  tifth  r<-ntury  n.  C),  i.i  a  j/^-ri'/'l  ot'  unkriowfi 
duriti^n.     \W  nuwt  calculate  how  long  it  would  n-<iuire 


*  lUti    p  .n.  s  IMd.  p.  25. 

«  TtOft  8eriM  Vol.  II.  p.  8M. 


s  Ibid.  p.  36. 


148  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

for  them  to  develop  a  system  of  religion  into  such  a  degree 
of  perfection  as  Brahmanism  had  attained.  Wo  must 
allow  time  for  the  composition  of  the  Vedic  and  contem- 
porary literature.  All  this  must  have  been  accomplished 
in  that  period  of  Indo- Aryan  history  that  elapsed  between 
the  time  of  their  separation  from  their  Iranian  brethren 
and  the  first  date  that  appears  in  their  history.  Professor 
MuUer^  allows  eight  centuries  of  time  for  this  period  of 
growth ;  and  we  believe,  with  many  others,  that  if  he  has 
erred  at  all  in  his  figures,  it  has  been  in  aUewing  too 
short,  rather  than  too  long,  a  time  for  this  period  of 
growth.* 

The  whole  era  is  devoid  of  historical  records.  There 
are,  however,  two  great  epic  poems  that  apply  to  these 
times;  but  they  are  about  as  valuable  as  historical 
evidence,  as  the  poems  of  Homer  are  in  the  history  of 
Greece.  They  are  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayanai 
and  only  preserve  the  legends  of  two  great  Aryan  tribes,' 
that  had  settled  in  the  northern  part  of  India  at  an  early 
day.  But  these  show  traces  of  having  been  collected, 
arranged,  and  .even  remodeled  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date^  by  Brahman  priests.  Consequently  we  have  no  his- 
tory of  the  Indo-Aryans  before  the  fifth  century  B.  c,  when 
the  effects  of  the  teachings  of  Buddha  began  to  manifest 
themselves.  There  are  very  few  remaining  dates  in  their 
history  for  the  following  ten  centuries,  except  those  im- 
mediately  dependent  upon  the  date  of  Buddha's  death.^ 

The  reform  of  Buddha  was  a  religious  reform  and 
went  on  quietly,  exerting  no  political  influence  un4^il  the 


I  •♦Sanskrit  Literature."  p.  672. 

«  Williams:  »  Hinduism/'  p.  3, 19. 

>  Hunter,  p.  67-63. 

«  *<ADcient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  41*9.       >  Barth,  p.  107. 


bv  fiv  ke 


kdbeeoBf 
utkrHsnt 
adPorwtke 

ftoAlenadav 

ttdtke  Ifaeedauaa 

en  Iw&L    This  w  aooos  ^S4 

him  to  tbe  aM^tlie  Giwks 

Am  ICaar,  iMTiiig  Isdn  mder  tlie  fMvmMHt  «f 

rf  Alexander's  tools.     He  w  soon  Bszdered.  sad  Ui 

■Qtteaeor  wss  driren  out  of  tke  comnzT'  ss  soc^i  ss  tbe 

i^vd  of   Alexsnder's  death   reached  the  bsz^s  ci  ibe 

About  this  time;  we  hesr  of  ChsDdn  GnpuL  wbo 
>Qceeeded  in  forming  a  confederacr  of  such  pc^wer  that  he 
*u  acknowledged  ruler  of  the  whole  Punjab.  He  estab- 
iuhed  himself  so  stronglv  that  Seleucus.  AlexaiMla- s  sue* 
''wor  in  Eastern  Central  Asia,  thought  best  to  leare  him 
ttndwturVie^l,  and  even  to  make  a  treatv  with  him.*    This 


•  WiUUm*:  **Hiodal8m/*  p.  4. 

i  ^'Ki^eDdrAlaU  Mitra,*'  Vol.  II.  p. 3. 

<  Wbccler:  '*A  8bort  HUtory  of  India,*'  London,  1S8S.  p.  47-9  In 
fffmrd  to  the  conquest  of  India  by  Alexander,  consider  the  following: 
"Tb«  ttniy  of  the  conquering  army  of  Alexander  penetrating  into  North- 
•m  India,  iti^elf  becomes  more  and  more  doubtful  every  day.  No  Hindoo 
aatiooal  re<cord.  not  the  slightest  historical  memento  throughout  the 
kngth  and  breadth  of  India  otibrs  the  slightest  trace  of  such  an  invasion.*' 
Madam*  BUTataky :  «'Isis  Unveiled,"  Vol.  II.  p.  4».  «  Wheeler,  Op.  eit. 


/ 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

Chandra  Gupta  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Sandn 
and  was  the  grandfather  of  Asoca,'  the  champion  of  Bui 
dhism.     Asoca  leaves  the  first  inscriptions  that  are  know; 
to  Indian  antiquarians.     He  extended   his  conquests  sya 
across  the  Indus  into  what  is  now  Atghanistan.     He  < 


Scene  at  Benaree- 
more  for  religion,  art,  and  culture  than  any  of  his  predfr 
cessors.     He  called  the  third  council  for  the  purpose  of 
systematising  the  Buddhistic  beliefe,  and  appears  to  have 
been  an  earnest  follower  of  that  faith. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  b.  c,  To* 


1  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Litenture,"  p.  282. 


TBW  ABZATIG  ABTJUfS.  151 

out  tribes  began  to  work  down  from  the  nortliem  coun- 

■  thzonsb  the  mountain  panes  into  the  Fniy'ab,  and 
t  before  the  oomioencement  of  the  Christian  era,  they 
eeedcd  in  snbjecUng  all  northern  India.    They  adop- 

the  Boddhistio  religion,  and  their  most  famous  chief- 
&  summoned  the  fourth  Buddhist  council.  His  capital 
i  Ca»Unier«!,  and  the  form  of  Buddhism  that  his  ooun* ' 
ited  hnd  mixed  with  it  many  features  of  the  old 
D  beliefs,  so  that  there  arose  two  forms  of  Buddhism, 
1  in  the  north  of  India  and  one  further  south.* 
aeema  to  hare  been  continual  warfare  for 
r  between  the  Aryan  and  Turanian  races  for  the 
Ire  hundred  years.  There  was  no  Aryan  chieftain 
le  to  furm  a  confederacy  of  tribes  powerful  enough  to 
:Te  out  the  Tunmian,  though  a  number  made  strong 
empta  to  do  go.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  these, 
rathe  Viknunoditym  and  Salarahana,  the  former  <^ 
■p  VM  a  great  patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  In 
wlbajf  the  Sak  dynasty  of  chieftains  ruled  from  60  to 
Sa.  D.  In  Onde  and  Northern  India,  the  Gupta  dy- 
ity  mled  trom  319  to  470  a.  d.  The  Yalabhi  dynaaty 
■will ii mini  as  ruling  in  Cutch,  Malwa,  and  the  north- 
gtam  diatrieta  of  Bombay  from  480  to  722  a.  j>.  The 
■•  are  known  to  have  been  in  Northern  India  about 
Va.  n.  And  so  we  have  about  nil  that  is  known  of 
lian  history  down  to  the  time  when  the  Iranians  were 
jqueretl  by  the  Islamitoa.  As  we  glance  over  these  few 
■onls  of  the  past,  how  plainly  it  appears  that  "  India 
*  n<»  \i\nm  in  the  i)oliticaI  history  of  tbo  world."* 
\Vi.'  are  not  for  a  moment  to  suppose,  however,  that 

■  In'I<>-Aryaii8  mildly  submitted  to  every  foreign  yoke 
,t  wuj  placed  upon  them.      No  matter  who  the  inva* 

i  lionur,  p.  as.  ■  ■'EMlrSuukritUUntton,"  p.SL 

10 


152  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ders  wcrp,  we  find  that  the  Brnhmnns  still  remained  tl 
priests  of  thu  land,  the  Rajas  wore  still  rulers  over  tliei 
own  tribes,  and  the  Vaisyas  still  cultivated  their  field 
usually  unmolested  even  in  times  of  war.  When  at  lai 
the  Mohammedan   ruler   appeared  with  his  armies,  Ii 


Raja  BT.i  1".:..-  ?:■  :■'.  I 

foiuiJ  it  no  easy  ta^ik  to  gain  a  liitjtiug  lui>lhold    in  Imlia  jfl 
and,  at  no  time,  did  ho  succeed  in  forcing  hia  religion  upon 
these  people.      Sfohamniedan  expeditions  against  India 
began  A.  1).  63(i,  and  the  "Hindoo  power  in  Southern  India 


*     Akbu-  the  Gictf  mimJiJ  m  i 

HTiiT*g  m  ttremg  gairtgmmta^  aur  W  : 

of  tke  Hi***"**  cUel^Bi  iho  O-    T^e-  HIniiii»  ^ms 

1^,  bepa  at  «aee  to  ■—*■■»"-»■  ifaf  j^t^nnuan:  z 
*im  Im Una  t«o eeataricK.  ife  waaoeaur -ic  Ainv 

Mttu  of  DelhL  ~* 

^tiftptimeof  AlexaadvdeGmx.  vt  ikiCks'  oik  ae 
^bptof  Indu  was  Arided  becwecK  a  Bjcst^j^ -ic'ir^hafa 
^b«i^  m  iW  Bnyalk,  kid  K^i&oi  ix:>>  zjjna  inaA 
^^Kift     When  AeTanniamf  •irsg^^ittti  zatt  niucb- 

Av  after  auoth^rr.  aitfl  they  bad  IfurulT  -euaESdeti  a 
Mpf  tbeo>uotrT.  When  the  V.-J'^yn-j.Ur-*.  ti^^aui- 
i  mppUni  ilic  prfizion  f.4  thr  V-^ii-  "•  -  Z'ii.::^-zL. 
fcoDtJ  tb^in?»-Iv'-i  <^jitj<9el  t-y  1  :,  fT*  :'  .::  .-:»ii...Ti" 
I  elii- :''.i  i^-  .:  :  Dw  i-A-r.-rr  » «  .1^  .:.  ..-.--1,  -.l.iz. 
MTwas  fiwmed  and  apf-eaiv*: ;:.  --.r.-^  :'  -►^i  r-r>:l- 
Tktts  waa  the  goveniLu-L:  < :  :1-  M  liv.-A-lt-^t 
(■■■ed  and  veakeo'iJ.  Th  t:.-!  il,.-.-.  :.::..>•  .-' 
•Mcoorerts  were  ma«le.  tL--  :.■•■-.'.;—- --'-tl: -v  ...  i-^-^t 
Ib  bo««t  SDpreniacy  over  tL-  wL  1--  :  A.-;-.  r:__i, 
i  it  be  in  the  time  of  Akbar  tL--  Gr  ^.:.  W':. 
tier  part  of  the  last  ccntun-.  th-  E:.i-".L-l  s.-rr.y  »;- 
d  on  the  «cene,  the  people  of  Il-Hs  w-^p^  f  -^i-i  •-.III 
liiwi  in  tribe».  and  gi-^vemcil  >a-  tr"wl  "-i^fui-^-. 
Engliiih  have  panned  a  wiae  [C'Ii<-y.  Th^T-  hAVJ- 
fd  >Dch  chieftains  as  were  able  and  willing  to  z^vtm 
r  to  iFtill  remain  independent,  and  hare  giren  the 
tamar,  p.  IMi  s  IbU. 


164  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

conquered  a  chance  to  assist  in  the  government  o( ' 
British  provinces.  But  from  the  earliest  times  to 
present  day,  the  government  of  the  Indo-Aryans  has  ne 
arisen  beyond  the  typical  tribal  form  of  government. 

In  a  country  that  has  been  peopled  from  time  im 
morial  by  so  many  independent  tribes  as  we  have  foi 
in  India,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  trace  the  lineage 
the  various  tribes  back  to  any  distinct  line  of  ancest 
Wc  find  that  the  Aryans  who  forced  their  way  into  Ii 
first  became  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  aborigines,  pi 
ably  Dravidians.  Then  came  in  their  Aryan  breth 
from  Greece  and  Iran  and  an  intermixture  of  east 
and  western  Aryan  blood  occurred.  Later  the  Turani 
came  in  from  the  north  and  there  was  a  third  amalgai 
formed.  But  over  the  whole  of  these  barbaric  traits 
character,  customs,  and  race  conditions,  Aryan  enei 
culture,  and  superior  intelligence  have  predominated.  T 
was  produced  the  Aryan  Hindoo.  The  early  Aryan  at 
had  such  vitality  and  superior  force  of  character  and  m 
that  the  whole  of  Central  and  Northern  Hindoostan 
came  so  completely  Aryanized  that  the  invading  Tj 
nians  were  swallowed  up  and  lost  in  this  Aryan  p(i 
lation. 

The  ancient  Indians  developed  a  vast  body  of  liti 
ture,  of  which  we  must  now  attempt  to  gain  an  understa 
ing.  We  have  seen  how  India  has  always  been  peop 
by  a  large  number  of  independent  tribes,  and  that  th 
tribes  spoke  a  large  number  of  languages  and  dialects, 
we  need  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that,  when  writing  ca 
into  vogue,  a  large  number  of  alphabets  were  adopted 
these  various  tribes,  in  fact  outnumbering  "all  the  other 
phabets  used  in  the  remainder  of  the  world."*     These 

1  Taylor:  **The  Alphabet/'  Vol.  II.  p.  285,  London,  1888. 


yyy  Mwr-^^f^  jr^^jrff 


'-OCT.  liiar  Of'v^nniioi:   Km 

I  the  K-^pKia  Oil  i.ii'T-.-t-"  ^.mnr*  sr  ^ii^r  "■ 


156  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

The  dates  of  the  inscriptions  of  Asoca  have  been  fiiw 
with  accuracy ;  but  how  long  previous  to  his  time  the  I* 
dians  had  a  system  of  writing,  we  can  not  tell.  These  ifr 
script  ions  of  which  we  si>eak,  were  transcribed  into  two 
different  primitive  alphabets.  The  inscription,  known  as 
the  '*Kapur-di-gire"  inscription,  is  made  with  an  Ind<v 
Bactrian  character,  reading  from  right  to  left,  while  tlw 
remaining  inscriptions  employ  an  entirely  ditterent  char 
acter.  Those  two,  as  we  have  said,  are  at  present  th< 
acknowledgeil  source  of  the  alphabets  of  India.  Both  an 
of  Semitic  origin,  and  'nmdenvent  a  gradual  evolution 
Finallv  a  svstematic  reilaction  and  arramrement  was  affec 
ted  l\v  scientific  grammarians,  who  were  acquainted  witl 
both  alphabets."^ 

The  comi)usition  of  a  portion  of  the  literature  of  thi 
Indo- Aryans  dates  away  back  into  preliist4mc  times,  lonj 
before  the  invention  of  an  alphabet,  when  the  hymns  o 
the  Rig-veda  were  chanted  by  the  Rishis  (bards),  aD< 
when  the  prayers  of  the  suppliant  housefather  were  a 
effectnnl  with  the  giKls  as  those  of  the  priest.  This  wa 
before  the  Brahman  priesthood  had  api>eared,  and  befor 
the  l»lasting  system  of  caste  had  become  fully  developec 
In  their  l>elief,  great  imiK>rtance  was  attached  to  the  ide 
of  sacrifice  and  the  irreatest  care  was  sriven  to  all  its  d^ 
tails,  which  required  the  services  of  those  especially  edi 
cated  in  this  matter.  It  is  plainlv  evident  that,  at  a  ver 
earlv  date,  the  reliii^ious  ceremonies  for  each  tribe  had  t 
be  conducteil  by  some  rishi  or  priest.  Then  it  becanu 
customarj'  for  each  tribal  chieftain  to  supix)rt  a  priest.*  k 


most  i>erfeet  system  of  alphabeticsd  notation  in  exiBtence,"  and  beUev« 
that  further  inquiry  will  show  that  the  Indian  alphabet  is  a  local  inven 
tion.    SUnford*s  '^Asia/'  p.  707. 

I  Tkylor,  p.  904-5. 

t  Each  modem  Hindoo  fkmily,  not  Brahman,  has  its  firiest,  wh 


**• 


•J      >KlZI 


if  1^  rrJiflL:  dtuek 


•  • 


5€L 


.^.- 


•  C   lift  imOr-  Tlr-J:     n     Zssr 


&   aoiL  szrr 


— ~^  iHj^TlfflBI 


.i*     J* 


.^i.^ 


»  •ZT       • 


«•] 


I* 


*ii*r7 


V".-: 


I  1  T:Lt^    i.; 


T     - 


-r     *-      -^ 


t:::. 


Y 


*»  • 


i» 


"*  •S' 


^:->.    - 


^"-*  *  ^  ti. 


*r-^i.j 


r 


•  "  '      ■ 


■▼      -V^J"**!.*-* 


'  • 


V  --•.     "iLLjIii-L    tC 


«T«rT  CA«  kill 


•  rud. 


!»>iiM«  -iH  :»'»u*«*-ii»iiL  Kill.  kXiL  nrr-^-  :  u«»  -^mt* 
r*^  11*  III*  t»»22.    •     w'li     'M  •    ■•*  i:.i  *  litr   1^  ir». 

rbCMMt.        "■   -.4.    !:•  .li   •if'-.     H  .XlOUMn.  *   J.    . 


158  fHE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

the  special  Soma  sacrifices.  Both  the  Yajur  an 
Bama-vedas  contained  hymns  also  found  in  the  Rig-ved 
and  manifested  the  handiwork  of  an  organized  priesthoc 
in  their  arrangement  for  special  religious  ceremonies.  TI 
Atharva-veda  is  a  later  production,  and  has  been  calle 
the  spell,  or  charm  veda,  because  many  texts  of  it  we] 
used  as  spells  or  charms.  It  is  hard  for  us  to  conceii 
how  this  great  mass  of  literature,  consisting  of  sever 
thousand  verses  of  poetrj^,  could  have  been  compose 
collected,  and  arranged  in  so  exact  and  definite  a  shap 
Such  nevertheless  was  the  fact. 

It  was  a  self  imposed  duty  for  every  rishi  to  conmi 
all  this  to  memory  before  his  education  was  complete 
and  every  such  priest  was,  as  Muller  says,  an  individu 
copy  of  the  great  unwritten  Veda  book,*  and  could  1 
read  only  by  repeating  what  he  had  learned  to  anothe: 
The  Yedas  were  composed  in  the  ancient  Sanskrit  la 
guagc,  which  at  that  time  had  reached  a  stage  of  pe 
fcction  that  has  never  since  been  attained  by  an  inflect 
language.  In  time,  this  form  of  speech  became  virtual 
a  dead  language,  and  the  Yedas  were  understood  only  1 
the  priests  whose  business  it  was  to  learn  them.  Lat 
there  arose  schools  of  priests,  who  devoted  themselves 
a  life  long  study  of  this  literature,  and  who  had  nothii 
to  do  but  to  think   and  meditate  upon   its  teachings 


1  **Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  377. 

s  Monier  WiHianis:  '' KeUgious  Thought  and  Life  in  India,"  Lo 
don,  1883,  p.  8;  Barth:  "Religion  of  India,"  p.  2.  The  above  gives 
the  probable  relative  order  in  which  the  various  Sanhitcu  or  colleotio 
were  made.  We  want  to  caution  the  reader  on  two  points,  1.  We  mi 
not  suppose  that  the  oldest  Sanhita  contains  the  primitive  stage 
Aryan  religious  thought.  The  ideas  it  contains  are  the  results  of  ma 
centuries  of  growth.  2.  Some  of  the  later  collections  may  embody  mu 
nearer  the  popular  ideas  of  the  Aryan  people.  Bee  this  subjeoi  dlaouai 
In  Lang:  **Myth,  Ritual,  and  Religion/'  London,  1887,  Chapter  Tit 

«  Muller,  Op.  oit. 


vete  tke  nSoDOA 
wrrecrj 


4f  ae 


^  tae 


z,  if  hx^ij  ittms^ 


§at  ihe  mMksA'wi^  Tvin   s 

nM;  tL^ta  titf  %  sgirx.  iRsdiHfi 
tkiia.    Ti5f  fcorx  ■*"*lijr/'ji5  "iiear 


ccRaa.    tf  lift 


^  • 


111 


«nmuui 


im'*-t  iIL     *!! 


fr-.ni  I  r'»  r 


'L1.L     L^i. 


•  -  . 


r-'  •: 


..   *'         LI 


«.  •  -  -  — 

^                                                 «  •       -                      - 

^^.-i::jL:,,r:-  ^•j.c  .11  V^il,:  It^jl*,  v-r^  r-;u>:  l-.ai  '-ni*»: 

^•*^*r:.iL.i*-  Tir-  iL^rt  fani*  i  tzit*  -vji^a  >.  ▼«  i'.>xai: 


4  J  :^ 


s  -  Bc^^mii  Txfin^ac  *  >  Jfl- 


ItJO  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

was  found  that  the  now  numerous  tribes  of  prieste  hadf 
almost  as  many  rituals  of  worship  as  there  were  tribes.* 

This  collection  when  completed  and  arranged  showed 
a  growth  of  at  least  two  centuries  in  the  history  of  the 
Indian  people.*    Nor  did  this  growth  stop  here,  but,  after 
another  period  of  about  the  same  length  of  time,  the  re- 
mits of  later  meditations  of  these  Brahman  priests  wew 
collected  and  arranged  with  reference  to  the  four  Yedil4« 
This  collection  forms  what  is  known  as  the  Upanishtt&i^ 
The   Brahmanas  seem  to  contain  the  ritualism,  and  t&s 
Upanishads,  the  philosophy  of  Brahmanism.     The  wlude 
forms  a  vast  collection  of  very  ancient   literature,  tbaft 
even  modern  Hindoos  believe  to  be  inspired  or  revealed. 

Right  here,  it  is  well  for  us  to  understand  that  Hie 
literature  of  the  Indo-Aryans  is  divided  into  two  great 
classes.  The  first  comprises  such  compositions  as  were 
directlv  revealed  bv  Brahman  himself  to  the  old  and  81^ 
cred  rishis — that  is  what  they  heard — and  by  them  trans- 
mitted orally,  word  for  word,  down  through  aline  of  priests 
until  finally  it  was  allowed  to  be  placed  in  \vriting.  The 
second  class  consists  of  various  and  extensive  works  covh 
posed  at  a  later  date  by  Brahmans,  but  claiming  mere  tn^ 
dition  for  their  only  authority.  They  had,  however,  to  be 
based  on  revealed  truth,  with  which  they  must  harmonuse. 
The  first  class  comprised  the  Mantras,  Brahmanas,  and 
Upanishads  of  Vedic  literature  already  described.  They  are 
called  Sruta  or  "that  which  is  directly  heard  or  revealed.*' 
The  other  authorized  writings  are  termed  Smriti  or  "reo- 
ollcction."*      The  most  important  work  in  the  last  class  is 


1  •* Ancient  J:?auskrit  Literature,"  p.  437. 
a  Ibid.  435.  3  '^KeUglous  Thought,"  p.  26. 

4  William8:  ''Indian  Wisdom,"  p.  154.      Also  <* Ancient  Sanaluit 
Literature,"  p.  86. 


TBS  ASIA  TIC  AJtTAXS. 


161 


sntitled  the  "Laws  ofManu."  We  can  point  to  no  one 
>erson  as  tbe  compiler  of  these  laws,  nor  can  we  fix  any  defi- 
lite  period  when  they  were  completed.  Parts  of  the  col- 
ection  may  hare  been  composed  as  early  as  the  fifth  cen- 
ury  B.  c.    This  code  of  laws,  belonged  to  a  certain  school 


Banyan  or  Saored  Fig-tree. 
■r  family  of  Bnihinans,  calleil  Manavas,  and  tradition  as- 
ribod  its  authorahip  to  nno  Manu,  who  is  mentioned  i 
lie  Vedas  aa  the  first  iiiitii.      It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
iioat  remarkable  literary  productions  of  all  ages.     Though 
•rigiually  a  local  code,  it  finally  became  the  law   of  all 


162  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Brahmans.  There  were  two  other  authorized  codes  of  law, 
but  they  never  reached  the  celebrity  of  the  code  of  Man% 
which  regulated  the  domestic  life  of  the  Indo- Aryans  and 
made  it  comform  to  their  religion.  "The  root  of  all  law," 
says  Manu,  "is  the  Veda  and  the  traditions  of  those  who 
know  the  Veda.''  Thus  can  we  see  how  intimately  the 
religious  and  the  social  life  of  the  Indo- Aryans  were  con- 
nected.^ 

When  we  come  to  the  study  of  the  religious  of  India, 
we  shall  see  how  Buddhism  sprang  rapidly  into  popularity 
and  drew  thousands  jiway  from  the  schools  of  the  Brah- 
mans. Like  true  philosophers,  the  Brahmans  sought  out 
the  peculiar  principles  of  Buddhism  that  made  it  a  relig- 
ion of  the  people,  and  then  endeavored  to  supplant  it  with 
their  own  belief  adapted  to  the  popular  mind.  The  minds 
of  the  people  who  had  not  the  time  to  commit  the  Vedaa 
could  not  comprehend  the  abstract  and  the  ideal  god, 
Brahman,  and  so  they  continually  reverted  to  their  earlier 
conceptions. 

Ill  order  to  satisfy  this  longing  after  a  more  simple 
constellation  of  gods,  the  Brahmans  caused  all  the  old 
poems  nf  the  heroic  age,  when  the  Aryans  were  fighting 
their  way  into  the  Punjab,  to  be  collected,  adapted  to 
Brahmanism,  and  arranged  in  two  grand  heroic  poems 
called  th(»  Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayana.  TheheroeSi 
of  whom  the  ancient  bards  sang,  were  deified  and  made 
the  descendants  of  the  god,  Brahman,  himself.  The  people 
were  tlius  given  many  gods,  and  gods  that  they  could  come 

^  *'Ilcligiou8  Thought,"  p.  52.  If  we  recaU  that  among  many  people 
the  name  of  the  ilrflt  law-giver  hears  a  close  resemblance  to  this  name— 
r.  g.  Menes,  among  the  Egyptians;  Men,  in  India;  Minos,  in  Crete;  and 
tliat  from  it  arc  derived  many  wonls  meaning  Wisdom;  0.  g,  Mlnerrai 
goddoRfl  of  wisdom,  Mens  in  Latin;  Mind  in  Engllth — we  will  probablj 
agnfc  with  Higgins  that  Menu  meant  simply  Divine  Wledom.  "AiUMll* 
ypsig.''  p.  319. 


THE  ASIATJC  ARYANS.  163 

Bftrunto  and  worship,  while  the  thoughtful  and  learned 
Brahman  continued  to  meditate  upon,  and  strive  to  lose 
iimself  in  that  essence  of  being,  the  Divine  Self  or 
'  Spirit.' 

One  of  the  most  singular  features  in  the  civilization 
of  the  Indian  Aryans  is  the  system  of  caste.  Nothing 
quite  like  this  has  ever  been  found  elsewhere.  The  origin 
of  caate  probably  goes  back  to  the  very  beginning  of 
Vedic  times,  though  we  do  not  find  it  developed  into  a 
rigid  system  before  the  close  of  the  Vedic  Age.  The 
word  which  the  Indo-Aryaiis  used  to  denote  caste  meant 
color,  and  gives  us  the  probable  key  to  the  system.  The 
.^n-ans  did  not  exterminate  the  tribes  of  aborigines, 
whom  they  found  in  possession  of  the  Punjab  when  they 
came  down  from  the  mountains  of  Central  Asia,  They 
conquered  these  swarthy  Turanian  tribes  and  made  them 
slares.  Buttheyno  more  thought  of  mingling  socially  with 
these  slaves  than  did  the  old  southern  planters  with  their 
blackservants  in  the  days  of  American  slavery.  In  fact,  they 
despised  them  and  hated  them,  called  them  Dasyus,  "the 
black  skins,"  "the  raw  eaters,"  and  all  the  vilest  epithets 
that  their  language  could  frame  and  their  tongues  utter.* 

This  was  the  first  indication  of  caste ;  and,  at  that 
time,  the  people  were  divided  into  two  casts  only,  the 
Aryans  and  non-Aryans.  We  have  now  to  consider  the 
formation  of  caate  within  the  Aryan  tribes  themselves. 
Let  us  begin  with  the  priestly  class  the  Brahmans.  We 
Have  dwelt  with  sufficient  fullness  on  the  savage  priest- 
hood.  We  have  seen  that  such  priests  are  found  among 
«11  people.  As  civilization  advances,  these  Shamans  of 
mde  tribes  tend  always  to  form  a  closely  connected  body. 


1  IbU.  41-6. 

)  Hnotar:  "AtmalB  of  Bunl  Bangftl,"  p.  112-lS. 


.^ 


164  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

Among  nil  people,  they  are  a  much  respected  and  generally 
feared  body.  They  are  respected  because  they  are  always 
a  learned  body,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  use  their  power  to 
advance  the  interests  of  their  tribe.  Thev  are  feared  be* 
cause  they  are  generally  supposed  to  possess  magical 
j)owers,  and  able  to  bless  or  curse.  Such  a  body  of  priests 
always  tends  to  usurp,  more  and  more,  the  rights  of  the 
various  orders  of  chiefs  to  conduct  worship.  Generally 
speaking,  we  have  seen  that  any  one  holding  a  position  of 
authority  within  the  tribe  was,  ex-officio,  a  priest.  The 
housefather  offered  sacritices  for  his  household,  the  gens- 
chief  for  the  irens  and  so  on. 

In  the  course  of  dc^velopment,  then,  there  was  sure 
to  come  a  time  wh^Mi  the  priestly  body,  of  whom  we  have 
just  si)oken,  would  try  to  usurp  this  authority.  In  almost 
all  cases  they  succeeded.  Almost  all  the  European 
Arvans  were  ruled  in  reli<rious  matters  bv  Druids  or  simi- 
lar  bodies.  The  Magi  among  the  Medes  was  an  equally 
strong  body.  The  priesthood  among  all  Semitic  people 
has  possessed  great  i)ower  and  influence.  The  Israelites 
formed  no  excepti<»n  to  this  rule.     It  is  not  singular,  then, 

that  the  Arvans  who  entered  India  should  come  under  the 

« 

workinirs  of  this   same   law.     The  more  so  when  we  re- 

«. 

fleet  that  the  tribes  they  subjugated  undoubtedly  had 
numerous  influential  Shamans. 

The  Vedas  show  the  presence  and  guiding  hand  of 
such  a  ^)riesthood.  The  very  collection  of  hymns,  be- 
traying a  spirit  no  doubt  far  above  that  of  the  mass  of  the 
people,  could  only  have  been  made  by  such  a  learned 
bo<ly.  To  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sacriflces,  they  must  be 
performed  by  an   adept.*     We  find,  even  in  the  YedaSi 

1  *'The  Vedic    sacriflceB  are  but  ceremonial  magic/'  Blavatikjl 
"I8i8  Unveiled/'  Vol.  I.  xxxH. 


hkjmdpB  families  wen 

Eot  Bingnlur,  tkn.  Ajl  ht  jmrngsam  4f 

riesUy  claas  drawiag  i»  Aumbm&ha  j£[ 
;  they  called  tlif  wlm  JSniammms^ 
AiifaMy  lie  who  prononneed  Bwmiwm^  «r  fOEven.  We 
idBit  that  there  was  oppositiiMi  <m  diepan  cf  aom 
ciik  to  tills  conne,  still  the  dumge  wis  dodbdeas  of  ireij 
daar  growdi  extending  orer  manr  geiieratiMi& 

But,  is  stated  some  pages  back,  these  Brahmana  eott* 

taled  themselyes  with  the  field  of  ivligion.    Thej  did 

ipt  cue  to  interfere  in  the  political  field.    But  anotiier 

friBc^  was  at  work,  which  was  to  eyolve  the  wanior 

daMi  and  the  laboring  class.    It  was  the  same  cause  that 

9iYe  riie»  in  early  Roman  history,  to  the  Patricians  and 

RcbeuDs,  and  to  the  two  classes  in  early  Oreeeei  that 

^VMcotHjoest,  conquest  of  one  Aryan  tribe  by  another.  Such 

■wt  bare  occurred,  and,  among  the  invading  AryaaSi 

*k«^  moat  have  been  some  more  or  less  dependent  and 

m^nnr  tribes.     Still  further,  it  is  self  evident,  that  the 

'^■D'juest  of  the  Punjab  was  not  achieved  at  onc^*,  jiro^ 

^'•ly  j*mpe8sive  waves  of  invading  tribes  arriv(*d  on  i}ui 

^'*->  who  would  gain  supremacy  over  their  \frft<liu*jfm(Jhi, 

It  ^  further  evident,  that   these   conquen^J   tri\MiH   Wip^Ui 

^•^'-* allowed  the  full  measure  of  ri;rhts  and  j/rjyil/;j^#^ 

^•^'i:n»il  by  the  conquerors.     And,  juj*t  aj*  in  if*/;  ^Mt^^i/f 

•*  l^iricians  at  Rome  and  the  PIupatrid^r>,  ;r.  (ir^^j^,  \^ 

^i.^.  r  tribes  of  the  Ar}'anH  would  eUir/i  iitA  *'X/rr^,«^  ti^ 

^'iuu  n{  government  and  of  warfjaire,  wlAt^:  \i^^  '//!•/ w^^ 

^U-1*  would  W-^ime  the  \si}ppnfr*^,   Tu'u  wvvy;  y,*^  ^^  *j^^ 

fiiorH  #-a»tf^,  the  Ki»hatnya>,  '-r  »«TV/f>,  *4-C  r*;^  V^^vj^^ 

'•r  iaUin-rs. 

Bui  in  order  v,  gir^  v,  ti**^^  r»ry^  ^^"^m^m  <U 
pecoliarities  of  cast«  a«  k:y/»i  .1  Ji^fu^.  i»  m^ 


I6ti  TBB MEDIEVAL  WOSZD. 

to  utrbid  marriages  between  the  classes,  and  to  giro  tiu 
wholo  system  the  sanction  of  religion.  All  this  took,  of 
course,  many  years  to  accomplish.  ,  Minute  rules  weni 
adopted,  the  violation  of  ^rhich  involved  the  loss  of  caBt& 
The  priesthood  were  active  in  this  matter,  and  though 
arrogating  tu  themselves  the  most  favored  position,  or^ 
ranged  the  various  divisions  in  un  unyielding  system,  foiv 
bid  as  far  ns  |>ossibIe  intercourse  between  them,  and  aa- 
signetl  to  each  division  a  peculiar  religious  standing.  We 
only  need  to  add  that  the  final  result  was  due  to  causes 
at  work  long  before  and  during  the  entire  Vedic  period. 

If  the  Aryans  of  India  have  not  been  able  to  exercise 
any  very  great  influence  in  the  political  history  of  the 
world,  Ihcy  have  certainly  exercised  a  most  tremendous 
influence  in  the  culture  history.  Only  in  modem  times 
are  we  beginning  to  understand  this,  and  to  give  these 
"Metlitiitivo  Aryans  "  their  share  of  honor.  The  modern 
Aryan  world  is  separated  from  this  ancient  world  by  such 
a  iirolonged  interval  of  time ;  and  the  clamors  of  wars  and 
coiiqiit'sts,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations  have  so  blinded 
tluwc  historians  who  record  only  passing  political  events, 
that  wc  have  almost  forgotten  where  to  look  for  the  origin 
of  various  systems  of  philosophical  thought,  both  relig- 
ious and  scientific.  We  arc  of  the  opinion,  that  Aitun 
discdvcrit'swill  tend  to  show  more  and  more  that  to  the 
Aryans  of  India  belonpi  this  honor.  The  time  has  not 
yot  coiuc  fur  a  full  domon.stration  of  this,  yet  enough  W 
known  U>  render  it  prubable. 

In  the  field  of  science,  fur  instance,  it  is  now  known 
that  they  invented  the  decimal  system  of  notation'  loA 
Algebra.*     The  Arabic  writer  on  Algebra,  who 


'  llraper:  "'nt'ligliin  and  f*plencc,"  p.  118. 
I  "Eiicyc]0]H'<lia  Ilritftiinica,"  art.  "Alg«br»." 


'ho  has  bam. 


TBM  ASIATIC  AMYANS.  Wl 

ghren  the  credit  of  originating  it^  is  known  to  hare  trareled 
in  India  to  gain  his  knowledge.^  In  addition  to  the  Ibr^ 
going,  they  are  known  to  have  made  considerable  progress 
in  Greometry.  The  famous  theorem  of  the  square  of  the 
hy pothenuse  etc.  is  found  engraved  on  the  Gcparama  of 
the  majority  of  the  great  pagodas.'  Euclidi  the  great 
geometer,  arranged  in  his  work  many  theorems  first 
worked  out  by  the  Brahmans  of  India.  In  Astronomy, 
although  many  people  professed  to  have  had  very  good 
iilcas  of  Astronomy  in  early  times,  yet  the  claims  of  the 
Hindoos  apparently  rest  on  a  solid  foundation.* 

It  is  claimed  for  them  that  they  fixed  the  Calendar, 
invented  the  Zodiac,  calculated  the  equinoxes,  and  pre- 
dicted the  eclipes.^  The  French  astronomer,  L^entil,  who 
visited  India  in  1767,  was  given  a  set  of  tables  going 
back  to  3100  b.  c.^  Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  the  theory 
01  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  as  taught 
by  Pythagoras,  was  an  Indian  theory.*  Even  some  of 
the  theories  of  modern  science  seem  to  have  been  first 
enunciated  in  India.  The  modern  doctrine  of  evolution  is 
clearly  stated  in  the  following  from  the  "Bhagavata:" 
"When  ihis  world  had  issued  out  of  darkness,  the  subtk 
elementarj'  principles  produced  the  vegetal  seed  which 
animated  first  the  plants  ;  from  the  plants,  life  passed  into 
fantastical  bodies,  which  were  born  in  the  illus  of  the 


1  Ibid.     ** Preliminary  DisBertations." 

^  '*Isi8  Unveiled,"  Vol.  I.  p.  618. 

■*  "Encyclopedia  Britannica/'  art.  "Astronomy." 

*  "Isls  Unveiled/'  Vol.  I.  p.  618. 

^  Yet  in  Chaldea,  Astronomy  had  made  considerable  advance,  prob- 

t«bly  before  the  Aryans  had  arrived  in  India.    Nothing  is  to  prevent  the 

supposition,  that  the  Indians  greatly  advanced  the  theoretical  parts  of 

ctiis  science. 

«»  Draper:  "Religion  and  Science,"  p.  16S. 

11 


168  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

waters,  then  through  a  series  of  forms  and  variouB  snima]^ 
it  reached  man/  . 

When  wo  enter  the  field  of  Philosophy,  it  is  oertainlj^ 
true  that  all  forms  of  philosophical  creeds  converge  to  IndMi| 
This  i.s  such  a  broad  field,  that  to  give  it  anywhere  neatt 
i.stiee,  wo  must  reserve  it  for  a  separate  chapter.  We  wilL 
iiere  simply  give  an  historical  outline  of  the  developmenk 
of  religious  thought  in  India.  We  must  take  into  account: 
the  probable  culture  of  the  Dravidian  tribes  of  Indian 
There  is  probably  danger  of  giving  the  Aryan  invaderaj 
of  India  too  high  a  standing  as  regards  religious  culf 
But  it  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  they  would  be  influent 
by  the  religious  culture  of  the  Dravidians.  At  the  presei 
day,  these  aborigines  in  India  furnish  a  good  illustral 
of  savage  philosophy.  They  believe  in  spirits  swarmii 
everywhere  about  them,  and  the  usual  accompaniments 
such  Ix^liefs,  that  is  a  belief  in  magic  and  sorcery.* 

Tli(»  Aryans,  themselves,  must  once  have  been  on  thia^ 
same  level  of  thought.    Indeed  the  Vedas  show  the  plainest  \ 
traces  of  it  all  the  way  through.'     It  is  evident  that,  as  ^ 
they  sprejid  over  the  Punjab,  this  stjige  of  feeling  will  tend , 
to  Hivivr.   When  the  priestly  caste  was  once  fairly  formed,  ^ 
thercj  would  likely  grow  up  a  system  of  forms  and  cere- 
moiiii's  suitable  for  the  mass  of  the  people,  abounding  in 
'•i.iiric  rites,  symbols,  and  many  gods.     But  this  religion 
\vr  must  understand,  had  an  exoteric  and  an  esoteric  side,  ac- 
cord iiig  Jis  wc  look  at  the  public  belief,  or  the  secret  doctrines 

^  "IhIh  Unveiled/'  Vol.  II.  p.  200    It  is  Bcaroely  necessary  to  caatlott^ 
the  reader  that  Home  iiiythologitral  conceptions  may  in  form  come  neWi 
modern  thoorien  with  a  H(;ientif1<^  hanis.  It  is  well  to  receive  with  cautloB 
such  RtatcmontH  as  the  foreK^hi^. 

X  This  6erioH,  Vol.  11.  )>.  rU)7.  Heo  Hunter:  **Annals  of  Rural  Ben* 
gal.''  He  callH  thiH  Hysteni  of  philoHophy  "Demon  worship.'*  Ttlattaf 
same  philosophy  that  we  have  ali«  ady  discussed. 

»  Lang:  ''Myth.  Uitual,  and  Religion." 


1   f 


TME  ASlATia  ABYANS.  169 


aught  by  the  priests.  This  system  is  known  as  Brahman- 
sm,  and  will  be  folly-  studied  in  its  proper  place.  Briery 
ixpressed,  we  may  say,  that  Brahmanism  professes  to  have 
br  its  foundation  the  religion  of  the  Vedas.  But  the 
T'edas,  at  the  time  when  Mann's  code  of  laws  was  compiled 
ind  adopted,  consisted  of  a  growth  of  literature  through 
it  least  eight  centuries.' 

We  must  distinguish  between  ancient  Brahmanism 
ind  the  Hindoo  religion  after  the  Brahmanical  revival  of 
j^e  eighth  century  a.  d.  The  one  is  pure  Brahmanism 
|Dd  the  other  modem  Hindooism.  They  are  very  dif- 
Ibrent.  We  are  considering  the  former  only  at  present, 
ikncient  Brahmanism,  then,  as  set  forth  in  the  laws  of 
llanu,  established  the  existence  qi  a  divine,  supreme 
ipirit  god,  called  Brahman.  The  four-fold  system  of  caste 
fras  the  basis  of  all  social  and  religious  organization.  The 
Brahman,  as  priest,  was  infinitely  superior  to  all  other 
beings,  and  alone  could  perform  sacrifices  or  teach  the 
Vedas.  The  Kshatriyas  ranked  next,  and  the  Vaisyas 
irere  still  lower.  Members  of  these  three  castes  were 
ealled  the  twice-born,  and  thev  alone  could  share  the  bene- 
Its  of  reliorion. 

►  The  only  duty  of  the  Sudra,  or  fourth  caste,  was  to 
l^serve  meekly  these  other  three  castes."^  *'  The  very 
)irth  of  a  Brahman  is  an  eternal  incarnation  of  the  sacred 
ii^r,  for  he  is  bom  to  fulfill  the  sacred  law,  and  becomes 
le  with  Brahman,"  the  god.^  '*The  whole  Veda  is  the 
Sftrt  source  of  the  sacred  law,  next  the  traditions  and  the 
Irtuous  conduct  of  those  who  know  the  Veda  further,  also 
he  customs  of  holy  men,  and,  finally,  self-satisfaction.  For 
:  it  man  who  obeys  the  law  prescribed  in  the  revealed 

1  *- Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  672. 

s  Vide  "Bhagavad  oita,"  ;.  261.  *  ''Laws  of  Mann,"  p.  S60. 


170  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

texts,  and  in  the  sacred  tradition,  gains  fame  in  this  wraij 
and  after  death  unsurpassable  bliss. "^  The  bliss  of  ib| 
departed  referred  to  in  the  text  was  attained  throng^ 
transmigration  of  the  soul.  The  good  Brahman  prieii 
would  thus  attain  union  with  his  god  Brahman,  whik 
every  good  man  of  the  twice  bom  race  would,  accordiiig 
to  the  acts  of  this  life,  attain  birth  in  a  better  or  worw 
state  of  life,  thus  could  he  finally  attain  a  blissful  state.' 
Such  a  cold,  rigid  form  of  religion  was  not  suited  ts 
the  wants  of  an  uncultured  people;  and  its  spirituality  wni 
beyond  the  conceptions  of  any  save  the  Brahman,  wlo^ 
could  spend  a  lifetime  in  meditation  in  order  to  attaii 
the  desired  union  with  the  divine  "Self."  The  prierit 
alone  were  the  mild-eyed  philosophers  whom  MegastheneiP 
found  conversing  upon  life  and  death  under  the  beautiM 
groves  of  the  Punjab,  while  the  mass  of  the  people  wew 
suflFering  under  a  grinding  yoke  of  religious  oppressioiL 
During  all  these  centuries  of  ancient  histor}"  of  the  Indo- 
Arj'ans,  not  only  did  occasional  tribes  rebel,  and  prefei 
freedom  of  conscience  at  the  price  of  ostracism  frona 
society  rather  than  Brahmanical  oppression  and  a  surety 
of  future  bliss ;  but  numerous  reformers  arose  at  varioai 
times,  flourished,  and  died,  the  most  of  them  leaving 
scarcely  more  than  their  names  to  mark  the  period  (A 
their    lives.     Traditional  history   mentions   six  such  re» 


1  *'Law8  of  Manu/'  Vol.  ii.  p.  6  and  9. 

s  Manu,  xii.  39,85.  No  system  of  philosophy  has  been  able  to  en- 
tirely clear  away  the  animistic  ideas  of  an  earlier  state  of  society.  Tin 
complicated  polytheism  of  Greece  cut  very  little  figure  in  the  popuUi 
religion  of  the  people.  The  same  remarks  doubtless  apply  to  Brahman* 
isiu  in  India.  The  priestly  system  cut  ver>'  little  figure  in  the  worshii 
of  the  common  people. 

»  ''History  of  Indian  People/'  p.  77.  It  is  probable  that  the  **Brab 
mans'*  of  Megasthenes,  were  a  Buddhist  sect;  KiD|;:  "  Qnostlcs  aw 
their  Remains,"  p.  64,  London,  ltt87. 


tof  then  wac  «r  i 
i  of  these  ux,  theic  w«b« 
i  above  aU  Indo-Aijaa  i 

,  that  has  more  i 
B  of  belief.'  We  refer  to  < 
BTed  the  nmme  of  Baddha  or  "ikB 
Butidbft  flourished  dainigttei 
I  the  son  of  arafiagfUe^a 
.  Attbe^ea 
lavrer  himself  fron  hi— e  sad  ftnkei,  aai  to  >■■■» 
•  robe  of  an  aacetietha>tohiaseirs^HHito&shasi»> 
1  opfffeanoB,  aadsee  the  gnrt  ■saa«ffa^iehiidfarf 
'  oppceMiTe,  ^fannical  lawa.  The  gRak  ^■wb  4f 
k  seems  to  hare  b«ai  WortodeviAelfeaiaCfiiB 
ltanmaBkiBd,a&dto{iKa(h  thedactnetf  fim«  «4i»-  i 
i.(])toceqfsoal)toril,BO— nil  whs>A«-Ma^— -  { 
wn;  no  mstter  whether  Male  V  feaalcL  Beaa»h«B_  i 
%tl»>  rery  heart  of  Brahmanbn[.hHk  Aoe  seeastohtH* 
W^  a  ri-iing  M*ntimfnl  of  free  thimgfcl  thmaihwfl  &e 
BnhmAn  territory,  and  Baddiia  sedans  \o  tir*  be^er  iitt 
prophet  arising  at  the  right  time  to  timni-y.'Z.  liis  &ta.i:- 
Bent  Gautama  first  spent  sii  yen^  •/.  aasieriiira*  tui 
penance  wandering  in  the  forests  ai>d  janzles.  T&ex.  iLfi^r 
ptasing  through  a  season  of  temf>tati<'>ti.  sinJLg  *-rrei>e 
loder  the  sheltering  branches  ol  the  sacred  fiz-tr*^.  *tiile 
lomniing  to  tradition,  demons  beset  him  «ith  all  nuoiber 
f  temptations,  a  sweet  and  peaceful  calm  came  ov<:r  his 
lind.  He  felt  himaelf  no  longer  subject  to  temptation.  He 
'as  thereafter  Buddha,  the  "enlightened,"  and  saw  dearly 
lat  henoeforlh  he  was  to  leare  the  jungle  and  thefaermit'r 


"iKdiMi  wtadoo."  p.  so. 
"Brtif  HlatovT  of  IimII^"  p.  «<■ 


D  wUI  fcUow  In  to  ■ 


V 


172  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

cell,  and  go  forth  to  preach  reform.  The  remaining  yei 
of  his  long  life  were  spent  in  wandering  up  and  down  t 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  preaching  his  good  tidings,  oo 
sionally  spending  a  few  months  in  some  bamboo  gro' 
where  he  taught  the  multitudes  who  thronged  to  hear  ] 
words. 

The  Brahmans  declared  that  it  was  sacrilegious  i 
any  except  a  member  of  his  own  caste  to  teach,  and  tl 
all  knowledge  must  be  based  on  the  Vedas.  Buddha  1 
longed  to  the  Kshatriya  caste,  and  utterly  ignored  1 
the  Vedas, ^  so  he  was  ostracised  from  the  start  by  t 
ruling  caste.  First  of  all,  he  did  away  with  all  manner 
sacrifices,  and  set  aside  the  claims  of  the  Brahman  pric 
hood.  He  taught  that  happiness  hereafter  dej^ended  up 
the  good  acts  of  our  own  lives,  so  that  virtue,  morali 
kindness,  charity,  patience,  fortitude,  meditation,  a 
knowledge,  all  bore  their  fruits,  and  tended  toward  t 
perfection  of  the  soul.  The  three  great  duties  of  Buddhi 
were,  "control  over  self,  kindness  to  other  men,  and  n 
erence  for  the  lives  of  all  sentient  creatures."* 

The  reward  of  a  good  life  was  alike  open  to  all  mi 
kind,  no  matter  what  the  caste  or  what  the  race.  Tl 
reward  was  the  attainment  of  "Xirvana"  which  has  be 
translated  as  "eternal  rest,"  "cessation,"  union  with  t 
the  universal  "Spirit"  of  Brahman.  We  see  that  tl 
opened  a  great  fountain  of  hope  for  all  people,  and 
manner  of  men,  from  the  Brahman  to  the  slave,  flock 
around  the  great  teacher  to  hear  his  wonderful  won 
The  anathemas  of  the  Brahmans  could  not  affect  the  tea< 
ings  of  the  Buddha.     He  seemed  to  be  inspired  with 

i  This  statement  is  rather  strong*  as  wUl  be  shown  in  its  pro 
place.  Buddhism  was  a  reform  on  Brahmanism,  and  Buddha  aim 
Rejected  this  binding  authority  and  the  ooneluBions  of  the  Vedaa. 

t  Hunter:  '^Historj  of  Indian  People,"  p.  67. 


THE  ASIATTO  AMTAMM.  19 


of  nugnetiam  that  drew  all  mea  to  ^am,  aa4 1 
K  eoutstent  that  none  could  fiul  iofae)H|n^ 
dorthnfs  be  Uught.    At  tiie  ^r  of  ta^  asHK 
k  died,  and  passed  into  peaeefnl  ^amimmm  «f  Ac  KP' 
Visa  that  he  had  su  patiently  knged  Iv. 

Boddhism  was  ft-ee  to  all  easla^  ibI  1*  tM  mi^mm, 
EariT  in  his  li/c  aa  preacher.  Boddk*  mmk  teA  AaH* 
Cieiplea  to  preach  his  religion.  Afaoat  tv*  caMnet  ^ter 
Ui  death,  we  and  that  BaddhtuD  hmi  wftemi  U  mA  •  4^ 
gnc  that  it  was  cfaampioned  hj  mme  ti  ike  mmat  f«M» 
fal  chtrftAin»,  and  unoDg  otfaen  Amcil,  H«e 
uthority  dvi-r  the  best  portion  of  I 
•dicta,  proclaiming  Buddhiam  aa  the  i 
■dting  forth  ita  peculiar  teneta,  to  be  I 
Hd  piOan  all  ovi-r  India.  He 
KttM  faith.  He  founded 
ftooHiida  of  BiuUbist  prieata.  He  km  ftam  «dM  tt» 
*<'>nfitantinc"  of  Buddbicm.  Tltii  nUfpam  iu4f  wm  Htm 
fart  miiwinnary  religifn.  Aa  early  aatheyetf  <if  Baidha'* 
deuk.  it  is  claimed  that  miaeiuuanea  piaoted  kia  rrfi^iMi 
tfun  the  island  of  Ceylon.' 

Many  paru  of  India  thai  knew  aochiBT  «f  the  Bnfc 
haaa  were  pent-tratfHl  W  Buddbtat  prieala  and  tfaia  x«fii^ 
iw  wa«  jrroclaiiaed.  In  Oitajwi.  lh'T»r  nr-  r«n*ainft  ■/'  a^r. 
eral  monk  cavema  that  mm-t  bavt-  l^-j,  i^iii^n-i  by  Bod- 
dbist  priests  at  an  early  dat--.  ThU  rc-w  r'-iy/i'-u  t-iiTf^  U» 
the  south  and  carried  a  great  Artaii  iiifiij.-i.«i- amonglhe 
Draridiana  of  the  lower  table  land  n-i-i-'ti.  Mi«i'*narie» 
went  into  Thibet  and  China,  and  when-v«^r  tbey  went, 
they  were  received  gladly  by  all  people  wh<.,  in  all  caaes, 
remdily  accepted  their  teacbinifs.' 

t  "AwdntSuakrftlJuntara,"  (•.  3Sa. 

«  U  u  M«  MCMaMacll7  pfond  thM  bjr  Um  Urn*  of  Amm.  BaMUM 


V^ 


174  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOELD. 

The  Turananian  ruler,  Kanish,  also  did  much  to 
spread  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism  far  and  wide,  so  that  we 
find  remains  of  Buddhist  temples  scattered  all  over  India; 
but  many  of  these  were  erected  at  a  later  date  when  Budd« 
liism  had  become  corrupted  by  outside  influence.  At  Kat- 
mandu in  Nepal,  we  find  temples  as  represented  by  an 
accompanying  illustration.  The  most  ancient  relics  cf 
Buddhism  however  are  to  be  found  in  the  cave  tem|deB  ill 
the  vicinity  of  Ellora.  "They  are  excavated  on  the  west  iGMO 
of  a  plateau  of  tufa  formation,  terminating  in  a  steep  iSSS^ 
here  and  there  furrowed  by  ravines  and  flanked  by  isolated 
mounds.  To  execute  such  works  needed  as  many  hands  as 
were  employed  upon  the  pyramids  of  Egypt."  Thcj 
stretch  in  succession  to  the  north  and  south  for  a  distance 
of  four  thousand  yards,  and  are  so  numerous  that  it  woold 
take  several  days  to  inspect  them  all.  They  range  in  ag6 
from  the  time  of  Buddha  until  the  age  of  later  Brahmanian. 
Those  built  in  later  times  are  the  most  elaborate.  Amoqg 
these,  is  the  Palace  of  Kailas,  which  is  called  an  architoetF 
ural  marvel  cut  in  live  rock  and  entirely  detached  from 
the  hills.  Its  colunms  are  carved  elephants  and  othor 
enormous  animals.  They  support^a  vast  monolithie  roof 
two-hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  one-hundred  and  fifty  ftal 
wide,  and  one-hundred  feet  thick. 

The  east  gate  of  the  Sanchi  Tope  also  is  worthy  of 
particular  mention.  Its  date  is  an  unsettled  question^  bat 
Mr.  Ferguson  thinks  that  it  belongs  to  the  earlier  stage  of 
Buddhist  architecture.^  It  is  remarkable  for  the  figures 
of  men  and  animals  sculptured  upon  it,  the  most  natural 
of  which  are  the  elephants  and  peacocks.     A  better  idea 


! 


missionaries  had  spread  the  doctrines  throughout  aU  of  Western  Asia, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt.  This  influence  wiU  be  traced  in  its  proper 
place.  ^  **Ancient  Architecture  in  Hindoostan,"  d.  27. 


TUB  ASIATIC  ABYANS. 


175 


je  gained  from  the  accompanying  illustration  than 
any  description.  Indian  architecture  begins  about 
rae  of  Aaoca,  while  the  more  elaborate  temples  belong 
e  Hindoo  period,  or  to  the  revival  of  Bralimanisnt. 


Palace  of  Kallae 
lism  continued  to  flourish  in  India  until  about  HXJO 
It  at  no  time  coiii]iletf]y  supplanted  Rrjihrnunixii: 
he  two  flourished  side  by  aide  ari<l  finally  merged  into 
looism.  Even  then, however,  IJuddhimii  w;i.s  rcprcscn- 
tv  a  sect  of  wor8bij>er8  called  Jains  who  have  many 


176 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


temples  scattered  all  over  India.  Among  the  localities 
most  noted  for  these  temples,  arc  Mount  Abu  and  Sunagarli. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  thoy  belong  to  a  later  stage  of 
architecture  than  that  of  the  Buddhist  rock  cut  caves 
mentioned  nbovc. 


;-* 

^.  _,«'_j^^^^PH 

-  v-aii;>aa#^^i.^^i 

■  -idffi^ 

iiipigia  jtf  imiiiri 

0^ 

^^^M 

"      '^ 

rS^^H 

-  ■'"'"  Vlfi 

^^r^s 

S*!   ->■- ,  -:  ■: 

.  ■  .  ,L'.„WiUl.Ui 

m 

w 

i 

i'l 

Great  SanchI  Gate- 
The  two  great  religions  of  India,  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism,  each  for  a  season  seemed  to  satisfy  the  people. 
The  latter  was  much  the  more  popular  for  twelve  centuries, 


TBi  ASIATIC  ABTAN8.  177 

the  time  of  Ouitama  and  the  seTenth  oentuxy 

A.  XL,  and  it  thnatened  to  completely  destroy  the  former. 

It  bad  the  advantage  of  the  support  of  the  chieftains  ruling 

during  alm»f^t  tbi:  whoK*  of  this  period.     "The  vaat  moo- 

wtt-ry  of  XalaniJa  fonni  at  of  learning  which  recalls 

tlie  Climtian  abbeys  an   muTetsities  of  medieval  Europe.' 

Tliit  Tas  supiwrtcd  ft^)D  the  royal  .purse  and  sent  out  large 

namU-n  of  missiouarief  into  other  fields  of  labor.    Thus 

did  Indo*Ar}'nn   thoug  it,    culture,  and    religious  belief 

poMrmte  the  surroundii         >rld ;  and  cells  of  early  Budd> 

Uit  monki  may  be  fuun  1  of  the  mountain  ranges 

Aat  surround  India  on  i         rthern  sides.     But  Buddhism 

•v  not  |inx>f  aguiiist  the  influences  of  earlier  superstitions 

tad  became  gn.'atty  ix*rrapted  as  the  pure  life  and  example 

•r  Ihcir  ip^al  teadier  g        gradually  fainter  and  fainter, 

needing  in  the  mista  o    time.    Then,  too,  the  Brahmans 

Ai  not  lose  pjttionce  iioi  did  they  recede  one  jot  nor  one 

tittlf  from  thi-ir  tb'maiiJa.     They  demanded  that  a  man 

iboHld  adoiowledge  the  inspiration  and  supremacy  uf  the 

Vedas  and  also  recognize  the  laws  of  caste.     They  cared 

UC  what  else  he  believed.*    Therefore  they  adopted  into 

tbnr  religion  all  popular  features  of  every  other  rolig;ion. 

Than  was  not  a  proselyting  creed,  but  all  mnnnc-r  of  pol- 

inr  was  resorted  to  in  order  to  keep  their  own  believers 

true  to  thrir  religion.     In  this  endeavor  at  popularizing 

Brmhmanism  the  old  Vedic  gods  are  almost  forgotten.'    We 

pereoTe  that  there  is  a  decided  change  in  ths  go<ls  that  are 

worshiped.    The  old  Vcdic  gods  Indra,  Agni,  and  Vanina 

give  place  to  Brahman,  Vishnu,  and  Siva.     Under  various 

n».mv*,  these  three  gods  form  the  Hindoo  pantheon,  and 

■  HbdIct-  "IntlUn  Penple,"  p.  72. 

*  wmiuna:  "Itollsloui  Tbougbt,"  p.  fiS. 

a  WIUIm:  "Vodara  HlDdabm,"  p.  4S-ft. 


178  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOSUK 

numerous  images  of  the  trinity  may  be  seen  in  the  va 
temples  of  India;  the  most  remarkable  is  in  thecav 
Elephanta  on  an  island  off  the  coast  near  Bombay. 

In  the  modem  Hindoo,  we  det«ct  an  ethnical  mi: 
of  Aryan,  non-Aryan,  and  later  Turanian.'   Modern 


BudcllilQt  PrieatB  from  Ceylon, 
dooism,  as  a  state  of  society,  is  based  upon  caste.     It 
ligion  is  a  union  of  many  creeds  and  beliefs,  associate 
the  various  attributes  of  their  trinity  of  goda,  Brahi 
"Vishnu,  and  Siva.     The  god  Brahman  is  the  peculiar 

I  "Early  Indian  People,"  p.  81. 


TBTB  ASJ'ATBC  ABTAJfS.  179 

(rf  the  highest,  or  Brahman  caste.  Yishnu,  the  second 
member  of  the  trinity,  is  a  purely  Yedip  god,  while  Siva 
appears  to  be  as  purely  an  aboriginal  deity,  and  is  wor* 
flhiped  by  the  great  majority  of  Indian  people.^ 

''The  Hindoo  religion  is  a  reflection  of  the  composite 
character  of  the  Hindoos,  who  iare  not  one  people,  but 
many.    It  has  held  out  the  right  hand  of  brotherhood  to 
tiie  fetich  worshiping  aborigines  of  India,  it  has  permitted 
a  descent  to  the  most  d^rading  cults  of  the  Dravidian 
racea;  while  at  the  same  time,  it  has  rentured  to  rise  from 
the  most  grovding  practices  to  the  loftiest  heights  of 
philoeophiosi  speculation ;  it  has  not  hesitated  to  drink  in 
thoughts  from  the  very  fountain  of  Truth ;  and  owes  not 
a  little  to  Christianity  itself."^    The  Hindoo  religion  rep- 
resents a  growth  through  many  centuries,  and  throghout 
all  this  time  we  notice  the  controlling  influence  of  the  great 
masters  of  thought^  the  Aryan  Brahmans.  From  the  time 
that  the  priesthood  became  first  established,  these  Brah- 
man priests  watched  the  growth  of  the  Hindoo  religion 
with  jealous  care.   They  rejected  what  would  tend  to  limit 
the  powei:  of  the  priest ;  they  utilized  everything  that 
would  tend  to  make  their  religion  popular.     They  were 
patient,  yet  aggressively  persevering  when  in  political  dis- 
favor. 

They  moulded  not  only  the  religion  of  modern  Hin- 
dooism,  but  also  its   entire  social  fabric.     With  a  resi- 
dent of  India,  not  to  be  a  Hindoo  is  to  be  a  social  outcast. 
The  most  degraded  Sudra,  considers  his  social  condition 
far  superior  to  the  most  enlightened  foreigner,  and  will 


1  "Annal?  of  Bengal,"  p.  127. 

^  Williams:  ^'Religious  Thoi|ght,'*  p.  58-9.  In  many  respects  this 
is  too  strong  a  statement.  The  fetich  worship  and  degrading  cults  are, 
In  many  cases,  survivals  of  early  Aryan  stages.  It  is  not  believed  they 
bave  borrowed  firom  Christianity.    Higging:  '^Anaclypsi^" 


180 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORIJ>. 


avoid  associating  with  him  as  much  as  possible.  Hindoo- 
ism  has  furnished  the  inspiration  for  the  greatest  speci- 
mens of  Indo-Aryan  art.  Upon  the  revival  of  Brahman 
power,  Bud<lhist  shrines  were  converted  into  Hindoo  ten^ 


^,-           -                       — -;- 

^^ 

^ 

1  ';  ■  ■»   i                             ---- 

f-'^'^:^'-:M^f^'^ 

|\"-,-yv.,;-=^-V 

^Rl 

^^^«g^---»^'  '-  -^ 

Buddhist  Temple,  Himalaya  Mountains 
jilcs;  and  to  satisfy  the  desire  of  the  Hindoos  for  the  grand 
!uid  the  hcaiitifid,  still  more  magnificent  stnictiirca  were 
erected  \\\  rover  the  shrines  of  the  various  gfods.    In  Orissa 
we  fiiid  Uhuviiiieswar,  the  temple  city  of  Siva,  and  the 


THE  A  SIA  TIC  A  It  VANS.  181 

wagon  shaped  temple  of  Jagganath.  Indeed  Orissa  is 
the  Holy  Land  of  the  HiiuIcK),  and  thousands  of  pilgrims 
journey  hither  every  year  to  be  present  at  the  Aarious  fes- 
tivals and  celebrations. 

In  reviewing  then  the  growth  of  civilization  in  India, 
we  see  how  a  small  handful  of  Aryan  emigrants  went 
down  into  the  Punjab  and  became  completely  cut  off  from 
their  brethren  to  the  northwest  and  from  all  other  outside 
influences.  They  found  the  country  peopled  by  tribes 
whose  civilisation  is  yet  in  doubt.  The  gods  of  these  peo- 
ple, they  elevated  to  a  place  in  the  Vedic  pantheon.  In 
this  contact,  the  civilization  of  the  Aryan  conquerors  and 
that  of  the  people  already  settled  there,  of  course,  mutually 
influenced  each  other.  By  Aryan  thrift  and  industry, 
flourishing  villages  and  walled  cities  sprang  up  all  over 
the  fertile  river  valleys.  Although  in  numbers  these 
Aryan  tribes  were  not  strong  enough  to  spread  their 
settlements  all  over  Hindoostan,  their  superior  intelli- 
gence and  colture  have,  like  the  mite  of  leaven,  leavened 
the  whole  lump.  The  savage  hill  tribes  are  no  longer 
the  degraded  beings  that  the  ancients  knew.  Dra vidian 
India  is  no  longer  the  home  of  the  barbarian.  All  have 
felt  the  influence  of  the  Aryan  mind.  It  has  made  for 
the  heathen  of  India  a  religion.  It  has  built  magnificent 
temples  for  the  Dravidians.  It  has  crowned  the  loftiest 
mountains  of  the  world  with  temples  and  shrines.  It 
has  given  five  hundred  millions  of  people  a  religion.  Its 
influence  has  been  felt  from  the  lofty  Himalayan  suninii.L 
to  the"pearl  drop  on  the  brow  of  Ind,"  Ceylon,  the  Oi)lur 
of  King  Solomon  of  old.  It  has  given  the  Indian  world 
a  social  system  that  has  defied  the  power  of  monarchs  and 
the  superstition  of  religion  to  break  its  bands. 

Despite  the  grinding  oppresssion  of  caste  the   Hin- 


182  THE  ilBDIJSYAL  WORLD. 

doo  is  not  unhappy.  No  matter  what  his  social  con- 
dition he  glories  in  it,  for  there  are  always  others  inferior 
to  him  in  rank.  He  can  not  attain  memhership  to  a 
higher  caste,  but  he  is  content.  So  ages  passed  in  India. 
Finally  the  fanatic  followers  of  Islam  arrived,  and  the 
Hindoos  saw  neither  freedom  nor  peace  until  the  weat«ni 
Aryans  came  to  their  rescue,  and  the  Indo-Aryan  was  re- 
stored to  his  much  prized  freedom  of  life  and  conscience. 


Pror.  Sayce,  In  his  Oreek  edition  of  Herodotus,  vlth  EDglish  notea, 
Lonilon  18S3,  has  brought  out  eome  new  material  in  regard  to  Carobjtes. 
It  B  ems  that  Cambyses  was  king  of  Babylon  before  the  death  of  hii 
father,  Cyrus.  There  is  considerable  uncertainty  as  to  the  length  of  Cun- 
bysea'  reign.  'We  have  contract  tablets  dated  the  eleventh  year  of  his 
reign.    Other  writers  make hla  reign  eighteen  and  even  nineteen  yeftrt. 


^■^Si^:^^^^ 

i 

i 

*>  J    js> 

Monolith  Island  of  Java. 


Tua  asLLsszc  as  vans.  185 


THE  HELLENIC  ARYANS 

^«*-**M*«  -  TbB  Hellenw— Aryans  of  Asia  Minor— The  Phrygifm 
— £«plar«ion«  »t  HlMariik— An<-ieni  Troy— Belies  from  HiMUllh— 
C7'*«f«Wi  WkIIr— Phoenician  Inflnence— Early  Oermau  lDftu«ie»_ 
**<l»ttH«Ua»— The  Hereto  Age— The  Argonaut Ic  Expedition— Vm 
''•■•rf  Homer— Bc^nnlng  of  History  in  Grtece— Political  Lite 
|"*»«lM«Ore<«e— Religion  In  Ancient  Greece— The  Aniphictyonlo 
^|«»»»-Earlj  f^etilements— The  Dorian  Migration— The  Rise  of  th» 
^WMW-l^w  Period  of  Arpjlle  Supremacy— Sparl an  Bupremacy— 
'"^'iBpnimt  of  Athens— Stories  of  Solon- Important  Citlaa  of  Xtx- 
■»»i  «f,«»_Oreek  Colonies— Other  Aryan  People— The  Clmme- 
""^riiB  P»nUn  iMvwion— Age  of  Pericles— Triumph  of  Sparta 
•ver  Alheiift- Rise  of  Thebes— Rise  of  Phllp  of  Mac- 
"  in- Alexander  the  Great — Conclusion. 


1 

I 


RESEARCH  is  fast  re- 
construct in  jj  ancient  and 
medieval  hiatiiry.  The 
wlinir  of  incrriptions.  the  comparison  of  languages,  and 
p  spade  of  the  archaeologist  iire  so  focusing  upon  the 
in'^..fhistop.'thcraysof  light  that  fall  tons  from  the  dim 
»t  of  myth  and  tradition  that  new  negatives  are  forming, 
lie  of  which  produce  only  fancy  pictures  of  the  fruitfiU 
Ainnations  of  nations  in  their  childhood,  while  others  por- 
fv.  in  life-like  colors,  truthful  ideas  of  olden  times.  But 
iiiv  mysteries  yet  remain,  the  unknown  is  still  more  vast 
III  thf  known,  and,  in  the  dim  light  of  far  away  times, 
ratch  uncertain  glimpses  of  many  people  and  races  of 
lic-h  not  yet  much  is  known.     Such  a  people  are  the 


186  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

Felasgians,  Kyi  whom  historians  were  wont  to  draw  o 
fancy  picture.  They  were  said  to  be  indigenous  "  the 
ren  of  the  black  earth."*    Future  discoveries  may  \k 
more  about  them ;  but  should  we,  with  our  present 
assign  them  a  place  in  history,  we  can  only  concludi 
they  were  the  offspring  of  those  Aryan  tribes  that  wei 
nrst  to  penetrate  into  Greece,  Thrace,  and  even  re^ 
the  shores  of  Asia  Minor.     The  conquered  Turanian 
ulation,   that  previously  occupied  these  lands,  wou 
many  instances,  fiirnish  the  mothers  of  a  new  race, 
mingled  Aryan  and  Turanian  blood  would  produce  a 
terious    people    to  whom   it   would  be  difficult,  ii 
day  at  least,  to  assign  a  racial  place.   Such  appear  to 
been  the  Pelasgians.     They  constituted  those  myst^ 
tribes  of  people  that  inhabited  the  shores  of  Europe 
the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  were  wont,  from 
to  sweep  down  with  their  armaments  upon  the  coa 
Egypt  and  the  Valley  of  the  Nile,  to  the  fear  and  d 
of  the  Pharaohs.   Aryan  and  yet  Turanian,  indigenoi 
yet  foreigners,  thus,  probably,  arose  these  people  wh 
so  seriously  puzzled  historians.* 

Historians  of  half  a  century  ago  readily  grant 
mysterious  Pelasgians  a  place  among  the  early  pe 
Southern  Europe.     They  have  been  repeatedly  ma 
ancestors  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins.     They  are  me 
among  the  defenders  of  Asia  Minor  against  the  Eg 
bv  both   Rameses  II.  and  Rameses  1 11.^    In  tJ 
Homeric  Epic*  they  are  mentioned  as  inhabiting  tl 
of  Asia  Minor.     Herodotus*  refers  to  them  in  a  nu 
places.      He  regards  the  Hellenic  speech  as  a  bi 


1  Curtius:  "History  of  Greece,"  New  York,  1871,  Vol.  I.  p 

>  See  TbU  Series,  Vol.  II.  p  597,  uote  1. 

<  BrugBchiu  'a]io8,''p.  755-8.  4  'Tliad,'*  book  ii.  1.840.  *  B 


THE  HELLENIC  ARYANS.  187 

he  Pelasgic,  thus  giving  the  latter  priority  over  the 
brmer,  though  he  seems  to  have  had  little  positive  knowl- 
edge of  the  Pelasgians.  Keane^  says  that  "the  Greek 
aibe  itself  whose  name  was  adopted  by  the  Latins  as  the 
collective  designation  of  the  whole  race,  appears  to  have 
5een  Pelasgian."  He  further  classes  all  the  Aeolian, 
Dorian,  and  Ionian  dialects  under  the  title  of  "Pelasgo- 
Hellenic."  Canon  Rawlinson'  ranks  the  Pelasgic  language 
mth  the  Aryan  family,  and  gives  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
the  Greek  and  Latin  sprang  from  it  to  some  extent.'  Prof. 
Sayce*  regards  the  Pelasgians  as  simply  tribes  of  Aryan 
people,  but  refuses  to  class  them  as  a  particular  family. 
He  further  detects  a  double  meaning  in  the  word.  At 
Brst  it  may  have  applied  to  some  particular  tribes,  but 
later  Greek  writers  used  it  in  a  sense  almost  synonymous 
with  our  word  "prehistoric." 

Curtius*  seems  to  have  gained  a  clear  idea  of  these 
mysterious  people.  According  to  him,  they  were  husband- 
men and  herdsmen,  who  everywhere  preceded  the  purer 
Greek  stock  as  it  spread  throughout  Hellas,  the  isles  of 
the  Aegaean,  and  Asia  Minor.  They  formed  the  dark 
l)ackground  from  which  the  Hellenes  arose.  Curtius  says 
^tinctly,  that  the  lonians  (the  Hellenes  of  Attica)  de- 
veloped from  this  Pelasgic  stock.  Future  research  will 
probably  sustain   this  view.*     As   Aryan   tribes  pushed 


1  Stanford's  **Europe/'  London,  1886,  p.  566. 
«  "Herodotus,"  New  York,  1881,  Vol.  I.  p.  641. 

3  It  must  be  remembered  that  BawUnson  maintains  the  Asiatic 
*1gin  theory,  and  holds  that  the  route  of  migration  from  Asia  to  Europe 
^*<iii  by  the  way  of  Asia  Minor.  ['^Herodotus,"  Vol.  II.  p.  541.]  Those 
''ho  hold  the  Asiatic  theory,  however,  no  longer  trace  the  route  of  migra- 
'On  through  Asia  Minor,  for  they  are  obliged  to  admit  that  all  the  Ary- 
^  in  Asia  west  of  the  Halys  river  are  of  European  origin,  Sayce : 
Elements  of  Comparative  Philology,"  p.  380  ct  seq. 

4  In  **Ilio8,"  p.  127.  6  **Griechi8che  Geschichte,"  BerUn,  186C. 
%nd  I.  B.  26  ee  seq                  «  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  798. 


188  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

southward  from  their  Baltic  homeland,  the  first 
with  the  Turanians  would  produce  a  people  whose 
blood  would  be  very  weak.     Such   were  the  Peh 
As  Aryan  tribes  spread  to  the  west  and  southwest 
the  Baltic  region,  a  similar  mixture  produced  the 
On  the  east,  the  ancient  Sarmatians  represent  just  such^ 
weak  mixture  of  Aryan  with  a  super-abundance 
ranian  blood. 

Ancient  people  were  always  on  the  move;  and, 
we  shall  see,  the  pressure  of  migration  in  Central  Ei 
was  always  toward  the  south.  As  the  population  of 
las  was  mixed  again  and  again  with  purer  Aryan 
from  the  north,  a  new  and  decidedly  Aryan  people  a 
peared.  These  were  the  Hellenes,  who  derived  tha 
name  from  a  mythical  ancestor  called  Hellen.  They  eai^ 
developed  into  three  types,  or  confederacies  of  kindrd 
tribes,  known  as  lonians,  Dorians,  and  Aeolians.  TS 
lonians  appear  to  have  preceded  the  others  in  point  c 
tune.  Curtius,  as  just  stated,  makes  them  descendants  0 
the  Pelasgians/  whom  they  followed  from  isle  to  idi 
across  the  Aegaean  even  to  the  southwestern  shore  of  hsk 
Minor,  where  they  had  established  themselves  long  befort 
the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  Thus  was  Hellenic  or  GreA 
influence  established  over  the  islands  of  the  Aegaean,  afid 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  in  the  Hellenic  pem» 
sula,  at  a  very  remote  period.*  The  lonians  receive  fi» 
quent  mention  in  the  earliest  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip 
tures  under  the  name  of  Javan.*  Professor  Brugsch-Be] 
interj)rets  the  word  Hauneb^  that  appears  on  the  moM 
ments  of  Egypt,  at  a  time  previous  to  the  eighteenth  dj 
nasty  (about  1700  B.C.),  as  "foreigners  who  chose  their  chid 

1  Curtius,  Op.  cit.  s.  26        s  Sayoe:  ''  Auoient  Empires,"  p  211. 
s  Gtonesis  x.  2,  4;  I  Chronicles  i.  6-7 ;  Inaiah  Ixzvi.  19. 


f  - 


M 


[fl.j»^«#« 


ofOe 

Yum  ihe  mpaSfC 


fuis  to  cfoivd  oTcr  into  J  1 

^  HeUaponL    A  PdMgu 

rit  dereloped  oTer  Thnee  and  the  nfftm  %     1 

rpttthian  nKWintainn  and  the  Dannbe  rirer.  1  as 
v«  after  ware  of  Aryan  tribes  came  povring  domo.  6m 
B  Bakic  homeland,  the  rendent  popolatioii  in  thk  n^ 
■I  became  prettj  thflfoogUj  Arranixed.  The  ThraaaH 
R,  no  duabt,  more  porelj  Arran  than  the  HeOeorisa. 
The  Arvana  presfied  onward  aenaa  the  Hrihjapjt 
Id  A«ia  Minor,  and  there  alao  arose  a 
It  the  great  Semitic  empires  toward  the  cast  and 
H,  and  Egypt  on  the  south,  were  powerfiil  eiKO^  to 
erk  ihL*  ci^ntinual  stream  of  Arvan  mlznxkjXL  ^I"'ii#'.«I^i 
r  An'an*  **{  A-jbi  Minor  and  Earoc;^  r«^c*ri7^  !r>r::r.i:?i 
Q-;ri;^'  ih%'  pnmiinent  enemies  of  Eli?7pt.  Tb^  iincrrr  *•> 
UKv  of  Arv'an  mi^rration  in  ttesf:  dir^rctii^rji  'r^^zji  'Jiij 
iwk*-*!,  ih^.-re  was  developed  a  nroriziv  ArT*i.lzr:f:  ;.^.c»> 
ti*>D  ill  \V#:-!*tem  Aj»ia  Minor  bv  fre^iarriit  :r.*>in'„iV*rs3% 
ith  iriU*.*  fr«>rnin^  later  fnjin  th*^  Arj'aL  LoL'>tjki*d.  IrjCrr^tfi 
lere  «#.-^m  t<i  have  been  certain  tribe*  of  rr<:Tr:-*:,j&s:d 
inu-ian.^.  known  as  Bri^res.'  who  cr/feefrd  uie  H-^II^ft^x^tt 
fuAii  numljers  that  they  formed  in  A^ia  Mi£/>r  4.  ;y>w^t^« 
i-unfederacv,  or  8tate«  that  has  h^ien  cali«:^  Phrr^ia.  that 

•  W«  u«e  thU  term  mn  indicattoii^  Um  Tftaipaari  </  Ai7Mi  »jcrMffi« 
aH  tb«  •outh,  and  the  popaUtioo  mfQlUnii  froat  t^  jinc  jottymsx^ 
»  of  Aryan  aod  TurmninD  bliwd. 

s  Karl  BUod  '  Appendix  4«  'Tro^''  p.  166  mj»:  -TV^  M^w4^A;i«M 
»  i^id  'AprodJte'  aod  'BUIppo*/  fryr  *Apbrridite^  %tA  PHHfyua.^ 
•d  th*  Phryglaoa,  Brig,  Bry^  or  Brykal,  bvt  ta«»  fe  m  Ini^t 
lo  this  naiM,  BrjfH.  Bryk,  or  Fryk,  haviaf 


190  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

embraced  a  large  portion  of  Asia  Minor  within  ita  bore 
That  the  Phrygians  were  descendants  of  Thrai 
who  had  crossed  the  Hellespont  from  Europe  is  noy 
mitted  by  the  majority  of  recent  students  in  this  1 
Strabo*  long  ago  declared  this  to  be  a  fact.  Recent  si 
of  their  language  confirms  his  statement,  and  their  n 
shows  their  relationship  to  the  old  Germans,  though  it 
been  subjected  to  Thracian  influence.*  After  settling 
central  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Phrygians  bega 
spread  toward  the  western  coast.  A  portion  of  Nc 
western  Asia  Minor  about  eight  miles  long  by  four  n 
broad  possesses  peculiar  interest  to  the  historian, 
was  the  famous  plain  of  Troy,  that  has  witnessec 
many  changes  in  the  history  of  the  past.  The  nortl 
part  of  the  Troad  is  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  He 
pont.  Across  this  strait,  lies  the  Thracian  Chersone 
long,  narrow  peninsula  stretching  toward  the  south 
into  the  Mediterranean,  as  if  to  form  an  easy  high 
for  migrating  bands  to  enter  Asia  from  the  west,  o 
welcome  Asiatic  invaders  into  Europe. 

The  shores  of  the  Aegaean  on  the  west  rise  U, 
average  height  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  above 
sea  level.*  The  various  rivers  of  the  Troad  rise  from 
slopes  of  Mount  Ida,  whose  various  branches  ex' 
throughout  that  portion  of  Asia  Minor  known  as  My 
The  largest  of  these  rivers  is  the  Scamander,  whicl 


Frank. ...  I  hold  it  poBsible  that  even  Thrax,  or  Threik,  a«  a  Thn 
wa«  called  by  the  Greeks,  may  be  connected  with  Frakk,  Frank.  P] 
or  Frigg,  and  free  or  frei." 

1  '^Historical  (Geography,"  Vol.  II.  map  no.  11. 

>  vii.  ch.  295;  z.ch.  471. 

3  Sayce:  "Troja,"  p.  xl;    Blind :  "TroJa/»  p.  868. 

^  Schliemann:  ''Troy  and  its  Remains,"  p.  69. 

•  Schliemann:  ''Ilios."  New  York,  1881,  p.  68. 


7-.    I 


nrjf  HBLUSNIO  AR  YAN8.  191 

•meieiit  timeB  flowed  directly  past  the  walls  of  'teered 

s."    The  region  of  the  Troad  was  once  fertile,  fruit- 

and  populous.      Even  in  classical  antiquity  it  sup- 

at  one  time  eleven  cities  and  two  villages.    One  of 

Hiese  cities  whose  acropolis  stood  on  the  hill  of  Hissar- 

'  lik  contained,  according  to  estimate,  over  seventy  thousand 

{inhabitants.  Were  we  to  penetrate  into  the  dim  past  of 
prehistoric  times  ,  we  would  discover  that  comparatively 
\  modem  cities  were  built  upon  the  ruins  of  seven  pre* 
\  historic  cities,  a  Lydian  city,  and  three  towns  of  the  ninth 
\  eentury  b.  c.^  The  ruthless  hand  of  time,  however,  has 
covered  this  once  fruitful  region  with  ruins  and  miserable 
villages,  and,  in  places,  has  converted  it  into  marshy, 
malarial  breeding  tracts.* 

What  scenes  this  region  must  have  witnessed.  The 
poets  tell  us  that  in  olden  times  Jupiter  sat  on  the  highest 
peak  of  Mount  Ida  and  witnessed  the  battles  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Trojans.  The  historian  of  to-day  can  see 
not  only  the  strife  between  the  Greeks  and  Trojans,  but 
can  also  picture  in  his  mind  innumerable  hosts  of  strange 
and  restless  people  as  they  tramped  in  never  ending  armies 
across  this  highway  between  two  continents.  He  will 
see  vaster  armies  and  witness  fiercer  battles  than  were  wit- 
nessed by  the  gods  of  old,  a  nevet  ending  panorama  of 
wealthy  cities,  in vading  hosts,  slaughtered  armies,  smoulder- 
ing ruins,  and  new  and  stronger  walls  successively  rising 
upon  the  ruins  of  past  grandeur.  Sacred  Ilios  has  been 
reclaimed  and  such  is  the  story  that  she  has  to  tell. 

The  Phrygians  were  the  founders  of  ancient  Ilios, 
whose  acropolis  stood  on  Hissarlik  and  whose  territor\ 
spread  away  down  upon  the  plain  of  Troy.'    The  most  an- 

1  Schliemann ;  "Troja,"  New  York,  1884,  p.  84B-6.       >  "Troy  and  its 
Bemains,"  p.  71.  »  Sayce:  "Troja,"  p.  xi.    Blind  "Troja,"  p.  867-8. 


192  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

(dent  records  that  we  have  referring  to  the  ruin  of  that  ci^ 
are  the  Homeric  poems — the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey — attri- 
buted to  the  authorship  of  an  ancient,  bJind  poet  who  bore 
the  name  of  Homer.  But  ours  is  an  extremely  skeptical 
age.  The  vague  and  highly  improbably  myths  and  stories, 
that  formed  the  basis  of  all  ancient  history,  have  been  quea- 
tioned  and  cross  questioned  and  sifted  down  in  order  to 
find  facts  upon  which  to  base  a  reliable  record  of  eventa. 
Much  that  was  once  accepted  as  history  has  been  discarded 
aa  wholly  unreliable. 

In  regard  to  these  Homeric 
poems,  Professor  Sayce'  says: 
"Herodotus  must  have  under* 
stood  by  Homer  all  that  mass  d 
epic  literature  which  in  after 
times  was  called  Cyclic,  and  dis* 
tributed  among  various  authors, 
together  with   the   Homeric 

hymns In  their  present 

form,  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  bear 
traces  of  tho  age  of  Pericles ;  and. 
the  mass  of  epic  and  didactic  literature,  which  went  under 
the  names  of  Homer  and  Hcsiod,  must  have  been  of  slovr 
growth.     Homer  is  a  name  rather  than  a  person,  asoA 
^homeros,^    'the  fitted  together,'  is  applied  by  Euripides  to 
the  marriago-bond."     Thus  can  we  sec  only  darkly  through 
the  mist  that  time  has  thrown  around  the  name  and  labota 
of  one  whom  the  later  Greeks  held  as  almost  sacred. 

A  decade  and  a  half  ago,  the  skeptical  had  condemned 
these  Homeric  poems  as  utterly  unfounded,  and  some  had 
come  to  regard  the  story  of  the  ill-fated  city  of  Ilios  asthe 
wild  picture  of  tho  disordered  imagination  of  t^e  poet 

1  "HerpdotuR,"  London,  1S83,  Book  II.  cbftptcr  fiS,  note  S. 


TXa  MELLBjnC  AMTAWM. 


Btt,  IB  bier  yean,  th^!e came  die  ■iihturiiii'i  vJA  lii 
ipife  and  dearad  away  the  rabbiah  Ikai  kal 
mad  theae  old  and  atoned  dtaea.  BdwU  4m;  »• 
doidib^an  to  dear  away,  and  there  wm  RT«aM  Ift^&ir 
Mtoanhed  world  treaanrea  and  citiea  trnH  ntur^  ^Imm^ 
In  times.  Thns  have  ^'Blind  Hasnefu'  woa^  Vem  j«w<9g 
li  contain  rich  treaanrea  of  tradhkoa]  kn*:.  Aoagrylji*; 
tf  ml  eventd  of  historical  importaneeL'  Th^  hyksmj^ 
fk  was  Dr.  Henry  Sehliemann,  whoK  ixaaK  viE  e!>r^ 
kold  a  {irominent  place  among  those ^^fdistisugvittMyd  ibrr^^^ 
'tigiturs.  Being  a  faithful  stadent  of  th^  Husmstx:  }Mmat 
k  located  the  site  of  andent  Ilios  nfMb  ll»e  iiiS  ^  H!j^ 
nriik,  in  the  center  of  the  Troad.  Hie;  \pitpak  iijs  UiMit^ 
.  tiotw  in  1871.  At  a  depth  of  fiftr-two  aM3  ^.^au^Hbajf  jfe^i^L 
aitive  rock  was  nncovered.  As  the  <r»arTirt/>r«  aaaik 
tketr  shafts,  and  cleared  away  the  nil:4»sk  tiv^  p^m^trrt^ 
rtntQm  after  stratnm  of  mins,  eadi  xvrfaiz  ifnu  U^  yr^ 
viniL^nni*  in  the  date  and  chara/i-Ur  of  *?.'-  r*^:.%>.*  fivi-: 
Th«*  arn>[M>li?*  of  seven  cities,  tliAt  ha/1  *  'j"/i^** .  -  * .  r  *-•  -  an  s^r;, 
dle^umit  of  the  hill  and  ha  often  hVi^:,  '•«-•,*-%•:.  •r-^  :.;fc-.':, 
ofthf  lU-ft trover,  were  there  uuearth'-';  K<,/;  .f  v-^-^ 
*tllement»  mnst  have  preced^f^l  the  foiiow.:  /  •  v '.  v;V  <i  j/^.^ 
^^  <»f  time.  The  five  lowest  were  er^t.r*  .v  :T^r-^*^y.r*':. 
fcrir»*have  recorfl>«  of  the  existenee  of  no:.*-  '  f  •;,'t;j  «  z'/-;/t 
ifre  of  the  Homerie  jx>eins,  the  sixth  wa*  ;i  I^vo,*:.  »/^ti*> 
«ient,  and  the  seventh  was  *'Cla««i^:al  Ilium.' 

()f  the  fteven  settlements,  that  liave  at  varioa»  Usf$^ 

flrru|»ie«i  the  hill  of  Hisarlik  and  sprea/l  ov^-r  the  plain  ^4 

Tn>y  tui  the  west,  south, south-east,  the  t^snnKl  H\pf»v^'  native 

fftk  hai«  the  ^rreatest  interest  for  the  hist^iriati,  for  it  has 

•  C*ootrupoimry  Rerlew,  Dec.  1878. 

t  Tb«  HUM  of  HoiDM'  U  enUraljT  dlsUnct  from  "  ClaMfteml  lUwn,'' 

r  tMm  lot«nrMMd. 


194  THE  AiEDlEVAL  WORLD. 

been  proved  that  it  was  the  sacred  Ilios  of  the  Home 
poems.  The  more  recent  settlements  were  mere  villaj 
when  compared  to  it,  and  do  not  interest  us.  But  arou: 
Ilios — the  stories  of  whose  destruction,  as  recited  by  t 
ancient  bards,  were  wont  to  stir  the  assembled  Gree 
to  the  highest  pitch  of  excitement — there  will  ever  ling 
memories  of  ancient  times  most  enchanting  to  the  stude 
of  history.  And  now — just  as  historians  were  about 
cast  aside  the  traditions  of  these  heroic  times — **the  lig 
has  broken  over  the  peaks  of  Ida,  and  the  long.forgott 
ages  of  prehistoric  Hellas  and  Asia  Minor  are  lying  bath 
in  it  before  us."*  We  are  now  able  to  glean  some  historii 
truths  from  what  it  was  feared  was  only  myth. 

As  we  have  said,  it  is  now  known  and  generally  \ 
mitted  that  these  Trojans  were  colonists,  or  at  least  • 
scendants  of  the  Phrygians  ;*  and  the  Phrygians  trj 
their  lineage  back,  through  the  Thracians,  to  the  great  T 
tonic  family  of  the  Aryan  race.'  But  when  the  Phrygij 
sent  their  first  colonists  to  settle  at  Hissarlik,  they  foi 
it  already  occupied  by  a  people  whom  they  must  have  c 
quered.  Then  who  were  these  first  people  who  dwelt  in  i 
Troad  and  built  the  first  acropolis  at  Hissarlik?  1 
discoveries  of  Schliemann  have  proved  that  this  first  i 
tlement  must  have  existed  for  "a  great  number  of  cen 
ries."*  They  had  erected  only  two  buildings,  howev 
upon  the  hill,  but  the  settlement  must  have  extended  o' 
a  large  area  to  the  west,  south,  and  south-east  of 
plain  of  Troy. 

By  a  comparison  of  the  pottery  found  in  this  fi 
settlement  with  what  has  been  found  in  ''the  so-cal 
tumulus  of  Protesilaos"  on  the  European  side  of  the  E 


1  Sayce:  *'Troja/*  ix. 
3  Above  page  43. 


3  Above  page  71  *  **Troja,"  p 


tBE  HBLLBITIC  ASrAIffi. 


ia6 


iflAhm  Deen  proved  that  "thefint  abMUataii 
,  the  bnilden  of-  its  first  city,  mast  hare  «m» 
i  Mm  the  Hellespont"'  This  means  a  great  deal  to  w^  Ar 
lUtiBt  wtliatthebuilde  of  this  first  settlemcBt  wen 
fcWR  w  less  Aiyanixed,  and  we  have  little  besitjUKjr  tm 
I  with  the  great,  bat  mysterioas,  Frlssgif  yt^ 
I  |le  Alt  to  esriy  spread  over  Sonthem  Eurupe. 


PollBhea  Azea  '.kit.  H'ttiT~:'A. 
But  Um*  rtMliainn  of  this  first  HfttlfflClit  t<:a/;Jj  rj.n  tSiM/V 

"'Uip'.  Thfv  ciirry  us  back  to  ii  tirfu*  wli-n  tli<r  iuint'tHjuM 
*f -Vms  Miimr  wiTt- biittlinj,' with  on*:  aij<rfli«-r  w;ih  ni/J/; 
""ih?  inipliiiK'nts.*  Thi'V  wcrt-  Htill  in  th<-  S'^AiiUi'-.  A;f*r, 
■"tjuat  iiM'rging  into  the  Bron»;  A^<-,  fur  t  Ji'T':  t»<T<;  fo«wJ 
'few  (.rn:im('nts  uf  cDpiM-r  «)r  brnnz*-.  cucli  a<!  \tr'i'>i-h>in, 
^si^w,  rtf..  Hliowing  th«t  they  ha<l  a  Hiijflit  knowlMi^';  'A 
B"UU''  Th*-ir  wcajions,  howcvrr,  wrrrc  of  Kt/m*?,  tl»»r 
"•"W  interewtinir  of  which  wen*  two  jHilitthM  Kt/iri'?  hsim  »» 
'fpraento*!  in  the  acirDmpanying  '•ut.     P'saz-tly  HiruiUr 

■  ftayw,  "TfolB,"  p.  X.  1  H»7C«,  Oi>.  Mt   j..  xll. 

'lit*  LrDonuat  "!>•    AntlqultiM d*    U  TnmA."  p.  II,(|h<»»^  la 


196  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

axes  have  been  found  in  Denmark,  England,  (Jermany, 
Livonia,  Courland,  Hungary,  and  many  other  localities  in 
Europe.  We  are  thus  introduced  to  a  time  prior  to  thd 
existence  of  the  great  empires  of  Asia  Minor,  perhaps 
even  before  the  empire  of  the  Hittites  had  risen. ^ 

To  what  remote  antiquity  this  all  points!     Pelasgians 
had  become   Aryanized  to  Phrygians;    Phrygians  had 
become  Aryanized  to  Thracians.     And  this  must  have 
been  the  state  of  affairs   at  the    close  of   the    Neolithic 
Age.   For  we  know  that  the  Neolithic  Age  was  just  draw- 
ing to  its  close  when  the  Phrygian  tribes  of   Trojans  de- 
scended upon  the  first  Aryan  (or  Pelasgian)  settlement 
of  Hissarlik,  conquered,  and  destoyed  it,  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Homeric  Ilios.    Now  the  Thracians  and,  in 
their  turn,  the  Phrygians  must  have  developed  into  quite 
a  powerful  people  before  the  first  Phrygian  colonists  ap- 
peared  in   the  Troad;  and  that  means  that  the  Aryans 
had  already  gained  the  ascendency  throughout  the  greater 
portion  uf  Southern  Europe  long  before  the  close  of  the 
Neolithic  Age. 

Although  at  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  Age,  we 
are  to  suppose  that  the  greater  part  of  Europe  waa  peo- 
pled by  a  Non- Aryan  race,  of  which  the  Basques,  Etrus- 
cans, and  Finns  are  the  remnants,*  the  ethnologist  tella 
us  that,  during  the  Neolithic  Age,  the  Celts  spread  over 
much  of  the  territory  that  they  occupied  at  the  dawn  of 
history.^  They  probably  occupied  Gaul  and  Britain  during 
the  ages  of  Polished  Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron.  Those  tribes 
that  were  compelled  to  remain  nearest  the  Baltic  home- 
land became,  from  the  beginning,  more  and  more  Aryan- 
ized   by  the  constant  encroachment  upon  their  territory 


1  Above  page  42.    Sayce,  Op.  cit.  p.  ix. 

fi  This  Series,  Vol.  I.  p.  209  et  seq.  >  Ibid.  p.  Sli. 


d  the  Germans.     Tfaos,  while  most  ct  the 
AvDi  fimod  in  Xeolithic  cares  are  i 
&s«  »  a  probability  that  aome  are  Bej^  < 
Ibt  tbere  were,  no  doabl,  alsu  GecBaaa  is  Wa 
Rpv  u  tbe  dcwie  of  the  Xeolithic  Age, 

h  ii,  of  coane,  impoesible  to  ^re  dates  ai  flua  period 
a  Aryan  history.  It  wu  at  the  doae  of  the'SeaEAae 
ip;'  With  utir  present  enli^teimwM  oa  th»  w^bjtet, 
■9e  an  not  point  to  a  aia^  icgioA  is  Oatiml  Asa  aad 
t^  that  we  know  that  the  aneeiton  of  the  Aatatie  Awf- 
IH  dwelt  there  in  the  XecJithie  Age.  We  hare  bd  e«v 
iaoe  whatever,  that  they  were  there  when  the  otker 
pnt  OnenuL  empires  anwe.  But  ia  Eoope,  oa  the 
other  hand,  we  know  that  Aryaa  vagri^om  lowrd  tl» 
!>  «ert  ud  Bonthwesthad  derdoped  the  greii  Cdkic  hflaadb; 
^  tbe  southward  course  of  tmgrmtxm  had  girca  liM 
to  tlie  myrteriuus  Pelasgir  branrh.  ezt^wit^  e»ea  te  the 
■""I'li-  ..f  ili^  Oriental  w-.rM:  atj'L  i:  «■  "^  :  .  .-  "p^a 
whatfUT  uf  the  morements  of  tbe  SairriJitiaL  tri^^m 
"^nrinit  this  Age.  we  would  find  th'-m  pn^-iri^'  f'/nrsrd 
^J*ar^l  thf  sh-»res  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Thai-  at  tb'r  tV*!^ 
'^f  the  Neolithic  .\ge.  the  CVlts.  the  P'rl^T^m.  ind  tbt 
Sinnatians,  as  the  ranguard  of  Ariar;  miirratiou  '/otward 
fir-m  the  Baltic  center  of  dispersion,  j^harf:*!  anrK/us  th^4D- 
•flves  the  border-landB  of  the  extent  of  Aryan  {i'«M*i>i^ybs 
fvpti  as  they  did  at  the  dawn  of  history. 

Centuries  then  rolled  away,  •lurini:  which  time  we 
hare  no  infonnation  fifiixe  event*  that  transpired  am^/ng 
the  Tariooa  Arj'an  people.  From  the  cUfse  '/f  the  Xe**- 
tithie  Age  to  the  Heroic  Age.  they  are  almoet  I'^rt  Vt 
history.     During  all  this  time,  the  Germans  most  hare 

:  Bm  dMcripUoa  of  Um  B»I«m  in  Boha'«  "Cmmt,"  p.  ML 
■  ndt  TUa  ScriM,  VoL  I.  p.  3ST  e(  m?. 


>^ 


198  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLf>. 

kept  pouring  down  into  Thrace,  and  the  Thracians 
Greece  and  Phrygia.  Tribes  of  Phrygians  migrated 
the  Troad  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Homeric  1 
The  Ionian  Greeks  spread  over  the  isles  of  the  Aeg 
and  founded  many  settlements  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Mi 
These  foreigners  took  an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of 
older  world.  They  united  their  forces  with  the  Hit 
against  Egypt-/  and,  for  several  dynasties,  a  numb€ 
Aryan  tribes  are  powerful  enough  to  receive  distinct  i 
tion  in  Egyptian  inscriptions  among  the  powers  that  a! 
themselves  against  the  rulers  of  the  Nile  region. 

The  Trojan  children  of  the  Phrygians  played  a  e 
brilliant  part  in  the  history  of  that  portion  of  the  w 
than  did  the  parent  tribes.  They  founded  their  caj 
city  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Neolithic  settlement,  and  tl 
it  stood  for  we  know  not  how  long.  As  restored  by 
Schliemann,  it  has  a  wonderful  tale  to  tell.  It  tells  i 
a  former  sacking  many  ages  before  its  final  ruin,  for 
Ilios  that  the  Greeks  burned  was  built  on  a  parti 
ruined  Ilios  of  an  earlier  date.  Thus  are  we  given 
inkling  to  the  foundation  of  the  ancient  myth,  that 
angry  Hercules,  on  account  of  the  deceit  of  Laome< 
had  once  captured  and  partially  destroyed  the  city.*  j 
acknowledged  to  be  the  Homeric  Ilios,  for  all  the  h 
marks  are  there.  The  acropolis  with  its  six  palaces, 
rounded  by  their  Poseidonian  walls  of  defense  and  fi 
with  their  treasures  of  gold,  could  have  been  none  ol 
than  the  home  of  the  aged  Priam.  Thus  does  it  pi 
true,  that  the  "recent  discoveries  in  the  Troad  show  i 
Ilium  was  as  real  a  place  as  Thebes."* 

1  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  894. 

«  Grote:  •^History  of  Greece,"  Vol.  I.  p.  188. 

s  Sayce:  "Comparative  Philology,''  p.  819. 


THB  BStLBSlC  ARYANS- 

ot  the  Germans.  Thus,  white  m*.>st  ot  the  broad-headed 
skulls  found  in  Neolithic  caves  are  undoubtedly  Celtic, 
there  is  a  probability  that  some  are  Belgic  Grermans,'  so 
that  there  were,  no  doubt,  also  Germana  in  Western  Eu- 
rope at  the  close  of  the  Neolithic  Age. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  give  dates  at  this  period 
in  Aryan  history.  It  was  at  the  close  of  the  Neolithic 
Age.*  With  our  present  enlightenment  on  this  subject, 
we  can  not  jxiint  to  a  single  region  in  Central  Asia  and 
say  that  we  know  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Asiatic  Ary- 
ans dwelt  there  in  the  Neolithic  Age,  We  have  no  evi- 
dence whatever,  that  they  were  there  when  the  other 
great  OrientaL  empires  arose.  But  in  Europe,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  know  that  Aryan  migration  toward  the 
west  and  southwest  had  developed  the  great  Celtic  branch; 
that  the  southward  course  of  migration  had  given  rise 
to  the  mysterious  Pelasgic  branch,  extending  oven  to  the 
contines  of  the  Oriental  worKl;  and,  If  wo  luul  auy  rci'ords 
whatever  of  the  movements  of  the  Sarmatian  tribes 
during  this  Age,  we  would  find  them  pressing  forward 
toward  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  See.  Thus  at  the  close 
of  the  Neolithic  Age,  the  Celts,  the  Pelasgiana,  and  the 
Sarmatians,  as  the  vanguard  of  Aryan  migration  outward 
from  the  Baltic  center  of  dispersion,  shared  among  them< 
selves  the  border-lands  of  the  extent  of  Aryan  possessions 
even  as  they  did  at  the  dawn  of  history. 

Centuries  then  rolled  away,  during  which  time  we 
hare  no  information  of  the  events  that  transpired  among 
the  various  Aryan  people.  From  the  close  of  the  Neo- 
lithic Age  to  the  Heroic  Age,  they  are  almost  lost  to 
history.     Dunng  all  this  time,  the  Germans  must  hare 

:  Bee  de«crlptlon  of  the  Belgae  in  Boha'a  "CaMar,"  p.  fi46. 
•  Vide  This  Berlee,  Vol.  I.  p.  257  et  teg. 


aoo 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


estiag  stories  to  tell  us,  for  they  carry  us  back  to  a  time 
long  prior  to  that  when  the  Phoenician  trader  roamed 
over  the  seas  at  will,  and  visited  every  known  portion  of 
the  world.  "We  are  thus  told  that,  even  at  that  time,  the 
Aryans  of  Asia  Minor  had  a  written  language,  though  it 
may  have  been  but  a  rude  forecast  of  the  more  perfeti 


Hlsserlik. 
form  that  the  Phoenicians  themselves  were  destined  to 
introduce.'  It  was  a  sort  of  syllabic  form  of  writing,  and 
goes  by  the  name  of  Asianic  syllabary,  given  it  by-  Prof. 
Saycc.  This  form  of  writing  was  widely  spread  over 
Asia  Minor  nnd  the  isles  of  the  Aegaean.' 

Archaeologists  are  still  trying  to  interpret  these  Tro- 
jan inscriptions,  and  we  can  not  tell    how  soon  they  will 


I  Taylor:  "The  Alphabet,"  p.  115-6. 

>  Vide  luscriptloii  given  Vol.  II.  p.  408. 


tTMd Ann  them  psfff 


SBLLBNIC  ABTJjrS. 


201 


itai  frnm  them  pages  of  history  from  the  long  forgotten 
l<ui.  For  their  interpretation,  to  are  referred  back  to 
IW  time  when  the  Hittite  empire  was  in  the  height  of 
,ih  1^,  an<l  spread  its  influence  over  a  vast  region  in 
itt  Uinor  between  Babylonia  and  the  smaller  tribal  dia- 
bifb  along  the  western  coast    They  were  the  great  tra- 


Whorls  frcm  Troy. 
df-r- "f  thi-  ajfc;  and  it  i?*  duo  ttt  them,  that  the  culture 
•fill-  E:i.-t  wa:i  traiiJfinitted  to  the  It-ss  eiilightt'iied  people 
•<lii-  Wf'j't.  The  Trojans  may  not,  then,  have  had  direct 
r.t'T'-iiunH'  with  Babylonia,  but  may  have  received  a 
,:,..wl.-.iirf  nf  eastern  culture  ii«  it  eame  to  them  tinged 
rith  Hittite  influence. 

A  few  rude  attempt**  at  art  were  found   in  the  burnt 


202  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

city  of  Hissarlik.  The  most  of  the  specimens  that  m 
be  classed  under  that  head  consist  of  a  rude  draft 
pair  of  eyes,  appearing  on  the  pottery.  The  general 
pearance  of  these  objects  led  Dr.  Schliemann  to  class  t 
all  under  the  head  of  "Owl-headed"  pottery.  But  tl 
was  also  found  a  rude  leaden  image  of  some  goddess 
the  Trojans  worshiped.  The  discoverer  of  Ilios  waf 
clined  to  identify  it  with  the  Greek  goddess,  Athene.'  I 
Sayce,  after  having  pointed  out  the  Babylonian  and  Hii 
influence  that  had  so  much  to  do  in  molding  the  ci 


Owl-Hesded  Qoddeee. 
zation  of  the  Trojans,  recognized,  at  once,  the  resembl; 
between  this  Ilian  image  and  the  representations  of 
great  goddess  of  Carchemish,  the  Hittite  capital.' 
Trojans  called  her  Ate,  and  the  Hittites  Athi.     We 
told  that  the  "Owl-headed"  vases  also  represented 
same  goddess.    Her  images  occur  all  over  Asia  Minor 
even  appear  at  Mycena\     Such  was  the  modified  Bal 
nian  art,  that  spread  over  Western  Asia,  and  along  • 
it  came  the  worship  of  the  Babylonians  as  institute- 
Canhcmish.     Thus  should  we  notice  the  influence  of 
Turanian  Hittites  upon  the  culture,  and  especially  l 


"IlloB,"  p.  163-6. 


"Troja,"  p.  xvil.ftnd  xvUl 


TMJS  WBhLENJC  ARYA NS.  203 

religion,  of  these  primitive  Aryan  people.  Though 
former  may  have  received  their  ideas  from  Semitic 
oylonia,  the  entire  religious  belief  of  the  Trojans  was 
ply  colored  by  this  Turanian  religion.^ 
Such  is  our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Trojans.  Though 
may  feel  gratified  by  the  remarkable  strides  that  hi.^* 
ians  have  made  in  the  past  few  years  in  unraveling 
mystery — that  mystery  that  has  ever  veiled  this  storied 
d— yet  it  is  humiliating  to  contemplate  how  little  we, 
n  now,  know  of  the  fleeting  past,  and  the  momentous 
nts  that  have  transpired.  We  begin  to  see  through 
veil  darkly,  and  can  indulge  the  hope,  that  it  will  not 
nany  generations,  before  our  scholars  can  read  us  a  con- 
lous  history  of  these  early  times,  from  the  many  cylin- 
3  and  tablets  that  are  being  unearthed  in  this  inter- 
ng  region,  the  cradle  of  Aryan  civilization. 
Now  if  we  turn  again  to  Europe,  we  will  find  that 
more  thoroughly  Aryanized  people  of  that  continent 
e  not  entirely  inactive.  During  the  period  of  Trojan 
ndeur,  the  Aryans  of  Southern  Europe  were  slowly, 
surely,  gathering  ideas  from  the  more  advanced  regions 
he  South  and  East.  About  the  earliest  evidence  of  an 
ance  in  culture  that  we  have,  is  manifested  in  the 
at  walls  of  defense,  with  which  these  herdsmen  and 
bandmen  seem  to  have  been  forced  to  surround  their 
)al  headquarters.  So  immense  were  the  blocks  of  stone 
d  for  this  purpose,  that  the  ancients  were  wont  to 
ibute  the  building  of  their  walls  to  a  race  of  giants, 
)m  they  called  Cyclopes,  hence  we  have  the  term  "Cy- 
)ean  Walls."     It  is  supposed  that  the  oldest  of  these 

The  above  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  tutelary  goddess  of 
ns  was  of  Turanian  origin.  Consult  Lang:  "Myth,  Bitual  and  Re- 
a,"  c/.  Kearj':  *' Primitive  Belief."  We  have  sought  altogether  too 
a  source  for  the  gods  of  ancient  Greece. 


204  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

walls  was  built  around  the  citadel  at  Tiryns  in  Arj 
Mycenae  had  one,  and  Cyclopean  walls  formed  a  ma 
feature  of  Hellenic  architecture  of  this  period. 

Writers  do  not  as  yet  agree  as  to  who  the  builde 
the  Cyclopean  walls  were.  Many  argue  that  the  archi 
were  brought  from  Asia.  Professor  Adler^  argues 
they  were  of  Phrygian  origin.  Dr.  Schliemann  th 
that  they  were  a  '*great  Asiatic  people,  which  about 
middle  of  the  second  millenium  before  Christ  cov 
the  whole  of  the  mainland  of  Greece,  as  well  as  the  isl 
of  the  Ionian  and  Aegaean  seas,  with  settlements, 
which  had  already  attained  a  high  level  of  culture."^ 
again  he  says :  "We  may  therefore  assume,  with  ^ 
probability,  that  the  gigantic  walls  of  Tiryns  were 
by  Phoenician  colonists,  and  the  same  is  probably  the 
with  the  great  prehistoric  walls  in  many  other  par 
Greece.'*^  Here  we  are  introduced  to  a  new  people 
are  taking  part  in  European  affairs ;  namely,  the  Ph< 
cians/'* 

In  the  ruins  of  Ilios,  everything  points  to  pre-Ph< 
cian  tinios.^  The  Hittitcs  were  the  traders  of  its  day, 
we  are  to  suppose  that  this  later  nation  of  merchants 
not  yet  found  their  way  to  the  shores  of  the  Troad. 
in  Europe,  there  have  nowhere  been  found  any  ruins 
<»an  be  classed  as  pre-Phoenician.®  The  Phoenicians,  t 
must  have  appeared  in  numbers  on  the  Mediterrai 
about  the  period  of  the  fall  of  Troy,  although  single  P 

1  Preface  to  SchUemann:  .**Tiryn8,"  p.  xlvU.  et  seq. 

«  *»Tliyn8,»'  New  York,  1885.  «  Ibid.  p.  28. 

^  The  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone  regards  these  baildera  of  th 
olopean  walls  of  Greece  as  a  Poseidon  worshiping  race  [i.e.  Phoeni 
related  to  the  builders  of  the  walls  of  Troy,  thus  connecting  Greeo( 
Troy.    See  preface  to  **Mycenae  and  Tiryns,**  p.  vili. 

5  Sayce:  *'Troja/*  p.  xvi.  and  xvii. 

•  Sayce:  **Con temporary  Review,"  December,  1H78,  p,  68. 


THE  S£U.r.SJC  A  E  TAXS.  3ll5 

den  bad,  no  doofat^  peitetrated  these  r^ons  long 
Waiii  tkat  tZBC.  A«  priTale  traden  and  daring  nariga- 
fcni  tfcdrshipaeoald  hare  been  do  uncommon  sight  in 
Gnoaa  kaHun  while  yet  the  walls  of  Troy  were  stand- 
ilg.  The  potterr  unearthed  at  Mycenae,  though  plainly  ttf 
Btbrloaian  ongin,  shows  also  a  Phoenician  tnfluentw 
Tft  Hittite  trados  may  have  early  found  their  way  across 
Ae  HcUeqKtBl  and  down  into  Grecian  lande,'  and  bome 
Abob  s  kaovledge  of  Oriental  arts  and  manufnoTureK. 
We  thaa  estdi  a  glunjioe  of  the  wide  spread  traffic  and 
fte  long  and  daDgezona  joDrncya  ol  these  harbingers  <A 
,  anlixatioo  in  the  very  childhood  of  Kuix>pean  nations. 

ITh  datca  of  Uiia  period  are  indefinite,  but  they  have  been 
fadled  hgr  tbe  beat  anthorities  to  between  the  eighteenth 
nd  feortecfitli  centuries  b.  c.,'  and  that  is  just  the  period 
■^  Aa^rria  and  Babylonia  were  at  the  head  of  the  civi- 
'   luBdwori'd. 

PruC  Sajree*  recognizes  two  distinct  periods  in  the 
'e*!^>ment  of  Grecian  art  and  culture.  The  first  of 
«<ie  he  calls  Phr^'gian,  and  defines  it  as  the  period 
*1hs  Phoenician  and  Oriental  influence  was  felt  only  in- 
^irtcUj.  by  intercourae  with  a  few  tnulers  who  periodically 
*iw«d  thu  oitiea  of  Greece.  The  second  was  a  period 
'ieD  teacfaen  and  artisans  were  invited  across  the  Ae- 
Smu  to  inanage  the  construction  of  buildings  and  works 
*'  WL  Aa  eariy  as  the  sixteenth  century  b.  c,  the  Phoc- 
aiciuu  had  distinguished  themselves  as  a  great  commer- 
"*1  people,  trading  between  AssjTia  and  Babylonia;  and 
**  pw  not  believe  that  they  were  ignorant  of  the  very 
**»litie»  where  the  purpl&^ving  murei,  cuttle-fish,  and 


■  rbld   p.  97,  74. 

)  *»jt»,  rUd. ;  k1*o  Dr.  Sehllcmui'i  "Mycciue  and  TlryiM,"  p.  9-18. 

*  Op,  cil. 


y 


'JOG  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

slaves  were  most  easily  attainable.*    But  the  wide  c 

and  wonderful  influence  of  the  Phoenicians  on  the  cultme  | 

of  early  Europe  has  already  been  sufGciently  discussed.'  } 

The  Phoenicians,  accepting  the  Assjrrians  and  Babf-  j 
lonians  as  their  masters,  brought  to  the  people  of  Earopo  | 
iiuw  ideas,  and  opened  their  eyes  to  a  better  mode  of  lift 
The  Aryan  mind  grasped  the  new  ideas  at  once.     "  Th^   ' 
entered  into  other  men's  labors,  and  made  the  most  of 
them."     Their  small  rillage  communities  aasviined  tli0 
airs  of  cities;  walls  of  defense  were  erected;  elegant  vaaea, 
fine  linen,  Oriental  fabrics,  and,  indeed,  all  manner  of  for-   ' 
eign  articles  were  eagerly  purchased,  with  the  proiluce  of 
the  land,  or  with  captivt's  procured  in  their  tribal  warfare. 
Finally,  thoy  began  to  import  workmen,  who,  under  'the 
guidiinec  of  the  Aryan  master  mind,  soon  improved  npos 
their  models.     They  built  ships,  and  sought  to  compete 
with  the  Phoenicians  upon  the  sea.    Their  own  works  cf 
art  came  into  demand  in  foreign  markets,  and  Greece  Hooa 
ciitiTcd  upon  a  career  that  was  destined  to  place  her  at  tli«    . 
ho!uI  c.f  the  culture  of  the  Medieval  world. 

Ill  our  lijiste  to  give  Oriental  ciyilizations  credit  ibf 
all  Ihcv  may  have  done  to  adv^ance  Aryan  culture^  m 
must  not  overlook  the  influence  that  was  constantly  ewt- 
ted  over  these  regions  from  the  Baltic  homeland.  In  their 
love  for  classical  literature  and  art,  scholars  are  wont  to 
overlook  the  barbarous  and  inhuman  practices  of  tlieir 
piirticuliir  favorites,  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  As  touched 
by  the  poet's  art,  the  act  of  the  great  Agamemnon,  in 
.•^iayinghis  beautiful  daughter,  Iphigenia,  to-appeaae  the 
anger  of  some  goddess,  has  received  plaudits  from  the 
literary  world  from  that  day  to  this ;  but  the  Druid  priest, 
uho,  ill  the  midst  of  the  solitary  forest,  offered  up  his  aac- 

'  Sayw,  n.id.  p.  94.  «  St-f  Tlii!.  ."^irlt'K,  Vol.  11.  p.  73S. 


n%^ 


#UB«*'^" 


i^^?i 


kf^^ 


THE  HELLENIC  ABYANS. 


ifioes  to  gain  the  favor  of  some  angry  deity  for  hia  suffeiv 
ig  people,  has  been  ranked  as  a  murderer  from  the  bon- 
ing. Let  us  not  forget  that,  until  their  contact  with 
riental  civilizations  had  wrought  wonderful  changes  in 


LlonB  Gate  at  Mycenae- 
assical  people,  they  were  as  inhuman  and  barbarous  aa 
ny  other  Aryan  people.    The  Spartans  can  boast  of  neither 
umanity  nor  refinement.' 


)  Consult  Lang:  "  Myth,  Ritual  and  It«ligioD,"  Vol.  I.  p.  285,  e<  »eq. 
here  it  will  be  eeen  that  human  Hacriflce  in  Greece  ezleted  in  reality  to 
late  date,  perbapa,  even,  to  ilie  time  of  the  Romao  conquest. 


210  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

In  the  royal  tombs  at  Mycenae  were  found  a  nun 
of  amber  beads.^  A  quantity  of  these  were  placed  in 
hands  of  a  distinguished  chemist,  and  were  thus  pre 
to  be  from  the  Baltic*  Among  the  specimens  of  poti 
discoverd  in  the  ruins  of  the  first  settlement  at  Tir 
were  found  vases  with  "vertically  bored  excrescences 
both  sides,"  which  are  regarded  as  very  rare  and  and 
specimens.  Still  similarly  marked  vases  are  found  al 
the  Upper  Danube,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  Baltic 
gion. 

Now,  the  German  graves  which  contain  potter] 
this  class  are  referred  to  the  Neolithic  Age.*  We  must 
mit,  then,  that  these  ancient  Germans  either  manufactv 
this  pottery  or  else  had   communication  with  part 
Greece  during  the  period  between  the  Neolithic  Age 
the  second  millennium  B.   c,  back   of  which  time 
Schliemann  does  not  carry  the  date  of   the  foundin| 
Tiryns  or  Mycenae.     We  can  not,  therefore,  believe  1 
these  Germans  had  completely  buried  themselves  in 
forests   of  the  north.     They  were,  no  doubt,  as  steac 
though  perhaps  not  as  rapidly,  advancing  in  cultur 
their  more  favored  kindred  to  the  south. 

As  regards  Europe  proper,  the  first  gleams  of  hist 
light  seem  to  dawn  on  the  shores  of  ancient  Hellas,  wl 
has  been  called  "a  mountain  region  in  the  midst  of 


1  "Tiryns,"  p.  868. 

«  ThiB  Series,  Vol.  I.  p.  237;  Vol  II.  p.  780. 

8  There  is  a  dispute  about  the  date  of  this  first  settlement,  but  t 
who  maintain  that  it  is  of  recent  date  are  in  the  minority.  See  Gk>od^ 
•♦Nineteenth  Century/'  1886,  p.  914  ce  8eq.    Also  StUlnuui:  •'Nate 

May  20, 1886. 

*  Given  as  Prof.  Virchow's   opinion  in  "TIrjms,"  p.  68. 
same  work  p.  57  et  seq. 


iTiiw  nt-fk  j-'inirij.'  it  :■.  :l-i  ■^laj^^i.:..;    t_-   -..-    ..- 
IIS  of  Corinth.    T'j  iu-:  *..■::!  .:'  :j.--  ---^n:  >,  ■.:.-    -' 

& :  t'>  the  Donh  waa  the  p«;!iisauli  ■.£  Arj-a  -.i*.;:^  .   . 
red  into  the  »ea. 

Id  :tin.-i(.'nt  Ilt^IUs.  w-rr*  -Alpine  '.;iai:*-ar,«  .-.  - 
iL'hNjrhiHuI  yf  the  aea....ii  0'.~:ii::'i_--  /trui^t-jji  -. 
iv;;etu.< ....  Ht-re  steep  r^dtj  nioiz:.--  -..■»»— ^i        ,*» 

?]ik'nJor    abi^vt    gr^v-ia  -if    ■.■.>*    liiii     .i.;.-- . 
,U'Iy  furpsti  inflffle«l  CT«*Ti  la."..*.  'r,(Uf-».  -     -;    ■  ^.-^ . 
•fliniJit^  that  tb«f  l.-»r»<l  pr-i^i.i.-ft*   >,f.;  v-;-:>-.:.-   , 

piral  vpeptati'tn.     "T>i-r  h*i:i.:t.r.;.    •.^-.■..-r^    .- 

■1  floj*-:*  suffi't--*!  f-r  the  hrwi.-^   r  ^-t.k    ..t-    ....r. 
.  w.-ll-r-itu.itt'd  mounuin  :'=:m.^'=a  »-t* -Jli -'-,.- .-  . 
tur**  nf  thp  vine.  "*     Th*  *:t^i"^*  -irt-a'.  -•  ';;     .'.■;< 
ulf'ts  in  th(."  flurumer  li- rr.-,';:.r-i.r. -..rr---.'  r.   .-.»■■.■.•- 
•h  w:i«  Hcllai*.  arni  the  b^krij  nt'u  «-*    ;>•  /:.w-?< 

daui)U-<l  by  all  the  h'j«t.*  '.f  '.f..*  £'rT:.i~\  i-v.-,*-— 
umi-fi  unly  defiance  X/i  ihr^aa  /  ..-.Ti:f,,-.Ti      7u-    -.- 

^:ivc  th'-m  fortififsitior^-.  ar..^  *;    ■■;■,..--  jl'  1  .:  - 


212  TllK  MKDIKVAL    WORLIX 

inuat  r(MU(»!nb(»i»  that  thus  far  wo  have  depended  upon  Ian-- 
guiij^c,  rc^scarchos  of  the  archaeologist,  and  Oriental  in- 
^<*riptioiis  for  our  information.  Though  some  of  our  best 
lOjjyptologists  boliovo  that  the  names  of  many  Greek 
lrib(»s  aro  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  Pharaohs, 
ntluTs  doubt  tin*  accuracy  of  their  interpretation.^  We 
hav(*  now  to  deal  with  records  even  more  uncertain.  We 
liave  reached  the  period  of  myths  and  traditions  which 
c(»nt(»r  around  certain  legendary  heroes  who,  if  they  lived 
at  all,  lived  MO  long  ago  that  the  ancients  supposed  that 
th(\v  wtMv  the  children  of  the  gods.  This  has  been  called 
the  '•  Heroic  Age." 

Strange  and  ridiculous  as  it  may  appear  to  us,  the 
luM'oic  ago  was  a  time  honored  reality  to  the  ancient 
(Jn^eks  and  llomana.  Kven  down  to  a  very  recent  time, 
tin*  mass  of  the  people  were  firm  believers  in  the  genuine- 
ness ()f  tin*  mythical  history  that  clusters  around  their 
anc(\strnl  gods  and  forms  a  part  of  their  vestal  worship. 
^^^*  must  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  every  illustrious 
heroof  this  strangely  unreal  ago  thought  it  no  sacrilege 
to  claim  relationship  to  some  god  or  goddess  of  the  Gre- 
<M;i]i  pantheon.  It  was  not  considereil  as  at  all  opposed 
tt>  tin*  itleal  character  of  divinity  for  their  revereil  gods  to 
visit  the  cart  hand  deflower  the  daughters  of  men.  Neither 
•!i(l  their  goddesses,  whose  beauty,  purity,  and  divinity  in- 
>^pircd  tiie  sculptor's  chisel,  lose  anything  in  the  reverence, 
t»r  the  people  by  meeting  eartlulnn'n  heroes  and  bearing 
\\\v\\\  chiMren  ih*stined  to  accv>mplish  deeds  of  renown. 
Tlnis  \\)v  fertile  miuils  of  the  ancients  pix^pled  the  earth 
witli  a  race  o(  demi-irods,  in  wlu)m   thev  firmlv  Indieved 

anil  whom   tht^v  ilevoutlv  worshiiunl. 

•  %  I 

*  Soo  Savro:  'TiMUoniporary  lioviow,"  1Hh\  IS78,  p.  74«6, 


ThS  HELLENIC  ASY^NS. 


213 


^e  most  look  to  the 
3  of  Hellas  for  the  le- 
B  of  this  remote  age. 
3  blind  Homer  has  be> 
!  such  a  visionary  per- 
ge,  we  can  not  mention 
as  an  historical  char- 
■;  but  the  great  mass 
oetry  known  as    the 
teric  poems  is  as  inters 
g  and  valuable  as  ever 
treasure-house  of  this 
;nt  folk-lore.     One  of 
most  ancient  legends  > 
interest  us  is  that  of  1 
'oyage  of  the  ship  Ar-  S 
search  of  the  "golden  " 
\"     Tht'ir  vessel  was  45 
ructed  under  the   su-  S 
ision  of  the   goddess,  g 
■ne,    tutclarj'   goddess 
thcns. 

was  manned  by  fifty  , 
o  e  s  and  demi-gods, 
ig  whom  were  Her- 
,  Theseus,  Castor  and 
IX,  with  Jaaon,  heir  to 
:hieftainship  of  Thes- 
incommiind.  Perhaps 
an  conclude  from  this 
id,  that  long  voyages  of 
very  were  of  early  oc- 
tnce  among  theGreeks, 


214  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  that  they  journeyed  toward  the  east  in  quest  of  gold 
and  precious  metals.^ 

So  in  regard  to  the  sacking  of  Troy  or  Ilios,  we  hare 
no  satisfactory  records,  for  this  event  has  ever  t)eeD  % 
most  fruitful  source  of  legends  and  myths.  The  spade  of 
the  archaeologist  has  proved  that  Ilios  once  waa.  That 
she  had  been  twice  conquered,  once  she  was  but  partially 
destroyed,  but  at  last  she  met  the  same  sad  fate  of  so 
many  anciant  cities.  Thus  far,  we  are  in  no  doubt  and  so 
we  admit  that  there  is  an  historical  foundation  for  the 
Homeric  poems.  We  need  not  dwell  upon  the  myths 
that  cluster  around  the  history  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  this 
ill-fated  city.  The  walls  built  by  Poseidon  ;  the  Backing 
by  the  angry  Hercules ;  Paris,  the  unfortunate  castaway; 
the  envious  contest  of  the  beautiful  goddesses,  Aphrodifee^ 
Here,  and  Athene;  the  rape  of  Helen,  the  "fairest  of 
living  women ;"  the  vengeful  Greeks,  bent  on  rescuing  the 
fair  Helen  and  punishing  her  seducer ;  the  Olympian  gods 
in  angry  council  over  the  affair ;  the  returning  heroes 
doomed  to  endless  wanderings:*  all  savor  too  much  of 
the  unreal  to  claim  space  for  detailed  mention  here;  and 
these  legends  are,  no  doubt,  familiar  to  all  readers  of  the 
older  school  of  historians.  We  must  conclude  with  Dr. 
\\\4)}),'  that  "the  tale  of  Troy,  as  we  have  it  in  Homer, 
is  ossentially  a  poetic  creation." 


1  ThiH  legend  is  given  in  full  in  Grote:  '^History  of  Qreeoe/'  Vol.  I. 
p.  231  ct  sffj. ;  also  "History  of  Ancient  Geography,"  Vol.  I.  p.  19.    See 
Riclianl  Payno  Knight:  ^'Symbolical  Language  of  Ancient  Art,"  p.  168. 
Possibly  in  the  legend  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition  we  have  a  myth  to 
account  for  a  Hurvival  from  ancient  Phallic  worship.    The  ark  playg 
}in  important  part  in  all  religions  of  the  Orient,  it  probably  represents 
the  wonih  from  whence  all  living  things  proceed.    See  Innian :  * 'Ancient 
Faiths,"  Vol.  I.  p.  S83  etseq,;    Knight,  Op.  cit.  p.  133;  Higgins:  *'Adi^ 
calypsis,"  p.  128;  Blavatsky:  "Inia  Unveiled,"  Vol.  T I.  p.  444. 
3  Sco  Tlomcr's  *'Ody»«ey"  and  Virgil's  '^Aenaeid.'* 
3  •*An  Introduction  to  Homer,"  Hoston,  1877,  p.  147. 


THX  SBLLSXIC  ASTAHS.  315 

It  mar  be  of  intcnst  to  us,  howerer,  to  note  how 
tttUallv  the  poet  pottiaja  the  life  and  enltnre  U  the 


Ret'jrr.  frcm  Troy- 
fi*  times.     His  characters  jire  all  heroes  and  demi-gods. 
*h'-m  were  Menelau!>,   huf^nnd   of   the  fair  Helen,  the 
T>-ai  Ammemnon,  the  wise  Xestor,  the  wily  Odysseus, 


216  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  the  i)owerl'iil  warriors,  Ajax  and  Achilles.  Agamem- 
non was  the  chosen  leader,  yet  he  dared  not  act  before 
he  had  called  a  council  of  the  chieftains.  In  this  coun- 
cil, all  the  chieftains  sj)oke  with  as  much  freedom  as  the 
commander,  and  they  did  not  hesitate  to  denounce  him 
in  the  boldest  manner.  His  authority  was  only  nomi- 
nal, for  he  seems  to  have  had  no  power  to  compel  obedience. 
Pouting  Achilles  could  lie  unmolested  in  his  ships,  re- 
gardless of  his  superior's  commands,  as  well  as  the  peril 
of  the  Grecian  cause,  just  on  account  of  a  quarrel  between 
himself  and  Agamemnon.*  This  all  points  to  a  loosely 
organized  tribal  state  of  government,  where  every  chief- 
tain ruled  his  own  tribe  independent  of  any  superior 
authority.* 

Herodotus  but  echoed  the  sentiments  of  his  day, 
when  he  makes  the  Persians  say  :  "To  steal  women  is  the 
deed  of  knaves,  but  to  hastily  seek  vengeance  for  those 
who  have  been  carried  off  is  foolish."'  So  that  it  is  im- 
probable that  the  earlier  Greeks  should  raise  such  a  stir 
about  a  single  woman,  even  were  she  the  fairest  of  the 
sex.  The  poet's  story  is,  probably,  but  the  solar  mjih 
of  the  strife  between  light  and  darkness  retold,  w^ith  per- 
haps a  slight  historical  foundation.  "  Some  memorable 
capture  of  a  town  in  the  Troad  had  probably  been  made 
l>y  Greek  warriors."*  We  would  go  even  filrther,  and  sur- 
mise, that  it  was  one  of  those  great  periodical  migrations 
of  the  Hellenes  into  Asia  Minor,  when  the  pent  up  forces 
of  Aryan  migration  burst  forth  with  renewed  vigor,  and 
the  waves  flooded  the  entire  eastern  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  even   laved  the   feet  of  the   Pyramids  of 


1  •'Iliad,"  Book  i. 

2  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  179  et  seq. 

8  nook  i  ehapter  4.  4  Webb,  Op.  dt. 


E^v-  -r-i-- 


218  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

from  that  ever  swarming  Aryan  hive  in  northern  Centnl 
Europe.  The  Dorians  entered  the  Peloponnesus,  and  tbe 
earlier  dwellers  there  were  either  Dorian ized,  enslaved,  or 
driven  out  upon  the  islands  of  the  sea.  The  western  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  was  finally  repopulated  by  tribes  of  Aeo- 
Hans,  lonians,  and  Dorians  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Hel- 
las. The  Phoenicians  planted  their  colonies  along  the 
Meiiiterranean  shores,  and  even  built  commercial  towDB  in 
Greei^e  itself.  But,  as  far  as  Greece  was  concerned,  they 
came,  jH^rformod  their  mission  as  harbingers  and  messen- 
gers of  a  greater  civilization,  and  passed  away^ — all  within 
this  periixl. 

The  Homeric  jx^ems  grew  during  this  era.  The  great 
epics — the  Iliad  and  Odyssey — ^have  ever  since  furnished 
models  fi^r  the  jHuns  of  all  nationalities.  This  period  also 
witnessed  the  introiluction  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  and 
thu:>  the  foundation  of  a  literature,  in  the  scope  and  pe^ 
feotioi\  oi  which  Grt^ece  for  manv  centuries  led  the  world. 
A\'o  sitvk  in  vain  for  more  than  traces  of  all  these  changes. 
History  is  all  but  >ilent  regarding  them.  A  few  legends  and 
thoir  sti^rios  are  tolJ :  the  CTOwth  of  lanjruafire  adds  its  mite; 
and  the  spado  of  the  art-haci^logist  brings  its  tribute.  Thus 
do  wo  irloaii  the  scorning  facts  and  shape  the  records  of  a 
i:n\it  iiatioti  :hr«niirU  four  centuries  of  its  childhood.  The 
rest  is  buri^xl  ii:  a  loni:  forirotten  jxist,  which  may,  pe^ 
haps.  Tiovor  K^  r<valK\l.  "Our  cLx*k  strikes  when  there 
is  a  ohar.iTo  :rv'T:i  hour  :»•  hour :  but  no  hammer  in  the 
hor«^loj:uo  •  :'  Tinio  jH?als  through  the  universe,  when  then 
is  a  oliaiiiTo  rroiii  Era  to  Era.  Men  understand  not  whic 
is  i:;  :lio:r  h:ir.ils :  :;s  a  oalmuoss  is  a  characteristic  0 
stn^r.irih.  s^»  ::io  woiirhtiost   causes  mav  be  most  silent.'^ 

'houui  wo  attempt  to  ivmpare  ancient  HellaB  wifl 


Si 


-  Gp.^:e.  v.^:.  III.  •.  ir  1  CarlyW. 


•  T 


modem  :.:ii:  i^  »-  «'  •— :    -  -lt:----— 

•  -^ 


rr-'.  r     "■ 


•  •  ■        t . . 


B.-  . 

I-   . 


i."     • 


I  .  -. 


-I 


T'     ^ 


I.  / 


1 ' 


•  ir* .  '.'i-v   .-■-••••:*-:   -.vriai  was* 


I .% 


My-;.,    i:.ruji..   ij.-x  l^-liifioa,"*  Ix^Ddon, 


220  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

corrupting,  and  carried  forward  to  perfection  what  wap 
enlightening,  ennobling  or  refining. 

When  history  finally  dawns  upon  Greece,  we  fiod 
that  land  peopled  by  tribes  who  claimed  descent  from  one 
common  ancestor,^  and  recognized  "fellowshij)  of  blood; 
fellowship  of  language ;  fixed  domiciles  of  gods'  and  sac- 
rifices, common  to  all ;  and  like  manners  and  customs."* 
The  majority  of  ancient  historians,  including  Herodotui^ 
and  Thucvdides  *  believed  that  there  was  a  time  when 
diifcrent  languages  were  spoken  in  the  various  parts  of 
Greece;  but,  during  historical  times,  the  Greek  language 
has  been  universjdly  used  throughout  Hellas.  As  we 
would  suppose,  however,  in  a  tribal  state  of  society,  there 
were  many  dialects,  j^rincipal  among  which  were  the 
Doric,  Aeolic,  and  Ionic.  Each  tribe  had  its  j^eeuliar  diar 
leet,  though  the  divergences  were  not  such  as  to  2>revent 
every  Greek  from  understanding  everv  other  Greek.  This 
points  to  a  time  when  a  common  mother  language  was 
spoken  by  the  Hellenic  tribes.  This  language  was  differ- 
ent, though  cognate  with  the  primitive  Latin  tongue. 

Politically  the  Hellenic  tribes  were  universally  inde* 
pendent  of  one  another.  Athens  was  only  one  of  a  number 
of  Ionic  cities,  each  of  which  regarded  itself  as  free  from 
all  manner  of  2>olitical  servility.  As  regards  dialect,*  the 
various  political  communities  of  Attica  were  closely  allied. 
So  likewise  all  Greece  was  united  in  the  worship  of  cer- 
tain deities.    But  politically  there  was  no  unity  in  ancient 


1  Hellen.  2  Grote,  Op.  cit.  p.  287. 

3  Herodotus,  i.  57-8.  <  Thucydides,  i.  8. 

^  Cirote  Fuys :  '*There  was  no  such  thiug  as  ouo  Ionic  dialect . .  .  Tlie 
Ionic  liiuU'ct  of  grammarians  Mas  an  extract  from  Homer,  Hekauieus, 
Hennlotus,  Hippocrates,  et<'. ;  to  wliat  living  speech  it  made  the  nearest 
approach  amid.^t  thi^se  divergencies,  which  the  historian  has  made 
known  to  us,  we  can  not  tell." 


TffB  SBLLBNIC  ABYAI98.  221 

reece.  More  recent  research  in  the  field  of  ancient 
eietjy  enables  us  to  clearly  understand  society  in  ancient 
reece.  It  was  simply  tribal  society.  A  brief  study  of 
has  already  been  made.^  We  need  simply  recall,  that 
A  tribe  was  independent,  and  that  the  several  divisions 
a  tribe  allowed  no  interference  in  their  internal  affairs. 
8  each  important  city  in  ancient  Greece  was  the  headquar- 
rs  of  a  tribe,  we  understand  why  there  was  no  connect- 
ig  bond  between  them,  and  why  it  was  so  difficult  for  a 
jsident  of  one  city  to  acquire  rights  in  another ;  it  could 
ily  be  done  by  tribal  adoption.  Only  at  a  later  date 
ere  confederacies  formed.  At  an  extremely  early  date, 
owever,  both  at  Athens  and  at  Sparta,  some  tribes,  prob- 
Wy  Pelasgic,  had  been  reduced  to  tribute. 

The  Greeks  were  further,  to  a  great  extent,  religiously 
nited.  Were  we  to  seek  a  date  commemorated  by  the  , 
funding  of  the  Delphian  temple  to  Apollo,  we  would 
K)se  ourselves  amidst  the  shadows  of  antiquity.  It  stood 
1  the  slopes  of  Parnassus  before  Homer  sang  of  the 
rath  of  Achilles.*  Even  before  the  return  of  the  Hera- 
?id3,  the  Amphictyonic  council  was  wont  to  assemble 
d  deliberate  for  the  protection  of  this  sacred  temple  and 
5  rich  gifts,  that  had  at  that  time,  even,  been  brought 
m  the  ends  of  the  world^  and  dedicated  to  that  all-wise 
1. 

Long  before  the  first  date  appears  in  Grecian  history, 

priestess  of  Apollo  was  wont  to  enter  the  caves  of 

massus  and  listen  to  the  will  of  the  gods  in  regard  to 

affairs  of  men.     Even  at  the  dawn  of  le^^endarv  his- 

r,  no   great   enterprise  was   undertaken   without  first 


I  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  182  et  aeq. 

t  ''Iliad/'  ix.  1.504. 

^  Smith:  ^'Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities." 


222 


THE  MEDIEV4L  WORLD. 


consulting  the  Delphian  oracle  in  regard  to  the 
of  the  undertaking.  In  later  times,  the  Greeks  founded 
colonies  only  under  the  approval  of  Ajk)11o,  as  manifested 
through  the  priestess  at  Delphi.  Lycurgus  sought  the 
aid  of  the  Delphian  oracle  before  he  prepared  his  laws 
for  Sparta.^  In  still  later  times,  rulers  ami  statesmen 
from  Rome,  Egypt,  and  Asia,  sought  advice  from  Delphi, 


The  Frleatees  of  ApoUo  at  Delplil. 
[Vide  Vol  TI.  p.  828-1 

and  acted  accordingly.  Here  was  the  spot  in  all  the  world 
most  favored  by  the  gods.  This,  according  to  the  ancient 
legend,  was  the  spot  chosen  by  Apollo  himself  as  fab 
tiivorite  resort.  Here,  the  ancients  thought  the  ear  of  that 
god  could  be  reached  with  least  effort  and  their  petitions 


1  Grote,  Vol.  II.  p.  a-JS- 


rUE  HELLENIC  AH  YANS. 

riih  greatest  favor,  and  so,  from  the  earliest  times, 
o^e<l  bithor  to  listen  to  the  will  of  the  gods. 
ow,  there  was,  no  doubt,  a  time  when  this  place  of 
ip  was  a  simple,  local  shrine,'  and  it  must  have  taken 
:  time  to  bring  it  into  national  prominence.  But 
i"  it  camo  to  be  known  all  over  Hellas.  The  rich 
that  were  brought  as  propitiatory  offerings  to  the 
utilatMl  to  such  an  ext*>nt,that  fears  were  enter- 
r  the  safety  of  tlicse  treasures.  So  we  find,  even 
beginning  of  Grecian  history,  that  certain 
\  the  numerous  Hellenic  tribes  had  formed  a  league 
:iion  of  the  temple  and  treasures  of  the  Del- 
Tbis  league  was  called  the  AmpkUtyonic 
Its  origin  extends  so  far  back  in  time,  that  the 
king  Grecians  wi>re  wont  to  attribute  its  organi- 
I  mythical  personage,  Amphictyon,  whom  tliey 
Ebpotbcr  of   Uellen,  the  so-called  ancestor  of  the 


The  word  "  Amphic^on  "  moans  a  gathering  of  friends, 
■li^bon.*  It  is  a  noleworthy  fact,  thiit  only  such  He!- 
■  bribes  as  dwelt  io  tin-  neighborhood  of  Delphi  and 
■mopjlsa  befctre  the  i  ■  rian  conf|Uest  of  Peloponnesus, 
lirqireseDttHl  in  thiit  league.  Representation  was  also 
Diiiiiig  to  trilK->.  an<l  not  ;;ccnrdi!igtn  cities.  Athens 
l|llAeed  on  nn  cjitality  with  .-ill  nther  Ionian  towns. 
Ukewiae,  Thebes  M-as  one  of  several  Ba'otian  towns. 
Ji  tribe  had  two  vut<s  in  the  deliberations  of  the  coun- 
uid  the  small  towns  were  entitled  tu  ;iii  equal  voice 
1  those  that  were  known  in  historic  times  only  as  large 
«.    Some  of  the  trilx-a  tliat  were  co-powerfiil  with  the 


Mrmt".  doxk  ix.  r-linpter  lil.  7.  *  Strnho,  \x.  Ul.  7-S 

r'nr  kdcvprr  ineanlDg  of  the  Dnt  syllable,  vim,  tieti  Uiggiui 


224  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

lonians  and  Boeotians  are  only  known  to  us  as  subordin 
to  the  rule  of  others  that  were  also  members  of  t 
league.^ 

In  the  council,  however,  the  subordinate  PerrhsBbij 
had  two  votes  that  proved  as  weighty  as  the  two  votes  c 
by  the  ruling  Thessalians.  Thus  we  see  that  all  this  i 
dence  points  to  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  Grec 
It  leads  us  back  to  a  time  prior  to  the  return  of  the  H€ 
cleids ;  to  a  time,  in  fact,  when  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Thel 
were  not  so  much  more  powerful  than  their  neighbori 
towns  as  to  be  deemed  worthy  of  special  notice;  also  t 
time  when  the  five  dependent  tribes  represented  in  1 
league  were  equal  in  strength  and  liberty  to  their  la 
masters,  the  Thessalians. 

This  much,  then,  does  the  Delphian  oracle  reveal 
us  in  regard  to  the  history  of  Hellas  in  the  past.  We  \ 
taught  that  even  before  the  dawn  of  history,  neighbori 
tribes  were  accustomed  to  hold  councils  to  deliberate  up 
their  common  interests.  These  associations  were  not  o 
fined  to  this  particular  league,  but  there  were  a  numi 
of  less  prominent  Amphictyons,  that  had  their  spec 
places  of  assemblage  throughout  Greece  and  her  eoloni 
The  Dorian,  Ionian,  and  Aeolian  settlements  of  A 
Minor,  each  had  their  league  that  assembled  at  stated 
tcrvals,  at  a  certain  place,  in  honor  of  some  god.  Tb 
were  others  in  Hellas  itself.*  The  great  Amphictyo 
council,  however,  met  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring,  at  D 
phi,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  and,  in  the  autumn,  near  Th 


1  The  twelve  mentioned  as  members  of  the  Amphlctyonic  coui 
are**The88alians,  Boeotians,  Dorians,  lonians,  Perrhaebians,  Magne 
Lfocriaus,  Oetaeans,  Achaeans,  Phocians,  Dolopes,  and  Maliana.  F 
liaebians,  Maguctes,  Achaeans  of  Phthiotes,  Maliana  and  Dolopes  li 
in  the  state  of  irregular  dependence  upon  the  Thessalians* 

i  Grote,  Vol.  II. 


THE  HBLLEXJC  ASTAXS.  225 

KOpybe,  in  the  "second  ptvcinct  «{  Demeter  Amphicty- 


Al  firgtf  the  assembly  eomutcd  of  little  more  ihtM 
delegates  from  the  aeparate  tribes ;  but  later,  these  repre- 
•eatativi-3  were  followed  to  tbc  plac«  of  SAsemblagp  tn* 
Urge  concouraes  of  people  who  came  together  for  purpoMi= 
sf  trulti  and  sarrifirc,  or  to  witness  the  games  that  were 
made  a  part  of  cai'h  fostir&l  from  Terr  early  limes. 
When,  in  historic  times,  the  Pythian  games  came  to  be 
celebrated  at  Delphi,  the  roads  and  by-ways  leading  from 
the  remottst  comers  of  Greece  were  crowded  with  {»!• 
pims.  both  en  foot  and  in  theirmagnificcDtchariotadrawn 
\rf  their  findy  caparisoned  steeds,  destined  to  contend  in 
the  rmoes  for  the  hoDor*bearing  prize,  a  wreath  of  wild 

^  We  mu.*t  remember  that  the  Greeks,  in  common  with 

all  e&rly  people,  were  stUl  in  a  tribal  state  of  society  when 

r  th^  really  historical  period  begins.  While  we  can  speak 
of  thfui,  as  we  hare  above,  as  Dorians,  loniaas,  and 
Aeoiiun^,  we  most  not  forget  that  these  were  only  the 
TsUnj;  ■•onfederacies.  There  were  many,  and  different, 
tribes  still  dwelling  in  the  Ptloponnesos,  but  m  much 
weaker  and  inferior  to  their  Dorian  masters  as  to  hare 
Kmained  buried  in  oblivion.  The  tribes  that  occupied 
Hellas  had,  like  all  £uro{>ean  Arj'ans,  already  reached  :: 
jorial  development,  in  which  the  family  was  recognized, 
sad  the  Tillage  community  was  the  center  of  govemmen* 
tal    life.      They  already   had   their  walled  towns,   but 

r  Athens  and  Sparta  had  not  yet  attained  the  power  and 
fEmndear  thnt  charaftcrizfMl  them  latrH. 

The  majority  of  their  towns  were  without  walls  and 


•  TbMw  (MDM  will  b«  mora  fully  deKribed  lkt«r. 
a  Gnte,  Op.  elt.  p.  24T. 


226  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

scatteringly  inhabited;  and,  according  to  Thucydidea, 
they  regarded  it  as  contributing  to  their  glory  to  plunder 
their  weaker  neighbors.^  Through  fear  of  being  assaulted 
by  pirates,  who  swarmed  the  seas,  the  noiost  of  the  early 
villages  were  located  at  a  distance  from  the  coast.*  But 
when  the  people  became  more  wealthy,  through  their  com- 
mercial relations  with  other  countries,  they  built  walled 
towns  on  the  sea-coast  and  easily  defended  isthmuses.  In 
the  summer,  the  mountain  slopes  were  covered  with  flocks 
and  herds,  and  all  tillable  lands  were  cultivated  like  gar- 
dens. Their  products  were  wheat,  barley,  flax,  wine,  and 
oil.' 

Although  the  year  776  B.  c.  furnishes  us  a  startiDg 
point  in  Grecian  chronology,  for  two   centuries  more  we 
are  left  to  grope  about  in  the  darkness  of  Grecian  history, 
with  only  here  and  there  a  stray  ray  of  light  to  guide  our 
uncertain  steps.   Some  events,  that  ripened  into  historical 
facts  of  greatest  moment,  sj^rang  into  life  during  the  un- 
certain century  preceding  the  first   Olympiad.     During" 
three  centuries,*  we   are  constantly  introduced  to   past 
scenes,  where  the  historical  and  legendary  meet  on  nearly 
equal  grounds.  It  was  during  the  early  part  of  this  period, 
that  the  semi-mythical  character,  Lycurgus,  existed  and 
irave  to  Sparta  laws  remarkable  for  their  originality  and 
severcness.^ 

It  was  during  this  period,  that  the   Dorian  invasion 


1  Book  i.  5.  2  Ibid,  chapter  vli. 

3  Grotc,  Op.  cit.  230. 

*  Oue  preceding  and  two  following?,  the  first  Olympiad. 

5  Plutarch  Hays  coneorninj^  Lyourjrus  [ch.  1]  that  there  Is  8o  much 
uncertainty  about  him  that  Rcarcely  anything  is  naid  by  one  historian 
which  is  not  contradicted  by  the  rest.  The  conflicting  authorities  are 
Aristotle,  Eratosthenes,  Apollodorus,  Timaeus,  Herodotus,  and  Xeno- 
phon.  O.  Mailer  sums  the  whole  account  we  have  of  him  in  the  state- 
ment that  "wo  have  absolutely  no  account  of  him  as  an  individual  per- 
son.'* *'r)orians;»  Vol.  T.  p.  loi    This  Heries,  Vol.  II.  p.  220. 


THE  HELLENIC  ARyANS.  227 

<tf  Peloponnesus  «a»  brouglit  to  a  cloee  by  the  conquest  of 
Mnsaeua  bv  Sparta.     It  nas  during  this  period,  that  the 
trilial  Tillages  of  ancient  Greece  first  grew  into  importance 
asrtties.     It  was  a  period  of  tyrannies,  when  ambitioua 
men  usnrpod  the  ruling  poWcr  in  nearly  all  the  tribes  of 
HcUu.     Tims  tribiil  life  was  largely  broken  tip,  and  sub- 
ject tnbes  came  fonvard  to  demand  some  share  in  the  gov- 
cmmeot     This  period  was  also  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
teOMon  of  the  circumference  of  Grecian  territory  to  its 
greatest  limit  under  Hellenic  rule,  by  extensive  colonixa- 
tioB  along  the  shores  and  ujwn  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
nueu.'    Tho  onward  march  of  Aryan  migrations  had  not 
yrtcMscd,  and  the  crowded  cities  i.f  Hellas  planted  colo- 
■i^i  on  foreign  shores ;  and,  they,  iu  turn,  became  indepen* 
^n&  Hellenic  citien 

These  thri*e  centuries  witnessed  the  gradual  riso  of  the 
Rutins.  Sparta  wus  situated  among  the  mountains,  in 
ifcp  In-art  of  Peli)|Kmne3US.  This  wns  <»ne  of  the  fHjinta 
«rl_r  occupied  by  the  Dorians  when  they  mado  their  ap- 
|«r!iD«x'  ill  I'i'IdjKinnesus.  It  is  n<iw  gimerdly  8UpiH>stHl, 
lluttln'  r)orians  united  with  the  Aetolians  crossed  thoCor- 
iirtljian  Gulf.  The  Artolians  iouk  i)OPsc99ion  of  the  fertile 
pHitt*  of  Elis,  but  the  Spartans  piwct-d  on  to  the  plains  of 
PiilniKinn«U'»  proper.  They  could  not  have  been  verj'  Dum- 
Wii  Of  powerful,  and  seem  to  have  consisted  oftwo  bands, 
■*8p»rt4M  pro|>er  and  the  Messenians.  We  have  seen 
'^'•oM  io  a  f'Tuier  chapter  to  conclude  that  the  Spartans 
•"••Ulcd  nf  five  trilies.*  ^iVIien  they  rearhc<l  the  In^atiun 
•"ttocnt  Si>artn,  they  built  each  their  tribal  eity,  five  in 
*U.onwall«l  and  unadonied,  at  a  distance  fn>m  the  sea 


I 


'It  Boat  bemnMnbemlllut  P1iini>  of  M*c«(lon  and  hl«»> 
r    HiirUaaN^  WM«  nut  H«U>alcarvrk4. 
*  T«L  n.  p.  184. 


228  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

coast,  shut  off  from  all  risk  of  invasion  by  almost  impracti- 
cable mountain  roads.  The  band  of  Messenians  pushed 
on  further  southwest,  and  cstablishwl  themselves  not  far 
from  the  border  line  of  Arcadia,  with  whom  they  lived  in 
peace. 

On  tho  eastern  side  of  the  Peloponne8us,another,  though 
indei>eiident,  invasion  was  in  progi-ess.  Certain  tril>e8  of 
Dorians  were  advancing  upon  the  native  villages  of  Corinth 


The  Five  Ephora 
and  Argos,  There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that  these 
attacks  were  made  from  the  sea.  But  we  know  that  the 
Dorians  finally  gained  possession  of  both  towns  and  formed 
settlements  tlicre.  Corinth  was  located  on  the  narrow 
isthmus  that  joined  Vppcr  Hellas  to  the  PoIoiHmncsus. 
Argos  was  situated  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  that  separated 
the  peninsula  of  Argolis  fnnu  ilio  mainland.  Thisnll  bap- 
pened  durin*;  the  firrit  century  after  the  fall  of  Troy.     The 


CROESUS  ON  THE  FUNERAL  PYRE. 


UJt  BXLLEiriC  ABYAirS. 


I  sod  Mosscniaiu  were  for  serend  eenturie*  d««e 
I  and  allies.     Tliey  wer# alike  powCTfal  atihmOijm- 
f  fevtiral.  and  had  eren  erected  a  eommoa  ilirine  to  Alt' 
I  Limnatb. 

Though  tlie  8|itfti         I     ed  their  land  a«  cffwfonwfn^ 

I  MeieDiaiui  forced      e  natives  to  an  allianct::,  thenr 

I  Bfb  untmg  a  .-ftrange  people  fbU  tA  rale  and  er/nten- 

Tlioy,  therefore,  grew  into  power  v*tt  jsUrtrlT,     M«s- 

t  never  attaini-d  the  strength  of  her  neij^bor  and  alUr 


I    rival   uih!  rvni|iUT'T.     Thou;:h   tin-v   t':ii-'u—\  tu-.r  'uuut'-* 

■w^ry  early  in  th.-  l«flfth  (x-ntury  u.  ' ..  it  wn-  ;.•,:  ■■.•..K\  •:,■ 

cloM*  fifths'  riiiitli   i-enturj-.  that   .Sjiarl-i   lf;'ii,fii"   ic.ATl'il 

*  CWNlfrh  1>'  i-xti-n<l  il«  comiur-riLs  )f;yoii<l  ;t  I'TV  l;iriit'-'i  ar<-A. 

Abuut  fifty  VMini  l».-rorf  th*-  fir:-t  <llym|-i;i<i.  th'-r-    w:»^  «;ii'l 

to  rulf  at  Spnrta  a  rhieft»iiii  hy  th»-  narn'-  of  T'-I'-'-Iih   who 

claim<^l  to  Inuf   liiii  fliwent    ff.tn    Ht-r'-iil'-      Thi-    wjhi 

;|.  jheottfae  tim*-  that  Sparta  wjw  :.'iv«-n  th*-  law-  of  \ .ynrjim, 

j^BLsodB  '     bjul  l)e:ninto  i*-i:\  th<-  l««;ii<:tiu  of  th<f«'-  Kirin- 

^^pCBMtl       StJI. 


232  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

The  result  of  Sparta's  laws  was  the  formation  of  % 
powerful  army.  Every  man  was  physically  perfect  and 
trained  to  endure  all  manner  of  hardships.  A  military  train- 
ing began  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  no  man  was  exempt 
until  he  had  reached  his  three  score  years*  Now,  as  an 
indication  of  Sparta's  weakness  up  to  this  time,  we  are  told* 
lb  at  during  the  three  and  one-half  centuries  that  the  Dor- 
ians had  occupied  the  five  villages  at  Sparta,  there  had 
existed  a  number  of  independent  native  tribes  to  the  south, 
one  of  which,  Amyclae,  was  only  two  and  one-half  miles 
from  the  Spartan  headquarters.  It  was  not  until  the  time 
of  Teleclus  that  these  towns  were  conquered  and  made  a 
part  of  Spartan  territory !  Not  until  this  occurrence  did  Mes- 
sena  and  the  balance  of  the  Peloponnesus  begin  to  be 
fearful  of  Spartan  supremacy. 

For  the  ruling  power  in  the  Peloponnesus  during  the 
entire  period  of  three  centuries,*  we  are  to  look  to  Dorian 
Argos.  This  was  her  period  of  conquest  and  glory.  As 
soon  as  her  city  became  filled  with  inhabitants,  an  ex- 
pedition was  sent  out  to  conquer  and  possess  some  neigh- 
boring villages.  Thus  did  Argos  establish  colonies  at 
Kloenao,  Phlius,  Sicyon,  Epidaurus,  Troezen,  and  Aegina, 
and  make  herself  mistress  of  all  the  neighboring  towns. 
Herodotus  claims  for  her  the  sovereignty  of  the  whole 
•  r  the  eastern  Peloponnesus,  Cythera,  and  other  islands. 
.\rgos  was  the  metropolis  of  Greece,  and  so  continued 
until  the  Spartan  armies,  by  mere  physical  superiority, 
gained  supremacy  in  Hellas. 

Argos  seems  to  have  reached  the  height  of  glory 
and  power  under  the  reign  of  the  tyrant,  Pheidon,  who 
seized  the  government  soon  after  the  first  Olympiad.'     He 

I  Grote:  ''(Treece,"  Vol.  II.  p.  329. 

«  Herodotusi,  i.H2.  ^  770-730  B.  c. 


THE  HELLBSIC  ABYASS.  233 

even  had  the  effrontery  to  claim,  as  right  of  descent  from 
Hercules,  the  privilege  of  i^residing  at  the  Olympian 
games ;  so  at  their  eighth  celebration,  be  appeared  with 
an  army,  and  took  charge  of  the  festival.'  The  insult 
was  afterward  punished  by  the  combined  Hrmies  of  Elis 
and  Sparta.*  This  may  have  been  the  prime  cause  of  the 
enmity  between  Sparta  and  Argos.  The  most  memora- 
ble act  of  Pheidon  is  yet  to  be  mentioned.  He  caused 
the  first  coins  to  be  struck  at  Aegina,  and  established  a 
system  of  weights  and  measurcf,  ciiUed  the  Aeginaean 
scale,^  that  came  into  general  use  throughout  tlie  greiiter 
part  of  Hellas.  The  Ionian  Greeks  modified  tliis  system 
and  introduced  the  Euboeic  scale  which  finally  came  into 
more  universal  use.  Pheidon  was  the  last  ruler  of  prom- 
inence at  Argos. 

Whilt!  Argos  was  enjoying  her  supremacy,  the  Spar^ 
tans  and  the  Messenians  had  become  open  enemies.  About 
743  B.  c,  they  came  to  open  hostilities;  and,  for  the  follow- 
ing three-fourths  of  a  century,  an  almost  continual  warfare 
existed  between  them.  The  cause  of  this  hostile  state  of 
affairs  is  attributed  to  a  dispute  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  common  shrine  that  stood  on  the  borders  of  the  two 
countries.  The  Peloponnesus,  in  the  latitude  of  theae 
two  cities,  is  about  eighty  miles  across  from  sea  to  sen, 
The  border  line  between  the  two  could  not  have  been 
more  than  twenty  miles  from  either.^  During  the  seventy- 
five  years  of  contention,  Sparta  was  on  the  whole  the 
stronger,  and,  finally,  about  668  B.  c,  she  succeeded  in  re- 


1  Strabo,  vlU.  358. 

>  Tbe  Elians  had  for  a  loDg  period  been  given  Ibe  honor  of  presi- 
ding at  this  festival,  as  it  was)  celebrated  ou  their  lerrltor;. 

3  Grote,  Op.  cit.  p.  318. 

<  It  Ib  evident,  (ben,  that  this  famous  war,  seventj-flve  yean  Id 
duration,  miut  hAve  been  a  sort  of  tempest  in  tt  t«a-pot. 


234  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

ducing  the  Messenians  to  complete  subjection.  Her  way 
was  now  clear  for  the  conquest  of  the  balance  of  the  Pel- 
oponnesus, and  her  armies  did  not  rest  until  this  object  was 
accomplished. 

It  waa  not  until  after  the  conquest  of  the  Mcssenians 
Sparta  that  Athens  came  into  prominence.    About  634 


Solon  DictatiriK  hie  Laws 
B.  c.  there  was  introduccnl  the  Dniconian  code  of  laws, 
which  were  so  severe  that  they  were  said  to  have  been 
wi-itten  in  bluod.^  Almost  every  erinio  M'as  made  jmn- 
isli;il»le  by  death.  Thirty  yc-n-s  later,  Solon  was  eleetitl 
Anlnm^  and  distinjiiiishcd  himself  by  the  capture  of  Sal- 

'  Iliit  i\*  U>  llifim-iiniiiK  iir  Itii-.  trnilition,  neo  Vol.11,  p.  219. 


THE  HELLENIC  AB  YANS.  235 

amis,  wliich  was  at  that  time  under  the  contrgl  of  Meg- 
ara.  That  placed  him  in  a  position  to  have  made  him- 
self tyrant  of  Athens.  He  was  urged  by  his  friends  to 
do  so,  but  chose  rather  to  uphold  the  existing  form  of 
government. 

During  the  season  of  his  popularity,  he  was  urgee. 
to  draft  a  code  of  laws  for  Athens.  The  government 
promised  to  adopt  and  uphold  for  ten  years  his  laws 
should  he  do  so.  The  result  of  his  efforts  was  the  great 
Solonian  code,^  written  on  tablets,^  which  were  ordered  to 
be  placed  in  the  market  place  where  all  could  read  them. 
Then,  so  runs  the  tradition,  in  order  to  avoid  being  annoyed 
by  clamors  for  changes  and  requests  to  repeal  these  laws, 
Solon  absented  himself  from  his  country  for  ten  years. 
It  was  during  this  time,  that,  traveling  from  country  to 
country,  he  was  invited  to  visit  Croesus,  then  ruling  Sar- 
dis.  Tradition  asserts  that  he  viewed  the  treasures  of 
this  richest  of  living  men,  but  gave  great  offense  l)y  claim- 
ing that  no  one  could  be  sure  of  happiness  before  the 
end  of  life. 

An  apochryphal  story  is  told  by  Greek  writers  of  a 
happy  use  afterward  made  by  Croesus  of  this  remark  by 
Solon.  The  story  runs,  that  when  Cyrus  the  Great  was 
consolidating,  into  one  harmonious  whole,  the  petty  Aryan 
.states  of  Western  Asia,  he  conquered  Croesus  and  con- 
demned him  to  death.  He  was  already  pUxced  on  a  funeral 
pyre,  and  the  cruel  flames  were  already  lit,  when  Crcesus 
thinking  on  Solon's  words  exclaimed,  "0  Solon,  Solon!" 
An  opportune  storm  extinguished  the  flames,  and  the 
whole  story  coming  to  the  ears  of  Cyrus,  made  so  great 
an  impression  on  him  that  he  gave  Croesus  his  life  and 


1  For  a  full  discussion  of  tliis  code,  see  Vol.  II.  p.  192  et  aeq. 
i  Grote,  Vol    111.  ;,.  \:\\\-\. 


23fJ 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


1 


restored  him,  in  a  measure,  to  influence  and  power.  Thlr 
illustrates  how  fact,  tradition,  and  myth  intertwine  in 
Greek  history. 

We  must  not  forget  that  Athens  and  Sparta  were  not 
the  only  powerful  cities  in  Greece.     There  seems  to  have 


Solon  and  Croeeue. 
been  about  one  prominent  city  in  each  of  the  small  states 
into  which  Hellas  was  divided.  Now  in  early  times, 
iliene  settlements  seem  to  have  been  merely  tribal  hcad- 
<|uartcrs,  or  the  headquarters  of  a  confederacy  of  tribes, 
where  dwelt  the  supreme  chieftain,  and,  as  in  the  ease  of 
Sparta,  the  chieftains  and  house-fathers  of  several  tribes. 
Thus  was  often  jilanted  the  jrerm  of  a  powerful  city.  Argoa 


headqttarterafor Ajgolia;  Spute,  tarl^ttamM^^ 
IS,  for  Attica ;  Cortath  far  the  state  of  thst  aaiMe; 
n,   for  Bceotia;  jud  Clulcis,  for  EofaooL     Ob  th» 

of    A»\*  !Minor.  the  prumliient  cities  vrre  Mvlena 
£phesas  in  Ionia.     Smyrna  wsf  first  AeoUcbot  aAer- 

captared  br  lontans.  The  l5lai>d  of  Rhodes  was 
pud  by  Doriattfl.  The  remaining  stales  and  ■cttle- 
ll'  of  Greece  play  a  rerr  insignificant  part  ia  the 
jih  kktory,  except  it  be  Thessalyand  certain  < 
I  by  the  cities  already  mentioned. 


The  Greeks  at  an  early  date  sent  out  numerous  colo- 
and  thus  extended  Greek  influence  and  culture, 
helped  forward  the  nascent  civilization  in  Europe. 
■  home  Corinth  planted  a  colony  at  Megara  and  an- 
r  on  the  island  of  Corcyra.'  The  same  year,  she  sent 
ony  into  Sicily  that  founded  the  city  of  Syracuse. 
was  preceded  in  occupying  Sicily  liy  one  year  by 
jnic  colony  at  Xaxos  sent  out  Iiv  Chalcis  in  Euboea.' 
ara  was  behind  Corinth  only  six  years*  in  establishing 

m  a.  C.  •  T»5  B.  C.  »  728  B.  C. 

IS 


238  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD.  ! 

a  colony  in  Sicily,  which  was  called  by  the  name  of  ita  ^ 
mother  colony.      Then    colonization    passed    northwaid  i 
into  Italy,    and   Sybaris/   Cratona,*  and  Mcssenia  wew 
founded.     Cumae,  on  the  western  coast  of  Italy,  and  An-  ■ 
'^on<a  on  the  eastern  coast  are  said  to  be  Greek  colonies,  ^ 

ough  the  dates  of  their  foundation  are  lost  in  the  gloom 
ui  antiquity. 

The  Phocean  Greeks  from  Asia  Minor  established  a 
colony  at  Massilia  on  the  southern  coast  of  Gaul  in  600.  b  a 
which  became  a  very  important  trading  post.  But  Phoe-  . 
nician  power  was  so  great  along  the  coast  of  Spain,  that  < 
the  Greeks  found  little  encouragement  to  settle  there.  ^ 
Encouraged  by  King  Psammetichus,  some  Ionian  Oreeks  I 
founded  a  colony  on  the  west  branch  of  the  Nile  in  the 
seventh  century  B.  c.  and  called  it  Naucratis.*  MiletUi 
and  Megara  vied  with  each  other  in  exploring  the  8h 
of  the  Exuinc  Sea.  The  latter,  in  the  seventh  cen 
planted  colonies  at  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium,  whi] 
former  had  sought  to  command  the  entrance  to  the  Ei 
nine  by  establishing  settlements  at  Abydus  and  Cyziciu.^ 
There  were  many  other  smaller  colonies  planted  by  the 
Greeks  during  this  period,  but  we  have  mentioned  the 
most  important.  We  have  seen  that  this  was  a  period  of 
growth  and  spread  of  Aryan  people.  Wherever  thestt 
•(  clonics  were  planted,  there  is  a  hidden  story  of  conquest/ 
where  an  earlier  people  were  either  forced  out  of  their 
homes  to  go  and  prey  upon  a  weaker  race,  or  else  the  men 
were  reduced  to  slavery,  and  the  women  were  made  the 


1  720  B.  C.  t  710  B.  C. 

3  For  reoent  researches  as  to  location  of  Nauoratis,  see  "Contempo- 
rary Review,"  July  1885. 

^  For  fuller  information  regarding  this  colonisation  ■cheme,  fe^ce 
Bunbury :  **History  of  Ancient  Geography,"  Vol.  I.  p.  91-119;  also  Free- 
man: ^'Historical  G^graphy  of  Europe,"  Vol.  I.  p  47  et^eq. 


TBB  UBhLSNIC  ABYA SS.  239 

■  of  ttie  oQDqucrors.  Such  waa  the  history  of  con- 
it  and  colonization  in  ancient  times. 

\^'hiU'  the  population  of  Hollas  was  outstrippiny  the 
ronBdingArynn  people  in  growth  and  culture,  we  must 
Lfor^tthst  the«o  other  tribes  lUti  not  remain  station- 
y.  The  power  and  importance  of  the  early  Thracians 
KK  already  been  dwelt  U]K)n.'  During  this  entire  period 
||i  (or  many  centuries  previously,  they  must  have  been 


The  Parthenon  at  Athena. 
•o  advancing  in  culture,  and  had  doubtless  attained  no 
wnisiderable  stage  of  enlightenment.  The  historical 
>d  literary  world  baa  been  for  so  long  a  time  blinded  by 
fce  glitter  of  Grecian  later  culture,  that  scholars  have  had 
iltle  time  and  less  inclination  to.study  Thracian  antiqui- 
ii«.  But  we  doubt  not  that  discoveries  will  in  the  future 
l<m»de  that  will  result  in  a  revolution  in  the  history  of 
'oothem  Europe.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  the  military 
>Re  of  Thrace  was  established  at  two  hundred  and  fifteen 
umaDd  men.     And  so,  in   earlier  times,  it  must  have 


240  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

been  a  rival  in  power  to  any  European  nation  or  oo 
eracy.^  They  had  already,  in  the  sixth  century 
Copied  an  alphabet  and  introduced  coined  money ••  1 
alphabet  was  akin  to  the  Runic  alphabet  of  the  n 
ern  regions,  and  inscriptions  are  being  found,  that, ' 
interpreted,  may  place  the  northern  Aryans  in  a 
enviable  light  as  compared  to  those  of  the  southern 
insula. 

The  Danube  and  the  Dnieper,  two  great  high 
of  travel  and  commerce,  were  used  from  very  early  t 
The  Greek  colonists  about  their  mouths  seem  to 
been  attracted  there  by  the  profits  of  this  trade ;  ai 
the  days  of  Herodotus,  merchantmen  were  accustom 
run  up  these  rivers  for  a  distance  of  five  or  six  hui 
miles,^  while  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  bctwee] 
Baltic  and  the  Black  Seas  is  only  about  seven  hui 
miles.    A  spearhead,  bearing  an  inscription  of  ver 
cient  type,  has  been  found  at  Volhynia,  showing  tha 
alphabet  had  been  transmitted  into  the  Baltic  regi 
a  very  early  date.     Now  the  Thracians   and   Ger 
could  not  have  been  rude  and  painted  savages  with 
alphabet,  their  coins,  and  their  traflBc  with  southern 
tries. 

Along  the  northern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  t 
east  of  the  Thracians,  dwelt  the  Cimmerians,  who 
almost  as  mysterious  a  people  as  the  Pelasgians.  Re 
ing  from  the  similarity  of  names  they  have  been  cc 
ted  with  the  Cymric  Gauls  of  Western  Europe.  Ii 
Canon  Rawlinson*  speaks  of  them  fleeing  westward  i 


1  RawHnson:  "Herodotus,"  Vol.  III.  p.  216. 

2  Taylor:  "Greeks  and  Goths,*'  London,  1»79,  p.  51  et  ^eg- 
8  Eawlinson,  Op.  clt.  p.  60. 

*  "Herodotus,"  Vol,  III.  p.  186. 


ntX  aXLLENIC  ABTAXS.  241 

mth  eentory  B.  c,  through  land  that  we  know  was  ooca- 
1  hy  powerful  Thraclans.  He  also  states  that  the 
Igge  wore  eicloaively  Cimbrians.'  But  we  know  now 
ki  the  Belgae  were  Germans.  Then,  too,  Jutland,  a  Ger- 
^  ooantT}',  was  called  Cimbric  Chersonese.'  "We  there- 
^  feel  joatificd  in  classing  the  Cimmerians  as  tribes  of 
|rttT  thoroughly  Germanized  Thracians.  We  do  not 
ft  eouDler  to  any  philological  question  here,  for  there  is 
bing  known  of  their  language,  beyond  the  word  "Cim- 
iric.**'  Grote*  speaks  of  the  Cimmerians  as  "perhaps 
w  Dorthtimmoat  ptirtion  of  the  great  Thracian  name." 
Nb  Stmbo*  and  Tacitus,'  speak  of  the  Cimbriaiis  as 
nutn  triben.  Cntil  we  receive  some  further  light  on 
fcoriirin  of  the  Cimmerians,  we  can  not  be  judged  very 
)iA  to  the  wrong  if  we  call  them  Thnicianizcd  Germans.'' 
1  Their  early  homo  was  the  northern  shore  of  the 
briE  Sea,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese; 
H  ts  ft  souTcnir  of  there  presenee  there,  the  name  Cri- 
m,  atill  clings  to  that  region.  As  we  "have  stated,  they 
ii»c  their  narii'-  to  a  portion  of  the  Bosporus.'  They 
mnentinnt-^l  in  ihi-  llmncrir  pnems.'iuul  they  must  have 
wn  ijuite  an  ancient  people  in  the  Black  sea  region. 
hey  are  mentioned  by  Eusebius  as  having  made  a  raid 
ito  A.'sia  Minor  early  in  the  eleventh  century  b.  c.  As 
9  oth'-T  jiuthority  mentions  this  event,  it  is  not  given 
lorh  credit."  But  as  the  people  of  Southern  Europe  were 
I  the  move  about  this  time,  as  is  indicated  in  the  Aeo* 
ftn  and  Dorian  migrations,  we  should  not  be  siuprised  if 

1  IMd.  18T.  BOMS,    t  "EDoyolopedlA  BrlUnDlcft,"  utlcle  "Clmbrl." 
>  lUwIlDMo:  "UerodatUB,"  Vol.  III.  p.  18S. 

•  "BirtoTTaf  QrMoe,"  Vol.  III.  p.  248. 

•  Mrabo.  tIU.  p.  4».       •  "OcniiftnlR,"  chftpt«r  ST.        t  Above  p.  $r. 

•  AboT*  p.  18.  >  "OdjMey,"  book  zi.  lin«  18-22. 
m  BmwUaaoa:  "HModotoa,"  Vol.  I.  p.  290. 


I 


242  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

this  offshoot  of  the  Thracians  was  also  touohed  hj 
spirit  of  migration  even  at  this  early  date. 

To  the  north  and  east  of  the  Cimmerians  and  ooni 
poraneous  with  them,  dwelt  the  so-called  Scyths. 
were    also  a  sort  of    anomalous  people,  something 
the  Pelasgians.   The  philologist  has  finally  admitted 
into  the  great  Aryan  family.^    Sayce*  calls  them 
tians  or  Aryan  Slaves,  and  represents  them  as  minglu 
with  Tartars,  in  the  entire  region  between  Thrace 
the  steppes  of  Tartary.    They  had  probably  been  wani 
ing  across  these  fertile  plains  ever  since  the  ancestors 
the  Asiatic  Aryans  had  found  their  yay  around  the  m 
ern  shores  of  the  Caspian   sea  into  the  Hindoo  K( 
mountains.'    And  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  naON^ 
of  one  of  their  prominent  tribes,  the  Melanchlaeric,  is  idcft*  ~ 
tical  in  meaning  with  Siah-Poosh,*  the  name  of  one  of  lli» 
purest  Aryan  tribes  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  region.    5o<^ 
are  translated  *'black  cloaks."* 

We  are  also  interested  in  noting  the  characterirtic^ 
of  the  Budivi,  another  tribe  of  these  ancient  Scyths,  a^ 
they  are  described  by  Herodotus.     They  had  deep  blu^ 
eyes  and  bright  red  hair.    They  dwelt  in  a  city  which  wa^ 
surrounded  with  a  wall  thirty  furlongs  each  way.    They 
had  temples  built  in  honor  of  Grecian  gods  and  adorned 
with  images  after  Greek  fashion.*    Were  these  indeed  th0 
half-savage  people  who  were  wont  to  plunder  the  civilized 
world  ?   Do  they  not  plainly  show  their  German  anoestryf 

1  Ibid.  Vol.  III.  p.  203. 

9  See  his  **Herodotu8/*  book  i.  chapter  216,  note  8. 
8  Above  page  67. 

«  Biddulph:  '^Tribes  of  the  Hindoo  Kooeh,"  teUs  us  that  Runlan 
explorers  claim  that  the  present  Siah-Pooh  tribes  are  Slaves. 
&  Kaw]iD8on:**HerodotU8,"  Vol.  III.  p.  94,  note  2. 
*  Herodotus,  iv.  108. 


must  DC  KncnuMnd  An  Sumnot^  vmk  ot  nsse 
fihic  people  shoDt  the  middle  of  tbefiftkcntvTB.  c 
1  bo  rvprcsenu  them  as  tti{^iUBtiag  Ac  V^mmanamm 
)j  in  the  Berecth  ccDtur}-  b.  c^  uid  ve  dmfct  Mit  tkiC 
f  peopled  thii  n^on  from  Teiy  remote  timo.  We 
It  mnember  th&t  the  moet  cultured  fecclgB  ] 
khu-bMians  in  the  eyes  of  Gre^  and  Be^ 
Itbeao-called  barboriaiis  of  Eorojie  plj^vd  to»  ml 
t  &  put  in  nhiping  the  afiJdrs  of  that  eoati 
imde  savages  that  they  are  represented  as li 

Retaming  now  to  the  Greeks,  we  are  to  o^Merre.  tkat, 

tiie  period  of  Grecian  colonization  drrw  to  a  doK,  Akl»- 

ftaad  Sparta  were  rivalsfor  mastery  in  Greece,    ^uta 

vererhad  become  connderablT  stronger  thaa  Allwss 

be  640  B.  c.    She  held  sway  ova-  aJl  Pdopoaf— i, 

d  her  extremely  well  diBctpUsed  army  eaosed  bcr  to  be 

1  with  the  greatest  of  respect  by  all  tbe  states  of 

In   foct,  alic  exermed  a  recognized  ■■*— ^"tt^ 

•TV  ill  Greece.'   At  Athem,  Feisistratus  and  his  deaeead- 

UU,  designated  as  tyranU,  raled,  with  ioterralaof  expuU- 

m,  fn>m  o60  \a  U.'fy  b.  c.  when  Cleisthenes  cmme  into 

■  ^nnuiDcnce  and  completely  changed  the  state  of  gorem- 

an'Dt  in  th»t  city.     The  old  tribal  organizatioo   was  oom* 

pJctely  broken  up  and  the  territory  of  the  city  waa  dirided 

into  ten   territorial  divisions,  and  thus  political  society 

founded  on  territorial  relations,  took  the   place  of  tribal 

society  founded  on  personal  relations.* 

Shortly  previous  to  ^>8  B.  c,  occurred  an  event  where- 
in the  Greeks  were  brought  into  prominence  in  the  int*— 
aational  affairs  of  Europe  and  Asia.     The  Ionian  colo: 
of  Asia  ^(inorfaad  been  conquered  and  added  totheFeni ... 

1  Gfute.  Vol.  II.  p  456. 

•  Bm  Vol.  II.   This  BerlM.  p.  IH . 


244  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Empire.  They  determined  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yok.< 
and  called  upon  Athens  for  assistance,  which  was  readifj 
granted,  and  the  colonies  thus  gained  their  freedom.  Da- 
rius, the  Persian,  subdued  this  revolt,  and  determined  to 
punish  the  Athenians  for  interfering  with  his  affairs.  In 
order  that  he  might  not  forget  his  resolve,  it  is  stated  tiut 


Athene  Under  Pericles- 
he  save  one  nf  his  servants  the  special  duty  eveiy  day,  a 
dinner,  of  callinc  nut  three  times,  "Master,  remember  th. 
Athenians."'  In  493  b.  c,  Darius  planned  an  expeditioi 
.-iL'iiinst  Greece  which  mot  with  defeat  both  by  land  am 
sea.     This  new  and  powerful  enemy,  however,  had  th 


1  Herodotus,  v.  10b. 


[iiDe«l  ibnii  ^ver  t.-vii'-j-jer.  Ti-:  ^r^^i.-  ^!u?-j^rz.  iniT 
1  iwtTjtv-two  mile?  fp'Di  Ati-^ij.  i-lti:.;:^- 1  n*r^ 
■I  thai  '-iiy.  But  the  Gpp»-k-,  -;.j*-r  M.-^-k-ir*^  vr-- 
ratht-r  t-  mwt  them  on  tht-  ■  |»-l  fi--'i-i.  kiri  i..-  »i. 
»-m<^iit  t'o^k  pUoe  ou  the  pUic  of  M&ntb>>ii^-    The 


246  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBUk 

result  was  the  overwhelming  defeat  of  the  Persian 
Marathon  passed  into  history  as  one  of  the  great  \ 
battles  of  the  world.     The  Spartans  did  not  particip 
this  battle  which  occurred  during  a  time   in  the 
when  their  ancient  customs  forbade  them  to  engage  in 

The  remainder  of  Darius'  life  was  spent  in  pr 
tions  for  a  third  invasion  of  Greece,  but  he  did  not  ] 
realize  the  desire  of  his  life,  the  conquest  of  Greece 
sooner,  however,  did  his  son,  Xerxes,  succeed  to  th 
sian  throne  than  he  resolved  to  accomplish  what  ] 
had  begun.  The  largest  army  that  has  ever,  in  his 
times,  crossed  the  border  land  between  the  two  cont 
is  said  to  have  been  marshalled,  equipped,  and  led  a 
the  almost  insignificant  handful  of  Greeks,  by  the 
Persian  king  himself.  The  lesson  that  this  great 
was  taught  at  the  pass  of  Thermopylae,  and  the  st 
the  martyred  Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  comp 
are  too  well  known  for  mention  here.  This  was  fo! 
by  the  great  naval  victory  for  the  Greeks  at  Sal 
The  next  year,  the  Grecian  fleet  crossed  the  Aegaea 
while  the  Persian  army  under  Mardonius,  winteri 
Thessaly,  invaded  Attica. 

In  that  year,'  occurred  on  the  same  day  the  f 
battle  of  Plataea,  in  which  the  Greeks,  under  Pau 
the  Spartan,  almost  annihilated  the  Persians,  ar 
naval  battle  of  Mycale,  where  the  fleet  of  the  Pe 
was  destroyed  by  that  of  the  Athenians.  The  ; 
lessons  that  Persia  had  received  on  the  memorable 
of  Mararthon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  Plataea,  and 
ale  saved  the  Europeans  from  any  further  trouble 
that  direction.  Persian  armies  did  not  again  try  to  i 
the  Greeks  to  subjection.     In  order,  however,  to  \ 

1  Qrotor  IV.  p.  a42.  t480B.c.  3  47^b.O. 


!  far  aoT  future  tioable  witk  Besbs,  Ae  4 

whereby  the   prttxafnl  «lii»  «f  Gtveet  \ 
to  contribute  either  ehifs  or  waamtj  §ar  Ae  ■ 

kuoreof  a  navj  to  ke^  the  PeniaaB  oat  «f  the  J 

pTF  Athens  the  care  of  their  fttadi  aad  as*?,  sad  &■■ 

elentcd   that  aly  to  the  diief   rwik  laicwg  the  saral 

po»ew  of  that  day. 
From  479  to  429  b.  c, 

Athens'  (ireatest  benefao- 

tur,  Ptricle*,    was  at  the 

iMduftheSute.  Though 

the  city  had    been   twice 

Ifvelwl  U)  the  ground  by 

^  Pereians,  it  was  quick- 

h  rebuilt.     But    rebuilt 

Alliens  was  not  the  same 

M  Athens  of  old,  simple 

MhI  headquarters.     Un- 

ifcr  Pericles,  magnificent 

^liJi ngi    were    errcted 

vA  the  city  was  beautified 

bT[«inting3i  and  Btatuary. 

Above  all,  were   her  forti- 

Seations   strengthened  by 

ilmost    Cycln[)ean     walls, 

leading   hrotu  tbe  city  to 

the  hnrUir.     TIh-si'  wjillti 

wrre   two   hundred  yanla  Periciea. 

apart  and  extended  over  four  miles,  thus  uniting  the  city 

with  her  flee:.     "The  Acropolis  was  so  enriched  by  inag- 

Dificent  structures  that  it   was   called  '  the  city   of  the 

gods.'"'     In   power,  Athens   led  all  the   Grecian  states. 

I  BsntM:  "HMorj  of  OrMM,"  p.  26-6. 


248  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Abroad,  she  not  only  gained  the  respect  of  all  nation^ 
but  inspired  fear.    "During  a  single  year,  she  was  waging 
war  in  Cyprus,  in  Egypt,  in  Phoenicia,  in  Aegina^  and  on 
the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  ;"*  while,  at  the  same  time, 
she  maintained  her  authority  at  home.     In  460  B.  c,  she 
extorted  a  treaty  from  Artaxerxes,  whereby  the   Grecian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  declared  independent,  and  the 
Persian  fleet  excluded  from  the  Aegaean  sea.*     It  was 
during  this  time  that  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history, 
flourished,  and  literature  and  art  were  at  their  height 
The   remaining  events    of    the  political   history  of 
Greece  are  too  well  known  to  further  occupy  much  of  our 
attention.     Athens   had  at  last  become  a  powerful  and 
magniticent  city.     The  jealous  Spartans  had  long  sought 
an  excuse  to  carry  war  against  their  rival  power.     In  431 
n.  c  ,  a  quarrel  arising  between  Corinth  and  her  eolonjTy 
Cor(*yra,  Athens  and  her  allies  sided  with  the  latter ;  but 
Sparta   immediately  j)roifered  aid  to    the    former.     The 
Hellenic   forces   were    nearly   equally  divided,   and  this 
struggle,  calhul  the  Peloponnesian  war,    was   continued 
until  4()4  H.  c.     Athens,  during  this  time,  had  no  such 
hand  to  gaiide  her  afl^iirs  as  that  of  Pericles.     Her  most 
promising  young  leader  was  Altfibiades,  who  was  usually 
undergoing  the  punishment  of  ostracism  for  some  wild 
es(*ai>ad(»  just  when  his  country  most  needed  his  services. 
Thus  it  was  when  the  Athenian  forces  met  with  their  last 
disastrous   defeat   in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse  in  413  B.  c. 
The  city  itself  held  out  for  ten  years  longer  when  Sparta 
compelled  submission.      The   protecting    walls  and  the 
magnificent  buildings  were  leveled  to   the  ground,  and 
l)roud  Athens  groaned  under  the  oppression  of  the  thirty 
tyrants. 

1  Ibid.  s  Ibid. 


THB  SBt-LgyXC  AMYASS. 


tm 


Sputa,  was  now  mistrees  of  all  H^Im.    The  Cre  n»> 

d  ud  defvDCf^loss  muuDtein  villages  dirtrted  U>  fte 

t  of  Greece.     Persian  tnoDer,  howerer,  again  vmabkd 

thntsto  rise  but  only  to  a  shadow  of  ber  fonnergimiMiev. 

•^'tns  to  have  bc^n  the  plan  of  Persia  Vj  mbdae  GnecB 

loping  up  this  internal   strife  between  Atbent  mad 

With  Persian  gold,  Athens'  walls  were  agiia  r»- 

t  and  her  fleets  were*  agsin  aUo  to  meet  the  SporUaa 

fl  \.hn  AefRieaiL    Then  Persi*  made  frieods  with  Spwta 


jukI  compelled  both  cities  \a>  accept  the  "Ptsice  of  AntAJci- 
das."'  which  surrendered  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  MiD//r 
to  Persian  rule. 

Sixteen  years  later,  there  arose  in  the  IV»rHian  city 
of  Thebes,  a  leader  who  succeeded  in  completely  clianipiicr 
the  political  affairs  of  Hellas.  Ef^minomias  ori^uiyjA 
And  equipped  an  army  that,  in  discipline,  ranked  well  with 


260 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOELD. 


the  Spartan  soldiers.  When  Sparta  heard  that  the  Th* 
ban  army  was  overthrowing  her  governments  in  the  Boeo* 
tian  towns,  she  sent  her  forces  to  put  down  the  rebellion. 
The  famous  battle  of  Leuctra  was  fought  and  won  by 
Epaminondas.    The  stream  of  Persian  gold  was  now  turned 


Buat  of  Alexander, 
to  Thebes,  and  Epaminontlas,  conquering  one  town  aft* 
aiioth(T,  was  soon  the  ruler  of  Hellas.    At  the  battle  d 
Mantinn?a,'  however,  he  was  killed.     No  one  was  found 


THE  UKU.KXIC  AHYANl,  ^61 

ier  bim  with  ability  to  fill  his  place,  and  Hellas  soon  be- 
me  &  hot-beti  of  jealous,  quarreling,  fighting  towns  and 
llagea.  as  bad  as  it  ovi-r  was  in  old  tribal  times.  It  only 
eeded  sotne  one  firm  hand  and  strong  mind  equal  to  the 
Caition  to  change  all  this  into  a  nation  of  peace.  Such 
Lpenon  arusc  in  the  North.  A  new  infusion  of  Teuto- 
Liyia  blood  was  needed  to  invigorate  the  people  of  South- 
n  Evrope.  The  "barbarous"  Macedonians  came  to  the 
Mene  of  Greece,  when  Philip  of  Macedon  txu-ned  his 
nues  towanl  the  Mouth.' 

Now  the  Macedonians  did  not  come  down  into  Greece 
■unrited.  The  Phocians,  a  state  that  had  from  time 
huDemorial  been  a  leading  member  of  the  Amphictyonic 
,  and  had  regarded  her  right  to  the  presidency  of 
t  council  as  indisputable,  had,  by  some  political  in- 
ing  of  her  neighbors,  been  expelled  from  the  league. 
•  nised  an  army,  took  forcible  possession  of  the  Tem- 

kof  Apollo,  and  defied  the  whole  Hellenic  world.  Philip 
if  M.vxilon  waa  anxious  to  be  acknowledged  as  a  Greek, 
*ad  hail  laid  his  plans  to  take  a  hand  in  Grecian  affairs. 
ThoB  tut  he  had  confined  his  campaigns  to  Thessaly  and 

ilirace,  where  be  had  reduced  town  after  town  and  tribe 
>ft«rtribe  to  sabjection.  While  professing  to  be  the  friend 
of  the  Athenians,  he  had  taken  forcible  possession  of  all 
"inr  cities  along  the  coast  of  Thrace  and  the  Propontis. 
He  «u  then  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Europe.  In  the 
''"one  of  bifl  campaigns  in  Thessaly,  he  met  the  Phocians 
"  bttttle  and  was  conquered  by  them.  His  defeat  checked 
«k  advance,  but  strengthened  his  determination  to  con- 
ifer all  Greece.  One  man  in  Athens  seemed  from  the 
tit  to  have  detected  Philip's  intention.  Demosthenes, 
be  greatest  orator  of  bis  age,  delivered  oration  after  ora- 


252  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

tion,  exposing  the  designs  of  Philip.     His  Philipics  an    ^ 
even  to-day  considered  models  of  oratory. 

Both  Athens  and  Sparta  awoke  to  the  importanoe 
of  the  occasion  too  late.  They  now  rushed  to  the  aid  of 
the  Phocians^  against  the  common  enemy,  who  was  &8t 

■ 

a])proaching  the  pass  of   Thermopylae,   the  gateway 
Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus.      Philip    now  boldly 
claimed  his  championship  of  the  cause  of  Apollo 
the  sacrilegious  Phocians  and  their  allies.     His  army 
the  best  disciplined  of  any  in  the  world.     He  had  intm-^ 
duced  the  Macedonian  phalanx  and  other  new  tactics  tfailv' 
rendered  his  army  almost  invincible.     He  had  also  fittest: 
out  quite  a  navy  to  co-operate  with  his  land  force ;  UMIi;' 
he  plundered  the  merchantmen  of  the  Aegaean  for 
plies  and  to  interfere  with  the  commerce  of  Greece. 
Philip  incrreasod  in  power.     In  352  B.  c,  he  defeated'^ 
Phocians  and  their  allies  in  battle.     For  four  years 
wns  engaged  in  subduing  the  Olynthians,.  while  the  rwft?^' 
of  (Jreece  looked  on,'  or  lent  only  too  tardy  an  as8iBtaiM!%.v 
to  the  besieged  city.     In  346  B.  c,  Philip  forced  the  GnHgt- 
cian  states  to  a  treaty  whereby  he  was  made  a  repreMMK. 
tative  in  the  Amphictyonic  council  in  place  of  the  PhociaM|^ 
Thus  did  he  gain  admission  into  Greece  and  realise  \tm 
most  cherished  desires,  for  he  was  made  president  of  tfcifc> 
Pythian  festival,  the  highest  honor  that  could  be  conferred 
upon  a  Greek 

At  last,  after  Philip  had  stationed  his  large  and  finely 
disciplined  army  at  the  pass  of  Themopylae  and  had  been 
admitted  with  honors  as  a  Greek  among  Greeks,  the  ora» 
tory  of  Demosthenes  awoke  the  people  of  Athens  to  the 
lamentable  condition  of  Grecian  affairs.  Now  it  must  be 
remembered  'that  Philip  had  conquered  as  many  cities  by 

1  Grote,  Vol   IX.  p.  297-8  •  »48-844  B.  0- 


■mK  nELLENTC  ASYANS. 


253 


VKiiood  and  intrigue  as  by  open  warfare,  so  that  it  is  not 
'■Vjnnsing  that  the  Greeks  could  place  no  reliance  on  his 
nrd.  Athens  and  Thebes  finally  united  against  the 
icedonians,  bat  were'  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Cherooaea. 


i 

A'.exar.tJer  and  Arle'.:;Ue. 

n.-U:..-  i-x-s.-.!  :.t  i.iH-.'  uiul.TMiM-.-.l..ni;ni  nil.-,  JUi.l  tli.- 

.- It-  ii-'V.T  :iL'Jtiii  piiin-il  tln'ir  iii.lc|)ciiiU'in-i-   until  iiftrr 

Ii..in;iii  i-iii|iir''  Ii.kI  lifcuinc  a  nati'in  ..f  tlir  jtast. 

ri..i-rM,i.vl..iiiiiiiriilpGr(.-L-(vw;istmitr.l.     Tlu-liiunl 

,  -  .i,'|ii-r"r  ti--l'i  ;ill  the  petty  trilK'H,  ;i-s  well  as  the  more 


254  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

powerful  cities,  in  entire  subjection,  and  could  command 
united  action  upon  any  and  every  occasion.  Such  being 
the  case,  unlimited  resources  were  placed  at  the  command 
of  the  ruling  prince.  Philip  now  conceived  the  idea  of 
carrying  Grecian  arms  into  Persia  to  punish  that  nation 
for  the  injury  that  she  had  often  inflicted  upon  Greece,  and 
also  to  extend  his  own  territory.  The  hand  of  the  assassin 
vvas  however  uplifted  against  the  king,  and  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  was  slain. ^ 

Alexander,  the  young  son  of  Philip,  immediately  en- 
tered upon  the  plans  of  his  father.  After  destroying  the 
city  of  Thebes  as  a  punishment  for  revolting,  he  began  his 
march  for  Asia  at  the  head  of  thirty-five  thousand  wdl 
disciplined  Grecian  and  Macedonian  troops.  His  life  wai 
a  short  one,  but  it  was  a  life  of  conquest  from  b^nniiig 
to  end.  From  Thrace,  he  entered  Asia  Minor  and  foo|^ 
battle  after  battle  until  the  terror  of  his  armies,  preoedif^f 
him,  led  his  enemies  to  pledge  submission  without  nu 
tance.  We  can  follow  his  troops  as  they  passed  down  tiAi 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  conquering  the  armies  that  met  mil  ] 
at  every  point.  Entering  Egypt  as  conqueror  and  theoiN 
passing  eastward,  he  subdued  Babylon ;  at  the  battle  flf 
Issus  he  overthrew  the  Persian  power ;  burned  Persepdfe; 
and  penetrated  to  the  Indus  river.*  He  laid  the  foundation 
of  many  new  cities,  among  which  was  Alexandria  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  that  became  so  famous  as  a  seat  of 
learning.  In  323  b.  c,  he  died  from  the  efiects  of  dissipar 
tion,  and  so  never  returned  to  his  native  land.  During  the 
nine  years  that  he  spent  in  Asia,  the  history  of  Greece  ia 
almost  a  blank.  As  the  empire  that  he  attempted  to  found 
was    completely  broken  up  at  his  death,  Greece  gained  ] 


1  836  B.  o.  *  Bee  note  8,  p.  140. 


TBE  HELLENIC  ARYANS.  2bb 

little  if  anything  by  his  conquests.'  The  government 
iece  and  Mncedon  fell  to  the  lot  otoneofhis  generals, 
nder.  From323  b. c, until  14Gb.c.  the  old-time strug- 
thepettystatesof  Greece  for  independence  wns  again 
ed,  but  with  no  definite  result.    In  14Gii.  u.,  Greece 


'mM\\mmMmm{m\\M\i\^ 


Battls  cf  Ips'js- 
under  Rcjinim  SHpervisinii :  and.  ii.s  siurli,  shf  eiijoycd  a 
e  of  peace  and  quiet   prosperity  before  unknown  to 
lellenic  people. 

ifow,  as  we  glance  back  over  the  history  of  the  Ary;uiK 
uthern  Europe,  we  perceive  that  their  growth  li;..- 
very  slow  indeed.     They  were  a  peoiile  of  few  oriyi- 


1  another  place  we  will  show  tbe  very  great  influence  exerted  on 

ition  in  geueral  by  Alexander's  cooqueets. 


r 


256 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WQELD^ 


nal  ideas  except   the  inborn  sentiments  of   liberly 
independence.     They  were  ever  ready  to  adopt  ne     \i 
from  the  nations  with  whom  they  came  in  contact| 
to  develop   the  same  to  the  highest  state  of  perft 
Their  art  was  developed  from  borrowed  models,  and  thi 
laws  were  compiled  from  the  laws  of  foreign  princes. 

In  the  arts  of  war,  however,  they  seem  to  have 
about  the  first  to  originate  a  system  of  military 
worthy  of  mention.  The  Spartan  companies  of  hoplil 
were  all-powerful,  the  brotherhood  of  three  hun^ 
picked  Thebans  carried  everything  before  them,  and 
Macedonian  phalanx,  under  Alexander,  was  literally  ii 
vincible.  In  literature,  the  Greeks  were  not  only  orij 
nators  of  several  schools,  but  attained  a  degree  of  cull 
and  refinement  that  has  placed  them  at  the  head  of  thai 
ancients  in  every  department.  And  long  after  she  had: 
lost  her  place  in  the  political  history  of  the  world,  she: 
continued  to  lead  in  thought,  in  philosophy,  and  in  the 
fine  arts.  By  no  means  was  this  a  mean  end  for  this  great 
and  peculiar  people. 


TMM  MOMAN  AMY  AS  8, 


THE  ROUAK  ARTAHS 

■•r  OLiicracs  OF  Italt— a«ogniphic»l  Deurlption— PboenicUna  lo 
UalT— Fint  AryftOB  In  Italy— Ore«k  Colonies  1;  lUlj— Celtic  In- 
<■■!!«■  In  Italy— The  LatlD  Tribes— The  Coofede/wy  of  Alba  LoDgft 
PhTatosl  SoBTTOaiMllngaof  Aoclent  Borne— The  Etrnacana— Legends 
of  ABeientRoBM— OalllcInvaaloD  of  Rome— Arcbltecttireof  Andeat 
Bamc — Bias  of  Romaii  Power— War  with  Carthage— Ex  tcnalon  of 
Bomao  Territory— Captnre  of  Carthage— Internal  Troablea  at  Rome 
— XarloB  and  Balla— War  with  Mithridatea— OladUtorlal  Conteata— 
Bpartaraa— Pint  Triomvlnite— Rise  of  Caeaar  to  Power— Second  Trl- 
s^Tiiatc — Antony  and  Cleopatra — The  Formation  of  the  Empire— 
Tho  BcgliiBlagof  the  Decline— The  Dlvialon  of  the  Emplra— Review 
of  tba  Onwth  of  Rome  In  territory — Conclnalon. 

NORTHERN  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean  seem  to  have  been  the 
horiler  line  Wtween  races  during 
I  the  period  of  the  Ancient  and  Me- 
diaeval Worlds.  To  the  south  and 
80uth-east  of  Mediterranean,  from 
Ume  ^Tiniemorial  to  modern  times,  there  eziste<l  most  n- 
narkaljlo  civilization!*,  and  there  were  the  homes  of  the 
rumiiian  and  Semitic  races.  Stretching  away  to  the  north 
fr-.iii  the  great  inland  sea  even  to  the  lands  of  the  Lapps 
kfid  Finns,  were  the  homes  of  the  Aryans,  the  hardiest 
raf«s  of  mankind.  There  was  concealed  a  latent  energy 
\iA  strength  of  body  and  mind  that  were  capable  of 
grasping  Semitic  and  Turanian  civilization  at  its  summit 
i,{  dfvelopmeDt,  and  bearing  it  onward  to  purer  ideas, 
ki^er  modes  of  life,  and  more  perfect  forma  of  government 


260  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD: 

We  have  seen  how  fully  the  Aryan  inhabitani 
the  Troad  assimilated  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  cult 
customs,  and  enlightened  modes  of  life,  and  grew  in 
power  dreaded  by  the  pharaohs  of  Egypt,  requiring 
combined  forces  of  the  Hellenic  world  to  crush.  The  i 
European  Aryans  to  come  into  contact  with  eastern  ci 
zation  were  the  Greeks.  In  tracing  their  rapid  devc 
ment,  we  have  seen  how  the  Hellenic  land  was  peo] 
by  successive  waves  of  immigration  from  the  North ; 
the  Phoenicians  brought  a  knowledge  of  Turanian  ci 
zation  to  their  doors ;  and  how,  with  Assyrian  and  B. 
Ionian  models,  the  Aryan  Greeks  leaped  to  the  very 
nacle  of  ancient  and  medieval  knowledge  and  cult 
What  a  literature  they  left  to  the  world ;  what  model 
architecture;  what  masterpieces — almost  divine — in 
We  have  now  to  consider  the  gradual  rise  to  a  commi 
ing  position  in  the  aflFairs  of  the  world,  of  that  remark 
people  known  as  the  Romans.  Their  history  and  cul 
fill  the  entire  foreground  of  the  Medieval  World.  T 
were  the  lawgivers  of  the  world,  and  from  the  ruii 
their  vast  empire,  have  arisen  the  various  nations 
modern  times. 

About  the  time  that  Philip  of  Macedon  was  con 
to  the  front  in  Grecian  aflFairs,  Rome,  as  a  new  and  ri 
power,  began  to  exercise  a  voice  among  the  ruling  poi 
of  the  world.  Before  the  first  quarter  of  the  third  ceni 
B.  c,  Rome  was  scarcely  known,  though  for  centuries 
viously,  the  Italian  peninsula  had  been  an  open  field 
viting  the  spreading  Aryan  tribes  to  settle  therein, 
general  lay  of  this  peninsula  is  fr*om  northwest  to  so 
east.  Its  semicircular  head  is  cut  oflT  from  the  res 
Europe  by  the  Alps,  the  highest  mountain  barrier  of 
continent.    With  the  Apennines  for  a  backbone,  the 


TUM  KOMAS  AMTASS 


lift  shoots  oat  into  the  I 

:Tm1  handrcd  mBes,eadx^iBtw*s^HS 

appcarftoce  of  i.  boo*.    Ctf  tke  tor  af  Aii  kaat  m  » 

lagnUrflfaiped  Uiaod called flMilT.  TWpiMatflfli^ 

IB    the    Alps  to  the  toe  of  the  heat  k  a^  «nr 

Fcn  faoQdred  mile*.    The  Wad  af  Itah-  ii  AaM  iftne 

bdred  miles  wide,  but  h«  avenge  vidlk  is  «alf  «■•- 

niaszDiidi.     ItB  area,  iadafiag  the  idittda  alMg^  A» 

orea,  is  about  one  bondred  t 

•d  of  Italv  b  the  onlr  < 


t  rallej  uf  the  Po,  or  Ftedai,  TTv«r. 

When  we  eater  the  peai— ah  FnpoV  ^  i 
Beasahlv  tvry  shdii ;  and,  owiag  to  Ae  ■ 
■  of  muUDtJUDA  and  hilU,  rol 
B   DO  plattui  of  any  sise.    We  i 
ile  an  extensii-e  tract  <^  land  oa  the  i 
I  approaeb  the  beel  of  the  booL     Thb  pfan  ^ 
|IKlia,and  was  noiftlfuritsf'Ttilitr     Tb?  ' 
18  W8«bed  by  a  portion  of  the  Mediterrai^dkZi  called  the 
rrrbenian'  Sea. 

P.uwing  southward  along  the  weewm  w*«  of  Italy, 
f  wiiuld  jiaae  the  mouths  of  the  -Vraus.  Til^tr.  Lirie,  Val- 
mufl  and  SiUnia  rivers.  The  waters  of  the  A«sis.  Aier- 
la,  Tifemus,  Trento,  Cerbalui!.  and  Aafidac  fl</w  Ujvard 
e  east,  finding  there  war  into  the  Adriatic.  Lyin^  to 
f  wc«t,  at  some  distance  out  inf»  the  M<:^iterraaean, 
Te  the  two  extensive  islanibi  of  Ojrsi<-a  awl  .Sardinia, 
le  »<jil  of  these,  au  well  as  that  of  Sieilv.  wax  noted  for 
fertility. 
In  ancient  times,  Italy  was  cut  up  int'i  a  nnmber  m 
lall  staUs,  each  of  which  was  i«eopIed  V*y  a  confederacy 
allied  and  kindred  tribes.     The  head  of  the  ] 

'  rratn  thm  Ofwk  iujim  for  th*  EtrascMM. 


262  THE  MBDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

was  the  home  of  the  Ligurians  on  the  west,  the  Venetian 
on  the  east,  and  the  Upper  Etruscans  between.'  Centn 
Italy,  or  the  upper  portion  of  the  peninsula  proper,  ei 
tended  down  to  the  mouths  of  the  Silarus  on  the  one  sid( 
and  the  Tifernus  on  the  other.  It  comprised  the  six  state: 
t-hat  subsequently  played  prominent  parts  in  the  legendary 
history  of  the  peninsula.  These  were  Etniriai  Latium, 
and  Campana,  to  the  west;  Umbria,  Picenum,  and  tha 
Sabine  territory  to  the  east.  Southern  Italy  contained 
four  countries  ;  Lucania,  and  Bruttium,  on  the  west ;  Apu- 
lia  and  lapygia,  or  Messapia,  on  the  east.*  The  oppoflita 
shore  of  the  Adriatic  was  peopled  by  tribes  of  Illyrian8» 
kindred  of  the  Macedonians. 

The  Phoenicians  were,  no  doubt,  familiar  with  the 
coast  of  Italy  long  before  the  Greeks  dared  venture  upon 
the  open  seas.  How  early  these  daring  merchants  began 
trading  along  these  shores,  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaia- 
ing ;  but  there  is  no  doubt,  that  they  found  the  whole  pen- 
insula teeming  with  a  population  ready  to  barter  native 
products  for  their  Oriental  wares.  We  recognize  two  difl 
tinct  races  among  these  primitive  inhabitants  of  Italy 
and  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  both  these  racei 
were  but  immigrants  that  had  in  earlier,  pre-historic  timeflj 
supplanted  a  more  primitive  race.'  These  two  races  werB 
Aryan  and  Turanian.  The  traces  that  we  find  of  that 
earlier  people  arc  so  few  and  unsatisfactory,  that  we  can 
only  surmise  that  they  were  dark-skinned  and  extremely 


1  Such  is  the  ordinary  belief  regarding  the  early  inhabitants  ol 
Northern  Italy.  [See  Rawlinson:  "Manual.]  But  Dr.  Freemaii  dft- 
\  i  iictly  states  that  they  were  more  likely  Qauls  than  Etruaoans  in  thi 
center  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  "Geography  of  Europe,"  Vol*  L  p 
47  and  note. 

3  Rawlinson,  Op.  eit.  p.  823-888. 

5  Taylor:  "Etruscan  Repearches/'  p.  11-12,  T^ondon,  1874. 


TMB  BOMAJi  AB  TAyS.  263 

Jie  ia  their  social  life.  la  earlier  times,  we  do  not  find 
K  lines  of  separation  between  the  races  so  stron^y 
larked  that  we  can  assigo  to  each  a  definite  portion  at 
talian  territon'.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  here  and 
ben,  throaghout  the  length  and  breadth  uf  the  land,  a 
Nfcderacy  of  Turanians  in  almost  an  isolated  position. 
vnnnded  br  Aryan  states.  So,  likewise,  we  find  some 
brin  confederacies  similarly  situated  as  regards  Tnran- 
UM.  Then  there  appear  other  tribes  bearing  such  erident 
uii»  of  a  mixed  origin,  that  we  can  not  asai^  them  aar 
iiinite  racial  place. 

The  question  as  to  where  the  eariiest  historic  inhaln- 
utt  ol  Italy  came  from  is  an  interesting  one  \f>  as.  The 
Hli,  that  the  Aryans  wore  immigrants ;  that  the  Greek 
niniiiite  found  Sicily  inhabited  by  Toranians.  a  part  of 
■lu>m  hail  been  driven  down  from  the  peninsula:  that 
"TO  of  these  Turanians  were  of  Iberian  origin  and,  prob- 
•Wt,  kin.ired  of  tlif  Etruscans  and  Ligurian.-^ — all  go  to 
["ove  that  the  Aryan  civilization  of  Italy  was  built  upon 
'  li*er  sub-stratum  of  Turanian  life.'  When  the  Arii'aDS 
^tered  Italy,  therefore,  they  found  the  land  occupied  by 
'ttfMiians,  just  as  they  did  every  other  portion  of  the  cod- 
iiKiiL  We  are  further  convinced  of  this  by  eii«ting 
nioft  in  the  shape  of  monuments,  inscriptions,  and  other 
mains.  From  these,  we  learn  that  Etruscan  territory 
ce  extended  much  ftirther  south  than  when  this  people 
aune  known  to  Greek  historians.  There  is  evidence, 
a  Capua  was  an  Etruscan  city,  and  that  the  Etnucana 
re  the  ruling  power  ^m  the  Alps  on  the  north  to  the 
If  of  Salerno  on  the  south.* 

No  records  extend  back  to  the  time  when  bands  of 

I  Se*  Rabucj'i  "Europe,"  p.  4M,  London,  1886. 

"  p.  16. 


i 

264  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

Aryans   began  to  find  their  way  into  Italy.     Tradition 
says,  that  the  ancestors  of  the  lapygians  followed  the  coast 
of  the  Adriatic  around  from  Epirus  into  Italy.*    There 
are  other  legends,  according  to  which  plundering  bands  of 
refugees  from  Troy  found  permanent  homes  in  Italy.*  We 
are  told  also,  that  the  Latins  came  into  Central  Italy  from 
the  north  along  the  western  coast,^  that  they  were  later 
incomers  than  the  lapygians,  and  that  they  "pressed  with 
great  weight"  upon  the  population  of  the  southern  regions 
This  all  tends  to  confirm  the  statement,  that  there  waa^ 
from  time  immemorial,  a  constant  influx  of  Aryans,  both 
by  land  and  sea,  to  the  Italian  peninsula. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  first  Grecian  colony,  the  date 
of  whose  foundation  can  be  relied  upon,  was  established 
in  Sicily  in  735  b.  c.  But  it  is  very  evident,  that  bands 
of  Greeks  had  long  before  this  found  their  way  across  the 
Adriatic.  Then,  too,  near  the  site  of  modern  Naples,  a 
Grecian  colony  had  existed  for  a  long  time  before  vessels 
from  Chalcis  landed  the  first  settlers  at  Naxos,  which  is 
the  oldest  Greek  settlement,  of  which  we  have  authentic 
history.  When  Campanian  Cuma^  was  founded  and  where 
the  colonists  came  from,  even  the  ancients  had  forgotten. 
That  they  were  Greeks  was  all  that  could  be  ix)sitively 
asserted  of  them.  The  first  vessels  known  to  have 
brought  new  colonists  to  Cuma3  were  said  to  be  from  Aeolic 
Cyme  of  Asia  Minor.  But  still,  in  historical  times,  Chal' 
cis  was  the  metro |X)lis  of  Cumae,  just  as  it  was  of  Naxos. 
Tradition  places  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  Cumae  way 
back  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  B.  c*     On  the 


1  Rawlinson's  ^'Manual/*  p.  3d6. 

»  Virgil:  "Aenaeid,"  Book  i.  7-12;  also  Livy:  ••History  of  Rome,** 
ch.  i.  3  Kawliuson,  Op.  cit.  p.  336.  ^  The  oommon  date  wan  1050  b. 
o.,  but  Aome  authors  carry  it  back  to  1139  B.C.  Orote:  '^History  of  Cjrvece,** 
Vol.  111.  p  .356-360.    Taylor:  •*The  Alphabet,"  Vol.  TI.  p.  181-8. 


TUB  ROMAN  AE  TANS.  266 

opposite  side  of  the  peninsula  and  a  little  farther  to  the  , 
north,  was  located  the  Greek  colony  of  Anconai.  but  nothing 
definite  is  known  of  its  foundation.  It  was  there  when 
history  dawns  on  Italy.^  By  the  close  of  the  eight  century 
B.  c,  we  find  Grecian  adventurers  pouring  into  Sicily  and 
Southern  Italy  so  rapidly  that  the  shores  were  soon  lined 
with  villages.  The  country  was  given  the  name  of  Magna 
Grecia,  and  was  for  several  centuries  regarded  as  a  portion 
of  Greece  proper,  to  whom  the  colonists  looked  for  assis- 
tance in  war  and  protection  from  oppressive  foes. 

The  Celts  were,  doubtless,  in  possession  of  the  Po 
▼alley  as  early  as  the  Latins  were  of  the  hills  of  LatiuuL* 
As  neither  history  nor  tradition  informs  us  to  the  contrary, 
we  have  no  doubt  that  they  occupied  Cis-Alpine  Gaul  even 
before  there  were  any  such  tribes  as  the  Latins  in  Italy. 
They  simply  prepared  the  way  for  their  kindred  (the 
Italians)  to  enter  the  Italian  peninsula.  The  legend  is 
probably  right  in  stating  that  the  laypgians  came  from 
the  north  down  the  Adriatic  coast.  They  were  probably 
Pelasgians  making  their  way  down  from  the  Aryan  home- 
land.* The  Celtic  Latins  followed  them  up  pretty  closely 
although  they  were  probably  later  in  point  of  time.  The 
one  descended  along  the  eastern,  and  the  other  along  the 
western  coast  of  the  peninsula.  The  Etruscans,  between, 
were  strong  enough,  perhaps,  to  keep  them  from  over-run- 
ning Tyrrhenian  lands.  The  only  Etruscan  city,  Popu- 
lonia,  near  the  coast  would  not  be  much  of  a  barrier  to 
the  Celtic  migration.*  These  two  streams  of  migration  in 
time  met,  and  fused  with  the  stream  of  Greeks  that  was 
colonizing  Magna  Grecia.     Celtic  Latins,  Pelasgic  lapyg- 

i  Freeman:  ^'Historical  Geography,"  Vol.  I.  p.  47. 
t  Freeman:  "Historical  Geography,"  Vol.  I.  p.  47 
S  Qrote,  Vol  III.  p.  850. 
4  Mommsen;  "History  of  Rome,"  Vol.  I.  p.  170. 


266  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOELD. 

ians,  and  Hellenic  Thracians  would  probably  indnde  the 
Aryans  of  the  Italian  peninsula ;  and  a  mixture  of  these 
people  would  give  us  the  peculiar  ethnical  result  known 
as  the  Ancient  Roman.  This  Aryan  mixture  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  the  Etruscans  to  the  north  of  the  Tiber. 
There  we  find  the  latter  in  rather  close  quarters  when  au- 
thentic history  of  Italy  begins. 

Nor  is  language  silent  on  this  subject.    There  was 
formerly  a  school  of  historians  who  insisted  upon  deriving 
Latin  from  Greek.^    When  they  were  convinced  that  they 
were  wrong,  a  hypothetical  language  was  constituted.    It 
was  called  "Pelasgic,"  and  was  made  the  common  parent  of 
the  dialects  of  Greece  and  Italy.    Being  as  indefinite  as  tiie 
race  of  people  that  furnished  the  name,  it  was  found  wholly 
unsatisfactory,  and  that  theory  was  abandoned.    Greek 
and  Latin  are  Aryan  tongues,  and,  of  course,  must  have 
come  from  the  same  source,  the  primitive  Aryan  language. 
But,  as  Professor  Sayce  remarks,  "  it  is  no  longer  possible 
to  believe  that  the  relation  between  Greek  and  Latin  is 
especially  close.   Latin  gravitates  rather  toward  the  Celtic 
languages."*   Speaking  more  plainly,  then,  Latin  is  nearer 
related  to  Celtic  than  to  Greek.' 

"  Mountains  repeat  and  rivers  murmur  the  voices  of 
nations  denationalized  or  extirpated."*  No  people  will 
pass  through  a  country,  stopping  here  and  there  to  spend 
a  winter  or  to  raise  a  crop  of  corn,  as  tribes  do  on  thdr 
migratory  tours,  without  leaving  names  which  will  forevef 
cling  to  the  villages,  mountains,  and  rivers  along  their 


^  Keane  in  Ramsay's  ''Europe,"  p.  66). 

«  **8cience  of  Language,"  Vol.  II.  p.  106. 

8  Bee  also  <* Celtic  BriUin/'  London,  1884,  p.  1,  by  J.  Bhys,  Pfofajwn 
of  Celtic,  University  of  Oxford ;  also  consult  Whitney :  *'Llfe  and  Growth 
of  Language,"  p.  194. 

4  Bee  Palgrave:  ''History  of  Normandy  and  England,'*  VoLL  p*  9Ml 


TBE  BOMA^f  ASYAyS,  367 

ites.  The  rirer  names  are  memorials  of  the  renr  ear- 
Bt  inhabitanta  of  a  couotry.  In  studying  the  geograpb- 
il  names  of  Europe,  we  can  detect  the  presence  of  Celts 
(T  the  greater  portion  of  Southwestern  Europe  before 
ij  other  Arj'an  tribea  bad  traversed  this  region.  In 
dy,  "we  find  villages  which  bear  Teutonic  or  R«>maQc« 
UM*.  Standing  on  the  banks  of  streams  which  still  re- 
in their  ancient  Celtic  appellation?."'  Thus  have  the  lo- 
ittma  of  tH^veral  ancient  C«ltic  colonies  been  found  in 
atfral  Italy.'  All  this  tends  to  the  conclosion,  that 
tiile,  and  even  hefnre.  the  Greeks  were  finding  their 
ijirroas  the  Adriatic,  and,  pressing  northward  in  their 
arch  far  homes  and  plunder,  the  Celts  were  descending 
^•D  their  Tnms- Alpine  homes  in  search  of  better  pasture 
itxbapoD  the  Italian  bills. 

^VheD  we  consider  the  modem  Italians  and  Latin 
wikinc  i^tiplc  in  general,  we  will  find  that  tbey  hare  no 
Imical  uni.y.*  liomaiice  lau^a^e^  ari;  .-ifiukc'ii  in  |«>r- 
^'Qs  of  .AmiTica  aa  well  as  in  variuus  EurojM'an  countries. 
uiin  ancient  times  in  Italy,  we  can  understand  how  the 
■Its  j)ress«-il  downward  and  the  Hellenic  immigrants 
csaed  upward,  wliile  the  Turanians  were  either  rnxshed 
Wfcn  them  or  absorl>ed.  Central  Italy,  then,  must 
re  Ijoen  a  common  battle  ground  where  races  were  tight- 

for  V>are  existence.  From  the  midst  of  this  fighting 
u,  we  at  last  catch  a  glimpse  of  a  tribe  of  Ramnes 
rly  but  surely  rising  into  supremacy.  The  fabulous 
f  had  come  down  to  the  Tiber  to  drink,  and  the  royal 
ns  were  nourished  by  the  food  that  she  brought  them. 

Among  the  Italian  tribes,  the  Latins  occupy  the  most 

I  Tkjlor:  "Word!  tad  Places,"  Loodon,  1865,  p.  196. 

1  IMd-    p.  41. 

*  K*«iM  In  RunaMy'a  "Europe,"  p.  6S6. 


268  TBB  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD- 

important  position.    They  settled  along  the  southern  b; 
of  the  Tiber,  occupying  a  rugged,  hilly  district,  seven  h 
dred  square  miles  in  area,'  which   would  seem  to  h; 
been  poorly  fitted 
the  development  of  1 
hardy  Roman  peof 
Across  the  Tiber 
the    north,  were   1 
Turanian    Etrusca 
with  whom  the  Lat 
waged  continual  w 
fare.     But  in  wars 
capitoiine  Wolf.  races,  the  Aryans  hi 

always  been  pretty  firmly  imited  against  a  common  t 
The  Latins  were  surrounded  by  the  Sabines,  the  Samnil 
.  and  the  Campanians.  Though  forever  involved  in  tri 
warfare  among  themselves,  they  were  often  allied  agai 
the  Etruscans.  Tliore  were  thirty  tribes  of  Latins.  Ef 
tribe  had  well  organized  tribal  headquarters,  whirh  i 
often  mentioned  by  historians  as  the  thirty  Latin  citi 
The  fart,  that  thirty  tribes  of  shepherds  occupied  oi 
seven  hundred  square  miles  of  territory,  and  had  room : 
new  colonics  to  grow  into  tribes,  is  sufficient  evidence  tl 
these  headquarters  were  not  cities  in  the  modern  sei 
of  the  word. 

These  thirty  Latin  tribes,  however,  formed  a  conf 
eracy,  powerful  enough  to  make  the  Etruscans  fear  th( 
and  even  to  command  resi^ect  from  the  more  numen 
Sabines  on  the  east.  The  headquarters  of  this  conf 
eracy  were  at  Alba  Longa,  the  home  of  the  Alban  tri 
The  supremacy  of  the  Albans  seems  to  have  been  undia 


>  Mommsen:  "Rome,"  Vol.  I.  p.  60. 


THE  BOMAJf  ASrAlfS.  289 

ted  for  a  long  time ;  and,  as  they  grew  and  increased  id 
puwer,  the  population,  no  doubt,  became,  ^in  time  to 
time.  Uyo  great  for  the  territory.  Colonial  banda  would  be 
enoonraged  to  make  for  themaelres  homes  in  the  adjacent 
"Tiinby,  The  young  tribes  or  oolonies  thus  formed  would 
.iwive  the  aid  and  protection  of  the  mother  tribe  so  long 
aatiicj-  did  not  become   rebellious. 

The  Tiber,  that    formed  the  northwestern    boundary 

of  Uliam,  was  the  most  important  river  of  the  peninsula, 

W(i  was,  no  doubt,  tlie  thoroughfare  by  which  the  trading 

'osele  of  the  Phoenicians  reached  the  interior  tribes  and 

"•e  War  sbipe  of  the  Etruscans  found  their  way  into  the 

"pen  sea.     About  fourteen  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 

^ber  and  on  it«  left  bank,  are  located  a  group  of  seven 

''«l«(the  Roman*  called  them  mountains),  that  have  been 

'todered  immortal  by  the  many  fables  and  l^ends  that 

«Ulg  to  their  early  history.     As  we  ascend   the  river,  wo 

pivt  in  .inlerthe  Aventine,  the  Psitatine,  and,  finally,  the 

('s|iitoline  hills.     Here  the  river  makes  a  great  bend  to- 

»ani  its  right  bank,  thus  forming  a  level  plan  that  bears 

the  n.irne  of  Cam|)us  Martius.       Before  the  great  stone 

rjii;iy    was    constructed,    this    Icvul    plain  was  overflowed 

•luring  high  water.    Bordering  this  plain  to  the  east,  is 

irmther  of  the  seven  hills  wliich  boars  the  name  Quirinal. 

Tti- ■■ther  three — called  Caelian,  Esquiline,  and  Virinal — 

were  ranged  back  of  the  first  three  mentioned.      These 

last  named  were  not   located  along  the  river  bank.  .  Ag 

will   be  seen  from   the    map,  this  group  of  hills  occupy  a 

o.iiiinjinding  position  on  the  river.    From  their  number 

they  were  called  the  "Scptimi)ntiuiii." 

These  hills  were  of  voh-niiic  origin  and  remarkable 
for  the  sterility  of  the  soil.  Cireat  natural  basins  had 
been  formed   in   their  midst,  which,   when  full  of  water, . 


r 


270  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOItJJ>. 

were  beautiful  lakes.  But  the  heat  of  a  southern 
very  often  transformed  them  into  fever-breeding  distr 
So  that  the  climate  of  Rome  was  not  healthful  and 
water  supply  was  insufficient.  But  the  location  wa 
enough  importance  to  counteract  all  this.  Were  we  t« 
quire,  however,  when  these  hills  were  first  peopled 
would  meet  with  a  great  mass  of  conflicting  legends  tot 


Map  of  Home. 
improbable  and  unworthy  of  a  place  in  any  writing 
pretends  to  historical  recognition.  We  may  just  as 
sonably  search  for  gleams  of  historical  truth  in  Gen 
Folk-lore,  or  in  Mother  Goose  Melodies  as  in  the  Ieg( 
of  Rome.  The  historian  who  tries  to  build  upon  thei 
building  on  a  foundation  of  sand. 

Ethnology  and  a  knowledge  of  the  general  movem 
of  the  races  that  inhabited  Europe  in  pre-historic  ti 


rUE  JIOMAN  ARYANS.  271 

b»ff  given  us  a  pretty  accurate  knowledge  of  the  origin 
rfthf  different  people  who  early  found  their  way  into 
lie  Italian  peninsula.  It  took  the  Aryan  tribes  a  long 
'kife  to  Aryanizc  even  tlie  central  and  southern  part  of 
tdjr.  As  we  have  stated,  the  whole  peninaula  was,  no 
wibt,  for  some  time  prior  to  the  arrival  uf  the  Aryans 
Jeered  by  a  Turanian  population.  Tho  legends  of  Rome^ 
lUnabut  very  little  of  these  earlier  people.  We  must 
4rch  in  other  records  for  their  footprints,  and  shall,  no 
Mbl,  find  traces  of  their  presence. 

There  is  another  source  of  information  regarding  an- 
ent  Rome  that  we  must  not  overlook,  for  it  furnishes  us 
ilh  interesting,  valuable,  and  reliable  knowledge.  Tho 
iwreriea  of  archaeologists  are  throwing  light  upon  the 
ipa  of  all  ancient  history,  that  enables  us  to  see  clearly 
UBjr  truths  that  were  hidden  from  tho  visions  of  our 
redecessors.  In  1883  the  spade  of  tho  archaeologi.it  un- 
ulbed  under  the  Esquiline  bill  some  very  primitive 
ifflbs.  Previous  to  this  on  the  same  hill,  had  been  dis- 
tend a  large  necropolis.  These  ruins  probably  date 
■um  a  much  more  remote  period  than  the  alleged  founda- 
!«[>  of  Rome.  They  are  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  Bcliolars, 
1  the  whole,  admit  that  they  arc  relics  of  the  pre-his- 
"ic  people  whom  tho  Aryans  conquered.  But  one  sig- 
ifi'-anl  fact  is,  that  the  pottery  found  among  these  ruin: 
'■srs  sm-h  decorations  as  to  pnive  that  at  least  tho  dc- 
pii  were  borrowed  from  Af».«yria  and  Babylonia. 

HiTf ,  again,  we  run  across  the  work  of  the  Phoenicians, 
'  tlify  undoubtedly  were  instrumental  in  bringing  these 
■iSfLs,  or  a  knowledge  of  this  kind  of  work,  to  the  shores 
Italy.'  The  Etruscans  wire  no  mean  foes  for  for  the 
imans  to  contend  with.    We  hiivi.-  seen  how  the  Turanian 

I  Middl«ton:  "AncieDt  RotiH.',"  {i.  42-3. 


272 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


population  of  Asia  arose  to  the  summit  of  ancient  civili- 
sation.' The  Etruscans  were  Turanians,  related  totheAcca- 
dians,  Elamites,  Susians,  and  Froto-Medes;*  and  UieiDdica- 
tions  arc,  that  they  had  also  attained  a  higher  state  of  cul- 
ture than  any  other  European  members  of  their  race. 
They  wore  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Tyrrhenians,  to  tie 
Latins  as  Etruscans,  and  tlicy  called  themselves  Rasena} 
They  were  a  great  commercial  people*  before  the  legendary 
founding  of  Rome.  Their  war  ships 
appeared  on  the  coasts  of  Egypt  be- 
fore the  time  ofRameses  III.* 

Though  their  history  is  built  upon 
the  ruins  of  a  long  forgotten  power 
and  opulence,  we  are  surprised  at  the 
immensity   and  abundance  of  these 
remains.     "The  internal  histoiy  of 
Etruria  is  written    on   the  mighty 
\  walls  of  her  cities.  ...  It  is  tobereail 
graven    rocks,  and    on  painted 
janue.  walls  of  tombs."'  But  there  arc  none 

to  interpret  her  inscriptions.  A  Scipio  might  have  pre- 
served for  us  a  clew  to  unravel  these  riddles  of  a  lust  peo- 
ple, but  forgotten  is  the  tongue  that  tlioy  sjioke,  and  no 
one  can  now  interpret  to  us  these  messages  from  their 
tombs.' 


1  Thla  Series,  Vol-  II. 

a  Kte  Taylor:  "Tranaactions  of  TDternatiou&I  CongresB  of  Orient»^ 
IstH."  1874,  p.  17G. 

3  "ElruMunn  BesearcheH,"  p.  11.,  cf.  th«  word  TuraniaD. 

*  Sloinnist'u's  "Uoiiit,"  Vul.  I.  p.  105. 

6  Tliig  PorloB,  Vol.  11.  p.SWt. 

c  Dciniis:  '•Oltifaand  CemcterieM  of  Etniria,"  Vol- 1,  p.  xxill. 

1  All  iiKxlcrn  and  ancioiit  Inii^'uagos  have  be«n  aearclied  atxl  ittuditd 
in  Viiiii  for  a koj- by  wha-h  to  r.ad  Etrusc'uii  iiiBorlptioiw.  Dr.  Tajlor 
IhliikH  tli:il  lie  liiis  at  laat  tnucd  Ktriist-aa  to  the  Altai  group  of  laogua- 
gi'B.    8i'u  hia  worka  referred  to  in  tills  c-liapler. 


TBB  ROUAS  AMTAMS. 


23 


/od^ng  frum  the  r>.iii;^iii^  of  Ikt  cities  aad  oficr- 
i&  Etniria  of  old  was  den-^  Ij  popabled.  Ha-  dtin 
iiiL»l  ha^o  compared  fnvurablv  with  tboarof'  tW  a»oeM 
InVnt.  To  supjwrt  iu  {M>j,uLitum,  the  Isad  aout  kave 
KB  imder  a  high  state  of  cnltiTaticm.  Thoa^  0eaair 
IT  use  too  glowing  acAan  whrai  be  paisls  his  pittmna  o. 
Imscaii  life,  we  ma j  widi  prc^  ^aaee  at  his  pcaAetA 
a  portion  of  that  land  restored.  *^What  ts  ftr/w  the 
\  or  jungle,  the  haont  d  the  wild  hoar,  the  bafEtla,  the 


:.  an<i  the  noxinu.i  n-pti!"'.  wli'-n-  man  oft^n  dreads  to 
iv  lli-^tt■p•^,  and  hurrk-s  away  ju*  from  a  jilaipie-strioken 
I'l  of  uld  yieldi-d  rich  harvests  of  com.  wine,  and  oil, 
J  nmncrtius  cities,  mighty  and  opulent,  into  whose  lajis 
mmercc  ]»oure«l  the  treasures  of  the  East,  and  the  more 
winus  pnxlucts  of  Hellenic  genius." 

Einiria  must  have  represented  the  culmination  of 
m>I>.-.iii  Turanian  civilization.  That  she  figured  in  the 
al^  ..f  the  IMiaraohs  proves  the  high  antiquity  of  her 
"'-r.  and  reveals  to  us  thf  origin  of  that  Egyptian  in- 
-li'f,  a    trace   of    which    is   detected   in    her    art    and 

'  'ty,  fit.  xxix.  xxz. 


Etruria  pipv 
one  of  her  r 
upon  the  >■ 
but  conclu^( 
Otherwise  • 
waiitonnofcET 
are  only 
Aryaiia 
ttiry. 

Turnin'^ 
hills, 

fable.     Tho 
coverably  I 
If  we  act! 
thorn  all  for 
strange  th.'it 
stnitmii  I'f  V'J.  I 
old  Turajii  Ml 
the  nipe  ui  tlic  . 
Ri>iiimi  hiatitry,  i* 
date  of  the  foundu 
inatorial.     We  can 


r  MOKAjr  AS  YAIFS. 


275 


n  is  wkici  we  find  Roniau  llfo  whuii  tlio 
e  kateiT'  fizst  dawns  upon  the  SeptJinou* 


Bnitu£  Cocdemr.lr.ghisSon  to  Death. 
Uythologieat  Period. 

matters  little  whether  we  hiive  the  details  of  Rome's 
tmggle  with  the  Turanians  or  not.  The  first  flvo 
ic-s  of  her  history  are  utterly  insigTiificant  even  from 
nil-iMtint  of  the  legendary  liistorian.     Though  the 


276 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


legendary  chronology  places  the  foundation  of  Home  1 
year  753  b.  c,  it  was  not  until  423  B.  c.  that  the  Etn 
village  of  Fidenae  was  conquered,^  though  it  was  onlj 
miles  up  the  river.  The  Etruscaa  village  ofVeii  was 
ten  miles  from  Rome.  Many  are  the  legendary  wars 
battles  fought  between  these  two  cities.    The  l^ends 


Cornelia  and  Her  Bona-  [  The  Qracx;hl.] 
however,  that,  while  the  Gauls  were  fighting  Etruri 
tlie  north,  the  Roman  army  slipped  over  there  and, 
ton  years  constant  siege,  succeeded  in  reducing  the  "V 
itea  to  subjection.  This  great  conquest  is  recorded  foi 
Ti.  c,  over  tlireo  hundred  and  sixty  years  after  the  foi 


THE  JiOMAX  ARYANS.  277 

ivfRonie.  As  a  remarkable  climax  to  the  martial 
Wm  of  Rome,  it  is  record  that  four  hundred  and  eigh- 

Tcars  after  her  foundation  she  had  conquered  the  whole 
ilium — A  district  seven  hundred  square  miles  in  area, 
thaD  hd  average  county  in  a  western  state.  In  280  b.c, 
le  did,  however,  l>ecome  known  to  the  outside  world. 
iBe  hor  armies  then  for  the  first  time  met  foreign 
IS  even  oo  Italian  soil.  Authentic  Roman  history 
be  said  to  commence  with  that  date. 
We  shall,  however,  be  compelled  to  adopt  the  jteriods 
liUch  historians  divide  Roman  history  in  order  to 
foar  further  remarks  intelligible  to  the  reader.  Thus 
aanveQient  to  consider  three  periods  in  the  life  of  the 
aa  people — the  Regal  period,'  the  Republic  or  Com- 
realtfa,'  and  the  Imjwrial  period  t>r  the  Empire.'  The 
lirtsion  rwsta  upon  a  legendary  foundation,  the  second 
ire  aatbentic,  and  the  last*  is  the  date  of  the  dissolu- 
«f  tbe  Wcslf^m  Empire.  Our  knowledge  of  tribal 
deracics  and  of  the  origin  of  government  would  lead 

cspoct  a  regal  perio<l  in  the  life  of  the  Roman  jwople; 
SiSa  whole  iHiriod  ha«  been  sufficiently  treated  in 
mrplacre;  iiud  we  will  refer  the  reader  to  that  place 
>  knowledge  of  the  constitution  and  government  of 
I  Itomo  and  Ihe  origin  and  nature  of  the  two  great 
ioDS  ..f  ii.-  j.«-.ipl->;  til.-  P;itririans  and  tli.'  Plebeians/ 
There  is  one  event  in  early  Roman  history  that  stares 
I  the  face  at  everj'  point,  forces  its  reality  upon  us, 
ius  serves  as  a  starting  point  in  her  history.  This 
•  fir't  recorded  invasion  by  the  Gauls  after  Roman  his- 
iH'cin.-.  All  authorities  agree  in  fixing  the  date  at 
(I        It  iw  not  strange  that  the  Aryan   tribes  had,  as 


TB£  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


early  as  that,  at  least,  begun  to  press  down  over  the  Alps. 
At  last,  they  creased  the  Apennines  in  lai^e  numbers.  The 
Etruscans  were  forced  to  shut  themselves  up  in  their 
towns,  and  to  buy  off  the  invaders  with  gold  and  plunder. 
At  last  they  reached  Rome,  defeated  her  armies,  and  en- 
tered and  plundered  the  city.  The  capitol  is  said  to  have 
been  saved  by  Roman  gold.  If  Rome  had  auy  system 
of  keeping  records,   from  which  her  early  history  could 


"^"^I^T^^H 

^"^^^^ ,  tilEA) 

Henigivraa*' 

"       ^S 

^^^^^  .iiisllHll 

:j 

The  Gaula  In  Bome. 
iiive  been  ascertained,  such  records  were  all  distroyed  at 
thi.s  time.'  Though  writing  was,  no  doubt,  in  vogue  in 
Italy  at  an  early  period,  wo  can  thus  understand  why  we 
have  no  authentic  history  of  early  Rome.  These  Gauls 
finally  departed  from  Rome,  and  tradition  follows  them 
through  Thrace  across  the  Hellespont,  and  into  Western 
Asia.' 

1  Dyer  "Kiiigu  of  Rome,"  p.  28,  arguos  that  the  records  kmiwa  ■• 
"Anoak'H  Mftxiiiil,"  wero  not  wholly  dedtroyed,       «  Above  pag«  38. 


THE  JtOStA-V  ARYAyS.  219 

The  light  of  iiuthentio  history,  which  at  last  breaks 
over  tbt'  Appennines,  thus  reveals  to  us  Rome,  risen  from 
the  ashes  o(  a  Gallii:  invasion  ami  taking  her  place  among 
tlw  powers  of  the  infant  Aryan  World.  As  to  the  begin- 
wang  o(  this  jieriod,  Sir  George  Lewie  has  so  satisfactorily 
caleulated  the  tlati*,  that  we  qutite  from  him.'  He  fixes 
the  termioation  of  the  Republican  period  at  the  death  of 
Pnmpcy  in  48  R.v.  "  If  wo  take  our  departure  from  this 
[«niit,  and  lUK-vnd  the  stream  of  Roman  history,  wc  shall 
BmI  tkut  wo  are  ueooiiipaniitd  \>y  native  eontcmporary  au- 
»  ill  the  strictcBt  sense  of  the  word,  for  177  years,  up 
BOommenceuient  of  the  (iallic  war,  in  theo29th  year 
tdtr,  or  225  u.  c;  that,  with  an  allowable  latitude 
•tion,  this  i)erio<.l  may  Ijc  extended  lu  :2l6year», 
oommeacoment  of  the  firsj.  Punic  War,  in  tho 
t  year  of  tho  city,  or  2tU  n.r.;  and  that,  if  wc  cjdl  in 
jinee  of  contemporary  Greek  writers,  we  may 
I  as  feir  back  a»  233  years,  to  the  473rd  year  of  the 
rity,  or  3H1  ».  v.,  when  P\Trhus  lauded  in  Italy,  and  tlie 
ILiomns  csutiG  for  the  first  time  into  conflict  with  an  army 
ofGrwka." 

Bark  of  the  above  dale,  then,  we  have  to  rely  on 
the  archaeologist  for  information  as  to  ancient  Rome. 
Bot  considerable  has  now  been  made  out  as  to  their 
knowledge  of  art  and  practical  sciences.  The  Romans 
wiT»'  neither  artisans  nor  architects.  They  looked  to 
Etniria  for  everything  in  this  line,  until  Hellenic  cul- 
ture, ill  its  spread,  reached  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  So 
marked  arc  these  indications  that  what  remains  of  Ro- 
man architoctun'  is  grouped  under  three  stages  of  devel- 
opment :  Etruscan,    Hellenic,  and    Roman.'       The   same 

■  "Euif  lUtinuiHIitar)',"  p-  l»-20. 
I  --ABCtent  Rome,"  p.  20. 


280  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

tomb  has  been  found  to  contain  wall  paintings  of  Hom- 
eric scenes,  doors  and  cornices  of  Egyptian  type,  and 
painted  vases  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  styles'  The 
"Wall  of  Romulus"  waa  built  after  Etruscan  models, 
and  probably  by  Etruscan  workmen.'  We  are  told  that 
the  Etruscans  were  the  metal  workers  for  all  Europe. 
The  iron  founderies  at  Elba  supplied  nearly  the  whole 
world,  and  the  remains  about  their  work-ahops  prove  that 
they  had  an  enormous  trade  in  copper  and  bronze  impkftJ 
monts.'  Many  of  the  Latin  building  words  arc  probal 
of  Etruacan  origin.'  The  earliest  blocks  of  stone 
in  building  were  worked  with  metallic  tools.'  Etn 
workmen  were  the  architects  of  the  great  temple  of  J'fl 
ter  on  the  Capitoline.  Their  knowledge  of  drainage  1 
brought  into  use  when  the  great  sewer,  called  Cloaca  ] 
ima,  was  constructed.  AVhenevcr  B.ome  would  raise  i 
public  building,  she  employed  Etruscan  artificers.' 

The  catalogue  of  Etruscan  works  at  R^mio  coultLlfl 
enlaiged  indefinitely,  but  enough    has   been  montionei 
show  how  extensive  was  this  foreign  influence.     To 
can  knowledge  and  culture,  Rome  added  "her  virtue! 
thirst  of  conquest,  and  her  indomitable  courage,"'  i 
which  were  to  a  groat  degree  lacking  in  her  almost  ofll 
nate  neighbors.     Etruscan  scholars,  however,  do  not  | 
tato  to  claim  for  that  people  everything  that  is  c-ulliv 
and  refining  in  not  only  Roman,  but  even  in  modern  lU 
life.     Prince  Bonapart*  calls  standard  Italian  -'the  T 

1  Ibid. 

i  Conquered  Etruecane  were  ]{oman  bI&tm.    It  la  nior«  p 
that  they  were  force<l  to  do  tbia  work  for  their  masters  tbnu  that  1 
workmen  were  lmport«<).  We,  however,  follow  autborltlsa  oix  thi*  ■ 

3  Taylor;  "TraiiBaetioiw  I.  C.  O.  J87-1,  p.  1TB. 

'  Ibid.  p.  174.  '■  "Aiielent  nome,"  p.  iK. 

•  "Ktniria,"  Vol  I.  p.  1x1.  »  "Etnirla,"  p.  : 

*  "TmnaaetlonH  of  Phtlologicul  Society,"  1882-*,  p.  179-80. 


THE  ROMANS. 


PUBLIC  UBKAI^^ 


,-^.%^5r.^--J 


\  THE  BOMAN  ABYANS.  283 

I  dialect/'  and  mentions  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  ] 
/  ''Tihscan  luminaries"  while  Dr.  Taylor^  even  c  t 

/    the  leading  schools  of  art  are  in  cities  once  b     ng 
thv  old    Etruscan   dominion ;  and  that  "Gi     o,  A 

^'elie**,  Ghirlandajo,  Masacio,  I  no,  Fra  Barto  ), 

LtN>nardo,  Coreggio,  Garofalo,  1  Angelo,  '.      ) 

Fmncia,  Guido  Reni,  Domenichino,  a      t      Caracci,"      to 
nut  only  Tuscans  but  probably  of  !     '         i  orig         ] 
it  required  in  Etruria,  as  in   other  of  the . 

Ai^'an  blood,  energy^  and  mental  and      ;  rengi 

carry  this  knowledge. jofLtha.  Arts  to  i 

pitch  of  developm4ri^['thafc  i.     To 

Ar>an,  is  due  the  cre^t  of  enteipng  u     a 
such  Turanian  cavilizations ;  and,  when  1      y      ) 
and  about  to  fall  nnde^liieimffhi  of  : 
carrv'  them  forward  to  a  more  per  of         tl 

Dess«  vigor  and  grandeur. 

After  all,  Rome  had  attained  no  great  celebrity  for 
architecture  and  buildings  until  near  the  close  of  the  '. 
].iild'h-an  period.  The  Etruscan  ceremony  of  encircling 
th-  Ip-adqiiarterH  of  a  newly  established  tribe  with  a  fur- 
r-  -VN  iiiad«*  l»y  a  plow  drawn  by  a  cow  and  a  bull,  was  prob- 
it.l\  ♦•;irlv  (-elelirated  in  the  case  of  Rome.^  The  so-called 
Wall  of  R4)nuilus''  followed  the  direction  of  this  furrow,' 
.  '  1-inj:  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  Palatine  hill;  and 
•  h.*  •iiclnsure  ha.s  since  been  called  Roma  Quadrata,  from 
-.  ii«  r*<tangular  shape  of  the  building  blocks  used.  These 
<•»  !»ir:il  grounds  were  afterwards  enlarged  by  a  wall,  at- 
tr*  ^ut«*il  to  Servius,  so  as  to  include  the  whole  "Septimon- 
tiuin."  and   consideralilo  space  beyond  and  between  the 


"VAr\xmc%i\  Reiiearchefi/' 
J  S<-«  CouUoges :  ** Ancient  City/' 
*  *ADri^nt  Rome.'*  i>.  44,  note. 


284 


TSE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


seven  hills.'  The  Forum  Magnum  was  a  large  open  space 
between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills,  where  assem- 
blies  of  people  were  wont  to  be  held.  It  was  rectangular 
in  shape  and  was,  in  later  times,  surrounded  by  spacious 
balls  where  courts  of  justice  might  sit.  It  was  hero,  at  a 
Inti'rday,that  gladiatorial  fights  were  witnessed  which  will 


««". 


mmm> 


E:-.t.:'ar.;e  t=  t^.e  Capltc;. 
forever  tarnish  tlif  gliirics  of  KouR'.  Between  the  Pala- 
tine and  tlic  Avfiitine  hills,  wjusjilong,  rectanguliir  valley, 
called  the  Circus  Maxiniu.«,  or  great  Circus.  Here  were 
celelirati'd  the  jLrreat  games  fur  which  Rouie  ^vas  m»toJ. 

1   lluwliii8..ii:   •■.\[iilHl:iI,"|..:^l.S. 


Tire  ROMA  N  A  ff  YA  xs,  286 

Ax  hma  bt-vii  suiil,  tbe  Campus  Martius  was  a  great  plain 
withoat  the  walls  of  the  city,  though  above  it  and  near 
the  river's  baiik.  Here  the  Roman  youth  engaged  in 
in&rtiai  s]K>rta  and  tbe  largest  assemblies  uf  the  people 
were  held.  Hero,  also,  the  army  was  wont  to  assemble 
at  the  Miutid  (if  the  horn  and  listen  to  commands.  A 
stone  wall,  bearing  muny  murks  of  Etruscan  work  in  unship, 
waa  early  begun  and,  in  time,  run  along  both  sides  of  the 
Tiber  tbe  entire  length  of  the  city  front.'  Previous  to  142 
B.  c,  the  only  bridge  aeross  the  Tiber  was  constructed  of 
wood,  so  an  to  be  easily  cut  down  in  case  of  danger  from 
an  invaaion. 

Tho  whole  of  Etruria  was  noted  for  its  system  of 
»«wcragp.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  Rome,  whose 
hUla  were  interspersed  with  inarHhy,  uialarlal  districts, 
abonld  havo  looked  to  matters  of  health.  When  the  great 
Hnr<:r,  calletl  Cloani  Maxima,  was  constructed,  it  would  be 
ban!  to  tMI,  but  it  U  attributed  to  Tnrquin  II.  It  waa  a 
wonderful  piece  of  workmanship,  and  finally  developed 
into  A  perfect  system  of  drainage.  Though  the  water 
sttpply  waa  always  poor  at  Rome,  it  was  not  until  near 
the  middle  of  the  Republican  period  that  a  known  sys- 
tem of  water  works  was  introduced.  It  was  in  the  Cen- 
sorship of  Appius  Claudius,  that  the  first  acqueduct  was 
constructed.  It  brought  the  water  from  a  distanco  of 
wV4'n  or  eight  miles.  In  the  first  century  of  our  cm,  tiie 
r-ity  hail  so  increased  in  .tize  iis  to  require  nine  of  these 
great  water  courses  to  furnish  it  with  a  necessary  supply.* 
Tho  same  year,'  the  first  of  those  great  highways,  which, 
in  Im|>eriul  times,  connccti-d  Rome  with  the  ends  of  the 

1  At  one  pliu'v,  iiul  fmr  from  tlio  iiiciulli  «f  tlic  ('Ioblu  Maxima,  • 
pinv  uf  tbe  original  wkll  cxIhIh.  wltli  jiniJoi-tlDg  lion  hcadx,  Bculptund 
In  bold  and  cffitctive  Etniacan  ntyle.  "Ancient  Ilome,"  ji,  78. 

I  '-ADcl«nt  Rome,"  p.  M6.  "  Probably  818  B.  c. 


r^ 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 


world,  was  built.  This  was  the  Via  Appia,  or  Appian 
road,  and  extended  from  Rome  to  Capua.'  These  roads 
were  master-pieces  of  engineering,  and  constructed  regard- 
less of  the  amount  of  human  labor  required.  Valleys 
were  bridged  over  by  massive  stone  viaducts,  and  moun- 
tains of  solid  rock  wore  cut  through,in  order  to  Biake  the 
road  level  and  straight. 


Appiar.  Way. 
The  principal  iirchitctitur.-il  remains  of  the  Regal  and 
early  Republican  periods  are  altars  and  temples.  There 
were  the  altars  of  Saturn  and  A'ulcan ;  and,  at  a  later  date, 
tlumgh  built  on  the  site  of  an  older  altar,  there  was  in 
Rome  also  an  "  altar  to  the  unknown  god."  The  tenipio 
of  Vesta,  of  .Taniis,  and  uf  Castor  were  aniong  the  oldest 

1  Jbia.  |..  477-8. 


TBS  KOMAir  ASTAjrS. 


aif7 


Idinga  at  Rome.  But  the  earliest,  as  well  as  the 
ist  celebraCed  of  these  ancient  boildin^  ira^  the  temple 
Japiler  CapitoliQiu  on  the  Capitoline  hill.  The  legend 
rs,  that  Romulas  vowed  a  temple  to  Jupiter :  but  it  ts 
veil  kni3wn  historical  fact,  that  the  Etniseuu  were  woot 
eraet  in  overy  uow  settlement  a  temple  tu  thiar  triad  <d 


'i*.  Jui.it«-r.  .lull"..  :iii.l  MiiM-rv;i.  Tli'-  trij.l'-  nature  of 
-•  (..uii-tt-  was  uri.i<.ul)t»il :  ami.  ;i.*  it-*  Mr<:liit'-''turt-  is  of 
^ni-.;,i,  ^itvl.-.  it  ].rul.;iMy  W-luti":*  to  j-r'-R'Tij.-iii  limes, 
'■m'ii  it-  iMUii'l.-itif.n  wji^  attrihme-l  !<•  Tiinjuiii  I.  The 
Jlu.'  ..f  Ju|.it<r.  h1.-<..  w:l-  iiK.«i<l<---l  1-y  an  Etru.-M-an  sculp- 
■f  Till-  ;iiifi-iit  I'liiMin;.'  w;i.s  -uamU.-TVil  among  the 
■'■■n  :.;.i-r--'l  rt-li"-:-.  «'»  th.'  preswrvatittn  uf  which  the  wel- 


288  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

fare   of  Rome  depended."^     It  was  burned  in   83  i 
though  subsequently  rebuilt  on  a  much  grander  scale. 

Resuming  the  thread  of  history  once  more,  we  ' 
commence  with  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  Pyrrhus,  wh 
as  we  have  seen,  Sir  George  Lewis  thinks  is  about 
far  back  as  we  have  historical  light  to  guide  us.  W 
each  conflict  of  Rome  with  her  neighbors,  we  shall  see  1 
emerge  with  increased  power  and  influence.  This  \ 
long  after  the  termination  of  the  so-called  Regal  peril 
about  the  middle  of  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth. 
281  B.  c,  Rome  violated  her  treaty  with  the  Greek  c 
of  Tarentum  by  stationing  a  fleet  in  the  forbidden  wat( 
of  their  bay.  The  Tarentines  resented  this  act  by  atta< 
ing  the  fleet  and  sinking  a  number  of  vessels.  War  v 
declared.  The  Tarentines  appealed  to  Greece  for  a 
Epirus  sent  an  army  of  twenty-five  thousand  Greek  troc 
under  Pyrrhus,  to  their  assistancs. 

The  Romans,  however,  had  already  attained  su 
power,  that  the  combined  Grecian  forces  could  not  co 
with  them.  The  army  that  Pyrrhus  brought  with  h: 
was  at  last  destroyed,  and  the  colonies  were,  one 
one,  subjugated.  The  Grecian  general  is  said  to  ha 
(Juitted  Italy  in  276  B.  c,  and  all  opposition  in  t 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula  was  met  and  subdued 
266  B.  c.  Roman  arms  were  at  the  same  time  carri 
north,  and  when,  at  the  close  of  the  year  265  B.  c,  T 
sinii,  chief  of  Etruscan  strongholds,  was  taken  and  rai 
to  the  ground,  "Rome  reigned  supreme  over  the  lenj 
and  breadth  of  Italy."* 

Rome  next  interferred  in  a  quarrel  between  some 

^  "The  other  six  are  said  to  have  been  the  needle  of  Cybele ; 
ashes  of  Orentes;  the  veil  of  Ilione;  the  scepter  of  Priam;  the  anc 
of  Mars,  and  [chief  of  all]  the  Palladium." 

*  Rawlinson:  "Manual"  p.  878-9. 


THE  HOMAN  ARYASS.  289 

;t«te»  at  Heesina,  a  U»wn  at  the  extreme  north  end  of  Sicily, 
Lud  Carthage.  A  war  with  Carthage  was  the  result.  It 
1  twenty-three  years,'  and  resulted  in  favor  of  Rome, 
war  is  known  in  history  as  the  First  Punic  War. 
toy  was  made  an  independent  ally  of  Rome.  During 
JBwsr,  the  navnl  power  of  Rome  was  greatly  increased, 
idlierarma  wero  carried  into  Africa  for  the  first  time. 
WCis-Alpine  Gauls  were,  no  doubt,  continually  encroach- 
iBgn|ion  Roman  ttTfitory,  as  they  wero  pressed  forward  by 
ri'vtlcss  tribes  continually  crossing  the  Aljis.  Rome 
even  compelled  to  act  on  the  defensive  agninst  their 
bnada.  She,  determining  at  last  to  conquer  them,  became 
^^greasor  in  232  b.  c  by  planting  colonics  in  Gallic 
iRribny.  Seven  years  later,'  tli(>  Gauls  crossed  the  Ajm-mi- 
and  advanced  ujwn  Rome,  but  were  driven  back. 
Ib(  Er>nian  army  followinl  them  into  the  valley  of  tlie  Po, 
wliin  222  B.  c,  extended  the  dominion  of  Rome  to  the 
■4l!«*,  making  Cis-Alpine  Gaul  a  province.  But  in  the 
"waniinu*,*  a  Roman  fleet,  under  the  plea  of  driviiig  the 
Rfriaii  piraU':*  from  the  Adriatic  crossed  over  and  estab- 
^"■d  the  authority  of  Rome  in  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  and  the 
•"iji'ining  islands.  Thus  the  Greeks  established  those 
»til  Imntlfl  of  friendship  with  Rumo  which,  not  wnly  in 
weircaM-  but  in  all  other  cases,  soon  became  the  bonds 
•rfwritude. 

Though  the  armies  of  Carthage  had  been  conquereu, 
•r«[»irit  htwl  nut  Iii?en  subdued.  We  all  cail  tn  mindliow 
^infant  Hannibal  swore  at  the  altar  of  Baal  eternal 
■mity  t^iwanl  the  Romans.  Tiie  young  Hannibal  had 
grown  into  maiihiKKl.  Reared  in  the  camps  of  the 
^^thagfrnian  army  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  Spain,  he 
■wndwl  in  230  b.  c,  to  the  command  of  the  forces,  and 

H-Ml  a.  C.  «  £t^  t!   c.  »  230  B.  C. 


I 


I 


290 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


at  once  began  preparations  to  invade  Italy.  He  chose  a 
route  by  land  across  the  Alps,  and,  in  218  b.  c,  started  on 
his  journey  with  an  enormous  army  and  great  stores  o: 
munitions  of  war.  Two  years  of  Carthagenian  conquests 
followed;  but  then,  Hannibal  found  himself  in  the  heart 
uf  Italy,  surrounded  by  Roman  forces,  and  unable  to  get 
reinforcements  from  Carthage.     Kow  came  the  time  for 


Hannibal  Swearing  Vengeance  cn  Rome. 

Rome  to  revenge  the  slaughter  of  the  flower  of  her  youth 
'in  the  field  ofCaunae.'  Still  for  fourteen  years  longer. 
Hannibal  remained  in  Italy  defying  Roman  power.  At 
length,  Rome  carried  the  war  into  Carthagenian  territor}-, 
and  Hannibal  was  recalled  to  defend  his  native  city,  only, 
however,  to  be  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Zama  by  Scipio 
Afrieanus,  which  led  to  the  submission  of  Carthage.'    As 


1  Tho  story  is  told  that  afUT  thi;  battle,  216  B.o,.,  HanDlbal gathered 
»  biislicl  of  gol<l  rluKH  from  tlu'  IIiiiu'im  <if  the  wealthy  ruiniann  that  lay 
Htauirhterwl  m  the  llelii,  and  aeut  thciii  to  Carthage  to  ;.«>ve  'tha  fai&l.tf 
of  the  day  to  the  ll^jmana.  >  201  b.  c. 


TBE  ROMAN  ABYANS. 


:i9l 


s  TM-uh  uf  this  war.  Rome  not  only  maintained  her  au- 
thority, but  a^'ain  established  hersuiiremacy.  The  terms 
'■:'  h'.-r  treaty  with  Carthay:t'.  tlumgli  jirobably  no  more  se- 
\  'Te  than  might  be  ei|»ceted,  was  such  as  to  forever  cri]>- 
\-\'-  a  maritime  jjower.  Carthage  could  nu  Utngor  lioKl 
[".-.•ifrtsions  outside  of  the  African  continent;  she  could  iim 
••ngage  in  fi>reign  war  without  the  consent  of  Rome ;  she 
was  fonwd  tn  smrrender  all  her  ships,  except  ten ;  and, 
finally,    she    w  a  .s 


furwd  %ci  pay  trilt- 

M^ 

atetoRome.    Still 

Cartha^  flnurish- 

eil  though  en-stfal- 

len  and  rub)>eil   of 

ber    riches   and 

power.' 

Hannibal,    the 

i^ 

ppp!ite.-t  ..f  f 'artha- 

wm- 

^ 

L*erii;iii  l'-- ti  >■  raU.  J 

H^ 

K 

was*  tinally  drivru  1 

H^ 

■ 

frt'iii    th.-    I'ity  by   i 

HI 

■ 

.n-rni.-..     II.-  fl.il    ' 
:■■  Th.- Syrian  omrt. 

m 

IWB 

^rVHKp 

i 

;•;■!  w.-i-  iii.-^triiiiii'ii- 

■  -.!    ::.   .-tirriiiir  ii]. 

V.-ir.TAt-.'.. 

.  -.v-.r  i»t\v.-.-ri  tliat  ( 

•imtrv  ;i 

ni  Riuii.-,  .lis.-i.-itmus 

t,.  ih 

:   -:;.-  r.       I'iir>ii.-.i  b\ 

til.-  km 

ins  iniM  KitliyniM.h' 

|...l  :. 

■  ■■;  •■.}.!-  ..«!,  \\w  v. 

lli.T  tl.:.i 

U\\   int..  til.-  b;.iid.-. 

. if  111 

\\.   !;i.-I.T[ji-    i.t" 

.•„1  III..    1. 

-I   ..r   .■\rll-''>     [Ml-    til 

ivilUT 
Ill 

:     ■  ■■      •  .'.  :i_i?i..li    ..]' 

all  II,.-   11 

LlVi.'I.dl 

V  pi.i-ii..ii>  ..r 

Italy 

292  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

This  she  effectively  lu-complished.  In  the  meantime  she 
bad  entered  into  alliance  with  Egypt,  Rhodes,  and  other 
eastern  people.  The  Macedonians  had  at  first  openly 
assisted  Carthago,  btit  a  Roman  army  soon  compelled 
them  to  make  peace.      But  even  after  this,  Macedonia 


Proclalmine  Liberty  to  the  Qreelts. 
secretly  befriended  Carthage,  as  well  as  carried  on  war 
with  Egypt  and  Rhodes:  so  that,  as  soon  as  opportunity 
offered,  a  Roman  army  was  again  sent  into  Macedonia. 
Now  Rome's  militjiry  ta(tti(rs  were  of  a  two-fold  nature. 
No  power  had  y(;t  been  nble  to  successfully  defeat  her 


THE  BOM  A  N  AR  VANS.  293 

wmies ;  bat,  in  almost  all  cases,  she  prepared  the  way  to 
ciiceess  by  stirring  up  strife  among  the  allied  tribes  of  peo- 
ple, with  whom  she  was  at  war.    This,  we  will  see,  was 
her  course  against  the  powerful  Gauls  and  Teutons  in  the 
tinm  ai  the  empire.    Such  was  her  policy  at  this  time 
with  the  Ghreeks  and  Macedonians.    The  Roman  consul, 
IRmiiiiiiBy  entered  Greece  with  an  army  and  proclaimed 
Oneiaii  independence  to  all  the  tribes  that  would  join 
liii  CMite.    The  battle  of  Gynocephalae  ended  the  war, 
ud  st  the  same  time  the  Macedonian  empire.'   Each  Ghre- 
dn  atate  was  made  separate  and  independent,  except  in 
the  esse  of  leagues  among  themselves,  such  as  those  of 
Adiia,  Aetolia,  or  Boeotia. 

When  Antiochus  received  Hannibal  at  his  Syrian 

^Wt|  Srane  regarded  the  act  as  a  challenge  for  war,  and 

^^  lot  long  in  accepting  it.    Antiochus  was  really  the 

HgtBmotr.    He  formed  an  alliance  with  Grecian  Aetolians, 

•^  even  entered  Greece  with  an  army.      The  Roman 

Winy  finally  entered  Thessaly,    defe«ated   the  Syrians  at 

^ennopylae,  and  drove  them  out  of  Greeee.    The  Roman 

'cet  defeated  the  Syrians  near  Cyprus,  landed  in  Asia,  and 

ctHnpelled  Antiochus  to  withdraw  from  that  part  of  Asia 

Ifinor  north  of  the  Taurus  and  confine  himself  to  the 

district  south  of  that  range.*    Again^  the   Macedonians, 

under  Philip's  successor,  Perseus,  became  rebellious.   Th* 

^«attle  of  Pydna  was  fought  in  168  B.C.,  and,  as  usual,  tli<^ 

Rtfiinans  were  successful.    Macedonia  was  broken  up  into 

four  states.     The  leagues  of  Greece,  except  Achaia,  were 

dissolved  and  many  of  the  separate  states  again  declared 

independent. 

There  had  always  been  a  party  at  Rome  that  consid- 
en-d  thi*ir  own  state  unsafe  iis  long  as  Carthage  flourished. 

»  1^7  B.  C.  •  190  B.  C.  >  171  B.  C. 


:»94 


TBE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


The  head  of  this  party  was  Cato,  the  Censor.  It  is  said, 
that  he  closed  every  speech  to  the  Senate,  or  people  of 
Rome  with  these  words,  "Carthage  must  be  destroyd."- 


1,.,..,.        ■^^leaS^     "^ 

Return  of  Regulus.* 

<  "DeleAda  est  Carthago. 

*  Dudn^r  tliifl  war  occurred  the  nicmnrable  iooldent  of  RetrulUA  aiul 
bis  ri'tuni  to  <?iirthuge.  Caiitiinil  by  f  lio  (^urtbagenlaDu  hv  wum  |>amlei1 
iLiiil  Hi'iit  to  Itonieoiicoiiiliiloti  lliat  hv  rt'tiini  turnrtlia^' if  liuiiio  n>- 
riiHuil  to  make  ii  certain  treaty  Hiyuliis  nfiiscd  to  outer  Itimie.  Kinnitily 
'"IviHeil  tbt'  Romans  not  to  nmki^  ilic  trt'uiy,  au<l  tlieu  bftldii)(|-  fiirrwell 
to  'lis  family  ho  returned  to  CarthuKt'  to  die. 


TBS  BOM  AN  ARYANS-  295 

fisolred  therefore  upon  the  ruin  of  Carthage,  a  Roman 
rmy  finally  appeared  before  her  walls  and  demanded  the 
e«lruetiou  of  the  city  as  the  only  condition  of  peace. 
iVitb  almost  superhuman  energy,  born  of  despair,  the  in- 
tabttantft  withstood  the  siege  for  four  years.'  Finally 
l^utbage  Borrendered,  was  utterly  destroyed,  and  the  terri- 
017  nuKlfl  into  a  province.  Another  quarrel  with  Mace- 
Imia  fbllowod.  Corinth  was  plundered  and  destroyed.' 
rhe  fbrqier  became  a  province  at  once,  and  the  latter 
SbaUj  assumed  a  rtimihir  relation  toward  Rome.     A  Ro- 

Swiny  wiia  employed  in  Spain  from  14J)  to  133  b.  c, 
Iwro  provinces  were  added  to   Roman   possessions. 
untu  about  this  time' came  under  Roman  power  by 
"rill  of  tfaeirlate  ruler,  Attalus  HI. 

Wc  have  now  reached  a  time  in  the  history  of  the 
lUilllMl  CciomontveaUh  when  her  internal  trouhU'!*  had  as- 
iomed  frightful  proporti<}ns.*  The  Plebeian  population  of 
iome  wa*  no  hmger  Latin.  It  was  a  mixture  of  all  free 
i«>ple  whom  the  fortiinea  of  war  had  <lriven  to  thai  city. 
The  publie  land  of  Rmne  or  Italy  was  in  the  possession 
■f  ihe  Patricians,  who  worked  their  large  estates  with 
lave  Iftbur.  The  great  mass  of  jH-ople,  the  Plebeians,  were 
oodless,  nnd  there  was  little  ehanee  of  their  finding  em- 
tloymmt  except  a»  sohliers.  Thi.s  subject  class  had  to  be 
ed;  and  it,  in  time,  came  to  be  an  instrument  of  every 
iialritious  demogogue,  by  which  he  could  raise  himself  into 
mwiT.'  The  one  who  nmld  best  feed  them  was  their  hero 
ur  the  time  being.  At  times,  there  arose  champions  of 
he  Plebeians  who  deserve  great  praise  for  their  attempts 

I  1W-14SB.C.  ■  146  b.  c. 

»  ID  M.  O  *  Vol.  II.  p.  201  c(  ««?. 

*  W«  hftTB  refemd   (o  the  worhin^H  of  the  Bsma  Btftt«  of  kfflUn  in 
IWCi,  r«wiltlD(  Id  tbe  formation  of  Tyraunies. 


2i)(i  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

to  better  the  condition  of  these  people  by  legisktion.  Such 
were,  no  doubt^  the  Gracchi,^  But  every  such  noble 
minded  legislator  came  to  an  untimely  death  through  the 
enmity  of  the  Patricians. 

The  war  with  Jugurtha,  who  had  usurped  the  Numi- 
dian  throne,*  both  proves  the  corruption  of  the  leading 
Romans  of  the  time  and  brings  into  public  notice  the  two 
party  leaders,  Marius  and  Sulla.    For  nine  years,  Jugu^ 
tha  succeeded  in  saving  his  throne  by  bribing  Roman  eos- 
suls  and  senators.   The  inevitable  end,  absorption  by  Rome^ 
came  at  last.     Heretofore  the  Romans,  when  fightiiig  the 
ruder  people  on  their  northern  and  western  bordeni  had 
met  only  Gauls  and  Iberians.     About  this  time^.th^  were 
iirst  called  upon  to  defend  themselves  from  inyadingtribei 
of  Teutons,  whom  they  found  by  no  means  as  easily  eon- 
quered  as  the  former  two  peoples.     In  113  B.  c,  bands  A 
Cimbri  and  Teutones  (Germans)  crossed  the  Alps  and  ifr 
vaded  Italy.      Contrary  to  law,  Marius  was  appointed 
and  re-appointed  several  times  to  the  consulship.    He  was 
the  ablest  commander  in  Rome,  but  it  took  him£welTe 
long  years  to  conquer  these  Teutonic  tribes  even  on  his 
own  Italian  soil. 

Even  before  this  time,  it  was  no  uncommon  occurrence. 
for  a  conspicuous  party  leader  at  Rome  to  meet  his  death 
i)y  assassination.     In  91  B.  c,  M.  Livius  Drusus  proposed 
t  ''set  of  measures  which  had  for  their  object  the  recondl^ 
ment,  at  Rome,  of  the  Senatorian  with  the  Equestrian 
orders."^  Drusus  was  murdered,  which  so  enraged  the  popu- 
lar party,  who  regarded  him  as  their  champion,  that  the 
tribes  of  Central  and  Southern  Italy  took  up  arms,  dete^ 


1  Tiberius  in  133  b.  c.  ;  Caius  in  121  b.  c. 
«  Rawlinsou:  **Manual,"  p.  423. 
«  118-106  «.  c. 


^1      ^  .  .!■  ^. 


jA 


THE  ROXAN  ARYANS.  297 

to  form  an  indepemlont  state.  As  :i  source  of  pro- 
against  desertion  by  tho  nortliorn  tribes,  Rome  con- 
all  citizenship  upon  all  Italians  who  had  not  taken 
the  war  or  would  at  once  return  to  their  allegiance. 
way,  Rome  retained  her  supremacy.  The  Patri- 
ere  compelled,  from  time  to  time,  to  make  just  sui  J. 
ions.    This  policy  was,  in  Imperial  times,  exteudc-il 


h.-  priiviiic-s.  ihiiiiL'li  in  a  iii'iiiit'n'<i  from.  Th(;  iu- 
i.  ■■hi- rtaitu-  am!  till-  jirniiiisiii::  yijiiii;.'  nion  w«n; 
1  a.-  t-aiiiiidatcs  for  Kotiiati  ritiz'-nsliip,  and  were 
!!^Xv*\  with  that  titli-  and  Its  jjrivilc^'i-.  '\'\\i-\  camts 
rl  it  as  a  mark  of  honor,  as  wt-ll  as  a  sjif'-^rnard 
[■unij-hnif'nt  fmni  I<Ma)  ;:oM-rnTn*-iils.'  .So  iirvni  a 
wa.s  iiKuk-.  that  '-th'-  L'ran.l,-..i,-  ..f  tin-  (iaiil.-.  who 
il    .luliu.-*    Cae.-ar  in    Al'-'-ia,    >  oitiiiianiifd    \f/u,un. 


«  8»  1^-  ^- 


TH*  BOMAN  ARYANS.  299 

tn  l^^ns.  For  the  first  time  I^on  was  opposed  to 
1.  At  last,  SuUa  put  down  all  opposition.  His  first 
■raa  to  proscribe  and  murder  thousands  of  people,  both 
ime  and  elsewhere,  for  do  other  crime  than  that  they 
arored  the  popular  par^.'  He  made  himself  Dictar 
lod,  as  such,  suceeded  in  r»6BtablishiDg  the  Senate  ana 


In  the  Arens. 
itrician  ohUt  in  powt-r  and  glory.     In  79  b.  c,  he 
,tt'l  lii3  offi<'e  iintl  ilird  tn  tlio  folli»wiiij.' year.     I'rom 
mi-  forwar<l,  tin.-  political  history  of  Itomo  is   little 

1^  li:ir>) '-veil  for  the  m'i«t  can:lcHn  to  n-allxi.'  t lit- Hiiiall  value  placed 
i:iii.ii  life  111  tbuBu  tlliK--.  Tlircc-  llirmxHinl  frieiKH  of  the  popular 
I  I^l^le  ami  twelve  tlioiiHaiiil  ut  rruent-flo  wtre  butcbercd  la 
oxl  at  Ibf  nod  of  BuUa,  or  hi*  tools,     bcu  IlawIloMio'ii  "Uanual," 


30  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Qore  than  a  history  of  individuals,  who,  in  various  i 

irose  to  power. 

The  wealthy  or  ambitious  leaders  prepared  fo 
amusement  of  the  idle  mob  inhuman,  revolting,  and  bl 
spectacles,  known  as  gladiatorial  contests.     It  is  1 
( urdling,  even  at  the  present  day,  to  read  the  accoun 
these  scenes.     The  youth  and  strength  of  conquered  pe 
were  brought  to  Italian  cities  and  skillfully  trained  in  < 
to  make  the  fight  more  exciting.     The  contestants  m 
the  arena  to  fight  for  their  lives,  using  all  the  skill 
training  could  give  them.     Sometimes  man  was  | 
against  man,  and  sometimes  against  the  fiercest  of 
beasts.    Nor  would  the  flowing  life-blood  and  the  it 
groans  of  a  single  score  of  dying  men  quench  their  1 
for  human  blood ;  the  great  Caesar  himself,  when  ai 
gained  popular  favor  by  glutting  the  eyes  of  Rome 
the  blood  of  thousands  of  gladiators,  fighting  in  a  i 
arena.*    Not  the  mob  alone  were  pleased  to  witness 
games,  but  consuls,  senators,  knights,  the  youth  ar 
aged,  fair  maidens  and  worthy  dames — all  seemed  to 
such  a  scene  as  did  the  inunortal  Cicero,  who  said, 
was  the  greatest  pleasure  in  life  to  see  a  brave  ene 
off  to  torture  and  death.^    Even  the  eloquent  pen 
tus  could  not  wholly  escape  contamination  from  tl 
(f  the  times,  for  we  find  him  writing  in  regard 
prisoners,  that  more  than  sixty  thousand  fell,  not  b 
arms,  but  ^'grander  far  for  our  delighted  eyes."' 

All  have  heard  of  the  gladiator,  Spartacus,  v 
a  body  of  five  thousand  gladiators   escaped  fro 
placed  himself  at  their  head.    This  band  was  soor 

1  After  Trajan's  triumph  over  the  Dacians  [a.  d.  106. 
more  than  10000  exhibited.'*  Bmith:  •^Dictionary  of  Greet 
Antiquities."  i  Elton :  **Origins  of  English  Hi 

'  Germania  Chapter  xxxiii. 


rmX  SOMAN  ARYANS.  301 

Tes  &nd  malcontents  enon^  to  swell  its  ranks  to  one 
odred  thoosand  men.  For  two  years,  they  ravaged  the 
Ids  and  cities  of  Italy,  before  they  were  finally  conqaered 
a  Roman  army. 

After  the  death  of  Sulla,  a  number  of  prominent  men 
ae  to  the  front  in  Roman  affiairs.     Amongst  these,  we 


Death  of  SpartacuB. 
i-t   Tri-'iiticn  Cn.  PomiM'iu!*,  nr  INmijK'y.     He  belonged 
:t  (i"-w  t.tmily,  but  hmi  frJUTHfl  tin*  fririHlcliii)  u\'  Sulla. 
i»th<T  WIU4  CranHus,  a  shrrwd  but  iiiilulriit  iiiiiii.  wlio 
iirti^iim-*!  his  ikjwit  l»y  his  ^'n-iit  wcaltli. 

<  »n-aUst  amunp  the  ri.siiij,'  men,  wiw  Caiua  Julius  Cae- 

W'c  need  only  mention,  in  jiassinjr,  ( 'iito  tlic  younger 

'1  th«-;rreut  orator  and  stati-^nni  II,  Cicero.   It  is  not  strange 


ma 


THE  MEDIEVAL     WOHLii. 


mflcy  among  wB^ 


that  we  should  detect  a  rivalry  for  aupreniacy  among  fl 
influential  men.  Our  interest  chiefly,  centers  on  Caesar. 
I  He  passed  from  one  office  to  another ;  finally,  nssumillg 
the  government  of  Spain,  he  there  began  to  oi^auizo  that 
army  that  was  destined  to  make  Rome  an  Empire.  The 
Senate  had  become  fearful  of  Pompey's  power.  Ho  bad 
been  made  consul,  had  driven  the  pirates  from  the  Mei 
iterr&nean,  and  was    solidllyiiig  Koman   power  in   Adik 


Conqueet  of  Qaul. 

Uc  returned  to  Rome  to  be  slighted  by  the  Senate,^ 
tliey  did  not  even  ratify  his  acts  in  Asia,  nor  pay  hist 
Thus  offended,  he  was  ready,  when  Caesar  proposed  it^^ 
unite  with  Crassus  and  form  a  secret  league,  known  a»f 
First  Triumvirate.  Caesar  was  made  Consul,'  andp 
hu-  measures  were  adopted ;  Pompey's  soldiers  were  pnflj 
ded  fur;  Cato  was  given   an  unimportant  foreign  office; 

1  5U  n.  c. 


-■•-' 

l^l^H^ 

■y 
I 

M^^^yJK 

if 

4^    ^ 

r.j 

r 

w 

m 

A 

THE  »*V  ^0^1- 

PUBLIC  LlBHARt 


TBS  SOMAN  ABYAXS.  305 

ale  Cicero,  the  patriot  and  orator,  was  banished.  The 
riamriratc  then  ruled  at  Rome.  At  the  close  of  Cae- 
r»  ooDsulate,  he  obtained  the  government  of  the  two 
wis  and  of  lUyricum  for  a  term  of  five  years.  Then 
ereb^un  the  wars  against  the  Gauls  and  Germans,  which 
fueled  to  Roiuanizti  a  great  part  of  Western  Europe. 

Now  Caesar  was  at  liberty  to  plan  for  the  future, 
ie  began  at  onoe  to  raise,  equip,  and  discipline  an  army 
ul  would  support  him  in  his  ambitious  designs.  Xor 
id  he  (ail  in  the  essential  point  of  endearing  himself  to 
le soldiers  that  he  led  in  battle.  They  were  not  only 
iidT  to  obey  his  commands,  but  willing  to  live  or  die  with 
im.  He  was  not  in  a  hurry,  however,  feeling  that  the 
anefor  action  hiidnotyet  come.  In  55  b.  c,  he  was  re-ap- 
ntUed  to  the  government  of  the  Gauls  for  another  period 
(tre  years.  Crassus  was  slain  in  an  expedition  against 
Ib  Partliiiin.'t.'  Pompey  began  to  fearthe  power  of  Caesar, 
'111  ifi'liict-d  th'- Senate  to  demand/  that  Caesnr  should 
li'*Kii.ii  his  army  before  coming  to  Rome  to  stand  for  the 
"  i>ulsliip.  H;id  Caesar  complied,  he  would  have  aban- 
i'li'tl  lli>'  only  means  by  wliicli  ho  could  hold  his  power, 
"I'i  itrliai>s,  he  would  have  forfeited  his  life.  He  saw 
■''■ti  the  lime  had  come  when  he  was  to  abandon  all  hope 

■  I'uiuri'  power,  or  else  strike  boldly  for  the  only  position 

■  ''"imr  left  for  him.  So  at  the  head  of  his  devoted  legions, 
^■sar  made  the  historical  "crossing  of  the  Rubicon,"'  and 
Vi-hed  against  Rome. 

N'i  -w  Pompey  realized  the  advantage  that  his  opponent 
ri.  11. ■,  therefore,  determined  to  tall  back  upon  the 
-t.  where  lie  had  gained  so  many  victories  in  the  past. 
.T'-  li-  w.iuld  raise  an  army  with  which  he  might  hope 
r^.[»-  witli  tlic  miirhty  Caesar.     liy this  step,  Caesar  wa» 


306 


TSE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


cnablod  to  enter  Kome  with  little  or  no  opposition.  ! 
tioued  at  the  seat  of  govemment,  Caesar  was  master 
all  Italy.  He  did  not,  however,  wait  for  Pompey  to  hr 
his  army  into  Italy,  neither  did  he  allow  time  for  his  o 
mies  to  unite  their  forces.  Caesar's  army  was  first  s 
cessful  in  Spain,  next  on  the  battle-field  of  Pharsalia,  tl; 
the  Pompeians  were  defeated  in  Africa,  and  finally  crusl 


Caeear  Croseing  the  Rubicon. 
in  Spain.     Pompey  was,  at  last,  murdered  in  Egypt." 
In  the  meantime,  the  legislation  of  Caesar  was 
best  possible  for  Rome.     He  was  made  perjictual  Diet: 
and  assumed  the  reins  of  government.     The  Senate  ■ 
enlarged  to  the  number  of  nine  hundred,  the  new  m 


TUF.  BOMAX  ABYAXS.  9fft 

n  being  chosen  from  ]>roTincials,  as  well  as  from  the 
I  class  of  Roman  citizens.  The  population  of  a  ntimber 
Gfillic  communities  vras  raised  to  the  rank  of  ritixeBs. 
ke  arta  and  sfiencPS  were  encouraged.  Such  cities  as 
'•rthago  and  Corinth  were  rebuilt;  wise  laws,  arranging 
itiifiidorily  and  equitably  the  matters  between  debtors 
ni  creditors,  were  enacted.  Those  who  held  lai^  ea- 
Hm  were  required  to  employ  free  labor.  The  laws  were 
iidiSed  ;  the  Empire  sun'cyed ;  and  the  calendar  reformed, 
lu  did  Caesar  find  time  for  the  administration  of  the 
iril  gDvcmment  while  he  was,  at  the  same  time,  busy 
tt  his  wars. 

But  the  ambition  of  Caesar  led  him  to  extremes.  The 
»pk  of  Rome  were  jealous  of  their  rights.  They  would 
rfare  all  manner  of  oppression  so  long  as  the  govem- 
Kltwas  in  nanio  a  Republic,  and  they  had  the  ofBcein 
at  they  were  accustomed  to.  But,  when  the  friends  of 
Mar  hailed  him  as  king,  when  the  crown  was  offered 
>  him  by  hlstotd,  Mark  Antony,  the  Roman  people  began 
» murmur.  A  conspirar-y  wa?  formed,  and  Caesar  was 
Wdend  on  the  Ides  of  March^  44  b.  c.  Chief  among 
hoB  oonspirators  were  bis  own  friends,  Brutus  and  Cas- 
■l  Ib  his  will,  he  left  the  sum  of  ten  dollars  to  every 
fcta,  and  his  magnificent  garden  across  the  Tiber  was 
™rtl  open  as  a  public  park.  When  Alark  Antony  mad. 
Wknown  to  the  people;  when  they  heard  his  eloquent 
"wds  of  praise,  and  saw  the  dead  Caesar  lying  before 
Inn;  when  Antony  held  up  tho  torn  and  bloody  toga, 
bich  Caesar  had  thrown  over  his  face  to  meet  his  death, 
eir  rage  knew  no  bounds.  They  seized  torches  from 
.■  funeral  pyre  of  their  dead  hero  ;  and,  applying  flames 


rN 


308  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

to  the  houses  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  burned  than  to  the 


Tomb  of  Cascar. 
ground.     The  two  ar(!h-niurdorera  fled  for  their  lives. 

Aiitimy,  tho  sole  surviving  consul,  now  thought  thit 


THE  SOMAN  ARYANS. 


300 


to  supreme  power  was  clear,  especially  as  the  new 
Dollabella,  was  his  tool.  But  the  young  Octavius 
1  upon  the  scene.  He  was  a  great  nephew  of  Cae- 
had  been  named  in  his  will  as  his  heir  and  son 
tiiHi.  Though  absent  from  Rome  when  Caesar 
^doed,  he  hastened  to  the  Capital.     Then,  by  his 


to  the  |Kipulacc,  hy  juiyiij^'  C;iesar' s  leiracy  to  ihe 
1-y  (wilitic  actiun  tuwunl  his  t'lieuiiet?,  ht;  suon 
!■■-  l.^i>k<-d  upiiii  a.-  till'  real  succi-ssi-r  to  Ciosar. 
i_- :iri  ■■iiti-rcd  earnestly  into  juililic  lifo,  and  hi.s 
■■I'liilippi.-^"  ai.'iiinj't  Aiiliniy  witc  ;is  cflVclivi' (i?* 
:'.rin'-r  times,  .•l^Mi^^t  the  j:rc.-if  .■misjiirator,  i'.:\'-  - 


310  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

line.  Octavius  collected  an  army,  which  ho  paid  out  of 
his  own  income,  and  pitched  his  camp  near  Rome.  An* 
tony  retired  to  Cis- Alpine  Gaul,  and  began  an  attack  upon 
the  governor  of  that  province.  The  consuls,  Kirtius  and 
Pausa,  were  sent  against  him,  while  Octavius  accompanied 
them  as  prsetor.  The  consuls  were  slain  though  the  anny 
was  victorious.  In  this  way,  Octavius  became  sole  com- 
mander of  a  victorious  army.  He  was  made  consul  In 
43  B,  c,  there  was  formed  the  second  Triumvirate^An- 
tony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus,  a  commander  of  horse  when 
Antony  and  Caesar  were  consuls.  The  last  named  n- 
ceived  Spain  for  his  province ;  Antony,  the  two  C^nbi 
and  Octavius,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa.* 

The  combined  forces  of  the  three,  howeveit^WM9.>t 
once  needed  to  engage  the  army  that  theaeaafifllAllbqltClie- 
sar  had  collected  in  Thrace.  The  battle  of  Tttili^  de- 
cided the  fate  of  the  Republic.  The  Triumyin:W«R>o^ 
cessful.  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  forced  tg.  fOti  iQon 
their  swords  and  thus  end  their  lives.  Th^Jt  Al^kd^^'V 
given  the  government  of  the  East ;  Octavius,  tib^qf  Italy 
and  Spain  ;  Lepidus,  Africa.  Then  began  thefiMillllllRJBBd- 
ship  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra.  While  Octaviiift  fggfi:  ^ 
power  and  extended  the  territory  of  Bomei  ABkKK^  ^w* 
spending  his  time  in  voluptous  living  at  ^Sb»!  Ujg^ptiM 
court.  Lepidus  and  all  other  competitors  in  tbd^'West 
were  put  down.  At  last,  in  31  B.  c,  an  oprai  breach  ^ 
curred  between  Octavius  and  Antony.  The  battle  of  Ac- 
tium,  and  later  the  deaths  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  left 
Octavius  the  sole  ruler  of  Rome.      He  did  not,  however, 

1  Ah  one  of  the  terms  of  agreement  between  these  three  men,  a  fev 
thousand  inon  vere  proscribed,  and  Cicero^s  name  headed  the  list  He 
was  iiiurderod  in  a  short  tinio  und  liis  head  and  hauAs  vere  nailed  up 
in  tho  Forum,  whore  he  lind  so  often  defended  the  rights  of  the  Common- 
wealth  against  such  conspirator.H  us  Catalino  and  Antony.  Vide  Steele: 
"Hrief  History  of  Ilonie,''  p.  204. 


THE  RO.VAX  ARYANS.  311 

to  aasanie  (he  title  of  king,  but  contented  him- 
ti  audi  titles  as  were  fnmiliar  and  not  offensive  to 
Je.  In  even-  case,  he  secured  his  appointment  in 
al  lejral  manner,  though,  no  doubt,  the  Senate  and 
*aw  tUrtl  it  wa«  useless  to  opiiosi.'  him.  He  was 
X  different    times  during    the   first    twenty  years. 


_:-^r'_  cf  Augue'.ue. 
id«T-in-rliii-t'<if  tlifjirniy,  lender  of  the  Senate,  por- 
ribuiH',  i>i-riN'tUjd  con.sul,  perpetuid  censor,  pontifex 
1^.  iiiid  w.-ijt  L'ivrn  the  title  of  Augustus.' 
iiH-  now  enters  U[H)n  her  Aiigusfinifm  ajre.  The  Re- 
far  AuttiorllloH  on  thiH  yvT\i»\  of  )ti>ir>iiii  lititior.v.  xee  ItawllngoD : 
"p.STT-tM;  Mtwte:''IlrlerinMl.>ry<if  lC.nne."|).M-W);  MomtD- 
"and  "aallicWM." 


312  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

public  was  never  re-established.  The  reign  of  Augustn 
lasted  until  15  a.  d.  It  was  a  mild  and  popular  reign 
The  rights  of  all  people  were  regarded.  Though  the  Em 
pire  maintained  its  authority  and  extended  its  borders, 
there  was  almost  universal  peace.  This  season  of  peace 
and  prosperity,  in  the  case  of  Rome  as  in  Uiat  of  otba 
nations,  was  the  season  of  her  greatest  growth.     It  wai 


street  in  Pompeii. 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  in  the  Roman  provino 
of  Judea,  that  Jesus  Christ  was  bom.  One  importan 
stop  taken  by  the  emperor  was  the  establishment  of  ai 
imperial  guard  which  was  known  as  the  Frsetorian  guard 
It  consisted  of  ten  legions.'  Three  legions  were  stationei 
in  the  city  and  seven  in  the  various  provinces.  It  wa 
<luring  his  reign,  that  the  Germans,  under  Arminius,  b; 
tlio  complete  annihilation  of  Varus  and  his  three  I^ou 


THE  JtOMAS  ARYAyS  313 

rerer  freed  themselves  from  foar  of  Roman  conquest.' 
n^,  Livy,  Horace,  and  Ovid  were  the  bright  lights  of 
itcnturc  during  this  age. 

Upon  the  death  of  Augustus,  a  line  of  ten  Caesars' 
ocropiwl  in  succession  the  throne  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
With  Xcro,  however,  the  Julian  family  became  extinct  ■ 
Tbe  empire  soon  liecame  the  stake  for  which  all  ambitious 
1.  might  play.  When  Nero's  slave  pierced  the  em- 
I  heart  and  deprived  Romeof  a  ruler,  there  appeared 
I  than  six  pretenders  to  the  throne,  each  backed  by 
hority  of  a  number  of  legions  of  soldiers.  The 
f  <rt'  tbe  next  few  months  is  but  a  tale  of  the  suc- 
\  mnd  dwiths  of  three  emperors.  Finally,  Vespa- 
nmander  in  Judea,  was  elevated  to  the  throne  by 
It  was  during  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  that 
I  cniptioQ  of  Vesuvius  occurred,  which  buried 
rife  cities,  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.*  The 
laf  Venpnaian  was  distinguished  for  its  strength  and 
The  authority  of  the  empire  was  maintained 
L  ftll  her  vast  territory ;  education  and  literature 
■DttTsgtid ;  and  general  prosperity  was  eiijoyecl. 
Tpon  the  death  of  Domitian,*  succession  by  appoints 
■mt  was  instituted,  and  there  followed  a  line  of  emperom 
■o<]»e  reigns  were,  on  the  whole,  creditable,  not  only  Ut 
ti»e  wearers  of  the  purple,  but  to  the  Roman  people  as  well. 
Sirs  Gibbon,*  "If  a  man  were  called  to  fix  the  period  in 
(ie  history  of  the  world,  during  which  the  condition  of 
the  human  race  was  most  happy  and  prosperous,  he 
roold,  without  hesitation,  name  that  which  elapsed  frrmi 
be   death  of  Domitian  to  the  accession  of  CfimmodtM, 

1  A.  D.  9.         *  Maoj  of  them  CMMtn  hj  adoptkm.  *  M  A.  f. 

•  4.    D.    79,  (A.  I).  »». 

•  -DwllM  Mid  Fall,"  Vol.  T.  p.  96. 


3 14  TMB  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

The  vast  extent  of  the  Roman  empire  wajs  goTemed  bf 
absolute  power,  under  the  goidanee  of  virtue  and  wisdom.^ 
This  was  from  a.  d.  96  to  180.  It  has  been  called  the 
^'Golden  Age"  of  Rome.  Among  the  five  emperors  wlio 
reigned  during  this  period,  Trajan  was  the  most  eneigetic 
ill  extending  Roman  territory.  He  ^'was  a  great  buildar. 
lioinc  grew  larger  and  more  beautiful  under  his  hand; 
and  throughout  the  provinces,  innumerable  bridges,  aisqne- 
duct8,  and  temples  long  served  as  monuments  of  the  sploh 
dor  and  vigor  of  his  reign."  Hadrian  followed  in  his 
footHtepH,  continually  traveling  over  the  empire  and  vqp 
perintending  the  construction  of  roads,  walls,  and  bdld- 
ingsJ  Antonius  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  or  the  'two  An- 
toniuey,"  reigned  in  harmony  until  the  former  died,  when 
Aureliu.s  reigned  alone.  Both  seemed  to  rule  with  the 
sole  oliject  of  making  their  subjects  haj^y. 

Almost  every  land  could  now  count  manyBomaa 
elli/ens  aiiiong  its  nativo  inhabitants.     It  was  the  pplk^ 
of  ili(^  governnient  to  gain  the  lasting  loyalty  of  the  risiiig 
and  iniluentiiil  young  men  in  all  her  provinces  by  ccHite^ 
ring  tli(^  honor  of  citizenship  upon  them.    So  that  tho®  ^ 
was  :i  chauire  for  every  young  provincial  chieftain  to  luo 
lo  i\\K\  loft  iest  degree  of  power.   Many  aspired  to  thethvoDfii 
and  b'oiue  reached  this  pinnacle  of  their  ambitious  dieaiDfi. 
The  strength  of  the  legions  was  no  longer  composed  o( 
tlui  old  Italian  stock  of  soldiers,  but  the  youth  of  the  piOT- 
inces  were  the  flower  of  the  army.    This  army  knew  hs 
strength.   It  no  longer  respected  the  dignity  and  authority 
of  the  Senate.    Anyone  who  would  famish  them  with  the 
greatest  allowance  of  money  was  deemed  worthy  of  the 
jmrplo.     So  we  find  the  army  in  193  a.  D.  selling  the 
throne  to  the  highest  bidder.     From  that  time,  the  &te 

»  '•l*HinIiiiarks<»f  History,'*  1^  20 


r  MOMAy  AJtVAA'S. 


3lfi 


■Vve> 


wifttea.    Then-  wa^  a  stetttiy  tlnwnwiinl 
IV  WMuM  clutlu'  witli  tln'  U'ifa 
than  llieiruwii  iiiiitc'l,  ur  riitliiT 


Trajar.e  Arch. 
dfd  strength.     Such  uii  onr  wji.-.  Si-vitum  (.Septiuius) 
liiiiin,'  whip,  from  n  TIir;ici;iii    pdis.-ml,    nwr  to  he  cm- 
>r«ifthe  wurlJ,     Tlioii  tliiTc  camL'  ii  liiiit'  wht-n  &  lai;ge 


316  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

number  of  independent  kingdoms  were  organized  throng 
out  the  empire.  This  was  in  the  time  of  the  ''thirty  ty- 
rants." At  last,*  there  arose  a  succession  of  emperors  who 
were  able  to  control  the  army  and  restore  the  empire  to 
its  former  size  and  a  shadow  of  its  former  glory, 
were  Aurelian,*  Probus,'  Diocletian,*  and  Coi 

Diocletian  established  a  new  order  of  things.  Ht*! 
pointed  Maximian  as  his  full  colleague  in  office,  with  eqadj 
power  and  also  with  the  title  of  Aogostoa.  Then 
chose,  as  son  and  successor,  a  young  officer,  each  of  whoa' 
received  the  title  of  Caesar.  These  were  G-alerins  ud 
Constantius.  Diocletian  retained  for  himself  the  gorarfr 
mentof  Thrace,  Macedon,  Egypt,  and  the  East  Maxiifr 
ian  was  given  Italy  and  Africa.  Constantius 
Gaul,  Spain  and  Britain.  Galerius  ruled  the  Danul 
provinces.  Thus  was  the  authority  of  the  empire  enforce-! 
throughout  the  extent  of  her  territory.  In  305,  botli 
"August!  "  abdicated,  and  Galerius  took  upon  himself  the 
right  to  choose  two  new  Caesars.  Constantius  died  the 
following  year,  and  his  legions  immediately  appointed  his 
son  Constantino  to  succeed  him.  In  31S,  Constautino 
became  engaged  in  war  with  his  associates  in  the  impenaJ 
office.  In  324,  the  last  one  was  defeated  and  put  to  deitt. 
Constantino  was  sole  emperor  of  the  Roman  world. 

As  sole  emperor,  Constantino  ruled  with  atrengfJi  ud 
wisdom.  He  has  made  his  name  immortal  in  two  mjs- 
First,  though  perhaps  in  a  less  degree,  he  is  known  in 
history  as  the  founder  and  builder  of  Constantinople, 
which  he  made  the  capital  of  his  empire.  The  walls  of 
magnificent  buildings  arose  on  the  "Golden  Horn"  of  the 

1  268-283  A.  D.  I  2T0-276  a.  D. 

■2T6-282A.  D.  4  2K4-:MM  A.  D.  ■  808-817 A. & 


THE  SOMAN  ARYANS, 


317 


rus,  AS  the  imperial  city  "appeared  resplendent  in 
marble."  It  remained  the  capital  city  of  the  Eastern 
re  until  long  after  the  Saracens  made  their  appeajv 


Uaueoleuni  of  Hadrian. 
II  Eurojie.    But  tlio  one  act  in  his  life  that  has  given 
iiitiiio   niorL-   Ihiiii   (iriliTiury  historical  prominence 
Ik-  .-..urs.'  tli.it    Ii--  tunk  in  religious  matters.     He 
I"  fir>t  rri;.<r- !■  lint  tulitptcd  and  championed  the 


318  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

Christian  religion.     He  early  became  converted  to  tha/ 
faith,  and  made  it  the  state  religion. 

It  had  always  been  the  policy  of  Rome  to  leave  tie 
inhabitants  of  her  provinces  free  to  retain  their  native 
religions.'  They  could  worship  their  gods  unmolested. 
Wo  recall  how,  in  the  case  of  the  Jews  at  the  trial  of 
Christ,  the  Roman  governor  declined  to  give  judgment 
because  it  was  a  religious  trial.  Christ  had  not  offended 
against  the  Roman  law.'  It  is  true,  that  many  of  the  em- 
perors were  jealous  of  any  man,  or  company  of  men,  who 
appeared  to  be  rising  into  power.  So  it  is  not  strange 
that  their  imagination,  poisoned  by  fear  of  assaasination, 
saw  political  enemies  in  the  leaders  and  secret  assexnblitt 
of  this  newly  established  church.  To  suspect  a  man  or  a 
company  of  men  of  a  desire  for  power,  was  a  sure  deafli 
warrant  in  those  days.  Neither  rank  nor  sex  was  any 
protection.  Political  enemies  were  put  to  death  in  all 
manner  of  cruel  ways.  Some  of  the  so-called  religionB 
persecutions  may  have  been  instigated  through  fear  of 
political  uprisings  on  the  part  of  the  Christians.' 

\\'hen  the  emperor  adopted  the  Christian  religion,  the 
opportunity  was  oflored  for  religious  fanatics  to  try  to  sup- 
press other  religions.  Constantino  was  their  tool.  Though 
a  i^ood  emperor,  and,  no  doubt,  an  earnest  man,  "  he  was 
strany:oly  superstitious,  and  his  religion,  so  far  as  it  cun 
be  gathered  from  his  public  acts,  his  coins,  his  medals,  and 
his  recorded  si)eeches,  was  a  curious  medley  of  Christianitv 
and  I'aganism/'*  Constantino  also  established  throu^out 
the  empire  a  system  of  "graduated  nobility,  the  archetj'pe 
of  the  modern  system."^ 

1  (Jibbon,  Vol.  T.  p.  33-37.  «  John  xviH.  28-81. 

3  AVhoii  we  ('omo  to  treat  of  the  liistory  of  Christianity,  we  will  »■ 
view  this  perioii  onoe  more. 

A  Ilawliusou:  ''Manual,"  ]>.  52^).  6  Ibid.  627. 


TSB  SOMAN  ARYANS. 


319 


We  mast  recall  also'  the  almost  continual  war  of  the 
Butaa  Empire  with  Oriental  Empires  over  the  eastern 
boBBdary  of  the  one,  and  the  western  boundary  of  the  other. 
Ppon  the  ruins  of  the  Empire  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
ltd  arisea  first  the  Parthian  empire,  which  occupied 
early  oil  of  Central  Asia.  The  Euphrates  river  waa,  as 
general  thing,  the  acknowledged  western  boundary  of 
b1  empire.     When  the  Xeo-Persian  empire  succeeded  the 


Imperlel  Rome. 
'arthian,  it  inherited  also  this  i)erpetual  warfare  with 
lome.  Successes  were  about  equal  on  both  sides.  Wliili, 
ijwever,  neither  Parthian  nor  Persian  emperors  ever 
dumed  the  triumph  of  a  Roman  consul,  Cassius  fell  in 
attle  against  the  Parthians,  and  theempcmr  Valerian  eked 
[it  a  disj^p-aceful  life  as  royal  prisoner  ia  emperor  Sapor. 
V'hile  Trajan,  during  his  reign,''  seized  some  territory  east 
f  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  liis  successor,  Hadrian,  aban- 


»  Above  p.  J  38. 


1  ftS-lIT,  A,  D. 


320  THE  MEDJE  VA  L     WHKLO. 

doned  it  to  the  Parthians.  Generally  speaking,  in  the 
time  of  its  greatest  extent,  the  eastern  boundaiy  of  the 
Roman  empire  was  the  Euphrates  river.' 

In  following  the  political  history  of  Rome  through  the 
first  three  hundred  and  seventy  years'  of  the  empire  we 
have  omitted  to  follow  carefully  its  growth  in  extent  of 
territory.  Let  us  take  a  hurried  glance  over  this  same 
period,  noting  the  principal  accessions  that  the  empire  re- 
ceived from  the  ruder  tribes  of  the  West,  as  well  as  from  tlu 
civilized  people  of  the  East.  Sicily  was  the  first  province 
to  bo  added  to  the  possessions  of  Rome.  Previous  to  tliis' 
time,'  the  territory  of  Rome  was  confined  to  C'entral  and 
Southern  Italy.  Though  early  acquired,  Corsica  and  Sai^ 
dinia  never  amounted  to  much,  owing,  probably,  to  a  lack 
of  Aryan  settlers.  The  boundary  of  Italy  was  extended  to 
the  Alps  by  the  conquest  of  Cis- Alpine  Gaul,*  Liguria,  and 
'X't-netia.''  The  first  of  the  three  was  not  incorporated  with 
Italy  until  43  B.  c.  "We  thus  see  that  not  only  Veniw^ 
but  Milan,  Pavia,  Verona,  Ravenna,  and  Genoa — cities 
which  played  so  great  a  part  in  the  after  history  of  Italj 
— arose  in  lauds  which  were  not  Italian."' 

Hannibal  began  his  war  against  Rome  by  the  captmw 
of  Saguntum,  a  Spanish  ally  of  that  city.  So  when  the 
second  Punic  war  eloscd,Spain  became  a  province  of  Rome, 
Uiouj,'h  it  was  not  completely  subdued  until  10  n.  c.  The 
-southeastern  jiart  of  Trans-Alpine  Gaul  Wiis  united  tuRome 
under  the  name  of  Provence  about  105  n.  c.  The  Cimbri 
and  till!  Teutons,  for  half  a  century,  held  the  Roman 
army  in  check  in  that  direction.   Finally,  Caesar  appeared 

'  AiiiiiiiKt)i<!UiittiorltioHi)t)  Tmpcrial  Kome,connultGlbboii:"DeclltM 
ami  KuH."  KilwUiihou:  "Muiiual;"  Duw'vh:  "Land  M&rlu  of  History ;"' 
Tacidm:  "Aniial»;"  Clintons:  "('liroiiology  of  Rome." 

»  :il  II.  C,  A.  1)   ri."!!).  S  212  II.  f.  <IfllB.  C.  1138  8.0. 

"Illntorioal  Oi'ograittiy,"  Vol,  I.  p.  65, 


THE  SOMAN  ABYANS. 


321 


I  Omul  with  Ms  well  trained  legions.  "Before  Caesar's 
fsUic  War,  the  rule  of  the  Romans  cxtenik-d  .'ipjirovimitely 
1  fcr  as  Toulouse,  Vienne  and  Geneva;  after  it,  as  far  ii 


Romana  Warring  with  the  Oermans. 
■  Rliiin-  thnnitrlioiit  its  conrsc,  and  the  coasts  of  the  At- 
iti.-  ..ri  thi-  nortli.  as  on  the  «-<■»!. "' 


■  Vi.lr  Momn 

r«   V'.rk.  IHK: 


II  Empire,"  Vol.1    p.  88, 


322  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

Grecian  and  Roman  influence  early  began  to  spread 
among   the   Gauls  —  the   one   from   the   Grecian    colony 
of  Masilla,  and  the  other  from  Italy  and  Spain.     The 
Provence  already  referred  to  was  said  to  have  furnished 
many  Roman  merchants,  farmers  and  grazers  for  6aul.' 
They  were  the  business  men  of  the  land.     While  the  Gauls 
practiced  agriculture,  they  paid  more  attention  to  grazing.' 
To  their  own  native  productions,  they  added  others  that 
were  brought  to  them  by  their  fleets,  that  were  constantly 
navigating  the  streams  and  plying  between  Britain  and 
their  own  land.     Thus  were  procured  wool  for  their  man- 
ufactures, cattle  for  their  herds.     Copper,  silver,  and  gold 
were  obtained  from  some  convenient  source,  and  tin  from 
Cornwall.     The  Italian  merchant  found  a  ready  sale  for 
his  wine  and  horses  in  Gaul.     It  is  said,  that  a  single  cask 
of  wine  might,  in  those  days,  be  exchanged  for  a  Gallic 
slave.     The  Latin  language  w^as  not  unknown  there  even 
before  Caesar's  time.     It  had  spread  through  commercial 
intercourse  through  Roman  merchants.     Similarly  Greek 
culture  had  spread  northward  from   Messalia,  which  fu^ 
nished  Gaul  with  ])liysicians  and  philosophers.^     '*Thus 
trado  and  commerce  paved  the  way  to  conquest.*'* 

The  great  stream  of  Teutonic  migration,  that  was  at 
this  time  setting  toward  the  west,  was  not  checked  by  the 
Rhine  or  the  fear  of  Roman  arms.  As  they  began  to  en- 
croach more  and  more  uj)()n  Gallic  territory,  rumors  of 
their  movements  reached  the  Roman  capital.  Caesar 
came  with  his  legions  to  force  the  Germans  back  across 
the  Rhine,  and    comi)el    them  to  remain    there.     It  was 


1  MomniHoii:  "nomo,»»  Vol.  IV.  p.  2«1.  a  Ibid.  284. 

3  Ibid.  201. 

<  III  sotnc  plac.tM  [hh  at  VtiiHon]  iiiHcriptioiiH  have  lieen  foniid  in  the 
Celtics  Ijin^iiape,  using  liowever  onii nary  Greek  lettera. 


THE  JtOiTAN  ARYANS.  323 

f  at«nporar}'  check,  however,  for  the  pent  up  forces, 
•Aer  times,  burst  through  the  bMrriers  in  all  directions; 
|itinDg  the  Western  Empire  with  Teutonic  blood,  eventr 
lily  enatrhinK  it  from  the  Romans.  It  took  Caesar  seven 
■n  b)  subdue  Oaul  and  mnke  of  it  a  Roman  province. 
Iw  Celtic  jtopulution  was  conquered,  but  the  Turanian 
beriwudiiMliiiningsubniission,  sought  refuge  in  the  rocky 
^qe>  of  the  Pyrenees.  There  tfcey  have  since  lived, 
M  their  language  has  been  preserved  to  tell  us  of  an 
IdHnriao  lost  people'  Though  Caesar  crossed  into  Brit- 
■,  he  made  do  conquest  of  that  island.  The  result  of 
peampaigns  was  the  formation  of  the  province  of  Trans- 
%iBe  Gaul.' 

U[>on  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  Africa  became  a 
wince;  bat  Carthage  was  not  rebuilt  until  49  b.  c, 
dl  after  that,  became,  next  to  Riime,  the  "chief  of  the 
■tin-speaking  cities  of  the  empire."  As  Roman  territory 
IS  ext<>ii(k'd  towani  the  Eiist.  Rniiiuii  influence  found 
mctliing  ."tronger  to  contend  with  than  Celtic  influence 

U'.-stcrn  Euro|K-,  and  Semitic  influence  of  Northern 
.(rit-i.  The  Celts  were  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Romans 
ti»t  thi-y  aci-epte<i  without  <lif<sent,  not  only  Roman  cus- 
"w»  liiit  al.so  the  Ronian  language.  This  was  not  the 
■"■H-  with  tin-  Germans  iilong  tlio  Rhine,  nor  of  Caesar's 
^■\z\v  (i.'iuU,  who  were  more  Teuton  than  Celt.  From 
'••^la-tcni  -bore  of  the  Adriatic  to  the  Halys  river  m 
'■ia  Minor,  the  Orecian  language  was  the  literary  tongue 
*  "■"11  :i-  the  m').--!  <'ultiv;it('d  form  of  .speech,  Alexan- 
iain  Afric;i  an<l  .\ntioch  in  A.sia  were  seats  of  Grecian 
illuf.      Now  the  Greeks  were  much    more  Teutonic  in 


'  Kihn'>l<>tili-Blly  thpy  sr«  Mid  to  differ  but  little  rmm  the  Celtlbe- 
M  'if  f'pkiii,  aod  tbe  Itferii-(  eltH  of  Kraner .  Vidr.  Kobho  In  RsmBayV 
jfiific."  |>   ^TS.  »  ■■[rt-t.iri(-nMJp'i(trBi.hy,"  p.  58. 


324  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ethnology  than  the  Celts ;  and,  besides,  we  have  seen  h 
from  the  earliest  times,  they  were  strengthened  by  a  c 
tinual  renewal  of  Teutonic  blood  from  the  north.  Althoi 
Constantinople  was  in  the  center  of  this  Hellenized  distr 
and  ijutiii  was  the  court  language  of  the  empire,  neit] 
Kortian  language  nor  culture  had  a  lasting  influence 
tlie  habits  of  this  portion  of  the  empire.  In  later  tifl 
the  Eastern  Empire  became  in  reality  a  Greek  state.' 

The  complicated  state  of  Grecian  affairs  early  led 
Roman  interference.  As  early  as  188  B.  c,  Rome  hi 
according  to  her  usual  line  of  policy,  placed  the  wholfj 
Asia  Minor  under  the  rule  of  those  friendly  to  her  M 
^oviTniiiont.  This  was  sufficient  until  the  time  far  H 
(iu(\st  came.  There  was  a  strip  of  territory  bordi 
ojistiTn  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  north  of  Macedonia, 
IJ4  R.  (].,  became  the  province  of  Dalmatia.  There 
larjj:i»r  district  surrounding  Dalmatia, however,  that 
a  Ilonum  possession  in  168  b.  c.  and  was  sul 
known  as  the  province  of  Illyricum.  In  129  B-fifi 
jM-ovinco  of  Asia  was  formed  out  of  her  allies 
A(\i^a(»aii.  liithynia  was  annexed  in  74,  Crete  in 67, 
ill  (>4,  Cyprus  in  o8,  Egyj)t  in  31  before  the  beginni] 
the  Christian  Era.  The  lands  between  the  Alps  and 
1  )anubc  were  added  during  the  reign  of  Augustus.*  IM 
(Ionia  became  a  province  in  149  B.  c.  Greece  proper! 
a  long  time  held  the  anomalous  position  of  an  independe 
dc|)ondency  of  Rome.  It  finally  became  the  province 
Achaia. 

The  Roman  consuls,  Caesar,  Claudius,  and  Agricc 
wore  mot  by  a  Celtic   popuhition   when  they   landed 

I  Freeman:  '' II istorical  Course,"'  p.  162. 

>  These  wen»  the  provinceH  of  llaetia,  VindeUcia,  Norieum,  J 
uonia,  and  Moenia.    They  were  known  au  the  Danuhlan  provincet. 


REff  MOMAir  ABTAltB. 


3S6 


?  The  Tentonic  w«Te  of  migration  that  brought 
refktben  lo  tLe  shorcM  of  the  oct-an  had  not  yet 
I  the  UdU  of  the  Britons.  Although  C^eesar  in- 
the  Island  in  o5  B.  c,  Agrioola*  succeeded  in  carry- 
5  con(]nc8t  only  to  thi-  wull  of  H-irlri^r.  fi^,  f^^ 
jnly,  did  the  [Ji-ovince  of  Britiun.  wag 


the  first  pmvintws  to  l--  thr  i»l  ■.;!   '■»  \uh  tftu^r*-.. 

rt-main?  only  nfonl  th*-  \tT*-f^ii'-*^  of  xwi  K/»i/*aiw  ;« 
»ow  Tcutunir  I:*lan<l.  Turijiij^  szair.  '•/  li*':  K;i*t, 
d  that  the  noribf-m  i«art  <*f  Arabia  t>?'3ii/*':  a  jjf'/r- 
1  A.  D.  l*»i.  a."  did  Da^-ia.  th<-  '/nlv  vrnv/rk-  ly/rth  '/f 


"  p.«;  a^,Hiij*.-<jriMK  fentw*.' 


,..»4 


326  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

the  Danube  that  ever  fell  under  Roman  sway.     Thi 
last  of  the  provinces  to  be  annexed,  was  the  first 
given  up.     Aurelian  withdrew  froni  it  in  270  and  1 
ferred  its  name  to  Moesia.* 

When  the  Roman  empire  had  at  last  reache 
growth,  we  can  give  as  its  northern  and  eastern  boi 
ries  three  great  rivers,  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  am 
Euphrates.  In  Africa,  it  included  the  strip  of  f 
country  north  of  the  Great  Deaert  and  Egypt  as  far  i 
as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  The  only  provinces  lying  Ix 
these  boundaries  were  Britain  and  Dacia,  the  last 
added  and  the  first  to  fall  away  from  the  Roman  p 
sions.  ''In  every  part  of  that  dominion,  the  procc 
conquest  was  gradual.  The  lands  which  became  R< 
provinces  passed  through  various  stages  of  alliance  an 
pendency  before  they  were  fully  incorporated.  But,i 
end,  all  the  civilized  world  of  those  times  became  Rom 
We  must  now  remember  that  Rome  carried  her  own 
guage  with  her  into  all  countries.  The  Latin  langi 
however,  had  no  lasting  effect  upon  the  Greeks  of  e 
Europe  or  Asia.  In  some  places,  it  has  been  since  s 
away  by  Teutonic,  Slavic,  or  Turkish  conquests,  so  tl 
may  be  said  that  the  Romance  world  of  to-day  is 
upon  a  Celtic  or  Turanian  foundation.  The  occasi 
attempts  to  conquer  Germany  were  failures. 

Constantino  divided  the  empire  into  four  "Praetc 
Prefectures — the  East,  Illyricum,  Italy,  and  Gaul.'  T 
were  divided  into  first  Dioceses,  and  these  sub-divided 
Provinces.  The  last  emperor  of  the  house  of  Constai 
was  Julian,  the  apostate.  He  is  chiefly  known  foi 
attempts  to  root  out  Christianity  and  re-establish  Pa 

J   Vide  **Hi8torual  Geography,"  p  70. 

a  **Hl8torical  Geography,"  p.  71-2.  8  Ibid.  76, 


raa  SOMAN  ARYAys.  327 

After  his  death,'  Jovian  ruled  about  eight  months. 
rms  snccctMled  by  ValeDtinian  who  shared  the  empire 
■hia  brother,  Valens.  The  empire  was  re-united  by 
Ddonaa  ;  hot  the  sons  of  Theodosius*  divided  it  into 
emi»res,  Arcadins  taking  nearly  the  same  territory 
.  vas  mcladed  in  the  first  two  prefectures  of  Constan- 
,  while  Honorius  took  the  western  two.  Thus  were 
led  two  lines  of  emperors  who  ruled  during  the 
ier  part  of  the  fifth  century — the  one  having  its  cap- 
a1  Constantinople,  the  other  usually  at  Ravenna  or 

r 

;,W«  lure  now  traced  the  history  of  the  Romans  from 

ParriTal  of  Aryans  in  the  Italian  peninsula  until 
li  empire  was  finally  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
We  have  seen  how  the  Turanians  first  gave  way 
i«  the  prtasure  of  the  Celts  from  the  north.  The  lat- 
wete  met  by  the  HeHeno-Teutonic  colonists  crowding 
ir  wnv  t'lwanl  the  north.  The  resulting  Italians  were 
irdy  race  (if  we  may  be  permitted  to  use  that  word) 
!^lto-Teutonic  Arj-ans.  For  a  long  time  the  Roman 
pie  retained  their  strong  and  hardy  character,  capable 
Tiling  the  three  continents  known  to  the  Medieval 
rid.  But  in  the  times  of  the  empire,  the  eflFcminate 
>Dtal  became  a  Roman  citizen.  The  riches  of  the  East 
d  the  Triumvir  Crassus  to  his  death.  The  great  Cae- 
could  not  wholly  resist  the  dazzling  beauty  and  the 
xicating  channa  of  Egypt's  fair  queen,  Cleopatra,  in 
delirium  of  which  the  weaker  Antony  revelled  himself 
eath.  The  emperor  Elagabulus  himself  was  a  priest 
iie  Svrian  sun-god,  and  brought  his  ideas  of  Oriental 
t  life  to  Rome.'    Luxurious  baths  followed  the  Roman 


'See  Olbhon,  Vol.  I.  p.  IS7-& 


328  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

legions  to  their  winter  quarters,  when  formerly  the  sol- 
diers were  hardened  by  severe  and  vigorous  disciplina 
The  court,  which  once  gloried  in  the  death  of  the  chaste 
Lucretia,  now  applauded  the  shameful  lives  of  the  licen- 
tious Julia  and  the  voluptuous  Faustina.*  The  streams  of 
crimson  blood  that  flowed  from  the  veins  of  the  dying  glad- 
iators poisoned  the  sympathetic  hearts  of  even  the  gentler 
sex,  and  more  than  one  empress  prepared  the  poisoned  food 
for  her  fated  lord.  The  army  had  come  to  know  its  poweTi 
and  usually  decided  the  title  of  the  one  who  aspired  to  the 
throne.  "Of  the  sixty-two  emperors  from  Caesar  to  Con- 
stantine,  forty-two  were  murdered,  three  committed  suicide, 
two  abdicated  or  were  forced  to  abdicate,  one  was  killed  in 
a .  rebellion,  one  was  drowned,  one  died  in  war,  one  died  it 
is  not  known  how,  and  no  more  than  eleven  died  in  the 
way  of  nature."^  The  imperial  life  averaged  only  five 
years.  When  we  reflect  upon  this  condition  of  affairSi  we 
see  the  doom  of  the  Roman  empire  written  so  plainly  that 
"he  who  runs  may  read." 

Still  the  empire  did  not  fall  with  its  division  into 
two  parts.  The  Eastern  Empire  continued  to  exist  and 
exert  a  great  influence  until  the  fanatic  tribes  of  Islam 
appeared  before  the  gates  of  Constantinople.  The  break- 
ing up  of  the  Western  Empire  is  so  intimately  connected 
with  the  "  Rise  of  Modern  Nations"  that  we  will  consider 
it  in  that  chapter.  We  have  seen  how  the  Roman  legions 
fixed  the  boundaries  of  the  powerful  German  tribes  and 
so  limited  the  primitive  Aryan  domain.  But  the  destiny 
of  races  can  not  be  directed  by  mortal  man.  The  pent  up 
Aryan  forces  must  come  forth.  Long  since  we  have  seen 
these  same  Teutonic  tribes  climbing  the  Alps,  and  fording 

1  See  Gibbon.  Vol.  I.  p.  151. 

«  Steele:  ^'History  of  Rome."  p.  68. 


legions  to  their  winter  qmrten,  »l«  « 
dicrewereharciendl.T«»ere.>dvB"    , 
The  court,  which  0Dcesl«ri»i"*'f"1 
L„cretiMOW.ppla»l«lll.c^l««M;"J 

ti„„s  Julia  a.aiki' "It™- ^;"*.'',!j 
eri.so.  blood  that  J.wcdfa»t"™;*1 

throne.  "Otthesm;  /..l^o^ 
«»ti„e,for..v.wo.er«-^;^^.. 
,.o.bfatcd.r«ere^™J»    «,. 

i»»o'k"-»':'nei:H'*'-4 

t"»P'^-       fl«ce«»'il*'*    ,   -I 
e«rtagrcat.»"™^,„,,f«.^.^J 

j„g  up  of  the  «<■>•,»..  u*^ 
Jhthe-B-f^tla,..^'-^ 

1  A  the  bonii*"'^'"  ,„,j4«»»  'J 
ofracesi*"'       ^jieforll'       ,j,j< 


TSS  MEDIEVAL  WOBUk 


THE  BISE  OF  MODERN  NATIOHS. 

Intboddctiom— The  First  Appearance  of  the  Hana— The  Hignt 
the  Gkithe — Invasion  of  the  Wealem  Empire  b;  the  Teuton*- 
of  Gaul— Atllia— Oothlo  Conquest  of  the  Western  Empire— B 
the  Frauka— The  B&rauenB  —  Charles  Hartel— CbarJemagne 
Final  Separation  of  the  Two  Empires— The  Baalllan  Dynafltf : 
East^Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire— The  Triple  Division  of  C 
magne's  Empire— Italy  under  the  Karllngs— Change  of  the  W< 
Empire  to  the  German  Empire— Rise  of  the  Italian  Cities— 0 
Sketch  of  Germany— The  Hohcnstaufen  Dynasty— Frederic  I 
rossa— Rise  of  Austria— Outline  Sketeh  of  France— The  Nonei 
Bine  of  Normandy— The  Capets — Appearance  of  Modem  Fn 
Sketch  uf  Spanish  History — Castile  and  Aragon — Charles  V. 
Small  States  of  Switzerland.  Belgium,  and  Holland  Expla 
Sketch  of  Russian  History— The  Muscovites- Peter  the  0 
Hungary,  Lithuania,  and  Poland- Sweden  and  Norway— Deno 
Outline  of  English  History— Aelfred-The  Norman  Conquest 
Plantageneti— The  Magna  Charta— Henry  VIII.— General 
elusions 

f  AN  ERA  of  time  recedes  ir 
gloom  of  antiquity,  its  history  s 
to  cluster  around  certain  master 
its,  who,  for  the  time  being,  virti 
swayed  the  world.  During  the , 
ter  portion  of  the  time,  when  the  boundaries  of  tht 
man  Empire  circumscribed  the  historical  world,  the 
ing  figure  of  each  generation  was  the  Emperor.  V 
the  right  of  succession  to  the  imperial  throne  came  te 
upon  the  will  and  power  of  the  strongest  organized  a 
and  when  the  choice  of  such  an  authority  fell  to  the 


BJSE  OF  MODERy  NA  TIONS.  331 

^\ito  could  shower  the  richest  gifts  upon  them,  there  arose 
■»*nTan  emperor  who3«wholecareermay  bewritten:  "He 
Was  emperor  of  Rome." 

An  empire  that  a  Caesar  could   organize    and   rule 

*MtortTagtfortheplayhouseof  achildishCommodus.  The 

temtury  which  Trajan  added  to  the  empire  was  lost  by 

W  mcccasor,  Hadrian.    Diocletian  (386  a.  d.)  recognized 

L  4e  (wt  that  the  empire  was  too  extensive  to  be  ruled  by 

VMsnuin  of  oniinan'  ability,  so  we  find  him  appointing  a 

■■oDeigae.     Constantine  the  Great  found  it  to  be  an  ad- 

I  ntUgB  to  have  the  empire  divided  int^)  four  prefectures. 

I  Uter,  Talentinian  shared  the  empire  with  his  brother, 

I  Ttleas.    And,  aa  previously   shown,  upon  the  death  of 

I  Aeododtu  (a.  II.  395),  the  empire  was  divided   into  two 

r  Mvtj  equal  parts — one  to  each  of  his  sons — ruling  with 

■««iy  eqaal  independent  powers,     Honorius  received  the 

*«tera  half  and  Areadius  the  eastern.     The  empire  was 

r  inmitcd  again,  for  a  moment  only,  in   the  time  of  Zeno, 

(^'4491)  and  of  Justinian  (527-565),  though  many  of  the 

r  *we  remote  western  provinces  were  never  again  brought 

I  Wrier  the  rule  of  one  emperor.' 

This  partition  of  the  Roman  Empire  marks  a  period 

■ken  a  now  element  appears  in  the  historj'  of  Europe. 

•wMrtorj'  of  the  continent  no  longer  centers  around  the 

""pvrom  of  R*^me.     In  fact,  individuals    are  now,  for  a 

''3i.-,  almost  lost  from  histor}',  while  the  names  of  tribes 

""*  confederacies  from   the   central  part  of  Europe  are 

'■'''fig  the   place  of  thoso  of  individuals.     The  German 

^'I'le  now   appear  as  a  groat  or  controlling  factor  in 

*I'ing  European  events.     This  is  especially  the  case  in 

*^  Wcttern  Empire.     The   Eastern  Empire,  however, 

-C^  niit  particularly  troubled  by  the   movements  of  the 

'  rKfTFrwmui:  "Hiitoric«t  Courte,"  New  York,  1876,  p.  lOS,  lit 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOtii^^ 

.inic  tribes.  The  most  that  they  asked  of  it  was  a 
go  through  its  territory  and  such  plunder  as  they 
I  hurriedly  gather  on  the  march.' 
Europe  had  become  pretty  thoroughly  Aiyanized  be- 
this  time.  The  Etruscans  were  swallowed  up  by  the 
to-Italians.     The  Iberians,  then  as  now,  were,  probably, 


Arrival  ol  the  Hune  In  Europe. 
Turanian  merely  in  speech.'    The  Huns  and  Magyars  had 
lot  yet  appeared  upon  the  scene  of  European  life.     Their 
ilace  was  probably  iillctl  by  more  or  less  pure  Germanic 
.ribcs.     The  Finns  and  Lapps  that  had  not  already  yielded 

>  Freeman :  "HUtorlcal  Geograjtliy,"  The  Ootbs,  howerer,  occupied 
3ou8lantlnoplein  400  a.  D.  VU\e  PtokCB:  "Medieval  HUUtry,"  Pbll»- 
lelpliia,  18ST,  p.  26.  i  Kcano  iu  Itamaay's,  "Europe,"  p.  S79. 


RISE  OF  MODERN  NA  TIONS.  333 

to  Aryan  influences  were  but  a  fringe  along  the  icy  shores 
of  the  northern  seas.  To  the  east,  the  way  was  still  open 
to  Teuto^Aryan  migration ;  and,  during  the  long  centuries 
that  the  Boman  legions  guarded  the  fords  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Danube  against  the  westward  passage  of  the  Ger- 
mans, the  great  surplus  of  Teutonic  life  must  have  flooded 
the  steppes  an4  plains  of  Russia. 

But  in  the  fourth  century,  a  new  people  of  Turanian 
origin  appeared  upon  the  eastern  horizon,  who  became 
known  in  history  as  the  Huns.  Their  ancestors  were,  per^ 
haps,  the  people  who  had,  before  the  dawn  of  history,  cut 
off  the  Sarmatians  from  farther  migration  into  the  Trans- 
Caspian  TogioUjand  who  had  been  gradually  filling  up  the 
steppes  of  Southern  Russia.  Tho  vanguard  of  the  invaders 
was  now  pressing  hard  upon  the  eastern  border  of  the  Slavic 
possessions.  They  were  in  possession  of  the  basin  of  the 
Volga  long  before  they  were  known  to  the  Romans^ ;  and, 
for  an  unknown  time,  there  had  been  a  steady  advance  to- 
ward the  West.  They  gradually  re-claimed  the  plains  of 
Russia  from  the  Aryans,  who  had  come  to  consider  them 
as  their  home. 

Dacia  was  the  only  province  that  Rome  ever  held 
north  of  the  Danube  river,  and  Aurelian  withdrew  from 
this  province  as  early  as  270  a.  d.  It  then  became  the 
home  of  powerful  German  tribes  known  as  Goths.  There 
were  two  confederacies,  known  afterwards  as  the  West- 
Goths  (Visi-Goths)  and  the  East-Goths  (Ostra-Goths.) 
Here  they  formed  a  state  of  considerable  power.  The 
Arian  Bishop  Ulfilas  dwelt  among  them  (about  375)*  and  by 
his  preaching,^  converted  them  to  Christianity.     For  the 

1  MUlman^s  Gibbon :  *»Rome/'  Vol.  II.  p.  125  et  aeq. 

2  This  word  is  not  derived  from  Aryan,  but  is  the  name  of  a  rengious 
sect.  3  His  translation  of  the  Scriptures  is  about  the  only  speoimen  of 
Gothic  writing  that  we  have. 


334  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 

next  century,  there  was  much  fighting  between  the  Gotha 
and  the  Romans  along  the  Danube,  which  was  the  border 
line  between  the  two.  At  last'  the  West-Gruthic  tribes, 
forced  by  the  j^ressure  of  the  Huns  at  their  backs,'  were 
allowed  by  Emperor  Valens  to  cross  the  river,  and  were 
given  a  large  tract  of  land  upon  which  to  settle. 

Finally,  the  flood-gates  of  the  Turanian  home-laiid 
seem  to  have  been  burst  asunder,  and  an  irresistible  deluge 
of  Hunnish  warriors  swept  over  the  whole  of  Eastern 
Europe  and  crowded  hard  upon  the  Goths.  Even  these 
stalwart  Teutons  were  not  able  to  stand  against  theoL 
'Then  the  Danube,  for  many  days  and  nights,  was 
covered  with  a  large  fleet  of  boats  and  canoeSi  each  sunk 
to  the  water's  edge  by  its  crowded  freight  of  fogitiTes.'" 
Some  of  these  were  induced  by  Bishop  XJlfilas  to  adopt  a 
settled  mode  of  life  in  Moesia.  But  the  most  of  them  xe- 
mained  warriors,  and  their  vast  army  of  two  hundred  thou- 
sand fighting  men  was,  for  a  moment^  a  barrier  between 
Rome  and  the  Huns. 

If  we  turn  now  to  Graul,  we  perceive  that  the  Rhine 
was  no  longer  a  barrier  between  the  Empire  and  Germany. 
In  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  we  b^in  to  hear  the 
names  of  the  Franks  and  the  Burgundians,  who  were  cross- 
ing the  Rhine  into  the  imperial  territory/  At  this  time, 
Rome  was  steadily  growing  weaker.  The  Grexmans  were 
pressing  into  her  territory  in  every  conceivable  manner — 
they  crowded  into  the  Roman  army ;  their  chiefe  conquer* 
ed  and  lielil  lands,  as  Roman  ofScials,  within  her  bounda* 
ries.^  The  tinu»  at  length  came  when  Rome  could  no 
longer  defend  lier  vast  possessions.     The  Franks  began  to 


1  0'^:^        2  Frft'iiiau  :  *'Hi»torK»ul  (  our8e/*|«.  88-9.  p.  22,  et  teq. 

3  "Land  Marks  of  History,"  i».  106. 

*  Freeman:  ''Historical  Cioo^rrnphv/*  p.  80.  *  Ibid. 


SZ8B  OF  XODEIty  XA  TIOXS. 


335 


grate  in  bands  and  occapr  XorUiern  Gaul,  while  the 
u^gODdians  took  like  possession  of  Southeastern  Gaul. 
,  the  same  time,  many  of  the  German  youths,  attracted 
'  the  luxury  and  life  of  ease  of  the  Roman  citizen,  were 


•  in-.-.'   ail'!    I.:.r-]i' r   r.«:.-,-^    '  ■ 
h'-D"M''fR<tmaii  lif^.  A"  •**• ..' 


336  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

to  them,  we  find  that  some  of  the  emperors  even  of  this 
period/  who  were  raised  to  the  purple  by  the  border 
legions,  could  not  conceal  their  Teutonic  origin.* 

By  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  Rome  bogan  to 
lose  territory  on  all  sides.    She  had  reached  the  pinnacle 
of  her  fame,  and  the  sad  period  of  decline  and  ever  lesaeii- 
ing  influence  was  now  before  her.    She  could  no  longer  be 
called  the  world.     Her  doom  was  written.    Luzmy  and 
profligacy  reigned  where  once  discipline  and  virtue  held 
sway.     The  land,  from  which,  in  ages  past,  the  pure  streams 
of  sturdy  Romans  had  poured  to  subdue  the  world,  had 
become  defiled  by  Celtic,  Egyptian,  and  Asiatic  influence^ 
and  (rould  jiroduco  nothing  but  a  weak  and  effeminate  race. 
It  needed  a  powerful  mixture  of  pure  Aryan  blood  to  l^ 
invigorate  this  declining  people.     Such  was  to  come  finm 
the  baptism  of  the  Old  Empire  with  Teutonic  blood,  and 
was  lioraldod  by  the  Goths  crossing  the  Danube,  and  tlw 
Franks  and  Burgundians,  the  Rhine.     Such  a  flood  was  to 
cause  much  destruction,  to  cost  many  lives,  and  to  entail 
much  suffering.     But  from  this,  there  was  deatined  to 
emerge  new  nations  and  new  Romes,  fsx  excelling  the  old 
in  grandeur,  powc^r,  and  culture. 

As  soon  as  the  West-Goths  had  become  settled  south 
of  tlie  Danube,  they  had  a  chance  to  test  the  strength  of 
tlio  imperial  armies.  Ill-treatment  from  Roman  officials 
caused  <lissatisfa(?tion,  which  led  within  two  years  to  open 
r(^bt»llion.     Emi^eror  Valens,  marching  against  them,  was 


»  20()-40().  A.  D. 

2  Septimus  Sevcrus  [193-211],  AureHaii  [270-275], and  Mazimian  [288- 
30')]  won?  Tiiade  emperors  by  the  proclamation  of  the  Pannonian  legiona. 
Chiudiiis  ir.  [2Gt)-270J,  Probus  [27C-2S2],  nnd  Valentinlan  I.  [364-375]  wero 
of  Paiinonijiii  origin.  Vide  Vamb<Ty,  **Story  of  Hungary,"  New  York, 
1S8(;,  p.  22.  Justinian  was  of  "Gothie  parentage."  Vide  Stokes:  **Med- 
leval  History,'*  p.  67* 


StSB  OF  UODERS  MA  TIOXH  33T 

laiidBlain(3re.)'  HeDceforthitirueoii^iial  irsr* 
n;  between  the  ruler  of  the  Western  Empire^  and  the 
otbs  uid other Oennan  tribes.    TheodMiae,  tbelaetreal 


■inj-T-.r  I'.ViU-^iCt)  of  the  unit^r-l'-ini-ir';.  wfi.»  :<t'i'-  *'.•  yifUf: 
»i.I;:---l  ^.vprnm'-titioli'.M  th-  i>;\)M  in  frhwk.    Tb«rn 


338  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD, 

succeeded  Ilonorius  (395-423)  in  the  West  and  Arcadi 
(395-408)  ill  the  East.  The  empire  was  rent  asunder,  ai 
Honorius,  said  to  have  been  "cowardly  and  incapable, 
had  not  the  i)ower  to  defend  his  territories. 

Honorius  had  one  general,  Stilicho,  who  was  able 
manage  the  Goths ;  but,  on  the  whole,  they  roamed  ai 
plundered  as  they  pleased.  Stilicho  was  put  to  death,  an 
then  no  one  could  check  their  ravages.  Under  their  leade: 
Alaric,  they  took  and  sacked  the  Imperial  city  itself  (410 
and  kept  the  Emperor  penned  up  in  his  capital,  which  ha 
been  changed  from  Rome  to  Ravenna.*  The  same  yea: 
the  Emperor  withdrew  from  Britain,  which  was  ever  afte 
independent  of  Rome.  Alaric  soon  died ;  and  Honorii 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  his  successor,  Athaulf,  whereb 
the  latter  became  Roman  governor  of  Spain,  whither  i 
led  the  West-Goths  and  drove  the  Vandals  into  Afric; 
Henceforth  Southwestern  Europe  became  a  powerful  Wes 
Gothic  kingdom.  These  Vandals,  a  Teuto-Slavic"  peopl 
who  had  early  j^assed  from  Germany  into  Spain,  took  po 
session  of  Carthage  (439),  and  soon  grew  in  power  so  as  1 
become  formidable  to  Rome.  Genseric,  their  chief,  led  h 
forces  against  that  city  which  was  captured  (455),  thougl 
by  the  intercession  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  it  was  saved  froj 
universal  pillage. 

Pope  Leo  was  the  leading  man  at  Rome  at  this  tim 
The  emperors  were,  as  a  class,  without  power,  ability  i 
ambition,  as  we  shall  see  in  their  dealings  with  the  Hun 
This  powerful  people  had  now  reached  the  Western  Empii 
(433-454.)*     The  Roman  general  Aetius  commanded  tl 

i  Btokes:  "Medieval  History/'  p.  19.  «  Freeman:  ^'Historic 

CourKo,"  p.  101. 

8  Qimtrefagcs:  **The  Prussian  Race,"  p.  12,  note  by  Maury. 

4  If  tliese  people  were  on  the  Volga  in  A.  D.  100,  forced  the  Gotl 
out  of  Dacia  in  876,  and  invaded  the  Western  Empire  in  488*454,  we  fil 


RJSE  OP  MODESPf  NA  TIONS. 

unperial   forces.     Atilla,  "the  Scourge  of  God,"  led  the 
Hunnish  honlt-,  and  first  pushed  forward  intoGauI,  sweep- 
ing  everything  before  him.     Theodoric,  the  Wcst-Goth, 
rallied  his  forces  and  went  to  the  aid  of  Aetius.    At  the 
battle  of  Chalons  (4.51),  the  Huns  were  completely  defeat- 
ed, though  it  cost  the  life  of  Theodoric.     This  is  one  of  the 
gnat  battles  of  the  world.     Christianity,  Aryan  civiliza- 
tioa,  and  all  that  distinguished  Europo  from  Asia  were  at 
xtake.'     It  was  a  struggle  between  Iran  and  Turan.     The 
fcnnCT  were  .successful;  and,  although  Atitla  appeared  be- 
bre  Rome  (453),  which  was  saved  from  plunder  only  by 
uUnxiession  of  Pope  Leo  and  by  the  power  of  Roman  gold, 
Uic  Turatiiana  ultimately  fell  back  beyond  the  Danube. 
The  Western  Empire  was  now  rapidly  falling  to  pieces. 
TTierp  ruled  a  succession  of  weak  emperors  until  476  when 
lie  Senate  voted  that  one  emperor  was  enough,  and  that 
tVi;ts(ern  emperor,  Zeno,  should  rule  the  whole  empire. 
^  *  I :;  -'lined  the  government,  but  never  visited  Rome. 
!i     I ;.    iii'd  Odoaccr.  commander  of  the  German  mer- 
"■uarv  irtxtps,  to  rule  as  Patriarch  at  Ravenna  as  hi.s  rep- 
tt»entative.     At  the  command  of  OJoacer  Romulus,  the 
(Jumant  of  the  western  crown,   was  forced  to  yield  it  up. 
Bat  the  triumph  ofOdoacer  was  short.     The  East-Goths 
•pfi-  moving  toward  the  west.     Their  king,  Tbeodoric,  con- 
Tifrni  ()«l.iaccr,  and,  though  in  reality  king,  he  "reignert 
(■tt3.o2M)  by  an  imperial  coinmiasioti"  :ia  Patrician.'  "Italy 
'""Icr  Theodoric  was  the  most  peaceful  and  flourishing 


lh»  "U|^teHl[urllk9«1>««^  "with  which  thoy  aroMnd  Eti- 
"IMi»>nU->tii-'l  I'j'  wme  wrlUni.     Wb  Innk   upuri  their  we><tera  tidvan- 

'■'■'■.:■?.;■  .-.  .  ri.l  I-  r,,!,.  In  ..■nri-li  of  lini.ir«  <'t  |'lLin.ltT.  Tlicy 
'"^  pniiisMy  nil  inure  tili|piiii!i,  tilnoci-iliir~ty,  and  cruel  than  the  moia 
'*^''i»Tr  run  ..r  invuiiers  of  1  hi>^'  lr..ulil..MS  Hiiic«. 

'  frwrnan:  "Historical  Ci>un«>,"  p.  102, 

'Frwnua:  "Hl»U>rlc»l Course,"  p.  inz-3.    "Historical  Qcogntphjr," 

21 


340 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


country  in  the  world,  more  peaceful  and  flourishing  than 
it  had  buen  for  a  long  time  before  or  than  it  has  ever  been 
since  till  quite  lately."' 

Ill   tlie   meantime,  the   Eastern   Empire  was  fullU 
trouble.    Though  the  religious  liistory  of  this  period  will 


AtlUe  at  the  Battle  of  Chalone. 
ho  fully  treated  in  the  proper  place,  it  is  nocessaiy  to  re- 
mark that  already  the  Christian  church  was  rent  with  dis- 
sensions.  Arianism  had  arisen  at  Alexandria;  Nestorian^ 


1  Freeman:  "Historical  CourBo,"p.  106. 


SZSS  OF  MODERN  NA  TIONS. 


341 


Of  at  Constantinople ;  and  both  had  been  condemned  by 
0  councils  of  the  Catholic  church,  while  the  emperors 
!re  continnally  trying  to  mediate  between  these  and 
her  lactions.  The  patriarchs  at  Constantinople,  though 


Odsaoer  Compela  Rsmulue  to  Abdicate. 
the  bead  of  the  Eiistt-rn  f'liiirch,  were  always  sulyect  to 
t'fmjwrnr;  l>ut  at  Rome,  the  bishnjin  h;iil  tlriftod  into 
.!««,  wlin  w('rc  the  aokiiMwIcdj^i'd  lu-.-iil  of  the  Western 
-atin  or  Cuthulie)  ('liur<-Ii,  ami  were  Jilreiuly  beginning  to 
in  aaccndeticy  in  teni|xiral  power  over  political  rulers. 
c>w  there  wna  always  a  bitter  enmity  between  the  vario'i 


342  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

religious  factions.  The  Goths  and  Vandals  were  Arian 
Christians.  Theodoric  ruled  at  Rome  without  stooping  to 
the  persecution  of  Catholics;  but  this  stands  out  as  an  al- 
most isolated  example  where,  during  medieval  timeSi  the 
sect  in  power  did  not  persecute  their  weaker  brethren. 

When  Justinian  became  emperor  (527-566)|  he  dete^ 
mined  to  unite  the  West  with  the  East,  and  rule  the  whole 
in  reality.  His  generals,  Belisarius  and  Narses,  entered 
Italy,  conquered  the  Goths,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Italian 
kingdom  (553).  Italy  was  now  ruled  from  Ravenna  by 
officers  called  exarchs.  For  two  and  a  half  centuries  (550* 
800),  there  was  no  Western  Empire.  But  another  wave 
of  Turanian  people,  the  Avars,  had  now  appeared  in  Cen- 
tral Europe,  where  they  dwelt  for  nearly  two  and  a  half 
centuries  (566-796).  They  took  possession  of  the  vall^ 
of  the  Danube/  They  displaced  a  Teutonic  people  known 
as  Lombards,  who,  in  turn,  sought  homes  in  the  valley  of 
the  Po  (567).  These  Lombards  formed  the  third  Teutonic 
kingdom  that  had  been  formed  in  Italy;  and  they  ruled 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  except  Rome,  Ravenna, 
Naples,  and  Venice.  Though  Rome  never  fell  before  the 
Lombards,  the  Exarchate  at  Ravenna  was  finally  conquered 
by  them  (753).  Tlie  Lombards  remained  a  power  in  Italy 
for  centuries,  and  wo  shall  hear  more  of  them  as  we  pro- 
ceed. 

In  the  fifth  century,  we  find  German  tribes  crossing 
the  English  channel,  penetrating  into  Britain,  and  form- 
ing a  host  of  petty  kingdoms  there,  which  finally  shifted 
around  into  seven  more  or  loss  well  defined  confederacies. 
Tho  bonds  of  confedtM'ation  wore,  however,  very  loose,  and 
many  tribes  soeni  to  have  remained  independent  for  a 
long  lime  to  come.     Now  three — Sussex    (477),    Wessex 

i  Vumbury:  *' Story  of  Hungary,"  p.  24-5. 


y 


THEMEWtOMC 

PUBLIC  LIB«kRY 


MtMM  OF  MOOEMM  JTATroSS.  3tS 

B^  and  Eans  (GDO>— cT  Hmw  iiwiiiliifiiiiii  wtn  of 
Lxoa  origim :  «fc— .■  TCn^rtf^i-;*  ^C),  Aa^i*  (4S5- 
9),  mad  Ham  fflSi)  wuu  of  Aa^aa  (x^iii;  vhUe 
0 — Kent  <46S^— was  of  Jntuh  ccigin.  All  were  **  Low 
Blcb,^^  tiut  if  *»w"i"g  from  tike  low  lantls  along  the 
■itic  Sea.  These  kosel  j  Mgaaiacd  ooniedencies  fonu 
e  acxalled  HeptardiT,  or  Seren  Kingdoros.  The  Angles 
ftve  fixmUhed  os  with  the  name  of  our  English  race, 
bile  from  the  oombiiutioa  of  Angte  ood  SaxoD,  we  hare 
■e  ethnical  term  An^o-SaxML* 

Intereit  now  centers  in  Gaol,  and  we  must  consider 
kA  riae  of  the  Prankish  power,  ^ear  the  end  of  the 
Ikih  century,  we  read  of  Cloria  (481-511),  who  made  him- 
eftf  ruler  of  moch  of  ancient  Gaul.  Around  his  head, 
here  duster  manj  legends  of  his  prowess  and  virtue, 
l^ong  which,  the  most  often  repeated  is  the  one  coacem- 
nig  the  vaae  of  Soissons — of  "marveUous  size  and  beauty." 
Ctoi-iT  wa^  a  [lagan,  and  this  v:ise  was  among  the  plunder 
thiit  his  warriors  took  from  the  church  at  Rheims.  At 
tht-  rf<juest  of  the  bishop,  St.  Reni,  Clovis  wished  to  return 
it  t"  tht.-  church,  but  when  the  spoil  was  divided,  an  ill- 
ca:un--»l  Frank  dashed  it  to  pieces  with  his  battle-aie. 
This  was  his  right  as  a  Frank,  or  "Freeman."  But  before 
,-1  v'-ar  had  passed,  Clovis  found  an  opportunity  when  it  was 
Li.-<  privilege  to  punish  the  Frank,  and  struck  him  dead 
with  a  battle-axe  saying:  "Thus  didst  thou  to  the  vase  of 
Soisaona."' 


)  Tb«  t«niu  High  Dutch  uid  Low  Dutch  often  oocnr  In  hlatorj,  tb« 
i»rm«r  racftolng  the  iDhkbltanU  of  Inland  or  Sontbern  0«rmui;,  and 
bm  IsUvr,  th«  population  of  tho  lowlands  along  the  coaat.  VUU  "Hla- 
»rl«*l  Covne,"  p.  lOT. 

•  Vide  Buckley:  "Hlatory  of  England,"  London,  1SS7,  p.  U. 

>  For  extended  aeooDnt  Vida  Ouisot:  "Hlatorr  of  Fnuioa,"  BiMk'a 
Xmaalaiioa,  Boato^  Vol.  L  p.  138  e(  109. 


346  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

In  regard  to  the  life  of  Clovis,  this  much  is  true, 
was  the  first  Frankish  chieftain  to  rise  into  promine 
The  eyes  of  the  religious  world  were  upon  him  ;  and  tl 
was  rivalry  between  the  Arians  and  Catholics,  each 
deavoring  to  achieve  his  conversion.  He  (492)  reeei 
in  marriage  Clotilda,  the  Catholic  princess  of  BurguD 
and  soon  (496)  became  a  devout  Catholic.  Henceforth 
was  the  Catholic  champion  against  the  Arian  West-Got 
At  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (507),  Clovis  broke  the  puwei 
the  West-Goths  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  checked 
further  spread  of  the  Arian  religion  in  that  direction, 
defeated  the  Roman  governor  of  Gaul  and  became,  at  1 
(508),  consul  by  the  appointment  of  the  Emperor  Anaj 
sius.  Under  Clovis,  then,  we  have  the  first  apj)eara 
on  the  map  of  Europe  of  a  state  somewhat  resembl 
modern  France. 

But  this  territory  was  to  undergo  many  changes 
fore  our  own  times.  When  Clovis  died  (511),  it  was  divi 
among  his  four  sons.  This  line  of  rulers  was  knowi] 
the  Merovingian  dynasty.  And  the  history  of  these  p 
ces  was  **one  long,  dreary  story  of  blood,  vice,  and  cruelt 
They  became  so  weak  and  incapable  that  their  provii 
were  ruled  by  deputies  known  as  Mayors  of  the  Pala 
The  princes  were  mere  figure-heads  and,  at  last  (7i 
l)assed  away  altogether.  Pippin,  one  of  these  Mayors 
the  Palace,  encouraged  by  the  Pope,  asserted  his  pov 
deposed  the  last  Merovingian  king,  and  ruled  a  uni 
Frankish  empire  for  seventeen  years  (751-768),  gain 
even  greater  renown  than  his  illustrious  father,  Chai 
Martcl  (Mayor  of  the  Palace  715-741),  who  gave  thena 
of  Karlings  to  this  dynasty,  and  of  whom  we  shall  h 

1  '^Medieval  History,"  p.  47. 

s  Beany  the  tribal  chiefs  of  the  older  period. 


JtlSE  OF  MODERN  NATIONS.  347 

*gain  in  connection  with  the  Lombards  and  the  Saracens, 
If  we  were  to  glance  at  a  map  of  Europe  showing 
the  ruling  people  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century 
A.  D.,  we  Would  perceive  how  thoroughly  Western  Europe 
W  become  intermixed  with  Tcuto-Aryan  blood.  The 
Celta  were  driven  cither  to  the  farthest  corner  of  ancit'ii, 
Giittl  and  to  the  remotest  shores  of  the  British  Isles,  or 
lud  become  the  scrfa  of  Teutonic  over-lords.  Cscsar's 
Gaul  and  Spain  were  occupied  by  the  Teutonic  kingdoms 
tjf  the  Suevi,  West-Goths,  Franks,  and  Burgundians.  The 
Em-Goths  occupied  the  whole  of  Italy.  The  northern 
«d  ('astern  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  Danube  were 
'^  b-miea  Mf  the  Saxons,  Thurlngians,  Lombards,  and 
Gi-piiLv;  while  the  Angles,  Jutes,  and  some  of  the  Saxons 
iid  aln-ady  reached  the  shores  of  Britain.  The  European 
^^•H-Bsiuns  of  the  Eastern  Empire  had  dwindled  away 
•**  small  portion  of  the  Hellenic  peninsula  south  of  the 
I'aiiuU'  river — Thrace  and  lUyricum.  The  Slaves  at  last 
tak.'  tlicir  phifi;  along  the  eastern  borders  of  Teutonic 
'^■■'liiis,  :.ituate<l  so  as  to  receive  the  brunt  of  the  later 
''iiiil,  with  till.'  Avars  aTid  other  invading  Turanians.' 

The  EasttTu  Eni]»ire  was  at  this  time  eking  out  an 
«'""isl  unevi-ntful  career.  Theodosius  II.  (408-450)  initia^ 
''■■lihf  Work  of  compiling  the  customs,  usages,  and  laws 
*''""■  Roman  court  into  acodeof  laws.  Justinian  (527-50o) 
'"^t  U|i  the  Work  and  gave  the  world  the  "Justinian  code," 
*"'ih  is  the  foundation  of  much  of  modern  European  law. 
As  a  Icpialator,  he  had  no  equal  among  the  early  emperors, 
'"i"  iini»erial  throne  was  occupied  by  Heraclius  (610-641). 
^Mnghis  reign,  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  the  Persians, 
iNitima  afterward  retaken.  A  new  element  in  the  world's 
h\s\;ry  made  its  appearance  early  in  the  seventh  century. 

Middle  AgM,"  New  York,  1S60,  Vol.  I.  p.  1-S. 


348  TME  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

This  was  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism.  It  was  during  tli 
reign  of  Heraclius  (June  18th,  622)  that  the  Hegira  c 
Mohammed  occurred.  And  thus  was  inaugurated  one  o 
the  most  important  religious  movements  of  the  world,  on( 
that  was  to  weld  the  Semitic  tribes  of  the  desert  into  t 
powerful  government,  destined  to  make  Christian  Europe 
tremble  before  it. 

Mohammedanism  will  be  fully  treated  in  its  proper 
place.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  note  that  the  founder  belonged 
to  the  ruling  family  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  tribes  o' 
Arabs,  the  Korcysh  tribe,  which  had  for  a  long  time  rulec 
over  Northern  Arabia.  Mohammed  was  born  at  Meocai 
but  was  forced  to  flee  to  Medina,  and  this  flight  is  tli* 
"Ilcgira"  of  Mohammedanism.  The  Mohammedan  ers 
dates  from  that  event.  The  particular  faith  known  a 
Mohammedanism  is  said  to  have  been  compounded  fron 
all  the  philosophical  religions  of  that  day.  Its  peculia. 
tcncts  are  set  forth  in  the  Koran,  the  Bible  of  Mohanmm' 
This  now  faith  rapidly  si)rcad  over  the  plains  and  desert 
of  the  East,  and  especially  among  the  wandering  tribt- 
of  Arabia.  The  followers  of  Mohammed  are  called  Sar 
cens ;  and,  with  the  battle  cry  of  "The  Koran,  the  swoi^ 
or  tribute,''  they  entered  upon  their  era  of  conquest.  TT 
successors  of  the  Prophet  were  called  Caliphs. 

Omar,  the  second  caliph,  was  father-in-law  to  tl 
Prophet.  Under  his  rule  the  faith  was  carried  into  S}Ti 
Persia,  Central  Asia,  and  Egypt.  Alexandria  was  takez 
and  its  famous  library  burned.  The  caliph  claimed  that  JJ 
these  books  agreed  with  the  Koran  they  were  superfluous; 
if  they  disagreed,  they  were  pernicious  and  ought  to  be 
destroyd.^  The  Ommiade  dynasty  of  caliphs  ruled  atDar 
mascus  until  750;  the  Abbasside  dynasty,  at  Bagdad,  firom 

I  Dawe:  *' Land  Marks  of  HiHtory,"  p.  91. 


nrsE  OP  xoDBRN  yA  Troys  349 

rhen  the  last  caliph  was  slain  by  the  grand- 

oDgol  chieftain,  Genghis  Khan.    These  San- 

in  every  direction.     They  reached  India  on 

d  Spain  on  the  west,  the  same  year  (»U)- 

ng  the  first  century  of  their  existeDce.  they  hfr 

jlantinople.     In  073  they  were  beaten  back  by 


rinies  of  ('"iistantine  IV.      Finally  I>;r,  I.  (7K 
f  defeated  thvni  that  no  "M'-^l'in   army  t:vt-r  i 
red  under  the  walls  of  Xew  R/irn*:  until  the  cali 
assed   ;iwiiy  and  a  sterner  mt:*-.  of  c»Dqaeror 
e<l  its  mission. "'    The  .Sara<f-ri^  entered  Spain 

T«*m«a:  "Htotorr  *nd  Coixjiwst^  "f  Um  riaraecn*,"  Low 


350  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  in  three  years  had  completed  its  conquest.' 
comparative  ease  with  which  they  gained  control 
this  peninsula  is  somewhat  surprising;  but,  when 
consider,  that  the  population  of  Spain  and  Nortl 
Africa  were  no  doubt  kindred,  that  the  straits  v 
the  highway  over  which  the  Phoenicians  and  the  o1 
conquerors  of  Spain  had  passed,  and  that  the  mass  of 
population  were  held  in  the  condition  of  serfs  to  fore 
or  West-Gothic  over-lords,  we  can  account  for  the  ra 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Mohammedans.  As  t! 
spread  over  the  peninsula,  the  most  powerful  Gothic  cl 
tains  rallied  their  tribesmen  about  them,  fortified  s( 
mountain  fastnesses,  and  waged  continual  warfare  with 
Saracens  until  the  latter  were  finally  driven  out  by  1 
dinand  and  Isabella  (1492).  In  fact,  it  is  to  these  ba 
of  independent  West-Goths  in  their  mountain  homes 
we  arc  to  look  for  the  germs  from  which  sprung  the  k 
doms  of  Castile,  Aragon,  Leon,  and  Portugal,  and  by 
union  of  the  first  three,  the  kingdom  of  Spain  itself.* 
The  Saracenic  government  in  Spain  is  said^  to  1 
been  one  of  the  best  of  its  age.  Religious  porsecu 
happened  only  in  cases  where  it  was  invited  by  ze.i 
who  had  determined  upon  martyrdom.  Literature 
cultivated;  and,  in  architecture,  the  ruins  of  the  Alham 
testify  to  the  degree  of  i)erfection  and  grandeur  whieh  1 
had  attained.  In  time  (about  755),  Spanish  Mohani 
dans  became  alienated  from  their  brethren  in  the  E 
and  a  separate  caliphate  (the  Western)  was  formed. 
satisfied  with  the  conquest  of  the  peninsula,  the  Sara< 
crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  began  to  encroach  upon  the 

1  ''Historical  Geography/'  p.  111. 

s  Freeman :  '^History  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens,'*  p.  13d-9. 

8  Ibid.  IH7  etseq. 

4  Vide  Irving: '*The  Alhambra.^' 


JUSB  OF  MODERN  NA  TIONS.  351 

titoTT  of  tlio    Burgundians    and  Franks.      The   cities  of 
Semthprn  Gau!  bouamo  for  a  time  Saracenic' 

Chttrk's  Martel,  though  only  a  mayor  of  the  palace, 
WM  reatiy  the  chief  man  among  the  Franks  at  thia  time. 
Aatbo  Saracoiis  ^tcw  bolder,  by  reason  of  a  succesaion  of 
wnqiicsts,  they  penetrated  farther  and  farther  into  Frank- 
Wl  territory.  Charles  Martel  summoned  all  the  forces 
flf  Gaul,  aad  met  the  invaders  at  Toura  or  Poitera  (732). 
Another  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world  was  fought, 
Mid  tht!  Ar)-an  triumjjhed  over  tlio  Semite.  The  Saracens 
Were  driven  to  the  south  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  tliese  moun- 
Uins henceforth  remained  the  boundary  between  the  two 
ftces  in  the  We»t.  By  thia  battle,  Europe  was  preserved 
totlie  Aryans. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Charles  Martel  was  the 
bwderof  the  Prankish  dynasty  known  as  the  Karlings.' 
'Tica  Pippin,  the  son  of  Charles,  was  king  of  the  Franks, 
'!»  I-omhards.'  after  conquering  nearly  all  of  Italy,  ajv 
I'^rtiUt  Ibegiiteji  of  Rome.  Pope  Stephen  III.  invited 
'%iiii  to  enter  Italy  and  save  the  imperial  city.  Pippin 
***  inifcfssful,  and  restored  the  exarchate  to  the  empire, 
■^^th:*  MTvii'i',  hi-  w:i?!n!td''  patrician,  or govevnur,  trf  the 
1fln|i:,te  (U<iine  and  vicinity),  for  Rome  still  regarded 
Njf  ;i,  ;i  part  of  tlic  empire  and  bowt'd  to  the  imperial 
*"Ui.,rity  .it  Constantinoj.Ie. 

Pi;ipin  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charlemagne,  who  ■ 
•^i--.!  ill,.  Frankisii  kingdom  to  its  greatest  power.  His 
'"k'li  might  be  called  the  Golden  Age  of  the  Franks,  as 
•li'linguished  from  the  later  French,  for  this  people  never 
>;'ain  enjoyetl  such  power  and  happiness  ns  during  his 
*i.w  reign.     Concjucsts   were   pushed   in   all   directions. 

J  "lU.ioric*!  a«ogr*phy."  p.  111-12. 

>  AboTc  p.  »46.  *  Above  p.  342.  ^  Charte*  the  Great,  7RS-SI4. 


352  TBB  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

His  armies  were  everywhere  carrying  peace  to  those  who 
chose  to  submit  to  his  authority,  the  sword  to  those  who 
withstood  his  arms.  The  Saxons  were  his  most  obstinate 
subjects,  for  he  tried  to  force  them  to  change  their  religion. 
Tlicy  desired  independence  and  the  privilege  of  worshiping 


Defeat  of  the  Saracene  by  CharleB  Martel. 
their  own  gods.  Though  many  of  thcni  submitted  to 
baptism  at  tho  jiolnt  of  tho  sword,  they  worshiped  their 
pagan  gods  in  peace.  The  ruthless  hand  of  the  destroyer, 
however,  cut  down  their  images  and  defiled  their  sacred 
places.  Revolt  after  revolt  hapi>cncd,  proving  to  Charle- 
magne that  they  were  still  pagans,  and  the  only  way  to  aare 


BI8B  OF  MODBBN  NA  TIONS.  363 

heir  souls  was  to  take  their  lives.  So  he  assembled  over 
four  thousand  of  their  foremost  tribesmen  and  caused  their 
heads  to  be  struck  off  in  one  day.*  The  remnant  continued 
to  fig^t  until  each  small  band  was  conquered  or  annihila- 
ted. 

The  Avars  were  by  this  time  crowding  over  the 
mountains  and  threatening  the  Franks.'  They  ahready 
held  the  Bysantine  (or  Eastern)  Empire  under  annual 
tribute.  But»  toward  the  close  of  the  eighth  century, 
Chariemagne  drove  them  back  to  their  Danubian  home.* 
The  Lombtfds  were  again  threatening  the  imperial  city, 
and  Charlemagne  responded  to  her  call  for  help.  He  (774) 
eompletely  subdued  these  dangerous  neighbors,  and  held 
them  under  subjection  for  the  remainder  of  his  reign. 

The  cruel  Irene  had  usurped  the  throne  at  Constanti- 
nople.  The  Imperialists  at  Rome  claimed  that  a  woman 
eouM  not  be  Caesar  and  turned  their  eyes  toward  Charle- 
magne, the  saver  of  the  imperial  city,  the  champion  of 
Christianity  against  Paganism,  as  the  only  proper  person 
to  occupy  the  seat  of  Caesar.  Amidst  great  pomp  and 
ceremony,  on  the  last  day  of  December,  in  the  year  800, 
MB  Charlemagne  knelt  at  the  altar  in  St.  Peters  at  Rome, 
Pope  Lieo  HI.  jilaced  upon  his  head  a  crown,  and,  amid 
the  acclamations  of  the  people,  procdaimed  him  Emperor 
and  Augustus. 

In  this  manner  was  the  Western  Empire  revived, 
thotiirh  a  Teuton  wore  the  crown  ;  and  we  must  renienibei 
that  th«*  Western    Empire   was   ever   afterward  a  trul; 
<r»'rman  Empire,  and  nearly  all  the  emperors  were  kinp 
of  Cf«  rin.iny.    Charlemagne  never  became  the  slave  of  tl: 

3  Ctuisot:  **Hl»tory  of  France,"  Vol.  I.  p.  216-17. 

s  AUive  p.  334. 

•  rid€  Varabory:  "Btory  of  Hungary,"  p.  24-6. 


354  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULU. 

Pope.  He  openly  diflfered  from  the  church  and  its  council 
by  rejecting  their  decrees  to  authorize  image  worship  when 
sent  to  him.^  So,  too,  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time  in 
regard  to  culture.  His  reign  was  a  period  when  great 
progress  was  making ;  literature  and  art  were  encouraged; 
and,  at  his  invitation,  France  became  filled  with  scholars 
of  the  day. 

The  mind  of  Charlemagne  was  one  of  those  master 
minds  that  could  carry  on  conquest  after  conquest,  spread- 
ing his  power  in  all  directions,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
capable  of  conceiving  and  perfecting  plans  for  the  im- 
provement of  his  subjects,  for  the  advancement  of  educa- 
tion, and  for  the  introduction  of  good  government.  Ordi- 
narily, if  the  prince  be  a  soldier,  his  mind  is  too  much 
filled  with  his  plans  of  conquest  to  be  able  to  attend  ta 
his  govornniont;  if  he  be  a  scholar  and  legislator,  he  il 
utterly  ineaj)able  of  defending  his  possessions  from  tlH)! 
encroachment  of  his  neighbors.  While  Charlemagne  wif, 
extending  his  empire  in  all  directions,  he  was  holding  tnlBi. 
reins  of  government  with  a  strong  hand ;  shaping  tllA: 
religion  of  the  Catholic  church  ;  establishing  schods 
throughout  his  vast  domain ;  and  bringing  scholars  from 
the  ends  of  the  world  to  preside  over  them.  Though  he 
was  continually  called  upon  to  battle  with  Saxons,  Danes, 
8aracens,  Slaves,  Avars,  and  Lombards,  the  internal  jwr- 
tion  of  his  empire  was  enjoying  the  prosperity  of  a  time 
of  peace,  and  reaping  the  rich  rewards  in  culture  that 
always  attend  such  eras  in  the  history  of  a  country. 
When  Charlemagne  died  (814),  his  empire  extended  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Mediterranean  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  banks  of  the  Danube.* 

i  Stokes:    **Medieval  History,"  p.  51. 

s  We  must  not  forget  that  Charlemagne  is  one  of  thoM 


&ISB  OP  MOD£MX  SA  TIOSS. 


The  Eastern  Empire  did  not  recognize  Cluriemagne  as 
imperor  of  Borne,  neither  did  they  acknowledge  the  xij^t 
f  the  Pope  to  crown  him.  They  went  right  on  electing 
mperora,  and  they  considered  that  "the  emperor  anointed 


\^- 

^        r " 

n  _ 

I W: 

o  St.  Sojihia  hftd  a  riL'Iit  wliii-h  ii>>iii-  n.iiM  take  awav, 
o  rt'ign  M-or  the  Old  Rome  a?*  well  as  the  Xcw.  Each 
■mrieror  (East  ami  West)  in  slmrt.  asserted  himself  to  be 
he  one  true  Emperor  and  the  other  to  be  an  inijwjstnr  or  a 
j-rant."'     The  act  of  Po\n.>  Leo  III.  in  crowning  Charle- 

ODaod  whcne  nune*  hftve  cluaUred  man)-  mytliH  Vide  HmUtja:  "Mid- 
Da  Akm,"  Vol  I.  p.  23  el  nrq. 

I  FT^m»n;  "ChW  P^riodn  of  EiiropeBn  HUtory,-'  London,  1880,  fi 


356  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ma^e  was  an  open  and  ever  widening  breach  between 
Rome  and  Constantinople. 

The  two  empires  were  now  absolutely  and  finally 
separated,  and  henceforth  led  separate  existences.  So  too 
with  the  churches,  the  Pope  became  the  head  of  the 
Western  Church,  while  the  Patriarch  at  Constantinople 
became  the  head  of  the  Eastern  Church.  As  time  passed, 
both  empires  and  churches  drifted  further  and  further 
apart,  and  the  most  bitter  hostilities  and  jealousies  came 
to  exist  between  them.  The  Eastern  Empire  and  Church 
became  decidedly  Greek,  and  are  often  mentioned  as  the 
Greek  Empire  or  the  Greek  Church.  The  Western  Em- 
pire and  Church  as  often  bear  the  names  of  Latin  Em- 
pire and  Latin  Church.*  So  great  did  the  hostility  be- 
between  the  two  become,  that  we  shall  find  one  army 
of  crusaders  turning  aside  to  besiege  Constantinople  as 
though  it  were  a  city  of  unbelievers.  But  in  the  East,  we 
will  always  find  the  Patriarch  subject  to  the  political 
power  of  the  emperor;  while,  in  the  West,  we  must  notice 
how  the  Pope  began  gradually  to  acquire  political  power 
until  his  decree  of  excommuniction  was  more  powerful 
than  the  army  of  a  prince.' 

As  the  strength  of  the  Mohammedans  increased,  the 
strength  of  the  Eastern  Empire  decreased.  Occasionally 
a  superior  line  of  sovereigns  would  gain  control  of  the 
government  and  the  empire  would  blaze  out  like  a  meteor 
among  the  powers  of  the  world.  The  Basilian  dynasty 
(8G7-1057)  was  such  an  one.  Basil  I.  was  a  Macedonian.' 
Durini;  his  reign,  Photius  was  patriarch   of  Constantino- 


1  "Historical  Geography,'^  p.  366. 

2  For  example  we  would  refer  to  the  defeat  of  Harold  by  W^UliAm 
the  Conqueror,  and  the  journey  of  Henry  to  Conossa.  Vide  HaUam: 
•♦Middle  Apes/^Vol.  I.  p.  656-7. 

9  Stokes:  ♦♦Medieval  History,''  p.  114. 


'  RISE  OF  MODERN  NA  TI0N8.  357 

I 

I 
I 

pie  and  instructor  of  Prince  Leo,  the  philosopher.  The 
reigns  of  Leo  (886-912)  and  of  his  son  Constantine  VII. 
(912-959)  form  "one  of  the  most  properous  eras  of  the 
Byzantine  literature."^  During  the  childhood  of  Basil  II. 
(963-1025),  Xicephoras  (963-969)  and  Zunices  (969-975) 
were  in  turn  raised  to  the  position  of  colleague  with  the 
Emperor,  by  marriage  with  Theophona,  the  empress. 
They  were  the  greatest  generals  of  their  age,  and,  in  suc- 
cession commanded  the  royal  army.  Basil  profited  by 
their  training,  and  was  one  of  the  few  of  the  later  em* 
perors  who  was  able  to  lead  his  own  armies  to  victory. 

Under  these  three  generals,  the  imperial  army  twice 
defeated  the  Russians.*  The  Bulgarians  were  conquered 
by  Basil  himself,  and  were  most  intumanly  treated.  The 
boundaries  of  the  empire  again  embraced  the  most  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  Euxine  basin,  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  and 
a  part  of  Southern  Italy.  But  Basil  seems  to  have  intro- 
duced changes  in  the  government,  which,  by  promoting 
favorites  to  the  chief  positions,  ultimately  dcstroyd  the 
old  civil  service  organization.  The  Basilian  dynasty  came 
to  an  end  in  1057  by  the  the  nobles  transferring  the  crown 
to  one  of  their  own  number,  Isaac  Comnenus.' 

The  capital  of  the  Eastern  Empire  was  not  only  open 
to  attack  from  the  Turks  and  Mongols,  but  her  re- 
lations with  the  Western  Empire  were  becoming  more 
and  more  estranged.  In  the  West,  the  great  crusades 
were  forming.  These  crusades  were  great  armies  of 
men  marching  to  the  rescue  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy 
Sepulcher.  The  commanders  lacked  power ;  and  the  sol- 
diers of  the  Cross,  unity  and  discipline.     As  they  passed 

1  Gibbon »8  **  Rome, '^ Vol.  V.  p.  379. 

s  These  people  had  risen  in  power  so  as  to  become  formidable  to  the 
empire,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  proper  place. 

3  Vide  Gibbon,  Vol.  IV.  p.  610  et  acq. 

22 


358  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOULD. 


in^ 


through  tlie  country,  they  were  very  las  iu  obsorvin] 
rights  of  property  holders  and  the  laws  nf  hoapitali^ 
Constantinople,  more  than  any  other  city,  was  subjwt  U 
outrages  from  these  lawless  hordes,  as  they  often  encampaj 
in  that  vicinity.  Then,  too,  numbers  of  these  wcsteil 
peoi>le  adopted  the  extern  capital  as  their  home,  neva 
rt-turning  to  their  native  lands.  Finally  their  prcsend 
became  intolerable,  and  (in  1183)  all  the  Latin  residenS 
in  tliat  city  were  massacred.  The  fourth  crusade,  then 
fore,  turned  aside  from  its  real  mission,  twice  besiegaj 
Constantinople,  and  captured  the  city  in  1204.  For  neun 
sixty  years  (1204-1261),  a  Latin  dynasty  ruled  the  Eastoi 
Empire,  although  the  Greek  emperors  ruled  at  Jfii 
and  Trebizond. 

In  a  few  lines,  we  can  give  the  story  of  the  filial  faU^ 
the  Eastern  Empire,  and  with  it  the  disappearance  of 
Roman  Empire  from  the  pages  of  history.  The  thirteoall 
century  witnessed  strange  upheavals  in  the  Orient,  Th| 
great  Genghis  Khan  subdued  nearly  all  Asiatohia  rale 
Ilis  empire,  however,  as  rapidly  disintegrated  on  the  deu 
of  its  foiuider,  as  it  had  sprung  into  being  under  AJ 
guidance  of  his  genius.  Out  of  the  ruins  of  bis  empin 
there  arose  into  prominence  the  Ottoman  Turks.  TbSl 
rapidly  swallowed  up  the  provinces  of  Asia;  and  in  ISfl 
they  entered  Europe.  Their  season  of  conquest  continna 
They  conquered  the  Slaves  and  the  Hungarians.  UDdl 
Sultan  Bajazet,  they  triumphed  over  the  combined  fonw 
of  Europe  (1396),  led  by  king  Sigismund  of  Hungary,  al 
the  battle  of  Nicopolis.^  They  drafted  the  flower  of  (U 
Christian  youth  into  their  armies,  so  that  their  soldieri 
were  as  powerful  as  any  in  Europe.     The  knights  td  Uni 


'  Vide  Vambury:  "Story  of  Hunguy,"  p.  ISS^ 


CLOVis  a:;:j  ini_  VAbh  ui  auissONS. 


-J 


13' 

t; 


nays.  961 

r«al  w  pvOTeriaa  hdkn  them.  At  last.  (\4fQ)  Sultwi 
lai»aM  MK  a  aaaivgie  to  &e  Enpefv^  which  rntd  :  "l\r 
bfr  Divme  cIi^i^m;  osr  cimeter  has  re«.luoftl  t»  >nir  olv- 
leaee  ftlaaat  all  A«l  with  nuiiT  and  lanK'  ix>untni<»  in 
Kanpe,  tattpaa^  oulj  ihe  citr  of  Oonstantiiioplo;  for 
hyuaJ  tke  vaD*  &m  hast  nothing  U>ft.  R<^<tt^n  that 
1^;  Miylali  ihf  imrd;  <>r  tn^iMe  for  thyself  hikI  tlif 
Mfpy  peofile,  at  Um  «»nse<)ue»or  of  tt  ni.sh  rt'fiisal.'" 
the  Emperor  acM^t  aid  m>m  the  W'osi  hut  to  tio  nvHil. 
Bm  the  Vosgokt  ruing  into  power  under  Tiiiiour,  ur 
faneHane.' gained  a  respite  of  a  half  a  ivnlury  for  tho 
bfced  «itT,  while  the  Torts  wew  busy  sulxluiiij;  ihi*  n«h«l- 
lioaa  Mctogolf^  The  Olloiimns,  howevi-r.  Iw'siep-d  thi' 
KpttAl  in  14^1.  bui»till  she  held  out.  Tho  Un>i-kH  Irioil, 
ia  ertTf  way,  to  r«concUe  ihemsitlves  wilh  llie  Wtittorii 
Empire  aiMi  the  Western  Church,  but  no  aulwiixiilinl  idd 
vit  aenL 

M>-h.imnHvi  II.  l>ecamo  Sultnii  nf  tlu'  Otti'iiiiin  'rnrku 
it  14ol.  Crossing  the  Hclle8i>ont,  ho  hiid  niefjo  l<>  Con- 
•Untin-iple.  On  the  twenty-ninth  of  May,  I4r>.'l.  timl  eily 
-Wl  bi'ft.re  the  .iruis  of  the  unbelievers,  tin<l  tlie  Chrintiiui 
lemple  of  .St.  Sophia  became  a  Mohannnodan  Monrjue, 
Eijrht  years  hiter  the  Sultan  eonquerod  the  (In^ek  enipirii 
''fTrebiamd.  The  Eastern  Empire  was  no  more,  lUinin, 
hat  prr>ud  mistress  of  tlic  world,  now  exiHt^td  ordy  iiN  thu 
•enii.in  Empire  of  the  West;  and  the  aoat  of  (/hrlatian 
■>w€-r  and  learning  had  passed  into  the  handi  of  the  un* 
clieFefB.  The  Turkish  [mwer  continued  tit  spread,  al* 
lough  it  had  met  with  some  checks  hy  the  Uungariana 
nder  the  great  "Raven  Knight,"  John  Hunyadi,  but  thb 
afl  for  a  moment  only.     When  the  Turkiah  Empire  bad 

1  OlMuo.  Vol.  VI.  p.  24S. 

1  Pn>b*bl7  »  Turk.     Klde  "HlitoriMi  CoaiM,"  p.  M. 


362  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

attained  its  greatest  European  limits,  it  included  the  Em- 
ine  basin,  Podolia.  Moldavia,  Transylvania,  and  a  large 
part  of  Unn^'ary.  From  these  boundaries,  it  has  since 
greatly  fallen  away. 


Fall  of  ConetantlnoplB. 
Returning  now  to  the  west  of  Europe,  let  us  take  x^ 
th(^  thread  of  history  with  the  successors  of  Charlemagne. 
They  were  weaker  and  less  capable  rulers  than  their 
illustrious  ancestor.  IJy  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  the 
great  empire  which  ho  founded  was  divided  among  hia 
tlireo  grandsons.  Charles  the  Bald  was  given  rule  over 
the  Western  Franks,  who  aftenvard  became  the  French. 
Lewis  became  king  of  the   Eastern  Franks,  or  Germans 


;  or  MODEBN  JfA  TIONS. 


er.  Lothair  was  called  king  of  Italy,  although  hU 
tniuna  extended  in  a  broad  belt  from  below  Borne 
jil  the  uoTthwest,  between  the  other'  two  kingdoms, 
\  to  tiie  German  ocean.  Here  we  have  the  germs  of 
»  prmninent  natioiu  of  our  day,  although  there  was 


^ 

1 

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■  -^  >^ 

I^^^H 

■rS 

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■-:S3»«i_^.-.. 

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B 

.  •^t^Sai^ilSi 

.-                     X             , 

p-f 

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il  ■■% 

T'^ 

=-^^       '>    ^ 

V,.  -  -'SI. 'V- 

W''?m:fmMKKk 

^^g:??!^ 

The  Kur.a  Ir.  Gerrr-.ar.y. 

h  --liifiijiL' .-ilH'iit  jiml  cliJiiiiriiii:  nf  li.iril»T  lines  liofore 
■  ;i^-iiiii>'i  llirir  iii'hIitti  ^h.'ipr,-'.  Xi'iii'ly  llir  whole 
ilori-  w:i>  ;iL'.iiii  rinit.-.l  mi.lcrCh.-irl.'s  tli.-F.it  (S84Ji87). 
n  it  at;:iiti  frl]  aimrt,  nml  Imtki-  u|)  into  many  king* 


364  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

doms,  principalities,  dukedoms,  and  commonwealtlis.  But 
throughout  all  this  series  of  changes,  the  Western  Empire 
of  Rome  was  still  feigned  to  exist,  and  one  of  the  kings 
was  elected  as  emperor. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  of  treating  our  subject  from  th» 
point  is  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  the  various  modem  na- 
tions in  Europe,  us   they  gradually  emerged   out  of  these 
three  divisions   of  Charlemagne's   empire.      Under  the 
successors  of   Lothair,  Italy  was  a  hot-bed  of  contending 
factions.     The  G-reeks  entered  and  occupied  Lombanly. 
The  Saracens  occupied  Sicily  and  extended  their  conquest* 
further  north.     The  Magyars   penetrated  the  i>eninsul&. 
from   the   north,  and   tlie   Northmen  ravaged   the  coast. 
Then  there  came  a  time  when  a  number  of  petty  kings 
contended  for  superiority  in  Italy.     The  greater  \^viTi  of 
Lothariiigia  Iiad  by  tliis  time  fallen  away. 

King  Otto  the  Great,  of  Gennany,  came  to  the  rescue 
of  Italy,  wns(Towned  emperor  (962),  and  Italy  was  united 
to  Germany.     Henceforth  it  was  a  rule,  that  *'the  kingof 
Germany  had  the  right  to  be  crowned   king  of  Italy  at 
Milan,  and  to  bo  crowned  Emperor  at  Rome."'     Now  the 
petty  kingdoms  wen^  held  in  check,  and  the  independence 
of  the  i)rincipal  cities  was  encouraged.     Thereafter  many 
of  them  became  republics,  or  commonwealths,  and  rose  to 
enormous  power  and  w(»alth.     They  made  wars  and  thus 
added  to  their  possessions,  so  that  their  jMjwer  was  by  no 
means   limit (m1  or   indicated    by  the  extent  of  their  city 
walls.     The  most  imi>ortant  of  these  cities  were  Venice, 
Genoa,   Pisa,   Xaples,  Florence,    Milan,  Verona,  Padua, 
and,  of  course,  Rome  as  head  of  the  states  of  the  church. 
Xearlv  all  of  the  (dties  of  Italy  were  at  times,  and  some 
of  them  at  all   times,  fiefs  of  Rome.     At  Florence,  the 

1  Ibid.  p.  140. 


SISE  OF  MODERN  SA  TIONS,  365 

borne  of  Dante  (l26o-1321)  and  the  birthplace  of  Michael 
Aiifjelo  (14"5-15tj4j,  there  arose  the  renowned  house  of  the 
MMici,  that  furnished  a  number  uf  [lopes,  and  caused 
much  trouble  tu  the  L-niperors. 

While  Frederii:  Barbarossa  was  emperor  (1152-1190), 
the  great  Lombard  league  of  the  cities  of  Northern  Italy 
vas  at  the  htnght  of  its  iKiwer.  There  were  two  factions 
of  citicM,  Guolphie  (Imperial  and  anti-Pope)  and  Ghibe- 
line  (Popish  and  an li- Emperor).  "Round  Guelphic  Milan 
ud  (jhilu'line  Pavia,  gathered  a  crowd  of  famous  names: 
Cotno,  Bergan)<->,  and  Brescia,  Lodi,  Crema  and  Cremona, 
TnrtoDa,  Piaccnza,  Pnrnia.  and  Al- 
kawndriu."'  Harbanwsa  was  de- 
jftilMl  (il7H)  by  the  Ghibelinca, 
Md  the  Lombanl cities  gained  their 
iD<lependfnr«'.' 

Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Venice  wore 
the  gre«I  naval  powers  of  medieval  \ 
K\m"*.  Tlu-  furnu-r  ia  said  to  have 
"(orestalle<l  thi'  cTUsades  and  wnn  * 
bnrk  liimln  fmiii  Uir  Hanu-fus.  " 
VThilf  ail  idra  (.f  hiT  ■ireatnc^s  if<  Leaning  Tower  st  Ptea. 
'till  to  !»•'  ■:ained  by  hiT  ■■cathciind.  baptistry,  and  bell 
ow.T.  ■  (fcnoa  was  still  more  powerful.  .Slie  extended 
ler  <-oiiinicn'(*  to  the  Black  .Sea,  on  whose  shore  she  built 
■rtorii-;'.  .She  detied  tlie  navies  of  the  world,  for  she 
oubl  iiiu.«t(T  and  man  an  armament  of  one  hundred  and 
ifly.fivc  galleys — in  one  battle  con()uering  the  navies 
•f  the  Vi-nctians,  the  ('aUilans,  and  the  Greeks.  At  last 
I37H),  she  threatened  Venice  herself  with  siego.     But  oa 

-  ■■HI»lorical  fisography,"  p  ^7. 

'  Thla  WB-o  ilurinfc  a  {lerlod   wb«n  the  papes  And  einperon  wer*  ooa* 
radlnK  with  one  kuotber  for  precedence  in  lemporftl  power. 


366  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

the  whole,  Venice  was  the  greatest  of  the  three  powers  and 
retained  her  independence  until  modern  times. 

When  Atilla  led  the  Huns  into  Italy,  they  destroyed 
the  city  of  Aquileia,  and  her  inhabitants  fled  to  the  islands 
of  the  Adriatic,  where  they  laid  the  foundations  of  Venice 
(452).  This  city  grew  and  flourished.  For  a  nimiber  of 
centuries,  she  acknowledged  allegiance  to  the  Eastern 
Empire,  but  joined  the  Lombard  league,  and  finally  rose 
to  the  chief  place  among  the  maritime  powers  of  the 
world.  She  gained  her  independence  with  the  rest  of  the 
Italian  cities.  Then  she  first  became  an  oligarchy  (1297), 
then  a  republic  (1311),  remaining  such  until  1797.  We 
must  not  regard  Venice  as  merely  a  city  built  upon  a  few 
islands  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  But  from  that  M  ft 
center  of  action,  she  extended  her  power  in  all  direct^iii; 
on  the  mainland,  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  AdlSlfit^ 
Dalmatia,  t'rete,  Cyprus,  Thessalonica,  the  Pelopoiiil^ 
siis;  in  fact,  she  became  mistress  of  the  Adriatic  aad 
Ionian  seas.  In  naval  warfare,  she  was  all-powerfnl, 
and  was  acquainted  with  the  must  advanced  methods,' 
deeming  herself,  even  in  her  last  days,  powerful  enough 
to  ofler  \s\\v  to  England.*  Her  seamen  taught  other 
nations  the  science  of  navigation  as  we  shall  see.*  When 
Constantino]  )le  fell,  she  became  the  bulwark  of  Christianity 
against  the  Turks  upon  the  sea,  as  Poland  did  upon  the 
land. 

In  Southern  Italy,  the  kingdom  of  Naples  arose  and 
grew  into  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  The  founda- 
tion of  this  power  was  laid  by  the;  Normans  (of  whom  we 
shall  speak  again),  who  appeared  on  the  scene  early  in 


1  Vide  battle  between  the  Venetians  and  Normausin  Barlow:  "The 
KormunR  in  South  Europe,''  London,  1880,  p.  171. 

2  Patton:  **Modern  History,"  Philadelphia,  1887,  p.  345. 


B/SE  OF  MODERN  NA  T/0X8.  367 

lerentli  century.  Their  leaders  were  the  De  Haute- 
t.  Mill  came  from  France.  They  sought  conquest  and 
re  in  Itjily  and  found  both.  Apulia,  Naples,  Sicily, 
conquered  in  succession,"  and  Roger  II.  added  Capua 
I  largf!  tract  in  Northern  Afnm,  reigning  over  the 
B  as  vassal  of  the  i>ope.*  These  Norman  rulers  in- 
ned  with  the  affairs  of  the  two  empires,  and  were 
ig  the  foremost  leaders  in  the  Latin  conquest  of  Con- 


The  Rialto  at  Venice. 
iiMipI.-.     Tiu-y  hiijilly  liccaine  so  powerful  as  to  alarm 
-■[I.-:-  wliii  then   faviircd   tlic    An-rcviii    <laiiiiant.s  to 
III  )HW!*cf*.>*ion.s.     Cliiirli's  of  Anion  was  raisi'd  to  the 


r,v/,  j^, 


t-tt : 


Siorj-   i>r  llie   Xoi 


New    York.    18H7,  i: 


138 


!..■  r>*-  Hftutovlllp-  wfre  the  t.ml«  of  ilii-  I'opi- [  r.rff  Barlow: 
lan*  ill  xiulli  Kunipr."]  AtlhnUKli  tliey  witi'  iiowirfiil  fiiuu^li  to 
-[■■ti'lfiit.  llicy  wiTf  nwari-  that  tlicy  witi'  furi'iuiHTHniiil  UHUrp- 
i<l  l\iry  Ksiiied  niui'li  loi'al  jiowcr  uiiil  i>riitcrtlcin  fnini  liiter- 
r  uii  ibt!  p«rt  of  otb«r  nilerit  by  Ituldlnt^  tbeir  |>oMeMiout  m  fl«ft 
pope. 


368 


Tire  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 


throne  of  Naples  (1272)  and  ruled  also  at  Acre  as  king 
of  Jerusalem.  Tbe  Spanish  Aragonese  princes  were  also 
claimants  to  the  throne  of  Naples.  Sicily  revolted  to  them 
in  1282  and  Ferdinand  was  at  last  (1464)  fiilly  recognized 
OS  the  king  of  the  two  Sicilies.* 

On  the  whole,  however,  this  was  not  an  UDprogressive 
period  for  Italy.    During  this  and  successive  periods  the 


The  Horsemen  Menacing  Italy. 
peninsula  first  fell  asunder  into  principalities,  vhirh 
vani-slied  before  the  -irowth  of  free  cities,  then  these  cities 
became  prinoi]>alities  which  all  have  merged  into  the 
present  kingdom  of  Italy  under  the  rule  of  the  Savoy 
princes. 

Turning'  our  attention  to  Germany  proper,  a  wide  and 

*  "Napk'Muiiii  Kicily."  _  . 


XiSS  OF  MOUSES  SA  TJONS.  360 

cualtoeJ  Mdof  olMemtioB  is  before  na.  Bnt  all  through 
the  hiilarjr  of  Gennasy,  we  must  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
king  «M  deetiTC^  and  that  the  countz;  was  broken  up  into 
vaoT  independent  i»ineipalitiea,  duchies,  etc.,  whose  ruling 

mefi.  and,  tiually.  whose  [irinces  formed  the  council  of  the 
kingdom  and   the  elocture  of  the  king.     The  dynasty  of 


Msnitole  Ci^ealng  theVJlga- 
th*"  Karliii^s  liiatcd  nearly  a  century  when  the  Saxon 
r>iiV<*.  H'-nry  the  Fnwler  was  elected  to  the  throne  (91H- 
-•-T*;),  He  was  »'jille<l  uiwn  at  once  to  defend  Western 
Etirwi»e  fmiii  11  new  iKJuple,  who  hiul  settled  in  the  Dan- 
ubtau  repon. 

These  wore  the  Magyars,  a  Finnish  or  at  least  a  Tu- 
ranian people,  who  have  to  this  day  retained  their  Ugrian 


y" 


370  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

form  of  speech.  They  founded  there  a  state  that  afte^ 
ward  became  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  and  one  of  the 
principal  divisions  of  the  Austrian  empire.^  Although 
they  had  become  Christianized,  they  had  not  lost  their 
love  of  war  and  conquest.  In  fact,  the  gold  of  the  Kar- 
lings  had  more  than  once  saved  their  kingdoms  from 
Magyar  inroads.  Henry  the  Fowler  agreed  to  pay  tribute 
for  ten  years,  and  during  that  time  he  organized  a  powe^ 
fill  army  and  built  defenses  for  the  protection  of  his  sub- 
jects. At  the  end  of  the  truce,  he  was  not  only  determined 
to  stop  tribute,  but  to  defend  his  kingdom,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  doing  both.  He  also  made  the  Danish  king  his 
vassal. 

Otto  I.  (936-973)  was  the  "greatest  sovereign  of  the 
tenth  century."'  He  not  only  crushed  thcMagj'ar  power, 
but  twice  delivered  the  Pope  from  the  i)ower  of  i>etty 
Italian  kings.  He  was  crowned  emperor  (962)  at  Rome; 
and,  as  we  have  stated,  henceforth  the  king  of  Gemiany 
was  considered  heir  to  the  thrones  of  Italy  and  the  Em- 
pire. The  imperial  crown  was  received  from  the  hands  of 
the  Pope.  So  far  as  Germany  was  concerned,  this  was  not 
a  wise  step ;  for  nearly  all  the  rulers  who  held  the  triple 
crown  were  obliged  to  neglect  the  affairs  of  Germany  ft»r 
those  of  the  Empire,  to  the  detriment  of  the  former.  It 
was  customary  in  those  days  for  bishops,  prelates,  and  ab- 
bots to  have  temporal  possessions,  and  so  they  became 
members  of  the  national  council.  While  the  king  was 
away  attending  to  his  imperial  duties,  the  power  of  the 
central  government  was  growing  weaker  through  the  de- 
mands of  the  princes,  bishops,  etc.,  for  greater  privileges. 
But  Otto  was  strong  enough  to  retain  his  full  powers*   The 

1  Vambury:  **Story  of  Hungary,"  p.  28  6<«eg. 
«  Stokes:  **Medieval  History/' p.  79. 


KtSE  OF  MODEBX  NA  TZONS.  371 

iB&d«ri(>«  of  the  empire  were  enlarged.  The  kings  of 
tnnark,  Polnod,  and  Bohemia  wore  his  acknowledged 
hmIs.' 

Conrad  II.  (1034-1039)  introduced  the  Franconian 
leof  empertira.  Of  this  dynastyjlenry  III.  (103f)-1056) 
atbla  out  itre-eminent  In  his  time,  the  pope  bowed  to 
le  temporal  power  of  the  emperor.  But  from  his  time 
wn,  the  po|K!  grew  in  temporal  power  while  the  em- 
cnrdi!creased  in  equal  degree.  Henry  III.  entered  Italy, 
(pMMl  three  rival  i»oix«,  and  appointtil  a  HHCcession  of 
tnuns  to  the  office  of  chief  pontiff,  hy  the  first  of 
born  he  was  crowned  em|«;r(»r.  Henry  also  wore  the 
IngiT  diadem  of  Burgundy,  so  that  he  poascssod  four 
OTU,  thus  we  can  see  bow  the  boundaries  of  tbo  empire 
m  changing.' 

From  this  time  the  quarrel  between  prince  and  pope 
nw  more  bitter.  A  niimWr  of  modem  nations  had  be* 
in  tn  form,  und  tlio  kin^rs  of  all  wen^  devout  Cathnlirs, 
soally  n--;i'ly  to  fiiL'ht  tlie  battles  of  the  ]t<>\ttt  and  e»- 
ecially  when  invit<-<i  to  tnak';  war  against  tlieir  own 
Hunl  ,-w.^rri  f'nfriii*-*f.     Tlio  i»of»es  were  not   now  dcjicn- 

■  nl  u)H.n  th*-  t''niiK)ral  fiower  of  the  '■m[»*;rorn,  and  t>egan 
tn- 1"  pTid'T  ih'-  latter  ."ubmi.-fivf;  to  th^-ir  di<4nnris, 

'Mle  H-nn.-  IV.  ('ia'y'>-IKJ6;  w;i.-  emf^^rror.  the  great 
ildt-V,raiidf  fOr*-i:ory  \'II  j  wa.«  \n>\^:.  artd  he  j-frove  in 
err  way  toestabllTli  the-upreniaey  ofth'-chur'-h.    Hewai* 

■  fir-t  i^n^  to  enfor<-<-  the  law  tliat  the  eleriry  *Aum\fi 
marri-.  and  he  estabhshe'l   the    farther  rule   that  nit 

.    It,:.i;p    -V, 

I  Bunpiti'lr  *fc»  lb«  nMtnK  '4  flrtt.  a,  kin^.m,  wbJch  -mm  HHnm  Uf 
KMlM*.."r  »i  m'.«.  »ra**a]  tn  v,cri«  rr^M^r  p'>«<^.  iwn»\\j  (tttmmtf; 
o4.  ■'io'bj  ►atirelj -Ji^tiiwrt  ff.rr.  tt^  kingftr^,  kr^  nnMHr,  If  m« 
»7«,  TMM]  ■■{  lh»  F(*T^b  k:r.»:  -.b.f),  t^.-  "mntrj  ■m%Wrt,  WM* 
of  tbe  kioirVnn  and  a  fi*f  '.f  rt^  -rt.pM*      Ty.t-j  aJi    v«nt  ffirm  flM 


372  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

temporal  prince  "should  bestow  any  ecclesiastical  benefi- 
ces." The  emperors  and  princes  were  very  jealous  of  this 
right  of  "  investiture,"  whereby  they  might  reward  their 
friends,  who  were  not  soldiers,  with  abbacies  and  bishop- 
rics. From  this  time,  there  was  much  fighting  befewees 
the  armies  of  pope  and  prince  over  this  one  cheridMi 
privilege.  Henry  IV.,  refusing  to  submit,  waged  HWt. 
against  Gregory  YII.;  but  the  pope's  curse  against  Ul 
followers  brought  the  emperor  to  Conossa  as  a  supfdkiii^ 
but  only  to  return,  raise  a  new  army,  and  banish  QtrefgUJ 
from  Rome.  Henry  V.  (1106-1125)  inherited  the  stng" 
gle,  and  so  it  continued.' 

The  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  succeeded  to  the  impeiki 
throne  in  1137.*  They  were  dukes  of  Swabia  and  ifffel 
violently  opposed  to  the  dukes  of  Bavaria.  The  foUoMtH, 
of  the  one  were  dubbed  Ghibelins  (Waiblingen),  and  4i|j|l: 
of  the  other  Guelfs  (Welf).  But  the  popes  were  at  tffe' 
bottom  of  this  quarrel  also  ;  and,  as  we  have  already  MpJI^ 
the  former  were  imperialists  and  the  latter  papists.*  Hn 
Holienstaufens,  therefore,  inherited  this  old  quarrel,  tfaiNI^ 
thev  were  the  most  devout  of  Catholics  and  were 


in  their  crusades  against  unbelievers.  .  \\ 


The  most  illustrious  rulers  of  this  line  were  the 
Fredericks.  Frederick  I.  (or  Barbarossa-red  beard— ^ 
1 190)  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Italy,  where,  aa  w*  ] 
seen,  he  was  defeated  at   the  battle  of  Legnano  (U 
the  Lombard  league.      This  is  recorded  as  a  g^reat  ▼ifpfeoiy^ 
for  the  papists.     His  iiile  in  Germany,  as  she  was  kft 


1  Vide  Thia  Beriea,  Vol.  IV. 

2  Baring-Gould :  *'Story  of  Germany,"  New  York,  1886,  p.  lUtimq. 

3  "The  Waiblingen  family  long  ago  died  out,  but  the  Welf  remmiu. 
It  is  represented  by  Queen  Victoria  of  England  and  the  Duke  of  Brnne- 
wick.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  reigning  houBea  that  ezleto."  Ibid. 
116. 


MISM  or  MODSMN  NA  TIONS.  373 

dpslly  tohenel^  was  "poaceftal)  floarishing,  and  pop- 
."  Bat  the  Gnelfe,  ander  Henty  the  Lion,  caused 
s  trouble.     Barbsrossa  entered  upon  the  third  crusade, 


Bartarcsaa  Asking  Aid  ol  King  Henry. 
ling  It  hmd  furcu  to  the  aid  of  Riobunl  of  England  and 
lip  of  France,  but  was  drowned  whilocro.-48ing  a  stream 


374  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

on  the  way.     He  left  the  enviable  name  of  the  greatest  of 
German  emperors  after  Charlemagne.^ 

Frederick  II.  [1212-1250],  grandson  of  Barbarossa, 
came  to  the  throne  while  a  mere  boy;  and,  before  he 
reached  maturity,  was  forced  to  dispute  his  throne  with 
two  powerful  rivals — Philip  of  Swabia  and  Otto  IV.  of 
Brunswick.  He  was  usually  successful  in  his  wars,  though 
the  popes  were  continually  stirring  up  his  subjects  to  re- 
bellion. He  regained  some  of  the  territories  that  his  pre- 
decessors had  lost,  and,  in  the  end,  possessed  seven  crowns 
— those  of  the  Empire,  Germany,  Lombardy,  Sicily,  Bur- 
gundy, Sardinia,  and  Jerusalem.  In  order  to  lessen  his 
power,  the  j^opes  kept  him  under  the  ban  of  excommuni- 
cation during  the  whole  of  the  latter  part  of  his  reign. 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  finally  sent  him  on  a  crusade.  Sickness 
prevented  his  reaching  the  Holy  Land  at  first,  but  the 
pope  refused  to  listen  to  his  messengers.  When,  at  last, 
he  did  reach  Palestine,  he  accomplished  more  than  any 
one  who  had  preceded  him,  for  he  forced  the  Sultan  to  a 
treaty  whereby  all  the  holy  places  were  recovered,*  though 
it  is  said  that  the  pope  ordered  all  eastern  Christians  to 
hold  aloof  from  him  and  render  him  no  aid.  When  he 
returned,  crowned  with  success,  the  bans  were  not  removed. 
As  Freeman^  says,  he  was  "cursed  first,  for  not  going  on  the 
crusade,  then  cursed  again  for  going,  cursed  most  of  all  for 
actually  winning  the  prize  of  so  many  struggles."  WTien 
Frederick  returned,  he  found  his  vassals  in  rebellion,  and 
a  new  blast  of  papal  anathemas  awaiting  him.  At  last  the 
bans  of  the  pope  had  the  desired  effect.  To  gain  the 
smile  of  the  pope,  his  vassals  fell  away  from  him,  one 
after  another.     They  sought  to  divide  the  empire  among 

1  Ibid.  120.  «  Ibid.  132. 

3  "Chief  Periods  of  European  History,"  p.  108. 


1 


SISS  OF  MODERN  NA  TJONS.  375 

mnselves,  fi>r  now  they  had  an  excuse.  "The  robbers 
goicMl  over  tlieir  Hpoils.  Then  wltp  the  plowshare* 
iBien  iuto  swords,  and  the  reaping-hooks  into  lanues.  No 

Fwent  anywhere  without  steel  and  etODe  to  set  in  s 
■  whalfVtT  he  could  lire.*' 
Frederick  II.  died  (1350),  and  the  UobenstAufen 
fftanty  lasted  only  four  years  longer.  With  it,  the  glory 
I  tht  empire  passed  away  from  (ifrmaiiy.  Xo  priooe 
found  daring  enough  to  accept  the  ini{>enal  diadem 
le  the  fates  of  the  Fredericks  wt-re  fresh  before  their 
tls.'  A  long  inter-regnuni  followed  { l:i5&'1273),  witb 
oe  at  the  lu-a*!  «il'  the  cmpiri',  ever)*  prince  wa#  ind^ 
lent-  There  was  no  [wtwiT  to  restrain  the  ambitious, 
'er^'one  did  as  he  pleased.  There  arose  a  generation  of 
'rubber  kuightit,"  who  buitt  strong  castles  in  places 
jlttest  of  defense.  Rushing  out  from  their  defenses,  thejr 
itwdered  travelers  and  the  unprotected,  robbing,  murder^ 
fe^  and  imprii^oiiing  for  ran^oui  the  men,  and  niakintr  the 
foDu-n  raptives.  It  was  a  terrible  time  for  Gennany.  and 
!»<*«■  jirinrew  wlio  desired  to  restore  order  were  almost 
>owtTli ■>.-<.  There  arose  during  this  period,  for  the  proteo- 
ion  of  trade,  a  number  of  mercantile  leagues  that  gained 
ni<ju;:li  (Mjwer  to  earry  on  wars  and  to  make  treaties, 
rbc  most  noted  of  these  was  tlie  Hanseatie  League,  of 
thich  we  shall  say  more  in  its  proper  place.* 

rp  in  the  mountains  of  Switzerland,  there  lie  the 
Tline  (.f  an  old  cjistle,  tliat  was  built  in  1020.  This  was 
he  cradle  of  the  imperial  house  of  Austria.  Here  the 
lifwburgs  rose  into  |>ower.  From  this  old  castle,  the 
ferman  empire  finally  chose  an  emperor,  Rudolph  (1273- 
291).  a  vigorous,  eneigetic  man,  capable  of  restoring  order 
I  G«nnaoy.    He  began  by  engaging  the  king  of  Bohemia 

»  -Storr  ofO«nii»n7,"  p  186.  •  Ibid.  148-7. 


376  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

in  battle,  in  which  Rudolph  was  victorious,  and  by  whiA 
he  gained  the  Duchy  of  Austria  and  other  ix)ssessious  ii 
Central  Europe,*  which  have  ever  since  remained  in 
possession  of  the  Hapsburgs.  Rudolph  is  said  to  hare 
destroyed  seventy  castles  of  robber  knights  in  Germany. 
It  was  during  his  reign  that  the  foundation  to  the  Swiss 
Republic  was  laid.  Three  cantons — Uri,  Schwyz,  and  * 
Untenvalden — rose  in  rebellion,  formed  a  league,  and 
later,  established  their  independence. 

Albert  (1298-1308)  established  himself  on  the  throne 
by  the  defeat  of  Adolph  of  Nassau.  He  sent  the  "tyrant," 
(iessler,  as  governor  to  crush  the  Swiss  revolt.  A  half- 
witted ]>easant^  shot  him,  and  Albert  himself  was  assassi- 
nated by  orders  of  his  nephew,  John,  a  pretender  to  the 
throne.  Thus  Ave  are  furnished  with  the  facts  from  which 
the  fable  of  Tell  and  the  apple  has  arisen.  The  reign  of 
tin*  IIai)sburg  dynasty  was  broken  (1308-1437)  by  a  suc- 
cession of  emperors  elected  from  the  various  princes  of 
Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia.  The  most  distin- 
guished of  these  emperors  was  Charles  IV.  (Bohemia, 
J. *W 7-1378)  who  is  renowned  as  the  author  of  the  famous 
*\i>olden  bull,"  so-called  from  its  seal  of  gold.  This  edict 
established  (13o6)  a  fixed  number  of  electors,  by  whom 
and  from  whom  the  future  emperors  should  be  chosen.  It 
further  fixed  the  place  of  election  at  Frankfort  and  the 
place  of  crowning  at  Aix.  The  electors  were  seven,  u 
follows :  Trinces  of  Bohemia,  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and 
the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine ;  and  the  archbishops  of 
iMainz,  Cologne,  and  Treves.' 

Another  house  noAv  makes  its  appearance  in  Germany. 

1  n>id.  148-150. 

2  TotVel,  Toll,  Tell,  means  half-witted.   Vide  Baring-Oould,  Op.  dti 
p.  151 -li. 

3  »^tokes:    ''Medieval  History,"  p.  140. 


ONV  XOMn  '\tOSMW 


AHVian  Diiand 

IVOA  M3N  3  HI 


.> 


SI8E  OF  MODERN  XA  TIONS,  379 

1415  Frederick,  count  of  HohenzoUern,  was  granted 
march  of  Brandenburg.  From  that  time,  the  princes 
that  houae  have  been  prominent  among  the  rulers  of 
nuie.*  The  Hapsburgs  came  into  power  again  with 
»K?rt  11.(1438-1439).  From  that  time  until  the  male 
*•  became  extinct  (1740),  the  emperoi's  Avere  of  the  old 
i|^burg  dynasty.  Emperor  William  of  our  own  time 
a  HohenzoUern,  descended  from  tlie  old  line  of  counts. 
We  have  reached  a  period  when  religious  reforms  be- 
in  til  be  preached.  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague 
en?  boldly  denouncing  the  evils  that  had  crept  into  the 
mrch.  When  Sigismund  of  Hungary  was  emperor 
l41(V1437)v  80  great  had  become  the  agitation  that 
If  (*uuncil  of  Constance  was  evoked  by  Pope  John 
LXIII.,  who  was  himself  deposed  on  account  of  his 
Bonnoiia  vices.'  This  is  the  period  of  the  Hussite 
ar  and  of  the  burning  of  IIuss  (July  6th,  1415)  and  of 
»ninH»  of  Prague  (May  3(),  1410).  The  (rermans  were 
1  HjH-n  rebellion  against  tlie  popes,  and  wore  rai)idly  ap- 
r.i«hinir  th«'  great  Reformation.  Just  at  a  time  wjien  the 
ii.*t<TM  Kmpire  was  breathin^r  its  last,  they  were  initia- 
I  -r    iiow    ninvementa    destined    to  sot  the  Aryan  world 

Ju.st  ;is  new  life  and  new  enerpry  arose*  from  the  \yA\y 
•rfi  of  the  Western  Kmpire  with  Teutonic  blcnxl,  and 
IV  nation.H  mounted  into  existence,  we  see  the  mighty 
•  ni-ies  forming  in  the  old  (iennan  land,  destined  to  lift 
►  iliz^il  nations  into  the  Maze  (^f  modern  enliirhttMmient. 
i-  fair<>t.*f  that  buriu'd  th<*  rrftirmer  lIuss,  east  th(Mr  rays 
Ii:rht  into  the  ends-  t»f  th«'  w.n-ltl.     Illuminated  by  their 

:  Frr«|prl«-k  V .   of  this  hou*f   w.-m  raij'OtI   to  princely  rank  in   1303, 
th*r   Fn-^l^rirk  wru  rna^lf   KWrtor  <»f  Hrandonburg  iu  1415.  aud  aa- 
*  T  Fn^l*-ru*k  u*a!«  rnncK*  klnir  of  eni**>i:i  in  1701. 
s  ilaJlani:  "Mldille  AKt^N/*  Vol.  II.  p.  31>. 


380  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

fading  light,  we  catch  sight  of  the  mechanic,  Gutenbngp 
fixing  the  last  bolts  and  driving  the  last  screws  into  the 
first  of  those  great  "educators  of  the  people,"  the  printing 
press.  Nay,  before  the  followers  (1450)  of  Islam  had 
entered  the  gates  of  New  Rome,  he  had  given  the  finl 
press  to  the  world.  Then,  too,  we  see  the  powers  at  woA 
that  were  to  call  out  just  such  rugged  natures  as  those  of 
Martin  Luther  and  his  heroic  followers.  Though  these 
great  changes  were  to  cost  the  world  many  lives,  and  much 
wealth  and  suifering,  we,  of  the  nineteenth  century,  ought 
to  be  the  last  to  say  that  they  have  been  purchased  at  too 
high  a  price. 

Wo  must  now  trace  the  development  of  France  from 
the  triple  division  of  Charlemagne's  kingdom.*  Thekinf 
dom  that  fell  to  Charles  the  Bald  (843-877)  barely  occb-  j 
pied  that  portion  of  Gaul  west  of  the  fifth  meridian  east 
of  Greenwich,  and  was  called  Karolingia.  It  was  bio* 
ken  up  into  duchies,  principalities,  etc.  The  most  powe^ 
ful  among  its  petty  rulers  was  the  duke  of  Frankia.  While 
the  Karlings  still  spoke  German,  these  dukes  and  their 
subjects  spoke  a  Latin  dialect  out  of  which  has  developed 
the  modern  French  language.  The  reign  of  Charles  the 
Bald  is  spoken  of  as  a  creditable  one.  He  endeavored  to 
folloAv  the  course  that  his  grandfather,  Charlemagne,  had 
instituted.  He  was  a  j^atron  of  literature  and  education 
He  gathered  scholars  around  his  court  The  famous  John 
the  Seot^  Avas  invited  from  Ireland  to  preside  over  the 
Palace  School  established  by  Charlemagne.  Charles  made  | 
the  possessions  of  his  fiefs  hereditary  in  certain  families;  \ 
and,  from  that  time,  the  power  of  the  Karlings  was  on  llie  j 
decrease,  while  that  of  his  vassals  grew — ^the  dukee  d , 
France  more  than  any  others. 

1  Above  p.  362.  9  Johannes  Scotas  ErigMUU 


aiSM  orMODKMX  XATIOSS.  3S1 

iJo.  .iulio  i^r  Fr;iT:.-.,  «  ,>  finally  eTect<?d  kiug  by 
oblcB  (8G&896X  but  agmin  tht-  .-n-wn  rvturnoi  to 
irlings.  Dniing  the  neit  centiin-,  thero  was  aloiitst 
nai  strife  between  the  Karluip;  and  tlie  French 
When  the  former  wore  the  crown,  the  capita]  of 
ngdom  waa  atLaon;  when  th(>  lattor  mied,  it  was 
is.  ^  During  this  time,  the  grecitest  ere&t  that  hap- 
to  France  was  Uie  arrival  of  the  Northmen,  or 
uis.  This  new  element  in  the  history  of  Southern 
«  made  its  appearance  during  the  reigu  of  Charle- 
!,  and  led  him  to  prophesy  its  future  givatness.' 
came  from  the  north  lands  and  so  treiv  railed 
men  or  Norsemen.  Their  shipg  sailed  far  and  near ; 
appearing  soddenljnpon  some  unprotocted  coast, 
plandered  its  inhabitants  without  constraint  So 
rere  called  vikings  or  **sea  robliers."  During  three 
ies  (800-1100),  scarcely  a  foot  <>f  the  North  Atlan- 
iurface  was  unknown  to  them.  fAmi  Greenland  to 
',  from  Vinland  to  the  northern  ("oiist  of  Russia. 
V'ere  we  to  seek  the  orisxiii  of  those  hardy,  daring, 
sailors,  with  their  blue  eyes  and  their  blonde  hair, 
uM  have  to  visit  the  Baltie  homeland  of  the  Arj'ans. 
we  but  i)enetrate  further  into  the  prc-historic  past, 
ght  find  these  jHH>i>le  sharing  with  the  Germans  the 
of  ftiii-estTy  of  our  own  race.  But  as  the  Northmen 
■ated  tit  the  north  toward  the  frozen  sea,  we  find 
shading  off  into  Turanian — Finns  and  Lapps.  They 
dw)  called  Scandinavians.  By  the  time  of  Charle- 
f,  three  kingdoms  had  arisen  in  these  northern  re-  ■ 
—Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden.  The  Western 
re,  fnjm  Charlemagne's  time  down,  had  much  fight- 
ith  the  Danes.     The  Sw<.\le3  controlled  the  Baltic 


rw«U;  "Storrof  the  Normmos,"  p.  11. 


The  VlltlDBS. 
Empire.     Thv  Norwcjrians  and  Danes  coinbinwl  nv\ 
tho  cnast  of  Euroiio  from  Flanders  (HitUimd  and  Belgium^ 


RISS  OF  MODEJiy  NATIONS.  383 

\>  Asia  Minor,  completely  terrorizing  the  inhabitants  of 
^nince  antl  Britain.  That  theac  Northmen  wore  not  lack- 
ing in  culturo  is  provt-d  by  thsvt  store-liouaw  of  literature 
which  tljuy  h:ivo  loft— thit  Edihw — .coinposcd  us  early  aa 
tbc  «ghth  century,  and  preserved  on  the  island  of  Iceland, 
cut  off  fntra  all  other  influences.' 

The  viaita  of  tiio  viking-t  to  the  coaat  of  Franoc  be- 
came more  and   Tnore  frequent.     First  they  came  on  fly- 
ing iuq)cdition»  for  plunder;  ne.vt  they  built  furts,  which 
tbnr  occupied  for  several  seasons  in  succession,  and  into 
'  vludi  they  cooJd  eafely  gather  their  stores;  then   at  last^ 
I  tlray  came  to  settle  and  found  homos  for    themselves, 
I   pnog  ap  their  roaming  lives.     In  912,  a  large   band  of 
S'Tthmen,  under  Rj>lf  or  Rollo.took  possession  of  Kouen. 
I  Border  to  gain  his  friondship,  king  Charles  the  Sinijdo 
C'fiftteO)    coded  to  him  a  largo   province  in   Western 
^iHe,  which  ho  was  to  hold  in  tief  to  the  king,  but  on 
I)k  eoDttition  that  ho  was  to  be  baptized   and   rcceivo 
■^Nrirtiauity.'       To   seal    the    treaty,  the    king's    natural 
''•^ler  was  married  to  Viking  Rolf.      Xow  that  these 
•Vgftlinien  hnd  possessions   in  France,  and  had  become 
^amls  of  the  Frt-neh   king,  they  adopted  the  language, 
tlnw,  awl  manners  of  tlm  Fn;nch.     They  became  Nor- 
muB    and   their  chief,  the  dijko  of    Xonmmdy.     They 
•n-pg  CTcr  ready,  howover,  to  assert  their  inde|K*ndenco  of 
kingly  authority,  claiming  aa  many  rights  as  their  ovei^ 
lorda.' 

The  Karlingw  wen?  supcrsodiMl  by  the  French  dukes,* 


I   VId*  Eacyclopcdia  nrltaiinlc»,    nrfi'-lo  E<I<la,  ako  Karl   BUnd: 
"Ethic  IftoM  of   thi-  VAfX^r  I'tiiverslty  MuKii/tni.-,  AprU,  II4TH. 
»  FrMiiuD:  "XorniBn  Cotniut-Mt,"  Oxfi.rri,  IwT.i,  Vol.  I.  [>.  112. 

*  llanam:  "Mi.Mlp  Aic-t,"  Veil.  I.  ji.  :iT,  nou-  3. 

*  Mallam  clalmi  that  Hugh  ('ap«'('H  accesiilon  to  tbe  throne  waa  aa 
MOfpatlon-  "Middle  Agea,"  Vol.  I.  p.  30-31. 


384  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

when  Hugh  Capet  was  chosen  king  (987-996),  and  then  i 
modern  France  appears  in  history,  for  we  have  now  a 
French  people,  governed  by  a  French  king,  who  spoke  a 
French  hinguage,  and  the  caj^ital  of  the  kingdom  was 
Paris.  The  number  of  hereditary  fiefs  had  increased 
from  twenty-nine  to  fifty-five.  However,  a  few  of  the  great 
vassals  occupied  a  greater  portion  of  the  kingdom  and  the 
remainder  did  homage  to  them.  These  greater  vassal? 
were  six  in  number,  as  follows :  the  counts  of  Flanders 
Champagne,  and  Toulouse ;  and  the  Dukes  of  Normandy 
Aquitaine,  and  Burgundy.^  And  now  a  feudal  monanhy 
was  fully  established.* 

For  a  long  time  before  and  after  the  accession  of  the 
Capets,  France  can  be  said  to  have  no  national  history. 
The  king  of  France  was  not  powerful  enough  to  compel 
obedience  from  his  great  vassals.  Indeed  they  were  nearly 
all  equal  in  power;  and,  during  the  reigns  of  the  first  four 
Capets,  they  were  too  busy  with  quarrels  among  them- 
selves to  trouble  the  outside  world  very  much.  Every 
great  vassal  was  lord  over  a  number  of  barons,  who,  in 
turn,  had  their  vassals.'  Every  chieftain  was  independent 
to  rule  his  own  subjects,  and  every  great  vassal  had  power 
to  make  treaties  and  alliances,  to  wage  war  and  make  con- 
quests. Therefore,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  dukea 
of  Normandy,  the  most  independent  of  all,  continually  at 
war  with  their  neighbors,  and  even  in  open  rebellion 
against  their  lord  the  king.* 


1  Vide  Hallam  Op.  cit.  p.  a5,  and  compare  with  Stokes:  "Medieva 
History/'  p.  88,  who  mentions  the  count  of  Vermandois  instead  of  Tou 
louse,  and  adds  the  duke  of  Brittany. 

*  Feudalism  will  be  treated  in  a  following  chapter. 

8  Hallam,  Op.  cit.  p.  36. 

4  In  treating  of  England  we  will  see  how  the  duke  of  Kormand 
became  king  of  England,  and  thus  one  of  the  vassals  of  the  king  < 
France  became  more  powerful  than  his  master. 


noss.  3*5 

f  mtUma^l.  (Km-1137>  k  lvv^un# 
i  fci^s  to  pedane  tlio  {x>wr 
r  Aat  «rf  the  X(.vniuut  tJukv>». 
ods  VL  and  TH.  lyoA  their  tmn^ts  io  buiMin^  a|« 
iepo««r«f  iW l0v»s to &e detriment  of  the  riohI<>».  It 
H,  kuvcTu,  a  #ii«iHihi«g  pefMl  ^  agrioultuiv,  omi- 
enev  aad  uAerBsl  nB|«oTaiinit.'  At  last  riiilipvlt.) 
(I19D.1±2S)  snoceeded  to  the  throno,  Ilo  i^ 
I  as  a  cool,  calculating,  rajuMp  nitrr — "ii  grvttt 
ilg  bvt  mat  a  gnat  mao."  He  found  Henry  1 1,  of  Kti^ 
od  stiU  ta  poaBBBUoQ  (as  duke  of  Xoriuandv),  ot  hU 
Mt (kmiaioB*  m France;  and  he  began,  at  oiuv,  to  Ih^v 
tut  Cdt  aatfennimog  the  EngH:$h  king's  power.  The 
Blaa  mifitafy  forces  of  England  antl  Xonuiuuly  wert' 
lOed  into  activity  to  repel  the  encroaohmenla  uf  Philip. 
lenTT  II.  and  bU  saecessor  Richanl  I.  (Coiier  do  Lion) 
Wb  »hle  to  hold  their  own  against  king  Philip.  In  fuot, 
lirhanl,  Philiii,  and  Friylerii-k  Barbnrassn,  hiul  iitiili'd 
leir  forces  f.ir  the  third  cru&ule.  But  .lohti,  Hiehiird'n 
•Dtherand  regent,  was  unablcto  maintain  hisrightMiiKiiiiiNt 
eFrench  king.  M*hcn  Ricliard  dietl,  youtig  prinro  Ar- 
or  was  murdered  (jwrhaps  by  J<»hri  hia  utii^le),  iitid  Juliu 
iramekingof  England  (1109-121*).)  Philip  iniiiiwliutely 
nmoni-d  him,  as  vassal  duke  of  Xurnittndy,  1o  iippoiir  at 
>  court  of  France  in  answer  to  tlio  clmrtin  of  niiirdorlnjf 
thur,  who  was  the  choice  of  the  Xornmii  iiol>leH  for  the 
ant  throne.  John  refused  to  come,  utid  Philip,  doelar- 
;  his  continental  possessions  forfeited,  ]H)ur''d  hin  arinU'i 
■»  Normandy,  and  wrested  nil  except  A'jiiitalnc,  fins- 
V,  and  the  Xurnian  inlands  from  I'litfliuid,"  Pliiljji  !»•- 
I    also  tlie  crusade,  or  "Albigeniiian  war,"  uguinut  the 

I  "llrdlrv*!  HI»U.r>-."  p.  IW-T. 

t  ■Hialoricml  Urognyhy,"  jt.  iXii. 


386  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Manicliu>aii»  in  and  around  Toulouse,  The  result  of  i 
struggle  was  the  annexation,  during  the  thirteenth  ( 
tury,  of  a  number  of  i)rovinces — Beziers,  Narbonne,  Xir 
Al))i,  Toulouse — which  form  the  valuable  province  of  I 
guedo(\* 

Louis  the  Pious,  or  St.  Louis  (1227-1270),  "was] 
haps  the  lu^st  king  that  ever  reigned,  unless  it  were 
own  (English)  Aelfred.''*  Louis  conquered  his  enemiof 
arbitration  and  by  just  and  faultless  action.  His  vas 
canu^  to  look  upon  him  as  their  judge  and  legisla 
rather  than  their  master.  Ilis  yoke  sat  so  lightly  u 
tlu^ir  sh()uhU»rs  that  they  perceived  not  the  *'transitioi 
the  French  constitution  from  a  feudal  league  to  an  abso 
monarchy/'*  lly  his  virtue,  justice,  and  moderation 
raised  the  powcT  and  influence  of  his  kingdom  to  a  ni 
hi^lu^r  lov(4  than  his  more  war-like  and  ambitious 
(U»cosaors.  Thus,  during  his  reign  of  nearly  half  a  centi 
we  set*  Frann*,  under  the  smile  of  the  goddess  of  pe 
making  (^normous  strides  in  culture  and  internal  prospei 
All  the  i\nulari(*s  wiTi^  inspired  with  confidence  in  i 
monarch.  Franct*  '*had  havens  on  the  three  seas, 
^Icdilcrranean,  the  Ocean,  and  the  Channel."  She 
prosperous  and  growing,  Avhile  Germany  was  strugg 
Avitli  licr  Italian  dependencies,  or  was  at  the  mercy  of 
**  robber  kniuhts." 

About  this  tinu\  Paris  reached  her  highest  fame  ; 
seat  oricarning.  lli^r  university  attracted  such  men  as 
giT  Bacon,  AlluM'tus  Magnus,  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  L 
advocated  the  highest  edm*ation  for  theologians,  who 
should  dispute  with  unbelieviTs.  If  a  layman  **bea: 
man    to   ho   an    unbeliever,   he   should  not  dispute 

1  Thill.  ;a5.        SI  "HUtorioal  Course'*'  p.  182. 
3  IhiUam:  "Middlo  Ago»,*'  Vol.  I.  p. -43. 


MISS  OF  XGDXmS  JU  TtOSS.  38T 

lia,  he  ifattfd  oc  odc^  ma  liis  sword  into  his  entrails, 
,lii4rtv»  il  Dp  Ct>  the  hilt.''  His  xo»l  and  bi^tr>'  weiv 
ttr  fMW  of  hia  dying  outside  of  bU  kiuj^Unn.  Ho  ur- 
yuMd  lad  Inl  the  lost  two  crtisAde^  dying  befon*  Tunis 
,iAie  fcariegiDg  that  city.  H*)  bad  hesrU  that  it«  ruU>r 
;  lur  Christianity,  and  ho  wua  earryiug  it  to 
I  to  the  mAnner  of  his  age,' 
FhSp  the  Fair  (12S5-I314)  iadd<.>d  NKvam*  to  bis 
■agdom  hj  marrijige  with  the  beirv^  Joanna.  I'int)lly 
(Ul3)  Lytnu  wuonneied.  Fur  openly  defying  the  jh>|)o 
(Boni&ce  VIII.)  fur  u-surjiiitiou  of  [Hiwor  belonging 
to  the  temporsl  ruler,  he  wna  placiHl  under  the  ban  of 
QCDmrnnDication.  Pope  Cleaient  V.  was  more  K-nient 
■itk  him,  for  ho  sought,  by  lUliam-e  with  Fnmw,  protcc- 
*•«  fh>m  the  Emperor.  The  \y.\\K\\  chair  was  removi-d 
'•ArignoD  where  it  remained  for  seventy  years,  known 
••tlie  '-Great  Captivity."  This  is  reeorded  as  a  givat 
fittonr  f.ir  prince  over  iM>]>e.  Tin-  Iimisc  of  tlio  Cupels 
■aiw-i  aw;iy  with  the  diMtli  of  Cliailes  IV.  (KJl'S).  riiilip 
■f  Valfji."  .■surret'de<l  to  the  tlin.no  in  KHK  Tin-  rivalry 
ftwfen  tlie  French  king,  and  the  Xoniian  duko  (i>r  l']n- 
i^h  kiiiL'),  w.is  the  cause  of  much  »[U:irreling  botwcen 
nnce  and  England  during  all  lliis  tJuii',     Filwurd  111, 

Enirland  urged  his  claim  to  tlio  <towii  uf  France  as 
e».inof  Pliilip  the  Fair's  .laughter  I.h.iIk'I.  Ami  thus 
gan  the  "Hundred  Yearn  War"  (i:t;!7-I  ir^t),  whi'-h 
Li  carrii-d  I'll,  with  -short  iutervalrt  nf  peace,  iluring  a  huo- 
ision  I'f  live  English  uiid  five  French  snvereigns.  Diir- 
Z  A  j.orti<>n  of  the  time,  the  Engli.sli  (vere  8U|>ported  by 
L''*nii"Tors,  and  the  French  by  the  Ilohcmian  kings.  F.>r 
iny  year*,  tlie  English  were  <'on([uerors,  and  boustod  of 
cat  victories  at  Crecy  (1340),  Calais  (1347),  and  Poiters 

I  ii>id.  p.  hi. . 


388  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

(1356),  from  which  field  the  French  king  John  was  carried 
a  prisoner  to  England. 

Fortune  continued  to  smile  upon  the  English  duriDg 
the  next  century,  for  they  won  the  battle  of  Aginooort 
(1415),  and  captured  Rouen  (1419).  Finally,  to  dose  this 
eventful  period,  that  strange  personage,  professing  divine 
guidance,  came  to  the  aid  of  the  frightened  king,  Ghafles 
VII.  (1422-1461).  When  France  had  lost  almost  every- 
thing ;  when  Paris  w^as  occupied  by  the  English ;  when  the 
English  king,  Henry  VI.,  had  been  crowned  king  of 
France  at  Paris  (1431);  when  all  France  was  discouraged, 
a  peasant  maid,  Joan  of  Arc,  Maid  of  Orleans,  appeared 
at  the  head  of  the  disorganized  French  army,  and,  in  two 
short  years,  succeeded  in  so  turning  the  tide  of  affairs  that 
English  power  in  France  was  completely  crushed.^  The 
war  dragged  on  for  twenty  years  longer,  however,  though 
there  was  not  much  fighting. 

The  internal  history  of  France  during  this  whole 
period  is,  as  we  could  expect,  only  a  story  of  confusion, 
misery,  and  ruin.  When  Xing  John  was  taken  captive  to 
London,  there  was  no  political  head  to  the  kingdom;  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  organize  a  "popular  and  ooimtitu- 
tional  government".  This  led  to  a  peasant  war  (the  Jac- 
querie), under  a  leader  named  Caillet  (nicknamed  Jacques 
Bonhomme).  Later  (1413)  another  popular  insurrection 
was  instituted  by  one  Caboche.  Both  were  miserable  £ul- 
ures  and  cost  the  lives  of  many  peasants.  They  were  only 
the  harbingers  of  that  greater  uprising  of  a  later  time — the 
French  Revolution.  The  medieval  period  closes  with  the 
French  kings  masters  of  nearly  all  of  modern  France,  and 
stronger  than  at  any  previous  time. 

1  Forextented   lii.story  of  Joan  of  Arc,  Vide  Quisot:   **History  of 

France,'*  Vol.  III.  p.  J>0.  vt  nrq. 


BJSE  OP  ilODBRN  NATIONS. 


he  Weatern  Mohammedan  Caliphate'  came  to  an  end 
by  breaking  up  into  a  number  of  small  Saracenic 


Ha:;  '.r.  the  Alhamtra.     |S;a!n.) 

.    Th.- (tntltic  <-hic'tl!Utis.  wliu  still  retained  their  in- 
'l>'iii'f   in  their  mountain  homus,  now  found  them- 


390  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

selves  able  to  take  the  offensive  against  these  small  powers 
where  they  could  accomplish  nothing  against  a  united 
Mohammedan  power.  So  they  began  to  reclaim  some  ter- 
ritory from  the  sway  of  unbelievers.  The  kingdoms  of 
Leon  and  Castile  became  united  (1084),  and  their  king, 
Alfonso  VI.,  was  the  most  powerful  ruler  in  Spain,  reclaim- 
ing even  the  ancient  capital,  Toledo,  to  the  Christians. 
The  power  of  Aragon  also  arose,  so  that  Castile  and  Ara- 
gon  were  the  j^rincipal  states  of  tho  Spanish  peninsula. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  house  of  Aragon  became  rulers  in 
Sicily  (1282),  and  finally  (1464)  they  ruled  tho  "Two 
Sicilies  and  Sardinia." 

In  time  (1474),  the  crown  of  Castile  was  placed  upon 
the  head  of  Princess  Isabella ;  and,  soon  (1479),  her  bus- 
band.  Prince  Ferdinand,  was  crowned  king  of  Aragon. 
These  are  the  famous  Catholic  sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  They  soon  began  a  war  of  extermination  against 
the  unbelievers.  Tho  Jews  were  expelled  from  Spain. 
The  famous  stronghold  of  the  Moors  (Saracens),  tho  sto- 
ried Granada,^  was  taken  (1491),  and  tho  inhabitants  were 
driven  out  of  the  country.  Though  they  were  married, 
Fredinand  and  Isabella  ruled  their  respective  kingdoms 
as  separate  monarchs.  Upon  the  death  of  Isabella  (loW)* 
the  crown  of  Castile  fell  to  their  daughter,  Joanna,  wife  ot 
Philip,  a  Hapsburg  prince.  Ferdinand  soon  supplanted 
her  on  the  grounds  of  her  incapacity.  By  giving  another 
of  his  daughters  in  marriage  to  the  king  of  Portugal  and 
by  the  annexation  of  Navarre  (1512),  all  the  kingdoms  ol 
the  peninsula  became  subject  to  one  ruler. 

Now  "Philip,  the  husband  of  Joanna,  was  son  of  Mary, 
duchoss  of  Flanders,  and  of  Maximillian,  Emperor  of  Ger 
many  and  a  prince  of  the  famous  Hapsburg  house.     Char 

1  Vide  **Conque8t  of  Granada,"  by  Washington  Irving. 


RISE  OF  MOIiEliN  NA  TIONS.  391 

the  son  of  Philip  and  Joanna,  then  was  duke  of  Flan- 
a  (The  Netherlands),  Duke  of  Burgundy,  Archduke 
^oatria.  King  of  Spain  (1516),  King  of  the  Two  Sici- 
,  Loni  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America  and  Africa; 
llosstlmn  three  years  more  (1519)  were  to  see  him 
isedto  the  greatest  dignity  in  the  world  as  Emperor  of 
many."'  Charles  I.  of  Spain  became  Emperor  Charles  V. 
lin  soon  became  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  was  ruled 
hseverity.    Charles  was  continuallyatwarwithFrancis 


Charles  V. 

France.  We  can  see  how  the  interests  of  the  two  sover- 
is  Would  conflict  when  we  perceive  how  their  poases- 
s  l;iy.  Those  of  Charles  extended  from  Spain  through 
i,  Austria,  Burgundy,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
d,  thus  surrounding  France  on  three  sides.  But 
■le3  alxlicated  his  throne  in  155(5 — the  Spanish  (in- 
ing  the  Xetherland;<)  throne  in  favor  of  his  son 
ip  II.  (I.55G-1508)  and  that  of  the  empire  in  favor 

*  w»n  Ferdinand  (1.>5(>-1.j04).  Philip  was  a  Catholic, 
lib*  cruel  ])igotry  le<.l  him  to  adopt  such  refined  meth- 

Vide  iilao  Vouug:  "History  of 


392  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

ods  of  torture  and  such  inhuman  modes  of  execution 
heretics,  that,  had  he  been  a  pagan,  history   would  ha 
remembered  him  only  as  a  bloodthirsty  tyrant.     We  shall 
hear  of  him  again  in  connection  with  the   Netherlan^ 

The  small  kingdom  of    Portugal  assumed  its  prese 
shape  and  size  during  the  thirteenth  and  fifteenth  cent 
rics.     By  marriage  of  king  Emanuel  and  the  daughtcre 
(two  in  succession,  the  first  dying)  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa 
bella,  the  kingdom  became  really  united  to  Spain.     Then; 
again   for  a  brief  moment  (1581-1652),    she   became  an 
actual  part  of  Spain,  but  finally  gained  her  independence. 
Her  importance  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  her  commer- 
cial enterprises  and  extensive  discoveries,  so  her  history 
belongs  more  properly  to  our  chaj^ter  on  the  Age  of  Dis- 
covery, where  it  will  be  fully  treated. 

We  have  now  briefly  outlined  the  formation  of  mod- 
ern nations  from  two  of  the  three  divisions  of  Charle- 
magne's kingdom.  Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the 
third  division,  Lothairingia,  lying  between  France  and 
Germany  and  stretching  from  Central  Italy  to  the  Ger- 
man Ocean.  This  central  strip  of  land  was  occupied  by  a 
large  number  of  semi-independent  princes  and  dukes,  who 
made  themselves  vassals  of  now  one  king  and  now  another, 
as  it  suited  their  interests,  or  as  they  were  forced  to  yield 
to  conquest.  Xow  these  central  duchies  and  kingdoms 
were  in  their  palmy  days  no  insignificant  powers.  The 
dukes  of  Savoy,  though  they  may  not  be  said  to  hold  one 
foot  of  the  old  Savoyard  dominions,  have  made  themselves 
kings  of  a  united  Italy.  The  kingdom  of  Burgundy  oc- 
cupied a  sort  of  middle  position  between  France  and  Ger^ 
manv,  which  Switzerland  has  inherited.*  Holland  and 
Belgium  have  risen  from  the  Spanish  possessions  of  the 

1  ^^ Historical  Geography,''  p.  146. 


MISB  OP  VODBBN  NA  TIONS.  393 

bcrlands  into  independent  powers,  and  each  has  a  hia- 

of  its  own. 

While  the  emiM?ror3  of  Germany  were  busy  with 
X  Italian  affairs,  the  princes  of  their  German  kingdom 
e  left  «  grt'at  deal  to  themselves,  and  were  often 
1^  to  unite  themselves  into  leagues  for  mutual  pro- 
ioD.  There  were  a  number  of  such  leagues  in  the 
rtevntb  i-entury.  Such  was  the  league  of  Uri,  Schwyz, 
I  Unterwalden,  that  asserted  ita  independence  (1291) 
\  began  to  extend  ita  power,  growing  into  the  greater 
|lti  Confederation.  Luzem  (1332),  Zurich  (1351),  Gli\- 
iBod  Zug  (1352),  and  Bern  (13.53)  were  added  in  suc- 
tion, comprising  the  eight  ancient  cantons.  A  century 
iiit4.*nm]  i>euce  aud  prosperity  followed.     The  ix)wer  of 

I  confederation  was  extended  in  various  directions 
tigfa  no  new  cantons  were  admitted.  Then  there  was 
•her  season  of  growth,  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  (1481), 
»e1  and  Schaffh au.se n  (l'501),and  Appenzell  (lol3),were 
littt.-d  tti  form  the  later  confederacy  of  Thirteen  Can- 
i>.  By  (■..n<juest3  and  alliances,  the  power  of  this  con- 
>rafy  wa.-*  t-xtended  across  the  Alps  into  Italy.  Thus 
t-mainttl  until  the  wars  of  the  French  Republic,  when 

■•  f..-<leral  system  was  abolished,"  and  there  arose  what 

b(fn  called  the  Helvetic  Republic. 

That  jK)rtion  of  old  Lotharingia  bordering  the  Ger- 
n  0«Tan  had  little  to  attract  the  immigrant.  The  soil 
i  [MK>r  and  a  portion  of  the  country  had  been  reclaimed 
m  the  sea  by  means  of  dykes  and  windmills  Still 
s  i«rt  I'f  Europe  had  become  the  homes  of  wealthy 
erch.int  princes."  Thesouthern  part  was  the  siteofthe 
iou.«*  Flemish  manufactories  whose  proprietors  consumed 
wool  of  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe.     And  we 

II  tee  how  the  ships  of  Holland  were  foremost  in  ex- 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


tending  commerce  to  newly  found  portions  of  the  worii 
'We  have  seen  how,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Nethe^ 
lands  passed  under  the  control  of  the  dukes  of  Burgumly; 
and,  finally,  to  king  Philip  II.  of  Spain  (1556).  Thus  we 
arc  brought  down  t«  the  later  half  of  the  sixteenth  ceifc 
tury  before  the  real  history  of  the  Netherlands  begins, 

Philip  seems  to  huve  been  detenninod,  under  tbe 
cloak  of  zeal  for  the  Catholic  church,  to  exterminate  tht 
population  of  the  Netherlands.  His  cruel  persecution 
under  the  Duke  of  Alva  led  to  a  revolt  under  WiUiamrf 
Orange,  called  also  the  Silent.'  The  Duke  of  Aha  wilh 
his  famous  "Council  of  Blood,"  was  tireless  in  his  ende«T- 
oi*s  to  invent  excuses  for  arresting  both  peasants  and 
nobles  who  had  offended  him  or  who  had  money.  Arrest 
meant  speedy  execution,  by  the  most  refined  and  horriW* 
nio<les  of  torture,  and  often  without  the  form  of  a  trial 
The  Inquisition  was  active  in  prying  into  men's  privata 
lives,  and  on  the  least  suspicion  condemning  them  to  some 
new  torturing,  lingering  death.  The  Duke  of  Alva  is 
said  to  have  ordered  more  than  eighteen  thousand  exet* 
tioiis  while  governing  the  Netherlands.*  After  eveij 
manner  of  defeat  and  discouragement,  William  the  Silenl 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  independence  (1578)  oftlv 
seven  northern  provinces,^  which  form  the  comnjanwealUtrf 
the  Seven  United  Provinces.  William,  however,  was^iA^' 
many  attempts,  assassinated,  (1684)  by  the  secret  orders 
king  Philip.*  ^M| 

That   portion   of  the  Netherlands,   that    now  ^^| 

I  Vide  Motley:  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Bepublic,"  Kew  York,  IBi^^| 
I.  p.  245  ct  teq.  ^^^H 

3  Young:  "History  of  the  NetherlandB,"  p.  166.  ,  |^^| 

3  ThoHO  were  Hollaud,  Zeeland,  Utrecht,  Gclderiutdi  '04^^^| 
Fricslaiid,  Orounigcn,    "Historical   0«ograpby,"  p.  £09.  j^^l 

«  Motley:  "History  of  the  United  NsthwUDda,"  New  T«(^^| 
p.  ^^H 


n  -urNH 


hhd 


,JSS-tSS5.««?l 


RTSE  OF  MODEBN  NA  TIONS.  397 

!   kingdom    of     Belgium,    remained    under    Spanish 

le  for  some   years  longer.     It  then   (1695)  passed  to 

Duke  of   Austria.     It  was   composed  of  a  number 


Duke  Of  Alva  at  I 
states,  such  as  Flanders,  Brabant,  Artois,  Hainault, 
.  As  it  remained  disputed  territory  for  a  long  time, 
rts  of    it  were   continually  changing  their  vassalage 


398  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

from  one  power  to  another,  subject  to  French,  Dutch,  G»- 
innii,  or  Spanish  authority.  Finally,  in  tho  settling  rf 
Europe,  after  thu  troublous  times  ot  Napoleon,  the  jeal- 
ousy of  these  greater  powers  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Belgium.  It  is  fitting  here  to  notice  that  the 
existence  of  these  three  lesser  powers  in  the  midst  of  so 
many  greater  is  due,  not  so  much  to  their  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  their  military  prowess,  as  to  their  middle 
position  among  their  greater  neighbors.  The  jealousy  of 
one  another's  power,  that  exists  among  the  great  natiou'': 
of  Europe,  is  a  sufficient  safeguard  to  the  independence  of 
these  three  nations. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  that  jMirtion  of 
Europe,  lying  outside  of  Charlemagne's  kingdom,  which 
was  but  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire.     Russia  has,  in  bi^^ 
torical  times,  been  pre-eminently  the  home  of  tht;  Slava.- 
But,  as  wc  have  seen,  the  great  waves  of  Turanian?,  wild* 
have,  in  our  era,  sproiul  over  the  steppes  of  Russia  on  tUdf 
way  toward  tlie  West,  must  have  in  places,  almosi  uniuli|<-', 
lated  every  trace  of  Aryan  occupation.     "Iran  and  Tanai> 
have  ever  been  at  feud ;  they  could  not  dwell  on  the  MllfB- 
soil  in  peace,'"  so  we  find  the  Slaves  and  Mongols  contilh 
ually  at  war.     It  is  not  unreasonable,  then,  to  sujipose,  tt 
Rambaud   suggests'  that  the  Northmen   (Swedes)  vxam 
upon  invitation  (862)  as  allies  of  the  Slnves  against  Wki 
Mongols."    Rurik   and  his  followers  came,   and  seem  to 
have  had  no  trouble  in  conquering  and  ruling  the  Slaves. 
(They  were  also   called  Varangians).      They  made  their 
headquarters   at  Novgorod   and   Kiof,  and   increa&«d  so 
rapidly  in  power  that  we  find  them,  very  early  in  th«  tenth 

1  (liiutr<.'faRee :  "The  J'russinn  Raw,"  p.  M. 
'  "History  of  RuBBia,"  Loudou,  JS78. 
3  Aliove  i>npc  3«2, 


RISE  Of  MOI>ESX  SA  TIO.VS.  3^9 

ntury.  I>c3iec:iiig  Cunstantinoplc  (JM»7  ami  iJ43).  In  the 
evfiitb  iiiui  twelfth  ct'iituries,  three  Riirikan  princes 
lltnl  a  tcrritnrv  seven  Iiuudre*!  miU'ti  !'roni  nunh  tci  south 
ad  sii  hundre<l  miles  from  oast  to  west.' 

Like  all  Europe  at  thi.-<  time.  Russia  Wiis  occupied  by 
i»ny    imlei>en(ient   princes,    wlio    became   vassals,    of  all, 


-..■•.-  ..i'.l..]..-ii.ii-iii-y.t.i  ihi-  Kiirik.iii.--    ( 'lii-'faniMiiL'  Iln-ui 

'■■  ■',.■  i.rir s  ..t-"VI;L,liiNir.  Ki.-f.  ;.r„l    X..VL'..n.i.  whi.-h 

rr- •■■■■•■]    P-|..'.-iivrl_v  t.i  (iiv;i(.  Lilllr.  .■khI    Wliit.-  lln.s- 
.      ■  --.r   ..«i,    tim.'.-z     Uii.lri-  Vl.uiiiiiii-   (!>7J.inl.-,)  ike 


i       M..|;.v:,|   H,- 


y 


400  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

fifth  prince  of  the  house  of  Rurik,  the  Russians  accq)tc( 
Christianity  from  the  Eastern  Church,  and  have  ever  sin« 
held  to  its  doctrines.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  Russu 
was  governed  by  a  number  of  princes  who  failed  to  rule 
in  harmony;  and  when  the  Mongols  came,  they  were  easilj 
conquered  (1223).  Russia  remained  under  Mongol  rule 
for  two  and  one  half  centuries.'  Still  manv  of  the  wcstem 
princes  became  subject  to  Lithuanian  and  Polish  niltv 

Some  of  the  Rurikan  j^rinces,  through  all  this  time 
held  possessions  as  vassals  to  the  Mongol  Khans.  Sucl 
was  the  prince  of  Moscow,  who  seems  to  have  been  \ 
trusted  subject  of  the  khan.  Around  his  standard,  gathers 
many  of  the  Aryans  of  Russia ;  and,  at  last,  under  Ivai 
the  Great  (1462-1505),  they  threw  off  the  Mongol  yok 
and  gained  their  independence.  These  new  ruling  poopl 
were  called  ^luscovites,  they  were  probably  greatly  Ti 
ranized  by  intermixture  while  subject  to  the  Mongols 
as  well  as  by  mingling  with  the  subject  Finns.  Ivanallie 
himself,  by  marriage,  with  the  royal  house  of  the  fallei 
emperor  at  Constantinople.  He  really  laid  the  foundatioi 
of  modern  Russia.  He  increased  his  possessions  in  ali 
directions ;  and,  receiving  embassadors  from  other  Eun> 
pean  powers,  he  opened  Russia  to  western  civilization. 

Ivan  III.  first  bore  the  name  of  Czar.*  Ivan  IV.  (the 
Terrible  1533-1584)  continued  to  build  up  his  empire.  B] 
the  annexation  of  Astrakan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Volga 

1  *' Historical  Geoj^rapliy,'*  p.  483.    Abel  makes  this  period  twocei 
turies.     "Slavic  and  Latin/'  p.  13. 

^   Vide  Kanibaud :  *' History  of  Russia/'  Vol.  I.  p.  183  vt  ^rq, 

•*  In  latortinu's  under  Klizaboth  [1741-17G2J,  a  scholar  who  dared 
argue  tliat  the  Muscovites  were  of  Finnish  origiu  received  one  hundr 
stripes  with  the  knout.     Under  Catharine  II.  [1702-179(;j.    the  suhji 
was  again  raised,  wlien  the  Czarina  'is-^ucd  a  I'kase  oonimanding  Mi 
covitostobe  Europeans.    Abel:  *'Shivic  and  Latin,"  p  17. 

*  Probably  Caesar,  for  lie  was  tlie  o:iIy  person  wb.o  elainis  suecessi 
to  t lie  Eastern  Emperors.    Hanibaud :     History  of  Hussia/'Vol.  I.  p.  2 


The  ■■■>■  Twited  Moa- 
UtooHBattAl  rvlatiottt 
^■n  ItaiMi  a  Talnable 
the  osdhina  of  hia 
«f  Us  tc^Bt  (>^  became  ift> 
id  iBWMVviA  PiliBil,  Swuha,  mud  Denmark ;  and 
ibligedtoKefclhe  ■wiitiTw  rf  Pope  Gregory  SIIL 
3er  to  aBTc  kiBBctf 

?HA>r  t  (15»4-1S6X  the  last  of  the  Rnrikans,  lidded 
ia  to  hi*  dumtnioos.  Tlien  there  lolluwed  a  time  of 
•kj  aad  aanfe  for  Rnseia 
PHer  the  Grat  (1682- 
),af  ibe  Rntnaaoff  line  of 
m,  eame  the  throne.  Peter 
nan  than  reclaim  Ro^sm 
r  farmer  rtate.  for  he  mised 
n  a  place  among  the  powers 
ttrtjpe.  lie  extemh^  bis  j 
nivmi  until  ho  <*«m1<l  iHiasi? 
im«r«l  "nfoiirsi-as — White  - 
ic  Bl.i<-k.  ami  <';ispi:in.  St. 
rsImrL'     wa.-)     fuuiuU'd     ami  Peter  the  Oreal. 

■  til.-  lapital.     By  study,  tnu'el,  ami  iutvrrutirv  witll 

■  iiatioijs.  ii.'W  ideas  ami  impruvfirji:tit»  wt-rn  Utirit- 
1  int..  all  d.'partiiuMit.s  of  the  governiiient  juid  iuii^  u|| 
of  industry.  Catlierine  II.  (llfi-J-ilW)  wuh  n  {miniU 
?nitiin'.  science,  and  educatiMU  and  li.-r  i<ti/it  wiut  m 
uf  (.'H'at  internal  iiiiproveiiient  for  lUintt'iu* 


*Br('in:  'Mwlerii  Hliitorj-,"  ji.  i:ih. 

^'I'J/^  H«ii)bau<l:  "Hixtury  vf  ItUHHlti."  Vol.  II,,   U/i  m  fwij 

t^iga  of  Helt-r  «■■<)  C'slberlne. 


402  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

But  in  early  times  there  was  a  broad  be!  t  of  ti?rritory, 
or  middlo  land,  stretching  from  the  Baltic  sea  southwaid 
to  the  Turkish  dominions,  between  Germany  on  the  wrel, 
and  Russia  on  the  east.  Here  were  the  states  of  Lltliii- 
ania,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  a  number  of  otbcra  of  lea 
importance.  They  were  occupied  by  a  mixed  |K>pulatioB 
of  Gcnnana,  Slaves,  and  Turanians.  But  it  is  safe  bt 
say,  that  they  all  now  differ  little  from  other  Aryan  pcoptfc 
The  Magj'ars  of  Hungary  are  the  only  ones  that  I«« 
kept  a  Turanian  dialect.'  All  of  these  states  were  facton 
in  the  settling  of  Europe  into  its  modern  political  din- 
sions.  But  their  individuality  has  long  since  passed  away, 
ami  we  can  give  the  parts  that  each  played  in  the  history 
of  Europe  only  a  passing  notice. 

In  the  ninth  century,  when  the  Magyars  of  Hungjuy  „ 
were  so  troublesome  to  the  empire,  there  was  estublisbcd 
a  number  of  outi)03ts  (marks)  as  defences  against  tlirir 
invasions.  Among  these  was  the  Eastern  Mark  (OfsJer- 
roich)  almost  between  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  Thai 
was  planted  the  genu  from  wliich  modern  Austria  h« 
grown.  By  ji  .series  of  uuirriages,  successions,  electloM, 
and  con(iiie!*ts,  the  llapsburg*  dukes  of  Austria  becsuM 
sovereigns dt'  ]'n.lieniia,  Hungary,  and  a  number  of  smalla 
principalities,  of  various  Aryan  and  Turanian  jiopulationa, 
which  were  llnally  united  into  the  Austro-IIuogariui 
Monarchy.  There  was  much  shifting  about  before  AustrU 
assumed  its  present  form.  We  have  seen  that  the  Haps- 
burg  princes  were  usually  emperors.  M'e  have  noticed  that 
Charles  I.  of  Spain  was  Archduke  of  Austria  and  emperor 
Charles  V.  So  we  wuuldfind,  were  we  to  trace  the  history 
of  Austria  down  to  motlern   times,  that,  in  the  treaty  of 

1  Ke:iiic  ill  Ramsey's  "Europe,"  p.  654  et  cog- 
*  Above  p.  3T5. 


SISB  OF  MODESy  -TJ  TlOyS. 


MA 


ourg  (1805),  Francis  of  Aoatria  \s  strletl  -Emperor 
rmany  anj  Austria." 

*olancl  was  one  of  the  greatest  EampeaQ  stat*?s  ot  the 
tcenth  centun\  Previous  to  this,  for  a  momeQt  oqIt, 
id  had  become  an  Angevin  possesion  \)j  thf.  eleirtion 


•■iiry.f  Aiii..ii:i-'kirr_'  Pul.m.l  uml  l.itluniiia  M-ropttHl 
Mth  ...f  til."  T„itiii  Chunli  (Cathnli.-).  When  tho 
_•..!-  w.f  v\\\--T^  <•!'  Rti— ill.  thrsc  i-uuntrii's  were  the 
i\\  .f.s  of  niri-ti.uiity  ;i_.-iit(-I  \\v  invailrrs.  The 
:  -■  :;.-r.l  ..r,.l  kiri':.  S..i.i.-kl  (  IC.T  !■  idilT).  at  ll.is  time. 
■  hiiiis..-If  i[niiiijrt;il  l.v  hurling  lj;uk   the  Turks  who 


404  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

were  advancing  on  Europe.*  "When  the  Muscovites  a 
into  power  in  Russia,  Poland  was  the  fighting  ground 
tween  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  Russia,  Frus 
and  Austria,  becoming  jealous  of  Polish  power,  resol 
upon  her  destruction.  The  gallant  defence,  which  Pol 
made  against  its  enemies,  gained  the  admiration  of 
world,  and  the  name  of  Koscii 
will  never  be  forgotten. 

In  the  Baltic  region,  compose* 
I  two  great  peninsulas  and  numei 
islands,  were  forming,  as  we  li 
seen,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Sea 
navia  j  Denmark,  Norway,  and  i 
den.  In  the  tenth  century, 
John  Sobieeki.  kingdom  of  Denmark  included 
greater  part  of  the  northern  peninsula,  as  well  as 
southern.  Under  Cnut  (1017-1035),  a  momentary 
pire  of  the  northwest  was  formed,  embracing  also 
British  Isles.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  Denmark  wa 
frequent  wars  with  the  great  Hanseatic  League.  By 
"Union  of  Calmar"  (1397),  Norway,  Sweden,  and  I 
mark  were  united  under  queen  Margaret. 

This  union  lasted,  in  the  case  of  Sweden,  u 
1523,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  broke  the  yoke  of  I 
mark.  Norway  remained  a  part  of  Denmark  for  tl 
centuries  longer  (1814).  The  latter  part  of  the  sixtei 
and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centuries  w; 
period  of  grttwth  and  prosperity  for  Denmark.  This 
under  Frederick  II.  (1559-1588)  and  Christian  IV,  (1 
1648).  They  were  patrons  of  literature,  science,  and 
It  was  in  their  time  that  the  great  Tycho  Brahe  (1 
1601)  flourished. 

1  Above  page  361. 


niSE  OF  MODBJUf  SA  TIQNS. 


405 


Sweden  was  nile<l  by  Gustarus  Vasa  until  1560. 
he  Intter  part  of  that  century  was  tilled  with  wars  with 
olaml  and  Russia.  Giistavus  Adolphus  then  came  to 
■»  throne  (1811*1632);  and,  as  we  reach  the  modem 
'ttiod  of  history,  we  can  see  him  leading  a  Protestant 
nny  from  victory  to  victory  in  the  heart  of  Europe ; 
Bd,  finally,  to  his  own  death  on  the  tield  of  battle.  As 
le  period  of  Medieval  hiatorj'  closes  on  the  continent,  we 
R  the  whole  country  convulsed  with  religious  wars.  The 
berty  gained  by  so  much  bloodshed  imurished  the  growth 
f  the  enlightenment  of  our  own  time. 
Wc  hare  now  only  to 
[ive  an  outline  of  English 
iisibry.  the  t-ountry  that 
W  5M  much  to  do  with  our 
WD  early  history.  We  have 
ifrcady'  seen  the  commence- 
Bent  of  this  history.  We 
fill  n^wuiiic  the  thread  with 
Ling  Eilbert.  a  West  Saxon 
rince.  wh'i  haA  rettidr<l  at 
le  roun  iif  Charlemagne, 
id  whu  could  boast  of  de- 
viit  from  thr  great  Cedric. 
■.-■  :i,--,ii.I.-.l  llir  W.>,H;.ex 
intne    (Hll-^MT).        Filled  Guetavua Vasa. 

ith  that  ambition  and  spirit  of  conquest  that  must  have 
Traded  tlie  cnurt  of  Oharleuiagne.  Egbert  planned  the 
.mjui-.-*t  of  tiie  whole  iHland.  Mereia  and  Xortbumbrla 
II  U'fore  bin  |Ktwer  {H2!)>,  and  E;:bert  styled  himself 
ving  of  EiiL'liind."'  He  was  not  master  of  the  whole 
land,  however.  Scotland  and  some  iwrtions  of  the 
~i  Above  p.  342.  »  "Medieval  History,"  p.  60. 


406 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 


Western  Celtic  territory  were  never  conquered  by  Egbert. 
Already  the  Danes  had  hogun  to  plunder  the  coasts  of  these  ! 
islands,  and  his  armies  were  needed  to  guard  against 
their  attacks.  His  successors  (837*881)  inherited  this  con- 
flict with  Danish  vikings.  The  Norsemen  now  began  to 
form  settlements,  although  they  were  merely  headquarters 
or  camps,  where  their  niarnutiing  bands  could  store  their 
plunder. 

When  Aelfred   the  Great,  grandson  of  Egbert,  came 
to  the  throne  (871-901),  nearly  the  whole  island  had  let'" 
lost  to  the  English.     From  the  very  commencement  »'/ 
his  reign,   he  engaged  in  war  with  the  Norsemen.     Ho 
became    so  reduced  in  jiower  and  resources  that  he  bad 
no  followers,  and  was   obliged   to  hide  himself   in  the 
m-irshy  lands  of  Somer- 
setshire.    There  bo  built 
hmiself  a  stronghold  and 
secretly  organized  on  ar- 
mv,  with   which,  during 
the  next  seven  years,  he 
won  many  battles  against 
the  Danes.    Finally  they 
uitered  into  treaty  with 
him.    by     the    terms    uf 
Hlii<-h  the   Danisli  chief- 
tun,  Guthrian.  was  ytor- 
mitted    to  occupy  all    of 
street,  nr  the   i-oad   ruiniing 
vassal  to  the  English  king,  on 


Aelfrel- 
England  north  i.f  Watlinj 
from  Lontloii  to  t'liester,  as 


condition,  h'lwever,  thiit  he  should  embrace  Christianity, 
Aelfred,  therefore,  was  real  ruler  over  only  the  southern 
portion  of  England.' 

1  "Tbe  Noriiinii  tUniquCHt."  Vol.  I.  p.  M. 


KlSt:  OF  J/ODER.V  XA  Tfoys.  407 

The  reign  of  Aelfred,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Danes, 

i&  Kcawjii  of  |>eat!0  and  |»n)8iwrity  for  Englan*!.   Raiiko' 

t  him  "a  niun'elous  phenomenon,"  not  merely  a  king 

d  a  great  general,  but  a  wise  legislator  and  the  foremost 

Ihorof  hbi  limes.     He  organized  his  government.     He 

r  •doplcd  a  system   of  defenses  by  which  he  was   able  to 

rtitect  his  kingdom  from  all  foes.     He  built  and  main* 

I  *Wn«i  a   navy    which    was    .serviceable   alike    for    war, 

**  mnunerce,  and  for  discovery.     Thus  was  laid  the  fo»in- 


A=;fred'3  Mcther  Teaching  Him  Saxor.  Scr.ge. 
.lation  iif  the  naval  iKiwertliat  has  kept  England  among 
th'.-  fon-mofit  nations  of  the  world.     He  made  the  accumu- 
lated cii.-tnms,  praetire.s,  and  usages  of  liis  Tentoni*?  fore- 
fath'T."  tliL-  niiiunon   law  of  the  land. 

Tin- :iim  iif  Aelfrcd'a  legislation  swm.s  t(»  have  been 
iht,'  fb.-valion  and  happiiu'.'*»  of  lii.s  sidijerts.  He  tried  in 
.\.ryw:iyto  intriHlucc  advanci-d  idi-iis  in  learning  and 
■■ultnrf.     Xot  aatisfii-il  in  nimply  inviting  foreign  seholare 


-A  HlMory  of  EdkUikI."  OsforiJ,  IW 


,  V..1.  I   |.    l". 


408  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

to  his  court,  he  placed  himself  in  their  front  and  even 
surpassed  them  all  in  the  amount  and  character  of  his 
literary  work.     A  large  number  of  volumes  that  had  pre- 
viously been  written  only  in  Latin  were  translated  into 
English  by  the  king  himself.     Thus  English  was  made 
the  popular  literary  language.     Now  Aelfred  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  other  literary  kings,  who,  in  general,  rank 
very  poorly  as  writers.    He  wrote  just  as  he  fought  and 
legislated,  "with  a  single  eye  to  the  good  of  his  people." 
"  The  culture  already  existing,  the  whole  future  of  which 
had  been  saved  by  Aelfred,  attained  in  him  the  fullest 
development.     We  weaken  the  impression  made  on  us  by 
this  great  figure ....  by  comparing  him  with  the  brilliant 
names  of  antiquity."^ 

The  descendants  of  Aelfred,  "  for  nearly  a  century, 
form  one  of  the  most  brilliant  royal    lines    on  reconl' 
All   the   Teutonic  elements — English  and  Danish — were 
at  last  drawn   into  one  kingdom.      Then  the  chieftains 
and  princes  of  the  Welsh  and  Scots  became  vassals  to 
the  English  king  (924),  who  was  often  styled  Emperor  or 
liasileus  of  Britain.     Under  Eadgar  (959-975),  the  roya.1 
house  of  Aelfred  and  Saxon  England  reached  the  summit 
of  its  power.     This  king  is  called  "the  peaceful,"  thougV 
never  before  were  vastcT  military  preparations  made.    ^ 
standing  army  was  organized.     A  naval-fleet  was  koj>t  V^ 
readiness  for  a(*tion  and  constantly  encircling  his  domains, 
in  order  to  guard   against  attack  by  sea.     Eight  of  hfe 
vassal  kings  met  at  one  time  and  place  to  do  him  homage- 
It  was,  therefore,  a  time  of  peace  and  prosperity  forEnf 
land,  during  whittli  no  foe  dared  to  approach  her  borders. 

Succeeding  kings  were  not  as  careful  as  Eadgar  about 
their  defences  ;  and  the  Danes,  who  had  now  effected  a  lodg- 

1  Uanke,  Op.  cit.  p.  20. 


BISE  OF  MODERN  NA  TlOyS.  400 

il  in  Nomiandy.  again  plundered  the  coasts  of  the 
tish  Isles.  Aethelred,  the  Unready,  and  his  son  Ed- 
nd  Ironsides  (979-1016)  were  so  hard  pressed  by  them 
tthoy  were  obliged,  season  after  season,  to  buy  off  the 
iders.  An  annual  and  ever  increasing  tax  was  levied 
famiah  the  crown  with  this  'Danegeld"  instead  of  to 


Aelfrel  :hs  Great  in  his  Study. 
«the  kingdom  in  a  state  of  defence.     Finally,  on  St 
ice's  Day.  1002  a.  d.,  the  king  ordered  a  general  maasa- 

nf  the   Itanish  freebi>oters.  who  liad  by  treaty  been 
mif<-<l  I'Pitfitidn  in  liis  realms.     Thi.s  only  hastened 

final  '■i.iiqiicst  of  Mngland  by  the  Xorsemen. 

Aii"tlier  cletneiit  appeared  in  Kiij.'lan<I  duriiii,' Aethel- 
!*  r''ii:ii.  "hirli  ciititiniied  t"  iiroH-  in  power  ami  impur- 


410  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

tance,  until  it  ruled  the  whole  island.  His  queen,  Emna^ 
was  a  Norman  lady.  Her  appearance  at  the  court  of  Eng- 
land opened  the  gates  of  the  government  to  a  host  of  yo^ 
man  adventurers,  who  flocked  around  her,  and  rectired 
many  profitable  offices  at  her  hands.  The  Danish  king, 
Swegen,  soon  appeared  to  revenge  the  murdered  Danes. 
To  the  weakness  of  the  English  king,  were  added  the  dis- 
trust and  disloyalty  of  his  noblemen  and  his  generals  (many 
of  them  Norman  favorites  of  Emma)  and  a  lack  of  leal 
on  the  part  of  his  subjects.  So,  in  spite  of  the  almort 
superhuman  efforts  of  Edmund  Ironsides,  the  Danes  were 
successful,  and  Britain  was  added  to  the  great  Empire  of 
the  Northwest ;  and  Cnut,  the  Dane,  son  of  Swegen,  vaa 
crowned  king  of  England  (1017-1035.) 

Cnut  dwelt  at  London,  and  married  the  widowed 
queen  Emma,  thus  reconciling  himself  to  many  of  his  sub- 
jects. "Cnut  had  entered  England  as  a  conqueror  and  a 
destroyer ;  but  his  reign,  as  far  as  the  internal  state  of 
England  is  concerned,  was  a  time  of  perfect  peace.  No  in- 
vasion from  beyond  the  sea,  no  revolt,  no  civil  war,  is  re- 
corded during  the  eighteen  years  of  his  government 

Within  England  itself  wc  read  of  no  district  being  ravaged 
either  by  rebels  or  by  royal  command,  wc  read  of  bo 
city  undergoing,  or  being  threatened  with,  military  chas- 
tisement. This  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  either  the 
reign  of  Eadgar  the  Peaceful  or  of  Eadward  the  Saint"^ 
Here  we  have  another  instance  of  a  wild  "barbarous 
viking"  from  *'pagan  lands,"  who  made  one  of  the  best 
kings  that  history  mentions  and  that,  too,  in  the  middle  of 
the  "Dark  Ages". 

Still,  the  successors  of  Cnut  were  failures  as  kingSt 
and  the  banished  son  of  Aethelred  and  Emma,  Eadward 

1  "Norman  Conqnest,"  Vol.  p.  296-7. 


BI8B  OF  MODEMS  SA  nOSS. 


-Ol 


onfessorf  or  Saint,  was  faaUetl  with  jot  then  lie  cane 
fn>ui  Xormandj  to  occopy  the  En^i^  timMie 
-lOfVii.  He  was  a  grandson  of  R<>hieit  the  Feaiksst 
A  Xomiandy.  and  had  been  edu<rati^  at  the  Xorman 
:  so.  it  is  not  surprisinsr.  that  ntany  Xonnan  adrat- 


■^fjf 

^ 

^^^^'fJ 

■:  .Il.'Wt.l  him  across  tin.-  chaDn*.-!.  uud  that  they  re- 
,  L''"-l  '-ffi.-cs  an<l  larL'"?  possessions  for  their  homage 
i.-ii.|-hi|'.  Mvaiitt-liilc.  ilnTf  had  arisen  an  English- 
r-m  humble  birth  t')  th---  tir.-^t  pi-sition  in  England. 
r;i:»  Earl  GiKjwine.  As  Eadwanl  was  better  suited 
■    inonai'tcry  than  to  the  throne.  Gt)dwine,  became 


412  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOELD. 

virtual  ruler  of  the  kingdom.  Though  never  himself  a 
king  he  ''  was  the  maker,  the  kinsman,  the  father  cJ 
kings." 

Next  to  Godwine,  his  son  Harold,  was  the  first  man 
in  all  England.  He  already  ruled  as  vassal  earl  over  the 
East  Angles;  and,  upon  the  death  of  Godwine,  he  became 
earl  of  the  WestrSaxons,  which,  as  Freeman*  says,  was 
^'equivalent  to  investing  him  with  the  practical  manage- 
ment of  the  King  and  his  Kingdom."  When  Eadward, 
the  last  of  the  line  of  Cedric,  died,  Harold  was  the  choice 
of  the  people  as  king ;  he  had  also  been  named  by  Ead- 
ward, upon  his  death-bed,  as  his  successor;  and  finally  he 
was  the  choice  of  the  Witan  (or  English  council)  who 
alone  claimed  the  right  of  electing  a  king.  He  was 
crowned  1066. 

We  now  have  arrived  at  the  Norman  conquest.  Wil- 
Ifam,^  duke  of  Normandy,  claimed  the  right  to  succeed 
Eadward  on  three  grounds — the  promise  of  Eadward,  the 
promise  of  Harold,  and  the  right  as  a  descendant  of  Ael- 
fred  through  the  female  line.  As  to  these  claims,  William 
had  visited  Eadward,  and  may  have  been  at  that  time 
promiscd^the  succession,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  Harold 
was  the  final  choice  of  the  dying  monarch.  As  to  the 
second  claim,  Harold  had,  upon  a  time,  been  shipwrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  where  he  was  held  a  prisoner 
until  he  had  sworn  that  he  would  not  accept  the  English 
crown.  The  third  claim  savors  so  much  of  the  legendary 
that  it  is  usually  pronounced  fictitious.' 

William  landed  in  England  at  the  head  of  a  vast 
army  of  Norman  knights ;  and,  armed  with  a  papal  curse 

1  Freeman,  Op.  cit.  p.  236.  >  Above  page  884. 

3  The  work  of  some  unreUable  Chronicler  who  wished  to  make  aU 
Englieh  kings  of  English  birth.  On  this  point  Vide  "Normaii  Con- 
quest,'' Vol.  II.  p.  116. 


R/SK  OF  .VODERS'  jVA  TlOyS. 


415 


t  those  who  darwl  support  Harokl.  as  well  as  with 
ord,  he  dcmanileil  the  crown  from  Harold.  The 
trf  Hastings  followed  {October  14lli,  1(M5I3),  in  which 
I  was  killed.  William  was  then  crowned  King  of 
nd.  From  this  time  the 
tf  Engliiml  hehl  jwases- 
in  Franee  aa  vassal  of 
ench  king,  which  led  to 
1  wars  between  the  two 


?^^ 


nun   knights    now  be- 

the  Eti^'lish  court  for 
tmentsand  possessions. 
tbtained  both,  even  if  a 
BngliAh  ftuhject  had  to 
l>bed   to   accommodate 

The  policy  of  the  new  WlUlam  the  Ccnquercr. 
icniwlto  W  to  crush  out  the  Eiiglisli.  Nornuiii  customa 
aguage  were  introduced  and  forced  upon  the  peo- 
lotn  the  rulers  had  made  little  bettor  than  slaves, 
ni  was  now  the  "Conqueror,"  and  beseemed  to  have 
I'd  that  title  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  When 
ni  had  succeeded  in  thoroughly  subduing  England, 
irned  to  Xonnandy,  where  he  died  (1087)  from  an 
jtal  injurj'  received  while  urging  liis  .soldiers  to 
T  and  burn  the  city  of  Mantes,  in  order  to  satisfy 
uld  grudge.  Ilis  second  son,  William  Rufus  (the 
was  his  successor  (1087-1  KKt),  although  there  was 
(uarreling  over  tlic  throne  among  his  three  sons — 
;,  William,  and  Henry.  By  the  treaty  of  Winches- 
01  J,  Hcnrj-,  the  youngest,  became  king  (1101-1135) 
exclusion  of  Robert,  tlie  oldest.'     Henry  could  trace 

>rfat«:  "England  under  tin-  Acgevin  Klogt,"  London,  18ST,  VoL 


416 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


his  lineage  back  tu  the  goudKingAelfred  through  his  mothei 
Matilda  of  Flanders.'  He  united  himself  with  Scotlaud  b 
marriage  with  Matilda,djiughter  of  Queen  Margaret,'solba 
his  descendants  could  trace  lineage  back  to  Aelfred  bv  twi 
descents."     Henry's  daugliter,  Matilda,  became  the  wife  o. 


Burial  ct  William  the  Conquercr. 
Emperor   Hciirv  V.,    and,  after  his  death,   of  Gcoflrev. 
count  of  Aiijuu,  thus   becoming  the  mother  of  the  Anp" 
vin,   or  Plaiitageiiet    kings    of  England,       We   pereeivt 

■  Lineal  df'Si't'iicltml  of  Aelfrhrytl),  daiighlt^rnf  Aelfrad  uidvifti 
Count  Kuldwiii. 

'  Who  was  firaiKi  dnughter  of  Edward  Ironsides. *' 
'  "Norman  Couiiiiest,"  Vol.  II.  j»,  200.  note. 


jtisf:  OF  MonKnx  sa  tions.  417 

JDce  the  jKililic  plaiia  that  Heury  pursued  in  uniting 
aself  with  h%  many  of  the  contempornrv  powers  as  he 
lid.  He  was  no  less  p<»Iitiu  in  his  government,  though 
at  of  blH  plans  for  reform  died  away  in  promises  to 
fcltt  anJ  subjects.  These  broken  promises,  however, 
d  Uie  effect  of  so  arousing  the  people  that  future  kings 
reoumiielUtl  to  make  many  concessions  to  them. 

WTicii  Heur)'  died,  the  Witau  elected  his  nephew, 
^en  (1135-1154),  to  the  exclusion  of  his  natural  son, 
'bfrt,  earl  of  Gloucester.  The  nineteen  years  of  Ste- 
w's reign  are  called  a  "time  of  utter  anarchy"  and  a 
me  of  utter  wretciiedness,  such  as  we  may  safely  say 
^od  never  saw  before  and  nt^ver  saw  again."'  It  was 
BMon  of  strife  between  Stephen  and  Matilda  about  the 
Irtof  succession  of  her  offspring.  At  last  to  settle  the 
tt«r,  Stephen  adopted  Henry  (Plantagenet),  son  of 
ttitda,  as  his  son  and  successor. 

H.iiry  II-  (1I54-I189).  the  first  of  the  Angevin 
\p,  inherited  greater  possessions  than  any  of  his  pred- 
awn*. He  was  heir  to  England,  Scotland,  Normandy, 
ijou,  Maine,  and  Aquitaine.  Thus,  as  vassal  of  the 
I'nrh  king,  he  held  greater  possessions  in  France  than 
illiat  monarch.  The  nc.\t  year  (1154),  he  obtained  a  bull 
Jlla)  iTom  Pope  Hadrian  IV.  giving  him  permission  to 
i^mT  and  possess  Ireland,  as  prompted  by  his  "ardourof 
'hand  htve  of  religion,"'  though  Ireland  was  the  cradle 
Wcjitrm  Christianity.*  "W'esce,  therefore,  that  England 
■  i.nly  a  small  part  of  the    possessions    of  her  kings. 

■  Nonnan  ConqUMl,"  Vol.  V.  p.  Ifil. 

L*irler:  "Slorj- of  Ireland."  New  York,  1887,  p.  Sl-91. 

■-f>ne  hundred  and  flfly-llve  Irinh  ealntii  are  venented  Id  tbe 
rbMofGentiAUj-;  forlj-rive  In  Oaul:  thirty  In  Belgium;  thirteen  in 
:  um)  eight  III  Bcandlnavla.  For  a  loni;  tinio  all  ClirUteiidom  looked 

IrrUod  M  the  favoHle  hiime  of  rengloQ  and  wisdom.  Juittin  Uo* 
ij:    ••AnOuillneorirlihHUlory,"  Baltimore,  1883,  p.  23. 


Death  of  Becke'.. 
its  sliiipe.'     His  ablest  i-iiiinscliir  was  Thoinjia  a  Bccbct, 
Arclibishoii  of  t'jintcrbiiry  aa  well  as  Kiiig'tt  CliHiicellor, 


"MedlevHl  Hlotory,"  |>.  161. 


BISE  OF  MODERN  NA  TJONS. 

rhoec  mardcr,  by  order  of  Henry,  has  left  an  ineflfacable 
>lot  npoD  that  king's  name.  The  first  years  of  Henry's 
x'ign  brought  peace  anU  onler  U*  England;  the  last  years, 
lowever,  marked  a  succession  of  quarrels  between  Henry, 
hi*  wife,  and  \x\»  heirs. 

Rtcbanl  iheLi.in  Heartwl  (I189-119f*)  was  a  great 
iTOsader,  joining  his  forces  with  Emperor  Frederick  Bar- 
IkUMSsa  and  Pbili])  Augustus  of  France.  He  spent  the 
Dovt  of  h»  time  out  of  his  kingdom.  John  (1199-1216), 
iktmgli  hi»  quarrels  with  Philip  of  France,  lost  almost  his 
■tire  posacssions  across  the  channel.'  But  to  English 
tBDfilc  the  one  event,  important  above  all  others  of  John's 
wign.  was  the  granting  of  the  Magna  Chartii,  which  the 
nUul  bar[<nt(rompeIlcd  the  king  to  sign  (1215).'  Several 
<£  the  Inst  kin^  had  been  obliged  to  grant  new  and 
p«*ter  privileges  to  their  subjects  and  especially  their  old 
EnglisU  thunes  (nobles).  The  granting  of  the  charter 
ma  the  enliniuation  of  their  demands.  It  assured  to 
Eligluhmen  their  mopt  cherished  rights,  among  which 
irrre  freedom,  justice,  good  government,  security  of  prop- 
yrij,  and  freedom  against  unjust  taxation.  Though  the 
Bortificatton  <»f  John  was  great,  and  though  he  swore  ter- 
rible vengeance  agaiiwl  his  barons,  the  great  charter  has 
induid  gaiucd  new  strength  and  greater  privileges  from 
iDceceding  kings.  Every  king  thereafter  was  made  to  eon- 
Im  it  uiKiii  receiving  the  cniwn  ;  but  nearly  all  were  ready 
|»  1»rc«k  it  when  once  firmly  seated  ui>on  the  thnme. 
'■       Thi>  Wilan  about  this  time  began  to  sfaa|>e  itself  into 

1  rid«  "Ent(l»nd  under  Ibe  Aiif^evln  Klngn,"  Vol,  11.  p.  38  «(  ae? 

■  Tbe  Barona  of  tliis  ufce  wvru  only  tlx-  oli)  KiiKlixli  thniies  UDder 
t  new  n>in«  >nd  a  liaron'M  war  of  llic  tiiiii-  ''f  lleiiry  III.  "meanta  wkt 
«bl^b  lh«  people,  with  Dative  baroiiH  in  their  fitrefrnnt,  waged  aguiut 
t  lofvigii 'hearted  king  "     Vide  "Norman  Conquest,"  Vol.  V.  p.  2M  and 

m. 


420 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


the  modem  Parliament.  Its  power  grew  as  freedoin  was 
granted  to  the  English  people.  It  refused  to  raise  nioner 
for  the  foreign  wars  of  Henry  III.  (1216-1273).  Tbe 
Commons  were  then  admitted  to  Parliament.  During  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  (1273-1307),  the  "English  JustiniaD," 
many  new  laws  and  re- 
forms in  existing  statutes 
were  enacted,  not  tbe  least 
among  which  was  a  \vs 
forbidding  the  IcTvini;  of 
taxes  without  the  consent 
of  Parliament.  Walesnas 
annexed  to  England,  but 
the  Scots,  under  Wallace, 
rose  in  open  rebellion, 
(1297)  which  was  contin- 
ued under  Robert  Bruce.' 
His  armies  gained  a  victory  over  the  English  at  Baunork- 
burn  (1314),  and  at  last  captured  Berwick  (1318). 

Parliament  had  now  gained  sufficient  power  to  dcjiose 
King  Eilwiird  II.  (1327),  for  incapacity,  Ibr  breach  of  a'r- 
onatiuii  oaths,  rmd  for  loss  of  Scotland,  electing  E(l«aril 
III.  to  the  tliri.ne  (1327-1357).  But  the  tide  of  Scottish 
war  dill  r.Dt  turn  with  the  coronation  of  a  new  king.  The 
independence  of  Scotland  was  finally  acknowledged  wit^ 
Robert  Bruce  ns  king.  Henceforth  Scotland  was,  forsoine 
centuries,  a  separate  European  power;  though,  for  a  mo- 
ment, young  Da\'id  Bruce  was  driven  from  the  throne  by 
John  Balliol,  at  the  head  of  the  English  barons. 

We  have  reached  the  period  of  the  "hundred  yeais 
war"  between  England  and  France.     V^e  have  already 

'History  of  the  Euglish  people,"  New  York,  1880,  Vol.  L 


'  Greeue : 
).  271  et  eeq. 


&I8S  OF  MODERN  NA  TIONS. 


421 


I*  how  Buooessful  England  was  until  the  last  years  of 
war.  That  n«;»l  not  lio  rnpeatuil.  lint  during  this 
e,  England  was  filled  with  clamors  of  the  barons  and 
people  for  greater  privileges  and  greater  personal  and 
itical  freedom.     The   spirit  of  religious  freedom,  too, 


J;lir.  Swearing  Vengeance  against  hla  Barona. 
awakened.    The  great  Wycliffe  {1324-1384)  was  at 
height  of  his  fame.     He  preached  his  doctrines  and 
ul  his  trarts  over  all  England,  and  laid  the  foundation 
he  great  Reformation  of  the  next  century.*    Thenfol- 


422  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

lowed  the  popular  outbreaks  under  Wat  Tyler,  and 
bloody  scenes  that  resulted,  the  promises  and  bn 
promises  of  young  Richard  II.  (1387-1399),  the  risiii 
the  Lollards  (a  term  applied  to  WycliflStes)  and  their 
secution  as  heretics ;  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  con 
ted  with  the  religious  history  of  that  time,  and  will 
treated  in  the  proper  place. 

With  Henry  lY.  (1399-1413),  the  house  of  Lanca 
began  to  reign.  Henry  V.  (1413-1422)  made  **him 
lord  of  the  two  great  western  kingdoms,"  England  i 
France,  and  was  closely  related  to  the  royal  lines  of  1 
tugal  and  Castile.^  Henry  VI.  (1422-1461),  however,  \ 
the  English  ignominiously  expelled  from  France.  Tb 
was  a  strife  at  this  time  between  the  houses  of  York  \ 
Lancaster  over  the  right  to  the  crown  of  the  kingd 
The  Yorkists  claimed  it  as  descendants  of  the  fifth  soi 
Edward  III.  while  the  reigning  house  was  descend 
through  the  fourth  son,  from  the  same  monarch.  T 
Yorkists  wore  a  white  rose  as  a  badge  and  the  Lancasi 
a  red  rose,  the  quarrel  has  since  been  called  the  "wan 
the  roses."  The  white  rose  succeeded  in  deposing  Hei 
VI.;  then  three  white  roses — Edward  IV.  (1461-14f 
Edward  V.  (1483,  three  months),  and  Richard  III.  (14 
1485) — wore  the  crown  in  succession.  The  Lancasi 
again  came  into  j^ower  with  Henry  VII.  (1485-1509) ;  \ 
forever  healed  the  strife  between  the  two  houses  by 
marriage  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  W 
their  son,  Henry  VIII.  (1509-1547),  came  to  the  thn 
there  was  none  to  dispute  his  title,  for  he  represented  I 
houses.* 

This  strife  seems  to  have  been   instrumental  in 


A  Greene,  Op.  cit.  Vol.  I.  p.  546. 
2  Greene,  Op.  cit.  Vol .  II.  p.  86. 


I 
I 


MOB  or  MODS  AX  JfA  TTOSS.  433 

Vying  fradalism  in  EngUnl  by  eictenniiiattDg  the  no 
StT,  and  it  &Uo  left  the  ctwwti  with  grvaler  powurs  than 
lad  pn*riotuIy  enjoTetl.*    Indeed  the  war  seems  to  have 

ri  eondncd  to  the  DobiUtr,  and  disturbed  the  population 
little.  Commerce  was  maintaiDed  all  through  this 
Hod.  Henrr  VII.  was  the  patron  of  the  Cabols,  of 
lose  Toyafft-a  to  Amcrira  we  shall  hear  again.  Litera- 
m  and  education  flouriabed,  while  printing  was  intnv 
Bed  by  John  Caxton  (1476).  Scotland  was.  during  this 
le,  governed  by  the  Stuarta,  the  ablest  of  whom  was 
Does  !.,  while  James  IV.  became  the  husband  of  Henry's 
tighter,  MargareL  This  marriage  fumishotl  England  a 
e  of  kings  at  a  later  date. 

It  would  require  a  volume  to  reconl  the  [wiitical  his- 
[y  and  internal  development  of  the  English  people  du- 
ig  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.*  One  fad  we  must  now 
mtTVe  in  English  iMstor^- ;  and  that  is,  the  king  is  no 
Dger  the  only  indi\ndual  that  plays  a  part  in  thy  world's 
nwia.  Ainoiig  the  mnst  powerful  men  of  that  day,  was 
le  king'?*  clianccllor,  Cardinal  Wolsey.  In  fact,  his 
wer  Miiil  fame  lacked  little  of  royalty.  Able  to  perform 
lemilraii  mental  tasks,  lie  gained  the  favor  of  his  sover- 
pi.  ;ind  was  allowed  to  hold  the  reins  of  government, 
•a  iliphmiat.  he  had  no  equal.  Both  King  Fruneis  of 
ranee  and  KminTor  Charles  \".  are  said  to  have  ac- 
i"wle<|ged  the  Car.iinal's  power  and  <'oiirted  bis  favor  by 
slowing  uiHtn  him  liberal  pensions  and  costly  gifts, 
■iiry  ^.howered  riches  ujion  him,  and  lieijccaiiie  the  most 
"crful  subject  of  the  English  king.  W'licii  tliat  cele- 
»tf"i    meeting,    known    as    the  "  Field    of  the    Cloth  of 

'  Htokn:  "Medieval  Hlstorj-,"  p.  172. 

*   ('•'/'■  r<irthlB  reign  Fmudt':  "History  of  England,''  LoncloD,  1B70, 

.  I      Hume:  "HlBtory  of  P:iiglBn<i,"  Vol.  [II. 


424  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Gold  "  (1519)  took  place  between  Henry  and  Frands, 
gorgeous  was  the  appearance  of  Wolsey.  Clothed  in  i 
crimson  n^bc,  mounted  on  a  mule  trapped  with  gold,  he 
rode  beside  his  king  as  they  entered  the  "  camp  of  thw6 
hundred  white  tents  that  surrounded  a  fairy  palace  witk 
gilded  posterns  and  brightly  colored  oriels  which  rose  like 
a  dream  from  the  barren  plain  of  Guisnes,  its  walls  bung 
with  tapestry,  its  roof  embossed  with  roses,  its  golden 
fountain  spouting  wine  over  the  greensw^ard."* 

Still  when  his  day  arrived,  Henry  proved  how  little 
the  powerful  Cardinal  was  in  his  way,  by  casting  liim 
from  his  lofty  seat  and  depriving  him  of  life  itself.  So 
with  all  his  powerful  subjects,  the  will  of  the  monarch 
sufficed  for  their  death  warrants,  and  they  were  often  led 
to  the  fatal  block  without  the  form  of  a  trial.  He  is 
said  to  have  ordered  seventy-two  thousand  executions 
during  his  reign.*  Nor  was  Parliament  an  obstacle  to 
attaining  his  ends.  Instead  of  fearing  the  power  of 
that  body  as  former  kings  had,  he  made  it  his  tool,  and 
ruled  it  as  he  ruled  his  subjects.  So  that,  when  he  wished 
money.  Parliament  voted  a  tax  to  raise  it.  As  Heniy 
could  not  brook  a  superior,  he  finally  cast  off  allegiance 
to  the  pojie  and  had  himself  declared  head  of  the  church 
in  England.  The  arbitrary  manners  of  the  king  are  illus- 
trated by  the  treatment  of  his  wives.  He  was  the  hu?- 
band  of  six  su(;cessive  wives,  whose  sad  fates  gained  fi»r 
th(»m  world-wide  sympathy,  but  for  him  eternal  condem- 
nation.'^ 

It  must  be  added,  however,  that  Henry  VIII.  was  a 
gr(»at   legislator,   a  scholar,  and  a  patron   of    literature. 

1  (Jn'oiie,  Op.  cit.  Vol.  IT.  p.  114. 

2  Pattoii:  "Modern  History,"  p.  130. 

3  TheHo  were  (.'uthurino  of  Aragon,  Anne  Boleyn,  Jane  Seymour 
Anne  of  CleveH,  Catharine  Howard,  aud  Catharine  Parr. 


jasr  or  MODEBW  XAITOWS. 


D  deputaKMU.  Sbe  ceased  to  be  a  seooodair  pomr 
took  her  place  in  tbe  AvaA  x»te  «f  dw  great  Badons 
be  a^p — EndoDd,  the  Ei^pire,  Spain,  and  Franco, 
vd  had  gained  a  valid  wide  iiqwitolJon  i«r  iLe  luam* 
and  the  iBdependeaoe  of  tlie  mastcn  who  ta^ifat 
e.  John  Colet,  Dean  of  Sv  Pauls  nod  fcnnder  of  St. 
Is  acbool,'  trained  op  a  class  <4  scholar?  trlio  '^tn  not 
id  to  think,  talk,  and  wHle  Qpoc  all  political  and 
pou  fotr|ecte.  Etcd  the  king  was  cot  spared  in 
rmticisutr.  hot. 
I  vit  and  iroaj, 
r  Md  hia  ao 
I  up  before  the 
iand  tried  U» 
w  that  Itiwg* 
I  onlr  men. 
Hkg  these  free 
-•ann-si  rv-f"'rm- 
Eru>i]iu>  :irid 
rb»ni:i$  More 
1  fon'ni'wt, 
rnry,  liiuiselt 
a    [tiitnin     of 

"N'W    Learn-  Erssn-.-a 

'  a-i  it  h.'id  Ix^n  called.  His  was  by  no  means  an 
i>r  min.l.  But  to  a  jKjH-t'rful,  well  ]>ro|>ortioned,  well 
u-^l  pliysiral  frame,  was  added  a  sui>erior  intellect  and 
»crftil  will.  Enismus  had  l>eeii  liia  toaeber;  and,  in 
and  learning,  he  aii|>eared  at  no  mean  advantage 
ng   tbe  most  illustrious  scholars   who  thronged  his 

Vide  Lw(ur«  by  Rev.  Ronald  Bayne  Id  "Ood'i  EDgllBhrnan," 
w.  1S8T,  p.  106. 


1 


426  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


court  and  his  universities.  As  we  have  intimated,  hk 
will  was  a  strong  and  overbearing  one.  Though  his  sub- 
jects might  boldly  write  and  talk,  their  doom  was  sealed 
if  they  dared  to  cross  their  king's  will.  Even  Wolsev's 
successor,  the  bold  and  polished  Sir  Thomas  More,  was 
led  away  to  the  block,  because  he  would  not  sacrifice  his 
religious  freedom  to  the  caprice  of  his  stern  sovereign. 

In  this  chapter,  we  have  attempted  to  give  a  short  out 
line  of  the  gradual  formation  of  the  Modem  Nations  of  Eu 
rope  out  of  the  crumbling  ruins  of  the  great  empire  o 
Rome.  Even  though  extending  over  many  centuries,  lik 
all  formative  periods  in  the  world's  history,  it  was  a  tim 
of  confusion  and  shifting  of  power.  Let  us  attempt  to  kee; 
in  mind  the  main  points  brought  out.  Looked  at  broadlj 
it  is  the  period  of  the  gradual  emergence  into  the  full  blaz 
of  history  and  into  the  light  of  modern  culture  of  the  Tei 
tonic  people  of  Europe.  Of  necessity,  only  the  main  4 
tails  of  this  outline  could  be  given.  The  developmei 
and  growth  of  culture  during  this  period  of  time  requu 
a  separate  chapter  for  a  full  treatment. 

With  this  chapter,  we  bring  too  a  conclusion  the  hi 
torical  part  of  this  volume.  Before  turning  to  study  th 
culture  of  the  Classical  and  Medieval  periods,  let  us  sun 
marize  this  sketch  of  Aryan  history.  Although  we  hai 
every  reason  to  conclude  that  the  Aryans  (whether  imn: 
grants  or  not)  were  in  Europe  at  extremely  early  time 
yet  their  history  is,  comj^aratively  speaking,  modem.  V^ 
are  to  regard  the  Aryans  of  Asia  as  emigrants  fro 
Europe,  who  wandered  so  far  toward  the  rising  sun  tbi 
their  route?  home  became  cut  off  by  returning  waves 
Turanian  people.  In  their  new  homes,  theirnative  energ 
for  centuries  blazed  forth,  a  light  to  surrounding  peop/< 
but  as  far  as  the  main  history  and  culture  of  the  Axj9i 


RISE  OF  MODERN  NA  TIONS.  427 

people  are  concerned,  the  Aryans  of  Aaia  are  not  of  great 
importance. 

Turning  to  Europe,  the  development  of  her  history 
ia  that  of  a  cymiferous  flower,  the  terminal  blossoms  are 
the  first  to  unfold.  Pushing  away  from  the  Baltic  home- 
land, the  people  of  Greece  and  then  of  Rome  caught  the 
sunlight  of  Oriental  culture  and  unfolded  in  the  light  of 
the  same.  And  then  other  blossoms,  successively  nearer 
and  nearer  the  base,  unfolded  in  turn  until,  finally,  we  have 
before  us  the  full  flowered  plant  of  European  history. 

•  In  this  hurried  review,  we  have  tried  to  outline  the 
history  of  Aryan  people  from  a  prehistoric  past  to  the 
final  appearance  of  the  Modern  Nations  of  tu-day.  Let  us 
now  turn  to  consider  their  development  in  culture.  We 
will  then  see  more  clearly  than  ever  that  Aryan  civiliza- 
tion and  history  are  the  civilization  and  history  of  the 
Medieval  and  Modern  worlds ;  the  Semitic  and  Tura- 
niiin  history  and  culture  belonging  to  the  Ancient  period 
of  history. 


i: 


31]  ■■'1 


f\ 


;itff. 


.  .1 

•I  ■ 

■  ■  .I- 


i.  ■: 


I 


Part   II. 


-Il^tory  of  the  IntellectUi 
Development  of  ttie 
Aryan  People. 


I.     Greek  Civilization. 

II.     Roman   Civilization. 

III.     Medieval   Civilization. 
IV.     Aryan   Religion. 


* 'Those  conspicuous  circumstances,  to  which  the  prog^ 
ress  of  civilization  is  commonly  ascribed  . . .  far  from  being 
the  cause  of  civilization,  are  at  best  only  its  effects.... 
although  religion,  literature,  and  legislation  do,  undoubt- 
edly, modify  the  condition  of  mankind,  they  are  still  more 

modified  by  it They  are  themselves  the  product  of  pr^ 

ceding  changes,  and  their  results  will  vary  according  to 
the  variations  of  the  society  on  which  they  work." 

Buckle. 

^^Civilization  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  general  im 
provement  of  mankind    by  higher  organization   of   the 
individual  and  society,  to  the  end  of  promoting  at  once 
man's  goodness,  power,  and  happiness." 

Tylkr. 


4») 


tHE 


Ht^^ 


XOTv* 


pusti 


UB«A>' 


i^wox 


.^fiSrSin."*' 


jlHO 


^ 

'^^^F--    >^ii  '^  ^**^'^           'v 

h^^^^Wm 

^S^^^wfO 

;  *i|^i;v^^^^gM 

^&^PHi 

'^^^^ 

1 .,  £^ 

I  w  ■^^"           ' 

L'  15 

"<^l^ii:  'f  j 

''^^l^HR 

m^. immmmmi 

OfCEEK  ClVlLTZATloy. 


CREEK  CIVILIZATION, 


WJcnox  —  Importance  of  Grecian  Culture — Faclom  of  Qreciftn 

Ciduu»~lnaiien«c  nf  Trilnd  Society— CUy  Life— Family  Life  In  An- 

cl»al  Gn*n— luClMait-al  Greece— Co u (lit ion  of  Women  at  Athena 

— In  flpwl«— nxfilaniillaii  of  the  Same— Daily  Life  of  an  Athenian— 

Valiwof  Athenian  CKizcDship— ConBcquenreeof  th«  Coodltlon 

la  Alli«n»— Kducalion  in  Athens— Tlieatreg  of  Athena— 

t  Publio  Mejilit-MuHic   and   Daocing- Public 

Llfi^-Tlip  EtM^Iesia— The  Court  of  Areopngus— The  Senate— 

PIillti«)phy—Th ales —The  Pjthagoreaua  — Xenoplinnes— Par- 

—  Itr-raclltDa —  Empedocles  —  DfnioerltuH  —The  Hkeptloa 

.— Si«!ntlei»-PIato— AriBtollc— Tlie  Epicureans— The  Rtoica 

^OwrlaD  Scli-Diw— AatroDomy- MatbematlcK — Greek  Art— Temple 

AKbilaoture— Painting- PbldiaH 


ARK  iiijw  ready  to  study  Arj'aii  ciTiUza* 
tion.  The  grojit  importuiifo  of  this  will 
be  api>arent  when  wo  reflect,  that  the 
civilization  uf  the  workl  to-tlay  is  Aryan. 
Let  \iA,  therefore,  strive  to  learn  what  we 
oin  of  the  growth  ami  developiuent  of  Aryan  culture. 
We  have  before  remarked,  that  the  i>eculiarity  of  Aryan 
mlttire  is  not  that  the  Aryan  people,  for  the  first  time, 
duoDVercd  and  applied  the  various  factors  which  make  up 
their  culture,  but  that  they  adoptetl,  applied  to  new  usee, 
*aA  developed  tho  ideas  that  had  long  been  extant  in  the 
world. 

On  the  whole,  though  Aiyan  culture  has  flowed  on  in 
•■  erer  widening  and  deepening  stream,  yet  we  may  con- 
reniently  consider  it  under  three  great  divisions,  period% 


dan        ■ 
An-        1 


434  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

or  epochs.  In  this  connection,  we  will  not  consider  ttu 
Aryans  in  Asia.  For  the  latter  are  but  exotics,  and  theii 
culture  is  not  a  fair  test  of  Aryan  culture.  The  firs; 
Aryan  people  to  come  in  contact  with  Oriental  culture 
to  seize  on  it,  make  it  peculiarly  their  own,  and  develop  il 
to  an  extent  before  unthought  of,  were  the  Hellenic  jieo 
pie  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  Here  we  &id  the  firsl 
stage  of  Aryan  development.  When,  in  the  course  oi 
time,  the  inevitable  hour  came  that  the  power  and  influ- 
ence  of  Greece  declined,  we  detect  the  dawning  greatness 
of  Rome,  that  country  that  for  many  centuries  was  k 
rule  the  world.  In  Rome,  accordingly,  we  find  a  second 
stage  of  development. 

In  the  case  of  Greece,  the  culture  was  confined  to  i 
vcTv  limited  area.  Rome  ruled  a  much  greater  country 
but  the  centuries  sped  by,  and,  at  last,  Teutonic  Europe 
Hi)urred  on  t)y  Aryan  destiny,  demanded  a  share  in  th 
culture  of  their  more  favored  southern  kinsmen.  Aceor 
ingly,  when  their  armies  brought  down  in  ruins  the  R 
man  Empire,  and  their  people  commenced  to  absorb  tl 
culture  of  Classical  times,  we  enter  on  a  third  period 
the  intellectual  development  of  modem  Europe.  Und 
th(»se  three  divisions,  then,  we  will  study  the  culture 
the  Aryans. 

It  is  needless  to  dilate  on  Grecian  culture.  The  mc 
casual  reader  knows  of  its  importance,  and  understan 
somewhat  of  the  great  influence  it  exerted  in  the  cultu 
history  of  the  Aryans.  Greek  art  has  always  been,  a: 
always  will  be,  considered  the  purest  and  most  perfe 
approximation  to  the  ideal.  Even  the  poor  remnants 
their  architecture  and  sculpture,  which  we  admire  in  t 
museums  of  Europe,  and  in  some  places  of  Greece,  Sici 
and  Asia  Minor,  even  these  dilapidated  fragments  of  t 


crrujTA  nox  4^5 

ginal  workf  fill  us  with  awe.  with  wonderment,  with 
honnJed  admirntioa.  The  j«ottery  works  found  in 
nmn  tombe  cihibit  the  mtm  exquisite  designa,  the 
uttkUcate  use  of  colors,  and  the  most  doliglitful  orua* 
ttUl  fornu.  All  these  objects  breathe  the  very  spirit 
f  U^  art ;  and  the  severest  critics  of  modern  times  are 
ItUf  to  find  (atilt  with  the  gorgeous,  and  yet  chaate,  op- 
<n  of  Grvcian  columns,  or  with  their  representations  oi 
■leaDd  female  beauty. 

It  a  the  same  in  Literature.  The  dramas  of  Sopho- 
laor  Euripidce,  the  odes  of  Pindar,  and  the  comedies 
TArisiuphones  have  survived  the  varying  tastes  nnd  faa- 
dioiu  criticiaDi  of  ovur  sixty  generations,  and  they  atill 
lim-  forth  in  unfaded  brilliancy  and  iK>etic  splendor.  In 
hiloflophy,  with  ibe  exception  of  the  tbuudera  ot  new  ro- 
gioiui,  no  other  individual  can  compare  with  (irecian 
Wijw>pber»  in  ]mtit  of  influence  on  tho  thouglitw  and 
'iiiicii.-  i.i'  ni.-iukiiiil.  Il  li.ia  well  been  pjiid.  tliat  cMTy 
i^'i  i>  eilln.T  a  l>urn  Platmiist  nr  a  born  Aristotelian; 
|'''iiiii.L'tlirrcliy,  that  nicii  are  naturally  divided  into  two 
■"*'-!•  I.I  mental  caste,  i.f  peculiar  turn  of  mind — into 
''■Il  :if  Would  li'Hii  t<»ward  Arictotle  anil  his  way  of  think- 
-■  uiiii  iiitti  such  as  Would  led  inclined  to  follow  the  foot- 
I'suf  Plat... 

Lt-t  us  tirst  inquire  into  the  cause  of  Grecian  culture, 
hat  wi(s  it  which  enabled  this  people,  iiiliabiting  a  very 
liti-d  areaof  ciiuntry.  to  achieve  «<■  great  conquoats  in 
•  culture  history  of  tlic  world?  Many  scholars  huvo 
*-mpted  t'.  answer  this  query.  8i.iiie  have  thought 
»t  their  geographical  location  explained  all.  As  is 
itti-d  out  in  a  previous  volume,'  "the  culture  of  a 
opieis  greatly  influenced  by  their  surroundings.     The 

'Vol    I,  (..  7«5. 


436  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

very  appearance  of  a  country,  whether  it  is  mountainous 
or  plain,  sea-girt  or  inland,  influences  the  character  of  a 
people."  Buckle^  shows  how  much  the  culture  ot  a  peo- 
ple depends  on  climate,  food,  and  physical  surroundings. 
Von  Humboldt  and  Ritter  have  pointed  out  the  strange 
relation  between  the  length  of  a  country's  coaat  line  and 
the  intelligence  of  its  inhabitants.  Others,  again,  seek  to 
explain  everything  strange  in  the  culture  of  the  GreAs 
and  other  people  by  referring  to  inborn  race  qualities. 
We  need  not  discuss  these  various  opinions;  but  let  us, 
in  the  case  of  Greece,  point  out  a  potent  factor. 

In  our  search,  we  must  not  loose  sight  of  the  results 
obtained  in  a  former  chapter.*  It  has  been  abundantly 
shown  that  the  organization  of  a  people  for  social  and 
governmental  purposes  exerts  a  wonderful  influence  on 
their  culture.  Since  society  in  ancient  Greece  was  tribal 
society,  we  know  that  when  we  talk  about  a  **statc," 
wo  mean  something  altogether  different  from  apoUtical 
"state"  of  the  present  day.  Long  before  the  dawn  of 
autlienie  history,  owing  to  their  limited  expanse  of  terri- 
tory, their  tribal  head-quarters  had  expanded  into  cities, 
and  finally  the  tribe  lost  itself  in  the  city.  City  and  tribe 
became  exchangeable  terms.  Hence  we  understand  wbv, 
in  ancient  Greec(\  "city"  and  ''sbite"  were  identical  and 
co-cxtensivo  terms.  This  one  point  is  of  such  importance 
for  the  whole  of  Greek  civilization  that  it  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of.  In  fact  it  is  the  main  point.'  It  shows  «♦ 
once  a  va^t  diffonMKM*  between  modem  and  ancient  timei^' 
In  Greece  (as  well  as  in  the  Roman  empire),  j)eoplo  <1M 
not  know  of  any  other  dwelling  place  than  a  city.     Even- 

»  *'HisU)ry  of  ('ivni/atioii,'»  Vol.  T.  chapter  U. 
«  This  Korii's,  Vol.  IT.  ohuptor  ii. 

•>  This  iiiiporttint  point  in  (■reciiin  culture  has  Ihhmi  elaborated  in  i 
recent  work  l»y  Kuhn. 


OJIEEK  CIVILIZATION.  437 

r  belonged  to  a  city,  because  city  and  tribe,  or  conted- 
T,  wen- co-extensive.  In  the  "Politics"  of  Aristotle, 
great  work  on  Greek  state-institutions,  we  read  of 


Qrcvccf  A!tl8. 

iiitr  .'!-.■  Imt  i.frili.'s.     This  stiitcment  does  not,  how- 
.  .'x<lu.]t.-  the  existence  nf  little  settlements  outside  the 


438  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

precincts  of  cities.  We  know  the  names  of  a  number  of 
such  settlements  in  Attica,  in  Argolis,  in  Messcne,  etc 
But  these  little  "villages"  (as  wo  would  call  them)*  had  no 
existence  of  their  own.  They  were  incorporated  into  the 
city  (of  Athens,  of  Corinth,  of  Argos,  etc.)  as  wards  of  the 
city,  and  they  were  administered  by  boards  of  commission- 
ers whose  head-quarters  were  invariably  in  the  city.  j 

The  experience  of  all  ages  has  proved  the  powerful    j 
influence  of  city-life  on  all  descriptions  of  mental  activity. 
The  inhabitants  of  cities   are  continually  subject  to  the    \ 
stirring,   suggestive,  animating  atmosphere  of  a  higher 
developed  life.     They  see  more,  they  undertake  and  risk 
more,  they  experience  more  than  country-people.    All  the 
energies  of  their  souls  are  called  forth,  and  almost  daily, 
by  an  unceasing  array  of  grave  and  less  serious  affairs,  by 
meetings  of  all  kind,  by .  street  occurrences,  by  shows,  by 
business  transactions,   etc.      It    is,   accordingly,   a  mere 
matter  of  course,  that  the  inhabitants  of  cities  develop 
more   rapidly  than   those   of  country-places,  villages,  or 
hamlets.  Their  intellect,  being  taxed  to  its  utmost  capacity. 
responds  by  a  more  comprehensive  and  profound  activity. 
Nothing  can  illustrate  this  remark  more  vividly  than  a 
comi)aris()n   ot*  Greek  civilization  with  medieval  culture. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  at  least  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Medieval  period,  there  were  but  very  few  cities  in  Xorth- 
ern  and   Central  Europe.     In  England,  in  the  northern 
part  of  France  (the  southern  part  was  an   old  province  c'^ 
Rome),  in  Germany  (northeastern  part),  in  Austria  4)iily-^ 
f(nv  small  cities  were  to  be  found.*    The  bulk  of  the  i>eoi>I^^ 

^  lu  mauy  ca»eB  these  '^villages"  were  tribal  head*quart«r8  of  subjec  C 
triboH,  or  of  tribi>s  whose  unioti  made  the  confederacy  whose  headquar'' 
te/s  were  the  city. 

8  Because  iii  these  countries,  the  land  had  become  the  basis  of  divi- 
siou  [See  Vol.  II.  p.  164]. 


GREEK  CIVILIZA  TIOS. 


43f» 


le  country  in  "marks,"  as  they  were  called  in 
in  ''shires,"'  as  they  termed  them  in  England. 
uf  Europe,  at  that  time,  were  mostly  in  the  south- 
f  the  continent;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  very  parts 
wisdom  and  energy  of  the  Romans  liad  erected 
bulwarks  against  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians. 
5  the  state  of  airairs  in  the  Middle  Agen,  wf  need 
r>ni;*hed  t<i  ht'tir,  tliat   tin-  |if-i.[.it'  of  tlmsc  times 


Siege  Machine. 
vt-ry  slow  development  of  intelligence  and   en- 

nt,  tli:it  .«'ii]KTMliti(iu.s  belief;*  were  rife  amongst 

that,  in  nil   lii^'her  walks  of  literatur<'  !ind  art, 

sadly  <lrtieient. 

llieii  wi'  cdine  upon  one  imiKirtant  factor  in  the 
f  (ip-iTc.     OttjnL'  ii'  tlii-ir  cuiitracted    urea,  the 

hail  tuki'n  Ili<- |>lu<'L'<.f  irllM'-.>r  the   uldt-r   [>erlod.      Ibid.  p. 


440  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

land  did  not  become  with  them  the  basis  of  society  at 
expense  of  kinship.     Hence  their  tribal  headquarters 
into  cities  and  their  culture  became  intense^  the  social 
tact  of  mind  with  mind  spurred  them  on  to  ever  grej 
flights.     Now  let  us  turn  to  study  some  of  the  peculiaritii 
of  every  day  life  in  Greece.  In  reading  the  Homeric  poe: 
we  gain  a  clear  and  higlily  gratifying  picture  of  theco 
tution  of  old  Greek  tribal  life  (1200-1000  B.  c).  The  fath^ 
is  the  head  of  the  joint-family,  which  had  become,  by  thai 
time,  the  unit  of  society.     The  house-father  was  not  u 
irresponsible  despot.     The  house-mother  seems  to  have 
lived  on  terms  of  equality  with  him.     The  people  lived  ii 
single  mansions,  although  cities  are  mentioned.^     In  the 
political  life  described  by  the  Homeric  poems,  the  tribal 
chief,   basileus    or    king,   rules,   and  his  oflfice  generally 
passes   by   inheritence,  though   the  gentes  exercised  the 
right   of  election  if   necessary.     But  he  is  not,  like  an 
eastern  monarch,  even  practically  despotic;  he  is  bound, 
first,  by  ''themistes,"  viz.,  the  traditional  customs  of  the 
people;  he  must  consult  the  '*boule,"  the  tribal  council; 
and   lastly,  his   })roposals   require  to   be  ratified  by  the 
"agora,''  or  popular  assembly.     Many  of  the  pictures  of 
manners,  especially  in  the  Odyssey,  have  the  refinement  of 
a  noble  simplicity  in  thought  and  feeling  and  of  genuine 
courtesy  which   is  peculiarly  Hellenic.     The  useful  arte 
are  still  in  an  early  stage.     The  use  of  the  principal  met- 
als is  known,  but  not,  apparently,  the  art  of  smelting  or 
soldering  them.     Money  is  not  mentioned,  oxen  being  the 
usual  measure  of  value ;  and  there  is  no  certain  allusion 
to  the  art  of  writing.    The  main  occupation  of  the  people 
was  ai^riculture  and  war. 

This  picture,  however,  differs  from  historical  Greece, 

1  Argos,  Troja,  etc. 


OBEEJC  CIVlLJZATIOy.  441 

B  to  aay  from  Greece  as  it  developed  from  the  ninth 
ry  B.  c.  to  the  time  of  the  Ronum  conquost.  Mo- 
oy,  it  is  true,  was  kept  up  as  formerly.  But  in  the 
on  of  women,  a  radical  change  t(i>ik  plaeo,  a,  change  the 
nation  of  which  requires  a  thorough  understanding 
e  whole  frame  of  Grecian  culture.  In  general,  wo 
m  hear  of  anything  else  than  tlie  deeds  and  exploits 
»n.  Battles,  sieges,  truces,  adventures  of  all  sorts 
>ld,  and  all  and  each  of  them  l>espeak  the  audacity, 
Iroitness,  the  failures,  or  succest^es  «i  men.  We  oon- 
ly  hear  of  their  state  of  affairs,  of  the  way  they 
med  and  were  being  governed,  of  their  assemblies 
war-councils;  of  the  state  of  women,  however,  wo 
bat  little.  They  usually  sink  bm'k  into  the  insignifi- 
>  of  their  households,  and  are  uut  considertxl  worth 
soning. 

But  such  is  not  the  method  and  duty  of  a  real  Uis- 
of  Civilization.  It  is  a  fact  of  all  experience,  that 
en  eX(T<'i:?e  a  va.st  although  silent,  and,  as  it  were 
t.    influence   t.ver   the    destinies   of    men.       To     ig- 

sucli     influence    in  flie  study  of    nations    is  oquiv- 

t"   ignoring  one  of  the   most  powerful   factors    in 

Jevelopnient  of  culture.'       Hence    we  have   first   to 

I  ujHin    the  <-onditi<)n   of  women    in  historic  Greece. 

ill  iii'xitTn  times,  the  social  conditioti  of  women  is 
y  much  the  .''aTlie  all  over  the  Cliri.<fian  w<»rld.     Xo- 

tiiiriks  111'  ciirtiiiling  their  natural  rights  as  free-lKim 
-n  :    tticy  ulitiiin  the  .><anu'  rank    and    positions    that 

liti.-t»an<I>  lioUI;  they  can  nmve  freely:  they  can  join 

fiitlicrs..r  brothers  at  pul)lic  shows  or  otiier  locali- 
thiy  can  have  tree  intercourse  with  male  and  female 

Hliowing  the  lDfluenc«  ot 


442 


THE  MEDIEVAL   WOItLD. 


persons;  they  can  dress  as  they  please,  etc.,  etc.     la  o 
■word,  a  modern  "  lady  "  of  South  or  Xorth  America  dod 
not  essentially  differ  from  a  ''lady"  in  Spain  or  GermaDj;! 
As  to  personal  demeanor,  as  well  as  to  social  standinji 
they  occupy  an  almost  identical  position. 


Types  ol  Greek  Worr.er.. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  case  in  ancient  Greece. 
The  |)ositii)n,  the  social  standing  of  uwomenin  AtbL'iis  was 
totally  different  fronithatofa  woman  in  Sparta,  although 
only  ;i  few  miles  intervened  between  the  two.  Athenian 
Women  lived  in  iiitstairs-rooni;?,  so  that  their  husbands 
wiiuld  know  when  they  left  their  apartments.  They  were 
obliged  to  stav  at  home   in  the  midst  of  their  servants. 


r  civiLizA  Tjos.  443 

were  not  pcnnittnl  to  gi>  to  thenters  or  other  public 
h,  Boieas  »otuc  vcn'  serious  tragetiy  was  giron.  From 
idal  gstberings  of  their  husbands,  from  the  so-called 
uau  (which  are  bo  charmingly  described  in  Plato's 
»),  thcj  were  exdaded;  and  even  at  family  suppers, 
lad  to  sit  apnrt.  When  in  the  streets,  they  were  eon* 
y  attended  liy  sUres,  and  nubodv  dared  to  wldrees 

nor  were  they  alluweit  to  approach  anybotly." 
"he  rhoire  nf  a  wife  anmng  the  Athenians  was  rarely 
ded  upon  affection,  and  taking  into  consideration  the 
led  exhrtcnee  of  an  Athenian  maid,  eoiUd  have  been 
ddoDi  the  re«ult  of  previous,  acquaintance  or  fnmil- 
,  In  many  caaes.  a  father  chose  for  his  son  a  bride 
I  the  latter  hail  never  seen,  or  compelled  him  to  iriar* 
r  the  sake  of  chci-king  his  extravagance.  N'or  was 
nsnit  uf  a  femah-'  to  a  niati-h  proposed  for  hergener- 
bought  neces-oary  :  ?he  waa  obliged  to  submit  to  the 
»  of  her  i»irents,  and  receive  from  them  her  husband 
i>rd,  even  though  he  were  a  stranger  to  her. 
kipboi--1i-«,  tlie  grtMl.'sl  of  fill  fJrfck  dniiiia  wrilers, 
describes  the  lot  of  Wianan  in  this  n-spect.  "When 
re  grown  up  (he  makes  a  female  say),  we  are 
n  from  our  parents  and  paternal  gods."  So  also 
[iripiilcs,  Ilermionc,'  a  representative  (Jreek  woman, 
rvTi  ihiit  it  is  her  father's  business  to  jirovide  a 
ind   for  her.*     And,  for  fear  the  father  might  not  bo 

enough,  there  were  magistrates  in  Athens,  the  ^/«a*- 

*«*  ■■  Alhonaf  UB,"  I.ib.  vil,  and  AriRtotle  in  the  f.nirOi  Iwiok  of  bis 
,lr«."    In  the    Kicureus  "On   WomeTi."    In   lieckcr'-t  udmlrabl* 
trln."R>Bii>- InitanrtH  will   lie  found  of  the  rigid   lueuun-tt  Mlop- 
1»  exclusion  of  women  In  Oroepe. 
Lndrumacbc,  i*iil. 

lut  rnBicli-niBkini;  among  tlie  anclentn  waa  not,  In  default  of  legal 
lloDii,«'ntirfly  left  to  the  rare  and  forethouglilof  parenU,  for  w* 
r  women  who  made  pro|>OHUIonH  of  marriage.     Pollux,  iU.  SI. 


OBSBK^  CI  VILIZA  TIOtT.  445 

■nr  joiBt-&iiiily.'  Aristotle  always  riasses  women  and 
kikireii  togellier.*  An  unfaithful  wonian  was  practically 
ISEpdled  from  society  and  excommuninitod.  If  she  aiv 
pCKTMl  in  a  temple,  and  e*'en  in  tJioBt*  temples  which  for- 
ESgn  women  and  alarcs  were  allowwl  to  onter,  any  ono 
int^t  treat  her  .-ui  he  pleased,  providing  he  did  not  kill 
BT  mutilate  her.*  It  U  in  acconlance  with  the  spirit  of 
4lit  treatment  of  Athenian  women  that  Athoiii*  did  not 
■■■Mr   her  cltuens  to  marry  with   foreign   women,  nor 

^^Klim  peculiar  and  unworthy  position  of  women  in 
^HgBs  found  it«  <-uunteq)urt  in  Sparta,  in  tlie  Laeonian 
IBb.  Women  in  Stmrta  were  much  le8»  restricted  in 
ll»«r  personal  freedom.  They  were  not  only  i>ermitted 
Ui  join  the  social  gatherings  of  men,  and  tci  appear  alone 
in  public,  bat  they  wore  simply  obliged  to  pnrtakc  in  the 
Ithteiic  exercises  of  the  stronger  sex,  proving  their  phys- 
ic^ ralor  l>y  wrentUng  and  Ixixing  matchea."  Acmmllngly 
ibeir  flesh  became  developetl  to  the  statuesque  beauty  of 
bvble  figures;  and,  <in  their  occsii^ional  visits  to  Athena 
kr  cAher  cities,  they  roused  the  envious  wi»ndcrmi>nl  of 
heir  Udy  hosts.  When  married,  they  were  expected  to 
lave  children  ;  and  this  main  and  prin(>i[>:il  object  lind 
Id  be  olitained  by  any  mean}<.  An  idd  hushand  had  to 
>'  -njil. lilted  by  a  yoiniL'  Ii'ver,  with  lioth  th"  consent 
»f  public  opinion  and  the  approval  of  the  state.* 

In  Sparta,  the   state,  the  conservation  of  those  old, 
ime-ballowed  institutions,  was  the  first  and  last  conaid- 

I    Vidf  Kesni«:  "Ary»n  Hounehold." 
■  Artototle,  4th  book  iif  PoUtlca. 

*  Deiaoath^Den  ftdv.  Nekr.  eh.  2*2.    AeachiDC*  ulv.  Tim.  cb.  W. 

*  DemoxtheneM  kdv.  Near.  p.  ISSe. 

*  Plain.  I,eK   vll. 

*  UmbuFK-Brower :    "HIatorle  de  Im  Civil  Honle  et  R.  dat  Oran," 

rv.  ]•». 


446 


T-HE  MEDIEVAL  WORTJi. 


\ 


erntioii.  It  is  »  well-known  fact,  that  in  Sparta  tv«j 
newly-born  baby  had  la  bo  submitted  to  a  jury  of  com- 
missionci-s,  who  passed  an  ultimate  decision  on  the  vitalitr 
of  the  child.  In  Ciises  of 
nil  unfavorable  decision,  the 
baby  Wiia  simply  flung  into 
the  abyss  of  tlio  Taygetns.' 
The  State  liad  no  use  for 
weak,  fragile  citizens. 

F(»r  the  meditative  mind, 
these  facts  arc  highly  sug- 
gestive. Why  did  women  ' 
enjoy  a  liberty  in  Sparta  ' 
that  was  absolutely  with- 
held from  them  in  Athens? 
i'  Can  such  broad  facta  bo  as- 
cribed to  mere  accidental 
Diacua  Thrower.  causes,  to  the  mere  whim  of 

legislators  ?  On  the  contrary,  tlic  general  and  determining 
facta  of  history,  or,  in  other  words,  the  institutions  of  na- 
tions do  not,  and  never  did,  depend  on  accidental,  whim- 
sical freaks  of  this  or  that  prominent  man  or  men.  Thev 
invariably  depend  on  some  broad,  general  cause,  the  work- 
ing of  which  can  not  be  timii>cro<l  with  by  the  inte^ 
fercnce  of  single  individuals. 

Often  all,  or  the  majority,  of  Athenian  and  Spar- 
tan in.stitution3  are  attributetl  to  the  wisdom  and  legisla- 
tive prudence  of  Solon  and  Lyeurgus  respectively.  Anc« 
no  doubt,  these  two  eminent  men  enacted  a  few  votJf 
wholesome  laws,  and  administered  their  states  with  grea"' 
insight  into  the  character  and  tendencies  of  the  people 
But  far  from  being  the  solo  originators  of  all  Athenian  o* 

I  I'lutiircli,  LycurgUH. 


ORJCEK  CIVZLTZATIOlf. 

an  iusliUilionti.  Uie/  found  these  institutions  already 
i«tCDce  and  did  nothing  else  but  simply  sanction 
.  The  institutions  of  a  nation  can  not  be  created  by 
pipal  ordinances  (ir  by  state-laws.  The  real  root  of 
oculiar  standing  of  the  women  of  Athens  and  Sparta, 
mtsido  the  8co[)e  of  individual  lawgivers.  The  real 
e  will  be  found  in  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizen8hi|> 
J8C  two  states,  and  the  care  taken  to  preserve  purity 
3od.  L*'t  us  then  inquire  into  tho  rights  and  duties. 
thenian  citizeiishi]).  As  we  would  expect,  being  in 
idvanced  stage  of  tribal  society,  the  city-states  ia 
ce  wore  thoroughly  democratical  states ;  that  is  to- 
Mch  citizen  was  called  upon  to  take  an  active  part 
1  administration  of  the  state. 
It  this,  in  itself,  wasnotsuffi- 
.  Citizens  may  take  r^rt  in 
tdminiBtration  of  their  state 
lerciaing  the  right  of  suffrage 
Tht'y  elect  hoards  of  indi- 
il  oflicials  and  entrust  them 
the  administration  of  affairs,  ^§ 
li«n:illy  controlling  them  by 
■  uth'T  Iward.    Thi.>i,  in  gen-  Sci:r.. 

w  the  American  system.  In  Greece,  however,  the 
■s  of  tlie  state  were  carried  on,  not  by  ji  few  boards  of 
lis,  but  b\-  the  people  themselves.  The  whole  i>eople, 
ch.tixtk  part  in  the  government.  There  were  several 
«ind  judgi-.s  (dikastes),  several  hundred  <*oun<ri!raen, 
ts.  civil  aiid  iiiival  officers — and  tliese  llinusands  of 
rt   were  <«'cupied   i»y  nearly  every  single    citizen  in 

H'l-  will  form  a  more  adequate  idea  of  Greek  civili- 
ti   by   representing  to  ourselves  the  daily  life  of  an 


448  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Athenian  citizen.  The  average  citizen  of  Athens  »{ 
his  day  mostly  out  of  his  house.  His  material  ci 
were  reduced  to  a  very  low  measure.  The  warm,  brai 
climate  of  his  country  did  not  require  much  subslai 
food  or  much  or  costly  clothing,  and  his  private  inc 
was  considerably  enhanced  by  the  fees  and  compensal 
received  at  the  hands  of  the  state.  Athenian  eitizer 
was  an  ample  source  of  all  kinds  of  small  revenues, 
visiting  the  public  theaters,  the  i)oorer  citizens,  inste; 
paying  their  entrance-fee,  were,  on  the  contrary,  tli 
cipients  of  a  small  remuneration.^  In  a  lawsuit  at  Atl 
the  jury  did  not  consist  of  twelve  good  men  and 
but  generally  of  several  hundred,*  and  consequently  < 
single  citizen  had  frequent  chances  to  act  and  lobe 
as  a  juror. 

Besides  there  were  numerous  festivities'  of  a  p 
character,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  at  which  t 
citizen  could  indulge  in  all  kind  of  merry-making,  few 
and  frolic.  In  addition  to  all  these  great  attractioi] 
public  halls  and  thoroughfares,  arcades  and  "acadei 
were  swarming  with  all  sorts  of  orators,  philosoj] 
"sophists,"  and  politicians,  who  were  continually  ban 
ing  the  people,  and  a  great  number  of  whom  were  n 
representatives  of  their  art  or  profession:  like  Per 
the  unique  statesman  ;  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes,  th 
rivaled  orators;  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Antisth 
Theophrastus,  the  philosophers  ;  etc.  Very  few  Athe 
were  so  poor  as  to  be  without  a  slave,  who  was  consic 
his  legal  property  and  who,  in  fact,  did  all  the  busi 
all  the  work  and  drudijerv  in  his  stead.     Finallv  thi 

I  Boekhs:  *'Publ.  Econ.  of  Athens/'  p.  219,  226. 
*  M:ior  and  Sohoomann:  *'Altiseho»  Prozcws,"  p.  125. 
n  Th(>  Dionysia,  the  Delphiuia,  the  Eleusiuia,  etc.,  etc.     Thes 
^  treated  later. 


OBEBK  CtVILIZATIOy.  448 

irous  wars  of  the  Athenian  Commonwealth  were  a  fruit- 
source  of  revenue  for  the  state  as  well  as  for  the  in- 
^oal  citizen. 

If  we  now  combine  these  features  into  one  whole,  w© 
II  readily  see  that  a  citizen  in  Athens  did  not  ix)ssess 
f  more  precious  good  or  boon  than  his  citizenship.  It 
B  not  only  an  honor,  a  high  standing,  as  in  modem 
tee;  but  it  was  an  almost  sure  guarantee  of  a  safe  liv- 
;,     Hence  it  is  but  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  Athe- 


Qravea  at  Cyrene- 
uis  looked  u|K>n  their  citizcnshii>  as  upon  a  treasure,  the 
?at  value  of  which  would  be  greatly  impaired  by  a  lav- 
1  dUtribution  of  the  same.  They  established,  therefore, 
n.-  strict  and  rigid  laws  as  to  the  capacity  of  foreigners 
l«ecume  citizens  of  Athens;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
ii«  honor  was  conferrc<l  on  but  very  few  outsiders. 
Even  a  bom  Athenian  had  to  undergo  a  great  variety 

inquiries  into  his  descent,  parentage,  etc.,  before  being 
mitto^I  into  the  rank  nf  the  fidl  citizen.     The  candidate, 

whom  the  citizenship  wa.s  to  be  conferred,  was  proposed 


OBEEK  CIVILIZATION. 


451 


oonduct  of  womeD.  If  the  slightest  doubt  can  lie 
D  on  the  purity  of  a  woman's  life,  the  purity  of  eiti- 
;p  is  abo  at  stake.  And,  consequently,  it  was  nothing 
If  evident,  that  the  Athenians,  in  order  to  preserve 
noet  precious  attribute  free  from  all  stains,  took  re- 
to  Ihe  sovere  measure  of  keeping  their  women  in 
kU>  of  perfect  prisoners.  In  duing  ?o,  they  did  not 
iwAk  oontideDce  in  the  natural  bent  of  women  towards 


Wedaing  March- 
uou>  life:  tbey  prcferral  !i  sun-  loL-k  to  all  specious 

A'v  havi;  >..  far  suceenlt'd  III  accounting  fortiie  pecul- 
at<' "f  Women  in  Athens.  But  what  as  to  Sparta? 
shall  we  explain  the  freer  state  of  women  in  Sparta? 
lot  the  Spartans  estimate  their  citizenship  as  highly 
;  Athenians  ?  Diil  not  it  confer  u|K»n  them  similar 
imentsanJ  priviiegfs?    Most  certjiinly.     'W'hy  then 


! 


452  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

did  they  not  think  of  debarring  their  women  from  all  i 
course  with  the  outward  world?  To  this  there  is  a 
simple  and  satisfactory  answer.  Of  all  the  Dorian 
the  Spartans  kept  themselves  the  longest  unmixed 
foreign  blood.  So  jealous  were  they  to  nmintain  their  et^\ 
elusive  privileges,  that  they  had  only  admitted  two  men 
into  tlioir  body  before  the  time  of  the  historian  HerodotUB^ 
(the  fifth  century  B.  c.y.  There  being  no  strangers  in  the-  /. 
state,  they  did  not  dread  the  admixture  of  foreign  blood, 
entertaining,  as  we  remarked  above,  rather  latitudinariaa 
views  about  matrimonial  exclusiveness. 

In  addition  to  this,  there  was  another  eause  at  woik 
in  Sparta,  which  illustrates  the  peculiar  bent  of  the  Spaittt 
mind.  The  constitution  of  the  Spartan  state  displayed  i 
decided  aversion  to  foreign  immigrants ;  and,  in  order  fe 
h  Id  out  as  few  attractions  as  i)ossible,  they  instituted  tiifr 
use  of  a  money,  tliat  had  no  intrinsic  value  whatevw. 
Thus  their  money  consisted  of  huge  iron  discs,  and  tuo 
gold  or  silver  wasadmitteil  into  the  country.  The  iitm' 
discs,  while  red  hot,  were  dipped  in  vinegar  to  render  them 
unnialleablo  and  useless  for  any  other  purpose  than  money. 
Of  a  consequence,  this  kind  of  money  was  no  allurement 
to  the  trading  people  of  other  communities.  Market  far 
the  same  was  restricted  to  the  community  of  the  SpartUHL, 
TIiMice  kSparta,  not  boinjj:  pestered  with  the  dangerous  in* 
flucnce  of  foreigners,  who  helped  to  swell  the  population 
of  Athens  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people,  could  easily 
(lisp(Miso  with  rigorous  measures  with  r^ardto  thepriTBte 
conduct  of  women. 


I  Horodotus  i.  33-.^5.  Afterwards  their  numbers  were  ooottlonaKy  ft* 
rriiitod  hy  the  admission  of  LaconianH,  Helots,  and  foreignen,  but  thll 
was  d()n«»  very  sparingly  prior  to  the  time  of  Agis  and  Cleomeiiee« 
created  hirpe  nunihers  of  citizens. 


I     THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC  LIBIARY 


astm,  lcnox  am* 
tildbm  roombatiqmi 


QBEEK  riVILIZA  TION.  465 

A*e  have  now  gainetl  an  insight  into  tho  state  of 
n  of  Atbens  and  Spartu,  and  likewise  into  the  causes 
'  same.  Our  information  alwut  women  in  other  Gre- 
wmmiinities  is  rathtrsranty.  But  by  what  we  occa^ 
llyread  in  the  historians  and  dramatists  of  Greece, 
ay  fairly  infer,  that  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily, 
ialy,  Macedonia,  and  of  other  Greek  settlements  fol- 
l  the  example  either  of  Athens  or  of  Sparta, 
fhis  peculiar  position  of  women  in  Greece,  more 
iaily  in  the  cities  where  women  were  treated  after  the 
lian  pattern,  did  not  fail  1o  produce  national  features 
lyIx^culia^  and  important  for  the  historian.  Wo 
the  strange  love  of  men  for  men  and  the  "Hetairae". 
ternal  yearning  of  men  for  deeper  emotions  like  love 
k-mpathy  could  not  be  gratified  by  a  system  which 
le<l  women  as  a  means  fur  maintaining  the  purity  of 
iship  rather  than  the  sweet  and  consoling  compan- 
f  liff.  A.s  a  mere  consequence,  men  became  alien- 
n'lii  their  wives;  and  the  tender  relation  between  the 
■\<s  was  exchanged  for  the  stern  duties  of  guard  and 

1«T. 

tut  tbf  I 'motions,  which  men  were  unable  to  lind  and  to 
:•■  in  at  tlicir  homes,  were  sought  for  in  other  direc- 
Thu-s  arose  a  cln.scr  intimacy  between  men  and  men 
Would  el.<c  be  explicable.  Men  attached  themselves 
ir  malt'  fri<'n<l.'*  with  all  the  unalloyed  force  of  their 
imd  sought  to  make  up  for  the  joys  of  wedlock  by 
itini'  in  the  channs  of  friendship.  Wo  read  offamous 
.-,  likt' Kpaminondas  and  Pelopidas,  Ilarmodius  and 
•i^'itmi,  Diininn  and  Pythias,  etc.,  wlio,  to  the  present, 
Ji.-  the  ni'xlel  anhetyiK's  of  elevated  friendship.  The 
Tiu-A  thrrc  hundred  Tlieban  youths  were  all  closely 
I  by  the  Ixinds  of  unswerving  friendship;   and,  as 


4o6 


THE  MEDIEVAL     WOliUi. 


a  rule,  we  hear  more  frequently  of  the  friendship  thaBoi  J 
the  love  of  a  Grecian. 

Frientlahip,  however,  is    not  able  to  quench  the  pas-  I 
sionate  longing  for  more  vehement  feelings,  which  is  so  nat- 
ural to  humanity.     And  hence  the  Grecians,  with  their 
keen  sense  of  beauty  and  their  highly  susc^tible  minds, 


Uueic  and  Dance. 
turned  to  more  gratifying  sources  of  pleasure.  It  is  no 
woinler  tliat  these  sources  were  represented  by  females  :iud 
these  females  are  called  "ffeiat'rae".  They  were  free, 
emancipated  women,  who  lived  by  their  physical  and  men- 
tal charms.  There  were  several  clasaes  of  these  women. 
The  lowest  were  much  like  their  equivalent  class  of  to  day, 
they  lived  in  public  houses  {pemeia),  state-iaatitutioiu, 


ORFEK  CrVFLIZA  TION. 

I  were  first  eatal)Iislieti  by  Solon."    Then  comes  the 
uii'rumt  ola&t  i)f  freed-women,  comprehending  the  flutc- 
\myer.  citbern-playcr,  etc.,  who  were  hired  Id  assist  at 
t  domestic  aacritices.     Many  in  this  class  were  probably 
Jijniishod  fur  wit  and  vivacity.     But  those  remarkable 
'  persoDugca,  who  by  their  intellect  and  power  of  fascination, 
rather  than  by  their   beauty,  exerted  such  an  extensive 
'ay  over  their  age,  and  who,  by  the  position  in  which  they 
I  to  the  in^-atest  men  of  the  day,  have  secured  an  his- 
i  oelebrity,  were  spninj?  from  a  difFen-nt  order. 
fFor  A«|uidia  and    the  Corinthian   Lais,  as  well    as 
!  ftnd   Pythionice  were  aliens,  and  Lamia  was  the 
t  cifa  I'nv  Athenian  citiwm.     jiUmust  every  famous 
I  gfGnvcehud  iineof  these lady-companionswith  whom 
}  di»nu3eil  the  pursuits  and   stxtthed    the  evils  of   life. 
has  wc  ri'dd  nf  FlaUi  and  Archucnussa,  Aristotle  and 
lleri»ylli«,  Epicurusand  Lci>ntioii,  Isocratcs  and  Metanoira, 
Ifc-nnmirr  and  G lycera.     The  beauty  <jf  some,  Lii[K!cially  of 
Ptryne,  said  to  have  t)een  the  most  Ijcaiitiful  wnnicn  that 
e*0"  li%e«i,  iittruetitl  the  eyes  of  iill  (ireece  ;  Apelles  pain- 
ted )ier  pirturc.  and  Praxit«-'lea  made  her  the  uiiwlel  for  the 
CSttikTi    Aphrodite,  the  loveliest  reprcs«.>ntation  of  woman- 
h'"-!  iliat  everthe  sculptor's  ehiwl  pHHlurc-d.     .Some  were 
r-'M>w'.d  f()r  their  musical  faculty,  some  were  celebrated 
lA^iiiiUr-,     .SocratcH.  the  wisest  of  lii'-n,  did  not  hesitate  to 
•ay  th»l  he  n»n«idi'n'<l  Afpiunia  lii.-  teacher. 

It  was  not  to  be  expectetl  that  all  women  would  ac- 
'piiew-e  in  the  general  view  of  their  rights  and  duties. 
Some  of  the  women  in  Greece  were  aware  of  their  unwor- 
thy socia!  standing;  and,  in  the  seventh  century,  a  move- 
ment begin  with  a  view  to  a  reformation,  or  an  emancipa- 
tion of  wotien.  The  center  of  this  movement  was  the  great 
1  AUwoMiu,  xili.  p.  sat*. 


458  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

poetess  Sappho.  She  was  the  only  women  in  all  antiqui^ 
whoso  jjroductions,  by  universal  consent,  placed  heron  the 
same  level  as  the  greatest  poets  of  the  other  sex.  Solon, 
on  hearing  one  of  her  songs  sung  at  a  banquet,  got  the 
singer  to  teach  it  to  him  immediately,  saying  that  ho  wished 
to  learn  it  and  die.  Herodotus,  the  historian,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle  refer  to  her  in  terms  of  profound  respect.  Plato 
called  her  the  tenth  muse. 

Sappho  deterniined  to  do  all  she  could  in  order  to  ele- 
vate her  sex.     The  one  method  of  culture  open  to  women 
at  that  time  was  poetry;  and,  accordingly,  Sappho  establish- 
ed a  school  of  Greek  i)oetesses,  tho  most  celebrated  of  her 
disciples  being  Erinna.     But  this,  as  well  as  similar  other 
efforts  to  raise  Greek  women  from  tho  stagnancy  of  their 
lives,  failed  entirely  of  its  object.     Their  condition  being  A 
growth  and  natural  product  of  deep-rooted  institutions,  it 
could  not  bo  altered  or  modified  by  the  spasmodic  effovtl 
of  a  few  individuals.     Great  changes  are  never  the  read! 
of  measures  taken  by  isolated  individuals,  whom  the  nM^ 
sighted  opinion  of  the  public  are  pleased  to  call  "heroes". 
Great  national  changes  are  brought  about  by  new  inttita- 
tionsor  by  the  dcc-ay  of  old  ones. 

When  wo  think  of  the  great  influence  of  politidal  itt» 
stitutions  in  Greece,  wo  are  surprised  at  the  lack  of  jmUiir 
schools.  Very  few  people  could  do  without  a  knowledge 
of  reading  and  writing,  but  still  they  never  had  a  system 
of  public  schools.  The  state  never  thought  of  erecting 
pul)lic  institutions  of  that  kind  to  bo  maintained  at  the 
general  expense.  The  sort  of  an  education  that  children 
n^ceived  depended  mainly  on  the  parents'  own  conscien* 
tiousness.  Some  got  none  at  all.^  This  however  was  not 
usual;  and  so  necessary  a  thing  did  school-going  seem,  that 

i  Thu  HaiiHHge  HeHer,  for  iustance.  Aristophanes,  EqultieSv  ]234. 


OREEK  CIVILIXATIOX.  45l* 

the  Women  and  children  of  Athens  fled  to  Troczeiij 
time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  the  inhabitjints,  besides 
rting  them,  paid  persons  to  teach  the  children.' 
'he  selection  of  a  teacher  rested  entirely  ■with  the  piw 
The  tutors  were,  in  some  de^rrce  nn<U'r  thf  surveil- 
i/the«tate,thoaghtliislatt<T.'\'Tris.',i,  \\\\\,  ,-ii|i.Tviju 


Entrance  to  a  Qrsek  Gafden. 
ion  over  tlie  qualificationa 
of  the  tutors  or  their  methoda  of 
teaehin;;.  It  is  thought  that  theonly 
smentwa.'*  oue  as  to  a.p.'}  liiHtriiction  was  in  three 
les :  f:ranimiir,  iiiui^ie,  jr}'miiasti<'s  ''Granimar"  was 


at<'>  AelJHii  Var.  Hlftnryvil.  16. 
«,  wlicn  iimnUT*  of  the  Be*,  pun- 
I'jiiK  Ilit'lr  children   to  hv  taugbl. 
,-  enuM  Inflli'l 
,  etc.,  wi-  Imvo  freely  drawn  from 


460  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

the  most  indispensible  i)art  of  instruction.  It  comprehen- 
ded  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  When  the  children 
could  read  and  understand  what  they  read,  the  works  ol 
the  poets  were  put  in  requisition,  to  exercise  their  minds, 
and  awaken  their  hearts  to  great  and  noble  deeds.  The 
study  of  music  began  somewhat  later,  according  to  Plato 
with  the  thirteenth  year.'  The  Greeks  knew  nothing  of 
a  two-months'  or  four-months'  summer  vacation  for  the 
school-children.  Attendance  at  school  was  continued  till 
the  pupils  reached  riper  years  in  the  Greek  sense,  which 
would  generally  be  ixi  the  age  of  sixteen. 

The   more   advanced    instruction   was   imparteil  bv 
teachers  of  a  higher  Arder,  the  Rhetoricians  and  Sophists, 
whose  char<jces  onlv  the  rich  could  defrav.     But  this  did 
not  prevent  the  lovers  of  knowledge  from  purchasing  their 
instruction  oven  at  the  greatest   sacrifices.     Thus  Clean- 
thes,   Menedemus,  and   Asclepiades  worked   by  night  in 
gardens  and  mills,  in   order  to  be  able  to  attend  by  day 
the  classes  of  the  philosophers.     With  the  Spartans,  how- 
ever, nuMital   culture  was  a  secondary  consideration,  and 
Aristotle^justly  upl>raids  them  for  bringing  up  their  off- 
spring like  animals.    We  nowhere  hear  anything  of  edu- 
cational institutions  for  girls,  and  indeed,  they  would  have 
been    incomi)atible    with   the    universal   training  of  the 
female  sex.     The  lack   of  public  state  schools  will  more 
easily  be  understood  if  we  consider  the  innumerable  occa- 
sions for  instruction  of  all  kind  aflTorded  by  the  publicity 
of  all  proceedings  in  statesmanship,  science,  and  art.    To 
listen  to  the  great  orators  of  the  court-hall,  of  the  assem- 
bly, or  of  the  philosophical    "academy"    was  an   ample 
resource  of  useful   information.      But   {)erhaps  the  most 
fruitful  source  of  general  instruction  was  afforded  by  the 
i~L^r\iL  s  PoHt.  vlll.  4. 


r 


GREEK  CIVILIZATION.  461 


*"  magnificent  theaters  and  their  tragedies  and  comedies, 
which  comprised  all  that  is  great,  profound,  and  suggestive. 

Here,  as  well  as  in  other  eases,  our  main  information 
refers  to  Athens,  but  we  can  the  more  readily  acquiesce  in 
it  since  the  other  cities  of  Greece  arranged  their  theatric- 
als according  to  the  Athenian  standard.  The  Athenians, 
before  the  time  of  the  great  tragedian,  Aeschylus,  525-466 
B.  c,  had  only  wooden  scaffolding  on  which  their  dramas 
were  performed.  Such  a  wooden  theater  was  erected  only 
for  the  Dionysiac  festivals,  and  was  afterward  pulled 
down.  The  first  drama  that  Aeschylus  brought  upon  the 
stage  was  performed  upon  such  a  wooden  scaffold,  and  it 
is  recorded  as  a  singular  and  ominous  coincidence  that  on 
that  occasion^  the  scaffolding  broke  down.  To  prevent 
the  recurrence  of  such  an  accident,  the  building  of  a  stone 
theater  was  forthwith  commenced  on  the  southeastern 
descent  of  the  Acropolis  ;  for  it  should  be  observed,  that, 
throughout  Greece,  theaters  were  always  built  upon  emi- 
nences, or  on  the  sloping  sides  of  hills. 

The  Attic  theater  was,  like  all  Greek  theaters, 
placed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  place  for  the  spectators 
formed  the  upper  or  northwestern,  and  the  stage,  with  all 
that  belonged  to  it,  the  southeastern  part,  and  between 
these  two  parts  lay  the  orchestra.  The  seats  for  the  spec- 
tators, which  were  in  most  cases  cut  into  the  rock,  con- 
sisted  of  rows  of  benches  rising  one  above  another;  the 
rows  themselves  formed  parts  (nearly  three-fourths)  of 
concentric  circles,  and  were  at  intervals  divided  into  com- 
partments by  one  or  more  broad  passages  running  between 
them  and  parallel  with  the  benches.  The  entrance  to  the 
seats  of  the  spectators  was  partly  underground,  and  led, 
to  the  lowest  row  of  benches. 


462 


TIIK  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


TlK'i»n'lit.';?lni  vviifs  a  circular,  levx'l  sinicc,  extending  i 
frmit  nt'  tli;'  sjieclaturs  ami  suiiicwhat  Ix-low  the  luwei 
row  iif  Ix-iichf;'.  Iliit  it  was  nut  ii  perfect  circle,  tuic  ^f:% 
lueiit  1)1"  it  IjL'iiig  apiirupriated  to  tlio  stage.  Tlii-on-lie* 
trawiis  the  place  for  the  clmrus,  where  it  iwrturiueil  ill 
evolutions  ami  dances,  for  which  purpose  the  orchestn 
was  covered  with  iHuirds.  As  tlie  chorus  was  the  elcuicnt 
out  of  which  the  drama  arose,  so  the  orchestra  was  urigi- 
iially  thi'  most  important  part  of  a  tlieater.     It  lay  timlff 

„* —  ^  — ^  -      —        the  open  sky.  Sli'pa 

led  from  each  side  | 
of  the  orchestra  to  | 
the  stage.   The  ma- 
chines in  theOrfok 
theatres    were  «■  - 
tremely   iniiner'Ui, 
but  we  ail'  in  many 
cases  uiiaUetofiirm 
an    exact    itlea  of  | 
their  nature  and 
their  I'ffects. 

'riii-alriial  representations  at  Athens  liegan  early  in  , 
tlie  mornin;r.  or  after  l»re.difast,  and  when  the  CMiiniiiiw 
iii']ieop!,'  was  c\pectcd  to  he  ;_'reat,  persons  woidd  cvcii!ii' 
to  occtipy  their  si'ats  in  the  night.  When  the  wcntluT 
Mas  tine,  especially  nt  the  Dyonisiac  festivals  in  i*print'. 
the  |)eiiple  ajjpearcd  with  garlands  i>n  their  heads.  As  it 
was  ii.jI  nniisnal  for  the  theatrical  performances  to  list 
fi-om  ten  ;>  t\v(  ho  hours,  the  .sjiectators  retjuired  refresh- 
ments, and  they  uscil  to  take  wine  and  cakes. 

Tho  whole  of  the  caiai  \\\  the  Attica  theali-e  must 
liave  contained  al»)ut  fifty  thousand  si»ectators.  The 
placi.s  I'lir  grii.rals,  archons  (chief  magistrates),  priests, 


:  ■--;.  o  Grt;-':;;  Thsat 


OBEBK  CIVILIZATION.  463 

gn  embassadors,  »nd  other  distinguished  persons 
»  iu  the  lowest  rows  of  benches,  Jind  nearest  to  the 
iCStra.  On  the  stage  the  aetors  were  playing,  all 
bem  Wearing  cliiiriieteristie  masks.  It  seems  to  us 
MET  in  appropriate  that  an  actor  should  have  one  and 
same  ma.sk  all  the  play  through.  But  we  must  bear 
aind  the  inimensedimensionsofnGreek  theatre,  where 
moat  diatunt  spectators  were  not  Hkcly  to  sec  the  fea- 
Bi  of  the  actors   unless  artificially   enlarged.     These 


Rural  Feativltlee  amorg  the  Greeks. 

*ks.  ili'Tcfure,  were  a  means  to  make  up  for  our  modem 
?ra  glu-.-ics. 

The  Greek  theater  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  the 
eck  game--*.  The  jiuMic  game!*  nf  Greece  w(Te  athletic 
ilestj*  and  specta<lc»  nf  vari.ms  kinds,  generally  connec- 

with.  antl  f.iriiiiiig  I'lirt  of  n  religinus  nbservance. 
>balily  \\\t  institution  i'\crci.--cd  a  greater  influence  in 
Iding  the  national  character  and  producing  that  unique 
c  of  physical  and   intellectual  beauty,  which  wo  see 


a&BEK  CJVIUZA  TIOX.  465 


eforward  «e  have  .in  almost  aobrotE'-^n  li^t  of  the 
\  in  each  saoceeding  Olvrnjiiad.  ur  fourth  recurrent 
u.  Tho  Olympuiii  gaiiit.-8  sarrired  even  the  extinction 
'GlYck  liU'rty,  anj  had  nearly  c«>inplet«d  twelve  centtl- 
Nl  when  they  were  aboU«bcd  by  the  decree  of  the  Chris- 
m  vin\M-T\:>T,  Tht>o<)of>ia.«,  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign, 
ir  la«t  Olympian  viet<ir  was  a  Romanized  Armenian 
\  Varnatnd. 

1  attempt  to  call  up  the  scene  which  Olympia 
jillDj  (lays  must  hare  presented  as  the  great  feMival 
bed.'  Henild?  had  proclaimed  tbrought>Dt  Greece 
B  of  God,  which  put  a  stop  to  all  warfare,  and  en- 
I  all  onfe  conduct  daring  thesacri-d  niuiith.  So 
r  was  this  oh^ired  that  the  Spartans  chose  to 
•-  Uberticft  r»f  GrwMS',  when  ilie  Persians  were  at 
of  Pylae,  rather  than  march  daring  the  holy 
"hose  white  tentii,  which  stand  out  against  the 
Kgniy  of  the  4>livegn)ve8.  belong  to  the  Hellanodicai^ 
tra  judyea  of  the  ganiL-»,  chosfeii  one  for  t-acli  tribe  of 
•  Eleians.  They  have  already  been  here  ten  months,  re- 
aring tnotrurtionn  in  their  duties. 

All.  or  most,  of  the  athletes  mast  have  arrived,  for 
py  have  tii^iii  iiiiiiergoiiig  the  iiidispcnsiblo  training  in 
e  gj-ninaaium  of  the  Altis.  But  along  the  "holy  road" 
>m  the  town  of  Elis,  there  is  crowding  a  motly  throng, 
inapicuous  in  the  long  train  of  pleasure  seekers  are  the 
Te<i  deputies,  clad  in  their  robes  of  office,  and  bearing 
th  them  in  their  carriages  of  state  offerings  to  the 
rine  of  the  god.  Xor  is  there  any  lack  of  distinguished 
itorx. 

It  may  U>  Alcibiades.  who.  they  say,  has  entered 
■en  charioln;  or  Gorgias,  who  has   written  a  poem  for 

'  la  Um  dcMrlpliou  of  tb«>e  gsmen  we  follow  Connd  PrancU  Stotr. 


466 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


tlic  occaaioii;  or  ilio  sophist  Uippiaa,  who  boa^its  that  aP. 
ho  bears  abuut  him,  from  the  sandals  on  lus  feet  to  tlie 
dithyrambo  he  (tarries  in  his  hand,  are  hia  own  manu&o- 


Herodotus  Reading  History. 
turi' ;  nr  Action,  who  will  exhibit  his  picture  of  the  mar- 
v\•.vs.^^  uf  Alexaiulcr  ami   Eosana — the  picture  that  gained 
liiiri  III)  less  a  i)rizo  than  the  daughter  of  the  Hellanodicas, 
1'raci.iiiidea ;  or,  in  an  earlier  age,  the  poet-laureate  of  the 


QBBBK  CIVILIZATION.  467 

lympians,  Pindar,  himself.  Lastly,  as  at  the  medieval 
>iu-uiiuieiit,  then?  are  "scuro»  of  ladies  whose  briglit  eyea 
ain  iiiflufiRf;"  matrons,  indeed,  are  excluded  on  pain  of 
kCAtli,  but  maidens,  in  aecordance  with  -Spartan  manners, 
!■«  adxniUed  to  the  show. 

At   daybreak,  tho  athletes  iiresenled  themselves  in 
tli«    /iottUuterion,  where  the  presidents  were  sitting,  and 
proveil  by  witnawes  that  they  were  of  pure  Ilcllenic  de- 
scent, and  liod  nu  stain,  religious  or  civil,  on  their  cliai-ao- 
ter.      1-aying  their  hands  on   the  bleeding    victim,  they 
vwore  that  tliey  had   duly  qualified   themselves  by  ten 
^notbii'  continuous  training  in  tho  g^'mnasiuni,  and  that 
ih^  would  use  no  fraud  or  guile  in  the  sacred  contests. 
Tbcnce    they  proceeded    to    the  Stadium^   wlicro    they 
sCri|>pe<l  ti)  the  skin  ami  anointed  themselves.     A  herald 
prodfliiDed:  "Let  tho  runners  put  their  feet  to  the  line," 
and  ctttleil  on  the  spectators  1<.>  challenge  any  disqualified 
I'  If  blood  or  chameter. 

If  no  objeetidiiM  were  made,  they  were  started  by  the 
^MBle, of  the  trumpet.      Tbo  presidents  seated  near  the 

tl  adjudginl  tho  victory.  The  foot-race  was  only  one  of 
twenty-fnur  OljTiipian  contests  which  Pauaanias  enu- 
meratf^.  Till  the  77th  01\-nipiad  all  was  concluded  in 
one  day,  hut  artcrward  the  feast  was  extended  to  five. 
Tbe  fblluwing  wore  the  chief  games :  foot-racing,  wrest- 
tiag,  leaping,  Uixing,  and  chariot- racing. 

Thi*  pri»^  wt^ro  »l  flrnt,  n»  in  nomerie  times,  of  some 
■Arinftie  valui*,  but  after  tint  Otli  OIyin]»iad,  tht-  only  prize 
for  I'n.-h  cuntojit  was  a  garland  ..f  wild  olive.  Greek  writers 
fntin  TT-'rrxl.iiu.'*  t'l  Pliitari-Ii,  dwell  with  complacency  upon 
the  ui^iiuiiiuiily  ol'iipcuplu  uhocared  furuothing  but  hon> 
or,  and  were  content  to  struggle  for  a  cormptible  crown. 
Bat  the  soccesaful  athlete  received  in  addition  to  the  imme* 


r 


468  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WOULD. 

(liatG  gift  of  the  crown  and  the  congratulations  of  hit 
friends,  very  substantial  rewards.  A  herald  proclaimed 
Ilia  name,  his  parentage,  and  his  country;  the  Hellanodicai 
took  from  a  table  of  ivory  and  gold  the  olive  crown  and 
placed  it  on  his  head,  and  in  hia  hand  a  branch  of  palm; 
as  ho  marched  in  the  sacre<l  revel  to  the  temple  of  Zeus, 
hia  friends  and  admirers  showered  in  hia  path  flowers  and 
costly  gifts,  singing  an  old  song  of  Archilochus,  and  his 
name  waa  canonized  in  the  Greek  calendar. 


Helmete.  Head  Covering,  and  Weapcns- 
Fresh  honors  and  rewards  awaited  him  on  his  return 
home.  If  ho  were  an  Athenian,  he  received,  according 
to  the  law  of  Solon,  five  hundred  drachmae,'  and  free 
rations  for  life  in  the  Prytaneum;  if  a  Spartan,  ho  had  as 
his  prerogative  the  post  of  honor  in  battle.  Poets  like 
Pindar,  Limonides,  and  Euripides  sang  his  praises,  and 
sculptors  like  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  were  engaged  b? 
the  state  to  carve  his  statue.  We  even  read  of  a  breach 
in  the  town  walla  being  made  to  admit  him,  as  if  the  com- 


OBBBK  CI  VtLIZA  TlOJf.  4G8 

b  road  were  not  good  enough  for  such  a  hero;  and  there 
Wdl-attestcd  instances  ut'  altars  being  built,  and  sacri- 
S  ufferi-'d  tu  H  Huci^esslul  athlete. 

No  wonder,  then,  that  an  Olympian  prize  was  regarded 
the  crown  of  human  happiness.  Cicero,  with  a  Ro- 
b's conU'inpt  for  Greek  frivolity,  observes  with  a  sneer, 
t  an  Olympian  victor  receives  more  honor  than  a 
Dnphant  general  at  Rome ;  and  he  tells  the  story  of 
Rhodinn  Dlagoras,  who,  having  himself  won  the  prize 
[)lytn|>ia  and  seen  \i\s  two  sons  erowned  on  the  same 
r,  wan  addressed  by  a  Laconian  in  these  words :  "Die, 
igoras,  for  thou  hast  nothing  short  of  divinity  to  desire." 
nbiadfs,  when  setting  forth  his  services  to  the  state, 
M  first  hia  vietory  at  Olyinpia,  and  the  prestige  he  liad 
II  for  Athena  by  his  magnificent  display.  But  i)erhapB 
I  Boat  remarkable  evidence  of  the  exaggeraleil  value 
ildi  the  Greeks  atta<'hed  to  athletic  prowess  is  !i  casual 
prpssion  which  the  lii.ttorian  Thucytlidf)*  employs  when 
w'fibing  the  entliusiiislic  rereption  of  Rrasidas  at  I^eione. 
lo  giivernnient,  he  says,  voted  him  a  crown  of  gold,  and 

■  multitude  fli>ckcd  muntl  him  and  decked  liini  with 
rhmds.  ":is  thoujrh  lie  were  an  athlete."'  The  aliove  de- 
npti'.n  "f  the  Olympian  games  will  .-^erv  r  L;riierjiIIy  for 

■  itthcr  ;:r<-iit  festivals  of  Greece.* 

Till-  i"Tidiar  (-aste  of  a  nation's  civilization  manifests 
ell.  m-t  Lilly  in  thnse  broader  and  more  striking  institu- 
n.-  like  jMiIitical  or  military  devices,  but  also  in  the 
utt  uriiinary  customs  and  habits  r»f  every  day  Hfe.     Nay, 

■  the  historian  of  civilization,  these  latter  customs  are 
'  <Tntral  point  of  attention.  It  is  from  this  point  of 
■w.  that  we  are  noiv  going  to  treat  of  the  manner,  in 

'  Thueydld™.  11*11.  Pel.  Iv.  121. 

«  Other  natlookl  gsmea  were  tlio  Pythi&n,  Nrai«&n,  and  TathmUa. 


470 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


which  the  ancient  Greeks  uschI  to  take  and  enjoy  tlii 
meals.  Tiie  wiiys  in  whirh  iliffcrcnt  nations  take  tin 
meals,  the  kimi  ami  the  quality  of  food  tlicy  use,  areju 
as  characteristic  of  their  culture,  of  their  4U'j,'rci'  ufi! 
volopment,  as  are  their  language  and  their  laws.  Sm 
people  are  vegetarians ;  and,  to  the  present  day,  the  pn 
ant  class  in  Eurojus  especially  in  the  eastern  part  "f  B 
rojMj,  arc  almost  exclusively  vegetarians.  Other  iiatiii 
will  bo  more  fond  of  eating  than  drinking.  Others,  siifli 
have  a  decided   predilection  for  meat,  using  pastn"  ^ 


Arrangements  for  b  Meal. 
very  sparinj;ly.  In  doing  so,  they  are  not  promptfJ 
men;  econoinic  rca-tonH;  it  if  not  the  scarcity  or  t lie  at 
dan«re  of  meat  or  flmir  which  refrulates  the  want.-*  * 
people  iibovf  the  |)riniitive  stage  of  civilization.  Tl 
are  other  c-;iu.-*c.4  of  a  purely  social  character.  In  Sjia 
tor  instance,  tlic  inhahitinilK  took  their  meals  in  comu 
in  a  ]iiil)lic  place,  in  the  Syssida? 

■  'I'lio  i'uhUiiii  t>r  lukitiK  (ht!  ]>rliiclpul  nioal  of  the  <Uy  In  puMU 
vnilt^il  iKJt  'inly  lit  Kjiurtii  mid  AtlictiH  [whvrv  It  wait  kept  up  utilil  ' 
piimllvcly  n'ci'iit  Utih'h]  tiut  iiIkd  nl  Nf«KHra  In  the  age  of  Th« 
[  V.  m'l.]  mill  III  ('(irintli  until  tht^ag(■n^  IVrlander   (  about  630  It.  <-. 


QREBK  CIVILIZA  TION.  471 

Every  head  of  a  &mily  was  obliged  to  contribute  a 
iin  portion  at  his  own  cost  and  charge;  those  who  ■ 

not  able  to  do  so,  were  exciiided  from  the  public 
!*.'  Thej^esta  weredinded  into  companies,  generally 
ftfcn  (R'rs<»n8  each,  nnd  all  vacancies  were  filled  by 
It.  in  which  uimninious  consent  wiis  indispensible  for 
ioD.  Nil  iKTSons.  not  even  the  kings,  were  excused 
lattendiinee  at  the  public  tables,  except  for  some  aatis- 
iry  reason.  Kach  person  was  supplied  with  a  cup  of 
xl  wine,  which  waa  tilled  again  when  rcijuircd ;  but 
king  to  excess  waa  prohibite<l  at  Sparta.  The  repast 
of  M  plain  and  simple  character.  The  priiicii)al  dish 
the  "black  broth"  with  pork.  The  after  meal  waa 
ever  nmre  varie<i  and  richly  supplied  by  presents  of 
e,  poultry,  fruit,  and  other  delicacies  which  no  one  was 
»«1  to  purchase.  Moreover,  the  entertainment  was  en- 
leil  by  chtH-rful  conversation,  though  on  public  mat- 
'  .Siiifring  also  wa.-*  tVcipicnlly  iiitn-ihnrd  as  we  learn, 
1  Alcnian.'  that  "at  the  banquets  nl'  the  men  it  was  fit 
tic  piests  to  sing  the  paean."  (a  liyniii). 
The  use  and  purposeof  this  in.'itituticin  are  very  mani- 
Tlicy  united  the  citizens  by  the  (tlosest  ties  of  inti* 
y  and  tini'in,  r.uising  iliem  to  consider  tliemselves  as 
il«Ts  .it'  une  family.  At  Sparta,  also,  tliey  were  emi- 
I_v  usiliil  in  a  military  point  nf  view,  for  the  members 
II- iiMw//(/  were  tunned  in  correspcjnding  military  di- 
m-.  and  t'l.ught  to;:ctIier  in  the  field  as  they  lived  to- 
'T  \\\  hiiuic,  with  more  bnivery  nnd  a  keener  sense  of 
II.- than  •-.add  have  been  the  case  witli  merely  chance 

I  it  »ji»  al>..li"tip'l  H"  lii-itiir  fiivoriiMv  m  aricHxTBcy  (AHetotle, 
V  t.*,ti..ii  ,1L',.  N.>r  «u-  il  ...nllii.-.l  t..  lli,>  Hrllt-iiK' world  [Pol. 
.  f'.r.  ■K-.onllntc   t'<   .Vri!-t«tl<'.  it   |>r<-vni]v<l  ..lllJ    carUer  Btnong  tb« 

lrUii.>  in  S'xitlit-rn   llaly.  '   Ari-l»1li-.  Pol.  ii.  T,  4. 

.\fi><>l>h(>ri,  l(«|j.  Ijii-oii    v.  <\.  "•  KrH^ni.  ^(1. 


473  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

comrades.'       The   refinement  of  private    rookerv   was  el 
course  almost  totally  excluded ;  the  bulk  of  the  ftmrea  1 
consisted  of  roughly  roasted  beef  or  venison. 

Let  us  now  cast  ;i  glance  at   the  othe^  meals  of  Ibe  ' 
Greeks.     From   the  earliest  times,  it  was  usual  to  lab 
threo  meals  a  dny.     The    names  of  these    were   ArisUm  ' 
(corresponding    lo    our    breakfast),    Deipnon    (lunchconj, 
Dorpon  (supper).     The  breakfast  was  taken  quite  early. 


Llvlr.g  Room  in  a  Qreek  Houae. 
directly  after  rising.*  The  chief  meal,  as  among  the  R.«- 
nians,  wa.-<  the  third,  the  Dorpon.  If  a  person  ate  altHic 
witlmut  nny  company,  the  (ireeks  did  not  call  it  a  reguhir 
meal.  It  w.is  very  common  fur  several  tu  club  l.igetluT 
and  have  a  fenst  at  their  joint  expense.  l*iciiic  partie;* 
were  c.l'tcn  made  U])  t<>  dine  in  the  country,  especially  on 


1  SiH.'  ArHtopliunea'  BiriJ!',  Isl 


sea-fihore.     It  wis  oi  i:  ^amiar  &.  irmuu.  /c  ^i%ML  3ti«i^ 

to  bring  to  A  frieBftT^r  lh:fB»t  tx  iiZiii.T3SG(^  xmvQ.  U 
^iras  expected  that  guests  ^:<L>d  cKom  cvcsstt^  mhk  inkvi^ 
%luin  ordinary  care,  and  aiio  2&aT<e  titfiK^i  ^^itK  Ke4kvry^ 
^^LB  soon  as  the  guests  arrired  ai  ibe  boo^  oi  iheir  b\>at^ 
^eir  shoes  or  sandals  were  taken  off  by  the  slavea  auU 
their 'feet  washetl.  After  the  feet  had  been  waabett  th» 
guests  reclined  on  couches. 

Homer  never  describes  i>ersons  as  reclining,  hut  al* 
prnja  as  sitting  at  their  meals ;  but  at  what  t  imo  tlu^  nhnnKH 
IPM  introduced  is  uncertain.  The  Greek  woinit|i  iiiiil 
llfldrni,  howev^  like  the  Roman,  continue  U)  nit  iil  UiMir 
It  was  usual  for  only  two  |x*rsons  Up  n«iflifM'  on 

eoudi.  In  eating,  the  Greeks  had  no  knivir»  or  fofk^ 
hit  Blade  use  of  their  fingers  only,  except  in  ifHtU$t(  f^^ipf^ 
Olker  liquids,  which  they  partook  of  by  i/^'ai>«  ^4  $^ 
After  eating,  they  wi[>ed  their  fiuf^^'-r'  v'  f/i^^i^Am 
^%Kjad.    They  did  not  use  any  chAk«  or  t^i^  ^/ 

The   ni<»st   coninioii   U^A  ;inj'>i,;r  *:,'    ^/»     -/   »  •/       ^ 
*^mu»draj"  a  kind  <»f  fnini«;r;tv  ...-  *  :'    ^z      r     .-      r  , ,     ,^ 
jiareil  in  diffen-ni    way*      \\':.»v.v       .••<•.  *.^ 

till'  Mii^Iid  niii^t    ll.**LI^.i     .•.•-'.-  •       '    '  *^y.  t^  i^     */-,,'     .  ,  ^ 


-4    /    -        ,  ^      ^  ^ 


f  * 


;ilJiTn;iI    !*  --. 

It    >  ;»  •  ;r 

-.•  :'-  '.  ■* 

n#-t»T  r»-.i'. 

Kit*  r   '.:  .  - 

V           .  • 

f.--i-  •  :  •:. 

'r-.-.   .   - 

.\   *.'*.♦ 

- »      "■    •     . 

friftU-;  •  •'  •» 

.  ^  ^'^-  - 

tpi    wtia;   »• 

•  'L*i^-' 

-  J 


474  THE^EDIBVAL    WOBLD. 

meat,  etc.:  the  second,  which  corresponds  to  our  deseri, 
consisted  of  different  kinds  of  fruit,  sweetmeats,  confcfr 
tioiis,  etc.  When  the  first  course  was  finished,  the  tabla 
were  taken  away  and  water  waa  given  to  the  guests  for 
the  purpose  of  washing  their  hands.  Crowns,  made  rf 
garlands  of  flowers,  were  also  then  given  to  them,  as  well 
as  various  kinds  of  perfumes. 

Wine  was  not  partaken  of  until  the  first  course  «■« 
finished ;  but  as  soon  as  the  guests  had  washed  their  handj, 
unmixed  wine  was  introduced  in  a  large  goblet,  of  whick 


Dwelling  of  a  Rich  Qreeh. 
each  drank  a  little,  after  jwuring  out  a  small  quantity  i> 
a  libation.     This  libation  was  usually  accompanied  wi^ 
the  singing  of  a  paean  and  the  playing  of  fluti's.    Then 
the  regular  Symposion  began.      The  symposion  was  the 
principal  part  of  a  supper.     It  consisted  chiefly  of  hard 
drinking.enlivL'ned  with  brisk  conversation  andmusic.  The 
Greeks,  with  the  exception  of  the  Spartans,  Cretans,  antJ- 
a  few  other  communities,  were  devoted  drinkers.     But* 
with   the  exception  uf  tlio  first  goblet  mentioned  aborr^ 
none  but  watered  wine  was  used.     To  mix  it  half  and  haU 
was  considered  rude,  the  proportion  generally  was  tbre^ 


GREEK  CIVri.TZArTOX.  476 

r  one;  or  two  to  one ;  or  three  to  two.'  Bruukeuness  was 
pt  eonsider^l  a  shamo,  and  even  Plato  liimself  iipolo- 
hm  for  it. 

Every  Greek  s^-mposion  had  a  Symposiardi,  a  jiresi- 
ent  of  the  enUTtainmcDl,  a  "master  of  the  revcU,"  who 
'M  generally  diosea  Ijy  the  throw  of  dice.  The  sympo* 
MtTph  determined  the  proportion  <>f  the  mixture  niul  the 
Bunberof  Kiatoi  (goblets);  he  eould  also  impost-  fines, 
•t  It  was  customary,  at  leaat  at  Athens,  to  drink  out 
Vnnall  goblets,  or,  at  all  events,  to  begin  with  tbem, 
"ftenrard  resorting  to  larger.  According  to  Ephippiw,* 
■Mfiaxider  the  Great  drained  off  a  gublct  liukling  a  gallon 
'fid  n  halt".  In  the  "Syniposion"  of  Plato,  Alcibiades  and 
°«Tates  each  empty  an  immense  cup  eontajning  nearly 
"Or  pints,  and  fre(|uently  such  cups  were  emptied  atone 

The  copa  were  alwaj-s  carried  round  from  right  to 
^  and  the  same  order  was  ubaerved  in  the  cniivrrs.ition. 
bccuinpanyfrequentlydrank  to  the  health  of  one  another, 
id  they  did  so  in  a  peculiar  way.  Tliey  drank  as  many 
•bU-ts  113  there  were  letters  in  the  name  of  their  friend, 
hu-s  Alcibiadea  would  drink  to  the  health  of  Socrates  by 
mptyiiigeijrlit  goblets,  to  which  Socrates  would  respond 
I'illi  a  Blill  greater  number  uf  goblets,  the  name  nf  Alci- 
»iad)-a  W-ing  eom|>osed  of  ten  letters. 

Music  and  dancing  were  usually  introduced,  aa  already 
ftated.  .-.t  fyniiHjaia  ;  and  wo  fiml  ffw  representations  of 
'U'h  tji-iricj-  'tn  ancient  vase^  witln.uttlie  presence  of  female 
''■■'ViT'  i.n  til.'  flute  and  the  cithera.     But  these  symiHwia 

'  In  tlii^a*  W.-1I  uHiiiBll  oiir  ^■tatem^'iiU  rcgardlnK  llio  nicnls  and 
'**)p>»i>i>r  th<-arifli'iil(InM-k!>,  we  follow  rhlelly  tlio  liicldeiiUl  rvmarka 
flitA'A  dlalof^ea,  >nd  the  amjile  HllUHloiii  in  ArlBtophanea  ftnd  otb«r 
^k  rnineilt>ni. 
■  AUwDkCUi,  X. 


476 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


were  not  wassailing  excesses  only.    AH  that  Athena,  Cw-  I 
inth,  or  Argos  could  display  of  refined,  cultured,  witty  ] 
people— all  these  choice  minds  used  to  meet  at  these  9]» 
posia,  and  the  most  charming  conversation,  spiced  vith  I 
games  of  all  societies,  was  the  usual  feature.    The  daneiii{ 
of  the  Greeks  formed  quite  a  telling  feature  of  their  civK 


Ornaments!  Articlee  ueed  in  Qreek  Life, 
lization.  It  had  vury  little  in  common  with  the  cxon-isc 
which  goes  by  that  iiunie  in  moilcrn  times.  The  fumla- 
mcntal  notion  of  all  (ircek  dancing  is  the  bodily  exim's- 
sion  of  some  inw;ird  feeling,  and  that  which  poetry  affec- 
ted by  wonls,  dancing  had  to  do  by  movement.     Dancing 


OREKK  CIVILIZATION.  477 

iginally  closely  connected  with  religion.  Plati.' 
t,  that  all  dancing  should  be  based  on  religion.  Ac- 
ly  the  dances  of  the  chorus  at  Spartti  and  in  other 
tates  were  intimately  connected  with  the  worship 
llo.  All  the  religious  dances  were  very  simple  and 
■d  of  gentle  movements  of  the  body  with  various 
s  and  windings  around  the  altar, 
e  have  thus  far  been  considering  the  unofficial  life  of 
?nt  Greek;  before  considering  the  official  life,  let  us 
he  absence  of  private  home  life.  Public  life  en- 
thc  time  and  attention  of  every  Grecian  to  such  an 
:hat  private  life  was,  as  it  were,  at  the  nien^y  of  pub- 
Their  games,  religious  exercises,  and  manner  of 
rere  public.  Home  life  was  reduced  tu  a  minimum, 
nstant  association  of  men  with  men.  niiml  acting 
1,  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  bringing;  about 
e  of  culture  found  in  ancient  Greece, 
t  Uf  ni'w  consider  official  life  in  early  (iivic.-,  A» 
I-  iiiiriii;il  ^t;ite  ill  .-dl  trib.il  society,  the  ultimate 
ii'  IcLri.-bitioii  reiitetl  witli  ili*^  pcnplc,  or,  uioro  cor- 
«vit]i  the  IcL'itiiiint.'  iisscnihly  <.f  Uie  people,  with 
i£sia.  In  il,  and  tlinniirli  it,  tlie  sovereign  will  of 
pie  of  Athens  M'a.s  expressed.  Here  were  brought 
Iiciii  ;ill  matters,  wliicli,  as  the  supreme  power  of 
e,  they  had  to  order  or  t<>  dispose  of;  questions  of 
1  p<-;ice,  treaties  and  alliances,  levying  tlie  troops, 
of  Mipplie-s  rcligioiH  ordinances,  bc.'itowing  of  citi- 
:  likewise  the  election  of  a  great  variety  of  magis- 
■iiiI)ii.>*sadors,  conimis.*ioner?=.  etc. 
icientlv  the  jHiople  used  to  a.ssemble  once  only  in 
'n/any,  or  ten  times  a  year;  afterward,  they  met 
I'-.k.     Tliese  were  called  the  regular  or  ordinary 


478  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

assemblies.  On  what  days  they  were  held  is  not  known; 
the  Athenians  avoided  meeting  on  holidays  or  unlucky 
days.  The  assembly  used  anciently  to  be  held  in  the  mar- 
ket-place, Agora.  ^  Afterward  it  was  transferred  to  the 
theater  of  Bacchus.  But  it  might  be  held  anywhere, 
either  in  the  city  or  in  the  Piraeus  (harbor  of  Athens),  or 
elsewhere.  The  assemblies  >vere  usually  convened  by  the 
presidents  of  the  council  (senate),  who  published  a  notice 
four  days  before,  specifying  the  day  of  meeting  and  the 
business  to  be  transacted.  All  citizens  of  the  age  of 
twenty,  who  had  been  duly  registered,  were  entitled  to 
attend  and  vote.* 

Before  the  business  of  the  day  commenced,  a  sacrifice 
of  purification  was  offered.  The  lustral  victims  were 
young  pigs,  whose  blood  was  carried  round  and  sprinkled 
on  the  seats,  while  at  the  same  time  incense  was  burned 
in  a  censer.  The  cryer  then  pronounced  a  form  of  prayer 
and  commination,  imploring  the  gods  to  bless  and  prosper 
the  consultations  of  the  people,  and  imprecating  a  curse 
ui)on  all  enemies  and  traitors.  The  chairman  then  opened 
the  business  of  the  day.  If  any  bill  had  been  prepared 
by  the  senate,  it  was  read  by  the  crier  or  the  usher,  and 
the  people  were  asked  if  it  met  their  approbation.  If  there 
was  no  opposition,  it  passed. 

Any  citizen,  however,  might  oppose  it,  or  move  an 
amendment.     Every  member  of  the  assembly  was  at  lit>- 
erty  to  speak,  but  only  once  during  a  debate.     Accordin^S 
to  the  institutions  of  Solon,  those  who  were  above  fift^ 
years  old  were  first  called  upon,  and  afterward  the  younger' " 
men.     But  this  custom  fell  into  disuse.'      Although  aL  ^ 

1  narpocration»  5,  v.  Parthenios  Aprodlte. 

s  Demosthenes,  c.  Neaer  p.  1380.    lu  Athens  the  right  of  suflnrage 
gan  at  the  age  of  twenty. 

s  Demosthenes,  De  Cor.  p.  285.    Aritftophanes,  Aoham.  4S. 


THE  HEW  TORI 

POBUC  LIBRARY 


AarOR.  LCMOX  AMD 
tlUXM  rOOMCMTKHS 


OBSBK  CI  rtUZA  TION. 

luul  the  right  of  speaking,  the  privilege  wus,  of 
exuTciwd  by  a  few  oiilVi  who  felt  themselves  com- 
petcBt  (or  the  task ;  it  was  not  verj-  easy  to  get  up  after 
one  of  those  matf^less  speeches  of  orators  like  Isacus, 
Lyaiua,  laoeratea,  ur  Demosthenes,  and  to  address  the 
■MeaiUy  in  a  befitting  way.  Whoever  rose  to  speak  put 
OB*  wreath  of  myrtle,*  as  a  token  that  he  was  jierfomiing 
a  public  duty,  and  eutitletl  on  that  account  tu  respect. 

It  wiu  a  breach  of  decorum  U*  interrupt  the  speaker. 
When  tbe  debate  was  ended,  the  chairman  put  the  quee* 
tioa  to  the  vote.  The  methoil  of  voting  was  either  by 
ahuv  of  hati^  (Charvionia)  or  \iS  ballot.*  Show  of  hands 
was  tlie  most  common.  M'hen  all  the  business  was  eon* 
doded,  Uie  crier  by  command  of  the  president  dis- 
ouaMd  the  aasembly.  A  decree  having  been  carried  by 
tbe  votes  of  the  people,  it  was  copietl  on  a  tablet,  and  ile^ 
panted  by  the  eecretary  among  other  public  records  in 
the  temple  ot  Cybele. 

The  great  [niwer  of  the  assembly  was  held  in  proper 
balance  by  the  influence  of  two  otlier  political  and  judicial 
iutilutioiu  of  the  Athenians;  by  the  Areopagus  and  the 
Arnale.  The  urcopagus,*  so  called  from  the  Ilill  of  Ares 
(Han)  where  it  hi-ld  its  sittings,  near  the  Acrojwlia,  was 
■judicial  and  deliberative  boily  greatly  esteemed  at  Athens. 
It  was  from  lime  immemorial  established  as  a  court  of 
niminal  jurisdiction,  to  ivy  eases  of  murder,  maiming,  and 
•noB.  It  sat  in  the  opt-n  air,  to  cscajM-  the  [wllution  of 
Uiag  under  the  same  roof  with  the  guilty.  In  its  proceed- 
iiifp  the  utmost  solemnity  was  observed.  Both  parties 
Wf»  sworn  to  speak  the  truth,  and   the  facts  alone  were 

«  Bald»,  S,  V.  KBtochelrfitoiiiiiri)  * 

■^b*  And  development  i>rtl>e  council  of  the  cbieri  of  tbe  phratrlM, 
See  Vol.  TI.  p.  IK. 


482  yiTi:  MEDiEVAh   world. 

inquired  into,  without  appeals  to  the  feelings  or  oratorial 
display.  The  Areopagus  used  to  be  taken  from  the  BoUe 
families  of  Attica.  But  Sulon  introduced  a  new  law,  that 
the  arcbons  whose  ofl&cial  conduct  had  been  approved 
should  be  members  of  this  council  for  life.  At  the  same 
time  he  enlarged  the  power  of  the  council,  attaching  to  it 


Gathering  of  the  Areopagus. 
political  and  censiorial  duties/  in  order  that,  together  with 
the  council  of  five  hundred  (senate),  it  might  act  as  a 
check  upon  the  democracy,  or  to  use  Solon's  own  words, 
that  "the  state  riding  upon  them  (arcopagus  and  senate) 
as  anchors,  micrht  bo  lofus  tossed  by  storms." 

Ill  their  censorial  character,  the  areopagites  kept  watek 
over  the  religion  and  morals  of  the  city,  maintMned  order 


'  I'lutarcli,  Bolon,  i-hapt«r22.    iRocntca,  Areip.  p.  147. 


OBKKK  rt  f'/J./^A  T/OX.  483 

1  decenc}',  looked  to  the  education  of  the  young,  inquired 
IT  jR-oplo  got  their  living',  and  checked  riotous  excesses 
1  debauchery.  We  read  of  their  entering  houses  on 
st  days  to  »ec  that  tho  guests  were  not  too  numerous. 
party  in  Athens  consisted  of  either  three  persons,  in 
reement  with  the  numberof  Graces,  orofnine,  according 
the  number  of  Muses.  Any  thing  above  that  was  con- 
lered  cxccaaive. 

The  second  great  and  effective  check  on  the  power  of 
i  demtMTaticut  assembly  was  the  senate  (boule),'  or,  as 
iras  aim*  called  (at  a  later  stage),  the  council  of  the  five 
odred.  This  executive  and  deliberative  body  managed 
rioua  dciNirtmentJt  of  the  public  business,  more  especially 
Me  which  related  to  the  public  Jissembly.  They  were 
Doally  dnwien  by  lot — in  SohuiV  times  from  tlie  tirsL  three 
iflees  only,  but  afterwards  from  the  whole  body  of  the 
oplc — with  no  other  rcstriftion  than  that  they  must 
fffnuiii*!  citizens  4M1  liDtli  the  father's  and  the  mother's 
le  and  of  the  age  of  thirty.  At  the  expiration  of  their 
«*  of  office,  they  had,  likeall  other  functionaries,  to  render 
iMCoimt  of  their  official  conduct  to  the  auditors. 

For  the  more  convenient  dispatch  of  business,  the 
ibe«  apportioned  the  year  among  them,  aii<l  took  the  Uu- 
n  in  rotation.  Tbc  council  was  thus  divided  into  ten 
wiii-s  of  fifty  men,  who  were  called  Prytanes^  or  Presi- 
snt*,  and  who  for  the  time  represented  the  whole  council. 
hU  term  of  office  was  called  a  Prilany.  As  the  lunar 
ar  at  Athens  consisted  of  three  hundred  and  fifty-four 
yjt.  it  was  yn  iirranged,  that  there  were  six  prytanies  of 
irty-livc  days  earh,  an.l  four  of  tliirty-six.  The  turns 
rr-  ib-teriiiiiK'd  by  l<il.  'I'lie  council  was  to  be,  according 
Sid"n'«desi;,'n,  a  sort  of  directorial  committee,  to  assist 

■   Id  U>«  flnit  tUge,  the  cblefa  of  the  geDt««. 


n 


4Hi 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


tlio  people  in  their  deliberations  and  to  guide  and  i-oiitriil 
their  acts  in  the  assembly.  It  waa  their  duty  to  discui^ 
beforehand  and  to  prepare  in  proper  form  the  meaauros 
submitted  to  the  j>eople.  Besides  preparing  questions  fur 
\Iio  assembly,  the  council  had  a  right  to  issue  onlinaiicos 
of  their  own,  which,  if  not  set  iiside  by  the  people,  nv 
iiiaiiied  in  force  for  the  year.' 

The  excutive  duties  of  the  council  wore  very  iiumcr 
OU.S.  The  whole  financial  department  of  the  administra- 
tion was  under  their  controh  The  income  of  the  Athenian 
gttito  ranircd  between  twelve  and  fifteen  hundred  talents," 


Funeral  Customs  Among  the  Qreekc. 
besides  the  tributes  of  dependent  status.  Taxes  were  Icvicii. 
bat  not  regularly.  Neither  an  Athenian  nor  n  Roman  iiaJ 
any  idea,  that  the  first  duty  of  a  law-abiding  citizen  was  to 
pay  taxes.  Tho  M-counta  of  the  moneys  that  had  boenn'- 
ceived,  and  of  those  still  remaining  due,  were  delivered  I" 
tiio  senate  by  the  Apodeeiae,  or  public  treaaurer.  The 
senate  arranged  also  tho  ai>plicatiou  ot  the  publie  money, 
even  in  trifling  matters,  such  as  tho  Sidary  of  the  poets,  the 
.supurintendenee  of  tho  cavalry  maintained  by  the  state, 
and  tlio  examination  of  tho  infirm  supported  by  the  atato. 
These  are  the  outlines  of  the  Athenian  state.    We  see 

I  nerminiin:    "OricelilHclic     Rtaats   AHicrUiiiiUfT,''  h.  12S   tl  t^ 
liot-ckh:  "I'ubl.  KCDii.  of  AtbeuB,"p.  154cf««9.  *  $3,000,000. 


GREEK  CI  VILIZA  TION.  485 

wsemLly  of  all  citizens,  meetiug  almost  twice  every 
•k,  uud,  anpiircntly  ut  least,  detennining  and  ruling 
ty  tiling  l»y  a  majority  vote.  But  wo  perceive  also 
rerful  ckeckii  oii   tho  activity  of  the  assembly,  namely 

Mvopagua  and  tho  boulo  (senate).  In  fact  tho  ulti- 
iv  lawgiver  in  Athens  waa  not  to  be  found  in  the  assem- 
.  For  a  bill  that  Imd  passed  tho  votea  of  the  as8end)ly 
I  not  considered  an  ultimate  law,  a  AW/cj,  but  only  a 
tpAisma.  It  hnd  still  to  pass  the  t<upervision  of  a  board 
lAW-rpvisers,  Nomotheiai,  who  were  entrusted  with  the 
nvx  of  deciding  whether  a  bill  carried  in  the  ecclesia 
eeuibly)  waa  to  lie  considered  constitutional,  or  whether, 

UTiHint  of  its  divergence  from  the  fundamental  laws 
Atbens,  itwastobe  discarded.  In  thiii  the  noniothetal 
Athens  fxereiBed  a  right  of  negative  legislaticm  idonti* 
I  with  the  right  of  tho  supremo  courts  of  the  states  of  the 
ttitwl  Stat«T.' 

We  have  now  gained  an  idea  of  life,  both  public  and 
•ivate,  officiitl  and  non-official,  in  Ancient  Greece;  and 
ive  jMHiited  out  the  tendency  of  the  same  to  active,  men- 
1  life.     Hence,  at  this  ])oint,  we  turn  to  the  consideration 

tcinie  otiuT  department  nf  Greek  culture,  and  there  we 
I'ilhe  bjLsis  of  the  great  merits  of  Grecian  civilization. 
tn'  men  and  women  of  (ireeee  have  passed  away,  and 
cir  jK)litieal  institutions  no  longer  determine  the  fate 

nation.-*.  But  tho  achievements  of  tho  Greeks  in  other 
Ids  of  mental  activity  are  well-nigh  imperishable,  and 
to  they  still  continue  to  exercise  a  strong  influence  over 
e  civilization  of  mankind. 

These  a<rhievement3  are  in  the  fields  of  philosophy, 
,  and  science.  Our  review  of  Grecian  civilization  would 
im-omplete,  were  we  to  neglect  the  great  workaof  Gr»- 

"i~l'*de  V'.l.  II.  p.  n» 


486 


TBE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 


cian  writers  in  these  fields.  Their  philosophy  is  not,  like 
the  systems  of  the  old  Egj'ptians,  of  the  Persians,  or  of 
many  other  nations,  alien  and  strange  to  our  mind;  it  is 
not  an  obsolete  product  of  antiquity,  in  no  t-onnertion 
whatever  with  our  modern  line  of  thought.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  in  intimate  contact  with  our  latest  endeavors 
to  investigate  the  problems  of  philosophy;  and  huiidrcit 
of  treatises  arc  being  published  every  year,  elucidating 
and  commenting  oil  the  w^ritinga  of  Greek  philosopbere.' 


Greek  Art— Vaeea  and  Ew«rs. 
The  first  real  philosophers  of  Greece  arose  about  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  century'  B.C.,  and  it  is  almost 
generally  agreed  th.it  Thales  was  the  first  in  point  of  linio-' 
Thaleiii.  tngethcr  with  A nax inlander,  Anaximem's,  ami 
Diogenes  of  Apollonia,  form  what  is  usually  ealletl  tli»' 
Ionic  schixil  iif  Greek    philosophers.      These    profounJ 

1  At  Ihf  twenty-nix  iintveraltleH  of  Germany  sod  Anstro-HnnpirT. 
tlu'rf!  iiro  Beparuli.'  (^halrH  fiir  Greek  philowopliy,  and  every  year  turns  «l 
at  \vfift  firty  m'w  illRsertutionH  on  Aristotio  uIoqd.  "Statiatlk  des  Deut- 
flcbcn  ItuchhandelH." 

s  Zeller:  "Die  Philos.  der  aricch,"  Bd.  I.  b.  133. 


n 


OBSSK  CIVILrZA  TIOK.  487 

unken  tamed  their  tbuughts  diietly  to  an  explanation 
f  the  arthe^  ifae  orijfin  of  things,  and  this  bciiig  thoir 
ioi  they  i^peruUted  principally  on  the  first  prini.-ip]o  of 
tUan-.  HoDo*.  {pkysis  being  natun?  in  Grvek).  they 
fw  aUu  called  Pbysiulogists.  It  is  highly  interesting  to 
IbUow  thi;ir  ]>cculiitr  train  of  ideas. 

Thalea  tAtigbt,  that  the  areke  of  all  things  is  to  bo 
bud  in  water.'  In  other  wonb.  he  thought  that  water 
*u  the  first  principle,  the  first  cause  of  nature,  out  of  which 
fferTthing  arose.  Anaximander  taught,  that  the  first 
^Bciple  wan  an  oodless.  unlimited  mass,  subject  Ui  neither 
lid  age  Qord(->cay  and  [K>rpelually  yielding  fresh  niateriala 
far  the  serieH  of  beings  whieh  issued  from  it.'  Out  of  the 
irigue  and  timitlcKH  body,  there  sprang  a  i'eritr.<<t  u\>u^» — 
lib  e&ith  of  oura,  eylindrieal  in  shape.  Man  himself 
md  the  animalB  came  into  being  by  transinutatioiis.' 
3Uu  waa  aup|to8e<l,  by  Anaxiinandcr.  to  liavr  sprung 
frmi  "thcr  sp'iH'ies  of  aninial,*,  jirolialily  jii|iiiitic. 

Anaximenes  taught  that  the  air,  with  all  its  variety 
of  fontenta,  ita  universal  presence,  was  what  maintained 
Itif  universe,  even  as  breath,  which  is  our  life  and  soul, 
*u-t;iiii!*  us.'  Everything  i.-*  air  of  different  degrees  of 
''''nsity.  By  a  priH-exsof  condensation,  brought  forth  under 
'he  influence  of  heat  :ind  cold,  the  broad  disk  of  earth  was 
•drilled,  floating  like  a  leaf  in  the  circumambient  air.  Simi- 
ariiindensations  produced  the  sun  and  the  stars.*  Dioge- 
lesof  Ap"il!'>nia  adopte<l  the  teachings  nf  Anaximenes re- 
|)ecting  air  as  the  arche  of  things.     But  he  declared  that 


<  Ariatotle 

Mel.  1.  3,  98.1 ;  Ci-tro,  Ac»d.  11.  87,  118. 

»  Art.U)tl.- 

Phj-H.  in.  4,  ■JOA.  >■   10. 

(  It   U   mo 

n  Ihati  likely  thmt  this  doctrine  of  An»xim»D<ter  ww 

ke  of  the  nun 

er<)U«  prwursorM  uf  Darwin's  Theory. 

«  Ari«(<>ttt> 

<iH4   M^t.  oh.  \.X  ft-',. 

»  Thl.  «-^t 

i«  r>t>  «iitl('i|.ati»ii  ..r  th.'  .-plebral*.)   Kant-I^plMe  tlMor/ 

•CMTilnn  tlir 

<>rltc)n  c>r  our  iiluiiviary  H.VHteni. 

488  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

air  was  not  only  force,  substaiicf,  but  also  intelligence, 
that  it  was  endowed  with  consciousness  and  reason ;  for 
without  reason,  ho  said,  it  would  bo  impossible  for  all  to 
be  arranged  duly  and  proportionately.' 

^;^:^^  After  the  Physiologists  canw 

the  Pythagoreans,  the  head  and 
originator  of  whom  was  the 
celebrated  Pythagoras,  equally 
renowned  as  mathematimn, 
philosopher,  physicist,  andlrnr- 
giver.  The  central  thought  of 
Pythagoras'  philosophy  is  '•'Ike 
\  number."*  Instead  of  ailing 
that  this  or  that  material  sub- 
stance  was  the  arche  of  the 
Universe,  Pythagoras  tjiught, 
Heeiod.  that  "the  number"  was  the  »- 

soiu'o,  thf  lirst  principle.  Thus  he  amounted  for  the  origin 
of  the  world  1  x  placing  a  formal  cause,  an  hlcal  concep- 
tion (tho  iimiil>cr),  in  the  center  of  his  siwculations,  ".Vutn- 
bor,"  said  Philnhuia,  one  of  his  disciples,  "is  great  and 
perfect  and  imiiilpotent  and  the  principle  and  guide  d 
diviiif  iUid  liiuiiaii  life." 

[iiiiiH'di;itety  connected  with  their  central  d<H'trim'  i< 
the  thei>ry  nf  the  npposites,  held  by  the  PythagoreflM. 
Numbers  are  divided  into  odd  and  even,  and  fnim  the  ii'ni- 
bination  of  odd  and  even,  all  numbers  and  all  thing 
Keeni  to  result.  Tin'  odd  number  was  identifietl  with  tk 
limited,  the  even  with  the  unlimited.    Following  nut  the 

'  MiiIIkc-Ii  :  FniKiii.  Pliil<»<.  Or.  1.  251).  When  w«>  come  Ui  atuily  Hin- 
(l(Mi  iihiloMuiiliy  wi;  will  dlHuiiver  the  4rloMe  similarity  Iwlween  the  Imuc 
■yet«innf  iiliiloHujihy,  mid  the  Vedantio  school  of  IndUn  i^lloaophy. 

-  AriHtollc.  Met.i  ft. 


GREEK  CIVILIZATION.  489 

none  thougbt,  lliey  develoi>ed  n  list  of  ten  fiinclamental 

op|Mjait<--s,  wliidi  roughly  resembles  the  tables  of  "cate- 

gorifM"  Suited  by  later  philosophers.     The  ten  groups 

erf  upltosites  lire  as  follows:  Limited  and  Unlimited;  the 

odd    and  !he  e%X'i> ;  one  and    the  many;  right  and  left; 

masculinu  and  fenienine ;  rest  and  motion ;  straight  and 

crooked;  light  and  darkness;  good  and  evil ;  square  and 

ol)l*»ng.'     Hence  the  whole  universe  is  harmony,  and  the 

r<^lar  mnvenifiita  f)f  the  heavenly  bodies  produce  the 

famous  harmony  of  the  spheres  ;  the  seven  planets  being 

wmsidered    a*  the  seven   golden  chords  of  the  heavenly 

Iwptjii'hunl.' 

The  holy  number  uf  the  Pythagoreans  was  four,  be- 
<OT«'  it  is  the  first  scjuare  number;  the  number  five 
Wgnifiea  marriage,  lH:?causc  it  is  the  imicm  of  the  first  inas- 
ctlbie  and  the  first  feminine  number,  namely  three  jdus 
*■«;  the  numWrone  is  identified  with  reason,  beoiuse  it 
■  niM-hangeable;  two  with  opinion,  because  it  is  indeter- 
■linatc.  The  most  n^nowned  doctrine  <A  Pythagoras, 
wt'-viT,  i.H  tlip  trnnHniigration  of  the  soul,  the  Metempay- 
^fim.  The  Ixxlily  life  of  the  soul,  according  to  this  doe- 
I  ^tUf,  is  nn  imprisonment  suffering  for  sins  committed  in 
*fijmier  state  of  existence.  At  death,  the  soul  reaps  what 
it  ha:!  Sown  in  the  present  life-  The  rewnrd  of  the  best 
is  to  enter  the  cuanuw,  or  the  higher  and  purer  regions  of 
the  universe,  while  tht;  direst  crimes  receive  their  punish- 
ment in  Tartarus.  But  the  general  lot  is  to  live  afresh 
ID  a  series  of  human  or  animal  forms.* 

Xext  ti»  Pytha.L'oras  and  hlsnumerous  followers,  stands 
the    .-subtle   .s<-liool    i-f  the  Kleatic  thinkers.       Instead  of 

1   It.i.l    i.  .-,.  •<hr..  1  AriBt'Ulc,  De  Cmle,  II.  (1. 

>  (l^tiifiin-.-^lroiii,    iii.  4.-UA.       I'UIk,   (iorK   *•■»  A.     Everyoue  mut 
M*  the  t-oDtiectltin  iH-twM-n  tliU  lielicf  and  the  Uiodoo  belief. 


490  TUB  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

attempting  tlio  solution  of  the  are/ie  iiroblom,  thoy  entered 
u])on  new  lines  of  tliouj^ht,  and  iheir  itTOfouud  speculations 
form  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Greek  philos- 
pLy.'  Their  lendinir  men  were  Xenophanes,  Parmenides, 
and  Zeno. 

Xonophanea  recognized  no  tUstinction  between  truth 

for  the  many  (exoteric  knowledge)  and 

truth   fi>r   the    initiated   few  (estttoric 

knowledge),  as  Pythagonis  did  ;  Xon* 

phanes  thought  and   acted  as  if  truth 

was  for  all  men;  for  three-tiuartersufa 

century  lie  wandered  into  many  lanJs 

utteriiif,'  the  thoughts  which  were  wort- 

i  in  Iiini.     Uc  combated    the  prevail- 

;>  belief  in  many  g(Kls  chiefly  im  ac- 

[  count  of  the  peraonitication  of  the  godi, 

Euripidea         a"d  li's  doctrine  was,  that  '"the  One 

was  the  AH,''  in  other  wonls  his  doctrine  was  Pantheism. 

It  was  exjianded  by  Parmenides,  the  most  notable  nf  tin-' 

philosophers  of  the  Eleatic;  succession. 

His  doctrine  is,  that  the  £ns,  the  Being  (Jo-on  in 
lireek),  is  one,  invariable  and  immutable,  and  all  plu- 
rality, viiriety.  and  mutation  (viz:  nil  the  shifting, inJi- 
vidual  tilings  and  jK'rsons  in  existence)  belong  to  tk 
Non-ens.  Wlieiu-e  it  follows,  that  all  the  strifes  and  pro- 
cesses which  we  cDinmoidy  recognlzi'  as  generation  and 
destructiiiii,  change  of.jdace,  alteration  of  color,  and  tk' 
liUe,  are  little  more  than  empty  wonls.'  The  difTcn'mt; 
bi'tweeu  Parnieiiidcs  and  his  })redeces8ors  in  Greek  spct-u- 
latiun  is  this,  that  he,  fiir  fn»ni  tu-*sunung  a  eor|MiraI  prin- 

I  Tin-  l.<;.t  rcMUiiii-  .if  till'  Kli'fttU-  lUK-triiiL-  1»  given  In  I>ii.-krfnii** 
"Kril.  Gewtn;.  a.  Plii! '■ 
8  l'arm<;iiidi's[A  rruKiii 
3  Cf.  the  Hiiiil.«>  ilot'lri 


gxssK  ctnuzA  rios.  49 1 

le  (air,  water,  etc^)  as  the  arehe  of  things,  declared 
corjKflral  tbinga  to  lie  nu-re  phantasms,  teaching  that 
plarality  is  but  apparent,  and  that  all  sivcalled  indi* 
Inal  things  uo  merely  passing  modes  of  the  One  Being, 
■  Ehs} 

The  third  great  leader  of  the  thinkers  of  the  Elcatic 
tool  yvoA  Zem>.  In  unler  to  rendtT  the  doctrine  of  his 
•Bter,  Parmenides,  unaasailable,  he  attempted  to  prove, 
at  the  common  notions  of  time,  space-,  motion,  multi- 
icitT,  sight,  sound,  etc.,  are  self-eontradictory  and  un- 
iitkable.  Ilia  soH:alled  '*paradoxies"  were  stated  with 
tuhlletv  which  has  forced  distinguished  thinkers  (for 
sJance  Hamilton)  who  were  opposed  ti»  his  main  jxisi- 
OB  to  admit  that  some  of  them  were  unanswerable, 
igujut  motion  Zciio  directed  several  arguments,  the  most 
^Itbrated  beingthat  of  the  well-known  problem  of  Achillea 
id  the  tortoise. 

NVxt  in  point  of  impfirtance  ii^di  system  of  philosophy 
•'  tlie  jirofound  teachings  of  Ileraclitus  of  Epliesus. 
»ia  celebrated  thinker  used  to  clothe  his  ideas  in  ex- 
■nieiy  obscure  language,  and  it  was  this  quality  which 
ii^ioned  his  surname,  '"the  obscure."  He  tried  to  get 
I'<f  the  difficulty  so]>rominent  In  tlie  KIcatic  pbiloso- 
y  of  overcoming  the  contradiction  between  the  One  and 
'  ]»henomenal  Many,  by  enunciating,  as  the  principle  ot 
•  universe,  the  process  of  Becoming,  implying  that 
.Tvthin;,'  irt  and  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  re- 
i<in.  is  nut.  His  favorite  way  of  expressing  this  ab- 
u^e  doctrine  wjia  as  follows  :  '"Everything  is  flowing." 
cordingly  ho  selects  fire  as  the  arelu,  this  being 
ni"?'t   lippmpriate   emlKwliment   of  the  principle   of 

'  Th<-M  >ipc<^ulktlon<t  form  lln-  IibhIh  of  twn  <if  the  niiMt  importAOt 
*roauf  |>liil<jMipby  of  iu<i>l<-rii  ilnii'x,  Brunolaiu  fttiil  Hplnotlam. 


492  TBE  MEDIEVAL     WORLD. 

Bccumiiig,  uf  simultaneous  existence  and  non>existence.' 
The  next  great  Greek  philosopher  is  Empedocles. 
He  propounded  a  new  doctrine.  There  are,  according  to 
Empcdocles,  four  ultimate  kinds  of  things,  four  princi|Md 
divinities,  four  elements,  from  which  are  made  all  strui-- 
tures  in  the  world — fire,  air,  water,  earth.  These  fuur 
elements  are  eternally  brought  into  union,  and  eternAlly 
parted  from  each  other,  by  two  divine  jwiwers :  Love  and 
Hatred — a  n  attractive  and  a  repulsive  force,  which  the  ordi- 
nary eye  can  see  working  aniongrt 
men,  but  which  really  jwrvade  the 
whole  world.  Flesh  and  blood 
are  made  of  equal  parts  of  all  four 
elements,  whereas  bones  are  ooe- 
half  fire,  one-quarter  earth,  and 
one-quarter  water,  Xothing  new 
h  comes  into  being,  tlie  only  change 
J  that  can  occur  is  a  change  in  the 
juxtaposition  of  element  with  ele- 
ment." 
AeachyLue.  The  similarity,  or  rather  iden- 

tity betwocTi  modern  and  ancient  Greek  thinking  is  still 
more  striking,  when   we  approach  two  other  schools  uf    \ 
Greek  |)hiIoftoidty,  the  Atomists  and  the  Sceptics.    The    \ 
(.liief  of  tlic  former  was  Democritus.      The  intensity  of 
his  tliinkiiig  was  figured  by  the  ancients  in  the  story  that 
lie  put  out  his  eyes  in  order  that  he  might  not  be  dive^ 

1  Thi.'  iiiiiMt  cluborati'  treatlHe  on  HeracUtus  Iim  been  wrUtcn  by  F. 
I^Salle,  tbe  (Jentiaii  KoclallBt.  ZeUer's  review  (in  bis  D.  Phil.  d.  Oricb.) 
U  highly  raUiulilc.  Although  he  assuiiieH  Are  as  tbe  <ircAc,  we  iduhI  not 
L'oiinect  hlin  with  the  Ionic  ttcliool.     He  uses  It  more  as  a  sj-mbol. 

!  Our  kiinwU'<lge  of  On-H'k  philonophy,  anterior  to  Aristotle,  rest* 
largely  au  tlicpliiliKtophical  works  of  tbls  pbtlosopber;  aa  to  Empedo- 
cleit,  see  ArUtotlc,  Metph.  i.  4. 


GREEK  CIVILIZATION. 


led  from  his  meditations.  Hi«  theory  of  the  universe 
o  the  present  tlic  iirevailiug  tlicory  jimong  physiciatB, 
Qe  taught,  that  all  that  existed  is  vac-uuro  atid  atomB. 
rhe  atoms  are  thr  ultiniaU-  material  r.f  all  things,  inclu* 
liog  spirit.  They  are  uncauned  and  have  exisle<l  from 
eternity,  and  are  in  constant  inotimi.  Demoeritus  redoced 
■11  sensation  to  tmirh,  and  all  (jualities  of  Wnlies  ti»  these 
two  main  qualiti^f*,  extension  and  resistitnce.' 

The  sceptics,  or  Pyrrhonists.  bear  a  still  greater  re- 
Mmblance  to  m<Ml(>rn  thought.  IVrrho,  their  founder, 
M^ed,  what  is  tin-  criterion  of  our  opinion?  Rf^aiwiii,  it 
a  said.  But  what  is  the  criterion  of  Reason,  he  again 
ttked?  And,  as  lie  cutild  tind  no  udeijuate  answer,  be 
Vnply  inferred,  that  all  philosophy  and  nil  Kcience  i« 
gTOundless,  then  Vji-ing  no  general  criterion  of  Truth,' 
A]]  these  philosopliers  {with  the  exception  of  I'yrrho) 
'i»«i  before  Socmtes,  and  they  are  U*  be  wmsidered  an  tbf 
I>rwurs4irj»  of  th..  most  ]H-rfcct  development  of  ("ir».H'k 
Phiiiisojihy.  aM  rc-prescnted  in  tlie  ti-acliiligi'' of  8f>crates, 
*H«I  in  tin-  writings  of  I'lato  and  Aristotle. 

Nocrat*'!*.  Ihtii  in  Athens  in  4711  or  4'K>  h.  < .,  em- 
brace^i  thf  whole  of  philosophy  (Ontology,  I-.ogie,  Meta- 
physif.-'.  INyi-ohigyi  with  a  new  cjiirit.  the  spirit  of  self- 
fi>nsi-i.ius  trntli.  The  skeptical  movement  hud  confused 
men V  rioli')ns  ils  to  the  value  of  otliical  ideas.  If  "right" 
t>f  ..III-  thing  in  Athens  and  anotlier  at  Sparta,  why  strive 
o  fi.llow  right  ratlier  than  c.\pc<licncy  ?  Every  case 
t«-eni'il  capabh'  ..f  Iifing  argue<I  in  opposite  ways.  Even 
•n  the  groat  fjocstion  of  the  iiltiiTiate  con.'^titution  of  things, 
he  .-mifliriinf.'  tlie4)riitt of  absolute  iinnintability  (Parmeni- 

ArUiotle,  I>eKeii.  et  i-orrujit.  i.s.  « 

■  So^raU-^  liM  \vtl  UK  no  wrltiiiKx  "(  111"  " 
ttm  we  take  frotu  PUto  And  Xenopbuo. 


ta     1 


494  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

des)  and  eternal    change    (Heraclitus)    appeared  to  l)e 
equally  creditable.     But  the   faith  of  Socrates  remained 
unshaken  by  these  conflicting  views.     He  did  not  ixA: 
"Is  virtue  a  reality?"  or  "Is  goodness  a  delusion?"    IJut 
with  perfect  confidence  that  there  was  an  answer,  he  asked 
himself  and  others,  "What  is  it?"  or,  more  particularly, 
as  Xenophon  testifies,  "What  is  a  state  ?  What  is  a  state;*- 
man?  What  is  just?     What  is   unjust?  etc."     In  thi^ 
form  of  question,  however  simple,  the  originality  of  Sik*- 
rates  is  typified  ;  and  by  means  of  it  he  laid  the  first  stone, 
not  only  of  the  fabric  of  ethical  philosophy,  but  of  scien- 
tific method.     The  secret  of  his  success  lav  in  the  eombi- 
nation  of  a  deep  sense  of  human  ignorance  with  a  eoiili- 
dence  not  less  deep  in  the  power  of  reason.     He  taught, 
that  human  life  and  experience  are  the  sphere  of  search : 
truth  and  good,  regarded  as  identical,  the  end  of  it :  uni- 
versality, the  test  of  reality,  conversation  the  method,  ra- 
tional thought  the  means — these  are  the  chief  notes  of  the 
dialectics  of  Socrates. 

Applying  the  native  strength  of  his  intelligence  di- 
rectly to  the  facts  of  life,  he  revealed  their  significance  in 
countless  ways,  by  unthought-of  generalization,  by  stniugt- 
analogies,  combining  what  men  had  not  combined,  distin- 
guishing what  they  had  not  distinguished — but  alwaj's 
with  the  single  aim  of  rousing  them  to  the  search  after 
eternal  truth  and  good.  But  all  this  equanimity,  virtue. 
and  genius  could  not  save  him  from  the  ill-will  of  his 
countrymen,  whose  anger  was  roused  by  a  few  of  hw  \^'^ 
sonal  enemies.  The  great  philosopher  was  indicted  for 
atheism  and  contempt  of  the  gods,  and  sentenced  to  the 
hemlock-cup.  Ht^  suffered  death  with  perfect  conii^sun* 
of  mind,  sealing  the  tenor  and  activitv  of  all  his  life  with 
a  glorious  submission  to  the  dictations  of  his  fellow-citi' 


ITHI  REW  TOM 
PUBLIC  LIBIARTI 


AZ~^P.  LENOr  AMD 


OSEBK  CIVILIZATION.  4Q^ 

tlio  doctrines  at"  his  own  profound  mind.' 
This  lifdiirig  work  of  Socrates,  in  wliicli  tho  germ  of 
loicr  [ihilusuphy  was  contained,  was  idealized,  devel- 
tl,  dnuuAtiscd.  6rst  embodied,  and  then  extended  be- 
d  the  ortginiil  sco[je,  in  the  writings  of  Plato,  which 
f  be  described  as  the  literary  outcome  of  tho  jirofound 
mssiou  made  by  Socrates  upon  his  greatest  follower. 
5«e  writings  (in  pursuance  of  the  importance  given  by 
rates  to  conversation)  are  all  east  in  the  form  of  imag- 
ry  dlalogties.  The  Tlatonic  dialogues  are  not  merely 
embodiment  of  the  mini!  of  Socrates  and  of  the  reflec- 
ts of  Plato.  They  are  the  portraits  of  the  highest  in- 
ectusl  life  of  Hellas  in  the  time  of  Platfj — a  lite  but  dis- 
lly  related  to  military  and  political  events,  and  acarcely 
mipteci  by  them.  It  is,  of  course,  next  to  impossible 
Iriincate  the  leading  prineiples  of  Plato  within  the  ex- 
vuAy  Iimit4*d  space  we  can  devote  to  a  consideration  of 
pbDoeophy.  But  we  can  not  omit  adducing  some  ot 
main  ideajs  iif  liis  system,  especially  tin isc  ihiit  have 
historiciil  Iwaring  on  tlie  eour.se  of  civilization. 

For  verj'  few  thinkers  luive  exercised  such  a  vast  influ- 
e  on  the  thoughts  of  niiinkind  ;is  Plato.  In  fii'-t,  his 
aence  is  almost  e<|ual  to  that  of  Ari.stotle.  Many 
Dols  were  formed  in  A.-iia,^  Africa,^  and  Europe,  in 
ch  the  thoughts  of  Plato  wtTc  nimlr  the  subject  matter 
irofound  study,  and  scarcely  a  treati.Hc  on  jdiilosophy 
r  made  its  appearance  witliout  showing  the  unmistaka- 
traces  of  the  Platonir  pliilosuphy.     Plati.  was  the  first 

'  A  whole  literature  trtutx  «t  \\iv  niiitiiiic   uiitl  ilealli  of  Kocrates; 

■om«  great  kuthorltieit  Iiiiii  tnwarU  ihe  opinion,  that   Hocra(«ii  could 

t  •««ily  nckpcdtho  fatul  M-iitciK-u  l>ut  for  hlH  IUkIi  mmihc  of  ob^i- 

.    Bm  m  ver>-  able  discuNBiori  In  Zt-Ucr. 

<  Sot  only  It)  the  lime  of  the  Groc-kH  and  Iho  Byum tine  empire,  but 

M  Urn*  of  tbe  Saracenj  u  well. 

I  S*»-PUtonlrtsiD  Alexandria. 


I 


498  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

to  establish  that  fundamental  distinction  between  the  ab- 
stract and  the  concrete,  between  the  rational  and  the  em- 
pirical, between  the  a  priori  and  the  a  posteriori^  which, 
to  the  present  day,  pervades  the  whole  of  philosophy,  and 
without  which  no  philosophical  thinking  is  deemed  possi- 
ble. This  distinction  reappears  in  that  other  fundamental 
division  of  philosophical  subjects,  in  the  division  of  things 
into  universal  and  particular. 

Plato  declared  that  philosophy  is  the  study  of  the  ab- 
stract, of  the  a  priori^  of  the  universal.  This  is  one  of 
the  pivots  of  his  system.  The  particular,  the  empirical, 
the  a  posteriori^  belong  to  the  practical  knowledge  of  the 
ordinary  mind;  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  investigations 
of  the  philosopher.  But  this  was  not  suflfieient.  Plato 
not  only  excluded  the  empirical,  he  pointed  out,  in  a  dis- 
tinct and  clear  way,  what  were  the  proper  subjects  of  real 
philosophy.  He  taught,  that  previous  to  all  experience, 
and  underlying  it,  there  are  innate  conceptions,  notions 
born  with  the  mind,  in  one  word,  Ideas^  the  study  of  which 
forms  the  chief  object  of  the  philosopher. 

These  ideas  {ideai  in  Greek)  are  divine  models,  eter- 
nal types  of  the  objects  in  nature,  and  the  principles  of 
our  knowledge.  By  propounding  this  theory  and  by  his 
endeavor  to  apply  it  to  all  branches  of  science,  to  natural 
philosophy  as  well  as  to  politics  and  ethics,  Plato  became 
the  founder  of  ^'Idealism,"  that  is  to  say,  he  is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  that  truly  philosophical  tendency 
of  confining  our  thoughts  to  the  ideal  aspect  of  things. 
He  openly  taught,  that  there  is  but  one  God,  the  creator 
of  this  world,  the  preserver  of  it,  who  governs  it  with 
l)rovidential  care.^     Virtue  is  the  attempt  at  an  imitation 

1  The  MoDotheistio  tendencies  in  Plato  are  evident  in  every  Une  of 
**Timaeus.'^  The  most  comprehensive  work  on  Plato  and  his  philoso- 
phy is  by  Grote. 


OREEK  CIVILIZATIOS. 


49» 


d,  am!  consists  of  four  elements,  of  SopiUa  (wisdom), 
ireia  (consistency),  of  Sophrosyne  (tt'nijMjraiicf),  and 
'taiosyne  (justice).  Politics  ia  the  applicatinti  of  the 
law  of  morals,  the  state  being  a  union  of  a  niasa  of 
»  under  the  same  law.  Its  object  is  liberty  ritid  har- 
Beauty  is  the  preceptible  representation  of  moral 
bysical  perfection.  Being  one  and  the  same  with 
and  with  "the  good,"  it  inspires  Eros  (Plutonic  love) 
leads  to  virtue. 

"he  greatest  of  all  Greek  philosophers  was  .Vristotle, 
sciple  of  Plato.     He  was  born    in  .'W4  B.  c,  ut    Sta- 

I  Macedonia,  and  this  circunistant-e  gave  rise  to  hui 
ne.  the  Stagirite.    His  work.-; 
h  philosophy  and  science, 
ler  t«  illustrate  his  merits, 

II  select  his  works  on  Logic, 
latter  of  the  "Prior  Analyt- 
ia.-(  Weonie  the  common 
ty  lit'  all  modern  IkioRs  on 
:iii<i  M-lialhe  wrote  upon  tin 
Imii.  tlie  mode  of  inference 

;.nelyl«-en    attere.i.    Botl 

mA      lleirel.     two     uf     th( 

>t  of  (iiTiiian  thinkers  and 
r-.  ;irkii.'wle<ip>.  tliat  from  th 
iwii  jiLTi-  {nineteen  ecnturies).  loL'ie  made  no  prog- 
Hi-  vv.i."  the  proud  distinction  of  liavin^'  discovered 
lly  drawn  .mt  the  laws  under  vvliieli  the  mind  acta 
m-tive  rea.soiiiuLr.  That  in  deduction  the  Tuind  pro- 
from  some  universal  proposition,  and  h<)W  it  pro- 
tliese  Were  aTnon^rst  tlie  most  imi«irtant  tilings  which 
tieha.l  t.,  tell  til.-  vv-orl.i. 
."e    have    now    begun  to  exhaust  the  list  of  Greek 


Scfhoclee. 
time  of  Aristotle  to 


600  THE  MF.D1F.V.\L  WORLD. 

philosophers,  we  have,  however,  only  space  to  name  aoane 
of  the  great  leaders  and  founders  of  schools  of  philosopb}' 
in  post- Aristotelian  times.  Foremost  in  the  ranks  of  these 
was  Epicurus,  born  341  b.  c.  The  scene  of  hla  philosophic 
life  ami  toaching  was  a  garden  in  Athens  which,  he  bought 
at  the  cust  cf  about  eighty  niina;.^  There  he  passed  his 
days  as  the  loved  and  venerated  head  of  a  remaiUUe 
society,  such  as  the  ancient  world  had  never  seen.  The 
mode  of  life  in  this  community  was  plain.  The  gancnl 
drink  was  water,  and  the  fbod 
barley  bread ;  half  a  pint  of  wins 
was  considered  an  ample  aJiaw- 
ance.  The  company  was  hdd  in 
unity  by  the  fascinating  charms 
I  of  Epicurus'  personality,  and  ly 
the  free  sociality  which  he  incnl- 
cated  and  exemplified. 

All  that  exists,  says  Epicnnu, 
is  corporal ;  the  intangible  is  lum- 
existent,  or  empty  space.  If  a 
AriBtophaSM?' "  tiling  exists,  it  must  .be  felt;  and 
to  1)0  fe1t,it  must  exert  resistance.  But  all  things  are  not 
intangible,  which  our  senses  arc  not  able  to  detect.  The 
fundamcntiil  postulates  of  Epicureanism  are  atoms  and 
the  void.  This  universe  of  ours  is  only  ono  section  out 
of  tliy  innumerable  worlds  ill  infinite  space ;  other  worlds 
may  present  systems  very  different  from  the  arrangement 
of  sun,  innon,  and  star-s,  which  we  see  in  this.  In  the 
sphere  of  human  action  Epicurus  would  allow  of  no  abso- 
lutely controlling  necessity.  There  is  much  in  our  cir- 
cumstances that  springs  from  mere  chance,  but  it  does 
not  over-master  man.     With  a  latent  optimism  he  asserts 


GREEK  CIVILIZATIOir. 


«a 


It,  though  there  are  evils  in  the  world,  still  their  domi- 
tion  is  brief  at  their  height,  and  there  are  many  consol- 
J  circumstances  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  b  easy  to 
ain  the  maximum  of  pleasure.' 
Toward  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  b.  c,  another 


Deeth  cf  Socraiee- 
unA    i-f    fJn-ck    jiliilosnpliy    w.is   fdinidod    liy    Zeuo  of 
tium.     Th'- ilisciplcs  iif  IIiisj^i'IiiHil  wcro  naiiu'd  Stoics, 
nil  til'-  Sloa,  nr  i»iiinti'<l  t-urridur  on  the  irnrlh  side  uf  the 


1   Tidm  Gu 
Kb.,  nrabrr 


^nrll'ii    work*   c 


Fl.ln.n.- 


iiid    Hlvlnthal'n    Mtieto  !■ 


502 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


markot-placo  at  Athens,  where  its  chief  members  urn 
Ji'Iivoriiig  lortures  on  the  pmblt'iiis  uf  philosophy.  But, 
though  it  arose  on  Hellenic  soil,  the  school  is  scin-elytobe 
considereil  a  product  of  puroly  Circokiiitolle<'t.  hut  rathers 
the  tirst-fruits  of  that  inter-actJoii  between  the  West  and 
the  East  which  followed  the  conquests  of  Alexander  tb* 
(ireat.  Hardly  a  siuirle  stoic  of  oniiiienee  was  a  citizen"! 
a  city  in  the  heart  of  Cfreece.  unless  we  except  Aristn  'i 
Chios.  Cleaiithcs  of  Assus.  and  l*:inaetius  of  Rhodes.  Nit 
did  Stoicism  achieve  its  crowning  triumph  until  it  »"M  1 
bmuirlil  tn  Romf, 
where  tlic  wive 
carnestnesr-  i^f  the 
national  chanuier 
api>reciateilits 
doctrines.  Furittn 
centuries  nr  innro. 
it  was  the  cni""!. 
if  not  the  \Ai\V'»*- 
phy.  of  all  the  Ix-st 
of  the  Romans. 

Oneofthemnii- 
est  of  the  st.*-:' 
wjis  C'hrisiifiw. 
wholivodfnMii?*' 
t^.  20<i  B.  i\  H.' 
Ari8tx)tle.  was  the  author  I'f 

!i  groat  number  of  works,  of  wliich.  howe^'er,  but  svm 
tVaguients  ha^c  come  down  ttt  us.  He  taught  that,  astk 
sole  aim  of  itliilosophy  is  to  discover  man's  duty.  ethi.f  is 
the  only  science  Ihat  is  of  real  iniixd-tanci'  in  itself.  wl>il'' 
physics  (;■  t?.  the  study  of  nature)  is  to  be  reganled  mori'ly 
us  an  aid  til  this  study.     The  ex]>lanation  of  the  unirerw 


QBSEK  CIVIUZA  TION.  GUS 

hopted  by  Chrysippus  is  that  of  the  stoics  in  general.  The 
eii  is  the  (Mri«jral ;  man  and  the  world  «re  all  that  e.\- 
hL  In  each  there  is  that  whith  is  inert,  and  also  the 
■Ibnuing  soul,  or  vivifying  fire.  The  soul  of  the  universe 
■  God,  or  destiny.  Each  human  soul  is  part  of  the  uni- 
rwsjil  9ou!,  in  which  the  souls  of  all,  except  the  wise,  are 
i^in  8wjdli>wed  up  at  death.  The  universe  is  jierlect. 
ScKalle*!  physical  evil  there  is  none.  Moral  evil  is  the 
IkoesfiarA'  complement  of  j;;ood,  and  is  turned  hy  Provi- 
Inci.'  inUf  good.  All  is  the  result  of  perfect  law.  Per- 
ftrt  unanimity  of  life  can  <inly  be  achieved  through  the 
Httestricted  dominion  of  right  reason,  that  is,  by  our  rea- 
■on  not  only  ruling  unconditionally  over  our  other  energies 
lad  i-ir<:uni«tances.  hut  also  coinciding  with  the  Universal 
feeiuon — the  reason  which  governs  nature.' 

The  achievements  of  the  Greeks  in  the  tield  of  phi* 
lOKpliy  wen-  e(|UalhHl,  it  not  excelled,  by  their  productions 
ft  a  jilrictly  scientific  charaotor.  In  fact,  the  Greeks  must 
be  ciin.'<i<lered  as  the  real  originators  of  modern,  as  well  as 
«f  all  .-cience.  Th<'y  were  the  first  to  reduce  a  mass  of 
obwTvcd  facts  to  a  coherent,  lucid,  and  well  arranged  system 
of  science.  Their  power  of  generalization  and  an  innate 
delicate  perception  of  fitness  kept  tlieni  free  from  the  wild 
Pisy«  of  imagination,  in  which,  amongst  others,  the  Indian 
BiMters  of  science  used  to  indulge.  To  the  present  day, 
*e  have  no  better  e.\am]>les  of  scientific  reasoning  than 
Euclid's  works,  or  the  «Titings  of  Archimedes  and  Ptol- 
^■iiy.  They  (-imtinue  to  form  the  foundation  of  our  stud- 
■«.  and  all  modern  trials  to  sui)ersede  them  have  pn-ved 
»U.rtive. 

'  Tb*  tutnrrc*  of  Sioiciflm  aro  thp  nevemh  book  of  Dlog«nM'  ImHf 
>^.  ibephlluBopblol  liookM  of  Clc«ro  {especially  DeFinibusl  BtobMM 
OdPloUrcb.    Tbf  motit  ^xhnuNtivc  modern  tre*tlM  la  that  by  Zdlar. 


5(>4  THE  UEDIFVAL    WOULD. 

The  scicntitic  achk'vemeuts  uf  the  Greeks  arechie 
concerned  with  inathomalies  (arithuietic  as  well  ad  j.i« 
etry; :  mechanics,  astronomy,  geography,  and  mudidi 
They  founded  K>th  elementary  arithuietic  and  the  dk 
important  portions  of  jilaiu  and  solid  geometry.  Ir" 
chaiiiis.  they  laid  the  foundations  of  statics  and  hi 
mechanics.     In   astronomy,  they  discovered  some  l  ' 


Qrsek  Art— Phlllas  In  hl8  Studio. 
most  important  and  fundamental  laws  of  the  heart 
bodies.  Pythaijoras  as  well  as  Philolaus  and  Nicetai 
Syracuse  taught,  that  the  earth  is  a  planet  revolv 
around  the  sun.  Coi>crnicu3  himself  confessca  hisgT' 
obligation  to  the  Pythagoreans.' 

'-De  BeTolotlOBlbuB  Orblnm  Cod 


OBKKK  VtVILtZA  TfOS. 


U39 


U^tarchiw  of  Samus.  who  left  ns  &  ray  ralojUUe 
Ae  on  the  magnitudes  and  disUDoes  uf  the  son  and 
^  measured  the  (liameiw  of  the  sun,  and  hia  resolta. 
<A  difTiT  Very  much  from  the  calcalationa  of  modern 
otumirni.  Kratosthen«^  determined  the  mugnitode  of 
ntili  \i\  H  inoiit  ingi-uious  meihtxl,  and  Uipparchua' 
ftlliie  must  esicntiiil  iliacoverv — Uil-  j/reecseii.n  of  the 
Utpparcliu?,  furthermnrc,  disct^rcrt-d  the  ec- 
t  id  the  wilar  *>ritit.  Ht-  accounled  for  the  ap- 
ility  of  the  Han*8  mutiuo  by  ifupixning  that 
nts  not  platfd  exiictly  at  the  center  of  the  t-ireu- 
pwi  of  the  xuii,  :iiul  that,  c<tn»e(|ucnlly,  his  distance 
Itfce  earth  ia  subjei-t  to  variatioua.  Wht-n  the  sun  ia 
■  greatest  distaiifc,  lie  appears  to  move  more  ulowly, 
r&eu  ho  approaches  nearer,  his  motiun  becomes  more 
,    The  attention   of  that 


aatTDDomer  wa£  also  di- 

^St^~\ 

[  to  the   motion   of   the 

UK^fel 

and,  on  this  subjert  his 

pH/yj 

thca  were  alten<li'il  "ith 

^K^^V 

raccrsR.     From  the  .oni- 

^^^HHaeL 

fl  of  a  gre.-it  nunibiT  of 
tioat    circumstantial   ;in<I 

i  ^^' m. 

tte  observation  of  eclipses 

■              VvKl 

,ed  by  the  Chaldeans,  lie 

'                 ''»\j 

naliled  to  deterniiiu-  ihe 

i.f    the    nitM.ir:^    r.volii 

H;;:rc:patee 

■lativflv  t..   lb."   s-.ai-^,  h' 

tin-  .-^uii,  tu  li(  r  iio<les,  and 

iil".;:r.'.     Th.-M-.!rt<-rniiii 

alioiis  lire  among  llic  most 

.!<■   rrstlltr-    ••\'  iilirii'llt   aslr 

iiiHJiiiv,  sinee  tliey  oorrobo- 

It,.- life  ..f  llii.,  tli.-)tr.'ut.'^t  '.f 

iill  (in-i'k  ftHlronomtrti,  we  know 

,-  liitli-.     .--in.lu-,  thi'  I.M'<-i:rii[.i 

i.r,  |.!a«r.i  liiro  »t  rrom  B.  c.  I« 

.  ,i*  il>oHt'  of  liiH  blrtli  and  death. 

606  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

rate  one  of  the  finest  theoretical  deductions — the  accelera- 
tion of  the  mean  lunar  motion — and  thus  t'umish  one  of 
t!ie  most  delicate  tests  of  the  truth  of  Newton's  law  uf 
gravitation.  Hipparchus,  likewise,  approximated  to  the 
parallax  of  the  moon.  Besides  he  drew  up  a  catalogue 
o'^  ten  hundred  and  eighty  fixed  stars. 

In  the  130th  year  of  our  era,  Ptolemy,  the  prince 
c,  astronomers,  as  he  was  called,  flourished  in  Alexan- 
dria, a  man  who  did  inestimable  service  to  aatrononiy. 
Although  his  system  of  astronomy  has  been  supplanted 
by  the  system  of  Copernicus,  his  merits,  nerertheless, 
entitle  him  to  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  mankind. 
His  works  are  a  perfect  treasury  of  astronomical  dates 


Plfty-oered  Qreek  Boat, 
and  theories;  and  all  civilized  nations  took  their  lint 
information  on  astronomy  fi*om  the  '"Almagest"  of  Pt<J- 
cniy.'  If  we  were  to  characterize  the  scientific  laboni  uf 
the  Greeks  in  the  shortest  and  still  most  effective  manner. 
we  would  sum  up  all  points  into  the  one  remark,  that  the 
Greeks  prt'-eminenlly  jiossesscd  the  rare  power  of  geufral- 
i/ation,  tlie  ability  to  rise  above  the  immediate  want^  <'f 
practical  life,  and  tt)  soar  to  the  abstract  relation  of  idea^- 
It  is  strange  that  the  Greeks  did  not  invent  the  ?="■ 

'  The  original  Greek  name  of  Ptolemy's  work  was  SyntMxla  or  Mr- 
^nH  Antrouoiuoa  Khe  Oreat  Astronomer^.  To  designate  tbiK  TkluiU* 
"ork.  the  Arabs  iiseil  the  superlative  "Meglsie"  (Orea(«st\  tu  wWt'' 
III'' Arabinii  nrtlcle  'iil'  lielng  pri'flxed,  the  hybrid  name  Almage*l|l9 
which  it  \*  now  imlvorsally  known,  is  derived. 


QBBBK  CIViLSZA  rtoS.  507 

llcd  Arabian  (projierly  speaking  Indian)  way  of  denoting 
nibers.  Thry  used  tlie  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  did 
»  Uebrows  and  utiier  Semites,  and  this  extremely  clumsy 
ly  of  figuring  fonned  a  check  on  the  free  development  oi 
recimn  arithmetic.  Some  of  the  simplest  problems  of 
itbmctic  (especially  those  where  factions  come  into 
ly)  become,  in  Greek  letter-denotation,  so  cLimplicntcd 
at,  amung!«t  others,  some  of  the  arithmetical  writings  of 
pchimetles.  wherein  he  used  letters  instead  of  digits,  are 
Boet  unintelligible.     The  tjrecks  had  a  decided  bent  for 


Greek  Ap'  —  Hec'.cr  Taklr.r  I.-^ave  cf  Andrcmache- 
■.miflric-nl    invistiLMtiniis,  in    |tnliTcnce  to  iirithnu'tieal 
n-j'.     Tlicir  LToiiietry  miiaiiied  a  iiioilel  |in  .-<  titatinn  of 
..iii.'tri.al  tnitlirf   f'T  twriitv  centuries,  am!,  in  all  Hkoli- 
■  •d.  will   never  I>c'  surpaJisi-d.' 

W.-  arc  now  to  appmai-Ii  nur  nf  tin-  iinwt  attnietive 

I  M'-l«Tti  (;»>metr)<-liiiiH  r<»]H'.'iHl1.v  Sicini-r.  riiii-ktr,  Oruuiroan),  ■)- 
»l  uriBiiiiii<iu»l,v  n>i><-«^U'  llii'  Kri'Hii-r  ]ii'rr<'<'t>iiii  i>rriirni  and  Hyatctn  In 
•th|tf..m.-try. 


OBBBK  CIVILIZATION.  .500 

*©  refer  to  the  temple.'  It  atanda  usually  on  a  height, 
Hed  the  Acro[K>iw,  on  a  substructure  ofrocka,  as  at  Syra- 
Bc;  or  on  a  small  eminence  which,  aa  at  Athens,  Wiig 
te  first  place  of  refuge  and  the  original  site  of  the  city. 
\  18  visible  from  every  point  on  tUf  jilain  and  from  the 
BSghboring  hills;  vessels  greet  it  at  a  distance  on  ap« 
Nwching  the  port.  It  stands  out  in  a  clear  and  buld 
J^bI  in  the  limpid  atmosphere.*  It  is  not  like  our  mo- 
Bd  cathedrals,  crowded  and  smothered  by  rows  of 
^pes,  secreted,  half  concealed,  inaccessible  to  tho  eye 
If©  in  its  details  and  its  upper  section.  Its  base,  aiilea, 
iilire  muM,  and  full  pniiKjrtions  appear'at  :i  glance.  We 
m  not  obliged  tu  divine  tho  whole  from  a  part. 

In  order  that  the  impres.sion  may  bt-  dear  and  dis- 
bct,  tbey  givo  it  mediuin  or  small  dimensions,  that  bear 
U  resemblance  to  the  vast  monuments  of  India,  Baby- 
lim,  mt  Egypt;  the  storied  and  crowded  palaces,  the 
Iiass4-!«  '•{  avenues,  enclosurea,  halls,  and  colossi,  eo  nii- 
menius  that  the  mind  at  last  becomes  disturbed  and  bc- 
»ililcred.  On  the  contrary,  tht^Grc'i.'ktenii)le  in  so  simple 
tbil  II  glance  suffices  to  comiireheml  tho  whole.  Tho  ed- 
<fip<'  \v.\A  nothing  Complicated,  quaint,  or  elaborate  about 
*-  It  \A  a  rectangle,  bordered  \iy  vi.  perisiy/e  (range)  ot 
■"lunins  ;  three  <tr  four  of  tho  elementary  forms  of  gcom- 
'•r>-  suffice  forthe  whole.  The  crowning  ot  the  pediment, 
■•e  flutirg  of  the  pillars,  the  abacus  of  the  capital — all 
M'  acccs.iiiries  and  all  details — contribute  yet  more  to 
Jow  in  ."•;•■  .i;;er  relief  the  special  character  of  each  mem- 
'r;  wb;'  'In-  diven^ity  <if  cnlnrs  serves  to  mark  and  de- 
hi-  ih'ir  I'  >]:'etive  value. 

1  l.i  I  .  ■■:  .-tii.ticii  .  r  Cio  !iri-hH.Tlurnl  l.i-iiiilivs  r  f  n  (;rwk  t«mple, 
^foll'-'.  I  1.  :  I  y  llii'  iii'i-tir.itt'  iiikI  ucM  t-x|>ri'r:«i<-<lHtuu-ii)«titH  lo  Talus: 
I.'Ar;  in  ';;•■!   "         -  ^-      \'..'-   r> —Iitrutioii,  ui'i-innpaiiii-ii  »itb  «4NayB, 


filO  Tins  MUDISYAL  WOKLD. 

In  other  respects,  Greek  art  was  equally  excellent 
A  school  of  sculptors  in  marble  existed  in  CMos  as  eariy 
as  660  11.  v.,  and  there  also  Glaucus  is  said  to  have  difr 
covered  tjie  art  i>f  welding  iron,  as  to  th'  remains  of 
Greek  sculpture,  which  may  with  more  or  leas  certainty, 
be  assigned  to  the  period  in  which  Glaucus,  Di];K>enus, 
Scyllis,  and  other  noted  sculptors  were  at  work,  there/ 
are  the  metopes  from  some  of  the  most  celeliratodl 
temples  in  the  island  of  j 
Sicily,  which  up  to  the  j 
present  have  been  regarded  ' 
as  furnishing  the  first  an-  ', 
thentic,  and  as  yet,  tlw  ■. 
clearest  glimpses  of  that  i 
early  stage  of  Greek  art.  | 
There  are  also  some  otlur  , 
authentic  remains,  espeo 
ially  the  sculptures  from 
the  temple  of  Athene  it 
Aegina,  now  in  MunidL 

Greek  ])ainting,or  radier 

coloring,  as    it   would  be 

more  properly  described  ib 

lis,  earliest  phase,  in  which 

it  was  entirely  subservient 

t«  architecture   and  wW" 

mography,  is  said  to  have 

l)een  first   elevated  to  an 

.'onic  Column.  art  by  Cleanthcs  of  C■o^ 

intli,' who   intrmluctul    the   drawing  of  figures  in  outline; 

by  Tclepharcs  of  Sicyon,*  who  improvetl  on  this  by  indi* 

tinjr  the   jmncipal  details    of  anatomy;  and  Eumaraa  of 

1  I'liny:  '■TIlNtiirin  NftiumliB,"  mxv.  B.  >  Ibid. 


GREEK  CTVir.TZA  TIOX.  'd  I 

IhcUii,  who  is  said  to  liavt;  tirst  ilistiiiguished  in  Iiis 
lintings  min  from  women,  probably  by  tbo  means  adop- 
d  in  the  eirly  vases,  that  is,  by  painting  tbo  flesh  white- 
tlio  casor^  women.  Like  their  followers  down  to  the 
neof  Ai>cUe8,  these  painters  used  only  the  siniplo  colora, 
lute,  yellow,  red,  and  bluish  black,  greater  attention  being 
lid  to  Iho  drawing  than  to  (he  coloring. 

In  temple  architecture,  the  jirinciples  of  both  the 
jric  and  louie  orders  were  already  fully  entablished; 
e  Imtter  lu  Asia  Minor,  and  the  former  in  Greece  proper. 


Temple  of  Diana  ai  EpheeuB. 
minii:  the  ri'niiiins  of  Doric  architecture  assignable  to 
i»  [MTi'id.  :irc,  amongst  otlicrs,  tlic  two  teni2>Ie3  of  Paes- 
III.  in'  tln!  Ionic  order  during  this  period  (the  sixth 
ntury).  ibr  jirincipal  example  wa.s  the  tcmi)lo  of  Diana 
Kphesu:".  the  conRtructit)n  uf  which,  begun  by  Theo- 
•nLH  of  S.inioH,  was  carried  on  by  Chcrsyphron  of  Crete 
id  hi-*  Will  Metagcnes,  and  completed  by  Demetrius  and 


512  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Paeonius  about  the  time  of  Croesus.  It  is  said  that  from 
first  to  last,  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  were  tM»n- 
sumed  on  tho  work.  This  temple  having  been  burned  l>y 
Herostratus  was  restored  under  the  directions  of  Alex- 
ander's architect,  Dinocrates. 

Wo  have  reached  the  time  of  Phidias,  and  have  now 
done  with   imperfections   in  sculpture,  so  far  at  least  as 
they  originated  in  want  of  knowledge  either  of  the  human 
form  or  of  technical  means.     Phidias,  the  son  of  Charmi- 
des,  was  an  Athenian,  and  must  have  been  born  about  oOO 
B.  c.     When  Periclcsi  succeeded  to  the  administration  of 
affairs,  and  it  was  determined  to  erect   new  templi^s  and 
other  public  buildings  worthy  of  the   new   glory  which 
Athens  had  acquired  in  the  Persian  wars,  it  was  to  Phidias 
that  the  supervision  of    all  these  works  wns  entrusted, 
aided  by  an  army  of  artists  and  skilled  workmen.    ]is 
438  B.  c,  the  Parthenon  was  completed,  with  its  colossal 
statue  of  Athene,  in  gold  and   ivory,  by  Phidias  himself 
and  with  its  vast  extent  o/  !<culpture  in  marble,  executed 
at  least  under  his  direction,  and  reflecting  in  most  parts 
his  genius.     After  the  completion  of  the  Parthenon,  Phid- 
ias accepted  the  invitation  of  the  people   of  Elis  to  exert 
his  liighest  power  in  fashioning  for  their  temple  of  Zeus 
at  Olympia  a  statue  worthy  oi  the  majesty  and  grandeur 
of  the  supreme  god  of  Greece. 

His  workshop  was  near  the  Alt  is,  or  sacred  grove, 
where  throui^h  successive  centuries  down  to  the  second 
century  o*  our  era,  it  was  preserved  and  pointed  out  with 
toolings  of  reverence.  The  finished  work  was  over  forty 
feet  high,  and  rc^presented  the  god  seated  on  his  thr(»ne. 
On  his  head  was  a  wreath  of  olive.  The  drapery  was  of 
gold,  richly  worked  with  flowers  and  figures  in  enamel. 
On  th(»  footstool  was  inscribed  the  verse:    ''Phidias,  the 


ORBEK  CJyiL/ZAT/oy: 

t  Charmiilos,  an 
nian,  hn^  miule 
Thi'llir'iiiewaa 
ly  of  ebony  and 
r,  inlaid  with  pre- 
1 8lon(«,  Bnd  rich- 
olptortMl  Willi  tv- 
,    ftud    in    parts 

11  Qreeoe  mndu  a 
rima^  to  Ihia 
n-louB  statue  und 
y  (ine  wIid  had 
1  it  Wfu)  prrin<iui)- 
happy.  Moat  af- 
ioglyifltlieunHur- 
able  fhanurtor  of 
Work  exprfssed 
b:it  tn-amiful  Ic- 
i  wliiL-hti'lUhuW 
IMiidia.s.  atU-r 
Completion  of  Ills 
Uf,  when  hi;  atood  ^- 
ijrhtfully  rnntom- 
injE    lii."     wi.rk. 

I'd    Ills    liHrKia  in  

.-crtoJupittT.and  p^nae  Athene,  after  Phldlaa. 

lon-d  a  token  whether  hia  work  was  well  pleasing  to 
prMl.  Then  suddenly,  through  an  opening  in  the  roof, 
fining  flash  glanced  from  the  cky  upon  the  temple 
",  as  an  unmistakable  sign  of  the  perfect  satisfaction  of 
Thunderer."  We  possess,  in  the  sculptures  of  tli6 
pMuwnltii,  DMcr.  Or.  v.  ia 


514  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Parthenon,  a  large  series  of  works  in  niarule,  at  least  de 
signed  or  modcleil  by  Phidias  and  executed  under  his  im 
mediate  care,  if  not  in  many  cases  finished  by  his  owi 
bands. 


Olympian  Zeue,  after  Phidiae- 
The  mantle  of  Phidias  fell  on  his  pupil,  Alcamenei 
an  Athenian,  the  lofty  conception  in  his  figures  of  doitit 
was  hi,L'liIy  iiraise<l.  while  in  point  of  gracefulness  i 
Womanly  t'orni  he  apjioars  to  have  excelled  his  m;iste 
His  most  celebrated  w<irk  was  a  statue  of  Aphrodite  6 
lid-  temple,  of  wliicli,  however,  the  merit  of  the  last  torn 
naw  aserihed  tt»  Phidias.     Her  cheeks,  hands,  and  liRUi 


OREEK  CIVILIZA  TION.  516 

Specially  «dmire(I ;  but  as  to  the  attitude  and  general 
t  We  have  no  information,  and  are  not  justified  in  ac- 
ag  the  Aphrodite  of  Mino  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris  as 
>y  of  it,  much  less  as  the  original  work. 
Amongst  the  |iuiiiters  of  this  period,  I'olygnotua  de- 
n  jiartirular  notice.  He  found  favor  with  Cinion,  to 
Mr  toal  the  new  inipiilw-for  the  improve 'uuMit  of  Athens 
doe,  and  was  eniploy^-d  to  execute  wall  paititinga  for 
3loa  Poecile,  the  Theseum,  and  the  Aiiaceuni,  or  tcm- 
i  the  Dioscuri.  For  his  serviees,  and  especially  for 
iiuBterest4>dncss  of  lii.s  character,  Polytrnotus  received 
t  was  then  regarded  as  the  highest  <li.«iinetioii — the 
lom  of  the  city  of  Athens.  As  regards  the  style  of 
gnotus,  we  have  the  distinction  drawn  hy  ArJsotle 
een  iland  that  of /I'lixis  (another  celebrated  (ireek 
ter),  *  distinction  wliich  he  expressed  by  the  words 
wdfiaiAos.  By  etlu>8,  as  applied  to  tlie  pnintings  of 
gnotus,  w*>  understand  a  dignified  bearing  in  his  fig- 
und  a  measured  movement  tlirouglunit  Ins  romposi- 
i.  sUfh  as  the  Parthenon  frieze  presents,  compared 
the  pathetic  rendering  of  scenes  in  the  frieze  from  the 
lie  of  Apollo  at  Phi^'aU'ii.  or  in  tlic  frieze  of  the  Mau- 
im  of  Halicarnassns,  The  sculptnres  of  the  latter 
unicnt  were  made  by  Scopas.  a  native  of  Paros,  who 
'hI  in  Athcn."  about  .'(Ht)  n.  c,  where  for  thirty  years  he 
itain<'d  a  reputation  for  an  unparalleled  power  of  ren- 
ig  the  bunian  or  divine  figure,  especially  in  a  state  of 
e<l  feeling.  \Vlien  eonaiderably  advanced  in  years,  he 
invited  by  Artemi.'^ia.  the  queen  of  Caria.  to  direct 
.'■.■nipttirs  for  a  innnument  that  she  was  erecting  at 
i-aniassns  in  nicm.>i-y  <.f  ber  lui.-*biind  Mausolus.'  The 
(■|.cr<..  Tu*-.  tiu8f-.l.   ill.  31;    .-^trabo,    tk'og.    xiv ,;    Pliny,   Hirt. 


516  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

site  of  the  Mausoleuin,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  an- 
tiquity, wiia  lUscoveretl  jind  escavatcd  by  C.  T.  Xcwton  in 
185fJ-7,  the  result  being  the  recover}-  of  an  important  psirt 
of  these  celebrated  scul|)tures. 

More  celebrated  still  th:m  Soopjis  wns  Praiitelos. 
The  scene  of  his  laborswas  mostly  Athens  and  the  nei;:h- 
Iwring  towns.  His  model  was  Phrync,  the  courtezan. 
Like  Scopas  he  had  little  taste  for  bronze  in   comparison 


Gi-eek  Art— fight  cf  Achillea. 
with  marble,  with  its  surface  finely  sensftive  to  the  must 
delicate  modulation.  Unsatisfied  with  even  this,  he  en- 
deavored to  soften  the  asjjerity  of  the  marble  in  the  crude 
parts  by  a  process  of  encaustic.  That  he  was  peculiar  in 
thiw  tinting  the  marble  and  an  exception  among  other 
Gr('ek  sculptors  can  not  be  meant  in  the  face  of  so  many 
instances  of  coloring  in  the  remains  of  Greek  sculpture 
and  architecture.  Of  his  works,  the  number  of  which  was 
unusually  large,  the  most  celebrated  were  the  following 


QRBBK  CIVILIZA  TION.  517 


^ 


es  :  The  marble  statue  of  Aphrodite  at  Cnidus,  astatae 
ApbnMlite  at  Th^spiae,  a  statue  of  Phryne,  and  a  statue 
Eros. 

Ill  painting,  a  great  step  in  advance  was  made  by 
uxisand  Pairhasius  ot  Ephesus.  An  interesting  tale 
MTibcs  their  contests.  Once  Zeuxis  painted  some  grapes 
|»erfeclly  that  birds  eame  to  pick  at  them.  He  then 
lied  en  Parrhasius  to  draw  aside  the  curtain  and  show 
» picture;  but,  finding  that  his  rival's  picture  was  the 
rtein  itaelf  be  acknowledged  himself  to  be  surpassed^ 
■-.{leaxia  haddeceived  birds,  but  Parrhasius  had  deceived 
wris.'  The  next  great  painter  was  Timanthes.  But 
!•  ApclleK,  in  whose  person  were  combined,  if  we 
ly  judge  fr(»m  his  reputation,  all  the  best  qualities  of  the 
lierto  existing  schools  of  painting.  The  best  part  of 
I  life  of  AiH-'lles  wan  probably  8i»ent  at  the  court  of 
Uip  and  Alexander  the  Great.  Many  anecdotes  are  pre- 
■fied  of  Apelles  and  his  contemporaries,  which  throw  an 
cnsting  li(^ht  both  on  his  personal  and  his  professional 
meter.  lie  was  ready  to  acknowledge  that  in  some 
lata  he  Wan  excelled  by  other  artists,  as  by  Amphion 
1  by  Asfh'piodorus  in  pertiipfctivc.  He  first  caused  the 
■tits  of  l*rt»tej;cnes  to  U-  understood.  bJ 

ny  the  genend  consent  i»f  ancient  authors,  Apelles 
nds  first  atiinng  (ireek  painter.-*.  Tn  the  indiscrimina- 
g  admiration  of  Pliny,  we  nuiy  add  the  unmeasured 
iii«o  which  Cicero,  Varrc  Ovid,  and  other  writers  give 
the  w..rk  of  Apelles  and  c.si)ecially  to  liis  Venus  Ana- 
►mene.'  ,\|-flles  i.s  said  tn  have  made  great  improre- 
ntit  in  the  mechanical  part  of  his  art.     His  principal 

'   I'linr.  Hint.  N«t.  xxxv   fl.  3A,  3. 

t|.lc<-'r».   Itiutus   18,  deOrat.lll.   7;    Varro.  de  Llague,  I*t.  Ix.  M; 

d.  Aft  Ainandl,  ill.  101. 


518  TSE  ilBDIBVAL  WORLD,       ■ 

diacoiery  wai  that  of  covering  the  picture  »ith  a  i 
thin  black  varnish,  which,  besides  preserving  the  pirt 
made  the  tints  clearer  and  subdued  the  more  brill 
colors.  That  he  painted,  on  moveable  panels  is  evi' 
from  the  frequent  mention  of  tabttlae  with  referenc 
liis  piftiiros.  Pliny  expressly  says,  that  he  did  not  ] 
on  walls.' 


Greek  Art— Capture  of  Helen. 
We  liave  now  made  a  short  study  of  Grrecian  C: 
zatiuii.  We  have  seen  how,  owing  to  their  contracted 
ami  their  mude  uf  life,  the  mental  activity  of  the  Gr 
\v;us  wrou^lit  up  to  a  high  i»itfb  ;  and  wo  have  traced 
i-esultti  uf  tills  ill  tlie  tields  of  philosophy,  science,  and 
Taking  a  geiienil  view  of  this  whole  matter,  regap 
Greece  as  simply  tlie  tirst  jmint  where  Aryan  civilizt 


QBBBK  CI  VlLtZA  TJON.  519 

B  to  its  fruitage,  wc  are  now  to  turn  to  the  study  of 
lan  CiTiIization,  And  here  we  are  to  notice  that  the 
ea  of  Arjao  culture  are  swinging  in  a  greatly  wider 
e  than  in  Greece.  This  is  but  a  prophesy  of  the  time 
1  all  Aryan  Europe  was  to  glow  refulgent  with  the 
;  first  focossed  in  Ancient  Hellas. 


1 


THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 


ROMAN  CIVILIZATION. 

«-i,VE.N<K  itf  the  City  of  Rome— Flret  HisUio-  iif  Riinie 

of  noun-  -The  HiiuReti  -Tlie  Foni— Sluvery  in  Aiioient  Rome— W 
fereot  Cla«scH  of  Hlavca— Treatmeat  or  m&vea— MftuumlBsion  uf  Sbm 
— The  House  Sons — Houie  Daughters — Marriage  lu  Ancient  Bom^- 
The  Status  of  Married  Women— Ceremonies  of  Marriage — EducatioB 
iD  Rome — Compared  with  Oreelc  Edueatlon — Public  Life  In  Ronir— 
Public  Games— Races  —  Gladiatorial  Games  — The  Coliaeum— Hm 
Gladiators — lufluence  of  these  Gaives  .on  tbc  People— The  "Lndl 
Magni  " — Public  Baths — Meals  and  Foods  of  the  Bomaoa— Uw  tl 
Wine  in  Rome— The  Dress  of  Roman^-The  Toga— The  Tnniea- 
Bpecial  Articles  of  Dress— Female  Dress— Roman  Literature— Clm* 
— Tacitus — FiDBDces  in  Rome — Taxes — Commerce — The  GoverntDHt 
in  Ancient  Rome — Normal  Development  of  Tribal  OovemmeBt— 
BomnQ  Civil  Law— The  Vaat  InSuenceM 
Our  Civilisation— ConcInslOD. 


OUR  delineation  of  Grecian  CiTi- 
lization,  we  dwelt,  to  a  ransidera- 
%  ble  extent,  on  the  general  faot, 
'  that  it  developed  in  cities  ;  and 
thus  wi-  reduced  ([uito  a  number  of  the  most  important  fev 
tares  of  that  civilization  to  one  far-reaehing  cause.  This 
feature  of  city  life  is  not  peculiar  to  Grecian  civilization. 
It  applies  in  a  still  greater  degree  to  the  civilization  of 
Rome.  For,  though  in  Greece  civilization  radiated  fnun 
cities,  there  were  many  such  centers  distributed  over  the 
iTiother  country  and  Asia  Minor,  the  southern  part  of 
Italy  and  Sicily. 

As  a  rule,  Athen.t  \»  considered  the  head    and  the 


''  f 


MOMAN  CIVILIZATION. 

der  of  Grecian  civ'ilization,  but  this  holds  good  only 
h  respect  to  a  few  departments  of  the  mental  develop- 
nt  of  Greece ;  and,  even  here,  the  cities  of  Sicily  and 
ia  Minor  contributed  considerable,  and  so,  to  the  great 
me  of  Athens,  we  have  to  add  those  of  Crotona,  Elea, 
racuse,  Halicarnassus,  etc  Thus  Greece  displays  the 
ectacle  ot  a  de-centralized  mental  development.  This 
-centralization  was  carried  to  a  still  greater  extent  in  the 
litical  life  of  the  Greeks. 

With  regard  to  Rome,  however,  there  was  no 
r  de-centralization.     Rome   was  the  exclusive  cen 
Mnan  civilization.   Neither  the  political,  the  intellect 
r  the  moral  life  of  the  Roman  Empire  had  its  r        e 
rare  than  in  Rome.    It  was  from  Rome,  that  all        fi 
B8  and  activities  of  the  vast  empire  riidiated.   T 
iinan  jurists  were  educated  in  the  city  of  Roi 
s:ht  have  been  Phoenicians,  like  Ulpian;or  Gre         1 
ju:*:  but  their  development  as  jurists  was  completed  in 
me.      It  wa.^  likewise  there,  that  the  great  generals  and 
•€K\^  of  Rome  found  their  instruction,  their  object,  and 
ir  .^u<(«  ss.     This  one  city  decided  the  aifairs  of  Italy, 
•  in,  (irtMre,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and    Mace- 
lia.      political  success  was  sought  for  in  this  city;  thus, 
en  Cirtro  wished  to  b(»  consul,  his  brother   Quintus  ad- 
eil  him  to  gain  first  the  votes  of  the  city  of  Rome,  for, 
^>inparisfni  with  these  votes,  the  balance  of  the  Italian 
ۥ?*  would  scarcelv  count. 

That  the  civilization  of  a  vast  empire  should  be,  as  it 
^i\  deiH'ndent  on  one  city  is  one  of  the  most  singular 
Ls  in  history.  There  have  L  *en  large  cities,  possessing 
llions  of  inhabitants,  cities  commanding  great  influence 
•r  the  destinies  of  countries;  but  the  influence  of  vast 
les.like  Babvlon  or  Xii.cveh,  London,  Paris,  or  BeriiDi 


BOKAIT  CIVILIZATION.  527 

I  Ibnn  &  clear  picture  of  Roman  ctTJIlEation,  ipc  *fUI  be- 
a  with  the  difscriptiini  of  the  city,  of  slreot  lifo,  and 
r  public  and  private  life  in  Rome.  AworiUngly  we 
fll  imagine  a  visit  to  Rome  :n  the  second  century  B.  C, 
ffcen  th.>  RepuMican  in.stitutioTia  were  not  yet  destroyed, 
lid  the  institutjuiia  uf  the  Regal  period  were  still  aioro  or 
Inactive.  It  is  n  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  iiistitu- 
bns  of  the  Re^'a!  p.-rlod  differed  essentially  fnmi  those  of 
M  Republic'  !n  eveiy  respect,  these  two  periods  were, 
\  one  a:Kl  the  sr.nie  mst  and  tenor,  save  that  the  lifc- 
IBgs  cf  the  fiist  iR-riod  were  replaeed  by  the  year-kings 
'  ihc  second.  Even  the  city  of  Rome  herself  <lid  not 
tpear  much  difTerent  in  the  second  century  n.  v..  than 
ic  did  in  the  times  uf  the  kings. 

The  oldest  part  of  the  city  was  called  Romu  Qundnltl^ 
id  in  the  84^^-ond  eentury  n.  c,  oa  well  ak  now,  the  huge 
■lis,  attributed  by  tradition  to  king  S<'niufl,  were  ex- 
in(.  The  Ktrect.-*  ..f  the  city,  with  the  exception  of  two, 
ere  n.-irr-iw  and  short.  The  pavtuiriit  v.n.'y  a  privilege  of 
erj-  few  .streets.  Houses  were  divided  into  two  cla«»e». 
Tic  regular  private  house  of  a  wealthy  Roman  citizen  wa* 
illed  liomus.      It  (■••nsi.-'ted  of  a  oiie-.-toried   building,  with 

flight  ..f  three  it  four  la. go  iinlls  o|R-ning  into  one 
Bother.  The  first  ..f  these  ball;  wa^  calb-^J  the  airmm. 
V  adjoining  Iiall  wa.«  ralleil  the  laUinum,  an<I  the  third 
fas  ealb.l  \\\iipcryst\liiim.  Th»-  d-.n;  rtic  lifeof  n  Kftnan 
wi-xe  I-.  iitered  in  iIh-  .itriunj.  It  «-;»  th'-f-,  » b'T*-  tl»« 
imily  tiK.k  tb.ir  in.-  i.s  «],.  r  ■  lb.  y  .--.'  rifi'-'-d  1"  (b-  jt'-K 
her.'  the  f  iiiiily  ■■..iineil  i^  .-  h'  Id.  ai,-l  wb<T'-  tb-  Ui^jtr'rti 
"Ihr  ll  .tl-r.-,»,k.-i  lb.-lll':il-  I  Ti  a-i'litlOT.  ",  tb'Mrthf»W 
rgi-  hali-.  there  win-  :;iiiall  ■■<<«,|iarirn'i.:«!    '■  r  ib'r  flmttm 

the  hous.-.  f..r  tb.-  .  bildren.  utA  '.-r  t>-.i.r»^«»«      A  %^ 

1  TLuWrU-.  Vol.  11.  p-  5>*. 


52G  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

is  far  from  being  an  exclusive  one.  In  addition  to  tht^ 
large  cities,  there  are  others  which  exercise  similar  influ- 
ence and  prevent  the  civilization  of  those  countries  from 
depending  exclusively  on  the  development  of  one  single 
point. 

The  city  of  Rome  is  situated  on  the  Tiber.  At  the  time 
when  the  seat  of  Rome  was  building,  there  were  many  other 
small  cities  in  Italy,  which  belonged  to  the  Etruscans  and 
the  various  Aryan  tribes  of  the  peninsula.*  These  cities 
were  really  each  the  headquarters  of  a  tribe,  and  consequent- 
ly, as  a  rule,  they  were  independent  of  one  another.  Inter- 
tribal wars  were,  of  course,  frequent,  but  in  spite  of  their 
feuds,  they  had  many  things  in  common.  Thus,  in  the  first 
place,  their  language,  with  the  exception  of  the  Etrus- 
cans, evidently  pointed  to  a  common  origin.  Their  relig- 
ious rites  were  more  or  less  the  same.  Their  social  .ind 
political  institutions  show  a  general  resemblance ;  and 
thus  we  are  enabled  to  explain  many  of  the  Roman  insti- 
tutions bv  sonic  hints,  and  remnants  found  in  the  districts 
of  the  Umbrians  and  Oscans. 

We  have  had  occasion  to  point  out  that  almost  nothing 
is  known  of  the  early  history  of  Rome.  The  nuiss  of  fa- 
bles on  which  it  rested  has  been  swept  away  belore  the  de- 
structive criticism  of  modern  scholars.'  This,  however, 
will  not  ])revent  us  from  a  description  of  the  political  and 
social  institutions  of  Rome  in  the  Regal  period,  as  well  as 
in  the  tirst  i)art  of  the  Republican  times,  because  those 
criticisms  are  directed  more  against  the  chronology  of  bat- 
tles and  similar  military  affairs,  than  against  those  quiet 
and  peaceful  institutions,  the  contemplation  of  which  forms 
the  prominent  part  of  a  history  of  civilization.     In  order 

J  Above  i>a^e  2{J8. 

«  This  Series,  Vol.  IT.  p.  \KSTy  ft  nrq. ;  This  Vol.  p.  274  ct  ceg. 


ROMAN  CIVILTHATION.  327 

to  form  a  clt'ar  picture  ^^i  Kmniin  civilization,  •*£  v\i\  be- 
gin with  the  tli'&iTii>ti(>n  uf  Uic  city,  of  street  life,  and 
of  public  aud  privati-  lifo  in  Rome.  Accordingly  we 
■will  imagiDe  a  visit  to  U<iiue  in  the  accond  centurj'  b,  c, 
irhen  th.-  RoimMican  institutiona  were  not  yet  destroyed, 
%iiJ  the  iiiBtitutioiia  of  the  Regal  period  were  still  more  or 
l(?ss  active.  It  is  !i  mistake  to  suppose  tliiit  tho  institu- 
lious  of  the  Regii!  period  differed  essentially  from  those  of 
Ibo  Republic,'  !n  every  respect,  these  two  periods  were, 
i>f  one  anil  the  sr.me  ca.st  and  tenor,  save  that  the  lifo- 
kiii^  if  the  fi:st  iH-riud  were  replaced  by  the  year-kings 
I  of  the  seetind.  Even  the  city  of  Rome  herself  did  not 
,  app'-ar  much  different  in  the  second  century  ii.  c,  than 
the  did  in  the  tiin<-s  of  the  kings. 

The  tddest  part  uf  the  city  was  called  Roma  Quudrata; 
«ik1  in  the  seeond  century  b.  c,  as  well  as  now,  the  huge 
Walls,  attributed  by  tnidition  to  king  Scrvius,  were  ex- 
tant. T!ic  .str^-cts  itf  tlir  city,  with  the  exception  of  two, 
were  narrow  and  slmrt.  Tlie  pavement  was  aprivilcge  of 
very  few  .streets.  Ilout-es  were  diviiled  into  twu  classes. 
The  regular  private  house  of  a  wealthy  Roman  citizen  was 
eallwl  domus.  It  (-nnsi^tcd  of  a  one-storied  building,  with 
:i  flight  iif  three  or  fonr  laij:o  nails  ojicning  into  one 
another.  The  first  -.f  these  liall.-;  was  called  the  atrium. 
The  ailjoinitij:  hall  wa^  called  the  lablinum,  and  the  third 
wa.-*  chIIimI  Ww peryslylium.  The  <lomestic  life  of  a  Roman 
h-.use  ct-ntereil  in  the  atrinni.  It  was  there,  where  the 
family  tiH>k  their  inc  i.s,  win  ic  they  .sacrificed  to  the  gods, 
whvf.'  tin;  family  cuun<'il  w;is  Ik'M,  and  where  the  matron 

i.f  th.-  h..iis(' >ke<I  th.' locals.     In  a.ldition  to  these  three 

larjr*'  hiill.H,  there  were  small  coni]iartments   fcr  the  slave* 
of  the  house,  for  till'  children,  and  for  l>ed-ro«»m8.     A  Ro- 

'  Tlii«brrli-.rVol.  II.  p.  TJH. 


528 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


man  private  house  iiaJ  no  windows  fiiciug  tho  stix-et. 
They  had  only  sky-light  arrangements,  so  that  the  liou.^' 
resembled  a  castle  mure  tliun  a  private  residence. 

Tho  number  of  houses  of  this  kind,  in  tho  tuni-r;  -ii 
Augustus,  is  given  as  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty.    Thf 


Entrance  to  a  Roman  Houae. 
second  kind  of  lutu-se  was  tlie  so-called  Insula,  whit'li 
is  identical  wiLli  our  lonemetit  house  There  were  aMI 
forty-four  thousand  in  the  lime  of  Emperor  AugiHttK 
They  had  several  .-(toi'Ii'S  and  hundreds  of  [KTSf-ins  Wfir 
living  in  them.  The  real  estate  business  in  Rome  was 
conducted  on  a  \'ery   large    scale,  and  iiiilliitnaire  Crassus 


soifAy  aviuzATios.  529 

ined  most  of  his  fortune  in  insula  speculations.  In 
ite  of  the  narrow  otrcL-ts,  there  were,  comparatively 
■aking,  few  cases  of  house-burning  ;  and  this  fact  may 
accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that  tenement  houses 
re  i>crfcct  blocks,  apart  from  one  another,  so  that  small 
irs  5ep»rated  them,  and  danger  from  spreading  fire  was 
■n-by  Imscncd.  In  the  8tn?et»t,  no  carriages  were  to  be 
!U,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  high  dignitaries,  or  of 
blic  conveyances  for  city  purposes,  before  four  o'clockin 
•  aflemaiin.  Private  conveyances  were  not  permitted  to 
ve  io  the  streets  of  Rome  before  that  hour.  The  car- 
gp.H  afforded  a  very  interesting  show  for  the  lover  of 
irt.  They  were  two-wheeled,  three-wheeled,  and  four- 
leeleil ;  and  the  horses  were  of  the  verj-  best  race,  hav- 
r  liwn  imported  from  the  most  beauUfiit  breeds  of 
iniidia  and  Arabia. 

Karly  in  the  morning,  the  life  of  the  city  began  it« 
unte.  There  were  »ev<T;il  Inrge  market  liiills,  oni'  for 
■rk,  another  for  sweets,  a  third  for  meats  of  all  kinds; 
'I  these  market-halls  Avere  under  tlie  ptri<;t  surveillance 
tile  AediUs.  These  market-places  were  called  Fora. 
(  the  most  im{)ortaiit  fnrum  in  Home  was  the  one  that 
^  [troperly  called  "the  Fonim."  It  was  situated  between 
■  Palatine  and  ( '!i|iatolitic  lulls,  and  its  extent  was 
vw  jugera.  It  was  originally  a  Hwam[)  or  marsh,  but 
s  faid  to  have  been  filled  up  by  Romulus  and  Tatius, 
I  to  have  been  set  apart  for  a  place  of  administrntmti 
justice,  for  the  assemblies  of  the  people,  and  for  the 
nsactioii  nf  other  kinds  of  public  business.  In  its  widest 
ise,  till'  I-'oniiii  included  the  fwiiliiim,  or  the  place  of 
R'inblv  for  tin-  C'uri'-ir.  wliidi  was  sei)arated  from  the 
iini,  in  its  narrower  .seiK-^e,  or  the  place  of  a.'*.sembly  for 
?  Comilia  Trihttla  bv  the  Rostra. 


530  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

Tlicso  rostra  wore  elcviitcd  jilai'i-s  of  ground,  fri'in 
which  oil  a  stage,  tho  orators  atldrysssod  the  peoph*.  Tin  y 
derived  their  name  fnnii  I  ho  fart  that  after  the  suhjim. 
tion  of  Latium  their  sitU's  Merc  adorned  with  the  I'Ciib 
(rosb-a)  of  tho  ships  of  the  Aiitiatea.  Theorators  addrcssd 
tho  peopk*  from  the  rostra,  and  from  thenee  tho  triliuncs 
iif  the  pL-oplOjin  tho  early  times  of  the  RcpubUe,  u^-cil  t'> 
confront  tlie   comitia  :tii<l  the  cnriae.      In  .'HX)  R.  c.  llii' 


The  Forum. 
Rnnians  ntlurned  the  Fonini  with  gilt  ahidds,  whieli  tlicj* 
had  t:iki-n  fmni  the  Saniiiites  ;  and,  suhsequently.  tlii.-^  rii.'- 
tiiiii  nl'ailurniiigttio  Fi.rinii  Was  observed duringlhotiiiU"f 
tho  puhho  Piiiinan  iramcs,  when  the  magistrates  iikIc  in 
then-  c-tiariii1s  in  jiroeosiim  around  tho  Forum.  Aftcrtlu' 
victory  of  Duillius  i>ver  tlio  Oarthagcnians.  the  Foruw 
was  achiriicd  with  the  celehratcd  Columna  Rostrala.  I" 
the  principal  part  uftlie  Coniitinm  the  laws  of  thetwelvc 
tablets  were  exliihited  for  ]>nbHc  inspection.    Bcaiih-s  the 


nOMA2f  CIVILIZATION.  ii3X 

onlinary  boainess  wliich  was  carried  on  in  the  Forum,  wo 
read  tliat  gladiaUirinl  gunies  were  held  there,  and  that 
there  prisoners  of  war  and  faithless  colocista  were  put  to 
death. 

The  second  furum  was  built  by  Julius  C'a'sar,  and  was 
called  Forom  Julii.  The  leveling  of  the  ground  alono  eost 
him  about  a  million  of  stsierces,  and  he  adorned  it  besides 
with  a  maguifieent  temple  of  Venus  Genitrix,  A  tlnrd 
lorum  was  built  by  Augustus,  and  called  Forum  Angus- 
tiam,  because  the  two  existing  ones  were  not  found  suflR- 
aent  for  tho  great  inereaso  of  business  which  hud  taken 
placi*.  Augustus  adorned  his  forum  with  a  temple  of 
Mars  and  th»  statues  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
the  lU-public. 

Besides  these  fora,  were  the  numerous  temples  in 
Bonie  deflicat^Ml  to  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  Greece  and 
Homo,  and  even  to  the  gtnls  and  deities  of  foreign  nations. 
The  dUtini'live  fi-aturo  of  ;»  Honiiin  tcnipli'  w.-is,  that  it 
waa  coDsidcreil  the  abode  of  the  god  and  not  the  place  of 
devotion.  The  peoj)le  never  thoufrht  of  going  to  church 
as  we  do.  The  temple  was  the  residence  of  the  god,  his 
private  dwelling  place,  and  jieople  i)rayed  and  observed 
(heir  d<-votion;il  exercises  in  tlieirown  houses.  There  were 
of  <iiurHe  religious  processions,  which  frequently  tilled  the 
strtH't.i  nf  the  city,  but  they  were  generally  surh  as  exerted 
an  influenccr  on  political  factors.  The  city  of  Rome  had 
a  suburb,  a-t  we  might  Kay,  in  the  neighboring  cemeteries. 
The  ni<i<<t  splendid  tonil)-stones  and  burial  monuments 
adorned  lK)tli  sides  of  the  magniticent  Via  Appia,  and  made 
the  impression  nf  a  city  of  its  own.  Rome  had  a  most 
cioellent  system  of  sewerage  of  which  tiiere  are  consid- 
erable remnants  left.  There  were,  besides,  several  aque- 
ducts conveying  water  to  the  city.     The  whole  territory 


632  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

of  Rome  was  divided  by  Augustus  into  fourteen  regions. 
as  it  were  wards,  and  at  the  head  of  every  ward  there  was 
an  of&cial  directing  its  internal  aflalrs. 

Interesting  though  the  architectural  and  monumental 
appearance  of  ancient  Rome  maybe,  the  people  who  in- 
habited that  city  afford  a  still  greater  interest.  It  was 
the  sturdy  and  energetic,  relentless  and  shrewd,  pains- 
taking arid  severe  people  of  Rome,  which  presented  the 

^ —  —    '-"'"i^^  spectacle  of  men,  who  were 

^^^^P  j|B  at  once  the  best  conquerors 

^^^^■U  J^^M  ^"'^    i*ulers    and  the   best 

^^^^^^L  '^^  ^BJ^^H  *^^^y*^^  known  in  general 
^^^^H7  •  HI^^B  '"'^^^T-     "^^  obey,  to  staoil 

^^^HK    '  ^^^^H  ^y  ^^^  command  of  a  supe- 

BWP^™^  jl-  ^^vK^^H  ^'^°^'  ^^  engrafted  on  the 
f    '^^^       mSb-  K3  wi^H  mind  of  every  Roman  from 
his   childhood;    and,  eren 
in  the  times  of  the  wildest 
I  licentiousness,   we  do  not 
I  hear  of  a  Roman  who  ven- 
'  tured  to  revolt  against  tlie 
Houeehoii  Chapel.  authority  of  his  father,  or 

against  the  priiicijtal  magistrates  of  the  city. 

The  population  of  Rome  was  divided  into  three  parta. 
In  the  first  were  the  free-men;  second,  the  fr«edmen  ;  and 
third,  the  slaves.  But  if  we  consider  the  condition  of  & 
son  who  was  still  in  the  household  of  his  father,  and  if  we 
notice  the  utter  dependence  in  which  he  was  left  on  the 
good  will  of  his  parent,  we  might  say  that,  practically, 
there  were  only  two  classes  of  people  in  Rome,  that  is  to 
say.  Free-men  and  Slaves.  For  the  son,  as  long  as  he  was 
not  emancipated  by  his  father,  was  legally  unable  to  earn 
his  living,  to  acquire  a  fortune,  or  to  live  independently.  In 


SOMAN  CI  VILXZA  TIOK.  533 

ereiTtluiig  necessary  to  support  himself,  lie  had  to  depend 
on  his  father,  with  one  exception ;  as  far  as  political  life 
was  concerned,  he  was  considered  a  &ee,  indepoodent  man, 
and  it  was  there  that  the  power  of  his  father  ceased. 

The  slaves  in  Rome  formed  over  two-thirds  of  the 
city.  Of  coarse  we  speak  of  the  later  times  of  the  Repub- 
lic, for  in  the  beginning  of  Home,  there  were  comparatively 
few  slaves  in  the  city.  The  slaves,  forming  such  an  over- 
whelming part  of  the  population,  claimourdose  attention; 
let  us  therefore  describe  their  condition  in  detail.  The 
most  froitAiI  sources  of  slavery  were  the  continual  wars  of 
the  Romans.  The  number  of  captives  brought  home  into 
slavery  sometimes  appears  incredible.  TIio  captives  were 
divided  with  the  spoils  upon  the  battlefield,  and  each  sol- 
dier provided  for  the  slaves  allotted  to  him.  It  became 
common  for  the  slave-dealers,  or  as  they  were  called  Mango- 
«j,  to  accompany  the  armies  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing 
the  captives.  Prices  at  such  times  becrime  very  trifling. 
Sometimes  as  small  as  four  drachmtu?  According  to 
Josephus,  ninety-seven  thousand  captives  followed  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  Men  of  the  highest  rank  in  Rome 
engaged  in  this  horrible  calling  and  constituted  a  powerful 
organization.  Children  of  slaves  followed  the  condition 
of  the  mother.  There  were  great  slave  markets  in  Car- 
thage and  in  Delos,  but  the  center  of  the  trade  was  at 
Rome.  Slaves,  generally,  were  sold  at  auction,  standing 
njK)n  a  stono  so  that  thoy  might  be  closely  scrutinized. 
Slaves  of  peculiar  beauty  and  rarity  were  kept  separate 
and  sold  privately. 

Newly  imported  slaves  had  their  feet  whitened  with 
chalk.  Those  from  tlie  Eu.'it  bad  their  ears  bored.  Each 
(.f  tiicm  I'ad  a  scroll  susja-iided  around  his  neck,  giving 
1  AixiuT^iiV. 


JIOitA N  CI VILIZATIOS. 


536  ■ 


lid  ;  the  African,  vain  ;  the  Sardinian,  unruly  utc.  The 
vate  slaves  of  the  rich  Roman  were  divided  into  two 
Bsee,  the  country  and  the  city  slaves.  Any  number  of. 
■m,  owned  by  the  Bamo  master,  were  called  respectively 
vi/iarustua  stinl /ami/i'a   urbana. 

The  slaves  were  still  further  classified  according  to 
lir  occupations,  such  as  Ordhiarii,  Vulgares,  Afediastini^ 
tena/i,  etc.  They  were  chiefly  employed  in  agricultural 
rsuita  or  the  mechanical  arts.  Many,  however,  were 
sd  as  personal  attendants,  it  Ix'ing  considered  discrcdit- 
le  for  a  person  of  nmk  to  be  seen  without  a  train  of 
roe.  From  the  moment  u  stranger  entered  the  vesti- 
leof  the  Roman  house,  through  the  hull,  in  therecep- 
D  room,  at  the  table,  everywhere  he  was  attended  by 
Ibrentserruota,  each tiikinghis  name  fromhis occupation. 
e  number  of  slaves  at  any  gii-en  period  can  not  he  ac- 
ttiolj  ascertained.  That  they  were  very  numenius,  in 
t  more  numerous  thati  the  free  population,  is  indispu- 
lie;  and,  it  is  further  known,  that  the  numbers  in- 
ued  daring  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic  and  umler 
>  emperors.  The  ti umber  sometimes  owned  by  a  single 
Sridual  is  almost  incredible.  A  fJreek  writer.  Atha'- 
tt,  Mtys,  that  hotne  persouH  owned  .'is  many  as  twenty 
niBAml. 

Tlie  .■'■iiiii-  .■iv^tt-ni  was  in  use  in  every  part  of  the 
isehold.  The  female  slaves  were  distinguished  in  like 
nner.  Everj' conceivable  want  being  attended  to  by  a 
anite  slave.  Tlie  smallest  service  had  its  slave.  Thus 
h'lldingof  the  umbrella,  of  the  fan,  of  the  sandals,  etc., 
e  iiamr.^  to  partieul;ir  slaves.  Similarly  the  arranging 
ircfli*.  the  .netting  lit  the  teeth,  antl  the  painting  of  thecye- 
w.-,  nfjiiind  separate  attendant.-.  A  jironiinent  Roman 
ay*  had  a  nomenelator^  that  is  to  say,  a  slave  who  told 


536  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

him  the  names  of  the  passers-by  on  the  street,  for  it  wai 
considered  gentleman-like  to  address  everybody  by  lus 
name.  The  wife,  upon  her  marriage,  received  a  confiden- 
tial slave,  dotcUis  servus.  He  belonged  to  her,  the  master 
had  no  control  over  him.  He  frequently  had  the  oonfidenoe 
of  the  wife  more  than  her  own  husband.  Even  the  school- 
boy was  followed  by  his  little  slave  to  bear  his  satchel  to 
school.  The  old  and  luxurious  were  borne  in  sedans  or 
chairs  by  special  slaves.  Slaves  were  even  trained  for 
gladiatorial  contests,  especially  was  this  the  case  under  the 
emperors,  who  encouraged  the  sports  in  order  to  disengage 
the  thoughts  of  the  people  from  their  own  bondage.  We 
should  not,  however,  judge  the  Romans  too  hashly  for  Hiis 
cruelty,  as  frequently  free  men,  knights,  senators^  and 
even  emperors,  for  instance  Commodus,  descended  into  the 
arena  and  engaged  in  the  fatal  encounter.  Sometiinei 
even  women  joined  in  the  conflict 

The  price  of  slaves  in  Rome  varied  much  at  diffsrent 
times  and  according  to  the  qualities  of  the  slave.  Under 
the  Empire,  immense  sums  were  paid  for  beautiful  slaYeB 
and  such  as  attracted  the  whim  of  the  purchaser.  We 
liave  accounts  of  their  selling  as  high  as  from  five  thousand 
to  ten  thousand  dollars.  In  the  time  of  Horace,  about  a 
hundred  dollars  was  a  fair  price  for  an  ordinary  slave. 
Clowns,  jesters,  and  pretty  females  brought  high  prices, 
although  females  generally  sold  for  less  than  males.  Han- 
nibal, after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  being  encumbered  with 
his  prisoners,  suffered  the  knights  to  be  ransomed  at  sev- 
enty-five dollars;  the  legionary  soldiers,  at  fifty  dollars;  the 
slaves,  at  twenty  dollars. 

There  were  certain  feasts,  during  which,  for  the  time 
Ixnng,  slav(\s  were  allowed  perfect  liberty.  Of  these,  the 
ino:st  remarkable  were  the  Saturnalia^  when  such  perfect 


ROMAN  CrVILIZATlON. 


537 


lulity  t-xi«to(l  that  the  master  waited  on  the  slaves  at 
We,  This  feast  was  in  the  hitter  part  of  Decemher  and 
rteti  seven  days.  Another  was  a  feast  in  honor  of  king 
rvius  Tullius,  he  heing  himself,  according  to  tradition, 
B  son  of  a  captive  and  a  slave.  This  feast  lasted  from 
D  Ides  of  March,  the  date  of  his  birth,  to  the  Ides  of 
[>ril,  the  date  of  the  inauguration   of  the  temple   of 


A  Reman  Villa. 
The  punishment  inflicted  upon  slaves  for  offenses 
■re  various  and  some  very  severe.  They  necessarily 
flTcrcd  from  those  prescribed  for  the  same  offenses  when 
mmittcd  by  ftx^  men.  Minor  misdemeanors  were  sub- 
ittcd  to  the  correction  of  the  master.  Cato  the  censor, 
stituted  upon  his  farm,  a  kind  of  jury-trial  among  the 
kvcs  themselves,  and  submitted  to  them  the  guilt  and 
e  punisfamcnt.  The  courts  took  cognizance  of  graver 
MtpM.  The  removal  of  the  urban  slave  into  tfae  /a- 
Uia  rustica  was  a  mild  and  yet  a  much  dreaded  penftlty, 


538  THE  ME  DIE  VA  L  WORLD. 

for  in  such  cases  they  worked  in  chains.  The  hand-mill 
Avas  also  a  place  of  punishuient.  Sometimes  they  were 
scourired,  after  being  suspended  with  niancles  to  the  hrinda 
and  wei^lits  fastened  to  the  feet.  Another  mode  vi  pun- 
ishnient  was  a  Avooden  yoke  upon  tlu»  neck  and  Kmnd  to 
the  arms  on  eithc^r  side.  Ui)on  every  Roman  farm  there 
was  a  private  prison  in  Avhich  refractory  slaves  were  i*oii- 
fined.  Thev  wc»rc,  however,  abolished  in  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian.  In  some  cases  very  severe  punishments  were  n^ 
sorted  to,  such  as  cuttinjx  off  the  hands  for  theft,  and  death 
by  ilie  cross.  Th(\s(»  howev(»r  were  very  rare.  T(»  pn*- 
tect  the  master,  the  Roman  laws  were  verv  strinirent  ami 
j)rovid(Hl  that,  when*  i\w  mastcT  was  found  murdered  iu 
his  hous(»  and  thi*  perpetrator  was  unknown,  all  thed<uiie;>- 
tic  slaves  should  Ix*  put  to  death. 

There  Avas  no  distinctive  dr(\ss  for  slaves.  It  wasoiuf 
proposed  in  the  senat(»  to  uiv(»  slaves  such  a  rostuino,  but 
it  was  rejected  since  it  was  considered  danwrous  to  slinff 
tlH'Ui  their  number.  Male  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  wear 
th(*  ioi^a  or  bu/la.  nor  females  the  sioia,  but  iUherwise  tlii'V 
were  dressiMJ  nearly  in  the*  same  way  as  poor  people,  iii 
clothes  of  dark  ccdor  and  slipi)ers.  The  rites  of  Imrial. 
however,  were  not  denied  to  slaves,  for  as  the  Romans ri*- 
garded  slavery  as  a  political  institution,  (Wath  washeUto 
put  an  end  to  tlu*  distinction  b(»tween  free-men  and  slavi's. 
In  view  of  the  many  false  opinions  as  to  the  treatment  t»f 
slaves,  in  tin*  tim(\s  of  the  Romans,  W(»  will  add  a  few  well 
<»stablis!ied  facts,  concerning  the  treatment  aecordeii  them 
in  some  instancies. 

(■ato  ate*  and  drank  the  same  c(airse  of  victuals  as  his 
slaves,  and  even  had  the  children  nourished  by  his  wife, 
that  thev  miij:Iit  imbibe  a  fondness  for  the  familv.  lie 
allowed  the  marriage  of  male  and  female  slaves  at  the 


BOifAN  CIVIUZA  TION.  539 

rice  of  a  money  payment  from  their  savings.  Columella. 
Qotbcr  Roman  writer,  regarded  the  gains  frum  the  births 
B  a  sufficient  motive  fur  encouraging  these  unions,  and 
kDUght  that  mothers  should  bo  rewarded  according  to  the 
nmber  of  their  children.  The  immense  extension  ol  the 
lajority  of  Roman  real  estates  made  it  impossible  for 
nastcrs  to  know  their  slaves,  even  if  they  were  disposed 
0  do  so.  In  iiie  famiiia  urbana,  the  favorites  of  the 
Qastcr  had  good  treatment  and  exercised  extensive  Jn- 
Rurnce  over  him.  Doubtless  there  was  often  mutual  affec- 
tion. Slaves  siimetimes,  as  in  noted  instances  during  the  il 
Oril  wars,showcd  a  noble  spirit  of  devotion  to  their  masters. 
Those  who  were  common  inmates  of  the  household,  but 
""CTe  employed  out.sido  of  it  as  kee|>ors  of  a  shop  or  boat; 
duels  of  workshops  or  clerks  in  the  mercantile  business, 
*M  the  advanlAge  of  greater  freedom  of  artion.  One 
Pftiofofthegenerallyhutnrtn^treatment  of  slaves  in  Rome, 
■ftsy  1)0  found  in  the  fact,  that  conspiracies  and  rebellions 
'^inst  the  masters  belonged  to  the  rare  and  exceptional 
^lures  of  Roman  history. 

Blair,  in  comparing  the  Greek  and  Roman  systems 
f  »Iav4Ty.  points  with  justice  to  the  greater  facility  and 
fVqtii-ncy  of  eniancipatinn  as  the  great  superiority  of  the 
toman  system.  '■Xtt  Roman  .slave,"'  he  says,  "need  despair 
f  U-cuniiiiL' iMith  a  free-man  and  a  citizen."  Manumission, 
t  cmaTicipalinn,  took  place  in  either  of  two  general  ways, 
'w/a,  and  Minus  Justa.  Of  the  last  form,  there  were  four 
nodes.  First,  by  adoption,  rarely  resorted  to;  second,  by 
tslamenl:  third,  hy  ccnsui,  which  was  of  exceptional  use 
nd  did  nut  ('.\i.>^t  later  than  the  time  of  Vespasian ;  and* 
lurth.  by  vimiicta.  wliich  was  the  general  form.  In  the 
lat  inetlKHJ,  the  riiastvr  tnriiid  the  slave  around  with  the 
fordfl  "liber  eato,"  in  the  presence  of  the  praetor,  thst 


I 


SOifA  y  crrtLizA  tion.  541 


^  the  principles  of  reason  aiiJ  humanity  had  been 
iSicd  to  the  subject,  as  by  Seneca,  whi),  whatever  we 
y  think  of  him  as  a  man,  deserves  uur  gratitude  for  the 
band  liberal  sentiments  he  expressed  respecting  slaves, 
tBy  he  says,  should  be  treated  as  humble  friends ;  and 
ppcially  ft>r  his  energctio  reprobation  of  gladiatorial 
klbnts  and  of  the  brutality  of  the  public  who  enjoyed 
bn  sanguinary  shows.  The  military  vocation  of  Rome 
■•  DOW  felt  to  hav<!  reached  its  normal  limits,  and  the 
q)erDrs,  understanding  that,  in  the  future,  industrial  activ- 
t  must  prevail,  prepared  for  the  abolition  of  slaver)',  as  far 
VMS  then  |x»siblc,  by  honoring  freemen,  by  protectingthe 
ITeagainst  his  master,  and  by  facilitating  manumission. 
The  state  granted  to  public  slaves  the  right  of  l)e- 
eatfaing  half  of  their  possessions,  and  private  persons 
inetimcA  permitted  similar  dIsiKisitions  even  to  a  greater 
tent,  though  only  within  \\\e\r  /amiliae.  Iladriari  took 
»m  m;ister»  the  pcwer  iif  life  and  death  and  abolishetl 
e  subterranean  prisons.  Antonius  Pius  punished  him 
lo  kilted  his  own  slave,  as  if  he  had  killed  another's. 
Iready  in  the  time  of  Nero,  the  magistrates  had  been 
[lercil  to  rweive  the  slave's  eomplaint  of  ill-treatment 
d  the  I.cx  Pctronia.  belonging  to  tlie  same  or  an  earlier 
riod.  fi'Hiinle  musters  to  hand  over  their  slaves  to  eom- 
t  with  wild  be.ist.s ;  and  Antonius  Pins  directed  that 
ives  treatfd  witli  excessive  crueltv,  who  had  taken 
fugc  at  an  altar  or  imperial  image,  should  be  sold  ;  and 
is  pnivi.-ion  was  extended  to  ea."*es  in  which  masters  had 
ipli.ycd  :i  .il;iv(.'  in  a  way  <legrading  to  him  or  beneath 
s  character.  Man-US  Anrclius  gave  to  masters  an  action 
ainst  their  slaves  fi.r  any  cause  of  complaint,  thus  bring- 
s  their  relation  nmre  directly  under  the  surveillance  of 
ir  and  public  opinion.     A  slave's  oath  could  still  not  b« 


642  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

takon  ill  the  court  of  war.  lie  Avas  interrogated  by  the 
torturer,  but  the  emperor  and  jurists  limited  in  various 
ways  the  application  ot  torture. 

We  learn  more  about  the  private  and  intiniati*  nla- 
tions  between  Roman  slaves  and  their  masters  from  the 
numerous  mortuary  inscriptions  found  all  over  Italy  ami 
in  fact,  all  over  the  Roman  Empire,  and  which  havoUt^n 
most  carefully  collected  and  compiled.  In  these  inscriptiuni 
we  iind  numerous  allusions  to  the  relations  of  Roman  slavts 
to  their  masters ;  and  it  is  both  pleasing  and  instructive 
to  se(^  how  frequently  the  relation  between  master  and  ser- 
vant assumed  the  form  of  real  friendship.   On  many  toml^ 
stones,  we  read  of  the  master  s  will  to  let  his  slave  be  the 
sole  heir  to  his  fortune.     On  others,  he  expresses  a  desire 
to  lie  beside  his  slave,  who  was  his  only  and  most  trusted 
friend.     On  others,  again,  he  expresses  his  deep  gratitude 
for  all  tlu^  beneticial  work  that  his  slave  had    bestowtxl 
upon  him.     These  and  similar  testimonials  bespeak  the 
real  condition  of  slavery  in  Rome  in  a  much  clearer  and 
in  a  more  unequivocal  way  than  the  t€xt  of  Roman  laws, 
which  l)y  th(Mr  very  nature,  had  to  be  harsh  and  severe.  In 
the  iHN'il  life  of  the  Romans,  the  slaves  formed  a  very  (\>n- 
siderable  constituent  of  the  comfort,  of  the  industry  and 
con]mer'.*(\  of  the  instruction  of  the  people.     The  slave* 
w(M-e  the  trades-people;  they  were  the  agents,  commi.fsit'n- 
(Ts,  n»i)r(\^(Mitatives  ;  they  carried  on  a  brisk  trade  for  their 
masters  ;  lh(\v  wiTe  the  private  tutors  and  instructors  ft' 
the  iuast(^r\s  children;  they  were  the  physicians  of  the  house 
and  to  tlu^in  the  lives  of  noble  Romans  were  trusted  daily 
and  hourlv. 

T\u>  second  class  of  ])eople  in  Rome,  technically  known 
as  frcc-MK^Ti,  coinj)rises  those  persons  who  were  fret\  and 
yet   as  Ix'HiLT  niomlxTS  of  a  joint-family,  were  under  the 


ROM  AX  CTVrLIZATTOX. 


o43 


ontrul  of  a  house-father.  Here  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
aniT  for  iw  to  keep  iu  mind  the  results  of  previous  inquiry 
nUi  Ancient  Socicti|-  ami  esi)eciiilly  as  to  the  rights  and 
lutiew  of  the  various  menihersof  a  joint-faniilv.  Many  of 
Ihe  laws  and  institutions  of  ancient  Rome  admit  iif  easy 
Biplanation  when  we  once  recall  the  peculiar  stjinding  of 
tho  joint-family.* 

We  have  seeo,  that  wherever  nneient  soeiely  has  bad  ' 
a  nomiaj  development 
the  joint-family  inva- 
riably made  its  appear- 
aoce.  Every  known 
branch  of  the  Aryan 
Dice  achievp<l  its  dcvel- 
i>poieiit.  Xow  in  an- 
pient  Rome,  when  the 
jther  institutions  of  an- 
cient society  were  fast 
hreaking  down,  when 
(Tfcan  only  dimly  nuike 
Hit  the  irilK',  plinitrj', 
mil  gens,  we  find  the 
joint-family  «till  etijoy- 
inpa  vigomus  life.  Tlic 
Tinstant  tendency  nf 
fdvaiicin^  civitizatiiiii. 
which  i«  Im  hrcak  n[. 
ihis  form  of  III,-  f;imil\, 
liitd  made  IjUt  wliLrllt  in-  A  R::r.ar.  3;Lizer.. 

niiid!*  U[i"n  the  iiiiiit-f;iniily  .-iiiionir  the   Romans.     Recall 
in  mind  tliJit,  in  tlj..>  devcl.tii.'d  turm  <>l  the  joint-family,  the 
honse-fath'T  »T  liniisr-chii-f  owiicd   and  controlled  all  ita 
'  ri.i-S*nr^   V..I    II    (>.2IT./-'v. 


644  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

property,  voted  for  it  in   the  general  assemblies,  was  its 
judge  and  general  executive.' 

We  have  further  seen  ho\^  must  people  made  arninge- 
ments  for  libiTuting  the  sons  from  the  control  of  the  house- 
chief.  But  in  Rome  this  step  had  not  been  taken.  Hence 
a  house-son  had  no  public  civil  rights  whatever.  He  could 
not  acquire  a  cent's  worth  of  property,  he  could  not  call 
his  own  the  minutest  thing  in  the  world,  and  anything 
that  he  acquired  belonged  to  his  father.  He  could  not 
marry  without  his  consent  and, when  married,  he  had  to  ask 
for  the  means  of  his  sustenance,  and  he  remained  depend- 
ent just  a^  in  the  days  of  his  childhood.  His  father  could 
punish  him,  nay,  more  than  this,  in  point  of  law,  his  father 
cuuld  put  him  to  death,  and  we  have  several  records  in  the 
Roman  and  Grreek  historians  of  Roman  fathers  who  ex- 
ecuted their  sentence  of  death,  and  did  not  hesitate  to 
sacrifice  their  own  sons  to  their  stern  morality.  But 
within  the  family  he  probably  did  have  some  rights.  He 
was  entitled  to  maintenance,  and  could  probably  be  pun- 
ished onlv  in  accordance  with  the  decree  of  the  familv 
«■  • 

council.* 

The  i)osition  of  the  female   members   of  this  joint- 
family  were,  in  the  tirst  stage,  even  more  dependent  than 
the  house-sons.     Theoretically  they  were  always  members 
of  some  joint-tamily,  and  always  under  the  power  of  somr 
house-chief.      Marriage,  in  the  flrst  stage,  simply  trans- 
ferred her  to  a  new  joint-family,  of  which  her  husbaml 
was  chief.    Legally  she  was  in  the  same  relation  to  him  aj? 
was  her  daughter.  On  the  death  of  a  house-father,  the  femalo 
members  did  not  thereby  gain  their  liberty.     They  simply 
passed  under  the  control  of  the  new  house-father.     Thew- 


I  Ibid.  218.  1  Ibid. 


KOMA  N  Cr  VTLIZA  TION.  S4o 

1^  the  mother  might  come  under  subjection  to  her  own 
Ml,  usters  to  their  brother.' 

Such  waa  the  joint-family  among  the  Romans.  It 
raa  not  something  peculiar  to  them,  but  it  long  retained 
Ls  archaic  rights  and  privileges ;  the  reason  of  which  reten- 
tOD  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  peculiar  surroundings  of 
be  Patriciao  tribes.  By  skillful  management,  these  thre^' 
ribes  had  gained  enormous  power,  and  acquired  great 
realth.  We  have  also  seen  how  from  the  very  earliest 
imea  they  were  called  upon  to  exert  all  their  skill,  power, 
Ad  diplomacy  to  keep  their  Plebeian  jwpulation  in  subjec- 
ion  and  how  many  centuries  went  by  before  they  were 
inallj  vanquished  in  this  matter.  Of  necessity,  such  a 
people  became  very  conservative  of  old  customs.  Nearly 
ivery  change  was  forced  fn>m  them.  It  is  not  strange, 
Jwn,  that  the  joint-family  was  one  of  the  very  last  to  be 
UUcked.* 

Ytt  we  detect  the  entering  wedge.  If  the  iiroccss  of 
CTviiizjitimi  bi'  the  bringing  to  the  front  of  individuals  and 
"Kiiviiluai  ri-rlits.  the  joint-l'jimily  must  disappear  in  time. 
*'<'  ill  Ki>mc,  -suns  in  the  service  of  the  state  were  in  a 
"'■.(sun-  rek'jised  from  the  control  of  the  house-father. 
''i;it  they  gained  in  such  service  they  did  not  turn  in  to 
'"  fjunily  trciiaury.  And,  of  necessity,  the  public  officers 
'*f»>  released  from  this  control,  at  least  as  regards  all  offi- 
*!  !irta 

\Vf  have  just  [tointed  t^'Ut  that  women  were  always 
^ft.xiderHl  inendHTrt  of  :i  joint^fainily  and  hence  under  the 
^ntrol  iif  ii  b<>u.se-fatlu'r.  It  becomes  then  of  interest 
"  mnsider  marriage  in  lli>ine  and  the  transferrence  from 
*e  joint-family  to  anntlicr.     When  the  joint-family  aa- 

■  BmH):  "Aryao  HoUHt-tiohl,"  j,.  H9. 
>  Thla  Hertea,  Vol.  II.  |>.  L-JU. 


64G  THS  MKDIEVAL    WORLD. 

sumcd  the  highly  artiticial  fomi  that  it  did  in  Jinciflit 
Ronu',  wo  wuuUl  imtunilly  oxpei-t  ti>  find  many  coremonies 
attending  tho  transt'errence  of  a  female  from  one  joint 
family  to  another.  Heiico  arose  the  solemn  and  stately 
form  of  marriage  known  as  the  Confarrecuio.  This  was 
lar-rely  ;i  religious  act.  Tho  woman  was  about  to  renounce 
the  household  -rods  of  one  family,  and  henceforth  worship 
anotliersc't.  Shewas  Inbreak 
.■dl  legal  connections  with  one 
family,  and  unite  herself  with 
another.  Hence  the  set  words 
to  be  spoken  before  ten  wit- 
iiL'ssL'S,  and  tho  religioua  cere- 
monies, in  which  the  eating  rf 
a  symbolic  meal  occurred,  and 
from  which  this  form  of  ^la^ 
riage  was  derived.' 

As    we    Would    expect,  thii 

]  form    of   marriage    long  sur 

I  vived  among  thi^  conscrvatire 

I  Patricians,  and  when    it  liad 

I  died  out  in  wmmoti  uw.  wm 

I  still  employcil  in  the  nmrriage 

I  of  i)riosts.*     Hut   then'  were 

I  other  forms    of    niarriiigc  in 

Ro.tian  Matron.  use,  which  were  not  so  solemn 

and  stately,  and  which  may  havi'  been  the   older  fnmis. 

One  was  Cocmfiiio.     It  was  elTectcd  by  a  formal  sale  of  the 

woinati.  in  tin*  >\\\\\k-  manner  and  form  as  the  sale  of  any 

article  of  persoii;d  property.     Still  a  third  form  was  thai 

1    I'l'r/cITfiirn:  "Ar.vuii  Hoii.'«lnil<i,"»I>«>roul*nK«t:  "Ancient  Ci^.' 

i  BtH'kpr:   ■■nallris,"  F,xr'nr«u«  i. 

■I  WiiiHi:  "Wed<iiiitrnayln  all  Ages,"  p.  iSl. 

Mdrrlap"."  I'-  >*■ 


JIOMA  A'  CV  VihlZA  TIOS.  Ml 

^sus,  in  which  marriage  was  implied  by  the  living' 
Lher  of  tho  parlit-s  for  udc  year,  tliough  should  the 
an  absent  herself  for  three  whole  iiight.s  this  legal 
iimplion  would  not  follow.' 

Besidiw  these  legal  forms,  there  were  many  ceremonies 
hich  we  will  glance.  After  the  parties  had  agreed  to 
yand  tlie  house-fathers,  in  whose  dominion  they  wete, 
collsent(^d,  a  meeting  of  friends  vi&»  sometimes  held 
,e  bouse  uf  the  uuiiden  fur  the  ])urpose  of  settling  the 
iago  contnict,  which  was  written  on  tablets  and  signed 
sth  parties.  The  woman,  after  she  had  promised  to- 
ne the  wilL'  of  a  man,  was  called  Sponsa  ur  Pacta. 
man  put  .1  ring  on  the  tinger  of  hi.s  betrothed  as  a 
fo  of  liis  (idelity.  This  ring  was  probably,  like  all 
I  at  this  time,  worn  on  tlie  left  baud  and  on  tho  finger 
wt  t"  the  smallest.  The  last  jioint  to  U-  fixed  was  the 
m  which  ibe  marriage  was  to  take  place.  Towards 
liwe  of  the  Uepublif,  it  became  cnatomary  to  betroth 
ir^'irls  while  they  were  yet  children.  .Vugustus  put'" 
■<-k  "o  l)ii.s  custom,  (iirls,  before  tbey  had  completed 
tciiiii  year,  cuidd  not  b<>  betrothed.  The  Romans  bc- 
d  lliiil  certain  days  were  unfortunate  for  the  perfonn- 
■  >f  tbi'  marriage  ritet*,  either  on  incount  of  the  relig- 
■■liar;i<i.r  of  tliusc  days  themselves,  or  on  account  of 
ays  \.\  wliicli  lliey  were  followed,  as  ,1  w.mian  bad  to 
rni  .crt;!!!!  reliL'ious  rites  on  the  day  alter  her  wed- 
wlii.li  .ould  iK.l  take  pl.-iee  on  a  Dies  atcr  (a  black 
IViy-  n<ii  suit.-ible  for  enteriri^r  upon  imitrimtniy 
the  tirsi.  ninth,  and  lirtecntli  ..f  every  month.  Fiir- 
iKife.  till-  whule  Trionili.H  oi'  May  .iinl  February  were 
itcil.  ;i>  wi-ll  ,i>  :i  L:n;ii  tiutiilier  of  festivids.  Widows, 

A'ood.  r,.  (■  :  Becker;  "Oalliifl,"'  Ksfiireun  I. 


548 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 


however,  might  marry  on  days  which  were  mauaiwi*! 
for  maidens. 

On  the  wedding  day,  the  Irndo  was  dressed  iiitki|1 
white  robe,  with  a  purple  fringe  adorned  withrihha»l 
This  dress  was   called  the    Tunica  rtcta  and  wuU-'nil 
round  the  waist  with  a  girdle,  which  the  husbsntl  ItiU  'ji  ' 
untie  in  the  evening.     The  bridal  veil   w«s  of »  brii^k  ' 
yellow  color,  and  her  shoes  likewise.     Her  huirWH  itt 
vidcd, on  this  occasion,  with  the  |>oini  of  appear.*    The 
only  form  of  marriage  which  was  celebrated  with  4 
religious  rites   was  tiiat  by  confnrreatio.     Tfaea  j 
was  sacrificed  and  its  skin   was  spread  overt 
upon  which  the  bride  and  bridegroom  sat  duwn  will 
hands  covered.    Hereupon  tlie  marriage  wa*  tmiuplq 
pronouncing  a  formula  or  prayer,  after  whii-h  a 
rifice  was  offered.     The  bride  was  conducted   to  1 
of  her  husband  in  the  evening.     She  was  tAkca  l 
jiarent  violence  from  the  arms  of  her  iiiolher  or  1 
person   who  had  to  give  her  away.'      On    her   wafl 
was  accompanied  by  three  boys  dressed  in   the  t 
and  whose  fathers  and  mothers  were  still  alive.    One -i" 
them  carried  before  her  a  torch  of  white  Ihom.  oracronl- 
iiig  to  others,  of  pine  wood.     The  two  others  w»lli«i  l',r 
her  side,  supporting  her  by  the  arm.     The  bride  liefyl' 
carried  a  distaff  and  a  spindle  with  xvuol.     A  Iwy  calli^ 
Camillus  carried,  in  a  covered  vase,  the  si>ca|]cd  uteiwiL" 
of  the  bride  and  playthings  for  cliildreii. 

Besides  these  persons  who  officiated  on  the  iwciiswa- 
the  procession  was  attended  by  a  numerous  train  of  frii-ii'ls. 
both  of  the  bride  aud  the  bridegroom,  whose  attendant! 


1  A  probable  eiirvlval  of  marrtage  hy  captnm, 
p.  126. 

*  Notice  the  survival  of  ciiptiin'. 


9.    TUB&edM  ViL^ 


JtOJtAX  CIVtLIZA  TION. 


648 


*  vaWcA  i'_ffinum.  Wlu-n  the  procession  arrived  at  the 
1»e  of  the  liriilegrooni,  tlie  doors  of  which  were  adorned 
tt  garlands  and  flowers,  the  bride  was  carried  across  this 
Deshohl  by  men  who  had  been  married  to  only  one 
tman,  that  she  might  not  knock  against  it  with  her  foot, 


Wall  Ornament  at  Pcmpeil. 
lirh  would  have  beeti  an  evil  iniien.  Before  she  entered 
p  house,  she  wound  wool  around  the  door-i>o8ta  of  her 
w  n-sidencc  uiid  auoiiittMl  tlicin  with  oil.  The  husband 
:eive<I  her  with  tire  aii<l  water,  whidi  the  woman  had  to 
irh.  The  bride  saluted  her  husband  with  the  mystie 
irdi*.  "rbitu  Caius,  Efr<i  C'aia."     After  she  had  entered 


55<)  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

the  house,  she  wa^  placed  upon  a  sheopskiu,  and  ht»n'  the 
kevs  of  the  house  wore  delivered  into  her  hands.  A  i^ 
past  given  hy  the  husband  to  the  whole  train  of  relatives 
and  fricMids  who  aceonipanied  the  hride  generally  condu- 
<led  the  soleninitv  of  tin*  dav.^ 

These  strict  forms   of  marriage,  which   we  have  de- 
scriljed,  all    had,  as   one*  residt,  the   adoption  of  the  wife 
into  the  joint-family  of  h(»r  husband ;  and,  consequenllv, 
she  came  under  his  ])ow(»r,  or  as  the  llomans  expressed  it 
/;/  Manum  Mar  Hi.  From  a  viTy  early  time,  there  existed  a 
less  binding  form  of  marriage,  in  which  the  wife  did  not 
become  a  member  of  the  joint-family  of  her  husband.'  She 
remained  in  the*  family  of  her  father.   Instead  of  being  de- 
])end(Mit  on  her  husband,  and   inst<?ad  of  loosing  all  her 
individuality,  she  kept  her  independence  and  freedoni  to  an 
exlraonlinarv  deirree.     8he  did  not  even  share  the  name 
of  her  husband,  and  instead  of  being  called  bv  his  familf 
nam(\  she*  k(»pt  li(»r  old  maiden  name  as  before.    So  weaee 
that  lloman  wives  wen?  either  in  a  kind  of  legal  bi)ndage^ 
which  seems  to  be  utterly  r(*})ulsive  toourmotlern  feelings, 
or  they  were  imh^pendent  to  an  extent  which  seems  ttu'lasli 
with  the  natural  and  relii^ious  tendencies  of   matrimonial 
life.     On  the  one   hand,  a  Roman  wife  was  <u»nsidenHl  a 
babe,  a  minor,  a  ward,  a  j)erson  incaj)able  of  doing  nr  act- 
ing anything  according  to  her  own  individual  tastt\  a  jht- 
son  ct)ntinually  under  the     tutelage   and  guardianshij*  of 
her    liusband.      On  tlie  other    Jiand,  sh(»    was    consiilered 

1  riu'x.'  vjirious  ctTomoiiifrt  art^  larjrely  oxtracUHl  from   Sniiih's-  l>ic- 
tii)iijuy  ofGrc'i'k  and  J^>inaii  Aiitiiiuitie^.     Artit'lo  ••Matrimoiiiuiii." 

2  'Phi'*  was  MKiirimnnin)aju»iHi\  tvilhout  vonvcntio  in  jftanum.  Here 
wc*  liavt*  followiMl  liockor:  **(iallus.'*  801110  think  that  ouly  the  first  fv»rin 
otuuirv'iiiiin^  confttrrratio  j)hu'C'(I  t ho  wife  in  manum.  Yet  if  vn^mpfio 
and  ii.<u}^  hi}  tho  olihT  forms,  of  noc-ossity  thoy  must,  at  leaHt  in  the  first 
phicc,  li.'ive  phieod  the  wife  in  the  power  of  the  huabaud. 


SOMAN  CIViLIZATJOS. 


661 


pable  of  exercising  a.  freedoui  uf  actiuu  which  acuuis  out 
pUcc  with  our  ideaa;  and  lier  life  witli  her  husbniui  was 
jrthing  but  that  intimHtc  and  religious  companionshiiJ 
licU  forma  our  ideal  of  weddo<l  .life. 

Wo    need    only  remark  that    this  lonn    ■■i"  murritige 

pw  ill    favor.      Property  considerations  largely  rondiu- 

to  this   result.      Marriage,    thu8   loosely  contractitl, 

illd  Ih!  a&  loosely  dissolved.       Thus  toward    the  close  of 


r'.;rr.Lture,  etc.,  Ir.  the  Rocrr.  ot  a  Hich  Bcman. 
K.  j.iil.H.-.  I  hi'  iiiariiiii:(tir  «iis  l....s.i-  in  Kuiiii-  than  in 
iiu.-t  ;iriy  -itluT  Arv;iii  rnniiiiiiiiitv.  Against  this  merely 
iiiiiial  niJirriagf,  a  rfactidii  M't  in  under  Cliristianlty. 
»■  mu."!  iilwrrvc  1i"M"  greatly  this  eliangc  niu?<t  liavo  af- 
t«"d  thf  .iM  jiiiiit-fjiiiiily,  and  tliis  douhtlesH  )iad  a  great 
al  to  il'i  ill  clTei-tiug  its  di.^isdlution.  and  ."<>  Iiringing  on 
■  stagf  ill-'   modern  family,' 

Hr.wcv.r  P'stricttd  tlir  legal  riglits  ul'  women  were 
•xn-tii-iilly.    ]inutii-;dly  tln-y  .■njoycd  a  gn-ut   amount  oi 


>     II'M 


!•■ 


652  THE  MEDIEVAL  WoA 

freedom.     The  legal  enactments  were  iliare^iarded,  andth 
social    jiosition    of  a  Roman  woman  wjis  as  free,  hiw 
and  un  higJi  an  the  social  position  of  any  woman  i 
other  country.     In  fact,  the  women  of  Ronrn  i-njovu 
greater  social  liberty  than   the  women,  for  instanct,!! 
Greece,     In  the   latter  country,  as  we  have  seen,  *« 
were  not  jjcrmitted  to  join  the  meals  an<I   associaliia 
men;  whereas    the  Iloman  matrons  could    freely  ii 
with  gentlemen    and   enjoy  the  evening  parties 
husbands  or  sons.     They  could  go  to  theators;  i 
appear  in  the  assembly  hall  of  the  Senat*; ;  they  * 
to  the  arena,  and  their  influence  on  tho  Lrducaiion  a 
ren  was  decisive.    In  fact,  their  great  influenceu 
manifest,  in  the  first  two  centuries  of  I'urera,  inti 
were  mostly  instrumental   in  starting   tho    new  i 
which,  under  the  name  of  Christianity,  ita<l  ottmu 
exert  its  beneficial  influence. 

In  BpiU'  of  the  republican  and  more  or  less  J 
cratieal  character  of  their  state,  the  Romans  never  t 
of  establishing  public  schools,  and,  least  of  all,  of  i 
tliein  free.  A  home  education  was  all  that  a  Romw 
received,  and  the  range  of  this  studies  was  rather  i 
Tuition  was  left  entirely  in  the  hands  i»f  priv 
who,  as  we  have  observed,  were  mostly  slaves  or  (n 
The  Roman  boy  learned  to  read  and  to  write ;  and,  as  fu 
as  our  historical  knowledge  of  Rome  goes,  the  art  of  reid- 
ing  and  writing  was  known  almost  generally  even  frofli 
the  earliest  times.  It  would  have  been  almost  imposuble 
to  do  without  a  knowledge  of  these  arts;  for,  according  to 
Roman  usages  and  Roman  exigencies,  it  was  almoit  in- 
dispensable for  every  citizen  to  know  the  art  of  writing, 
and,  consequently,  that  of  reading.  For  instance,  every 
house-father  was  compelled  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  hit 


IftU.: 


It  biiu  ■>*  111-  •iin.i«\-      .     iii-^rr'  131?*= . -sf: 

Ml«nil:>     Ill'TllijIK'T.       ■-.      •n<--"!::.T.;.    ..:■-        i,y-       y     f^ttm- 

id"ii'-   :t   "Jii-r-   •  ■   Irjirtij...        :      :.-ijt:i'-   -    ■-•-•smIIU;. 
rriliu:.   ;.    I:Tti-    arviuuin.-.     v n-    ■.;*uir.v      ■■ir.    ::    :hi> 

•L-     IloUiiiii-    iii-     -*i:,u*.T^-      -.i;-     "  ii-ti-     -i-Hiir^'. 


-.,.i,.itti.v  «.r.-..t.Iii:..ll..n>,.r-I  t..ili.- Ih-1|.  ..f  (l,-..,), 
iT.iiv-  :.ii.l  .lii.'ilH'.Ts.  Th.-  l;i>l  |..ill  i-l' ii  M'ltnt.n  ••III 
w:,-.-.  k.i..wl.-.lir,..  „r  :.l  Ir.i^t  ;.  -iiiMll-rii.,-  ..r  ll,.- 
m.rit.-.I    I;.vv   .,f  Itnii...  i„    Mtli.r    ^^..r.U    t Il"l 

:"  -.v.-  <-.,nii.;ir<'  tli.-  .■niioiiut  .M  ki.'.wl-'l;"  ■inyutt"\  *o 
riL'  K..iii;m  iK.vwithtliiii  1"  ;.  v..ti„;.  ^»w,...  "'  niU 
y  s*-.-  til-  iTTf-nt  differ- i;--  :•.    ■' <■  '  K..fr,/i' .  -f  •((»../. 


554  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

two  nations.   From  his  early  childhood,  every  Grecian 
compelled  to  learn  by  heart  the  poems  of  Homer,  whi 
gave  him  a  treasure  of  i>oetical  knowletige  as  well  as  i 
stock  of  practical  wisdom.     Accordingly  we  find  that  the 
Grecians  had  a  decided  inclination  to  a  more  elevated 
conception   of  life,   to  a   more    poetical,    tender,  sympi- 
thetic   love  for  their  fellow   beings   and    for  the    world 
in  general.      The    bent    of  a   Roman's     mind,    on  tbe 
contrary,  was  thoroughly  practical,  stern,  unbending ;  his 
life  was   not   filled    with    images   of    j>oct.ry,   with  high 
strung   conceptions  of  fancy.     He  was  taught  to  strug- 
gle for  what  is  immediate,  for  earthly  goods,  for  nionq^ 
and  for  power.     It  was  only  in  later  times,  that  the 
mans  wore  accustomed  to  go  to  Greece  and  spend  9 
years  in  Athens  and   Rhodes,  in  order  to  acquire  put: 
that  noble  and  philosophical  knowledge,  which  the  flunlifl 
even  in  their  decadence,  did   not  fail  to  te^ach,     Domi  w 
th(»  latest  times,  Roman  education  was  mainly  a  practiflll 
one,  shunning  all  the  higher  and  morsd  ideal  objects  wfaidl  : 
wen^  so  ferventlv  embraced  bv  the  Greeks.     In  the  timei 
of  the  emperors,  the  Romans  devoteil  an  undut*  amoml 
of  attention  to  the  art  of  oratory,  but  oven  then  theyn^ 
lected  the  science  of  philosophy,  as  well   as  mathemati^^ 
and  astron(>mi(%»il  speculations,  by  the  cultivation  of  which 
the  Greeks  immortalized  their  names. ^ 

The  education  of  a  Roman  resembled,  in  its  main  fea- 
tures, the  education  of  the  majority  of  the  people  of  our 
land,  who,  after  having  laid  a  foundation  of  general  knowl- 
edge, rush  into  real  life,  and  the  experience  there  ob- 
tained completes  what  the  schools  omit.  Public  life 
was  the  domineering  factor  in    Roman  education.    Their 

1  *'As   the  twig  is  iiicHiied,  the  tree  Im  beni."      The  difiereuce  bei« 
pointed  out  characterized  the  two  people  throughout,  and  left  Indelibk 

luarku  on  history. 


ROMAN  CIVILIZATION. 


556 


len  were  puhlic  men,  muii  who  either  yielded  Xm  public 
pinion,  or  who  tried  to  wield  the  opinion  of  t\w  public. 
?«  will  fail  to  understand  the  ajtirit  of  Ronuni  civilization, 
ptle«s  «<•  represent  to  ournflvi-K  tlie  great  importanre  of 
■Uie  life  asopiKJSed  to  private  life.  Without  exaggera- 
ioo,  w."  «ian  say  that  there  was  litlleprivjite  life  in  aucient 
tome.  Itome  knew  only  of  jmblie  life,  the  life  of  the 
Ifeeti*,  of  the  foniin,  of  the  campus,  of  the  amiy  and 
»Ty,  and  every  Roman  was  more  or  less  engaged  in  these 


Clrcua  Maximize, 
ubiif  it(■tivitil■^.  Ilcinc.  nil  the  Sports,  giimes,  amusc- 
icritfl,  fXv..  .if  th«-  j.c<.plc.  w.Tr<if  ;i  puliHc  character.  This 
oint  must  \h-  -.teadily  kfpt  in  view,  if  we  would  undei^ 
taiiil  Koniitii  institution.''  Theae  general  reflections  will 
elp  u>  t.i  inKlerstiiiiil  tin-  [lublic  iHiiuseinentH  of  the  peo- 
t»-.  ;iiid  ill  till-  first  jibice,  the  nnuwenients  u(  the  circus. 
The  I'irriis  was  a  place  for  athletic  contests  and  for 
Mrioi  and  liorw-  races,  W'lieii  Tarquinius  Priscus  had 
iki-n  the  (own  iif  Apiol.'e  from  the  Latins,  he  4*ominem- 
rated    hU  succesii    by  an  exhibition  of  races    and  pugi- 


556  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

listic  contests  in  the  Murcian  Vallev,  between  thel 
atino  and  Aventinc  hills,  around  which  a  nnmbei 
temporary  phitforms  were  ereoted  by  the/^a/r^jand«Y* 
each  one  raised  a  stage  for  himself  upon  which 
stood  to  view  the  games.  This  ctmrse,  with  its  surnn 
ing  scaffoldings,  was  termed  '^circus/'  Previims  tt» 
death  of  Tarquin,  however,  a  permanent  building 
constructed  for  such  games,  with  regular  tiers  of  :: 
in  the  form  of  a  theater.  To  this  the  name  c»f  '*l'i 
Maximus''  was  subsequently  given  to  distinguisli  it  i 
other  similar  buildings,  which  it  surpassed  in  extent 
splendor,  and  hence  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  t/ic  rii 
without  any  distinguishing  adjective. 

Of  the  Circus  Maximus,  scarcelv  a  vestige  now 
mains  beyond  the  palpable  evidence  of  the  site  it  <.x'ou 
and  a  few  masses  of  rubble  work  in  the  circular  for 
which  may  be  seen  under  the  walls  of  some  houses  in 
Via  de  Cerchi,  and  which  retain  traces  (»f  having  ; 
ported  the  stone  seats  of  the  spectators.  This  loss  is 
tunately  supplied  by  the  remains  of  a  small  circus  on 
Appian  Way,  commoidy  called  '*the  circus  of  Caracal 
the  ground-plan  of  which,  together  with  much  of  the  su 
structure,  remains  in  a  state  of  fair  preservation, 
seats,  termed  collectivelv  the  caveat  were  arrancreil  asi 
theater.  The  last  rows  were  separated  from  thegnv 
by  vl  podium.  The  tiers  of  seats  were  divided  longit 
nally  and  diagonally  by  passage  ways.  Toward  the  extr 
ity  of  the  upper  branch  of  the  cavea^  the  genersil  out 
is  broken  by  an  outwork  which  was  probably  the /»/5:/i 
or  station  for  the  emperor,  as  it  is  placed  in  the  best  si 
tion  for  observation  and  in  the  most  prominent  par 
the  circus. 

In  an  opposite  branch  is  situated  another  inter 


BOMAA^  CrVILlZA  TIOX.  557 

0  the  oniform  line  of  seats,  showing  also  from  its  cun- 
ion  a  place  of  distinction,  whlcli  miglit  have  hevn 
(ed  to  the  person  at  whose  expense  tlio  games  were 

In  thecenterof  the  area,  was  a  low  wall  running 
iwise  down  the  course,  which,  from  its  resemblance 

position  of  the  dorsal  bone  in  the  human  frame,  waa 
d  spina.  At  each  extremity  of  the  spina,  were  jilaced 
a.  post  three  conical,  wooden  cjHnders  like  cypress 

^Krhich  were  called  metae  (the  goals).  The  most  ro- 
ftble  objects  upon  the  spina  weretwo  enluuuwsupiKirt- 
;ven  conical  objects,  which,  from  their  reseniblunco  to 
»-cre  called  e^-a.  Their  use  was  In  enable  the  specta- 
.o  count  the  number  of  rounds  \*hich  hiul  been  run, 
hich  pur|>ose  they  were  first  intriKliiceil  by  AgnpiMi. 
■  were,  therefore,  seven  in  number,  such  being  the 
tier  of  circuits  made  in  each  race,  and  us  each  round 
run,  one  of  the  ova  was  put  up  or  t;iken  down. 
At  thr'  other  extremity  of  the  spina,  were  Iwu  similar 
nils,  .-iistainiiii:  sevt'ii  dnlpliins,  which  di.  not  appear 
i\-.'  b.---ii  iiiii-ridfd  tu  bo  renuived.  l>ut  inily  placed  there 
.rre:-)Hiii.liTii.'  .-nianiriit.-*  1"  the  nva.  At  the  extremity 
le  ein-iir^.  ill  whicii  the  twn  luirii.'-  of  the  eavea  termi- 
li.  Wire  iila-ed  llie  .-stalls  for  tin-  liurw.-*  iiml  chariots, 
iiiiiily  iiill.tl  (arccres.  Tlir  miiiiber  of  these  earcerea 
jp|»o.-*f.l  ti>  lja\T  bcon  iisu.illy  twelve.  They  were 
t.-.  .I.ismI  ill  front  by  irute.-^  of  ni>rii   wood  work,  which 

oiMMii^i  >imultiiTieou»ly.  upon  a  signal  being  given,  by 
tviii;:  a  rope  att.ulie<i  to  pilasters  placetl  for  that  pur- 

U-tw.-eii  tlie  stalls. 

Th'-  ;:;iiru-.>i  in  the  circus  embraced  six  kinds.  First, 
races;  si'coiid.  the  Trojan    games;  third,    the  eques* 

1  battles;  fourtli.  tlir  gyiiiiiastic  contests;  fifth,  the 
e:  and.   sixth,  the    n.-i\al    l)nttlc.      The    games  com- 


SOMAS  CJVILIXA  TION.  569 

When  all  was  ready,  tin;  doors  of  the  carceres  were 
ag  <'(WD,  and  the  chariots  were  formed  abreast  of  thu 
tf  /in<a.  The  signal  for  \\w  stiirt,  HonnHiines  the  sound 
tnun|K.<t  or,  most  geiierully,  the  fall  uf  a  napkin,  was 
?n  given  by  the  person  wlm  presided  at  the  games.  Tho 
i«  linea  was  then  cast  off  and  the  race  commenced,  the 
«tit  (if  which  was  seven  tiuies  iirouml  the  jipinii,  keeping 
aIm-uvs  on  the  K'ft.  A  course  of  seven  circuits  was 
mtnl  uMus  missusy  ixiiii  twenty-five  was  the  niiniWT  of 
es  run  each  day.  The  victor  descended  fnini  his  car 
the  tiinrtusion  of  his  rMce,  and  iiHcended  thu  spinu, 
ere  be  rveeived  his  reward,  consisting  of  a  cfinsiderable 
fei  of  money,  which  accounts  for  the  great  wealth  of  Ro- 
n  c-hariol<'<TM.  A  single  horseman  altetided  each  chariot, 
r  object  of  which  arrangement  seems  Ui  have  been  two- 
1 — t)ia»siHt  his  companion  by  urging  on  the  tiorses,  when 
i  bmoilft  wen-  >H-eupic'd  in  managing  the  reinif,  and,  if 
waaary  to  ride  furwurd  iu»l  clear  the  course. 

The  i-nthusiiism  mI'  th.-  Ri.man.H  fi>r  tticsc  races  ex- 
idcd  all  l".nthl-  I.i-t-  'if  llic  horses  with  tln'ir  iiiimeH 
J  color*  and  thnsr  of  ttic  lirivei's  were  handed  about, 
J  Leuvy  brt>  hiikIc  upon  each  t':ictioii;  and  sometimes  the 
itcst,-  U-twccn  twi.  piirtic.s  brnkfont  into  open  violence 
d  bloiMly  (lu.irri-ls.  Tlic  Kmpcrnr  Justinian  nearly  lost 
'  crown  in  ci>n.-*e(|uciice  of  disimtcs  which  originated  in 
.■  cirru>.  Tin-  Trojan  gamc?^  were  sort  of  sham  tighta, 
d  to  havr  Ihtu  invented  by  .Vi'iieas,  perfonned  by  young 
■n  of  rank  on  horsebaek.  A>  to  the  otlier  kinds  of  games, 
•ir  names'  >liow  iheir  nature.' 

A  ni'ist  ini|Mirtant  class  of  games  yet  remains  to  be 
M-rilxtl  ;   the  gladiatorial   eonilmts.      These  games  were 

>  ThiK  mii-ouiii    [■  eitrartfil   rruiii  Smlili'it  DlcUoDMy,  "Gra«k  And 
luwi    Antlnuitien,"  m.n.  ("ircuH, 


560  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD,  I 

generally  executed  in  the  amphitheater.  Therewere  several  i 
amphitheaters  in  Rome  at  different  times,  and  it  was  among  ' 
the  designs  of  Auguetua  to  erect  an  amphitheater  in  tk 
midst  of  Rome  in  keeping  with  the  magnitude  of  the  city. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  reigns  of  ^'espa8iaII  tad 
Titus,  that  the  design  of  Augustus  was  carried  into  e&rt, 
by  the  erection  of  the  Amphitheatrum  Flavium,  omit 
liiis  been  called  the  Colosseum.  This  wonderful  building. 
which  for  magnitude  can  only  be  compared  to  the  pyn- 
mids  of  Egypt,  is  perhaps  the  most  striking  monument  u! 
the  material  greatness  of  Rome  under  the  empire.  It  wm 
commenced  by  Vespasian,  but  at  what  precise  time  is  un- 
certain. It  was  completed  by  Titus,  who  dedicated  U  in 
the  year  80  a.  d.,  on  which  occasion  five  thousand  aninah  , 
of  different  kinds  were  slaughtered.  The  Flarian  amte  i 
theater  became  the  place  where  princes  and  people  metl? 
gether  to  witness  those  sanguinary  exhibitions,  in  lAkb 
the  Roman  people  delighted.  In  the  reign  of  the  empOtf 
Maci'inu^,  it  was  struck  by  lightning,  by  which  the  19^ 
Yow^  of  benches  were  consumed,  and  so  much  danu^i||l 
done  to  other  ]>art:j  of  the  structure,  that  the  gameiilliil^ 
for  some  years  celebrated  in  another  locality.  Its  mlin- 
tion  wa.s  (■oniiiienced  by  Emperor  Elagabalus,  andflSBi- 
pleted  by  Alexander  Sevcrua.  It  was  again  stmdt  tjf 
lightning  in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Decius,  but  was  sooiifr 
stored  and  the  games  <'ontinued  to  be  celebrated  in  it  ion 
to  the  sixth  century.  Since  that  time,  it  has  been'ttMd 
sometimes  in  war  as  a  fortress  and  in  peace  as  a  fptxrg. 
"Whole  ^talatres,  such  as  the  Canccllaria  and  Polauo  Fir 
nese,  were  built  out  of  its  spoils.  At  length,  the  popca 
took  steps  to  j)reserve  it.' 

Notwithstanding  the  damages  of  time,  war,  andspolttr 
1  C<>n»<ul[  SmlDi'H  Dictiotmry,  art.  Ain|>hUheater. 


BOitAN  CIVILIZATIOX.  663 

tion,  the  Flavian  amphitheatre  still  remains  complete 
enough  t*i  give  us  a  fair  idea,  excepting  in  some  minor  dc- 
fcnila,  of  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  this  kind  i>i  build- 
ings. The  very  site  of  the  Flavian  amphitheater,  as  of 
most  others,  furniahes  an  examjile  of  tho  prodigal  contemj)! 
of  laWr  and  ex|>enso,  which  the  Roman  emperors  displayed 
in  their  great  works  of  architecture.  The  Greeks,  in  choos* 
ing  the  sites  of  their  thriitr-rs,  almrist  nhv.-ir?  nr.sil.'.l  llirm- 


CclCBse'^rr.  at  Rome, 
i-t-lv.-.-i  of  some  natural  hullow  on  the  side  of  a  hill;  but  the 
lljiinan  aiiiiiliitheaters,  with  few  exceptions,  stand  on 
|il;utis.  The  siti-  of  tlie  Ct)losscum  was  in  the  middle  of  the 
<-it\',  on  the  niarnhy  ground  which  was  previously  the  pond 
of  Nero's  palace.  Kij.'ure3can  notgivcan  adequate  concep- 
tion of  this  vast  structure.     Its  dimensions  and  arrange- 


menta  wero  sufficient  t«  furnish  wjita  fur  eighty-seven  tlw» 
and  spei-lators;  it  inclosed  uu  arena  large  enough  Ui  affuri' 
space  for  the  combats  of  several  hundred  animals  timt, 
i>r  that  sufficed  for  tho  evolution  of  mimic  sea-fights  ud 
the  exhibition  of  artificial  forests.  Its  pussngcti  and  Etjd> 
cases  gave  ingress  and  egress  without  tiiiifusion  to  \iu 
immense  mass  of  spoctaturs,  iind  for  thtiHO  whu  fouglll  ia 
the  arena.  Thero  were  dons  for  the  thousands  of  onimak 
devoted  to  destruction.  There  were  also  obiuineU  fi>r  lU 
rapid  influx  and  outlet  of  water,  when  the  areoii  waa  usol 
for  tho  naval  battle ;  and  the  means  for  the  removing  t'f 
the  carcasses  and  the  other  abominatious  of  the  utpiu 
We  need  simply  add,  that  the  wealth  and  luxurj'of  R*iidc 
were  exhausted  in  adorning  this  enormona  building.' 

The  gladiators   who  fought  in  this  nrooa,  were  nirt 
who  were  trained  to  fight  either  with  their  fellow  men  or 
with  wild  bt-asts.    Tho  origin  of  such  contests  i.<  thoogbt 
hy  Monie  to  be  the  praetiee  among   savage  people  of  immo- 
lating slaves  and  prisoners  on  the  death  of  illustrious  chief- 
tains,  a  prut-tice  recorded  in  Greek,  lloman,  and  Scandiiia- 
vinn  legends,  and  even  much  later  in  the  Indian  autlec 
Even   at  Rome,  they  were  for  a  long  time    eunfineil  to 
funerals  and  hence  the  older  name  fur  gludiators  waa  &us- 
luarii]  but  in  the  later  days  of  the  llepublie,  their  original 
significance  was  forgotten  and  they  formed  as  lurge  a  part' 
of  the  public  amusements  as  tho   theater  or    the  circus.* 
The  tirst  gladiators  are  said  to  have  been  exhibited  »t 
Rome  by  Marcus  and  Decimus  Brutus,  at  tho  funeral  u| 
their  father,  B.  c.  164.    On  this  ooea-sion  only  throo  paia 
fought,  but  the  taste  for  these  games  spread  rnpidly 
the  number  of  combatants  grew.    Julius  Cuesar  engaged 

1  An  admirable!  plotUKuftht:  uagnltudo  aud  in«gnl(lRan(?e    at  U 
Amphitheater  ia  drawn  In  thti  lutMrpiiit  nroiblran'*  twairttachkirtcr. 


[ 


ROMAN  CIVILIZA  r/OX. 


eitravagant  numbers  for  his  aedileship,  that  his 
2>oliti(-ul  o|)|)oiientM  Utdk  fright  and  carried  a  decree  of  the 
Benate  imiwsing  a  certain  limit  of  numbers;  but  notwith- 
standing this  restriction,  he  was  able  to  exhibit  no  less  than 
three  hundred  coujdcs. 

During  the  later  days  of  the  Republic,  the  gladiators 
were  a  constant  element  of  danger  to  the  public  peace. 
The  more  turbulent  spirits  among  tho  nobility  had  each- 
his  band  of  gladiators  to  act  as  a  body-guard,  and  the  armed 


Dyir.gGladia-.:r. 
tn".)!."  iif  Cli«Uus.  Mile,  and  Catilinn  jdayLHl  tlie  sanie  part 
in  Honiiiii  lii.-tiiry  as  tlie  armed  retainers  of  the  feudal 
ban-ria  nr  \hv emt/oZ/icri  «( ihv  n-bellitnis  republics.  Under 
the  Kmpirc,  ndtwitlistjinilinu'  siini[ituary  enactments,  the 
passi()n  for  tliis  s;ic(-i<-s.if  ^aiiic^  stcndily  increased.  Augus- 
tu!*  limited  till-  r^hi'ws  to  two  a  y^'i'r  and  forbade  a  praetor 
to  cthiltit  111.. re  tliaii  a  liiiiidred  aiir)  twenty  gladiators; 
but  many  alhi.-'ioii.s  in  tl;<'  Koiiian  jiocts,  show  thnta  hun- 


'>(}(> 


THE  MEDTE  VA  L  WORLD. 


ilrcd  j)iiirs  was  the  fasliionablo  numbtT  fur  private  entt 
tail  line  II  ts.  In  a  description  istill  extant,  tlic  em[»ci 
state.s  that  iii(»re  than  ten  thousand  men  had  fought  duri 
his  ivign.  Tlic  Emperor  Claudius  was  devoted  to  this  ]■ 
tunc  and  wituld  sit  fruiu  morning  until  night  in  his  cLi 
of  -state,  descending  iiuw  and  then  to  the  arena  to  eoax 
force  the  reluctant  gladiators  to  resume  their  l'lyt^ 
work. 

I'ndcr  Nero,  senators  and  even  well  horn  women  f 
peared  as  combatants.  Emperor  Titus  ordered  a  sIk 
whicli  lasted  one  hundred  days,  and  Trajan,  in  eelebrati 
of  his  tnimph  over  Deoebalus,  exhibited  five  thousa 
pairs  of  gladiatore.     Domitian  instituted  chase  by  ton 


The  Amphitheater  In  Pompeii. 
light,  and  at  a  festival,  in  the  year  tin  .v.  ii.,  lie  arrang 
a  battle  between  dwarfs  and  W(nnen.  Even  ns  late  as  i 
A.  1'..  an  edict  was  passed  forbidding  women  to  fight.  II 
widely  the  taste  for  those  sanguinary  spectacles  oxteml 
throughout  the  Roman  provinces  is  known  bymonunioii 
iiiscriiitions,  and  the  remains  of  those  Jimphithcaters.  Fn 
Britain  to  Syria,  there  was  not  a  town  of  any  size  tl 
could  not  l)uast  its  arena  and  annual  games. 

Gladiators  were  drawn  oithef  from  prisoners  of  w 
slaves,  or  criminala  condemned  to  death.     In    the  fi 


JiOMA!T  CIVILIZATION.  567 


I 

■hss,  wc  rcnil  uf  tattooed  Britons  in  their  war  clmriots, 
xhraciaiw  wltli  their  peculiar  bucklers  and  oimeters, 
Ifoors  from  the  villages  Rround  Atlas,  and  Negroes  from 
Central  Afnra.  Down  to  Hie  time  of  the  Empire,  only 
grmt  malefactors,  «uch  as  highway  robbera  and  incendia- 
xieit,  were  condemned  to  the  arena ;  but  by  Caligula,  Clau- 
I'dSus,  atid  Xcro,  thit*  punishment  was  extended  to  minor 
j'offeDscs,  such  as  fraud  and  peculation,  in  order  to  supply 
tlio  gn>wing  demniid  fur  victims.  In  the  first  century  of 
the  Empire,  it  was  lawful  for  masters  to  sell  their  slaves 
u  gladiators,  but  this  was  forbidden  by  Hadrian  and  Mar- 
cus Aurclius.  Besides  these  three  regular  d.-isses,  the 
rsnks  were  recruited  by  a,  ronaiderablo  number  of  frced- 
men  and  Unman  citizens  who  had  squandered  their  estates 
and  voluntarily  t^ik  the  profession  of  gladiators.  Even 
men  of  birth  and  fortune  frequently  entered  the  lists,  either 
for  ibo  pure  love  of  fighting  or  to  gratify  the  whim  of  some 
dissolute  emi^ror,  and  uno  emi)eror,  Commodus,  actually 
apiw:m'd  in  jierson  in  the  arcTia. 

filadiaturs  were  trained  in  sdiools,  owned  either  by 
tlif  i-t.ite  tir  by  private  citizens;  and,  though  the  trade  of  a 
UmsUt  f:i  trniniT  i4' gladi.itors)  was  considered  disgrace- 
ful, to  own  gl:(di;itors  iind  lit  them  out  for  hire  was 
n-ckoiuil  ;i  legitimate  liniiich  of  coninierce.  Cicero  in  his 
letters  to  Atticus,  congratiil;ites  lii.s  friend  on  the  good  bar- 
gain he  had  made  in  purchasing  Some  gladiators,  and 
orges  th.tt  he  might  ea.-ily  requite  himself  by  consenting 
to  bt  theiii  out  twice.  Men  n-cruited  mostly  from  slaves 
am)  erinjiiials,  whose  livrshung  iin  a  tliread,  must  have 
heeTi  more  <lan^'erou.-«  characters  than  modern  galley -slaves 
or  corn  i<t.-:  ami.  though  highly  fed  and  carefully  attended, 
they  wer-',  of  Il(■(■es^iIy,  subject  to  .in  iron  discipline.  In 
the  school  of  gladiators  (Uscovered  at  Pompeii,  of  the  silty- 


,108  THE  MEDIEVAL  WO 

three  skeletons  Ijuried  in  the  eells,  iniii 
hiinl  AH  was  the  glailiator's  lot,  so  hai 
lions  had  tu-be  taken  to  prevent  suk-i 
tiiiiis.  A  fUiTessfuljrlailiator enjoyed 
any  ni' idem  in-ize-lightcnir  athlete.  II 
!»ri>ad-|iiercd  chains  and  jewek'd  heli 
s -i-n  in  till' iiinsenni  at  Xaples;aiid 
^anj,' his  jiraise,  and  his  portrait  was 
lamps,  jind  other  artirk-f, and  (liuma] 
oiitly  the  same)  hij:h-bitrn  kulics  ^•^n\\ 
Mixed,  tou,  with  the  k)west  dregs  of 
have  been  many  imblc  barbarians  e^ 
trade  by  tlie  hard  fate  .if  war.  Then 
aelirsin  Knnian  hislnry  than  the 
wh...  escaping  with  seventy  of  his  com 
cf  Leiiluhis  iit  Capua,  ck'tinl  the  legu 
tlie  Knipemr's  defeat  at  Aeliunt,  the  i 
that  i-.'inained  faitliful  tu  Via  eau^e 
whom  he  had  enroUed  tii  grace  his  an 
There  were  varimis  clashes  of  gh-ii 
liy  theii-  armor  or  the  untdes  <if  tigh 
lotiglit  with  tlieir  national  weapons,  a 
a  visor,  a  plumed  helmet,  and  a  .sln)r 
cians  had  a  small.  I'oiiiid  buckler  and 
a  scythe.  Tliey  were  generally  pit 
milloncs.  so-called  from  the  fish  whicli 
of  their  helmet.  In  like  manner 
matched  with  tlie  sendor.  The  fonnc 
a  short  tunic  or  apron  and  sought  to  « 
who  was  fully  armed,  with  the  cast-nt 
his  right  hand,  and  if  .'juecessful,  he  ( 
the  triilcntthat  he  i-arried  in  his  left 
tion  the  andalmlae   wlio  wore  helmet 


KOSfAX  CTVILrZATtOX.  560 

tsstdarii  who  fought  from  rhnriots  like  the  ancient 
ona,  aad  the  laqtualores  who  tried  to  lu88o  thr^lr  iiii< 
aists. 

The  estimation  in  which  gladiatoritil  gaiin's  wns  held 
lomsn  moralist5  ile»ervos  notice,  nnd  so  alao  the  in- 
Mc  that  they  exercised  ujmn  the  morals  and  genius  of 


I 


nation.  The  Rnmjiii  \v;i.-  cs.^cTitijilly  oruti,  not  so  much 
I  fpiti'  or  viiiilictiv.iicss.  jis  from  callouyncHH  and  dc- 
V.'  Hympntliirs.  Tills  fact  inav  In'  <-afiIy  «-xi)laimHj 
Im-  ii;.ily  Iial.its  ,if  ihi-  Roiiutn  |>('n|>lf.  If  a  peo- 
aP'  :i(iri-t..iii.ii  t.i  iifivc  in  iriassrH,  in  aggregates  of 


670  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

men,  they  will  (juickly  loose  those  delicate  emotions  whiA 
the  individual  i)rivate  life  requires  and  which,  as  a  rule, 
are  entirely  stifled  in  the  movements  of  masses.  AVe  may 
easily  observe  the  change  of  feelings  which  comes  over  us 
when  we  stand  in  the  midst  of  a  largo  mass  of  people. 
Our  finer  sentiments  l)ecome  obtuse  and  we  lose  our  sense 
of  delicacy,  which  is  entirely  supplanted  by  the  rougher. 
coarser,  and  also  more  cruel  kinds  of  sentiments  natural 
to  a  mass  of  people.  That  the  sight  of  blood-shed  i»r*> 
vokes  love  of  blood-shed  and  cruelty  is  a  common-i>lace  of 
morals. 

To  the  horrors  of  the  arena,  we  may  attribute  inpiut 
the  frequency  of  suicide  among  the  Romans.  It  is  one  of 
the  finest  remarks  of  Lessinur  that  the  Romans  were  una- 
blc  to  i^roduce  a  great  dramatic  writer  beciiuse  of  their 
love  of  the  arena.  People,  who  could  see,  unmoved,  real 
agony  and  the  real  unmitigated  horrors  of  death  couIJ 
not  be  satisfied  with  the  imitation  of  a;jrony  on  the  tra- 
gical  stage;  and,  accordingly,  we  find  that  the  R()ni;in.\ 
while  they  produced  a  fc^w  good  writers  of  ^^omedios,  ;is 
Plautus  and  Terentius,  nev(»r  produced  a  great  writer 
of  trairedv.  In  connection  with  this  fact,  we  remind  the 
reader  that  the  Greeks,  as  remarked  above,  abhoreJ  the 
games  of  the  arena  and,  by  thus  retaining  all  the  delicate, 
subtle  nature  of  their  feelings  were  enabled  to  write  the 
most  touch  in  uj  tra^^edies. 

But  we  must  not  exaggerate  the  eflTects  or  draw  too 
sweeping  inferences  from  the  prevalence  of  gladiatorial  or 
similiir  amusements  in  Rome.  Human  nature  is  happily 
illogical,  and  we  know  that  many  of  the  Roman  statesmen 
who  gave  these  games  and  themselves  enjoyed  those 
sights  of  blood  were  in  every  other  department  of  life 
irreproachable.      They  were  indulgent   fathers,  humane 


soMA.y  ciyiMZATios.  671 

nerala,  and  mild  rulers  t.f  provinces.  \i\  the  i>resent 
itc  of  society,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  ii  man  of 
^  coiUd  gaze  upon  a  scene  of  human  butchery  :  yet  we 
mid  remember,  that  it  is  leas  than  half  a  century  since 
ir-baiting  was  prohibited  in  England;  and  we  are  only 
w  attaining  that  stage  of  morality  in  respect  U)  cruelty 
uimaU  that  was  reached  in  the  fifth  century,  by  the 
Ip  of  Christianity,  in  rcsitect  to  cruelty  to  men. 

We  shall  not,  then,  be  greatly  surprised  if  few  of  the 
man  moralists  be  found  to  raise  their  voices  against 
s  amusement,  except  on  the  score  of  extravagance. 
»ro,  in  a  well-known  passage,  commends  the  gladia- 
ial  games  as  the  best  discipline  against  the  fear  i>f  death. 
d  suffering  that  can  be  presented  to  the  fvc  The 
linger  Pliny,  who  perhaps  of  all  Romans  ajiproached 
irest  to  our  ideal  of  a  cultured  gentleman,  spouks  fli>- 
Jvingly  of  them.  Marcus  Aurelius,  thougli  In-  did  much 
niiti^'rite  their  Imrrors,  yet.  in  his  writings,  eondcnm* 
■  niiiii'itony  ratlier  than  tlie  cruelty.  Seneca  is  indeed  a 
.••lidiil  exceptinn,  iind  hi-s  letters  t"  T>entulu.s  are  an  elo- 
i-nt  pn-tr.-^t  jijrjiiust  this  inliuniaii  sport.  In  the  Confcs- 
n^of  Au;,'u.«tinethert.'  ixTiirs^i  narrative,  wliidi  is  worth 
uliiii'  a^*  a  jir<")f  I'f  till-  .'Strange  fa.^cination  whiih  tho 
im-s  .xini.-id  even  nn  a  religious  man  and  a  Christian. 
'  lills  us  liuw  hi.-i  friend  Ali[iius  was  dragged  against 
I  will  to  tlie  amphitlieatcr;  Imw  he  strove  to  quiet  hia 
[.•<<'ien<r  by  dosing  his  eyes;  how,  at  some  exciting 
■ii-.  the  shouts  of  the  whoh-  a.'iscinhly  aroused  his  curi- 
ty  :  how  liv  ItHiked  and  was  lost,  gri'w  drunk  with  the 
ht  of  bhxHl,  and  returned  again  and  again,  knowing  his 
It,  yet  unable  tiMihstain.  Tlie  first  Christian  emperor 
1  jK-rsuaded  \^>  issue  an  edict  abolishing  gladiatorial 
nes  in  the  year  325  a.  ii.,  yet,  in  404,  we  read  of  an  ex- 


^ 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 


lul'itii'ii  of  ,dJuUators  to  i-elel»rate  tbtr  ;r;i:ir.ph  ■  f  H>i 
ovor  iho  (.iotlis,  iuiil  it  is  said  that  tbvv  w^t:-  :  '  t 
oxlinoi  ii)  tho  Wv^t  until  tlic  tiuu-  oi  TL.:-.-i  r'  . 

Ito#i»los  tlie  gladiatorial  g-ani*-?  :uA  ti.-  r:--:;. 
wore  tho  Lm/i  Magni.  They  wcrt-  origi'-Uil'v  ., 
iVasi  to  t'apitoliiio  Juiiiter,  prnuiisfd  l>y  iht-  _■-.:.■  rii 
ho  took  tin-  tit-M  :i::..l  i-r 
on  Ills'  rt-turn  ir-'iii  !!;■- 
caniiKiigii.  They  tliiii.  i-r 
the  appearaiu-e  i-l'  :»  iii 
spectacle,  or  rather  a  re' 
the  whole  Burgos?  i-T'v. 
iiiar.'hod    in    suleniii    pr-i 


from  the  cajiitol  to  th.' 
and  thence  to  the  cirou?. 
came  the  s^ons  of  Piiir 
mounted  on  horsehack :  in- 
ivst  of  the  Burghers,  an 
aceordingto  their  niilitJiryo 
■•■■"""'■■  "■■-"--^-  after  tlieni,  the  athletes. 

s;i\e  I'.M-  ;i  irinlle  .-iround  their  loins;  then  the  conip; 
d:i!;ci'i's  «:tli  the  harp  and  tlutc  players ;  nexl  the  [ 
ill  .'.ill('C''s,  I'c.iring  censors  and  other  sacred  instriiir 
aii.i.  l.islly.  till-  images  of  gwls,  carried  aloft  on 
sh.'ulih-rs  iT  dr.nvn  in  carts.  The  chase  in  the  cimi 
the  hailing  M  wild  animals,  which  were  pittcil  cither 
i>nc  aiiotluT  i<r  witii  men.  The  taste  for  these  spec 
grew  UTiiil  the  most  distant  pnivinees  were  ransaoki 
gfiicrals  and  pnvconsuls  to  supply  the  arena  witli 
animals,  giraftc?:,  tigers,  and  crocodiles. 

The  other  great  puhlic  amusement  oftheRomai 
the  theater.  IMays  given  in  the  Roman  theaters  we 
national  plays,  representing  the  tyi>ea  and  figures  * 


BOMAX  CIVILIZATIOX.  'u'^ 

Hfr.  bar  thev  «-ere  on^stly  oomposod  after  Cirtvmn 
The  two  most  (t'lebratt-tl  writers  of  Ki«m«n 
nv;.  P! :  IT  is  and  Tarentiu:*.  iiuxtele*!  their  plavs  .nhiiost 
■\\^\y-  ici-oniing  to  their  GrtH-ian  masters.  The 
.on  ,\vA  iii.tresses  were  despised  by  the  publie^  mid  thus 
■eaters  were  far  from  fomiiDg  a  part  of  the  nation's  life 
s  they  did  in  Greece.  There  siiceessful  writers  of  plays, 
S  Sophocles,  were  honored  with  a  military  leadership; 
P,  in  modern  times,  great  actresses  and  dramatic  authors 
"ere  generally  the  recipients  of  great  honors.  TIio  [xh-h- 
RArly  stern  and  rigid  character  of  the  Romani?  is  well 
jftliown  by  their  abhorrence  of  dancing.  In  the  woiils  of 
Hie  of  their  great  writers  (Cicero),  no  sober  man  will 
iDce.  They  considereil  dancing  a  consequence  of  inteni- 
(kerance  and  could  not  conceive  of  a  man  enjoying  the 
^>leasure  of  dancing  in  a  decent  way.  Among  tlicni  all, 
■*dances  were  performed  by  hired  people,  mostly  servants 
or  profligate  women. 

The  Romans  attributed  great  importance  to  the  culti- 
vation fif  bodily  exercises  and  bodily  purifications.  Ahimst 
every  city  in  the  vast  eni|>ire,  jiossessed   bathing-houses 

(with  the  mo.st  luxurious,  practical,  and  beautiful  arrange- 
ments, where,  in  addition  to  tlie  lotion  of  the  body,  all 
possible  amujiements  were  offered.  It  was  in  their  public 
bath-houses  where  the  Romans  met;  where  they  generally 
■discussed  tlie  events  of  the  day ;  where  they  listened  to 
the  arts  of  trreat  reciters,  to  the  lectures  of  jurists,  of  phi- 
losopher.'!, aiidof  all  kinds  of  scientists.  Frequent  bathing, 
was  a  necessity  for  the  Romans,  since  as  liiey  did  imt  know 
1  the  use  of  shirts,  cleanliness  demanded  a  constant  puritl- 
cation  of  the  liody. 

The  Romans  had  only  two  meals  a  day  or,  if  wo  take 
it  in  a  strict  sense,  only  one.    The  breakfast  consisted  of 


574  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

a  piece  of  bread  iiiid  dried  fruit.  Many  people  did 
tiike  it  .It  all.  Tlien  followed  a  very  light  luncheon 
after  the  lintli,  the  lueul  proper,  the  coena.  The  t 
wliifli  ill  rich  houses  was  made  of  citron,  maplewoo 
even  ivory,  was  covered  with  a  table^lothe  {tnanteie) 
each  of  the  different  courses,  sometimes  amountii 
seven,  wftH  servtnl  upon  a  waiter.  But  the  dinner  usi 
consisted  of  three  ourses  only, 
the  promttisis,  called  also  £ns 
made  up  uf  all  sorts  of  stinm 
tor  the  appetite.  Eggs  were  co 
ert!d  so  indispensable  to  the 
course  that  they  almost  jrave  a  i 
to  it.  Of  birds,  the  Guinea 
the  jdieasant,  and  the  thrush 
most  in  ivputc.  The  liver  ol 
capun  -steeped  in  milk  and  becati 
^^=  dressed  witli  pepper,  were  consid 
'  delicacies.  The  peaecick  aoqi 
such  rt'jiute  among  the  Roman  f 
R:n-.an  Scldier  ninnds.  that  it  was  commonly 
for  lit'ty  denarii.  Otlicr  bints  are  mentioned,  such  a; 
duck,  i'.-;|)ccially  its  head  and  breast,  the  woodcock, 
turtle,  and  flamingo,  tlie  tongue  of  the  latter  esjH'c 
citmnu'iidcd  itt^elf  to  the  delicate  palate  of  Roman  no 
Of  tisli.  the  variety  was  still  greater.  The  charr,  tui 
.sturgeitTi.  and  niullet  were  highly  jirized  and  dresse 
the  mi'st  various  fashions.  Of  solid  meat,  pork  seem 
have  been  the  favorite  dish,  especially  sucking  pigs, 
pajis  of  a  sow,  served  up  in  milk,  the  flitch  of  bacon 
mentioned  by  Roman  writers.  Bear's  flesh  and  vcn 
were  also  in  high  repute. 

< 'ondiments  were  added  to  most  of  the  dishes.     \ 


SOMAN  CIVILIZATION.  .")73 

,  tiui  tl._y  ..^re  mostly  composed  after  Grecian 
Till-  two  most  celebrated  writers  of  Roman 
Plaulus  and  Tareiitius,  modeled  their  plays  almost 
Tly  infiirding  to  their  Grecian  masters.  '  The 
nd  acin^sses  were  despised  by  the  public,  and  thus 
I  wiTc  far  from  forming  a  part  of  the  nation's  life 
f  did  in  (ireece.  There  successful  writers  of  plays, 
borlcs,  were  honored  with  a  military  leadership; 
I  modem  limes,  great  actresses  and  dramatic  authors 
&  gem-rally  the  recipients  of  great  honors.  The  pecu- 
'  stem  ami  rigid  character  of  the  Romans  is  well 
I  by  ihcir  abhorrence  of  dancing.  In  the  words  of 
W  their  pnat  writers  (Cicero),  no  sober  man  will 
bt.  Tliey  <onsidered  dancing  a  consequence  of  intem- 
nee  and  coald  not  conceive  of  a  man  enjoying  the 
pare  of  dandng  in  a  decent  way.  Among  them  all, 
in  wen-  performed  by  hired  people,  mostly  servants 
(oflipitf  w.-iiien. 

The  Roman;^  iiltributed  ^reat  iniportant-e  to  the  culti- 
on  r>f  iKHiily  fxcn-iscs  and  bodily  imritications.  Almost 
y  city  iti  tlic  vast  cmiiin',  )iosw.«.-^cd  bathing-houses 
I  the  niiiMt  luxuriuu.-i.  pra.tical,  and  beautiful  arrange- 
itB.  when*,  ill  addition  tu  the  lotion  of  the  body,  all 
libh-  ainuseinetitw  were  nfl'cred.  It  was  in  their  public 
i-hcufie.^  win-re  the  Romans  met;  where  they  generally 
nosed  the  events  ot  the  day;  wliere  they  li.stened  to 
■rtj*  iif  t.Tcat  reciters,  tu  the  lectures  of  jurist;;,  of  phi- 
[ihers,  ami  of  all  kindsof  scientists.  Froiuent  bathing, 
«  nee.  jtsity  for  the  Romans,  since  as  they  did  not  know 
u-s<-  of  shirts,  cleanliness  demanded  a  constant  purifl- 
m  of  til.- body. 

The  Romans  liati  only  twfi  meals  a  day  or,  if  we  take 
a  strict  sense,  oniv  one.     The  breakfast  consisted  of 


BOMA  N  Ci  VI LIZ  A  TION.  575 

\  the  mun'a^  nd  of  pickle  made  from  the  tunny  fish. 
3Uier  condiment  was  made  from  the  intestines  of  the 
^erel.  Several  kinds  of  truffles  and  mushrooms  are 
ntioned,  which  either  made  dishes  by  themselves  or 
iled  the  garniture  for  larger  dishes.  It  must  not  be 
poeed  that  the  i-ooks*  of  imperial  Rome  were  at  all  be- 
ll ourselves  in  the  preparation  and  arrangement  of  the 
le.     In  a  large  household,  the  functionaries,   to  whom 

I  imjKirtipt  part  of  doniestic  eonomy  was  entrusted, 
^e  four — ihe  butler,  the  cook,  the  arranger  of  the  dishes, 
[  the  carver.  Carving  was  taught  as  an  art,  performed 
lie  sound  of  umsic  with  ai)propriate  gesticulations. 

We  will  now  supi)ose  the  table  spread  and  the  guests 
embled,  each  with  Yn^mappaor  napkin,  and  in  his  dinner 
90,  usually  of  a  bright  color  and  variegated  with  flowers. 
■rt  they  took  off  their  shoes  for  fear  of  soiling  the  couch, 
ich  was  often  inlaid  with  ivory  or  tortoise  shell  andcov- 
d  with  a  <-l(>th  of  gold.  Next  they  lay  down  to  eat.  They 
liiH-il  Mil  thr  left  clhow,  su[)p()rtiHl  by  cusliioiK^.  There 
ri'  usuallv,  but  not  ahvav.s,  tlnve  on  the  same  couch,  the 
hWv  |)lar('  bcinu:  th(»  nio.st  esteemed  and  honorable. 
»un<l  til*'  table  stood  th(»  si^rvants  clothed  in  tunics. 
\u'  P'nioved  tin*  dishes  and  wiped  the  table  with  a  rough 
h.  Others  i:a\e  the  quests  water  for  thiMr  hands  or 
led  the  ronin  with  fans.  Ilt^re  stood  a  servant  half  be- 
d  his  iiiasttTs  eoueh,  readv  to  answer  the  nois(»  of  the 
ers,  while  (►thers  bon'  larire  i)latters  of  different  kinds 
lU'at  to  the  iruests. 

TlHM-orna,  in  Cieero'sday,  at  all  events,  was  an  evening 
d.  A  dinner  was  set  out  in  a  room  called  Coenatio. 
•  eiM»nati<>,  in  rich  nieirs  houses,  was  fitted  U|>  with  great 
rnifi<'«*nrr.     '\\w  historian  Su«'tonius  nuMitions  asupper- 

II  in  the  p»l(lrn  j)alaee  nf  Xen»,  constructed  like  athea- 


576  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

tcr,  with  shifting  scones  to  change  with  every  course.  Th* 
Greeks  and  Romans  were  accustomed  in  later  time^  t- 
recline  lit  their  meals,  but  cven^  in  the  time  of  the  earl; 
Roman  emperors,  children,  in  families  of  the  highest  rjtik 
used  to  sit  together  at  an  inferior  tabic  while  their  fatlier 
and  elders  reclined  on  couches  at  an  upper  partof  the  rwi»m 


Roman  Dining  Hall, 
R«m;in  ladies  continued  the  jiractico  of  sitting  at  thet;il'li'. 
even  after  the  recuml)ent  ]K)Sition  had  beeome   eoniiiion 
with  the  olher  sex.' 

The  Romans,  as  well  aa  the  Greeks,  iiidulg(?d  in  vm 
hard  driTikinir.     In  their  time,  as  well  iif*  at  present,  Italj 

1  TliiMii'iMLHilol  tlK'diiiiTiKCUHtiiitiH  lift  hit  KomAUH  1h  cxtm-tHl  ffOlI 
Biniiirx  Dit'tiiinury  i>r4<rt>uk  uiid  Itoiniiii  AnUqultlen,  article  "CoeDi" 


nouAy  crvtLizATioN. 


511 


icwl  some  of  the  must  iLelicioua  wines  of  the  world. 
A  remarkable  fact,  however,  that  the  places  celebrated 
?r}"  delightful  grapes  in  autiquity  are  nowadays  en- 
■  deprived  of  good  vine-yards  and  do  not  furnish  a 
able  wine.  The  Romans  made  all  kinds  of  fruit- 
from  the  various  fruits  of  their  orehards,  but  they 
'  indulgtxt  in  beer.  At  their  meals  they  accepted  the 
[  custom  uf  eleetiiig  a  "master  of  the  revels,"  who 


Mitlli 

IIUIII 

Iditioii 

t..  tl 

frictnl 

<  u.-,-, 

drank 

IM     III 

s  .ifll 

rir  f 

itur«'  iii  wj) 

M.|.l„ll 

nr  II 

irii:  |i.- 

rti.-s 

i>.  It. 

iiiiiii 

Talcing  the  Toga  VIrtlla. 
iher  "f  L'l'l'lits  t.i  111- emptied  bv  ciK-li  guest. 
his.  tli.-y  •.M-n.nilly  dniiik  the  health  of 
iinlin;.' til  tlH'<ireek  fiLsliinn,  tliat  isto  say, 
i;iiiy  },'iililits  a.'i  there  were  letters  in  the 
rieiids.  They  never  drank  wine  without 
iter;  1u  (ill  !*(i  was  eonsidered  barbarous, 
lever  lie;ir  I'f  Roman  women  joining  the 
nf  iiM-ii.  iiiid  even  tlie  frequent  exaggera- 
s;itiri:^l--^.  like  Martial  and  Juvenal,  show 
d  character  but    ti'o  evidi-ntiv. 


ROMAN  CIVILIZATION.  579 

«e  of  the  knightly  order  had  U\<.^  narrow  atripoB  of  the 
ne  color.  This  garment  was  iismilly  uf  linen,  and  tlie 
ional  color,  for  ordinary  purposes,  was  white.  Poor 
•sons,  were  doubtless  content  \vith  the  natural  color  of 
linen  or  wool;  and,  when  in  mourning,  the  higher 
Bses  generally  wore  a  dark  colored  one  though  thiawas 
-  always  the  rule. 

More  convenient  than  the  t.)j,'!i,  but  retaining  a  gt'n- 
J  likeness  to  it,  was  the  pallium.  Some  toilet  articles 
re  worn  only  by  certain  classes,  or  nt  certain  times.  The 
thea  formed  the  official  dress  of  Ihit  seers  {Augurs  Salt'i) 
d  was  purple.  The  paludamciUum,  worn  by  the  em- 
Tor  as  head  of  Rome,  was  also  puqile  in  color,  though 
bite  was  allowed.  1\ie  sagum,  similar  t<i  tho  hint,  was 
wn  only  by  soldiers.  The  pacuula,  was  worn,  in  rainy 
*ther  generally,  to  cover  the  ilrtrss.  It  was  made  of 
ck,  flaxen  material  or  of  leatlu-r,  with  or  without  a 
od.  It  w.-u*  elliptical  in  shape  witli  a  round  liolu  in  the 
dilli'  fi-r  thr  licad  to  jjiism  tlirough.  The  lacerna,  formed 
exjH-n.-^ivf  iiiiitfrijils  anil  o'lors,  waw  worn  in  the  tlieater 
cin-us  in  tlie  jireseiu'e  of  the  em[KTor.  As  regards 
cerinL' for  tlic  he;ui,  lliere  wjis  the  IhkmI  of  the  pa-nula 
Tt>\v^\i  weatlier,  (»r  the  toga  e<nild  be  drawn  up  over  the 
ail.  or  there  wa«  a  >^epiiriite  article,  called  ricinium^  in 
•form  of  a  veil.  Workmen  and  otherH  wore  hats  or 
HI,.  A-  :in  ornament  for  the  head,  the  diadem  was  only 
■asiutialjy  u.sed  by  the  emperors  in-fore  the  time  of  Con- 
ntine.  It  wa.^  .leeline<l  by  Caesar.  After  Caracalla, 
•  mri^l  usual  mark  of  an  emperor  wa.s  a  crown  of  rays. 

The  heavy  garment.s  wurii  out  of  d'jora  were  replaced 
(Jinm-r,  «.s  wo  have  ,<.-iid  almve.  b\-  garments  of  thin  nia- 
•ial.  Trons.TH  were  lint  Worn  until  comparatively  late, 
d    even  then   only  by  soldiers,   who    were   exposed  to 


580  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

northern  r.Iimatcs.  Tht'  Romans  mlieuled  the  tight  tT<* 
sera  and  pants  wf  northern  nations,  and  they  could  n'< 
undcrstiiiid  how  peoplo  of  sense  eouhl  [frefertight  garments 
to  the  coinfortalile  anijile  dross  of  the  toga  or  tunii-a.  Thf 
legs  were  proteeted  by  flat  hands,  laee<l  around  them  upV) 
tlie  knees.  On  the  feet,  senators  wore  shoes  of  red  leathrr. 
ornamontcil  with  knobs  of   ivon-  or  brass  and  haviiic n 


Houeeholtl  Utsnails. 
liighsolr.  'I'Ih-  Patrieian  order  wore  shoes  of  blaek  leather, 
onianietiti'd  with  ;in  ivory  crescent  for  non-offi<-ial  o<*casi>'iiJ- 
I*i'r.soti.s  nut  b,-lun;:iiig  to  these  orders  wore  sandals,  Tn-. 
compagiis,  said  to  lune  bi-eii  introduced  fntni  Etniria.  ip- 
jiearsto  have  been  a  si.rt  of  shoe. 

[■'iir  pirsonjil  orriaineiit,  tinger-rings  of  great  variety 
of  material  ami  design  were  worn,  sometimes  totheeitM 


SOMAN  CIVILIZATION.  581 


1 

^^K  onp  or         )  on  each  finger.     Many  persons 
^BriaII  c»b  of  them.     At  first  the  Roman  cit 

only  an  irun  ring  »»  u        let,  then  a  gold  ring  in; 

daccU  fur  persons  sent  on  Ibreign  embassies,  but  by  c 
the  right  of  the  golden  ring  was  extended  to  all  c     i 
dtizcns.     In  the  case  of  baldness,  a  wig  was  alk     id 
men  iu»  well  as  women  during  the  Empire.    The  hair 
Ihc  beard  were  allowed  to  grow  long  until  about  290  b.  c 
Pruni  that  time,  shaving  the  hair  short  was  the  fashi 
but.  uuilcr  Hadrian,  long  beards  again  came  into         lic 

For  the  lady's  toilet  wc  may  mention  first,  t 
imUrior.  loose  and  without  sleeves.     Across   the  I 
paitsed  the  mamillare,  then   came  the  tunica  proper, 
vnlly  ciilled  stoia,  girt  at  the  wai.st,  and   having 
la»lt'ni-t)  down  the  arms  as  in  the  Greek  chilon.     Ov      1 
waa  thnjwn,  for  out-iloor  wear,  the  palla  or  plaid.    A  \ 
over  tht'  back  of  the  head  was  the  mark  of 
nuitntn     In  rainy  weather,  a  Imodlike  the  Etru:       i 
lus  w«a  worn.     To  covi-r  or  hold  up  the  Imir.  nc 
UiMfl;  but  this  simple  article  was  far  from  comni         nong 
thr    K.'Uiaii   ladirs.    whose  rliicf  .■hiira.-tmstic  in     n      ng 
■  if  art  is  llic  clal^onitcnc^r*  of  their  inaiiticr  of  Iiniidiiig  and 
milling:  thi^  hair.     Subs('i|uently  a  Idoiulc   color  of  hair 
U-c.iinr  fa.xliionalilc,  an<l  to  produce  thi.s  color   dying  was 
rc;«ortrd  to.     Nor    were  the   ladies  of  iirx-icnt    R^itiic  un- 
acipiainted  with  various  innocent  iiu-aiis  of  iiKTcasiiigtheir 
^-haniis.      (Jeiierally    the    eyebrows    jin<l    eyolaslics   were 
paiiittMl.      Kveii  flic  ^■cins  III!  the  tcni].!c8  were  sometimes 
touclitil    with   delicate  blue   coliir.      Tile    complexion   was 
improved    by  viirinus   powders   and    wat<'rs.     The    teeth 
were  carefully  looked  after,  false  ones  making  u|)  the  de- 
firicney  of  nature.     For  the  feet,  .sandals,  but,  by  prefci 
en<f,  hhots  were  made  use  of,  generally  of  bright  colors 


XOJtAy  CtVri.TZATIOX. 


r>8;i 


'.  some  iiiteniM-Iy  (iraetieul  eubjoct;  such  for  instaiico,  hs 
»•.  Yet,  as  wealth  anil  luxury  iiicrt'ascd,  it  becnmo 
iliiotiablu  to  jp'atlitT  together  libritrics.  Tliu  l»o«ikH  wpro 
lis ;  the  nutteriitl  used  varied,  but  that  must  generally 
sploVLsl  Was  papyrus.  J^ibrarii^  or  ])ubliiib(TH,  supplied 
c  demand  for  books.  The  only  way  in  which  biutltn 
aid  be  duplicated  w;i«  by  bilKiriouBly  trjinacribing  tho 
utciibi.  The  scribes  wlio  performed  this  work,  were 
J»er«l»ves  or  Irci'-inen  wbu  worked  for  hire.  Probably 
e  jienon  diclulcd  to  8<*veral  scribes  atonc<-. 


Bc.-nan  Becks  er.i  Rolle. 
W.-  v.\\\  iii.nti'.n  only  a  f'W  -f  tb<'  author)*  of  Rome. 
"'■  Miil  .-pciik  first  \y^  rinru  arj'l    his   writings.     Cieero, 
;i  statcsiimii    and  jntliti<-iaii,  :i((|iiir' d   a   vjiHt  knowledge 
th'-  farturs   and    wurkin^  i 
d. 


■<  of  Uoniaii  civilization; 


rfjui'iitly,  in  liis  wriliii;:H  wi- tlnd  the   rrflectiouB 
liiid  ri'lilv  htupil  «ilh  tin-  tn-afurcs  of  both  Greek 


584  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

and  Roman  thought.  These  consist  of  fitty-six  orations, 
several  books  on  the  art  of  oratory,  philosophical  treatises 
private  letters  and  a  few  historical  books.  In  his  orations, 
we  have  the  most  perfect  examples  of  oratory.  Every 
oration  is  lucid ;  the  diction  is  fluent  and  always  appro- 
priate. He  never  indulges  in  redundant  phrases ;  he  is 
always  simple,  always  naive  ;  he  saves  all  the  strength  of 
his  oratory  for  certain  points,  toward  which  he  is  con- 
stantly working;  and  so  the  whole  of  any  of  his  orations 
is  so  well  balanced  and  well  proportioned,  that  we  seldom 
leave  him  without  being  convinced,  if  not  of  the  justice 
of  his  cause,  at  least  of  the  magnificence  of  his  defence. 
The  most  perfect  of  all  his  orations  are  those  directed 
against  Catiline  and  Verres.  The  daring  courage  of  his 
orations  against  Catiline  and  the  wonderful  composure 
which  he  keeps  up  amidst  the  most  furious  onslaughts  of 
political  enemies  will  forever  remain  the  delight  of  the 
reader  and  the  dispair  of  the  imitator. 

In  the  domain  of  history,  Rome  can  boast  of  several 
very  great  authors.  There  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  master- 
work  of  Livy.  It  is,  or  rather  it  was  at  the  time  of  its 
appearance,  a  complete  history  of  Rome  in  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  books, ^  of  which  we  at  present  possess  but 
thirty-five  and  a  few  abstracts  of  the  rest.  But  even  these 
fragments  suffice  to  show  us  the  great  value,  the  fascinating 
style,  the  vast  store-house  of  facts,  the  beautiful  arrange- 
ment and  general  fairness  and  reliability  of  the  work. 
Although  he  may  lack  the  profoundness  of  Greek  his- 
torians, he  is  still  a  most  interesting  narrator  and  one  of 
the  most  instructive  teachers.  All  are  pleased  with  the 
pictures  of  the  lives  and  actions  of  those  heroes  of  Rome, 

1  The  Romans  divided  tlieir  work  according  to  books.    A  book  oor» 

re^pouded  to  our  moderu  chapter. 


.     SOMA  «■  CIVILIZA  TION. 

■~  in  this  fi  id  told  the  history  of  Rome.  Modern 
^ic8,  it  is  true,  have  pointed  out  many  a  deficiency,  es- 
ttially  in  the  first  books  of  Livy,  but  Livy  himself  con- 
■aee  that  the  first  five  books  of  his  work  are  more  poeti- 
I  legends  than  sober  history. 

A  sec-ond  great  historian  of  Rome  is  Taciti         E 
Drts,  the  "Annales"  and  the  "Historian,"  treat 
mes  of  the  first  emperors  with  the  exclusion  of  Ax 
'e  is  full  of  deep  reflectioiiit,  although  his  temper  "    ra' 
«red  with  the  despondency  of  an  old  rcpublii 
ites  to  see  those  institutions  succumb  to  the  e 
ent  of  the  emperors.     His  style  is  a  work  of     t.     It 

so  precise,  so  terse,  that  but 
Idom  a  word  can  he  omitted 
ithout  upsetting  tlie  fabric  of  a 
ntence.  But  he  sometimes  ex- 
•esses  a  variety  of  ideas  in  two 

three  words,  and  this  frequently 
ad:*  Ii>  a  eerlain  darkne.^H  of  e.\- 
■es^joii  ;  Jiiiil,  besides,  iii:iiiy  (if  liia 
nlfinTs  admit  of  several  ex|ila- 
itioii^.  But  his  meditations  im 
e  i!iiira<-ters  of  i3idi\i(lujil  eiii- 
■r-.r..  ..r  .-.s  lie  called  them  ty- 
iit^,  \\\^  investigations  into  tlie 
■oplr.  Ills  srathiiig  remarks  on  tli 

courtiers  and  of  tlie  jieuple    in   {j 
vp  interest  totlie  reader  of  all  tin: 

the  people  of  this  enu 
III  has  heen  developed  t. 
Tf,  and  where,  tlierefore 
u:dly  irreat. 

W'l'  had  occasion  to  rem 


constitution   of  a    free 

weakness  and  frailty 

neral,  are   subjects  of 

s,  and  more  especially 

try,  where  the  republican  ays- 

a  greater  extent  than  ever  be- 

tlie    dangers  of  loosing  it  are 

irk,  a  few  pages  back,  that 


riTE  MEDJUVAT.  W0R7.TK 

the  Romans  did  not  pn>ducR  any  great  writers  of  tragedy. 
Owing  to  the  workings  of  the  same  law,  perhaps,  poetiy 
was  never  a  very  favorite  hrantih  of  literature  among  the 
Romans,  and  they  do  not  rank  as  high  as  the  poets  of 
Greece.  Every  one  knows  the  classical  value  of  Virgil's 
writings.  There  is  also  a  charm  in  the  writings  of  Horace. 
In  Ins  poems,  we  find  the  eomposure  of  a  well-balannii 
mind,  the  quietudi^,  not  of  a  dead  intelligence,  bat  of  i 
philosophy,  which,  as  the  usual  saying  is,  "takes  thingB 
easy"  and  finds  a  blessing  where  the  majority  of  people 


Ancient  Homaa  Ship. 
find  nothing  but  injury  and  misfortune.  His  writings  ex- 
lialo,  US  it  were,  the  soothing  odor,  the  quieting  flavor  iJ 
one  of  those  Eastern  aromatic  compounds,  of  which,  it  ii 
said,  it  allays  all  plaints  and  relieves  the  moeit  violont 
attacks  of  pain. 

Money  and  the  mechanism  of  exchange  play  a  veiy 
inijwrtant  part  in  the  culture  of  all  civilize<l  nations  of  the 
jireaent  day.     We  have  alao  pointed  out  the  Tory  groat 


( 

homj<  -v  rrrTLizA  t/ox.                        587 

nfluencc  of  commtTCf  in  ilevelopiiig   t-ivilization.-    Wo 
3U«t  therefore  inquire  as  U}  the  stamiin-j;  ef  thi-  Romans 
a  this  tiiatU'r.     Tho  passages  in  Roman  writers  treating 
f  this  topic  are  very  obscure,  admit  of  difforeut  explana- 
lons,  and  frequently  have  no  co-herence  with  one  another 
[Tins  it  was  taught  that  the  Romans,  for  several  eenturies 
laid  no  other  money  than  the  heavy,  eopper  as;  and  it  in 
flnted  by  PUny,  that  a  large  debt  in  ancient  Rome  couk 
le  defrayed  only  by  using  several    vehicles  to  transport 

.-4   ci^ 


Funeral  Ceremonies, 
:h<-  nKtn.-y.  As  to  the  time  wlicii  f^ilver  money  came  into 
i.-*-.  lh<>  ancient  ;iut!n>rs  Iiiive  different  r('|>orts ;  and,  al- 
:h<iii::h  "'•  still  jtossess  a  larj,'i.'  numlior  of  silver  coins  of 
;!ie  lime  of  the  Republic  as  well  as  of  the  Empire,  we  can 
nut  fi\  the  exact  date  of  their  introduction  into  the  com- 
merci-  of  tin'  city. 

One  jHiint  has,  however,  been  made  clear;  that  is  that 
1  TbU  SerlM,  Vol.  II.  p.  290,  732. 


588  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

the  copper  ad  was  a  representative  money  analogou  \ 
the  use  of  paper  in  our  times.  Many  people  suppose,  tb 
paper  money  is  an  ingenious  invention  of  the  last  fewce 
turies,  and  that  the  ancient  nations  had  no  idea  of  tk  c< 
trivance  by  which  value  is  ascribed  to  a  valueless  tlu 
and  by  which,  in  the  opinion  of  some  people,  we  co 
make  ourselves  independent  of  the  products  of  silver; 
gold  mines.  But  the  idea  of  representative  money  { 
back  to  the  second  millennium  before  Christ,  the  diflFen 
being  that  those  nations  did  not  use  paper,  and  this  fi 
very  simple  reason,  they  luid  no  paper.  They  used 
bars  or  copper  bars  or  leather,  and  they  had  a  ven' 
tinct  and  precise  idea  about  the  commercial  function 
such  money.  The  Romans  however  had  a  complete  bj 
ing  system,  and,  through  the  excavations  in  Pompeii 
are  pretty  well  acquainted  with  the  inner  machinery  of 
Roman  banks.  Their  business  consisted  more  or  les 
what  it  does  to-day,  in  exchanging,  advancing,  loai 
money,  mortgaging  property  etc.  Even  their  commei 
books  resembled  ours  to  a  great  extent,  although  they  ^ 
much  simpler  and  much  w^as  trusted  to  the  memory. 

The  Roman  state,  as  such,  never  incurred  debU*; ; 
consequently,  the  modern  ideas  of  "state  debts  "  wen 
tirely  unknown.  The  Romans  did  not  have  the  ino( 
idea  of  taxing  every  citizen  as  high  as  possible,  and  of  1 
ing  a  regular  annual  tax  levy  upon  every  household 
order  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  state.  On  the  contr 
taxes  were  considered  as  an  irregular,  almost  accide 
thing.  Booty  from  conquered  people  rendered  the  I 
ing  of  taxes  unnecessary.  In  the  times  of  the  Macedoi 
war,  the  immense  booty  from  the  conquered  Greeks 
sufficient  to  meet  all  demands  of  the  state  for  many  yc 
The  income  of  the  provinces,  as  well  as  the  manages 


SOMASr  CIVILIZATION.  689 

Be  different  mines,  was  leased  out  to  corporatioDs,  and 
I  the  whole  system  of  the  state  was  reduufd  to  its 
plest  form  of  management. 

Roman  ideas  about  riches  differed  very  extensively 

n  our  modern  ideas.     None  of  the  Romans  was  as  rich 

some  of  our  great  bankers  or  railroad  magnates,  and 

i  largest  fortunes  we  occasionally  read  of,  like  that  of 

«8sus  or  some  of  the  savings  of  the  Roman  emperors, 

oonnted   to  fifteen  or  twenty  million  dollars  ;  Imt    the 

noble  in  Rome  was,  that  riches  and  poverty  wrre  .«(.  un- 

{ually  divided.     The  small  land  holders,  at  tlie  time  of 

iogustus,  were  almost  entirely  extinct;  and  in  tlte  time  of 

he  elder  Pliny,  that  is  in  the  latter  part  of  the  iit-»t    cen- 

Mry,  almost  all  the  land  of  Italy  was  concentmteil  in  the 

hands  of  a  few  powerful  land-owners.     The  Romiui!^  did 

Aot  fail  to  notice  this  element  of  danger  in  the  e4'uiiom1cal 

■tmcture  of  their  country,  and  the  author  just  nieiilioiied 

«ODfc8.scs  tlmt  the  iaiifundia,  or  the  large  estntes  us  he 

'Cxlla  them,  wonld  Ih-  the  ruin  nf  the  state. 

Althougli  tliere  wi-re  all  iie<'esyary  conditions  lor  a 
brisk  tnide  ami  un  extensive  eoiimierce,  the  Rimian.-*  as  a 
rule  were  adverse  to  iiicn'antile  tniti-sactiuns.  It  is  very 
easy  I o  aeeount  for  this  f;u't.  The  Romans,  in  the  first 
plaei'.  were  ^.'Mi-Ts.  .mhI  niilitury  i>ridc  disdains  the  occu- 
pation of  tnidiiij;.  Tlie  avernye  Honian  preferred  to  gain 
his  wealth  by  pliunliTing  weaker  jieople  rather  than  trustmg 
to  the  mon-  prosaie  clumees  of  trade  and  commerce.  Con- 
M-<juently  tin-  i-oiiinieree  of  Home  was  more  or  less  in  the 
bands  of  iion-Koinaiis,  especially  of  (Jreeks,  Jews,  and 
Egyptians.  Our  ideas  of  commerce,  as  being  a  great  in- 
terchange uf  necessaries,  does  not  apply  to  the  commerce 
of  the  Romans.  The  merchants  generally  rushed  to  thoae 
departments  of  trade,  wlndi    promised  big  returns;  jew- 


KOJfAy  CtVlLlZATlOX.                                "lOl 

;te  in  the  atrium  on  the  Ledus  funebris.      Here  friends 
3Uglit  loavi-g  and  flowers,  ami  had  the  deceased  when  alive 
inircil  the  ri^'ht  to  wear  a  crown,  it  Mas  placed  on  his 
id.     By  the  side  of  the  lectus,  a  censer  was  placed;  and, 
■r  the  door  of  the  house,  a  pine  ur  cypress  was  planted, 
nbolical  of  death,  and  also  serving  as  a  warning  to  those 
wons  who  were  forbidden  on  n-Iigions  grnumls  tn  enter 

1 

1 

i 

Place  of  Eating  the  Funei^l  Meal. 
■Wlien  the  d:iy  ..f  l>iii-i;il  iirrivcd.  ;i  strange  procession 
■onipjiiiii'd  the  IkkIv.  In  fnni;  Ihirr  iii.in-Iiol  iiffircrs  to 
'^fV\'-  <'rdiT.  inusiciiiiis,  liireil  inniirnrrs,  and  Mimi  or 
.|>Ii'  who  undcrtoiik  tn  rcprcxeiit  tlie  traits  of  character 
lh<'  di'ccjtscd.  Then  fnllowcda  ghastly  company,  people 
nriiig  tln>  mariks  of  the  deceased  ancestors  of  the  dead. 
IIS  symlMiIirally,  the  deceased  ancestors  accompanied  the 
ly  of  tlieir  recently  dead  kinsman  to  his  grave.  Then 
ne  the  Ixjily.  (x.rnc  mi  tlie  lectns,  followed  by  mourning 
ilives  and  friends.     The  iiroec.ision  wound  its  way  to 


B92  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

the  Fomm,  and  the  funeral  oration  was  delivered 
the  tribune. 

Nine  days  after  the  burial,  there  came  the  \ai 
sacrificial  meal.  It  consisted  of  simple  dishes,  parta 
near  the  grave,  for  which  purpose  sometimes  spec: 
(XimA  {triclinia  fumbra)  were  built.  Sometimes  game 
provided  for  the  general  multitude,  who  were  likew 
galed  with  food  and  presents  of  money. 


OTTerlngs  to  Mere. 
We  have  now  tried  to  describe  the  home  litt 
public  and  private,  of  the  Roman  citizen.  We  roi 
serve  that  the  whole  tendency  of  such  a  life  was 
direction  of  immediate,  practical  ends.  They  wer 
like  the  Greeks,  discussing  questions  of  deep  philoso 
and  scientific  import,  or  deciding  points  in  fine  ar 
more  practical  questions  engaged  their  attention ;  ho 
duct  this  war;  how  govern  that  province;  howg 
most  tribute  from  such  a  i>eople.  They  examined 
question  from  such  a  stand  point.    And  to  their  cn^ 


ir-^ 


ROMAN  CIVILIZATION. 

that  every  subject  they  had  to  settle  th    ' 
n  a  most  enduring  manner.   To  make       ngn 
lisciplined  soldiers  were  needed;  ace     i       y 
army  was  drilled  as  soldiers  never         j 
he  most  good  out  of  conquered  provi 
lore  was  necessary  than  to  simply      :t 
accordingly,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history 
in  intelligent  attempt  was  made  to  fuse  the  i 
ed  people  into  a  homogeneous  whole.      To 
ce  to  the  shores,  it  was  necessary  to  i 
y,  extend  to  them  the  protection  of  i 

n  to  the  older  tribal  law  ;  hence  in  Roi 
for  foreigners,  or  equity,  taking  its  rise.^ 
5  at  length  arrived  for  the  old  tribal  cust 
and  enlarged  to  suit  new  ideas,  we  find  i 
dving  that  splendid  product  of  their  ge 
Civil  Law. 

e  statements  just  made  will  go  far  to  explain 
ri.se  to  powrr  of  the  Roman  coininonwralth.    If      5 
le  i)oIitical    history  of  Rc^mc,^  we   tiiul    that  in  a 
[ne,  comparatively  speaking,  the  Romans  reduced 

(huninion  the  then  known  world.  It  is  no  easy 
to  explain  this  fact.  A  mere  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
tlic  \arions  concjuests.  of  the  successive  campaigns, 
rious  hattles,  of  the  deeds  of  this  or  that  general, 
►rd  \\n  explanation  of  the  sudden  sj^lendor  of  the 
<on(|uest  and  civilization.  This  same  phenomenon 
il  the  attention  of  ancient  writei's  as  early  as  the 
•riitnrv  hctnre  Christ.  At  that  era,  we  find  Poly- 
ircrk  historian,  who,  as  a  statesman,  was  frequently 

in  settlim.^  political  aflairs  with   Roman  generalSi 
»,  besides,  was  the  personal  friend  of  Scipio 

SorlcMi,  Vol.  II.  p.  231.  J  Above  oh.  Iv. 


594  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

canus,  writing  a  large  work  on  the  history  of  the  ti 
known  world  with  the  express  intention  of  accounting 
the  sudden  growth  of  the   Roman  commonwealth— i 
growth  being  by  far  the  most  striking  fact  of  classical 
tiquity. 

It  is  a  common-place  statement,  that  the  wisdom, 
valor,  the  self-restraint,  in  one  word,  that  the  domestic 
tues  of  the  Romans  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  brin: 
to  pass  the  great  facts  of  their  history.  In  almost  c^ 
hand-book  of  history,  we  find  the  author  pointing  to 
virtues  of  a  Cincinnatus,  Regulus,  Fabius  Gunctator, 
millus,  Scipio,  Cato,  etc.,  etc.,  as  the  real  maiu-spriii 
Roman  greatness.  Now,  while  far  from  denying  the  I 
ficial  influence  of  domestic  virtue,  although  nobody 
deny  the  great  advantage  accruing  to  a  nation  that 
boast  of  such  men,  yet  it  is  clear  that  tliese  virtue 
themselves,  are  not  sufficient  to  produce  results  e<juj 
those  that  we  find  in  the  history  of  Rome.  For  o 
Roman  who  excelled  in  virtue  of  any  kind,  we  can  fi; 
Grreek  who  (cultivated  the  same  kind  of  virtue  with  c 
'su(H*ess. 

The  Romans,  themselves,  taught  their  children  to 
to  the  heroes  of  Greece  as  their  models  and  ideals*  am 
noblest  Roman  youth  had  no  higher  ambition  than  to 
the  glorious  king  of  Macedonia,  Alexander  the  G 
The  Roman  historians,  especially  Livy  and  Corn 
Nepos,  constantly  hold  up  the  warriors  and  sages  of  G\ 
as  the  patterns  of  morality,  of  all  social  and  ix>litical 
dom.  The  Romans,  themselves,  therefore,  never  hesil 
to  confess  that,  as  far  as  virtue  and  morality  are 
cerned,  other  nations  were  on  a  par  with  them.  We  i 
look,  then,  for  other  clauses,  which  are  more  or  less  i 
pendent  of  private  morality,  for  an  explanation  of 


Sddei 


BOMAN  CIVILIZA  TIOX.  595 


Iden  and  great  rise  in  power  of  the  Roman  common- 

"Vroidih. 

Polvljiufl,  writing  as  we  have  observed  in  the  second 

^jenlury  b.  ( .,  found  an  answer  to  this  query  in  the  form  of 
^veniment  adopted  by  the  Romans.  In  attempting  to 
ibllow  Polybius  in  his  reasoning,  we  will  be  struck  with 
tbc  conscrviitism  of  the  old  Patrician  tribes  of  Rome  and 
their  practi.al,  sound  sense.  They  indeed  clung  tenaciously 
to  their  rights,  but  were  ready  to  yield  when  they  saw  that 
ftirtht-r  rt'i-istance  was  useless.  And,  in  thus  yielding 
gracefully,  they  not  only  made  the  best  terms  for  them- 
selves, but  they  effected  a  compromise,  which  in  turn  led 
to  Uie  form  of  government  which  attracted  the  admiration 
of  PolybiiLs. 

Wc  must  recall  the  constitution  of  tribal  society  in  a 
noruiJil  .«t.iie.  There  is  first  the  tribal  chief,  an  elected 
officer,  but  whose  office  tends  to  bcconio  hereditary,  and 
whose  jwwers,  csi>ecially  in  times  of  Mar,  are  very  great. 
J»cxt,  tlie  tribal  i-ouiicil,  composed  of  tlie  chiefs  of  the 
varii'Us  phratrics  and  gentes — all  elected  officers — who  ad- 
vi.-cd  the  head  chief  on  all  important  matters,  and  whose 
dfciaion  r\cn  he  is  boumi  to  obey.  Finally,  the  general 
asi'eMibly  of  the  people,  wliiili  must  be  convened  to  discuss 
nil  laws  und  all  proposed  measures.'  Now,  as  ci%'ilization 
advanceil,  the  natural  tendency  would  be  for  each  of  these 
dejiartments  of  government  to  develop  at  the  expense  of 
the  other  two.  The  result  would  be,  that,  in  the  course  of 
time  and  among  different  jicople,  we  would  find  represen- 
tatives (if  the  three  difFerent  forms  of  government  known 
to  the  ancients.  If  the  office  of  head-chief  developed  at 
the  expense  of  the  other  departments  until  the  powers  of 
government  wvrr  ab.-^nrbcl    by  this  one  office,   the  result 

1 'Thin  .Scrl^-.  V..I,  11    ili    ii. 


£06  TITB  MSDIBVAL.  WOStO. 

was  11  monarchy.  If  thtj  fwunril  thus  flovclopcd,  tho  nmh 
wns  an  olijiiiruliy ;  or,  if  tlio  general  asHcmbly  nbaorbed 
thiise  ]iowers,  the  r<»sult  was  a  ilfniocracjy. 

Tilt!  jiIm>v(!  n;]tn.'S«nt8  what  we  niijiht  fall  the  natofsl  I 
(Ifvclopui'-'ut  of  government.      But  we,  of  conrneT  iinJ>T- 
ataiid  that  tbo  form  of  govornmeut  waa  often  subverted 
by  force.    Now  tho  ancients  were  acquainted  with  tli«  I 


L 


Navftl  BttUfl. 

three  forms  uf  government  and  discussed  tho  strong  p«iinte  , 
of  eaeh ;  for,  as  nil  are  aware,  each  had  ita  gtnmg  Riid  1 
weak  jjointi".  Tlio  troiiMo  with  many  itf  thu  Grecian 
states,  for  instance,  was  that  they  were  divided  into  foe* 
tioim,  each  elamoriiig  fur  its  desiretl  form  <if  gov^-mment, 
and  when  one  party,  as  at  Atliena,irained  the  ascendency, 
the  other  w;ih  nlinost  extirpati'd 


Zif.  -hoc  X  liune  if  ul  ^&b  itaas  ic  liB'  '::mir  3m  «  ^c»- 


iiii-i.t  ■■:'  K-iii-  u.-ii;:.!  ijni.li  t.-  i-\>!iririu  \.]n-  «-.>in'lusi.in. 
iiiniit-r  ■■:'  ..ffi.-i-p<   -:;;!   .■\iTi'i,<(il   ]».mit-   aimlo^uis  to 

;■  'i M  r-\  ..r  :ril..il-.'hi.'i-.      Surti   wn-  tlu«  .-..ii- 

-.  ill  ii  ',■■"  il.-jT'-'-Tli.-.'.'iiM.r-i.  ;iii.l  ill  tiiiu's  I'f  riuer>;r«'«"\V 

■  ilirLit-.r-.     Till-    ri.ii>iil<   H.i-.>  n'.illy  ycjir-kiiip*,   «nd 

■  .lir.-.t   h.-irs  of  til.'  ..M.T   litV-kin^'^.      Liko  tlio  «M 
li;il  ilii.-tV,  tlii'ir  powers  »irr  L'P'atost  in  tiiiu'n  i»f  war. 


598  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Ill  point  of  fact,  the  dictator  exercised  greater  iiower  than 
a  king. 

The  tribal  council  survived  in  the  senate  of  Rtiii*'. 
It  consisted  of  the  best  and  wisest  and,  to  some  extent, 
the  worthiest  citizens  of  the  state.     In  its  meetings,  the 
more  important  topics  of  the  state  were  the  subjects  of 
deliberation.     It  was  a  corporation,  which,  in  its  dignity 
and  in  its  wisdom,  made  the   impression  of  a  collection 
of  kings.    The  senate  occupied  a  position  half-way  betwmi 
the  legislative  and  the  monarchial   powers.     Instead  of 
interfering  with  the  machinery  of  the  state,  it  servixl  as 
a  sound  and  healthy  check  in  times  of  political  fury;  ami 
thus  it  promoted  the  welfare  of  the  state  and  acquiml 
a  rcs})(»ct  and  esteem   which  made   its  decrees  and  onli- 
nances,  in  (»ourse  of  time,  equal  to     laws  passeil    bv  the 
whole  nation.     It  was  the  senate  of  Rome  that  drew  up 
treaties,  ordained  regulations  for  conquered   nations,  rar- 
ricd  on  the  immense  political  business  of  the  city,  regu- 
lated the  forces  of  the  most  distant  provinces,  sent  «mt 
armies  and  directed  their  marches. 

As  for  the  general  assembly  of  the  j)eople,  it  is  well 
known  that  it  was  in  full  vigor  at  Rome.  All  laws, 
propcTly  so-called,  were  passed  in  the  assemblies,  or  as 
th(^  Romans  called  them,  in  the  comitia,  where  every  R<> 
man  citizen  had  a  riulit  to  cast  his  vote.  This  assembly 
was  indexed  considered  the  supremo  power  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth,  inasmuch  as  all  was  depending  on  lawjs 
and  laws  could  not  be  enacted  by  any  other  power  than 
by  th(^  general  assembly.  It  was  there  that  the  great 
magistrates — the  consuls,  the  censors,  the  pnetors — were 
ai)poi]ited  ;  it  was  there  that  the  great  leaders  of  the  ar- 
mies wore  ele(?ted. 

Some  modern  writers  think  with  Polybius,  that  here 


SOMAS  CIVILIZATION.  699 

is  the  explanation  of  the  sudden  rise  of  Rome.  It  gives 
us  some  light  but  does  not  explain  all.  We  need  but  go 
a  little  way  back  in  time  to  find  the  same  government  in 
Greece.'  But  by  the  second  eentury  b.  c,  the  ancient  in- 
stitutions in  that  countr}-  had  largely  disappeared,  owing 
to  the  incessant  conflict  lietween  the  ruling  and  subject 
classes.'  Rome  had  indtx-d  this  same  conflict  to  meet,' 
but  though  clinging  tenaciously  to  their  ancient  customs, 
they  granted  from  time  to  time  such  concessions  to  the 
people  as  enabled  them  to  retain  a  large  measure  <»f  their 
government. 

It  now  only  remains  to  inquire  what  were  the  pecu- 
liar characteristics  of  Roman  civilization,  what  was  their 
part  in  developing  Aryan  civilization  in  general,  and  what 
was  their  great  legacy  to  the  civilization  of  the  present. 
The  Romans  were  not  distinguished  in  the  field  of  litera- 
ture, science,  and  art.  That  was  the  province  <if  Grecian 
civilization.  They  were  distinguished  in  thedirortion  of 
j:i.vrrninent.  Away  back  in  the  night  of  time,  we  seethe 
three  tribes*  of  singular  ctlini<'al  mixture"  that  composed 
the  Patricians  of  Ilniiie,  rising  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber. 
After  some  centuries  of  time,  they  succeeded  in  reducing 
to  tlieir  power  a  large  portion  of  Italy."  In  the  meantime 
till  V  had  passed  timiiigh  tile  conflirt  wliieh  came  to  all  the 
tribal  sLcirties  <if  aiitiipiify; tlje  ctinfliit  between  the  ruling 
triUs  and  llirir  subje.t  people,  wli.i  Were  continually  pres- 
fiiiL' for  .1  share  Iti  the  government.  And  we  liavc  ju.<t 
]Kiinteil  out  liuw  from  tliis  conflict  tln'v  bad  emerged,  in 
tbi'  early  days  of  the  Rejiublic,  with  a  government  which 
attra'tcd  tlie  admiration  of  the  ancients. 

'  Itt-call  II.''  kinRC,  cpliors',  ffcrufhiii.  mill  n^Bcmbly  In  HparU;  the 
arrhonR,  couni-H,  hii.I  n~senibl.v  in  Allitii-'.  This  Series  Vol.  II.  p.  18fi 
tt  t'lf.        1  ThlH  <-i>iii1i<'t  is  trai'i'l  ni  Vol.  II.  p.  IHT  tt  »eq.  i  Ibid.  p. 

IMrfc-ry.  *  Vol.  II.  p.  IBS.  »  Above  p.266.  •  Abovep.2T4. 


tjl."!  THE  MKDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Those  Lvnturies  ot  conflict  hiul  traint^il  theni  iu  llii-  art 
of  jrovoruiiig.  The  whole  aim  of  the  Putriciiiii  triboa  Wiis 
ti»  retain  the  practical  advantages  of  their  position.  This 
was  the  question  that  confronted  the  Roman  citizen 
from  childhood  to  old  ago.  Their  education  and  man- 
ner of  life  show  that  this  was  the  m:iin  aim.  \Ve 
need  not  wonder,  then,  that  we  have  before  us  such  .*i  pn>* 
sale  matter-of-tact  people,  who  cared  little  for  merely  in- 
tellectual pursuits,  and  disdained  many  of  the  nu>re  iiin'" 
cent  eiijoynionts  of  other  nations.    On  the  contniry  tlu\v 


A  Bakery  in  Rome. 

delighted  iu  the  brutal  games  of  the  amphitheater,  and 
lived  iinly  to  I'xteud  their  power  and  intliiein-e.  in  ii - 
crease  their  wealth  and  hixury. 

Their  power,  fkill  iudii»louiacy,  a!id  vigorous  intollfct 
wore  now  united  for  the  concpicit  of  the  wurld,  and  one 
people  after  another  fell  before  them.  They  di»l  not  hes- 
itate to  u.se  treachery  if  it  wouhl  advance  their  ends. 
Tlicy  understood  woU  the  art  of  fanning  the  flamcji  of  in- 
ternal dis.sen)i.)ns  amnnt:  a  people  they  wished  to  suUiiie. 


[ 


MOMAJT  CI  riLZXA  TJOX.  6Q1 

Jt  is,  pirhaps,  not  surprbitig  that  they  suciti'dt'tl,  hiiJ  rfr< 
daeed  the  wht^le  worM  to  their  power.  But  to  their  credit 
beitsaiii,  that  the  i-ooquered  ptorinces  «^en>  org»niziHl, 
governors  wen.-  apjiointed,  cities  built,  roads  sur\eyt'd  and 
laid  oat,  and  the  Roman  law  gradually  oxtendeil  over 
them. 

Uere  thiMi  wp  see  their  great  influeiu-e  oii  Aryan 
ciTiliKaiiun.  It  was  a  grt-ut  step  in  advuiirt'  when  the 
numerous  independent  and  war-like  tribes  nf  a  (tmntry, 
like  Gaol  for  inatauce,  were  brought  under  subjivtion  to 
onr  central  power,  uiui«-r  the  workings  of  uiio  systi-m  of 
lam.  De\'clopinent  in  civilization  went  forwiinl  rapidly. 
With  t.'UDaummate  wiNtoin  also,  the  ruling  powci-M  al  Rome, 
fhnn  lime  to  time,ext4?n(Ktl  the  benefits  of  Hoiiiau  citixen- 
afaiptothc  wore  prominent  leaders  in  their  pruvinpoe. 
Thm  woa  gradually  Imilt  up  a  state  of  vast  jiuwcr,  i>i>seB- 
aing  a  rivilization,  which,  if  it  lacked  the  p4jli?h  of  OnTinn 
idTilixation.  enibodiotl  a  ^v&t  store  of  pr»>'ti<-id  wisdom, 
belter  suit4^d  ]M-rb:i]>5  to  the  real  wants  of  practical  lite. 

Otic  iin|uin-  yet  rcnmins  before  us,  what  was  tbc  ijreat 
legacy  of  the  Romans  to  our  present  civilization.  After  our 
remark  on  the  skill  of  tlio  Romans  in  the  difficult  task 
of  gorerninjr,  it  may  not  occasion  surprise  to  learn  tlmtthe 
answer  ti>  the  question  is — TlicC'i\il  Law.  People  who 
would  govern  well  must  know  Imw  to  legislate  well. 
When  we  treateil  of  Greek  ci^  ilization,  wo  drew  the  at- 
tention of  our  readers  repeatedly  to  the  fact  that  the  great 
merit  of  that  civilization  was  chiefly  in  the  field  of  art. 
There  Grecian  genius  showed  itself  at  its  best  and  in  that 
fiehi  they  continue  to  be  the  masters  of  the  world.  In 
Roman  civilization,  we  find  an  analogous  fact.  The  Ro- 
mans were  the  first  and  the  most  perfect  teachers  of  law; 
and  their  laws  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  form  so   lucid, 


TITB  UBDIBVAL    WORLD. 

SO  inalructive,  so  well  arranged,  that  the  majority  of  R* 
manco  nations  coultl  onlyaccept  them  in  spite  uf  the  f»rt 
that  many  of  them  had  already  developed  a  l^al  systm 
of  their  own.  In  the  field  of  legal  acience,  then,  Wf  find 
the  most  important  feature  of  Roman  civilization.    Tbg 


Roman  Judgmffnt  Hall- 
were  at  once   the  greatest  law-gircrs,  the  best  lawyers, 
andthemoat  profound  jurists.     We  will  therefore  pointi; 
the  most  salient  pointa  of  their  legsJ  system  io  orda 


L 


ROMA  ^■  CIVILIZA  TION.  603 

istrate  ita  vast  influence  on  the  course  of  general  civili- 
uun. 

The  Romans  themselves  used  to  cniniihun  that  they 
A  too  many  laws  ;  but  in  fact,  if  wcMuinipare  the  number 
tbcir  laws  witli  thost*  of  a  modern  nation,  we  will  be 
■uck  with  their  small  number.  They  had,  comparatively 
caking,  few  laws  and  their  laws  were  expressed  in  a  terse, 
art,  torhnical  Imiguuge.  which  however,  every  body 
dersldod,  Iwcause  every  body  participated  more  or  less  in 
•jurisprudence  of  the  Republic.  The  Romans  from  the 
rj*  first  established  the  jury  system.  Everj-  civil  case 
IS  (leeidiHl  by  a  jumr — eventually  by  three  jun)ra — and 
iiieoneofthe  marked  differences  between  the  Romau 
d  tbo  English  system.  The  great  number  of  English 
xtn  (twelve)  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  great  draw-backs 
the  system.  In  Rume  one  juror,  as  a  rule,  decided  a 
le,  though  he  generally  called  to  his  assistiince  two  or 
pee  of  the  well  known  and  learned  jurists  of  the  city,  who 
TDed  hi.'<  cnuiicil.  It  is  not  surjirisiiig,  then,  thiit  c\i*ry 
licated  Ritniiin  acquired  a  very  adc<|Uato  knowledge  of  the 
«■»  of  his  country. 

In  Engiiind  nnd  America,  the  development  of  law 
ttschiefly  with  the  judges,  and  rntiseqnently  every  lawyer 
compelled  to  form  a  vast  library  containing  the  various 
;al  reports.  In  Ronx-,  the  development  of  law  rested 
tirely  with  the  jurists;  ami  in  their  writings,  they  en- 
'ged,  commented  upon,  and  revised  the  laws  given  in 
;  legislature  and  in  the  s^enate.  It  is  interesting  to 
tice  the  form  in  which  their  writing.--  have  come  down 
us.  In  the  sixth  century  after  Christ,  Justinian  deter- 
ned  to  collect  the  iriust  important  parts  of  the  numerous 
itings  'if  the  Rumnn  jurist.^  into  nne  vast  collection.  He 
trusted  his  chancellor,  Tribonian,  with  the  task  of  collecU 


G(>4  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ing  and  sifting  this  great  mass  of  judicial  lore.  He,  assL^ 
U»d  by  a  number  of  other  great  lawyers  and  jurists,  sui** 
eeeded  in  making  an  abstract  of  the  writings  of  thirty-nine  of 
the  best  and  most  renowned  Roman  jurists,  which  were 
published  under  the  title  of  "Digest". 

One  of  the  most  ancient  copies  of  this  collection,  a 
manuscript  of  the  seventh  century,  inestinui])le  in  valuers 
still  extant  in  Florence.  It  is  kept  under  a  glass  covt-r, 
constantly  guarded,  my  body  being  permitted  to  touch  it 
unless  by  special  permission  of  the  municipality.  In  fad, 
so  great  is  the  value  attributed  to  this  manuscript  that  a 
formal  ceremony  is  enacted  while  the  spectators  gaze  on  it. 
Amongst  others,  servants  with  torches  in  hand  and  sol- 
diers with  drawn  swords  stand  around  during  the  exam- 
ination. This  manuscript  has  been  co})ied  by  various  hands 
;iiid  its  contents  form  the  foundation  of  law  and  juris  prudence 
in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe;  though  England 
reTiised  U>  accept  tli<*  Roman  system  of  law,  and,  coiise- 
([uently,  American  courts,  as  a  rule,  do  not  pay  much 
attention  to  the  study  of  Roman  jurist.^. 

To  the  law  of  the  Romans,  then,  we  ascribe  the  vast  im- 
portance of  Roman  civilization;  for,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
tlit'ir  law  was  a  direct  outcome  of  their  civiliziition.  We 
sliould  estimate  the  value  of  the  influence  of  different  na- 
tions on  civilization  according  to  the  lasting  benefit  that 
they  were  able  to  confer  u})on  the  world.  Perhaj)3  no 
nation  of  modern  times,  can  compare  in  this  respect  with 
the  Romans.  W(*  can  not  point  to  any  one  element  in 
our  civilization,  iis  derived  directly  from  the  Semitic  na- 
tions of  antiquity.  The  influence  of  these  people,  though 
doubtless  very  great  in  developing  civilization,  is  lost  in 
the  distance.  This  is  true  of  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians, though  they  established  vast  empires,  rule<l  many 


SOMAN  CIVILIZATION.  605 

minions  of  people,  built  numberless  edi^ces  of  greut  beauty, 
DoUectod  large  libraries,  and  conquered  immense  terri- 
tories. But  iu  tbocaso  of  the  Romans,  we  can  say  tliat 
they  continue  to  exercise  ft  great  influence  in  the  field  of 
legal  science.  Every  day,  cases  of  the  utmost  importance 
are  decided  on  the  strength  of  the  reasoning  employed  liy 
some  of  the  old  jurists  of  Rome. 

We  have  now  finished  our  brief  outline  of  Roman  civ* 
ilization.  We  have  traced  the  rise  of  this  people,  have 
studied  their  national  character,  and  have  pointed  out  the 
direction  in  which  they  exerted  their  greatest  influence  in 
the  development  of  Aryan  civilization.  Let  us  notice 
the  rapidly  widening  sweep  of  Aryan  culture.  How  con- 
tracted the  area  of  Grecian  civilization  appears  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  Roman  !  And  yet,  leas  than  half  of 
Europe  was  brought  under  the  sway  of  Rome.  In  tracing 
the  political  history  of  Rome,  we  have  seen  how  that 
countrj'.  enervated  by  luxury,  hopelessly  divided  by  in- 
ternal dissensions,  finally  disappeared  as  a  political  power 
before  the  ruthless  march  of  ttie  Teutonic  tribes.  But  their 
culture  did  not  disappear.  It  eontpiered  the  Teutonic  in- 
vaders and  was  by  them  disseminated  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  Aryan  Europe.  Let  us  now  follow 
it  into  thi.4,  its  third  and  last  stage  of  development  in  tiie 
Medieval  World. 


606  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


6HWPTER  vm. 

CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  A3ES. 

lNTBr>DUCTi<»'~Riglit  IdeaH  aa  to  the  Middle  Agee — Feudalism — Its  Ori- 
t;i» — Feudal  Tenure — Ccreuioniea  attending  the  Transfereui-e  of  a  Fief 
— Duties (>ftheVa«»al— Military  Service— Feudal  Incidents— IteUer»— 
Fines— Fiirffiliires-AidH— Feudal  Nobility— Origin  of  Classes— Free 
men- Villeins— .Medicviii  t^uvery— Feudalism,  a  Developmeut  of 
Trilial  Kociety — Fi'tnlalJurisdrction.— Wager  of  Battle — Origin  oftlii« 
Custom- Rixe  of  Frto  Cities- Chivalry— Ite  Origin — Influence  oflbf 
Churoh  in  tills  Mutter— The  Page  and  Ilia  Duties— Squires  and  tiieir 
Duties  -.^^lldcs  <»f  Conferring  Knighthood— The  Ancient  CeremonT— 
The  Shortened  Ct'remoiiyiif  Later  Times— Classes  of  Ktiights-The 
Toiirimnii'nt- Knight  Errantry — Estimation  of  Feudal  ism- Picture 
of  till' MiiliUe  Age« — Tlie  Cruaades  and  their  lulluenct- — Powersof 
tlie  Church — Estimation  of  Church  Influence— Churrh  Influentviu 
the  Matter  of  Advancing  Knowledge — Trade  in  tlie  Middle  Age*— 
Social  Life,  etc.— CoDcluaiou. 

?»^ 

WIDENING  atreitin  of  Aryan  cul- 
ture now  enters  on  its  third  stage 
of  (lovelopment.  By  the  fflid  of  the 
tifth  century  of  our  era,  the  Roman 
Empire,  as  a  great  political  power. 
liad  disappeared.  From  out  of  the 
confused  scones  of  those  far  away  centuries,  we  hare 
traced  tlio  gradual  rise  of  the  present  nations  of  Europ. 
We  liavo  yet  hufore  us  the  study  of  the  culture  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Greece  was  the  soUtarj'  peak  which  fiisi 
caught  the  glow  of  the  rising  sftn;  Rome,  the  mountain 
range  shining  afar;  the  Middle  Ages,  all  Europe  basking 
in  the  light  of  culture.     Let  us,  then,  enter  on  an  inveati- 


PUBLIC  LIB^^R^; 


IpSS^SbTwi 


i,i5&SS-«?l 


CUZTUSE  Of  TBE  MIDDLE  AOBS.  Gil 


gation  of  the  culture  oi  this  lust  period,  and  learn  what 
we  can  of  the  culture  of   Europe  in   tht-   itiddleAges,      \ 
which,  in  a  generaTway,  may  be  t  aken  to  mean  the  thousanti 
jeara  preceding  the  discovery  of  America.' 

The  middle  agea  have  b<^^cn  tvilled  the  dark  ages,  a 
period  of  superstition,  an  age  of  church  rule,  and  similar 
expressions — all  denoting  aretrugriulestatcgf  ciulizatioD, 
all  expressive  of  a  stage  of  devclupment  inforiur  to  that  of 
the  present.  It  is  customary  Uj  look  di.wn  upon  those 
times  and  to  decry  the  customs  uiid  habits  of  the  nations 
and  people.  It  is  almost  geui-rally  accepted,  at^  a  state- 
ment admitting  of  no  doubt,  tlmt  tht^'  middle  agi«  form 
the  dark  part  of  European  history,  that  there  is  an  ugly 
gap  between  the  brilliant  time»  of  classical  antiquity  and 
the  still  greater  splendor  of  our  own  oKidcru  age.  It  U 
still  further  held  that  during  tliat  time,  science  and  lilera* 
ture  bad  sc^arcely  an  existence' ;  that  jwople  in  general 
were  iridi.s<ribably  ignorant  ;uid  entertained  Ilic  moot 
ridirulous  opinions.  Ko  doubt,  it  \»  easy  to  point  to  many 
erroneous  ideas  prevailing  throughout  that  period.  It  is 
one  of  the  easiest  things  to  discover  fault  in  other  people; 
or.  a.s  in  imr  case,  in  the  culture  of  other  ages. 

Many  of  the  opinions  universally  accepted  in  the 
middle  ages  are  now  known  to  be  errors.  We  no  longer 
believe,  a.s  did  the  people  nf  that  time,  that  since  the  cap* 
tun-  i.f  Jerusalem,  all  children  are  born  with  four  teeth 
le-->    tlian    before.      In   general,  we  no  longer  believe  in 

'  til  our  view  iif  the  iiii-ldte  aneH,  we  liuve  followed  eeveral  of  tbe 
brwi  ai'kn><wl<-<lh'iil  nutlioritieH  aliuutthe  hlKUjryand  inHtllutioDB  of  those 
ttiut".  Our  lualii  KUldeH  were  Ilie  Imparti&l  HalUm,  whose  ■t»t«menta 
we  fiv|ueiuly  tlii)Ugt)t  iif  aceptingin  Iiibowd  words  without  cotutuiUy 
alle^ng  his  D&Die;  mxt  In  liuporlancp  and  luts  controlling  check  ioUm 
Prniei>lant  nBlluin,  we  followed  the  Catholic  Cantu,  the  great  lUlUn  hia- 
inrian  Furthcrtn.Te,  K.  F.  Kkhhoii.  bh  a  guide  In  the  legai  Held ;  Mloh- 
•ud,  a*  iKtliecru-ailen:  John  l^i-ldeii,  com-ertilng  kulghthood;  Moratorl, 
suuci^riiiiig  the  rhuri-h  anil  gent-ml  lilntory,  etc. 


612  rilE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

witchcraft  and  sorcery,  though,  in  the  middle  ages,  almofst 
ovory  one,  even  those  most  enlightened,  believed  in  l><>ih. 
In  the  middle  ages,  the  power  of  the  clmrcli  was  .suprciii«, 
and  the  influence  of  the  clergy  on  the  mental  as  well  as 
temporal  well-being  of  the  people  was  enormous.     Tli(\s«^ 
things  have  changed;  and,  at  the  present  time,  science  anil 
literature  are  flourishing.    It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  our 
opinions  differ,  on  many  points,  from  those  of  the  people  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  that  the  influence  of  the  clergy  seems 
to  be  less  than  that  of  scientific  ideas.     After  an  earnest 
study  of  the  middle  ages,  we  find  ourselves  unable  to  agree 
with  those  who  take  extreme   views  as  to  the  backward 
state  of  the  culture  of  the  middle  «ages.    Far  from  denying 
the  existen(*e  of  many  blemishes  in  their  culture :  far  from 
denying  that  superstitions  and  false  opinions  M'ere  much 
more  gi^neral  in  the  middle  ages  than  at  present;  and,  far 
from  denvinii:  that  many  of  the  institutions  of  those  times 
s(»em  to  us  (exceedingly  strange,  we  can  but  believe  that 
the  general  judgment  of  writers  on  this  point  is  far  too 
severe.     \^^*  think  it  has  been  unfairly  biased  by  religious 
and  j>arty  opinions.     As  is  but  natural,  the  historians  ot 
Protestant  countries  are  inclined  to  exaggerate  and  thereby 
disfigure   the  features  of  a  time  in  M'hich   the  Catholic 
church   reigntHl   and  ruled  without  opposition.     To  ilenv 
the  many  benefits  conferred  upon  Europe  and  all  the  world 
by  the  institutions  of  the  Catholic  church  is  equivalent  to 
a  contession  oi*  iirnorance.    The  institution  of  the  Catholie 
(*luirch    rurtluMvd    the  developnu^nt  of  Europe,  and,  to  a 
certain  (\\t(Mit,  pres(»rved    its  \qt\  exi.<^tenee,  and,  there- 
for(\  it  dcscTvcs  the  ^zratitudeof  mankinil.    It  is  vcrv  easv 
to  decry,  to  indict,  to  arraign,  but  it  is  extremely  «liflicuU 
to  j)r(»ve. 

Jii  the  inllowing  pages,  wo  shall  try  to  substantiate 


CVLTIBE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES-  613 

onr  foregoing  assertions;  and  in  this  rapid sglancc  over  tho 
institQtiun.s  <if  the  niiddle  iigcs,  we  will,  wr  liope,  In-  en- 
abled to  show  that  even  thoi-e  ages  of  "  darkness,"  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  show  the  presence  of  a  large  number 
of  those  goodly  rays  of  liglit  which  only  emanate  from 
an  enlightened  state  of  society,  and  whirh  tend  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  man.  We  will  try  to  show  that,  the  cbnrcli 
government  of  the  middle  ages  did  not  arise  from  the 
ignorance  of  the  people,  but  that  it  had  its  roots  in  the 
pressure  of  circumstances,  wlm-h  was  stronger  than  the  wis- 
dom of  a  single  man.  We  will  try  to  show,  that  although 
literature  and  science  were  not  cidtivated  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  they  are  at  present,  they  still  had  a  vigorous  life 
within  the  walls  of  many  convents.  We  will  speak  of  the 
tranquil  life  of  those  Burghers  who  were  the  inhahitaiita 
of  cities,  and  the  pleasant,  if  narrow  life  of  the  peasantry. 
We  will  also  speak  of  the  poetry,  of  the  music  and  art,  of 
the  «)mmorce  and  industry  of  those  bygone  times;  and. 
in  siwloing,  wc  hope  to  impress  our  readers  with  the  con- 
viction, that  the  middle  ages,  though  inferior  to  our  own 
time,  had  attractions  and  advantages  of  their  own,  show- 
ing that  mankind  never  ceases  in  its  career  of  progress. 
We  need  not  treat  of  the  many  wars  and  battles,  of  the 
personal  history  of  the  innumerable  princes,  kings,  and 
emperors,  who  ruled  in  the  middle  ages.  We  wish,  on  the 
contran.-,  to  learn  of  the  different  institutions  of  domestic 
and  public  life,  showing  the  manners  and  customs  of  pri- 
vate [leople,  the  way  they  earned  their  money,  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  lived,  iheir  different  professions,  trades, 
and  careers,  and  numy  i.tlier  details  of  the  home  life  of  the 
peoide. 

All  h»ve  heard  itiore  or  les.4  of  feudalism.     Probably 
no  one  factor  enters  so  largely  into  the  peculiar  feature  of 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOJl/.D. 


the  culture  of  the  middle  ages  as  feudalism.  It  in  theifr 
fore  extremely  necessary  to  come  to  an  underetanding  on 
that  point.  We  must  not  manu  tlie  mistake  of  supposing 
that  feudalism  was  simply  an  invention  of  the  middlo 
ages ;  on  the  contrary  ita  roots  are  to  be  found  m  the  foo- 
Btitution  of  tribal   society.     Two  aet«  of  factors  seeiii  lt» 


Feadal  Castle  In  Houen. 
hjiVL'  united  to  bring  it  about.  We  have  already  had  own- 
sion  to  remark  how,  as  civilization  advances,  the  ioud  <>ii 
whieli  a  primitive  tribe  settled  hecanie  the  luisis  of  clnsH- 
fication  ;  anil  how  the  gens  survived  in  the  mart,  x^ 
meinde,  comrminf..  or  parish;^  or,  to  speak  in  j^neral  ti'nn«i 
in  agricultural  communities. 

1  Vol.  II.  p.  178. 


CVLTVRE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES.  616 

We  hare  also  seen  that  this  agricultural  community 
f  the  land-holding  body.   All  the  joint-families  furming 

community  bad  equal  rights  in  the  land,  which  at 
iodical  times  was  divided  among  them.  Liberty  and 
lality,  hdwc'ver,  require  for  their  preservation  the  exer-  ■ 
J  of  sleepless  vigilance.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
I  in  most  countries,  the  agricultural  communities  did 
.  sufRciently  guard  against  the  growing  power  of  their 
lage  chiefs.  The  office  was  allowed  to  become  heredi- 
jr;  originally  possessing  no  more  right  to  the  land  than 
r  other  juiiit-family  belonging  to  the  community,  they 
idnally  were  allowed  to  exercise  property  rights  over 
I  best  portions  of  it,  which  finally  was  extended  to  the 
lie  portions,  and  ended  in  the  exercise  of  a  sort  of  qual* 
d  owoerahip  over  all  of  the  mark,  or  commune.  By 
ilified  ownership  we  mean  that  the  original  right  of 
ifterty  was  considered  as  belonging  to  the  "lord"  (for 
h  thf  otice  elected  cliief  had  miw  become),  and  the 
ginal  owners  performed  various  acts  acknowledging 
supremacy. 

In  this  way,  there  was  steadily  growing  up  in  all  the 
yan  lands  of  Europe  privileged  ranks  and  classes. 
en  came  the  Teutonic  con(iuest  of  the  Western  Empire. 
is  easy  enough  to  see  that  when  the  conquered  territory 
9  divided  tlie  more  [wwerful  chiefs  would  receive  grants 
territory  of  great  extent.  "The  cultivators  of  his  land 
uld  either  be  persons  st-ttled  on  it  by  himself,  or  they 
uld  be  vanquished  provincials  who  had  no  rights  which 
did  not  choose  to  recognize  or  concede."'  Here,  then, 
uld  lie  a  community  built  upon  the  model  of  the  old 
'itonic  village  community  but  of  materials  so  plaatio 
t  it  assumed  a  strangely  diflTcrent  aspect. 

>  Maine:  "AKrlcuUurBl  rommuttltlea." 


t)16  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

As  the  conquered  provinces  were  Roman  provinces, 
where  the  Roman  civil  hiw  had  held  full  sway,  and  as  that 
law  gave  great  precision  to  all  the  relations  of  life*,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  feudalism  assumed  a  thoroughly  sys- 
tematic form,  having  all  the  relations  defined  and  specified. 
Neither  is  it  strange  that  the  "lord"  emerges  with  greatly 
increased  powers.  This  systematized  form  of  feudalism  now 
reacted  on  Europe,  and  thus,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
there  grew  up  the  state  of  society  we  designate  as  feudal- 
ism. Accounting  for  feudalism  in  this  way,  we  perceive 
at  once  the  significance  of  many  terms. 

Practically  it  tended  to  widen  the  chasm  between  the 
privileged  classes  and  the  masses  of  the  people.  Recog- 
nizing in  a  dim  way  the  old  relation  of  tribes-men  and 
chief,  it  still  sought  to  enforce  the  duties  of  each  class — 
the  former,  the  duty  of  obedience  and  military  service : 
the  latter  of  protection.  As  in  the  former  state  of  society 
only  after  many  formalities  were  strangers  admitted  to 
the  tribe,  so  only  by  many  formalities  was  land  conveyed 
in  fief.  Feudalism  finally  became  a  wonderfully  artificial 
form  of  government,  resting  down  upon  the  land  of  the 
kingdom  as  a  basis.  Theoretically  the  ownershij>  of  all 
the  land  of  the  kingdom  was  vested  in  the  crown.  The 
most  of  it  was  grant(^d  out  to  a  limited  number  of  power- 
ful leaders.  Each  of  these  proceeiled  to  divide  his  terri- 
tory in  a  similar  way,  thus  there  was  a  regular  gradation 
of  authority  from  the  kin«f  to  the  lowest  holder  of  a  fief. 
With  each  subdivision  there  was  created  the  relation  of 
lord  and  vjissal,  with  the  duties  we  have  outlined  above. 

I  [once  we  can  see  how  society  in  the  middle  ages  was 
iiioldod  bv  th  »  institution  of  feudalism.  And  we  can  see 
how  ne(*essary  it  is  for  us  to  make  a  study  of  it.  Resting 
upon  land  as  a  basis,  we  can  see  how,  in  law,  feudalism  came 


CVI.TVKK  OF  rUK  HIDDLE  MIES.  617 

simply  to  mean  a  tenure  of  land.  Tho  lantl  granted  was 
a  fief.,  the  holder  of  it  was  a  feudary,  tin?  service  hy 
which  it  waa  held  was  feudal.  We  can  also  see  why 
medieval  law  was  largely  taken  up  with  defining  the 
rights  and  duties  of  lords  and  vassals. 

In  uH  cases  of  feudal  tenure,  there  was  a  contract  ot 
support  and  fidelity-  Whatever  obligations  this  relation 
laid  upon  a  vassal,  corresponding  duties  of  protection  wero 
imposed  upon  the  lord.  If  these  wet-e  transgressed  on 
either  side,  the  one  forfeited  his  land,  the  other  his  right 
over  it.  Nor  were  motives  of  self  interest  alone  appealed 
to.  The  associations  founded  upon  ancient  custom  and 
friendly  attachment ;  the  impulse  of  gratitude  and  honor; 
the  dread  of  infamy ;  the  sanctions  of  religion,  were  all  cm- 
ployed  to  strengthen  these  tie8,and  to  render  them  as  power* 
fdl  as  those  of  nature,  excelling  those  of  political  society. 

The  ceremonies  used  in  conferring  a  fief  were  princi- 
pally three — homage,  fealty,  and  investiture.  The  first 
was  a  solemn  and  significant  expression  of  the  submission 
and  devotcdness  of  the  vassal  toward  his  lord.  In  per- 
forming homage,  his  head  was  uncovered,  his  belt  ungirt, 
hia  sword  and  spurs  removed.  Kneeling  he  placed  his 
hands  l>etwwn  those  of  tlie  lord  and  promised  to  become 
his  man  from  thenceforward  to  serve  him  with  life  and 
limb  and  worldly  honor,  faithfully  and  loyally,  in  consider- 
ation of  the  lands  which  he  held  under  him.  None  but 
the  lord  in  jwrsnn  could  accept  homage,  which  was  com- 
monly concluded  by  a  kiss.  An  oath  of  fealty  was  indis- 
pen.>*ible  in  every  transferrence  of  a  fief,  but  the  ceremony 
was  less  peculiar  tlum  thatof  homage  and  it  might  bere- 
reive<l  liv  pnixy.  Il  was  taken  h\'  iTclcwiastics.  but  not 
by  iiiiiHirs.  In  lanirtiaire,  il  ditfcri'd  little  fnmi  the  form 
of  homafre. 


r 


618 


TUB  MEDIEVAL     WORLH. 


Investiture,  or  the  actual  ponvoyance  of  feudal  landn. 
was  of  two  kinds,  iiroper  anil  improper.  The  first  wajton 
actual  putting  iu  possession  uj>on  the  ground,  cilUcr  by  tbo 
lord  or  his  deputy,  which  is  called  iu  English  law  Ihtn 
of  seizin.  The  second  was  symholical,  andoonaistiHl  in  llie 
delivery  of  a  turf,  a  stone,  a  wqnd,  a  branch,  or  whalfll 
else  iTiight  have  been  made  usual  by  the  eapriccs  of  1 
custom. 

Let  us  now  inquire   as  to  the  duties  of  the  Tiu 
These  can  not  be  exactly  defined.     Thogeucral  state 
i'^.  that  it  was  military  service,  and  that.inita  veryn 
was  uncertain.     It  was  a  breach  of  faith   to   divulge  I 
lord's  counsel,  to  conceal  from  him  the  niarhinatiuu 
others,  to  injure  his  jwrsou  or  fortune,  or  lo  violate\| 
sanctity  of  his  roof  or  the  honor  of  his  family, 
the  vassal  was  bound  lo  lend  hia  horse  to  his  lord  when'! 
mounted,  to  uilhei-e  to  his  siilo  whih^  fighting,  ami  IdJ 
into  captivity  as  a  hostage  for  him  when  taken.     It  I 
a  question,  agitated  among  feudal  lawyers,  whethern  vii 
was  bound  to  fight  with  his  lord  againsthis  own   kindH 
more  important  still  was  the  questioq,  whether ht  must  d»j 
so  against  the  king.   In  the  works  of  those  who  wrote  w^ 
the  feudal  system  was  declining  or  who  werw  anxioi 
maintain  the  royal  authority,  this  is  commonly  deoida 
the  negative.     There  was  a  form  of  homage,  prvralei 
Normandy   and  some  other  countries,  containing  a  i 
vation  of  allegiamre  due  to  the  sovereign.'   A  law  of  3 
erick  Barbarossa  enjoins  that,  in  their  oath  of  foolty  ) 
inferior  lord,  the  vassal's  duty  to  the  Eiiiiientr  ahouldl 
expressly  reserved,  hut  Jl  was  not  so  during  the  height  of 
the  feudal  system  in  Franco.     The  vwasals  of  Henry  the 
second  and  Richard  the  first   never  hLwitaled  to  uithere  I 

■  Ookp  III!  I.iUletuii,  wti.  Ixxxv. 


CVLTURB  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  619 

•m  against  the  sovereign,  nor  do  they  appear  to  have 
urred  any  blame  on  that  account.  Even  as  late  as  the 
!  of  St.  Louis,  it  in  laid  down  in  his  "Establishments"  that 


S-,crn-.:r.r  a  Fzr::;:-i  T:v/r.  :r.  '.yi--  Wiii. 
njll.-ti.r  !„■  .li.lir  ljy  tin-  kiliL'  ti>  nil.-  ..('  his  ViifStls.  tho 
tiT  iiiii;lit  :4Uiiiiiii.ii  \n<  nwii  atti'inlaiits  uikUt  iiviialtv  <>t 
l-itiii-  tli.-ir  lii-fs  t.>  assist  hiiri  in  oldiiiiiinK  rciiress   by 


62()  THE  MEDIEVAL   WORLD. 

arms.  The  count  of  Britaiiy,  Pierre  de  Di-eux.  practioa 
a.s-serteJ  tlii??  feudal  riuht  duriiiir  the  minoritv  of  St  Loi 
III  a  pul)li<-  instrument,  he  announces  to  the  world  tl 
havinL^  nu^l  witli  repeated  injuries  from  the  reirenl  ; 
driii.il  4)f  justice,  he  had  K't  the  king  know  that  he 
loni;:<'r  cniisicU'red  himself  as  his  vassal,  but  renounced 
liuniaLa'  and  defied  him 

A  mcsisure  i>f  military  service  was  gcnerallv  seti 
1)V  s<»nn^  us;iL;e.  Fortv  <hivs  was  the  usual  term,  diir 
whicli  tin*  tenant  of  a  knight's  fief  was  bound  to  be  in 
tield  at  his  own  expense.  In  the  kingdom  of  Jerusali 
feudal  service  extended  to  a  vear.  It  is  obvious  that  t 
was  founikMl  on  the  i)eculiar  circumstances  of  that  st: 
S(»rvice  of  castle-guard,  which  was  common  in  the  nortl 
Kngland,  was  performed  without  limitation  of  time.  1 
usual  term  of  fortv  chivs  was  extended  bv  St  Louis  t«i  si; 
<\\t'ept  when  the  charter  of  infeudation  expressed  a  slmr 
period,  but  the  length  of  service  diminished  with  the  <\w 
titv  of  land.  For  half  a  kni<dit's  fief,  butt^wntv  davs  w 
due;  for theeighth  part,  but  five;  and,  when  this  was  chanj 
into  a  pecuniarv  assessment,  the  same  proportion  was 
served.  Men  past  sixty  years  of  age,  public  magistral 
and,  of  course,  women  were  free  from  {)ersonal  service,  1 
were  obliged  to  send  their  substitutes. 

A  tailure  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  produc 
i'orfeiture  of  the  fief,  but  it  was  usual  for  the  lord  to  infl 
a  line,  known  in  England  by  the  name  of  esctiage.  Tli 
ill  Philip  the  third's  expedition  against  the  Count  de  Fo 
in  1274,  barons  were  assessed  for  non-attendance  at 
hundred  sous  a  day  for  the  expenses  which  they  hjid  < 
casionc^d,  and  fifty  sous  as  a  fine  to  the  king ;  bannen 
had  twenty  sous  for  expenses  and  ten  as  a  fine.  Knigl 
and  squires  in  the  same  proi)ortion9  but  barons  and  b:; 


^feretfi 


CVLTVSE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES. 


■te  Were  bound  to  pay  an  additional  assessment  for 
arery  knight  and  squire  of  their  vassals  whom  tliey  ought 
to  have  brought  with  them  into  the  field.  The  regulations 
fts  to  jilai-e  of  sorviee  were  less  unifonn  than  those  in  re- 
gard to  time.  In  some  places  the  vassal  was  not  bound  to 
go  l«>yoiid  the  bird's  territory  further  than  he  could 
retrace  in  the  aanie  day.  Other  cusfom.s  compelled  him 
to  follow  his  chief  upon  all  his  expeditions. 

M'r  can  see  that  the  tcndi'ncy  would  be  for  the  lord 
to  increase  his  power  every  way  ho  could,  and  turn  every 
inddtfnt  I'f  this  relation  to  his  advantage.  In  this  way 
there  arose  what  are  known  as  feudal  ineidentw,  We  inuat 
notice  ("ome  of  these  e.\action8.  When  an  heir  suceceded 
to  a  fief  he  paid  the  lord  a  sum  of  money  known  aJi  relief. 
Feuditl  lawyers  have  explaininl  reliefs  in  the  following 
maimer.  Fiefs,  whether  depending  upon  the  crown  or 
ita  vassals,  were  not  originally  granted  in  absolute 
ownership,  but  were  renewed  from  time  to  time.  TT(H>n 
the  dcalb  of  the  iHisessur,  a  Hum  would  naturally  be 
offered  by  the  heir  on  receiving  a  further  investiture 
of  the  ticf.  Itut  anotlier  explanation,  and  one  equally 
a«  plausible,  is  ttj  .suppose-  that  reliefs  arose  from  the 
iiirlinatlun  of  the  strong  to  oppress  the  feeble.  When 
a  frudal  tenant  died,  the  lord,  taking  advantage  of  his  own 
atretigth  and  the  confusion  of  the  family,  would  seize  the 
cstat4-.  Against  this  violence,  the  heir  could  in  general 
have  no  recourse  but  a  compromise.'     Reliefs  and  other 

>  Thf  1)i«TBtiirp  (>r  rcutlallHni  in  ((eiipral  in  enormoufi,  but  the  really 
Inatnictlvf  wnrkH  arc  ft-u*.  Mcilicval  IciHtltutloni  differed  ho  esMntlally 
fh>ni  '^ur  iiiiKleni  form  of  life  that  hut  few  hiHtoriana  were  able  to  con- 
c*|ve  a  }u^l,  rlcur,  iinil  I'lmiirehtiixive  iilca  of  tliem.  AniODg  tbetn  «ra 
Rolh:  "lWnenrjalwei'i'ii,"<>r  wliich  work  ]>.  20S-422  relate  U>  "feudal 
Inricli'rit-,"  Hlubbs  on  ■'('onRlitutloiial  nii.tor>'or  EngUnd,"  Vol.  I. 
p.  A-Uaud  Vol.  11,  (HI  ft'UiiuliF'iii.  WuUh'  great  work  ou  ■'Qerman  Con- 
■Uutlon,"  Vnl.T,  H,  9. 


/^ 


622  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

feudal  incidents  are  said  to  have  been  established  in 
France  about  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century,  and  they 
certainly  appear  in  the  famous  edict  of  Conrad,  the  Salic, 
in  1037,  which  recognizes  the  usage  of  reliefs  and  escuage 
to  the  lord  upon  a  change  of  tenancy.  By  the  law  of 
St.  Louis,  in  1245,  the  lord  was  entitled  to  enter  upon  the 
land  if  the  heir  could  not  pay  the  relief  and  posses  them 
for  a  year. 

Closely  connected  with  reliefs  were  the  fines  paid  to 
the  lord  upon  the  alienation  of  his  vassals,  and  indeed  we 
frequently  find  them  called  by  the  same  name.    The  spirit 
of  foud.il  to.nure  (dimly  recalling  the  old  tribal  relation) 
(vstablishcd  so  intimate  a  connection  between  the  parties 
thut  it  could  be  dissolved  onlv  bv  mutual  consent.    If  the 
lord  transferred  his  rights,  the  tenant  was  to  make  known 
his  concurrence,  and  this  ceremony  was  long  kept  up  in 
England  under  the  name   of  aitornme7U,     The  assent  of 
the  lord  to  the  disposal  by  the  vassal  of  his  fief  was  still 
more  essential  and    more  difficult  to  be  obtained.     He 
had  received  his  fief,  it  was  supposed,  for  reasons  peculiar 
to  himself  or  to  his  family,  at  least  his  heart  and  arm 
wore  bound  to  his  superior  and  his  services  were  not  to  l>e 
exchangcMl  for  some  other  unknown  man,  who  might  be 
unable  or  unwilling  to  render  them.    A  law  of  Lothair  II. 
in  It^ilv,  forbids  alienation  of  fiefs  without  the  lord's  con- 
sent. 

This  prohibition  is  repeated  in  the  laws  of  Fred- 
erick I.,  and  a  similar  enactment  was  made  bv  Rowr, 
King  of  Sicily.  By  the  law  of  France,  the  lord  was  en- 
titled, upon  an  alienation  made  by  his  tenant,  either  to 
redeem  the  fief,  by  paying  the  money,  or  to  claim  a  certain 
part  of  the  value  })y  way  of  fine  upon  a  change  of  tenancy. 
Many  causes  might   arise  bv  which   the  fiefis  would  re- 


CULTURE  OF  TBE  MIDDLE  AOES.  623 

'^^ert  to  the  grantor.     This  might  follow  from  the  failure 
iof  heirs.    Then  again  the  fiefs  were  often  taken  trom  their 
~riiolders  as  a  punishment  for  some  ofFense.    Variouscauaes 
--are  laid  down  in  the  decrees  of  Jerusalem  whereby  the 
Taasal  forfeits  Ma  land  for  a  year,  for  hia  life  ,or  forever. 
--;  Under  rapacious  kings,  such  as  the  Norman  line  in  Eng- 
./land,  absolute  forfeiture  came  to  prevail  and  a  new  iloc- 
S.  trine  was  introduced — the  corruption  of  blood  for  acts  of 
i  felony.      In  such  a  case  the  heir  could  never  establish  hia 
1  claim  to  the  fief,  it  reverted  absolutely  to  the  lord. 
Another  class  of  powers 
enjoyed   by  the  lords    was 
technically  known   as   aids. 
These  were  in  the  nature  of 
tribute  exacted  for  various 
occasions.   They  depended  a 
great  deal  on  local  custom 
and  were  often  extorted  un- 
reasonably. Several  are  men- 
tioned as  existing  in  France, 
sueh  as  an  aid  for  the  lord's  ' 
expedition  to  the  Holy  Land, 
for   marrying  his  sister  or 
eldest  son,  etc.      This  and 
other  aids,  occasionally  ex- 
acted by  the  lords,  were  felt 
as    a   severe  grievance,  and 
by    Magna    Charta,    funda- 
mental  documents  of  the  En- 
glish constitution,  three  only  Suit  of  Armor. 
were  retained — to  make  the  lord's  oldest  son  a  knight,  to 
marry  his  eldest  daughter,  and  to  redeem  his  person  from 
prison.    Aids  are  deserving   of  attention  since  they  were 


624  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

the  beginnings  of  taxation.  They  answered  this  purj 
for  a  long  while  until  the  necessities  and  covetous  po 
of  kings  substituted  for  them  more  durable  and  onei 
burdens.  In  England  and  in  Xormandy  (which  eit 
led  the  way  or  adopted  all  these  English  institutions) 
1  »rd  claimed  the  right  of  guardianship  of  his  tenant  du] 
minority.  He  not  only  had  the  care  of  his  person 
he  received  the  profits  of  the  estate.  This  privilege  se 
to  have  been  enjoyed  by  the  lord  in  some  parts  of  ( 
many,  but  in  Franco,  the  custody  of  the  land  was 
trusted  to  the  next  heir,  that  oi  the  person  to  the  nea 
kindred  of  the  blood  who  could  not  inherit.^  Fi 
irro.ss  abuse  of  this  custom  in  En*rland,  there  arose  w 
was  known  as  the  riurht  of  jxuardianshii)  in  chivalrv, 
temi)orary  possession  of  the  lands  being  assigned  to  sti 
fifors. 

We  will  mention  but  one  other  exaction  of  the  lor 
that  is  the  right  of  marriage.  He  eould  tender  a  1 
band  to  his  female  wards  while  under  age,  who  could 
reject  him  without  forfeiting  the  value  of  marri: 
that  is,  as  much  as  any  one  would  give  to  the  guard 
for  such  an  alliance.  This  was  afterwards  extended 
male  wards,  and  became  a  verv  lucrative  source  of  ex 
tion  for  the  crown,  as  well  as  for  lords.  This  custom  set 
t(»  have  had  the  same  extent  as  that  of  wardship.  Il 
t'oinid  in  the  ancient  books  of  Germanv,  but  not  of  Frai 
The  kings,  however,  and  even  inferior  lords  of  that  counl 
reciuired  their  consent  to  be  solicited  for  the  marriage 
their  vassals'  daughters.  Several  proofs  of  this  occui 
the  history  of  France,  and  the  same  prerogative  existed 
Germanv,  Sicilv,  and  Enirland.  We  have  been  somew! 
full  in  this  matter,  but  the  institutions  of  feudalism  e> 

1  Sir  John  Forteseue:  **De  LaudibuR  Lef^num  Angl.*'  chap  xvi. 


CVLTVRS  OF  THE  .VllWLE  A  GRS. 


02G 


h  m  very  great  influeuce  on  the  culture  of  tUoiniil- 
that  it  is  very  necessary  to  understand  tliy  right* 
fa  which  thi*  relation  created.  Wo  must  notice 
influence  in  defining  the  classea  of  society.  The 
■s  of  bene6ciar}'  estates  wore  in  many  cado*  tlic 
soendants  of  old  tribal  oflBcials,  and  in  all  caaca 
e  rich  and  influential  leadcrH.  They  were  inli- 
jnnected  with  the  crown,  and  assisted  in  tlio  ex- 
Jostioe  and  in  the  royal  councils.    Their  aons  iii- 


Cha:ra  ct  the  IvTiiilo  Afne. 
his  cniiiicin-i'.  ami  so.  wlidhrr  fii;,'ii;ri'(i  in  pnljlie 
r  liviiiir  ■vvitli  ninL'Tiili.-fiH-e  and  huspitiilily  at 
I'V  naturally  drew  In  tticin.-^flvcsi  ))(ipnl;ii'  i-^iinui- 
e  dukes  and  fuunts,  wim  li;nl  chati^.'cd  froiii  cliiclM 
lers  into  lords  over  the  iirovJiicf.s  ciMrUHti-d  to 
■re  at  the  head  of  this  nolde  chi.^H,  and,  in  Iniita- 
heni.  their  own  vaHsali,  as  well  :im  tlutsc  of  the 
iid  even  rich  nwucrs  i>f  .'dimilutc,  or  as  it  wiis 
-xbil  Iini|i'Tt\-.'  assiiiii'-d  titles  fn-iii  their  towns  or 

iij-t  iiri<lt-r->tuii<)  Ili»i  111  no  llitK-  wuH  aU  Iht-  lunil  In  tli«  klNf- 
>'  rru'lml  tenun;  of  a  HUiiTi'ir. 


(i2(j  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

castles,  and  thus  arose  a  number  of  petty  counts,  barons, 
and  viscounts. 

This  distinct  class  of  nobility  grew  apace  with  the 
feudal  tenures.  For  the  military  tenant,  however  p<x»r, 
was  subject  to  no  tribute  but  service  in  the  field  and 
such  incidents  and  exactions  as  we  have  noticed  alxive. 
He  was  the  comi)anion  of  his  lord  in  the  sports  and  feast- 
ings  of  his  castle,  the  peer  of  his  court.  When  he  fought 
on  horseback,  he  was  clad  in  the  coat  of  mail,  while  the 
commonalty,  if  summoned  at  all  to  war,  came  on  foot  with 
no  armor  of  defence.^  As  everything  in  the  habits  of 
society  conspired  with  that  i)rejudice,  which,  in  spite  of 
moral  philosophers,  will  (Constantly  raise  the  profession  of 
arms  above  all  others,  it  was  a  natural  consequence  that  a 
new  species  of  aristocracy,  founded  upon  the  mixed  am- 
siderations  of  birth,  tenure,  and  occupation,  sprang  out  of 
the  feudal  system.  Every  posessor  of  a  fief  was  a  gentk- 
ninn,  though  he  owned  but  a  few  acres  of  land  and  fur- 
nished his  slender  contributions  towards  the  equipments 
of  a  knight. 

Xot  all  of  the  upper  class  were  distinguished  l>y 
actual  holding  of  land.  So,  to  distinguish  them  in  thidca^e 
from  the  common  mass,  two  schemes  were  devised;  namely, 
the  adoption  of  sir-names  and  of  armorial  bearings.  The 
first  is  commonly  referred  to  the  time  when  the  nobility 
l)(\i;an  to  add  the  names  of  the  estates  to  their  own,  or  hav- 
ing in  any  way  acquired  a  distinctive  name  of  transniit- 
liuir  it  to  their  ix)sterity.  As  to  armorial  bearings,  liow- 
r\v\\  there  is  no  doubt  that  similar  emblems  were,  tn»in 
:iin(^  immemorial,  used  in  war  and  peace.'  But  the  gen- 
•ral  introduction  of  such  bearings  as  hereditary  distinrt- 

1  Hallani :  **View  of  the  Middle  Ages/'  chap.  2.  part  2nd. 
^  Kvcn  in  tribal  society  each  geiiH  had  its  totem  mark. 


CULTUBB  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  627 

ns  has  been    ^  metimes  to  tournaments  where- 

i  the  champions  were  distinguished  by  fanciful  devices, 
^metimes  to  the  crusades  where  the  multitude  of  all 
itions  and  languages  stood  in  need  of  some  visible  token 
)  denote  the  banners  of  their  respective  chiefs.  In  fact, 
le  peculiar  symbols  of  heraldry  point  to  both  these  souf- 
»  and  have  been  borrowed  in  part  from  each  other, 
[ereditary  arms  were,  perhaps,  scarcely  used  by  private 
Lmilies  before  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
rom  that  time,  however,  they  became  very  general. 

When  privileges  of  birth  were  thus  rendered  capable 
f  direct  proof,  they  were  increased  in  value,  and  thus  a 
ne  was  gradually  drawn  between  the  high-born  and  the 
^oble  classes,  which  finally  became  almost  as  broad  as 
lat  which  separates  liberty  from  servitude.^  All  ofBces 
f  trade  and  power,  except  those  appertaining  to  the 
^1  profession,  were  confined  to  the  former  class.  A  Pie- 
rian could  not  possess  a  fief.  Such  at  least  was  the  origi- 
!il  «trictni'j<s,  but  as  tlie  aristocratic  element  grew  weaker, 
w  indiilgonce  was  exteiuled  to  heirs  and  afterward  to  pur- 
lasers.  They  were  elevated  to  the  ranks  of  the  nobility 
V-  the  acquisition  of  an  estate  or  at  least  by  holding  it 
r  three  g<'nerations.  A  gentleman  in  medieval  France 
•  Gernianv,  could  not  exercise  any  trade  without  losing 
le  a<lvantag(»sof  his  rank.  A  few  exceptions  were  made, 
least  in  the  former  countrv,  in  favor  of  some  liberal 
is  and  of  f(»reign  conjmerce;  but  in  nothing  did  the 
udal  hauirlitiness  of  birth  show  itself  more  than  in  the 


i  The  hi.Htorical  (iootrine  of  armoriul  bc^arings  and  heraldry  in  gen- 
al  hftM  rtM'fiiily  bf<»ii  re-iiivi»Htigute<l  by  cool  and  cautious  Bcliolars.  A 
inilKT  <»f  tbim,  led  by  IMancbe,  Boutell,  Seton,  NicholM,  and  Lower, 
ive  H4't  a^^ide  uU  tbe  fabulous  preteuHions  and  baiieletis  assertions  (>f  the 
rlier  writerH^  have  sifted  the  old  evidence,  and  adduced  much  thttt  \m 


628  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

disgrace  which  attended  unequal  marriages.  No  childrai 
could  inherit  a  fief  held  immediately  of  the  empire,  unless 
both  their  i^arents  belonged  to  the  higher  class  of  nobQi^. 
In  France,  the  offsi^ring  of  a  gentleman  by  a  Flebdn 
mother  was  reputed  noble  for  purposes  of  inheritance  and 
of  exemption  from  tribute,  but  he  could  not  be  reoeivied 
into  any  order  of  chivalry,  though  capable  of  simpb 
knighthood.  Many  instances  occur  where  letters  of  vth 
bility  were  granted  to  give  them  official  rank.  For  seveni 
j)urposes  it  was  necessary  to  prove  four,  eight,  sixteeB|  or 
a  greater  number  of  quarters,  that  is,  of  coats  worn  ly 
the  paternal  and  maternal  ancestors ;  the  same  pndin. 
still  subsists  in  Germany,  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  in  Mm 
other  countries  of  Europe. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  original  nobility  of  ttl 
continent  of  Europe  did  not  derive  their  rank  from  MJil 
concessions.  But  the  kings  of  France,  before  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  began  to  assume  a  privilege  of 
creating  nobles  by  their  own  authority  and  without  ngKA 
to  the  holding  of  land.  Philip  the  Hardy,  in  1271,  WH 
the  first  French  king  who  granted  letters  of  nobility.  In 
the  reign  of  Philip  the  Fair  and  his  children,  th^  gnd- 
ually  became  frequent.  This  of  course  effected  a  cha^gs 
in  the  character  of  nobility.  The  privileges  originaDf 
connected  with  ancient  lineage  and  extensive  domaini^ 
became  common  to  the  low-bom  creatures  of  a  couiti  ud 
consequently  lost  part  of  their  title  to  respect.  The  lai^ 
vers  pretended  that  nobility  could  not  exist  without  % 
royal  concession,  and  in  return  for  their  teachings,  tlwy 
were  made  official  noblemen  by  the  exercise  of  rojil 
l)i)wer.*  The  institutions  of  chivalry,  as  we  will  see,  ^80 
gave  rise  to  a  vast  increase  of  gentlemen ;  knighthood, 

1  Reeves:  '^History  of  EngUsh  Law,"  Vol.  11.  p.  354. 


lr^?tS='i^^! 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

homsoever  conferred  by  the  sover  j 

issport  to  noble  privileges.     It  i         , 

•ant  previous  letters  of  nobility  to  a  PI 
le  honor  of  knighthood  was  designed. 

Turning  our  attention  now  to  this  n       f    ^, 
lat  there  were  varying  classes.     Those  in 
»1(I  lands  immediately  depending  upon  the  crc 
er  titles  they  might  bear,  were  included  in  '     i 
rons.      These   were  originally  the  peers  of  t 
»urt.     They  possessed  the  higher  territoriaL 
id  had  the  right  of  carrying  their  own  banr     • 
Ai\.      To  these  cOTTesiwnded..lhe  vavasores 
pitanei  of  the  GormaiuEJirarfe.'  •  Iii  a  subord 
ere  the  vassals   of  this  high'  hobuiiy.       Tl      i 
Franee  belonged  to  the  order  <if   vavasores^ 
•111  onlv  secundailv v&ifs]^  but  haiVM  h 

liicli  they  (lerivWL-ihoLr^name' Vrjd  possessing 
L^its  i>i  territorial   iustiee,  thev  rose  above  the  \     ''el 
I'-ir  t'rllcws  in  tlie  scale  of  tenure. 

It  will  ln'  ikmmIIoss  to  dwell  upon  the  condition  of  the 
tVri'T  rl(  TLTN ,  ulnther  secular  <»r  })rofessed.  The  prelates 
id  aM»Mts,  hnwover,  it  must  be  understood,  were  feudal 
►Mrs.  They  swore  fealty  tor  their  lands  to  the  king  or 
MJr -uperiors,  received  the  honiagre  of  their  vassals,  en- 
y«'d  tlir  same  immunities,  exercised  the  same  jurisdio- 
•  ri,  maintained  the  same  authority  as  the  lay  lords 
iiMiiir  whom  tiny  dwelt.  Military  service  does  not  ap- 
ar  to  ha\i'  been  reserved  in  the  benetieiarv  grants  made 

ft         CT" 

'  <athcdrals  and  monasteries.  When  other  vassals  of 
ir  crnwii  were  called  upon  to  repay  the  bounty  of  their 
'\  eniiMi  ly  jM-rsonal  attendance  in  war,  the  ecclesiastical 
riants  were  included  within  the  scope  of  this  feudal  duty, 
hich  dutv  in  wneral  thev  were  not  reluctant  to  fulfill. 

•  tr"  ft. 


632 


THE  MBDIEVAh    WORLD. 


Charlemagne,  the  great  emperor  of  Germany,  exempted 
or  rather  prohibited  them  from  personal  service.  The 
practice,  however,  prevailed  in  succeeding  ages.  Both  in 
national  and  private  warfare,  we  find  very  frequent  men- 
tion of  martial  prelates.' 
We  have  many  instan- 
ces of  their  accompany- 
ing the  army  though 
not  mixed  in  the  con- 
flict, and  even  the  [Kirish 
priests  headed  the  mili- 
tia of  their  villages. 

But  not-withstanding 
the  war-like  disposition 
of  some  ecclesiastics, 
their  general  inability 
to  protect  the  estates  of 
their  churches  against 
rapacious  neighbors, 
suggested  a  new  ajKcies 
of  feudal  relation  and 
tenure.  The  rich  ab- 
bot elected  an  advocate 
whose  business  it  vfas 
to  defend  his  interests 
both  in  secular  courts 
and,  if  necessary,  in  the 
field.  King  Pepin  and 
Emperor  Charlemagne 
are  styled  advocates  of 
the    Roman    Church. 

This,  indeed,  was  on  a 

Bedstead  of  the  Middle  Agee. 
1  One~o'rthe' latest  instances,  probably,  of  »  fighting  blthop  lBj««n 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  633 

nagnifioent  l , in  ordinary  t 

rf  the  monastery  was  some  neighboring  lord,  r 

"or  his  protection  possessed  many  lucrative       v 
p'ery  frequently  considerable  estates  by        ' 
lis  ecclesiastical  clients. 

The  classes  below  the  gentry  may        dii  ;      > 

reemcn  and  villeins.     Of  the  first  were  t    i  ii 
>f    chartered    towns,    citizens    and    b^ui 
nore  will  be  said  presently.    As  to  th  lo  d  in 

country,  we  can  have  no  diflBculty  in  recogniz 
IS  England  is  concerned,  the  socagers^  that  is 
leld  land  not  by  military  service  but  by      i 
4iin  tenure,  and  a  numerous  body  of  t        i 
>f  years  or  for  life,  who  formed  that         ent  b 
trength  of  England,  the  yeomanry.     But  in  (    i 
ries  freemen  were  not  so  clearly  distinguished.  J 
ecords  and  law-books  of  feudal   times,  all 
entry  are  generally  confounded  under  the  name  of  vill 
r  homyucs  de postc.     This  shows  the  slight  estimation  in 
^hich   all   {KTsons  of  ignoble  birth  were  considered,  for 
indoubti'dly  thvre  existed  a  great  many  i)roprietors  of  land 
nd  others  as  free  though  not  asi)rivileged  as  the  nobility, 
n  the  south  of  Franee  and  espeeially  in  the  Provence,  the 
uniher  of  freemen  is  said  to  have  been   greater  than  in 
he  parts  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire  where  the  feudal 
i^nurrs  were  almost    universal.     The  villeins   of  feudal 
im«'s  ft>nn  an  interesting  class  of  people.     They  seem  to 
e  the  <leseendants  (jf  the  conquered  population,  and  thus 
a<l  vrrv  few  riirhts. 

The  rharacteristic  distinction  of  a  villein  was  his  ob- 
L'ation  to  remain  u})on  his  lord's  estate.  He  was  not 
rdy  precluded  from  selling  the  lands  upon  which  he  dwelt, 

[outajgu,  arc)ibi§bopof  Bens,  who  waa  kiUed  at  Agincourt,  in  1416. 


634  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

but  his  person  was  bound,  and  tho  lord  might  rechiim  him 
at  any  time  by  suit  in  the  court  of  justice  if  he  ventured 
to  stray.  But  equally  liable  to  this  confinement,  there 
were  two  chisses  of  villeins,  whose  condition  was  exceed- 
ingly  ditlorent.  In  Enghind,  at  least  from  the  reign  of 
llonry  IL,  one  only,  and  that  an  inferior  species,  ex- 
isted, incapable  of  property  and  destitute  of  redress  except 
against  tlie  most  outrageous  injuries.  The  lord  coukl  seize 
wliatever  they  acquired  or  inherited,  or  convey  a  pan 
of  their  hind  to  a  stranger.  Their  tenure  bound  them 
to  what  were  called  villein  services,  ignoble  in  every  na- 
ture and  indeterminate  in  every  degree;  the  felling  of 
timber,  the  caiTving  on  of  manual  labor,  the  repairing  of 
roads  for  their  lord  who  seems  to  have  possessed  an 
equally  unbounded  right  over  their  labor  and  its  fruits. 

In  France  and  Germany,  persons  in  this  abject  state 
sc^om  to  have  been  called  scrfs^  and  distinguished  from 
villeins,  who  wore  only  bound  to  fixed  payments  and  du- 
ties in  respect  of  their  lord,  though  as  it  seems  without  any 
legal  redress  if  injured  by  him.    "The  third  estate  of  man," 
.  vs  Beaumanoir,  '*is  that  of  such  as  are   not  free  and 
ili(\s(.'  are  not  all  of  one  condition,  for  some  are  so  subject 
to  their  lord  that  he  may  take  all  they  have  alive  or  dead, 
and  imprison  him  whenever  he  pleases,  being  accountable 
to  no  one  but  God,  while  others  are  treated  more  irentlv 
from  whom  the  lord  can  take  nothing  but  customary  i»ay- 
inents,  though  at  their  death  all  they  have   esrheats  t«> 
him/'^   Under  everv  denomination  of  servitude,  the  child- 
ren  followed  thi^ir  mother's  condition,  except  in  Kngland. 
whore  the  fatluM-'s  state  determined  that  of  the  child. 

The   minilHT  of  pe()])le  in  bondage,   as   well  as  the 

I  Coinparo  tho  articles  "Villaiius'*  and  '*SorvuM/'  in  I)ucau|y;e*i»  *'l>ic- 
tiduary  of  MiMlioval  Terms. ^* 


CVLTUEE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


635 


ferent  dt^eea  of  slavery,  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
tures  of  llie  middle  ages,  and  in  no  country  of  Europe 
we  see  a  greater  variety  of  such  people  tluiii  in  Crer- 
iny.  In  Germany  there  was  a  countless  array  of  people 
*ject  to  the  dominion  and  sovereignty  of  others  in  a 
riety  of  ways.  The  condition  of  each  class  being  de- 
rained  by  a  separate  set  of  laws,  caeh  modified  by 
ferent  customs,  and  each   having  a  different  mode  of 


King  gDlng  to  a  Tournament. 
L'inii  tlie  l)andsni:in  from  his  bondage.  This  peculiar 
HTt  of  ."LTvitude  lasti'd  U|>  to  very  recent  times;  and, 
■II  .-it  till'  imscnt  <!;iy.  tlicri' is  a  decided  slate  of  bon* 
.'.,■  ill  many  parts  of  Jliissia  ;  Iwndagc  of  territory,  that 
wht-re  tlif  I'ondsnian  is  not  iierniittcd  to  leave  a  ccr- 
n  t.Tritory;  liomlaire  of  coinmunity,  wliere  the  Iwnds- 
n  i.s  not  allowed  to  join  any  other  but  his  community ; 
;ida;:i' of  l.il.c.r :  and  finally  liondage  of  person.' 


ir.-"f<; 


I  and  eervitude  !■  glv«a 


636  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

As  society  advanced  in  Europe,  the  manumission  of 
slaves  grew  more  frequent.  By  the  indulgence  of  custom 
in  some  places,  or  perhaps  by  original  convention,  rilleins 
might  possess  property  and  thus  purchase  their  own  ns 
(lemption.  Even  where  they  had  no  legal  title  to  prop 
.  rty,  it  was  accounted  inhuman  to  divest  them  of  their 
little  possessions.  Their  poverty  was  perhaps  not  less  in- 
tolerable, upon  the  whole,  than  that  of  the  modern  peas- 
antry in  most  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  only  in  re- 
spect of  his  lord,  it  must  be  remembered,  that  the  villeins, 
at  least  in  England  and  in  France,  were  without  rights. 

A  villein  might  inherit,  purchase,  sue  in  the  courts 
of  law,  though  as  a  defendant  in  a  real  action,  or  suit 
wherein  land  was  claimed,  he  might  shelter  himself  under 
the  plea  of  villeinage.     The  peasants  of  this  condition 
were  sometimes  made  use  of  in  war  and  rewarded  with 
enfranchisement,  especially  in  Italy  where  the  cities  and 
petty  states  had  often  occasion  to  defend  themselves  with 
their  whole  population,  and  in  peace  the  industry  of  free 
laborers  must  have  been  found  more  productive  and  better 
directed.     Hence  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  see 
the  number  of  slaves  in  Italy  begin  to  decrease.    Early 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  a  writer,  quoted  by  the  learned 
Italian  scholar  Muratori,  speaks  of  them  as  no  longer  ex- 
isting.   A  considerable  part  of  the  peasants  in  some  parts 
of  Germany  had  acquired  their  liberty  before  the  close  of 
the  thirteenth  century.     In  other  parts,  as  well  as  in  all 
the   northern  and  eastern  regions  of  Europe,  they  re- 
mained in  a  sort  of  villeinage  till  very  recently.    Some 
very  few  instances  of  predial  servitude  have  been  dis- 
covered in  England  so  late  as  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  and 
]ierha]).s  tlioy  existed  even  later. 

When  we  stop  and  review  the  ground  over  which  we 


CULTURE  Of  TffJS  JflDDLff  AOES.  637 

liare  now  gc  >  see  much  that  is  very  different 

we  are  accustomed  to.    We  are  not,  however,  to       »p 
that  a  simple  and  sufficie  at  explanation  of  all  th         to 
found  in  the  ignorance  of  the  people.    Let  us  <     y 
firmly  in  mind  the  constitution  of  tribal  society.    T 
consider  the  effect  of  the  conquest  of  the  Western  I 
of  Rome  by  the  warlike  Teutonic  trib        Th    r  ti 
customs  were  now  brought  in  contact  wii     t         n 
and  laws  of  Rome.   They  had  xmder  them  )  num 

of  subject  people.  It  is  then,  perhaps,  not     i        >  tl 
institutions  of  feudalism  took  root  and  grc         th 
luxuriant  growth,  giving  rise  c  ace  to  i 

orders  of  nobility  and  drawing  d  1 

between  the  gentry  and  the  common       p 

In  the  further  consideration  of  our      f 
not  forget  that  the  lords  repesented  in  n     ly 
tribal  chiefs,  while  the  people  under  tl 
either  the  old  tribe  or  some  constituent  c     it. 

* 

Hence  it  is  not  strange  to  find  them  in  the  enjoyment  of 
many  privileges  which  in  a  vague  sense  proceed  on  the 
theory  that  each  part  of  a  tribe  was  independent  in  its  own 
affairs.  There  are,  first  of  all,  duties  of  a  Judicial  nature. 
These  were  exercised  by  the  owners  of  fiefs  in  different  de- 
grees. In  France  they  were  divided  into  the  high,  the 
middle,  and  the  low  jurisdiction.  The  first  species  alone 
conveyed  the  j)ower  of  life  and  death  ;  it  was  inherent  in 
the  baron  and  the  castellan  and  sometimes  enjoyed  by  a 
fiinijjle  vavassor.  The  holders  of  the  lower  jurisdictions 
were  not  eonii)etent  to  judge  in  capital  cases,  and  consequent- 
Iv  were  forced  to  send  .such  criminals  to  the  court  of  the 
supcTior.  But  in  some  places,  a  thief  taken  in  the  act  might 
W  punished  with  death  by  a  lord  who  had  only  the  low 
jurisdiction. 


638  TSB  MElOBVAh  WORLp- 

In  England  this  privilege  was  known  by  the  uncoDth 
tcrm&  oi  In/angthef  a.TiA  Outfangthef.  The  high  jurisdic- 
tion, however,  was  not  very  common  in  England  except  in 
the  chartcrcil  towns.  But  the  lord  was  bound  to  follow  cus- 
tdiii  and  proeodentsas  uiuch  iia  was  the  old  chief.  AdJ 
lustoms  put  a  check  in  many  respects  on  this  right  Y.c- 
ciesiastical  lords,  wlio  were  prohibited  from  inflicting  capi- 
tal punishment  and  were  supposed  to  be  unacquainted  with 


English  Medieval  Costumes. 

the  law  followed  in  civil  courts  or  unable  to  enforce  it, 
liad  an  officer  by  name  of  advocate  or  vidame,  whose  tenure 
nf  office  was  itftcn  feudal  and  hereditary.  The  bailiffs, 
provosts,  and  seneschals  of  lay  lords  were  similar  minis- 
ters, tliiiugh  not  in  general  of  so  prominent  a  right  in 
tlieir  offices,  or  of  such  eminent  station  as  the  advocates  of 
iinin.isteries.  It  seems  to  have  been  an  established  maxim, 
at  least  in  biter  times,  that  the  lord  ccpuld  not  sit  personally 
in  jud^nncnt.  but  must  entrust  that  function  to  his  bailifb 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES-  639 

uid  vassals.^  According  to  tlif  feudal  rules,  the  lord's 
vassals  or  peers  of  his  court  were  to  assist  him  in  all  his 
proceeding.*  The  presence  i.f  tliese  assessors  was  so 
essential  to  all  territorial  jurisdiction  that  no  lord,  to  whatp 
ever  rights  of  justice  his  fief  might  entitle  him,  was  quali- 
fied to  exercise  them  unless  he  had  at  least  two  vassals  to 
sit  as  peers  in  his  court.  In  these  courts  cases  were  de- 
cided, not  by  the  technicalities  of  law  as  it  is  written  down 
in  the  books  of  professional  sages,  but  by  the  dictations  of 
common  sense  and  natural  feeling.  Whenever  a  case  was 
doubtful  and  especially  where  a  crime  not  capable  of  clear 
proof  was  charged,  the  issue  was  decided  by  a  combat  and 
thus  the  last  and  final  decision  of  the  case  was  entrusted, 
as  they  supposed,  unto  God.' 

The  nobleman  fought  on  hoi-scback  with  all  his  arms 
of  attack  and  defense.  The  Plebeian  on  foot  with  hia 
club  and  target  The  same  were  the  wea|K)ns  of  the 
champions  to  whom  women  and  ecclcsiaBtics  were  per- 
mitted to  entrust  their  rights.  If  the  combat  was  inten* 
tended  to  settle  a  mere  pecuniary-  question,  or  a  civil  law- 
suit, the  vanquished  party  of  course  forfeited  his  claim 
and  paid  a  fine.  If  he  fought  by  prosy,  the  champion  was 
liable  to  have  his  hands  struck  off,  a  regulation  necessary, 
perhaps,  to  obviate  the  corruption  of  hired  defenders. 
Evt-n  the  judge  himself,  whose  decision  seemed  to  imply 
foul  play,  couUi  he  challeiiirod  liy  one  of  the  parties,  and 
this  means  iif  currecting  the  detisions  of  judges  was  re- 
sorted to  very  frequently.     Such  was  the  judicial  system 

1  Hallani:  "Vk>w  nf  tliP  MI<1()Ic  AgeR,'' chap.  2.  part  2nd. 

}  Nolle*-  here  the  plain  trart-H  nf  iril.al  society.  No  chief  In  trlbftl 
•ociety  prt'Hunifil  to  act  ulthnut  liis  t'ounrll. 

1  Tli«  U'ft  Hisiviiietit  am)  (xtlmatlon  uf  thejudiclal  combftt  wiU  Iw 
found  In  Mniit«i«juieu'B  celebrated  work,  "EBprit  dea  Lola,"  bk.  28.  obap. 
24,  St,  28.  27. 


640  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

of  Continental  Medieval  Europe  and  especially  of  France 
when  St.  Louis  erected  that  great  code  which  bears  the 
name  of  his  Establishments. 

The  rules  of  civil  and  criminal  proceedings,  as  well  as 
the  principals  of  legal  decisions,  are  there  laid  down  with 
much  detail,  but  that  incomparable  prince,  unable  to  over- 
throw the  judicial  combat,  confined  himself  to  discouraging 
it  by  the  example  of  a  wiser  jurisprudence.  It  was 
abolished  throughout  the  royal  domain.  The  bailiffs  who 
rendered  justice  to  the  king's  immediate  subjects,  were 
bound  to  follow  his  own  laws.  He  not  only  appealed  from 
their  sentence  in  his  own  court  of  peers,  but  listened 
to  all  complaints  with  a  kind  of  patriarchal  simplicity. 
"Many  times,"  says  the  chronicler  Joinville,  "I  have  seen 
the  good  saint,  after  hearing  mass  in  the  summer  season, 
lay  himself  at  the  foot  of  an  oak  in  the  wood  of  Vincennes, 
and  make  us  all  sit  around  him.  When  those  who  came 
and  spoke  to  him  w^ithout  let  of  any  officer,  and  he  would 
ask  aloud  if  there  were  any  persons  who  had  suits,  and 
when  they  appeared,  would  bid  two  of  his  bailiffs  deter- 
mine their  cause  upon  the  spot." 

In  passing  judgment  on  the  men  of  the  middle  ages 
for  this  custom,  we  must  remember  that  trial  by  ordeals 
and  by  battle  are  as  old  as  humanity  itself.  Savage 
nations  universally  employ  them.  Trial  by  battle,  such  as 
here  described,  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  God 
would  grant  the  victory  only  to  the  one  who  had  the  best 
right,  The  last  trial  by  battle  in  a  civil  case  in  England 
occurred  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.^  Customs  such  as 
these  arc  often  referred  to  as  evidence  of  the  dense  iirno- 
rancc  of  the  middle  ages,  lict  us  not  forget  that  though 
we  indeed  find  such  customs  in  existence,  they  are  gen- 

i  Gilchrist:  "OriRiii  and  History  of  Ordeals,  "London,  1821,  p.  90. 


CVLTVKB  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  641 

«rally  in  the  act  of  disappearance.  The  barbarous  prac- 
tice of  duelling,  which  still  surrires,  takes  its  rise  by  a 
similar  train  of  reasoning. 

We  have  dwelt  to  a  considerable  extent  on  feudalism, 
sad  have  shown  how,  in  every  departmentof  medieval  life', 
it  exerted  nn  almost  controlling  influence.  As  it  tix)k  many 
years  for  it  to  come  to  its  full  development,  so  its  passing 
away  was  equally  slow.  In  almost  every  part  of  Europe, 
its  effects  are  felt  to  this  day.  One  of  thi_-  ninst  powerful 
causes  of  its  downfall  was  the  institution  i  if  free  cities  and 
boroughs.  The  earliest  charters  of  a  community  granted 
to  towns  in  France  have  been  commonly  referred  to  the 
time  of  Louis  VI.,  though  it  is  not  improbable  that  some 
cities  in  the  south  had  a  municipal  govemnicnt  by  custom, 
if  not  by  grant,  at  an  early  period.  Noyon,  Si.  Quentin, 
Laon,  Amiens  appear  to  have  been  the  first  that  re- 
ceived emancipation  at  the  hand  of  this  prince.  The 
chief  towns  in  the  royal  domain  were  successively  admitted 
to  the  same  privileges  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  VI., 
LouJ!'  VII..  and  Philip  Augustus.  Tht--^  rxample  was 
grinlunlly  fullowi'd  by  the  i)eers  and  other  barcins,  so  that 
b_v  till'  cmi  uf  the  tliirtt-enth  century  (In-  custom  had  pre- 
vailf.1  nvcr  idl  France. 

It  was  the  irraiiual  ri.se  of  these  free  cities  which  un- 
dcniiiiinl  iVmlalisni.  'I'lil.-s  .'^Imws  us  tlieir  irrcat  impor* 
taiiif.  It  has  la-i'ii  .soitRtimcs  asserted  that  the  crusades 
Iiad  a  grc;it  iiiiliiciicc  in  tin-  rise  of  city  communities.  If 
tlii--  notion  were  true,  tins  result  would  liave  repaid  Eu- 
P'j*  ■  for  tlif  crimes  and  niiscrifs  wliicli  attended  the  cru- 
j-.i'l'-.s.  but  it  is  Very  niiidi  e.\;ii:ge rated.*  The  cities  ol 
It.'ily  oiitaiin-d  tlirir  intrrnal  lil»erties  by  gradual  encroach* 
iiieiits  and  by  tlie  concessions  of  the  Franronian  Emperors. 

>  cr.  .-^luLIri'  "  (~<iiHiitulic>iiul  Hir-iury  ot  EiigUud,"  p.  5U3,  623. 


&42 


m.:  .MEDIEVAL  WORLD 


Those  upon  the  Rhino  owed  many  of  their  privilegps  to 
the  same  monarchies  whose  cause  they  had  esinmsed 
in  the  rebellions  of  Germany.  In  France  the  charters 
granted  by  Louis  the  Fat,  could  hardly  be  connected  with 
\\n:  first  crusade,  in  which  the  crown  had  taken  no  part, 
■id  were  long  prior  to  the  second.  It  was  not  until  tit'ty 
years  afterwards  that  the  barons  imitated  his  example  by 
granting  charters  to  their  vassals,  and  these  do  not  apiwar 
to  have  been  particularly  related  to  any  of  the  crusades. 


"i'llilFhlttt  I'r-ii;;-' JUVjiaMill'i'ftriW 

^.IllilrlUi!  M'HivaBBWMHcem 

r  ' 

\     11   Jf^^l^^ 

^ss^^^^v^s 

Mb^^i^  v^MHjy  jiy 

■m 

^^■*?;. 

*■?- 

Punishing  OKendere. 
'file  establishment  of  chartered  towns  in  France  has 
liecii  ascribed  to  deliberate  policy.  "  Louis  the  Gros,"  says 
the  historian  liobertson,"inorderto  create  some  poworthat 
mi^'lit  counterbalance  those  potent  vassals  who  eontrolK-d 
or  giive  liiw  to  the  crown,  first  adopted  the  plan  of  con- 
ferring new  privileges  on  the  tt)wns  situated  within  his 
domain."  But  Ilallam  ascribt's  this  measure  to  the  i«t'- 
cuiiiary  exigem-ic-*  ..f  biith  the  king  and  Ins  barons,  f.-r 
he  says,   they  sold  their   concessiona  to  the  towns  at  the 


CVLTVBE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  643 

lighest  price.  Some  cities,  however,  were  indebted  for 
(access  to  their  own  courage  and  Iotc  of  liberty.  Op- 
>ressed  by  the  exactions  of  their  superiors,  they  had  re- 
course to  arms  and  united  themselves  in  a  cuinmon  league 
!(infirmed  by  oath  for  the  sake  of  redrc.-if*.  One  of  these 
issociations  took  place  at  Mans  as  early  as  10G7,  and, 
hough  it  did  not  secure  any  charter  uf  privileges,  this 
x>mbination  is  a  proof  of  the  spirit  to  Mhicli  ultimately 
he  superior  classes  were  obliged  to  submit. 

The  privileges  which  the  towns  of  Fniiuc  derived  i'mm 
heir  charters  were  very  extensive.  They  were  made  ca- 
wihle  of  iKwsessiiii^'  common  property  and  autliorized  to 
we  a  common  seal  as  a  symbol  of  thrir  inecjr|>f» ration. 
The  more  oppressive  and  ignominious  tokens  of  subjection, 
tuch  as  the  fine  paid  to  the  lord  for  peniiissiun  to  marry 
heir  children,  were  abolished.  Their  paymonts  of  rent 
irtribatc  were  Umited  both  in  amount  and  as  to  the 
u-tinnrtfor  wliirh  they  might  bedeniandctl.  St.niir  ubtained 
m  exemption  from  assisting  their  lord  in  war.  Others 
("ere  only  Wund  to  fulluw  hiiji  when  he  [lersonally  com- 
nanded,  and  almost  all  limited  their  services  to  one,  or  at 
he  utmost,  very  few  d;iys.  If  tliey  were  persuaded  to 
Mtend  this  consideration,  it  wa.-!,  like  that  of  feudal  nt- 
tcndanee,  at  the  cost  <<(  their  superior.  Their  eustoms 
18  to  sueression  and  other  matters  of  private  right  were 
Pwlueiti  to  eertaiiity  and,  for  the  nnist  part,  laid  down  in 
he  charter  of  incorporation.  The  most  valuable  privilege 
rhi<-h  the  chartered  t<.tvvns  obtained  was  that  of  exemp- 
ion  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  royal  as  well  as  of  terri- 
Drial  judges.  They  were  ."ubject  to  magistrates  elected 
y  them-'elvcs  thoiigli,  in  some  [daces,  the  lord  participa- 
hI  in  this  elioiee.  They  were  empowered  to  make  spec- 
J  rules,  or  as  we  call   them  "by-laws,"  such  as  did  not 


} 


644  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

contravene  the  provisions  of  their  charter  or  the  ordinances 
of  the  king.^ 

The  middle  ages  were  not  only  the  age  of  feudalism, 
but  they  were  also  the  "age  of  chivalry."  Chivalry  and 
knighthood  not  only  exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  liio 
of  medieval  times,  but  became  an  essential  part  of  ibf 
literature  of  romance  and  song,  and  thus  ccmtinued  to  l>e 
felt  even  after  they  had  been  crowded  out  of  the  sterntT 
relations  of  life.  In  treating  of  chivalry  we  are  rot 
treating  of  some  mere  sentimental  institution  of  mcHlioviil 
times,  but  of  one  that  was  very  real  and  practical  aiiJ 
eminently  suitable  to  the  wants  of  a  time  that  had  as  yet 
only  dimly  felt  the  influence  of  those  causes  which  were 
to  give  rise  to  the  hurried,  scientific,  practical  life  of  the 
present.  Our  words  knight  and  knighthood  signifieil 
originally,  a  boy  or  youth,  but  before  the  middle  of  tlu* 
twelfth  century,  thoy  had  acquired  the  moaning,  which 
they  still  retain  in  the  French  word  Chevalier.  Con<"erii- 
in<>:  the  oriirin  of  kniiifhthood  or  chivalrv  nothinn:  bevond 
more  or  loss  ])robable  conjecture  is  possible.  It  is  known, 
howevi^r,  that  the  medieval  knights  were  in  no  way  ik»- 
rived  from  the  knights  or  equites  of  Rome,  the  knights  of 
King  Arthur's  round  table,  or  the  Paladins  of  Charle- 
maii:n(\ 

Some  of  the  greatest  scholars,  like  John  Selden  and 
DuCanice,  concur  in  tracing  the  ceremonv  of  dubbini'  in 
kniuhtho(M.l  to  the  ceremonv,  common  amonffst  the  Goihs 
;ni(l  the  Franks,  of  adoption  by  arms.  By  means  of  ;i 
solemn  investiture  with  warlike  weapons,  the  parties  par- 
ticipating in  this  ceremony  thenceforth  acquired  the  arti- 
ncial  character  of  father  and  son,  not  as  in  the  Roman 
practice  of  adoj^tion  for  any  purpose  of  succession  or  in- 

1  MaTiam,  *'View8,"  ch.  2.  p.  2. 


CVLTVRE  OF  TBE  3IIDDLE  AOES.  645 

eritance,  but  in  a  purely  honorable  and  complimentary 
manner.  TheCrusades  had  a  great  deal  to  do  in  the  es- 
tbliahment  of  knighthood  and  chivalry.  Vast  armies 
ere  then  set  on  foot,  in  which  feudal  rights  and  obliga- 
ons  had  no  place.  But  it  was  observed  by  the  leaders, 
lat  the  volunteers  who  flocked  to  the  standards  of  the 
arious  commanders  were  even  more  efficient  as  soldiers 
lan  the  vassals  whom  they  had  hitherto  commanded,  It 
as  thus  shown  that  pay,  the  luve  of  enterprise,  and  tho 
rospect  of  plunder  were  quite  as  useful  for  the  purpose 
f  enlisting  troops  and  keeping  them  together,  na  the  ten- 
re  of  land  and  the  solemnities  of  homage  and  fealty, 
[oreover,  the  crusaders  who  survived  the  difficulties  and 
angers  of  an  expedition  to  Palestine  were  experienced 
eterans,  ready  to  hire  to  the  highest  bidder  and  well 
orth  tho  wages  they  receivt-d.  It  was  probably  owing  to 
le  crusades,  that  the  church  took  the  pnjfession  of  arms 
nder  her  protection,  and,  from  tliat  time,  the  ceremonies 
■  iuiti;iti"ii  int. I  it  a^^sunu-d  a  religious  as  well  as  a  mar- 
iil  characirr. 

Xor  wa-  tills  \\y  any  nicins  a  merely  gratuitous  pat- 
.naL'.-ni  i,|,».ni-siH'd  on  licr  part.  In  the  ages  of  faith 
id  rliivalry.  iiingic  ami  .snrciry  were  the  terrors  alike  of 
K-  Y\i'\\^  and  tlie  brave,  and  tlie  lileswlngs  of  tlu'  priests 
I  th<'  warriiir's  wedpiuis  and  arnmr  were  always  re- 
irde-i  Jirt  the  surest  snfe-^'uard  against  the  iiiriueiice  of 
^stilc  .•*i)ell.s  and  enchant  men  tM.'  Todistinguishetl  soldiers 

the  cniss.  the  Imniirs  and  henetits  of  knighthood  could 
irdly  Im'  refused  on  the  ground  that  they  did  not  possess 

sufficient  property  (inalitication,  of  which  they  had,  in 
ct,  dejirivcd  themselves  in  order  to  procure  their  equip- 
ents  f«»r  the  war.     Thus  the  conception  of  knighthood  as 

1  Stubbe'  UiDst.  Hiit.,  II.  i>.  T.fi.    tirose:  "MlUUry  AoUqu.  I.  p.  0% 


646  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

something  wholly  distinct  from  and  independent  of  feudal- 
ism, both    as  a  social  condition   and  a  personal  dignity, 
was  formed,  and  rapidly  gained  ground.    It  was  then,  that 
the  analogy  was  first  detected,  which  was  afterward  mure 
fully  developed,  between  the  order  of  knighthood  and  the 
order  of  priesthood.     Then  followed  the  union  of  moiW' 
chism  and  chivalry,  effected  by  the  establishment  of  the 
religious  orders,  of  which  the  Knights  Templars  and  the 
Knights  Hospitalers  were  the   most  eminent  examples. 
In  their  indifference  to  the  distinctions  of  race  and 
nationality,  these  orders  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
spirit  which  by  that  time   had   become   characteristic  of 
chivalry,  which  was  already  regarded,  like  the  church,  as  an 
universal  institution,  comprising  and  knitting  together  the 
whole  waiTior  caste  of  Christendom  into  one  great  frater- 
nity, irrespective  alike  of  feudal  subordination  or  territo- 
rial boundaries.     Somewhat  later  the  adoption  of  hernl- 
itary  sir-names  and  armorial  bearings,  as  we  have  already 
l)ointed  out,  marked  the  existence  of  a  large  class,  who, 
though  considered  noble,  were,  either  from  the  subdivision 
of  fiefs  or  from  the  effects  of  the  custom  of  primogeniture, 
not  possessed  of  sufficient  property  to  support  thein  as 
their  rank  required.  To  them  only  two  callings  were  gen- 
erally open,  that  of  the  church-man  and  that  of  the  sol- 
dier ;  and  the  latter,  as  a  rule,  possessed  greater  attraction 
than  the  former  at  that  time  ot  much  license  and  little 
learning.   Hence,  the  favorite  expedient  for  a  man  of  birth, 
though  not  of  fortune,  was  to  attach  himself  to  some  prince 
or  magnate,  in  whose  military  service  he  was  sure  of  an 
adequate  maintenance,  and  might  hope  for  even   a  rich 
reward  in  the  shape  of  booty  or  ransom.^ 

1  SaiDt  Palaye:  **Memoire8  sur  I'ancienne  Chevalier,"  Vol.  I.  p.  368, 
364. 


CULTUBE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  64T1 

From  a  very  early  stage  in  the  development  of  chiv- 
ry  we  meet  with  the  singular  institution  of  brutherhoodi 
t  arms,  and,  from  it,  the  ultimate;  origin,  if  not  of  tl 
-Ugious    fraternities,   at  any  rate  of  the  militiiry  coi 
mionship  is  generally    derived,'     By   this   institution, 
relation  was  created  between  two  or  more  knights  by  vul- 
itary  agreement,  which  was  rej.'!irded  aar  more  intijiiatc 
lan  those  founded  on  the  relationship  of  blood.     Broth- 
■B  in  arms  were  supposed  to  be 
irtncrs  in  ail  things  save  the  af- 
etions  of  their  lady  loves.  They 
lared  in  every  danger  and  every 
iccess.  and  each  was  expected  to 
ndieate  the  honor  of  the  other 
•  promptly  and  zealousy  as  his 
»n.    Their  engagements  usually 

Bted  through  life,  but  sometimes  ^^^^^^^  ] 

ily  for  a  specitie*!  period  or 
irini;  the  continuance  of  sjieci- 
il  ci  renin  stances.  Romance  and 
aditioni^  s]H.>:ik  of  strange  rites, 
e  niinirling  and  even  drinking 
bliMxI.  !is  having  in  tlic  remote 
;es    marked    the    beginning   of 

cse  martial  and  fraternal  asso-  Knight  Templar. 

ationa.*     But  in    later  tinu'.-!,  thcv  were  generally  made 
i-twn  by  a  formal  exchanged  of  weapons  jind  armor 

In  warfare,  it  was  customary  for  knights,  who  Were 
us  aIliei.L,  to  a])pear  in  similar  armor  having  the  saiif 
idirew  so  that  their  enemies  might  not  know  with  wh 
ihuni  they  were  in  conflict,  and  that  their  friends  niitdt 

■  Duraiii^:  "DiHiwrtBtlonriur  JolnvMte,"  zxt. 

■  OuCaiiKc:  "DISHt-rUtiim  nur  Jolnvllle."  zzL 


648  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

not  accord  more  applause  to  one  than  to  another  for  hi? 
prowess  in  the  field.  It  seems  likely  enough,  therefore, 
that  when  the  Crusades  had  commenced  the  process  of 
transforming  feudalism  into  chivalry,  bodies  of  men,  free 
indeed  from  monastic  obligations,  united  by  engagements  uf 
fidelity,  wearing  a  common  uniform  or  livery,  and  naming 
themselves  after  some  special  symbol  or  some  patron  saint 
of  their  adoption,  >vere  in  existence.  Such  bodies  raised 
by,  or  placed  under  the  command  of,  a  sovereign  or  grand 
master,  regulated  by  statutes  and  enriched  by  ecclesias- 
tical endowments,  would  have  been  exactly  similar  to  the 
order  of  the  ''Golden  Fleece"  in  Burgundy,  and  similar 
orders  in  later  times. 

The  knight  who  had ''won  his   spurs"  was   more 
highly  regarded  than  the  knight  who  succeeded  to  them 
as  an  incident  of  his  feudal  tenure.     In  the  eye  of  the  hur 
they  were  equal.     But  it  was  the  first,  and  not  the  scccmd 
who  was  welcomed  in  court  and  camp,  and  who  was  invi- 
ted to  the  "  round  tables."     Thus  it  became  the  ambition 
of  every  aspirant  to  knighthood  to  gain  it  by  his  exploits 
rather  than  to  claim  it  merely  as  his  right  by  virtue  of  his 
position  and  estate,  no  one,  however,  could  be  legitimately 
created  a  knight  who  was  not  a  gentleman  of  "name  and 
arni.s,"  that  is,  who  was  not  at  least  descended  from  grand- 
parents,  who  were,  on  both  sides,  entitled   to  armorial 
bearings,  and  this  condition  is  embodied  in  the  statutes  of 
every  body  of  knighthood,  religious  or  military,  which  can 
trace  its  origin  to  a  period  when  chivalry,  w^as  a  social 
institution.* 

We  are  now  fairly  launched  into  the  consideration  of 
the  various  orders  of  chivalry.     In  this  it  is  necessary  for 

1  Dii  Canpe:  **Di8Rertation8  sur  JoinvUle,"  xxi. 

s  Nicholas:  ''BritiHh  Orders  of  Knighthood/'  Vol.  I.  pU  v. 


CVLl'USE  OP  TJIE  MIDDLE  AGES.  6^ 

I  to  remember  wherein  they  differed  from  the  orders  of 
ibility  of  feudalism.  When  the  system  became  fully 
sveloped,  knighthood  proper  was  generally  preceded  by 
'o  preparatory-  stages,  in  which  the  candidate  was  suc- 
ssively  a  page  an<l  tlien  a  squire.  In  the  ordinary  course 
a  rhivalmua  education,  the  successive  conditions  of 
ige  and  squire  were  passed  through  Jn  boyhood  and 
mtli,  and  tlie  condition  of  knighthood  was  reached  in 
j-ly  manhood.   Jn  fact,  every  feudal  court  and  castle  was 


A  Tourr.ament 
sclimil,  in  which  tlic  sons  of  the  sovereign  and  his  vassals, 

ff  the  ffudary  and  his  vassals,  generally  together  with 
use  nf  .-unir  of  tlioir  allies  or  friends,  were  reared  in  the 
incijilcs  and  habituated  to  the  customs  and  observances 
cliivalry.  Although  princes  and  great  personages  were 
H'ly  actual  i>age»  or  S'juircs,  the  moral  and  physical  dis- 
(litii-.  thruugh  which  they  passed  was  not,  in  any  impor- 
nt  partiiuhir,  diil'crent  from  that  to  which  candidates  of 
lowir  sl.-iiiiliiig  were  subjected.' 

>  S»lntcPalay«:  "Memolrei  ■urI'KDcleDDeCheTftller,"  Vol.I.p.SS. 


650  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

The  page,  or  as  he  was  more  anciently  and  more  «■■ 
rectly  called  the  "  valet"  or  "damoiseau,"  commenced  hii 
service  and  instruction  when  he  was  between  seven  and 
eight  years  old,  and  continued  in  the  same  for  seven  or 
eight  years  longer.  He  acted  as  the  constant  personal 
attendant  of  his  master  and  mistress.  He  waited  on  them 
in  their  hall  and  accompanied  them  in  the  chase,  serTed 
the  lady  in  her  bower,  and  followed  the  lord  to  the  camp 
From  the  chaplain  and  his  mistress  and  her  de?nois€lUs, 
he  learned  the  rudiments  of  religion,  of  rectitude,  and  of 
love.  From  his  master  and  his  squires,  the  page  acquired 
the  elements  of  military  exercise,  to  cast  a  spear  or  dart, 
to  sustain  a  shield,  and  to  march  with  the  measured  tread 
of  a  soldier.  From  his  master  and  his  huntsmen  and  fal- 
coners, he  learned  the  mysteries  of  the  woods  and  rivers, 
or  in  other  words,  the  rules  and  practices  of  hunting  and 
hawking. 

When  he  was  between  fifteen  and  sixteen  he  l>ecame 
a  squire,  but  no  sudden  or  great  alteration  was  made  in 
his  mode  of  life.  He  continued  to  wait  at  dinner  with 
the  pages,  although  in  a  manner  more  dignified,  accord- 
in^r  to  the  notions  of  the  age.  He  not  onlv  served  but 
carved  and  helped  the  dishes,  proffered  the  first  or  princi- 
pal cup  of  wine  to  his  master  and  his  guests,  and  carrieii 
to  them  the  basin,  ewer,  or  napkin  when  they  washed 
their  hands  before  and  after  meat.  He  assisted  in  clearing 
the  hall  for  dancing  or  minstrelsy,  and  laid  the  tables  for 
chess  or  draughts,  and  he  also  shared  in  the  pastimes,  for 
which  he  had  made  preparation.  He  brought  his  master 
the  vin  de  coucher  (the  wine  for  the  night),  and  made  hi:> 
early  refection  ready  for  him  in  the  morning,  but  his  mili- 
tary exercises  and  athletic  sports  occupied  an  always  in- 
creasing portion  of  the  day.    He  accustomed  himself  to 


THE  NEW  YOHK 

WBLIC  LIBRARY 


A»TOH,Lr?.0-' ANO     I 

\TlLDtn  FcrNr^n,.N« 


rcHE3  o«:ale: 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  A  QES.  656 

ride  the  "great  horse,"  to  tilt  at  the  (luintain,  to  wield 
the  battle-ai,  to  swim  and  climb,  to  run  and  leap,  and  to 
bear  the  weight  and  overcome  the  embarrassments  of 
armor. 

He  inured  himself  to  the  vicissitudes  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  voluntarily  suffered  the  pangs  ur  inconveniences 
of  hunger  and  thirst,  fatigue  and  sleeplessness.  It  was 
then,  too,  that  he  chose  his  lady-love,  whom  he  was  ex- 
pected to  regard  with  an  adoration  at  om-e  earnest,  respectr 
fu!,  and  the  more  meritorious  if  concealed.  When  it  was 
considered  that  he  had  made  sufficient  advancement  in 
his  military  accomplishments,  he  took  his  sword  to  the 
priest,  who  laid  it  on  the  altar,  blessed  it,  and  returned  it 
to  him.'  Afterwards,  he  either  remained  with  his  early 
master,  relegating  most  of  his  domestic  duties  to  bis 
younger  companions,  or  he  entered  the  service  of  some 
valliant  and  adventurous  lord  or  kniglit  of  his  own  selec- 
tion, lie  now  became  a  sqtiire  of  the  body,  and  truly  an 
arniigcr  (\v  scutifcr,  for  he  bore  the  sbii.-ld  and  urnior  of 
hi?  le;i.liT  til  the  field,  and,  what  was  a  task  of  no  small 
ditliciiliy  and  hazard,  assisted  him  to  dun  his  armor  and 
ni"Urit  hi.-*  Imr.-^c.  It  was  his  duty  also  to  display  and 
guard  in  battle  the  l»anner  of  the  baron  or  banneret  or  the 
|>friiiijnuf  thi-  knight,  lie  raised  his  master  from  the 
gr'Unil,  if  he  were  unhorsed,  and  supplied  him  with  a 
b-rsi-  if  his  wasdi;*ablfd  ..r  killed.  He  received  and  kept 
prisoner.- if  any  wrn- taken.  He  fought  by  his  master's 
side  it"  lir  wLTe  unetpirdly  niatehed,  attempted  to  rescue  him 
if  .aptured,  bore  liiui  t<.  a  i>lace  of  safety  if  wounded,  and 
buried  him  honorably  when  dead. 

After  h.-  had  worthily  and  bravely  l>orne  himself  for 
six  or  seven  years  a.i  a  sipiire,  the  time  came  when  it  was 
'       Tluiiitw  FfUye,  "Menioiret."  Vol.  I.  p.  2. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  665 

ride  the  "  great  horse,"  to  tilt  at  the  quintain,  to  wield 
the  battle-ax,  to  swim  and  climb,  to  run  and  leap,  and  to 
bear  the  weight  and  overcome  the  embarrassments  of 
armor. 

He  inured  himself  to  the  viciasitudes  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  voluntarily  suffered  the  pangs  or  inconveniences 
of  hunger  and  thirst,  fatigue  and  sleeplessness.  It  was 
then,  too,  that  he  chose  his  lady-love,  whom  he  was  ex- 
pected to  regard  with  an  adoration  at  oik-c  earnest,  respect- 
ful, and  the  more  meritorious  if  concealed.  When  it  was 
considered  that  he  had  made  sufficient  advancement  in 
his  military  accomplishments,  he  took  his  sword  to  the 
priest,  who  laid  it  on  the  altar,  blessed  it,  and  returned  it 
to  him.'  Afterwards,  ho  either  remained  with  his  early 
master,  relegating  most  of  his  domrstie  dutiea  to  his 
younger  eompanions,  or  he  entered  the  service  of  some 
valliant  and  adventurous  lord  or  knight  of  his  own  selec- 
ti'in,  lie  now  became  a  sqttire  of  the  liody,  and  truly  an 
arnnger  or  scuti/cr,  fur  he  bore  the  shield  and  armor  of 
hi^  Ir.ider  to  the  field,  and,  what  was  a  task  of  no  small 
ditlitiiliy  :ind  liazurd,  assisted  him  to  don  his  armor  and 
iii"Uiit  his  li'irso.  It  was  his  duty  also  to  display  and 
guard  in  battle  the  lianner  of  the  baron  or  banneret  or  the 
]>fnii«jriof  the  kniL'lit.  He  raised  his  master  from  the 
L'P-unil.  if  he  w.Te  unhorsed,  and  suppHwl  him  with  a 
liorso  if  hif  wasdi-tabU-d  or  killed.  He  received  and  kept 
prisnin-r.-*  if  any  were  taken.  lie  fought  by  his  master's 
sido  if  lM'wiTeiin((]iially  niatrhed,  attempted  to  rescue  him 
if  t-aptured.  bore  him  to  a  jilace  of  safety  if  wounded,  and 
burifd  him  honorably  when  dead. 

After  ho  hatl  worthily  and  bravely  l>orne  himself  for 
six  or  .<even  yiars  as  a  sn|uire,  the  time  came  when  it  was 

1  HklriM  FeUye,  "Menioiret,"  Vol.  I.  p.  2. 


fitting  that  ho  should  bo  mado  a  knight.  Two  modes  I 
conferring  knighthoinl  iip|K'ar  to  have  prevailed  from  a  ra 
oarly  ijerio<i  in  all  countries  wlicro  chivalry  wiis  knowi 
ono  being  much  more  ceremonious  than  the  other.  In  both 
tho  essential  portion  seems  to  haveconsisled  Dl'thecmtiraw 
-ind  the  blow  on  the  sljouldera,  with  the  utterance  of  solemi 


5^-^;«-> 


•^t.,    A  k?k«;,l#'^''W?'-^'''''" 


Knlghthcod. 
words.'     In  times  of  pcaw  the  ancient  coBtom  was  tn  conlet 
tlio  aigmty  with  many  .rromonial  nhservanecs.     We  must 
remember  that  chivalry  Was  largely  influenced  hy  tbe 

tch'JI'I'v.r'"','"''"'?"'!"'""""""  """<•"''»<''  »i"ii™»«»  .nii™. 

Jauon.hli,  "•«>  sapT"""!  1"  mm<,  from  It  tot™.,,  th.  rutin 


Kbnrch, 


CVLTUBB  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AQES. 


vh,  consequently  tUe  peremoiiiea  were,  to  ii  certain  ex- 
tern, of  a  religious  nature  It  will  give  us  a  good  idea  of 
life  and  times  in  the  middle  ages  to  glnnco  at  these  cere- 
monies. 

The  process  of  inauguration  was  eonimenced  in  the 
CTcning  by  placing  the  candidate  under  the  care  of  "two 
esquires  of  honor,  grave  and  well  seen  in  courtship,  and  alao 
nurtured  in  the  feats  of  chivalry,  who  ivcre  to  be  govemora 
in  all  things  relating  to  liim".  Under  their  direction,  to 
begin  with,  a  barber  shaved  him  and  cut  his  hair.  He  was 
then  conducted  by  them  to  his  appointed  chamber,  hung 
within  and  without  with  linen  and  covered  with  rich 
clothes,  where  a  bath  was  prepared.  Into  which,  after  they ' 
ha*l  undressed  him,  hcentered.  While  he  was  in  the  bath 
two  ''ancient  and  gjavc  knights"  at  tended  him  "to  inform,  in- 
rtruct,  and  counsel  him,  touching  the  order  and  feats  of 
diivalry,"  and  when  they  had  fulfilled  their  mission,  Ihey 
poured  sume  of  the  water  uf  the  bath  over  his  shoulders, 
signing  the  left  shoulder  with  tho  cross,  and  retired.  He 
was  then  taken  from  the  bathand  j>ut  intoa  plain  bed  with- 
oat  hangings,  in  which  he  remained  until  his  body  was  dry, 
when  the  two  esquires  put  <m  him  a  white  shirt  Jiiui  a  robe 
of  russet  with  long  sleeves,  having  a  hood  like  that  ut  a. 
'Jioinit. 

Then  the  two  knights  returned  and  led  him  to  tho 
chapel,  the  esquires  going  before  them  sporting  and  dancing 
with  tlie  minstrels  making  melody  and  when  they  had 
been  si-rvetl  with  wines  and  spices  wcntaway,  leaving  only 
the  eandi'biti',  tbi-  cstiuins,  the  priest,  the  chandler,  and 
tho  ivatch,  \\\\»  krpttlie  \iL;il  i.f  arni.-t  until  sunrise,  or  man- 
a\sf'\  U>  p;is!<  llii-  ni-bt  "In  lic-^towini;  himself  in  prayers". 
At  d;iy-liri;ik  li.-  n.tir.---^si".l  tu  tlic  priest,  heard  matins,  and 
communicaic'il  in  the  iii;is.s,  (.tTcring  a  taper  and  apiece  of 


658  Vlir.  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

money  stuck  in  it  as  near  the  lighted  end  as  possible,  the 
lirst  "to  the  honor  of  God",  and  the  second  "to  the  honor 
{>['  the  person  who  made  him  a  knight".  Afterwards  lie 
was  taken  back  to  his  chamber  and  remained  in  bed  until 
till.'  knights,  esquires,  and  minstrels  went  to  him  and  arouscil 
.lim.  The  knights  then  dressed  him  indistinctive  garments 
and  mounting  their  horses  rode  with  him  to  the  hall  where 


Precession  in  the  18th  Century. 
the  candidate  was  to  roroivc  knighthood.     His  future  squitB 
\v;\s  to  ride  before  liim  bare-headed,  bearing  his  sword  by 
the  point  in  its  scabbard,  with  his  spurs  hanging  from  its 
hilt. 

When  everything  was  prepared,  the  prince  or  sub- 
ject who  was  to  knight  him  came  into  the  hall,  and,  the 
candidate's  sword  and  spurs    having  been  presented   to 


Bp>  ' 


CVLTVRE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


n,  he  held  the  right  spur  to  the  "most  noble  and  gentle 
knight"  present,  and  directed  him  to  fasten  it  on  the  can- 
didate's right  heel,  which  he  accordingly  did,  kneeling  on 
one  knee  and  putting  the  candidate's  right  foot  on  his 
knee,  signing  the  candidate's  knee  with  the  cross.  In  like 
manner,  by  another  "noble  and  gentle  knight"  the  left 
spur  was  fastened  to  his  left  heeh  Then  he,  who  was  to 
create  the  knight,  took  the  sword  and  girt  him  with  it, 
and,  embracing  him,  he  lifted  his  right  hand  and  smote 
him  on  the  neck  or  shoulder,  saying,  "Be  thou  a  good 
knight,"  and  kissed  him.  Wlien  this  was  done,  they  all 
went  to  the  chapel  with  much  music,  and  the  new  knight 
laying  his  right  hand  on  the  altar,  promised  to  support 
and  defend  the  church,  and,  ungirting  his  sword,  offered 
it  on  the  altar.* 

Of  necessity,  these  cereDionics  could  not  be  gone 
through  with  in  times  of  war.  In  such  cases  all  that  was 
necessary  was  the  accolade.  Some  rather  amusing  in- 
stances of  this  occur  in  the  annals,  which  illustrate  knightly 
punctiliousness.  A  knight  was  disgraced  if  he  surrendered 
himself  prisoner  to  one  not  a  knight,  such  misfortunes 
sometimes  occurred.  At  times  when  such  a  calamity  was 
impending,  the  fighters  suspended  hostilities  long  enough 
to  allow  the  vanquished  knight  time  enough  to  bestow  the 
honor  of  knighthood  upon  his  successful  antagonist.  He 
could  then  surrender  himself  without  disgrace,  for  his  foe 
was  now  a  "noble  knight."  In  course  of  time  the  cere- 
monial form  dropped  out  of  common  usage. 

Knights  were  divided  into  two  classes,  knight  ban- 

1  Most  of  these  ceremooies  were  of  more  or  less  rellgioua  signifi- 
cance. ThuB  the  bath  la  Bigniflcant  of  purity  of  Boul.  The  bed  of  the 
rest  be  was  hereafter  to  eujoy  in  Paradise,  the  red  over-garment  showed 
hia  resolution  to  abed  his  blood  for  the  church  if  necessary.  MUls :  "Hto- 
toryofCbivalry,"  Vol.  I.  p.  49. 


I 


660  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

nerets  and  knight  bachelors.  The  only  distinction  between 
them  would  appear  in  time  of  battle.  The  knight  banneret 
was  entitled  to  carry  his  own  banner  and  had  under  his  com- 
mand  a  more  or  less  extensive  body  of  men.  All  knighu 
whether  bachelors  or  bannerets  were  escorted  bv  their 
squires.  Every  knight  was  entitled  to  bear  a  pennon. 
and  every  squire  a  pe7icel.  All  these  flags  were  of  a  con- 
venient size  to  be  carried  on  a  lance.  They  were  distin- 
guished by  their  form.  The  banner  was  cut  square,  the 
pennon  was  pointed  or  forked  at  its  extremity,  the  jXMicel 
ended  in  a  single  tail  or  streamer.^ 

The  tournament  was  the  gi'eat  feature  of  chivalr}'. 
They  were  the  military  games  of  the  age  ;  they  were  cinir- 
teous  battles  between  two  parties  of  mailed  warriors.  All 
of  Europe  delighted  in  these  contests.  The  we<ipons  with 
which  they  fought  were  generally  so  prepared  that  but  a 
small  amount  of  danger  was  to  be  feared  from  them.  At 
times  the  tournaments  assumed  an  international  character 
heralds  announced  at  foreign  courts  the  intentions  of  their 
sovereigns  to  hold  a  tournament  at  a  designated  time  and 
place,  and  invited  "all  those  who  valued  their  knighthood 
and  respected  dames  and  maidens  to  repair  to  the  ap- 
pointed city  and  prove  their  chivalry."  In  Germany  the 
country  was  divided  oif  in  four  districts  in  which  tournji- 
ments  were  held  bv  rotation. 

Safe  conducts  were  allowed  to  foreign  knights  Avho 
wished  to  come  to  a  trial  of  skill  with  the  knisrhts  nf  the 
country.  All,  however,  were  not  allowed  to  engage  in  the 
contest.  *'Xone  could  tourney  who  had  blasphemeil  God. 
or  offended  the  ladies,"  or  in  general  who  failed  in  any 
kniglitly  duties.  The  place  where  a  tournament  was  held 
was  duly  prepared.     It  was   known  as  the   list.     It  was 

iGrose:" 'Mil  Ant.''  Vol.  II.  p.  256. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES. 


661 


ated  with  all  the  wealth  of  feudal  times,      "Besides 

orgeoua  arrays  of  heraldic  insignia  were  tlio  chani- 

'  tents;  the  galleries,  which  were  made  to  contain  the 

1  and  joyous  spectators,  were  covered  with  tapestry, 

seating  chivalry  both  in  its  amorous  and  warlike 

9 ;  on  one  side  the  knight  with  his  bright  faulchion 

ng  away  hosts  of 

and  on  the  other 

ing  at  the   feet 

!auty."    On  the 

f  the  tournament 

nights  were  con- 

d  with  many  cer- 

ies  to  the  place 

nbat.  Their  arms 

duly  examined, 
then   they  were 
pc<l  in  order. 
!   KriiiL'  in  rcadi- 

Ij.'lirril.Is.-ri.'.i 
.•s,-7  .lllcr.-    Tiir 


Entrance  to  the  Tournament. 


Wo  partli's  Were 
■-liat.Iy   .«la,-k- 

:ui.i    tlu-    rava- 
•Ircssiiii:  their  spears  to  their  rests  and   tHtnum-nding 
-elve.s  tu  ihiir    inisfre.-!S('s,  da.slied  to  the  encounter 

tlif  tniiiipet.-i.^iiundetl  tlie  Iieautifiil  point  of  chivalry 

ery  iii.ni  ti>  d..  his  "lievnir."  One  ('n<-r.unter  did  not 
I' the  matter,  the  ti^'bt  iniitiniRMl.  Heralds  watched 
ricMiiiiter  and  imted  pimits  in  honor  of  this  or  that 
it.     Tims    if  one  kniL'lit    suireeded   in  breaking  his 

'•n  the  helmet  of  an  .>|<)i'.siiiL:  knight  it  counted  him 


662  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ten  points,  etc.  The  contest  came  to  an  end  when  tk 
lord  of  the  tournament  dropped  his  warder,  thereupon  tl 
banners  were  folded  and  the  amusements  ended. 

Feastingandmerry-makingfollowed  the  contest.  T' 
knights,  gaily  attired,  repaired  to  the  festival  hall,  ea 
accouipanlfd  by  "a  lady  bright."  The  most  distinguish 
knights  tot)k  their  place  near  the  raised  upper  end  of  ti 


An  Apothecary's  Shop  In  Olden  Tlmea. 

loiii;  table.  The  minstrels  struck  up  their  music.  H( 
;il(is  presented  Ut  the  ladit-s  those  knights  who  had  eap< 
i.illy  distinguished  themselves.  The  "queen  of  beauty  a: 
U)vo"  priwiitcd  the  prizes.  Thanks  were  rendered 
visiting  knights  from  foreign  countries.  Dancing  clos 
tlie  festivities  for  the  day.' 

>  This  ai'CDunt  Ih  extracted  from  Mills:  "History  of  Chlvftliy,"  \ 

I.  \>.  iStl  rt  nrq. 


COZ.TVMM  or  TBM  MmDLE  A9ES.  6ti:> 

A  7«ttiig  knigfat,  who  had  just  been  rused  to  the  <dtg- 
mty  of  knighUiood,  generally  set  out  in  search  of  adren* 
'  tores.  He  was  known  as  a  tnigki-trTmiU.  Hi^  otiject 
was  to  gain  experience  in  all  knightly  exerciser.  AVlu-o 
two  such  wandering  knights  met  they  must  netxls  have  a 
personal  set-to  to  determine  which  was  the  mon>  8kiUt\iL 
Soch  contests  were  termed /oiu/t.  Sometimes  one  knight- 
errant  would  station  himself  it  some  place  vrhfru  he 
would  be  sure  to  find  some  one  with  whom  to  joust;  at 
the  ford  of  a  river,  or  where  four  roads  Diet.  They 
forthermore  made  diligent  inquiry  for  adventures,  aDi.1  at 
prominent  places  they  would  post  up  a  notice  where  they 
could  be  found.  In  short,  they  were  "spoiling  for  a 
fight,"  and  took  all  manner  of  ways  to  he  accommo* 
dated.' 

Although  simple  knighthood  has  gone  out  nf  use  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  there  are  innumemblo  grand 
crosses,  commanderies,  and  companions  of  a  fomiidablu 
assortment  of  orders  in  almost  ever}'  part  of  tlio  world, 
from  that  of  the  Golden  Fleece  of  Spain  and  Anstrin  to 
thiisi-  of  St.  Charles  of  the  ]iigniy  repultlir  of  Monuea,  and 
of  King  Kanichanicha  of  tlie  Sandwich  Islands.  But  with 
tht-'  exception  of  the  orders  of  Golden  Fleece,  founded  by 
Philip  II.,  iluke  of  IJurgumly,  in  142i),  and  of  the  Anntm- 
ciatiun  founded  by  Cliarlos  III.,  duke  of  Savoy,  in  1518, 
none  of  the  military,  as  distinguished  from  the  religious 
onlers  of  knighthood,  have  any  actual  historical  connec* 
tion  with  diivulry.  In  Eiigiand  there  are  seven  orders  of 
knighthood— the  Garter,  tlie  Tliistle,  St.  Patrick,  the  Bath, 
the  Star  uf  India.  St.  Michael  and  St.  George,  and  tho 
Indian  Empire.  By  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
the  order  of  knighthood,  a.s  an  order  formally  and  par- 
I  Culta:  "tk-enes  Jiiicl  <'h»rAoterH  nt  the  Middle  Agn,"  p.  BU  ef  §r'i 


6t>4  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ticularly  dedicated  to  the  stTvux-  of  "GmI  and  the  ladies' 
and  bound  by  solemn  iuid  express  engagements  to  viuJi- 
cate  justiei',  to  avenge  wrong,  and  to  defend  the  wi-ak, 
unprotected,  and  oppressed,  had  disappeared. 

It  was  with  such  professed  obje<'ts  however,  that  chir. 
airy  manifested  itself  during  the  early  and  more  vigoMUi 
stages  of  its  development,  and  played  its  part  among  the 


Schc:!  in  O'.dcn  Times. 
<liii-f  and  cei'taiiily  amniii,'  tin*  most  remarkabK'  o(  those  iiv 
Jhii'in-cs  that  niiiMi'd  the  form  amldireetM  thf  cnurs.- .■;" 
wc-ilrrii  civilization  in  medieval  times.  The  <.'i)Uiuion  "ff- 
springuf  fi-ud.ilis;ii  and  thethur-'h,  it  <lenved  its  re:-'inri<-.< 
and  its  tirinrti.ins  iVi'iii  r;ich  of  its  ]i;ireuts  in  turn  ami  sIoi-1 
fiirtli.tt  oin-c  (lie  spiritual  representative  of  the  one,  an>l 
llif  t('in|...ral  rcpresenlntivc  ..t  the  i.th.-r.  Whatevi-r  may 
lirn-e  lurri    ils    iiilirrent    vices   and  defects,   it  i*  at    anv 


CULTUBM  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES.  665 

Vmte,  indispntable  that  it  embodied  sonic  of  tlie  noblest 
Bentiments  and  engendered  many  of  tho  worthy  actions 
of  contemporary  mankind. 

It  animated  poetry  and  it  created  romance  and  her- 
aldry; it  determined  individual  affairs,  moditicd  the  policy 
of  states,  and  generally  inspired  the  energies  while  it  con- 
trolled the  defense  of  all  those  nations  which  were  then, 
as  they  now  are,  the  most  enlightened  as  well  aa  the  most 
powerful  in  the  world.  Battles  were  tumnienced  with 
religious  celebrations,  and  armies  estepnied  themselves 
happy  if  they  marched  beneath  a  consecrated  standard. 
Even  in  the  field,  and  while  engaged  in  mortal  conflict, 
Christian  knights  enjoyed  the  duties  and  fourtesios  of  their 
order  and,  if  they  were  taken  prisoner,  they  imuld  count 
on  consideration  from  their  captors  and  un  their  freedom, 
when  they  paid  their  stipulated  ransom.  Moreover,  when 
they  took  prisoners  they  could  release  thtin  on  parole  to 
raise  their  ransoms,  contident  that  thev  would  return  to 
cajitivily  if  the  ransom  could  not  bo  raised.  It  is  indeed 
fnmi  the  custinn  of  chivalry  that  the  best  and  most  humane 
portioTis  iif  the  laws  of  war,  in  so  far  as  actual  combatants 
are  ciinccnicd,  have  their  origin. 

It  irt  iHit  an  altogether  (•a^*y  task  to  form  ajustcati- 
m:itioii  of  chivalry.  At  the  pre.s<'iit  day  we  arc  iiiciined 
to  riiticulc  many  of  the  ideas  of  cliivalry,  but  all  ICtirupe 
wa,-  .-^Wiiycd  by  (liciii.  and  it  i.i  necessary  for  ii;-.  to  weigh 
them  well.  The  virtues  it  professed  to  teach  were  in 
many  cases  e.vcellcnt.  They  iiickideil  valor,  loyalty,  cour- 
tesy, and  iiiiiiiificeiice.  A  alnr  w:is  of  course  the  primary 
qualification  ..f  a  kiiidit.  Iitit  loyalty,  which  implied  the 
strictest  litlclity  to  all  hi.s  engagements,  to  his  sovereign, 
his  ladylove,  and  his  friends  and  foes  alike,  was  only 
Ecennd  to  it  in  importance.     Courtesy  meant  not  only  cer^ 


•JOfJ 


THE  MEDIEVAL     WORLD. 


emonious  politeness,  but  also  sjKintaneous  modesty  of 
riago.  seh-Jt-iiial.  and  oaretul  respect  for  the  feelinj 
others.  Munificence  mount  a  disdain  tor  money,  P 
ness  10  reliei'c  want  and  rcwan.1  ser\'iees,  hospitality, 
liberality  in  all  things.  AVc  know  enough  of  hiunai 
ture  to  know  that  wv  iliscii»line  or  watchfuhiess  would 
ceed  in  making;  cverv  member  of  an  association  live  i 


Ex=2-Jt'.cr.  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Up  t.i  the  idiMs  luro  :*ct  t'oi-ih.  It  is  nut  strange  if  3( 
un.UT^tond  courtesy  to  consist  of  courtly  acts  to  equal; 
superiors,  but  arrogant  liaiiirlitincss  to  inferiors,  or  t 
i'Xtravaj.'anco  was  uiasqucradcd  as  munificence.  We 
know  there  is  such  a  tliiiij;  even  at  the  jirescnt  dav 
bciuu'  extremely  polite,  courtly,  chivalrous,  and  all  t 
s  >rt  of  thinir.  and  yet  destitute  nf  all  the  better  trait; 
eluraeter.  This  was  so  during  the  age  of  chivalr)'.     6 


CULTVBB  or  TBS  MIDDLE  A  OBS-  667 

ae  Uoaiafaea  are  inherent  in  human  nature,  and  nut 
tte  institution  of  chivalry. 

Probably  in  no  one  respect  ia  the  weakness  of  chir* 
ymore  apparent  than  in  the  relation  between  the  sexes. 
A  of  the  first  duties  of  knighthood  was  to  protect  the 
ak,  tluB  of  course  included  ladies.  It  is  not  por- 
;w  strange  that  devotion  to  ladies  beciime  one  of  the 
ttt  hobbies  of  chivalry.  To  have  some  lady-love  was 
I  situ  qua  turn  of  page,  squire,  and  knight.  This  ro- 
ntic  notion  was  carried  to  a  ridiculous  extent.  The 
a  derived  from  romantic  literature  thut  tht!  principal 
ty  of  knights  was  to  roam  around  ivMcuing  urifortu* 
A  females  from  all  sorts  of  predicamenlx  is,  (»f  courne, 
exaggeration.  But  atill  it  remains  true,  thut  quite  n 
ge  portion  of  all  knightly  exertions  was  imik-rtiiken  to 
■ase  some  lady-love.  This  love  was  not  jjf  the  Platonitr 
id  either.  So  it  is  not  strange  that,  although  nt  no 
riod  were  women  held  in  greater  outward  re«|K!ct  tiy 
■n.  it  i.s  probably  equally  true  that  ;i1  no  p<-rioiJ  iliil 
ire  lieense  in  the  a^^T-oeiatJon  of  the  sexeM  prevail. 

Before  l'oiol'  farther  it  rn-'iv  Ix;  well  to  forrn  a  mental 
•ture  of  life  during'  the  mi'Mle  as-'es,  viewed  in  the  mellow 
ht  of  feudalism  and  ehivalry.  The  eountrj-  wm  wmi*!- 
lat  wild  :  the  fori~t;^  were  un.'uMued  over  lari^e  n*t(it'uitiH; 
d  there  were  quite  lar:.'e  trh'iVt  of  uriei'/«ed  Urtd.  The 
vtis  were  sun-'.ur.'ie'i  by  v^lU  iiA'.'iL'j^  h'-re  and  thtirn  Sutiy 
s-ers.  The  street*  were  T.H.r7'.-x.  The  villaj^'r*  r/nttniliM 
a  LTOU[.  of  '^.■..*.Vi::'r*  •y.^-.-'-T'-'i  T:::.'i  n  wi/l«  '^»-^ni,  wttli 
.-illaL-e  '.T'..-,'  ::.  -.r.^  .-.•..;;,■■    a:.-:  \   :;.h:-:/.\'-  ^^-n'uU  it. 


7  i.'  /•  I**** 


668  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

provinces,  in  other  sections  of  the  country  they  were  more 
like  green  lanes  with  a  narrow  beaten  track  in  the  middle. 
Well  trodden  bridle  paths  led  from  village  to  viUage. 

Strange  and  picturesque  sights  were  to  be  seen.  The 
young  knight  full  of  ambition  to  make  himself  a  name, 
and  to  win  favor  in  the  sight  of  his  lady-love,  rode  alinig 
accompanied  by  his  squire,  anxious  to  find  some  adventure 
to  distinguish  himself,  or  to  meet  with  another  like-minded 
knight  with  whom  to  cross  his  lance.  The  feudal  lord 
with  his  armed  retainers  was  to  be  seen  riding  forth  from 
his  castle,  and  hunting  parties  scoured  the  woods.  The 
gcntleuien  would  ride  by  in  silks  and  velvets,  in  plumed 
hat  and  enameled  belt,  attended  by  his  servants.  The 
iiiinstrol,  in  gay  coat,  sang  snatches  of  lays  as  he  wan- 
dered along  from  hall  to  castle.  The  more  stately  group 
(»r  knights  and  squires  hurrying  along  were  on  their 
way  to  attend  some  tournament.  It  was  a  wild  land 
the  people  wore  rude,  the  times  lawless,  but  every  mile 
had  its  pictures  for  the  artist,  and  every  day  offered  its 
chance  for  adventure.' 

Every  one  has  heard  of  the  Crusades.  Probably  no 
one  set  of  causes  contributed  more  to  emphasize  all  thein- 
sl  ilutions  of  the  middle  awS  than  did  the  Crusades.  Thev 
l)iiilt  up  the  Catholic  Chur(fli;  they  contributed  largely  to 
the  establishment  of  chivp.lry,  though,  as  we  shall  soo 
one  of  their  final  results  was  the  breaking  up  of  feudalism. 
The  Crusades  were  a  series  of  wars,  undertaken  professe^Uy 
for  the  purpose  of  delivering  the  holy  land  from  the  d»aniii- 
ion  of  the  infidel,  and  so  named  from  the  cross  worn  as  a 
badge  by  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  enterpri.^io. 
These  wars,  it  was  held,  wiTO  rendered  necessarv  not  onlv 

i  Consult  ( 'lilts:  '*Kceue8  and  Characters  of  the  Middle  Agen/'  Lon- 
don, 1S7L"  p.  W'yW. 


CULTVBB  OF  TSE  MIDDLE  AOES.  669 

the  profanation  involved  in  the  fact  of  Mohammedan  rule 
er  the  country  which  had  been  the  cradle  and  birth-place 
Christianity,  but  by  the  insults  and  injuries  constantly 
licted  on  Christian  pilgrims. 

From  age  to  age,  the  belief  had  been  growing  that  no 
>rk  ifiuld  conduce  more  to  the  soul's  health,  than  a  visit 
the  holy  places  of  Palestine.  In  proportion  to  the  rap- 
ity  witli  which  this  belief  \\">\  <pr''^iil  "v.r  tin'  clnisiiim 


Ha::  in  Hcuse  of  a  Lord, 
il.  :i  feeling  of  veliement  indignation  was  awakened  by 
iki-liliixMl,  if  nut  certainty,  that  the  Saracen  conqueror 
d  jiiit  lii.s  bail  on  the  performance  of  that  which  was 
I'd  t"  111- ;m  act  i.f  th(!  hi^'hest  Christian  duty.  The 
als  i.fllic  wronfrs  perpetrated  on  Christian  pilgrims, 
far  ti'wanis  fanning  into  flame  the  feelings  which  the 
■i  Iiaii  liilliertu  failed  \'>  awaken  in  .'iufficient  strength, 
idea  iif  an  ariiie<l  ln'.-^t.  wliieli  ^Imuld  inflict  summary 


670  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

vengeance  upon  the  oppressors  of  the  ChristianSy  had  al- 
ready dawned  on  the  mind  of  the  great  Hildebrandy  Gregory 
the  Seventh.  It  had  been  urged  by  his  successor,  Victor 
the  Third,  but  neither  had  struck  the  right  chord.  Such 
enterprises  can  never  be  set  in  motion  with  any  solid  results, 
except  when  the  flood-tide  of  popular  feeling  gives  its  own 
weight  to  the  sanction  of  religious  authority. 

At  that  time,  there  appeared  a  poor,   withered-looking 
monk,  by  the  name  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  with  the  stature 
and   ungainliness   of  a  dwarf.      Emaciated  by  the  aus- 
terities of  his  self  imposed  discipline,  this  man,  who  had 
forsaken  his  wife  and  abandoned  his  military  standard,  bad 
returned  from  the  holy  land  with  his  heart  on  fire,  not  so 
much  from  the  memory  of  the   hardships  which  he  had 
himself  undergone,  as  for  the  cruelties  and  tortures  which 
ho  had  seen  inflicted   on  his  fellow  Christians.     Armed 
with  the  special  blessing  of  Pope  Urban  the   Second,  he 
mounted  his  ass  and,  with  bare  head  and  feet,  carrying  a 
liiiLTi^  crucifix,  traversed  the  German  lands  rousing  even- 
whore  tlio  incontroUable  indignation,  which  devoured  his 
own  Soul     His  vehemence  carried  all  before  him,  none  th«^ 
loss,  i)orliaps,  because  he  bade  them  remember,  that  no  sins 
woro  too  heinous  to  be  washed  away  by  the  water  of  the 
Jordan,  no  evil  habits  too  deadly  to  be  condoned  hy  the 
one  good  work  which  would  make  them  champions  of  the 
cross J 

Pope  Urban  however  and  his  counselors  knew  well 
that,  before  the  fatal  die  could  be  prudently  cast,  a  serious 
task  Inv  before  them.  The  svstem  of  feudalism,  as  we  have 
tried  to  show,  substituted  personal  ascendency  for  the  do- 
minion of  a  central,  general  law;  and,  wherever  the  personal 
bond  failed,  their  resort  was   inevitably  to  private  war. 

1  Michainl:  Hist,  dcs  Croisacli's,  I.  4.'>2. 


OULTVRB  or  TSB  XIDDLE  AOBS. 


en 


e  practice  of  sucb  wars  bad  become  rirtuallj  an  organ- 
1  trade,  and  if  a  lai^e  proportion  of  the  population  should 
irawn  away  to  fight  against  the  infidels  in  Palestine,  those 

0  remained  at  home  would  be  without  defense.  Sadt 
HB  were  therefore   formallT  condemned-     The  women 

1  the  clergy,  merchants  and  husbandmen  were  placed 
ler  the  special  protection  of  the  church,  and  thetnice  of 
j  was  solemnly  confirmed. 


The  Firs'.  Prccf. 

Of  til''  tliousands  who  lijijitcneil  to  put  ^n^  tlic  Inulge, 

LT-at  iminl)or  wore  aniiiiiited  probiilily  by  tlio  most 
iiit.Tc.-rttMl  motives,  while  sonio  hint  their  eyes  fixed  on 

p'jiiilt.s  nf  niort*  politic  calculations.  Fit  the  multi- 
■  ■  .'it  lart.'''.  there  was  the  paraiiinurit  attraction  of  an 
'Tprisc,  wliicli  was  ])ut  before  tliem  as  a  new  mode  of 
vation,  tliat  enalileil  the  lavman  without   laying  aside 

haliitrt  <if  wild  licenae,  to  reach  a  lieipht  of  perfection 


672  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

scarcely  to  be  attained  by  the  austere  monk  or  the  m 
dovoted  priest.  Nay,  more,  the  assumption  of  the  ci 
set  the  debtor  free  from  his  creditor  so  long  as  he  v 
the  sacred  badge ;  opened  the  prison  door  for  the  male 
tor,  annulled  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lord  over  the  burg 
or  peasant ;  and  enabled  the  priest  and  the  monk  to 
cape  from  the  monotony  of  the  parish    and  the  clois 

It  might  be  thought  that  these  privileges  would 
hard  on  the  creditors,  the  capitalists,  and  the  usurers, 
these  reaped  the  most  solid  benefits.  The  princes  v 
bound  themselves  by  the  vow  must  provide  equipme 
fi)r  themselves  and  their  followers,  and  carrv  with  thi 
sums  t»r  money  sufficient  for  their  needs.  These  sums  nii 
be  raist'd  by  loan  or  mortgage;  and,  as  all  wished  tnj 
horsi's,  arms,  and  money,  in  exchange  for  lands,  the  i 
mtT  Ikmnuuc!  inordinately  dear,  the  latter  absurdly  die; 
Tims  the  real  gain  lay  on  the  side  of  the  merchant  a 
Ww  trader  or  of  the  land  owner  who  was  prudent  einmi 
to  add  tt>  his  own  domains  bv  availing  himself  of  the  i 
eessitirs  ot'  his  neighbors.^ 

All  this,  however,  had  been  effected  bv  the  authori 
and  saiirtinii  of  tlu^  IIolv  See,  which  had  taken  under 
protivtitHi  the  dominion  of  all  crusading  princes.  It  w 
f»)r  the  pope  U>  decide  whether  those  who  had  taken  t 
\t»w  should  setoff  at  once,  whether  some  time  of  irni 
should  be  allowed,  or  whether  the  vows  should  be  rem 
ted  altoi::etlu»r.  The  pope  became,  therefore,  possessed 
a  dispensing  power,  which  placed  him  above  all  otl: 
soviM-iMgns.  His  gains,  moreover,  were  immediate.  T 
("rnsades  tended  to  merge  the  smaller  into  larger  fie 
whieh  again  were  absorbed  into  the  royal  domain,  tli 
largely  promoting  that  growth  of  the   sovereign   jx>w 

»  Wilkon:  "(Jeschichto  der  Kreiizziige,  I.  847-468. 


^H  CULTUBE  OF  TBB  MIDDLE  AQES.  673 

%iat    in  tt      ond,  broke  up  the  feudal  i.      1 

"^^aBulta  bei  to  the  distant  fiiture,      t  i       p 

^siabled,  ramcr  he  was  constrained,  to  b 

LXiio  every  land,  both  to  enlist  soldiers  un     r  t 
^hf  the  cross,  and  to  collect  money  for  their     l 

He  became,  thus,  at  once  the  admin     :     or        i 
^verenues,  that  were  raised    partly  by      l 
'^Mwed  as  a  necessary  obligation  on  the  clei     ', 
"^ly  (he  voluntary  contributions  of  the       ty.      "Wv 
'pope,  the  ecclesiastical  body  generally  acquired 
power.     The  lands  of  the  church,  though  money  nc 
borrowotl  upon  them,  could   not  be  alienated,      t  it 
only  in  comparatively  few  instances  that  it  v 
to  bunlcn  them  at  all.     The  monastic  houses  mi    tt 
aomo  itf  iheir  members  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  rest  re 
at  home  Jind  became  mortgagees  or  trustees  of  the 
belongiitj^'  to  the  crusaders.     If  these  died  with     t 
I    the  guanlians  became  the  absolute  owners;  and  ( 
who  n-turtied,  not  a  few  withdrew  into  a  cloister, 
dowel  iviili  their  wiirldly  gomls    the  last  place  of  r 
thrv  li;i<l  i-licificTi.'     Tlif  n;irr;itiv(.;  (if  the  Crusades  brings 
out  with  sriflii-iciil  rli';iriics.-i,  Imtli  tlu'ir  causes  and    their 
con^f'iiu'mcs.     While  tlic  ["ipular  impulse  wliich  led  to 
them  (■■Jiiiil  not  if^sue  any  vigonms  jiction  witliout  tlie sanc- 
tion iif  reliirioii,  the  men-  jiullmrity  even  of  the  popes  was 
jM>w.-rIe>s  to  set  Latin  Tliristcndoni   in  motion  until  popu- 
iiir  in'iii'ii.-itinn  lia.I  readir'l  tlie  t'ever  beat. 

In  r.-a.liiiL'  the  histnrv  .if  the  cni-saaes,  the  details  of 
wbieli  ean  not,  by  tlie  L'eneral  elmrai-li-r  of  this  work  form 
a  part  i>f  tlie  prrsi'iit  cliai'tei',  we  are  able  to  watch  the 
cll'-ets  nf  riiLTiiri^.s  ill  eliatiiriiii.'  tlie  face,  not  only  of  the 
Ea.-t,  Itut   of  the  \\'est.  .seeuriiij,'  to  tho  popes,  the  exacts 


674  THE  MEDIE  VAL    WORLD. 

ion  and  administration  of  vast  revenues  and  of  a  dispen- 
sing power  still  more  momentous  in  its  issue,  strengthen- 
ing and  extending  royal  authority  by  the  absorption  of 
fiefs,  but  for  the  moment  increasing  in  incomparably  lar- 
ger measure  the  wealth  and  influence  of  the  clergy.  We 
can  seethe  introduction  of  feudal  principles  into  Jerusalem 
and  Constantinople,  and  can  likewise  mark  the  effects 
that  followed  the  substitution  of  tlie  laws  of  Jerusalem 
for  the  code  of  Rome.  The  story  shows  us,  that  the  a>n- 
tact  of  western  with  eastern  Christendom  brought  alnjut. 
in  some  respects,  results  precisely  opposite  to  those  which 
were  anticipated  from  it,  and  that  the  establishment  of  the 
Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople^  rendered  hopeless  that 
union  of  the  churches  which  Pope  Innocent  III.  had  re- 
garded as  its  certain  fruit. 

But  if  the  Crusades  thus  disappointed  the  expectations 
of  their  promoters,  they  achieved  some  results,  the  bene- 
fits oi  which  have  been  felt  from  that  day  to  the  present. 
They  failed  indeed  to  establish  the  permanent  dominion 
of  Latin  Christendom,  but  they  prolonged  for  nearly  four 
centuries  the  life  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  by  so  doing, 
they  arrested  the  time  of  Mohammedan  conquests  in  the 
East.     They  saved  the  Italian,  perhaps  even  the  more 
noi'tliern  lands  of  Europe  from  a  tyranny,  which  has  blas- 
ted the  fairest  regions  of  the  earth,  and  if  they  added  fuel 
to  the  flame  of  theological  hatred  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  if  they  intensified  the  feeling  of  suspicion 
and  dislike  between  the  western  and  the  eastern  Chris- 
tians, they  yet  opened  the  way   for  an  interchange  of 
thought  and  learning,  that  had  its  result  in  the  revival 
of  letters  and  in  the  religious  reformation  that  followed 
that  revival.      If  again  of  their  leaders,  some  showed 

1  Above  p.  358. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


675 


diemsclvea  men  of  cruelty  and  insatiable  greed,  there 
were  others  who,  like  Tancred,  approached  the  ideal  of  the 
knightly  chivalry  of  a  later  generation,  and  others  again 
irhoBO  self-sacrificing  charity  and  heroic  patience  furnish 


Th      F     H     P"  s  P-=88 

an  CTimple  f  r  all  time  Thi  ulterior  results  of  the  Cru* 
gadt's  were  the  breaking  of  the  feudal  system,  the  abolition 
of  ?frf(Ii>ni.  thr  supremacy  of  a  common  law  over  the  in- 
d.-iK-nd.-nt  jurisdietinn  ,.f  Ai'uU.  iind  if  for  the  time  they 
led  to  deeds  of  ini.juity  whirh  it  wuuld  be  monstrous  even 


676  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

to  palliate,  it  must  yet  be  admitted,  that,  in  their  inflnence 
on  later  ages,  the  evil  has  been  assuredly  outweighed  by 
the  good.* 

It  is  necessary  for  us  to  study  the  Catholic  Church  of 
the  middle  ages.  The  influence  and  power  of  the  Catho- 
lic church  during  these  ages  were  so  great^  ita  impress  on 
the  history  of  the  times  was  so  incisive,  that  the  period  in 
question  is  sometimes  known  as  the  age  of  church  rule. 
Our  subject  calls  for  no  analysis  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
church,  but  we  simply  want  to  know  the  nature  of  its 
power,  and  the  character  of  its  influence.  We  must  not 
forget  that  the  possession  of  land  was  a  great  source  of 
power  especially  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  middle  ages. 
Though  the  especial  domain  of  the  church  was  in  matters- 
spiritual,  still  it  has  always  been  anxious  to  possess  secu- 
lar power.  We  find  therefore  the  church  in  the  middk 
ages  gaining  control  of  as  much  land  as  possible. 

The  eluirch,  as  an  organized  body,  never  reoaved 
any  territorial  endowments  bylaw,  but  the  voluntary g^ 
of  princes  as  well  as  their  subjects  supplied  the  plaoe  ef 
tlu^  legal  provision.  Large  private  estates,  or,  as  tlMf 
wore  called,  patrimonies,  not  only  in  their  own,  but  em 
in  distant  countries,  sustained  the  dignity  of  the  principdl 
si'(\s  of  the  bishops  and  especially  that  of  Rome.  Mai^p 
cl lurches  possessed  seven  or  eight  thousand  mansi,  mettt* 
ing  so  many  little  landed  estates.  A  church  with  but  tm 
thousand  of  these  mansi  was  not  esteemed  especially  ridt 
it  nuist  be  remarked  that  much  land  was  wild  and  unoolr 
tivated.  Monasteries  acquired  legitimate  riches  by  1||S 
culture  of  such  tracts  and  by  the  prudent  management  tf 
their  revenu(\s,  which  were  less  exposed  to  the  ordtaaiy 

1  In  tliopreneral  estimation  of  tho  Crudades,  we  have  foUowed  the 

opinion  and  the  text  of  Sir.  G.  Cox's  *'Cni8adeB." 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AQES.  (i7& 

meAns  of  dissipation  than  those  of  laymen.  Their  wealth, 
cotilitiiiiiUy  accumulating,  enabled  them  to  become  the 
regailiir  i)Urchasers  of  landed  estates.  Especially  was  this 
the  case  in  the  times  of  the  Crusades,  when  the  fiefs  of 
the  nobility  were  constantly  in  the  market  for  sale  or 
mortgage. 

If  the  possessions  of  ecclesiastical  communities  had 
all  been  as  fairly  earned,  wp  eouldnt^  complain,  but  other 


:.>.y  F;.:'.i-/al  In  the  :.Mi:-?  Afes- 

r-uun-i-s  i.f  this  w.-iittli  w.-re  lc.<.s  ]>inv.'  Tliosr  whoentered 
a  imma-stery  frrfjUfiitly  I'ut  their  whole  estates  into  the 
cuniMi'Mi  ,-ito<k,  and  even  tlic  cliiliiri-n  of  rich  parents  were 
<-x|.tit''.l  t(.  make  a  dniuitioii  of  land  on  assuming  the 
c<<\vl.  SoiiH'  fravr  tlu'ir  property  to  the  churrl.  before  en- 
tcrin.L'  on  military  i-xpeditions ;  gifts  were  made  by  some 
1  HBllttdi.  -Mlilill.- Aiti-^,"  ell.  vll. 


(WO  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

to  take  eftect  after  their  lives,  and  many  bequests  we^^ 
made  by  individuals  on  their  death-beds.  Even  these  loL'a- 
cios  to  charitable  purposes,  the  administration  of  wliicii 
was  generally  given  to  the  (-lergy,  were  frequently  i\\r 
plied  to  their  own  benefit.  They  failed  not,  above  all 
to  inculcate  upon  a  wealthy  sinner  that  no  atonement  coiiKl 
hi}  St)  acceijtable  to  heaven  as  liberal  presents  to  its  earth- 
ly delegates.  To  die  without  allotting  a  portion  of  worldly 
wealth  to  pious  orders  was  accounted  almost  like  suicide, 
or  the  refusal  of  the  last  sacraments,  and  hence  intestarv 
j)assed  for  a  sort  of  fraud  upon  the  church,  which  she 
punished  by  taking  the  administration  of  the  deceased  into 
her  own  hands.  This,  however,  was  peculiar  to  England 
and  soenis  to  have  been  the  case  there  only  between  the 
reiirns  of  Henry  III.  and  Edward  III. 

The  church  lands  enjoyed  an  immunity  from  taxes, 
thouuh  not,  as  we  have  remarked  above  in  general,  from 
military  service  when  held  by  feudal  tenure.  This  being 
tlu*  case,  we  can  understand  how  lay-proprietors  acquiror! 
the  custom  of  granting  their  estates  to  the  church,  hut 
nn'civing  the  same  back  as  a  fief  or  lease.  Such  land? 
w(M'e  now  exempted  from  public  burdens  since  they  wn* 
clmrch  lands.  Sometimes  the  monks  misused  their 
knowledge  of  writing  for  the  purpose  of  forging  charters 
II  th(Mr  favor,  which  might  easily  impose  upt^n  an  age  in 
A  lii(!h  but  comparatively  few  persons  could  write  and  the 
more  so,  since  it  has  acquired  a  {xvuliar  science  to  doteii 
these  frauds  in  modern  times.'  As  an  additional  sinirce 
of  n^venue  and  in  imitation  of  a  Jewish  law,  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes  was  recommended  or  enjoined. 

Yet  there  were  many  obstiicles  to  the  clergy  in  their 
acquisition  of  opulence.      There   was  a  return  wave  of 

1  Hallam,  1.  c. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MU>T>LK  A  OES.  681 

■violence  that  set  souietiim-s  very  struiigly  against  tliym. 
In  times  of  barbarous  violence,  nothing  oati  thoroughly 
compensate  for  the  inferiority  (>f  physical  strengtli  and 
prowess.  The  ccclesiastionl  history  of  the  middle  ages 
presents  one  long  continuation  of  fraud  against  robbery^ 
of  ne<|ui8i lions,  made  by  the  church  through  such  means 
ss  we  have  just  mentioned,  torn  from  her  in  turn  by  law- 
leas  |>ower.     Those  very  nicTi,  wlm,  in  ttii^  Imur  of  sickness 


Kc'^se  :f  3  Rich  Burgher  ot  the  I5th  Century. 
and  ini|trridinL'  cU'ath.  showered  the  gifts  of  expiatory  de- 
votion iijMin  her  altars,  passed  the  sunshine  of  their  lives 
in  sacrilegious  plunder.  Notwithstanding  the  frequent 
in«t-iiicos  of  extreme  reA'erenoo  for  religious  institutions 
among  the  niiiiility.  we  should  l)e  <leccived  in  supposing 
this  to  lie  their  general  cliaraetiT.  Rapacity,  not  less  than 
that  of  the  nl)ltnts.  was  eniiiiiiiiidy  united  with  a  during 
liereenes!*  that  llie  alilmts  rould  not  resist.  In  every  coun- 
try we  tind  eontiniial  laim'ntation  over  the  plunder  of  eccle- 
»ia.stical  [Hissessions.     Cliarles  Martel  is    reproached  wit li 


682  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

having  given  the  first  notorious  example  of  such  spoliation. 
If  it  had  not  been  for  the  draw-backs,  the  clergy  must 
one  must  imagine,  have  almost  acquired  the  exclusive 
property  of  the  soil.  They  did  enjoy  nearly  one-half  d 
England  and,  in  some  countries  of  Europe,  a  still  greater 
proportion.'  The  great  age  of  monasteries  in  England 
was  the  reigns  of  Henry  I.,  Stephen,  and  Henry  II.  The 
revenue  of  the  English  church  in  1337  amounted  to  oy^it 
seven  hundred  thousand  marks  per  annum. 

Among  the  causes  which  served  to  increase  the  power 
of  the  church,  was  the  right  and  power  of  excommunica- 
tion, in  an  age  of  superstition  this  became  a  weapon  of 
great  power.     Whatever  opinions  may  be  entertained  as 
to  its  religious  eflticacy,  excommunication   was  originally 
nothing  more  in  appearance  than  an  exercise  of  a  right 
which  every  society  claims,  namely,  the   expulsion  of  re- 
fractory members  from  its  body.     No  direct  temporal  dis- 
advantages attended  this  penalty  for  several  ages :  but,  jis 
it  was  the  most  severe  of  spiritual  censm'es  and  tended  tn 
exclude  the  object  of  it  not  only  from  a  participation  in  just 
rights  but,  in  a  considerable  degree,  from  the  intercourse  of 
Christian  society,  it  was  used  sparingly  and  only  upon  the 
gravest  occasions.    Gradually,  as  the  church  became  more 
powerful   and   more   imj^erious,  excommunications    were 
issued  upon  every  provocation,  rather  as  a  weapon  af  ec- 
clesiastical warfare  than  with  any  regard  to  its  original 
intention.   Very  soon,  others  than  spiritual  penalties  were 
added  to  the  consequences  of  excommunication. 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  for  instance,  an  ex- 
communicated person  was  incapable  of  being  a  witness,  or 
of  bringing  an  action,  and  he  might  be  detained  in  prison 

^  Turner:    ''History  of   England/'  Vol.  III.  p.  4&      MacPhenon: 
''Annals  of  Commerce.'' 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  683 

until  he  obtained  absolution.'  By  the  Establishments  of 
St.  Louis,  his  estate  or  person  might  be  attached  by  the 
magistrate'.  These  actual  penalties  were  attended  by 
marks  of  abhorrence  and  ignominy,  still  more  calcu- 
lated to  make  an  impression  on  ordinary  minds.  They 
were  to  be  shunned,  like  men  infected  with  leprosy,  by 
their  servants,  their  finends,  and  their  families.  Two  at- 
tendants only,  if  we  trace  a  current  history,  remained 
with  Robert,  king  of  France,  who  on  account  of  an  irreg- 
olar  marriage  was  put  under  this  ban  by  Gregory  V., 
and  these  threw  all  the  meats  which  had  passed  his  table 
into  the  fire.  Indeed,  the  more  intercourse  with  a  pre- 
8cribe<i  person  incurred  what  ia  called  the  lesser  ei-com- 
munioation,  or  prevention  of  the  sacraments,  and  required 
penance  and  absolution.  In  some  cases  a  bier  was  set  bo- 
fore  the  door  of  the  ex-communicated  individual  and  stones 
thrown  at  hia  windows.  Evfrywhcre  the  excommunica- 
ted were  debarred  regular  sopulcher.' 

Hut  f.v-i'oniinuni<'ation  which  attacked  only  one  and 
perhaps  a  lianleni'd  sinner  was  not  always  efficacious,  so  the 
(■tiiinli  hail  rfcmirse  t<i  a  more  comprehensive  punishment. 
Fur  thi-  iirt'cnse  nf  ji  ni)blenian.  she  put  a  county — for  that 
nf  a  |irii]<c,  hi.s  entire  kiii<,'dt)ni,  under  an  interdict  or  sus- 
peiisi.m  of  rrlii.'iou.f  offici's.  No  stretch  of  her  jiowor  was 
jifrhaps  sn  rTu>'l  as  this.  During  an  interdict,  the  churchc-s 
w.T'- clusoii.  tlie  Ik'Us  silent,  and  dead  unbiiried  ;  no  rites 
but  tli.isc  i.f  liaptisni  ami  cxtreriK- unction  were  jicrformed. 
Thi-  penalty  fell  u]nin  tlmse  wlin  had  neither  protection  nor 
could  have  prevenlc.l  the  offense:  and  the  <>ffense  was  often 
>»ut  a  ]irivate  dispute  in  which  the  pride  of  a  pope  or 
bi.shop  had  been  wntnided.     This  was  tli<'  main-spring  of 

'  "Cik.'  oil  I.itd.'ioii"  ■Tlinn.f.  .■•I.|    Vol.  III.  |>.  .TOO  rt  mtq. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES.  685 

The  great  reformer,  and  in  fact  the  founder  of  the  as- 
idency  of  the  church,  in  tho  middle  ages  was  Pope 
•^ovy  VII.,  or  as  he  was  called  before heing  elected  to 
»  Holy  See,  Hildebrand.  He  was  at  once  the  most  am- 
yous, the  most  energetic,  and  the  greatest  master  of  ex- 
•nal  as  well  as  of  internal  polities.  Previous  to  his 
oe,  the  position  of  the  church,  although  always  regurded 
th  awo  and  respect,  was  in  the  very  best  ease,  one  of 
aal  might  and  power  with  the  influence  of  kings  and 
rereigns.  It  was  the  ambition  of  Gregory  VII.  to  raise 
d  increase  the  power  of  the  church,  so  as  to  be  not  the 
Hal,  but  tlu:  Hujierior  of  all  secular  princes.  This,  the 
ject  of  hi«  life,  he  began  to  realize  long  before  he  was 
fcted  to  the  papal  dignity.  Already  under  Ins  imme- 
ite  predecessors,  he  was  the  main  spring  of  the  actions 
lanating  from  Rome.  With  great  boldness  he  advised 
e  pope  to  re<:iird  the  emperors  of  Germany,  as  well  as 
e  kincff  of  France,  as  his  spiritual  vassals,  ;iiiil    instead 

waitinfT  for  the  ronfirmatinn  and  itpprovjil  of  the  em- 
ror,  to  ignore  it  totally.  M'lien  Gregory  ascendeil  tho 
ipal  Sec,  he  carried  his  aggressive  jiolitics  against  the 
;nnan  Emperor,  Henry  IV..  to  an  extreme,  as  we  have 
•eacly  ontlincd.' 

It  is  a  .lifficult  task  to  come  to  an  impartial  judgment 

tlic  merits  nr  demerits  of  the  Catholic  church  during 
e  middle  ages.     In  iiKKlcrn  times,  the  position  and  power 

the  Runian  church  is  apparently  far  from  equaling  its 
wcriluring  the  middle  ages.     But  this  statement  must 

taken  with  many  allowances,  for,  at  present  as  well  as 

former  times,  llie  Catliolir  t-hurch  commands  an  almost 
Ix.iinded  influence;  .^till.  .idmittiiig  its  truth,  this  state- 
■nt  ouglit  not  lead  us  into  too  harsh  a  judgment  of  the 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WOttLD. 


\>&>\Ak--  iif  othiT  centuries.  Many,  at  present,  think  that  ii.v 
power  c^it"  the  church  is  deleterious  tu  the  general  aih'ain- 
nf  mankind  and  thiit  it  ought  to  be  curln-d  iiinl  (.•untri>]i  '\ 
I'V  tho  arm  of  socuhir  power.  During  the  niiddlo  x\-Z'-< 
thf  influence  of  the  church  was  felt  in  almost  every  il'- 
partment  of  public  and  private  life.     It  may  well  \k, 


B=ok  Making  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
then,  fliat  its  infliifni;^,  in  somo  deirri'e  at  least,  ww-  ■ 
iiiidiK-  diim-nsi.iiis:  Imt  on  the  other  hand,  wt-  must  i,..i 
f'cii'L'il  lUiil  >:tricl]y  ]iolitii-al  and  seculiir  powers  :ir<'  :il>. 
<-riiTo;M-]iiM:j:  .iml  ;iirgi*fssivi'.  They,  tut),  thrust  theniM-lvi- 
niiiiii  .ihiMist  f\'i'ry  department  of  private  and  donicsii. 
Ul'i.       Til  y    drprivf    us    of    ;i   cunsiderablo  part  of  "in 


VULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AOES.  687 

linie,  and  exact  very  heavy  tributes  in  the  way  of  taxation. 

Especially  is  this  true  of  Europe  where  the  bearing 
and  influence  of  the  state  on  pretty  nearly  every  individual 
is  more  annoying  and  troublesome  than  the  interference 
of  the  church  in  the  middle  ages.  Thus  nearly  every  Eu- 
roiK!au  is  subject  to  three  years  military  service,  and  to 
all  varieties  of  exactions  as  well  as  having  to  bear  the 
harden  of  frequent  and  unreasonable  taxes.  Now  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  power,  not  being  inferior  to  secular 
and  political  power,  there  really  is  very  little  reason  to 
exaggerate  the  bad  influence  of  the  one  and  extol  the  good 
work  of  the  other.  Power,  after  all,  is  power,  and  inter- 
feroncti  remains  interference,  whether  it  comes  from  a 
pope  or  from  a  king.  These  considerations  must  give  us 
pause  when  aXmui  to  launch  out  in  some  denunciations 
agmiiut  tko  church  iti  the  middle  ages.  The  church  num- 
bered hundretls  of  thousands  of  members,  and  it  is  but 
a  roalt<T  iif  course  that  in  a  corporation  consisting  of  such 
a  numerous  njonilter-^lup,  persons  guilty  of  all  kinds  oi 
misdemeanors,  vi»-f.-<,  ;iint  vww  criim's,  creep  in. 

Aheavy  indii-tnieiit  liiin  bt-i-n  drawn  against  the  church 
in  the  matter  of  mental  lilnrty  and  scientific  advance.. 
The  case  seems  ti>  !"•  \\y\\  nmdr  out,  but  it  is  well  to  see 
what  can  be  said  on  tin?  .sidi'  of  the  accused.  Under  the 
name  of  scholastioisni  we  genenilly  compriso  the  philoso- 
phy and  .'((■icnee  of  the  middle  age.^.  Many  writers  in 
our  tinios  -leli^'lit  in  running  down  and  decrj'ingtheeflbrts 
of  medieval  tliiiikers,  but  a  closer  study  of  their  works 
gcniraliy  ends  with  an  admiration  of  the  writers  and  an 
aekii'-wledgnieiit  of  their  talent,  industry,  and  persever- 
an'i'.  Scvcnil  of  tlieui,  like  Duns  Scotits  Erigena,  Alber- 
tu.H  Ma:.'nii>.  Si.  'r!ioni;(s  .■{  \>\\\'.:\:\,  ^Villiam  of  Cham- 
[M-aux.  (».-;ini.  ;<tid  oilier.-*  ar<-  j">tly  (Ustinguished,  and  a 


688  TJf/J  .VKDIFVAL    WOULD. 

deeper  study  of  tlioir  works  has  disclosed  to  ns  many  a 
mine  of  happy  and  rich  thouglits.  The  works  of  St. 
Thomas  nf  Aquiiui  may  be  fairly  c-onsidcred  the  treasun' 
of  knowledge  of  those  times,  embraciiijr.  as  they  do,  the 
whole  circle  of  sciences  cultivated  in  the  middle  ages.' 


Street  Shows  in  the  Miiile  Ages. 

All  these  thinkers  were  nmlcr  the  ininiedi.ite  infiu- 

ciicc  uf    tlie  church,  even  memVters  of  the  same;  hut  this 

<]iil  lint   )>r('Vfiit  fheui  frnui    hroachini;  the  i>rnfiniii.I.>t 

lu-dbleiiis    and  iriviiii;    rxpre-ssioii    ti>  thoughts    of  lastiiii; 

I  CjiiiiJiiri'  till'  wiirku  nf   SKH-i-kor  iHi   ScholuHtU-Um,  uiul  <->|ie«-iaIIy 
'oiicliot   <iri    till!  jiFfigrenfl  nf   u&turftl  m-icuL-e 


diiriii^Mlici 


Lli.it.. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  A  OES. 

Taluc.     "W     must  not  forget,  either,  that  the  chui 
joined  on  t   i^eral  of  its  orders  the  obligation       c     f 
the  ancient   manuscripta  of  Roman   and  Greek      i 
and  it  is  unly  by  the  industry  and  patience  oft         i 
val  monks  that  we  can  still  enjoy  the  produ 
sical  writers.     All  our  knowledge  of  Greece 
has  been  preserved  hy  the  monks,  more  ly  by 

Benedictines.     In  the  field  of   history,  t     , 
from  their  dreary  tomes  considerable  infom     i     , 
as  to  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  but  of  the  1:  r        i 

tutions  of  medieval  times.     But  on  the  ot     r  1        ,  tl 
IS  a  snti   Ktory  to  tell.      We  must  rei     m  iv 

that   simitar  results  would   attend  the  i 

any  church,  clothed  with  political  power,         Qg 
who  bad  not  yet  attained  a  stage  of  gr      int< 
vanoe.     When  Christianity  came  into  pc     t 
stantine,  there  commenced  that  sad  conflict  i 

and  religion  which  ended  some  centuries  later, 
churdi  had  become  thoroughly  established,  by  t 
tion   of  science  to  bigotrj'  and  superstition.      Thus  i 
church  vhith  should  have  been  the  power  to  free  men 
minds  from  the  oppressive  weight  of  ignorance,  but  riv- 
eted tlieir  fetters  more  stningly.     It  is  extremely  probable 
that,  had  tlierc  been  no  organized  church  clothed  with  the 
])owor  to  enforce,  its  decrees,  there  would  have  been  no 
"dark  ages,"  but  given  the  foregoing  the  latter  result  fol- 
lowed.    The  church  was  imt  the  cause  of  the  superstition 
and  ignorance  of  the  dark  ages,  but  the  oppressive  weight 
of  iTilesiaatical   power   put  an  end  for  many  dreary  cen- 
turies to  further  advance  in  kiiowlodge. 

In  conclusion  of  ntir  view  of  the  middle  ages,  we 
shall  devote  some  attention  to  the  commercial  activities 
of  those  times.     From  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 


efHi 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


ciMitury,  we  find  evidence  of  a  continuous  and  rapid  in* 
irrease  in  wealth.  Thus  in  1363,  Picanl,  who  had  Uvn 
lord  mayor  somo  years  before,  entertained  Edward  III., 
the  Blaek  Prince,  the  kings  of  France,  Scotland,  umi 
.  Cyprus,  with  many  of  the  nobility,  at  his  own  house  ;in'i 


Attnoli  en  Q  Caravan. 
I'rt'smlcd  thoni  with  handsonio  gifts.  Philijiot.  anntlier 
I'liiiiK'iit  i-itizc'ii  in  Hit-hard  TI.'s  time,  when  the  tradini;  i.t' 
lOnirland  was  ciiiisidendily  annnyeil  by  pri^'ateer.^,  hir-'d 
line  thmisaiirl  armed  mm  and  tlitspatched  them  ti>  >\-.i. 
wlirn-  tliry  tiiiik  lil'teen  !S]iaiiisli  vessels  with  their  pri/i.'>. 
We  lind    Uirliard    ohtainiii^'  ;,    ^rroat  deal    frtun    jirival.- 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AO£S 

merchants  and  trading  towns.  In  1379,  ho  got  five  thou- 
sand pounds  sterluig  from  London,  a  thousand  marks 
from  Bristol,  and  in  proportion  from  smaller  places.  In 
1386,  London  gave  four  thousand  pounds  sterling  more 
and  ten  thousand  marks  in  1377,  The  latter  sum  was 
obtained  also  for  the  coronation  yyi  Henry  VI.  nor  were 
the  contributions  of  individuals  contemptible,  considering 
the  high  value  of  money.  Hinde,  a  citizen  of  London, 
loaned  Henry  lY.  two  thousand  pounds  sterling,  and 
Whittington,  one  half  of  that  sum.' 

A  commercial  intercourse  between  the  northern  and 
aoathern  regions  of  Europe  sprang  up  about  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Tlu.'  Italian  merchants 
seldom  undertook  voyages  perilous  in  themselves,  but 
rendered  more  formidable  by  imaginary  tlifficultiea  sup- 
posed to  attend  an  expedition  beyond  the  Straits  of  lEer- 
cnles,  as  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  were  then  called,  be- 
fore the  magnet  was  discovered,  its  properties  understood, 
and  navigation  raised  1i'  ii  science.  Tlie  English,  accus- 
tometl  to  their  own  rough  .seas,  %vero  always  more  intrepid 
and  probably  moreskillful  navigators,  but  it  was  extremely 
rare  even  in  the  fifteenth  century  for  an  English  trading 
vessel  til  appear  in  the  Mediterranean.  Yet  a  famous 
militarv  armament,  destined  for  the  crusadeof  Kiohanl  I., 
liail  .lisplayed,  at  a  very  early  time,  the  .seamanship  of 
ilie  Kngli.sli.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  England  carried 
(III  :i  jirctty  e.xlcn.-^ivr  traffic  with  the  countries  around  the 
Mciiitcrranenii.  for  whose  commodities  she  exchanged  her 
wo-il  and  cloth.  The  city  repulilics  of  Venice  and  Amalfi 
kept  up  tlic  ruininercia!  intcnotirse  of  Christendom  with 
the  Saracen  n.uiitrics  Itefop'  tlie  lirst  crusade.  Scarcely 
known  tefon-  tlic  end  of  tlie  sixth,  Almaiti  ran  a  brilliant 

I  Hallsni:   "View  of  llii;  Mldillf  Aifes,  "  ch»p.  ix. 


092  THE  MEDIEVAL   WORLlK 

career  as  a  free  and  trading  republic  untu  the  middle  ••!* 
the  twelfth  century  when  the  Normans  reduced  her  I'V 
force  of  arms.  But  the  decline  of  Araalfi  was  counter- 
balanced by  the  elevation  of  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Venice  in 
in  the  twelfth  and  ensuing  ages.  These  three  Italian 
Republics  enjoyed  immunities  in  the  Christian  principali- 
ties of  Syria,  possessing  separate  quarters  in  many  citie? 
wiiere  they  were  governed  by  their  own  laws  and  mai:- 
ist  rates.* 

The  introduction  of  a  silk  manufactory  at  Palernn». 
l)y  Richard  Guiscard  in  1148,  gave  perhaps  the  earliest 
ini[)ul6e  to  the  industry  of  Italy.     The  Genoese,  at  alnnit 
th(^  same  date,  plundered  two  Moorish  cities  of  Spain,  from 
which  they  derived  the  same  art.     In  the  next  age,  this 
became  a  staple  manufacture  of  the  Lombard  and  Tuscan 
Rei)ul)lics,  and  the  cultivation  of  mulberries  was  enforceil 
bv  their  laws.     Woolen  stuffs,  though  the  trade  was  jxt- 
haps  less  consi)icuous  than  that  of  Flanders,  and  thougli 
many  of  the  coarser  kinds  were  imported  from  thence,  en- 
gaged a  nmltitude  of  workmen  in  Italy  and  the  south  of 
France.     Among  the  trading  companies,  into  which  the 
middle  ranks  were  distributed,  those  concerned  in  silk  and 
WH)olen   manufacture  were   always    numerous    and   hon- 
orable.^ 

It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  ascertain  the  epoch  when 
tlio  polarity  of  the  magnet  became  first  known  in  EurojH^ 
The  cunmion  opinion  which  ascribes  its  discovery  io  a 
citizen  of  Amalfi,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  is  undoubt- 
edly erroneous.  The  French,  as  well  as  the  Italians, 
chiimed  the  discovery  as  their  own,  but  whether  it  was 
due  to  either  of  these  nations  or  rather  learned  from  their 


1  Muratori,  Dissertationes,  xxx. 

2«  DeeaudoUe,  ^'Domestic  PlaDts,'*  SUk. 


CULTURE  OF  TUB  MIDDLE  AGES. 


intereourso  with  the  Saracens  is  not  easily  to  be  ascer- 
tained. When  the  use  of  the  magnet  became  more  estab- 
lished, it  naturally  inspired  a  more  fearless  spirit  of  ad- 
venture. It  was  not,  as  hag  been  mentioneil,  till  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  that  the  Genoese 
and  ollnT  nations  around  that  inland  sea  steered  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  toward  England  and  Flanders.     In  spJto 


of 


Street  Scene  In  the  Middle  Ages. 
riius  obstacles,  sufh  as  the  general  uncertainty  of 
l;iw  ;itid  ui.'iritiuie  piracy,  the  nierchauts  of  different  coun- 
tri's  lifciinn-  so  opulent  as  to  almost  rival  the  ancient 
iiol.ility.  Till' tnidintr  nnupanies  possessed  either  a  pos- 
itivf  i.r  .1  virtii:il  ni'miip'jly,  and  held  the  keys  of  those 
e:i^I»TTi   ri-i:ii>ii.-<.  f.T  tin-  luxuries  of  which  the  progressive 


THE  MBDIBVAL    WOBLD. 

retinemeut  of  mannera  produced  an  increasing  demaiKl. 
It  is  not  easy  to  detenniiio  tjio  uverage  rate  of  profit, 
but  we  know  that  the  interest  of  money  was  very  higli 
throughout  the  middle  ages.  At  Verona  in  1228,  \*.  wui 
fixed  by  law  at  twelve  and  a  half  per  ceutj  at  Mudiua 
in  1370,  it  seems  to  have  been  as  high  as  twenty  i«w 
cent.     The  Kepublic  of  Genoa,  towards  the  end  uf  tfad 


Carpenter  Shop  in  OV-J'sa  Timee- 
fourteenth  century,  whoii  Italy  had  grown  wealthy,  [mid 
only  from  seven  to  ten  per  cent  to  her  orediUirs ;  but  in 
France  and  England,  the  rate  was  more  oppressive.  An 
ordinance  of  Philip  the  Fair,  in  1311,  allowed  twenty  per 
cent  lifter  the  first  year  of  the  loan.  Under  Henry  ilJ.. 
the  debtor  paid  ten  per  (;ent  every  two  months,  but  this 
could  not  possibly  have  been  the  genenil  i)raolice.  Tliis 
was  not  merely  owing  to  scarcity  of  monoy,  but  tu  the 
discouragement  whieh  a  strange  prejudice  oppotcd  to  one 


CULTtrSS  Of  TB£  MIDDLB  AGES.  fi96 

the  moat  UKfuI  and  legitimate  branches  of  commerce. 
my  or  lending  money  for  profit  was  treated  as  a  crime 
the  theologians  of  the  middle  ages.  Though  this 
nion  has  been  overthrown,  traces  of  it  still  remain  in 
;  legislation  of  some  modem  countries.  ThU  trade  in 
'ney,  and  indeed  a  great  part  of  inland  trade  in  general, 
i  originally  fallen  to  the  Jews,  who  were  noted  for  their 
uy  as  early  as  the  sixth  century. 

The  earliest  bank  of  deposit,  institutett  for  the  accom- 
■dation  of  private  merchants,  is  said  to  b;ive  been  that 
Barcelona  in  1401.  The  banks  of  Veruna  and  Gfiioa 
re  of  a  different  description.  Although  tla'  furnur  of 
ae  two  has  the  advantage  of  greater  antiquity,  having 
m  formed  in  the  twelfth  century,  yet  its  early  history 
not  so  clear  as  that  of  Genoa,  nor  its  political  importance 
remarkable.  During  the  wars  of  the  I'ourtepnlh  cen- 
y,  (Jenoa  had  borrowed  large  sums  of  private  i^itizens, 
whom  the  revenues  of  the  city  were  pledged  fur  repay- 
nt.  As  a  seeurity,  at  least  for  their  intiTt'-^l,  \\\v  siil). 
ibers  to  the  loans  were  permitted  to  receive  the  produce 
the  taxes  by  their  unii  col  lectors,  paying  the  excess 
o  the  treasury.  TIio  nuinher  and  distinct  classes  of 
■se  subscrilier;-,  l)ect)niing  at  last  inconvenient,  they 
re  f-jfinctl.  ;ilH.ut  the  year  1407.  into  a  single  enrpora- 
:i,  cjillrd  the  '-liank  of  St.  George,"  which  was  from 
t  time,  the  sole  national  creditor  and  mortgagee.  The 
ciTinient  of  this  was  entrusted  to  eight  protectors.  It 
II  became  almo.st  independent  of  the  state.  Every 
inltiT.  <.n  lii.s  .idniission,. swore  to  maintain  the  privileges 
the  Inink  whiih  v.\rv  continued  by  the  pope  and  even 
the  empire.  Tlie  hank  interposed  its  advice  in  every 
[i.«iire  of  guverninent  and  generally,  as  is  admitted,  to 
public  advantage.     It  equipped  armaments  at  its  own 


690  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

expense,  one  of  which  subdued  the  island  of  Corsica.* 
The  increasing  wealth  of  Europe,  whether  doriv^il 
from  internal  improvement  or  foreign  commerce,  dis- 
played itself  in  more  extensive  consumption  and  greator 
refinements  of  domestic  life;  but  these  effects  were,  fur  a 
long  time,  very  gradual.  It  is  not  till  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  that  a  more  rapid  impulse  appears 
to  have  been  given  to  society.  A  writer  about  the  era 
thirteen  himdred  describes  the  manners  of  the  Italians 
as  follows:  "In  those  times,"  he  says,  " the  manners  of 
the  Italians  were  rude.  A  man  and  his  wife  ate  oif  the 
same  plate,  there  were  no  wooden-handled  knives  nor 
more  than  one  or  two  drinking  cups  in  the  house.  Can- 
dles of  wax  or  tallow  were  unknown.  A  servant  held  a 
torcli  during  the  supper.  The  clothes  of  men  were  of 
leather  unlined,  scarcely  any  gold  or  silver  was  seen  on 
their  dress.  The  common  people  ate  flesh  but  three  times 
a  week  and  kept  their  cold  meat  for  supper.  Many  did 
not  drink  wine  in  summer.  A  small  stock  of  rve  seemed 
riches.  The  portions  of  women  were  small.  Their  dress 
even  after  marriage  was  simple.  The  pride  of  man  was 
to  be  well  provided  with  arms  and  horses.  That  of  the 
nobility,  to  have  lofty  towers,  of  which  all  the  cities  of 
Italy  were  full.  But  now,"  he  adds,  "frugality  has  l>een 
changed  f or  sumptuousness,  everything  exquisite  is  sought 
after  in  dress,  gold,  silver,  pearls,  silks,  and  rich  furs. 
Foreign  wines  and  rich  meats  are  required,  hence  usur)\ 
rapine,  tyranny,  fraud,  etc."^ 

No  chai)ter  of  national  manners  would  illustrate  eo 
well,  if  duly  executed,  the  progress  of  social  life  as  that 
dedicated  to  domestic  architecture.     The  fashions  of  dress 


1  ITiillam:  "Middle  Ages/'  cli.  ix. 

3  Ilicobuldi,  quoted  in  Muratori:  ''DiBsertationes,  xxzvL'' 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MJDDLK  AOES.  607 

and  of  amusements  are  generally  capricious  and  irreduci- 
ble to  rule,  but  everj'  change  in  the  dwellings  of  iiiankiiid, 
from  the  rudest  wooden  cabin  to  the  statclj' residence,  was 
dictated  by  some  principle  of  convenience,  ncntness,  com- 
fort, or  magnificence.  Both  France  and  Englund  do  not 
apii'.ir  t"  h;i\''.'  iiKulr  .m-rat  ])ri.>2:n'^s  in  dfpiiu'slic  ur'-Iiit.-i- 


J 


Feudal  Caatla  at  Rouen. 
ture  during  the  middle  ages.  Except  fortified  castles,  we 
do  not  find  any  considerable  dwellings  mentioned  before 
the  reign  of  Cliarles  VII.  of  France.  Occasionally  a  rich 
merchant  possessed  a  magnificent  house  in  Paris  or  in 
some  of  the  neigliI)oriiig  cities.  Even  in  Italy,  where 
from  the  size  of  her  cities  and  social  refinementa  of  her 
inhabitants,  greater  elegance  and  splendor  in  building  wf  -  ' 


(i98  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

justly  to  be  expected,  the  domestic  architecture  of 
middle  ages  did  not  attain  any  perfection. 

In  several  towns,  the  houses  were  covered  with  ths 
and  suffered  consequently  from  destructive  fires.  The 
most  essential  improvements  in  architecture  during 
period,  one  of  which  had  been  missed  by  the  sagacit; 
Greece  and  Rome,  were  chimneys  and  glass  wind( 
Nothing,  apparently,  can  be  more  simple  than  the  fori 
yet  the  wisdom  of  ancient  times  had  been  content  to 
the  smoke  escape  by  an  opening  in  the  center  of  the  r 
About  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  us 
chimneys  is  distinctly  mentioned  in  England  and  It 
but  they  are  found  in  several  of  the  English  castles,  wl 
bear  a  much  older  date.  Glass  is  said  to  have  been 
ployed  in  the  domestic  architecture  of  France  before 
fourteenth  centurv,  and  its  introduction  into  England 
probably  not  earlier  Xor  indeed  did  it  come  into  gen 
use  during  the  period  of  the  middle  ages.  Glazed  wint 
were  con^sidcrcd  as  mo\'able  furniture  and  probably 
a  high  i)rice.  AVlien  the  earls  of  Xorthumberlan< 
late  as  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  left  Alnwick  Castle, 
(lows  were  taken  out  of  their  frames  and  carefullv  laic 
But  if  the  domestic  buildin^irs  of  the  fifteenth  centurv  w 
not  seem  very  spacious  or  convenient  at  present,  far 
would  this  generation  bo  content  with  their  interna 
cumniodations.  A  gentleman's  house,  containing  thre< 
four  beds,  was  extraordinarily  well  provided.  Few  j) 
ably  had  more  than  two.  The  walls  were  comnu 
bare.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  neither  luxurie 
books  nor  i)ictures  could  have  found  a  place  among  fu 
turo.  Silver  i)late  was  very  rare  and  hardly  used 
i\\v  table. 


^  Ik'c'kiiianii:  *'Geschichte  der  KrAndungen,"  III.  p.  110. 


CULTVBE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  699 

Few  things  are  capable  of  giving  us  a  more  distinct 
m  of  the  economical  condition  of  a  period  of  time  than 
>  general  market  prices  of  things.  In  the  reign  of 
mry  III.  and  Edward  I.  in  other  words,  before  1300, 
»  ordinary  price  of  a  quarter  of  wheat  appears  to  have 
en  about  four  shillings,  and  that  of  barley  and  oats  in 
Bportion.  A  sheep  at  a  shilling  was  considered  high.' 
1  ox  might  be  procured  for  ten  or  twelve.  The  vahic  of 
rt3e  is  of  course  dependent  upon  their  breed  and  condi- 
o,  and  we  have  no  early  account  of  butcher's  meat. 
order  to  bring  the  prices  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  a 
rel  with  those  of  the  present  day,  we  can  hardly  take  a 
18  multiple  than  about  thirty  for  animal  food  and 
^hteen  or  twenty  for  rye.  Combining  the  two  ;in(l  set- 
ig  the  comparative  dearness  of  cloth  against  the  cheap- 
BS  of  fuel  and  many  other  articles,  we  niay  ijcrhaps 
Qsider  any  given  sum  under  Henry  III.  and  Edward  I. 
equivalent  in  general  command  over  commitdities  to 
out  twenty-fuurnr  twcntv-five  times  tlieir  nominal  value 
present.  Aceustonied  to  judge  <pf  feudal  and  chivalrous 
es  liy  works  of  fiction  or  by  liistorians  who  embellish 
eir  writings  witli  aceounts  of  (jcea.sional  rei?tivals  and 
irnanicnts  and  are  sometimes  inattentive  enough  to 
iiisfer  the  manners  of  the  seventeenth  to  the  fourteenth 
ntury.  we  are  nut  at  all  aware  of  the  usual  simplicity 
til  whii-h  the  gentry  lived  under  Kdward  I.  or  even 
;nry  VI.  They  drank  little  wine,  although  they  gen- 
illy  made  up  for  that  in  the  way  of  drinking  beer, 
ley  had  no  foreign  luxuries  ;  they  rarely  or  never  kept 
de  servants  except  for  husbandry.  Their  horses  as  we 
ly  guess  by  tlie  (irice,  were  indifferent.  They  seldom 
ivel.-il  bevi.nd  their  country  and  even  their  hospitality 

I   KriKH-li  Sl.niing. 


700  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

must  have  been  greatly  limited  if  the  value  of  estates  was 
really  no  greater  than  we  find  it  in  many  surveys.  An 
income  of  ten  or  twenty  pounds  sterling  was  reckoned  a 
competent  estate  for  a  gentleman.  At  least  the  lord  of  a 
single  manor  would  seldom  have  enjoyed  more.  A  knight, 
who  possessed  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  sterling  per 
annum,  passed  for  extremely  rich,  yet  this  was  not  equal 
in  command  over  commodities  to  four  thousand  pounds 
sterling  at  present. 

But  this  income  was  comparatively  free  from  taxation; 
and  in  addition  to  the  money,  the  lord  had  the  disposal  of 
quite  an  array  of  villeins.  Sir  John  Fortcscue  speaks  of 
five  |Jounds  a  year  as  a  fair  living  for  a  yeoman,  a  cla^?  of 
whom  he  is  not  at  all  inclined  to  diminish  the  importance. 
Still  one  class  of  laborers  seem  to  have  been  better  paid 
in  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  or  Henry  VI.  than  at  present. 
In  the  fourteenth  KX^ntury,  a  harv^est  man  had  four  pence 
a  day  which  enabled  him  in  a  week  to  buy  a  comb  of 
wheat,  but  to  buy  a  comb  of  wheat  a  man  nmst  now  work 
six  or  eight  days.  So  under  Henry  YI.,  if  meat  was  at  a 
farthing  and  a  half  a  pound,  a  laborer,  earning  three  pence 
a  day  or  eighteen  pence  in  a  week,  could  buy  a  bushel  of 
wheat  at  six  sbillings  the  quarter,  and  twenty-four  pounds 
of  meat  for  his  family.  A  laborer,  at  present  earning 
twelve  shillings  a  week,  can  buy  only  half  a  bushel  of 
wheat  at  eighty  shillings  the  quarter  and  twelve  pounds  of 
meat  at  seven  pence.^ 

It  would  be  great  historical  injustice  in  treating  of 
the  institutions  of  the  middle  ages,  to  neglect  the  great 
and  far-reaching  influence  of  a  people,  who,  by  their  intense 
interest  in  everything  connected  with  civilization  and  by 
their  intimate  connection  with  medieval  Europe,  claim 

I  NichoH's  '•lUustrations/'  and  Tlnllff* 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  A  0£S.  701 

our  attention,  if  not  our  gratitude.  Wc  mean  the 
people  following  the  Mohammedan  creetl  and  more  espec- 
ially the  Arabians  of  the  middle  ages.  Their  vast  em- 
pire founded  on  the  valor  and  military  system  of  Moham- 
med soon  turned  to  a  cultivation  of  scient-e  and  philosophy, 
which  did  not  fail  to  hear  fruit  and  be  of  grtvit  conse- 
quence both  to  the  country  where  it  was  produced  and 
the  countries  of  Europe  to  which  it  was  carried  by  the 
zeal  and  thirst  for  knowledge  of  some  ('hristian  thinkers. 
The  Arabians,  with  an  energy  and  a  genius  but  rarely 
equalled,  devoted  their  attention  to .  j>hi!i.so]ihicaI  and 
scientitic  studies;  andmanyof  their  caliphs,  like  Al  Manzur 
and  the  still  more  celebrated  Haroun-jil-Raschid,  wore 
eager  to  attract  to  their  courts  the  astronomers  and  math- 
ematicians (»f  the  empire. 

The  Arabians,  highly  prized  the  great  and  useful 
literature  of  the  Greeks,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  avail 
thcni.<flves  of  the  works  ..f  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  the  later 

s.-l 1  .■(  Alexamlria,     They  translated  the  works  of  those 

(ire.'k  tliink'Ts  intu  the  i'las.si(';il  laniruage  ()f  Arabia;  and, 
ni-.rr  than  this,  lliry  iinefa.siiiL'ly  endeavored  and  fre- 
tjiirntlv  Mici-rideil.  ill  rct'Drniin^'  and  improving  on  their 
t'MclnT-.  Th<>  L-'reat  names  i>f  Avcrrocs  and  Avieenna  are 
imiimrlal  hiniinarie.s  in  the  liistury  of  philosophy.  The 
mathf-matieal  work.s  of  Muliammed  ben  Mousa  enriched 
tin-  si-icnee  of  hiLlirr  arithmetic  with  the  solution  of 
ei|iiatioii:i  of  tlic  .••L-ci.iiiI  deirree.  They  were  equally 
f.-lieitoiis  in  their  study  of  the  Immaii  body,  and  Arabian 
physiiiaii.-i  and  do<'tors  had  a  reputatiun  all  over  the  then 
known  worl.l.  Fn-'hrick  11.,  tlie  enlightened  and  ingen- 
ioii."  i'ni|>i.'ror  of  (nrinanv,  had  them  as  his  constant 
com|ianion.-^,  diliLdiliuL' in  tlie  conversation  of  those  learned 
men.  who  at  that   tiiuc  conilnncd  hotli  the  classical  knowl- 


702  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLB. 

edge  of  Greece  and  the  newly  acquired  treasures  of  & 
and  ideas,  found  and  propounded  by  Arabian  thinken. 

The  bloom  and  blossom  of  Arabian  civilization  < 
tered  in  Spain ;  and  it  was  to  that  land,  where 
Arabians  long  held  a  beneficent  sway  over  two-third: 
the  country,  that  many  a  zealous  scholar  of  Europe 
paired  in  order  to  acquire  information  which,  at  that  ti 
he  could  not  procure  elsewhere.  Geber,  or  as  he  is  be 
known,  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  was  an  immediate  schola 
the  Arabians  in  Spain;  and  it  was  to  their  instruction 
he  owed  his  remarkable  skill  in  the  theory  and  pnu 
of  mathematical  science.  Roger  Bacon,  the  great  woi 
and  marvel  of  English  science  in  the  middle  ages.  i 
a  consideraV)le  part  of  his  knowledge,  his  thtH)n 
and  inventions  from  a  diligent  study  of  the  works  of  - 
bian  philosophers ;  and  thus  we  may  fairly  state  that 
Arabian  civilization,  if  it  did  not  exercise  an  influx 
similar  to  that  of  Greek  or  Roman  civilization,  was  iiu 
not  very  inferior  in  its  consequences,  having  roused 
spirit  of  self-reflection  and  a  bolder  investigation  into 
problems  of  nature  and  of  the  human  mind.  Many  of 
commonest  words  in  our  science  still  bear  the  sign 
Arabian  influence;  and  some  of  the  noblest  sciences,  as 
instance,  algebra,  retain  the  Arabian  notation  wit! 
alteration. 

We  must  now  draw  to  a  conclusion  this  pictur 
life  and  times  of  the  middle  ages.  Of  necessity  we  a 
only  touch  on  the  main  points,  numberless  points  of  m 
importance  having  to  be  passed  over  in  silence.  In 
last  three  chapters  we  have  tried  to  outline  the  deve 
ment  of  Aryan  culture  forming  a  counterpart,  to  the  tl 
closing  chapters  of  Part  I.,  treating  of  the  political  de 
opment.      Taken  together,  we  can  now  understand 


CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  708 

edieval  World  "  in  culture.     It  has  simply  to     > 
►pe,  as  the  Ancient  World  had  to  do  with  . 
Nile  Valley.    And  what  completeness  d       it      ve 
view  to  regard  Europe  as  the  home      id  of  t      Arj 
the  Aryans  of  Asia  as  simply  emi        n        lo 
&r  to  the  Orient  as  to  loose  their        ' '      k. 

And  we  hope  it  now  becomes  clear  i 
ut  great  eras  in  culture,  we  must  n       )  r 

nt  divisions   than  those  ordinarily  employ  1 

rians.    The  medieval  world  in  culture  d 
mrrespond  to  the  medieval  world  in  history.     It 
crence  solely  to  the  Aryans.     Aryan  culture 
I  no  backward  movement.     The  culture  of  to-day 
the  development   of   medieval   culture.      We 
watched  the  gradual  unfolding  of  Europe,  ^e 

near  to  the  dawning  of  modern  times.     Tl 
thing  in  this  ever  widening  sweep  of  Aryan  cultur 
we  have  traced  from  its  source  in  Greece  until  it 
braced  all  Europe,  that  ought  to  give  room  to  1 
ing  belief  that   the  Aryan   people  will   long  contii 
press  on  in  the  ])ursuit  of  knowledge.     Loosing  oui      Iv 
in  revery,  we  may  dream  of  the  time  when  Aryan  lan- 
guage, religion,  and  culture  shall  embrace  the  whole  world 
in  its  folds.' 


1  The  three  preceding  chapters  on  ancient  Greece,  Rome,  and 
the  Middle  Agen,  covering,  as  they  do,  an  immense  field  of  investigatioQ 
aixl  the  \  :ist  ex  panne  of  over  two  tliousand  ^ve  hundred  years,  did  not 
admit  of  h  more  ehiVM)rate  treatment  of  special  points.  Accordingly  the 
author  of  IhcHo  three  essayH  eonwidered  it  his  main  duty  to  direct  the 
reader'**  attention  to  the  leading  features  only,  and  to  adduce  the  neces- 
sary ar^MniHiits  and  illustrations  in  order  to  facilitate  a  clear  and  co- 
herent iiinij^ht  into  the  real  and  H{H>eine  character  of  Greek,  Rommn,  and 
Meditval  Civilization. 

Sueh  a  Hueeiiiet  j)icture  rif  the  past  times,  however,  while  on  theona 
hand,  it  neoesMitates  a  ^^n-ater  amount  of  reasoning  and  generalization! 
dot*«,  on  the  other  hand,  lessen  the  hnlk  of  mere  facts,  witli  the  exception 


704  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD, 

of  those,  the  certainty  of  which  has  long  been  established,  and  continue 
to  form  the  undisturbed  common  property  of  scholars.  Many  of  the 
facts  proffered  in  the  preceding  three  essays,  but  more  especially  in  the 
ossay  on  Roman  civilization,  [such  as  those  concerning  the  dress,  the 
meals,  the  buildings,  the  races  of  the  Bomans]  have  been  taken  from 
standard  reference  books,  like  Pauly's  Realencyclopaedie  des  Kla»is- 
ischen  Alterthums;  Saglio  and  Daremberg's  [unfinished]  Diction n aire 
dcs  Antiquites  Romaines;  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Rotnan  Antiquities, 
aud  others.  It  being  the  literary  custom  to  use  small  portions  [iu  dis- 
tinction to  whole  articles]  of  these  and  similar  useful  compilations  frooly, 
the  present  general  acknowledgment  will  suffice  as  an  index  of  some  of 
the  sources  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  said  essays.  The  essential  aud 
leading  ideas  and  conceptions  of  the  preceding  essays,  however,  and 
particularly  those  of  the  essays  on  Rome  [e.  g.  the  discussion  of  the  city- 
state,  the  position  of  women,  of  house-sons,  of  slaves,  the  purport  of 
Roman  games,  the  causes  of  the  unique  greatness  of  Rome,  etc  ]  have 
been  evolved  by  an  independent  study  of  the  original  sources,  [chiefly, 
Livy,  Dioiiysius  II.,  Cicero,  Polybius)  together  with  the  best  works  of 
the  moderns  [mainly,  Niebuhr,  Schwegler,  Mommsen,  Lange,  Sir.  C. 
Lewis,  etc.]  It  was,  consequently,  thought  not  feasible  to  crowd  the 
pages  with  quotations,  which,  by  the  very  nature  of  the  subject,  would 
have  been  far  too  minute  and  numerous  for  any  other  than  a  strictly  pro- 
fessional work,  the  short  space  allotted  to  the  subject  being  a  final  apol- 
ogy for  the  omission  of  direct  quotations  from  the  Roman  historians. 


I     THE  NEW  YO^K 
PUBLIC  LFBtARY 


Ai:     '*\  '.-vox  AND 
TILL  Xr    rCV.MDATlONJ 

u 


AHYAlf  JtELiaiON. 


eHWfTER  i%. 

ARYAN  RELIQION. 

l«T»ODCcnon— Mythology— Origin  of 

HythB— ThoMythortbeDkwn— Aim        U<        1       —'J  y 

AryuunfABU— The  Vedic  Age— B  i  i 

—ThcSsDkbya  System— The  Y  a     h— 1       Vedai 

Soctrioe  of  Uluiioii- iBwara-  i        „  Origin 

mmture- DasUBm- Ahura  Mazda  — T       I  »  — 

m«nt  of  Uudeiam- ZrvBD  Al  —Pet     li     ty  of  U 

^mflot— The  lonio  School  of  i'IUI<       ahy- 

Plkto— The  "World  of  Ideas"— Com  n  ii 

World-Boul— Contact  between  Ar;       Tb  i     [. 

— Sktau- Primitive  Feast- Greek      j-ater       -T      I 

— Nationality  of  Buddlia-InUIalloii  into  Braliman      i— Orj      .Iksik 

of  his  Order- The  Lujiiipii-SiiyiiiK't  "f  nud.Iliii- Iiillittti'.n   Inio  t 

Onler-Political  Devilo|mieiit  of  Buiidhi-iin- Emottrle  Bnddiilsm— 

Tliu  'Tathapalhu/'Tho  "(Jri^ut  Vcliklu"  Movemt^ut— Buddliaghoaa^ 

The    r..K.-ii.lary    HudcIIm-8i>rt;ad  of  Jluddhlsm- General  Conclu- 


^■^  ILW'I'i  still  before  us  a  moat  import- 
ed'** iiiit  liL'ld  (if  rosearcii,  ti)  wliicli  we  must 
now  turn  oiir  attention,  tliis  ia  the  rt-- 
li^iDiis  (lovelojinient  of  tho  Aryjin  peo- 
ple. Here  as  elscwliere  Aryan  jjenius 
iw  jmroptible.  It  will  be  found  in  the 
ftctpii'l  that  two  very  important  systems  of  Oriental  relig- 
ion 'lato  from  Aryan  fnuiuiation,  one  taking  its  rise  in 
Iiiilia  anil  one  in  Persia.  Tracinir  this  influence  to  the 
\\'i>t,  we   find  twd  M!i;;litly  divcrginj,' systems  of  philoso 


708  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

phy,  one  taking  its  rise  in  Greece  finally  culminating 
in  the  philosophy  of  Plato ;  and  one,  originating  in  the 
conflict  between  Aryan  and  Semitic  thought — especially 
Judaism — ultimately  giving  rise  to  the  various  Gnostic 
sects,  the  relations  between  which  and  Christianity,  it 
will  be  the  object  of  a  future  chapter  to  unravel. 

An  immense  field  is  here  disclosed  to  view,  each  and 
every  topic  mentioned  is  deserving  of  a  volume  by  itself. 
Hence  it  is  evident  that  w^e  can  only  give  an  outline  of  all. 
Still  this  will  prove  interestipg,  and  will  show,  as  nothing 
else  will,  certain  peculiarities  of  Aryan  thought.  They 
were  the  first  people  to  seriously  grapple  with,  and  attempt 
the  solution  of,  certain  great  problems — such  as  the  nature 
of  the  first  cause,  the  origin  of  the  soul,  of  matter,  of 
evil — problems  which  still  tax  the  ingenuity  of  theolo- 
gians of  our  own  times.  So  we  will  attempt  to  come  to 
an  understanding  on  this  rather  difl\ise  subject. 

But  let  us  observe  well  our  surroundings.  We  have 
in  another  place  gone  over  the  ground  of  "Primitive  Re- 
ligion. ^  We  need  have  no  doubt  that  the  various  Arvan 
tribes  of  Europe  went  through  at  least  the  preliminary 
stages  of  this  development  before  any  extensive  migra- 
tion from  their  common  home.  History  opens  fc»r  each 
great  section  of  the  Aryan  race  w^hen  it  was  in  the  last 
stage  of  this  growth,  that  of  polytheistic  Nature  Worship. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  gain  a  slight  understanding  of 
Aryan  mythology,  especially  as  we  wish  to  show  how 
primitive  mythological  conceptions  continue  to  exert  an 
influence  long  after  the  people  have  advanced  to  higher 
grades  of  culture. 

Now  mythology  happens  to  be  one  of  those  topics, 
that  have  so  recently  been  made  the  subject  of  scientific 

1  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  ch.  v. 


AS  YAN  RELIGION.  709 

study,  that  they  are  still  far  from  being  settled  fields.  Prolh 
ably,  as  is  true  of  many  another  branch  of  science,  at  an 
early  stage  of  its  history,  its  enthusiastic  expounders 
claimed  for  it  more  than  it  could  perform,  auil  api>c»il(;d 
to  its  authority  where  it  had  no  jurisdiction.  On  tlio 
other  hand,  some  resist  its  plainest  teachings  and,  refusing 
the  assistance  it  proffers  them,  find  themselr(!8  still  in- 
volved in  doubt,  or  stubbornly  cling  to  concluaions  which 
they  should  have  been  willing  to  abandon  a  long  time  ago. 
A  reluctance  to  change  established  views  may  bo  uh  {fru- 
lific  of  error  as  an  overweening  desire  to  embrace  theo- 
ries simply  because  they  are  new.  If  we  would  really 
understand  this  subject,  some  general  remarkH  muttt  be 
made. 

Only  of  late  years  have  explorers  considert-d  it  worth 
their  while  to  take  into  account  the  stories  and  tuU-s  of 
savage  and  but  partially  civilized  people.  Now  that  this 
subject  has  been  noticed  the  following  statt'mciits  are 
found  to  be  true.  Nearly  all  tribes  of  men  huve  collec- 
tiona  of  stories  that  profess  to  explain  all  nntiinil  phe- 
nomena, or  iire  accounts  of  tlie  doings  of  supernatural 
Vtoingy,  or  of  bea.sts  gifted  with  .supernutural  power. 
These  stories  pass  on  into  liarharic  life,  in  wliich  stage 
they  are  mainly  aecounis  of  the  actions  of  nupcrnatural 
beings.  Advancing  intelligence  either  clothes  these 
8torie:<  with  a  religious  garb,  making  them  aecounts  of  the 
Retions  of  tlii.'ir  gods,  or  julopts  the  principal  actors  in 
*ihetn  as  their  own  natural  hi'roea  and  the  time  of  their 
occurrence  as  their  golden  age. 

To  the  above  statement,  we  must  add,  that  these  stages 
are  not  sharply  defined,  but  arc  found  variously  commin- 
gled among  the  same  i)eopU',  at  the  same  time;  and,  fiir* 
ther,  incidents  of  the  original  stories,  lost  sight  of  in  gen- 


710  THE  MEDIJiVAL  WOULD. 

eral,  arc  continually  re-appcaring  as  survivals  in  the  fwlk- 
loro  of  the  people.  Now,  mythology  proper,  at  least  as 
(irdinarily  undcrstooJ,  concerns  only  the  religious  anil 
heroic  stage  of  these  stories,  where  they  are  maialy  tlit- 
accountsof  the  doings  of  gods,  goddesses,  and  supernatural 
beings.  But  for  our  purpose  it  is  bettor  to  glance  at  tie 
whole  story  field  asjust  laid  down. 


/fe 


Death  of  Hercules. 
AVe  must  recall  some  i)oiiita  of  savage  philosophy. 
Wo  have  learned  that,  at  a  certain  stage,  savages  come 
ui)on  the  conception  that  objects  have  souls,  and  that  this 
conception  extends  in  the  stage  of  Fetichism  to  embrace 
all  natural  2>henomena.'  It  is  evident,  that  when  people 
in  this  stage  of  development  attempt  to  give  any  expla* 

1  ThiH  Sorics  Vol.  II.  p.  310  cl  »cq. 


ABYAN  RELIOION.  7H 

Uttion  of  what  is  going  on  about  them,  the  explanation 
will  be  colored  by  such  belief.  To  illustrate,  wh»t  more 
natural  than  that  rude  people  should  see  in  water  spouts 
^at  flying  dragons  and  serpents.?'  How  else  could  such 
phenomena  be  described  by  savages,  imbued  with  the 
fcavage  theory  just  spoken  of?  So,  quite  naturally  indeed, 
the  sand  pillars  of  the  desert  are  explained  to  be  the 
flight  of  demons.* 

Now  we  want  to  dwell  on  this  point,  because  here  is 
I  state  of  mind  that  will  most  unquestionably  give  rise  to 
t  great  host  of  mythic  stories.  Everything,  to  primitive 
nan,  is  endowed  with  individuality  and  life.  Sun,  moon, 
ind  stars,  the  winds,  clouds,  storms,  rivers,  are  present  to 
,heir  minds  as  animate  bodies,  living  much  such  a  life  as 
nortals  do.  It  is  manifest  that  such  a  stage  of  thought  will 
^ve  rise  to  a  great  number  of  mythic  conceptions.  "U'l-  can 
Tirther  see  how  true  it  is  that  all  people,  in  the  jirogrcss 
)i  development  must  come  to  such  a  stage  of  thought.  It 
s  sure  to  arise,  when  unce  the  savage  idea  of  s<'u]s  has 
_';iinetl  ground.  Everything  that  happens  will  inevitably 
l>f  <xplaine(l  in  terms  denoting  the  action  of  living  beings. 
FurtluT  still,  primitive  man  will  fall  back  on  the  same 
I i in- of  reasoning  to  explain  some  of  the  most  common 
jtcurrences,'  * 

Let  us  illustrate  this.  At  times  the  rays  of  the  sun 
shining  through  the  clouds  present  the  appearance  of 
LTeat  roi)C3  hanging  dt)wn  from  the  sun.  Savages,  believ- 
iui:  the  sun  to  be  alive,  seek  to  explain  this  appearance. 

"    '  Tyl.-rt  "Primitive  Culture,"  Vol  I.  p.  2M-5.  »  Ibid. 

=  A  iHiiiilKT  of  scholars  neem  to  think  that  primitive  mao  could  Dot 
WC-1I  i|i-|giiiriii-'h  tiptwecn  the  Hvini;  niiil  the  not  living  (Sa^cc:  "Scienc* 
r.r  [.;irivii:ii,'t-,"  Vol.  II.  \\.  ICA)  but  tlil>f  theory  i-rcms  to  rest  upon  a  poor 
f..iiriii:iii'.i..  See  Hpeiircr :  "I'rin.'iiile*  "f  SiK'lology.")  To  our  mind 
lh)-niv»tieflaj.'eiirisvB,  like  Frtiiliir-rii,  from  t  lie  savage  doctrine  of  aouU. 
Hiat  <'..ti..|,iion  li;.s  flr-i  to  I..-  f.-nrir.l.     [  I'/f^  Vol.  II.  ch.  V.J 


712  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Thus  have  arisen  in  different  localities  the  myths  of  the 
sun  catcher.     The  Polynesian  tribes  tell  how  Maui  and 
his  brothers,  thinking  that  the  sun  went  too  fast,  plaited 
ropes  and  formed  a  noose,  and  then  journeyed  to  the  East: 
"very  far  to  the  eastward,  and  came  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  place  out  of  which  the  sun  rises."     Then  they  spread 
the  noose  and  prepared  to  catch  the  sun.    At  length  the 
sun  rises.     "He   rises  up,  his  head   passes  through  the 
noose,  and  it  takes  in  more  and  more  of  his  body,  until 
his  fore  paws  pass  through ;  then  are  pulled  tight  flie 
ropes."   Maui  then  rushed  upon  him,  bearing  in  his  hand 
an   enchanted    weapon.     "Alas  the  sun  screams  aloud; 
he  roars ;  Maui  strikes  him  fiercely  with  many  blows ; 
they  hold  him  for  a  long  time ;  at  last  they  let  him  go; 
and  then  weak  from  wounds  the  sun  crept  slowly  along 
his  course."^ 

Now  this  story  is  not  based  on  any  poetical  metaphor. 
Savages  are  doing  just  what  scientific  men  are  doing  to-day, 
explaining  as  best  they  can  in  accordance  with  their  phil- 
osophy what  they  see  around  them.  On  island  after 
island  different  versions  of  this  myth  occur,  and  some  say 
that  Maui  wisely  refused  to  take  off  the  ropes,  so  that 
he  might  constantly  hold  the  sun  in  check.  The  natives 
say  that  you  can  still  sec  the  ropes  attached  to  the  sun 
when  he  rises  and  sets.  Civilized  children  exclaim  **the 
sun  is  drawing  water,"  in  such  instances  the  Polynesian 
islanders  would  say  "  behold  the  ropes  of  Maui."* 

To  show  how  true  it  is,  that  given  the  same  phenom- 
ena to  explain,  men  in  the  same  stage  of  enlightenment 
will  reason  the  same  way,  we  need  only  point  out  that  sub- 
stantially similar  myths  existed  among  our  Indian  tribes. 

1  Grey:  '^Polynesian  Mythology/'  London,  1886,  p.  86-8. 
3  Tyler:  Early  History  of  Mankind,"  p.  862. 


ARYAN  RELIQIQN.  713 

Sometimes  as  an  accident,  and  sometimes  on  pur|)ose,  tho 
Bun  is  represented  as  caught  in  a  snare,  set  by  some 
Wonderful  hunter.  In  the  American  stories,  however,  tho 
animals  liberate  the  sun.  In  one  story,  the  mole,  burrow- 
iDg  underground,  at  length  sets  the  sun  free,  his  eyes  are, 
however,  put  out  by  the  intense  light,  and  ever  since 
moles  have  been  blind.'  It  is  quite  in  keeping  with  this 
old  mythic  idea  that  the  Incas  of  Peru  reasoned  about 
the  sun.  "He  is  like  a  tethered  beast  who  makes  a  daily 
round  under  the  eye  of  a  master."'  And  it  is  certainly  in- 
teresting to  observe  that  this  conception  lingers  on  in 
European  folk-lore  where  the  sun  i-s  spoken  of  as  if  it 
were  tethered  and  delayed  by  bands." 

Thus  mythic  conceptions,  such  as  hero  shown,  arise 
quite  naturally,  and  have  a  wide  range  both  in  space  and 
time.  It  will  be  found  that  such  conceptions  underlie  tho 
ideas  everywhere  entertaini,'d  by  partially  civilized  tribes 
of  eclipses,  Tiie  sun  and  moon  are  considered  a-s  alive, 
but  at  liini's.  t'mm  Home  iiiystt  rimis  cause,  they  seem  lo  be 
di-s.-ipi"  arhiLr  witii  their  li^iit  and  warmth.  What  more 
natural  tliaa  llir  rx]ilaiiatinii  irivcii  uf  .some  monster  seek- 
ing' to  lirvniir  llicm.  'I'lic  Mill  and  mooii  are  in  never 
(■ea.<iiiL;  iiniiieii  ni-rni^s  tlic  vauil.s  of  heaven,  they  ara  sup- 
j.osed  I'l  be  in  tliglit  to  a\oi<l  some  monster-  wolf,  dog,  or 
draL'oii— ulio  seem.-i  to  lia\e  o\r!-taken  Ills  prey  at  the 
ni'iiiieiit  of  (■.■li|jse.  and  vvoiiM  doiibtle-ss  finish  them,  were 
he    Hot    .seared  away  by  the  etlbrts  made  by  the  natives 

illtlieirbelialf.' 

Many  North  Anierieaii  Indian  tribes  gave  the  dogs 
a  souikI   w]ii|i|iinL:  during;  tlie  eclipses,  because  the  "big 

1  11. 111.  :i.-.l  '-  Itrhn..ii:  ">ryttis  of  tlif  New  World,"  p.  5fi> 

=  liriiiiirii   ■■Ti-iitonic  >[ytliol ■■>,'>■,"  Vol.  H.  1'-  T«.  Londou,  1888. 


714 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


dog"  was  swallowing  the  moon  and  the  sun,  and  by  whip- 
ping the  little  dogs  he  might  be  induced  to  desist.'  So 
the  tribes  in  South  America  thought  the  moon  was  hunted 
aci'oss  the  sky  by  huge  dogs,  who  caught  and  tore  lier 
during  an  eclipse,  and  so  to  scare  them  away,  the  Indians 
would  set  up  a  great  noise  and  shuot  their  arrows  athwart 
the  sky.*  So  of  the  Moors  in  Africa.  "When  the  sun 
eclipse  was  at  its  highest,   we  saw  the  people  runnini: 


Asseinbly  ol  the  Qoda  on  Mt.  Olympue. 
;il'nut  as  if   mad,  and  firing    their  rifles  at  the  swn.  to 
iVit'liten  the  monster  who,  they  supposed,  was  wishing  U* 
devour  the  orb  of  day . . .  The  women  banged  copper  vessels 
tii<>:cth(>r,  making  such  a  din  thatU  was  heard  leagues 


1  Brinton:  "Myths."  p.  137. 

*  Tyler:  "Culture,"  Vol.  I.  p.  296. 

s  Griiimi:  "Teutonic  Mythology,"  Vol.  II.  p.  707. 


L  ♦*T( 

r     mil 

y  toei 


ARYAN  SELI&JON.  710 

All  the  civilued  nations  show  titat  they  passed  through 
the  same  belief.  A  Mongolian  myth  tells  us  of  a  demon 
who  pursues  both  the  sun  and  the  moon,  whenever  ho 
comes  to  hand-grips  with  one  of  them  an  eclipse  occurs.' 
The  Chinese  still  speak  of  the  sun  and  moon  »s  being 
■'  devoured  "  during  an  eclipse,  and  a  great  dragon  is  the 
monster  doing  the  mischief.  Nearly  all  of  the  population 
in  Northern  Asia  have  the  same  opinion.  And  ((very- 
where  with  gongs  and  bells,  rude  music  and  prayers,  it  ia 
to  be  driven  away.  The  Finns  in  Europe  have  a  similar 
belief.  The  Esthonians  say  the  sun  or  moon  is  being 
**eaten,"  and  until  recently  sought  to  hinder  this  process 
by  conjuring  spells.' 

All  Arj'an  nations  passed  through  this  stage  of  belief. 
**To  this  (Iny,  the  Hindoos  believe  that  a  giant  lays  huld 
the  lumiaaries,  and  tries  to  swallow  them.  "^  "The 
imens  flung  fire-brands  into  the  sir  and  blew  tnmipets 
and  chingeil  brazen  pots  and  pans."  As  late  as  the  seven- 
teenth cenluT)',  people  of  Celtic  descent  were  observed 
during  an  eclipse  "to  run  about  beating  kettles  and  pans 
thinking  their  clamor  and  vexations  available  to  the  assis- 
tance of  the  higher  orbs."*  And  not  very  long  ago  alma- 
nacs still  represented  eclii)sea  by  two  dragons  holding  the 
aun  and  moon  in  their  mouths.'' 

Now  we  have  only  just  touched  on  the  immense  field 
of  nature  myths,  we  will,  however,  pass  it  by  since,  at 
present,  all  we  wish  to  do  is  to  make  clear  what  we  mear 
by  the  mythic  stage  of  thought,  and  illustrate  how  natui 
ally  such  stories  might  originate.  As  we  have  seen  illu 
truted  in  the  case  of  the  sun-catcher,  men  everywhere  ai 
given  to  explain  what  they  sec  around  them.     Certain 

1  Ibid.  1  Ibid. 

*  Tyler,  Op,  ctt  p.  301. 


716  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

from  a  very  low  stage  of  society  on,  man  has  been  a  theo- 
rizer.     The  primitive  theories,  however,  are  very  crude. 
The  point  to  be  observed  is,  that  these  crude  theories,  ex- 
plained in  such  terms  that  all  understood  them,  xery  often 
indeed  find  embodiment  in  some  story,  and  thus  are  kept 
alive  as  myths.     We  have  now  tried  to  make  clear  that 
a  myth  is  in  its  origin  an  explanation.     It  is  not  an  alle- 
gory, nor  a  poetical  metaphor,  but  it  is  an  eflFort  on  the 
part  of  primitive  man  to  explain  what  he  sees  around  hini. 
They  are  the  first  theories  of  primitive  science.^    But  we 
have  been  considering  myths  in  their  primitive  stage.  To 
explain  their  far  reaching  effects  in  the  field  of  religion 
and  history,  we  must  reflect  on  the  changes  produced  by 
time  on  the  language  in  which  they  first  find  expression. 
For  the  original   meaning  -of  the  words  is  lost  sight  of, 
partly  because  of  changes  constantly  going  forward  in  the 
language  itself,  and  partly  because  advancing  intelligence 
cxj)oscs  the  absurdity  in  the  original  explanation.     So  the 
real  meaning  in  the  old  story  is  forgotten,  all  that  remains 
is  the  shell. 

We  have  now  seen  that  myths  are  simply  portions  of 
the  2)hilosopliy  of  the  childhood  age  of  mankind,  often 
clothed  in  a  new  meaning,  but  not  always.  It  is  evident 
that  all  people  who  have  achieved  civilization  have  passed 
tlirough  such  an  age,  and  that  barbarous  people  are  even 
now  in  a  mythical  age.  It  is  further  evident  that  mx'ths 
must  embrace  every  department  of  science.  We  will 
have  not  only  mythical  religion  but  mythical  philoso- 
phy and  history  as  well.  But  the  fact  is,  religious  mjihs 
have  had  the  most  enduring  life.  We  can  all  see  the 
reason  fur  this.  Such  myths  would  be  handed  down,  while 
othci-s  would  speedily  be  forgotten.     Attempts  would  be 

1  On  this  point  see  Fisk :  **^rytlis  nml  Myth  Makers/'  p.  21 


ABTAtritELiaiON.  717 

lude  to  reconcile  them  with  the  beliefs  and  scieDces  of  a 
lew  generation.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  the  pbiloso- 
)her8  of  the  age  of  Socrates  and  Flato  trying  tu  explain 
xrecian  mythology.  We  can  furthermore  aoo  vf^xy  it  is, 
hat  nature  myths — myths  of  the  earth,  sky,  sun,  stars, 
light,  dawn,  etc. — should  be  just  the  ones  th&t  would  thus 
ur>-ive  when  others  had  been  forgotten. 

Many  illustrations  of  this  statement  coulil  be  givon, 
ire  will  limit  ourselves  to  but  one,  the  Dawii.  What  la 
hat  roseateglow  which  lightens  up  the  eastern  hik  v  shortly 
•efore  the  sun  appears ?  The  Australian  Irihcs  ^^;ly  that 
he  sun  is  a  woman.  "Every  night  she  descvmla  iinmng 
he  dead,  who  stand  in  double  lines  to  greet  la  r  iiiul  let 
ler  pass.  She  has  a  lover  among  the  dead,  \\\w  \n\»  prt* 
ented  her  with  a  red  kangaroo  skin,  and  in  tliln  kIio  ap 
•ears  at  her  rising,"'  Strange  conception,  truly,  but  (puto 
<n  a  par  with  our  Aryan  progenitors,  with  wlioin  tlio 
lawn  was  a  red  cow  ;*  and  tho  sun  was  her  calf."  Fmui 
hi:*  ^inL'lll.■ir  sttiry  as  a  starting  [Kiiiit,  wv  follow  tho  con- 
L-ption  into  the  jiuotry  of  the  Vodas  wIkto  Usha.'t  (the 
);i\vn>  ■■I'pen.s  the  durkness  as  a  eow  her  stall ;"  she  is 
s  "t'lill  of  wisdom,  rich  in  everything;" 
'iiulhniM.f  all  (he -(Kid  tliiit  <lav.liglit 
is  we  iiiKlcrstaiiil  the  Wonderful  impor- 
1  llic  ivli-i„u>  nh.erviKMT.s  of  the  Ilin- 
■ri>,  ;ind  let  ii.s  not  Ini-vl  tlie  groat  effi- 
■  a  rcfl^  heifer  among  the  Israelites.' 
Let  ii.-t  eoristantly  keep  the  foregoing  in  mind.  Ind- 
u  nf   niythie  story  .so  altered   tluat  wc  can   perhaps 

I.iint':  "MyMi,  IliUinl,  nn.l  Tt.liirimi,"  Vol.  II.  p.  128. 
I  ■■7....,h.y;\,.x,\  M.vtlir)l.>K.v,"  \-c,|.  I.  )..  ,W.  »  Ibid.  51. 

■  K.:.ry:  'Outliri.- -^f  iTiniiliv  lli'llff,"  p.  146-7. 

■  r,,/.-  WilHiiiiiH: '■Mci.I.-ni  lliii.Im.iHni."  •Nnm.xlx. 


Imh 

ri|.rt...'rllted 

I,  .-1 

...rt,  .«l,ci8  11 

rill: 

,'s.'    Fn.ii,  tl 

nun 

■  1.1'  ciw-s  ill  ; 

..... 

.'i.li.ltli.I'a 

ai-v 

uf  tin-  ;l.sIiC3  . 

718  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

scarcely  detect  them  are  floating  around  the  world,  always 
ready  to  attach  themselves  to  the  names  and  memories  of 
national  heroes.  The  history  of  great  kings,  such  as 
Cyrus  the  great  and  Charlemagne,  is  encrusted  witli 
mythical  incidents;^  and  especially  around  the  memories 
of  great  reformers  and  founders  of  new  religions,  such  as 
Gautama  and  Zoroaster,  will  such  mythic  stories  gather. 
Now  let  us  attempt  to  learn  more  particularly  of  Aryan 
mythology.  We  have  seen  that  as  a  people  enter  on  the 
stage  of  Polytheism,  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  as  two  nf 
the  greater  fetiches,  take  rank  as  two  of  the  more  powerful 
gods  of  the  new  pantheon.  Powers  are  ascribed  to  them 
and  hymns  in  their  favor  are  sung.  The  Polynesian 
Islanders  called  the  over-arching  heaven  Rangi,  and  sujh 
l)osed  he  was  the  father  of  all  life.  A  most  interesting 
story  is  told  of  the  separation  of  Rangi  and  Papa,  the 
carth.^  Among  these  Islanders  the  myth  was  yet  in  the 
first  stage.  The  meaning  of  the  words  w^as  very  phiin 
to  all. 

It  is  hard  for  })riniitive  man  to  form  nouns  witli  gen- 
eral sigiiiilcance.  It  is  easier  for  them  to  give  nanu's 
for  cliileront  aspects  of  the  sky,  such  as  Night  sky,  Day 
sky,  Xoon  sky,  than  it  is  to  form  a  general  conception  «»f 
Sky.  Hence  it  is  that  among  rude  people,  such  as  the 
j>rimitive  Aryans,  wo  meet  with  the  names  of  sevenil  ini- 
I)()rtaiit  deities,  each  of  which  traces  itself  back  to  some 
aspect  of  the  sky;  each  had  developed  from  the  fetich 
worship  of  the  first  stage.  Thus  among  the  Teutonic 
tribes,  we  meet  with  Zio,  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
(lay  sky.  As  we  pass  away  from  Germany,  we  continually 
nu^ot  witli  tliis  ancient  divinity  under  new  names.   Among 

1  Fisk:  **Myths  and  Myth  Makers,"  p.  114  note  and  p.  199. 
■  Grey:  *'P()lyiiesian  Mythology." 


ASTAjr  BELIOtON. 


"the  Greeka, ....    i      ; 

JupUtr ;  among  the  Slav  i 

Indians,  with  Dyaus} 

Now  let  us  observe  the  steps  by  wh 

has  emerged  into  the  polytheistic  god.    1 


given  a  personal  n;mn\     Tiiis  wiia  iint  a  inotaphor,  nor  a 
pfR'tiral  fancy,  f'lr  all  iiuuns  arc   personal.     Time  passes 


1    Vide  DnniK'ot. 
worHhl]>  amuiig  Wis 


r^irv  Itcvit-w."    As  to  tntcM  of  frtloh 
vi-ury :  "Priiuitlv«  Belief,"  p.  S8. 


•720 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


on  and  the  Aryans  commence  their  victorious  migratiom. 
Language  and  philosophy  both  change.  The  scattered 
people  forget  the  original  meaning  of  the  name  of  their 
god.  He  becomes  simply  a  mythical  figure.  Many  little 
incidents  that  were  natural  and  true  of  the  day  sky  are 
still  told  of  the  god,  but  now  there  is  no  reason  in  their 
application.     They  pass  on  into  meaningless  stories. 

But   the   various 
Aryan    people,    as 
they    continue  on 
their  way  from  the 
homeland,  enter  on 
new  conditions  o  f 
life    and    suiTouud- 
ings,   or   from   the 
workings   of  many 
other  causes,  other 
personifications  U^ 
came   more   proini- 
jnent  than  the  day 
;;  sky,  though  this  is 
'  not  true  of  all  the 
•'Aryans.  Amongthc 
Indians,  Varuna,  the 
night  sky,  usurped 
the  supremacy,  only 
^    y^  y^     -^   '        to  be  in  turn  v:in- 
Apollo.  quished    by   ludra, 

the  god  uf  storms.  In  Uennany,  Odhinn,  originally  the 
god  of  the  stormy  atniosplicro,  became  in  course  of  time, 
the  great  god  of  all  Teutonic  people.'  Now  it  is  not 
neciissjiry  fi>r  our    present   purjwso  to  give  a   detailed 

J  L'c.x  :  "Myilioloiry  of  tin'  Aryaii  Nations." 


ABTAN  BBLIOlON  721 

ftooountof  Aiyan  mythology.  It  is  sufficient  to  remark 
that,  approiimately  in  the  manner  here  pointed  out,  all 
Aryan  people,  when  history  first  dawns  upon  them,  were  in 
the  possession  of  a  rich  and  varied  mythology.  The  ex- 
planations and  child-like  theories  of  the  primitive  Aryans, 
retained  by  the  conservatism  so  natural  to  all  religions, 
now  found  a  place  in  the  songs,  descriptive  of  their  gods, 
and  the  meaningless,  absurd,  or  immoral  stories  told  of 
the  loves,  lives,  and  adventures  of  their  gods  and  god- 


Leaving  the  other  branches  of  the  Aryans,  we  will 
turn  our  attention  to  tho  Aryans  of  Asia,  who  are  of  es- 
pecial interest  to  us  in  our  present  inquiry.  We  have  be- 
fore pointed  out  that  the  Aryans  of  Asia,  as  far  as  our 
present  incjuirj'  is  concerned,  consist  of  two  closely  related  s 
people;  tho  Iranians  and  the  Indians.  But  at  the  time 
to  which  we  now  direct  our  inquiry,  these  two  branches 
bad  not  yet  made  their  appearance.  The  people  were,  as 
yri.  itiiii.^d.  This  w;is  the  Todi.-  .-igc  of  the  Aryans.  We 
Ii;ivi'  n!iT;iily  h:(il  occasiiiii  to  rcfiT  to  tliis  expression,  and 
!i:j\>'  p''i'li,i]is  s;(i(l  all  tli:it  is  iit'i-essary  on  the  various  di- 
vi.-iMti-  Mf  this  mass  of  lit.M-aturr.' 

X'nv  a  ^■ast  amount  of  study  has  of  late  years  been 
dcvi.t.'-l  In  tliis  mass  of  literature,  in  order  to  gain  there- 
fpiiii  ii  kiio\\lr.l:.'(.'ol'tlio  religious  conceptions  of  the  Asiat- 
ii'  Aryans  wlnn  wo  first  gain  an  historical  knowledge  of 
llniii,       !.'  t   us  jiausc  to  note  a  singular  idea  prevalent 

I  |--..r  fiirDnr  iriforiDiition  on  tlii>  Veilns  consult  Lang;  "Myth, 
l(iiii:.l.:iti4  U.'li;;inii,"  Vol.  [.  cli.  vli,  Willinms;  "lU.-llglouB  thought  lo 
J  III] I.I."  .  li.  i.  Kai-L-i:  "liik'  Vfilii,"  [i.  1  -tiai.  An  excelleDt  deKrlption 
j....Ni;iiri.-.l  iTir..l.lir.".k-.-i:-^;.v-'.'-li.i-  rtarth:  "Religloni  of  Indl*,'" 
.1.,  i,  Th.-  r.Il.iwiinr  vnliniL.-t..f  iliv '■S:.,t.-i1  Itcwks  of  the  Ea*t"  are,  of 
.■.,ur-i-,i.inrii|i-.rti.nt:  V.,|..  1.,  M.  VIII.,  Xtt.  an.)  XV.  Thelntrodoc- 
tory  |>:iri-'  in  all  of  ilii'-«' valuiix.-- give  ii-  li^-liton  this  itue«tloD.Se«alM 


722  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

among  some  authors.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
knowledge  thus  obtained  would  be  that  of  the  prvmim 
religious  state  of  the  Aryans,  and  considerable  has  beei 
said  about  the  childlike  simplicity  and  innocence  of  the 
same.  Thus  says  Geiger:  "  We  have  in  these  hymns  the 
picture  of  an  original,  primitive  life  of  mankind."^  To 
this,  Kaegi  adds  that  these  hymns  present  us  "religious 
conceptions  from  the  earliest  beginnings."*  Similar  ei« 
pressions  could  be  quoted  from  such  men  as  Whitney  and 
Max  Muller.^ 

Yet  a  moment's  consideration  will  show  us  that  this 
is  the  wrong  view.     Instead  of  being  a  primitive  stage  oi 
thought,  it  is  really  a  most  advanced  stage.     Many  cen- 
turies had  doubtless  passed  away  since  the  Aryan  migra- 
tions began.     They  must  have  slowly  passed  through  the 
various  stages  of   ancestor  and  fetich  worship  and  were 
in  an   advanced  stage  of  polytheistic    nature    worship. 
Plain  traces  of  these  stages  exist.     Neither  was  the  state 
of  society  "primitive."     The  family  was  fully  organized.* 
**The  ranks  of  society  were  as  clearly  defined  as  in  Ho- 
meric Greece."*''     Kings   arc  frequently  mentioned,  poets 
and  priests  abound.     The  people  were  settled  in  villages, 
various  trades  were  practiced  ;  in  short,  society  may  be  said 
to  have  arrived  at  the  very  verge  of  civilization.*     The 
very  language  in  which  the  songs  were  written  was  alreiidy 
old  and  decrepid,  long  past  the  bloom  of  youth.'' 

All  this  shows  us  how  greatly  we  err  when  we  regard 
the  religion  of  the  Vedic  period  as  a  primitive  religion. 
Let  us  bear  in  mind  the  following  eminently  just  observa- 

1  Kaopl :  **Rij?  Veda,"  p.  20.  «  Ibid. 

3  Lange:  **Myth,  Ritual  and  ReUgion,"  Vol.  I.  p.  119. 

*  Kaegi :  '^Rig- Veda,"  p.  14.  »  Lang,  Op.  cit.  p.  290. 

fl  Ibid.  ^23. 

7  Sayce:  *'Scieuce  of  Language,"  Vol.  IL  p.  188€<«eg. 


ABTAN  EELIOION. .  tSU 

mai  Lma^  "In  the  Vedas,  we  have  the  views  of  tho 
^ttUs  onlr.  that  is,  of  sacred  poets  on  their  way  to  Uw-m- 
fasacrai  caste.  Necessarily,  they  no  more  ivjtn-acut 
»  pt^HiIar  creeds  than  the  psalmists  and  propln-t-s  with 
Or  lofty  monotheistic  moraUty,  reprosont  the  [HUtular 
eeds  erf  Israel."*  But  in  reality  the  Vwlua  do  »lu»w  u« 
e  (rf  the  moat  interesting  stages  of  roligioua  itovtilup- 

Advancing  intelligence  of  tho  pooplo  in  genital  had 
•* begun  to  perceive,  in  ndini  >viiy,  tho  wtiakiiohMitf  thoir 
■polar  creed.  They  were  feeling  abtmt  lor  nouiriliing  lo 
keita  place.  In  such  a  stago  of  thaught,  tlioni.>rti  intel* 
dual  class  of  people — the  pcM'ts  tiiitl  prlostH — w.mlil  laku 
eat  liberties  with  the  old  uiytliology,  Tho  old.  r  mytlirt 
id  legends  were  in  pjirt  e.x|)Iiiinml  iiway ;  hen>  DiiiiUi-d 
logcther,  and  there  softened  iliiwii.  Huch  crude  coiiccp. 
ns  of  the  Dawn  as  a  r<'<l  cow  were  replaced  l>v  long 
ciii.s  on  the  goodness,  wisihmi,  and  lii-atily  of  TT?.hii«  (tlu- 
iwn).  In  .••hort,  tlit- nmiiv  hin-d  luniith'  of  portry  was 
Uii  ov.T  111,,  ancient  iriyllndn-y,  .■.incnilnig  hen-  and 
■n- il- .TiLlnirss,  ;Liid  tlinmiii^'   ;iii  ;iIt.V:<-tIi«-r  ditrurcnt 


lit  ..11  what  rcii 
A-   "..st.llr.l 

lainc 

.  in  1 

d. 

ll,cfM>l 

or  Vclic  sUt}:<;  the  Aryan.s 

India  arc  not  ^ 

-lip]M 

..-r.l  t..  1 

ia\c  x.j.aralcd    into  the  tw.. 

■al    .-tpanis    ..t' 
■     In.Ii;U:s,          l; 

111- 

ut     1 

A.Mati.- 
I,i.-   >.-,.: 

.\rvan,';   tlic  1  raliiau-s  and 
iialii.n    s'.Mii    licgan  to  takt- 

1.-,.         Otir  -hv: 

IIJl  .J. 

r  Ih.'  a.l 

vancin;:  Aryans  set  towards 

■    \V..M.  an.l    .. 

l.l.Ml.'h. 

■d  on   the   jduins   of  Upper 

iia,      Tl-acinL't 

II.'  1 

i-nuiii,- 

ol"  this  eastern  branch,  we 

1  ih-'ni   .■..niiii_' 

in  c 

..tila.-t  u 

illi  members  of  the  Yellow 

<-. -li,.-    Dravi. 

■  lian.- 

-.      Til.. 

ell'cct.  oil   the   develupment 

r'-li-i..ii.  w:f  11 

\u-i. 

id.     w. 

■    ha\f    already  traced  this 

■  MvUi,  I'.iPial  yr, 

■\  l;.l 

lyj. >],,-■  %■■ 

..1.  n.(..  la. 

Pri.-nlttve  Worship  amonff  thi  aerraans 
In  the  case  of  the  Indians,  the  Brahtuans  had  simply  to 
formulate  tlu'  slowly  crystalliziiip:  beliefs  of  tht;  pojmUr 
creed,  which  though  little  atfected  by  the  Vwlic  movement, 
had  finally  begun  to  advance  out  of  the  simply  primitive 
stage  of  belief.'  This  mred  and  belief  is  knovrn  to  us  as 
Br.ihmanism,  and  is  perhaps  the  first  attempt  ot  a  pliilo* 

1  Above  p.  186.  a  TUIb  S*ri68  Vol.  II.  eh.  Iv. 


pliica]  sTStcB  -rf  nS^aa  -af  vioA  v:  >-,i:iTcr  »  )aiMr«. 
oogh  it  is  ulnJiueSr  an&c  sid  <»T«r  \  s]\  -^i^^i. 

tdoabtedhr  oonBdcnUT  TufaegtofJ  In  v.^^ 

oranUii  Dnvifius.  and  bkon-ponco 
eir  mrths  wirk  ii>ar«wiL' 

Let  Bs  coMaAw  »  Bcdc  &nber  Uus  pnt^Ov  cai^o  of 
le  I'.r  -     11  •  body  of  aien  » r,>  '.Aryolv  ivl*>*9«*i 

om  :  -Bs  <rf  life.    TVt  t  —loii  the  UmuikiI 

>dy  ad  »o«ld  nsdoal ;  vily  ivKii^r  ».^»^r 

te  V-  i  of  philosophT  «  ,;    ivUgiiMi.      ItwV 

le  o  might  come  to  «  ;  mir  thc'iu^oht^ 

ould  :..".;  -    -  be  eonimiiiii<.'3ite\i   k>  the  jy\*ple  »l 

iTga,  urnph  --    they  were  bv  no  inc.-ins  filt^l  to  iv- 

Atc  them.  ]  I  -  -en  we  finJ  grouml  for  tbo  division  of 
fi^^ons  dortrjj-js  ii^'M  exoUrii  and  tsoteru-  »l<vtnH««,  Tlu* 
tnner  being  the  .i  >  Trine*  publicly  tauglit  «m\  c\)H)ttiii|nt{ 
IP  Inttor,  til''  '-.!-■:  beliefs  of  the  pri'stly  nii.l  Vnni.^il 
ass.  We  need  only  n'liiark.  lli.it  whilo  in  tlio  o:irli«T 
gesof  the  worM,  the  .iii^tiiktioii  Ivtween  tlioso  t\vo.'l:i!«!«.^ 
f  knowledge  was  vory  priul/  yet  the  toinloney  hrts  .mu- 
.ADtly  been  for  this  liistinoiion  to  <lis;i]i]»o;>r ;  this  bofimso 
ie  mass  of  the  jtoople  have  stc.niily  beeomo    inoi-.' miiiI 


:1 


I  Wi-  u^.  ttie  word  -Philo*^i>] 

ioar'a,.  ..[.i."""''!  '<■  ll>'-  '"■■r.-  d.->.'l.-i.- 

ntof  nlylh.■l<•tf^■,     .\ii  t-xoe|HU 

11  may  omie  lu.  hi  tlio  .■»..>  -f  Vhi  I'l. 

Intxaniiiiiiig  Eg:j-|nian  rt-litri 

11  we  failed  lo  Hii.l    miU'li   |ilill.....|.1.\  . 

iliil  i.h-.rvi'  a  (Treat  deal  of  rii\ 

ili.iI.iKy.    Tlie  lVi--inii  ■vxi-'iii  i<rr>'llu 

[ii:iy  \>y.  and    pr»)>aMy  )<•.  e.iii 

.My  n«  old.     We  ii I  .lii.,.l>  r.'.i.«rk 

11  nf  rellirii'U  wa-  In 1  .>h  |dlll.>..i|diy. 

D.xiri.'  Mk<-<>ir>n-M>I  thi-i>1u 

eiui'iii,  f,-riellKl.'ii   1- ii.'i  a  limtler  iif 

.,-..,,l,y  hut   ..f  f:.ilh. 

t   Will  l.-I  lhi-,.^i.l:.iii  Tt..rlli- 

-lHi.'n.eiii-..f  iiirneeof  .»m»  ...rt  ..f 

,„..li..i,  l..-lw..,.>i   ll^.l.yl.m  Jiiiil 

luliii-;    ■■H,>ll«l..ii-..f  India,"  |.,  xvllh 

A'.'lln-  Itiiii-.'ii'-'rulhi'rlHl'on'. 

l>y|i»ll>e>l-  III  "Anuel  M.wnUll."     Sm 

■■llil.IeKi.lk-r,ure."  l.uii,lnri. 

'^si.  i>.  1,  for  furilier  imrlli'idani  mi  IUIb 

720  THE  MEDIEVAL  WOULD. 

more  enlightened.  Still  it  has  never  entirtrly  disappeami, 
and  even  to  this  day,  how  frequently  is  the  remark  niadL* 
in  reference  to  some  particular  article  of  belief,  4hat,  how- 
ever true  it  may  be,  the  world  is  not  yet  ready  for  it. 

Xow  we  think  it  will  be  brought  out  in  the  sequel 
that  the  esoteric  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Brahmans, 
slowly  spreading  to  the  west,  exerted  a  tremendous  influ- 
ence on  the  development  of  religious  philosophy,  an  influ- 
ence which  is  felt  to-day  in  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world.  But  for  the  present  let  us  return  to  the  considera- 
tion of  Brahmanism.  In  accordance  with  what  we  have 
but  just  pointed  out,  Brahmanism  itself  must  be  studied 
under  two  heads;  Ritual  and  Philosophy.  Fortunately 
the  ritual,  or  public  worship  of  Brahmanism,  m*ed  not 
detain  us  long.  In  Brahmanism,  all  worship  may  be 
summed  up  in  one  word,  Sacrifice} 

Here  we  see  an  extraordinary  development  of  one  set 
of  ideas  properly  belonging  to  primitive  religion.  Sacri- 
fice begins  with  oflferings  of  food  to  the  other-selves  of 
dead  kinsmen  and  friends.^  When  ancestor  worship  Las 
become  well  develoiied  its  observation  of  course  becomes 
of  more  importance.  Xow,  sacrifices  are  offered  for  the 
purpose  of  propitiating  the  household  gods.  The  general 
coui'se  of  dcveloi^ment,  as  morality  more  and  more  attaches 
itself  to  religion,^  is,  first,  for  the  idea  to  arise  that  the  ol>- 
jcct  oftered  in  sacrifice  must  be  something  valued  by  the 
giver,  something  requiring  ^^^sacrifice  on  his  part.*  Only 
in  a  developed  stage  does  the  idea  arise  that  to  obtain  the 


1  Oldenburg:  »*Buddha,"  p.  19,  London.  1882.  WUliams:  "Religiou* 
ThouKlit/'  p.  )1\, 

a  Tyler:  "Primitive Culture,"  Vol  II. p.  840.  ThU  Series,  Vol.  II. p. 
742.     Spoiu'or:  * 'Sociology,*' 

3  This  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  288.  4  Tyler,  1.  c.  p.  859. 


ARYAN  RBUOION. 

wuhed  for  good,  the  moral  duties  most  be  cultivatod  as 
irell  as  sacrificial  offeriDgs  made. 

la  Brahmanism  the  development  vas  still  in  almost 
the  first  stage.*  There  were  united  to  this,  however, 
several  conceptions  belonging  to  a  very  low  scale  of  ottl- 
ture,  ideas  that  can  be  traced  directly  to  savage  philoi><.> 
phy.  That  is  the  magical  efficacy  of  eacri6ce.  If  sacri* 
fices  be  only  accompanied  by  the  right  ceremonies ;  if  the 
appropriate  prayers  and  ceremonies  be  offered  by  the  ■ 
appropriate  person,  they  are  all  powerful.  Everythingthat 
happens  is  to  be  explained  as  the  result  of  some  ceremo- 
nial arrangement.'  Already  in  the  Yedas  we  see  the  be- 
ginning of  this  state  of  mind.'  Of  course,  wo  can  aeo 
that,  when  the  Brahman  caste  with  its  peculiar  rights  had 
dereloped  itself,  they  would  foster  this  tendency.  They 
only,  know  how  to  perform  the  sacrifice,  so  as  to  compel 
the  wished  for  good.  Save  in  this  enormous  exteudion 
of  sacrifice  there  was  not  much  i^umge  in  the  standing  of 
the  older  Vedic  gods.* 

Let  us  now  turn  to  a  more  interesting  part  of  our 
subject,  Philosophical  Brahmanism.  Now  the  Brahman 
priesthood  cared  little  for  what  wo  might  call  Dogmatic 
Theulugy.^  In  questions  of  rites  and  ceremonies,  they 
claimed  to  be  the  sole  authorities.  But  the  most  diverse 
opinions  were  allowed  provided  they  professed  to  rest  on 
the  Vctlas.  Furthermore,  when  it  came  to  the  matters 
of  speculation,  the  Brahman  class  did  not  always  contain 
in  it.-*  iMiikrt  the  keenest  thinkers.  Members  of  the  Ksha- 
tyr.i  c:i-1c  often  led  them  in  this  matter." 

I;:.nli;  "lU-liKlonHnr  Iii<lla,"|>.  49,Abcivep.  117. 
■  Hiirtli.    <)].  .it   p   4.S;  WllllatiiH:  '■Ilellgious  Thought,'"  Ji  23. 
J  I.;.ii-.;:     ■Mytli,   Hiluftlniirl   Ftellgloli,"   Vul.   I.  p.  224.    Ol(lenb«Ig: 
•'Bu.lifL:.  "■  [.,  1''.  *  littrlli,  Op.  cit.  p.  41. 

•  lliirtli,  <>i..  <it   p.  1*i.       «  IlBflh.  Oj..  .11.  p.  (W.    Abova  p.  171. 


728  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

It  seems  to  us,  at  present  at  least,  impossible  to  trace 
the  steps  by  which  the  Hindoos  emerged  from  mythology 
into  philosophy.^  We  have  seen  that  even  in  primitive 
religion,  the  conception  arises  of  one  supreme  God  back  of 
all  the  rest.*  In  the  Vedic  hymns  this  feeling  often  finds 
exi^ression,^  but  then  the  people  had  not  settled  down  un 
any  one  god  as  the  supreme  God.  Or  rather  the  j)ei>i)le 
w^ere  in  that  stage  of  thought  when  any  of  the  g«;)ils  to 
•  whom  sacrifice  is  directed  becomes,  for  the  time  bciiii:, 
the  Supremo  One.* 

But  a  time  finally  came  when  these  "meditativ^^ 
Aryans",  taking  these  old  hymns  as  their  stand-j>oint.  at- 
teniptoil  to  build  up  philosophical  systems,  they  were  thus 
employed  perhaps  as- early  as  ten  centuries  B.  c.,*  anJllioir 
theories  found  expression  in  the  Upanishads  or  the  theoli>i:- 
ieal  i)ortion  of  the  Vedas.'  It  is  a  difficult  task  to  extract 
from  th(\so  Upanishads  the  various  systems  of  Philoso[>hy," 
but  wr  may  with  profit  refer  to  the  more  prominent  oiits. 
The  study  will  convince  us  that  whether  the  investigator 

1  rijore  are  those  who  wiU  deny  that  philosophy  proper  belonjis  to 
any  of  the  Hiudoo  Hy.stems  (See  Schwegler:  **Hi9tory  of  PhiloM»pliy,'* 
and  WiUiams:  **UeHgious  Thought,"  p.  20,)  since  the  whole  oKjecl  of 
tlieir  research  was  to  free  the  soul  from  the  necessity  of  rebirth.  ThU 
is  certainly  a  very  fine  poi nt  to  raise.  Whatever  object  the  HiniJ<H»# 
had  in  view,  they  did  certainly  enunciate  various  theories  as  to  tlie  uni- 
verse, tlie  soul,  and  tlie  nature  of  deity,  which  they  sought  to  support 
l>y  a  train  of  reasoning.  This,  however  cliildish  tlie  theories  may  l>e. 
is  a  s(/s(rf/i  <}f  pliUoHophy.  Tlie  object  of  the  Greek  philosophy,  we  are 
told,  was  to  disengage  tlio  soul  from  all  animal  passions,  that  it  may 
rise  above  sensible  objects  to  the  contemplation  of  the  world  of  Intelli- 
gence. [Colebrook's  "Kssays,  ''p.  155.]  This,  as  contrasted  with  the 
Hindoo  object,  is  largely  a  *'distinction  without  a  difference." 

2  Tills  Series  Vol.  11.  p.  846. 

^  Rig- Veda,  x.  120  127.,  Muller's  translation,  are  examples  of  this 
feeling. 

'*  Harih,  Op.  cit.  p.  29.    This  is  the  stage  of  thought  denominated  by 

Max  Miiller,  "llenotheism."     **Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,''  p.  i*^- 

'  n.irtli  op.  cit.  p.  07.  Oldenberg:  '-Buddhaj^p-lS.  Williams:  *'ReIig- 

ious  Thought,"  p.  2t);  but  this  same  author  in  '^Indian  Wisdom /'assumei 

olX)  j;.  C-.  e  Abt)ve  p.  KJO.  "^  Cf.  Barth,  p.  61. 


AsrAjr  BBLTamy. 


739 


be  a  Hindoo,  European,  or  American,  if  prepared  for  bis 
work,  li'-'cumea  to  concliaions  substantially  tbesame.  This 
we  woulil  indeed  expect  to  be  the  result  sint-e  men  ereiy- 
.wherearo  con^nted  hj  the  same  problems  and  have  only 
the  same  t-Iementa  whereby  to  effect  their  solution. 


Mara- 
Aa  «-f>  have  seen,  the  olik-r  mythology'  taught  that  the 
ovcr-.'ircliiii;:  lic;iV(.'ii  ami  tlir  iViiitfiil  earth  were  tho  prolific 
fathtT  jujii  imithrr  nl'  ;ili  lliiiiL'--*,  coiisiHjUi'iitly  also  of 
man.  A>>  in^iii  jiil\!tiii'.il  in  iiiirllii^cncc,  it  si.'cnis  to  have 
been  a^sum.-.l  ihat  liis  1„h1v  wuh  iinU'oa  nftheearth,  earth- 
ly, but  lli;il  liis  i-|iiritu;il    i.:irl    \v:m  iif  lu-avenly   descent 


730  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

The  problems  presenting  themselves  for  solution  were  tho 
nature  of  the  relation  between  these  two  parts,  the  mituiv 
and  destiny  of  the  spiritual  part,  and  how  to  free  it  from  it? 
entanglement  with  matter.'  Incidentally  attaching  to  tht'se 
there  wore  other  problems  pressing  forward  for  a  solution: 
OIK*  of  which  speedily  became  of  very  great  importance, 
that  was  the  Origin  of  Evil.  It  was  comparatively  exisy 
to  account  for  good,  but  whence  came  evil  ?^ 

The  slowly  developing  philosophy  of  the  Brahmans 
began  to  cast  itself  into  formal  systems,  one  of  the  first 
was  the  Sankhya  system.  The  meaning  of  this  word  is 
the  exercise  of  reason  or  judgment.'  As  expanded  by  the 
ancient  commentators,  it  signifies  "the  discovery  of  the  soul 
bv  means  of  ri^rht  discrimination".*  Not  a  bad  title  for  a 
system  of  [)hilosophy.  The  reputed  founder  of  the  school 
was  Capila,  but  around  this  personage,  if  such  an  one  exis- 
ted, have  ijfathered  innumerable  mvths^  and  he  is  jreiierallv 
considered  as  of  divine  ori^ifin.*^  The  idea  underlvins:  this 
philosophy  is,that  true  and  perfect  knowledge  will  freemen 
from  all  evil.  Then  follows  a  dissertation  onthe  means  of 
attaining  knowledge,  such  as  comparison,  inference,  tradi- 
tion, etc.  On  this  })art  we  need  not  linger.  The  most 
inii)nrtant  statements  of  their  philosophy  then  follow. 

1  10  very  religion  kuowu  to  the  world,  that  reaches  aphilosophical  suge. 
oil  its  esoteric  side  at  least,  has  had  to  grapple  with  and  attempt  asi^Iu- 
linii  of  these  problems.  On  their  exoteric  side,  however,  they  are  either 
pa>sod  l>y,  rites  and  ceremonies  forming  the  whole  of  religion,  or  s«>n)e 
formulated  article  of  belief,  drawn  from  sources  considered  by  the  follow- 
ers of  the  religion  in  question  ua  inspired,  solve  all  doubts  and  aii*w«?r 
all  inquiries.  Perhaps  this  is  the  better  way,  since  the  field  of  religioa 
is  not  science  but  faith. 

'  Dean  Mansell  mukcdthe  two  great  problems  of  heathen  philosoph; 
to  1)0  "the  problem  of  absolute  existence,  and  the  problem  of  theOrifin 
of  Evil."     ("Gnostir  Heresies''  p.  11) 

•^  Colebrook\s  ** Essays,"  p.  144. 

^  Ibid.  Cf.  William's  definition  of  synthetic  enumeration. '-IndiiB 
Wisdom,"  p.  91.  5  Above  p.  718. 

e  Colebrook's  "Pijsays,"  p.  145.  Williams;  Indian  Wisdom,"  p.  89,  note  1. 


.SMT^S  XXLJ&OX.  T&l 


r 

P  It  M  n  iiami  wj  £Meah  to  set  forth  the  d^bub  i*f 
'plukiaopfcial  ^um  m  •  vst  at  all  interestiDg.  It  U. 
ftmerq,  m  mmmmrf  ftr  a  farther  understaudiug  of  our 
ttfa}eet,thatweBaAaMkeaB  attempt  to  unUerstMmlthvtto 
Ad  thinken.  As  inr  the  world  of  matter^  tlu>v  sniil  il 
vas  et«nia^  and  was  the  prodarer  of  alt  things.  Tlit\Y 
Ipirvd  it  as  an  ciemal.  productive gemi,  aiuldi'signKtMl  it 
iy  a  feminine  ntMin.  /V»ir7ii,themother  of  nil  tiling*,  nuUo 
in  krcping  with  the  old  mythologr.  But  thi^  gt'nn,  thimgh 
tof,  indivisible,  and  all  that  sort  of  thing,  is  »  trinity,  n 
Biiios  of  three  qualities,  each  equal  to  the  other,  a  prrforl 
oquipoise  existing  between  them.  These  are  the  thn^O 
Gonas,  or  rorda,  which  bind  the  soul.  The  tlrst  rouipriHlng 
an  of  good,  the  second  of  evil,  the  third  of  itKlilToronnii,' 
This  philosophy  also  declnrea  that  the  spiriluul  part 
of  man  is  eternal ;  not  only  that  it  will  bo  etenml  hi  ilio 
fetnre,  bat  has  been  in  the  past.  This  priiiciplc  in  it«»* 
ignatc<l  by  a  masculine  noun  Purusha.  IIiil.  tlimigli  thcrti 
is  only  one  productive  germ,  spirits  iire  iniiiiiiiiTfilil'',  t'lirji 
separate  and  independent  from  the  otln-rs,  iiml  imli  jiiia 
existed  from  all  eternity.  Whether  tliiH  t*ynl<iii  'iriKlniilly 
admitted  theexisteneeof  one  supreme  hmiiI,  ><\w  ;<ii|ii'i'i<ir  lo 
all  the  others,  is  doubtful.'  Hut  ciTtainly  innip  Mm-  n-iy 
earliest  times  some  pliilo.sfjplii-rs  of  tliis  wShmA  liiij({lit  llm 
existence  of  such  a  supreme  soul,  fiwara,  llnr  ciiI<t  of  tbc 
world.'  But  this  supreme  ruler  is  wofur  r<f(iiovud  from 
other  souls  that  he  takes  no  inten-Hl  in  thein. 

I  TbeOuuax  arc: 

1  Hmltva,  f^iulvKk-Tit  lo  jvurilj,  jf.-.'lii.M,  '-f , 

2  K.Ji«.  ■■  r— ..=^uvM,,.-l.-. 

.l  Tama.".  ■'  'lail'.d'-n,  id-liffwi-d-*,  ill- 

Vidf  Wlllifctus:  "Religiou.  Ti.:',vU\    '   i-,  Kl ;    r-'.Ul/f wk '•  "«*(•)'•," 
p.  157. 

«  Th*  maj-rily  ..f  ■uth-ritip-  «-*(ij  f,  fi.v-,f  II-*  («*•«*■  vUiw  ;  HafUj 
■Religion  of  Iii'liB,'   |.   '.<•:   WiUmur        I(*^Ii^'*u.  TliwuKijI, '  |(.  <•• 


732  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

The  relation  between  these  two  eternal  principles 
they  consider  to  be  as  follows.  The  female  principle, 
Prakriti,  desires  union  with  the  male  princii)le,  Piirusha. 
No  creation  takes  place  unless  such  union  occurs.  Here 
comes  in  the  fatal  entanglement  of  the  soul  with  matter. 
The  part  played  by  the  soul  is  simply  that  of  a  passive 
onlooker,  still  it  is  finally  ensnared  by  the  wiles  of  Prak- 
riti. He  joins  himself  with  her  and  a  phenomenal  world 
and  an  intelligent  being  is  produced.*  But  in  this  act  of 
creation  the  perfect  equipoise  of  the  three  qualities — ^good- 
ness, evil,  indiiference — in  Prakriti  is  disturbed.  The  soul 
is  bound  to  matter  more  strongly  by  one  cord  than  another. 
Hence  we  have  all  classes  of  beings ;  good,  bad,  and  indif- 
ferent.^ 

Now,  in  order  to  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  main  points, 
that  is  how  this  system  answered  the  problems  outlined 
above,^  we  will  pass  by  some  points  in  the  system,  and 
hurry  on  to  the  final  question,  how  was  the  soul  to  be  set 
free  from  its  entanglements  with  matter?  Death  would 
not  do  it,  for  death  was  simply  the  destruction  of  onegross^ 
material  body  and  there  were  several  other  bodies  inter- 
vening between  that  and  the  soul.*  Besides,  until  the 
soul  was  fully  informed  in  this  matter,  it  must  transmi- 
grate from  body  to  body,  in  each  life  enjoying  the  rewards, 
or  suifering  the  penalties  for  deeds  done  in  a  former  body. 
But  when  the  great  principles  of  this  philosophy  are  truly 

the  theory  of  the  Yoga  branch  of  the  Sankhya  phUosophy;  cf.  Cole- 
brook's     remarks,    p.  159, 

^  Notice  the  singular  conclusion,  there  are  as  many  phenomeiul 
worlds  and  creations  as  there  are  individual  beings,  eonsequently  the 
pheuotnoiial  world  is  not  a  real  one. 

'^  Let  us  understand  that  not  all  of  these  intelligent  beings  are  human 
beings;  some,  as  gods  and  demons,  are  superior  to  man;  aad  8ome»ai 
quadrupeds,  are  inferior.      Colebrook's  "Essays,"  p.  157. 

a  Page  730.  4  Colebrook.  p.  155. 


pUBLl 


*S2S-^"o^°pAS..1 


AR  VAN  RELiaiON.  735 

ived,  then  will  the  imprisooed  soul  learn  that  it  is 
,ly  diatinct  from   matter.      "Possessed  of  this  self- 
ledge,  soul  contemplates  at  ease  nature,  thereby  de- 

from  prolific  change."* 
Now,  before  passing  on  to  other  topics,  lot  us  reflect 
a  moment  on  this  systom.  It  taught  dualism ;'  the 
lity  of  matter  and  spirit;  all  the  evil  of  lilc  arose  from 
80ul  yielding  to  the  enticement  of  matter ;  the  way  of 
ipe  waa  the  attainment  of  true  knowledge  by  which  the 
might  perceive  tlie  errors  of  his  ways,  so  to  speak. 
'e  roust  notice  also,  the  prevalence  of  old  mythological 
side  by  side  with  ideas  advanced  for  that  age.  Quite 
keeping  with  the  old  mythology,  and  with  all  tlie  phc- 
they  saw  around  tiiem,  they  acciiunted  for  all  that 
by  the  union  of  a  male  and  a  leinale  principle.' 
■light  change  itf  naim-  will  however  show  that  jifler 
this  system  is  not  fiiolish.  Suppose  tliat  instead  of 
,riti  and  Puruslia.  w<>  talk  about  inattiT  niid  force, 
'e  are  at  once  on  gronnds  familiar  to  modern  materialists. 
We  nmst  also  speiik  of  one  sect  of  the  Sankliya  phi- 
losophers, the  y'oga  branch.  The  founder  of  this  branch 
itinctly  affirmed  the  existence  of  a  supreme  soul ;  Ca- 
bOa,  the  founder  of  the  Sankhya  systems  being,  to  say  the 
least,  silent  on  that  point.  From  such  a  belief,  howe\'er, 
Olbor  results  followed.  Xow  the  object  sought,  was  not 
vimply  to  free  the  sord  fnim  entanglement  with  matter, 
tKtt  further  to  attain  union  with  Iswara,  the  supreme.  To 
1  Ibid.  1U4. 

>  We  would  nntur*ll>-  pxpcci  cliiaUHni  tn  precede  monotbelim.  How- 

r  Bartli  rrniArkM  Ihni  lu  Hit-  II ret  Instance  tbU  ii>-st«m  wu  notdukl- 

b;     "Bc-ll|[lnn»of  IiuHi./'   p.  7(i. 

»  Ahniwl  »U.  If  nut  nil,  ri'llKi'nH  -eem  t.)  have  puaed  thU  itage  of 
E  WIef.  (I'i<fa  Inroan:  "Aiiflrnl  railhit;"  Westropp  »nd  Wake!  "An- 
ftcUtitBymbol  Wnn>hlp."j  Tolblx  du.v  In  all  parUof  ladla  templM  u* 
■  drdlckttfd  to  thpiiialo  and  fi-TiiHl>'  [irlnclpleii. 


73<J  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 


further  this  end,  minute  rules  of  conduct  were  laid  down, 
following  which  it  was  claimed  that  such  union  could  be 
ol>tained  even  in  this  life.  This  union  bestowed  on  the 
practitioner  certain  very  great  powers,  such  as  clarvoy- 
ance,  clairaudience,  levitation  of  the  body ;  or  the  soul 
was  thought  able  even  to  leave  the  body  and  travel  abroad' 
and,  at  its  will,  return  to  its  bodily  domicile. 

The  belief  that  such  powers  are  attainable  to  man  is  ' 
not  confined  to  this  sect,  but  is  very  prevalent  in  India. 
In  older  times  it  amounted  to  a  belief  in  magic  and  sor- 
cery. A  well  informed  writer  at  the  present  day  will  cer- 
tainly be  chary  about  expressing  an  opinion.  The  remarks 
made  on  a  former  page^  in  regard  to  Shamanism  apply 
with  intensified  force  here.  Many  years  are  spent  in  the 
severest  training,  with  one  object  in  view:  the  development 
of  psychic  force.  The  apparently  well  vouched  for  results 
sometimes  obtained  are  beyond  any  explanation  we  can 
give  at  present.^  The  fact  is  the  modern  world  has  been 
carried  away  in  the  pursuit  of  practical  science.  Only 
just  within  the  last  few  years  has  it  consented  to  investi- 
gate the  unknown  power  of  the  human  mind.  But  brief 
and  as  superficial  as  has  been  the  examination,  we  begin 
to  see  that  a  new  wa^rld  of  knowledge  is  awaiting  explora- 
ti(Mi.  Many  years  must  yet  pass  by  before  a  just  verdict 
ran  l)c  rendered  in  this  instance.^ 

PcTliai)S  it  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  discuss  at  length 
•inotlic  r  system  of  Hindoo  dualistic  philosophy  analogous 
to  tlu^  Sankhya  system.*  We  will  therefore  turn  at  once  to 

1  Voi.  II.  p.  329. 

2  Vide  ^'Indian  Wisdom,"  p.  106. 

3  We  Vould  advise  the  reader  to  examine  the  reports  of  the  variooi 
Psychical  societies,  and  he  will  speedily  see  how  very  limited  is  oar 
kn()wI(Ml«ro  on  this  subject,  and  realize   the  truth  of  Hamlet *8  remirt 

'Hamlet,"  Act  I.  Scene  5. 

A  This  is  the  Nyaya^Linl  its  modification  VaUe^hica  {Vide  Cole- 


ABYAIf  JtELIolOX. 


737 


most  important  school  cf  Indian  philosophy— the  Vo- 
ita.  This  school  apparently  stitrtcd  from  an  crmlo  con- 
Uons  as  the  former:'  the  position  tlicy  finnlly  nttained 
passed  them.  According  to  tliw  -hcIiooI,  then?  is  but 
eternal  essence — pure  spirit. 
3  was  called  sometimes  At- 
i  (spirit),  or  Param-atman  I 
preme  spirit),  or  Brahma." 
is  to  the  spiritual  part  of  man, 
1  individual  spirit  {/iv-AU 
()  was  a  part  of,  or  identical 
1,  the  supreme  Atman,  just 
iparks  are  thrown  out  by  a 
lace  fire.  But  not  only  was 
spiritual  part  of  man  derived 
1  the  supremo  spirit,  hut  the 
erial  part,  as  well  as  tho 
erial   universe,  was   derived 

I  the  same  S'lurce.  Tlii-  Ai- 
I.  ill  -liort,  was  llic  universe.^ 
inn  writers  ma.lc  iiiitnv  ;i(- 
[■ts  to  cxphiin  tlirir  tiTMlrr- 
din-  '.f  (liisstaleiiirTit.      "II*-  is,"  ^ay  tlicy,   "tlie  etlio- 

;■-.■■  L;.-mij--,"  i-li.  vii.,  Th.-s..  hv-trni-  luiiKhl  wiUi  HiriKiilnr  fiillne« 
Ai..iiii.:ilTli.'.iry.'"  Tli.'ir  iiiuilvxi-  wiiil.I  ]>ii.vi.  ii  Hurprluc  t.t  tin."' 
iiii:i;:ii.<' tliiitull  |<)iil<»-n|>hy  oriiriiiHteil  willi   |]>i>  Ori'i'kH.     Wu  tii<n- 

II  r<.ru  hCLf'iiK'jil  <.f  iiiurl.  of  lin.'k  i>liil'<!t()]>liy-  Tlio  diH;trlii(-  of 
linn  .T.  ri-iTiiT'li  "iitoui-,"  (li.-  Ari-loli'lian  "  PutPRorlen,"  nnd  tlio 
H  of  Ut.-  I'1;Li'>iii(;  H'\u>u\  111  r>'[;arrlH  "  xulmlaiK'v"  aru  here  BUt«d. 

.1  ■■<.iii-  of  till-  lili'ux  of  ihi'-.-  )<liilo-<o{ilit'rH  will  bear  comparlaoD 
"iiii.Hit  nt^.l  pliyHlclHtx.    [Vide,"lad.\m 
li:  "ri.-liirlonft  of  Iinlia,"  i>.  72. 
.-hurt;  iH  iieiiKT  uikI  niuHt  not  b«  oon- 
ii:i-i!illiiv,  llic-   atlivo   .)r  cickllve  form 

'■l^ii  r  tiXLH  imply  that  fi  clikOtlc  •OHM- 
MrriJili:   "  It<i<l<tliil,"  p.  10. 


Tl»'  wor.)  Itruhnin 


738  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLD. 

rial  element  from  which  all  things  proceed,  and  to  which 
all  return/'  "He  is  the  light  which  shines  in  heaven, 
and  in  all  places  high  and  low,  everj^where  throughout  the 
w^orld,  and  within  the  human  person."  "He  is  tlie  intelli- 
gent self,  immortal,  undecaying,  and  happy."^  Speaking 
of  the  external  world,  they  say  he  is  both  creator  and 
creation,  actor  and  act.* 

Such  was  the  Vedanta  j^hilosophy  in  its  first  stage.  It 
was  pure  pantheism.      Instead  of  two  eternal  essences, 
as  in   the   Sankhya  system,  it  admitted  but  one,  spirit, 
which  was   regarded  as  both  the  material  and  efficient 
cause  of  all  that  exists.     But  time  passed  on  and  other 
problems  pressed  forward ;  new  ideas  were  engrafted  on 
the  older  system,  and  we  have  a  philosophy  not  so  strik- 
ingly different  from  the  Sankhya.     These  new  ideas  seem 
to  have  arisen  from  an  attempt  to  answer  the  remaining 
problem,  what  is  the  relation  between   the  two  parts  of 
man?     What  is  the  bond  which  holds  them  together? 
Admitting  that  the  material  world  was  likewise  derived 
from  Brahma,  what  sort  of  a  world  was  it?     In  answer  to 
these  queries  we  have  the  doctrine  of  illusion^  such  a  fa- 
vorite theory  among  later  Indian  scholars,  but  which  is 
not  found  in  the  older  Upanishads.' 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  come  at  the  reasonings  un- 
derlying the  language  of  the  Hindoo  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject. Looking  around  them,  they  of  course  perceived  all 
sorts  of  material  objects;  but  the  very  keynote  of  their 
faith  w^as  that  all  was  Brahma.  Why  was  not  such  a  truth 
apparent  at  once?  It  must  be  because  their  intellectual 
power  was  not  sufficient  to  penetrate  the  disguise.  In  other 


1  Colehrook'H  "Kssay,"  p.  217. 

^  .Jacobs:  ^^Hindoo  Pantheon/^  for  a  good  analysis  of  Brahma. 

^  On  this  point  see  Colehrook's  "RssayM,"  p.  242.    I)arth,  Op,  dtp-  7S 


ABYAK  BELiaiON. 


73»     1 


Words,  it  was  owing  to  the  power  of  A-vidya,^  that  b  igiuw 
ranee.  The  appearance  of  things  must  be  inen^t  v  i))u»or^v. 
The  phenomenal  world,  all  that  we  see  annnul  u»,  «ij 
have  no  more  real  existence,  than  the  things  wo  si-o  in  m 
dream.  But  how  did  this  phenomenal  worM  ^c\  i*tiirU'»lV 
Of  course  it  all  comes  from  the  supreme  ;*i)iril,  V>ut  UoW  J 
from  pure  spirit  can  come  the  impure,  illusdry  lunHerlf  m 
In  answer  to  this  question,  Hindoo  theo1ogiiiii»i  look  rc>f> 
age  in  an  explanation  which  we  shall  moot  \\\\\\  nguiu  niul 
again  in  Oriental  theology.  The  supreme  j;<>d  w«ii  Ptm* 
sidered  as  too  elevated  a  character  to  concern  hiiiinrlf  in 
creation.  He  therefore  by  the  power  of  illuninii,  irrrutml 
Iswara,  the  ruler  of  the  world.  But,  notice,  Uwaro,  U 
himself  a  trinity ;  for  he  is  dominated  by  t  Iim  1  linw  gunnt, 
of  which  we  made  mention  some  pages  back.' 

It  is  Iswara  that  creates  all  things;  but  \\»<  iimt  all  ItU 
creations  are  illusions.  Each  human  soul  )><'lii-vt<«  lUnlf 
living  an  individual  eiistence,  Tliis  in  )>iiii|'ly  illimlon. 
This  btlief.  however,  is  the  Ix^ri'I,  c^nucftirjK  bpirit  and 
matter  As  lung  as  such  b*.-]ief  in  held,  r'»  long  will  tlia 
soul  1m-  subifft  to  the  jKjwer  of  iIIu«io;i,  aii'l  In;  prttVL'iitt4 
from  lii-s  fir:a]  uni.n  with  limhrna.  H'-  umui  learn  tlifl 
prortt  truth  iL^t  ;);'■  Atiu'ii:  U  all;  tluit  h>:  hiim^rlf  in  the 
Atm:ii. :  h._-  ::,_:-:  '  :;.'.■  '  ■■  .l.-.  yiu--'\':UtU;u  V,  Miirv..-  tliat 
"I  aiJi  (  ■/.])  i-x.'-.'-L- 

India.     A"  i'-v-v  c. /r..:;;...  :,:•'.:.:> -i  vne  j^/iut.      Jii  j/riHU- 
tivo  T'A\-   '  I'-.  Li.^;  -.0  •.v-^rv;  *,Liut  jj.i'./rfcJJtv  w*u6  i^A  vour 


740  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

nected  with  religion  at  first.  So  when  philosophy  began, 
not  much  attention  was  paid  to  morality.  The  way  of 
escape  from  evil  was  not  by  exercising  morality,  but  in 
the  acquisition  of  correct  knowledge.  Not  action  but  belief 
was  what  was  wanted.  It  is  true  that  many  painful  as- 
cetic rites  are  deemed  efficacious,  but  only  because  they 
are  an  aid  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  For  the  time 
being  wc  will  leave  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Aryans  and 
turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  western  or  Iranian 
branch.^ 

At  what  time  in  the  distant  past,  Aryan  tribes  com- 
menced to  spread  over  the  plains  of  Iran,  we  can  not,  per- 
haps, decide  with  certainty.     Wc  are  probably  safe  should 
wc  say  that  as  early  as  2000  B.  c.  the  movement  destined 
to  Aryanize  the  country  bordering  on  the  kingdom  of  As- 
syria had  begun.     Fifteen  centuries  went  by,  with  only 
occasional   scattered  historical   references   of  this  move- 
ment; then  the  veil  is  suddenly  withdrawn,  and  we  find 
the  whole  country  stretching  away  to  the  east  from  the 
Tigris  river  in  the  possession  of  Aryan  tribes  more  or  less 
pure  in  ethnology. 

The  westward- wandering  Aryan  tribes,  who  in  that 
primitive  long-ago  defiled  through  the  dreary  passes  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  mountains  and  began  the  long  but  grad- 


tho  Orient.  Its  meaning  is  involved  in  the  mystic  A-XJ-M  of  India.  It  is 
the  ''Nuk  pu  Nulc,''  engraved  in  the  roU  of  the  dead  and  put  in  the  Egyp- 
tian tombs.  This  same  formula  is  also  signified  by  the  three  letters  i-a-o 
of  Semitic  belief,  which  co-alesce  into  lao,  the  mythic  name  of  God 
umong  them.  Indeed  this  is  expressly  said  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  In- 
cfHihle  name  of  God  among  the  Hebrews  [Exodus  ii.  14.]  Consult  Hig- 
pjins:  ^'Auacalypsis,"  p.  4o4c<«c5r.  Stanly:  "Future  Religion  of  the 
World/'  p.  260  note  2,  p.  304. 

^  From  the  necessities  of  the  case  we  have  had  to  be  as  brief  as  pos- 
sible in  }>resenting  the  two  principal  philosophical  creeds  of  India.  In 
addition  to  the  authorities  here  quoted  we  would  especially  refer  to 
"Hindoo  Philosophy/*  by  Ram  Chandra  Bose. 


ARYAN  RELIGION.  741 

tuUly  spreading  conqut-st  of  Iran,  carried  wiih  then  the 
mythology  and  superstition  that  was  an  heritage  from  the 
pre-Vedic  age ;  per- 
haps, even,  the  songs 
of  the  Veda  were 
sung  by  their  priests. 
Eut  as  the  centuries 
went  by  a  great 
change  was  effected. 
A  system  of  religion 
gradually  grew  up 
which  attracted  con- 
siderable attention 
in  the  ancient  world, 
and  undoubtedly  ex- 
erted a  great  influ- 
(■nee  on  the  develop- 
ment of  tlie  relig. 
iilis  thudghts  ;iiid 
l.rlirtV  .,r  Uie  civil- 
\v.--\  »urIdorto-d:iy. 
J..  I  ii>  thfii  try  to 
ari|uirf  <-lc:ir  ideas 
al«.ul  lliis:<ystt>iii.. 

It    has    rc-fivcd 
vjirii'iis    iiaTii.'s.  but 

of      \Mr      vcurs     til.' 

nanif  'A'  A/,t.:i/,-!.o>!  iias  lierii  nmrit  conimoiily  applied  toil' 
As  pr.liniin.irv  ]il  us  uIisitvc  the  two  principal  elements, 
the  iiiiitiiiL'  <if  wliicli  tnriiii-d  the  n-liirion  in  question.  The 
tirst  is  tin-  Ixlirfs  bn.ii-lit    by  the    first  Aryan    invaders 

1  Tli'MT   i>!iiii.-<    iir.'    liiiHli,.!!!,    Zoroa-lriaiilsni.   kod    Fil»-WoMhIp. 


^ 


^ 


742  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

from  tho  Asiatic  center  of  Aryan  dispersion.  That  tlioy 
brought  with  them  the  mythology  and  songs  of  the  Arj'ans 
of  the  early  Vedic  age  is  now  not  doubted.  The  name  <A 
their  supreme  god  was  derived  from  the  Vedic  title  nf 
Asura  Mazdha  **lord  of  high  knowledge,"  the  name  of 
one  of  the  spiritual  attributes  of  Varuna,^  and  in  many 
other  cases  we  could  show  equally  plain  traces  of  this 
original  union.^  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  this  west- 
ern movement  of  the  Iranians  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
schism.^  But  this  is  probably  the  reverse  of  the  truth, 
the  religions  became  changed  because  the  people  sep- 
arated.* 

With  the  mythology  and  culture  of  the  early  Vedic 
age,  then,  the  invading  tribes  entered  Iran.  They  of 
course  found  the  country  fully  inhabited  and  many  centu- 
ries of  slow  fusion  went  by  before  the  new  religion  was 
fully  devcloi)ed.  All  this  time  they  were  subject  to  the 
influence  of  the  mythology  and  practices  of  the  various 
tribes  that  they  gradually  conquered  and  assimilated. 
Here  then  was  the  second  principal  element  in  the  devel- 
opment of  Mazdeism,  and  it  is  necessary  to  inquire  more 
I)articularly  on  this  point. 

It  has   been   abundantly  shown  that  the  tribes  in 
Ehun    and   Media  before  the  appearance  of  the  Aryans 

1  Darmestotor  Ibid.  p.  Iviii. 

•J  Kinj;:  "(iiiostic  Uemtiins,*' p.  31. 

(J<M';or:  ''('iviliztition  of  the  KaHtern  Iranians/'  p.  xzvi. 
Max.  MuIUt:  *'Zen(l-A vesta,"  p.  aS. 
"Isis  Unveiled,"  Vol.  II.  p.  143. 
Mills:  "Pahlavi  Texts,"  l»t.  T.  p.  Ixxi. 
'SSacred  J^)oks  of  the  Kast,"  Vol.  V. 
3  Bleek:  *'Avesla,"  p.  x. 

*  Mills:  *'Zeii(I-Avesta,"p.  xxxvii.  **Sacre<l  Books  of  the  Eaut,"  Vol. 
XXXr.  Vasiia,  xxxii.,  apparently  descrllies  a  eonfllet  l>otwt»on  two  !»ei»- 
tions.  Hut  it  was  perhaps  u  eontliot  between  Magiani  and  tho  flret  relig- 
ious eoneeptions  of  the  Iranians. 


An^Ay  liBLioiox. 


743 


were  Turanians.  Like  all  Turanian  people  tliey  had  a 
rich  mythologj'.  But  more  important  still  was  the  organ- 
ization of  their  priesthood.  Wo  have  hud  occasion  to  re- 
fer to  the  importance  of  this  observation  several  times.' 


Terr.ple  q-.  Ber.aree. 

It  I. 

ri.l,-  slradil 

V  tn  ill,-  r.ii-iji;i(i.,ii   i.f  a  powerful  priestly 

In.,1^ 

,     Tl„.ir| 

■i.>ls  wt-vr  ttir  Mri^'i,  .1  very  miieh  rewpeo- 

i-.r. 

lid  _-iv,-,||_\ 

tVarni  .-.rid  «-..ii.si.'.iUL'iitly    a  very  iwwerfiU 

" 

\l...v.-  J,.  1^,-, 

744  THE  MEDIE  VAL  WORLp 

body  of  men.     They  formed  a  close  corporation,  throughly 
organized  and  well  disciplined. 

During  these  centuries  effusion  the  Aryan  tribes  had 
been  in  general  the  conquerors;  but  as  far  as  their  religious 
culture  is  concerned,  they  gradually  passed  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Magi.     Advanced  to  power  by  the  half  Turan- 
ian Cyrus,^  we  see  them  defeated  in  their  attempt  to  gnisp 
supreme  power  under  the  leadership  of  the  false  SmerJis. 
yet  they  doubtless  increased  in  power  under  the  Achaeme- 
nian  kings.     Stationary  under  the  Greek  rule,  they  re- 
vived under  the  Parthian  supremacy,  and  triumphed  with 
Ardesliir,  the  Sassanian.^     Under  the  reign  of  this  latter 
king,  Mazdeism  entered  on  its  final   stage.     It  is  to  the 
presence  of  this  j^riestly  body,  influenced  by  ideas  derived 
from  Babylon  and  Assyria,  that  is  to  say  by  Semitic  in- 
fluence, that  we  are  to  ascribe  a  large  part  of  what  we  find 
strange  in  Mazdeism. 

There  was  once  a  vast  mass  of  literature  expounding 
the  doctrines  of  Mazdeism,  only  fragments  of  w^hich  remain, 
and  these  fragments  are  of  greatly  different  ages.'  No 
doubt  the  Gathas  are  very  ancient.  It  is  by  contrasting 
the  statements  in  the  various  manuscripts  that  we  make 
out  the  gradual  development  of  Mazdeism.  Every  great 
religion  that  has  moved  the  world  is  centered  around  an 
individual-  A  great  dispute  has  been  waged  as  to  w^hetber 
Zoroaster,  the  great  prophet  of  Mazdeism,  bo  an  historical 

i  Xen.  Cyrop.  viii.  1-3. 

3  We  have  already  bad  ocasion  to  mention  this  rise  and  faU.  Above 
p.  103. 

^  The  Aveata  (Revelation)  constitutes  the  oldest  collection.  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Avesta,  composed  in  the  Pablavi  dialect  (of  Sasfimnian 
times)  form  the  Zend,  The  Bundahis  (Original  Creation)  is  a  collection  of 
mythological  fragments  existing  only  in  the  Pahlavi  dialect.  Of  the 
Avesta,  again,  the  Oathaa  of  unknown  antiquity  form  the  oldest  portion, 
the  Yasna  and  Viapcrad  are  supposed  to  be  more  modern,  and  the  Ven* 
didad^  the  last  in  order  of  time. 


AEYAN  RELIGION. 

personage  or  not.^    The  most-  eminent 
directly  opposite  conclusions  on  this  p     it.* 
member  that  there  is  the  utmost  divers    ''      o 
when  he  flourished  and  where  he  was  born.'  t1 

that  the  name  of  the  chief  priest  of  the  M 
times,  was  the  same  as  the  name  of  i        b      i1 
age/    This  may  explain  the  matter,  f(        )  may  ] 
name  Zoroaster  as  that  of  an  official  and  not  of 

It  is  a  very  difficult  task  to  give  within  the  1 
a  few  pages  an  outline  of  this  religion.     If  in  i     \ 
are  presented  with  songs  in  which  the  older  myi 
about  vanishing  in  poetry,  we  arc  more  forcibly 
the  almost  complete  loss  of  this  mythology  in  i 
writings.     In  the  very  oldest  or  Gathic  period,     \      1 
dinary  stage  of  development  had  been  :  .    ( 

many  superstitious  customs  still  held  8       ' ;  ] 

through  it  all,  was  an  under-current  of     ari 
which  hasoxcited  the  admiration  of  nearly     1  in^ 

All  nature  .sccniod  to  the  poets  of  the  Gathas  to  U 
tlie  doctrine  nf  Dualism.     We  have   cold  and    heat,  1      it 
an<I  darkness,  and  so  also  good  and  evil.     Among  the  1 
iaiis  \vr  have  seen  the  linal  gathering  of  all   the  goinl   ii 
Spirit,  an<l  all  the  evil  into  Matter.     The  Iranians,  i 
other  hand,  found  the  presence  of   good   and  evil  in  iM 

1   Above  p.   100. 

'i  Mins.in  liiH  "Introduction  to  t!u'  (iatluiH/*  ("Sacred  Bookii,**  V^ol. 
XXXI J  corneM  to  tlie  ooneluHioii,  tliat  Ih»  wiih  an  hiHtorlcal  |H*r»onag«| 
"A  loinng  prophet.'  Darmesteter  in  "Intro<luctiou  to  the  Vendldad," 
(Vol.     IV.;    conc'ludeH    he  was  a  niythi<'al    pentouage,    "A  ■torm  god.'^ 

3  Above  p    101. 

4  I*rof.  Wilder  In  his  edition  of  Payne  Knight's  "Ancient  Art,''  p.  68. 
Cf   ♦tyinnlo^'v  jrjven  in  "Ixirt  Unveiled,"  Vol.  II.  p.  141. 

^  Vith'  al»«o  Yasna  xxviii.  The  prayer  in  for  needed  spiritual  help  for 
Zoro:iHt«T  and  n-t  It  would  Mt'cni  that  thin  us  refers  to  the  Magiao 
Iiri«-th«MMl  in  ^♦nrnil.  C'f.  Mill's  note  on  thiu  "Sacred  Booka,"  Vol. 
XXXI.  p    21. 


ceived  that  all  furms  of  lifeanJ  all  i'urtns  of  fnuition,  lifO 


^ 


ARYAN  SELIOldS. 

the  results  c  ^d  action  of  two  principles, 

or  tendencies  indepenili^iit  of  each  other,  one  work, 
good  and  one  for  evil.     Hence  there  is  good  and  e^ 
evcr^-thing — supercatuml  beings,  men,  animals andp 
and  material  things.     These  two   principles  are 
simply  a  Better  prineiplt/  and  a  Worse  one.' 

The  praetifal  coiii*f*[uence  of  this  belief  was  a  di' 
sion   of  everj'thiiig   Lciween  these  two  principles. 
aupcmatural  powers  made  their  choice,  and  were  ex 
ing  their  jwwers,  eillier  un  the  side  of  the  Better  "V^ 
Ibe  Worse  one.    The  great  duty  of  man  in  this  life 
choose  the  Better  Way  "as  to  thought,  as  to  word, 
to  deed."      The  animal  ivorld  was  divided  as  tl     ■ 
supposed  to  have  been  most  influenced  by  the  one 
or  the  other.     All  aniinald  in  any  way  helpful  to  n     i 
of  course  muiit  iiifluenceil  by  the  Better  princi 
are  then  preaeiiU-d  with  two  opposing  courts  in  the 
natural  w.irld.     At    the  lioad  of  each  there  was  p 
supreme  ruler,  under  wlmin  were  arraiii,'ed  the   various 
orders  of  gud.s  and  genii. 

At  the  head  of  the  tun-es  of  tlie  IJrtter  \\'ay,wa3  placed 
Ahura  Mazda  as  leader,  and  the  most  2H)werful  god  us 
|Miintcd  out  aljuvr.  Tliis  ii<»\  was  far  more  ancient  than  the 
doctrine;*  of  Dualism.  He  i.s  derived  from  Varuna,  the 
all  emhraeinLj  sky.  lIi-  is  usually  described  as  j>oasesscd(if 
all  the  attriUutes  of  D'ily.  He  is  wise,  holy,  just,  and 
benign.  Dul  at  the  same  time  other  expressions  occur 
showing  that  after  all  lie  was  .sim|ily  tlie  most  powerful 

1  Yii,-iiu  KS^.  2.  V;i-rin  xlv.  2.  It  li  ncorpely  correct  to  npe*k  of 
thesf  priiicijili-i  tii  "]n■^^'c)[lul  ln-icinn."  It  was  iiciiluulit  liard  for  Iheaeold 
(MH'iH  t<ii-x|iri'sH  ilnir  iiii:iiiiii>j.  I'liey  hail  to  uio  tioiiiinora  more  or  Ipm 
pcn'.iiial  Bltrnillr'iitirc.  \\.\-  "Siicrpii  IliM)kH,"  V..1  XXXI.  |>.  2Sanil  p.  I2i, 
DoIcZ  .\  f:.lri-tiii«-iii.'titi>f  1hlniirlLi't.-<>fth<-ircive<l  would  be  that  tbaf 
n.fOKiii/i-'l  l«o..i.(j<.«iiij,'  l.iiiliii.i.-  ill  .'ViTV  thing. 


748  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

god,  not  the  all  powerful  one.  In  time  of  trouble  lie 
offered  up  a  sacrifice  to  Yayu^  and  begged  his  help  and 
protection,^  and  likewise  to  the  goddess  Anahita,'  lie 
offered  sacrifice  and  presented  gifts,  and  begged  her  as- 
sistance in  bringing  uj)  the  holy  Zoroaster.*  He  t<» 
recognizes  that  but  part  of  himself,  his  fravashi,'  was  im- 
mortal. In  fact  the  Iranian  conception  of  him  was,  that 
he  was  simply  "  the  greatest,  the  best,  the  fairest  of  all 
beings."®  He  seems  to  owe  much  of  his  great  iiowertoliU 
knowledge  of  magical  formula?,  with  one  of  these  he  con- 
founded the  evil  one.''^ 

Though  in  the  Gathas  he  is  called  the  *'  Great 
Creator,"  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  all  creations  are  simply 
the  union  of  the  two  princii^les.®  Under  the  leadership 
of  Ahura  Mazda  arc  ranged  subordinate  deities.  Chaldean 
mythology  knew  of  "  seven  gods  of  the  vast  heavens, 
seven  gods  of  the  great  earth,  seven  gods  of  the  igneous 
spheres/'^  It  is  not  surprising  to  learn  of  six  superior 
gods  (forming  with  Ahura  Mazda,  a  group  of  scven),who  as- 
sisted Ahura  Mazda  in  his  government ;  his  cabinet,  so  t»» 
speak,  each  one  taking  a  special  department  under  lii> 
care  ;  we  nmst  remember  that  the  Gathas  were  instructions 
tor  the  priests,  and  hence  wo  need  not  be  surprised  i»» 
notice   how   refined  become  some  of  these  older  concei»- 


i  The  God  of  the  Atmosphere.  ^  Kain  Yast,  I.-3.  3  OotUiess  of  Water. 

*  Aban  Yast,  v.  Fargard,  xix.  14.  5  Ibid.  •»  Yasnaxix.  lo. 

^Bundahisi.Sl. 

8  Ahura  Mazda  is  generaUy  represented  as  the  good  principle  liim- 
solf.  Yot  ill  Yasna  xxx.  lie  is  distinctly  represented  as  chiK)A*iiit?  liie 
i^^ood  principle;  ami,  if  wo  are  to  judge  from  language,  all  spiritual  l»i*in;rs 
including  the  i)rc-oxisting  souls  of  nienjare  already  in  existence.  Tln?y 
ni«'  iviucscntcd  a^^  choosing  which  to  follow.  Probably  as  being  at  the 
h(>nd  of  g  )od  order,  Ahura  Mazda  became  confounded  with  the  good 
principle  itself. 

**^  Lcnormant:  •*  Chaldean  Magic,"  !>.  17. 


ABYAS  BELIOION.  74i) 

In  the  Gathas  these  seTen  are  the  Ameskospands} 
Though  they  are  regarded  as  persons  they  are  at  th  <>  same 
liniethe  attributes  or  messengers  of  Ahura  Mazdn.'  As 
3Si  general  the  crude  conceptions  must  have  preceiled  the 
3%fiDed,  we  feel  confident  that  the  Ameshospands  formed 
the  great  gods  of  Iranian  mythology,  though  theeffort  was 
jU>  refine  them  away  to  mere  attributes  of  the  deity.  This 
effort  however  failed,  they  remained  distinct  beings. ' 

Clear  traces  of  the  former  presence  of  polytheism  in 
tiie  worship  of  the  Iranians  may  be  traced  in  other  dirft'* 
tions.  Even  in  the  age  of  the  Avestas,  prayers  wor»i  to  lie 
said  to  numerous  gods  and  goddesses  ;  to  Atar  (fir.'\  tho 
son  of  Ahura  Mazda;*  to  Slithra,  the  "Lord  cf  wid# 
pastures,"  who  came  ultimately  to  mean  the  sun  ;*  |«t 
Ardvi  Anahita,  the  goddess  of  water,'  as  well  as  to  lli»'»ttn 
and  the  moon.'  As  in  Chaldea  we  find  Uio  tuoitllM 
named  after  Chaldcaa  gods,"  so  in  Persia,  each  mniilh  wm 
orginally  named  after  one  of  the  gods  of  the  old  jwiitlirtvn,' 
Eiuh  .lay  of  the  month  was  plai-cd  uikI.t  |!i>'  |.i',.|o,>ll,»»  A 
onoof  tlieoM  deities,  and  a  special  prnyiT  was  in'iihinriiUiHl 
to  carli.'"  X-.r  is  the  list  yet  cxlimisl.d,  l.iil,  fiioiuli  l»  ^ 
now  Ikm'ii  set  forth  to  show  the  clear  Inir.not'  ii  tonmn' 
polytheism.  Let  us  simply  notirc,  tlml,  Ii<  in  ni oUiiw hi'Us 
there  w;is  prdiaMy  quite  ;i  differeiiee  |ji*h\ieii  \\w  \  '\v\\%  nf 
the  priestly  class  ami  the  masses  of  llm  ptopio, 

Wo  have  so  far  hecn  de;iliiif^  willi  tlio  loiiua   lliitl 

fhon>e    the    Belt.T   WaV,  Ull.ler    tl,.-    Ie,i,lelnl.i).   of    AllUni 
"^     i   Vii-ii»  x\i\.T-f).  From  "ln-ti'i-  fi.iJi'"   IIi.'Aiii.Ii.ib|.iihiU   ••rlllunt- 


,.U.   1  Kur.l...l  Nvi 


750  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

Mazda.  Opposed  to  these  there  was  a  similar  array  d^ 
voted  to  the  Worse  Way.  At  the  head  of  the  foico 
of  evil  was  Angra  Mainyu.  We  cannot  point  back  to 
some  one  god  of  the  older  mythology  as  the  source  of  the 
conception  of  Angra  Mainyu.  The  conception  of  him 
arose  from  the  necessities  of  the  theory,  there  must  be 
some  opposing  leader  to  Ahura  Mazda^  He  is,  so  to  speik, 
the  negative  projection  of  Ahura  Mazda,^  and  the  organi- 
zation of  the  forces  of  evil  was  modeled  on  exactlv  the 
same  lines  as  those  of  the  good.  The  six  Ameshosi>aiiJs 
were  confronted  by  six  greater  demons  who  formed  the 
grand  council  of  Angra  Mainyu.  In  short  to  every  force 
of  good  was  opposed  a  corresponding  evil  force.' 

We  have  now  presented  an  outline  of  Mazdeism  in 
its  earlier  stages.  As  time  passed  on,  changes  took  place. 
Ahura  Mazda,  as  head  of  the  forces  of  good,  became  gradu- 
ally confused  with  the  good  principle,  and  ended  by  being 
considered  as  identical  with  it.  The  case  is  similar  with 
regard  to  Angra  Mainyu,  except  that  probably  he  never 
assumed  a  well  defined  form  before  the  foregoing  stage  had 
been  taken  by  Ahura  Mazda,  and  consequently  he  was  al- 
ways considered  the  evil  principle.*  But  another  chanjie 
still  is  in  progress.  The  priestly  idea  of  Dualism,  that 
good  and  evil  were  united  in  the  creation  of  all  things,  was 
2^robably  too  refined  for  the  masses.^     The  popular  idea 

1  Mainyu  means  spiritual  power.  Spenta  Mainyu  meant  the  bert 
spirit  (Yaaua  xxxiv.  2;  xxxii.  16)  and  often  means  simply  the  spirit  of 
Aliura  Mazda  (Yasna  xxx.  3).  in  the  same  way  as  we  talk  of  God,  sod 
God's  spirit.  Angra  Mainyu  was  the  evil  spiritual  power;  in  Yasna xu. 
it  is  simply  called  the  Worse  Way.  s  "Sacred  Books/'  Vol.  IV. 

3  It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  Chaldean  mythology  knevoT 
'^Sevon  demons  of  the  Igneous  spheres,"  the  opponents  of  theseveB 
great  gods. 

4  Btrioily  speaking,  it  was  not  Ahura  Mazda,  but  his  spirit,  Speott 
Mainyu,  that  was  considered  tlie  good  principle.  Vide  Geiger;  Op.  ciL, 
^-  Iviii.  fi  Tliis  is  the  doctrine  in  Yasna 


AB  TAN  RELIQION. 


embodied  in  the  later  writings  of  the  Ve  ^ 

ially  in  the  mythological  collection  of  the  Bu 
Smitten  in  the  Pahlavi  dialect,  and  belonging  )ly 

gBassanian    times.*     The    popular    conception 
^^Uiura    Mazda    created    all  good  things,    while    -A 
^^ainyu,    for  spite,  so   to   speak,   creates  the  bad.     ±' 
|i»Tery  good  place  that  Ahura  Mazda  creates,  Angi  r 

i7«reates  some  specific  evil.     Ahura  Mazda  cr<         the 
^animals,  but  Angra  Mainyu  diffused  over  the  eai      tl 
f  kms  creatures,  such  as  snakes  and  scorpions.     F 
'  blight  to  fall  on  vegetation,^  and  mingled  smoke         ( 
ness  with  fire.*    Avarice,  want,  pain,  hunger,  c 
lust  were  some  of  the  sins  he  set  in  motion.* 

A  state  of  mind  advanced  enough  to  c(      eive 
ftpst  principles,  one  evil  and  one  good,  n 

the  further  question,  whether  this  confl<  to 

Humanity,  weary  with  striving,  longs  for  r  .1 
philosophy  looked  forward  to  union  with  Brahma 
final  goal.  The  Iranian  prophets  looked  forward  to  the 
final  triiinij)h  of  Ahura  Mazda  over  the  wicked  one,®  and 
popular  faiK-y  dreamed  of  the  haj)py  paradise  of  Yima, 
where  the  rivers  flow  between  ever  green  banks  bearing 
never  failing  food  and  every  kind  of  tree  of  the  greatest, 
best,  and  finest  kinds  on  earth,  but  no  sin  or  sorrow  waste 
enter  there.**  But  these  blessings  were  to  be  the  reward 
only  of  those  who  were  pure  in  word,  in  thought,  and  in 
deed.     It  is  in  the  Bundahis  that  the  six  Ameshospands 

Mf.  Far^ard  i. 

'  Her<*  iiotirr  how  true  it  Is,  that  in  Hacred  writings,  the  first  writing 
of  the  i)ri«'>tly  dasa  in  by  no  means  a  fair  representative  of  popular 
opinion.  We  have  pointed  out  liow  true  that  was  in  the  Vodaa,  have 
oh«*  rv«(l  it  true  in  the  sacred  writing  of  the  Hebrews,  and  here  we 
Ami  it  ainonj?  the  Iraniann. 

-  "I^undahi^."  iii.  V\.     <  Ii»i(l.  24.     5  Ibid  17.     t^  Yasna  xxx.  S. 

'   I*'ar^:ard  ii.  Ll'J-ii^. 


752  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

became  six  archangels  and  the  other  gods  became  angelic 
powers.  Each  taking  an  active  part  in  the  work  of  crea- 
tion. 

One  inquiry  yet  remains  before  us  in  this  secondarv 
stage  of  Mazdeism,  and  that  is  what  was  the  relation  ^»f 
soul  to  matter.  They  taught  the  pre-existence  of  the  souls 
of  men,  not  until  after  creation  was  completed  do  they 
enter  bodies.^  They  thought  that  in  order  for  the  soul  tu 
enjoy  happiness  of  the  best  mental  state,  which  was  tlicir 
comprehensive  definition  of  heaven,*  it  must  meet  and 
overcome  the  powers  of  evil.  Ahura  Mazda  is  represented 
as  giving  these  pre-existing  souls  the  choice  of  either  w- 
maining  as  they  were,  spiritual  creations,'  and  be  always 
furnished  with  a  protector,  or  to  assume  material  bodies, 
meet  and  conquer  temptations,  and  then  enjoy  an  im- 
mortality of  happiness  with  him.* 

If  we  stop  to  survey  the  ground  over  which  we  have 
now  gone,  we  can  see  how  widely  Mazdeism  departs  from 
the  Indian  philosophy.  These  differences,  we  think,  come 
largely  from  Semitic  sources.  It  is  no  less  certain,  as  wo 
shall  soon  show,  that  this  systematized  belief  reacted  on, 
and  greatly  influenced,  the  religion  of  Israel.  But  for  the 
present,  let  us  notice  still  a  third  stage  of  Mazdeism  whew 
we  seem  to  have  before  us  the  influence  of  later  Indian 
thought.  Dualism,  after  all,  is  unsatisfactory,  the  world 
dt^sires  to  get  back  to  a  First  Cause.  We  have  seen  how, 
in  the  first  stage,  Mazdeism  taught  the  existence  of  two, 
co-equal,  co-eternal  powers ;  how,  in  the  second  stage,  Ahuw 
Mazda  and  Angra  Mainyu  were  considered  to  be  these  two 

1  Yasiia  XXX.  7.  ^  YaHna  xxx,  4.  >  Yaana  xxx.  7. 

4  Buudahi.s,  ii.  9-10.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  remark  that  in  Banda- 
liis  we  have  the  doctrine  of  the  re.surection  of  the  dead  taught  with  great 
fulneHs  of  detail,  (chap,  xxx.y  the  final  judgment  is  also  described,  and 
we  find  the  final  rest^iration  of  the  wicked  to  the  Joys  of  heaven  is  taught. 


AHYAN  RELIGION,  753 

"first  principles.      But  now  the    equality   between 
is  destroyed  since  Ahura  Mazda  was  to  conquer  in  tl 
In  many  ways,  he  is  represented  as  the  superior  of  h 
Mainyu.' 

This  was  in  the  direction  of  monotheism.     1 
was  finally  taken,  but  not  in  Avesta  times,*  and 
taught  the  existence  of  one  Supreme  God.     Both  h 
Mazda  and  Angra  Mainyu  were  held  to  be  created 
derived  from  one  eternal  essence   Zrvan  /. 
without  bounds."     We  do  not  gather  this,  he     5V    , :    > 
Persian    sources,   but  rather  from    late  Greek  ^ 

Thus   this   doctrine  was  subsequent   to  the 
Christianity,   and   may  have  been  influei    3d  :    :       1 
source.*     But  on  investigation,  the  doctrine       q 
seen  to  bear  more  resemblance  to  Ind       ph  y. 

probably  the  current  began  to  set  tc 
long  before  the  downfall  of  Mazdeism.* 

Analogous  to  the  Vedantic  system  of  philosophy, 
Zrvan  Akaranii,  like  Brahma,  while  the  Supreme  God,  is 
far  removed  from  all  wordly  affairs.  Like  Brahma,  he 
hands  over  all  the  work  of  creation  to  the  two  subordinate 
gods  (Ahura  Mazda  and  Angra  Mainyu),  which  he  had 
pro<liir<Ml   l)y  emanations  from   himself.     The  doctrine  of 


1  Thi.M  roiiit's  out  very  plainly  in  Buudahis,  i.  Ahura  Mazda  is  re- 
pre>*t'nt»-fl  a^  ornriisoient,  Angra  Mainyu  as  "backward  in  knowledge," 
imposed  upon  through  ignorance,  and  (juite  overcome  by  the  spells  of 
Ahura  Mazda. 

s  S«'e  Wtst :  "Pahlavi  Texts,"  "Saered  Books,"  Vol.  V.  p.  Ixx. 

3  On  th«'  "Hourjdiess  Time"  ijuestion  consult  Wilson:  *'Parsi  Re« 
ligion."  p.  \Z\it8r(i\  King:  ''(Jnosiic  Kemains/' p.  29  c^  «<'9 :  (Cf.  Man- 
wl:  •'(;no-4ti<*  Her«*sies,"  p.  40  :  "  Sa<Ted  H(M)ks,"  Vol.  IV.  p.  Ixxzii. 
Vol.  v.  p.  Ixx.     Jolinson:   "Oriental  Religions,"  Persia,  \t,^%ei  %eq, 

«  In  its  first  ln'i^'innin^rs  it  antedates  Christianity.  It  was  known  to 
Aristoilf,  and  as  rjirly  a^  thf  third  cvntury  "Boundless  Time*'  bad  been 
transformed  into  a  Ifgrndary  hero,  "Sacred  Books,"  Vol.  IV.  p.  lT»x!k 
note  .3 

^  "Sacred  Hooks."  Vol.  IV.,  p.   Ixxxviil. 


ARYAN  RELIGION. 

knows,  the  Greeks  had  a  fully  developed  i 

thology.     They  ha^i  brought  with  them  fr       i 
live  home  the  greater  gods  of  their  .    \ 

also  welcomed  some  of  the  mythical  divini  i 

neighboring  people  in  Asia.    The  Greeks  I       in 
of  many  centuries  advanced  through  the  ^ 
primitive  religion.     We  must  notice  one      int  in  i 
nection,  since  on  it  depends  much  that  is       z\i\ 
the  Greeks.     There  was  no  strongly  organized  pr 
among  them.    Nothing  even  remotely  appr     thii     i 
Brahman  caste  in  India,  or  the  Magian  priesth 
the  Persians.     Each  house-father  conducted  t 
of  his  household,  and  tribal  officers  attended  to 
duties  for  the  tribe.* 

Im[>ortant  results  follow  from  the  foregoing, 
lection  of  priestly  writings,  corresponding  to  the  "V 
Avestas,  was  made  which  the  masses  of  the  peo 
required  to  accept  as  infallible,  inspired  oracl  con- 

MMjiK'iKT',  there  was  niiu-h  greater  freedom  of  intelleetual 
lit'*.  Neither  was  there  a  reliirion  of  forms  aiul  eeremonies 
whieh  the  people  were  e\j)eeted  to  follow.  All  this  nvn- 
trilaited  in  ik*  small  de<2:r(*e  to  the  izreat  excellence  of  the 
(f reeks  in  literature,  seieiiee,  and  art.  In  Groei*e,  no 
system  of  reliirion,  aceordinLrlv,  took  its  rise.  IJut  their 
k«»i'n  intellect,  not  fettered  hy  the  restraints  just  mentioninl, 
had  of  course  considered  the  problems  which  come  to  all 
men,^  and  had  in  several  ways  attempted  to  answer  the 
same.     We  want  to  examini*  s()me  of  these  answers. 

The  seventh  ccMiturv  \\a\  was  one  of  (considerable  im- 

» 

i  Tbis  WHS  Oh-  Aryan  ou'^toin.    Hemomber  that  both  the  Iraniant  and 
In<iiaiiM,  who  ba<l  an  orpani/cd  priesthood,  had  alsoin  each  case  conquered 
and  lncorporatf<i  in  their  ranks  weU   advanced   Turanian  people.    The 
Druids  of  WeHtern  Europe  are  a  resiiU  of  the  name  procedure. 
Alx>ve  p.  730. 


766  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

portancc  to  Aryan  Europe.  Psammetichus,pharaoh  of 
Egypt,  threw  open  the  ports  of  that  country  (670  B.  c), 
and  abandoned  the  policy  of  isolation  that  had  been  pu^ 
sued  for  ages.  This  must  have  given  a  great  stimulus  to  the 
commercial  and  intellectual  life,  and  this  caused  a  wonder- 
ful expansion  of  the  intellectual  horizon  of  the  Greeks.  This 
century  also  witnessed  the  growing  power  of  the  Aryans 
in  Asia.  The  tribes  that  were  to  overthrow  Semitic  power 
were  growing  into  one  homogenious  whole  under  the  head 
of  Media  and  Persia.  This  cause,  no  less  than  the  former, 
conduced  to  the  expanse  of  the  Greek  intellect.. 

It  is  not  strange  then  that,  as  this  century  drew  to  a 
close,  we  should  find  evidence  of  a  general  scepticism  among 
the  educated  classes  in  Greece  regarding  the  mythology 
still  held  in  reverence  by  the  masses  of  the  people.  It  would 
not  do  to  be  too  bold  in  openly  denouncing  it,  but  day  by 
day  the  misty  forms  of  the  Olympian  gods  grew  fainter, 
while  i)hilosophical  speculations  grew  clearer.  The  vari- 
ous opinions  of  Greek  thinkers  finally  assumed  systematic 
shapes,  and  we  are  presented  with  what  are  called  schools 
of  philosophy.  We  must  remember  that  no  one  school  was 
peculiar  to  any  one  time.  Representatives  of  the  various 
schools  of  thought  were  to  be  found  at  all  times.  We  have 
already  had  occasion  to  mention  the  views  of  some  of  the 
(Jreek  philosophers.  We  here  need  only  to  show  their 
position  in  the  scale  of  Aryan  culture.  At  the  earliest 
time,  we  find  divergent  views  held,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
take  a  general  survey  of  the  field. 

The  Ionic  school  taught  that  matter  was  the  one 
eternal  principle.  Even  the  gods  took  their  origin  fn>m 
thence.  They  differed,  as  we  have  seen,  as  to  what  form 
of  matter  it  was,  that  was  the  elementary  substance. 
While  one  said  it  was  watcT,  another  called  it  air.     These 


AB  YAN  EELIQION.  757 

older  philosophers  do  not  seem  to  have  c<  1 

selves  very  much  with  the  spiritual  part  of  man.  :y 

thing  sprang  from  the  material  element  assumed  \ 
primary  one.^    But  alongside  of  this  reasoning       ) 
another  line  of  thought.     Anaximander*  was  not  will       t 
adopt  any  one  concrete  substance  as  his  elemei     he 
back  on  an  abstract  speculation — The  Infinite^  i 

thereby,  perhaps,  primal  matter. 

This  idea  of  the  Infinite  was  closely  akin  to  i 
thagorean  philosophy.'     After  all  researches  th     )  y 
main  considerable  mystery  in  regard  to  this 
school.     In  many  ways,  we  detect  an  Oriental 
He  formed  a  society  resembling  in  many  respec         m 
societies  in  India.     Only  after  a  long  novitiate  w     5 
bers  admitted  to  full  membership.     The  life  in 
was  largely  ascetic.     They  believed  the  body      pi 
the  soul.     They  believed  in  transmigration       1  iil; 

pure  and  holy  life  was  the  only  escape  from  th  evil.*  All 
this  Ix^trays  an  unniistakable  Indian  influence.  We  must 
also  reflect  that  at  this  time  the  Orphic  and  Bacchic 
mysteries  spread  throughout  Greece,*  and  there  is  a  strong 
j>n>bability  that  these  spread  into  Greece  from  India.''  Wo 
may  therefore  be  sure,  that  the  real  doctrine  of  the  Py- 
ihairoreans  was  a  secret  one,  to  be  divulged  only  to  the  in- 
itiates. Hence  perhaps,  the  gTeat  uncertainty  in  regard 
to  it/      It  is  evident  from  what  we  have  just  stated  that 

»  >w\\  i-^  the  ^reneral  view  of  writers  on  this  subject.  Mahaii :  **Hi8- 
t<*ry  oi  I'liilo^opliy,"  ar^^ues  the  contrary  view  for  Thales. 

1  AnaximainltT  is  not  always  classed  as  an  Ionic  philcmopber. 
L4-wiH:  ''History  of  Philosophy/'  Vol.  I.  p.  13. 

3  Cf.  I^'wis,  I.e.     4  Malum:  "History  of  Philosophy,"  p.  187. 

'•  Cf.  Srhwi^rthT:  p.  n."/«'lhr:  '(ire^'k  Philosophy,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  497. 

'  Taylor:  "Kh'iisinian  ami  Bacchic  Mysteries."  Wllder'a  edition, 
p.   XX.   nni«',  al-o  )».  12.').  note. 

8   Al»<)Vr  p.  4'vS. 


758  TSE  MEDIEVAL  WOBLD. 

the  Pythagorp^n  school  was  an  exotic  in  Greece,  still  it 
exerted  a  great  influence  on  Greek  thought.' 

In  the  third  school  of  Greek  philosophy,  the  Eleatic, 
we  see  the  current  of  Greek  thought  setting  steadily  to- 
wards Pantheism.  The  "Being"  of  Parmenides  is  strik- 
ingly similar  to  Brahma  of  the  Hindoos.  He,  equally 
with  them,  denied  the  reality  of  the  phenomenal  world; 
but,  like  them,  he  was  obliged  to  attempt  a  practical  ex- 
planation of  it.  The  pure  "Being"  was  sometimes  united 
with  an  opposite  influence.  For  instance  if  we  call  Being 
light,  it  was  at  times  united  with  darkness;  or  if  we 
designated  it  h  e  a  t ,  it  was 
at  times  united  with  cold;  or 
if  we  call  the  former  rare, 
the  latter  was  dense.  What  la 
this  but  Brahma  united  with 
illusion?*  In  the  teachings  of 
Hcraclitus,  the  obscure,  Pan- 
t  theism  is  also  taught.'  Wo 
have  already  pointed  out  how 
he  attempted  to  surmount  the 
difficulty,  sure  to  rise  in  every 
system  of  Pantheism,  of  ac- 
PythaE^jrae.  counting  for  the  phenomenal 

w<irld.*  Here  notice  the  distinction  between  the  Ionic 
:iiid  Eleatic  philosophers.  They  both  sought  for  someone 
principle  or  element  from  whence  all  was  derived.  The 
first  school  found  such  an  element  in  some  form  of  matter, 
the  second  school  found  it  in  some  formal  cause.  The 
maxim  of  the  Eloatics  was  that  "All  comes  from  one,"  this 

1  Bunscn  ("Angel  Meeeiali,"  p.  67  et  teq.)  writes  to  ahoir  tlutt 
Pytliagiiros  was  a  Buddhist.    Cf .  etymology  p.  76. 

azetler:  "Greek  Pbiloeophy,"  Vol.  II.  p.  GS8.  ■  ZeUer,  Vol.  U. 
p.  46.    •  Above  p.  491. 


ARYAN  BELIQiON. 

was  but  another  statement  of  the  Hindoo  maxim  that  * 
Atman  is  Universe." 

But  if  both  the  schools  so  far  discussed  taught 
we  find  philosophers  in  Greece   who  taught      1 
They  recognized  the  reality  of  the  world  of  mat 
explain  the  many  problems,  they  had  to  conceive  oft 
working  of  a  second  incorporal  element.   Ai  >] 

B.  c.)  thought  that  matter  had  always  existed  in  1 
of  an  infinite  number  of  elements;  but  these  ele      i 
not  the  atoms  of  later  thought,  but  compound  n 
which   by  coalescing  form  sensible  bodies.     For 
elementarv   molecules   of  flesh  were   conceived   to 
which  united  to  form  the  flesh  of  a  body,  1 

bodies,  such  as  stone,  bone,  and  wood.*  But  the       v 
these  molecules  was  effected  by  an  eternally  ei 
telligence — in  short,  by  mind  or  spirit.     Th 
merit  of  his  philosophy,  still,  as  Anaxagoi 
great  office  of  this  intelligence  was  simply  to  j 

ttT,  and  thus  his  conception  was  far  short  of  the  concept  a 
ut'aii  intelligent  ruler  of  the  universe.*  Diogenes  of  Apo- 
Ionia  (4r>()  H.c.),tried  to  combine  the  doctrine  of  Anaxagoras 
witli  Ionian  jihilosophy.  Others  again,  impressed  with 
tin'  doctrines  i)i  Anaxagoras  concerning  the  infinity  of  the  ^ 
niolrculcs,  l>ut  rejecting  his  ideas  as  to  intelligence,  intro- 
duced ilu'  Atomistic  j)hilosophy;  the  great  leader  of  this 
.--•IkmiI  was  Deniocritus  (4^)0  n.  c.)  They  too  believed  in  the 
ctrrnitv  of  matter.  It  existed  in  an  infinite  number  of 
atoms,  l)nt  tlic  coml^ination  of  these  atoms  was  effected  by 

'    L«\vi-,   Vol.  I.   i>.  ST.     Va'W'V,  Vol.  II.    p.  ;w2. 

«  On  this  important  p(»irit,  coiiipare  Iv^'wis:  "HlMt<>ry  of  Philosophy," 
Vol.1,  p  T'i.  /clh-r:  -History  of  (in/«'k  IMiiloaophy,"  Vol.  II.  p.  844,  «l 
/•"y.  Scli\v«-^l«'r,  Op.  «ir.  j>.  i"«.  Tho  roiiiniry  view  is  maintained  by 
Miiharj:  "A  Critical  History  of  IMiilosophy,"  p.  186  ei  teq.  Soma 
Mahaii)  havo  Hupposetl  that  A iia.xagoraH  derived  his  ideas  from  tha 
JfWn.      llii.-^  is  ^iiii  rally  gntii  up.     Ct.  ZcUef,  Vol.  I,  p.  'SI  et  uq. 


760  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

necessity,  not  by  chance  as  it  is  sometimes  represented,  bat 
by  inexorable  laws  inherent  in  matter.'  Empedocles  (-WO 
B.  c.)  with  his  four  elements"  shows  us  the  Greek  intellect 
striving  to  get  back  to  unity  ;  for  the  many  of  Democritus, 
he  returns  to  four  elements,  united  by  love,  diaassociated  by 
hate. 

We  are  now  down  to  the  age  of  Socrates.  Taking  a 
general  view  of  Greek  thought  as  far  as  we  have  gone, 
we  notice  that  the  tendency  is  in  the  direction  of  either 
materialism  or  pantheism.  Wc  need  not  be  surprised  to 
note  that  some  of  the  acute  thinkers  of  Greece  were  fast 
drifting  towards  scepticism.  This  re- 
sult was  inevitable.  Philosophy  was 
talking  learnedly  about  the  "Being" 
and  the  "Becoming,"  and  showing  how 
the  common  notions,  respecting  time, 
space,  motion,  etc.,*  were  all  in  ei^ 
ror,  denying  in  fact  the  reality  of  the 
^  phenomenal  world.  As  a  natural  con- 
\  sequence,  a  reaction  was  sure  to  occur, 
,ind  we  find  those  subtle  disputants,  the 
'  Sophists,  furnishing  the  arguments  to 
Sccratee.  convince  thepeople  that  nothing  really 

could  be  known,  and  that  there  was  no  real  criterion  of 
I'irtuo, 

Itwasatthisstiigethat  Socrates  appeared.  Anaccount 
of  his  life  has  already  been  given.*  Now  tho  great  value 
of  Socrates'  teachings  was  not  in  any  philosophical  scheme 
which  he  supportetl,  for  he  had  no  philosophy.  But  he 
did  teach  a  new  method  of  search.  He  did  insist  on  a 
clearing  up  of  thought.     He  wanted  to  know  what  people 

>  Above  p.  492, 

*  Above  p.  493. 


.ABYA^f  RELIQtOy. 


X  wbeB  thejnsed  the  learned 

T  a  m.>st  skJlful  eross-exami     lion  s 

weakness  of  the  dt       t 
and  attempted  tu  asssist  ' 
form   clearer  ideas.     He 
on  the  practice  of 
emplified  it  in  bis  i        1 
crates   thus  made 
sion  on  Greek  thought, 
by  his  tragic  death.     Tl    1 
Xenophon  wrote  nn  ncc      ; 
life.'     After  his  death,      3 
7.=:icphcii.  schools  attempted    to    i     c 

they  conceived  to  be  bis  doctrines.     The  d 
rnics,  of  which  the  churlish  Diogenes 
ither  a  perversion  than  a  develoimient  of  the  ■ 
nent. 

to,  the  disciple  of 
''s,  marks  f  u  rli 
..rtaiit 
I'liilosuphy  ll 


became  ao 


762  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

quaintod  with  the  views  of  the  Eleatie  school,  and  with 
Pythagoreanism.  Tradition  relates  that  he  traveled  in 
Egypt}  When  ho  returned  to  Athens,  he  established  a 
school  known  as  the  Academy,  and  here  he  taught  his 
doctrines,  in  which  we  find  elements  taken  from  all  the 
older  systems. 

If  the  Pythagoreans  had  esoteric  doctrines  different 
from  their  exoteric  teachings,  we  might  reasonably  look  for 
such  a  distinction  in  the  teachings  of  the  older  Acaileuiy. 
It  is  admitted  that  a  great  deal  of  confusion  exists  as  to 
what  Plato's  philosophy  was.*  Scarcely  one  of  the  really  im- 
portant points  of  his  theory  has  been  left  so  clearly  stated 
that  all  agree  on  what  he  taught."  It  is  supposed  by  some 
writers  that  Plato  was  purposely  obscure  on  these  }x)ints. 
He  only  wished  to  be  understood  by  initiates.*  Thi< 
view,  however,  is  not  favored  by  the  best  scholars.' 

The  central  point  of  Plato's  teaching  was  the  "World 
of  Ideas.''  Socrates  had  insisted  on  the  necessitv  uf  clear 
general  concepts.  For  instance  if  arguing  in  reference  to 
a  horse,  he  did  not  want  to  know  about  some  particular 
horse — this  black  one,  or  that  red  one,  big  or  little,  old  or 
young — but  a  clear  definition  of  horse  in  general.  The  im- 
portance of  this  will  be  at  once  apparent  when  we  reflect 
how  much  scientific  advance  to  day  depends  on  this  very 
I)rocess.  Now  Plato  and  his  school,  strange  as  it  may 
seem  to  us,  called  such  general  terms  as   this  ieUiis^  and 


1  Vide  Zellor:  '*The  Older  Academy,"  p.  Si  note. 

2  V^ide  Lewis:     '^History  of  Philosophy,'*  Vol.  I.  p.  205,  et  acq. 

3  Pres.  Mahan  (''Critical  History  of  Philosophy,"  p.  236)  states 
five  points  which  ^'all  authoriticH  admit  Plato  did  hold  uud  teach,"  yet 
the  most  of  them  are  questioned. 

^  Vide  *'Irtis  Unveiled."  Vol.  11.  p.  ;<9    Zeller:  "Older  Academy."  p. 

87. 

'"  Ibid.  And  yet  as  an  initiate  in  the  Greek  MysteriesySome  doctrines  he 
either  would  not  mention  at  all,  or  else  cloak  them  in  obscure  language. 


ARYAN  RELIGION. 


763 


imagined  them  to  have  a  separate  independent  existence. 
Every  sensible  tiling  we  see  around  iis — trees,  stones,  ani- 
mals, material  objects  such  as  houses,  bedsteads,  etc. — has 
its  living  idea  in  the  shadowy  "world  of  ideas." 

Probably  with  our  utmost  endeavors,  we  could  not 
fully  understand  Plato's  reasoning  on  this  point.  We  have 
pointed  out  the  Hindoo  conception  of  Brahma,  the  only  real 
existence,  and  all  this  phenomenal  world  is  only  an  iUu»> 


Plato, 

sion,  and  have  also  pointed  out  that  the  "Being"  of  Parmen- 
ides  corresponds  to  this  idea  among  the  Greeks.  Now 
amimg  the  Eleatics  generally,  this  pure  Being  was  unity, 
one  eternal  essence.  Plato's  "world  of  ideas",  taken  col- 
lectively, corresponds  exactly  to  this  thought  Or  we  m&y 
say  that  instead  of  one  eternal  essence,  he  conceived  of  aQ 
intinite  number  of  such  essences. 

The  Hindoos  said  that  the  material  world  wassimpty 


764  THE  MEDIEVAL     WORLD. 

Brahma  conjoined  with  illusion.  The  Platen ists  said  that 
sensible  things  are  formed  by  the  participation  of  tlieete> 
nally  pre-existing  ideas  with — matter.  But  when  we  seek 
further  to  know  what  this  matter  is,  we  find  language  cm- 
IoV(.h1  that  seems  to  come  to  about  the  Indian  meanin::. 
is  the  no-beings  the  non-existent \  it  is  to  be  apprehcmkil 
.. either  by  thought,  nor  by  perception;  it  is  the  empix: 
1 1  does  not  become  clear  what  is  meant  by  the  wonl  jw- 
ticipation.-  Ideas  are,  in  short,  the  only  true  exijstence. 
Things  only  really  exist  in  proportion  as  they  participato 
in  tlie  idea.  From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  to  be  hanl  to 
j<how  wherein  hedifters  from  the  Hindoo  theorv  of  thiiiLT^. 
t>:ivc'  that  they  held  to  but  one  essence,  lu*  to  an  iiitinite 
iiuuibcr. 

But  we  are  not  vet  throuiirh  with  this  siui^fular  tlioorv 
of  ideas.  They  were  not  only  reallv  existing  thini:;i,  but 
tliev  were  powers^  he  regarded  tlH?m  as  livings  actizw  in- 
tclligible^  and  reasonablci,^  In  short,  ideas  are  supernatural 
pt  >wcrs,  gods  in  other  words.  And  now  notice ;  the  supreme 
idea  of  all,  that  is  the  idea  uf  good,  becomes  the  Suproiiu' 
God.  As  this  is  the  highest  and  noblest  concept  that  can  be 
found,  it  is  not  strange  that  it  should  be  considered  as  the 
Supreme  God."*     If  this  view  be  eoiTect  we  can  see  at  oiu-t* 

iliat  Plato's  monotheism  was  not  of  a  verv  hisrh   ortlor. 

•-       ^- 

1  OiluT  viowfl  of  course  exist,  we  must  refer  toZeUer:    *'Thi'Oldir 
vsnlrmy".     AUeyne  and  Qoodwiu's  translation,  Londou,  ISTO.  )>  -*^*.5  •' 
'  /     SiM'  also  Schwegler;  *'Hi9t.  of  Philosophy,"    SterllupV  trail  si  at  ion 
New  York,  ISSo.     For  opposite  view  see  Mahan,  Op.  cit.  p.  236 
:i  Z.'lIcM-,  Op.  cit.  p.  2ii.5.  Ueberwig,  **Hi8t.  of  PhU".  p.  110. 
"  l\'l)('rwlg,  Op.  cit.  Zeller,  Op.  cit.  p.  267. 

•»  In  'I'iiiiac'us,  the  J)emiurj!:e,  who  shapes  all  things  for  gixnl.  is  the 
"Idt'ii  of  <i()()(l,"  rel)erwii^,  p.  llfi 

i*  VicU^  Zeller :  "The  Ohler  Aeiuieniy,"  ]>.  270  r' ^^7.,  0!»|)ociany  ii"t«» 
isi.  ANo  Seh\ve«rK^r,  On  '-if.p.  si.  We  must  uniierstand  iiowever  thai  \\w 
"liie.i  of  (Jod'' i**  ilic  hi'r!ie-<t  jiresieralizatioii  p«»ssible.  It  i.-*  the  idf:4  «>f 
ideas;   Lewis:  "(Jive.x  I'liil  ».<;)hv  "    Vol.  H.   2-50.     Ferrier :  *'I-*eclurf.'^'«f 


dSTAy  RELTOTOy. 


765 


^Bkto's  idesft  as  to  the  soul  tin;  ciiually  iitraiigv. 
^p  is  fint  of  alt  u  "world-sout"  tiUiiig  :i11  !(|>»t't^  TliU 
Bb  inignnediate  between  the  itU-ns  aiul  Uu'  Ihiitj^s.  It 
Bikes  of  the  nature  of  both.'  Huuum  smil^  t-onsist  nA 
n»  puts — the  cogitative,  counigeoiia,  tuul  apiK'titivo 
jk^  Thereseems  to  besome  confusion  in  the  writing  i;i- 
bated  to  Plato  whether  these  three  souKh  weri'  t'ljiuiUy 
itod  in  pre-existing  life,  and  whether  all  \\\\\U\\  were  )ui> 
BtaL'  But  at  least  the  highest  soul  of  imtn  wnit  im- 
■tel,  and  indeed  had  existed  lis  part  of  the  worl(l--t(Oul 
B  past  eternity  It  is  well  known  \\v.\{  l*I;it.i  hIm* 
Igbt  the  transmignition  of  aoula. 

Flatti's  methods  of  work  were    more 
bablo  than  his  n^ults.     Both  tiiK-nttes 
I  Plato  by  insisting  on  tlie  necessity  of 
iniog   dear   opinions  of    sulijeets    dis- 1 
tted  i>erfonned  a  most  iiiv;il»:il»Ie  ser- 


K  fi..r  inon.     Wt'  need  not  1 

niij;ci 

•  dw.'ll 

Gn-'-k  I'liilosopliy.     The  \\> 

irk  .. 

f  Aris- 

\.-\a-  li.-,'n  siiflii-ii'iitlviiier. 

li.iTlr. 

].'   Ill 

.•Scli.".Is..fKl)ii'UrU.S  ;illi|/ri 

|,>lllv 

■  .St.ii.-. 

.-(■e  til-'  priiihiliilil  oJI.-r    1LIII 

IV  MV 

iriL'itLi.' 

i-ar.N  l-.i|iliri«Tii.      Su.-li  ;i  !■. 

rMill 

",LS    U> 

,-I|..t.c|.       n^t.i's    |.hil,,s, 

,|,l,y 

rniild   1 

■ni  til.lll   tilr  j-ricriUlll;-  >V>tr 

Iii..r.l..r  t,,i;i,,., |',1,.|, 

II  1>. 

l.t  iiiir 

lllirl 

(11  lu 

■"  ii:,  1 

1  iiiir 

l.rtW 

iiiiiii 

'<'  Hill' 

i.tlj.'U 

|insciit   n-view, 
(■■■11    Aryjui   anil 
il  thai,  near  the 

'  of  Iliiiiitclil  tiliiv    1  '- 

l<|H-(Ulve  Biid  oour- 

766 


THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 


beginning  of  tho  sixth  century  b.  c,  the  kingdom  of  Jndf 
was  destroyed  and  the  principal  people  taken  cai-tivf 
Babylon.  When  Aryan  power  supervened  in  Westi; 
Asiii,  these  captives  were  permitted  to  return  to  Jeni: 
lorn.  Some  of  them  did  so,  and  as  wo  have  seen  Juibir 
i\A  ii  fully  organized  church,  was  then  instituted.  But 
know  that  a  very  large  number  of  Jews  rcmaiiifl  n- 
Babylon,  jinil  in  that  section  wore  located  the  priijri] 
literary  institutions  of  tho  Jews.' 

From  tho  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  to  tho  yxi 
tho  Scleucidae,  or  for  two  centuries,  Jerusalem  rcuiaii 
tributary  to  Persia.     It  was  a  ti 
of  internal    peace    and    'luifl. 
would  be  more  than  singular,  tl 
if  the  religious  heliefe  of  the  .I< 
were  not  modified  by  Persian 
flucnco.     And  it  may  well  bo.  t 
the  i-oligion  of  Persia  wjis  nuxli 
I  ill  its  turn  by  that  of  the  .If 
I  Perhaps  to  this  period  is  tn 
traced  the  gradual  rise  of  the  i^ 
that  both  Ahura  Mazda  anil  An 
Zeno.  JIainyu  were  subordinate  to  Zr' 

Akaraiia.  Tliosc  of  our  scholars  who  think  that  the  P 
tateucli  of  the  old  Testament  was  a  late  production.*  |k 
out  many  .striking  passages  in  the  ritual  of  tho  Isnieli 
and  the  Persians.  The  numerous  regulations  inreganl 
the  fire  on  Yaveh's  altar  are  parallelled  by  similar  ru 
in  reference  to  tho  fire  of  Ahura  Mazda,'  and  other  equa 
striking  quotations  could  be  given.  It  may  be,  howev 
;hat  wu  liave  here  to  do  with  customs  which  arose  qu 
iiidopemlently  of  each  other. 

*  -Jiv::  "Guoitic  RemaiDS,"  p.  82.    i  8ee  Vol.  II.  p.  7«,  note. 
'■Bli'l<'Folk-Lore."|>.  144, «( •c<i. 


ASYAiF  BELIGIOy.  767  | 

But  passing  by  that  for  the  present,  there  is  one 
'point  on  which  it  is  quite  generally  admitted  that  Mazdeism 
made  itself  felt  Mazdeizm  taught  the  existence  of  fully 
organize<l  spiritual  kingdoms  of  good  and  e\'il.  Now  it  is 
not  necessary  to  say  that  these  ideas  were  forthefirsttinie 
introduced  into  Jewish  thought,  but  it  is  true  that  the 
ideas  of  the  Jews  as  to  angels  and  devils  were  cleared  up 
l)y  this  contact,  and  they  even  used  some  of  the  terms  em- 
ployed by  the  Persians.  In  the  writings  of  Ezekiel,  and 
'  flspecially  in  Zechariah,  angels  play  an  important  part. 
The  seven  ameshospands  are  supposed  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  latter  writer.'  The  book  of  Daniel  shows 
a  furthcrndvance  in  this  direction.  There,  for  the  first  time, 
names  are  given  to  angels,  such  as  Gabriel  or  Michael;* 
and  they  are  divided  into  classes,  such  as  "Watchers."' 
Bat  this  influence  shows  itself  still  more  strongly  in  the 
oi^anizatioii  of  the  forces  of  evil.  It  is  quite  generally 
agreetl  thut  Satan  is  the  Jewish  version  of  Angra  Mainyu. 
In  this  hist  statement  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  idea 
of  Satan  was  unknown  to  the  older  writers,  but  his  char- 
acter there  is  altogether  different  from  his  character  after 
the  Captivity.  In  Job,  for  instance,  he  is  still  a  servant 
of  Yavfh  and  undertakes  to  carry  out  Yaveh's  will.* 

Another  im|K)rtant  i>c»int  must  not  bo  overlooked. 
There  was  at  Babylun  a  cuUege  of  Magi.  There  were 
thrfi-  jrrados  of  these  priests.  According  to  the  Bible, 
Daniel.  ;i  Jfw,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this  college.'  This 
prie.^tly  nrLMni/Jition  was  not  lost  on  the  Jews.     The  great 


1   Zi-cL.  1 
>  Uftd  vi 

1.  fi;  iv.  2-10.    Vlite  on  t\\U  \*a\n\,  KueDen:     "Religion  of 

nj.i-:i-t 

1.  ]t;;  11.21;  I.  n--l\:  xli.  1- 

»   Jol.    i, 

Ew»ld:     -H 
142. 

.     Vi.lr    Kuetien;    "lU-Uglon   of  I.««l,"   Vol.    III.   p.  SSi 
Hl.irv  ..f  l>.r».t,''    Vol.  V  .  p.  IM.  Cf.  "Blbl*  Folk-LoN^-  p. 

1  i)«ii.  ii.4s. 

768  TH£  imUlEVAl.    W^titLU. 

Synagngue,  as  fnunrlctl  by  Ezra,  appears  to  tuyelwsl 
a  aiiniliir  nnlare ;'  the  thi*ee  grades  of  scliulars— H«^  I 
Rtbbi,  aud  Rabboni — corresiwnding  to  tho  three  grda  | 
of  MagL'  The  sect  of  the  Pharisees  may  pMBhljWl 
traced  back  to  this  same  ix-riod.  Some  hare  atiggBA«i  ] 
that  their  name  was  derived  ft-om  P/taris,  that  ta  *■?«•  I 
sian."*  Id  short,  the  eoclesiaatical  muehiuerj-  of  the  \ 
Jewish  state  shows  tho  impress  of  Persian  influeoLi^  Oli- 
result  was  the  gradual  formation  of  a  body  of  swcwi  «•? 
esoteric  traditions,  irhich  ultimately  devclo[ioil  iiiUt  lb 
Kabalah,  to  which  wo  will  refer  later. 

Now,  in  order  to  fiirther  understand  our  Biibj«t,  iti»  | 
necessary  for  us  to  atop  talking  about  the  aayinjp  of  ttf 
philosophers  and  torn  toconsidcrthostate  of  ufluir^  hidou 
the  masses  of  the  {>eople.  Id  no  countr}',  not  mrAb  ii^ 
ancient  Greece,  wore  the  masses  of  the  people,  phHuDplux- 
ing  or  finding  comfort  in  creeds.  Let  ua  then  acehdw  Uie 
old  mythical  conceptions  of  the  people  g-radunlly  duagei 
with  time.  Let  us  notice  the  tendency  of  adrllnd(^;  eol- 
tore  to  attach  to  the  festival  gatherings  uf  prixoiUve  tints 
more  and  more  religious  and  philosophical  meaning.  Aul 
here  we  muitl  lament  that  lack  of  spaco  prc^'cnU  oitr 
dwelling  on  many  important  details,  u  full  understandinf  (.iT 
which  would  solve  many  knotty  pointi  in  the  histor)'  0/ 
tho  development  of  religion. 

Even  the  lowest  races  of  men   doligbt  in   festival 

I  Kuenen:  "Religion  oflsrael,"  Vol.  til.  p.  4. 

I  Buuseti:  "Angel  Messiah,"  p.  84. 

3  King  remarks  ibat  thin  etymnlnfij-  'luM  ■(iRH>tltlnK  la  <:iMiiinoiMl 
lt."("ODostic  lt«maia8|"p.38.)8uus(>HMU){:K«Bi-tttuiLtbl>uiay  tn-U.D»«>iT* 
oribename.  Fur  tbia  he  In  llttri-til.v  lUHAlieil  by  Kui-ti<.<n  «t  oiio  <>'bi>li» 
forftilled  all  ulainis  to  bu  bt^unl  iu  the  uuiur.  {  HllilK'tt  Lcctum."  )WC 
p.  233.)  This  sweeping  critioiiui  U,  In  tny  th<>  \i<m»X,  iitiorty  uiH'»ll*<lh&'  1 
It  ban  Immaterial  puini  hi  Iluuattu'iiart[ijia«at«,  KDd  be  nowtx-nf^^ 
more  tbau  auggettt  iu  poMltiiiliy. 


L 


1                             .^nvAS  HELTOioy.                            769 

(flicrinjrs,  Thi;  Australians  have  their  corrobonee  vi\ieTe 
enes  uf  wild  license  sumetinies  occur.     Ami   generally 
1   men  have  their  feast  days.     Advancing  intelligence 
nds  to  regulate  these  feasts  and  to  make  them  significant. 
Tien  a  people  enter  on  the  agricultural  life, the  feasts  are 
nerally  significant  of  some  stage  of  agriculture;  thefcas 
sowing,  of  in-gathering,  etc.      liut  as  men  advance,  the 

^^^^^^^^^^^^B^BI^^^^V^^^^^^^^ 

p.               .a*— au        -*«:■  --^^          L._J         -HT        -mmr  _     *-^                  '"jfcllH       «V^^^^H 

^ 

/^lii 

1              :          , 

\ 

■ 

■              t^-    '.   f           pf 

■.■:it  ilf.iiii.i  I. r  tile  y.Mi-  .iitni-ci-s  il^.'tf  ii|>nti  ihoir  attell- 

,].,    :n..|    uv    llii.l    Ir.iM-     I;.    r.|rl,nili f  llio   rctum    of 

.r:n;:ui-  tin'  ;i.lvi-iit  nl'  wml'T.      l'.-;isl,s  ..f  lliis   iiuture  nf" 
■!1  i,i-li  iuiiii-.ri.-,:.     Tli-  Cl-i-iiaii  n..rl.l  .-lili  ci-l.-l.r.. 

.■  -|iri::-f-ivM.  V.,.u-v. 

'{':,■■  |i^.■^ll]|»,(|,   fl- til.-  .1   saVniri'    |l.V|llc  U]..   f:.» 

koii  ailvalita;.'.-  (if  tin  ^-i-  IVaiMtH  ti»  lurlliiT  the  cnUBC*  of  re- 


_1 


TilH  MHOIB  VA 


Synagogue,  as  fomiiled  by  Ezm 
a  similar  nature ;'  the  three 
Rabbi,  and  Rablxini — <;orrespo 
of  Magi  *  The  sect  of  the  1 
traceii  back  to  this  same  perio' 
that  their  name  was  derived 
aian."'  In  short,  the  ecclesia 
Jeirish  stuto  shows  the  impress 
result  waa  the  gradual  formati 
esoteric  traditions,  which  ultin 
Kabaluh,  to  wliieh  we  will  refci 

Now,  in  order  to  further  un 
necessary  for  us  to  atop  talking 
philosophers  and  turn  to  couside 
the  masses  of  the  people.  In 
ancient  Greece,  were  the  masses 
ing  or  finding  comfort  in  creeds, 
old  mythical  conceptions  of  the 
with  time.  Let  us  notice  the  t 
ture  to  attach  to  the  festival  gat 
more  and  more  religious  and  pi 
here  we  must  lament  that  la 
dwelling  on  many  important  det 
which  would  solve  many  knott 
the  development  of  religion. 

Even  the  lowest  races  of 


I  Kuenen;  "Religion  of  Israel,"  Vol 
s  Buueen:  "Augel  Mesalala."  ji,b4. 
3  KiD);retimrlca  that  this  etytnolog; 
It."  ("Oaosi)cReiuainB,"p.33)Buu8L'UBi 
if  lUe  name.  For  this  he  is  fiercely  asm 
forfeited  all  claims  to  be  heard  in  tlie  \ai 
p.  235.)  This  8We«piug  crUiciMii  U.  to  si 
It  Is  AH  im  mute  rial  puiut  hi  Btiuaeu'H  ai 
more  tbau  suggest  Itu  poMtbitity. 


^nvAX  nELToroy. 


itherings.  Tho  Austnilians  have  thtir  corroborree  yiiivvQ 
ones  of  wild  license  sumetimes  occur.  Anil  generally 
I  men  have  their  feast  days.  Adviiiuiiiig  intelligeuce 
nds  to  regulate  these  feasts  and  to  make  them  significant. 
Tien  n  people  enter  on  the  agricultural  !ife,the  feasts  arr 
nerally  significant  of  some  stage  < if  agriculture;  thefeafc 
sowing,  of  in-gathering,  etc.      But  as  men  advance,  the 


.-".;■.:■.■;:  z'.  '.'r.:  ?-r.-X-.;.   r.:;  Zyj.?  ^i',  A^lna. 

■  ■.it  ilr:iiri:i  i.ftli'-  \----iv  •■\.h-r---'7-  ii.-r)f  u\n>n  their  att«n- 
■11.  ;u..l  wr  tin.]  tV:,-t-  ;:.  ■■  l-hr.iU'n,  of  the  return  of 
r:ii:r.>r'  tti  ■  ruiv.-nt  <.;'  ■■\:\<\--v.  F'-.-i-I.-  "f  tlii«  nature  n*- 
■!I  i.l.ii  i:iii:-.riril.     T\r-  1."!  r.-*i.iii  w.-rM  --till  c«-l<-l'ri 


-!"■ 


,  i: 


[,ri.-tlj.-..l.  IV  .;n  lij-  iM..-:  -rivriir-  |-.-.,i,le  ui..  l:* 
icri  ;i-lv;.iit.iL:  ■  <  fill' T..'  iriu-ilr.  \;  fufth'-T  Uic  caUJ»c  of  ro- 


770  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

ligion  as  much  as  possible.  They  have  tried  to  mab 
them  significant  of  important  events  or  epochs  in  their  t^ 
ligious  history.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  importance  A 
feasts  among  the  Jews  where,  for  instance,  the  spring  festi- 
val was  made  significant  of  their  departure  from  Egypt; 
or  to  the  Christian  world  generally,  which  has  eagerly 
adopted  Easter  and  Christmas  as  representatives  of  thi 
birth  and  resurrection  of  Christ. 

We  have  spoken  of  esoteric  and  exoteric  knowledge. 
The  principle  of  human  nature  which  gave  rise  to  this  di- 
vision of  knowledge  is  as  old  as  humanity  itself.  Among 
the  Australians,  certain  ceremonies  are  gone  through  with 
when  the  boys  are  initiated  into  the  ranks  of  men,  the 
nature  of  these  rites  must  be  kept  a  profound  secret  fifom 
children  and  Avomen.^  Advancing  higher  we  find  the  sav- 
age priesthood  making  use  of  this  tendency  also.  The 
people  are  divided  into  various  grades  ;  initiation  from  one 
into  the  next  higher  is  generally  attended  with  many 
ceremonies;  with  each  advance  the  candidate  gains  "more 
light."  Mr.  Orpcn's  Bushman  guide  was  induced  to  ex- 
plain things  as  for  as  he  knew,  but  he  soon  reached  the 
limit  of  his  knowledge,  what  lay  beyond  was  known  only 
to  men  of  "another  dance."* 

In  a  similar  way  Lieutenant  Cushing  found  among 
our  Zuni  Indians  secret  societies,  with  several  grades  of 
membership,  each  grade  being  an  advance  on  the  one  be- 
low it  in  religious  knowledge.  In  short,  this  principle  is 
world  wide.  Advancing  intelligence  in  general  does  not 
do  away  with  this  means  of  conveying  religious  knowledge, 
but  simply  changes  the  nature  of  the  information  given. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  remark  that  the  Orient  is  now,  and 

iVide    "Kamilaroi  and  Kurnai." 

«  Lang:  "Myth,  Ritual,and  ReUgion,"  Vol.  II.  p.  12. 


ARYAN  RBLIQION.  771 

■obably  has  been  since  some  centuries  before  the  Christian 

Bra,  honeycombed   with  these  secret  religious  societies, 

where  they   never  gained  auch  prominency  ;is  in  Greece. 

Jl«et  us  remark  further  that  the  highest  knowlcilge  taught  to 

^*he  highest  grades  of  the  initiates  must  have  been  substau- 

iMilly  the  sanie  everywhere,  siciply  because  the  probleuis 

and  means  of  solution  were  everywhere  the  same.  We  need 

not  bt'  surprised,  then,  to  find  that  amongst  some  people, 

the  festival  occasiiniis  just  mentioned  were  mjule  t'l  subserve 

this  principle  -Am.     This  introduces  us  to  what  are  known 

as  the  Mysteries  which  played  such  an  important  part  in 

.  ancient    Greece;  which,  surviving    into  Ciiristian  times, 

excited  the  wrathful  notices  of  church  writers*. 

We  have  jwinted  out  the  absence  of  a  strong  priestly 
body  in  Greece,  but  have  also  observed  the  lendenry  of  the 
Greek  mind  to  jxjnder  over  the  many  prubkuis  of  religion. 
We  have  ubservcd  Pythagoras  forming  one  of  the  societies 
to  which  we  just  referred;  doubtless  long  bcfdre  his  time 
tlMTf  had  been  somcwliat  .'similar associations,  certain  it  is 
that  tlie  "mysteries"  dL-Hirlited  the  Greeks.  Pn-bably  that 
lendcncy  of  the  human  mind  which  finds  comfort  in  some 
formal  <re<'d  (wliicli  w;is  denied  to  the  Greeks)  found  here 
smile  Hali.«f;iclii>ii.  E^u  li  liitlc  town  in  Greece  probably 
had  its  |..cal  niy:^lerie.s,'  but  as  time  passed  on  and  Athens 
grew  in  iiiii"irtaiue.  Kleusis  in  Attica  became  the  place  of 
the  cL-lebr.itiiiu  i-f  ilie  Eleiisiniaii  Mysteries,  the  life  of 
wliich  lung  iiiitlasted  (ireece  itself,  sinee  they  were  not 
cru.-ticd  out  till  ilie  dawn  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,' 
when  the  enipernr  fin.illy  alRiHshed  them. 

Witliiiut  L'oiiiL:  tui.  imich  into  detail  we  must  give  the 
.inline  itf  llie  mytli  wliicli  formed  the  base  or  exutericpart 
of  tliis  liivsii-ry;  the  story  wliich  furnished  the  drama, 

^^  1  KearyT^'FrTmiilir*:  Belltr,"  p.  222.  t  IbldSSI. 


nir  .vt--Krrr.*i.  world. 


which  woseaactedit 
each  recurrent  feli- 
val.     Tho  chilli  per 
Bonages  of  this  story 
are  Jupiter,  0i'in«l«, 
and  their  pbild  T'T- 
sepbone.     Perscfb- 
one   was  so   xex\ 
1)eaatifnl  that  irnr 
mother  hid  bcr  in  i 
house  built  on  pur- 
pose by  the  CycinE"!. 
But  P  I  u  t  o  had  nt 
^  ready  caught  algiit  of 
I  the  maiden,  and 
*  wished   her    for  Ws 
S,  wife.     Jupiter  wai 
c  willing  a  ndinstrui-ied 
K.  Venus,    Diana,  and 
"=  Pallaa  to  entice  Per- 
8i'|>hone  to  go  wulli- 
ing  when  her  multifr 
was  worshiping. 

Although  warwil 
by  her  mother  not  w 
leave  the  house,  the 
niiiideu  cooxeutA. 
This  was  Plutfi"» 
chance,  and  bumiDg 
thriLiugh  tlio  earth  be 
carried  away  the  ha|>- 
loaa  maiden  shriek- 
ing in   bis   gulden 


lil 


ARYAy  RET.IOJON.  776 

chariot.  The  grief  stricken  mutlier  returns  and  com- 
mences a  frantic  searcli  for  !ut  (LmghttT.  Helios  (the 
Bun)  iit  length  informs  her  of  her  daughter's  fate.  There- 
upon Demeter,  in  anger,  quits  Olympus.  Then  the  earth 
was  no  longer  fruitful,  nothing  gre«",  and  animals  ceased 
til  bear  young.  This  course  spL-edily  brought  Jupiter  to 
his  senses,  and  he  sent  by  Hermes  an  imperative  eunnnand 
to  Pluto  to  release  Persephone.  Pluto  did  not  dare  to  dis* 
oWy,  but  with  cunning  malice  he  induced  Per.srpliouo  to 
eat  a  p(imegranate  seed.  The  eft'ect  was,  that,  though  she 
was  returned  to  her  mother,  still  for  one  third  of  each  year 
sln'  was  irrcsiatably  impelled  to  join  her  luwbiind,  PlutOf 
ill  the  gloomy  under-world.' 
Thus  much  for  the  story. 
It  may  .strike  some  as  diffi- 
cult to  .sn- what  religious  in- 
strui-tion  could  be  cont'eyed 
by  it.  l'rob;ibly  at  first  it 
w:i.-.-Im|.|y  a  Tiat lire  story,  ;i 
dr.ini,iM|-tli.-yrar.  P.-rscj-li- 
.•ti>'  n-pp'si'iitlTiL:  tiie  new 
y.:ir.ili''fHiiriiioiill]s.  (iuriiig 

«In.il  tlirrarlll  bnHMlo  iVuit, 

b.-ir,,LM!,.'\\'inlei-.   TliLs  may 

li:U'-    IprriL    tlir   tirst    sfagr.^  P;-^to  ana  Pereephore. 

]!iii  wlnii  pliilosopliy  bi'gan    to   flourish   in    Greece,  and 

iri'ii    Iic:.',iii   111   talk    ribi.ut   spirit    and    matter  and   the 

li.ii;i|   hiiwL'eii  tin-Ill.  a  new   meaning  was  read   into  all 

thi-i*  iilii   ocrrnioiiit'S.     Tlie   tendency    in    this    direction 

«.iiiM    h*-  liastrticd  by  the  introduction  of  Dionvsiac  and 

ISar.lii.-  ritis  froiii    India,  and  the  .'Spread  i>f  Pytliagorean- 

•  \'i.!- K.-!irv:  ■i'riniiiiM-  Itcliff,- p.  221  c(  «ev  AleoTaylor:  "Etoo- 
fiiiian  ni.-l   rt:.-(-l.i.'  Mv-l.  ri.-,"  [..  s7  .7  «</. 

■  Thi-  i- th.-  vi.-w.if  Kf«ry,  vUii-  '■Oulllnenor  PrimlOvw  Belief." 


776  THE  MEDIEVAL    WOBLD. 

ism.^  Finally,  about  the  time  of  Plato,  it  is  supposed  by 
some  that  a  complete  change  had  been  effected  in  the 
meaning  of  the  old  drama. 

According  to  this  view,  Jupiter  and  Demeter  (heaven 
and  earth)  represent  spirit  and  matter.  Persephone  their 
ilaughter  is  the  soul.  Pluto  represents  the  body  which 
imprisons  the  soul.  The  attendants  of  Persephone  are  all 
symbolical — Venus  representing  desire;  Diana,  the  natuwl 
soul;  and  Minerva,  the  intellectual  or  courageous  soul*  At- 
tended by  these,  the  immortal  soul  wanders  forth  to  gather 
flowers,  that  is  she  becomes  ensnared  by  the  delusive  at- 
tractions of  sensible  form,  and  thus  is  taken  captive  by 
matter  (the  body).  Other  details  need  not  be  given.  It 
suffices  to  say  that,  in  this  manner,  some  think  the  philoso- 
phy of  Greece  was  taught.' 

The  Athenians  were  greatly  devoted  to  this  myster}' 
play.     If  a   person   neglected  initiation  into  it,  he  was 
deemed  atheistical  (as  in  the  case  of  Socrates).     Before 
initiation  into  the  great  mysteries  they  had  first  to  be 
admitted   into    the  lesser  mysteries  at  Agra  by  a    pro- 
cess of    purification.     They     were   then    called    mystae, 
and  took  an  oath  of  secrecy  and  received  preparatory  in- 
structions.    A  year  later  the  candidate  might  receive  ad- 
mission into  the  greater  mysteries.     The  feast  extended 
over  nine  days  which  we  will  not  describe  in  detail.    At 
the  final  initiation,  the  vows  of  secrecy  were  renewed,  and 
thecandidates  were  conducted  in  darkness  by  the  hierophant, 
or  interpreter,  to  the  sacred  inclosure.    From  two  tablets 
of  stone  were  read,  by  the  interpreter,*  the  commandments 
now  binding  upon  them.     The  candidates  were  conducted 

i  Beeabovepji^e  757  and  note.— «  Abovepnge  765.  3  See  Taylor, Op.  dt. 

^  The  two  tiihlets  of  stone  Skve Pcteroma^  the  interpreter  in  all  OrieDtal 
countries  was  Peter.  Let  us  reeaU  that,  in  the  temples  of  old  Chal- 
dea,  were  to  be  found  the  two  stone  tablets,  also  recall  the  tablets  of  Jew* 


AKYAy  BELIOIQS.  lit 

into  the  lighted  interinr;  whero  they  learned  the  secret 
meaning  of  the  rites.  Hut  what  they  there  beheld  and 
beard  were  secrets  of  the  deepest  order.  Such  candidates 
were  now  epoptae^  or  St-LTs.  But  it  seems  tliat  to  some  of 
the  interior  mysteries  i.nly  avery  limileil  number  obtained 
initiation. 

T  h  is  hurried  ac- 
count must  suffice  for 
Greek  Mysteries.  In 
other  countries,  niya- 
ter\'  plays  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  so 
fully  acted  out,  but  let 
us  remember  the  Ori- 
ent was  full  of  secret 
Boci  oties,  all  fash- 
ione<t  on  about  the 
same  m<Hiel.  And 
thus  we  .«?('  how  as 
time  ]i.i.s:>eil  on,  and 
the  i.Ujis..ttliepei.ple 
in  ret:;ird  tn  soul  and 
m;itti  T.  Go.1  mill  ni;in. 
gn-w  rlt'.'ir'T.  t  li  V  vv 
wen-  _L'r;i(lli;dly  bei 
furiiifd  two  ^Tcat  i 
divi.«i(.n.softli('pei>pI.' 
the  one  more  enll^L'lit-  Z'^r:. 

cnt'd  than   the  other.     We  can    furthe: 
ever  the  prirstly    li.nly  was  strongly  develojMHl,  the   ti  i 
demy  wi.ul.i  be  tn  funlini'  this  liij.dier  kiioM-ledge,  wi.sdoni. 

e  of  tbMe 


»h< 


U«(li<;w  xvl.  IM' 


'    tn    IbU   offlcv  of  fi 


778  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

or  gnosis,  to  their  ranks.  Now  let  us  trace  the  first  great 
revolt  against  this  system,  the  rise  of  the  first  religious 
system  workl-wido  in  its  aims. 

More  than  one  writer  have  traced  out  for  us  the  manv 
Doints  of   siniihiritv  between  the  mvtholoffv  of  the  enrlv 

idians  and  the  Teutonic  tribes  of  Europe.^  Maintaining,  as 
we  have,  the  European  origin  of  the  Aryana,some  points  in 
this  re.sembLance  are  of  especial  interest.  For  many 
eeiituri(\s,  the  Asiatic  Aryans  had  been  cut  off  from  o>m- 
niunieatinn  with  Europe.  AVhile  the  Indians  had  Wen 
(h'veloping  the  system  of  Brahmanism,  the  beliefs  (»f  the 
Eiir(>i)(\ins  were  also  changing.  As  pointed  out  above, 
(^dliinn  had  become  a  great  god  of  the  Teutonic  people. 
The  Druids  in  Western  Europe  also  made  their  appear- 
ance, and  we  catch  sight  of  religious  mysteries. 

Near  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  b.  c,  we  have 
seen  the  Scyths  crowding  into  Asia.  By  their  inroails, 
the  great  empire  of  the  Assyrians  became  so  weakcneil 
that  it  fell  before  the  assaults  of  the  Modes  and  Persians.' 
Tradition  has  followed  these  Scyths  into  Western  Asin. 
There  seems  to  be  also  plain  traces  of  their  eastern 
w;niderinu:s.  About  the  dawn  of  the  sixth  centurv,  thov 
invaded  India  from  from  the  north.^  Amongst  their  tribes 
v;as  tin*  Snkya/  Coming  thus  late  from  Europe,  they 
probably  knew  of  the  later  development  of  European 
mythology,  and  brought  with  them  European  customs. 
Amongst  these  was  the  building  of  chambered  tumuli  over 
tli(^  remains  of  eminent  mcn,^  and  assembling  there  to 
worship  his  ghost.     Their  priests,  probably  organized  to 

'.n  '  (\\t(Mit  like  the  Druids,  were  ix)ssessed  of  a  secret 

•  C'Miy:  '*oritliiRsofPrimitivoBenef.''2Tliis  Series  Vol.  II  p.79fi. 
:<  liunson:  ''An^^ol   Messiah,*'  p.  15.    4  Vide  Beal  in  J.B.  A.  8.,fSor 
1882,    i».  :VA. 

This  8iTios  Vol.  I.  p.  201. 


ABYAif  Jt£LIQION.  77^ 

temdition  which  they  brought  with  them  "fi-oni  bevond," 
Kad  they  probably  had  some  idea  of  the  worship  of  Od- 
Iftinn. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  Gautanm  ( who 
«raa  destined  to  become  the  head  of  the  greatest  roligious 
BooTementthe  world  has  yet  seen'),  a  member  of  the  Sakya 
tribe,  was  born.  Tradition  has  it,  that  he  w.ia  thv  stm  of 
"the  ruling  chief.  A  short  sketch  of  his  life  lias  already 
been  given.'  Judging  the  man  by  the  results  of  his  lil'c, 
we  can  only  conclude  that  be  was  one  of  those  rare  souls 
bat  few,  the  equals  of  which,  hiive  appeared  in  the  liistorj' 
<rf  the  world.  He  was  evidently  a  natural  leader  among 
men,  his  personal  character  must  have  been  hitrh  iiml  pure, 
be  must  have  deeply  pondered  over  tlic  qucsiion  uf  bow  to 
elevate  his  fellow  men,  he  must  have  felt  a  deep  compas- 
mon  for  the  woes  of  humanity.  The  result  of  all  this  waa, 
that  he  left  such  a  profound  impress  on  the  jicople  of  his 
ige  that  time  has  heightened  the  glory  of  his  renown, 
rather  than  allowed  it  to  fade  away.  But  amund  that 
name  .md  liist.iry.  myths  have  been  exct-ptioiiiilly  busy,  as 
We  will  iKiint  "\\\. 

A.s  \v(.'  h;ivo  sffii,  hi.s  trilw  had  but  recently  been 
brouf,'ht  into  cinitiiet  willi  Ilimluo  life  and  tluMight.  When 
Gautama  api«;iri'd  nii  tlic  scene  he  seems  to  have  been 
imprcs.sed  with  Hindoo  [ihilasophy.  He  determined  to 
devote  himself  to  it,  to  master  its  deepest  secrets.  Aban- 
doniTi^'  \m  kindred,  wi;  iie.\t  hear  of  him  in  the  vicinity 
of  Vaif^ali.  ne.ir  P;itn,i.  :ibuut  one  hundred  miles  south 
of   his    fitriiifr    huine  .m    the   flanks    of  the  Himalaya.* 


Rli> 

si 

iH 

Js:   ■■Hi 

.i.nii- 

>.  'i.    ., 

tpr 

esent  Christian*  or  all  de- 

mm 

innii 

I1.H 

i 

.■lu.niic 

\«-r. 

ft-k 

Iiurrb 

only  about  tbree-flftba  m 

t) 

'  Illl<l>lll 

»  Al«) 

171. 

Tbi 

Hi 

'1' 

•lllHtllllt 

H   flic 

Mirt 

It  lU'riucia 

jon-'oflheBuddhfsta.  Af 

tolheiii" 

iti 

ITI 

oftliel<K 

atiuu  uf  Uuddba'u 

bome,8«eOldeDb«rg:  "Bud- 

(UlM 

■■tto. 

Alt  YAN  RELiaiON.  781 

'^tery  treatises,  the  sacredly  guarded  TJpanishads,'  was 
»iained  to  him.  On  his  part,  Gautamn  must  have  faith- 
ly  observed  the  many  hard  and  puerile  duties  of  ii  dia- 
le.*  As  the  rpsult  of  all  this,  he  became  Brahmacharin^ 
eeker  of  Brahma. 

In  order  to  complete  his  training  as  (i  Brahniarhnriii. 
crossed  the  Ganges  into  the  provinct  of  Magadhii,  and 
a«  for  six  long  years  he  practiced  the  terrible  iiusteritica 
the  Yogis.  His  sanctity  became  noised  abroad  "as 
AD  tiie  sound  of  a  great  bell  is  heard  in  the  sky.""  Five 
laplee  choose  him  as  master,  and  rendered  him  all  man- 
r  (tfserrice.*  These  six  years  of  Gautama's  life  is  known 
the  "Great  Struggle."  So  far,  Gautama's  career  had  not 
bredfrom  hundreds  of  other  Hindooa-seetiea,  But  now 
'.eome  to  the  first  great  feature  of  Gautama's  system  of 

At  the  present  day,  no  one  is  called  ujmn  to  deny  that 
ntamaand  other  men  of  his  character  experienee,  as  a 
yard  for  their  acta,  inward  peace  and  joy.  How  can  it 
otherwise  when  they  have  spent  years  in  obtaining  com- 
■te  mastery  over  selff  But  in  India,  at  the  time  of 
iddha  and  since,  this  knowledge  was  confined  only  to  the 
iks  of  the  initiates  intohigher  Brahmanism.  Othcrscould 
in  this  knowledge  in  the  same  way  they  had.  It  was  a 
rsonal  matter,  the  knowledge  they  had  aequireil  was  to 
kept  sccrect.  And  so  they  were  content  to  pass  their 
es  in  dreamy  meditation.  Buddhist  history  relates  the 
ort  it  cost  Gautama  to  overcome  this  fatal  tendency.' 
It  his  Iwtter  nature  trium[)lied.  and  he  determined  to 
■aeh  his  doetrines  to  all  "who  have  ears  to  hear,"  anc 

1   l.)lli<-:   "Iluildlift,"  p.  103. 

-'  Vi.lu  WitUamB:  "UlodoolBm,"    cluptor  111.     ■"Birth   BtorlM,"p. 
•  Ibi.l    90.  (  Mfthkvaggm,  1.  S. 


782  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD, 

who  would  ''send  forth  faith  to  meet  it.'"  In  other  words, 
he  was  about  to  make  public  the  esoteric  knowledge  of  the 
past;  he  was  going  to  try  and  induce  the  world  to  accept  his 
teachings. 

In  carrying  out  this  decision,  the  practical  talents  of 
y  r.iutama  became  apparent.  "He  invented  the  missionary 
lie  invented  the  preacher.  He  forged  an  apparatus  of  pro- 
pagandism,  that  has  never  been  surpassed."*  Like  other 
great  inventors,  his  ingenuity  consisted  in  making  a  new 
use  of  existing  materials.  From  the  very  earliest  times, 
the  life  of  the  ascetic  had  been  a  very  common  one  in 
India.  In  the  old  collections  of  Sacred  Laws  of  the  Hin- 
doos, we  find  regulations  for  their  lives.  They  are  re- 
quired to  live  chastely,  not  to  amass  any  store,  they  mu?t 
enter  a  village  only  to  beg,  must  not  stay  two  nights  in  the 
same  village,  their  clothes  are  to  consist  of  old  rags  which 
they  shall  have  washed,  etc.^  Nor  did  these  ascetics 
always  live  a  solitary  life.  One  whose  reputed  sanctity 
was  great  would  attract  many  followers.  Wo  have  just 
seen  that  Grautama,  himself,  was  attended  by  five  disciples 
during  his  great  struggle. 

And,  if  we  may  credit  recent  investigators,  one  as- 
sociation of  these  ascetics  had  already  become  very  large 
Mud  numerous,  and  was  well  organized;  thetexts  of  its  faith 
lid  its  customs  in  general  being  not  greatly  different  from 
I  nose  finally  adopted  by  Gautama.  That  sect  still  exists 
ill  India  to-day  under  the  name  oi  Jains}  Out  of  such 
materials,  Gautama  gradually  perfected  his  plans,  which 


1  *'Mahavaj?ga,  1.5,12.       a  LilUe:  *' Popular  Life  of  Buddha,"  p.  2A 

3  (Jjuitiiina's  liiHtitutes,  Til.  il.  24.    **8ncrod  Books,"  Vol.  II. 

^  Oil  the  Jains,  eon.sult  Oldenberg:  '^Buddha/*  p.  66-77.    Bunsen: 

"Anirel   Mt»ssiah,'*   p.    12      ('()IcV>ri>ok'8    "Essays,"   ch.    zU.    See   als^ 

Thomas  :  "  Knrly  Faitli  of  A.^K-a  "  in  J.  H.  A.  S.  fV»r  1S77.  CY.  with  the  fore- 

p>in;:,  Hartli  :  "  Koli^ions  of  India, '  p.  14(»  if  stff. 


A  BY  AN  RBLIOION.  783 

fere  for  the  establishment  on  earth  of  the  "Kingdom 
tighteouaness.'"  By  his  followers,  Gautama  soon  cauir  l<t  bo 
ailed  by  another  title,  and  by  that  he  is  principally  known 
wiay.    He  was  called  Buddha,  the  enlightened  one.' 

One  great  trouble  in  following  up  the  outline  from  iliif 
•oint  is  to  determine  what  was  the  primitive  custom.  \\\ 
;now  with  some  certainty  what  the  method  of  procedure 
nally  came  to  be.  We  can  not  bo  so  sure  of  its  first 
tages.  Buddha  first  took  steps  to  gather  around  him  a 
and  of  disciples.  The  five  mendicants,  who  had  served 
im  during  his  si-\  years' struggle,  were  his  first  adliereiits. 
>thers  joined  their  ranks,  and  Bu(Mha,  before  any  great 
•ngth  of  time,  found  himself  at  the  head  of  sixty-ono  dis- 
iples.' Buddha  adopted  for  the  government  of  this  order 
abstantially  the  same  hiws  as  to  dress  and  mode  r>f  life 
overning  other  ascetic  bands.  But  we  now  come  to  the 
rst  great  improvement,  wliich  shows  the  originality  of 
luddha.  Heretofore,  diacipleship  wsis  a  personal  matter 
1  Imliit.  .\  band  of  di.sei|)les  wi.uUl  gatlier  aniund  a 
?ad(r.  His  i«Tson:ility  held  thi-iii  ti-jr<lher,  at  hi*  death 
he  a.-i.-*ufi;itiun  was  bmkLMi  up.  Hut  Buddha  gathered  his 
ixty-iine  disciples  al>"Ut  him  and  sent  them  forth  to  preach 
isdiiclrines,  "Lei  imt  iwi.  i.f  y-m  l,'o  tlie  same  way"  was 
is  first  CMiiiiiiaiid.  It  w:is  ,1  .•itranL'o  mission  that  these 
onieler^s.  l,.-ir,Lriii,i:  niniiks  >i;n-le.l  H.rth  to  perform.  They 
.•ere  to  prraeli  the  rirre.s-ity  nt'  livlnL'  a  "jicrfeet  and  j)ure 
fe  of  holiness. ■■'  r.iit  iliis  \v;isn..t  all.  if  they  found  other 
kemindi'd  ;i>r..tir>  willin- tnenihrace  Buddha'sdoctrines. 
■ie_v  vvri-.-  til  lie   at  oiK-r    iiiili;ite<l   iiitit  tlie  order,  without 


33        ^ 

of       n 


9   .M.T-  thilll  ■ 

rie  irivi'>iiL.':it[ii[i    liiui  imlnti><l  out   the  resemblance   be- 

,-«.n   /t-'I'l/fi   n 

nd    W,^!r,,   .(>,|ii<nii        <f,   Ullie:  "Buddh*  and  E»rly 

ud.ilii-ni,'    ],.  j: 

1,     ft    S.'/. 

*  MnhHVBEpn 

.  10.    *  MnhRvanOT  t.  11,  1. 

journeying  to  where  Buddhjv  himself  might  Up  stayii^.' 
A  very  siinitle  itmovation,  thia,  but  thereby  wua  set  U 
motion  tho  luvcr  tlestinod  to  largely  iuflucncti  the  Oriental 
world.  Another  imitortant  jwint  was,  that  thia  "[mis^lrt. 
iiijf"  was  not  syluly  to  re-inforce  tbo  ranka  of  BadHliist 
monks,  but  an  effort  was  niado  to  reach  and  inflitcnne  Uic 
masses  of  the  people.  This  was  largely  ii  new  dojwrtuiv' 
Laymen,  who  did  not  feel  inclined  to  abandon  the  wtf 
were  received  into  a  sort  of  church  membership,  t 
formal  tlie  Upasaka  (adherent)  class.  A  lai^o  sh 
Buddha's  preaching  was  directetl  solely  to  thia  ola 
from  the  very  eai'liest  period,  they  make  their  app 
Few  and  simple  were  tho  positive  rales  they  wert*  tn  ^ 
low.*  But  they  were  urged  to  walk  in  the  "Noble  Path,'' 
and  to  pay  due  attentitm  to  tho  monks,  who,  on  their  (lort, 
were  expected  ti)  "instruct  thorn  in  religious  truths,  olcor 
lip  their  doubts,  and  point  tho  way  to  hoavon."" 

Buddha  is  supposed  to  have  lived  for  nmre  than  forty 
years  after  establishing  his  order;  and  is  supposed  before 
his  death  to  have  seen  it  already  grown  rich  and  powertul. 
Although  tho  Buddhist  literature  of  Ceylon  profeases  to 
give  quite  full  particulars  of  thia  inii>ortant  period,  il  is 
strongly  argued,  that  we  really  know  but  little  of  it, 
that  in  all  probability  Buddhism  spread  dret  as  a  seenH 
society,  and  that  not  until  all  India  was  fillett  with  adher- 
ents of  this  new  religion,  about  tho  time  of  Asoca,  was  it 
openly  promulgated.*    "We  can  not  settle  this  [voint;  but  if 

1  MahavRggs  I.  12,  1.  ■  This  aUtomeol  muat  be  mad*  irlUi  dur  »)- 
lowaaoe  for  igno ranee  ntgard lug  the  niitare  and  exlcnl  or  tli«  Jalalal 
movement. 

>  KuUavagga,  V.  20.    4  Oldonbcrs!  "Buddba,"  p.  388  aotv. 

^  "AOmunitioti  of  tjlgalu."  Cblldi^rs  lu  "Coutcmponr;  Ravhiir,' 

isTe. 

*  UUlc:  "Builillin  and  Early  Buildliiam,"  p.  Ul.    "Popular 
rtudda,"  p.  I4S. 


L 


\ 


ARYAN  RELIOJON.  785 

s  rewll  the  great  nuriil>er  iiiid  influence  of  mystic  socie- 
»  in  the  Orient,  it  would  not  bo  at  all  strange  if  Bud- 
lisin  grew  tir-it  ap  a  secret  society.' 


E.:li^:c-,  Ten-.;le~Chir.a- 
W.'  must  iiuw  ini[itirr  mnn>  |i:irti(;uljirly  as  to  the  »loc- 
iiu's  tauirlit  liv  Builiiliu.  W'lirn  In-  made  his  ajipearanee 
'  >4.i.'ri'i  in  [111'  Hi'ii^i'  ih:it  :i  fi>riii:il  itiitiiiiuii  wan  uudergone  when 
tiiiit.'  Ill)'  milk";  t)i<-ir  i>r<i<*<'<-iliiii---  wert-  niiirf  or  Il-sh  In  »ecret;  the  \».J- 
•n  who  Kfivi'  ill  iht'ir  inllii-r'-iiii-  wtire  not  iieceourlly  knowa;  wid  tb« 
VLTiinu-iiC  (if  the  oril'-r  wm  more  or  lesn  secret. 


786  THE  MEDIE  VA  L  WORLD, 

in  India,  we  must  remember  that  the  common  masses  of 
the  people  were  grossly  superstitious.  The  Brahman  priest- 
hood had  usurped  the  right  to  perform  all  religious  office?. 
The  educated  classes  were  either  passing  their  lives  as  as- 
cetics or  waging  endless  disputes  as  to  the  nature  of  Brahrnn, 
the  Atman,  the  power  of  Illusion,  etc.  What  Buddha  de- 
sired to  do  was  to  substitute  some  practical  morality  for 
this  superstition  and  too  subtle  metaphysics.  All  meta- 
physical discussions  were  therefore  discouraged.  What  he 
wanted  was  actions  not  words.  What  he  wanted  was  ••no 
questioning  about  existence  or  non-existence,  about  eternity 
or  non-eternity."  He  wanted  the  "boundless  and  illimitaWe 
realized  but  not  talked  about."^  He  accordingly  empasizt^I 
the  cvery-day  duties  of  morality.  His  discourses  to  the 
laity  were  almost  entirely  taken  up  with  them. 

If  it  were  deemed  advisable,  whole  pages  could  now 
be  quoted  with  beautiful  sayings  that  are  recorded  as  com- 
ing from  Buddha's  lips.  Space  forbids,  however,  and  we 
will  only  give  a  general  idea  of  his  teachings.*  He  aimed 
to  awaken  spiritual  life  in  his  hearers.  He  taught,  that 
all  manner  of  impure  thoughts  and  unworthy  actions  pro- 
duced pain;  ^  if  not  in  this  world,  then  in  the  next.*  He 
gave  practical  discourses  on  such  subjects  as  **Eaniest- 
ness,"  which,  he  says,  is  **the  path  of  immortality;"*  on 
^'Thought,"  which,  when  *'well  guarded  brings  happiness."* 
Thedutyof**happiness"  was  pointed  out.  "Letus,  livehap- 
pily  not  hatingthosewhohate  us^'Vashisdesire.  Thesinof 
''anger"  was  commented  upon.  He  advised :  "Let  a  man 
overcome  anger  by  love,  let  him  overcome  evil  by  gooil' 

i  Beul:  ''Romance  History,"  p.  175.  Hde  **8abba8va  Sutta," 9. 

2  We  would  especially  mention  the  fol lowing:  "Sacred  Books/*  Vol? 
X.  and  XT      Deal:  *'Dhammapada."  Rockhill:  **Udanavarga." 

3  Dhammapada.  i   1      4  jijid.  17.    5  Ibid.  21. 
6  Ibid.  36.  7  Ibid.  197.    8  Ibid.  223. 


AB  YAJf  BELiaiOIf.  187 

He  insisted  on  the  necessity  oi  personal  action.  His 
last  recorded  words  are  "work  out  your  salvation  with 
dilligeiice."'  In  another  place,  he  eiclnimcd  "you,  your- 
self must  make  an  efturt."'  Ha  condom  nod  the  idea  that 
blootly  sacrifices  cuuld  atone  fur  sin.  He  asked:  "Haring 
a  body  defiled  with  blutxl  will  the  sheililin^'of  l>l<)od  restore 
it  to  purity."'  He  condemned  asceticiaiu  of  nil  kinds.  Ho 
wanted  his  followers  to  follow  the  "Middle  Path,"  between 
the  twd  extremes,  which  are  a  life  given  over  to  pleas- 
ure, and  a  life  of  self  mortification;*  atul  in  all  tilings, 
he  insisted  ini  upright  conduct.  "Great  is  the  fruit,  great 
the  advantage  uf  earnest  contemplation,  when  set  round 
with  upright  conduct."^  "Good  works  receive  a  man  who 
has  dune  good  and  has  gone  from  this  world  to  the  other, 
as  kinsmen  receive  a  friend  on  his  return.''" 

It  is  a  melancholy  fact,  that  it  is  not  truth  that(«n«]Uer8 
the  wiirld  \i\\\.  organization.  Buddha  cleiirly  realized  this, 
and  f'trwitli  trained  and  <Iisci|)Iincd  his  nmnks  anil  cstab* 
li>li''.i  !iis  i.rdcr.  A  jaip-  |>art  ^>i  IJuiidlji^t  ivritiugs  are 
c..iii-.riii>.l  HJih  i-idf.-  r.il-  tlic  regulation  . I  rid  jjuidancc  of  the 
iii'-iik-.  TiHTi-  vvi-i-(>  twn  striL'es'it'  iiiiiiaii.m  into  the  order, 
tlir  Pdbhajja  and  llir  I'f^asiunpada.  Kntry  into  the  first 
f^v\\A<-  iiii-lit  be  ;is  r.irly  ;i.s  lil'tccn  ycnr;*,' provided  the 
jianrits  :j.:i\e  their  imi'' iil.  '  or.  in  .spcci;il  circumstJineea, 
even  vuiinger.'-'  Tliry  c..uld  m't  be  received  into  full 
mcndjer.-lii|i  before  tlie  age  itf  twenty.'"  It  rccjuircd  a 
chaiitcmf  at  least  ten  nn-nks  to  confer  the  Upaj-ampada 
ihitiatiiMi."  While,  in  general,  this  order  was  open  to 
ev.  rv  .jnc.   yet   crrlain  classe.-*  were  excluded,  us  suldier>. 


■  Mal.s-l':iri 


uiicv  Illntory/'p.  IfiS. 

.  .-rt>.    X  thl.1  \.{A.    ■  IbhL  U. 
>  Ibid.  L  ^2,  Z. 


Angcor-Wac,  Buddhiet.  Tamp^o— Slftin- 
"is  nnd  minute.  Twice  in  each  month,  the  monks  in  ;in; 
ven  district.  wh'u-\i  wns  duly  detennined  by  bouniia,  wen 
expected  tu  meet  find  hoM  relifrious  serviocs.  There  waa 
a  sort  nf  npt-n  itonfcasioiial.     The  list  of  nffenccs  was  gDn«_ 

1  UftbBTHtunit.  35. 


^ 


^M  ABYAX  EELtaiON.  78& 

^pen  "od,  if  any  monk  had  transgresaeil,  then   was  the 

^Bne  to  makL-  it  known.     This  part  of  thi.ir  work  was  st- 

|Bet,  but  wt;  jilso  read  that  the  people  went  ihtTe  in  onlcr 

1  l»i  hear  the  Dhamma.*    This  word  means  the  precepts  of 

■tonddha.*    S.j  it  would  seem  as  if  wo  here  have  something 

^H  the  nature  of  ethical    discourses  to  the  ]>eup1e.' 

^H     It  is  nut  necessary  for  us  to  speak  about  the  order  of 

jHmns.     Let  us  study  the  growth,  and  iwlitical  litvt'lopnjent 

Of  Buddhism,     While  he  lived,  Buddha  was  the  head  nf 

the  onU-r.     The  books  of  the  southern    Buddhists,  from 

which  we  havo  been  quoting,  and  which  wi-  will  consider 

more  at  Iar;ze  aeon,  represent  the  order  as  being  left  with- 

oot  a  head  nil  Buddha's  death.*    It  is  sup[.i.s(d  that,  for  a 

time  atleii-st,  those  first  disciples  andcomp,'iiiioi],s  of  Buddha 

exerciBe<l  a  nominal  authority.'    We  will  smin  show  that, 

\xy  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.  c,  there  wa»  an  ofB- 

eUl  head  to  the  Buddhi-st  church,  his  title  was  "the  priest 

of  all  Ihe  world".*    Perhaps  for  a  long  tiiiie  before  this, 

there  had  I'eeii  some  such  an  nfficer  as  this  in  existence.' 

The  real  hist.Tv  (.f  lluddhisiu  does  not  begin  until  the 

middle  of  the  thinl  eenturv  ii.  t.     Buddhist  histories  give 

us  glowing  aecounts  of  the    rapid    -spread   of   Buddhism. 

Wherever  Buddha  went,  thousands  were  converted  and 

monasteries  were  provided  in  abundance  by  the  thankful 

zeal  of  newly  converted  kings  and  iirinees.     Within  a  few 

•  MulliT,  Iritr."liict[oii  L.thc  "l>li:iiiiumpftda,"  p.  xlv. 

»  Tlil«  in  ci].|Hwi-il  liv  I>r.  Olil.iili.rt; ;  ■BmliiliB,"  p.  371,  note;  aim  p. 
a84.  '  01<li'[il«-rK:  "ItuililtiH."  p.'^l,  note.  *  Ibid.  342. 

•  I.mk:  ■■l(u<l<ihiHni  in  Clirij-Ietnl.im,"  p.  215. 

•  Thf  "Maliawaiifr,"  i\  wn-n-l  liiHicirlcal  hook  of  Ceylon,  certalni; 
ImplieR  tliat  there  v-frr  varioii-t  ^nxlf h  cif  priesttt  from  tb«  start.  It  apraka 
nf  tlie  ftipft  [.rient  uln>  wn«  bI.i.uI  to  unfrock  some  of  the  lubordlnatea, 
Inimedinlety  aftiT  tlio  ilfiilli  nf  BiiiltUiii.  It  npeakfl  of  gmnA  prieali,  of 
rAi'^prli'HiH,  nii<l  nrprii-Hln  ff  hii/h  i/ff/r".  What  do  all  tbeM  expreaaloDS 
mean  if  there  wan  iniKrailaUnii  nf  authority  ? 


790  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

months  of  hU  death,'  a  council  of  five  hundred  monks  i* 
siiiil  to  have  been  held  to  settle  the  articles  of  faith;  a  huri- 
dred  years  later,  a  second  council  is  recorded.  These  ac- 
counts can  scarcely  be  called  historical.'  Back  ofthethini 
century  b.  c,  we  have  only  the  uncertain  light  of  traditiuh 
't  guide  us.  Before  that  date,  writing  was  not  eoniin"i. 
in  India.  It  was  used  only  for  imperial  prodaniaiiMiis 
etc.*  We  hear  considerable  about  the  wonderful  memories 
of  the  Indian  priests,  and  how  faithfully   traditions  are 


Bae  Hellef-Angccr-Wat 


I  ThodatcoriJmiilhu'stlenlli  vBrii';<  widely.  Mullerglvea  477,b.C. 
Rlij-H  Davidrt,  412,  11.  c.  WenlerKura  SCS-TO,  u.  c.  Keru,  388,  B.  u.  Th* 
."^ouiliLTii  DuddLhts  us9tiiiu'  543,  u.  c.    Vide  "Sacred  Books,"  Vol.  X.  i>. 

9  Tiele:  "HiH|i.r>-..f  Ililidnii  "  [..ITO.  I.llllo  "Popular  Life,"  cli.  xiii. 

'  TuyJor:  "Tlii'  A)iilw""'[  'Vul.  IT.  p.  SVI,  ct»eq.  ftlao  chapter  x  '. 
»-:i-<<'»ri»i<k-rcil  iiliii<>>:  :i(:.'.M'r'mii<>:i  to  piit  rollgloua  books  In  urili-  - 
ii;n\«  Diivi.l^:  "niuUliiUt  Siitius,"'  j>.  xsll.)  Although  the  ktinw!...  f 
i'r«Tit[iigN  niuiitioiii'ii  l:i  till!  oarlleailiooka  of  Ceylon,  yet  the  F.)iTi'<l 
H<>ok4  thciiiKclvert  tveru  not  roduoed  to  urltlng  before  the  flratrentur7 
U.  c.    OldL-ribcrg: ''Vin<iyaTextit,"Introdui;tlon,  p.  xxxlll.  el  leg. 


AR  YAN  RELTOIOS  791 

iuinded  down  by  them.  But  nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  three  or  four  centuries  of  oral  trans  mission  will  give 
us  anything  but  a  faithful  account  of  primitive  times.  The 
tendency  is  inevitable  for  recent  events,  customs,  andman- 
nei-s  t.i  be  transferred  to  early  times, 

\Vi?  can,  then,  only  surmise  that  Buddhism  grew  with 
considerable  rapidity,  silently,  perhaps  secretly,  until 
the  era  of  Asoca.  That  king  was  converted  to  Buddhism 
and  forthwitli  made  it  the  state  religion.  Basking  in  the 
sunshine  of  ruyal  favor,  it  is  not  surprising  that  Buddhism 
lost  somewhat  of  its  early  purity,  nor  is  itstrangc  that  the 
reaction  should  carry  it  in  the  direction  of  superstition  and 
mysticism.  Then  it  is,  that  we  begin  to  hear  of  the 
"Priest  of  all  the  world," the  head  of  the  Buddhist  church; 
then  it  was,  that  Buddha  was  made  i\  veritable  god,  and 
the  worship  uf  saints  became  establislied;  then  it  was,  that 
the  shuvly  enveloping  myths  suddenly  shut  np  into  a 
luxuriant  growth  and  so  comi)letcly  lad  the  historical  Bud- 
dha from  sight  that  we  can  hardly  be  sure  of  any  details 
respecting  his  life. 

This  wiis  till'  "Golden  Age"  of  Buddhism.  The 
Achary  (high  priest)  of  Magadlia  grew  in  power  and  in- 
fluence. I-ater  the  great  monastery  "f  Xalanda  liecame  his 
head  quarters.  Uis  person  M'as  esteemed  hi  sacred  that 
ovrn  his  name  was  not  to  be  pronounced.  Whoever  was 
adniitteil  to  the  liiL'h  honor  of  an  interview  Mith  him  was 
expe<;ted  to  fall  ]irostrate  before  him  and  kiss  his  feet. 
Siieli  a  svsteni  as  tliis  implies  a  well  graded  hierarchy. 
When,  in  subsei[uent  rears,  Buddhism  was  crushed  out  (  ' 
India,  the  .leliary  of  Xalanda  t.n.k  refuge  in  Thibet,  a;, 
i-  pri'bablv  represented  by  the  "Grand  Lama."  Othcr- 
«■;-■  ii  wiiuld  be  difficult  to  explain  why  China  and  Japan, 
whirli  derived  theirBuddhism  from  India, should acknowl- 


1 


792  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

edge  the  authority  of  this  Thibetan  Pontiff*  Many  writ- 
ers have  traced  out  the  resemblance  between  the  hierarchy 
of  the  Thibetan  church  and  the  position  of  the  Grand  Lama, 
and  the  hierarchy  of  the  Catholic  church  and  the  position 
of  the  Pope.* 

The  Catholic  missionary  Hue  observed  to  his  aston- 
-iiiuLMit  among  the  Buddhists  of  Thibet  "the  cross,  the 
luitro,  the  dalmaic,  and  the  chasuble — that  the  su{»erior 
lamas  carry  with  them  when  traveling  or  performing 
some  ceremony  out  of  the  temple — the  choral  service,  the 
exorcisms,  the  cimsers  supported  by  five  chains  and  made 
to  open  and  shut,  the  blessings  which  the  Lamas  bestow  on 
the  faithful — laying  their  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  sup- 
plicant— the  rosary,  the  practice  of  ecclesiastical  celibacy,  of 
spiritual  retreats,  the  worship  of  saints,  fasts,  processions, 
holy  water,  litanies,  and  many  other  details  of  ceremonial 
which  are  in  use  among  the  Buddhists  precisely  as  in  our 
own  church."^  The  Catholic  bishop  Bigandet  speaks  also 
of  this  state  of  affairs  in  Thibet  and  of  the  hierarchy 
in  Burmah/  What  they  are  describing  is  but  the  final 
form  of  the  order  and  religion  of  Gautama  and,  when  we 
reflect  on  the  conservatism  of  religion,  we  will  doubtless 
agree  that  in  all  essential  points  it  is  not  materially  differ- 
ent from  the  same  cult  in  the  palmy  days  of  King  Asoca. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  de* 
velopment  of  doctrine  in  Buddhism.  Many  centuries  have 
elapsed  since  Buddha  sent  forth  his  sixty-one  disciples. 
His  followers  have  now  separated  into  two  great  di- 
visions; one  theistic,  and  the  other  atheistic.   Considerable 

1  Vide  LiUie:  ^'Popular  Life  of  Buddha,"  p.  183,  by  same  author, 
"Buddhism  in  Christendoin,"  p.  227. 

2  Firfc  "Hil)l»ert  U^rtiires,"  1881,  p.  192. 

3  ^'Christianity  in  China,  Tartary  and  Thibet,"  Vol.  H.  p.  1&. 

4  »*Life  of  Buddah/»  Vol.  II.  p.  261. 


A  ft  YA  N  EELIOION.  793 

dispute  has  arisen  of  late  years  as  to  the  priority  of  those 
schools  and  which  better  represents  primitive  IJuildhism. 
It  seems  to  us  that  here,  as  In  many  other  cast's,  the  truth 
lies  between  two  extremes.  Buddha,  as  a  Uriihnmcarin, 
was  thoroughly  posted  in  Indian  Wisdom.  But  his  mis- 
sion was  to  sharply  emphasize  the  necessity  of  morality. 
This  colors  all  his  sayings.  In  his  di8Ci>urspa  with  the 
young  Brahmans,  he  does  not  at  all  undertake  U>  overthrow 
their  ideas  as  to  Brahma,  but  does  insist  that  the  way  to 
union  with  him  consisted  in  the  discharge  of  moral  dutied 
and  in  purity  of  life.  On  their  part,  the  Brahmans 
recognized  that  he  was  simply  a  reformer.     They  exclaim 

that  he  "  sets  up  that  which  is  thrown  down points  out 

the  right  road  to  him  who  has  gone  astray,"' 

Buddha  is  described  as  being  well  versed  in  the  "way 
of  Brahma."  He  talks  about  the  "world  of  Brahma," 
and  the  "Brahma  heaven."'  As  St.  Paul  many  year's  latOT 
points  out  the  difference  between  a  Jew  outwardly  and  a 
Jew  inwardly,  between  circumcision  of  the  heart  and  cir* 
cuiiicisinn  of  the  flesh;'  so  Buddha  points  out  to  the  young 
Brahmans  tlic  distinction  between  a  Brahman,  who  was 
('T\c  outwardly,  and  one  inwardly.'  It  seems  to  us  there- 
fore reasonulile  to  ai;reo  with  many  scholars  that  Buddha 
meant  simply  to  reform  the  Hindooiam  of  his  day.*  He 
would  therefore  not  attack  its  i)hilosopIiy,  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  he  accepted  and  tauglit,  at  least  to  the 
hiirher  order  of  his  monks,  the  estoric  doctrines  of  higher 
Brahmaiii.^m. 

But  as  remarked  \w  wante.!  t..  em|)liasize  the  moral 

'  TrvlifKnSiittA.     'Mtirth  Storirn.     Mt»tiia[it  II    28-29. 

•  Ti;viKi:»Sii(lii.  i.  i'.  .-10. 

i  Tliix  ■•>  ii»w  not  •|ti<-4iji>i)L'<l.     Bee,  for  laaUDce,  KaaiUD;  "Hlbbart 


794  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

side  of  life.  He  well  enough  knew  the  fatal  tendency  of 
Brahmanicrtl  life.  He  therefore  condemned  metaphysical 
discussion.  He  utterly  repudiated  the  idea  that  purity 
could  come  by  philosophical  views.^  In  one  of  the  writings 
of  the  Southern  Buddhist,  a  disciple  comes  to  Buddha  and 
i\'({uests  him  to  clear  up  his  doubts  as  to  whether  man  is 
immortal  or  not.  Buddha  explained  to  him  that  knowledge 
on  this  and  similar  points  "did  not  conduce  to  a  life  of 
holiness,"  and  hence  he  refused  to  express  himself.*  It  is 
not  strange,  then,  that,  as  time  passed  on,  confused  and 
even  contradictory  opinions  arose  as  to  what  were  the  be- 
liefs and  teachings  of  Buddha. 

When  Buddhism  entered  on  its  "Golden  Age"  under 
Asoca,  it  would  be  p^xssing  strange  if  it  had  retained  its 
primitive  simplicity.  Judging  from  various  symbols  en- 
graved on  the  ancient  topes  in  India,^  especially  at  Sanchi,^ 
at  that  time  the  Buddhists  worshiped  first  a  trinity,*  con- 
sisting of  Buddha,  Dhamma,  and  SangJia.  These  terms, 
indeed,  earlier  had  a  very  literal  meaning.  The  candidate 
for  initiation  into  the  order  of  monks  had  to  proclaim  three 
times  that  he  took  refuge  in  Buddha,  Dhamma,  andSangha, 
meaning  thoroby  Buddha,  the  law,  and  the  order.*  This 
was  called  '^taking  refuge  in  the  holy  triad."  For  all  we 
know  to  the  contrary,  there  may  have  been  an  esoteric 
moaning  given  to  these  phrases  from  the  start.  But  it  is 
certainly  not  singular  that  such  a  meaning  came  to  be  ap- 
plied to  them  in  after  times.  Xeitheris  it  strange  that,  in 
tlie  esoteric  meaning  so  apjdied,  we  find  simply  a  statement 
of  Indian  philosophy. 

'   Parayaiiavappa  8.    2  Olden  berg:  "Buddha,"  p.  276. 
3  The  'rri-Ratiia,  found  engraved  on  monuments  wherever  Boddhtun 
went.     Vide  Pinoott :  *'The  Tri-Ratna"  in  J.  ft.  A.  8. 1887. 

*  Al)(»ve  |K  176.         ^  Cunningham:  **The  Bbilsa Topes,"  p.  361. 
6  Mahavagga  i.  12,  4. 


AR  YA  N  RELIGION. 

Briefly  expressed  then  we  may  say  tl 
p^ars  to  have  at  that  time  believed  in  the  e^ 
infinite,  eternal  essence  Aditi-buddha,  (Supr 
corresponding  to  Brahma.     It  denied  the  reality 
nomenal  world.'    Aditi-buddha  in  conjunction 
9ta  (the  infinite  mother  of  all),  produced  t 
tor,  analogous  to  Iswara.*   Judging  from  the  rii 
changes  much  slower  than  the  literature),  from 
mentation  of  heaven  (still  extant  in  their  sculptur 
further  held  that  the  highest  destiny  of  the  spirii 
of  man  was  to  be  reunited  with  Aditi-buddha ; 
was  a  lot  attainable  only  by  the  Buddhas ;  other 
worthy,  enjoy  a  life  of  immortality  in,  one  of  ' 
heavens. 

Let  us  recall  that  from  a  train  of  \  ti 

seven  was  a  sacred  number  generally  thr 

ent.  As  there  were  seven  great  gods  in  the  C 
amoshospands  in  Persia,  seven  holy  rishis  in  the  V 
Gniitaiiia  was  said  to  have  been  the  seventh  Buddha.  Each 
Bu<Mha  was  held  to  1)0  an  emanation  from  the  supreme 
Buddha, (Aditi-buddha),  Dhamma  was  the  mother  of  each, 
so  each  was  a  god-man,  consenting  to  descend  from  the 
highest  heaven,  Tusitii,  and  pass  a  life  on  earth  for  the 
gocMlofmcn.  Such  a  being  is  also  ciUled  a  Tathagatha, 
meaiiinir.  perhaps,  the  coming  one  or  the  one  who  "was  to 
com*.'/'  Buddha  explained  to  inquiring  Brahmans  that 
*'from  time  to  time  a  Tathagatha  is  born  into  the  world," 
hi.-*  mission  being  to  ^*make  known  the  higher  life,  in  all 
its  purity  and  in  all  its  perfectness/'' 

1  OldenU'FK::  "Buddha,"  p.  238. 

»  ViiU  Lillie:  "HuddhaaiHl  Early  BuddhUm'ch.  li:  ** Popular  Life 
f.f  Ruddlm."  p.  24u  t7  sc^i,  Hod^r^on  in  J.  R.  A.  8.  for  1835.  Cunning- 
hAiii.  ()|»    rit. 

3  "TevivrKa  Sulta,"  i.  46.     Ah  for  this*  defliiitioii,  »et»  Bun»6D:  '*Ang6l 


796  THE  ME  DIE  VA  L  WORLD, 

The  ritual  of  all  Buddhist  countries  contain  references 
to  the  worship  of  these  past  BuddhasJ  Once  when  Bud- 
dha was  preaching,  an  apparition  appeared  in  the  sky. 
It  was  the  throne  of  one  of  the  Buddhas  of  the  past,  and 
from  it  proceeded  words  of  praise  for  the  Tathagatha's 
pTcaching.*  At  the  Stupa  of  Bharhut,  General  Cunuin;:- 
ham  found  carvings  representing  the  thrones  and  holy 
trees  of  each  of  the  great  Buddhas  of  the  past.* 

From  the  foregoing,  we  can  perhaps  form  an  idea  of 
the  Buddhism  of  the  first  period,  by  which  we  mean  from 
the  reign  of  Asoca  down  to  about  the  commencement  of  the 
Cliristiau  Era.     We  see  the  theological  side,  held  in  abey- 
ance by  Buddha  himself,  finally  winning  a  large  share  of 
attention.     We  see  the  order  he  had  established  growing 
in  power  and  organization.     Ancestor  worship,  which  ap- 
peals so  strongly  to  the  feelings  of  primitive  men,  had  also 
won  recognition.     Saint  worship  had  sprung  up.     Seven 
Buddhas  were  worshiped  instead  of  one.     Relics  of  the 
great  Buddha,orof  the  eminent  saints,  were  priceless  relics. 
It  is  not  considered  improbable  that  religious  wars  were 
undertaken  to  get  possession  of  such  treasures.* 

About  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  Era,  we 
come  to  the  first  great  innovation  largely  due  to  a  Hindoo 
sect,  the  Tantrikas,  This  sect  were  great  believers  in  the 
powers  of  magic.  There  were  no  gods,  or  rather  their 
own  adepts  were  possessed  of  greater  power.  They  affirmed 
that  everything  arises  from  nothing.    Though  they  made 

Messiah,''  p.  18.  For  criticism  on  the  same,  see  KeUogg:  **Light  of 
Asia,  etc."  p.  107.  Admitting  with  Dr.  Kellogg  that  the  meaning  is 
"thus  come,"  still  taking  this  in  connection  with  the  statement  in  the 
Sutta'^that  from  time  to  time, "such  heinics  are  expected  to  become  'Uhus 
<*<)me,"  wiiat  is  so  out  of  the  way  witli  Biinseu's  deflnition? 

1  Lillie:  "Popular  Life  of  Buddha/*  p.  231,  217. 

3  Saddharma-Pundurika.  xi.        3  Lillie  in  J.  R.  A.  8.  for  1882. 

*  Ferguson:  "Tree  and  ?'»rp«Mit  Worship,"  p.  Ixxxvlil.  (Sanehl.) 


jjrrjA-  BBUotoif.  19T 

riktaMB  as  Maker,  thoy  confuitU'riHl  tUotn  »«  mvfv 

YWaatim;  of  their  knowkHl^ti  \\wy  ^fUttixUxl  wVI^ 

McrecT.     But  this  uotitinmHl  to  yi\>w  «tt4  W 

and  moro  influonco  in  ImliH,     AtVNr»<.»wv 

of  conflict.  Buddhism  took  up  with  tviawv  \\iWy<Ot 

A  eoancil,  a^scuiblud  by  iho  TurnniRn  Ktug  KhuI«J^« 


Buddhiat  Tompie,  Island  0/  Java. 
(a.  n.  ID),  first  pruimil^MU'd  thi'Hc  now  views.'  The  follow- 
ers of  tills  11.  w  niiildliisin  wcrr  kiinwii  n.s  the  folhiwcrs  '..' 
this  GreatW-hicle.  A<-.i.iiliTi;.'tiithi'{;'hiiicsc  Traveler  H  wen 
Thaang,  theiiriiiiilivL!  Huildliists  {Ullle  Vehicle)  called  this 
movement  (in  n'tcr.'tic.-  t.>  its  Atheism)  the  "carriage 
whii-h  drives  tn  the  gn.it  uu-wIi'tc;"  they  further  said  that 
it    difTered    in    in.tliiui,'  fn.ni  tin-    Tantrikas'   philosophy.* 

I  unit-:  -Ftii'liniipTii    in    CliriMtciKlom."    p.    31T.    1    Cunnfnglwin! 
"Bhll>>aTr>|K'-.  "  |>.  I'o      1   hVrK""iiii:  ■Tni' and  Serpent  Worahlp,"p- 64 


798  THE  MEDIEVAL    WORLD. 

Dr.  Lillie  further  shows  that  though  this  doctrine  was 
at  first  opposed  by  the  acharya  of  Magadlia,  yet  he  fiuallv 
accepted  it.  Another  change  had  been  going  forward, 
which  received  the  support  of  the  new  movement. 

The  belief  had  grown  up,  that  several  Buddhas  had 
appeared  in  the  past,  and  also  that  from  time  to  time  ihev 
would  appear  in  the  future.     Those  who  will  appear  in 
the  future  are  called  Bodhi-satwas.     The  idea  finally  arose 
that  the  one  destined  to  next  appear  was  now  enjoying  a 
life  of  bliss  in  the  highest  heaven,  Tusita.     They  gave  it 
a  pretty  name,  Maitreya,  kindness.     This  was  to  be  the 
future  Buddha  to  rule  the  world.    The  next  step  was  to 
worship  this  future  Buddha.     How  early  this  movement 
arose  we  do  not  know,  but  the  Great  Vehicle   movement 
took  it  up.     The  Chinese  Pilgrim  Fa  Hian  expressly  states 
that  the  disciples  of  the  Little  Vehicle  (primitive  Budd- 
hists) worshiped  the  Buddhas  of  the  past,  but  those  of  the 
Great  Vehicle  worshiped  the  Bodhi-satwas.^     This  same 
traveller,  who  was  in  India  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  of  our  era,  found  Buddhist  monks  and  monasteries 
in  great  numbers,  belonging  to  both  vehicles  from  Cabul 
to  Magadha.^  Hweng  Thsang,  two  centuries  later,  found  both 
vrhicles  in  Magadha;  Ceylon  must  have  been  a  stronghold 
of  the  Great  Vehicle  movement,  since  Thsang  left  on  reconl 
that  there  were  ten  thousand  monks,  followers  of  that  ve- 
liK-lo  on  that  island; '  in  general,  the  Great  Vehicle  must 
have   been   in   the  majority.      Hweng    Thsang    himself 
presided  at  the  council  summoned  by  King  Siladitya  to 
settle  the  vehicle  question.    This  council  suppressed  the 
Little  Vohiclo.     By  this  victory,  those  doctrines  and  ideas 

'  XaW'w  :  'Popular  Life,"  p.  174. 
a  lihys  Davids:  "BuddhlRm,"  p.  143. 

w  I.illio:  ''BuddhiHiu  in  ChriHtendom/' p.  218.     Rhys  Davids  also 
shows  that  the  worship  of  Maitreya  existed  there.  (^'Buddhism/'  p.  201.) 


ARYAS-  BELIGION.  799 

in  Buddhism  which  give  it  the  appearance  of  ;ithcism,  so 
strongly  commented  on  by  some,' were  rendered  a  perma- 
nent feature.' 

It  is  now  necessary  to  glance  at  the  development  of 
Buddhist  sacred  literature.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  the 
rules  for  the  government  of  the  order  and  ritual  go  back  to  a 
very  early  period.  This  is  the  part  that  was  repeated  at 
the  fast  days.  Tradition  doubtless  clung  tenaciously  to.the 
reputed  sayings  of  Buddha.  It  is  none  llu'  less  true  tliat 
the  tendency  would  be  for  these  collections  of  stories  to 
grow  with  time.  Asoca  carved  on  the  Bdirat  rock  a  list  of 
seven  tractates  which  he  orders  the  BuddhLsts  to  rccito  in 
tlie  temples.  Besides  these  nothing  else  was  to  Iks  recited. 
Some  of  these  tracts  can  now  be  found  buried  up  in  the 
accumulation  of  later  literature.'  We  may  suppose  that 
when  the  alphabet  was  fairly  introduced  such  legends, 
histories,  and  doctrinal  books  would  commence  to  grow. 
So,  by  the  time  that  it  was  considered  allowable  to'put  the, 
tarred  literature  into  writing,  it  had  grown  to  bequite  vo- 
luniiin'us. 

Alinut  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  ofourora,  a 
yuinii.'Ur;iiini;in  joined  tlic  liuddliist  monastery  !it  X;ilanda. 
rrniii  his  i-l("iiu'iK-c  lie  w.is  named  Buddha-ghosa  One 
.b.y  lir  was  iiif.jnii.d  that  in  the  island  of  Ceylon  there 
Was  ,1  uuTiiiiieiitary  on  their  sacred  texts,  written  in  the 
Sin:;.ili  >f   latiL'iiai:!'.'      He    accordinirly  went  thither    for 

■■  '1'ho...  ^,  ),o  »r<-  »<'<(UAiiit('d  » Itli  tli<'<ns<-us»i<>ii  on  Buddhliin)  wlU  m* 
tli'il  >« .'  \i-.x\  •■  <'<>r[j>'  I',  til.'  ••'itx'hi-ii.ii:'  >K\.  forth  l>v  llr.  LMilt.-  In  hii  Vftrloiw 

uork-  '>ii  lUi.MIni  ami  [{i<a<llii~iii, 1  ..].]..>s<'<l  to  1Ui>'h  Davlils.     We  can 

iK.i  ^.,  u\\,i  ,\,-\M\-  flirt htT.  Iltii  it  ^'<>('Tll^•IoUH  that  Dr  LiHie  amply  lui- 
taiN- lii.  \i.'W-,  S,-i-.-.]>.'iiiillylli..  n.'w  material  iii"Buddhl«iBln  Cbria- 
tciMloii..'' p.:;.ii,  lui.f  ■■l'o|>iilnr  [.if.-,"  i'liupter  xvl.    "The  Hibbert  I^eo- 


800  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD 

tlic  purpose  of  translating  thii  back  into  Pali.     Now  Bud- 
dhaghosa,  as  a  monk  from  Nalanda,  was  a  follower  of  the 
Great  Vehicle,  this  was  also  tlie  orthodox  faith  in  Ceylon. 
lie  had  been  but  recently  converted  from  Brahnianism. 
We  of  course  cannot  tell  what  school  of  philosophy  lie  em- 
braced before  his  conversion  to  Buddhism.     It  is  at  least 
possible    that  he  belonged  to  some  of  the  materialistic 
schools.^    It  is  admitted  that  he  was  an  able  and  ambitious 
man.  He  has  been  compared  to  Hildebrand.*  It  is  extreme- 
ly probably,  therefore,   that  in  his  new  translation  lie 
would  insist  on  giving  prominence  to  his  own  personal  views. 
The  importance  of  this  becomes  at  once  apparent  when  we 
realize  the  great  influence  heexerted  on  southern  Buddhism.^ 
Not  only  his  commentary  is  employed,  but,  we  are  told,  that 
all  of  the  Buddhist  pitakas  are  derived  from   Ceylon.* 
They  were  doubtless  all  subject  to  his  influence.     All  these 
facts  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  those  who  insist  that  the 
^  books  dS  the  southern  Buddhists  give  us  the  truest  ideas 
of  primitive  Buddhism.     On  the  contrary,  as  they  exist 
now,  they  give  us  Buddhagohsa's  version  of  the  teachings  of 
the  ''Great  Vehicle". 

In  many  ways,  Dr.  Lillie  thinks  he  can  show  that 
Buddhaghosa's  version  departed  from  the  primitive  teach- 
ings. It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  ritual  and  some  of 
the  symbols  of  Ceylon  if  Buddhism  there  has  always  been 
of  the  type  described  in  the  writings  of  Buddhaghosa.  For 
instance,  the  worship  of  the  seven  Buddhas  is  covered  ui> 

^  For  instance  the  Charvacas,  who  were  iufluential  at  an  early  day. 
They  denied  the  exiHtenee  of  a  soul,  or  of  a  life  after  death.  They  had 
ronfused  ideas  that  the  personal  traits  of  character  might  go  to  another 
lK)dy  after  death.   Colebrook^s  ''Essays,*'  p.  259-60. 

^  Ferguson:  "Tree  and  Serpent  Worship,'*  p.  Co. 

^  The  Buddhists  of  lUirmah,  for  instance,  owe  their  aorlpturea  to  him 
Jiij?andet :  **Huddha,"  Vol.  II.  p.  134  note. 

^  "Huddhi.stRuttas/»p.  xxii. 


J  r  r J  -Y  ixi/s/ar.  ^Wl 

by  a  story  about  a  diarm.  Y^t  riisal  and  uct(i««ut  vw^ 
tices  in  the  writings  show  that  saA  a  wiHsh^  did  n^l^T 
exist.  In  the  Chinese  DHamiru^iada,  eeitain  e£|w«»ioo$ 
occur  regarding  the  hearen  of  BnluntL  Bnddhaghosa  oiuit» 
those  passages,  yet  is  oth^  pazts  oi  his  writiD^  oloar  ry^ 
erences  to  them  exiat,  showing  that  they  must  hnre  oxUtt^t 
in  the  account  before  Buddhaghoea.  It  is  quite  prxtkHlttu 
that  he  deliberately  interpolated  suttas  b^or*  him  so  m  In 
make  them  either  teach  his  doctrines  or  else  timiako  iheiu 
contradictory.' 

One  more  phase  of  Buddha  and  his  lifo  tiniil  mm  Im 
treated.  Around  anch  a  character  as  Buddliii,  who  hitU 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  religion  which  byUiothinl  \m\- 
tury  B.  c.  was  embraced  by  hundreds  of  milHoim  mC  |it«i)|)|o, 
would  speedily  gather  innumerable  myths  niul  loKinitU, 
Nor  is  it  at  all  singular  that  the  old  sun  myUiH  wimlil  imiiv 
more  gather  around  him  as  a  center.*  Wo  nan  tirnli'iiltiliit 
how,  as  his  religion  grew  and  tho  old  foriniiln  irl  IhIUh^ 
tion  (Buddha,  Dhnmma,  and  Sanghu)  grew  lrkl»  itit  o«)ih)S' 
sion  for  the  trinity,  Buddha  himm-If  woiild  ltt'r.itit»  iti'lAmt, 
at  least  worshiped  an  the  l;i»t  uf  Un-  m-vm   IIikI'Mimb 

And  tliid  last  idea,  tak'-ri  in  <-.(riii.-i'li'iii  tvllli  l|i»  iliui 
trine  of  Bodhisatwa,  tlii:i:'^iiiin;/ llii<l<lli't,  w>.iil<l  limtj  IhIImi 

WIicf<^f  his  angelic  lif<.-Wf.,r- l,i«  l>jrf.).       I(. tl...  l.-y..),.! 

ln'giiis  with  hiin  as  tin;  awAuU-A  nm/'t.  v*tililtiy  )m  IIm' 
Tu.-ita  li.-av.-n  f.,r  th- h'.ur  V.  fully  immv I  I,...  t*.,  I,., 


J  A  Fr^i.' 


7  M..W- 


802  THE  ME  DIE  VA  L  WORLD, 

gill  to  notice  the  sun  myth.  He  was  born  on  Christmas,^ 
because,  at  this  time,  ancient  myths  in  many  nations  be- 
lieved the  sun  of  the  new  year  to  be  born.*  As  a  preexist- 
ing angel,  of  course  his  earth  life  began  by  a  miraculous 
conception.'  His  mother,  though  married  to  King  Sudd- 
hodana  of  the  Sakya  tribe,  was  still  a  virgin.  In  a  dream, 
she  was  made  aware  of  the  happy  destiny  in  store  for  her, 
and  angels  informed  the  good  king  of  the  nature  of  the 
child  to  be  born  to  him. 

The  queen  was  on  a  journey,  when  Pushya,  "the  king 
of  the  stars,"  showed  by  its  position  that  the  hour  had  come. 
In  an  Indian  grove  under  a  Sala  tree,  which  bent  its 
branches  down  to  conceal  her,  amid  many  signs  and 
wonders,  the  heavenly  child  was  born.  Four  Brahmans 
received  the  child  on  a  golden  net,  four  great  kings  uf  the 
cosmos  were  present  to  render  him  homage,  flowers  and 
other  offerings  were  presented  to  him,  and  above  immortal 
spirits  sang  his  praise.  The  holy  nature  of  the  child  attract- 
ed great  attention.  A  holy  ascetic,  dwelling  afar,  perceived 
by  his  magic  power  that  a  Buddha  had  been  born,  and  he 
hurried  to  the  city  of  Kapilavastu  to  see  him.  He  took 
the  child  in  his  arms  but  wept  to  think  he  would  not  live  to 
sec  his  glory.  When  sent  to  school,  he  dumfounded  the 
to.ichcrs  by  his  miraculous  knowledge.  No  matter  how 
difficult  the  question  he  could  answer. 

Quite  in  the  manner  here  pointed  out  there  grew  up  a 
romantic  life  of  Buddha.  Every  important  event  of  his  life 
was  set  off  with  some  incident  testifying  to  his  supernatural 
character.     These  accounts  must  have  early  commenced 

^  Bunsen;  **Ahgel  Messiah/'  p.  23. 
-i  Lillie:  **Buddhaand  Early  Buddhism,"  p.  22. 
3  In  Egypt,  India,  Greece,  in  fact  in  the  ancient  world  generally, 
every  individual,  who  attained  any  prominence,  was  considered  the  son 

of  somo  p)d  or  goddess. 


AB  YAN  RELIGION.  803 

>  grow.    Judging  from  the  carved  sculptur        the  • 
'*ope,  as  well  as  at  Amrivati,  the  legends  m        \ 
Umed  a  systematic  shape  as       ly  as  three  cen  c 

•hough  until  they  were  fin?  "ly  reduced  to  writir 
^ould  be  subject  to  changes  and  new  arrang 

We  have  now  only  space  for  a  few  renr  c 

^g  the  spread  of  Buddhism.     In  a  general  way,  it 
\gw  it  spread  over  Eastern  Asia,  and  even      it 
islands  off  the  coast.     The  Island  of  Java,  for  i 
overrun  with  Buddhist  missionaries  at  an  extre'm     r 
date.     Abbe  Hue  tells  us  that  the  fourth  c         of  I 
in  Thibet  are  known  as  the  ''Wandering  I     r       \^. 
life  is  devoted  to  wandering  and  preaching  th     • 
They  visit  every  country  at  all  accessible  to  t     m.     1 
climb  mountains,  ford  rivers,  cross  deserts,  and  \ 
dangers.     We  need  not  doubt  that  we  have  in  tl 
dering  Lamas  fair  representatives  of  the  first  r  ^ 

Buddha  sent  forth  to  preach  Dhamma.     His  conr 
tn  preach  his  doctrine  to  all  without  exception. 

He  was  ol)eved.  His  r-i<j:2:ed  missionaries  trave 
t'.irand  wide.  Only  of  late  years  are  we  learninir  how  far 
tliry  did  go,  carrying  with  them  tlie  doctrines  of  the  king- 
•  !«»ni  of  righteousness.  Some  eminently  respectable  author- 
ities think  they  penetrated  to  America.  We  have  not 
- 1  »ac(^  to  investigate  this  subject.  We  need  only  remark 
that  some  of  the  carvincfs  found  in  Central  America  and 
Yucatan  are  easy  to  explain  on  this  hypothesis.*     But  the 


*  Ii«Mil  ("Komantic  Lej^eiid")  gives  these  legends  and  many  more. 
We  ha\«-  ►civrii  (niitt*  cnoii^li  to  show  their  general  character.  Moat  any 
«»f  thf  lives  of  Buildha  contain  IncldentM  of  these  legends.  Mofltof  the  in- 
<'identM  we  have  here  referred  to  are  represented  In  the  Amrivati  carv- 
In^TH  iZ'ii)  H.  r.  FermiMon:  "Tree  and  Serpent  Worship**).  It  would  be  well 
to  eimipare  what  Dr.  KeUojfjf  has  to  nay  on  this  point,  **The  Light  of 
Asiaete  "  p.    W.K 

«  Con-ult  Vjnin;r:  '*An  In^'lorious Columbus;*' also  Lillie:  <*Buddha 


804  THE  MEDIEVAL  WORLD. 

east  was  not  the  only  direction  of  travel.  They  went  west 
as  well.  We  have  referred  to  the  connection  between  the 
name  of  Woden  and  Buddha.  Long  ago  that  quite  emi- 
nent scholar,  Godfrey  Higgins,  wrote  a  book  to  show  that 
the  Druids  were  in  reality  a  sect  of  Buddhist  monks.* 
More  recently,  Prof.  Holmboe  has  marshalled  a  strong 
array  of  facts  to  show  that  Buddhist  monks  must  have 
reached  Norway.*  Prof.  MuUer  refers  to  the  existence  o^ 
Buddhism  in  Russia  and  Sweden.'  The  celebrated  Round 
Tower  in  Ireland,  dating  from  pre-Christian  times,  \9 
thought  by  some  to  be  a  Buddhist  monument.* 

Here  we  will  bring  this  chapter  to  a  close.  We  are 
now  down  to  a  most  interesting  point  in  the  history  of  re- 
ligion ;  to  the  conflict  between  Greek  Philosophy,  Jewish 
Mysticism,  Orthodox  Judaism,  and  the  doctrines  of  Budd- 
ha. Out  of  the  conflict,  thel^' Emerge  the  numerous 
Gnostic  sects;  and  finally,  when  the  hour  was  fully  come, 
Christianity  was  given  to  the  world.  But  this  must  be 
reserved  for  a  future  chapter. 

and  Early  Buddhism, *'  chapter  iv.  Some  of  the  carvings  to  which  we 
allude  are  the  following  (This  Series  Vol.  I.  p.  670  et  seq.) :  The  Statue  at 
C'opan,  Stone  Tablet  at  Palenque.  Statue  from  Palenque,  the  Beau  Relief 
at  Palenque,  Two  Headed  Monument  from  Uxmal,  The  Seated  Figure 
over  the  Doorway  at  Uxmal,  etc. 

1  *'The  Celtic  Druids/'  London,  1829. 

^  "Traces  de  Buddhisme  en  Norvege."  • 

3  "From  Vining",  Op.  cit.  iX 

4  Lundy :  '^Monumental  Christianity/'  p.  2B6*  ^ 


;J