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A    HISTORY    OF    ARCHITECTURE 

ON 

THE     COMPARATIVE     METHOD. 


"  The  spirit  of  antiquity, — enshrined 
In  sumptuous  buildings,  vocal  in  sweet  song, 
In  picture  speaking  with  heroic  tongue, 
And  with  devout  solemnities  entwined — 
Strikes  to  the  seat  of  grace  within  the  mind  : 
Hence  forms  that  glide  with  swan-like  ease  along, 
Hence  motions,  even  amid  the  vulgar  throng, 
To  an  harmonious  decency  confined, 
As  if  the  streets  were  consecrated  ground, 
The  city  one  vast  temple, — dedicate 
To  mutual  respect  in  thought  and  deed." 

WORDSWORTH, 


STYLES  <?  AGE  OF  GREEK*  BYZANTINE,  ROMANESQUE  , GOTO  1C  *  RENAISSANCE  REVIVALS  & 


V 


GOTHICS  15  -  15  CENTf  _J* 


/-          ' GOTHICS    I3-I5CCNT" 


THE    TREE    OF    ARCHITECTURE, 

Showing  the  main  growth  or  evolution  of  the  various  styles. 

The  Tree  must  be  taken  as  suggestive  only,  for  minor  influences  cannot  be 
indicated  in  a  diagram  of  this  kind. 


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A 

HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  METHOD  ' 

FOR    THE     STUDENT,     CRAFTSMAN,     AND     AMATEUR 

BY 
PROFESSOR   BANISTER    FLETCHER,    F.R.I.B.A. 

(Formerly  Professor  of  Architecture  in  King's  College,  London) 
AND 

BANISTER    F.    FLETCHER,    F.R.I.B.A.,    Architect 

(University  Extension  Lecturer  on  Architecture ;  Formerly  Lecturer  on  Architecture, 

King's  College,  London ;  R.I.B.A.  '  Godwin  '  Bursar,  1893,  '  Tite'  Prize  Medallist, 

1895,  Essay  Medallist,  1896,  Architectural  Association  Medallist  for  Design, 

1888,  Lecturer  at  the  Architectural  Association ;  Hon.  Corr. 

Member  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects ; 
Author  of  "  Andrea  Palladia,  his  Life  and  Works,"  etc.] 

FIFTH    EDITION,    REVISED    AND    ENLARGED 
BY 

BANISTER    F.    FLETCHER 

WITH    ABOUT    TWO    THOUSAND    ILLUSTRATIONS 


LONDON 
B.    T.    BATSFORD,     94,     HIGH     HOLBORN 

MCMV. 


BRADBURY,    AGNEW,    &    CO.    L1X,    PRINTERS, 
LONDON    AND    TONBRIDGE. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   FIFTH    EDITION. 

IN  the  Preface  to  the  Fourth  Edition  I  explained  the  many 
important  additions  which  had  been  made  since  the  original 
publication  of  this  book  in  1896,  and  I  desire  to  point  out  that  in 
the  present  Edition  the  nature  of  the  revision  has  been  on  an  even 
more  extensive  scale,  amounting  to  the  rewriting  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  work.  While  much  new  matter  has  been  intro- 
duced, the  importance  of  a  thorough  revision  of  that  already 
existing  has  not  been  overlooked,  the  utmost  care  having  been 
taken  to  verify  all  important  statements  and  dates,  and  to  amplify 
such  descriptions  where  this  appeared  desirable.  These  remarks 
as  to  the  text,  apply  equally  to  the  illustrations,  which  have  been 
increased  by  the  addition  of  some  700,  bringing  their  total  up  to 
about  2,000.  Many  of  the  subjects  shown  in  the  previous 
editions  have  been  re-drawn  and  corrected  in  the  light  of  the 
most  recent  discoveries. 

The  sale  of  four  large  editions  in  the  space  of  a  few  years 
affords  strong  evidence  that  the  book  has  been  of  service  not  only 
to  the  strictly  professional  student  and  those  connected  with  design 
in  its  application  to  the  minor  arts  and  crafts,  but  also  to  that 
larger  body  of  amateurs  to  whom  Architectural  History  is  year 
by  year  becoming  a  matter  of  lively  interest.  It  is  gratifying  to 
know  that  it  has  been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  Art  Schools 
and  in  the  leading  Colleges  and  Technical  Institutions  of  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States  of  America,  and  Australia,  for  it  is  upon 
these  centres  we  must  depend  for  the  formation  of  a  cultivated 
taste,  and  the  future  growth  of  interest  in  the  Arts. 

Many  causes  have  combined  in  helping  towards  the  proper 
appreciation  and  enthusiasm  for  architecture  and  the  arts  of 
design,  among  which  the  greatly  increased  facilities  for  travel, 
the  conducted  educational  tours  now  so  popular,  and  the  general 
interest  in  photography  are  undoubtedly  important  factors. 

The  History  of  Architecture  has,  however,  until  recent  years 


viii  PREFACE    TO    THE    FIFTH    EDITION. 

been  a  sealed  book  to  many  who  have  wandered  amongst  the 
most  beautiful  creations  of  the  building  art  without  being  able  to 
understand  their  meaning  or  appreciate  their  quality — a  Grecian 
temple,  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  or  a  Gothic  cathedral  recalling  to 
them  none  of  the  evidences  which  render  each  a  reflection  of  its 
own  period  in  history,  and  which  give  to  each  ancient  building 
a  special  attraction,  besides  adding  greatty  to  the  interest  and 
enjoyment  of  its  examination. 

Architecture  has  been  described  very  truly  as  the  printing  press 
of  all  ages,  and  it  appears  probable  that  in  these  days  of  enlighten- 
ment the  study  of  Architectural  History  will  soon  take  its  proper 
place  as  part  of  a  liberal  education.  It  is  surely  remarkable  that 
it  should  for  so  long  have  been  neglected,  for  is  it  not  the  art  with 
which  everyone  is  brought  into  daily  contact,  which  shelters  us 
from  the  elements  and  gives  us  "  Home,"  which  enshrines  and 
illuminates  the  most  sacred  of  our  thoughts,  which  is  the  outcome 
of  conditions  intimately  bound  up  with  the  history  of  the  human 
race,  and,  finally,  is  it  not  the  mother  of  all  other  arts,  since 
from  it  sprang  sculpture,  painting,  and  the  decorative  crafts 
of  the  succeeding  ages  ? 

The  time  spent  in  the  study  of  the  architecture  of  the  past  will, 
therefore,  never  be  regretted,  for  every  ruin  tells  of  the  history 
of  other  days,  and  enables  the  character  and  conditions  of  men 
of  past  periods  to  be  conjured  up,  thus  opening  wide  to  all 
students  and  lovers  of  old  buildings  the  enjoyment  of  contem- 
plating forms  which  will  then  have  for  them  a  meaning  and  a 
charm. 

I  am  indebted  to  my  brother,  Mr.  H.  Phillips  Fletcher, 
F.R.I.B.A.,  for  helpful  criticism  in  this  edition,  and  to  my  pub- 
lisher for  his  care  in  the  revision  of  the  bibliography  and  in  the 
general  production  of  the  book. 

It  should,  perhaps,  be  mentioned  that,  owing  to  the  death  of 
Professor  Banister  Fletcher,  the  revision  of  the  fourth  and  of  the 
present  edition  has  been  carried  out  by  me. 

BANISTER  F.  FLETCHER. 

29,  NEW  BRIDGE  STREET, 

LUDGATE  CIRCUS,  E.G. 
New  Year's  Day,  1905. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

THE  Authors'  aim  in  writing  this  book  has  been,  not  only  to  give 
in  clear  and  brief  form  the  characteristic  features  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  each  people  and  country,  but  also  to  consider  those 
influences  which  have  contributed  to  the  formation  of  each 
special  style. 

They  are  of  opinion  that  in  published  works  upon  the  subject, 
Architecture  has  often  been  too  much  isolated  from  its  surround- 
ings, and  that  the  main  points  of  the  physical  geography,  social 
progress,  and  historical  development  of  each  country  require  to 
be  understood  by  those  who  would  study  and  comprehend  its 
particular  style. 

In  order  to  bring  out  the  effects  of  these  influences,  and  also 
the  qualities  of  the  styles  themselves,  a  comparative  and  analytical 
method  has  been  adopted,  so  that  by  the  contrast  of  qualities  the 
differences  may  be  more  easily  grasped.  For  instance,  the  special 
character  of  Gothic  architecture  becomes  manifest  when  put  in 
comparison  with  the  Classic  and  Renaissance  styles  ;  and,  further- 
more, the  shades  of  difference  in  the  local  or  national  phases  of 
each,  can  also  be  equally  drawn  out  by  a  similar  comparative 
treatment. 

The  styles  themselves  are  then  analysed  and  the  parts  con- 
trasted ;  the  analysis  being  carried  out  on  the  basis  of  the  essential 
parts  which  every  building  possesses.  As  this  system  pervades 
the  whole  book,  either  the  influences,  character,  examples,  or 
comparative  features  of  each  style,  can  be  contrasted  with  those 
in  any  other  style.  This  then  is  the  scheme  of  the  book,  which 
has  been  divided  into  five  sections  in  each  period,  as  follows : — 

i.  INFLUENCES. 
i.  Geographical, 
ii.  Geological, 
iii.  Climate. 


X  PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

1.  INFLUENCES — continued. 
iv.  Religion. 

v.  Social  and  Political, 
vi.  Historical. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

3.  EXAMPLES  OF  BUILDINGS. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plan,  or  general  distribution  of  the  building. 

B.  Walls,  their  construction  and  treatment. 

C.  Openings,  their  character  and  shape. 

D.  Roofs,  their  treatment  and  development. 

E.  Columns,  their  position,  structure,  and  decoration. 

F.  Mouldings,  their  form  and  decoration. 

G.  Ornament,  as  applied  in  general  to  any  building. 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

SECTION  i  is  divided  into  the  six  leading  influences  that  may  be 
expected  to  shape  the  architecture  of  any  country  or  people, 
the  first  three  being  structural,  the  next  two  the  civilizing 
forces,  and  the  last  containing  those  external  historical  events 
which  may  alter  or  vary  the  foregoing. 

SECTION  2  describes  the  character  of  the  architecture,  that  is,  its 
special  quality,  and  the  general  effect  produced  by  the  buildings 
as  a  whole. 

SECTION  3  contains  the  examples,  i.e.  the  chief  buildings  in  each 
style,  briefly  named  and  described,  being  the  corpus,  which  the 
preceding  influences  affect  and  from  which  the  subsequent 
comparative  analysis  is  deduced. 

SECTION  4  is  this  comparative  analysis,  in  which  every  style  of 
architecture  is  regarded  as  the  solution  of  certain  fundamental 
problems,  i.e.  each  building  must  have  all  or  most  of  the  parts 
A  to  G,  and  consequently  there  is  both  interest  and  instruction 
to  be  gained  in  learning  and  comparing  how  each  style  has 
solved  these  points  of  the  problem. 

SECTION  5  gives  authorities  and  more  especially  directs  the  reader 
who  wishes  to  pursue  the  study  of  any  style  in  further  detail. 

In  treating  of  the  buildings  themselves  under  Section  3   the 
authors  have  endeavoured  to  avoid  long  descriptions,  which  are 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION.  XI 

necessarily  technical  and  intolerably  dry,  and  difficult  to  follow, 
even  by  those  who  have  had  the  technical  training,  and  have 
either  the  building  or  complete  drawings  of  it  before  them.  They 
have  therefore  provided  the  largest  possible  number  of  illustrations, 
and  have  confined  the  text  to  brief,  but  it  is  hoped  vivid,  notes  of 
the  special  qualities  and  characteristics  of  the  building  referred  to. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  appeal  not  only  to  students  who 
require  an  outline  of  architectural  history  as  part  of  their  artistic 
and  professional  education,  but  also  to  the  increasing  number  of 
art  workers  who  are  interested  in  architecture  in  its  relation  to 
those  accessory  arts  in  which  they  are  engaged.  Lastly ;  it  is 
believed  that  a  work  in  which  architecture  is  treated  as  a  result 
and  record  of  civilization,  will  prove  attractive  to  that  increasing 
public  which  interests  itself  in  artistic  development. 

29,  NEW  BRIDGE  STREET, 
LUDGATE  CIRCUS,  E.G. 

New  Year's  Day,  1896. 


Xi/i 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

List  of  Illustrations xv—  li 

Prehistoric  Architecture      ..........          i 

PART   I.— THE   HISTORICAL   STYLES. 

General  Introduction  ...........         4 

Egyptian  Architecture          ..........         9 

Western  Asiatic  Architecture       .....          ....        32 

Greek  Architecture     ...........       45 

Roman  Architecture  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .          .  1 1 1 

Early  Christian  Architecture        .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .176 

Byzantine  Architecture        .......... 192 

Romanesque  Architecture  in  Europe  (General  Introduction)          .          .          .217 
Italian  Romanesque     ..........      228 

French  Romanesque    ..........     246 

German  Romanesque  ..........     258 

Gothic  Architecture  in  Europe  (General  Introduction)  ....     267 

English  Architecture  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .278 

Anglo-Saxon        .....>......     3.27 

Norman       .........          ....      328 

Early  English  Gothic  .         .         .     •    .-'    V       .         .         .         .     .     •     335 

Decorated  Gothic          ....         .         .         .         .         .         .         .341 

Perpendicular  Gothic  .         .        ..         ....         .         .  .     349 

Tudor /\     .         •         •         •         •     356 

Scottish  Architecture ."  359 

Irish  Architecture        .         .         .   '      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .     3°° 

French  Gothic  Architecture         .         .         .       ..         ".         •         •         .        -     362 

Belgian  and  Dutch  Gothic .  .       .         .         .         •     385 

German  Gothic 393 

Italian  Gothic     . ;         .         .     4°4 

Spanish  Gothic  .         .    ' •         •     424 

Renaissance  Architecture  (General  Introduction)  ...         .         .    '     .     437 

Italian  Renaissance  Architecture          .         .         .         •         •         ...    ^446 

The  Florentine  School "446 

The  Roman  School 456 

The  Venetian  School  .         .'        .         .         „.      .         .         •         •         -475 
Vicenza  and  Verona  ........     4^8 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Italian  Renaissance  Architecture — continued.  PAGE 

\s    Milan  and  Genoa         ..........  495 

i-      The  Rococo  Style 496 

U     French  Renaissance  Architecture          .          .          ,          .          .          .          .          .  497 

V    German  Renaissance            .         .         .          .         .          .         .          .         .  5^7 

Belgian  and  Dutch  Renaissance  .         .         .         .          .         .          .         .         .527 

Spanish  Renaissance  ....../.....  533 

English  Renaissance  Architecture         ..        f ......  545 

The  Elizabethan  Style          .         .         .        \         .          .         .          .  551 

The  Jacobean  Style      .         .                   . 561 

The  Anglo-Classic  (Seventeenth  Century)  Style   •  \       •         •          •         .  567 

The  Queen  Anne  (Eighteenth  Century)  Style/     .  \               .         .         .  578 

The  Nineteenth  Century  Style  (1800-1851)  .         .    •      .         '.         .          .  589 

,,                    ,,                  1851  to  present  time       .  593 

British  Colonial  Architecture       .         .         .          .               •    .         .         .         .  597 

Architecture  in  the  United  States        .          . 598 

PART   II.— THE   NON-HISTORICAL   STYLES. 

General  Introduction  ...........  603 

Indian  Architecture    .         .         .         .         .         .         .          .         .         .          ,  605 

1.  The  Buddhist  Style 612 

2.  The  Jaina  Style       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ,  614 

3.  The  Hindu  Style 618 

(a)  Northern  Hindu      ......       \.  618 

(b)  Chalukyan       .         .         .         .         .         .         .    .     A        .         .  623 

(c)  Dravidian \.\     .         .  628 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Architecture      .....         /"A    .          ,  634 
Ancient  American  Architecture  .         .         .         .         .         ,         ...         .652 

Saracenic  Architecture         .         .         .         .          .         .         ,                \  .         ,  653 

Arabian       ..........        \,  657 

Syrian          ............  659 

Egyptian 659 

Spanish 663 

Persian 667 

Turkish 669 

Indian .         .671 

Glossary  of  Architectural  Terms         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .687 

Index 697 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XV11 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  Name, 

14.     Map  of  Greece. 

^5.     Pelasgic  System  of  Construction. 

Treasury  of  Athens,  section   ...          A 
,,     '  ,,         plan  B 

Portion  of  shaft  of  column      .         .         .          c 

Capital  of  a  column  D 

The  Gate  of  Lions,  Mycenae  E 

Acropolis  at  Tiryns,  plan  F 

16.  Greek  Examples— I. 

Greek  Construction — 

Portico   of  Parthenon,    half  elevation   .          A 
,,  ,,  half      transverse 

section    .         .         B 

,,  ,,  part  plan  .         .          c 

S.  W.  angle  of  Parthenon  as  restored        .  D,  E,  F 

Restoration  of  a  Doric  entablature  .         .     G,  H,  j 
S.W.  angle  of  Parthenon  as  at  present     .      K,  L 

17.  Plan  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 

18.  Greek  Examples— II. 

Comparative  plans  of  various   forms    of 
Temples. 

19.  Greek  Examples— III. 

The  Doric  Order- 
Temple  of  Ceres  at  Paestum    ...          A 
Temple  of  Neptune  (the  Great  Temple) 

at  Paestum  .....          B 

Temple   of  Aphaia   on    the    Island    of 

^Egina         ......          c 

Temple    of    Theseus    (The     Theseion), 

Athens        D 

The    Parthenon    (Temple    of    Athena), 

Athens        ......          K 

Temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delos     .         .         ."        F 

20.  Greek  Examples— IV. 

Temple  of  Aphaia  (Jupiter  Panhellenius) 

at  JEgina, — 

,,       ,,       ,,  west  pediment 

,,       ,,  east  elevation 

,,       ,,       ,,  transverse  section 

,,       .,       ,,  longitudinal    sec- 

tion    ^y.^  • 

,,       ,,       ,»  plan    .         .     "    I 

,,       ,,       ,,  view     of     upper 

Acroterion 


ridge 


Acroterion 

tile. 
View     of    lower 

Acroterion 
Antefixse     . 


Authorities. 


Gailhabaud. 

f  Perrot   and 
{     Chipiez. 

I  Gailhabaud. 


^Cockerell. 

Penrose. 
f  Perrot   and 
(     Chipiez. 

Penrose. 
f  Penrose   and 
I      others. 


Stuart  and 

Revett, 

Cockerell. 


>C.R.  Cockerell. 


F.A. 


XV111 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

21.  Greek  Examples— V. 

The  so-called  Theseion,   or  Temple  of 
Hephaestos — 

„  , ,         east  elevation     ?    ' . 

,,  ,,         transverse  section  . 

,,  .,         half  south  elevation,  half 

longitudinal  section  of 
ambulatory         .         ./ 
plan        .         .  (. 

,,  ,,         plan  of  existing  Lacunaria 

,,  ,,         Metopes,       north       and 

south  sides 

.,  ,,         setting  out  of  flutes 

, ,  , ,         section  of  entablature 

, ,  , ,         frieze  of  west  cella  wall  . 

,,  ,,         plan  of  cornice  looking 

up |      . 

,,  ,,         detail  elevation  of  enta- 

blature 

22.  The  Theseion,  Athens     .... 

23.  Greek  Examples— VI. 

The     Parthenon,    Athens  :    longitudinal 

section  . 

,,  ,,  (half  se 

Naos 

,,  ,,  half  se 

Opist 

,,  ,,  east  fa9ade 

,,  ,,  view  fror 

.,  ,,  sectional 

end 
,,  „  view     of 

angle 
plan  . 
,,  ,,  method 

columns . 
,,  ,,  statue      of 

Parthenos 

24.  The  Parthenon,  Athens.      View  of  angle 

25.  Greek  Examples— VII. 

Comparative  Restorations  of  the  Methods 
of  Lighting  the  Interiors  of  Greek 
Temples — 

Method  of  lighting  by  clerestory     . 

Method  of  lighting  by  skylight 

26.  Greek  Examples— VIII. 

The  Propylaea,  Athens,  west  fa9ade    . 
,,  „         longitudinal  section 

,,  „         details      of      Interior 

Order 
i,  .,        cornice  looking  up 


Authorities. 


Stuart  and 
Revett. 


J 
Photo. 


Michaelis. 


>n    through 

B 

1  Penrose  and 

>n    through 

others. 

lomus 

c 

J 

(Stuart  and 

B 

D 

1      Revett. 

north-east 

E 

Michaelis. 

iew  of  east 

. 

F 

north-west 

!•  Penrose. 

G 

J 

. 

H 

Various. 

Df    jointing 

}•  Penrose. 

J 

J 

f      Athena 

Photo. 


Fergusson. 
Botticher. 


>  Penrose. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XIX 


No, 


Name. 


Authorities. 


26.  Greek  Examples — VIII. — continued. 

The  Propylaea,  section  through  mutule  . 
„'  „        plan     . 

„  „        transverse  section 

27.  Greek  Examples — IX. 

Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Bassae — 
,,         north  elevation 
,,  •     transverse  section 
,,         plan 
,,         long,  section 
,,         detail     of      Interior 

Order     . 
,,  ,,         plan       of      Interior 

Order     . 

, ,  , ,         detail  of  single  Corin- 

thian column 

,,  ,,         details  of  capital   of 

Corinthian  column 

,,  ,,         setting  out  of  flutes  . 

.,  ,,         large      details        of 

mouldings    . 

28.  Greek  Examples— X. 

The  Temple  of  Neptune,  Psestum,  plan  . 

,,  ,,  long,  section 

,,  ,,  elevation 

Temple  at  Paestum  (the  Basilica),  plan    . 

,,         ,,  elevation    . 

Temple   of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassae, 

plan 

,,  ,,  ,,         elevation    . 

,,  ,,  ,,         section 

Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates,  Athens 

Plan,  elevation,  and  section     . 
Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens,  elevation  . 
,,         ,,  „  ,,        section 

„         ,,  ,,  „        plan. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Agrigen- 
tum,  Sicily,  plan        .         .         .         . 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Agrigen- 
tum,  Sicily,  section    .... 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Agrigen- 
tum,  elevation  ..... 

29.  Greek  Examples — XI. 

The  Ionic  Order- 
Temple  on  the  Ilissus      .         .         . 
The  Erechtheion,  east  portico 
The  Archaic  Temple  of  Diana,  Ephesus  . 
Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Priene 
Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassae     . 
Temple  at  Eleusis  .         .         .         .    ~; -\.  • 

30.  Greek  Examples — XII. 

The  Erechtheion,  Athens,   sketch    from 

N.w.     ;     .  w  •  /., ' 

east  elevation    S--'} -  **<"' « 


E 

F          \  Penrose. 

G          J 


E 
F 
G 

H,  J 
K 

L,  M,   N        j 


>  Cockerell. 


Gailhabaud, 


Durand. 


Cockerell. 


•  Stuart  and 
Revett. 


Cockerell. 
I  (Vol.  IV.  Stuart 
(and  Revett's 

'  Athens.') 


A.  B,  c,  D  )  Stuart  and 

.E,  F,  G     J      Revett. 

H,  j,  K        Murray. 

L,  M          Mauch. 

N,  o,  P        Cockerell. 

Q,  R  Mauch. 

)  Inwood, 

A          L   Middleton 
B          )    and  others. 


XX 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No,  Name. 

30.  Greek  Examples — XII. — continued. 

The  Erechtheion,  west  elevation    . 
,,  ,,  section 

,,  ,,  north  elevation  . 

.,  ,,  plan  • 

,,  enlarged   elevation  of 

Caryatid  Porch 

31.  Greek  Examples— XIII. 

Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,   view  6? 
front  fa9ade   .         .         .        \. 

„       plan 

Heraion  at  Olympia,  plan 

,,         section          .... 

32.  Choragic      Monument     of    Lysicrates, 

Athens 


33- 


and 


The 


34. 


35. 


Comparative   Examples    of  Greek 

Roman  Corinthian  Capitals. 
Capital     of    column    to     portico, 

Pantheon,  Rome         .... 
Typical  Roman  Acanthus  leaf          .•«,      . 
Plans  of  capital  (A)  looking  up 
Diagram  of  relative  sizes  of   Pantheon, 

Rome,  and  the  Stoa,  Athens        .         . 
Angle  view   of  capital   from    the   Stoa, 

Athens        ...... 

Plans  of  capital,  looking  up   .         .         . 
Typical  example  of  Greek  Acanthus  leaf 

Comparative   Examples   of    Greek   and 

Roman  Theatres. 

Typical  Greek  theatre  ... 

Roman  theatre  at  Orange 

Greek  Examples—  XIV. 

Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassos,  transverse 

section     .... 
,,  half  plans  of  basement  and 

peristyle 

,,  west  fa?ade 

,,  enlarged    capital,    base   and 

entablature 
,  ,  south  fa9ade 

,,  three    other   restorations:  — 

36.     Greek  Examples—  XV. 

Lion  Tomb,  Cnidus,  south  elevation        . 
,,  section  '.        . 

,,  west  elevation 

,,  half  plans  of  peristyle  and 

roof 

,,  plan  through  base        .         . 

Sarcophagus  from  a  tomb  at  Cnidus,  end 

elevation         .         ,         . 

,,  side  elevation      .         .         . 

"Tomb  of  the  Weepers'1 


A 

*  B 
C 

D,  E 

F 
G 
H 


D 

E 
F,  G,  H 


Authorities. 


Inwood, 
Middleton 
and  others. 


[  Murray. 


Photo. 


Taylor  and 
Cresy,  Stuart 
and  Revett. 


Cockerell. 


Newton  and 
Pullan. 


>  Society  of 
Dilettanti. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXI 


No.  Name. 

37.  Comparative   Examples   of  Greek    and 

Roman  Doorways. 
Doorway    of    the     Pantheon,      Rome, 
elevation    ...... 

Doorway  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome,  details 
Doorway,  Erechtheion,  Athens,  elevation 

,,  ,,  ,,      details    . 

38.  Comparative  diagrams  of  the  Greek  and 

Roman  Orders  of  Architecture. 
Greek    Doric — Temple   of    Theseus    at 

Athens       ...... 

Roman  Doric,  by  Vignola 

Greek    Ionic— Temple   on    the   Ilissus, 

Athens      ...... 

Roman  Ionic,  by  Scamozzi    . 

Greek  Corinthian — Choragic  Monument 

of  Lysicrates,  Athens 
Roman  Corinthian — Pantheon,  Rome     . 

Comparison     of     Greek     and     Roman 
Mouldings— I 

Comparison     of     Greek     and     Roman 
Mouldings— II 


39- 


40. 


41.  Greek  Ornament— I. 

The  Ionic  Volute — 

Volute  from  Cyprian  tomb     . 
Capital  from  Egyptian  wall  painting 
Bronze   armour    plate    from    Tamassos, 
Cyprus        .         .          .... 

Capital  from  Neandria  .... 

Capital  from  the  Heraion  at  Olympia 
Ionic  Lycian  tomb          .... 

Goldman's  method  of  describing   Ionic 

Volute 

Ionic  Volute  described  by  a  whelk-shell 
Angle  capital,  N.  portico  of  Erechtheion, 

half  section 

,,  half  front  view    .         . 

,,  side  view     .... 

,,  plan,  looking  up  . 

Temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  sketch  of  angle 

42.  Greek  Ornament — II. 

Scroll  ornament   from  roof  of   choragic 

Monument  of  Lysicrates,  Athens 
Sanctuary  of  the  Bulls,  Delos — 

enlarged  triglyphs,  side  view  . 
,,  ,,          front  view 

enlarged  capital,  side  view 

,,  ,,         front  view    . 

key  plan         .... 
plan  of  piers  .         ... 
elevation  of  piers  . 
Canephora     .         .         ..        .        .... ,.-.    • 


A 
B,  c 

D 
E  to  H 


A  to  M 

N  to  V 


Authorities. 


«  Mauch  and 
Donaldson. 


}  Stuart  and 
|    Revett. 

Mauch. 
\  Stuart  and 
J     Revett. 

Mauch. 
}  Stuart  and 
j     Revett. 

Taylor  and  Cresy. 


Various. 


1 

)  Stuart  and  Revett 
j"   and  Cockerell. 
Taylor  and  Cresy. 


Dr.  Richter. 


Chambers. 


Mauch. 


J.  Ward. 


Stuart  and 
Revett. 


Durand. 


XX11 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

42.     Greek  Ornament— II.— continued. 
Caryatid  figure  from  Erechtheion 


Typical     Greek 
Anthemion 


Funeral     Stele     with 


43- 


44- 


45- 
46. 


47- 

48. 
49. 


Greek  Ornament— III. 

Capital,  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius, 

Athens  ......  A 

Capital,  Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens     ./      B 

Capital,  choragic  Monument  of  Lysic rates, 

Athens  c 

Sculptures,  from  Tower  of  the  Winds, 

Athens  .  .  .  .  .  .  D,  E 

Half  elevation  of  Stele  Head          .         .  F 

Greek  Ornament — IV. 

Honeysuckle  ornament ....  A 

Lion's  head,  front  B 

„      side c 

Crowning  ornament,  choragic  Monument 

of  Lysicrates     .....  D 

Stele  head E 

Anta  capital  from  Erechtheion        .         .  F 

Portion  of  frieze  from  Parthenon  .         .  G 

Metope  from  the  Parthenon  .         .         .  H 

Acanthus  ornament        .         .         .         .  j 

Console  from  Erechtheion      .         .  K,  L 

Portion  of  caryatid  figure  M 

Antefixa  ornnment  N 

ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 
Map  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Roman  Examples — I. 

Roman  System  of  Construction — 

Roman  walling  of  concrete  with  brick 

facing  and  methods  of  heating   .         .  A  to  H 

Roman  vaulting  and  domes  of  concrete  I  to  M 


Plan  of  the  Roman  Fora 

The  Forum  Romanum  restored 
Roman  Examples— II. 

Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  Rome,  plan  . 
,,  ,,          front  fa9ade 

,,  ,,          flank  facade     . 

Arch  of  Titus,  Rome,  section 
,,  ,,      elevation 

,,      plan         . 

Arch    of    Goldsmith's   or    Silversmith's, 
Rome,    view    from 
the  south-west 
,,  ,,        section  . 

. ,  ,.         plan 

elevation 


Authorities. 


|  Stuart  and 
j      Revett. 


I  Cockerell, 
Stuart  and 
Revett. 


J.  C.  Watt. 


\  Stuart  and 
j     Revett. 


J.  C.Watt,  Stuart 
and  Revett. 


1J.  Henry 
j  Middleton. 
A.  Choisy. 

1  Taylor  and 
Cresy  and 
others. 
f  Joseph 
\     Gatteschi. 


Taylor  and 
Cresy. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

No.  Name. 

49.  Roman  Examples — \\.-contimted. 

Temple  of  Saturn,  Rome,  plan        .         .  L 

,,  ,,         front  fa9ade       .         .  M 

,,  ,,         details  of  entablature  N 

50.  Roman  Examples — III. 

Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  Rome,  part 

cross  section       .         .  A 

,,  ,,          plan  B 

, ,  , ,          part  front  elevation    .  c 

,,  ,,          long-  section      .         .  D 

Temple  of  Diana  at  Nimes,  plan    .         .  E 

,,  ,,        cross  section       .         .  F 

,,  ,,         part  long,  section        .  G 

Maison  Carree,  Nimes,  plan  H 

,,  ,,  front  elevation    .         .  j 

,,  ,,  part  side  elevation     '.  K 

51.  Maison  Carree,  Nimes      .         . 

52.  Roman  Examples — IV. 

Tomb    at    Mylassa,    Asia    Minor,    half 

elevation     .         .  A 
,,                     ,,         half  section  .         .  B 
,,         perspective  view     .  c 
,,         half  plans  of  base- 
ment   and    peri- 
style D 

Tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella,  Rome    .         .  E 

Tomb  at  Wadi-Tagije,  North  Africa        .  F 
Tomb  at  Dugga,  near   Tunis,   plan  and 

view  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  G 

Tomb  at  S.  Remi  in  the  South  of  France  H 
Temple    of    Antoninus     and    Faustina, 

Rome,  plan      .  I 

,,  ,,         front  facade        .  j 

,,  ,,         view  of  remains  K 

,,  ,,         flank  facade        .  L 

Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  Rome,  detail  of 
corbel,      cornice       to 

enclosing  wall    .         .  N 

,,  ,,         detail  of  main  cornice  o 

,,  ,,         plan  P 

53.  Roman  Examples — V. 

Temples  at  Baalbec,  Syria,  half  section  .  A 

,,  ,,      half    entrance    fa?ade  B 

,,  ,,      long,    section   through 

Great  Temple         .  c 
,,                   ,,      transverse     section, 

Great  Temple         .  D 

,,  „      plan  E 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  section  F 

,,  ,,       fa9ade        .         .         .  G 

54.  Roman  Examples — VI. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome,  section     .         .  A 

,,  ,,  ,,       half-plan  .  B 

Bronze  mouldings  round  the  "  eye  r        .  c,  D 


XX111 

Authorities. 

Palladio. 


Palladio. 


Photo. 


Society  of 
Dilettanti. 


Sketches. 


^  Taylor  and 
Cresy. 


|  Durand, 
J^Dawkins,  and 
Wood. 


J 

{  Taylor  and 
j      Cresy. 
J.  H.  Middleton. 


xxiv 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No. 
55- 
56. 
57- 


58. 


59- 


60 


61. 
62. 


63. 
64. 


Name. 

The  Pantheon,  Rome.     Interior  view 
The  Pantheon,  Rome.       .... 
Roman  Examples— VII. 

Arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  Rome,  the 

order  and  key  plan          A 
,,  ,,  detail  of  capital        .          B 

,,  ,,  keystone  of  arch      .    /  C 

,,  ,,  coffer    from  central 

arch  «          D 

The  Pantheon,  Rome,  the  order  and  key 

plan    .         .         .          E 
,,  ,,  capital,  elevation  and 

half  plan    .         .          F 
,,  ,,  details  of  capital     .          G 

Temple  of  Vesta,  Tivoli,  the  order  and 

key  plan      .         .          H 
,,  ,,  detail  of  capital       .  J 

,,  ,,  coffer    to     peristyle 

ceiling         .         .  K 

Roman  Examples — VIII. 

Basilica  of  Maxentius,  plan  ...  A 

,,  ,,  long,  section  .  c 

,,  ,.  transverse  section  D 

Basilica  Ulpia,  plan  B 

,,  ,,  interior  view  E 

Roman  Examples — IX. 

Baths  of  Caracalla,  Rome 
Plan  (restored)  Palace  of  Diocletian  at 
Spalato      ...... 

Roman  Examples— X. 

Pont  du  Card,  Nimes,  elevation 

,,  ,,  „        section 

Circus  of  Maxentius,  near  Rome,  plan  . 
Circular  Temple  of  Baalbec,  plan  . 
,,  ,,  ,,         section 

,,  ,,  ,,         elevation    . 

Baths  of  Diocletian,  section   . 
,,  ,.          elevation 

plan 
Trajan's  Column,  elevation    . 

„  ,,          section       .         .         . 

Pont  du  Gard,  Nlmes       .         .         .      ,..%. 

Roman  Examples — XI. 

The  Colosseum,  part  elevation        .         .          A 
,,  ,,  section.         .         .  B 

,,  ,,  plan      .         .  .          c 

The  Colosseum         ..... 
Amphitheatre,  Verona     .... 


Authorities 
Piranesi. 
Photo. 


,  Taylor  and 
'      Cresy. 


J.  H.  Middleton. 


A 
B 

Gailhabaud. 
JR.  Adam. 

A 
B 
C 

I  Durand. 
Middleton. 

D 
E 
F 

I  Durand. 

G 
H 

\  Cameron. 

K 
J 
L 

j 
)  Taylor    and 
j       Cresy. 

Photo. 


Taylor    and 
Cresy. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXV 


No.-  Name. 

65.  Roman  Examples — XII. 

House  of  Pansa  at  Pompeii 

?»  j)  ,,       section. 

«»  »i\  ,,       plan     . 

Arch   of  Septimius    Severus,   Rome 
u  »  ,,     section 

»  ,,  ,,     elevations 

>,  ,  >  ,,     plans    . 

66.  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus 

67.  Roman  Ornament — I. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Rome,  capital 
Arch  of  Titus,  keystone. 
Forum  of  Nerva,  Rome,  cornice     . 
Pilaster  Villa  Medici,  Rome  . 
Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  capital 
Pantheon,  panel    ..... 

68.  Roman  Ornament — II. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  Rome,  details 

of  cornice 

,,  ,,       plan  of  coffer    . 

;,  ,,       key  elevation     . 

»  ,,       console,  looking  up  . 

Temple    of    Antoninus    and     Faustina, 
Rome,  portion  of  frieze        .         '.•:. 

Roman  Corinthian  pilaster  capital,  Pan- 
theon, Rome      ..... 

Roman  altar  ..... 

Pilaster  capitals     .         .          .         .     *    . 

Etruscan  candelabrum    . 

Pompeian  candelabrum 

Roman  gladiator's  helmets 

Roman  arm  chair  ..... 

69.  Roman  Ornament — III. 

Arch  of  Titus,  Rome  :  Figures  in  span- 
drels of  main  arch       .... 
Baths  of  Titus,  Rome  :  Wall  fresco 
Bronze  candelabra          .... 
Typical  Roman  tripod  altar    . 
Typical  Roman  baths     .... 
Rostral  column      ..... 
Mosaic  pavement,  Pompeii    . 
Roman  chariot       ..... 
Typical  Roman  tomb     . 

70.  Principles  of  Proportion. 

Tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  and  octastyle  form 

of  Temple 

Arch  of  Trajan,  Beneventum 
Arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  Rome 
Baptistery,  Pisa     .         .          .  ;.  • 

Proportions  of  mediaeval  cathedrals 
Section  of  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel 
Chapter  House  at  Wells 
S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor 
Section  of  King's  College  Chapel  . 


Authorities. 


A 
B 

C 

D,  E 
F 


A,  C 

B 
D,  E 

F 

G 

H 


F 
G 
H 
J 
K 

L,    N 
M 


A,  C 

B 
D,  F 

E 
G,  J 

H 

K 

L 

M 


A,  B,  C 
D 
F 
G 
H 

J 
K 
L 
M 


I  Gailhabaud. 


[•  Gailhabaud. 
Photo. 

)  Taylor    and 
j       Cresy. 

C.  H.  Tatham. 
)  Taylor    and 
j       Cresy. 


Taylor  and 
[      Cresy. 


F.  S.  Meyer. 


D'Agincourt. 
Durand. 
J.  C.  Watt. 

v  Durand. 

J.  C.  Watt. 
Durand. 


Gwilt. 


XXVI 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

71.     Optical  Corrections  in  Architecture. 
Correction  of  apparent  proportions 
Effect  of  color  on  proportions 
The  Parthenon  :  Inclination  of  columns 
Method  of  drawing  entasis  of  column 
The    Parthenon  :    Optical  corrections  to 

prevent  appearance  of  sagging    . 
Optical  illusions  caused  by  convex  and 
concave  curves,  when  diawn  in  relation 
to  parallel  straight  lines 


Authorities. 

Pennethorne. 

ViolleMe-Duc. 

Pennethorne. 


E,  F,  G        A.  Choisy. 


H,  J 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


72. 

The  Basilica    Church  of    S.  Clemente, 

Rome 

Photo. 

73- 

Early  Christian  Examples  —  I. 

S.  Clemente,  Rome,  section  . 

A 

1- 

plan     . 

B 

Tomb  of  Theodoric,  Ravenna,  elevation. 

c 

( 

,,                 ,,                 ,,          section    . 
,,                 ,,                 ,,          plan 

D 
E 

•  D'Agincourt. 

,,                 ,,                 ,,          half  plans 

F,  G 

Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna,  sections 

H,  J 

»             »          »             ,,         plan 

K 

74- 

Basilica  Church  of  S.  Paul,  Rome 

Photo. 

75- 

Early  Christian  Examples—  II. 

Basilica    Church    of    S.    Peter,    Rome, 

elevation 

A 

>,               ,,             ,,          section 

B 

»                „             ,,         plan 

C 

^•Durand. 

S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome,  plan    . 

D 

S.  Paul,  Rome,  plan      .... 

E 

S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  Rome,  elevation     . 

F 

„              „             ,,       section 

G 

-  D'Agincourt. 

»              »             5,       plan    . 

H 

Baptistery  of  Constantine,  Rome,  plan    . 

J 

„                    „                 elevation     . 

K 

Durand. 

,,                    ,,                 section 

L 

76. 

Basilica  Church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore, 

Rome       .... 

Photo. 

77- 

S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  Rome      . 

Photo. 

78. 

Early  Christian  Ornament. 

S.  Paul,  Rome,  Corinthian  column 
S.  Lorenzo,  floor  mosaic 
S.  Paul,  Rome,  composite  column  . 
Grado  Cathedral,  window 

A 
B 
C 
D             x 

D'Agincourt. 
Digby  Wyatt. 
D'Agincourt. 

S.  Apollinare-in-Classe,  Ravenna,  sarco- 
phagus      .... 

' 

Cattaneo. 

Window  at  Venice,  eighth  century. 

F 

S.  Agnes,  Rome,  mosaic  in  apse     . 

G 

D'Agincourt. 

LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXV11 


No. 
78. 


79- 


80. 


81. 
82. 
83. 


84- 


85- 
86. 

87. 


Name. 

Early  Christian  Ornament — continued. 
S.    Giovanni,    Rome,   mosaic   frieze   in 
cloister       ...... 

S.  Clemente,  Rome,  parapet  and  pilaster 
S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome,  mosaic. 
S.  Giovanni,  mosaic  floor 


Authorities. 


Digby  Wyatt. 
Cattaneo. 
D'Agincourt. 
Digby  Wyatt. 


A.  Choisy. 


BYZANTINE    ARCHITECTURE. 
Byzantine  Examples — I. 

Byzantine  System  of  Construction. 

Dome  construction          .         .         .         .        A,  B        )  Lethaby  and 

Method  to  find  outline  of  pendentive      .        c,  D        j      Swainson. 
S.     Sergius,      Constantinople,     interior 

view  .......          E 

S.     Sergius,      Constantinople,     exterior 
view  .......          F 

S.  Sergius,  Constantinople,  plan    .         .          G 
Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  section     .         .          H 
S.     Sophia,     Constantinople,     sectional 
view  .......          y 

S.     Sophia,     Constantinople,     exterior 

view  .......          K 

Byzantine  Examples — II. 

S.    Sophia,    Constantinople,    north-east 

elevation    ......          A 

S.   Sophia,  Constantinople,  longitudinal 
section        ......          B 

S.  Sophia,   Constantinople,  ground  plan         c 
S.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  exterior          .  Photo. 

S.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  interior          .  Photo. 

Comparative  Examples  of  Early  Domed  Structures. 
The  Minerva  Medica,  Rome,  plan  .         .          A 
,,  ,,  ,,       section       .          B 

S.  Vitale,  Ravenna,  plan        .         ...          c 

,,  ,,         section    .         .         .          D 

Cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  plan  E 

,,  ,,  ,,  section       .          F 

Byzantine  Examples — III. 

S.  Mark,  Venice,  section        ...          A 
.  S.  Mark,  plan        .         .         .         .         .          c 

S,  Front,  Perigueux,  section  B 

S.  Front,  Perigueux,  plan  D 

S.  Mark,  Venice,  exterior .         .         .         . 

S.  Mark,  interior 

Byzantine  Examples — IV. 

Cathedral  at  Athens,  sketch  ...          A 
,,         plan  B 

W.  and  E.,  elevations      .  C,  D 

section    .....          E 
Church  of  Theotokos,  Constantinople, 

W.  and  S.  elevations        .         .       F,  o 
plan         .         .         .         .  ;  _    .'         H 
longitudinal  section          '.  j,".:r, ....     J 


\  Salzenberg. 


Isabelle. 
Gailhabaud. 
Dehio  and 
Von  Bezold. 


\  Gailhabaud. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


[•  Gailhabaud. 
Gailhabaud. 


XXV111 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No: 

88. 

89. 


Name. 
from 


S.    Mark, 


Byzantine     Capitals 

Venice 

Byzantine  Ornament. 

S.  Sophia,  capital          .... 

Bowl  and  tile  capital      .... 

S.  Demetrius,  Thessalonica,  Ionic  capital 

,,  Byzantine  Corinthian 

capital    . 
S.  Sophia,  bird  and  basket  capital 

S.  Demetrius,  Bird  Corinthian  capital    . 

S.  Sophia,  window  from  the  Gynaeceum, 
elevation  ...... 

S.  Sophia,  window  from  the  Gynaeceum. 
section 


Authorities 
Photo. 

f  Lethaby  and 
{     Swainson. 

Texier  and 
j      Pullan. 

Salzenberg. 
J  Texier  and 
(     Pullan. 

f-  Salzenberg. 


ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE 

90.  Map  of  Europe  at  the  Death  of  Charles 

the  Great. 

91.  The  Baptistery,  Cathedral  and  Leaning 


Tower  at  Pisa'         .... 

Photo. 

92. 

Pisa  Cathedral  

Photo. 

93- 

S   Miniato,  Florence         .         . 

Photo 

94- 

Italian  Romanesque  Examples. 

S.  Michele,  Pavia,  part  long,  section 

A 

) 

,  ,                 ,       half  cross  section 
,,                ,       details  of  piers  . 

B 
C,   D 

[•  Dartein. 

„  ^              ,       plan 

E 

j 

S.    Christoforo    Lucca,    doorway,    arch 

moulding 

F 

1 

Vvocpc 

»  5                                        9                 UdoCO                     •                      •                      * 

,,                 ,       elevation  . 

' 

H 

[  Norman  Shaw. 

,,                 ,       jamb  mouldings 

J 

j 

"Comparative"    treatment    of    Classic 

architrave        ..... 

K 

95- 

S.  Michele,  Pavia      

Photo. 

96. 

S.  Zenone,  Verona    

Photo. 

97- 

Monreale  Cathedral,  Sicily       . 

Photo. 

98. 

Italian  Romanesque  Ornament. 

S.  Clemente,  Rome,  doorway 

A 

Schultz. 

S.    Paul    beyond    the    Walls,     Rome, 

cloisters   . 

g 

Cathedral  at  Bari,  cornice 

C 

) 

Cathedral  at  Trani,  cornice    . 

D 

[  Schultz. 

„                 ,,       pilasters  . 

E,   F 

j 

S.  Zenone,  Verona,  porch 

G 

Knight. 

S.  Michel's  Church,  bishop's  throne 

H 

o 

j 

S.  Trinita,  Venosa,  capital    . 
Cathedral  at  Molfetta,  capitals 

J 
K,  L 

[  Schultz. 

S  .  Paul,  Rome,  capital  .... 

M 

j 

LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXIX 


No.  Name 

99.     The  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  Caen 

100.  French  Romanesque  Examples. 

Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  exterior 

,,  transverse  section 

,,  interior 

,,  plan    . 

Angouleme  Cathedral,  section 
,,  ,,          plan    . 

,,  ,,          section      through 

dome         ...... 

101.  The  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  Caen    . 

102.  Porch  of  S.  Trophhne,  Aries  . 

103.  French  Romanesque  Ornament. 

Fleac,  capital 

Pontorson,  corbel  table  .... 
Vaison,  frieze          ..... 
S.  Trophime,  capitals     .... 
S.  Paul-Trois-Chateau,  archivolt    . 
Abbaye-de-Montmajour,  corbel 
Angouleme  Cathedral,  frieze  . 
corbel  . 

D'Ouezy,  capital    ..... 
Plans  of  piers          ..... 

104.  Church  of  the  Apostles,  Cologne    . 

105.  German  Romanesque  Examples. 

Church  of  the   Apostles,  Cologne,  part 

elevation 
, ,  , ,  part  section    . 

plan 

Worms  Cathedral,  part  elevation    . 
,,  ,,  part  section 

,,  ,,  transverse  section 

plan 

106.  Worms  Cathedral     ..... 

107.  German  Romanesque  Ornament. 

Limburg  Cathedral,  capitals   . 
Church  of  S.  Pantaleon,  capital 
S.  Gereon,  Cologne,  capital  and  base 
Worms  Cathedral,  cornice 
S.  Gereon,  Cologne,  double  capital 
Limburg  Cathedral,  towers     . 
Worms  Cathedral,  capital  and  base 
Limburg  Cathedral,  capitals    . 
Ilsenburg  Cathedral,  capital    . 

,,  ,,  column .    .'...'. 

Laach  Abbey  Church,  window 
Worms  Cathedral,  doorway    . 


A,  B 
c 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
J 
K 


Authorities. 
Photo. 


Pugin. 

Sharpe. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


A 
B 

i  Ruprich-Robert. 

C 

) 

D,  E 

\  Revoil. 

F 

J 

G 

| 

H 

J 

i-  Ruprich-Robert. 

K 

j 

L  tO  P 

Photo. 


[•  Boisseree. 

[•King. 
Photo. 

Moller. 
1  Boisseree. 

King. 
Boisseree. 

I  Moller. 

I  Forster. 
Moller. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  Name. 

108.  Map  of  Mediaeval  Europe,  Thirteenth  Century. 

109.  Principles  of  Gothic  Construction. 

Amiens  Cathedral  .         .         .         .         .  A 

S.    Saviour,    Southwark,   vaulting    com- 
partment      .  B 
,,                     ,,          setting  out   of 

groined  vault      ( C,  D 

1 10.  Comparative  Views  of  Models  of  Con- 

tinental Cathedrals. 

Milan A 

Evreux  .......  B 

Cologne          ......  C 

Vienna  .......  D 

Chartres E 

in.     Comparative    Diagrams   of  Vaults    and 

Domes. 

Roman  cross  vault          ....  A 

Romanesque  cross  vault          ...  B 

Byzantine  and  Renaissance  domes  .         .  c 

Gothic  vault  ......  u 

Renaissance  cross  vault  .         .         .         .     .      E 

112.  English  Gothic  Examples— I. 

Comparative  Examples,  showing  progress  of 

Gothic  Vaulting. 

Waggon  vault         .....  A 

,,      plan         ....  B 

,,          ,,      stilted      ....  c 

,,          ,,      showing      diagonal     and 
transverse  groins  D 

Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  sexpartite  vaulting          E 
,,  ,,         external  view         .  F 

Peterborough,  Norman  vaulting      .         .  G 

,,  ,,  „       plan       .          H 

Salisbury,  Early  English  groined  vaulting        j,  L 
Westminster  Abbey,  groined,  with  inter- 
mediate ribs      .         .         .         .         .        K,  M 
Bristol  Cathedral,  Decorated  Lierne  vault       N,  o 
S.  Mary,  Redcliffe,  Perpendicular  stellar 

vault  interior  view      .         .         .         .         p,  Q 
Gloucester,  Cathedral,  Perpendicular  fan 

vaulting     .  .         .         .         .         R,  s 

113.  English  Gothic  Examples— II. 

Types  of  Mediaeval  Open  Timber  Roofs. 

Stowe  Bardolph  Church,  trussed  rafter 

roof A 

Trinity  Chapel,  Cirencester,  tie-beam 

roof  .  .  .  .  .  ,-.-.•  B 

S.  Mary  Magdalen,  Pulham,  collar- 
braced  roof  .  .  .  .  -  .  c 

Trunch  Church,  hammer-beam  roof  D 


Authorities, 

Viollet-le-Duc. 
•A.  A.  Notes. 


Photos-   by 
T.  Thatcher. 


W.  R.  Purchase. 


Parker,  and 
f       others. 


Brandon. 


XXXI 

Authorities. 


Weale. 
Brandon. 

Thomas  Morris. 


Photos  by 
T.  Thatcher. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

113.      English  Gothic  Examples  —  II.  —  continued. 
Types  of  Mediaeval  Open  Timber  Roofs  — 

continued. 
Middle  Temple  Hall,  double  hammer- 

beam  roof          .....          E 
Ixworth  Church,  aisle  roof  F 

New  Walsingham,  aisle  roof  G 

Westminster  Hall,  hammer-beam  roof    .          H 
Evolution  of  hammer-beam  J 

114.     Comparative  Views  of  Models  of  English 
Cathedrals  —  I. 

Chichester 
Durham 

Ely  .  .         .          c 

Worcester  .  .         .          D 

Rochester  .  .         .          E 

Oxford  .  .  F 

Carlisle  .  .         .         .          G 

•     Bristol  .  .....  H 

115      Comparative  Views  of  Models  of  English 
Cathedrals—  II. 

York     .......  A 

Chester          ......  B 

Peterborough          .....  C 

Exeter  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  L>  Photos  by 

Winchester    ......  E  T.  Thatcher. 

Hereford        ......  F 

Wells     .......  G 

Gloucester      .         .....  H 

116.  Comparative  Views  of  Models  of  English 

Cathedrals—  III. 

Salisbury       ......  A 

Lincoln          ......  B 

Canterbury   ......  C  Photos  by 

Norwich         ......  i>  *  T.  Thatcher. 

Ripon   .......  E 

Lichfield        ......  F 

117.  English  Gothic  Examples  —  III. 

Comparative  Plans  of  English  Cathedrals  —  i. 

Ely        .......          A         1  •  Builder  '  Cathe- 

York     .......  dral        Series, 

Winchester    ......  I   Storer,  Britton, 

Peterborough          .....  Loftie,  Murray, 

Salisbury       ......  I     Willis. 

Lincoln          ...... 

118.  English  Gothic  Examples—  IV. 

Comparative  Plans  of  English  Cathedrals—  2. 

Worcester      ......  A  1  'Builder  Cathe- 

Canterbury    ......  B  dral        Series, 

Gloucester7    .         .....  c  \   Loftie,  Brit  on, 

Norwich         ......  D  I    Storer,   Willis, 

Durham                  .....  E  J    Murray. 


XXX11 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No. 

Name. 

Authorities. 

119. 

English  Gothic  Examples  —  V. 

Comparative  plans  of  English  Cathedrals  —  3. 

S.  Asaph         

A 

Manchester     

B 

Oxford  

c 

Bangor  .         .         .         .         .         .         . 
Exeter    .         .  ' 
S.  Albans        .         .         .         ...''.' 
Chichester 
Rochester       ...... 

I) 
E 

/* 
G 

H 

'Builder  'Cathe- 
dral Series, 
Loftie,  Britton, 
Storer,  Murray. 

Wells     

J 

Southwell        ...... 

K 

S.  Stephen,  Westminster 

L 

120. 

English  Gothic  Examples  —  VI. 

• 

Comparative  plans  of  English  Cathedrals  —  4. 

Christ  Church,  Dublin    .... 

A 

Carlisle  

B 

Llandaff          

C 

Glasgow          ....         . 

D 

'Builder  'Cathe- 

S. Davids       

E 

dral  Series. 

Chester           

F           [    Loftie,  Britton, 

Ripon     ....... 

G           1     Storer,  Murray. 

Hereford         ...... 

H 

Lichfield         

J 

Bristol    . 

K.         J 

121. 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  exterior     . 

Photo. 

122. 

English  Gothic  Examples—  VII. 

Comparative  Examples  of  English  Cathe- 
drals : 

Peterborough,  external  bay    . 
,,  detail  of  pier  . 

,,  cross  section    . 

,,  internal  bay     . 

Salisbury,  external  bay  .... 
,,  part  cross  section     . 

„  internal  bay    . 

123.  Salisbury  Cathedral,  interior      . 

124.  English  Gothic  Examples — VIII. 

Comparative  Examples  of   English  Cathe- 
drals : 

Lichfield,  exterior  .... 
,,          section 

,,          interior  ..... 

Winchester,  exterior  .... 

,,            section  .      -  .         . 

,,            interior  .... 

125.  Lincoln  Cathedral,  exterior 

126.  Lincoln  Cathedral,  interior 


f  Ruprich- 
Robert. 


Britton. 


Photo. 


.Britton. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

127.  English  Gothic  Examples — IX. 

Westminster  Abbey : 

Exterior         ...... 

Section 

Interior          ...... 

Plan      .  .... 

128.  Henry  VII.  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey. 

129.  Henry  VII.  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey, 

Fan  Vaulting          .... 

130.  English  Gothic  Examples — X. 

Typical  English  Parish  Church  : 
S.  Andrew.  Heckington,  Lines. 

view 

interior  . 
plan 

elevation 
section    . 

131.  English  Gothic  Examples — XI. 

Comparative  Plans   of  English   Domestic 

Buildings  : 
Tower  of  London         .... 

Oxburgh  Hall 

Kenilworth  Castle  .... 
Hat  field  House,  plans  .... 
Longford  Castle  .  .  .  .  . 
Stoke  Park 

Chevening  House,  plans 

Holkham  Hall 

€32.     English  Gothic  Examples— XII. 

English  Gothic  Domestic  Examples  : 
Penshurst  Place,  elevation  of  great  hall  . 
,,  ,,       section  of  roof 

,,  ,,       chimney  stack 

,,  ,,       section  of  hall  roof 

.,  .,       general  plan 

Lambeth  Palace,  cross  sections 

,,  ,,       plan   and    longitudinal 

section 

Chiddingstone,  Kent,  timber  houses 
S.  Mary's  Hospital,  Chichester,  plan 
„  ,,  ,,         sections 

133.  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 

134.  Saxon  Architecture. 

Earls  Barton,  tower       .... 
,,          ,,       window    .... 
Deershurst,  ,, 

Earls  Barton,  doorway  .... 
Repton.  capital      ..... 
Wickham,  window 
Corhampton,  impost 
Sompting,  capital  ..... 
S.  Benets,  Cambridge,  capital 


XXX111 

Authorities. 


D,    E 
F 
G 


H,    J 
K 


C,  D 
E 

F 
G 

H,  K 

J 

L 
M,  N 


[-J.   Neale. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


I  Bowman 
h     and 
j  Crowther. 


Kerr. 

»  Gotch  and ' 
)      Brown. 

Kerr. 

(  "  Vitruvius 
(       Britannicus. 

Kerr. 


-Dollman. 


Photo. 


y  Parker  and 
Bloxam. 


Rickman. 


F.A. 


XXXIV 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

135-     S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London 

136.  English  Gothic  Examples— XIII. 

Comparative  Examples  showing  progress  of 
English  Gothic  Cathedral  Architecture : 
Ely  Cathedral,  nave,  interior  and  exterior          A 
Peterborough       ,,  ,,  ,,  B 

Ripon,  choir,  interior  and  exterior  .         .          c 
Ely,  presbytery     ,,  ,,  .      /  D 

137.  English  Gothic  Examples — XIV. 

Comparative  Examples  showing  progress  of 
Engh'sh  Gothic  Cathedral  Architecture 
(continued). 

Lichfield  Cathedral,  nave,  interior  and 

exterior  ......  E 

Ely  choir,  interior  and  exterior       .         .  F  . 

Winchester,  nave,  interior  and  exterior  .          G 

138.  Iffley  Church,  Oxon 

139.  Norman  Mouldings. 

Lincolnshire,  zigzag        ....  A 

S.  Contest,  Caen,  chevron  B 

Winchester,  billet c 

Canterbury       ,,     .         .          .          .          .  D 

Westminster,  chevron  E 

North  Hinksey     „  F 

Abbaye  aux-Dames,  billet  G 

Stoneleigh,  double  cone  H 

S.  Peters-at-Gowts,  nebule  J 

Iffley,  Oxon.,  flower  K 

North  Hinksey,  beaks  head    .          .          .  L 

Lincoln,  embattled         .         .         .         .  M 

140.  English  Gothic  Examples — XV. 

The  Evolution  of  Gothic  Spires  in  England  : 

S.  Peter,  Raunds,  Northants  ...  A 

S.  John,  Keystone,  Hunts.  B 

S.  Wulfran,  Grantham,  Lines.         .         .  c 

Salisbury  Cathedral         .  D 

S.  Mary,  Bloxham,  Oxon.       .         .          .  E 

S.  Peter,  Kettering,  Northants.       .         .  F 

S.  James,  Louth,  Lines.  G 

S.  Michael,  Coventry,  Warwickshire       .  H 

141.  English  Gothic  Examples— XVI. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Gothic  Buttress  : 

Norman,  Fountains  Abbey      .         .         .  A 

E.  English,  Southwell  Minster        .         .  .B 

Decorated,  S.  Mary  Magdalen,  Oxford    .  c 

Perpendicular,  Divinity  School,  Oxford  .  n 
Detached  Flying  Buttress,  Chapter  Ho. 

Lincoln        ......  E 

Flying  Buttresses,  Amiens  and  Kheims  .  F, 
Constructive  principle  of  the  Mediaeval 

Church         .                                   .  G 


Authorities. 
Photo. 


hSharpe. 


[  Sharpe. 
Photo. 


Pr.rker,  Rick- 
man,  Bloxam 
and  others. 


}  C.  Wickes. 


Sketches 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXXV 


No.  Name. 

142.  English  Gothic  Examples — XVII. 

Comparative  Examples  showing  progress  of 
Gothic  Tracery  Development  : 

Lynchmere,  plate  tracery       ...  A 

Woodstock       ,,         .,  .         .         .  B 

Dorchester,  bar  tracery  .         .         .  c 

Minster  Lovel,  bar  tracery     .          .          .  D 

Headington,  plate  tracery       .         .         .  E 

Wimborne  Minster,  grouped  lancet  lights  F 

Warmington,  grouped  lancet  lights          .  G 

Long  Wittenham,  geometrical  tracery     .  H 

S.  Mary  Magdalen,  curvilinear  tracery  .  j 

Duston,  clerestory  windows   .         .          .  K,  I, 

Great  Milton,  curvilinear  tracery    .         .  M 

New  College  Chapel,  rectilinear  tracery.  N 

King's  College  Chapel        ,,  ,,        .  o 

S.  Mary,  Dinan,  Flamboyant  example    .  p 

143.  English  Gothic  Examples— XVIII. 

Comparative  Examples  of  English  Gothic 
Doorways  : 

Clare  Church,  elevation          ...  A 

capital  and  base        .    -  B 

jamb  moulding         .         .  c 

S.  John,  Cley   half  exterior  and  interior  .  D 

capital  and  base    .         .  E 

arch  mould  F 

jamb  and  arch  mould    .  G 

capital  and  base    .         .  H 

Merton  Colle  e  Chapel,  Oxford,  elevation  j 

,,          capital  and  base  K 
,,         jamb   and    arch 

moulds  .  L 

, ,          jamb  mould       .  M 


Authorities. 


Parker. 


J.  K.  Colling. 


Bowman 
and  Crowther 


Pugin. 


144.     English  Gothic  Examples— XIX. 

Norman  Font,  Coleshill,  Warwickshire  .  A 
E.  English  Font,  Lackford,  Suffolk         .  B 
Decorated  Font,  Offley,  Herts         .         .  c 
Perpendicular  Font,  ClympingCh,  Sussex  D 
Norman   Piscina,    Crowmarsh,    Oxford- 
shire .......  E 

E.  English  Piscina,  Cowling,  Suffolk      .  F 

Decorated  Piscina.  Gt.  Bedwin,  Wiltshire  G 

Perpendicular  Piscina,  Cobham,  Kent    .  H 
E.    English    Tabernacle,    Warmington, 

Northants   ......  j 

Norman  Sedilia,  S.  Mary,  Leicester        .  K 

Decorated  Tabernacle,  Exeter  Cathedral  L 

E.  English  Sedilia,   Rushden,  Northants  M 

Decorated  Sedilia,  Merton,  Oxon    .      '  .  N 

Perpendicular  Sedilia,  S.  Mary,  Oxon     .  o 


Parker. 
Braddon. 


Parker. 


C   2 


XXXVI 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No, 


Name, 


145.     English  Gothic  Examples — XX. 

Pew,  Steeple  Aston,  Oxon.     . 

Pulpit    (External),      Magdalene     Coll., 

Oxford 

Pulpit,  Wolvercot,  Oxon. 

Eagle     Lectern,      Upwell      S.      Peter, 

Norfolk 

Roodloft,  Handborough,  Oxfordshire 
Parclose      Screen,      Geddington      Ch., 

Northants   , 

Prince     Arthur's     Chantry,     Worcester 

Cathedral 


Authorities. 


[  Parker. 

j  A.     A.     Sketch 
I      Book. 
Parker. 

[  J.  K.  Colling. 


146.  English  Gothic  Ornament — I. 

Comparative  Mouldings  of  the  Periods  of 

Gothic  Architecture  : 

"  Norman"  capitals,  bases,  piers  .          .  I  to  13 

"  Early  English '"            .,           ,.  141025 
"Decorated"                  ..           .,     .         .261038 

"Perpendicular  '            ,.           ,,               .  39  to  54 

147.  English  Gothic  Ornament — II. 

Comparative  Selection  of  Gothic  Ornaments 

in  Different  Periods  : 

Early  English  dog-tooth  ornament.         .  A 

.,            ,,       crocket     .          .          .          .  j 

,,       parapet    ....  M 

"  Decorated  "  four-leaved  flower    .         .  B 

ball  flower  c 

tablet  flower   .         .         .  D 

typical  crocket          .         .  K 

parapet  N 

"  Perpendicular  "  vine  leaf  and  grapes    .  E 

cornice  flower          .         .  F 

Tudor  flower,  cresting     .  G 

Tudor  rose  H 

crocket   ....  L 

parapet  o 


Parker  and 
Paley. 


Parker. 
Bloxam. 
•\ 

*•  Parker. 
R.  Glazier. 

) 

,L  Parker. 


-  Bloxam. 


Parker. 


148. 


English  Gothic  Ornament — III. 

Comparative  Examples  of  Gothic  Capitals 

and  Carved  Foliage : 

"  Norman "  capitals  .  .  .  .  A,  B,  c 
"  Early  English  "  capitals  and  spandrel  D,  E,  F 
'jDecorated  "  capitals  and  ornament  .  G,  H,  J,  K 


"  Perpendicular  "  capitals,  spandrels      .  L.  M,  N,  o,P  I 


i  Parker,  Pugin, 
and  Colling. 


149.     English  Gothic  Ornament — IV. 

Gable  Crosses  :  Early  English— Higham 

Ferrers 
,,  ,,  Decorated — Haslingfield 

Church 
,,  ,,  Perpendicular  —  Stoke 

Ferry  Church     . 


j.  K.  Colling. 

) 
-Brandon. 


No. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Name. 


149. 


English  Gothic  Ornament  —IV.  —  continued, 
Sanctus  Bell  —  Bloxham  Church,  Oxon.   . 
Finials  :  Early  English  —  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral      ..... 
,,         Decorated  —  Winchester  Cathe- 
dral      ..... 
,,         Perpendicular  —  York  Minster  . 
Stone      Pendant  :      Perpendicular,     All 
Saints,  Evesham  .... 

Bosses  :  Early  English  —  Lincoln  Cathe- 

dral     . 
.,  ,,  Westminster 

Abbey  . 

Decorated  —  Southwell  Minster. 

,  ,         Perpendicular   —   S.         Mary's 

Church,  Bury  St.  Edmunds     . 

Early  English  bracket:  S.  Alban's  Abbey 

Poppy-heads  :  Paston  Church,  Norfolk    . 

,,  Winchester  Cathedral 

150.  Compton  Wynyates,  Warwickshire 

151.  Examples  of  Scottish  Architecture. 

Rothesay  Castle,  plan      .... 
Drum  Castle,  plan  ..... 
Doune  Castle,  plan 
Castle  Frazer,  plan 
Cowane's  Hospital,  plan 
Glamis  Castle,  plan         .... 
,,  „         view  from  the  south-east 

George  Heriot's  Hospital,  plan 

,,  „         entrance  gate- 

way   . 
Grangepans,  sketch  from  .the  S.E.  . 


152.     Examples  of  Irish  Architecture. 

Cormac's  Chapel,  Cashel,  ground  plan    . 
,,  ,.  ,,       view  from  the 

S.E. 

,,  ,,  ,,       plan  of  crofts. 

,,  ,,  ,,       section  through 

nave    . 

,,  ,,  ,,        long,  section  . 

,,  ,,  ,,       section  through 


Tower,  Devenish  . 
,,       Kilree,  Kilkenny 


sanctuary 
N.  porch 


XXXV11 

Authorities. 
P>om  a  Photo. 


}].  K.  Colling. 


Nash. 


^  MacGibbon  and 
f      Ross. 


Arthur  Hill. 
Fergusson. 

}•  Arthur  Hill. 


Fergusson. 


FRENCH    GOTHIC. 
153.     French  Gothic  Examples— I. 

Beauvais  Cathedral,  section  A          \ 

plan  c  j- Bulges. 

,,  ,,  plans  of  buttress       .  D,  E,  F      ) 

Notre  Dame,  Paris,  wheel  window          .          K  Gailhabaud. 


XXXV111 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

154.  Comparative  Views  of  Models  of  Conti- 

nental Cathedrals. 

Amiens ....... 

Rouen  ....... 

Antwerp        ...... 

Notre  Dame,  Paris          .... 

Strasbourg      ...... 

Beauvais        .         .         .         .         .         . 

155.  French  Gothic  Examples — II. 

Comparative  plans  of  cathedrals  : 

Rouen         ...... 

Evreux       ...... 

S.  Oaen,  Rouen          .... 

Chartres     ..... 

Rheims       ...... 

S.  Chapelle,  Paris       .... 

156.  Notre  Dame,  Paris.     View  of  west  front    . 

157.  French  Gothic  Examples— III. 

Notre  Dame,  Paris,  exterior  bay  . 

,,          ,.  ,,      cross  section  . 

,,          ,,  ,,      interior  bay  . 

,,      plan 

158.  Notre  Dame,  Paris.     Interior   . 

159.  Comparative     Plans     of     English     and 

French  Types  of  Cathedrals. 


Authorities. 


160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 


Salisbury  Cathedral 
Amiens 


Amiens  Cathedral.     Interior     . 
Rheims  Cathedral.     View  of  west  front     . 
Coutances  Cathedral.     View  of  west  front 
House  of  Jacques  Cceur,  Bourges    . 

164.  Palais  de  Justice,  Rouen  .... 

165.  French  Gothic  Ornament. 

Chartres,  figure  sculpture 

.,        capital      ..... 
Amiens,  fleche        .         .         .          .     •-    . 

,,        grotesque  figure 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  open  parapet  . 

,,  ,,      stone  pulpit 

Mont  S.  Michel,  foliage 
Notre  Dame,  Chalons  sur-Marne    . 

Piers  in  Northern  and  Southern  France  .  \  *'_ 
Semur,  capital  and  crocket    . 

166.  Antwerp  Cathedral.     Exterior  . 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
/F 

1 

Photos  by 
T.  Thatcher. 

J 

I 

A,  C 
B,   D 
E 
F,  K 
G,  J 
H 

j  Winkle. 
Pugin. 

JKing. 

Photo. 

A 
B 
C 
D 

Lassus    and 
-     Viollet-le- 
Duc. 

Photo. 

,  C,   D,  E 
,  F,  G,  H 

Britton. 
Winkle. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

A 
G 

B 
E 
C,  D 
R 
F 
H 
J>  K,  L, 
M,  N,  0 
P,  Q 

Nesfield. 
Burges. 
Nesfield. 

Burges. 
Nesfield. 
W.  G.  Davie. 

Nesfield. 

Photo. 

LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XXXIX 


No.  Name. 

167.  Belgian  Gothic  Examples. 

S.  Gudule,  Brussels,  elevation 
,,  .,  section. 

,,  ,,  interior  elevation 

,,  ,,  plan 

Antwerp  Cathedral,  section    . 
,.  ,,  plan 

168.  Town  Hall,  Bruges  .... 

169.  Town  Hall,  Ghent    .... 

170.  German  Gothic  Examples — I. 

Cologne  Cathedral,  exterior    . 
.,  ,,         section     . 

,,          interior     . 
.,  ,,         piers 

plan 

171.  Ratisbon  Cathedral.     Exterior. 

172.  German  Gothic  Examples — II. 

S.  Stephen,  Vienna,  plan 

,,       section  . 
,,       interior  . 
S.  Eliz  heth,  Marburg,  plan 

,,          exterior     . 
,,          section 
,,          interior     . 

173.  S.  Stephen,  Vienna 

174.  German  Gothic  Ornament. 

Freibourg  Cathedral,  canopy  capitals 
S.  Paul,  Worms,  capitals 
Cologne,  parapet  .... 

,,         corbel  capital  . 

,,         gargoyles 

,,         doorway 
Gelnhausen,  doorway     . 
Bruges,  miserere    .... 
Marburg,  tomb      .... 

175.  Milan  Cathedral.     Exterior 

176.  Italian  Gothic  Examples — I. 

Milan  Cathedral,  plan    . 

,,  long,  section 

,,  transverse  section 

S.  Maria-dei-Fiori,  Florence,  plan 
,,  long,  section     . 

177.  Milan  Cathedral.     Interior 

178.  The  Doge's  Palace,  Venice     . 

179.  Italian  Gothic  Examples— II. 

Palazzo  della  Ca  d'Oro,  elevation  . 
Doge's  Palace,  Venice,  fa?ade 
Palazzo  Pisani,  Venice,  fa9ade 
Siena  Cathedral,  plan     . 


A 
B 
C 

D,  E.  G,  H 
F 


A,   C 

B 

I) 

J 
K,  L 

F 

E 
G,  H 

M 


Authorities. 

-  King. 

Photo. 
Photo. 

Boisseree. 

Photo. 

Gailhabaud. 

\  King. 
Photo. 


Norman  Shaw. 
M  oiler. 

) 

'-  Boisseree. 

J 

Moller. 

Norman  Shaw. 
Moller. 

Photo. 


Gailhabaud  and 
others. 


Photo. 
Photo. 


Cicognara. 


xl 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

180.  Ca  d'Oro  Palace,  Venice 

181.  Florence  Cathedral.     Exterior . 

182.  Siena  Cathedral.     Exterior 

183.  Monreale  Cathedral.     The  cloisters  . 

184.  Italian  Gothic  Ornament. 

Baptistery  at  Pisa,  detail  of  capital  from 

pulpit 
,,  ,,     plan  of  pulpit  . 

,,     pulpit 

,,  Florence,  candelabra 

Campo  Snnto,  Pisa,  window  . 
Pisa  Cathedral,  portion  of  pulpit    . 

,,  ,,         lion  and  base  of  column 

Naples,  capital       ..... 
Ducal  Palace,  Venice,  capital 
Venice,  angle  window    .... 
Palazzo  Scaligeri,  Verona,  campanile     . 

185.  Burgos  Cathedral.     Exterior     . 

1 86.  Burgos  Cathedral.     Interior 

187.  Spanish  Gothic  Examples. 

S.  Maria  del  Mar,  Barcelona,  plan 
Barcelona  Cathedral,  plan 
Gerona  ,,  ., 

Toledo  ,,  ,, 

Lerida  ,,.  ,, 

1 88.  S.  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  Toledo 

189.  S.  Gregorio,  Valladolid    .... 

190.  Spanish  Gothic  Ornament. 

Burgos  Cathedral,  ornament  from  tomb  . 
,,         Gonzalo  ,,  . 
balcony 

sculptured  pier   . 
plan   .... 
window  of  dome 
elbows  of  sedilia 
Miraflores,  Infante's  tomb      . 

,,  base  of  Infante's  tomb   . 

,,  pier  of        ,.         ,, 

Las  Huelgas,  capitals     .... 
S.  Gil,  canopy        ..... 


A 
B 
c 

H 
L 
J 
K 
D 
G 

M,  N 
E 
F 


Authorities. 
Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 


[  Rohault    de 
I      Fleury. 

Norman  Shaw.. 

")  Rohault  de 
)      Fleury. 

Cicognara. 


Photo. 
Photo. 


L  Street. 

Photo. 
Photo. 


-Waring, 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE, 

191.     Florentine  Renaissance  Examples — I. 

Palazzo  Strozzi,  main  cornice          .         .  A 
,,             ,,       section  and  elevation  of 

court          ;         .         .  c 

,,  .,      plan  E 

,,  ,,       keystone  F 


\-  Raschdorff. 

(Grandjean  et 
(      Famin. 
Raschdorff. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xli 


No.  Name. 

191.  Florentine  Renaissance  Examples—  I.  —continued. 

Palazzo  Riccardi,  main  cornice        .         .          B 

.,  ,,       elevation    .         .         .          D 

,,  ,,       plan  ....          G 

192.  Palazzo  Riccardi,  Florence 

193.  Florentine  Renaissance  Examples — II. 

Pazzi  Chapel,  plan 

,,  ,,        elevation  . 

,,  ,,        section 

S.  Lorenzo,  plan  .... 
S.  Andrea,   Mantua,  plan 
.,         ,,  ,,         long,  section. 

„         porch    . 
S.  Spirito,  capital 
,,         ,,      plan     .... 
,,         ,,      long,  section 

194.  Florentine  Renaissance  Ornament. 

Duomo  of  Fiesole,  console  from  tomb 
Palazzo  Vecchio.  capital 
Medici  Chapel,  Santa  Croce,  corbel 
Palazzo  Strozzi,  window 

,,        Gondi,         ,,  . 

,,        Pandolfini,  window   . 

,,  ,,  pilaster  . 

Mercato  Nuovo,  niche   . 
Banner  bracket 

Piazzo  Annunziata,  bronze  fountain 
Palazzo  Guadagni,  lamp  bracket     . 

195.  Palazzo  Giraud,  Rome      .         .         . 

196.  Roman  Renaissance  Examples — I. 

Cancellaria  Palace,  elevation  . 
,,  ,,         plan 

Massimi  Palace,  elevation 
,,  ;,        plan 

197.  Farnese  Palace,  Rome 

198.  Roman  Renaissance  Examples— II. 

Farnese  Palace,  Rome — 

Details  of  main  cornice  . 

Front  fa?ade   .... 
Elevation  of  cortile 

Plan 

Section  and  plan  through  loggia 
Upper  plan      .... 


A,  B 

C 

D 

E 

F 
G,  H 

J 


Authorities. 

/  Grandjean  et 
(      Famin. 
/  Waring  and 
(      Macquoid. 
J  Grandjean  et 
(      Famin. 

Photo. 


I  Grandjean  et 
j      Famin. 

D'Agincourt. 


D'Agincoiirt. 


A 
B 

f  Waring  and 

C 

f     Macquoid. 

E 

)  Grandjean  et 

F 

/      Famin. 

--  J 

H 

Raschdorff. 

K 

(  Waring  and 

L 

(     Macquoid. 

M 

Raschdorff. 

Photo. 


Letarouilly. 


(T.  F.  Suys  et 

L.  P.  Haude- 
l     bourt. 
Photo. 


-Letarouilly. 


xlii 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No. 

Name. 

Authorities. 

199. 

Roman  Renaissance  Examples  —  III. 

Tempietto   of    S.    Pietro    in    Montorio, 

Rome  — 

• 

Elevation        ..... 

A 

Section  ...... 

B 

Plan       

C 

-Letarouilly. 

S.  Andrea,  Rome,  plan  .... 

D 

,,             ,,        section 

E 

,,             ,,        elevation    . 

/    F 

S.  Maria  della  Consolazione,  Todi,  plan   .  / 

G  . 

,,                         ,,                elevation 

H 

D'Agincourt 

,,                         ,,                section   . 

J 

11  Jesu,  Rome,  plan        .... 

K 

.  ,           ,,        elevation 

L 

Gailhabaud. 

,,           ,,        section    .... 

M 

2OO. 

The  Capitol,  Rome    

Photo. 

201. 

Roman  Renaissance  Examples  —  IV. 

The  Capitol,  Rome,  plan 

A           \ 

,,               ,,       elevation 

B 

Palace  of  Caprarola,  plan 

C            [•  Durand. 

,,              ,,           elevation 

D 

1 

,,              ,,          section   . 

E 

2O2. 

S.  Peter,  Rome  

Photo. 

203. 

Roman  Renaissance  Examples  —  V. 

S.  Peter,  Rome  — 

Plan  of  peristyle      .... 

A 

,,              ,,         by  Bramante  . 

B 

Suggested  dome  by  Sangallo    . 

c            hDurand. 

,,              ,,     by  Bramante 

D 

Elevation         ..... 

E              J 

Section  of  dome       .... 

F 

Cross  section  ..... 

G              Durand. 

Sketch  of  peristyle  .... 

H 

Suggested  plan  by  Raphael 
General  plan   ..... 

J 

K 

Durand. 

Half  plan  by  Peruzzi 

L 

,,          by  Ant.  Sangallo 

M             Fergusson. 

204. 

S.  Peter,  Rome.     Interior. 

Photo. 

205. 

S.  Peter,  Rome.     Exterior 

Photo. 

206. 

Roman  Renaissance  Ornament. 

Farnese  Palace,  window 

A 

5)                                             55                                         ... 

B 

11                                             ••>                                    '    ... 

G 

5> 

H 

Cancellaria  Palace,  window  and  balcony. 

D 

,,              ,,             ,,        section 
plan     .      -  . 

E 
F 

-Letarouilly. 

Massimi  Palace,  doorhead 

J>  K 

S.  M.  sopra  Minerva,  doorway 

L 

S.  Agostino,  panels         .... 
S.  M.  del  Popolo,  angle  of  tomb    . 

N 
0 

.,             ,,        tomb 

P             J 

LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xliii 


No.  Name. 

207.  Palazzo  Vendramini,  Venice    . 

208.  Venetian  Renaissance  Examples  —  I. 

Palazzo  Grimani,  plinth 

.  ,,  cornice,  capitals  . 

,  ,  elevation  of  half  fa9ade 

plan    .         .         . 
Palazzo  Vendramini,  half  fa?ade 

,,  cornices  and  capital 

209.  The  Pesaro  Palace,  Venice 

210.  Venetian  Renaissance  Examples  —  II. 

S.  Mark's  Library,  fa?ade 

,,  ,,          cornices  . 

Doge's  Palace,  cornices  .... 


213. 


214. 


215. 


,,  pers       .... 

Venetian  Renaissance  Examples  —  III. 

S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  fa?ade 
,,  ,,  section 

,,  ,,  long,  section 

plan 

S.  Giorgio  dei  Greci,  fa9ade 

,,  ,,  long-  section 

.,  ,,  plan    . 

,,  ,,  doorhead 

,,  ,,  cornice 

S.   Giorgio  Maggiore,  facade 
5j  ,,  plan     . 

,,  ,,  section 

S.  Maria  della  Salute,  Venice 

Comparative     Plans     of    Various 

Cathedrals. 

S.  Paul,  London   ..... 
S.  Peter,  Rome      ..... 
Pantheon,  Paris      ..... 
Cologne  Cathedral          .         . 
S,  Maria  della  Salute      .... 

Venetian  Renaissance  Ornament. 

S.  Mark,  pedestal  of  flagstaff 
Equestrian  statue  of  Colleoni,  elevation 

Half  plan,  ditto  . 

Entablature  and  capital 
to  ditto    . 

Scuola  di  S.  Marco,  doorway          ..      .  . 

,,  ,,  panel     . 

Window  and  balustrade 
Palazzo  Zorzi,  capital     .... 
S.  M.  dei  Miracoli,  capital  and  pilaster  . 

,,         Greci,  campanile    . 
The  Basilica  at  Vicenza   .... 


Authorities. 

Photo. 

A, 

B,  C       •> 

», 

E,  F 

G 

J 

-Cicognara. 

H 

K 

,  L 

Photo. 

A            )  Waring  and 
B,  c         j"   Macquoid. 

D,  E           ) 

F           |-  Cicognara. 

G, 

",  J        ) 

A 

B 

C 

U 

E 

F 
G 

-Cicognara 

H 

J 

K 

M 

Photo. 

A 

J.  Clayton. 

B 

C              J 

Durand. 

D 

Boisseree. 

E 

Cicognara. 

A             I 

B 

E 

Cicognara. 

F 

J  Waring  and 
(  Macquoid. 

G 

Photo. 

D 

Cicognara. 

H 

-  Photo. 

J 

K 

Waring  and 
Macquoid. 

Photo. 

xliv 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

216.  Renaissance  Examples  by  Palladio. 

The  Basilica  at  Vicenza,  elevation  .         .  A 

,,  ,,         section      .         .  B 

plan  C 

Villa  Capra,  Vicenza,  elevation  .  .  D 

,,  ,,  section  .  .  E 

,,  ,,  plan  F 

Palazzo  del  Capitanio,  elevation  .  G 

Palazzo  Porto  Barbarano,      ,,         .         .      /    H 

217.  Renaissance    Examples    in    Genoa   and ' 

Verona. 

Palazzo  Pompeii,  Verona,  fa9ade     .         .  A 

,,        Municipio,  Genoa,  fa9ade  .         .  B 

,,  ,,  section     .         .         .  c 

,,  ,,  long,  section    .         .  D 

,,  ,,  plans       .         .  E,  F 

218.  Renaissance   Ornament    in   Genoa   and 

Verona. 
Palazzo  Gambaro,    angle   of  cornice   to 

doorway         .          .  A 

,,  ,,         plan  of  cornice          .  B 

,,  ,,         key  sketch        .          .  D 

,.         Carega,  angle  cornice        .         .  c 

, ,  , ,         key  sketch  .         .  E 

Old  Convent,  Genoa,  lavabo .  .  F 

Villa  Cambiaso,  coffered  ceiling      .         .  G 

,,  ,,          pilaster          .         .         .  K,  L 

Typical  cap  ......  H 

Doorway        ......  J 

Sanmicheli's  house,  Verona,  doorway     .  M 

219.  Chateau    de    Blois,    Escalier    Francois 

Premier    .         .         .         . 

220.  French  Renaissance  Examples — I. 

Chateau  de  Bury,  plan  ....  A 

,,  ,,  elevation  B 

,,  Chambord,  plan  .  .  .  C 

,,  ,,  elevation  .  .  D 

The  Louvre,  Paris,  fa9ade  E 

,,  ,,  block  plan  .  .  F 

221.  Chateau  De  Chambord     .... 

222.  S.  Eustache,  Paris 

223.  French  Renaissance,  Examples— II. 

Les    Invalides,    Paris,    section    through 

dome       .         .  A 

,,  ,,  plan  B 

The    Pantheon,    Paris,    section   through 

dome      .         .  C 

,,  ,,  plan  D 

Chateau  de  Maisons,  elevation         .         .  E 

,,  ,,         plan  F 

Luxembourg  Palace,  Paris,  part  elevation  G 

,,  ,,         ,,        plan     .         .  H 


Authorities 


Palladio. 


f  Waring  and 

}  Macquoid. 

Reinhardt. 

\  Reinhardt. 


-  Reinhardt. 


J.  Kinross. 
-  Reinhardt. 

J.  Kinross. 
)  Waring  and 
j"  Macquoid. 

Photo. 


Durand. 


Photo. 
Photo. 


•Gailhabaud. 


\  Durand. 

Sauvageot. 
f  Sauvageot  and 
(        Durand. 


Durand. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xlv 


224. 

225. 


226. 


227. 
228. 
229. 


231, 


232. 


233- 
234- 


Name. 

The  Pantheon,  Paris          .... 
French  Renaissance  Ornament — I. 

Palace  at  Fontainebleau,  capital 
,,  ,,  panel 

Chateau  de  Chamborcl,  capital 
,,  ,,  dormer 

,,  Chenonceaux,  doorway 

French  Renaissance  Ornament — II. 

Keystone 

Balcony  (Louis  XV.)      . 

Versailles,  lead  fountain 

Lycee  Napoleon,  dormer  window  . 

Paris,  console         ..... 

Versailles,  style  of  decoration 

Doorway       .         . 

Paris,  fountain  (Louis  XV.)    . 
,,     door  and  window  . 

Palais  Royal,  cornice  and  balustrade 

Heidelberg  Castle 

The  Rathhaus,  Cologne    .... 
German  Renaissance  Examples. 

Lemgo  Town  Hall,  elevation  . 

Solothurn  Town  Hall,  elevation 

Ober-Ehnheim,  wellhead 

Weimar,  arcade      ..... 

Nuremberg,  dormer  window  .          .         . 
The  Pellerhaus,  Nuremberg     . 
German  Renaissance  Ornament. 

Heidelberg  Castle,  windows  and  niche    . 
,.  ,,       statue        .         . 

Freiburg,  Switzerland,  capital 

Heilbron,  gable      ..... 

Freiburg,  capital    ..... 

Erfurt,  window       ..... 

Heilbron,  cartouche        .... 

Munich,  doorway  ..... 
Belgian       and       Dutch       Renaissance 
Examples. 

Haarlem,  pinnacles         .... 

Antwerp,  gable       ..... 

Utrecht,  pilasters    ..... 

Leyden  Town  Hall,  elevation 
The  Town  Hall,  Antwerp 
Belgian       and       Dutch       Renaissance 
Ornament. 

Dordrecht,  bench-ends   .... 

Antwerp,  doorway          .... 

Gable  end 

Enghien,  capital     ..... 

Brussels,  ornament 

Musee  Plantin,  Antwerp,  door 
,,  ,,  ,,         staircase  . 

Zalt  Bommel,  figures      .... 

L'Eglise  des  Capucins,  ornament    . 


Authorities. 
Photo. 


A,  B 
C.  E 
D,F 

K,  L,  M 
H,  J 

A 

B,  C,   D 

E 

F 

G,  H 

L 

J,  K 

N,  O,  P 

Q,    R,   S 

T,   U 


J  Pfnor. 
'rBerty. 


}  Cesar  Daly. 


Photo. 
Photo. 


Lambert  and 
c'  D  Stahl. 

J 


E 
F,  G 


A,  C 
B 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
J 


A,  B,  C,  E 


Photo. 


Lambert  and 
Stahl. 


Photo. 


A,  B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
J 
K 


VEwerbeck. 


xlvi 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

235.  Town  Hall,  Seville 

236.  Spanish  Renaissance  Examples. 

Toledo;  the  Alcazar,  portion  of  facade    . 
Avila,  the  Casa  Polentina  courtyard 

237.  Burgos.     Courtyard    of   the    House    of 

Miranda  ..... 

238.  Comparative  Plans  of  Various  Buildings. 

The  King's  House,  Greenwich        .         .  ( 
The  Rotunda,  Vicenza  .... 
The  Escurial,  Spain       .... 
Villa  of  Pope  Julius,  Rome    . 
Blenheim  Palace    ..... 

239.  Spanish  Renaissance  Ornament. 

Siguenza  Cathedral,  door  from  cloisters 
Cuenza  Cathedral,  iron  screen 
Alcala  De  Henares,  window  . 
Avila,  iron  pulpit  .... 

240.  Map  of  Western  Europe  at  the  Time  of 

Elizabeth. 

241.  Hatfield  House.    The  Hall       . 

242.  Knole,  Kent.      Staircase 

243.  Haddon  Hall.     Long  Gallery  . 

244.  English  Renaissance  Examples — I. 

Holland  House,  elevation 

,,  .,       ground  floor  plans 

Stockton  House,  side  of  drawing-room  . 

Blickling      Hall,    Norfolk,    the      great 

staircase  ..... 

245.  English  Renaissance  Examples — II. 

Castle  Ashby,  Northamptonshire,  south 
elevation 

i»  1        «  ».  plan  . 

Hardwicke  Hall,  elevation 
it      plan    . 

246.  Kirby  Hall,  Northants     . 

247.  Little  Moreton  Hall,  Cheshire 

248.  The  Tower  of  the  old  Schools,  Oxford  . 

249.  Hatfield  House          ,         .  , 


A 
B 
C 

D,  E 
F 


A 

B,  C 
D 
E 


A 

B,  C 
D 

E 


Authorities 
Photo. 

}  A.  N.  Prentice. 
Photo. 


Campbell. 
Palladio. 
Thompson. 
Letarouilly. 
Kc  rr. 


-A.  N.  Prentice. 


Nash. 
Nash. 

Nash. 


Richardson. 
f  Princess  of 
(  Lichenstein. 

[•  Henry  Shaw. 


j 

\  P.  F.  Robinson. 


Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xlvii 


No. 


Name. 


250.  English  Renaissance  Ornament— I. 

Bramshill  House,  Hants,  balustrade        .  A 

.,  .,  ,,       oriel        .         .  E 

,,  ,,  .,       arcade    .          .  G 

,.  ,,  ,,       plaster  ceiling  M 

Duke's  House,  Bradford,  balustrade       .  B 

Hatfield  House,  newel  c 

Blickling  Hall,  Norfolk,  entrance  .         .  D 

,,  ,,  ,.        chimney   piece  K 

All    Hallow's    (Barking)    Church,  wall 

tablet F 

House  at  Yarmouth,  frieze     .         .         .  H 

Aston  Hall,  frieze  j 
Claverton,  Somersetshire,  rain  water 

head          ......  L 

251.  English  Renaissance  Ornament — II. 

Doorway  in  Broughton  Castle  .  .  A 

Bay  window,  Hinchingbrooke  Hall  .  B 

Chapel  screen,  Charterhouse,  London  .  c 

Bookcase,  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge  D 
Tomb  of  Lord  Burghley,  S.  Martin, 

Stamford   ......  E 

Throne  and  stalls,  Convocation  Room, 

Oxford       ......  F 

Pulpit,  North  Cray  Church,  Kent  .  .  G 
Lead  cistern,  Victoria  and  Albert 

Museum    ......  H 

Tablet,  Peterhouse  College  Chapel,  Cambs.  j 

252.  English  Renaissance  Examples — III. 

York  Water-Gate,  London,  elevation     .  A 

,,  ,,  ,,       plan    .          .  B 

Banqueting  House,  Whitehall,  elevation  c 

„  ,,  ,,          plan       .  D 

Whitehall  Palace,  ground  plan        .          .  E 

253.  English  Renaissance  Examples — IV. 

S.   Paul,  London,  Wren's  original  plan  A 
,,               ,,         section     through 

dome 

,,  ,,         plan         .         .         .  c 

,,  ,,         sketch  of  peristyle    .  D 

,,  ,,         transverse  section      .  E 

„  , ,         western  fa$ade  .  F 

254.  S.  Paul,  London 

255.  English  Renaissance  Examples — V. 

S.  Mary  Le  Bow,  section      ...  A 

,,  ,,         elevation  .  .       .  B 

,,  ,,         plans        .          .         .  1-6 

S.  Bride,  elevation  c 

,,       section  D 

,,        plans  .         .         .         .  7-12 


Authorities. 


I  Henry  Shaw.. 

j 
Richardson. 


}  Henry  Shaw~ 


Richardson. 


}J.A.  Gotch. 


H.  Tanner,  junr.. 

J.  A.  Gotch. 

H. '.Tanner,  junr.. 
C.  J.Richardson. 

H.  I.  Triggs. 
H.  Tanner,  junr.. 


Campbell. 

Kent. 

Campbell. 

Kent. 


Clayton  and 
Gailhabaud 


Photo. 


J-Clayton.. 


xlviii 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  Name. 

256.  English  Renaissance  Examples — VI. 

S.  Stephen,  Walbrook,  details 
,,  ,,          section 

,,  ,,          plan 

257.  English  Renaissance  Examples — VII. 

S.  James,  Piccadilly,  London — 

'  Plan 

Elevation  ..... 
Cross  section  ..... 
Long,  section  .... 

S.  Bride,  London,  plan 

,,  ,,        elevation 

,,  ,,         cross  section 

,,  ,,         long,  section     . 

258.  English  Renaissance  Examples— VIII. 

Castle  Howard,  elevation 

,,  section 

,,  central  portion 

Kedlestone  Hall,  elevation     . 

,,  section 

,,  plan 

259.  Somerset  House,  London 

260.  English  Renaissance  Ornament — III. 

Doorway       ...... 

Horse  Guards,  London,  typical  window 
Aston,  wall  tablet  .... 

Wilton,  archway    .... 

S.  Martin's  Church,  London,  window 
Gate  piers     .         .         .         .     -     . 
Chimney  piece        ..... 
Westminster,  monument 

261.  English  Renaissance  Examples — IX. 

Examples  by  Sir  William  Chambers. 
Pedimented  gateway       .... 

Doorway        ...... 

A  Venetian  window        .... 

Doorway  or  portion  of  Ionic  colonnade 
without  pedestals       .... 

Casino  at  Marino,  near  Dublin 
Doorway  or  portion  of  Corinthian  colon- 
nade with  pedestals    .... 

Superimposed  orders,  without  pedestals  . 
,,  ,,  ,,        section 

,,  .,         with   arcades  and 

pedestals 

,,  ,,         with    Venetian 

arcades        and 
pedestals 


thorities. 


A,  C 

B  j-  Clayton. 

D 


j-Clayton. 


I  Campbell. 

I  Woolfe  and 
j      Gandon. 

Photo. 


A,  C 

Kent. 

(  Sir  William 

B 

(       Chambers. 

D 

James   Gibbs. 

E 

(Sir  W.Cham  - 

"|       bers. 

F 

James  Gibbs. 

G 

Kent. 

H,  K 
J 

-James  Gibbs. 

I  Chambers. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xlix 


No.  Name. 

262.  Comparative  diagrams   of  the   propor- 

tions of  the  Orders  after  Sir  W. 
Chambers. 

Greek  Doric  . 

Tuscan  

Roman  Doric          .         .         .         .         . 

Ionic 

Corinthian 

Composite 

263.  The  Houses  of  Parliament,  London 


Authorities. 


Chambers. 


Photo. 


ARCHITECTURE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

264.     Garrick    (formerly    Schiller)    Theatre, 
Chicago. 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

265.  Map  of  India. 

266.  Indian  Examples  and  Ornament. 

Sanchi,  gateway 

Indian  roof  construction 
Kanaruc  in  Orissa,  pagoda 

Sanchi,  rail 

Seringham,  compound  pillar  . 
Bindrabund,  Agra,  plan 

,,  ,,       pillar 

Greek  Temple,  Baillur,  plan  . 
Vellore,  compound  pillar 
Stone  ornaments    ..... 

267.  Karli.     Interior  of  rock-cut  cave 

268.  Ajunta.     Fa$ade  of  rock-cut  cave 

269.  Elephanta.     Interior  view  of  rock-cut  cave 

270.  Mount  Abu.    Interior  of  Dilwana  Temple  . 

271.  Palitana.     The  great  Chawmukh  Temple   . 

272.  Gwalior.     The  great  Sas  Bahu  Temple 

273.  Umber.     The    Hindu    Temple    of    Tagat- 

Garwan  .         ...... 

274.  Hullabid.     The    East  door  of  the   double 

Temple    ....... 

275.  Ellora.     The  "rath"  (Temple  of  Kailos)    . 

276.  Tanjore.     The  Great  Temple  from  the  N.E. 

277.  Mandura.    The  West  Gateway  and  Gopura 

278.  Tarputry.     Entrance  to  the  old  Temple 


279. 
280. 


A 

B,  C 
D,  E 

j-  Fergusson. 

F 

J 

G 

Le  Bon. 

H 
J 

}  Cole. 

K 
Li 

I  Fergusson. 

M,  N,  0,  P 

Owen  Jones. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 

Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 
Photo. 


CHINESE   AND   JAPANESE   ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Emperor's  Palace.     Pekin        .         .  Photo. 

Shanghai.     A  typical  Chinese  pagoda          .  Photo. 

F.A.  d 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No. 

Name. 

Authorities. 

28l. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Examples. 

Canton  merchant's  house 

A,  B,  C 

Chambers. 

(R.I.B.A. 

Pekin,  Altar  of  Agriculture    . 

•j      papers,  1  866 

(     -67. 

Pekin,  pavilion,  summer  palace 

F 

Nankin,  porcelain  tower 

E 

Rosengarten. 

Tokyo,  Temple  of  Miyo-Jin-Kanda 

G 

Japanese  middle-class  house  . 
Tea-house,  Japan  .         .         .         .         .   / 

,H,J 
K 

-J.  Conder. 

Japan,  public  baths        .         .         .    ~    J 

L,   M           J 

282. 

A  Pailoo      - 

<. 

Photo. 

283. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Ornament. 

Columned  brackets        .... 
Detail  of  eaves       ..... 

A,   B 
C 

Chambers. 

Roof  construction           .... 

D 

Fret  ornaments      ..... 

E,   F 

Garden  temple       ..... 
Great  Temple,  Canton  .... 

G 

H          •    j 

Chambers. 

Triumphal  arch,  Canton 

J 

Chambers. 

Gate,  Temple  of  Confucius    . 

K 

Rosengarten. 

Sketch  of  Tenno-ji  Pagoda    . 

L 

From  a  photo. 

Temple  of  Miyo-jin,  altar  shrine    . 

M 

J.  Conder. 

Japanese  lamp        ..... 

N 

,,         compound  bracket  . 

0 

,,         font  shed         .... 

P,  Q 

,,         gable  ends       .... 

R,  S 

•J.  Conder. 

SARACENIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

284. 

Map  of  the  Saracen  Empire. 

285. 

Mosque  of  Kait  Bey,  Cairo.     Exterior     . 

Photo. 

286. 

Saracenic  Examples  in  Spain  and  Egypt. 

Mosque  of  Ibn  Tooloon,  plan 
,,             ,,             ,,         courtyard 

A 
B 

Gailhabaud. 

Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  Cairo,  plan  . 

C 

,,             ,,             ,,             ,,        section 

D 

Fergusson. 

The  Alhambra,  Granada,  plan 

E 

,,                    ,,          elevation 

F 

Durand. 

287. 

The  Mosque  of  Kait  Bey,  Cairo.  Interior 

Photo. 

288. 

Mosque,  Cordova.     Interior 

Photo. 

289. 

The  Giralda,  Seville.     Exterior 

Photo. 

290. 

The    Alhambra,    Granada.       Capital    in 

courtyard    ...... 

Photo. 

291. 

Saracenic  Ornament  in  Spain  and  Egypt. 

The  Alhambra,  capital  .... 

A,  C 

,,                blind  window 

•Owen  Jones. 

,,                wall  ornament 

D 

Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  column 

E 

Cairo,  portal  arch.         .... 

F 

LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


li 


No. 

Name. 

Authorities. 

291. 

Saracenic     Ornament     in     Spain      and 

E  gy  pt  —  continued. 

Arch  voussoirs       ..... 

G,   H 

"| 

Capital,  showing  stalactite  ornament 

J 

I 

Typical  dome         ..... 
Various  forms  of  arches 

K 

L,  M,  N 

}  Owen  Jones. 

Cresting  to  walls  , 

0,  P 

J 

292. 

The  Mosque  of  Suleiman  I.    . 

Photo. 

293- 

Fountain    near  S.    Sophia,    Constanti- 

nople        ...... 

Photo. 

294. 

Saracenic  Examples  in  India. 

The  Taj-Mehal,  Agra,  plan  . 

A 

Fergusson 

,,                 ,,     general  view 
,,                 ,,     section 

B 
C 

j  Edmund  Smith. 

Mosque,  Futtehpore-Sikri,  plan     . 

D 

Cole. 

,,                ,.               ,,      view    . 

E 

Tomb  of  Selim  Chistee,  section 
,,             „       plan 

F 
G 

|  Cole. 

The  Jumma  Musjid,  Bijapur,  plan 
,,             ,,             ,,        section 

H 
J 

-  Cunningham. 

295- 

Mosque  of  Futtehpore-Sikri    . 

Photo. 

296. 

Futtehpore-Sikri.     Marble  tomb  of  Selim 

Chistee         

Photo. 

297. 

The  Taj-Mehal,  Agra      .         .         .         . 

Photo. 

298. 

Saracenic  Ornament  in  India. 

Futtehpore-Sikri,  window 
,,            ,,         kiosk 

A 
B 

r  Edmund  Smith. 

Dewan  Khas,  Futtehpore-Sikri,  plan     . 
,,                     ,,             ,,          elevation 

H 
J 

j  Cole. 

Selim  Chistee's  Tomb   .... 

C 

Edmund  Smith. 

Futtehpore-Sikri,  bracketed  column 

D 

Le  Bon. 

Gopal    Bhawan   Palace  at   Deeg,  Agra, 

porch      ...... 

E 

H.  H.  Cole. 

Selim  Chistee's  Tomb,  view  of  angle      . 
Minaret  from  Mosque,  Agra  . 

F 
G 

I  Le  Bon. 

Futtehpore-Sikri,  red  sandstone  bracket 
»           ,,      arch,  springing    . 

K 
L 

I  Edmund  Smith. 

299. 

Comparative  forms  of  Arches. 

DIAGRAM    TABLE 

OF     THE 

SYSTEM     OF     CLASSIFICATION 
FOR    EACH    STYLE. 


1.  Influences. 

i.  GEOGRAPHICAL. 

n.  GEOLOGICAL. 
in.  CLIMATE. 
iv.  RELIGION. 

v.  SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL. 
vi.  HISTORICAL. 

2.  Architectural    Character. 

3.  Examples. 

4.  Comparative   Table. 

A.  Plan,  or  general  distribution  of  the  building. 

B.  Walls,  their  construction  and  treatment.  - 
c.  Roofs,  their  treatment  and  development. 

D.  Openings,  their  character  and  shape. 

E.  Columns,      their     position,     structure,     and 

decoration. 

F.  Mouldings,  their  form  and  decoration. 

G.  Ornament,    as   applied    in    general    to    any 

building. 

5.  Reference   Books. 


A 

HISTORY    OF    ARCHITECTURE 

ON    THE 

COMPARATIVE    METHOD. 


PREHISTORIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

"  Study  mere  shelter,  now  for  him,  and  him  ; 
Nay,  even  the  worst — just  house  them  !     Any  cave 
Suffices ;  throw  out  earth  !     A  loop  hole  ?     Brave  ! 

.  .   .   But  here's  our  son  excels 
At  hurdle  weaving  any  Scythian  ;  fells 
Oak  and  devises  rafters ;  dreams  and  shapes 
His  dream  into  a  door  post,  just  escapes 
The  mystery  of  hinges.  .   .   . 

The  goodly  growth 

Of  brick  and  stone  !     Our  building-pelt  was  rough, 
But  that  descendants'  garb  suits  well  enough 
A  portico-contriver. 

***** 
The  work  marched  :  step  by  step— a  workman  fit 
Took  each,  nor  too  fit — to  one  task,  one  time — 
No  leaping  o'er  the  petty  to  the  prime, 
"When  just  the  substituting  osier  lithe 
For  brittle  bulrush,  sound  wood  for  soft  withe, 
To  further  loam-and-rough-cast  work  a  stage, 
Exacts  an  architect,  exacts  an  age." — BROWNING. 

THE  origins  of  architecture,  although  lost  in  the  mists  of  antiquity, 
must  have  been  connected  intimately  with  the  endeavours  of  man 
to  provide  for  his  physical  wants.  It  has  been  truly  said  that 
protection  from  the  inclemency  of  the  seasons  was  the  mother  of 
architecture.  According  to  Vitrtivius,  man  in  his  primitive  savage 
state  began  to  imitate  the  nests  of  birds  and  the  lairs  of  beasts, 
commencing  with  arbours  of  twigs  covered  with  mud,  then  huts 
formed  of  branches  of  trees  and  covered  with  turf  (No.  2  c). 
Other  writers  indicate  three  types  of  primitive  dwellings — the 
caves  (No.  2  H)  or  rocks  or  those  occupied  in  hunting  or  fishing, 

F.A.  B 


BRANCHES  OF  TREE5 
COVERED  WITH  TURF- 


THE 


HUT  (g)  MOMOLITO,'  (ft  SHIELMGS  JuRA, 

^^LQCMARIAKER.  5WTTAHY.    ^^        ^ 


JuRA,5coTLm 


.r.SV^.       __    ,,..' 

))  BEEHIVE  HUTS  LIWIS,SCOTU\ND, 


. 

BEEHIVE  HUT,  IRELAND. 


ASSTORED  w  W/WIRE 

THE  DlAMLTER  OF  LARGE  5TONE  CIRCLE  IS  106  F 


PREHISTORIC    ARCHITECTURE.  3 

the  hut  (No.  2  A,  D,  E)  for  the  agriculturist,  and  the  tent  (No.  2  j) 
for  those  such  as  shepherds  leading  a  pastoral  or  nomadic  life. 

Structures  of  the  prehistoric  period,  although  interesting  for 
archaeological  reasons,  have  little  or  no  architectural  value,  and 
will  only  be  lightly  touched  upon. 

The  remains  may  be  classified  under  : — 

i.  Monoliths,  or  single  upright  stones,  also  known  as  menhirs, 
a  well-known  example  63  feet  high,  14  feet  in  diameter,  and 
weighing  260  tons,  being  at  Carnac,  Brittany.  Another  example 
is  at  Locmariaker,  also  in  Brittany  (No.  2  B). 

ii.  Dolmens  (Daul,  a  table,  and  maen,  a  stone),  consisting  of 
one  large  flat  stone  supported  by  upright  stones.  Examples  are 
to  be  found  near  Maidstone  and  other  places  in  England,  also  in 
Ireland,  Northern  France,  the  Channel  Islands,  Italy  (No.  2  F) 
and  India. 

iii.  Cromlechs,  or  circles  of  stone,  as  at  Stonehenge  (No.  2  G), 
Avebury  (Wilts),  and  elsewhere,  consisting  of  a  series  of  upright 
stones  arranged  in  a  circle  and  supporting  horizontal  slabs. 

iv.  Tumuli,  or  burial  mounds,  were  probably  prototypes  of  the 
Pyramids  of  Egypt  (No.  4)  and  the  beehive  huts  found  in  Wales, 
Cornwall,  Ireland  (No.  2  D,  E)  and  elsewhere.  That  at  New 
Grange  (Ireland)  resembles  somewhat  the  Treasury  of  Atreus  at 
Mycenae  (No.  15). 

v.  Lake  Dwellings,  as  discovered  in  the  lakes  of  Switzer- 
land, Italy  and  Ireland  consisted  of  wooden  huts  supported  on 
piles,  and  were  so  placed  for  protection  against  hostile  attacks  of 
all  kinds. 

These  foregoing  primitive  or  prehistoric  remains  have  little 
constructive  sequence,  and  are  merely  mentioned  here  to  show 
from  what  simple  beginnings  the  noble  art  of  architecture  was 
evolved,  although  unfortunately  the  stages  of  the  evolution  cannot 
be  traced,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  oldest  existing  monuments  of 
any  pretension,  as  in  Egypt,  belong  to  a  high  state  of  civilization. 


REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Gamier  (C.)  and  Ammann  (A.). — "  L' Habitation  Humaine — Pre- 
historique  et  Historique."  4to.  Paris.  1892. 

Lineham  (R.  S.). — "  The  Street  of  Human  Habitations  :  An  Account 
of  Man's  Dwelling-places,  Customs,  etc.,  in  Prehistoric  Times,  and  in 
Ancient  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  India,  Japan,  etc."  8vo.,  cloth.  1894. 

Viollet-le-Duc  (E.  E.).— "The  Habitations  of  Man  in  all  Ages." 
Translated  from  the  French  by  B.  Bucknall.  8vo.  1876. 

Waring  (J.  B.). — "  Stone  Monuments,  Tumuli,  and  Ornament  of 
Remote  Ages,  with  Remarks  on  the  Early  Architecture  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland."  Folio.  1870. 


B  2 


PART    I.     / 

v 

THE    HISTORICAL   STYLES. 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

"  Deal  worthily  \vith  the  History  of  Architecture  and  it  is  worthy  to  take  its 
place  with  the  History  of  Law  and  of  Language." — FREEMAN. 

IN  introducing  this  Comparative  treatment  of  Historical  Archi- 
tecture, a  general  outline  sketch  is  given  of  the  course  which 
the  art  has  taken  up  to  the  present  time  in  Europe,  and  also  in 
those  countries,  such  as  Egypt  and  Assyria,  which  have  influenced 
that  development. 

Architecture  may  be  said  to  include  every  building  or  structure 
raised  by  human  hands,  and  is  here  denned  as  construction  with 
an  artistic  motive :  the  more  the  latter  is  developed,  the  greater 
being  the  value  of  the  result. 

The  first  habitations  of  man  were  undoubtedly  those  that 
nature  afforded,  such  as  caves  (No.  2  H)  or  grottoes,  which 
demanded  little  labour  on  his  part  to  convert  into  shelters  against 
the  fury  of  the  elements,  and  attacks  from  his  fellows  or  wild 
animals. 

As  soon  as  man  rose  above  the  state  of  rude  nature,  he 
naturally  began  to  build  more  commodious  habitations  for  him- 
self, and  some  form  of  temple  for  his  god.  Such  early  forms  are 
given  under  the  heading  of  Prehistoric  Architecture. 

To  pass,  however,  at  once  into  Historic  times,  there  prevailed 
in  Egypt  a  system  of  architecture  which  consisted  of  a  massive 
construction  of  walls  and  columns,  in  which  the  latter — closely 
spaced,  short,  and  massive — carried  lintels,  which  in  their  turn 
supported  the  flat  beamed  roof.  In  Babylonia,  the  develop- 
ment of  brick  construction  with  the  consequent  evolution  of 
the  arch  and  vault  was  due  to  the  absence  of  more  permanent 
building  materials.  The  influence  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
architecture  on  that  of  Greece  is  apparent  in  many  directions. 


GENERAL    INTRODUCTION    TO   THE    HISTORICAL   STYLES.      5 

Grecian  architecture  is  considered  by  many  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  the  wooden  hut  or  cabin  formed  of  posts  set  in  the 
earth,  and  covered  with  transverse  beams  and  rafters,  and  this 
was  the  type  which  was  developed  in  the  early  Mycenaean 
period  into  the  pyodomus  of  the  Greek  house.  This  timber  archi- 
tecture, copied  in  marble  or  stone,  was  naturally  at  first  very 
simple  and  rude  ;  the  influence  of  the  material,  however,  was  soon 
felt,  when  the  permanence  and  value  of  stone  aided  in  the  growth 
of  the  art.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  many  writers  hold 
that  Greek  architecture  is  developed  from  an  early  stone  type. 
As  civilization  and  technical  skill,  moreover,  advanced,  the 
qualities  of  refinement  in  detail  and  proportion  were  perceived, 
and  the  different  orders  of  architecture  —  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian  (No.  38) — came  into  existence.  By  the  word  "  order  " 
is  meant  certain  methods  of  proportioning  and  decorating  a 
column,  and  the  part  it  supports,  i.e.,  the  entablature.  The 
above  "orders"  are  characteristic  of  Greek  architecture,  and 
the  beauty  and  grace  with  which  they  were  treated,  and  the 
artistic  and  mathematical  skill  with  which  they  were  constructed, 
illustrate  the  keen  artistic  temperament  of  the  Greeks. 

Greece  eventually  succumbed  to  the  conquering  Romans  who, 
however,  adopted  their  architecture,  and  in  many  cases  employed 
Greek  artists  in  the  erection  of  their  buildings.  While  borrowing 
this  trabeated  architecture,  they  added  the  use  of  the  arch,  which 
they  had  probably  already  learnt  to  construct  from  the  Etruscans, 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Central  Italy. 

The  column  and  arch  were  used  conjointly  by  the  Romans  for 
some  time,  good  examples  being  the  Colosseum  at  Rome  (Nos.  62 
and  63),  and  the  Triumphal  Arches  (Nos.  65  and  66).  This 
dualism  is  a  very  important  fact  to  remember,  because,  as  will 
be  seen,  it  eventually  ended  in  the  exclusion  of  the  beam 
altogether,  and  in  the  employment  of  the  arch  alone,  throughout 
the  entire  constructive  system  of  the  building.  In  the  numerous 
buildings  which  the  Romans  erected,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
column  has.  in  the  generality  of  cases,  become  merely  a  decorative 
feature,  the  actual  work  of  support  being  performed  by  the  piers 
of  the  wall  behind,  connected  together  by  semicircular  arches. 

As  time  went  on,  however,  such  practical  people  as  the  Romans 
could  not  but  discard  a  feature  which  was  no  longer  utilitarian, 
so  the  column  as  a  decorative  feature  disappeared,  and  the 
arcuated  system  it  had  masked  was  exposed. 

Columns  were,  however,  used  constructively,  as  in  many 
of  the  great  basilicas,  in  which  the  semicircular  arches  spring 
directly  from  their  capitals.  As  the  Romans  conquered  the 
whole  of  the  then  known  world,  that  is  to  say,  most  of  what  is 
now  known  as  Europe  (No.  45),  so  this  feature  of  the  semicircular 
arch  was  introduced  in  every  part,  by  its  use  in  the  settlements 


6  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

which  they  founded.  Roman  architecture  was  prevalent  in 
Europe  in  a  more  or  less  debased  form  up  to  the  tenth  century  of 
our  era,  and  is  the  basis  on  which  European  architecture  is 
founded.  The  gradual  breaking  up  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
formation  of  separate  European  states,  and  other  causes  which 
we  shall  enumerate  separately,  led  to  many  variations  of  this 
semicircular  arched  style,  both  in  construction  and  decoration. 

The  transition  commenced. in  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth 
centuries,  when  the  later  Romanesque,  so  called  as  being  derived 
from  the  Roman  style,  was  in  vogue.  Constructive  necessity, 
aided  largely  by  inventive  genius,  led,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century,  to  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch. 

The  pointed  arch  is  the  keynote  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Gothic  or  pointed  style,  which  prevailed  throughout  Europe 
during  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries,  during 
which  period  were  erected  those  magnificent  cathedrals  and 
churches,  which  form  the  most  emphatic  record  of  the  religious 
feeling  and  character  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  past  styles  of  European  architecture  may  be  broadly 
summarized  as  being  divided  into  two  great  types,  viz. :  (i)  Classic, 
or  the  architecture  of  the  beam,  ancf  (2)  Gothic,  or  the  architecture 
of  the  arch.  Each  of  these  types  depends  on  an  important  con- 
structive principle,  and  any  style  may  be  placed  under  one  or 
other  of  these  types. 

The  early  styles,  including  the  Greek,  belong  to  the  former. 
Roman  architecture  is  a  composite  transition  style,  whose  goal, 
if  unchecked,  would  seem  to  have  been  the  combination  of  the 
round  arch  and  dome  that  are  seen  in  the  great  examples  of  the 
Byzantine  style.  It  was  left  to  the  Gothic  style  to  formulate  a 
complete  system  of  arcuated  construction,  the  working  out  of 
which  was  marvellously  alike  in  all  countries.  It  was  a  style, 
moreover,  in  which  a  decorative  system  was  closely  welded  to  the 
constructive,  both  uniting  to  reflect  a  more  intense  expression  of 
its  age  than  had,  perhaps,  hitherto  been  achieved  in  previous 
architecture. 

The  revival  of  the  arts  and  letters  in  the  fifteenth  century  was 
a  fresh  factor  in  the  history  of  architecture.  The  condition  of 
Europe  at  that  period  was  one  of  ripeness  for  a  great  change, 
for  the  Gothic  system,  whether  in  architecture  or  in  civilization 
regarded  as  a  whole,  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  culminated.  Its 
latest  works  were  tinged  by  the  coming  change,  or  showed 
signs  of  becoming  stereotyped  by  the  mechanical  repetition  of 
architectural  features. 

The  new  force  was  the  belief  that  the  old  Romans  had  been 
wiser  and  more  experienced  than  the  medievalists,  and  the 
result  was  the  earnest  study  of  every  Roman  fragment,  whether 
of  art  or  literature,  that  had  been  preserved  or  could  be  recovered. 


GENERAL    INTRODUCTION    TO    THE    HISTORICAL    STYLES.      7 

For  some  three  centuries  this  belief  held  good,  till  by  the  opening 
up  of  Greece  to  travel  and  study  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  tradition  was  modified  by  the  admission 
of  Grecian  remains  to  an  equal  or  supreme  place,  beside  or  even 
above  those  of  Rome. 

This  second  phase  had  not,  however,  an  equal  success  for 
divers  reasons ;  a  reaction  was  at'  hand  in  favour  of  mediaeval 
ideals,  whether  in  the  church,  art,  or  the  State. 

A  conscious  effort  was  then  made — the  most  earnestly  in 
England — to  modify  the  current  that  had  been  flowing  since  the 
year  1500,  and  some  of  the  results  of  this  attempt  may  be  traced 
by  the  student  wise  enough  to  follow  up  the  clues  indicated  in  the 
concluding  pages  of  the  English  Renaissance  style.  In  acquaint- 
ing himself  with  the  buildings  therein  mentioned,  he  may  feel 
that  few  of  the  diverse  elements  of  our  complex  civilization,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  have  failed  to  find  some 
architectural  expression. 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


GENERAL    REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

N.B. — Lists  of  Reference  Books  for  special  periods  and  styles  are  given 
throughout  the  book. 

"Architectural  Association  Sketch  Book."     Folio.     1867-1904. 

Bosc  (E.). — "  Dictionnaire  raisonne  d'Archi lecture."  4  vols.,  4to.  Paris, 
1877-1880. 

Brault  (E.). — "  Les  Architects  par  leurs  ceuvres."7  3  vols.  Paris,  1892- 
1893. 

Choisy  (A.).— "  Histoire  de  1'Architecture."     2  vols,  8vo.     Paris,  1899. 

Cummings  (C.  A.). — "A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy  from  the  Time 
of  Constantine  to  the  Dawn  of  the  Renaissance."  2  vols.,  8vo.  1901. 

D'Agincourt  (S.).- — -"History  of  Art  by  its  Monuments."  Translated 
from  the  Italian  by  Owen  Jones.  Folio.  1847. 

Dehio  (G.)  and  Bezold  (G.  v.).— "Die  Kirchliche  Baukunst  des 
Abendlandes."  Folio.  Stuttgart,  1884,  etc. 

"  Dictionary  of  Architecture,  issued  by  the  Architectural  Publication 
Society."  With  Detached  Essays  and  Illustrations.  6  vols., folio.  1848-1892. 

Durand  (J.  N.  L.).— "  Parallele  des  Edifices  de  tout  genre."    Paris,  1800. 

Eulart  (C.). — "  Manuel  d'Archeologie  Fran9aise  depuis  les  temps 
Merovingiens  jusqu'a  la  Renaissance."  i.  Architecture  Religieux. 
2.  Architecture  Civile.  2  vols.,  Svo.  Paris,  1902. 

Fergusson  (J.). — "  History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries."  5  vols., 
Svo.  1893,  etc. 

Fletcher  (B.  F.).— "  The  Influence  of  Material  on  Architecture." 
Imperial  Svo.  1897. 

Gailhabaud  (J.).— L' Architecture  du  V.  au  XVII.  siecle."  5  vols.,  folio 
and  410.  Paris,  1869-1872. 

Gailhabaud  (J.). — "Monuments  Anciens  et  Modernes."  410.  Paris. 
1850. 

Gwilt  (J.). — "Encyclopaedia  of  Architecture."     Svo.     1900. 

"  Handbuch  der  Architektur."  Comprising  a  number  of  volumes  upon 
the  History  and  Practice  of  Architecture.  Darmstadt. 

Milizia  (F.).—  "  Lives  of  Celebrated  Architects."    2  vols.,  Svo.     1826. 

Parker  (J.). — "  Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Architecture."     3  vols.  1850. 

Perrot  (G.)  and  Chipiez  (C.).— "  History  of  Ancient  Art."  12  vols., 
Svo.  1883-1894. 

Planat. — "  Encyclopedic  d'Architecture  et  de  la  Construction."    1 1  vols. 

"  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects'  Transactions.'3     1853  ct  scq. 

Sturgis. — "A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building."  3  vols., 
4to.  New  York,  1901. 

Vasari  (G.).— "  Lives  of  the  most  Eminent  Painters,  Sculptors  and 
Architects."  Edited  by  Blashfield.  4  vols.,  Svo.  1897. 

Viollet-le-Duc  (E.  C.). — "  Dictionnaire  de  1'Architecture."  10  vols.,  Svo. 
Paris,  1859. 

Viollet-le-Duc. — "  Entretiens  sur  1'Architecture."  3  vols.  Paris,  1863. 
There  is  an  English  translation  by  B.  Bucknall,  entitled  "  Lectures  on 
Architecture."  2  vols.,  Svo.  1877-1881. 

Vitruvius  (Marcus  Pollio). — "The  Architecture  of."  Translated  by 
W- Newton.  Folio,  1791.  An  edition  by  J.  Gwilt.  410.  i3?6. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

"  Those  works  where  man  has  rivalled  nature  most, 
Those  Pyramids,  that  fear  no  more  decay 
Than  waves  inflict  upon  the  rockiest  coast, 
Or  winds  on  mountain  steeps,  and  like  endurance  boast." 

i.    INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — -The  civilization  of  every  country  has 
been,  as  will  be  shown,  largely  determined  by  its  geographical 
conditions,  for  the  characteristic  features  of  the  land  in  which  any 
race  dwells  shape  their  mode  of  life  and  thus  influence  their 
intellectual  culture. 

On  referring  to  the  map  (No.  3)  it  will  be  seen  that  Egypt  consists 
of  a  sandy  desert  with  a  strip  of  fertile  country  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile.  Egypt  was  the  only  nation  of  the  ancient  world  which 
had  at  once  easy  access  to  the  Northern,  or  Mediterranean  Sea, 
as  well  as  to  the  Eastern,  or  Arabian  Sea  ;  for  by  way  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Egypt  always  commanded  an  access  to  both  these  highways. 
The  consequence  was  that  Egypt  had  outlets  for  her  own  pro- 
ductions and  inlets  for  those  of  foreign  nations.  The  possession 
pf  the  Nile,  moreover,  was  of  immense  advantage,  not  only  on 


IO  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

account  of  its  value  as  a  trade  route,  and  as  a  means  of  communi- 
cation, but  also  because  its  waters  were  the  fertilizing  agents 
that  made  desert  sands  into  fruitful  fields.  It  was  on  the  banks 
of  this  ancient  river  that  from  time  immemorial  the  cities  of  the 
Egyptians  were  naturally  placed  ;  here,  therefore,  are  found  the 
chief  remains  of  the  Tombs,  Temples,  and  Pyramids. 

ii.  Geological. — In  this  section  throughout  the  volume  an 
endeavour  will  be  made  to  trace  that  influence  on  architectural 
style  which  the  materials  at  hand  in  each/country  had  in  its 
development.  The  natural  products  of  /a  country  such  as 
wood,  brick,  or  stone,  determine  to  a  large  extent  its  style  of 
art. 

In  Egypt  there  existed  an  abundance  of  limestone  in  the  north,! 
of  sandstone  in  the  central  region,  and  of  granite  in  the  south.  I 
The  latter  is  principally  found  near  Assuan  (Syene),  and  is 
called  Syenite.  This  hard  and  lasting  building  material  largely 
influenced  the  architecture  of  the  country,  and  to  its  durable 
qualities  is  due  the  fact  that  there  are  so  many  remains.  Bricks 
were  also  employed,  but  were  generally  faced  with  some  harder 
material.  Wood  of  a  kind  suitable  for  building  was  not  available,/ 
only  small  forests  of  palm  and  acacia  existing.  J 

iii.  Climate. — The  climate  is  equable  and  of  warm  temperature, 
snow  and  frost  being  wholly  unknown,  while  storm,  fog,  and  even 
rain  are  rare,  which  accounts  to  a  large  extent  for  the  good 
preservation  of  the  temples.  Egypt  has  been  said  to  have  but 
two  seasons,  spring  and  summer.  The  climate  was  thus  of 
importance  in  developing  the  qualities  of  the  architecture,  admit- 
ting of  simplicity  in  construction,  for  though  it  demanded  some  I 
protection  against  heat  there  was  no  necessity  to  provide  against 
inclement  weather. 

iv.  Religion. — A  close_^ojonectioji_h.etween  religion  and  archi- 
tecture is  everywhere  manifest  at  this  epoch.  The  priesthood 
was  powerful,  possessed  of  almost  unlimited  authority,  and 
equipped  with  all  the  learning  of  the  age.  The  religious  rites 
were  traditional,  unchangeable,  and  mysterious.  A  tinge  of 
mystery  is  one  of  the  great  characteristics  of  the  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture as  well  in  its  tombs  as  in  its  temples.  The  Egyptians 
attained  to  a  very  high  degree  of  learning  in  astronomy,  mathe- 
matics, and  philosophy  ;  the  remains  of  their  literature  have  been 
preserved  to  us  in  the  papyri,  or  MSS.  written  on  paper  made 
from  the  pith  of  the  papyrus.  In  theory  the  religion  was  mono- 
theistic, but  in  practice  it  became  polytheistic ;  a  multiplicity  of 
gods  was  created  by  personifying  natural  phenomena,  such  as 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  as  well  as  the  brute  creation.  The 
Egyptians  were  strong  believers  in  a  future  state ;  hence  their 
care  in  the  preservation  of  their  dead,  and  the  erection  of  such 
everlasting  monuments  as  the  Pyramids.  Herodotus  mentions 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  II 

that  the  dwelling-house  was  looked  upon  by  them  as  a   mere 
temporary  lodging,  the  tomb  being  the  permanent  abode. 

"What  availeth  thee  thy  other  buildings? 
Of  thy  tomb  alone  thou  art  sure. 
On  the  earth  thou  hast  nought  beside  ; 
Nought  of  thee  else  is  remaining." 

v.  Social  and  Political. — A  vast  population  was  available 
for  employment  on  public  works,  the  workmen  probably  receiving 
no  other  pay  than  their  food.  Thus  a  state  of  cheap  labour  existed 
which  was  eminently  favourable  to  the  execution  of  large  and 
important  structures.  In  addition  there  existed  a  centralized 
despotic  government  which,  perhaps  more  than  any  other, 
favoured  the  execution  of  monumental  works. .  It  is  assumed  by 
some  that  the  spare  time  which  occurs  during  the  annual  floods 
enabled  the  population  to  be  employed  on  these  state  buildings. 
It  is  also  possible  that  the  transport  of  stone  required  for  the 
great  buildings  was  effected  by  means  of  rafts  floated  down  at 
this  season.  During  the  reign  of  Rameses  II.  the  captives  and 
foreigners,  who  had  largely  increased,  ,were  put  to  enforced 
labour  upon  the  public  works,  and  in  the  first  chapter  of  the 
book  of  Exodus  the  natives  are  said  to  have  viewed  with  alarm  the 
growing  numbers  and  power  of  these  strangers. 

vi.  Historical. — Egyptian  civilization  is  the  most  ancient  of 
any  of  which  there  is  a  clear  knowledge ;  its  history  is  partly 
derived  from  Holy  Scripture  and  from  Greek  and  Roman  authors, 
but  more  particularly  from  the  Egyptian  buildings,  by  which  it  can 
be  traced  back  for  more  than  4,000  years  B.C.  The  Pyramids  are 
thought  to  be  a  thousand  years  older  than  any  building  which  has 
yet  been  discovered  in  Western  Asia,  the  subject  of  the  next 
division.  The  Kings  or  Pharaohs  (from  the  title  "  Peraa  "  = 
"great  house  ")  have  been  arranged  in  thirty  dynasties,  extending 
down  to  B.C.  332.  These  have  been  based  on  the  list  of  Manetho, 
an  Egyptian  priest  who  lived  about  B.C.  300,  and  compiled  a 
history  of  Egypt  in  the  Greek  language,  and  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  periods : — 

1.  Prehistoric  Period,  B.C.  23000  (?)-4777- 

2.  The    Ancient    Empire    (Dynasties    I.-X.),    B.C.     4777-2821. 

The  capital  being  at  Memphis,  the  tombs  of  this  period 
are  at  Abydos,  Nakadeh,  Memphis,  Sakkara,  Gizeh  and 
Abusir. 

3.  The  Middle  Empire  (Dynasties   XI. -XVI.),  B.C.  2821-1738. 

A  prosperous  period  in  which  much  building  was  carried 
out.  This  period  includes  the  dynasties  of  the  "  Hyskos" 
or  shepherd  kings. 

4.  The   New   Empire    (Dynasties    XVII.-XX.),   B.C.    1738-950. 

This  period  had  Thebes  as  the  capital,  and  many  imposing 
buildings  were  erected  at  Karnac,  Luxor,  and  elsewhere. 


12  'COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

5.  Penod    of    Foreign    Domination     (Dynasties     XXI. -XXV.), 

B.C.  950-663. 

6.  The  Late  Egyptian  Period  (Dynasties  XXVL--XXX.),  B.C.  663- 

332.     This  period  includes  the  Persian  Domination. 

7.  The  Grace-Roman  Period,  B.C.  332-A.D.  640: 

i.  Alexander  the  Great  and  Ptolemaic  Period,  B.C.  332-30. 
ii.  The  Roman  Period,  B.C.  3O-A.D.  395. 
iii.  The  Byzantine  Period,  A.D.   395-640. 

8.  Medieval  Egypt  (Mahometan  Period),  A.D.  640-1517. 

9.  Modem  Egypt  (Turkish  Domination),  A^.  1517  to  the  present 

time. 

This  section  of  the  book  deals  with  the  architecture  comprised 
in  Periods  1-7.  For  periods  8  and  9  see  pages  653,  659. 
r  The  nineteenth  dynasty,  founded  by  Rameses  I.  (B.C.  1400-1366), 
pay  be  taken  as  the  most  brilliant  epoch  of  Egyptian  aft.  Thie 
evidence  of  his  greatness,  and  that  of  his  grandson,  Rameses  II. 
(B.C.  1333-1300),  as  builders,  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Temples  of 
Thebes  and  elsewhere.  During  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  the 
country  was  conquered  by  the  Persians  in  B.C.  527,  from  whom  it 
was  wrested  in  B.C.  332  by  the  Grecian  general,  Alexander  the  Great. 
On  Alexander's  death  and  the  division  of  his  empire,  Egypt 
passed  to  Ptolemy,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  who  founded  a 
dynasty  that  ruled  from  B.C.  323  to  B.C.  31.  After  the  wars  which 
ended  in  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  Egypt  passed,  as  did  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  then  known  world,  into  the  hands  of  the  conquering 
Romans,  and  became  a  Roman  province.  On  the  spread  of 
Mahometanism,  in  A.D.  638,  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  who 
left  important  monuments  (see  Saracenic  Architecture,  page  659). 
In  A.D.  1517  it  became  a  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions. 

2.   ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  land  which  is  the  gift  of  a  great 
river,  and  the  seat  of  the  most  ancient  civilization,  a  primitive 
architecture  of  mud  or  puddled  clay  and  bundles  of  reeds  changed 
in  later  times  to  a  style  of  stone  and  granite. 

The  primitive  structure  was  composed  of  bundles  of  reeds 
bound  together  and  placed  vertically  in  the  ground  at  intervals, 
the  angle  bundles  being  of  greater  strength.  Joining  these  reeds, 
at  the  top,  were  laid  horizontally  other  bundles,  which  bound  the 
heads  of  the  uprights  together.  The  origin  of  the  characteristic 
cornice  (No.  10  j),  is  held  to  be  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  clay,  of 
which  the  primitive  roofs  were  constructed,  on  the  upright  reeds, 
which  formed  the  framework  of  the  walls.  This  formed  the 
slightly  projecting  cornice,  the  reeds  keeping  the  rammed  clay  in 
a  projecting  position  and  allowing  the  curve  to  be  terminated  by 
a  flat  fillet  which  gave  the  level  of  the  terrace.  The  jambs  and 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.     •  13 

lintels  of  the  doors  and  windows  were  made  of  reeds  in  the 
humbler  dwellings  and  of  palm  trunks  in  those  of  more  pretension. 

Here,  then,  is  seen  a  fair  and  likely  prototype  of  the  construc- 
tion of  an  Egyptian  wall,  the  form  of  which  is  more  suitable 
to  a  structure  of  rushes  overlaid  with  mud  or  puddled  clay 
than  to  one  consisting  of  large  stones.  Still,  an  important  point 
remains — the  batter  or  slope  which  is  invariably  given  to  the 
walls.  Viollet-le-Duc's  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  this  batter 
do  not  point  to  the  influence  of  material,  and  this  feature  is 
alleged  by  him  to  have  been  introduced  at  a  later  stage,  having 
been  promulgated  by  a  royal  decree.  He  infers  the  custom 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Pyramids,  which  were  found  to 
remain  undisturbed  during  earthquakes,  while  straight-sided 
houses  were  upset,  owing  to  their  walls  being  more  easily  over- 
turned. It  seems,  however,  more  reasonable  to  attribute  it  to 
a  mud  origin,  for  nothing  would  be  more  natural,  in  order  to 
strengthen  such  buildings,  than  to  slightly  tilt  the  bundles  of 
reeds  towards  the  interior,  forming  as  it  were  an  arch,  a  treatment 
which  in  any  other  material  scarcely  seems  to  be  feasible. 

Proceeding  to  the  internal  architectural  features  of  the  style,  a 
very  distinct  reminiscence  of  the  primitive  reeds  tied  together  at 
intervals,  and  crowned  with  the  lotus  bud,  is  found  in  the  later 
granite  column  and  capital  (No.  10  L,  M).  During  the  Theban 
kingdom  especially  (B.C.  3000-3. c.  2100),  examples  in  stone  of 
capitals  and  columns  derived  from  timber  and  reed  originals  are 
frequent.  At  Beni- Hasan  some  pillars  represent  a  bundle  of  four 
reeds  or  lotus  stalks  bound  together  near  the  top  and  bulging 
above  the  ligature,  so  as  to  form  a  capital,  in  imitation  of  a  lotus 
bud.  Such  a  pier  must  evidently  have  been  originally  employed 
in  wooden  architecture  only,  and  the  roof  which  it  supports,  in 
this  instance,  represents  a  light  wooden  construction  having  the 
slight  slope  necessary  in  the  dry  Egyptian  climate. 

This  type  of  column  was  largely  used  in  later  Egyptian  times 
in  a  more  substantial  lithic  form  (No.  10  M),  and  in  conjunction 
with  the  hollow-formed  capital  of  the  bell  type  (No.  10  L),  of 
which  the  earliest  example  appeared  in  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 

In  fact,  throughout,  although  materials  changed,  the  forms  of 
the  early  reed  and  clay  construction  were  adhered  to  ;  and  the 
endeavour  of  the  conservative  Egyptian  was  to  reproduce  in  stone 
and  granite,  superimposed  in  layers,  the  appearance  assumed  in 
the  early  reed  and  mud  type. 

The  surface  decoration  executed  on  the  later  granite  buildings 
(No.  10  p),  apparently  came  from  the  "  sgraffito"  (incised  plaster) 
work  on  the  earlier  mud  walls.  The  surfaces  of  such  walls  could  not 
be  modelled  or  carved  with  projections  of  high  relief,  but  their  flat 
surfaces,  when  plastered,  provided  an  admirable  field  for  decora- 
tion and  for  instruction  through  the  use  of  hieroglyphics.  The 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  15 

Egyptian  system  of  decoration  consisted  in  not  contravening  the 
form  adopted,  but  in  clothing  it  with  a  kind  of  drapery  more  or 
less  rich,  which  never  presented  a  projecting  outline,  contenting 
itself  with  enveloping  the  geometric  form  as  would  an  embroidered 
stuff,  or  a  diapered  covering. 

Remarkable  then  as  were  the  arts  of  Egypt,  it  is  clear  that  the 
spirit  of  criticism  and  logical  method  were  wanting ;  and  that 
traditional  forms,  hallowed  by  long  use,  were  clung  to  and  repro- 
duced when  the  method  of  building  which  suggested  them  had  been 
replaced  by  other  systems.  Egyptian  art  proceeded  on  an  unin- 
terrupted line  or  course  of  tradition,  and  when  necessity  dictated 
a  change  in  the  methods  of  construction,  or  in  the  materials,  the 
immutable  form  was  not  thereby  affected,  but  was  perpetuated  in 
spite  of  novel  conditions. 

The  principal  remains  of  ancient  Egyptian  architecture  are  the 
Pyramids,  or  royal  tombs  of  the  kings,  and  the  temples,  a 
contrast  in  this  respect  with  Assyria,  where  the  palaces  of 
the  kings  are  the  chief  remains.  The  Egyptian  wali-paintings, 
sculptures,  jewellery,  bronze  implements  and  utensils,  which  have 
been  unearthed  from  their  temples  or  tombs,  show  that  the  race 
had  attained  to  a  high  degree  in  art.  As  regards  the  architec- 
ture, the  impression  given  to  the  mind  of  the  spectator  is  that 
these  buildings  were  erected  for  eternity,  all  the  remains  having 
a  character  of  immense  solidity,  and  usually  of  grand  uniformity. 

The  Pyramids  (Nos.  4  and  5)  are  the  most  extravagant  of 
all  ancient  buildings  in  many  ways.  The  relative  return  in 
impressiveness  and  the  higher  beauties  of  the  art  is  small  when 
compared  with  the  amount  of  labour,  expense,  and  material  used 
in  their  erection. 

The  finishing  and  fitting  of  such  large  masses  of  granite  is 
remarkable,  for  many  of  the  blocks,  perfectly  squared,  polished 
and  fitted,  are  at  least  20  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide.  The  method 
of  quarrying  and  of  transportation  for  long  distances  by  land  and 
water,  and  the  raising  of  these  blocks  of  stone  into  position,  is 
even  now  uncertain,  although  M.  Choisy  in  his  latest  work  (see 
Reference  Books,  page  30)  has  produced  many  probable  theories. 

The  Architectural  Character  of  the  temples  is  striking  and 
characteristic  (Nos.  5,  7  and  8).  The  buildings  decrease  in  height 
from  front  to  back,  presenting  a  disconnected  collection  of  various 
sized  structures,  often  built  at  different  times,  and  thus  forming  a 
direct  contrast  to  the  harmonious  whole  of  a  Greek  temple,  which 
is  all  comprised  within  one  "order"  of  columns,  and  which  is 
distinctly,  both  in  appearance  and  reality,  one  building. 

The  character  of  the  tombs  consists  in  the  planning  of  their 
mysterious  chambers  and  corridors,  which,  covered  with  paintings 
and  hieroglyphics,  produce  an  effect  of  gloom  and  solemnity  on 
the  spectator. 


EGYPTIAN    EXAMPLES. 


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EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  17 

3.    EXAMPLES. 
THE     SPHINX 

(No.  4),  whose  date  is  unknown,  is  situated  near  the  great 
pyramids,  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  stone  quarry,  and  is  a 
natural  rock  cut  to  resemble  a  Sphinx,  with  rough  masonry  added 
in  parts.  An  Egyptian  Sphinx  (No.  10  o)  had  the  head  of  a  king, 
a  hawk,  a  ram,  or  more  rarely  a  woman,  on  the  body  of  a  lion. 
The  dimensions  of  the  Great  Sphinx,  which  represents  a  recum- 
bent lion  with  the  head  of  a  man,  are  as  follows  :  it  is  65  feet 
high  by  188  feet  long,  the  face  is  13  feet  6  inches  wide,  and 
the  mouth  8  feet  6  inches  long.  Greatly  mutilated,  it  is  still  a 
marvel,  as  it  has  been  throughout  the  ages.  The  symbol  for  an 
insoluble  problem,  it  is,  and  probably  ever  will  be,  a  mystery. 
It  was  excavated  in  1816  by  Captain  Caviglia,  who  found  a 
temple  between  the  paws,  and  it  has  since  been  examined  by 
Mariette  and  Maspero. 

THE    PYRAMIDS 

of  Gizeh,  near  Cairo,  all  erected  during  the  fourth  dynasty 
(B.C.  3998-B.c.  3721),  form  one  of  several  groups  within  the 
necropolis  of  the  ancient  capital  city  of  Memphis,  and  rank 
among  the  oldest  monuments  of  Egyptian  architecture.  The 
other  groups  are  those  of  Abu-Roash,  Zawiyet-el- Aryan,  Abusir, 
Sakkara,  and  Dashur. 

These  were  built  by  the  kings  as  their  future  tombs,  the 
governing  idea  being  to  secure  immortality  by  the  preservation 
of  the  mummy,  till  that  time  should  have  passed,  when,  according 
to  their  belief,  the  soul  would  once  more  return  to  the  body. 
Their  construction  has  been  described  by  many  writers,  including 
Herodotus. 

The  Great  Pyramid  (Nos.  4  and  5  c,  D),  by  Cheops  (Khufu) 
(B.C.  3733-B.c.  3700) ;  the  Second  Pyramid  (No.  4),  by 
Cephron  (Khafra)  (B.C.  3666-6. c.  3633)  ;  the  Third  Pyramid 
by  Mycerinos  (Menkhara)  (B.C.  3633-6. c.  3600),  are  the  best 
known  examples. 

The  Great  Pyramid  of  Cheops  is  square  on  plan,  760  feet 
each  way,  its  area  being  about  13  acres,  i.e.,  twice  the  extent 
of  S.  Peter,  Rome,  or  equal  to  the  size  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields, 
London.  The  faces  of  the  pyramid  are  equilateral  triangles  laid 
sloping  and  meeting  in  a  point.  The  sides  face  directly  north, 
south,  east  and  west,  as  in  all  the  pyramids,  and  they  make  an 
angle  with  the  ground  of  51  degrees  50  minutes.  The  original  height 
was  482  feet.  The  entrance  (No.  5  c),  which  is  on  the  northern 
side,  is  47  feet  6  inches  above  the  base,  and  is  now  reached  by 
means  of  an  earthen  embankment.  The  passage  to  which  it 

F.A.  c 


l8  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

gives  access  first  slopes  downwards,  and  afterwards  re-ascends 
towards  the  heart  of  the  pyramid,  where  the  King's  Chamber  is 
situated.  In  this  chamber,  which  is  34  feet  6  inches  by  17  feet 
and  19  feet  high,  was  placed  the  sarcophagus  of  the  king  contain- 
ing his  embalmed  body.  The  upper  part  is  elaborately  con- 
structed with  stones  one  above  the  other  (No.  5  D),  and  the 
entrance  is  protected  by  a  massive  stone  acting  as  a  portcullis, 
fitting  into  a  rebate  or  recess,  and  weighing  from  50  to  60  tons. 
Two  air  channels,  each  about  8  inches  by  6  inches,  led  to  the  ~? 
outer  face  of  the  pyramid  for  ventilation. 

There  were  two  other  chambers  in  the  Great  Pyramid,  one  known 
as  the  Queen's  Chamber,  connected  with  a  passage  leading  off  that 
to  the  King's  Chamber,  and  the  other  below  the  ground. 

The  exterior  of  this  pyramid  was  originally  cased  with  a 
sloping  face  of  limestone,  but  this  has  now  disappeared, 'showing 
the  original  stepped  surface  in  tiers  of  4  feet,  on  which  the  casing 
was  placed,  and  which  still  exists  in  the  Pyramid  of  Mycerinos. 

TOMBS. 

Besides  the  Pyramids  or  royal  tombs  are  others  for  private 
individuals. 

(a.)  In  the  Ancient  Empire  the  Mastabas,  probably  derived 
from  rude  heaps  of  stones  piled  up  over  earlier  mummy  holes, 
were  rectangular  structures,  with  sides  sloping  at  an  angle  of 
75  degrees,  and  having  flat  roofs.  They  were  divided  into  three 
parts  : — 

i.  The  outer  chamber,  in  which  were  placed  the  offerings  to 

the  "  Ka  "  or  "  double,"  having  its  walls  decorated  with 

representations  of  festal  and  other  scenes,   which  are 

valuable  from  an  historical  standpoint. 

ii.  Inner  secret  chambers,  known  as  the  "  serdabs,"  containing 

statues  of  the  deceased,  and  members  of  his  family. 
iii.  A  well  of  great  depth,  leading  to  the  chamber  containing 

the  sarcophagus  with  its  mummy. 

The  Mastaba  of  Thy,  Sakkara,  is  well  preserved  and  has 
been  restored.  It  dates  from  the  fifth  dynasty,  and  was  erected 
to  Thy,  who  in  his  day  held  the  position  of  royal  architect  and 
manager  of  pyramids.  It  consists  of  a  small  vestibule,  beyond 
which  is  a  large  court  where  offerings  to  the  deceased  took  place, 
and  from  which  a  mummy  shaft  led  through  a  passage  to  a  tomb 
chamber.  The  masonry  of  this  tomb  is  carefully  jointed  and 
covered  with  flat  reliefs,  which  are  generally  considered  the  best 
specimens  of  their  kind.  The  principal  reliefs  are  in  a  second 
tomb  chamber,  22  feet  9  inches  by  23  feet  9  inches  and  12  feet 
6  inches  high.  These  reliefs  represent  harvest  operations,  ship- 
building scenes,  scenes  representing  the  arts  and  crafts  of  the 


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20  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

period,  the  slaughtering  of  sacrificial  animals,  and  Thy  himself 
sailing  through  the  marshes  in  a  boat  with  a  surrounding  papyrus 
thicket. 

(b.)  In  the  Middle  Empire  tombs  \vere  either  of  the  Pyramidal 
form,  as  at  Abydos,  or  were  rock-cut,  as  in  the  vertical  cliffs 
bounding  the  Nile  valley  (No.  6). 

The  Tombs  at  Beni-Hasan,in  Upper  Egypt,  form  a  remark- 
able group  of  these  rock-cut  examples.  There  are  39  in  all, 
arranged  in  a  row  in  the  rocks  as  shown  (No.  6).  They  were 
made  during  the  twelfth  dynasty  (B.C.  2778-^565),  a  period  which 
was  particularly  remarkable  for  the  progress  of  the  arts  of  peace. 
The  entrance  to  the  Tomb  of  Khnemhotep,  known  as  Tomb  No.  3, 
has  two  sixteen-sided  columns,  sometimes  considered  to  be  a 
prototype  of  the  Greek  Doric  order.  These  are  slightly  fluted 
and  have  an  entasis,  and  the  deeply  projecting  cornice  has  stone 
beams  carved  out  of  the  solid  rock,  indicating  a  derivation  from  a 
wooden  origin. 

(c.)  During  the  New  Empire.tombs  were  rock-cut  and  structural, 
and  in  many  cases  accompanied  by  sepulchral  temples. 

Thebes,  which  for  a  time  was  the  necropolis  of  the  Egyptian 
kings,  has  a  large  number  of  tombs  dating  mostly  from  the  New 
Empire,  and  forming  a  contrast  to  the  pyramids  which  formed 
the  graves  of  the  earlier  kings.  These  tombs  consist  of  a  series 
of  chambers  connected  with  passages  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  were 
intended  only  for  the  reception  of  the  sarcophagi.  Amongst  the 
most  important  of  these  are  those  of  Rameses  III.,  IV.,  and  IX., 
and  that  of  Sethos  L,  usually  known  as  Belzoni's  tomb  from  its 
discoverer  in  1817.  The  structure  of  all  is  very  similar,  consist- 
ing of  three  corridors  cut  in  the  rock  leading  into  an  ante-room, 
beyond  which  is  the  sepulchral  chamber,  where  the  granite 
sarcophagus  was  placed  in  a  hollow  in  the  floor.  The  walls, 
from  the  entrance  to  the  sarcophagus  chamber,  were  sculptured 
with  hieroglyphics  of  pictures  and  texts  necessary  to  the  deceased 
in  the  future  life,  and  mostly  representing  him  sailing  through  the 
under-world  accompanied  by  the  sun  god.  The  texts  were  mostly 
taken  from  various  books  relating  to  the  ceremonies  which  were 
essential  for  insuring  the  immortality  of  the  departed. 

The  mortuary  or  sepulchral  temples,  such  as  those  of  Der-el- 
bahri,  Medinet-Habou,  the  Ramesseum,  and  others,  were  utilized 
for  offerings  and  other  funereal  rights  for  the  dead. 

TEMPLES. 

The  purposes  for  which  they  were  used  and  their  component 
parts  are  important.  They  were  sanctuaries  where  only  the  king 
and  priests  penetrated,  and  in  which  mysteries  and  processions 
formed  a  great  part  of  the  religious  services.  They  differ, 


22  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

therefore,  from  the  Greek  temple,  the  Christian  church,  and  the 
Mahometan  mosque,  for  they  were  not  places  for  the  meeting  of 
the  faithful  or  the  recital  of  common  prayers,  and  no  public  ritual 
was  celebrated  within  them.  The  priests  and  king  only  were 
admitted  beyond  the  hypostyle  hall,  and  the  temple,  therefore, 
was  a  kind  of  royal  oratory  reared  by  the  king  in  token  of  his  own 
piety  and  in  order  to  purchase  the  favour  of  the  gods. 

The  student  is  referred  to  Lockyer's  theories  as  to  the  orienta- 
tion of  temples  with  regard  to  the  particular  stars. 

The  "  mammeisi "  were  temples  (dedicated  to  the  mysterious 
accouchement  of  I  sis)  each  consisting  of  one  small  chamber  with 
statue  and  altar  as  at  Elephantine,  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
In  this  form  they  are  generally  considered  to  be  the  prototypes  of 
the  Greek  temples.  The  more  usual  type  of  temple,  However, 
consisted  of  chambers  for  the  priests,  with  courts,  colonnades, 
and  halls,  all  surrounded  by  a  high  wall. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  understand  the  general  distribu- 
tion of  the  parts  of  an  Egyptian  temple,  a  plan  is  here  given  of 
the  Temple  of  Khons,  near  the  Great  Temple  of  Ammon,  at 
Karnac  (No.  5),  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  which  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  example  of  the  ordinary  type  of  plan. 

The  entrance  to  the  temple  was  between  "pylons,"  or  massive  / 
sloping  towers,  on  each  side  of  the  central  gateway  (No.  7).     In  ( 
front   of  the   entrance   were    placed   obelisks,    and   in    front    of   , 
these  an   avenue  of  sphinxes,  forming  a  splendid  approach    to    ' 
the  temple.     This  entrance  gave  access  to  the  large  outer  court- 
yard, which   was  open  to  the  sky  in  the  centre,  and  therefore  I 
called  "hypaethral"   (from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  "under 
the  air  ").    This  courtyard  was  surrounded  by  a  double  colonnade 
on  three  sides,  and  led  up  to  the  hypostyle  hall,  in  which  light 
was  admitted   by  means  of   a  clerestory  above,  formed  by  the 
different  height  of  the  columns  (No.   5  B).     Beyond  this  is  the 
sanctuary,  surrounded  by  a  passage,  and  at  the  rear  is  a  smaller 
hall ;    both    the    last   chambers   must    have   been    dark   or    only 
imperfectly  lighted. 

The  whole  collection  of  buildings  forming  the  temple  was 
surrounded  by  a  great  wall  as  high  as  the  buildings  themselves. 

Thebes,  the  site  of  w'hich  occupied  a  large  area  on  the  east 
and  west  banks  of  the  Nile,  was  the  capital  of  Egypt  during  the 
New  Empire  (Dynasties  XVII. -XX.).  The  eastern  bank  had  an 
important  group  of  Temples  at  Karnac,  including  the  Great 
Temple  of  Ammon,  and  the  Temple  of  Khons  (twentieth  dynasty). 
At  Luxor,  also  on  the  eastern  bank,  was  another  Temple  of 
Ammon  (eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties).  On  the  western 
bank  lay  the  Necropolis  or  Tombs  of  the  Kings  and  Queens,  and 
a  large  number  of  mortuary  temples,  which  included  those  of 
Der-el-bahri,  the  Ramesseum,  and  Medinet  Habou. 


CO 


24  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Great  Temple  of  Ammon,  Karnac,  is  the  grandest,  \ 
extending  over  an  area  of  1,200  feet  by  360  feet,  and  originally  \ 
was  connected  with  the  Temple  of  Luxor  by  an  avenue  of 
sphinxes.  It  was  not  built  on  an  original  plan,  but  owes  its  size, 
disposition  and  magnificence  to  the  additions  of  many  later  kings, 
from  the  first  monarchs  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  down  to  the 
Ptolemaic  period.  It  has  six  pylons  added  in  successive  genera- 
tions, a  great  court  measuring  338  feet  by  275  feet,  the  great 
hypostyle  hall,  and  other  halls,  courts  and/  a  sanctuary.  The 
Hypostyle  hall  measures  338  feet  by  170 /feet,  covering  about 
the  same  area  as  Notre  Dame,  Paris.  The  roof  is  supported  by 
134  columns  in  sixteen  rows.  The  central  avenues  are  about 
80  feet  in  height  as  compared  with  140  feet  at  Amiens  Cathedral, 
and  have  columns  69  feet  high  and  nf  feet  in  diameter,  the 
capitals  of  which  are  of  the  lotus  blossom  type  (No.  10  L)  so  as 
to  receive  the  light  from  the"  clerestory.  The  side  avenues  are 
about  46  feet  high  and  have  columns  42  feet  6  inches  in  height 
and  9  feet  in  diameter,  the  Capitals  being  of  the  lojus  t>u.<J  type, 
on  which  the  clerestory  light  would  fall.  The  impression  pro- 
duced on  the  spectator  by  the  forest  of  columns  is  most  awe- 
inspiring,  and  the  eye  is  led  from  the  smaller  columns  of  the  side 
avenues,  which  gradually  vanish  into  semi-darkness,  giving  an 
idea  of  unlimited  size,  to  the  larger  columns  of  the  central 
avenues  lighted  by  the  clerestory,  which  is  formed  in  the  differ- 
ence of  height  between  the  central  and  side  avenues,  a  form  of 
lighting  more  fully  developed  in  the  Gothic  period.  The  walls  of 
the  hall,  the  column  shafts,  and  the  architraves  are  covered  with 
incised  inscriptions,  still  retaining  their  original  colored  decora- 
tions relating  to  the  gods  and  personages  concerned  in  the  erection 
of  the  structure. 

The  Temple  of  Sethos  I.,  Abydos,  was  dedicated  to  Osiris 
and  other  deities  of  Abydos.  It  was  built  by  Sethos  I. 
(B.C.  1366-1333),  and  completed  by  Rameses  II.  (B.C.  1333-1300). 
The  walls  are  of  fine  grained  limestone,  and  the  reliefs  on  them 
are  among  the  finest  Egyptian  sculptures.  In  common  with 
other  temples  it  has  pylons,  a  first  and  second  fore-court  and  two 
hypostyle  halls,  but  instead  of  one  sanctuary  it  has  seven 
arranged  side  by  side,  dedicated  to  six  deities  and  a  deified  king ; 
hence  the  front  of  this  temple  was  divided  into  seven  parts,  each 
with  its  separate  gateway  and  portal.  The  seven  sanctuaries  are 
each  roofed  by  means  of  horizontal  courses,  every  course  project- 
ing beyond  that  immediately  below,  and  the  undersides  afterwards 
rounded  off  in  the  form  of  a  vault  by  the  chisel.  It  further  differs 
from  others  in  having  a  wing  at  right  angles  to  the  main  structure 
in  consequence  of  a  hill  immediately  behind  the  temple. 

The  Great  Temple  of  Abu-Simbel,  built  by  Rameses  II. 
(B.C.  1333-1300),  is  one  of  the  most  stupendous  creations  of 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  25 

Egyptian  architecture,  and  was  entirely  excavated  out  of  the 
solid  rock.  It  has  a  fore-court,  at  the  back  of  which  is  the 
imposing  facade,  119  feet  wide  and  over  100  feet  high,  formed  as 
a  pylon,  and  having  four  seated  colossi  of  Rameses  II.,  each  over 
65  feet  in  height.  The  entrance  leads  to  a  vestibule,  the  ceiling 
of  which  is  supported  by  eight  pillars,  the  walls  having  vividly 
colored  reliefs.  Eight  smaller  chambers,  probably  used  to  store 
the  temple  utensils  and  furniture,  adjoin  this  vestibule,  and  in 
the  rear  is  a  small  hypos tyle  hall,  36  feet  by  25  feet,  having  four 
pillars.  Behind  this  is  a  long  narrow  chamber  out  of  which  are 
three  apartments,  the  centre  and  largest  one  being  the  sanctuary, 
with  an  altar  and  four  seated  figures  of  the  deities  worshipped. 

The  Temple  of  Isis,  Island  of  Philse,  is  an  interesting 
example  of  the  Ptolemaic  period,  and,  like  earlier  examples,  was 
the  work  of  several  generations.  The  fore-court,  entered  through 
a  massive  pylon,  150  feet  broad  and  60  feet  high,  has  on  the  west 
side  the  Birth  House,  a  small  colonnaded  temple  dedicated  to 
Hathor-Isis  and  to  the  memory  of  the  birth  of  her  son  Horus, 
and  on  the  east  a  colonnaded  building  used  by  the  priests.  On 
the  fourth  side  of  the  court  is  the  second  pylon,  which  is  105  feet 
broad  and  40  feet  high.  Beyond  is  the  temple  proper,  consisting 
of  courts,  a  hypostyle  hall  with  eight  columns,  two  small  vesti- 
bules, a  sanctuary,  and  other  adjoining  chambers,  all  nearly  in 
total  darkness.  This  group,  including  the  second  pylon,  has  its 
axis  at  an  angle  to  that  of  the  first  pylon  and  courtyard.  The 
entire  structure  has  the  walls,  both  inside  and  out,  covered  with 
inscriptions. 

The  Temple  of  Hathor,  Dendera  (A.D.  first  century),  is 
another  Ptolemaic  example,  but  was  not  completed  till  the  reign 
of  Augustus.  It  has  no  pylons,  fore-court,  or  enclosing  outer 
walls,  but  has  a  great  vestibule  with  twenty-four  columns,  six  of 
which  form  the  fa9ade,  having  low  screen  walls  between  them  on 
either  side  of  the  central  entrance.  Behind  this  is  the  hypostyle 
hall,  having  six  columns  with  elaborate  Hathor-headed  capitals. 
On  each  side  of  this  hall  and  beyond  are  chambers,  used  as 
lavatory,  treasury,  store-rooms  ;  and  behind  are  two  ante-chambers 
with  a  sanctuary  beyond.  Staircases  on  either  side  lead  to  the 
roof  of  the  temple. 

During  the  Graeco- Roman  period  many  temples  were  erected, 
of  which  the  Temple  of  Edfou,  commenced  by  Ptolemy  III. 
(B.C.  237),  is  the  best  preserved  example.  A  massive  pylon, 
faced  with  reliefs  and  inscriptions,  gave  access  to  a  great  court, 
surrounded  by  a  colonnade.  The  back  of  this  court  was  formed 
by  the  front  of  the  great  hypostyle  hall,  the  portal  of  which 
was  the  centre  intercolumniation  of  a  row  of  six  columns,  the 
narrower  spaces  between  the  side  columns  having  low  screen  walls 
(No.  8).  Twelve  larger  columns  with  elaborate  capitals  support 


p 

i-H 

rt 
O 

s 


w    oo 
c/j    oo 

Is" 

§  3 


8  w 

w  .a 

2  n« 

<;  ^ 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  27 

the  roof  over  this  hall,  beyond  which  was  a  smaller  hypostyle 
hall,  the  roof  of  which  was  carried  by  twelve  columns,  having 
rich  floral  capitals,  embellished  by  so-called  heads  of  Hathor. 
Behind  this  were  vestibules,  smaller  chambers,  and  the  sanctuary. 


OBELISKS 

are  monumental  pillars,  originally  employed  in  pairs  before  the 
principal  entrances  of  temples.  They  are  monoliths,  i.e.,  single 
upright  stones,  square  on  plan  with  slightly  rounded  faces,  and 
tapering  sides,  with  a  pyramidal  summit.  The  height  is  usually 
about  nine  to  ten  times  as  great  as  the  diameter,  and  the  four 
faces  were  cut  with  hieroglyphics.  The  capping  was  of  metal, 
for  the  groove  into  which  it  was  fitted  is  in  some  cases  still 
visible.  The  quarrying  and  transport  of  such  a  mass  of  stone 
without  the  power  of  a  steam-engine  was"  an  engineering  feat  of 
considerable  skill. 

Many  obelisks  were  removed  from  Egypt  by  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  at  least  twelve  are  in  Rome  itself.  That  in  the 
centre  of  the  Piazza  of  S.  John  Lateran  is  the  largest  in  existence. 
It  is  of  red  granite  from  Syene,  and  is  104  feet  high,  or  with 
the  pedestal  153  feet,  9  feet  square  at  the  base,  6  feet  2  inches 
at  the  top,  and  altogether  weighs  about  600  tons. 

Cleopatra's  Needle  on  the  Thames  Embankment,  another 
example,  brought  to  London  from  Alexandria,  although  originally 
erected  at  Heliopolis  (B.C.  1500),  is  68  feet  6  inches  high,  8  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  weighs  180  tons. 


DWELLINGS. 

All  these  have  disappeared,  being  only  built  of  wood  or  of 
sun-dried  bricks.  Houses  are  shown  on  paintings  and  sculptures 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  from  which  they  appear  to  have 
had  one,  two,  or  three  stories. 

In  the  absence  of  any  authentic  remains,  an  illustration  of  the 
Egyptian  House  is  given  (No.  9),  conjecturally  restored,  and 
erected  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1889,  by  M.  Charles  Gamier. 
The  design  was  founded  on  an  ancient  painting,  and  had  a  garden 
in  front,  laid  out  in  a  formal  style,  with  fish-ponds.  The  house 
was  divided  by  a  corridor  in  the  centre,  giving  access  to  the 
rooms.  The  staircase  at  the  back  led  to  a  verandah,  and  also  to 
a  flat  roof,  extending  over  the  whole  length  of  the  structure. 
The  whole  building  was  treated  with  color,  the  upper  part  of 
the  house  being  painted  a  bright  yellow,  and  the  long  external 
wooden  columns  blue. 


28  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — The  temples  have  already  been  slightly  compared 
with  Greek  examples  (pages  15  and  22),  and  as  already  noticed 
they  were  especially  planned  for  internal  effect.     The  hypostyle 
hall    seemingly   unlimited    in    size,    crowded   with    pillars,    and 
mysteriously  illuminated  from  above,  realized  the  grandest  con- 
ceptions of  Egyptian  planning  (No.  5).     Externally  the  massive 
pylons  ornamented   with   incised   decorations   formed   the   chief 
facade,  a  contrast  being  obtained  by  the  /slender  obelisks  which 
usually  stood  in  front  of  them,  while  the  approach  was  through  an 
impressive  avenue  of  innumerable  sphinxes. 

The  erection  of  these  temples  was  in  progress  during  many 
centuries  by  means  of  continual  additions.  In  this  respect  they 
resemble  the  growth  of  English  cathedrals  ;  as  also  in  the  disregard 
for  symmetry  in  the  planning  of  one  part  in  relation  to  another. 
This  may  be  seen  in  many  of  the  later  temples  erected  under 
the  Ptolemys,  the  temple  on  the  island  of  Philae  being  a  notable 
instance.  The  walls,  the  pylons,  and  other  features  are  placed  on 
different  axes,  free  from  any  pretence  of  regularity.  The  freedom 
and  picturesqueness  of  grouping  thus  obtained  is  remarkable. 

B.  Walls. — These  were  immensely  thick,    and  in  important 
buildings  were  of  granite,  while  in  the  less  important  they  were 
of  brick  faced  with  granite. 

The  faces  of  the  temple  walls  slope  inwards  or  batter  towards 
the  top,  giving  them  a  massive  appearance  (No.  7).  Viollet-le- 
Duc  traces  this  inclination  to  the  employment  of  mud  for  the  walls 
of  early  buildings.  Columns  which  form  the  leading  features  of 
Greek  external  architecture  are  not  found  on  the  exterior  of  Egyp- 
tian buildings,  which  have  normally  a  massive  blank  wall  crowned 
with  a  characteristic  cornice,  consisting  of  a  large  hollow  and  roll 
moulding  (No.  10  j,  M).  For  the  purposes  of  decoration,  the  walls, 
even  when  of  granite,  were  generally  covered  with  a  fine  plaster, 
in  which  were  executed  low  reliefs,  treated  with  bright  color 
(Nos.  7  and  10  P).  Simplicity,  solidity,  and  grandeur,  qualities 
obtained  by  broad  masses  of  unbroken  walling,  are  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  style. 

c.  Openings. — These  were  all  square-headed  and  covered  with 
massive  lintels,  for  the  style  being  essentially  trabeated,  the  arch 
appears  to  have  been  but  little  used.  Window  openings  are 
seldom  found  in  temples,  light  being  admitted  by  the  clerestories 
in  the  earlier  examples  at  Thebes,  or  over  the  low  dwarf  walls 
between  the  columns  of  the  front  row,  as  at  Luxor,  Edfou  (No.  8), 
Dendera,  or  Philae,  a  method  peculiar  to  the  Ptolemaic  and 
Roman  periods. 

D.  Roofs. — These  were  composed  of  massive  blocks  of  stone 
supported  by  the  enclosing  walls  and  the  closely  spaced  columns 


EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  2Q 

(No.  5  F).  Being  flat,  they  could  be  used  in  dwelling-houses 
(No.  9)  as  a  pleasant  rendezvous  for  the  family  in  the  evening  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  view  and  the  fresh  breezes  which  spring  up 
at  sunset,  and  at  certain  seasons  may  have  been  used  for  repose. 
They  may  also  have  been  used  in  the  daytime,  if  protected  from 
the  sun  by  temporary  awnings.  The  flat  roofs  of  the  temples 
seem  to  have  been  used  in  the  priestly  processions.  In  the  rock- 
cut  temples  the  ceilings  are  sometimes  slightly  arched  in  form, 
and  as  at  the  tombs  at  Beni- Hasan,  the  roofing  is  made  to  represent 
timber  construction  (No.  6). 

E.  Columns. — The  papyrus,  a  tall,  smooth  reed,  and  the  lotus, 
a  large  white  water-lily  of  exquisite  beauty,  offered  many  sugges- 
tions.     The  columns,  seldom  over  sijL-diaTTlf^PT£-ip  hejgbj-,  were 
made  to  represent  the  stalks,  and  at  intervals  appear  to  be  tied  by 
bands  (No.  10).     The  capitals_wej^_mostly  derived  from  the_Jptus 
plant  (No.  10  D,  E,  F),"as  follows:— 

~"~(^-)  The  lotus  bud,  conventionalized,  tied   round  by  stalks 

(No.  10  M). 

(b.)  The  fully-grown  lotus  flower,  which  formed  a  bell-shaped 
capital,  sculptured  or  ornamented  with    color    decoration 
(No.  10  L). 
(c.)  The  "  palm"  capital,  the  main  outline  of  the  palms  being 

painted  or  sculptured  (No.  10  K). 

In  addition,  the  Isis  or  Hathor-headed  capital,  as  at  Dendera 
and  Philae,  is  formed  of  heads  of  the  goddess  Isis,  supporting  the 
model  of  a  pylon  (No.  10  G). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  were  few,  viz.,   the  hollow  and  bead 
generally  used  in  conjunction,  but  the  bead  was  also  used  by  itself. 
The  two   combined   invariably   crowned    the    upper  part  of  the 
pylons  (Nos.  7  and  10  j,  M),  and  walls. 

G.  Ornament  (No.   10). — This  was  symbolical,  and  was  an 
important  element  in  the  style,  including  such  features  as  the  solar 
disc  or  globe  and  the  vulture  with  outspread  wings  (No.  10  N),  as 
a  symbol  of  protection,  while  diaper  patterns,  spirals  (No.  10  A,  B) 
and  the  feather  ornament  (No.   10  c)   were  largely  used.     The 
scarab,  or  sacred  beetle,  was  considered  by  the  Egyptians  as  the 
sign  of  their  religion,  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  cross  became 
the    symbol   of   Christianity.      It    probably   attained   its   sacred 
character  as  the  emblem  of  resurrection  because  of  its  habit  of 
allowing  the  sun  to  hatch  its  eggs  from  a  pellet  of  refuse.     It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  decoration  of  the  walls  of  a  temple 
consisted  largely  in  acts  of  adoration  on  the  part  of  the  monarch 
to   his   gods,  to  whose    protection    he   ascribed   all  his   warlike 
successes.     The  Egyptians   were  masters   in   the   use  of  color, 
chiefly  using  the    primary   ones — blue,   red,    and   yellow.     The 
wall  to  be  decorated  was  prepared  as  follows :   (a)  It  was  first 
chiselled  smooth  and  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  plaster  or  cement, 


3O  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

after  which  a  colored  wash  was  put  over  the  whole,  (b)  The 
figures  or  hieroglyphics  were  then  drawn  on  with  a  red  line  by  an 
artist,  being  corrected  with  a  black  line  by  the  chief  artist ;  (c)  the 
sculptor  next  incised  the  outline,  rounding  slightly  the  inclosed 
form  towards  its  boundaries  ;  (d)  the  painter  then  executed  his 
work  in  the  strong  hues  of  the  primary  colors.  (See  the  Egyptian 
Court  at  the  Crystal  Palace.)  The  hieroglyphics  were  often,  how- 
ever, incised  direct  on  the  granite  and  then  colored,  as  may  be 
seen  on  the  sculptures  at  the  British  Museum.  They  are  instruc- 
tive as  well  as  decorative,  and  from  then!  is  learnt  most  of  what 
is  known  of  Egyptian  history  (No.  10  p). 

The  Egyptians  possessed  great  power  of  conventionalizing 
natural  objects  such  as  the  lotus  plant,  the  symbol  of  fertility  and 
abundance,  produced  by  the  overflowing  Nile,  the  palm,  the 
papyrus,  and  others,  each  being  copied  as  the  motif  for  a  design, 
being  treated  by  the  artists  in  a  way  suitable  to  the  material  in 
which  they  were  working.  The  distinguishing,  or  essential,  feature 
of  the  natural  object,  or  its  class,  thus  passed  by  a  process  of 
idealizing  into  forms  adapted  for  ornamentation. 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Champollion  (J.  F.,  le  jeune). — "  Monuments  de  l'£gypte  et  de  la 
Nubie."  6  vols.,  folio.  Paris,  1845. 

Choisy  (A.). — "L'art  debatir  chezles  Egyptians."  Imp.Svo.  Paris,  1904. 

"  Description  de  l'£gypte"  (known  as  "  Napoleon's  Egypt  ").  23  vols., 
large  folio.  Paris,  1809-1822. 

Erman  (A.). — "  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt."     8vo.     1894. 

Herz(M.). — "Mosqueedu  Sultan  Hassan  au  Caire."  Folio.  Cairo,  1899. 

Lepsius  (R.). — "  Denkmaeler  aus  Aegypten  und  Aethiopien."  12  vols., 
large  folio,  and  i  vol.  text.  Berlin,  1849-1859. 

Maspero  (G.). — "The  Dawn   of 'Civilization."     8vo.     1897. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez. — "  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt."    8vo.     1883. 

Petrie  (W.  N.  F.).— "  The  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh."  410.   1883. 

Petrie. — "  Ten  Years  Digging  in  Egypt."     8vo.     1 892. 

Petrie. — "  Egyptian  Decorative  Art."     8vo."   1895. 

Prisse  d'Avennes  (E.). — "Histoire  de  1'Art  £gyptien."  2  vols.,  large 
folio,  and  text  in  4to.  Paris,  1879. 

Rawlinson  (G.). — "  History  of  Ancient  Egypt."     2  vols.,  8vo.     1881. 

Smyth  (C.  Piazzi).— "  Life  and  Work  at  the  Great  Pyramid,  1865." 
3  vols.,  8vo.  Edinburgh,  1867. 

Publications  of  the  "  Archaeological  Survey  of  Egypt "  and  the  "  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund." 

Ebers  (G.). — "An  Egyptian  Princess."     (Historical  Novel.) 

Haggard  (H.  Rider).—"  Cleopatra." 

Ward  (T.).— "  The  Sacred  Beetle."     Demy  8vo.     1902. 

The  Egyptian  Court  at  the  Crystal  Palace  and  the  Egyptian  Rooms  at 
the  British  Museum  give  a  good  idea  of  the  Architecture  and  decoration 
of  the  style.  The  latter  place  contains  a  most  complete  collection  of 
Egyptian  antiquities,  which  will  give  the  student  a  better  knowledge  of 
the  style  than  can  be  gleaned  merely  from  books. 


10, 


<r\ 

\JO« 

tffit\     BflCTRlfr 


II. 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHI 
TECTURE. 


"  Babylon, 

Learned  and  wise,  hath  perished  utterly, 
Nor  leaves  her  speech  one  word  to  aid  the  sigh 
That  would  lament  her." — WORDSWORTH. 


i.    INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — On  referring  to  the  map  (No.  n)  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  principal  ancient  cities  of  Western  Asia  were 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  twin-rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
The  district  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  civilization,  being 
celebrated  for  its  great  fertility,  and  has  been  styled  the  cradle 
and  tomb  of  nations  and  empires.  The  plain  of  Mesopotamia, 
once  the  seat  of  a  high  civilization,  was  irrigated  by  numerous 
canals  between  the  above-mentioned  rivers,  and  was  highly  culti- 
vated, supporting  an  immense  population  round  Nineveh  and 
Babylon. 

The  earliest  known  buildings  appear  to  have  been  erected 
at  the  mouth  of  the  great  rivers  draining  the  country,  and  in 
this  respect  can  be  compared  with  Egypt  (No.  3),  where  the 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE.  33 

Pyramids  and  other  early  structures  were  near  the  delta  of  the 
Nile.  In  Western  Asia  the  march  of  civilization  spread  north- 
wards from  Babylon  (the  Gate  of  God)  to  Nineveh,  while  in 
Egypt  it  spread  southwards  from  Memphis  to  Philse,  but  in  both 
cases  it  developed  from  the  sea  inland. 

ii.  Geological. — The  whole  district  of  Chaldaea  or  Lower 
Mesopotamia  is  alluvial,  being  formed  of  the  thick  mud  or  clay 
deposited  by  the  two  great  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The 
soil,  containing  no  stone  and  bearing  no  trees,  could  be  made  into 
bricks,  which  thus  became  the  usual  building  material.  The 
general  body  of  the  walls  was  constructed  of  the  ordinary  sun- 
dried  bricks,  while  "  kiln-burnt  "  and  sometimes  glazed  or  vitrified 
bricks  of  different  colors  were  used  as  a  facing.  As  a  cementing 
material,  bitumen  or  pitch,  applied  in  a  heated  state,  seems  to 
have  been  used,  being  obtained  from  bitumen  springs  found  in  the 
district,  as  at  Is,  on  the  Euphrates.  Mortar,  made  of  calcareous 
earth,  was  used  in  the  latest  periods. 

In  Assyria,  where  stone  was  not  scarce,  the  walls  were  also 
faced,  internally  and  externally,  with  alabaster  or  limestone  slabs, 
on  which  were  carved  the  bas-reliefs  or  inscriptions,  which  are 
so  important  from  an  historical  point  of  view. 

iii.  Climate. — The  unhealthy  exhalations  from  the  vast  swamps 
in  Chaldaea,  and  the  swarms  of  aggressive  and  venomous  insects 
infesting  the  entire  region  during  the  long  summer,  rendered  the 
construction  of  elevated  platforms  for  the  towns  and  palaces  not 
only  desirable,  but  almost  essential.  Moreover,  the  floods  during 
the  rainy  season,  when  torrents  fell  for  weeks  at  a  time,  further 
demanded  the  need  for  such  structures. 

Persia  is  for  the  most  part  a  high  tableland  and  has  been 
described  as  a  country  of  sunshine,  gardens,  and  deserts,  with  a 
climate  ranging  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

iv.  Religion. — The  people  were  worshippers  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  such  as  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  of  the  powers  of  nature, 
such  as  the  wind  and  thunder.  Numbers  of  omen  tablets  have 
survived,  and  bear  witness  to  the  extreme  superstition  which 
existed. 

Ormuzd,  the  god  of  light  and  of  good,  as  opposed  to  Ahriman, 
the  god  of  darkness  and  evil,  was  worshipped  with  fire  as  his 
symbol.  Temples,  and  even  images,  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
necessary,  as  sacrifices  and  the  worship  of  fire  and  sun  appear  to 
have  been  conducted  in  the  open  air,  and  thus  the  essential 
stimulus  was  wanting  for  the  rise  and  development  of  religious 
art.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man-headed  bulls,  placed  at  the 
entrances  of  temples  and  palaces,  probably  had  a  mythical  mean- 
ing, and  appear  to  belong  to  the  class  of  beneficent  genii  or  to 
that  of  the  great  deities  of  the  Chaldaean  pantheon. 

v.  Social   and    Political. — Judging  from  their  history,  the 

F.A.  D 


34  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Assyrians  were  a  sturdy,  warlike,  but  cruel  people,  and  in  their 
battles  the  conquering  monarchs  took  thousands  of  prisoners,  who 
were  employed  in  raising  the  enormous  mounds  mentioned  here- 
after. It  has  been  calculated  by-Rawlinson  that  the  erection  of 
the  great  plat  orm  or  mound  of  Koyunjik — upon  which  the  build- 
ings of  Nineveh  stood — would  require  the  united  exertions  of 
10,000  men  for  twelve  years,  after  which  the  palaces  would  have 
to  be  built. 

The  Assyrian  sculptures  give  in  a  very  /ninute  way  the  social 
conditions  of  the  period,  and  show  us  the"  costumes  of  the  time 
and  the  military  character  of  the  period,  for'the  long  inscriptions 
and  series  of  pictures  with  which  the  palace  walls  were  covered 
form  an  illustrated  history  of  the  battles  and  sieges  of  succeeding 
monarchs,  the  sculptor  thus  explaining  the  political  events  of  the 
period  in  a  lasting  manner. 

The  cuneiform  or  wedge-shaped  characters  which  form  the 
inscriptions  consist  of  groups  of  strokes  placed  in  different  positions. 
These  characters  were  impressed  on  clay  tablets  or  cylinders, 
while  still  moist,  with  a  triangular  ended  instrument  of  wood, 
bone,  or  metal.  Libraries  of  these  strange  MSS.  were  formed  on 
a  large  scale,  and  by  the  translation  of  these  inscriptions  much 
knowledge  of  the  social  condition  has  been  acquired. 

The  Persian  astronomer-poet,  Omar  Khayyam,  in  his  writings, 
indicates  the  national  love  of  beauty  and  the  influence  exerted  by 
environment  and  climate. 

vi.  Historical. — From  the  study  of  Assyrian  history  can  be 
gleaned  certain  facts  which  considerably  assist  in  forming  the 
divisions  of  the  periods.  The  earliest  Babylonian  king  mentioned 
in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  was  Eannadu,  who  reigned  B.C.  4500, 
and  the  empire  he  founded  was  gradually  extended  northwards, 
following  the  course  of  the  great  river  Tigris.  In  B.C.  1700  Assyria, 
the  northern  part  of  the  early  Babylonian  empire,  asserted  her 
independence  and  became  the  great  power  of  Western  Asia. 

Of  the  Assyrian  kings,  the  most  celebrated  was  Sargon 
(B.C.  722-705),  who  erected  the  great  palace  at  Khorsabad ;  he 
was  the  first  Assyrian  king  who  came  in  contact  with  the 
Egyptian  army,  then  in  alliance  with  the  Philistines,  a  combina- 
tion of  forces  which  he  defeated.  The  Assyrians  conquered  and 
occupied  Egypt  in  B.C.  672,  sacking  the  ancient  city  of  Thebes 
in  B.C.  666  ;  but  the  Egyptians  finally  shook  themselves  free  from 
the  Assyrian  yoke.  The  destruction  of  Nineveh  took  place  in 
B.C.  609,  and  the  great  Assyrian  kingdom  was  then  divided  among 
its  conquerors,  Assyria  being  handed  over  to  the  Medes.  Babylon 
then  took  the  leading  place  until  it  was  finally  conquered  by  the 
Persians,  a  hardy  race  from  the  mountainous  district  north  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  under  Cyrus,  in  B.C.  539.  The  reigns  of  Darius 
(B.C.  521-485;  and  Xerxes  (B.C.  485-  465)  are  important  as  being 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE.  35 

those  in  which  some  of  the  most  interesting  palaces  were  erected 
at  Susa  and  Persepolis.  The  country  remained  under  the  rule  of 
the  Persians  until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  B.C.  333, 
when  it  became  a  possession  of  the  Greeks.  The  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  Cambyses,  B.C.  525,  and  the  dazzling  impression  left 
by  the  marvellous  buildings  of  Memphis  and  Thebes,  caused  the 
development  of  the  use  of  the  column  amongst  the  Persians.  In  the 
seventh  century  A.  D.,  the  Arabs  overran  the  country  and  settled  there 
— Bagdad  becoming  a  new  capital  of  great  magnificence.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  the  Turks,  a  barbarous  people 
pouring  in  from  the  east,  settled  in  the  country,  which  is  at  the 
present  moment  in  a  desolate  state  owing  to  Turkish  misrule. 


2.   ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  presented  only  alluvial 
plains,  where  wood  suitable  for  building  was  rare.  The  country, 
however,  possessed  an  abundance  of  clay,  which,  being  com- 
pressed in  flat  square  moulds  and  dried  in  the  sun,  was 
the  material  of  which  were  formed  the  huge  platforms  upon 
which  temples  and  palaces  were  built.  These  immense  plat- 
forms were  at  first  faced  with  sun-dried  bricks,  and  sub- 
sequently with  kiln-burnt  bricks,  or  in  the  later  Assyrian  period 
with  stone  slabs  from  the  mountains  that  separate  Assyria 
from  Media.  It  will  be  perceived  how  the  salient  characteristics 
of  the  architecture  may  be  explained  by  the  nature  of  the 
materials  at  hand,  for  the  walls  being  of  brick,  each  unit,  in 
general,  was  a  repetition  of  its  neighbour,  and  rarely  of  special 
shape.  The  buildings  thus  constructed  could  only  be  decorated 
by  attached  ornament,  similar  in  principle  to  the  mats  and 
hangings  spread  over  floors  'or  -walls  as  a  covering,  for  the 
Assyrians  either  cased  their  walls  with  alabaster  or  with  a  skin 
of  glazed  brickwork  of  many  colors. 

The  arch  was  applied  to  important  openings  (No.  12)  and  also  to 
vaults.  In  some  cases  it  was  not  a  true  arch,  but  one  formed  by 
corbelling  or  projecting  horizontal  courses.  The  true  arch  however 
was  also  practised,  being  probably  accidentally  hit  upon  through 
the  use  of  small  units  ;  for  as  the  Chaldaeans  were  unable  to  support 
walls  over  openings  upon  beams  of  stone  or  timber,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  these  materials  in  suitable  forms,  they  had  to  devise  some 
other  means  for  doing  so.  It  is  a  general  law,  which  study  and 
comparison  will  confirm,  that  the  arch  was  earliest  discovered 
and  most  invariably  employed  by  those  builders  who  found  them- 
selves condemned  by  the  geological  formation  of  their  country  to 
the  employment  of  the  smallest  units. 

Arches,  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  piers,  rested  on  thick  and 

D  2 


36  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

solid  walls  ;  and  whether  used  for  the  formation  of  vaulted  drains 
under  the  immense  platforms,  or  to  form  imposing  entrances  of 
colored  and  glazed  brickwork  in  elaborate  fasades,  held  a  space 
of  extreme  importance  in  the  style. 

In  Chaldaea,  isolated  supports,  such  as  are  found  in  the  hypostyle 
halls  of  Egypt  and  Persia,  or  in  Greek  temples  and  Latin  basilicas, 
were  not  used,  for  the  want  of  suitable  stone  rendered  any  such 
arrangement  impossible.  The  Chaldaeans  and  Assyrians  scarcely 
ever  used  stone  constructively  except  as  the/envelope  for  a  brick 
wall ;  but  on  the  other  hand  as  stone  was  abundant  in  the  rocky 
country  of  Persia,  the  Persians  used  it  for  walls  and  columns  at 
Susa  and  Persepolis.  Assyria  undoubtedly  gave  many  of  her 
architectural  forms  to  Persia,  who  later  borrowed  much  from 
Egypt  and  Asiatic  Greece. 

The  bracket  and  scroll  capitals  of  the  columns  at  Persepolis 
and  Susa  retain  much  of  the  form  of  their  wooden  prototypes,  and 
demonstrate  very  clearly  that  a  form  which,  applied  to  wood,  is 
natural  and  inoffensive,  becomes  inappropriate  when  applied  to 
stone  (No.  13  A,  c,  G). 

Texier's  description  of  the  great  mosque  at  Ispahan  might,  it 
is  believed,  be  applied  with  general  accuracy  to  the  palaces  of 
Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  if  the  power  of  a  Merlin  could  bring  them 
back  to  our  view  :  "  Every  part  of  the  building,  without  exception, 
is  covered  with  enamelled  bricks.  Their  ground  is  blue,  upon 
which  elegant  flowers  and  sentences  taken  from  the  Koran  are 
traced  in  white.  The  cupola  is  blue  decorated  with  shields  and 
arabesques.  One  can  hardly  imagine  the  effect  produced  by  such 
a  building  on  an  European  accustomed  to  the  dull  uniformity  of 
our  colorless  buildings."  The  palaces  would  differ  principally 
from  the  description  of  this  mosque  owing  to  the  rules  of  the 
Koran  as  to  the  prohibition  in  sculpture  and  decoration  of  the 
copying  of  natural  objects  (page  654). 

The  appearance  of  the  monuments  must,  however,  be  entirely 
left  to  the  imagination,  for  the  effect  of  the  towering  masses  of 
the  palaces,  planted  on  the  great  platforms,  and  approached 
from  the  plains  by  broad  stairways,  can  only  be  imagined.  The 
portal,  flanked  by  colossal  winged  bulls  (Nos.  12  B,  F,  G,  H,  and 
13  D,  E),  led  to  an  audience-chamber  paved  with  carved  slabs 
of  alabaster.  This  apartment  had  a  dado,  12  feet  high,  of 
sculptured  slabs,  with  representations  of  battles  and  hunting 
scenes  (No.  13  F,  H),  and  was  surmounted  by  a  frieze  containing 
figures  of  men  and  animals  in  glazed  and  brightly  colored  brick- 
work ;  a  beamed  roof  of  cedar,  through  which  small  openings 
gave  a  sufficient  illumination,  probably  covered  the  apartment 
(No.  12  B). 

At  Khorsabad  an  ornamentation  of  semi-cylinders  in  juxta- 
position was  employed  externally,  a  style  of  decoration  which 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE.  37 

is  a  last  reminiscence  of  the  timber  stockading  which  had  originally 
served  to  keep  up  the  tempered  earth  before  the  regular  use  of 
sun-dried  bricks. 

In  Asia  Minor  many  of  the  buildings  present  stone  forms 
borrowed  from  a  timber  type,  and  the  influence  of  this  tradition 
is  better  seen  in  the  tombs  of  Lycia  than  in  any  other  remains. 
An  example  of  one  of  these  at  the  British  Museum  has  a  double 
podium  (cf.  Glossary)  upon  which  is  placed  a  chest  or  sarcophagus 
crowned  with  a  roof  of  pointed-arch  form,  the  mortises  and 
framing,  including  the  pins,  being  copied  from  a  wooden  form. 
In  Lycia  many  rock-cut  tombs  present  flat  and  sloping  roofs, 
in  which  unhewn  timbers  were  copied ;  and  the  last  stage 
shows  an  Ionic  facade  certainly  developed  from  these  carpentry 
forms  (No.  41  F). 

The  copying  of  timber  forms  in  stone  has  also  been  traced  in 
Egypt ;  in  India,  where  it  was  introduced  by  the  Bactrian  Greeks, 
between  the  second  and  third  century  B.C.,  and  in  Greece  some- 
what earlier  than  in  Lycia,  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  admitted  that  a  material  from  which  a  style  is 
evolved  continues  for  a  period  to  have  its  influence  even  when 
another  material  is  substituted.  It  was  only,  however,  in  the 
infancy  of  stone  architecture  that  timber  forms  were  adhered  to  ; 
for  as  soon  as  habit  gave  familiarity  with  the  new  material,  the 
incongruities  of  such  forms  applied  to  stone  structures  were  by 
degrees  abandoned,  and  features  suitable  to  the  new  material 
were  evolved. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

Western  Asiatic  Architecture  can  be  divided  into  three  tolerably 
distinct  periods  :— 

(a.)  The  first  or  Babylonian  (Chaldaean)  period  (B.C.  4000  (?)- 
1290). 

(b.)  The  second  or  Assyrian  period  (B.C.  1290-538). 

(c.)  The  third  or  Persian  period  (B.C.  538-333). 

THE    FIRST   OR   BABYLONIAN    PERIOD 

was  a  temple-biiilding  epoch,  the  principal  remains  being  the  temple 
of  Birs-Nimroud  near  Babylon,  and  the  temple  at  Khorsabad. 

Colonel  Rawlinson  has  shown  by  'his  investigations  that  the 
Temple  of  Birs-Nimroud  was  dedicated  to  the  seven  heavenly 
spheres. 

In  Chaldaea  every  city  had  its  "  ziggurat  "  (holy  mountain), 
surmounted  by  a  richly  decorated  temple  chamber,  which  served 
as  a  shrine  and  observatory  from  which  astrological  studies  could 
be  made  (No.  12  A,  c,  D). 

These  temples  were  several  stories  in  height,  constructed   in 


ASSYRIAN  EXAMPLES. 

OT  CONSTRUCTION . 


mmi  m  waa&ie*,  SOUTH  E^ST 


12. 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE.  39 

receding  terraces,  and  each  of  different  colored  glazed  bricks. 
A  walled  inclosure  surrounded  the  whole  structure.  The  angles 
of  these  temples  were  made  to  face  the  cardinal  points,  in  contrast 
to  the  Egyptian  pyramids,  whose  sides  were  so  placed. 

The  attempts  of  the  Babylonians  to  build  a  tower  which  should 
"  reach  to  heaven  "  (Gen.  xi.  4),  may  be  referred  to  here,  and 
it  is  a  fact  worth  noting  that  in  Western  Asia  and  Egypt, 
countries  both  remarkable  for  their  dulness  and  sameness  of 
aspect,  man  should  have  attempted  his  highest  flights  of  audacity 
in  the  way  of  artificial  elevations. 

THE   SECOND    OR   ASSYRIAN    PERIOD 

was  a  palace -biiUding  epoch,  and  terminated  with  the  destruction 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  B.C.  539. 

The  principal  remains  are  the  palaces  at  Nineveh  (or 
Koyunjik),  Nimroud,  and  Khorsabad. 

The  Palace  of  Sargon,  Khorsabad  (B.C.  722-705),  is  the  best 
example  of  the  general  type,  and  has  been  the  most  completely 
studied  by  means  of  systematic  excavations,  chiefly  by  Place.  It 
was  erected  about  nine  miles  north- north-east  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Nineveh,  and  with  its  various  courts,  chambers,  and  corridors  is 
supposed  to  have  occupied  an  area  of  25  acres.  As  in  all  Assyrian 
palaces,  it  was  raised  upon  a  terrace  or  platform  of  brickwork 
faced  with  stone,  46  feet  above  the  plain,  from  which  it  was  reached 
by  means  of  broad  stairways  and  sloping  planes  or  ramps.  The 
palace  contained  three  distinct  groups  of  apartments,  corresponding 
to  the  divisions  of  any  palatial  residence  of  modern  Persia,  Turkey, 
or  India,  viz. : — (a.)  The  Seraglio,  including  the  palace  proper,  the 
men's  apartments,  ajid  the  reception  rooms  for  visitors,  in  all 
containing  10  courts,  and  no  less  than  60  rooms  or  passages ; 
(&.)  the  Harem,  with  the  private  apartments  of  the  prince  and  his 
family ;  and  (c.)  the  Khan  or  service  chambers,  arranged  round 
an  immense  courtyard,  having  an  area  of  about  2|  acres,  and  form- 
ing the  principal  court  of  the  palace.  There  was  also  a  temple 
observatory  on  the  western  side  of  the  platform.  The  great 
entrance  portals  on  the  south-east  facade  led  into  the  great  court 
already  mentioned.  These  portals  formed  probably  the  most 
impressive  creations  of  Assyrian  Architecture,  and  were  rendered 
imposing  by  no  fewer  than  ten  human-headed  winged  bulls, 
19  feet  in  height  (No.  12  F,  G,  H),  examples  of  which  are  now  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  principal  apartments  a 
sculptured  dado  of  alabaster  about  10  feet  high,  which  seems  to 
have  been  sometimes  treated  with  color,  lined  the  lower  portions 
of  the  walls,  above  which  was  a  continuous  frieze  of  colored  and 
glazed  brickwork.  Conjectural  restorations  have  been  made  by 
various  authorities  (No.  12  B). 


40  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  excavations  of  the  Palace  of  Sennacherib,  Nineveh, 
B.C.  705-681,  and  the  Palace  of  Ashur-nasir-pal,  Nimroud,  B.C. 
885-860,  have  revealed  a  large  amount  of  information  concerning 
Assyrian  Palaces,  and  many  of  the  sculptures  with  which  the 
walls  were  lined  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  method  of  roofing  is  still  much  in  dispute.  Some  authorities 
hold  that  the  long  and  narrow  rooms  were  roofed  with  beams  of 
poplar  or  palm,  resting  upon  the  summits  of  the  walls,  and  that  the 
large  halls  would  have  a  central  portion  open  to  the  sky,  with 
porticos  around,  similar  to  that  of  a  Roman  atrium.  Other  autho- 
rities hold  that  the  arch,  which  was  used  largely  in  the  drains  and 
water  channels  of  the  great  platforms  and  in  the  city  gates 
(No.  12  F),  also  played  an  important  part  in  the  construction  of 
the  palaces  themselves,  specially  in  view  of  the  thickness  of  the 
walls,  which  would  indicate  that  the  architect  had  to  provide  solid 
abutments  for  arched  vaults  which  supported  a  heavy  roof. 
From  a  bas-relief  found  by  Layard,  it  would  appear  that  domed 
roofs  both  spherical  and  elliptical  were  also  employed. 

THE  THIRD  OR  PERSIAN  PERIOD, 

from  the  time  of  Cyrus  to  that  of  Alexander  the  Great,  has 
important  remains  of  palaces,  tombs  and  temples,  at  Susa, 
Persepolis,  and  Passagardae. 

The  Persians  having  no  architecture  of  their  own,  proceeded  to 
adapt  that  of  the  conquered  Assyrians,  as  later  the  Romans 
assimilated  that  of  the  Greeks. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  their  new  cities,  Susa  and  Persepolis, 
good  stone  was  to  be  found,  and,  as  a  consequence,  many 
architectural  features,  which  are  wanting  in  the  earlier  periods, 
are  still  extant. 

Persepolis,  one  of  the  important  capitals  of  Persia,  has  inte- 
resting remains  of  no  less  than  eight  different  buildings.  These 
were  erected  on  a  great  platform,  1,500  feet  long  by  1,000  feet 
wide,  of  four  different  levels,  partly  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  and 
partly  built  up.  It  was  from  20  to  50  feet  above  the  plain  and 
was  reached  by  a  wide  stairway  on  the  western  side.  The  most 
important  buildings  erected  by  Darius  are  his  Palace  and  the  Hall 
of  the  Hundred  Columns,  while  his  son  Xerxes  built  the  Propylsea, 
the  Hypostyle  Hall  and  a  famous  palace.  The  Hall  of  the 
Hundred  Columns,  225  feet  square,  was  probably  used  as  an 
audience  and  throne-hall.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall, 
10  feet  8  inches  thick,  in  which  were  forty- four  stone  doorways  and 
windows.  The  bas-reliefs  are  on  a  magnificent  scale,  representing 
the  king  surrounded  by  the  arms  of  subject  states,  receiving 
ambassadors,  rows  of  warriors  and  other  subjects.  The  columns, 
of  which  only  one  is  still  in  situ,  had  capitals  of  curious  vertical 


WESTERN    ASIATIC    ARCHITECTURE.  41 

Ionic-like  scrolls  (No.  13  G),  or  of  the  double-bull  or  double-horse 
types  (No.  13  A,  c).  The  Hypostyle  Hall  of  Xerxes  (B.C.  485), 
probably  used  as  a  throne  room,  and  having  no  enclosing  walls, 
occupied  an  area  larger  than  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnac,  or  any 
Gothic  cathedral  except  Milan.  It  originally  had  seventy-two 
black  marble  columns,  67  feet  in  height,  arranged  in  a  somewhat 
novel  manner  supporting  a  flat  roof.  Of  these  only  seventeen 
now  exist,  and  have  capitals  either  of  brackets  and  volutes,  or 
formed  of  a  pair  of  unicorns  or  bulls ;  the  bases  are  bell-shaped 
(No.  13  A,  c,  G)  and  the  shafts  are  fluted  with  fifty-two  flutes. 

Susa  has  important  remains  in  the  palaces  of  Xerxes  and 
Artaxerxes,  from  which  splendid  examples  of  colored  and  glazed 
brickwork  have  been  excavated,  especially  the  frieze  of  lions  and 
the  frieze  of  archers  in  which  the  figures,  about  5  feet  high,  are 
now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  and  give  a  good  idea  of  the  glazed  and 
colored  work  of  the  Persians. 

The  Tomb  of  Darius,  Naksh-i-Rustam,  near  Persepolis, 
has  a  rock  cut  fa9ade,  reproducing  the  Palace  of  f)arius,  and 
forming  one  of  four  rock-hewn  sepulchres  of  the  Akhaemenian  kings. 
In  this  fa9ade  the  columns  are  of  the  double-bull  type  with  cornice 
over,  above  which  are  two  rows  of  figures  supporting  a  prayer 
platform,  upon  which  stood  a  statue  of  the  king,  about  7  feet  high, 
with  his  arm  uplifted  towards  an  image  of  the  god  Ormuzd. 

Jewish  Architecture. — The  Hebrews  apparently  borrowed 
their  architectural  forms  from  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Greek  and 
Roman  sources.  Remains  are  unimportant,  consisting  principally 
of  tombs  in  the  valleys  near  Jerusalem. 

The  only  great  attempt  at  a  monumental  structure  was  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem.  This  was  commenced  by  Solomon  (B.C. 
1012),  and  the  biblical  description  (i  Kings  vi.,  vii.,  2  Chronicles 
iii.,  iv.)  is  interesting,  portraying  entrance  pylons,  courts,  cedar 
woodwork,  metal  work,  and  the  isolated  brazen  columns  Jachin 
and  Boaz.  The  Temple  was  afterwards  added  to  by  Herod 
(B.C.  18),  and  the  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Mosque  of  Omar. 
(Page  659.) 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plan. — A  special  character  was  given  to  the  temples  of  the 
early,  and  the  palaces  of  the  later  period,  by  raising  them  on 
terraces  or  platforms  some  30  feet  to  50  feet  in  height  (No.  12  G), 
and  by  grouping  the  buildings  round  quadrangles.  Whereas  the 
sides  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  face  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass,  the  angles  of  the  Assyrian  ziggurats  were  so  placed. 
Egyptian  temples  were  designed  mainly  for  internal  effect,  while 
Assyrian  palaces  were  designed  so  as  to  be  effective  inter- 
nally and  externally,  being  raised  on  the  platforms  mentioned 
above. 


UBN  HUNT,  nOA  me  NORTH 
*0Tlll]KEJITfflfllOO&. 


KINS  OTEB  ON  HI5  T«ROWE  WITH 


13- 


WESTERN    ASIATIC   ARCHITECTURE.  43 

B.  Walls. — The  Assyrians  in  the  early  period  used  stone  only 
as  a  facing  to  their  brick  walls,  forming  a  contrast  with  the  solid 
marble  work  of  the  Greeks,  and  with  the  constructive  use  of 
stone  and  granite  by  the  Egyptians. 

In  Assyria,  the  massive  walls,  which  were  of  cased  brickwork, 
only  remain,  the  columns  being  of  wood  having  perished.  In 
Persia,  however,  the  walls  which  were  thin  have  disappeared, 
leaving  the  massive  stone  or  marble  blocks  forming  the  door  and 
window  openings,  immense  columns,  and  broad  stairways  which 
alone  have  survived  the  ravages  of  time. 

The  slabs  of  alabaster  with  which  the  walls  of  the  palaces  were 
faced  reveal  much  of  the  social  history  of  the  people,  and  many  of 
the  slabs  are  now  in  the  British  Museum  (No.  13). 

c.  Openings. — The  lighting  to  the  temples  is  conjectural,  but 
it  appears  to  have  been  effected  by  means  of  a  "clerestory" 
(No.  12  B),  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  use  in  the  Egyptian  temples. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Assyrian  architects  counted  chiefly  on 
the  doorways,  which  were  of  great  size,  to  give  their  buildings  a 
sufficient  supply  of  light  and  air,  and  openings  may  also  have 
been  formed  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  walls. 

The  use  of  the  arch,  both  circular  and  pointed,  was  practised 
by  the  Assyrians,  as  is  proved  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Henry 
Layard  at  Nimroud,  and  of  M.  Place  at  Khorsabad  (No.  I2F,  G,  H), 
where  semi-circular  arches  spring  from  the  backs  of  winged  bulls 
with  human  heads. 

D.  Roofs. — The    roofing    appears   to  have   been    effected   by 
means  of  timber  beams  reaching  from  one  column  to  the  next,  and 
resting  on  the  backs  of  the  "double-bull"  capitals  (No.   12  B). 

Some  authorities  consider  that  the  halls  of  the  palaces  were 
covered  with  brick  tunnel  vaults,  but  in  many  cases  the  roof  of  con- 
siderable thickness  was  flat,  formed  of  very  tough  but  plastic  clay 
and  debris,  and  kept  in  condition  by  being  occasionally  rolled,  as 
in  modern  eastern  houses.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  however,  are  of 
opinion  that  Assyrian  builders  made  use  of  domes  in  addition  to 
barrel  vaults,  because  of  the  discovery  of  a  bas-relief  at  Koyunjik 
in  which  groups  of  buildings  roofed  with  spherical  or  elliptical 
domes  are  shown.  Strabo  (xvi.  i.  5)  also  mentions  expressly  that 
all  the  houses  of  Babylon  were  vaulted. 

E.  Columns. — These  were  primarily  of  wood,  but  in  the  later 
period  at  Persepolis,  the  Persians,  on  their  return  from  Egypt, 
built    them    of   the   natural    stone  which  had  been    wanting   in 
Chaldsea.     They  were  not  so  massive  as  in  Egypt,  where  stone 
roofs  had  to  be  supported. 

The  capitals  were  characteristic,  being  of  the  "double-bull," 
. "  double-unicorn,"     "  double-horse  "    or    "  double-griffen  "    type 
(No.  13  A,  c),  and  the  Ionic  scroll  occurs  in  some  examples. 

F.  Mouldings.— As  in    the  case  of   Egypt,  in  Western  Asia 


44  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  use  of  mouldings  does  not  appear  to  have  advanced  to  any 
great  extent.  In  the  Assyrian  palaces  the  sculptured  slabs  and 
colored  surfaces  took  their  place.  At  Persepolis  the  bead, 
hollow  and  ogee  mouldings  may  be  noticed  in  the  bases,  while 
the  volutes  of  the  capital  were  treated  with  plain  sinkings. 

G.  Ornament. — The  Assyrian  sculptures  in  alabaster  exhibit 
considerable  technical  skill  and  refinement,  while  the  repousse 
pattern  work  on  bronze  bowls,  shields,  and  gate  fittings  is  also 
notable.  From  the  decorative  treatment  of  Assyrian  architecture 
can  be  traced  much  of  the  peculiar  and  characteristic  detail  used 
by  the  Greeks,  and  on  the  sculptured  slabs  (No.  13  B,  F.  H),  already 
mentioned  at  Nimroud  and  Nineveh,  are  represented  buildings 
with  columns  and  capitals  of  Ionic  and  Corinthian  form  in 
embryo. 

Further,  it  may  be  said,  that  Greece  took  from  Assyria  the 
idea  of  the  sculptured  friezes,  the  colored  decorations,  and  the 
honeysuckle  (No.  12  j)  and  guilloche  ornaments,  the  latter  being 
seen  in  a  pavement  slab  from  the  palace  at  Nineveh  (Koyunjik), 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  the  next  chapter  it  will  be  seen  that  Greece  adopted  much 
of  her  decorative  art  from  the  preceding  styles  of  Egypt  and 
Western  Asia,  which  are  thus  of  extreme  interest  in  enabling 
the  evolution  of  architectural  forms  from  the  earlier  periods  to 
be  traced. 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Dieulafoy  (M.).— "L'Art  Antique  de  la  Perse."  5  vols.,  folio.  Paris, 
1884-1889. 

Flandin  (E.)  et  Coste  (P.)-—"  Voyage  en  Perse."  6  vols.,  folio.  Paris, 
1844-1854. 

Layard  (A.  H.). — "  Monuments  of  Nineveh."     2  vols.,  folio.     1853. 

Layard. — "  Nineveh  and  its  Palaces."     2  vols.,  8vo.     1849. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez. — "  History  of  Art  in  Chaldasa  and  Assyria,  Persia, 
Phrygia,  and  Judaea."  5  vols.,  8vo.  1884-1892. 

Place  (Victor). — "  Ninive  et  L'Assyrie."  3  vols.,  large  folio.  Paris, 
1867-1870. 

Ragozin  (Z.  A).— "  Chaldea."  8vo.  1888.  (A  most  interesting  account 
of  the  people  and  their  history.) 

Texier  (C.). — "  L'Armenie,  la  Perse,  et  la  Mesopotamie."  2  vols.,  large 
folio.  Paris,  1842-1852. 

Whyte-Melville.— "Sarchedon"  (Historical  Novel). 

A  visit  to  the  Assyrian  galleries  and  basement  of  the  British  Museum 
will  afford  much  interest  and  information  to  the  student  and  will  impress 
him  with  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  style. 


14. 

GREEK     ARCHITECTURE. 

"  Fair  Greece  !  sad  relic  of  departed  worth  ! 
Immortal,  though  no  more  ;  though  fallen,  great !  "— BYRON. 
"  AnH  downward  thence  to  latest  days 

The  heritage  of  beauty  fell ; 
And  Grecian  forms  and  Grecian  lays 
Prolonged,  their  humanising  spell, 
Till  when  new  worlds  for  man  to  win 
The  Atlantic  riven  waves  disclose, 
The  wildernesses  there  begin 

To  blossom  with  the  Grecian  rose." — LORD  HOUGHTON. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — A  reference  to  the  map  of  Greece  (No.  14) 
shows  a  country  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  possessed 
of  many  natural  harbours,  and  convenient  for  the  development  of 
trade.  By  means  of  these  havens  .the  Phoenician  merchants  in 
early  times  carried  on  commerce  with  the  country.  The  influence 
of  the  sea  in  fostering  national  activity  should  not  be  forgotten — 
an  influence  to  which  Great  Britain  owes  her  present  position. 
Again,  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country,  with  scarcely  a 
road  until  Roman  times,  was  calculated  to  isolate  the  inhabitants 
into  small  groups,  and  together  with  the  tempting  proximity  of 
a  whole  multitude  of  islands,  was  instrumental  in  producing 
a  hardy  and  adventurous  people,  who  might  be  expected  to 
make  good  colonists. 

ii.  Geological. — In  Greece  the  principal  mineral  product  was 
marble,  the  most  monumental  building  material  in  existence,  and 
one  which  favours  purity  of  line  and  refinement  in  detail.  This 
material  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  various  parts  of  Greece, 
e.g.,  in  the  mountains  of  Hymettus  and  Pentelicus,  a  few  miles 


46  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

from  Athens,  and  in  the  islands  of  Paros  and  Naxo's.  In  the 
effort  to  obtain  refinement  of  line  and  smoothness  of  surface  where 
crude  bricks  were  used,  they  were  in  many  cases  coated  with  a 
fine  cement  formed  of  marble  dust  and  lime ;  where  stone  was 
employed,  as  at  Paestum  and  elsewhere,  it  appears  also  to  have 
been  coated  with  this  marble  cement,  while  marble  itself  was 
often  treated  in  the  same  way,  the  cement  being  susceptible  of  a 
higher  polish  than  the  uncemented  surface.  The  country  was 
also  rich  in  silver,  copper,  and  iron. 

iii.  Climate. — The  climate  of  Greece  /s  remarkable  for  the 
hot  sun  and  the  heavy  rains,  factors  probably  answerable  for  the 
porticos  which  were  important  features  of  the  temples. 

Greece  enjoyed  a  position  intermediate  between  the  rigorous 
surroundings  of  the  Northern  nations  and  the  relaxing  condi- 
tions of  Eastern  life.  Hence  the  Greek  character  combined  the 
activity  of  the  North  with  the  passivity  of  the  East  in  a  way 
that  conduced  to  the  growth  of  a  unique  civilization. 

iv.  Religion. — The  Greek  religion  was  in  the  main  a  worship 
of  natural  phenomena  (nature-worship,  major  and  minor),  of  which 
the  gods  were  personifications.  There  are,  however,  numerous 
traces  of  ancestor-worship,  fetishism,  and  other  primitive  forms  of 
religion.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Greek  cults  were  always 
local,  each  town  or  district  having  its  own  divinities,  ceremonies, 
and  traditions.  The  priests  had  to  perform  their  appointed  rites, 
but  were  not  an  exclusive  class,  and  often  served  only  for  a 
period,  retiring  afterwards  into  private  life.  Both  men  and 
women  officiated,  and  a  small  bright  "cella"  took  the  place  of 
the  mysterious  halls  of  the  priest-ridden  Egyptians  (page  20). 

The  principal  deities  of  the  Greeks  with  their  Roman  names 
are  as  follows  :— 

Greek.  Roman. 

Zeus Chief  of  the  gods  and  supreme  ruler       Jupiter  (Jove). 

Hera    Wife  of  Zeus  and  goddess  of  marriage      Juno. 

(The    son    of    Zeus    and    father  ot  ] 
yEsculapius.     The  god  who  pun-  / 
ishes,  heals  and  helps.     Also  the  ^  Apollo, 
god  of  song  and  music,  of  the  sun,  t 
(      and  founder  of  cities. 

Hestia Hearth  (sacred  fire)  Vesta. 

Heracles Strength,  power Hercules. 

Athena  ..  .  /  ™^™>  Power-   Peace-  and   Pros-  I  Minerva, 

Poseidon Sea    Neptune. 

Dionysos Wine,  feasting,  revelry Bacchus. 

Demeter  Earth,  agriculture Ceres. 

Artemis    Hunting  (goddess  of  the  chase) Diana. 

TT-,.,  (  Herald  or  messenger  of  the  gods,  )  .. 

iermes   1    therefore  eloquent  with  winged  feet  j  Mercury« 

Aphrodite    Beauty Venus. 

Nike Victory Victoria. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  47 

v.'  Social  and  Political. — The  early  inhabitants  were  known 
to  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Pelasgi.  Their  civilization 
belonged  to  the  bronze  age,  as  is  evident  from  the  remains  of  it 
found  at  different  points  round  the  ^Egean  sea,  viz..  in  Crete,  at 
Hissarlik  in  the  Troad,  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  elsewhere.  It 
fell  before  the  iron  weapons  and  greater  courage  of  invaders  from 
the  North,  viz.,  the  Achaeans  or  Homeric  Greeks.  The  war 
against  Troy  affords  proof  of  an  early  connection  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Greece  with  Asia.  The  Achaeans  in  their  turn 
succumbed  to  a  fresh  influx  of  invaders  from  the  North,  hardy 
mountaineers  called  Dorians,  who  established  themselves  at 
Sparta  and  elsewhere  in  the  Peloponnese.  In  classical  times 
the  land  was  peopled  by  lonians  (i.e.,  the  old  Pelasgic  popula- 
tion), ^Eolians  (i.e.,  descendants  of  the  Achaeans),  and  Dorians. 
Dorian  Sparta  and  Ionian  (Pelasgian)  Athens  are  the  two 
principal  factors  in  the  drama  of  Greece.  It  was  not  till  some 
500  years  after  the  fall  of  Troy  that  the  new  Hellenic  civiliza- 
tion was  evinced  in  the  construction  of  the  Temple  of  Corinth 
(B.C.  650),  one  of  the  earliest  Doric  temples  known. 

As  regards  the  people  themselves,  it  is  clear  that  the  national 
games  and  religious  festivals  united  them  in  reverence  for  their 
religion,  and  gave  them  that  love  for  music,  the  drama,  and  the 
fine  arts,  and  that  emulation  in  manly  sports  and  contests  for 
which  they  were  distinguished.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  people  led  an  open-air  life,  for  the  public  ceremonies  and  in 
many  cases  the  administration  of  justice  were  carried  on  in  the 
open  air. 

The  Greeks,  as  already  indicated,  were  great  colonists,  and 
emigration,  especially  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
Mediterranean,  was  a  government  measure  dating  from  about 
B.C.  700,  undertaken  not  only  to  establish  trade,  but  also  to  reduce 
the  superfluous  population,  and  to  provide  an  outlet  for  party 
strife.  It  thus  came  about  that  the  colonies  were  often  peopled 
with  citizens  of  a  more  energetic  and  go-ahead  character  than 
those  of  the  mother  country ;  and  it  will  therefore  be  found  that 
many  of  the  important  buildings  of  Greek  architecture,  especially 
in  the  Ionic  style,  are  in  their  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
that  this  connection  with  the  East  had  some  influence  upon 
their  architecture. 

vi.  Historical. — The  poems  of  Homer,  apparently  a  Pelasgic 
bard  who  sang  for  Achaean  masters,  give  a  picture  of  Greek 
life  about  the  twelfth  century  B.C.  Whether  or  no  the  war  with 
Troy  be  an  actual  fact,  the  incidents  related  have  a  substratum 
of  truth,  and  the  tale  probably  arose  out  of  the  early  conflicts  of 
the  Greeks  in  north-west  Asia.  The  Hesiodic  poems,  circ.  B.C.  750, 
depict  the  gloomy  prospects  and  sordid  life  of  the  Boeotian 
peasantry  at  a  time  when  art  was  almost  in  abeyance.  For  the 


48  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

fourth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C.  there  are  the  more  or  less  critical 
histories  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  and  others.  The 
cities  of  Greece  had  by  this  time  settled  down  in  their  several 
forms  of  government — tyrannic,  aristocratic,  or  democratic — and 
most  of  their  colonies  had  been  founded.  The  Persians  under 
Cyrus,  having  captured  Sardis,  overthrew  the  kingdom  of  Lydia  ; 
whereupon  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  became  subject  to  Persia. 
It  was  the  revolt  of  these  lonians  in  B.C.  499-493  which  led  to  the 
Persian  wars.  The  first  great  Persian  invasion  resulted  in  the 
victory  of  the  Greeks  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  B.C.  490  ;  and 
the  second  invasion  by  Xerxes  terminated  in  the  naval  victory 
of  Salamis  (B.C. 480).  National  exaltation  caused  by  the  defeats 
of  the  Persians  is  largely  responsible  for  the  fact  that  all  the 
important  temples  now  found  in  Greece  were  built  in  the  "  fifty 
years  "  which  succeeded  the  battles  of  Salamis  and  Plataea.  The 
wonderfully  rapid  growth  of  Athens  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
slower  Spartans,  and  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  followed, 
lasted  from  B.C.  431  to  404.  The  rule  of  Pericles  (B.C.  444-429) 
marks  the  climax  of  Athenian  prosperity.  The  Peloponnesian 
war  left  Sparta  the  chief  power  in  Greece ;  but  her  arbitrary  and 
high-handed  conduct  roused  other  states  against  her,  and  the 
supremacy  passed  successively  to  Thebes  and  Macedonia.  The 
latter  had  hitherto  been  considered  a  half-barbarian  state; 
but  thanks  to  the  ability  of  Philip  King  of  Macedonia  and  of 
his  son  Alexander  the  Great,  it  rose  to  a  leading  position  in 
Greece.  In  B.C.  334  Alexander  set  out  on  his  great  expedition, 
and  in  six  years  he  subdued  the  Persian  Empire,  having  besieged 
and  taken  Tyre  en  route  and  received  the  submission  of  Egypt, 
where  he  founded  and  gave  his  name  to  the  famous  city  of 
Alexandria.  His  conquests  extended  to  Northern  India,  and 
the  effect  of  these  was  most  important,  for  Hellenic  civilization 
was  thus  introduced  far  and  wide  throughout  Asia.  On  his  death 
at  Babylon  in  B.C.  323,  the  empire  he  had  created  was  split  up 
among  his  Generals,  Egypt  falling  to  the  share  of  Ptolemy,  who 
founded  a  dynasty  (page  12).  In  Greece  itself  the  formation 
of  leagues,  as  the  Achaean  and  ^Etolian,  between  cities  was 
attempted  ;  but  the  Roman  interference  had  commenced,  and 
gradually  increased  until  in  B.C.  146  Greece  became  a  Roman 
province.  The  isolation  and  mutual  animosity  of  the  Greek 
communities  afforded  all  too  good  an  opportunity  for  the  intrusion 
of  the  better-centralized  and  more  united  power  of  Rome.  En 
revanche,  where  arts  not  arms  were  concerned, 

"  Graecia  capta  ferum  victorem  cepit  et  artes 
Intulit  agresti  Latio." 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  49 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

Much  as  Greek  culture  owed  to  the  preceding  Oriental 
civilizations,  still  the  change  effected  by  the  Greeks  has  so 
profoundly  influenced  the  development  of  European  progress 
that  Greece  must  be  regarded  as  the  veritable  source  of  literary 
and  artistic  inspiration.  As  a  recent  writer  puts  it,  "  Whate'er 
we  hold  of  beauty,  half  is  hers."  Greek  architecture  stands  alone 
in  being  accepted  as  beyond  criticism,  and  as  being  an  obligatory 
study  for  students  of  otherwise  very  different  principles. 

The  character  of  the  early  or  Mycenaean  period,  also  known  as 
the  Pelasgic,  Cyclopean  or  Primitive  period,  is  very  different  from 
the  later  or  Hellenic  period,  and,  as  mentioned  on  page  53,  con- 
sists of  rough  walling  of  large  blocks  of  stone,  often  unworked. 
In  this  period  the  Greeks  often  had  recourse  to  the  corbel  system, 
to  inclined  blocks  over  openings,  and  even  to  the  true  arch. 

The  Hellenic  Period  which  followed  the  Mycenaean   is  dealt 
with  specially  here  because  it  is  notable  for  the  development  of 
the  trabeated  style  which  the  Greeks  approved  and  developed, 
and  which  is  recognised  as  the  special  Grecian  type. 
The  following  diagram  emphasizes  the  main  facts':— 
Greeks.  Etruscans. 


Greek.  \         Roman.         /  Gothic. 

Trabeated.  Trabeated  and  Arcuated.  Arcuated. 

This  style  was  essentially  columnar  and  trabeated  (trabs  =  a 
beam),  and  the  character  was  largely  influenced  by  the  use  of 
finely-dressed  marble. 

Stability  was  achieved  solely  by  the  judicious  observance  of 
the  laws  of  gravity  ;  the  weights  acting  only  vertically,  and 
consequently  needing  but  vertical  resistances. 

Stone  or  marble  lintels  being  difficult  to  obtain  of  any  great 
length,  the  columns  or  supporting  members  had  to  be  placed  com- 
paratively close  together,  a  method  of  design  which  called  for  a 
certain  simplicity  of  treatment  characteristic  of  the  style.  Mortar 
was  unnecessary  because  it  would  have  been  of  no  use  for  dis- 
tributing the  pressure  between  the  stone  or  marble  blocks  of 
which  the  walls  and  columns  were  constructed,  as  the  beds  of 
these  were  rubbed  to  a  very  fine  surface  and  united  with  iron 
cramps.  Further,  careful  study  of  the  materials  at  hand  was 
made,  for  Choisy  found  in  the  temples  at  ^Egina  and  Paestum 
(Nos.  20,  28),  that  the  stones  were  laid  on  their  natural  bed  or 
otherwise,  according  to  the  pressures  they  had  to  bear ;  thus  the 
architraves,  which  had  to  support  a  cross  pressure,  were  placed 
with  the  planes  of  their  beds  vertically,  as  they  were  then  better 
able  to  withstand  a  cross-strain,  and  a  wider  intercolumniation 
could  also  be  obtained. 

F.A,  E 


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©F  CYOjOTON  nlS©!NIOT  OOWOXB  Of  HOW 

©F  STOWB  6  TO  10  PCET  L0Ni     S  FSET 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  51 

The  general  architectural  character  of  the  early  works  of  the 
Hellenic  period  is  heavy  and  severe,  the  influence  of  the  Mycenaean 
period  being  apparent ;  but  a  gradual  change  towards  refinement 
and  beauty  took  place,  and  in  the  later  periods  the  proportions  of 
the  columns  were  more  slender,  and  the  mouldings  more  refined. 
Unity  of  effect  in  the  larger  temples  was  obtained  by  the  colon- 
nade surrounding  the  shrine-cell,  forming  a  contrast  with  the 
number  of  courts,  halls,  and  chambers,  decreasing  in  size  from  the 
entrance  pylons,  comprised  in  a  typical  Egyptian  temple.  Greek 
buildings  have  the  qualities  of  harmony,  simplicity  and  unity, 
because  of  the  excellence  of  their  proportions,  their  truthful  and 
apparent  construction,  and  the  employment  of  one  constructive 
principle. 

Many  refinements  in  design  were  practised  in  the  best 
period  of  Greek  art,  in  order  to  correct  optical  illusions,  as  has 
been  discovered  by  the  late  Mr.  Penrose  in  many  temples,,  and 
especially  in  the  Parthenon.  The  long  lines  of  the  architrave, 
stylobate,  pediments  and  other  features,  which,  if  built  straight  in 
reality,  would  appear  to  sag  or  drop  in  the  middle  of  their  length, 
were  formed  with  slight  convex  lines.  For  instance,  in  the 
Parthenon  the  stylobate  has  an  upward  curvature  towards  its 
centre  of  2-61  inches  on  the  east  and  west  fronts,  and  of  4-39 
inches  on  the  flanks.  The  vertical  features  were  made  to  incline 
inwards  in  order  to  correct  the  tendency  which  such  features  have 
of  appearing  to  fall  outwards  at  the  top.  Thus,  in  the  Parthenon 
the  axes  of  the  outer  columns  lean  inwards  2*65  inches,  and  would 
meet  if  produced  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  above  ground.  The  faces  of 
the  architrave  (No.  71,  c)  were  also  given  an  inward  inclination. 
The  shafts  usually  have  an  entasis  which,  in  the  case  of  the 
Parthenon  column,  amounts  to  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  a  height  of  34  feet,  and  is  shown  on  No.  710. 

The  close  spacing  of  the  angle  columns  has  been  already 
referred  to,  and  these  were  increased  in  thickness  as  it  was  found 
that  seen  against  the  sky  owing  to  irradiation  (No.  71,6)  they 
would  appear  thinner  than  those  seen  against  the  darker 
background  formed  by  the  cella  wall. 

According  to  Pennethorne  a  further  correction  is  pointed  out  in 
an  inscription  from  the  Temple  of  Priene  (No.  71,  A),  where 
according  to  Vitruvius,  Bk.  vi.,  chap.  2,  the  letters  at  the  top  of 
the  inscription  were  increased  in  size,  and  the  letters  at  the  lower 
part  decreased  so  that  they  might  all  appear  of  one  size  when  seen 
from  the  point  of  sight. 

Sculpture  and  carving  of  the  highest  class  completed  the  effec- 
tiveness of  their  most  important  buildings,  and  these  were  in- 
fluenced very  largely  by  the  hard,  fine-grained  marble  employed, 
which  rendered  possible  the  delicate  adjustment  and  refined 
treatment  characteristic  of  this  period. 

E  2 


GREEK  EXAMPLES.    I. 


CLCWlTIOM  OF.  PJgncg.(IF..ffi.STHErtOM. 

IflC 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  53 

Color  and  gilding  were  applied  very  largely  by  the  Greeks  both 
to  their  buildings  and  sculpture,  and  some  of  the  remains  which 
have  been  lately  excavated  at  Athens,  Delphi,  and  elsewhere  still 
exhibit  traces  of  their  original  coloring. 

The  Greeks  developed  the  so-called  "  Orders  of  Architecture," 
the  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian  being  used  by  them.  To  these, 
in  later  times,  the  Romans  added  the  Tuscan  and  Composite, 
thus  completing  the  "  five  orders  of  architecture."  An  "  order  " 
in  Greek  and  Roman  architecture  consists  of  the  column  or 
support,  including  base  and  capital,  and  the  entablature,  or  part 
supported.  The  latter  is  divided  into  the  architrave  or  lowest 
portion  ;  the  frieze,  or  middle  member,  and  the  cornice  or  upper- 
most part.  The  proportions  of  these  parts  vary  in  the  different 
orders,  as  do  the  mouldings  and  decorations  applied  (No.  38). 

The  origin  and  evolution  of  the  different  parts  of  the  three  Greek 
orders  are  dealt  with  later  under  their  respective  headings,  but  the 
characteristics  are  well  expressed  in  the  following  lines  : — 

"  First,  unadorn'd, 

And  nobly  plain,  the  manly  Doric  rose  ; 
Th'  Ionic,  then,  with  decent  matron  grace, 
Her  airy  pillar  heaved  ;  luxuriant  last, 
The  rich  Corinthian  spread  her  wanton  wreath. 
The  whole  so  measured,  so  lessen' d  oft" 
By  fine  proportion,  that  the  marble  piles, 
Form'd  to  repel  the  still  or  stormy  waste 
Of  rolling  ages,  light  as  fabrics  look 
That  from  the  wand  aerial  rise."— THOMSON. 

The  late  J.  Addington  Symonds  well  observed  that  Art  is 
commonly  evolved  through  three  stages:  (i)  The  ardent  and 
inspired  embodiment  of  a  great  idea — this  gives  strength  and 
grandeur ;  (2)  the  original  inspiration  tempered  by  increasing 
knowledge  and  a  clearer  appreciation  of  limits — the  result  being 
symmetry  ;  (3)  ebbing  inspiration,  details  being  elaborated,  and 
novelties  introduced  to  make  up  for  its  loss — this  occasions  a 
brilliant  but  somewhat  disproportioned  style.  This  progress  can 
be  traced  in  all  departments  of  Greek  life.  In  architecture,  there 
is  the  solid  strength  of  the  Doric  capital,  the  clear-cut  beauty  of 
the  Ionic,  and  the  florid  detail  of  the  Corinthian,  in  poetry  the 
rugged  grandeur  of  ^Eschylus,  the  exquisite  symmetry  of  Sopho- 
cles, and  the  brilliant  innovations  of  Euripides,  and  in  sculpture, 
an  Ageladas,  a  Pheidias,  and  a  Praxiteles. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

The  Mycense-an  Period  has  already  been  defined  as  extend- 
ing to  shortly  after  the  war  with  Troy,  though  in  the  Islands  (e.g., 
Cyprus,  Crete,  and  Delos),  it  lasted  on  till  the  eighth  century  B.C.  ; 
but  remains  of  a  pre-Mycensean  period  called  Min6an,  dating 


54  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

back  to  about  B.C.  3000,  have  been  discovered  by-  Dr.  Arthur 
Evans,  of  which  the  Minoan  Palace  at  Knossos  in  Crete  is  an 
example.  The  architectural  remains  of  these  periods  include 
town-walls,  palaces,  and  tombs.  The  walls  are  of  three  kinds  of 
masonry:  (i)  "Cyclopean"  i.e.,  masses  of  rock  roughly  quarried 
and  piled  on  each  other,  without  cramp-irons,  but  with  clay 
mortar,  the  interstices  between  the  larger  being  filled  with  smaller 
blocks.  Examples  at  Argos,  Tiryns,  Mycenae,  Knossos  in  Crete, 
and  Athens.  (2)  Rectangular,  i.e.,  carefully  hewn  rectangular 
blocks  arranged  in  regular  courses,  but  the/ joints  between  stones 
in  the  same  course  are  not  always  vertical.  Examples  at 
Mycenae  in  the  entrances  and  towers,  and  the  entrance  passage  in 
"tholos"  or  beehive-tombs.  (3)  Polyzonal,  i.e.,  many  sided  blocks 
accurately  worked  so  as  to  fit  together.  Examples  at  Mycenae, 
wall  of  Acropolis  at  Athens,  and  Cnidus.  Thus  all  three  styles 
occur  in  structures  of  "  Mycenaean  "  age,  although  in  out-of-the- 
way  places,  as  in  Caria,  they  survived  for  centuries.  The  first  is 
seemingly  the  parent  of  the  other  two  :  but  the  common  assump- 
tion that  polygonal  is  later  than  rectangular  masonry  cannot  be 
proved  with  regard  to  the  Pelasgic  period. 

In  addition  various  characteristic  features  were  used  : — 

Corbels. — Sometimes  horizontal  courses  were  employed  pro- 
jecting one  beyond  the  other  till  the  apex  was  reached,  producing 
either  a  triangular  opening  as  is  found  above  the  doorways  of  the 
tholos-tombs  (No.  15  A,  E),  or  an  apparent  arch  as  at  CEniades  in 
Acarnania,  Assos,  and  the  gallery  at  Tiryns,  or  a  dome-shaped 
roof  as  in  the  Treasury  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae  (No.  15  A,  B). 

Inclined  Blocks. — Sometimes  inclined  blocks  forming  triangular 
headed  openings  were  employed  as  in  the  early,  perhaps  pre- 
historic, sanctuary  on  Mount  Ocha  in  Eubcea,  and  the  ancient 
shrine  of  Apollo  on  Mount  Cynthus  (Delos). 

Arches. — A  few  examples  of  Greek  arcuated  work  are  extant, 
viz.,  a  Cyclopean  arch  at  Cnidus,  an  arch  with  a  key-stone 
(partially  dropped)  in  Acarnania,  and  an  arched  gateway  at 
CEniades.  A  water-channel  or  drain  at  Athens,  which  crosses  the 
town  from  east  to  west,  is  partly  arcuated  and  partly  roofed  with 
advancing  corbels.  The  barrel- vault  ("kamara")  occurs  in  sub- 
terranean funeral  chambers  in  Macedonia,  and  also  in  the  vaulted 
passages  at  the  theatre  of  Sicyon,  the  tunnel  leading  to  the 
Stadium  at  Olympia  and  other  places. 

The  "  tholos  "  or  beehive-tombs  at  Mycenae,  Orchomenos,  and 
Amyclae  were  originally  modelled  on  underground  huts  for  the 
living  (Vitruv.  ii.,  i),  the  precise  shape  being  found  by  Prof.  Adler 
in  Phrygia.  At  Mycenae  the  tholoi  are  confined  to  the  lower  city 
as  opposed  to  the  shaft-graves  of  the  upper  city.  The  largest  and 
best  preserved  is  the  so-called  "  Treasury  of  Atreus  "  (No.  15).  It 
consists  of  a  long  entrance  passage  or  "  dromos,"  2oJfeetJ>road  by 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


55 


ii  5  feetkmg,  a  large  vaulted  chamber,  about  50  feet  broad  by  50  feet 
rn^7ali3~a~small  square  tomb-chamber  adjoining.  A  similar  tomb 
at  Orchomenos  in  Bceotia  has  a  magnificently  ornamented  ceiling 
in  its  sepulchral  chamber,  while  another  at  Menidi  in  Attica  has 
no  less  than  five  superposed  lintels  to  support  the  mass  of  earth 
above  it  (cf.  section  of  Great  Pyramid,  No.  5  D).  These  tombs 
belong  to  the  second  stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  dwelling-house, 
the  complete  series  being  (a)  natural  cave  (No.  2  H)  ;  (b)  artificial 
cave  below  ground ;  (c)  artificial  cave  above  ground,  i.e.,  hut 
(No.  2  E).  The  famous  Gate  of  Lions  on  the  Acropolis  at 
Mycenae  also  belongs  to  this  period  (No.  15  E). 

The  Hellenic  Period  contains  all  the  principal  temples  and 
monuments  which  were  erected  between  the  years  B.C.  700  and 
the  Roman  occupation  B.C.  146.  The  masterpieces  of  Greek 
architecture,  however,  were  all  erected  in  the  short  space  of  about 
150  years,  viz.,  between  the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  B.C.  480,  and 
the  death  of  Alexander,  B.C.  323. 

Many  of  the  Greek  cities  were  upon  or  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  a  hill  which  was  known  as  the  Acropolis  (Greek  =  an 
upper  city),  and  formed  a  citadel  upon  which  the  principal 
temples  or  treasure-houses  were  erected  for  safety.  A  model  of 
the  Acropolis  at  Athens  in  the  British  Museum  will  give  a  good 
general  idea  of  the  disposition  of  the  important  buildings  placed 
thereon,  as  also  the  plan  No.  17.  Other  great  centres  of  archi- 
tectural activity  were  Olympia,  Delphi,  Psestum  in  South  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  Asia  Minor. 


IQO ...       Q  100          200         30O          400         500 


56  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Temples  formed  the  most  important  class  of  buildings 
erected  during  this  period,  and  a  general  description  applicable 
to  all  is  therefore  given. 

Their  points  of  difference  with  Egyptian  examples  have  been 
already  referred  to.  (Pages  15,  21,  28).  They  were  built  with 
special  regard  to  external  effect,  and  were  ornamented  with 
sculpture  of  the  highest  class  in  order  to  form  fitting  shrines 
for  the  deities  in  whose  honour  they  were  erected.  They  were 
generally  placed  in  a  "temenos"  or  sacred  enclosure,  and  consisted 
of  a  "naos"  or  cell,  usually  oblong  in  plan/ in  which  was  placed 
the  statue  of  the  god  or  goddess  ;  a  treasury  or  chamber  beyond 
and  a  front  and  rear  portico,  with  flanking  colonnades,  the  whole 
generally  raised  on  a  stylobate  of  three  steps. 

In  the  larger  temples  were  internal  colonnades  of  columns  placed 
over  each  other  to  support  the  roof  (Nos.  18  H,  20,  23,  23,  28  A,  B, 
and  31).  On  the  two  end  fagades  above  the  columns  a  triangular- 
shaped  pediment,  usually  but  not  always  filled  with  sculpture, 
terminated  the  simple  span  roof  (Nos.  16  A,  20,  21,  23,  26,  27,  28, 
30,  and  31  A).  These  roofs  were  constructed  of  timber  and  covered 
with  marble  slabs ;  the  ends  of  the  overlapped  joints  being  provided 
with  ante-fixae  at  the  eaves  (Nos.  16  D,  20  H,  j,  and  44  N).  The 
door  was  almost  always  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  end  wall, 
behind  the  portico  of  columns,  and  frequently  planned  so  that  the 
sun  might  enter  and  light  up  the  statue  opposite. 

The    general   absence    of   windows    in    the   temples,    that    at 
Agrigentum  being  the  only  exception  (No.  28  o),  has  given  rise  , 
to  many  theories  as  to  how  light  was  admitted.     The  method  of 
lighting  by  a  clerestory  concealed  in  the  roof  which  is  favoured  by 
Mr.  Fergusson  (No.  25  A),  can  be  seen  practically  in  Sir  Arthur    | 
Blomfield's   restoration    of    S.    Peter,    Eaton    Square,    London. 
Another  theory  by  Herr  Bdtticher  is  also  shown  (No.  25  B). 

The  temple  was  occasionally  "  hypaethral,"  that  is  to  say,  there 
was  an  opening  in  the  roof  which  admitted  air  and  light  to  the 
central  portion  of  the  naos  or  cell.  The  use  of  an  hypaethral 
opening  has  been  often  refuted,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  used 
in  the  larger  temples  as  in  that  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens 
(No.  1 8  j)  (see  Vitruvius),  and  in  the  Ionic  Temple  of  Apollo-/ 
Didymaeus,  near  Miletus,  as  mentioned  in  Strabo  (lib.  xiv.).. 
The  temple  was  the  house  of  the  local  god,  being  merely  a 
glorified  dwelling-house,  and  some  hold  that  the  opening  in  the 
centre  of  an  ordinary  house  must  have  had  some  counterpart  in 
that  of  the  divinity.  Both  alike  were  developed  out  of  the  smoke- 
hole  of  the  primitive  hut ;  the  whole  development  being  ably 
traced  in  an  article  on  "  domus"  in  Daremberg  et  Saglio,  "  Diet, 
des  Antiquites."  An  extant  hypaethral  opening  is  that  of  the 
Pantheon,  Rome  (Nos.  54,  55). 

Many  authorities  hold  that  light  was  obtained  solely  through 


GREEK  EXAMPLES.    II 


r»™PLc  -(Dg« 


RHAMNUS 
DISTYLE   IN    ANTIS 
(DORIC) 


Of  ARTEMIS 
lEAAiELEUSlS 
AMPHl-AtTO  DISTYLE    /^-   \      i    "-H^-1    I         V   U/ V      PROSTYLE 

(DORIC)  \^J    I      m      |       v-/ TETRASTYLE 

TEMPLE  or  VESTA  *T  TIVOLI 
PERIPTERAL 


TEMPLE  ON  T» 

ILISSUS(IOMC) 
AMPHI-PRO  STYLE 
ITETRASTYLE. 


•••• 


THE    THESEtOH 

/^p\    ATHENS       MAISON  CARREE 
\TyPERIPTERAL          NlMES  (CORINTHIAN) 
HEXASTYLE     PSEUDOPERIPTERAL 
(DORIC)     //?\  HEIXASTYLE 


1 

1 

1       C    1 

^ 

|    4 

| 

1            1 

1     D 

1 

1    0 

•  i 

- 

i  • 

I 

I   C 

1 

i 

i 

1 
1 

i 

1 

i 

1 

i 

1 

i 

a 

•• 

EH 

1 

i      i 

| 

1 

i      i 

» 

4 

1          "   \ 

i      i 

»    1 

I    1 

»    4 

»          '1 

* 

>-J 

*,J 

I_J 

>    •    »|[ 

GREAT   TEMPLE:  OF  SELINUS 

P^EODODIPTERAL       OCTASTYLE 

18. 


/^\        PARTHENON 
I   H   1  ATHENS.  COMPLETED  B.C/155 


THOLOS  OFPaYCLEITOS.EPIDAUR03. 4^a  I: 
THE  EREC- 
!  HTHEION 


58  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  doorways,  others  that  the  transparent  Parian  marble  roofing 
slabs  would  admit  sufficient  light. 

Artificial  illumination  by  means  of  lamps  may  also  have  been 
employed. 

The  different  kinds  of  temples  are  classified,  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  their  columns,  and  a  sheet  of  plans  (No.  18)  is  given 
in  order  to  indicate  the  general  distribution  of  parts,  and  also  to 
show  the  evolution  from  the  simple  shrine-cell  of  the  smaller 
examples.  The  different  methods  of  spacing  the  columns  one 
from  the  other  is  shown  in  No.  39,  R,  s,  T./U,  v. 

i.  Di-style  in  antis  at  one  end  (the  simplest  form,  having  two 

columns  between  antae).  Ex.  Temple  of  Rhamnus(No.  i8A). 

ii.  Di-style  in  antis  at  both  ends.    Ex.  Doric  Temple  at  Eleusis 

(No.  18  B). 
iii.  Prostyle  tetrastyle  (a  front  portico  of  four  columns).     Ex. 

Doric  Temple  at  Selinus,  Sicily  (No.  18  D). 
iv.  Amphi-prostyle  tetrastyle  (front   and  rear   porticos   of  four 
columns).    Ex.  Ionic  Temple  on  the  Ilissus  (No.  18  E),  and 
Temple  of  Nike-Apteros  (No.  18  N). 

v.  Peripteral  circular  (a  ring  of  columns  surrounding  a  circular 
cell).  Ex.  Philipeion  at  Olympia,  The  Tholos  at  Epidauros 
(No.  18  K). 

vi.  Peripteral  hexa,style  (a  temple  surrounded  by  columns,  the 

porticos   at   each   end   having   six).      Ex.   The   Theseion 

Athens  (Nos.  18  F  and  21  D),  Temple  of  Neptune,  Paestum 

(No.  28  A,  B,  c),  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae  (No.  27  c). 

vii.  Peripteral  octastyle  (as  last,  but  with  eight  columns  to  each 

portico).     Ex.  the  Parthenon  Athens  (Nos.  18  H,  23  H). 
viii.  Pseudo-peripteral  (having  columns  attached  to  cella  walls, 
a  favourite  form  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.    See 
page  12).     Greek  ex.  Temple  of  Jupiter   at  Agrigentum 
(No.  28  M). 

ix.  Dipteral  octastyle  (double  rows  of  columns  surrounding 
temple,  having  ranges  of  eight  at  each  end).  Exs.  Temple 
of  Jupiter  Olympius,  Athens  (No.  18  j),  and  Temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus  (No.  31  B). 

x.  Pseudo -dipteral  octastyle  (as  last,  with  the  inner  range  left 
out).  Ex.  Great  Doric  Temple  of  Selinus,  Sicily  (No.  18  L). 
xi.  Dipteral  decastyle  (as  ix.,  but  with  ten  columns  at  ends). 
Ex.  Temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  near  Miletus.     A  Roman 
example  is  the  Great  Temple  at  Baalbec  (No.  53  E). 
xii.  Octagonal.    Ex.  Tower  of  the  Winds  Athens  (No.  28  K,  L). 
xiii.  Irregular  planning.      Ex  Erechtheion,  Athens  (Nos   18  M, 
30  F),  The  Propylcea,  Athens  (No.    18   N),  Teleskrion  at 
Eleusis. 

In  order  to  keep  the  descriptions  of  classic  temples  together, 
mention  is  made  here  that  the  Romans  employed  the  circular 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE. 


59 


form  as  in  the  Pantheon  (Nos.  54,  57  E),  and  also  planned  smaller 
circular  temples  as  follows  : — 

(a.)  Peripteral.     Temple  of  Vesta,  Tivoli  (No.   18  c),  and 

Temple  of  Vesta,  Rome  (No.  47). 
(b.)  Monopteral    (in    which    the    roof    was    supported    by 

columns  only,  without  walls). 
(c.)  Pseudo -peripteral    (the     cella    wall     having     attached 

columns). 

The  varieties  of  temples  described  were  erected  in  either  the 
Doric,  Ionic,  or  Corinthian  style,  which  will  be  referred  to 
now  in  detail  with  their  principal  examples. 

THE  DORIC  ORDER. 

The  Doric  order,  the  oldest,  plainest,  and  most  sturdy,  is  traced 
by  many  to  an  Egyptian  prototype  as  exemplified  at  Beni-Hasan 
(No.  6)  ;  but  as  the  origin  of  this,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  orders, 
is  of  special  interest,  the  theories  put  forward  by  several  authorities, 
are  here  stated. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  in  their  monumental  work  on  "  Art  in 
Primitive  Greece,"  discuss  the  question  of  the  wooden  origin  of 
the  Greek  Doric  column  and  its  entablature,  and  endeavour  to 
show  its  derivation  from  the  wooden-built  prodomus  or  porch  of 
the  Mycenaean  palace  (No.  16).  They  themselves  suggest  no 
origin  of  the  Capital,  and  decline  to  consider  the  derivation  from 
the  examples  at  Beni-Hasan  in  Egypt. 

They  make  various  interesting  suggestions,  e.g.,  the  derivation 
of  the  "  guttae  "  from  constructive  wooden  pegs,  and  the  restora- 
tion they  give  of  the  timber  architecture  of  Mycenaean  palaces, 
and  the  explanation  of  the  wooden  types  used  decoratively  in  the 
later  stone  architecture,  form  a  consistent  and  attractive  theory — 
a  theory,  moreover,  which  is  yearly  gaining  ground  and  is  to  many 
minds  convincing.  Illustrations  showing  these  reconstructions 
are  given  in  No.  16. 

Viollet-le-Duc,  however,  held  a  decided  opinion  that  the  orders 
of  Greek  architecture  involved  an  original  stone  treatment.  He 
was  unable  to  conceive  how  the  Greek  Doric  capital  could  have 
been  derived  from  a  timber  form,  and  he  considered  the  triglyphs 
in  the  frieze,  not  as  the  petrified  ends  of  wooden  beams — which 
could  not  be  seen  on  four  sides  of  a  building,  and  which  would  be 
v«ry  difficult  to  flute  across  the  grain  of  the  wood — but  as  original 
stone  uprights,  fluted  to  express  their  function  of  vertical  support, 
and  therefore  treated  in  this  respect  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
columns,  which  were  certainly  fluted  when  in  position.  He  like- 
wise observed  that  "  the  form  given  to  the  entablature  of  the 
Doric  order  can  be  adapted  with  some  unimportant  variations  to  a 
structure  in  stone  as  well  as  of  wood,  in  neither  case  involving 


GREEK  EXAMPLES.    III. 


(TCMPLEFMHENA) 
ATHENS  B.C  435. 


19. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  6l 

the  necessity  of  falsifying  the  form  or  the  structure."  He  was 
not  prepared  to  admit,  then,  that  a  wooden  original  suggested  a 
stone  structure  in  the  composition  of  the  Doric  order  ;  indeed, 
he  would  rather  suppose  the  converse. 

Garbett  goes  so  far  as  to  call  the  wooden  theory  an  "  insolent 
libel,"  and  asserts  that  in  the  case  of  the  inclination  of  the  soffit 
of  the  cornice  this  barbarous  theory  is  at  once  disproved  by  two 
facts,  the  inclination  being  observed  on  the  fronts  equally  with 
the  sides  of  the  building,  and  its  angle  being  wholly  independent 
of  that  of  the  roof. 

A  later  writer,  Mr.  H.  H.  Statham,  in  a  recent  work  on 
architecture,  rejects  the  wooden  theory  as  far  as  the  Doric  column 
and  capital  are  concerned,  and  adds  that  its  adherents  have  to 
explain  these  facts  :  (i.)  That  the  greater  the  age  of  the  known 
and  approximately  dated  examples,  the  thicker  the  columns  are, 
while  the  reverse  would  probably  have  been  the  case  had  the 
original  forms  been  wooden ;  and  (ii.)  That  the  characteristic 
moulding  under  the  abacus  of  the  Doric  column  is  an  essentially 
stone  form,  and  one  which  it  would  not  be  at  all  easy  to  work  in  wood. 

These  opponents  of  the  wooden  theory  might,  however,  have 
modified  their  views,  had  they  been  familiar  with  the  recently- 
discovered  examples  of  Pelasgic  or  "Mycenaean"  construction. 
The  similarities  between  these  proto-historic  buildings  and  the 
later  Greek  styles  of  architecture  are  too  numerous  to  be  acci- 
dental, and  Pelasgic  or  "  Mycenaean  "  palaces  undoubtedly  had 
columns  and  entablatures  of  wood. 

The  column,  which  has  no  base,  but  stands  directly  ori,  a 
gstylpbate  usually  of  three  steps  is,  including  the  cap,  from  4  to  6^ 
times  "the  diameter  at  the  base  in  height.  The  circular  "sEaft 
diminishing  at  the  top  t$  from  f  to  f  of  this  diameter  is  divided  as  a 
rule  in  20  shallow  flutes  or  channels  separated  by  sharp  arrfses. 
Occasionally  the  flutes  number  12  (Assos),  16  (Sunium),  18  (Greek 
Temple  at  Pompeii),  or  24  '(Psestum,  No.  19  B).  The  division 
into  twenty  flutes  seems  to  have  been  selected  in  order  that  a  pro- 
jection or  arris  might  come  under  each  of  the  angles  of  the  square 
abacus  above,  and  at  the  same  time  a  flute  in  the  centre  of  the 
column  as  seen  from  the  front,  back  or  sides.  It  will  be  found 
that  no  other  number  of  flutes  between  twelve  and  twenty-eight 
will  enable  this  to  be  done,  thus  following  out  one  of  the  Greek 
constructive  principles  of  placing  projections  over  projections. 
The  shaft  has  normally  an  outward  curvature  of  profile  calledjhe 
"entagjgl'  (No.  rj  A),  lo  counieiacl  the  hollow  -appearance  "6T 
straight  sided  columns.  In  early  works  this  is  often  too  obtru- 
sive (e.g.,  Basilica  at  Paestum) ;  where  it  is  omitted  altogether  (e.g., 
Corinth)  the  effect  is  lifeless  ;  but  the  happy  mean  may  be  seen 
in  the  Parthenon,  (page  67).  The  column  is  surmounted  by  a 
distinctive  capital  formed  of  abacus,  echinus  and  annulets.  The 


GREEK  EXAMPLES.  IV. 

THE  TEMPLE  ?  APMIA,  (JUPITER  FAMMELLEMIIIS)  AT  /EGIMA. 


PEDIMENT 

(NOW  IN  MUNICH  M05EOM) 


THIS  TEMPLE  is  HEMSTYLL  PETIPTEJML  .  SOME  COLONS .MONOiiihs .  OTHER 

BUILT  IN  DRUMS .  MATERIAL  ASOfT  YELLOW  LIMESTONE  ORI&NALLY  COATED  Wlffl 
THIN  5TUCCD,  ENTABLATURE  WAS  PAINTED.  CfMATIUM,  CORNICE  TILES  i  SCULPTOItE 
Of  PARIAN  MARBLE.  THE  FLOOR  Of-PRONAOS  HAS  SQUARE  IO.ES  ftt  HXING  METAL 
SCREEN  THE fOSTICUM  IS'CURIOOSLY  DIVIDED  BY  TW  OBLOflG  BLOCKS.  THE: 
AfROTERIA  ARE  REMARKABLE.  THE  WESTERN  &  BEST  PRCStRVED  PEDIMENT  REPRE5- 
ENTJ  THE  FIGHT  BETWEEN  THE  GREEKS  HBJJAN8  OVER  THE  BODY  Of  PATItOCLQS 
VHOLIE5ATMfEET  Of  ATHENA.  THE  EASTERN  PEDIMENT  PROBABLY  REPKEfflff 
S  AN' EARLIER  EXPEDITION  AGAINST  TROY. 


GILDEb. 


VIEW  ?  LOWER 
ACROTERION 


20. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  63 

abacus  is  a  square  slab  under  which  is  a  large  convex  moulding 
called  the  echinus,  which  is  somewhat  similar  in  outline  to  a 
human  hand  supporting  a  book.  The  profile  of  the  echinus  varies 
according  to  the  date  of  erection,  the  earlier  examples,  such  as 
the  Temples  at  Paestum  (No.  19  A,  B),  being  fuller  in  outline 
(approximately  parabolic  section),  whereas  in  the  later  examples 
such  as  the  Theseion  (No.  19  D),  and  the  Parthenon  (No.  19  E) 
the  curve  approaches  a  straight  line  (approximately  hyperbolic 
section).  Annulets  or  horizontal  fillets  varying  from  three  to  five 
in  number  are  placed  beneath  the  echinus  of  the  capital  in  order 
to  form  a  stop  or  contrast  to  the  long  lines  of  the  arrises  between 
the  flutes.  Immediately  below  is  the  trachelion  or  necking,  having 
beneath  it  the  hypotrachelion  formed  of  three  groves  in  the  older 
or  archaic  examples  and  one  in  the  later. 

The  entablature,  usually  about  one  quarter  of  the  height  of 
order,  is  supported  by  columns,  and  has  three  main  divisions : — 

(a.}  The  architrave  is  derived  from  its  prototype,  the  wooden 
beam.  It  has  considerable  depth,  and  only  one  vertical  face,  whereas 
in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders  the  usual  number  is  three. 
Separating  this  from  the  frieze  is  a  flat  moulding  called  the  tenia, 
and  underneath  this  at  intervals  corresponding  to  the  triglyphs  is 
a  narrow  band  called  the  regula,  having  six  guttae. 

(b.)  The  frieze  has  triglyphs,  ornamented  with  three  channels, 
and  metopes  or  square  spaces  between  them,  sometimes  filled  with 
sculpture  of  the  highest  quality  (page  72).  Beneath  the  triglyphs 
are  guttae  or  small  conical  drops.  The  triglyphs  are  placed  at 
equal  distances  apart,  and  come  immediately  over  the  centre  of 
each  column  and  intercolumniation.  At  the  angles,  however,  this 
is  not  so,  because  the  two  triglyphs  meet  with  a  bevelled  edge, 
and  in  consequence  the  intercolumniation  of  the  two  outer 
columns  in  each  front  is  less  by  about  half  a  triglyph  in  width 
than  that  of  the  others. 

(c.)  The  cornice  consists  of  an  upper  or  crowning  part  consist- 
ing of  cymatium  and  birdsbeak  mouldings  beneath  which  is  a 
vertical  face  known  as  the  corona.  The  soffit  is  inclined  upwards 
and  parallel  with  the  slope  of  the  roof,  and  its  underside  has  flat 
projecting  blocks  called  mutuies,  which  recall  the  feet  of  sloping 
rafters,  one  over  each  triglyph  and  metope,  their  soffits  being 
ornamented  with  eighteen  guttae  in  three  TOWS  of  six  each. 

The  principal  examples  are  found  in  Greece,  Sicily,  and  South 
Italy. 

DORIC  EXAMPLES  IN  GREECE. 

Date.  Architect. 

The  Heraion,  Olynipia  (No.  31  c,  D,  page  66)        B  C.  700 
The  Temple  of  Athena,  Corinth     .         .     .        B.C.  650 
The  Temple  of  Poseidon,  Island  of  Paros     .  B.C.  6th  cent. 
The  Temple  of  Zeus,  Olvmpia  (page  67)  B.C.  472-469  Libon. 


GREEK  EXAMPLES.    V. 
THE  SO-CALLED  THESEION  OR  TEMPLE,  OF  HEPHAESTOS  (?)  B.C.  465. 


PEDIMENTAL  SCULPTORE 

E/ITlftLY  DC 


METOPES  WE  FRONT  :  THE  LABOURS  OF  HERACLES,- 
I.H.&NEMEAN  LION;  2.H.MOLAU5DESTROY- 


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THEThESEIONfSOCALL: 
ED)ISTHtBE5TfRE5ERV- 
ED  ANCJENT  TEMPLE.  IT 
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66 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


DORIC  EXAMPLES  IN  GREECE  (continued)^ 

Date.  Architect. 

The    Theseion    (so    called)    or    Temple  of      B.C.  465  (?) 
Hephaestos,   Athens  (No.    19   n,   21.    22. 
38  A)  (page  67). 

The    Temple    of  Aphaia    (Jupiter   Panhel-    B.C.  470-450 
lenius)  on  the  Island  of  sJLgina.     (Nos. 
19  c,  20)  (page  67). 
The    Parthenon,    Athens    (No.     16    A,    B.    B.C.  454-438  Ictinus  and  Callicrates. 

C,    D,    E,    F,    17,    l8   H,     19    E,    23,    24,    25, 

40  A,  D,  K,  44  G,  H)  (page  67). 

The  Temple  of  Poseidon,  Sunium       .         .          B.C./44O 
The  Propyl&a  (Entrance  Gateway),  Athens     B.C.  437-432  Mnesicles. 

(Nos.  17,  18  N,  26)  (page  93). 
The   Temple   of  Apollo  Epicurius  ("  The       B.C.  430  Ictinus. 

Ally"),  Basses,  near  Phigaleia  in  Arcadia 

(No.    27  A,    B,    C;    D,    L,  M,   N,  28  F,   G,   H) 

(page  72). 
The  Temple  of  Demeter  (Ceres),  or  the  Hall    B.C.  435-310.    Ictinus  and  Philon. 

of  the  Mysteries,  Eleusis. 

The  Tliolos,  Epidaiiros  (No.  18  K)     .          .    B.C.  4th  cent.  Polycleitos  the  younger. 
The   Temples  of  Themis  and  Nemesis  (No. 

1 8  A),  Rhamnus. 

The  Temple  of  Apollo,  Island  of  Delos  (No.        B.C.  300. 

19  F). 

DORIC  EXAMPLES  IN  SICILY  AND  SOUTH  ITALY. 

Date.  Architect. 

The    Great    Temple,    Selinus,   Sicily    (No.     B.C.  610-509 

l8L). 

The     Temple    kncnvn    as    the    "Basilica,"  B.c    550 

Pastum  (No    28  D,  E). 

The  Temple  of  Ceres,  Pastuni  (No.  19  A).  B.C.  550 

The  Temple  of  Concord,  Agrigentiun  .         .  B.C.  550 

The  Temple  of  Juno,  Agrigentum  .         .     .  B.C.  550 

The  rl  emple  of  Poseidon  (Neptune),  Pastum,  B.C.  500 

S.  Italy  (No.  19  B). 

The  Temple  of  Athena,  Syractise,  Sicily       .  B.C.  6th  cent. 

The  Temple  of  Egeita,  Sicily.         .         .  B.C.  5th  cent. 
Temples  {several}  at  Selinus,  Sicily       .         .B.C.  628-410 

The    Temple   of  Zeus   (Jupiter)   Olympitis,  B.C.  480                    Theron. 

Agrigentum  (Girgenti),  Sicily  (No.  28  M, 

N,  o)  (page  75). 

The  Heraion  (Temple  of  Hera),  Olympia  (B.C.  700) 
(Nos.  31  c,  D,  41  E),  is  believed  to  be  the  most  ancient  of  all 
Greek  Temples  hitherto  discovered.  It  stands  on  a  stylobate  of 
two  steps,  measuring  168  feet  by  64  feet  6  inches.  The  cella 
is  very  long  in  proportion  to  its  width  and  has  on  either  side  a 
range  of  eight  columns,  the  alternate  ones  being  connected  to  the 
cella  wall  by  means  of  short  transverse  walls.  The  peristyle 
columns,  which  with  the  capitals  measured  17  feet  in  height, 
varied  much  in  diameter  and  are  both  monolithic  and  built  in 
drums.  It  is  generally  held  that  the  original  columns  were  of  wood 
replaced  by  stone  columns  as  they  decayed  (see  page  59,  on  the 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  67 

origin  of  the  Doric  Order).     Pausanias  mentions  that  in  the  2nd 
century  A.D.  two  of  the  columns  in  the  opisthodomos  were  of  oak. 

The  Temple  of  Zeus,  Olympia  (B.C.  472 — 469)  is  peripteral 
hexastyle  on  plan.  The  columns,  of  which  there  are  thirteen  to 
the  sides,  equal  those  of  the  Parthenon  in  height,  but  are  much 
greater  in  diameter.  The  building  was  especially  famous  for  its 
sculptured  pediments  by  Paeonias  and  Alcamenes. 

The  so-called  Theseion  (?  B.C.  465)  (Nos.  18  F,  19  D,  21,  22, 
38  A),  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  the  Temple  of  Hephaestos, 
and,  although  the  best  preserved  Doric  example  in  Greece,  both 
date  and  name  are  a  matter  of  doubt.  It  is  peripteral  hexastyle 
on  plan  with  thirteen  columns  on  each  flank.  The  existing 
lacunaria,  especially  at  the  eastern  end,  still  retain  some  of  their 
original  coloring.  The  metopes  and  portions  of  the  frieze  are 
shown  on  No.  21,  but  although  both  pediments  were  ornamented 
with  sculpture  none  of  this  now  remains. 

The  Temple  of  Aphaia  (Jupiter  Panhellenius),  (B.C.  470— 
450),  (No.  19  c),  on  the  Island  of  ^Egina  is  an  interesting  and  well- 
preserved  example  of  an  early  peripteral  hexastyle  temple.  On 
the  interior  are  two  rows  of  five  columns  which  help  to  support 
the  roof.  A  general  description  is  given  on  No.  20. 
>  The  Parthenon  (B.C.  454 — 438)  (Nos.  16,  17,  23,  24),  was 
v  erected  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  being  dedicated  to  Athena 
Parthenos  (the  virgin  Athena).  Ictinus  and  Callicrates  were 
the  architects  and  Phidias  was  the  superintending  sculptor.  The 
temple  is  peripteral  octastyle  on  plan,  with  seventeen  columns  on 
the  flanks.  It  is  placed  on  a  stylobate  of  three  steps,  the  dimen- 
sions on  the  top  step  being  102  feet  by  228  feet,  i.e.,  a  relation  of 
breadth  to  length  of  about  4.  to  9.  Each  of  the  steps  measures 
about  i  foot  8  inches  high  and  2  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  being  too 
steep  to  ascend  with  comfort,  intermediate  steps  were  provided  at 
the  centre  of  the -east  and  west  ends  (No.  23  F).  On  the  east,  the 
principal  doorway,  led  into  the  cella,  which,  measuring  100  attic 
feet  in  length,  was  called  the  "  Hecatompedon."  The  cella, 
62  feet  6  inches  wide,  was  divided  into  a  nave  and  aisles  by  two 
rows  of  ten  Doric  columns,  3  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  having 
sixteen  flutes,  as  may  be  ssen  by  the  marks  of  their  basis  on  the 
marble  paving.  Three  columns  were  placed  at  the  western  end, 
so  making  the  aisle  continuous  round  three  sides  of  the  cella. 
Near  the  western  end  of  the  cella  was  the  famous  statue  of  Athena, 
mentioned  hereafter.  To  the  west  of  the  cella  was  the  Parthenon 
proper  (i.e.  virgin's  chamber),  from  which  the  temple  took  its  name. 
This  chamber  is  a  peculiarity  differentiating  the  temple  from  most 
others,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  used  as  the  Hieratic  treasury. 
It  was  entered  from  the  opisthodomos  by  a  large  doorway  corre- 
sponding to  the  eastern  one,  and  its  roof  was  supported  by  four 
Ionic  columns  (No.  23  A,  c).  The  cella  and  the  Parthenon  were 

F  2 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.    VI. 


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23. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  69 

enclosed  by  walls  about  four  feet  thick,  having  on  the  outside, 
encircling  the  building,  an  ambulatory  9  feet  wide  on  the  sides  and 
1 1  feet  in  the  front  and  rear.  Both  the  pronaos  and  opisthodomos 
(measuring  about  60  feet  by  12  feet)  were  planned  in  a  somewhat 
unusual  manner,  having  six  columns  about  5!  feet  in  diameter 
and  33  feet  high,  forming  a  prostyle  portico  on  an  upper  stylo- 
bate  of  two  steps.  They  were  both  used  as  treasure  stores,  and  in 
order  to  render  them  secure,  lofty  metal  grilles  extending  from  the 
floor  to  the  roof  were  fixed  between  the  columns,  the  central 
intercolumniation  having  gates  for  means  of  access. 

The  internal  columns  supported  an  upper  row  of  smaller  Doric 
columns  carrying  the  roof  timbers  and  forming  the  side  aisles  in 
two  heights  (an  arrangement  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Temple  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  at  Paestum).  Near  the  western  end  of  the  cella 
stood  the  famous  statue  of  Athena  Partherios,  being  one  of  the 
most  marvellous  works  of  Phidias,  representing  Athena  fully 
armed  with  spear,  helmet,  segis  and  shield,  supporting  a  winged 
victory  in  her  right  hand  (No.  23  K).  It  wa*s  a  "  chryselephantine  " 
(gold  and  ivory)  statue,  about  40  feet  in  height,  including  the 
pedestal,  and  was  constructed  on  a  wooden  core.  The  gold  plates 
of  which  it  was  partly  composed  were  detachable  and  could  be 
removed  in  case  of  national  dangers.  The  face,  hands  and  feet 
were  of  ivory,  but  the  drapery,  armour,  and  accessories  were  of 
solid  gold,  and  precious  stones  were  inserted  for  the  eyes. 

The  manner  of  lighting  the  interiors  of  Greek  temples  has 
already  been  referred  to  (page  56),  and  the  theories  there  set  forth 
apply  especially  to  the  Parthenon.  The  most  prominent  external 
features  are  the  fluted  marble  columns,  34  feet  3  inches  high, 
forming  the  peristyle  and  resting  on  the  stylobate.  Only  thirty- 
two  are  still  standing  ;  they  are  6  feet  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
base  and  4  feet  7  inches  under  the  echinus,  and  support  an 
entablature  1 1  feet  high  with  the  usual  divisions  of  architrave, 
frieze  and  cornice,  as  already  described  (page  59).  The  former 
is  three  slabs  in  thickness,  and  was  ornamented  on  its  eastern  and 
western  fronts  with  bronze  shields,  probably  selected  from  those 
presented  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  B.C.  334,  with  dedicatory 
inscriptions  between  in  bronze  letters.  The  flanks  of  the  building 
were  enriched  by  the  antefixae  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  rows  of 
marble  tiles  which  covered  the  roof.  The  pediments  or  low  gables 
which  terminated  the  roof  at  each  end  had  at  their  lower  angles  an 
acroterion  and  a  carved  lion's  head.  The  apex  (59  feet  above  the 
stylobate)  was  also  ornamented  by  a  large  sculptured  acroterion 
of  the  anthernion  ornament  (No.  16  A).  The  peristyle  ceiling  was 
richly  ornamented  with  "  lacunaria  "  and  marble  beams,  some  of 
which  at  the  western  end  are  still  in  situ.  The  triangular  enclosed 
portions  (tympana)  were  filled  with  sculpture  of  the  most  perfect 
type.  The  eastern  pediment  represents  the  birth  of  Athena  and 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


24. 


THE  PARTHENON,  ATHENS. 
View  of  Angle. 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.     VII. 


F  E  RG  U  S  S  O  N. 

METHOD        OF      LIGHTING     BY     CLERESTORY 


SCALE  or  rEEl 


•  TTICHER 
METHOD    OF     LIGHTING   BY  SKYLIGHT. 


25- 


THE  PARTHENON,  ATHENS. 


72  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  western  the  contest  of  Athena  and  Poseidon  for  the  possession 
of  Athens.  The  celebrated  Panathenaic  frieze  was  carved  along 
the  top  of  the  outside  of  the  cella  wall,  being  taken  across  the  east 
and  west  ends  above  the  six  columns  to  pronaos  and  opisthodomos. 
It  is  3  feet  4  inches  high,  in  very  slight  relief  (if  inches),  and  is 
carefully  sculptured  so  as  to  be  effective  by  reflected  light 
(No.  23  F).  It  represents  the  Panathenaic  procession  every 
fourth  year  to  the  Acropolis  in  order  to  present  the  "  peplos  " 
or  robe  to  the  goddess  Athena,  and  shows  the  prepara- 
tions of  the  Athenian  knights,  procession/of  Athenian  cavalry, 
chariots,  men  with  olive  branches,  musicians,  youths,  sacri- 
ficial animals,  maidens  with  sacrificial  vessels,  magistrates  and 
gods,  terminating  with  a  great  central  group  at  the  eastern 
end  over  the  principal  entrance  to  the  temple.  Out  of  a  total 
length  of  525  feet  only  335  feet  are  in  existence.  The  western 
frieze,  excepting  the  three  central  figures,  is  in  its  original 
position ;  the  greater  portion  of  that  belonging  to  the  northern, 
southern  and  eastern  sides  is  in  the  British  Museum,  the 
remainder,  with  the  exception  of  eight  fragments  of  the  eastern 
frieze  in  the  Louvre,  being  in  the  Athens  museum.  The  sculptured 
metopes,  about  4  feet  4  inches  square,  numbering  fourteen  on  each 
front  and  thirty-two  on  each  side,  are  in  high  relief.  Those  on  the 
eastern  fa9ade  represent  contests  between  the  gods  and  giants,  on 
the  western,  between  Greeks  and  Amazons,  on  the  southern, 
between  centaurs  (man-headed  horses)  and  Lapithae,  and  on  the 
northern,  scenes  from  the  siege  of  Troy. 

In  the  6th  century,  the  Parthenon  was  converted  into  a 
Christian  Church,  dedicated  to  the  "  Divine  Wisdom,"  when 
an  apse  was* formed  at  its  eastern  end.  From  1206 — 1458  it  was, 
under  the  Prankish  Dukes  of  Athens,  a  Latin  church.  From 
1458  it  was  again  an  orthodox  Greek  church  until  1460,  when  it 
\vas  converted  into  a  mosque.  In  1687  during  the  capture  of 
Athens  by  the  Venetians,  it  was  much  damaged  by  a  shell  which 
fell  into  a  portion  of  the  building  used  as  a  powder  magazine. 

In  1688,  Athens  was  restored  to  the  Turks  and  the  building 
suffered  considerable  injury  at  their  hands,  until  in  1801,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Lord  Flgin,  many  of  the  principal 
sculptures  were  removed  to  the  British  Museum. 

"  Earth  proudly  wears  the  Parthenon 
As  the  best  gem  upon  her  zone." 

Emerson. 

The  Temple  of  Apollo  EpicuriuS  (The  Ally  or  Helper), 
Bassse,  near  Phigaleia  in  Arcadia  (B.C.  430)  (Nos.  27,  28  F,  G,  H, 
29  N,  o,  P),  of  which  Ictinus  was  architect,  was  an  exceptional 
design  in  which  all  the  three  Grecian  orders  of  architecture — 
Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian — were  employed.  It  is  a  peripteral 


GREEK    EXAMPLES.    VIII 


TECT  MNESICLE3ABBT 

8.C437-432 

IT  19  BUILT  OF  PENTELK 

MA»= 

AT  THE  WEST  END  cm 
ACROPOLIS  IT  @N8I5T3 
OFAfRQNTsREAR 
PORTICO  A  CENTRAL 
VESTIBULE  WITH 

Bourn  m*. 

THE  SOUTH  WING  WAS 
NEVER  FINISHED  AS  IT 
WOULD  HWE  ENCROACH- 


*>  ^Pff  acMIfoii[ll¥flVlB3KIl^ 


26. 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.    IX. 


m^-H    i  mi  m  i  m   i  mp 

riOHS  50  10  20  5O  4ofEC 

RBnON  S!SMIi«ttCam^M1tlM,«» 
'"'3^^°°w"  i  i     iMiurnn  i?        •• 


NECKIMG  A5 
DRAWN  BY 
TL.D6NALD50N 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  75 

hexastyle  temple  with  fifteen  columns  on  each  flank,  all  built  up 
in  drums.  The  principal  fa9ade  faces  north,  an  unusual  arrange- 
ment, and  apparently  due  to  its  erection  on  the  site  of  an  earlier 
temple.  The  statue  of  Apollo  was  placed  to  one  side  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  cella  forming  the  sanctuary  of  the  earlier 
building,  which  was  orientated,  light  being  admitted  by  an  open- 
ing in  the  eastern  wall.  Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  cella, 
internal  rows  of  columns  were  avoided,  but  instead  of  these  a 
range  of  five  fluted  Ionic  half-columns  on  each  side  forming  the 
ends  of  short  cross  walls  connected  to  the  cella  walls.  The  two 
columns  furthest  from  the  entrance  on  each  side  are  joined  to 
walls  placed  diagonally  with  those  of  the  cella.  The  single 
column  at  the  southern  end  was  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  is 
generally  referred  to  as  the  earliest  example  known  (No.  27  G,  H,  j). 
The  lighting  of  the  interior  is  conjectural,  but  the  cella  north  of 
the  more  ancient  sanctuary  was  probably  hypaethral  or  had 
openings  in  order  to  admit  top-light  to  the  celebrated  frieze  above 
the  internal  half-columns  (No.  27  B,  D,  E).  These  have  a  new 
and  original  treatment  of  the  capital,  with  angle  volutes,  and  have 
boldly  moulded  bases  (No.  29  N,  o,  p).  The  sculptured  frieze, 
about  2  feet  in  height  and  100  feet  in  length,  represents  the  battles 
of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae,  and  the  Athenians  and  Amazons. 
The  building  is  constructed  of  a  hard  grey  limestone,  which  being 
covered  with  a  beautiful  pink  lichen  of  the  district,  has  a  very 
picturesque  appearance. 

The  roof  was  covered  with  Parian  marble  slabs,  measuring 
3  feet  6  inches  by  2  feet,  and  less  than  2  inches  in  thickness.  The 
ceiling  of  the  peristyle  was  very  richly  treated  in  marble  panels 
or  lacunaria,  and  those  to  the  pronaos  and  opisthodomos  had 
marble  beams  in  addition. 

The  Temple  of  Zeus  Olympius,  Agrigentum  (B.C.  480) 
(No.  28  M,  N,  o),  of  which  Theron  was  the  architect,  is  of  excep- 
tional design,  and  ranks  as  second  in  size  among  Grecian  examples. 
It  is  pseudo-peripteral  septastyle  in  plan,  having  seven  half  columns 
on  the  front  and  fourteen  on  each  side.  These  half  columns  are 
of  great  size,  being  13  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  represented  inter- 
nally by  flat  pilasters.  The  triple  cella  is  of  immense  size,  and 
is  believed  to  have  been  lighted  by  windows  high  in  the  wall. 
The  building  was  never  completed,  the  illustrations  being  from 
restorations  by  Professor  Cockerell.  Owing  to  its  immense  size, 
structural  truth  (usually  so  important  in  Greek  buildings)  had  to 
be  sacrificed,  the  order  being  built  up  of  small  pieces,  which  in 
features  like  the  echinus,  abacus  and  architrave,  is  a  departure 
from  Greek  principles,  as  is  also  the  use  of  attached  half  columns. 
The  architrave  is  supported  not  only  by  the  half  columns,  but  by 
the  intervening  screen  wall  to  which  they  are  attached. 


GREEK    EXAMPLES.    X. 


PKONH05 


TWYFR- 

WTHfl 


UiOTUPm  SECTION ^SSf^   (f*^        ELEVfflTIW 

Z4FunH5        ^Vx/ 


PKULIflR  IN  HflVING  DORIC 
COLONNflDE,  IONIC  % 
COLUMNS  4TEND5  OF^HORT 


RflNK5  fl5  5ECOND  IN  MAGNITUDE  flMONGJT  GREEK 
TEMPLE5  flND  15  PECULIAR  INHflVING  flTWHED  HfltF 
COLUMNS  TO  FflCflDE5  flND  SQUARE  PIER5  TO 
DIVI5IONflLWHLL'iplNTERIOR.WINDOV(§  IN  OUftR  Wt\f)  IN 
WING  flN  ODD  NUMBER  OF  COLUMNS  TO  END  FrtCflDES 


150 


700FITT 


28. 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE. 


THE    IONIC    ORDER. 


77 


The  Ionic  order  (No.  38  c)  is  especially  remarkable  for  its  scroll 
or  volute  capital.  This,  like  so  many  other  decorative  motifs, 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  lotus  bud  of  the  Egyptians 
(No.  41  B),  undergoing  sundry  modifications  on  its  way  from  Egypt 
by  way  of  Assyria  to  Asia  Minor,  but  to  what  influence  these 
modifications  should  be  attributed  is  not  at  present  clear.  The 
spiral  is  also  found  in  early  Mycenaean  jewellery  and  domestic 
articles  as  early  as  B.C.  800,  and  these  origins  might  be  sufficient  to 
account  for  its  adoption  in  a  later  period.  The  earliest  extant 
Ionic  capitals  at  Lesbos,  Neandra,  and  Cyprus,  exhibit  volutes  of 
a  distinctly  vegetable  type  with  a  palmette  interposed,  and  early 
Ionic  capitals  at  Delos  and  Athens  form  a  link  between  these  and 
later  types.  The  columns  have  shafts  usually  about  nine  times 
the  lower  diameter  in  height,  including  the  capital  and  base, 
having  twenty-four  flutes  separated  by  fillets,  and  not  sharp  edges 
as  in  the  Doric  order.  The  earlier  examples,  however,  have 
shallow  flutes  separated  by  arrises,  and  the  flutes  number  forty  in 
the  shafts  in  the  Archaic  Temple  at  Ephesus  (No.  29  K)  and  at 
Naukratis,  and  forty -four  at  Naxos.  There  is  a  moulded  base 
(No.  40  H)  usually  consisting  of  a  torus  and  scotia,  but  no  square 
plinth.  In  the  later  examples  a  lower  torus  was  added,  making 
what  is  known  as  the  Attic  base.  The  capital  consists  of  a  pair 
of  volutes  or  spirals,  about  two-thirds  the  diameter  in  height,  on 
the  front  and  back  of  the  column,  connected  at  their  sides  by  what 
is  known  as  the  cushion,  sometimes  plain  and  sometimes  orna- 
mented, and  on  the  front  and  back  an  echinus  moulding  carved 
with  the  egg  and  dart,  and  a  bead  moulding  under. 

The  volutes  were  either  formed  by  hand  or  by  various 
geometrical  processes  easily  acquired,  one  of  which  is  shown  on 
No.  41  G,  where  it  will  be  seen  it  can  also  be  formed  by  twisting  a 
string  round  an  inverted  cone  or  common  whelk  shell.  A  further 
development  was  to  make  the  angle  capital  with  volutes  facing 
the  two  fa9ades  by  joining  the  two  adjacent  volutes  at  an  angle 
approximating  45°  (No.  41  P).  The  Temple  at  Bassae  (Nos.  27, 
29,  N,  o,  P),  is  an  instance  of  all  the  volutes  being  thus  placed. 

The  entablature  varies  in  height,  but  is  usually  about  one-fifth 
of  the  whole  order.  It  consists  of  (a)  an  architrave  usually  formed 
as  a  triple  fascia,  probably  representing  superimposed  beams; 
(b)  a  frieze,  sometimes  plain,  but  often  ornamented  by  a  band  of 
continuous  sculpture  (Nos.  27,  29  c) ;  (c)  a  cornice,  with  no 
mutules,  but  usually  with  dentil  ornament  reminiscent  of  squared 
timbers,  and  having  above  it  the  corona  and  cyma-recta  moulding. 

The  principal  examples  of  the  Ionic  order  are  found  in  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor. 

The  Doric  order  provided  a  setting  for  sculptor's  work.     The 


GREEK   EXAMPLES,     XI 


/siElEUSIIS, 
coiunn  TOUMD 

ON5ITL. 


29. 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE. 


79 


Ionic  incorporated  it  with  the  order  itself,  usually  in  the  form  of 
carved  enrichments  on  its  main  lines. 


IONIC  EXAMPLES. 


Date. 
B.C.  550 


Architect. 


B.C.  484 

B.C.  438  Callicrates. 

B.C.  437-32  Mnesicles. 

B.C.  430  Ictinus. 


B.C.  420-393 

Mnesicles. 

B.C.  354 

Satyrus  and  Pythius. 

B.C.   350 
B.C.   350 
B.C.   338 

Hermogenes. 

B.C.  330        Pseonius   and    Deme- 
trius of  Ephesus. 

B.C.  335-320  I  Pgeonius  of  Ephesus, 
(    Daphne  of  Miletus. 
B.C.  320  Pythius. 


The  Archaic   Temple  of  Artemis  (Diana), 

Ephesus  (No.  29  H,J,  K)  (page  84). 
The  Temple  on  the  llisvts,    'Athens  (Nos. 

1 8  E,  29  A:  B,  c,  D,  38  c)  (see  below). 
The   Temple  of  Nike-Apteros  ("Wingless 

Victory "),  Athens  (Nos.    18  N,   26  B,  F, 

41  P)  (see  below). 
The  Propylcza,  Athens  (six internal  columns) 

(page  93)  (No.  17,  i8N,  26,  40  F). 
The  ^Temple   of  Apollo   Epicuriits,    Basscc 

(The  Internal  order  only)  (No.   27,  28  F, 

29  N,  o,  P)  (page  72). 
The   Erechtheion,  Athens   (No.    17,    18  M, 

29  E,  F,,G,  30)  (page  81). 
The   Mausoleum,    Halicarnassos   (No.    35) 

(page  94). 

The   Temple  of  Dionysus,  Teas  . 
The  Temfile  of  Hera,  Sam  as 
The  Philipeion,    Olympia  (External  colon- 
nade). 
The   Temple  of  Artemis  (Diana),  Ephesus 

(No.  31  A,  B)  (page  84). 
The    Temple    of   Apollo  -  Didymauts    near 

Miletus  or  Branchidce  (page  84). 
The  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  (Diana)  at 

Priene,  near  Miletus  (No.  29  L,  M.) 

The  Temple  on  the  Ilissus,  Athens  (B.C.  484)  (Nos.  18  E, 
29  A,  B,  c,  D,  and  38  c),  was  amphi-prostyle  tetrastyle,  placed  on  a 
platform  or  stylobate  of  3  steps.  The  celia  was  only  15  feet 
4  inches  square.  The  columns,  including  base  and  capital,  were 
14  feet  8  inches  high,  and  supported  an  entablature  4  feet  deep. 
The  Temple  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Turks  in  1780. 

The  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros  (Athena  Nike),  Athens 
(B.C.  438)  (Nos.  17,  18  N,  26  B,  F,  41  P),  Callicrates  being  the 
architect,  is  perched  picturesquely  on  the  south-western  spur  of 
the  Acropolis  Rock,  and  is  a  beautiful  example  of  a  smaller 
Ionic  Temple.  In  front  of  the  Temple  at  the  eastern  end  stoocf 
the  sacrificial  altar  of  the  goddess,  and  the  platform  of  rock  on 
which  the  edifice  stands  was  surrounded  on '"  three  sides  by  a 
marble  balustrade.  It  is  amphi-prostyle  tetrastyle  in  plan, 
and  is  raised  on  a  stylobate  of  3  steps,rthe  cella  being  only  13  feet 
9  inches  by  12  feet  5  inches.  The  Ionic  columns  to  the  east  and 
west  porticos  resemble  the  internal  columns  of  the  Propylaea. 
They  have  a  systyle  intercolumniation,  are  i  foot  9  inches  in 
diameter,  and  13  feet  6  inches  high,  and  support  an  entablature 
4  feet  3  inches  in  height.  The  total  height  to  the  apex  of  the 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.     XII. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  8l 

pediment  is  only  23  feet.  The  sculptured  frieze,  18  inches  high, 
originally  consisting  of  fourteen  slabs  (four  are  in  the  British 
Museum),  is  in  high  relief.  The  marble  balustrade  mentioned 
above  was  3  feet  2  inches  high,  enriched  with  very  fine  sculpture 
dating  from  B.C.  425-400.  The  Temple  was  removed  by  the 
Turks  in  1684  and  built  into  a  battery  on  the  Acropolis.  In  1836, 
on  the  destruction  of  the  battery,  the  materials  were  recovered 
and  reconstructed  by  the  architects  Ross,  Schaubert,  and  Hansen. 

The  Erechtheion,  Athens  (B.C.  420-393)  (Nos.  17,  18  M,  29  E, 
F,  G,  and  30),  of  which  Mnesicles  was  the  architect,  is  situated  on 
the  Acropolis,  north  of  the  Parthenon,  and  was  erected  on  the 
site  of  an  older  temple  burnt  by  the  Persians  in  B.C.  480.  The 
temple  was  regarded  with  special  veneration  by  the  Athenians,  as 
it  contained  the  memorials  of  the  religion  of  the  State,  viz. : — the 
sacred  olive  tree  that  Athena  called  forth  in  her  contest  with 
Poseidon,  the  salt  well  produced  by  the  trident  of  Poseidon,  the 
tomb  of  Cecrops,  the  olive  wood  Xoanon  (primitive  statue)  of 
Athena  Polias,  the  golden  lamp  of  Callimachus,  and  other  curiosi- 
ties and  spoils  from  the  Persians.  It  is  an  interesting  example  of 
unusual  and  irregular  planning,  due  to  its  sloping  site  and  the  fact 
that  it  consisted  of  three  distinct  shrines.  The  distribution  of 
the  interior,  which  measures  61  feet  3  inches  by  31  feet  6  inches, 
is  still  a  matter  of  conjecture.  It  has  no  side  colonnades,  hence  it 
is  called  "  apteral."  The  eastern  portion  was  appropriated  to  the 
shrine  of  Athena  Polias  (guardian  of  the  city),  the  western  portion 
to  those  of  Erechtheus  and  Poseidon,  the  Pandroseion  being  pro- 
bably included  within  the  precincts  to  the  west  of  the  temple  proper. 
There  are  three  porticos  of  different  designs :  an  eastern  Ionic 
hexastyle  portico,  a  northern  Ionic  tetrastyle  portico,  and  a 
southern  Caryatid  portico.  The  eastern  portico  probably  formed 
the  principal  entrance.  The  columns  are  two  diameters  apart 
(systyle),  the  northern  one  being  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
northern  portico  gave  access  to  the  western  cella ;  it  is  on  a  level 
10  feet  lower  than  the  eastern  one,  from  which  it  is  approached  by 
a  wide  flight  of  steps  on  the  north.  It  projects  westward  of  the 
main  building,  and  its  columns,  three  diameters  apart  (diastyle), 
are  arranged  in  a  manner  unknown  in  other  Greek  buildings. 
They  are  2  feet  9  inches  in  diameter,  and  25  feet  high.  The 
doorway  in  this  portico  is  of  the  finest  workmanship  (No.  37),  with 
carved  consoles  and  architrave  enrichments.  The  southern  or 
Caryatid  portico  (as  it  is  called)  was  probably  not  an  entrance, 
but  a  raised  "tribune,"  as  it  had  only  a  small  entrance  on  its 
eastern  side,  whence  the  lower  level  of  the  western  cella  was 
reached  by  means  of  steps  (No.  30  D,  F).  It  has  six  sculptured 
draped  female  figures,  7  feet  9  inches  high  (Nos.  30  G  and  42  G), 
similarly  spaced  to  the  columns  of  the  northern  portico,  but 
resting  on  a  solid  marble  wall  about  8  feet  above  the  level  of  the 

F.A.  G 


82  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

terrace  and  supporting  an  unusual  entablature  on  which  rests  the 
marble  coffered  roof.  All  the  figures  face  southwards,  the  three 
western  leaning  on  their  right  (outer)  legs,  and  the  three  eastern 
on  their  left,  thus  correcting  the  same  optical  illusion  as  in  the 
Parthenon  and  other  temple  fa9ades.  (The  second  Caryatid  from 
the  west  is  in  the  British  Museum,  being  replaced  in  the  building 
by  a  terra-cotta  copy.)  The  exterior,  constructed  in  marble  from 
Mount  Pentellicus,  owes  much  of  its  character  to  the  sloping  site 
and  unusual  and  irregular  .disposition  of  the/three  porticos,  unlike 
in  character,  height,  and  treatment.  The  north  portico  is  an 
example  of  a  very  rich  treatment  of  the  lonjc  order.  The  capital 
has  a  plaited  torus  moulding  between  the  volutes  once  inlaid  with 
colored  stones  or  glass,  and  bronze  embellishments  were  formerly 
affixed  to  other  parts  of  the  capital.  The  spiral  of  the  volute 
appears  to  have  been  finished  by  hand  and  is  enriched  with  inter- 
mediate fillets,  while  the  cushions  (sides)  have  hollows  and  pro- 
jections carved  with  the  bead  and  reel  ornament  (No.  41,  L,  M,  N,  o). 
The  abacus  is  enriched  with  the  egg  and  tongue  ornament.  The 
neckings  .of  the  columns  are  carved  with  the  "  anthemion  " 
(palmette)  ornament,  which  is  also  applied  to  the  antae  (No.  44  F), 
and  carried  round  the  entire  building  under  the  architrave.  The 
shafts  of  the  columns  have  an  entasis,  and  the  upper  torus  of  the 
bases  have  plaited  enrichments. 

The  order  of  the  eastern  portico  is  very  similar  although  less 
rich.  The  angle  columns  in  each  portico  have  the  volutes  arranged 
so  as  to  show  on  both  faces.  The  main  building  is  crowned  with 
an  entablature  5  feet  high,  with  the  usual  triple  division  of  archi- 
trave, frieze,  and  cornice,  with  water-leaf  and  egg-and-tongue 
enrichments.  The  skyline  was  enriched  by  the  acroterion  orna- 
ments of  the  pediments  and  the  antefixae  of  the  marble  roofing 
slabs.  The  frieze  to  the  porticos  and  main  building  was  formed 
of  black  Eleusinian  marble,  to  which  the  sculptured  figures  of 
white  marble  were  attached  by  metal  cramps,  a  method  of  showing 
up  the  sculptured  figures  which  in  other  temples  was  frequently 
gained  by  the  use  of  color.  The  pediments  appear  to  have  been 
devoid  of  sculpture. 

The  west  wall  was  provided  in  Roman  times  with  four  Ionic 
half-columns,  angle  antae  and  three  windows. 

The  Erechtheion  ijas  passed  through  various  vicissitudes.  It 
was  transformed  into  a  church  in  the  time  of  Justinian,  and  after 
the  Turkish  annexation  it  .was  converted  into  a  harem.  In  1827, 
during  the  Greek  revolution,  the  north  portico  and  coffered  ceiling 
and  portions  of  the  rest  of  the  building  were  destroyed,  only  three 
of  the  Caryatides  remaining  in  position.  In  1838,  the  walls  were 
partially  rebuilt  in  their  present  state,  and  in  1845  the  Caryatid 
portico  was  re-erected.  In  1852  a  storm  damaged  the  building, 
overthrowing  the  upper  half  of  the  western  wall  and  engaged 
Roman  columns. 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.    XIII. 


THEtMPLE 


(m.A.S.  MURRAY) 


.THtlNbRLD  WAS  BUILT  EJf 
DINXRATT5.ARCHrB.C550 
ON  THE  efTE  Or  AN  OLDER 
TEMPLE.  IT  IS  REMARKABLE 


Q)€HJMIB  5  PEDESTALS. 
'  <3(ALC  K*  PL1N5 


31- 


G  2 


84  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Temple  of  Artemis  (Diana),  Ephesus  (B.C.  330) 
(No.  31  A,  B),  occupied  the  site  of  two  previous  temples.  The 
oldest  archaic  temple  (No.  29  H,  j,  K)  erected  from  the  designs  of 
Ctesiphon  (B.C.  550),  was  burnt  in  B.C.  400.  It  was  either  restored 
or  rebuilt  by  the  architects  Paeonius  and  Demetrius,  of  Ephesus, 
but  was  again  burnt  in  B.C.  356,  on  the  night  of  Alexander's 
birth.  The  later  temple,  regarded  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  was  erected  in  B.C.  330  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

The  site  of  the  temple  was  discovered  by/tne  architect  Wood  in 
1869 — 74>  and  many  of  the  remains,  both  of  the  archaic  and  later 
temples  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  building  rested  on 
a  lower  stylobate  of  four  steps,  having  at  each  end  an  additional 
flight  of  steps,  placed  between  the  first  and  second  rows  of  columns, 
in  order  to  reach  the  upper  platform.  Conjecturally  restored  by 
the  late  Dr.  Murray,  by  the  aid  of  Pliny's  description,  the  plan  is 
dipteral  octastyle,  having  double  ranges  of  twenty  columns  on 
each  flank.  In  addition  to  the  cella,  there  were  a  pronaos, 
posticum,  treasury,  opisthodomos  and  staircases  leading  to  the 
roof.  Pliny  mentioned  that  the  temple  had  one  hundred  columns, 
thirty-six  of  which  were  sculptured  on  the  lower  drum,  but  he 
does  not  mention  the  sixteen  front  and  rear  columns  with  square 
sculptured  pedestals,  which  are  shown  on  a  lower  level  so  that 
their  top  surface  is  level  with  the  upper  platform.  Behind  these 
at  each  end  are  eight  of  the  columns  with  sculptured  drums,  two 
being  placed  in  antis  to  the  pronaos  and  posticum,  thus  making 
the  thirty-six  columns  with  sculptured  drums  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

The  cella  is  believed  to  have  had  super-imposed  columns  to 
carry  the  roof.  The  building  externally  must  have  been  one  of 
the  most  impressive  among  Greek  temples,  owing  to  its  size,  and 
the  sculpture  on  the  above-mentioned  square  sub-pedestals  and 
thirty-six  circular  drums,  which  were  probably  suggested  by  the 
archaic  temple,  are  distinctive  of  this  building. 

The  Temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  near  Miletus  (B.C.  335- 
320),  was  by  the  architects  Paeonius  of  Ephesus,  and  Daphne  of 
Miletus.  There  was  an  archaic  temple  having  seated  figures 
on  either  side  and  a  lion  and  sphinx,  which  were  dedicatory 
offerings  to  Apollo.  (Ten  of  these  seated  figures  and  the  lion  and 
sphinx  are  in  the  archaic  room  of  the  British  Museum.)  This 
archaic  temple  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians  under  Darius,  on 
the  suppression  of  the  Ionic  revolt  in  B.C.  496.  The  new  temple 
is  referred  to  by  Strabo,  who  says,  "  In  after  times,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Miletus  built  a  temple  which  is  the  largest  of  all,  but 
which  on  account  of  its  vastness  remains  without  a  roof,  and  there 
now  exists  inside  and  outside  precious  groves  of  laurel  bushes." 

The  building  is  dipteral  decastyle  on  plan,  the  cella  being 
hypaethral.  It  has  a  very  deep  pronaos,  having  beyond  it  an 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE.  85 

ante-chamber  with  stone  staircases  on  either  side.  The  cella 
walls  were  ornamented  with  Ionic  pilaster's,  six  feet  wide  and 
three  feet  deep,  resting  on  a  continuous  podium,  ranging  with  the 
peristyle  level.  These  pilasters  were  crowned  with  capitals  of 
varied  design,  having  between  them  a  sculptured  band  of  griffins 
and  lyres. 

At  the  eastern  (entrance)  end  on  either  side  of  the  doorway 
were  half  columns  having  Corinthian  capitals,  the  acanthus  leaves 
being  unusually  placed  and  the  central  volutes  undeveloped.  At 
the  western  end  of  the  cella,  Messrs.  Rayet  and  Thomas  discovered 
the  foundations  of  a  shrine. 

The  peristyle  columns  of  the  Ionic  order  are  fluted,  and  the 
bases  are  of  very  varied  design,  being  octagonal  with  carved 
panels  on  each  face. 

THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

The  Corinthian  Order  (Nos.  33  F,  38  E,  43  A,  B,  c),  which  is 
still  more  ornate  than  the  Ionic,  was  little  used  by  the  Greeks. 

The  column,  the  base  and  shaft  of  which  resemble  those  of 
the  Ionic,  is  generally  about  ten  times  the  diameter  in  height, 
including  the  capital,  and  is  placed  on  a  stylobate  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  other  orders.  The  distinctive  capital  is  much 
deeper  than  the  Ionic,  being  about  one  to  one-and-one-sixth  diame- 
ters in  height.  The  origin  of  the  capital  is  still  unknown.  It  may 
have  been  derived  from  the  Ionic,  such  as  the  Erechtheion  example, 
where  bands  of  sculpture  occur  beneath  the  scrolls,  or  it  may  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  bell-shaped  capitals  of  the  Egyptians, 
with  the  addition  of  the  Assyrian  spiral. 

Callimachus  of  Corinth,  a  worker  in  Corinthian  bronze,  is  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  reputed  author  of  the  capital,  and  as  the 
earlier  examples  appear  to  have  been  of  this  metal,  the  name  may 
have  been  derived  from  the  fact,  for  Pliny  (xxxiv.  chap,  iii.) 
refers  to  a  portico  which  was  called  Corinthian,  from  the  bronze 
capitals  of  the  pillars.  It  consists  normally  of  a  deep  bell  on 
which  were  carved  two  tiers  of  eight  acanthus  leaves,  and  between 
those  of  the  upper  row  eight  caulicoli  (caulis=a  stalk)  surmounted 
by  a  curled  leaf  or  calyx,  from  which  spring  the  volutes  (also 
known  as  caulicoli  and  helices  by  different  authorities),  supporting 
the  angles  of  the  abacus,  and  the  small  central  volutes  supporting 
a  foliated  ornament. 

The  abacus  is  moulded  and  curved  on  plan  on  each  face,  the 
mouldings  at  the  angles  either  being  brought  to  a  point  as  in  the 
Temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  at  Miletus,  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympius,  at  Athens  (No.  43  A),  and  the  Stoa  or  Portico,  Athens 
(No.  33  F,  G),  or  having  their  edges  chamfered  off  as  in  the 
Monument  of  Lysicrates  (No.  38  E). 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


32.     CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF  LYSICRATES,  ATHENS. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  87 

Another  type  of  capital  has  one  row  of  acanthus  leaves  with 
palm  leaves  over,  and  a  moulded  abacus  square  on  plan,  as  in  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens  (No.  43  B). 

The  entablature,  which   is__usually  about   one-fifth  of  the 

JieighJLof  the_  entire  order,  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the 

Ionic,  having  the  usual  triple  division  of  architrave,  frieze  and 

^cormce,_  the  mouldings  of  the  latter  having  additional  enrichments. 

CORINTHIAN  EXAMPLES. 

Date.  Architect. 

The    Temple    of  Apollo   Epicurius,    Bassie        B.C.  430  Ictinus. 

(single    internal  column).       (No.   27    G, 

H,  j)  (page  72). 
The    Tholos,    Epidauros.     (Internal    order)   B.C.  4th  cent.          Polycleitos  the 

(No.  18  K).  younger. 

The  Philipeion,  Olympia.       (Internal  order        B.C.  338 

of  half  columns). 
The     Choragic    Monument    of    Lysicrates,      B.C.  335-34 

Athens  (Nos.  28  j,  32,  38  E)  (see  below). 
The  Temrle  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  Miletus     B.C.  334-320      Poeonius,  of  Ephesus 

(or  Branchidae).      (Two  attached  internal  and  Daphne,  of 

columns)  (page  84).  Miletus. 

The  Olympieion  (or  Temple  ofZeics-Olympius,      B.C.  174 — |      Cossutius    (com- 

Athens  (No.  18  j,  43  A)  (page  90).  A.D.  117      j    pleted  by  Hadrian), 

The    Tower  of  the    Wind's,    Athens  (Nos.      B.C.  100-35 

28  K,  L,  43  B,  D,  E)  (page  88), 
The  Vestibule,  Eleusis. 

The   Choragic   Monument  of  Lysicrates,   Athens  (B.C. 

335-34),  (Nos.  28  j,  32,  40  j,  L,  43  c,),  is  a  type  of  structure 
which  was  erected  to  support  a  tripod  as  a  prize  for  athletic 
exercises  or  musical  performances  in  the  Grecian  festivals.  They 
are  referred  to  in  Virgils'  ^Eneid  (V.  verse,  140)  in  the  following 
lines : — 

"  In  view  amid  the  spacious  circle  lay 
The  splendid  gifts,  the  prizes  of  the  day, 
Arms  on  the  ground,  and  sacred  tripods  glow 
With  wreaths  of  palms,  to  bind  the  Victor's  brow." 

(Translation  by  Pitt.) 

The  rusticated  podium  or  base  of  Piraeus  stone,  9  feet  6  inches 
square,  supports  a  circular  structure  of  6  feet  internal  diameter, 
and  having  Corinthian  columns  supporting  an  entablature  crowned 
by  a  marble  dome,  ornamented  with  sculptured  scrolls,  and 
terminating  in  a  floral  ornament  which  formerly  supported  the 
bronze  tripod.  Between  the  columns  are  circular  wall  panels, 
but  the  interior  was  apparently  never  intended  for  use,  as  there 
was  no  provision  for  the  admission  of  light.  The  total  height 
of  the  structure  is  34  feet.  The  basement  is  slightly  rusticated, 
by  means  of  sinkings  at  the  joints,  and  is  13  feet  in  height  to 
the  top  of  the  cornice.  The  circular  colonnade  has  six  Corinthian 


88  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

columns  1 1  feet  7  inches  high,  projecting  rather  more  than  half 
their  diameter.  These  rest  on  a  secondary  base  encircling  the 
whole  building,  and  are  complete  in  themselves,  as  shown  on 
No.  38  E.  Between  the  columns  are  panels,  the  upper  part  of 
each  originally  being  sculptured  in  bas-relief. 

The  flutings  of  the  columns  are  peculiar  in  that  they  terminate 
at  the  top  in  the  form  of  leaves.  The  capitals,  i  foot  7  inches 
high,  bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  half-columns  of  about 
the  same  date  in  the  cella  of  the  Temple  of  ^.pollo-Didymaeus,  at 
Miletus.  On  the  inside,  where  they  could  /not  be  seen  they  were 
left  unfinished.  The  foliage  is  different  from  the  later  type  in 
having  a  lower  row  of  sixteen  small  lotus  leaves,  then  a  single 
row  of  very  beautiful  acanthus  leaves,  having  between  them  an 
eight-petalled  flower  resembling  an  Egyptian  lotus.  The  channel 
just  above  the  foliated  flutings  of  the  shaft  probably  had  a 
bronze  collar,  although  the  Greeks  were  accustomed  to  these 
sinkings  under  their  Doric  capitals.  The  architrave  and  frieze  are 
in  one  block  of  marble,  the  former  bearing  an  inscription,  and  the 
latter  being  sculptured  to  represent  the  myth  of  Dionysos  and  the 
Tyrrhenian  pirates.  The  cornice  is  crowned  with  a  peculiar 
honeysuckle  scroll,  forming  a  sort  of  frilling,  used  instead  of  a 
cyma-recta  moulding,  and  probably  an  imitation  of  ante-fixae 
terminating  the  joint  tiles,  as  in  Greek  temples.  The  outside  of  the 
cupola  is  beautifully  sculptured  to  imitate  a  covering  of  laurel 
leaves,  and  from  the  upper  part  branch  out  three  scrolls  (Nos.  42  A, 
44  D),  the  upper  ends  of  which  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
supported  dolphins.  The  central  portion  is  carried  up  as  a 
foliated  and  moulded  stalk  or  helix  in  conjunction  with  acanthus 
leaves  branching  in  three  directions,  having  on  their  upper 
surfaces  cavities  in  which  the  original  tripod  feet  were  placed. 

The  Tower  of  the  Winds,  Athens  (B.C.  100-35)  (Nos.  28  K, 
L,  43  B,  D,  E),  also  known  as  the  Horologium  of  Andronikos 
Cyrrhestes,  was  erected  by  him  for  measuring  time  by  means  of 
(a.)  a  clepsydra  or  water-clock  internally  ;  (&.)  a  sun-dial  externally ; 
and  it  also  acted  as  a  weathercock.  The  building  rests  on  a 
stylobate  of  three  steps,  and  is  octagonal,  each  of  its  eight  sides 
facing  the  more  important  points  of  the  compass. 

It  measures  22  feet  4  inches  internally,  and  on  the  north-east  and 
north-west  sides  are  porticos  having  Corinthian  columns.  From 
the  south  side  projects  a  circular  chamber,  probably  used  as  a 
reservoir  for  the  water-clock.  The  interior  has  a  height  of  40  feet 
9  inches,  and  the  upper  part  is  provided  with  small  fluted  Doric 
columns  resting  on  a  circular  band  of  stone.  The  Corinthian 
columns,  13  feet  6  inches  high,  to  the  external  porticos  are  fluted. 
They  have  no  base  and  the  capitals  are  of  a  plain  unusual  type, 
without  volutes,  the  upper  row  of  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
palm.  The  wall  of  the  octagonal  structure  is  quite  plain  for  a 


9O  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

height  of  29  feet,  with  the  exception  of  the  incised  lines  forming 
the  sun-dial,  above  which  on  each  face  are  sculptured  figures, 
boldly  executed  to  represent  the  eight  principal  winds  (Nos.  43 
D,  E).  The  roof  is  formed  of  twenty-four  equal  sized  blocks  of 
marble,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  bronze  Triton  (see  Vitruvius,  I., 
chapter  vi.). 

The  Olympieion  (Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius),  Athens 
(No.  1 8  j),  stands  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  Doric  temple  commenced 
by  Pisistratus,  in  B.C.  530.  It  was  commenced  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  of  Syria  in  B.C.  174,  Cossutius/ a  Roman  architect, 
being  employed  ;  hence  it  is  often  designated  Roman  architecture. 
It  remained  incompleted,  and  in  B.C.  80  Sulla  transported  some  of 
the  columns  to  Rome  for  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  as 
related  by  Pliny.  The  building  was  completed  by  Hadrian  in 
A.D.  117,  but  only  fifteen  columns  of  the  original  one  hundred  and 
four  forming  the  peristyle  are  standing.  It  was  dipteral-octastyle 
on  plan,  having  twenty  columns  on  the  flanks,  and  occupied 
an  area  of  354  feet  by  154  feet  (equalling  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at 
Karnac),  and  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  magnificent  peribolus 
or  enclosure,  measuring  680  feet  by  424  feet,  part  of  the  retaining 
wall  of  which  still  remains  at  the  south-east  corner.  It  is 
described  by  Vitruvius  as  hypaethral,  but  it  was  unfinished  in 
his  time.  The  peristyle  columns  were  6  feet  4  inches  in  diameter, 
and  had  a  height  of  56  feet — a  proportion  of  about  one  to  nine. 
The  capitals  (No.  43  A)  are  very  fine  specimens  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  and  appear  to  date  from  both  periods  mentioned  above. 

GREEK    THEATRES. 

The  Greek  theatre  was  generally  hollowed  out  of  the  slope  of 
a  hill  near  the  city,  and  was  unroofed,  the  performances  taking 
place  in  the  day  time.  In  plan  (No.  34)  it  was  usually  rather 
more  than  a  semicircle,  being  about  two- thirds  of  a  complete 
circle.  The  auditorium  consisted  of  tiers  of  marble  seats,  rising 
one  above  the  other,  often  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Those 
spectators  who  sat  at  the  extremities  of  the  two  wings  thus  faced 
towards  the  orchestra,  but  away  from  the  stage.  The  Greek- 
theatre,  which  was  constructed  more  for  choral  than  dramatic 
performances,  had  a  circular  "orchestra"  or  dancing  place 
(corresponding  to  the  stalls  and  pit  of  a  modern  theatre)  in 
which  the  chorus  chanted  and  danced. 

The  orchestra  was  the  "  germ  "  of  the  Greek  theatre. 

The  stage  was  known  as  the  logeion  or  "  speaking  place,"  its 
back-wall  being  the  skene  (  =  booth  or  tent  for  changing  in),  the 
latter  name  being  preserved  in  the  modern  word  "  scene."  The 
actors  being  few,  the  stage  consisted  of  a  long  and  narrow  platform, 
with  permanent  background.  To  what  height  above  the  level  of 


THE  INSIDE  BOMNtf  0P  TAB 
IWCbUWJOTTW 


Q2  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  orchestra  this  platform  was  raised  is  a  question  that  has  been 
much  debated  in  recent  years.  The  most  probable  view  seems  to 
be  the  following: — (i.)  In  pre-.'Eschylean  drama,  before  regular 
theatres  were  made,  an  actor  mounted  on  a  table,  probably  the 
table-altar  of  the  god  Dionysos,  and  held  a  dialogue  with  the 
dancers  or  chorus.  The  rude  table-stage  illustrated  on  some 
vases  from  South  Italy  may  represent  a  local  retention  of  this  primi- 
tive custom.  (2.)  In  the  fifth  century  B.C.  no  direct  evidence  is 
available  ;  but  a  low  wooden  stage  is  practically  certain,  connected 
by  means  of  a  ladder  with  the  orchestra.  (3/)  The  fourth  century  is 
the  earliest  period  in  which  there  is  monumental  evidence.  At 
Megalopolis  a  platform  of  wood  from  3  feet  3  inches  to  4  feet  6  inches 
high  appears  probable,  with  a  stone  colonnade  behind  it.  At  Epi- 
dauros  there  was  a  wooden  floor  supported  by  a  wall  12  feet  high. 
(4.)  In  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times,  Vitruvius  tells  us,  the  Greek 
stage  was  10  to  12  feet  high,  and  this  statement  is  borne  out  by 
many  extant  examples.  The  Theatre  of  Dionysos,  Athens, 
(No.  17),  completed  B.C.  340,  in  which  thirty  thousand  spectators 
could  be  accommodated,  is  the  prototype  of  all  Greek  theatres, 
and  was  the  one  in  which  the  plays  of  the  great  Athenian 
dramatists  were  produced. 

The  Theatre,  Epidauros,  was  constructed  by  the  architect 
Polycleitos,  and  is  the  most  beautiful  as  well  as  the  best  pre- 
served example  extant.  The  circle  of  the  orchestra  is  complete, 
and  is  about  66  feet  across,  the  entire  theatre  being  378  feet  in 
diameter. .  Thirty-two  rows  of  seats  forming  the  lower  division  are 
separated  by  a  broad  passage  (diazoma)  from  twenty  rows  above. 
Twenty-four  flights  of  steps  diverge  as  radii  from  bottom  to  top. 

THE   PALACES   AND    DOMESTIC   BUILDINGS. 

The  excavations  lately  carried  out  by  Dr.  Arthur  Evans  at 
Knossos  in  Crete  (page  54),  and  those  by  the  Italians  at  Phaestos, 
in  the  same  island,  have  revealed  palaces  more  remote  in  date  than 
the  Mycenaean  period,  to  which  is  given  the  name  "  Minoan."  The 
excavations  of  the  Palace  of  King  Minos,  Knossos,  show  the 
remains  of  a  remarkable  structure  laid  out  on  a  plan  afterwards 
used  in  the  Roman  palaces  and  camps.  This  building  is  believed 
to  date  from  about  B.C.  2000,  and  was  unfortified.  Underneath 
the  upper  palace  were  found  the  remains  of  an  earlier  one,  which 
is  believed  to  date  from  about  B.C.  3000.  About  five  acres  of  this 
remarkable  structure  have  been  uncovered.  The  apartments,  round 
a  central  oblong  courtyard  '(about  180  feet  by  90  feet),  are 
constructed  in  several  stories,  which  are  reached  by  staircases. 
Some  remarkable  wall  frescoes  and  colored  plaster  ceilings,  an 
olive  press  with  huge  oil  jars,  and  the  remains  of  a  system  of 
drainage,  with  terra-cotta  drain  pipes,  were  discovered. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  93 

At  Tiryns,  situated  by  the  sea  coast  to  the  south-west  of  Athens, 
and  at  Mycenae,  remains  have  been  discovered  of  recent  years  by 
Drs.  Schliemann  and  Dorpfeld  which  are  of  the  greatest  interest 
in  showing  the  general  arrangement  of  other  palaces  (No.  15  F). 

At  Mycenae,  flights  of  steps  lead  to  an  outer  courtyard,  from 
which,  by  traversing  a  portico  and  vestibule,  the  megaron,  or 
principal  men's  apartment,  is  reached.  From  this  megaron,  sur- 
rounded by  a  roof  and  open  to  the  sky  in  the  centre,  were  reached 
other  chambers,  whose  uses  are  not  defined.  The  women's 
chambers  are  considered  by  some  authorities  to  be  planned  so  as 
to  afford  the  greatest  seclusion,  while  others,  notably  Prof.  Ernest 
Gardner,  hold  that  little  or  no  attempt  was  made  at  seclusion, 
and  bring  strong  evidence  to  bear  from  literary  authorities, 
principally  from  Homer.  The  plans  of  domestic  buildings 
appear  to  have  resembled,  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  palaces  as  is  seen  in  the  remains  at  Athens,  Delos, 
and  Priene,  dating  from  the  Hellenic  period.  They  appear  to 
have  been  of  one  story  only,  and  grouped  around  an  internal 
courtyard  or  peristyle.  Vitruvius  (Book  VI.,  chapter  x.)  refers  to 
their  general  arrangement,  when  he  says  there  was  no  atrium  but 
a  peristylium  with  a  portico  on  three  sides,  and  chambers  grouped 
around.  It  is  generally  held  that  the  Graeco-Roman  houses  of 
Pompeii  may  be  taken  as  typical  examples  (No.  65  A,  B),  and 
these  may  be  referred  to  on  page  162. 

PROPYL^A. 

Propylaea  were  erected  as  entrance  gateways  to  many  of 
the  principal  cities  of  Greece,  and  those  at  Athens,  Epidauros, 
Sunium,  Eleusis,  and  Priene  are  the  best  known. 

The  Propylaea,  Athens  (No.  26),  were  erected  under  Pericles 
by  the  architect  Mnesicles  in  B.C.  437.  It  is  at  the  west  end  of  the 
Acropolis  (No.  17),  being  reached  by  a  long  flight  of  steps  from 
the  plain  beneath.  It  has  front  and  rear  hexastyle  Doric  porticos 
at  different  levels,  giving  access  to  a  great  covered  hall,  having  a 
wide  central  passage  bounded  by  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns,  and 
having  at  its  eastern  end  a  wall  in  which  are  five  doorways  of 
different  heights.  On  either  side  of  the  western  entrance  portico 
are  projecting  wings  having  three  smaller  Doric  columns,  that  to 
the  north  being  used  as  a  picture  gallery,  while  that  to  the  south 
was  never  completed.  The  general  external  appearance  is  well 
shown  in  the  restored  view  (No.  i). 

TOMBS. 

The  most  important  from  an  architectural  point  of  view  are 
found  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Harpy  Tomb,  Xanthos,  in  Lycia 


94  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

(B.C.  550)  is  an  early  or  archaic  example,  with  sculptured  reliefs, 
from  which  the  tomb  is  named,  and  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  Nereid  Monument  (B.C.  fifth  century),  Xanthos,  is 
generally  considered  to  have  been  erected  as  a  trophy  monument. 
Important  fragments  discovered  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows,  and  the 
model  in  the  British  Museum,  indicate  a  building  consisting  of  a 
central  chamber  or  cella  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  fourteen 
Ionic  columns,  the  whole  elevated  on  a  basement  standing  on  two 
steps.  The  sculptured  figures  of  nereids  or  marine  nymphs,  from 
which  the  building  takes  its  name,  originally  stood  between  the 
columns  and  had  under  them  marine  attributes.  This  monument 
has  important  sculptured  friezes,  acroteria  and  pediments.  The 
Mausoleum,  Halicarnassos  (No.  35),  was  the  most  famous 
tomb.  It  was  erected  to  the  King  Mausolos  (B.C.  353)  by  his 
widow  Artemisia,  and  consisted  of  a  square  plinth  supporting  a 
tomb-chamber,  which  was  surrounded  by  Ionic  columns  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  pyramidal  roof  with  a  marble  quadriga  and  group 
of  statuary  at  its  apex  (see  page  108). 

The  architects  were  Satyros  and  Pythios,  and  Scopas  was  the 
superintendent  sculptor.  Portions  of  the  frieze,  the  statue  of 
Mausolos  and  Artemisia,  with  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the 
quadriga,  and  other  fragments  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Lion  Tomb,  Cnidus  (No.  36),  also  consists  of  a 
square  basement  surrounded  by  a  Doric  colonnade  of  engaged 
columns  surmounted  by  a  stepped  roof,  and  crowned  with 
a  lion,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  interior  was  circular 
and  roofed  with  a  dome  in  projecting  horizontal  courses. 

The  Sarcophagus  from  a  Tomb  at  Cnidus  (No.  36  E,  G), 
is  an  interesting  and  beautiful  example  of  a  smaller  type, 
as  is  also  the  Tomb  of  the  Weepers  (B.C.  fourth  century) 
(No.  36  H),  found  at  Sidon  (now  in  the  Museum  at  Constanti- 
nople), which  is  executed  in  the  form  of  a  miniature  Ionic  temple, 
having  sculptured  female  figures  between  the  columns.  The 
so-called  Alexander  Sarcophagus  (B.C.  fourth  century),  found 
near  Sidon,  and  now  in  the  Constantinople  Museum,  is  the 
most  beautiful  and  best  preserved  of  all.  It  is  so-called 
because  its  sides,  which  are  of  marble,  represent  battle  and  hunt- 
ing scenes  in  which  Alexander  was  engaged,  and  is  especially 
remarkable  for  the  colored  work  which  is  still  preserved  on  the 
sculpture.  There  are  also  important  examples  of  rock-cut  tombs 
at  Cyrene  (North  Africa)  and  Asia  Minor  (No.  41  F),  and  reference 
has  also  been  made  to  the  Lycian  Tombs  (page  37),  of  which 
the  two  brought  to  London  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows,  in  1842,  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Stele  was  a  class  of  tombstone  in  the  design  of  which 
the  Greeks  excelled.  It  consisted  of  a  flat  stone  placed  upright 
in  the  ground  like  a  modern  tombstone  and  crowned  with  the 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.    XIV. 


Il5  ToMBcf  MAU50L05  PJINCE  ?  (folk 

BUILT  w  TO  AKHITBCR 

*PYTHI05  ABOUT  fi.C.353Mfi  OF 


Cf  WfflCHTffiRIAK  SOME 
30  IK  ALL. 


WAS  RAHKED  AMONGST  THE  SEVEN 
WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

MAU50IP5  SUCCEEDED  Hfi  FATHER  A^ 
.SATRAP  UNDER  THE  KING  orPCKIA. 


5EATOFCMRHMEKT  FROM  THE 
IN1TAKD  TOWN  OF  MYLA3A  TO 
HAUCARNA-3505.  ONTHfDfATH 
OFMAUSOl05HfiWirEART[MI5IA 
SUCCEEDED  t,  REIGNED  ON  IY  2  TTAR^ 
SHE  CELEBRATED  HIS  MEMORY  BY 
RHETORICAL  *  DRAMATIC  CONTESTS 
BUT  CHIEECTGr  THE  INSTRUCTION 
or  THIS  TOMB-  ITis  RECORDED 

THATTHERE  WAS  HOT  TIME  TOFINISH 

fT  DURING  HER  REIGN  R  AOToRDIMG 
ToPLINYiTyyASWLLTEDBfTHE 
ARTCT5  MA  LABOUR  OF  10VE. 
IT  15  STATED  BT  TWO  LATER  BYTAN 
TINE  AUTHORS  THAT  MAU5010  HAD 
HIM3ELF  BEGUN  THE  TOMB, 
FOR  MANY  CENTURIES  THE  TOMB  RE-' 
MAIMED  INTACT.  INA.1I40E  THE 
KNIGHT5  OF  8  JOHN  TflDK  POSSESSION 
OFrTANOD5EDlHERUIHSA5A90ATOf 
FoR  MATER1ALT5  BUILD  THE  Q6TLEF 

PLINYiatHECHIFJAUTHOHnYSIdlKI 
RESTORATION  HAVE  BEEN  BASED. 
HE  5A13  THAT  THE  MAUSOLEUM  HAD 
A  10FTY  BASEMENT  OF  6RFF.N 
KAC-3ToNEONWHH:H5ni)DA« 

UPPER  510W  SURROUNDED  BY 
A  COLONNADE  (PTERON)  OF  35 
COLUMN&  SUPPORTING  ASTEPP- 
n  PYRAMID  CROWNED  BVA 

THE  5CULPTURD  WERE  EX- 

ECUTED IN  PARIAN  MARBLE  it 
m  SET  OFF  Bf  RED  AND 
BLUE  O 


35- 


GREEK   EXAMPLES.    XV. 


EiTCNIiniOll.THENECItoPol.lS  EX- 
MlE5 


BIT  A  RKUMK 
WHICH  THE  TOMB  TAKES  IT8  NAME. 


»m  our  of  AN 

IMMENSE  BLOCK 
OFMAI?BLEAND 
RCtCrORHAMEKT- 
EDINAttTE 
5ME  OFAKT.fc 


SIDE  ELEYATIONo 


A3WJ&PHAGU5  ToUND  AT  THE  NECR6P5LI5  orSIDON  INTHE  ToRM  OF 
A  TEMPLE  WITH  riCURE8  Of  M.OURNER3  BEWAILING  THE  DECEASED  AND 
NOW  IN  THE  MUSEUM  AT  ©NSTANTlNOPLE. 


36. 


GREEK   ARCHITECfURE.  g>? 

Anthemion  design,  the  lower  portion  having  panels  in  bas-relief 
(Nos.  42  H,  43  F,  and  44  E).  Many  of  these  can  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum. 

AGORA. 

The  agora,  or  open  meeting-places  for  the  transaction  of  public 
business,  were  large  open  spaces  surrounded  by  stoae  or  open 
colonnades,  giving  access  to  the  public  buildings,  such,  as 
temples,  basilicas,  stadion  (racecourse),  and  the  palaestrae  or 
gymnasia. 

PUBLIC    BUILDINGS. 

Stose  or  Colonnades  were  formed  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims 
to  the  various  shrines,  as  connections  between  public  monuments, 
or  as  shelters  adjoining  open  spaces,  and  were  an  important  class 
of  structure.  The  most  important  of  these  were  the  StoaPcecile,  or 
Echo  Colonnade,  about  300  feet  by  30  feet,  at  Olympia ;  two  at 
Epidauros — one  two  stories  in  height — acting  as  shelters  for  the 
patients  who  came  to  be  healed  at  the  shrine  of  ^Esculapius  ; 
three  examples  at  Delphi  ;  and  the  remarkable  example  near  the 
Propylaea  at  Delos,  known  as  the  "Sanctuary  of  the  Bulls" 
(No.  42). 

The  Stadion  was  the  foot  racecourse  found  in  cities  where 
games  were  celebrated,  and  it  came  eventually  to  be  used  for 
other  athletic  performances.  It  was  usually  straight  at  one  end, 
the  starting-place,  and  semicircular  at  the  other,  and  was  always 
600  Greek  feet  in  length,  although  the  foot  varied,  and  was  some- 
times planned  with  the  semicircular  end  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  so 
that  the  seats  could  be  cut  out  of  the  sloping  sides,  as  at  Olympia, 
Thebes,  and  Epidauros,  or  else  constructed  on  the  flat,  as  at 
Delphi,  Athens,  and  Ephesus.  The  Stadion  at  Athens,  now 
completely  restored,  was  commenced  in  B.C.  331,  and  finished  by 
Herodes  Atticus,  and  accommodates  between  40,000  and  50,000 
people.  The  Hippodrome  was  a  similar  type  of  building  used  for 
horse  racing. 

The  Palaestra  or  gymnasia,  as  at  Olympia  and  Ephesus,  were 
the  prototypes  of  the  Roman  thermae,  and  comprised  exercise 
courts,  tanks  for  bathers,  exedrae  or  recesses  for  lectures,  with 
seats  for  spectators. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans  (Nos.  18,  20  E,  and  27  c).— These  were  simple,  well 
judged,  nicely  balanced,  and  symmetrical,  exceptions  to  the  latter 
being  the  Erechtheion  (No.  18  M),  and  the  Propylaea  (No.  18  N), 
at  Athens,  and  probably  the  private  houses.  Plans  involving 

F.A.  H 


n   9   6  3   o 


37- 


/oy 


COMPARISON    OF  GREEK  AND   ROMAN 
MOULDINGS.    I. 


® 

DtOOOOOMO^)  }D 

(\*s) 


39- 


IO2  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

probably   also    framed   into   deep    coffers,    as    were    the    marble 
lacunaria  of  the  peristyles  (No.  21  B,  c,  E). 

E.  Columns. — As  the  temples  were  usually  one  story  high,  the 
columns  with  their  entablature  comprise  the  entire  height  of  the 
building,  except  in  some  interiors,  as  the  Parthenon  (Nos.  23,  25), 
the  Temple  of  Neptune,  Paestum  (No.  28  B),  and  elsewhere,  where 
a  second  range  of  columns  was  introduced  into  the  cella  to  support 
the  roof. 

The  orders  having  been  fully  dealt  with /on  pages  59,  77,  85, 
are  merely  summarized  as  follows  : — 

The  Doric  (No.  19)  is  the  oldest  and  plainest  of  the  orders,  the 
finest  examples  being  the  Parthenon  and  the  Theseion  (page  67). 

The  Ionic  (No.  29)  was  more  ornate,  and  is  best  seen  at  the 
Erechtheion  (page  81),  and  the  Temple  on  the  Ilissus  (page  79). 

The  Corinthian  was  little  used  by  the  Greeks,  the  best  known 
examples  being  the  monument  of  Lysicrates  at  Athens  (Nos.  32, 
38  A),  and  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  (No.  43  A),  upon  which 
the  Romans  founded  their  own  special  type. 

Caryatides  (No.  42  G)  and  Canephora  (No.  42  F),  or  carved 
female  figures  which  were  sometimes  used  in  the  place  of  columns, 
as  at  the  Erechtheion,  Athens  (No.  30),  and  are  of  Asiatic  origin. 

F.  Mouldings. — Refer   to   illustrations   of  Greek   mouldings 
compared  with  Roman  given  on  Nos.  39  and  40.     Mouldings  are 
the  means  by  which  an  architect  draws  lines  upon  his  building, 
and  a  true  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  contour  is  best  obtained 
from  actual  work  rather  than  from  drawings,  the  examples  at  the 
British  Museum  being  available  for  this  purpose. 

The  principal  characteristic  of  Greek  mouldings  was  refine- 
ment and  delicacy  of  contour  due  to  the  influence  of  an  almost 
continuous  sunshine,  a  clear  atmosphere,  and  the  hard  marble 
in  which  they  were  formed. 

These  mouldings  had  their  sections  probably  drawn  by  hand, 
but  approach  very  closely  to  various  conic  sections,  such  as 
parabolas,  hyperbolas,  and  ellipses. 

As  a  general  rule  the  lines  of  the  enrichment  or  carving  on  any 
Greek  moulding  correspond  to  the  profile  of  that  moulding. 
This  is  a  rule  which  was  rarely  departed  from,  and  therefore, 
is  worthy  of  notice,  for  the  profile  of  the  moulding  is  thus 
emphasized  by  the  expression  in  an  enriched  form  of  its  own 
curvature. 

The  examples  given  from  full-size  sections  taken  at  the  Par- 
thenon, the  Erechtheion,  and  elsewhere,  may  be  studied  on  No.  40. 

The  following  classified  list  gives  the  most  important  mould- 
ings :— 

(a.)  The  cyma-recta  (Hogarth's  "line  of  beauty").  When 
enriched  it  is  carved  with  the  honeysucke  ornament, 
whose  outline  corresponds  with  the  section  (No.  39  j). 


COMPARISON    OF  GREEK  AND   ROMAN 
MOULDINGS.    II. 


40. 


GREEK  ORNAMENT. 

THEKNIC™ 


5HELL.A  PIKE  P  0TON 15  WOUND  SOUK!) 
K  SHELL  IW  TOP  6  BOTTOM, 
TIC  TOE  Ct«r  BONG  TIED  D  H  PCNOUIE 
aHCLLBKELDflRMD' IN  ONE  POSITION 
WEPENaLISMOTOROUNDTr  DC- 

xma  A 


ANGLE  CAP -FROM  NORTH 

PORTICO  OF  THE  ERECHTOEION 


TEMPLE  orNIKE-APTERQ5  ATHENE. 

SHEWING  IttWMENTor ANGLE  CAP  S  ANTA  i 
dKCTCHED  TROM  A  PHOTOGRAPHj^mNgH 


GREEK  ORNAMENT.    II. 


LENGTH  SYJOF'IN  WIDTH.  IT 
FORMED 

•fifRElK'Oiri  CfREMONIESAT 
WAS  HERE  THAT  THE 
(!lEBMTED  B4NCI  onrtLIAM 
MAIDENS  15  SAID  To  HAVE  TAKfN 
Wff.-Tfe5nBOT.W5l5 
OFA19H5  HALL  HAVING!  SUNK- 
EN AREA  DoXN  THE  CEKTRE. 


OF  A  FEW  STER5  INTO  A  » 

SECOND  CHAMBER  ENCIOJED  ••'•>.  -.->>, 

6Y  DORIC  PIL-ASTER5  WHICH  /..  A  ..-' 

HAVE  RECUMBENT  BULL'S  " 

UPON  THEIR  CAPlttL5  & 
SHEWN  IN  SKETCH. 


42. 


106  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

(b.)  The  cyma  reversa.     When  enriched  it  is  carved  with  the 

water-lily  and  tongue  (No.  39  L). 

(c.)  The  ovolo  (egg-like).     When  enriched  it  is  carved  with 

the  egg  and  dart,  or  egg  and  tongue  ornament  (No.  39  N). 

(d.)  The  fillet,  a  small  plain  face  to  separate  other  mouldings 

(No.  39  A).     This  is  usually  without  enrichment. 
(e.)  The  beid  serves  much  the  same  purpose  as  the  fillet, 
and  approaches  a  circle  in  section.     When  enriched  it  is 
carved  with  the  bead  and  reel  or  with  beads,  which  in  fact 
gave  the  name  to  the  moulding  (No.  39  c). 
(/.)  The  cavetto  is  a  simple  hollow  (No.  39  E). 
(g.)  The  scotia  is  the  deep  hollow  occurring  in  bases,  and  is 

generally  not  enriched  (No.  39  G). 

(/?.)  The  torus  is  really  a  magnified  bead  moulding.     When 
enriched  it  is  carved  with  the  guilloche  or  "  plat "  ornament, 
or  with  bundles  of  leaves  tied  with  bands  (No.  39  p). 
(?'.)  The   bird's-beak  moulding   occurs   frequently,   especially 
in    the    Doric  order,  and  giving  a  deep  shadow  is  very 
suitable  for  the  English  climate  (No.  40  G). 
(j.)  The   corona  (No.    17  A),  the  deep  vertical   face  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  cornice.     It  was  frequently  painted 
with  a  Greek  "fret  "  ornament. 

G.  Ornament  (Nos.  41,  42,  43,  and  44). — The  acanthus  leaf 
(Nos.  33  H,  44  j)  and  scroll  play  an  important  part  in  Greek 
ornamentation.  The  leaf  from  which  these  were  derived  grows 
wild  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  two  varieties,  viz. : — 

(i.)  That  with  pointed  and  narrow  lobes,  V-shaped  in  section, 
giving  a  sharp  crisp  shadow,  and  known  as  the  "acanthus 
spinosis  "  (No.  33  H); 
(ii.)  That  with  broad  blunt  tips,  flat  in  section,  known  as  the 

"acanthus  mollis"  (No.  33  B). 

The  Greeks  usually  preferred  the  former  with  deeply  drilled- 
eyes,  and  the  Romans  the  latter  of  these  varieties. 

The  leaf  was  used  principally  in  the  Corinthian  capital 
(Nos.  33  F,  G,  H,  43  A,  B,  c),  and  is  also  found  in  the  crowning 
finial  of  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  (No.  44  D).  The 
scroll  which  accompanies  the  leaf  and  acts  as  a  stalk  is  usually 
V-shaped  in  section  with  sharp  edges. 

The  anthemion,  palmette  ov  honeysuckle  ornament,  was  a  favourite 
decoration  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  largely  used  as  an  ornamentation 
on  Anta  Caps  (No.  44  A,  F),  cyma-recta  mouldings  (No.  39  j),  and 
round  the  necks  of  columns,  as  in  the  Erechtheion  (No.  41  N).  It 
is  also  frequently  employed  as  an  ornamentation  to  the  tops  of 
stele-heads  and  ante-fixae  (Nos.  42  H,  43  F,  and  44  E,  N). 

The  sculpture  employed  Was  of  the  highest  order,  and  has  never 
been  excelled.  It  may  be  divided  into  : — (a.)  Sculpture  appertaining 
to  buildings,  including  friezes  (as  at  the  Parthenon,  the  Temple 


GREEK  ORNAMENT. 


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(A)  0$  F^EHE JPMIfi  OF 


THE  TWER  fflfQMKK! 

M8MIMT! 
AlHEfB^  MOITO.   SS»r^ 

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HALF  ELEY^noN  OF^TELEHEAD 

WITH  MfBLE  KUDraKIM  OfiNAMEHT 

'mm  A  mmm  IN^TAMCE  OF  TO 

•50MEWAT  MKE  TRMTMENT, 


43- 


108  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  yEgina,  the  Heraion,  Olympia,  and  the  Temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius,  Bassae),  the  tympana  of  the  pediments,  the  acroteria 
at  the  base  and  summit,  the  sculptured  metopes  in  the  Doric  frieze, 
and  the  Caryatides,  as  at  the  Erechtheion  (Nos.  30  G,  42  G,  44  M)  ; 
mention  might  also  be  made  of  the  series  of  magnificent  figure 
sculptures  to  the  Altar  of  Zeus  at  Pergamon  in  Asia  Minor,  of 
which  the  great  frieze  or  "  Gigantomachia"  is  now  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  (b.)  Sculptured  reliefs  as  seen  on  stele-heads  (No.  42  H). 
(c.)  Free-sianding  statuary,  consisting  of  groups,  single  figures,  bigas 
(two-horse  chariots),  or  quadrigas  (four-h^rse  chariots  (page  94). 

Color  was  largely  used  on  buildings,  and  many  traces  are  left, 
as  already  mentioned  (page  53).  In  many  instances  the  stonework, 
as  in  the  Temples  at  Paestum  and  in  Sicily,  brickwork,  and  in  some 
instances  marble,  were  covered  with  carefully-prepared  cement 
to  receive  wall  paintings  or  color  decoration,  which  appears  to 
have  been  almost  universal,  especially  in  buildings  of  the  Doric 
order.  This  cement  casing  was  also  capable  of  a  high  polish, 
and  Vitruvius  mentions  that  well-polished  stucco  would  reflect 
like  a  mirror. 

5.   REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Anderson  (W.J.)  and  Spiers  (R.  Phene).—"  The  Architecture  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  A  Sketch  of  its  Historic  Development."  8vo.  1902. 

"The  Unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica"  (Dilettanti  Society).  Folio. 
1817. 

Boetticher  (C.).-  "  Die  Tektonik  der  Hellenen.''     Folio.     Berlin,  1874. 

Boetticher. — "  Die  Akropolis  von  Athen."     8vo.     Berlin,  1888. 

Chipiez  (C). — "  Histoire  critique  des  Ordres  Grecs."    8vo.     Paris,  1876. 

Clarke  (J.  T.)  and  others. — "  Investigations  at  Assos  (1881-83)."  Folio. 
Boston,  1902. 

Cockerell  (C.  R.).— "  The  Temples  at  ^Egina  and  Bassae."    Folio.    1860. 

D'Espouy  (H.). — "  Fragments  de  1' Architecture  Antique."    Paris,  1899. 

Defrasse  (A.)  and  Lechat  (H.). — "Epidaure  ;  restauration  et  descrip- 
tion des  principaux  monuments  du  Sanctuaire  d'Asclepios."  Folio. 
Paris,  1895. 

Dorpfeld  ( W.).— "  Das  Griechische  Theater."     Sur  folio.    Athens,  1 896. 

Durm  (J.). — "Die  Baukunst  der  Griechen."    4to.     Darmstadt,  1892. 

Fergusson  (J.).— "  The  Parthenon."     8vo.     1883. 

Frazer  (J.  G.). — Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece.  6  vols.,  8vo. 
1898. 

Gardner  (E.  A.).—"  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture."    8vo.     1 896. 

Invvood  (H.  W.). — "  The  Erechtheion  at  Athens.''     Folio.     1831. 

"  The  Antiquities  of  Ionia"  (Dilettanti  Society).    4  vols.     1769-1881. 

Laloux  (V.). — "^Architecture  Grecque."     8vo.     Paris. 

Laloux(V.)et  Monceaux(P.). — uLa  restauration  d'  Olympic,  1'historie 
les  monuments,  le  culte  et  les  fetes."  Folio.  Paris,  1889. 

Mauch  (J.  M.  von). — "  Die  Architectonischen  Ordnungen  der  Griechen 
und  Roemer."  Folio.  Berlin,  1875. 

Michaelis  (A.). — "  Der  Parthenon."     Folio.     Leipzig,  1870-1871. 


GREEK  ORNAMENT.    IV. 


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I  LJ0H5  HERD,  FOXING  __, ___„        „ 

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TEMPLE  OP  EFII^U^O^ .       EEECTHEI0M, 
44. 


lio  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

REFERENCE    BOOKS— continued. 

Middleton  (J.  H.).— "Plans  and  Drawings  of  Athenian  Buildings." 
Svo.  1902. 

Murray  (A.  S.). — "History  of  Greek  Sculpture."     2  vols.,  Svo.     1890. 

Murray  (A.  S.). — "The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon."     Svo.     1903. 

Newton  (C.  T.)  and  Pullan  (R.  P.). — "A  History  of  Discoveries  at 
Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and  Branchidse."  3  vols.,  folio.  1862-1863. 

Pennethorne  (Sir  J.). — "  The  Geometry  and  Optics  of  Ancient  Archi- 
tecture." Folio.  1878. 

Penrose  (F.  C.). — "An  Investigation  of  the/7 Principles  of  Athenian 
Architecture"  (Hellenic  Society).  Folio.  i88B. 

Pontremoli  (E.)  et  Haussouillier  (B.). — "  Didymes  :  Fouilles  de  1895 
et  1896."  Folio.  Paris,  1903. 

Pontremoli  (E.)  et  Collignon  (M.). — "  Pergame  :  restauration  et 
description  des  monuments  de  1'Acropole."  Folio.  Paris,  1900. 

Perrot  (G.)  and  Chipiez  (C.). — "The  History  of  Art  in  Primitive 
Greece."  2  vols.,  Svo.  1894. 

"  Restaurations  des  Monuments  Antiques,  publiees  par  1'Academie  de 
la  France  a  Rome."  Paris,  1877-1890. 

Ross  (L.),  Schaubert  (E.),  and  Hansen  (C.).— "Die  Akropolis  von 
Athen  ;  Tempel  der  Nike  Apteros."  Folio.  Berlin,  1836. 

Smith  (Sir  William). — "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities." 
3  vols.,  Svo. 

Spiers  (R.  P.).—"  The  Orders  of  Architecture."     Folio.     1901. 

Stuart  (J.)  and  Revett  (N.).— ;'  Antiquities  of  Athens."  5  vols.  1762- 
1832. 

Verrall  and  Harrison.— "  Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient 
Athens."  Svo.  1890. 

Waldstein  (C). — "The  Argive  Herasum."     2  vols.,  410.     Boston,  1902. 

Watt  (J.  C.).— "  Greek  and  Pompeian  Decorative  Work."    Folio.  1897. 

Wilkins  (W.). — "Antiquities  of  Magna  Gratia."     Large  folio.     1807. 

Church  (A.  J.).— "  The  Fall  of  Athens"  (Historical  Novel).     Svo. 

The  student  should  visit  the  Greek  Court  at  the  Crystal  Palace  for  the 
splendid  model  of  the  Parthenon  facade,  and  also  the  British  Museum 
for  actual  fragments  of  the  sculptures  from  the  Temples. 


I/I 


THE 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

*:  Immortal  glories  in  my  mind  revive 
Wht-n  Rome's  exalted  beauties  I  descry 
Magnificent  in  piles  of  ruin  lie. 
An  amphitheatre's  amazing  height 
Here  fills  my  eye  with  terror  and  delight, 
That  on  its  public  shows  unpeopled  Rome, 
And  held  uncrowded  nations  in  its  womb  ; 
Here  pillars  rough  with  sculpture  pierce  the  skies; 
And  here  the  proud  triumphal  arclies  rise, 
Where  the  old  Romans  deathless  acts  displayed." 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical.— The  map  (No.  45)  will  show  that  the  sea 
coast  of  Italy,  although  the  peninsula  is  long  and  narrow,  is  not 
nearly  so  much  broken  up  into  bays,  or  natural  harbours,  as  the 
shore  line  of  Greece,  neither  are  there  so  many  islands  studded 
along  its  coasts.  Again,  although  many  parts  of  Italy  are  moun- 
tainous— the  great  chain  of  the  Apennines  running  from  one  end 
of  the  peninsula  to  the  other — yet  the  whole  land  is  not  divided 
up  into  little  valleys  in  the  same  way  as  the  greater  part  of 
Greece. 

The  Greek  and  Italian  nations  may  therefore  with  fair  accuracy 


112  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

be  compared  as  follows  : — (a.)  The  Romans  never  became  a  sea-1 
faring  people  like  the  Greeks,  nor  did  they  send  out  colonists 
of  the  same  description  to  all  parts  of  the  then  known  world. 
(b.)  There  were  few  rival  cities  in  Italy  at  this  period  (a  condition 
which  was  altered  in  after  times,  pages  230,  234, 405, 476),  and  the 
small  towns,  being  less  jealous  of  their  separate  independence,  the 
Roman  power  could  be  built  up  by  a  gradual  absorption  of  small 
states,  a  process  that  was  never  completed  by  Athens  or  Sparta. 
The  position  of  Italy  enabled  her  to  act  as  the  intermediary  in 
spreading  over  the  continent  of  Europe  the  arts  of  civilization. 

ii.  Geological. — The  geological  formation  of  Italy  differs 
from  that  of  Greece,  where  the  chief  and  almost  the  only  building 
material  is  marble.  In  Italy  marble,  terra-cotta,  stone,  and 
brick  were  largely  used  even  for  the  more  important  buildings. 
In  Rome  the  following  materials  were  at  hand  '.—Travertine,  a 
hard  limestone  from  Tivoli ;  Tiifa,  a  volcanic  substance  of  which 
the  hills  of  Rome  are  mainly  composed ;  and  Peperino,  a  stone  of 
volcanic  origin  from  Mount  Albano.  Besides  these,  Lava  and 
Pozzolana,  derived  from  volcanic  eruptions,  and  excellent  sand  and 
gravel  were  plentiful.  The  existence  of  Pozzolana  (a  clean  sandy 
earth)  found  in  thick  strata  in  the  district,  gave  the  Roman 
a  material  which  contributed  largely  to  the  durability  of  their 
architecture,  for  it  has  extraordinary  properties  of  hardness, 
strength  and  durability,  when  mixed  into  concrete  with  lime. 
The  walls  were  generally  formed  of  concrete  and  were  faced  in 
a  decorative  way  with  brick,  stone,  alabasters,  porphyries,  or 
marbles  of  all  kinds,  hewn  from  countless  Oriental  quarries  by  whole 
armies  of  workmen.  Roman  architecture,  as  it  spread  itself  over 
the  whole  of  the  then  known  world,  was  influenced  naturally  by  the 
materials  found  in  the  various  parts  where  it  planted  itself,  but 
concrete,  in  conjunction  with  brick  and  stone  casing  or  banding, 
was  the  favourite  material ;  although  in  Syria,  notably  at  Palmyra 
and  Baalbec,  and  in  Egypt  the  quarries  supplied  stones  of  enormous 
size,  which  were  used  locally. 

iii.  Climate. — The  north  has  the  climate  of  the  temperate 
region  of  continental  Europe ;  central  Italy  is  more  genial  and 
sunny  ;  while  the  south  is  almost  tropical. 

iv.  Religion. — The  heathen  religion  of  ancient  Rome  being 
looked  upon  as  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  state,  the  worship  of 
the  gods  came  eventually  to  be  kept  up  only  as  a  matter  of  state 
policy.  The  emperor  then  received  divine  honours,  and  may  almost 
be  described  as  the  leader  of  the  Pantheon  of  deities  embraced  by 
the  tolerant  and  wide-spreading  Roman  rule.  Officialism  therefore 
naturally  stamped  its  character  on  the  temple  architecture. 

A  list  of  the  chief  Roman  deities  is  given  on  page  46. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — In  early  times  three  chief  nations 
dwelt  in  the  peninsula.  In  the  central  portion  (or  Etruria)  lived 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  113 

the  Etruscans,  probably  an  Aryan  people,  who  appear  to  have 
been  settled  in  Italy  before  authentic  history  begins,  and  who 
were  great  builders  (page  119).  In  the  south  the  Greeks 
had  planted  many  colonies,  which  were  included  in  the  name 
of  "  Magna  Graecia."  The  remainder  of  Italy  (exclusive  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul)  was  occupied  by  tribes  of  the  same  Aryan  race 
as  the  Greeks,  and  the  common  forefathers  of  both  must  have 
stayed  together  after  they  had  separated  from  the  forefathers  of 
the  Celts,  Teutons  and  others.  But  long  before  history  begins 
the  Greeks  and  Italians  had  separated  into  distinct  nations,  and 
the  Italians  had  further  split  up  into  separate  nations  among 
themselves.  The  common  form  of  government  in  ancient  Italy 
resembled  that  of  Greece,  consisting  of  towns  or  districts  joined 
together  in  leagues.  The  government  of  Rome  was  effected 
firstly  by  chosen  kings,  aided  by  a  senator  and  popular  assembly, 
but  about  B.C.  500  it  became  Republican,  and  under  Augustus 
Caesar  in  B.C.  27  the  Empire  originated.  The  "Building  Acts  " 
of  Augustus,  Nero,  and  Trajan  had  considerable  influence  on  the 
development  in  Rome. 

vi.  Historical. — The  foundation  of  Rome  is  of  uncertain  date, 
but  is  generally  taken  at  B.C.  750.  The  Republic  engaged  in 
many  wars,  conquering  several  Etruscan  cities,  but  was  defeated 
in  B.C.  390,  at  the  hands  of  the  Gauls,  who  continued  for  some 
time  to  hold  the  northern  part  of  Italy.  About  B.C.  343  began  the 
Roman  conquest  of  Italy,  which  was  effected  in  about  sixty  years, 
and  resulted  in  the  dominion  of  a  city  over  cities.  Then  came  the 
wars  with  peoples  outside  Italy,  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  being 
first  subdued.  The  first  Punic  war  (B.C.  264-241)  against  Carthage, 
when  brought  to  a  conclusion,  resulted  in  Sicily  becoming  the  first 
Roman  province. 

The  second  Punic  war  (B.C.  218-201)  was  the  most  severe 
struggle  in  wrhich  the  Romans  had  engaged,  for  Hannibal,  the  great 
Carthaginian  general,  entering  Italy  from  Spain,  defeated  all  the 
Roman  armies,  and  maintained  himself  in  Italy  until  recalled  by 
a  counter  attack  of  the  Romans,  under  Scipio,  upon  Carthage  itself. 

The  third  Punic  war  (B.C.  149-146)  ended  in  the  total  destruc- 
tion of  Carthage,  which,  with  its  territory,  became  a  Roman 
province  in  Africa.  At  the  same  time  were  effected  the  conquest 
of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  the  latter  becoming  a  province  in 
B.C.  146,  which  induced  the  importation  of  Greek  artists  and 
works  of  art.  Greece  formed  a  stepping  stone  to  Western  Asia, 
which  in  turn  gradually  acknowledged  the  Roman  power,  till  in 
B.C.  133  it  also  became  a  province.  With  the  conquests  of  Spam 
and  Syria,  the  Roman  empire  extended  from  the  Atlantic  ocean 
to  the  Euphrates,  while  Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul  in  B.C.  59, 
made  the  Rhine  and  the  English  Channel  its  northern  boundaries. 
In  B.C.  55  Caesar  crossed  into  Britain. 

F,A.  I 


114  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

This  tide  of  conquest  swept  on  in  spite  of  civil  war  at  home, 
and  eventually  rendered  the  empire  a  political  necessity  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  governing  so  many  provinces- under  the  previous 
system.  On  Pompey's  defeat  at  Pharsalia,  Julius  Caesar  remained 
without  a  rival,  but  was  murdered  in  B.C.  44.  Then  followed  a 
period  of  great  confusion  lasting  13  years.  The  Triumvirate,  con- 
sisting of  Marcus  Antonius,  Caius  Octavius  (great  nephew  to 
Caesar)  and  Marcus  ^Emilius  Lepidus,  were  opposed  to  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  and  eventually  defeated  them.  On  the  defeat  ot 
Antony  at  Aktion,  Augustus  Caesar  (Julius7 Caesar's  nephew)  was 
made  emperor  B.C.  27,  and  governed  till  his  death,  A.D.  41. 

The  Augustan  age  was  one  of  those  great  eras  in  the  ^world's 
history  like  that  succeeding  the  Persian  wars  in  Greece,  the 
Elizabethan  age  in  England,  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  in  Europe,  in  which  what  seems  a  new  spring  in  national 
and  individual  life  calls  out  an  idealizing  retrospect  of  the  past. 
The  poets  Virgil  (B.C.  70-19),  Horace  (-B.C.  65-8),  Ovid  (B.C.  43 — 
A.D.  17),  and  Livy  the  historian  (B.C.  59 — A.D.  17),  were  all  contem- 
poraries. Following  Augustus  came  a  line  of  emperors,  of  whom 
Nero  (A.D.  54-69),  Vespasian  (69-79),  Trajan  (98-117),  Hadrian 
(117-138) — under  whom  the  empire  expanded  to  its  greatest 
extent — Septimius  Severus  (193-211),  Caracalla  (211-217)  and 
Diocletian  (284-305)  were  the  most  active  in  architectural  matters. 
Italy  went  out  of  cultivation  and  depended  on  imported  corn. 
A  turbulent  populace,  and  the  huge  armies  required  to  keep  in 
check  the  barbarian  tribes  on  every  frontier,  dominated  the 
government.  Emperors  soon  chosen  were  sooner  murdered,  and 
the  chaos  that  gradually  set  in  weakened  the  fabric  of  the  empire. 

Architecture  then  fell  into  complete  decay  until  the  vigorous 
efforts  of  Constantine  (A.D.  306-337)  did  something  for  its  revival, 
which  in  large  measure  was  also  due  to  a  new  force,  Christianity, 
which  had  been  growing  up  and  which  received  official  recognition 
under  this  emperor  (page  176). 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  Romans  adopted  the  columnar  and  trabeated_styje  of  the 
Greeks,  and  joined  to  it  the  Arch,  the  VaTIIt7~alid7!he  Dome, 
which  it  is  presumed  they  borrowed  from  the  Etruscans,  and  this 
union  of  beam  and  arch  is  the  keynote  of  the  style  in  its  earliest 
developments. 

The  Colosseum  (Nos.  62  and  63)  at  Rome  is  a  good  example 
of  this  union  in  which  the  gigrs_  between  the  arches  on  the 
different  stories  are  strengthened  by  the  semi-attached  columns 
which  act  the  part  of  buttresses ;  thus  becoming  part  of  the 
wall,  and  no  longer  carrying  the  entablature  unaided. 

The  arch  thus   used  in  a  tentative    manner  along  with   the 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  115 

classical  column  eventually  came  to  be  used  alone,  and  through 
the  basilica,  was  finally  utilized  in  a  pointed  form  in  the  construc- 
tion of  those  magnificent  vaulted  Gothic  cathedrals,  which  were 
erected  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Greek  buildings  (see  page  102)  were  normally  only  one  story  in 
height,  but  owing  to  the  varying  needs  of  the  Romans,  buildings  of 
several  stones  were  erected  by  them.  The  orders,  usually  attached 
and  superimposed,  were  chiefly  decorative  features  ceasing  to  have, 
their  true  constructive  significance  (No.  62  A). 

The  Thermae  or  Baths,  Temples,  Amphitheatres,  Aqueducts, 
Bridges,  Tombs,  Basilicas,  and  Fora,  are  all  monuments  of  Roman 
greatness,  showing  great  constructive  and  engineering  ability  com- 
bined with  a  power  to  use  the  materials  at  hand  with  the  best 
possible  results. 

The  Greek  method  of  building  with  large  Blocks  of  stone, 
unconnected  with  mortar,  was  employed  in  the  buildings  of  the 
Republic.  The  practical  spirit  of  the  Romans,  however,  urged 
them  to  make  a  more  economical  use  of  materials,  and  instead 
of  composing  the  walls  of  their  monuments  of  squared-blocks 
of  stone,  they  inaugurated  the  use  of  concrete,  a  material  consisting 
of  small  fragments  of  stone  or  quarry  debris  mixed  with  lime  or 
mortar.  These  materials,  not  being  special  to  any  country,  were 
used  with  success  in  every  part  of  the  Empire,  and  gave  a 
similarity  to  all  Roman  buildings..  The  craftsmanship  required, 
under  the  direction  of  the  central  authority,  was  perfectly  simple  ; 
for  only  rough  labour,  both  plentiful  and  cheap,  was  required"  for 
mixing  the  materials  of  which  the  concrete  was  made,  and  spreading 
it  to  form  the  walls.  The  structures  could  be  erected  by  hands 
quite  unused  to  the  art  of  building  ;  thus  the  Romans  employed 
the  slaves  of  the  district,  subjects  liable  to  statute  labour,  or  even 
the  Roman  armies  ;  while  the  legal  punishment  of  condemnation 
to  work  on  public  buildings  was  largely  enforced. 

The  Romans  by  their  extended  use  of  concrete  founded  a 
new  constructional  system  and  employed  it  in  the  most  diverse 
situations,  adapting  it  with  rare  sagacity  to  their  new  needs,  and 
utilizing  it  in  the  most  important  projects.  The  various  kinds 
of  walling  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  : — opus  quadratum, 
i.e.,  rectangular  blocks  of  stone  with  or  without  mortar  joints, 
frequently  secured  with  dowels  or  cramps,  and  concrete  unfaced  or 
faced,  used  especially  in  Italy.  As  stated,  this  was  a  building 
mixture  formed  of  lime  and  lumps  of  tufa,  peperino,  broken  bricks, 
marble  or  pummice  stone,  and  from  the  first  century  B.C.  was 
used  extensively  for  various  building  purposes. 

(a)   Unfacfd   concrete  was   usually  used   for   foundations,   and 
(b)  faced  concrete  for  walls.     The  latter  was  of  four  varieties  :— 
i.  Concrete  faced  with  "  opus  incertum"  (No.  46  B),  which 
was  the  oldest  kind,  the  concrete  backing  being  studded 

I  2 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    I. 


WUi 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


117 


with  irregular  shaped  pieces  of  stone,  mainly  used  in  the 
first  and  second  centuries  B.C. 

ii.  Concrete  faced  with  "  opus  reticulatum  "  (No.  46  c),  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  meshes  of  a  net  (reticulum) 
the  joints  being  laid  in  diagonal  lines. 

iii.  Concrete  faced  with  brick  (testae),  used  from  the  first 
century  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the  Western  Empire.  The 
walling  was  faced  with  bricks,  triangular  on  plan  and 
usually  about  i-J-  inches  thick  (No.  46  D). 

iv.  Concrete  with  "opus  mixtum"  consisting  of  a  wall  of 
concrete  having  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  brick  facing 
bands  of  tufa  blocks  at  intervals. 

The  majestic  simplicity  of  their  edifices  give  them  a  severe 
grandeur  expressing  the  Roman  ideals  of  conquest,  wealth  and 
power. 

Thus  from  the  time  that  concrete  displaced  the  ashlar  masonry 
of  the  Greeks,  and  allowed  of  unskilled  labour,  the  style  of  the 
Romans  tended  to  become  everywhere  uniform  and  generally 
above  the  influence  of  local  conditions ;  for  through  the  colonies 
and  legionary  camps  the  new  methods  penetrated  to  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  empire,  and  cities  could  be  improvised,  which  became  in 
their  turn  centres  whence  radiated  the  architectural  ideas  as  well 
as  the  manners  and  customs  of  Rome. 

Vaulting. — Although,  as  pointed  out,  the  vault  had  been 
previously  used  by  the  Assyrians,  the  early  Greeks,  and  the 
Etruscans,  yet  the  Romans  generalized  vaulting  as  a  structural 
system  dating  from  the  first  century  of  the  present  era.  They 
made  it^imple  and  practical  by  the  employment  of  concrete,  by 
which  they  covered  the  largest  areas  even  now  in  existence.  The 
effect  was  far  reaching  and  gave  freedom  in  the  planning  of 
complex  structures,  which  were  easily  roofed,  the  vaults  being  of 
any  form,  and  easily  constructed  on  rough  centres  or  temporary 
supports  till  the  concrete  was  set.  It  will  thus  be  understood  that 
vaults  of  concrete  had  a  very  important  effect  on  the  forms  of 
Roman  buildings,  and  they  were  employed  universally,  so  much  so, 
that  every  Roman  ruin  is  filled  with  their  debris.  The  kinds  of 
vault  employed  were  as  follows  : — 

(a.)  The  semicircular  or  waggon-headed  vault. 
(b.}   The  cross  vault. 

(c.)    The  dome  (hemispherical  and  semidomes). 
(a.)  The  semicircular  or  waggon-headed  vault  resting  on  two 
sides   of   the  covered  rectangle  was  used  in  apartments    whose 
walls  were  sufficiently  thick. 

(b.)  The  cross-vault  was  utilized  for  covering  a  square  apart- 
ment, the  pressure  being  taken  by  the  four,  angles.  When  used 
over  corridors  and  long  apartments  the  pressure  being  exerted 
on  points  of  division  (Nos.  58  and  60),  left  the  remainder  of  the 


Il8  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

walls  free  for  window  openings.  If  the  oblong  compartment  or 
hall  were  very  wide,  and  the  side  walls  had  to  be  pierced  by 
large  openings,  it  was  divided  into  square  bays — generally  three 
in  number — and  covered  with  groined  vaults,  that  is  to  say,  a 
longitudinal  half-cylinder,  of  the  diameter  of  the  hall,  intersected 
by  three  half-cylinders  of  similar  diameter, 

(c.)  Hemispherical  domes  or  cupolas  (cupa  —  cup)  (Nos.  54  and 
55),  were  used  for  covering  circular  structures  as  in  the  Pantheon. 
Semi-domes  were  employed  for  exedrse  and  other  recesses 
(No.  46  K). 

The  great  coherence  of  concrete  formed  of  "  Pozzolana"  (see 
page  112)  and  lime  was  important ;  by  its  use,  vaults  and  domes  of 
enormous  size  were  constructed.  Most  of  these  were  cast  in  one 
solid  mass  with  no  lateral  thrust  on  the  walls,  thus  having  the 
form,  without  the  principle,  of  the  arch,  which,  if 'formed  of 
radiating  voussoirs  of  brick  or  stone,  would  possibly  have  pushed 
out  the  walls. 

As  Prof.  Middleton  has  pointed  out,  the  Roman  use  of 
concrete  for  vaults  was  more  striking  and  daring  than  for  walls, 
and  had  an  important  effect  on  the  general  forms  of  Roman 
architecture.  The  use  of  buttresses  had  not  been  systematized, 
and  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  vault  the  enormous  spans  if 
the  vaulting  had  been  composed  of  brick  or  of  masonry  as  in 
mediaeval  times. 

The  Roman  concrete  vault  was  quite  devoid  of  external  thrust 
and  covered  its  space  with  the  rigidity  of  a  metal  lid,  or  inverted 
porcelain  cup. 

The  construction  of  the  Pantheon  dome  appears  to  be  excep- 
tional (page  134). 

In  many  cases  (No.  46),  as  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla  and 
Basilica  of  Constantine,  brick  arches  or  ribs  probably  used  as 
temporary  centres  are  embedded  in  the  concrete  vaults  at  various 
points,  especially  at  the  "groins,"  but  these  are  sometimes  super- 
ficial, like  the  brick  facing  to  walls,  and  only  tail  a  few  inches  into 
the  mass  of  concrete  vault,  which  is  frequently  as  much  as  6  feet 
thick. 

The  decoration  of  Roman  buildings  had  little  connection  with 
the  architecture  proper,  for  a  Roman  edifice  built  of  concrete  could 
receive  a  decorative  lining  of  any  or  every  kind  of  marble,  having 
no  necessary  connection  with  the  general  structure,  such  deco- 
ration being  an  independent  sheathing  giving  a  richness  to  the 
walls  both  internal  and  external.  Roman  architecture  had  the 
character,  therefore,  of  a  body  clothed  in  many  instances  with 
rich  materials  forming  a  rational  and  appropriate  finish  to  the 
structure,  and  differing  essentially  from  Greek  architecture. 

Besides  the  use  of  many  colored  marbles  other  means  of 
decorating  wall  surfaces  are  briefly  stated  here.  Cements  and 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  IIQ 

stuccoes  ("  Opus  albarium ")  were  frequently  used  for  the 
coverings  of  walls  both  internal  and  external,  and  the  final  coat 
was  polished.  Mural  paintings  were  executed  on  the  prepared 
stucco,  and  may  be  classified  as  follows  : — (a.)  Fresco  painting, 
(&.)  Tempera  painting,  (c.)  Varnish  painting,  and  (d.)  Caustic 
painting. 

Marble,  alabaster,  porphyry  and  jasper  as  linings  to  the  walls 
have  been  already  referred  to.  They  were  usually  attached  by 
iron  or  bronze  cramps  to  the  walls  upon  a  thick  cement  backing. 
Mosaics  were  also  much  used  for  ornamenting  walls,  vaults  and 
floors.  They  are  divided  by  Middleton  into  :— 

(a.)  "  Opus  tesselatum,"  or  "  vermiculatum,"  formed  of  squared 
tesserae  of  stone,  marble,  or  glass  to  form  patterns. 

(&.)  "Opussectile"  or  "Opusscutulatum,"  of  tesserae  of  marble, 
porphyry,  or  glass  cut  into  shapes  to  form  the  pattern  of  which 
the  "  Opus  Alexandrinum  "  was  a  very  rich  variety. 

(c.)  "  Opus  Spicatum,"  made  of  paving  bricks  in  herring-bone 
fashion. 

The  glass  mosaics  sometimes  forming  elaborate  figure  pictures, 
were  mostly  used  to  decorate  the  walls  and  vaults  only,  and  not 
the  floors. 

Gilded  bronze  was  employed  as  a  roofing  material  to  important 
buildings,  as  employed  at  the  Pantheon  (page  134). 

The  abundant  use  of  statues,  many  ot  them  brought  from 
Greece,  led  to  the  adoption  of  niches  for  their  reception  within  the 
thickness  of  the  walls.  These  were  either  semicircular,  crowned 
with  a  semi-dome,  or  rectangular,  and  they  occasionally  had 
columns  supporting  a  pediment,  thus  forming  a  frame. 


3.  EXAMPLES. 

Etruscan  Architecture. — In  dealing  with  Roman  Architec- 
ture mention  must  be  made  of  the  Etruscans  or  early  inhabitants 
of  central  Italy,  who  were  great  builders,  and  whose  methods  of 
construction  had  a  marked  effect  on  that  of  the  Romans.  The 
style  dates  from  about  B.  c.  750,  and  from  their  buildings  it  is  known 
that  they  were  aware  of  the  value  of  the  true  or  radiating  arch  for 
constructive  purposes,  and  used  it  extensively  in  their  buildings. 
The  architectural  remains  consist  chiefly  of  tombs,  city  walls, 
gateways  (as  at  Perugia),  bridges  and  aqueducts,  and  their 
character  is  similar  to  the  early  Pelasgic  work  at  Tiryns  and 
Mycenae  (page  54). 

The  walls  are  remarkable  for  their  great  solidity  of  construction, 
and  for  the  cyclopean  masonry,  where  huge  masses  of  stone  are 
piled  up  without  the  use  of  cement,  or  mortar  of  any  kind.  The 
"  Cloaca  Maxima"  (c.  B.C.  578)  (No.  47),  or  great  drain  of  Rome, 


120  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

constructed  to  drain  the  valleys  of  Rome,  has  a  semicircular  arch 
of  ii  feet  span,  in  three  rings  of  voussoirs,  each  2  feet  6  inches 
high. 

There  are  no  remains  of  Etruscan  temples,  but  Vitruvius  gives 
a  description  of  them.  The  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  was  the 
most  important  Etruscan  example  (dedicated  B.C.  509),  and  is 
generally  taken  as  being  typical.  Its  cella  was  divided  into  three 
chambers  containing  statues  of  Jupiter,  Minerva  (Livy  VII.,  iii)  and 
Juno,  and  was  nearly  square  on  plan,  with  widely  spaced  columns 
and  wooden  architraves.  It  was  burnt  in/B.c.  83  and  rebuilt  by 
Sulla,  who  brought  some  of  the  marble  Corinthian  columns  from 
the  Temple  of  Zeus  Olympius  at  Athens  (page  90). 

Roman  Architecture  followed  the  Etruscan,  and  as  indicated 
on  page  114,  was  a  composite  style  derived  by  the  unipn  of  the 
Greek  and  Etruscan  styles.  The  principal  examples  of  Roman 
architecture  were  chiefly  erected  during  400  years,  viz.,  between 
B.C.  100  and  A.D.  300.  The  principal  remains  are  found  not  only 
in  Italy,  but  throughout  Europe  to  wherever  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion extended,  as  at  Nimes  and  Aries  in  France,  Tarragona  and 
Segovia  in  Spain,  Trevesin  Germany,  Constantine  in  North  Africa, 
Timgad  in  Algeria,  and  other  places  in  North  Africa,  Baalbecand 
Palmyra  in  Syria,  and  many  places  in  England  (page  280)^^ 

FORA. 

The  Forum  corresponded  with  the  Agora  in  a  Greek  city,  and 
was  an  open  space  used  as  a  meeting  place  and  market,  or  a  ren- 
dezvous for  political  demonstrators,  corresponding  to  the  Place  of 
a  French  country  town,  the  market  place  of  English  country 
towns,  and  to  the  Royal  Exchange  or  probably  Trafalgar  Square 
in  the  Metropolis.  The  forum  was  usually  surrounded  by  porticos, 
colonnades  and  public  buildings,  such  as  temples,  basilicas  (halls 
of  justice),  senate  house,  and  shops,  and  was  adorned  with  pillars  of 
victory  and  memorial  statues  of  great  men. 

Rome  possessed  several  Fora,  and  a  plan  of  these  is  given 
(No.  47).  The  "  Forum  Romanum  "  was  the  oldest,  and  grouped 
around  it  were  some  of  the  most  important  historical  buildings.  A 
restoration  is  given  (No.  48),  which  will  indicate  its  probable 
appearance  in  the  heyday  of  ancient  Rome. 

The  Forum  Romanum  was  in  early  times  also  used  as  a 
hippodrome  and  for  contests,  which  in  after  years  during  the 
Empire  took  place  in  the  amphitheatres.  This  and  the  Forum 
of  Trajan,  which  was  the  largest  of  all,  were  the  most  important. 
The  others  include  those  of  Julius  Caesar,  Augustus  Vespasian 
and  Nerva.  The  models  in  the  Walker  Art  Gallery,  Liverpool, 
and  the  Crystal  Palace,  give  a  good  idea  of  the  appearance  of  this 
important  centre  of  architectural  history. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


121 


Pompeii  also  possessed  an  important  Forum. 

The  remarkable  colonnaded  streets  at  Palmyra  and  Damascus, 
Antioch,  Bosra  and  elsewhere  in  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor  may  also 
be  best  mentioned  here. 


RESTORED  AFTER  YAEI0US 
/tUTHOEITIES 


1  TRAJANS  COLUMN     ' 

2  BASILO   ULPW  \^ 

3  TEMPLE  Of  VENUS  GENETRIX 

4T.Of  MARS  ULTOR  (5  COLS.  &•  PILASTER  CTANMC 

5  TEMPLE  Of  MINER\ft 

6  TEMPLE  Of  PEACE 

7  SITE  Of  THE  BASILICA  AMELIA     \/ 

8  TEMPLE  Of  ANTONINUS  *  MUSTINA 

9  TEMPLE  Of  ROMULUS  , 

10  BASILICA  Of  CONSTANTIKt  *^     , 

11  TEMPLE  Of  VENUS  *  R0ME    V 

12  TME  COLOSSEUM     *^ 

13  ARCH  Of  CON5TANTINE 

14  ARCH  Of  TITUS  f^ 

15  HOUSE  Of  THE  VESTAL  VIRGINS^ 

16  TEMPLE  Of  VESTA     </ 

17  ARCH  Of  AUGUSTUS y 

18  TEMPLE  Of  DIVWJUUU3    • 

19  TEMPLE  Of  CASTOR  &  POLLUX  (3  COLS.  LEfT) 

20  BASILICA  JULIA  v/ 

21  COLUMN  Of  PHOCAS 
ZZARCHOfSEPTIMIUSSEVERUS 
23R03TKA 

2* T.  Of  SATURN  (8  COLUMNS  STANDING) 

25  T.  Of  VESPASIAN  (3  COLUMNS  STANDING) 

26  TEMPLE  Of  CONCORD. 


«.  •• 


'  IN'DICATEJ  EXISTING  REMAINS 
'  INDICATES  RESTORATIONS 


47- 


TEMPLES. 

Note.— The  orders  are  described  under  the  Comparative  table  (page  167). 

The  Roman  temples  were  the  result  of  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Etruscan  and  Greek  types,  for  they  resembled  in  many  respects 
Greek  examples,  but  their  prostyle  arrangement  and  the  use  of 
the  podium  was  derived  from  Etruscan  temples.  The  plans 
shown  on  No.  18  give  some  of  the  types  used,  and  others  are 
referred  to  later  on  (Nos.  49,  50,  52,  53  and  57).  The  charac- 
teristic temple  is  known  as  pseudo-peripteral  (page  58),  and  had 
no  side  colonnades  as  was  usuar  in  Cjreek  exkiilpltib,  "the  order 
of  columns  being  attached  to  the  flank  walls  and  arranged  as  a 
prostyle  portico  towards  the  front  only.  Steps  were  provided  at 
the  principal  end,  between  projecting  wing  walls,  which  often 
supported  groups  of  statuary,  and  were  continued  along  the 
flanks  and  back  of  the  temple  as  a  podium  or  continuous  pedestal 
(Nos.  1 8  G,  49,  50)  (page  167).  Whereas  Greek  peripteral  temples 
were  normally  twice  as  long  as  their  width,  the  Roman  examples 
were  very  much  shorter.  The  size  of  the  cella  was  frequently 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


123 


increased,  being  usually  the  whole  width  of  the  temple,  which 
was  used  as  a  museum  for  Greek  statuary  and  as  a  treasure 
store.  As  the  architraves  were  supported  by  the  enclosing  walls 
on  the  flanks,  temples  could  also  be  built  on  a  larger  scale  than 
in  the  Greek  style.  Nothing  definite  is  known  as  to  the  ceilings, 
but  these  may  have  been  of  coffering  in  stone  as  in  the  colonnades, 
of  open_timber-work  as  in  the  basilicas,  or  vaulted  as  in  the 
TempleTof  Venus  and  Rome  at  Rome  (No.  56),  the  Temple  of 
Diana  at  Nimes  (No.  50),  and  the  Temples  at  Spalato.  The 
abolition  of  the  encircling  colonnade  and  the  continuous  stylobate 
of  steps  resulted  in  a  certain  loss  of  unity  in  comparison  with 
Greek  examples,  which  in  most  cases  were  isolated  and  visible 
from  all  sides ;  whereas  the  Roman  temples  were  specially  intended 
to  be  seen  from  the  forum  or  open  space  upon  which  they  usually 
faced,  the  front  being  therefore  made  important  by  the  deep 
portico  and  flight  of  steps.  No  consideration  was  given  to 
orientation  as  in  Greek  examples. 

Circular  and  polygonal  temples  were  also  used  by  the  Romans, 
being  probably  derived  from  Etruscan  examples. 


RECTANGULAR  EXAMPLES. 


At  Rome. 

The    Temple   of  Forluna     Virilis 
(No.  49,  A,  B,  c). 


The      Temple    or     Mars      Ultor 

(the  Avenger)  (No.  52  and  67  G). 

The  Temple  of  Concord  (No.  47-°). 


The  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 
Also  known  as  Jupiter  Stator 
(Nos.  4719,  67  A  and  68). 

The  Temple  of  Vespasian  (No.47Q5). 

The     Temple   of   Antoninus    and 

Faiistina  (Nos.  52  I,  J,  K.  L.  and 

68  E). 
The  Temple  of  Vemis   and  Rome 

(Nos.  4711,  and  50  A,  B,  c,  D). 
The  Temple  of  Saturn  ^Nos.  471'4, 

and  49  L,  M,  N). 
At  Athens. 
The    Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius 

(Nos.  i8j,  43  A). 
At  Nimes. 
The    Alaiscn    Carrce    (Nos.   1 8  G, 

SOH,  j,  K,  51). 
The  l^emple  of  Diana  (No.  50  E, 

F,  G).  x 


Date. 

B.C.   IOO 


B.C.   42-2 

B.C.  27-A.D. 
14 


A.D.  6 


A.D.  94 


Remarks. 
A  typical  Roman  temple  plan. 

Ionic.     Pseudo-ptripteial   te- 

trastyle.     Now  the  church  of 

S.  Maria  Egiziaca. 
Corinthian.    Three  columns  and 

api'asterremaining(page  125). 
Corinthian.       Pseudo  peripteral 

prostyle-hexa^tyle.       Unusual 

plan,    having   cella    twice    as 

wide  as  long. 
Corinthian.     Peripteral  octastyle 

with     front    portico.      Three 

colu-nns  remaining. 
Corinthian.     Pro-tyle-hexastyle. 


Three  columns  remaining. 
A.D.  141       Corinthian.       Pseudo-peripteral 

prostyle-hexastyle.     Now  the 

church  of  S.   Lorenzo. 
A.D.  123-135  Corinthian.       Peculiar      double 

temple  (page  125). 
A.D.  284       Ionic      Pseudo-peripteral     pro- 

style-htxastylc.  Eight  columns 

remaining. 
B.C.  174      (See  page  90.) 


A.D.  117-138  (See  page  125.) 
(See  page  125.) 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES 


3LYEISMTHS10ME:AJ).204 

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HONOUR  Of  HI&  VICTORIES  IN  THE  EAST.  WHICH  ARE 


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SCALE  FOR  PLANS  A.F.J.           SCALE  FOR  ELEV/1TION5  ETC,B,CD,EH.K 
FTip     p      To     2,0    30  '  | — — 1 10 p  ipf' 

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FINAL  REBUILDING  BY  DIOCLETIAN. 
8  COLUMNS  .  WHICH  ARE  Of  GREY  AND 
RED  EGYPTIAN  GRANITE,  NOW  REMAIN. 


it  R«  PLAN                           SaLE  fcR ELEVATION 
10    20   3040  50   60  J)F.    10 0          10 


30         40F7 


49- 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


125 


RECTANGULAR  EXAMPLES  (continued). 

At  Spalato.  Date.  Remarks. 

The    Temple  of  sEsculaphts   (No.      A.D.  300       (See  page  1 6 1.) 

59)- 
At  Baalbec. 

The  Great  Temple  (No.  53).  A  D.  131-161  (See  below.) 

The  Temple  ofjiipiter  (No.  53).  A.D.  273      (See  page  130.) 

At  Palmyra. 

The  Great  Temple  of  the  STDI.  A.  D.  273  Peripteral  ocvastyle,  probably 

Corinthian,  having  attached 
bronze  leaves. 

The  Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  Rome  (B.C.  42-2)  (No.  52), 
stood  in  the  Forum  of  Augustus,  in  a  precinct  surrounded  by  an 
enclosing  wall  100  feet  high.  It  was  one  of  the  largest  Roman 
temples,  having  columns  58  feet  in  height,  but  there  are  only  three 
columns  and  a  pilaster  remaining,  the  capital  of  the  latter  being 
shown  in  No.  67  G.  A  short  description  is  given  on  No.  52. 

The  Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome  (A.D.  123-135)  (No.  50), 
had  a  peculiar  plan  consisting  of  two  cellas,  each  provided  with  an 
apse  placed  back  to  back,  and  a  pronaos  at  each  end.  It  was 
pseudo-dipteral  decastyle  (No.  4711),  the  peristyle  having  twenty 
columns  on  the  flanks,  and  the  cella  walls  were  of  extra  thickness 
to  take  the  thrust  of  the  vault.  Internally  there  were  niches  for 
statues,  and  the  cella  was  crowned  with  a  hemispherical  coffered 
vault,  the  apses  having  semi-domes.  The  plan  on  No.  47"  gives 
the  usually  accepted  restoration  of  this  building,  and  that  by 
Palladio  is  given  on  No.  50  A,  B,  c,  D.  This  temple  was  raised 
on  a  platform  and  stood  in  a  large  enclosure,  entered  through 
imposing  gateways,  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  nearly  200 
columns  of  red  and  grey  Egyptian  granite  and  red  porphyry, 
occupying  in  all  an  area  of  about  540  by  340  feet. 

The  Maison  Carree,  Nimes  (A.D.  117-138)  (Nos.  18  G,  50  H, 
j,  K,  and  51),  was  erected  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  is 
the  best  preserved  Roman  temple  in  existence.  It  is  of  the 
typical  form,  being  pseudo-peripteral  prostyle  hexastyle,  with 
Corinthian  columns  supporting  a  rich  entablature,  and  raised  on  a 
podium  about  12  feet  high  provided  with  a  front  flight  of  steps  only. 

The  so-called  Temple  of  Diana,  Nimes  (No.  50  E,  F,  G), 
was  probably  a  nymphaeum  connected  with  some  thermae.  The 
interior  walls  have  detached  Corinthian  columns,  supporting  a 
cornice  from  which  springs  a  stone-ribbed  barrel  vault,  the  thrust 
of  which  is  counteracted  by  smaller  continuous  vaults  over  the 
side  passages,  probably  a  prototype  of  the  vaulting  of  many 
southern  French  Romanesque  churches. 

The  Great  Temple,  Baalbec  (A.D.  131-161)  (No.  53),  was 
dipteral  decastyle,  but  only  six  columns  now  remain.  It  stood  in 
a  court  380  feet  square  with  recessed  porticos,  in  front  of  which 
was  a  hexagonal  cortile  entered  by  a  dodecastyle  Corinthian  portico 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES 


WHKAfltT. 


PECULIAR  IN  HAVING  STONE  RIBBED  BARRELS 
THRUST  IS  OONTERACTfl)  ar  SMALLER  WOLT5  OftR  AISIB 
| 
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UCHT-DTHL  INTERIOR  PRoBABLT  1N1MCED  "IflW 
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P3EODO-FERIFTEKAL  IN  PLAH 
PEING  A  TYPICAL  FORM  OF 
ROMAN  TEMPLE 
rAS'Sf > 


50- 


ROMAN   EXAMPLES.    IV. 


©PEAK 


M)ElEVATION  OTK£ADE  or  TEMPLE  SHEWING  EHCEaiNS  W/I0. 

TEMDLEorMARS        —     >»1  : — !    L/~\S.  \ 

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DETAIL  Or 
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52- 


ROMAN   EXAMPLES.    V. 


THE  GREATTEMPLE  we  ©MMENCED  IN  w 

REIGN  oryWTONINlfi  PiU5  A  0  131  - 161 .  • 
TiiE  HEXAGONAL  FORE-©URT  6  ENTERED  W 
THREE  DGDRWAY3  AHD  HM  ON  EACH 


PORTAL  LEADS  is  THE  MAIN  WRJ 

5IDE5  Of  WHICH  NORTH.50UTHANDEA5T 
ARE  LXEDRAE.THE  GREW  IMRI FACE5 
EAST  AND  STANDS  ON  A  BA5EKENT50fr 
ABOVE  THE  PLAIN.  6  @LUMNS  of  THE  PERI- 
STYLE ARE  THE  ONLY  REMAINS.  THE5E 
ARE  ABOUT  65  ET  IN  HEI5HT.UNFLUTH). 
THESE  MA55IVE  COLUMNS  ARE  7  FKT 
IN  DIAMETER  AND  CoNSIST  OF  3  PIEOFA 
HELD  TOGETHER  WITH  IRON  . 
THE  ARCHITRAVE  15  IN  . 

THE  ENTABLATURE  15  ttJ'IN  HEIGHT. 


FNCIKING  WALL  OF  GKTANTIC 

BlflCK80F510NEoyER64Fr 
IN  LENGTH  J 13 TIN  HEIGHT 
ON  A  BASEMENT  23  ETABiVE. 
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THETEMPLEofJUPlTEKissiTt 

THAN  THE  GRfAT  TTMPLE  Jt  18  AW..™._ 
EASTERN  aiGHT  OF  STETS.  IT  15  OCAS' 
AND  HA3  15  ©LUMNS  ON  EACH  SlOC.     ... 
INTERIOR  H«  A«fFERED  lWLT|F|yTtD  4  §1*115 


50SLE  FoR  ELEV/TlQNa  JEflloffi  u ,    .    .  5i° 

53- 

F.A. 


I3O  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

in  antis.  The  buildingsWere  constructed  with  large  blocks  of 
stone  without  cement,  ana  the  columns  were  built  up  in  three 
pieces.  A  further  short  description  is  given  on  No.  53. 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Baalbec  (A.D.  273),  is  peripteral 
octastyle  with  a  vaulted  sanctuary  at  the  west  end,  approached  by 
a  flight  of  steps.  The  interior  was  ornamented  with  half-Corin- 
thian columns  having  returned  entablature,  from  which  sprung  the 
coffered  vault.  Between  the  columns  were  two  tiers  of  niches. 
Dawkins  and  Wood  restore  this  temple  as^  if  vaulted,  but  other 
authorities  do  not  think  this  possible. 

CIRCULAR  AND  POLYGONAL  EXAMPLES. 

At  Rome. 

The  Temple  of  Mater  Matuta,  for-  B.C.27-A.D.  14.  .  (See  below.) 

merly  known  as  the  Temple  of 

Vesta. 
The   Pantheon   (Nos.   33,   54,   55,  A.D.  120-124.  (See  below.) 

56,  57,  67  H). 

The  Temple  of  Vesta  (No.  47).  A.D.  205.  (See  below.) 

At  Tivoli  (near  Rome). 

The  Temple of 'Vesta (Nos.  iSc,  57).  B.C.  27-A.D.I4.  (See  page  134.) 

At  Spalato. 
The  Temple  of  Jttpiter  (in  Diocle-  A.D.  284.  (Seepages  136,  161.) 

tian's  Palace)  (No.  59). 
At  Baalbec. 
The    Circular  Temple  (No.  60  D,  A.D.  273.  (See  page  136.) 

E,  F). 

The  Temple  of  Mater  Matuta,  Rome,  formerly  known  as 
the  Temple  of  Vesta,  is  situated  in  the  Forum  Boarium,  and  is 
circular  peripteral,  having  twenty  Corinthian  columns,  34  feet 
7  inches  in  height  and  3  feet  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  therefore 
nearly  eleven  diameters  high.  These  surround  a  cella  28  feet  in 
diameter,  and  rest  on  a  podium  6  feet  high.  It  is  built  of  Parian 
marble,  with  the*  exception  of  the  podium,  which  is  of  tufa,  and 
is  approached  by  a  flight  of  marble  steps.  The  roof  was  probably 
of  wood  covered  with  bronze  tiles.  The  V-shaped  section  of  the 
leaves  indicates  the  .work  of  a  Greek  artist.  It  is  now  the  Church 
of  S.  M.  del  Sole. 

The  Temple  of  Vesta,  Rome,  (in  the  Forum  Romanum) 
(No.  47),  was  founded  in  B.C.  715,  but  was  frequently  destroyed  by 
fire  and  repeatedly  rebuilt,  finally  by  Septimius  Severus  in  A.D.  205. 
According  to  Middleton  it  was  circular  peripteral  with  eighteen 
columns  surrounding  a  cella,  and  resting  on  a  podium  10  feet 
high.  Among  the  remains  lately  found  are  some  fragments  of  the 
columns  having  fillets  for  fitting  metal  screens  between  the  shafts. 

The  Pantheon,  Rome  (Nos.  33,  37  A,  B,  c,  54,  55,  56,  57  E)  is 
now,  owing  to  the  investigations  of  M.  Chedanne  in  1892,  known 
to  belong  to  two  distinct  periods. 

The  circular  portion,  known  as  the  Rotunda,  occupies  the  site 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    VI. 


THE 


flP  IZ3  OH  THE  }ITE  OFfl  THREE  (EfcEp 
£E!flC™TOFTHEO|2  TETI~ 
PORTIA  PIECE  OF  THE 

NOW  COVERED  WITH  LEAD. 


tiE  V/AU5  OF 

ROTUNDA  (WHICH) 
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IN  SOLID  CoHcREfE 
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EX- 


J5. 1NP6RTI6H? 
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ARE  HOL6  COHMUNICATING" 

WiTHClPACA^  DRAIN  ONDfl. 
THE  DOME  WAS  FOUND  BY 
M.CHEDANNETOBEBUILT 
OF  BRICKWORK  LAID  IN 
HORIZONTAL  COURSES 
BOTH -NEAR  THE  CENTRAL 
OPENING  AND  DP  TO  THE- 
FOURTH  RANGE  OF  COF- 
FERS.THE  INTERMEDIATE 
PORTION  WAS  NOT  EXAMIN- 
ED, BUT  IT  15  HELD  THAT  A 
SERIES  OF  ARCHES  MAY 
HAVE  BEEN  CARRIED  ROUND 
IN  THIS  PORTION.  THI5 
METHOD  Of  CONSTRUCTION 
MAY  HAVE  BEEN  ADOPTED 
TO  AVOID  THE  THRUST  OF 
THE  POME. 


MH5lb  WCP  ARE 
HS  of 

RED      fPflAH 
H  ©RtuHlAH 

CAPITA15^  WHITE  PENtaiC 


54- 


K  2 


132  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  an  older  uncovered  piazza,  used  as  a  "  nymphaeum,"  or  place 
for  plants,  flowers,  and  running  water,  the  level  of  its  floor  being 
8  feet  below  the  present  level. 

In  front  of  this  "  nymphaeum,"  and  facing  towards  the  south, 
was  a  decastyle  portico,  forming  a  frontispiece  to  a  three-cell 
temple  of  the  Etruscan  type,  built  by  Agrippa  during  the  reign 

Of   AugUStUS,    B.C.    27-A.D.    14. 

The  present  Rotunda  was  erected  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in 
A.D.  120-124,  on  the  site  of  the  more  ancient  "  nymphaeum,"  the 
portico  to  the  Etruscan  temple  being  takenxdown  and  re-erected  at 
the  higher  level.  As  rebuilt  this  portico  was  made  octastyle  instead 
of  decastyle,  and  was  made  to  face  the  north  instead  of  the  south. 

The  Rotunda  (now  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Rotonda)  is  a 
circular  structure  having  an  internal  diameter  of  142  feet  6  inches, 
which  is  also  its  internal  height.  The  walls,  of  concrete  (opus 
incertum),  with  a  layer  of  tiles  every  three  feet  in  height,  are 
20  feet  in  thickness,  and  have  eight  great  recesses,  one  of  which 
forms  the  entrance ;  three  of  the  remaining  seven  are  semicircular 
exedrae,  the  other  four  being  rectangular  on  plan.  Two  columns 
are  placed  on  the  front  line  of  these  recesses,  above  which  are 
relieving  arches. 

The  eight  piers  have  niches  entered  from  the  exterior  of  the 
building,  formed  in  three  heights,  of  which  the  lower  are  semi- 
circular on  plan,  and  are  19  feet  high  to  the  springing  of  their 
hemispherical  heads,  the  second  tier  have  their  floor  on  the  same 
level  as  the  cornice  over  the  inner  order,  and  the  third  tier  are 
level  with  and  entered  from  the  second  cornice  of  the  exterior. 

In  front  of  the  Rotunda  is  the  Corinthian  octastyle  portico, 
1 10  feet  wide  by  60  feet  deep  in  the  centre,  the  first,  third,  sixth  and 
eighth  columns  having  two  others  behind  them.  At  the  back  of 
the  portico  are  niches,  and  staircases  by  which  to  ascend  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  edifice.  ft 

The  columns,  42  feet  6  inches  high,  in  front  of  the  recesses  in 
the  interior,  are  believed  to  be  part  of  the  original  design  of 
Hadrian's  architect.  The  lower  third  of  these  columns  is  cabled, 
and  the  upper  portion  is  fluted  (No.  55).  The  marble  facing  to 
the  walls  between,  and  the  columns,  entablature,  and  pediments 
of  the  projecting  altars  are  later  additions. 

The  attic  or  upper  story  was  originally  ornamented  with 
porphyry  or  marble  pilasters,  with  capitals,  six  of  which  are  in  the 
British  Museum,  of  white  marble  and  panelling  of  giallo  antico, 
serpentine,  and  pavonazetto,  but  in  1747  this  marble  panelling 
was  removed  and  the  present  stucco  decoration  inserted. 

The  dome  or  cupola  is  a  hemisphere,  having  its  inner  surface 
coffered  in  five  ranges.  The  manner  in  which  the  sinkings  or 
mouldings  are  regulated  or  foreshortened  so  as  to-  be  seen  from 
below  is  worthy  of  notice. 


be 


o  -~ 


SB  O 

2  ^ 

*  _§ 

H  "5 


CO 


134  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  dome,  although  described  by  Middleton  to  be  of  concrete, 
was  found  by  Chedanne  to  be  built  of  brickwork  laid  in  almost 
horizontal  courses  up  to  the  fourth  range  of  coffers,  and  also  near 
the  central  opening  at  the  summit.  The  intermediate  portion  was 
not  examined,  but  it  is  held  that  a  series  of  arches  may  have  been 
formed  in  this  portion,  so  as  to  relieve  from  pressure  the  recessed 
openings  below. 

The  lighting  is  effected  solely  by  one  circular  unglazed  opening, 
27  feet  in  diameter,  formed  in  the  crown  of  the  dome,  and  still 
retaining  its  circular  bronze  cornice  (No.  54  c,  D). 

This  method  of  lighting  produces  an  effect  which  is  solemn 
and  impressive ;  and  there  may  have  been  a  symbolic  meaning 
in  thus  imitating  the  appearance  of  the  vault  of  the  heavens  in 
the  temple  of  all  the  gods,  the  idea  being  that  the  worship  of 
Jupiter  should  take  place  in  a  building  open  to  the  sky.  "  One 
great  eye  opening  upon  heaven  is  by  far  the  noblest  conception 
for  lighting  a  building  to  be  found  in  Europe." 

The  circular  portion  was  originally  faced  with  marble  up  to  the 
lower  string  cornice,  the  upper  portion  being  faced  with  stucco 
decorated  with  pilasters,  as  shown  in  the  drawings  made  by 
Palladio  in  the  i6th  century.  At  the  present  time  the  walls  are 
faced  in  brick  with  "opus  reticulatum,"  divided  by  the  two  cornices. 

The  dome,  which  has  its  lower  portion  formed  in  steps,  was 
originally  covered  with  bronze  gilded  plates,  but  these  were 
removed  to  Constantinople  by  Constans  II.  in  655,  and  replaced 
with  sheets  of  lead. 

The  octastyle  portico  has  monolith  Corinthian  columns, 
46  feet  6  inches  high,  5  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and 
4  feet  3  inches  at  the  top.  These  support  an  entablature  1 1  feet 
high,  and  a  pediment  having  an  inclination  of  about  23  degrees. 

Each  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  portico  ceiling  appears  to 
have  been  segmental  and  formed  of  bronze  plates,  since  removed. 

The  old  Roman  bronze  door  frame,  doors  and  fanlight, 
originally  plated  in  gold,  still  remain  (No.  37  A). 

The  Temple  of  Vesta,  Tivoli  (B.C.  27-A.D.  14)  (Nos.  18  c, 
57  H,  j,  K),  is  another  circular  peripteral  example,  having  a  cella 
24  feet  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  of  eighteen  Corin- 
thian columns,  23  feet  6  inches  high,  resting  on  a  podium.  The 
cella,  23  feet  1 1  inches  in  diameter  internally,  had  two  windows, 
and  a  doorway  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps.  The  columns 
are  nearly  gf  diameters  high,  and  the  capitals,  of  which  the  foliage 
is  derived  from  the  acanthus  mollis,  are  one  diameter  in  height. 

The  reason  for  the  difference  in  design  between  the  Temple  of 
Mater  Matuta,  Rome,  and  this  example  are  instructive.  The  Roman 
building,  placed  in  a  low  flat  situation,  has  columns  of  slender 
proportions  in  order  to  give  it  the  required  height ;  whereas  the 
Tivoli  example,  placed  on  the  edge  of  a  rocky  prominence,  and 


136  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

thus  provided  with  a  lofty  basement,  has  columns  of  a  sturdier 
proportion. 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Spalato  (in  Diocletian's  Palace) 
(A.D.  284)  (No.  59),  is  a  further  development  of  the  Pantheon. 
Externally  it  is  octagonal,  surrounded  by  a  low  peristyle  of 
Corinthian  columns,  but  the  interior  of  the  cella  is  circular, 
43  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  with  four  circular  recesses  and  three 
square,  the  entrance  corresponding  to  a  fourth.  Between  these 
are  placed  eight  Corinthian  columns  with  Composite  ones  super- 
imposed, advanced  slightly  in  front  of  tKe  face  of  the  wall. 
The  whole  is  raised  on  a  podium,  and  crowned  with  a  remarkable 
domical  vault  constructed  in  tiers  of  brick  arches,  externally 
presenting  a  pyramidal  form. 

The  Circular  Temple,  Baalbec  (A.D.  273)  (No.  60  D,  E,  F), 
has  a  circular  cella  raised  on  a  podium  and  approached  by  a 
flight  of  steps.  It  is  surrounded  by  eight  Corinthian  columns, 
six  of  which  are  well  advanced  from  the  cella  wall,  and  occupy  the 
positions  resulting  from  the  division  of  a  circle  into  seven  equal 
parts.  The  entrance  is  placed  centrally  on  the  seventh  division  of 
the  circle,  and  has  a  column  on  either  side.  The  cella  wall  has 
Corinthian  pilasters,  between  which  are  semicircular  niches  for 
statuary.  The  line  of  the  entablature  is  curved  inwards  towards 
the  cella  between  the  six  columns  above  mentioned.  Internally 
it  has  superimposed  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders. 

The  Christian  baptisteries  erected  in  the  following  centuries 
were  adapted  from  such  circular  temples  as  these  just  described, 
which  are  therefore  extremely  interesting  with  respect  to  architec- 
tural evolution. 

BASILICAS. 

These,  erected  as  halls  of  justice  and  as  exchanges  for  merchants, 
comprise  some  of  the  finest  buildings  erected  by  the  Romans, 
and  bear  witness  to  the  importance  of  law  and  justice  in  their 
eyes.  These  buildings  are  also  interesting  as  a  link  between 
Classic  and  Christian  architecture,  as  explained  later  on  page  181. 

The  usual  plan  was  a  rectangle,  whose  length  was  two  or  three 
times  the  width.  Two  or  four  rows  of  columns'  ran  through  the 
entire  length,  resulting  in  three  or  five  aisles,  and  galleries  were 
usually  placed  over  these.  The  entrance  was  at  the  side  or 
at  one  end,  and  the  tribunal  at  the  other  on  a  raised  dais,  generally 
placed  in  a  semicircular  apse,  which  was  sometimes  partly  cut  off 
from  the  main  body  of  the  building  by  columns.  Ranged  round 
the  apse  were  seats  for  the  assessors,  that  in  the  centre,  which  was 
elevated  above  the  rest,  being  occupied  by  the  Praetor  or  Questor. 

In  front  of  the  apse  was  the  altar,  where  sacrifice  was  performed 
before  commencing  any  important  business. 

The  building  was  generally  covered  with  a  wooden  roof,  and 


ROMAN   EXAMPLES.    VII. 


/*? 


KEY  STONE  o- ARCH. 

>v 


KttPLAM 

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E0ME.204S. 

THIS  fllCTB  CONSTRUCTED  Of  WHITE 


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SIDE 15  CONSTRUCTED  A  WKHf  5WJ 
CASE  WHICH  LEADS  TO THETCfMtEft 
WEK  TORMEIfLY  FLACE6  THE  5TATUE5 
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AT  E@MEDCIK(A.I23S 


tVL  5HAFT5  OF  THE  COLOMH5  Of  THIS 
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THIS  CAPITAL  is  QUITE. 

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HA6  BEEN  U5tD  IN 
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THE  TEWLE 


57' 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    VIII. 


END  WJUITED . 


COLUMNS  ATWHED  TO  THE  FACE  OF  PIEfiS  SUPPOBT 
THE  MAN  VAULTS  ,6EWG  M  EMLY  EXAMPLE  OF  COL- 
LECTING THE  WEKHT  ON  ISOLATES  POIMTS  OFSOPPOfiT. 


3KTERI61i  VIEW) 
AKUSD08B 


SCALL  TOR  PLANS  &  SECTIONS 


FEET 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  exterior  seems  to  have  been  of  small  pretensions,  in  com- 
parison with  the  interior. 

Trajan's  (the  Ulpian)  Basilica,  Rome  (A.D.  98)  (Nos.  47*, 
58  B,  E),  of  which  Apollodorus  of  Damascus  was  the  architect^ 
was  a  fine  example  of  the  wooden ._  roofed  type.  Entered 
from  Trajan's  Forum,  it  had  a  central  nave  87  feet  wide  with 
double  aisles,  each  23  feet  9  inches  wide,  and  an  internal  length 
excluding  the  apses  of  385  feet.  The  total  internal  height  was 
about  120  feet.  The  columns  on  the  ground  story  separating 
the  nave  and  aisles  were  of  red  granite  from  Syene,  with  white 
marble  Corinthian  capitals.  At  each  end  were  semicircular  apses, 
reached  by  flights  of  steps,  having  sacrificial  altars  in  front  of 
them.  Galleries  were  formed  over  the  side  aisles,  reached  by 
steps  as  shown  on  the  plan. 

Adjoining  the  Basilica  were  the  Greek  and  Latin  libraries,  and 
Trajan's  famous  Column  (page  156)  stood  in  an  open  court  between 
them. 

The  Basilica  of  Maxentius  or  Constantine,  Rome 
(A.D.  312)  (Nos.  46  i,  47%  58  A,  c,  D),  formerly  erroneously 
known  as  the  Temple  of  Peace,  consists  of  a  central  nave 
265  feet  long  by  83  feet  wide  between  the  piers,  crowned  at  a  height 
of  1 20  feet  by  an  immense  groined  vault  in  three  compartments. 

To  the  north  and  south  are  aisles  roofed  with  three  great  semi- 
circular vaults,  each  76  feet  in  span,  springing  from  walls  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  nave.  These  walls  had  communicating 
openings  formed  in  them,  and  aided  by  the  weight  of  the  aisle 
vaults,  supported  that  of  the  nave.  Monolithic  columns  were 
attached  to  the  face  of  these  piers,  and  supported  pieces  of 
.entablature  from  which  sprung  the  groined  vaults. 

There  were  two  apses,  one  to  the  north  and  one  to  the  west  of 
the  central  nave. 

Light  was  introduced  in  the  upper  part  of  the  nave  over  the 
aisle  vaults  by  means  of  lunettes,  or  semicircular  windows  in  the 
wall  formed  by  the  intersecting  vaulting.  The  building  is  similar 
as  regards  plan  and  design  to  the  Tepidarium  of  the  Thermae 
(No.  59),  and  is  in  many  respects  a  prototype  of  a  Gothic  struc- 
ture, in  which  the  thrust  and  weight  of  an  intersecting  vault  are 
collected  and  brought  down  on  piers  built  to  receive  them. 

The  vaults  to  the  northern  aisle  still  remain,  exhibiting  the 
deep  coffering  executed  in  brick  work,  and  a  portion  of  the  main 
vault  of  concrete  formed  of  pozzolana  is  still  in  position,  although 
the  column  which  was  placed  to  carry  it  has  been  removed,  thus 
showing  the  extraordinary  tenacity  of  Roman  concrete. 

Other  basilicas  at  Rome  were  the  Basilica  Porcia  (B.C.  184), 
believed  to  be  the  oldest,  the  Basilica  Julia  (No.  47),  and  the 
Basilica  Amelia  (No.  47)  ;  and  the  basilicas  at  Pompeii,  Farno, 
and  Treves,  and  at  Silchester  in  England,  may  be  mentioned. 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    IX. 


CENTRAL 


\TH<3  OF<2\RACALLA  (A,Qfl?-: 

PLATFOR/A  20  FEET  ABOVE  THE 
T/-\E  VAULTED 

m* 


CARACALLA  RO*\E 


NEURAL  GROLlHD  LEVEL 
aNDER-jiEATHa0l«Q  FORCED  AS 


750  FEET- 

FOR  MATING  T/AEV/ATER  ^HOTROOn^  AW/E^  ^J5  STORAGE  ROO^  FOR 
FUEL  OIL  %c  TME  5ATA5  AGOOmODATED  1600  BATHERS  WALLS  OFCOHCRETE  OF  Uh£  ^ 
PO^OLANAVlT/-\TKlH  FACING  OF  TRIANGULAR  ^RICl\S  \  ^ONlDlNG  COURSES  OF  LARGE 
TILES  ?FEET6C<'  EVLRY4  Fr  IN  h\pK> 
I! 


59- 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  141 

THERMS. 

The  Thermae  or  great  public  baths  are  quite  as  characteristic 
of  Roman  civilization  as  the  amphitheatres,  being  probably 
derived  from  the  Greek  gymnasia. 

The  principal  existing  remains  are  found  at  Rome  and  Pompeii 
in  a  ruined  state,  but  much  can  be  learned  from  the  published 
drawings  of  the  Italian  architect,  Palladio,  made  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  they  were  better  preserved,  and  from  the  restora- 
tions of  French  students  sent  to  Rome  as  prize  winners  of  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts. 

The  Thermae  supplied  the  place  of  the  modern  daily  papers  for 
the  dissemination  of  news  and  gossip,  and  also  answered  in  a 
measure  the  purposes  of  a  modern  club  as  a  rendezvous  of  social 
life.  A  small  charge  of  a  quadrans  (|  farthing)  was  sometimes 
made,  but  in  later  days  they  were  opened  free  as  a  bribe  to  the 
populace  by  Emperors  in  search  of  popularity. 

In  general  arrangement  they  usually  consisted  of  three  main 
parts  :  — 

(a.)  A  great  central  block.  This  was  planned  for  the  baths  proper, 
the  processes  of  bathing  resembling  the  modern  Turkish  bath. 
The  Tepjdarium  (warm  room  for  bathers  to  rest  in),  Calidarium 
(hot  room,  usually  containing  a  warm  water  bath),  Laconium  or 
Sudatorium  (the  hottest  room,  usually  a  circular  domed  apart- 
ment), and  a  Frigidarium  (cool  room,  usually  containing  a  cold 
swimming  bath — "piscina")  were  the  most  important  apartments  ; 
added  to  which  there  were  the  Apodyteria  (rooms  for  undressing), 
Unctuarium  (rooms  for  oils,  pomades  or  ointments,  where  the 
"  aliptae  "  anointed  the  bathers  and  performed  the  rubbing  down, 
shampooing  with  the  "strigillus"  or  scraper,  oiling  and  sanding  the 
body).  The  Sphgeristerium  (place  for  the  games  of  ball),  libraries, 
and  small  theatre  occasionally  formed  part  of  the  central  structure. 

(b.)  A  large  open  space.  This  surrounded  the  central  block  and 
was  frequently  laid  out  as  a  stadium,  with  raised  seats  for 
spectators.  It  was  also  used  for  various  athletic  exercises  (such 
as  wrestling,  races,  boxing),  or  for  lounging,  and  portions  were 
planted  with  trees  and  ornamented  with  statues. 

(c.)  An  outer  ring  of  apartments.  These  consisted  of  lecture 
rooms  for  the  hearing  of  discourses,  open  colonnades,  exedrae  or 
recesses  for  the  philosophers,  poets  and  statesmen,  and  other 
necessary  apartments.  A  large  reservoir  frequently  occupied  one 
side,  being  supplied  by  a  special  aqueduct  from  a  distance.  This 
reservoir  supplied  the  Frigidarium,  Tepidarium  and  Calidarium 
in  succession.  The  external  apartments  were  frequently  let  off 
as  shops  or  utilized  for  the  accommodation  of  the  numerous  slaves 
who  formed  part  of  the  establishment. 

The  whole  block  was  frequently  raised   on  a  high   platform, 


142  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

underneath  which  were  the  furnaces  and  other  rooms  for  the 
service  of  the  baths. 

The  Thermae  of  Caracalla,  Rome  (A.D.  212-235)  (Nos-  46  F> 
G,  H,  K  and  59  A),  accommodating  1,600  bathers,  are  the  most 
important  of  all  the  remains,  and  give  a  splendid  idea  of  their 
size  and  magnificence. 

The  entire  site  including  gardens  was  raised  on  an  artificial 
platform  20  feet  high,  measuring  1,150  feet  (over  one-fifth  of  a  mile) 
each  way,  not  including  the  segmental  projection  on  three  of  the 
sides.  Under  this  platform  were  communicating  corridors  leading 
to  various  parts  of  the  establishment,  vaulted  chambers  used  as 
stores,  the  hypocaust,  and  furnaces  for  heating  the  water  and  hot 
air  ducts. 

Along  the  road  front  was  a  colonnade  having  behind  it  a  row 
of  small  chambers  in  two  stories,  the  lower  at  the  street  level, 
probably  used  as  shops,  and  the  upper  on  the  platform  level,  for 
private  "slipper"  baths. 

The  entrance  to  the  establishment  was  in  the  centre  of  the 
north-eastern  facade,  and  led  to  the  large  open  enclosure  laid  out 
for  wrestling  and  other  games,  around  which,  in  the  segmental 
projections  and  elsewhere,  were  grouped  the  various  halls  for 
dramatic  representations  and  lectures.  The  central  building,  used 
entirely  for  bathing,  measured  750  feet  by  380  feet,  and  therefore 
covered  an  area  of  285,000  square  feet,  i.e.,  about  equal  to  West- 
minster Palace  (including  Westminster  Hall),  but  greater  than 
either  the  British  Museum  or  the  London  Law  Courts.  Only 
four  doorways  were  formed  on  the  north-east  side,  which  was 
exposed  to  cold  winds,  but  large  columned  openings,  giving  access 
to  the  gardens,  were  a  feature  of  the  south-western  front. 

Although  now  in  ruins,  restorations  have  been  made  which 
show  the  relative  positions  of  the  Tepidarium,  Calidarium  (with 
sudatio),  Frigidarium  (with  piscina),  Sphaeristeria  (for  gymnastics), 
Apodyteria  (dressing  rooms),  and  other  apartments.  The  planning 
of  this  and  similar  buildings  is  very  instructive  to  architectural 
students  and  worthy  of  careful  study,  being  laid  out  on.^ixial-lin£S, 
which,  while  providing  for  the  practical  requirements  of  the  bathers, 
produced  vistas  through  the  various  halls  and  saloons.  Moreover, 
by  the  system  of  exedrae  and  screens  of  columns,  loss  of  scale  was 
prevented,  and  the  vastness  of  the  building  was  emphasized. 

Internally  the  Tepidarium,  forming  the  principal  hall,  around 
which  the  subsidiary  apartments  were  grouped,  constituted  the 
controlling  feature  of  the  plan  to  which  the  other  apartments  were 
subordinated.  It  was  170  feet  by  82  feet,  roofed  with  an  immense 
semicircular  intersecting  concrete  vault,  108  feet  above  the  floor, 
formed  in  three  compartments,  and  supported  on  eight  portions  of 
entablature  resting  on  granite  columns,  38  feet  high  and  5  feet 
4  inches  in  diameter,  placed  in  front  of  the  massive  piers.  This 


ROMAN   EXAMPLES.    X 


mom  , 

JWfCE 

dGRIPM  SON IN  L7M 


6  NO  CEMENT  USED  EXCfPT  FOR 
WTER  OWNNEL  flT  THE  TOP. 
HEIGHT  flBOVE5REflM/fflOUTl8on 


Clara  TOU 

QFBffiEJBClH 


IN.AD.  1559-1566  M1CH/IEL  flNGELO  TRANSFORMED 
THE  L/KOMICUMfHOT  ROOM)  B.  flND  IE  IE  PIDrtRIUM  K 
1KTO  THE  VESTIBULE  flND  WYE  OF  BE  CHURCHY 
SMflRW  DO  flNGELI. 


MflXIMMNUS  AD.302  IN  HONOUR 


PttREUEBCMLDKYIWEB 


60. 


144  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

great  apartment  was  lighted  by  clerestory  windows,  high  in  the 
walls,  admitting  light  over  the  roofs  of  adjoining  halls  by  means 
of  the  intersecting  vault,  which  was  constructed  on  a  similar 
system  to  that  described  for  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius  (page  139). 
S.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  is  of  similar  dimensions  to  the  Tepi- 
darium  of  Caracalla's  Thermae,  but  with  five  bays  instead  of  three. 

The  Calidarium  was  roofed  with  a  dome  similar  to  that  of  the 
Pantheon. 

The  Frigidarium  was  probably  open  to  the  sky,  although  as 
many  tons  of  T  iron  were  found  below  the  surface  of  the  bath, 
some  suppose  it  to  have  been  covered  with  a  roof  of  iron  joists 
(probably  cased  with  bronze)  and  concrete.  Viollet-le-duc  has  a 
drawing  in  his  lectures  of  the  Frigidarium  restored,  giving  an 
excellent  idea  of  its  probable  original  appearance. 

The  general  adornment  and  color  treatment  of  the  interior 
must  have  been  of  great  richness,  and  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
exterior,  indicating  a  further  secession  from  Greek  principles. 

Sumptuous  internal  magnificence  was  aimed  at  in  all  the  great 
Thermae,  the  pavings  were  patterned  with  mosaic  cubes  of  bright 
colors,  either  planned  in  geometrical  patterns  or  with  figures  of 
athletes  ;  the  lower  parts  of  the  walls  were  sheathed  with  many 
colored  marbles,  and  the  upper  parts  with  enriched  and  modelled 
stucco  bright  with  color  ;  the  great  columns  on  which  rested  the 
vault  springers  were  either  of  granite,  porphyry,  giallo  antico, 
alabaster  or  other  rare  marbles  from  the  ^Egean  islands.  Various 
colored  marble  columns  were  used  constructively  to  support  the 
upper  balconies  and  the  peristyle  roofs,  and  decoratively  to  form 
with  their  entablatures  and  pediments  frames  for  the  superimposed 
niches  in  the  walls. 

The  surface  of  the  great  vaults  was  also  richly  ornamented  by 
means  of  coffering,  or  covered  with  bold  figures,  decorations  in 
black  and  white,  or  colored  glass  mosaic. 

In  these  magnificent  halls  thus  sumptuously  decorated  some  of 
the  finest  sculpture  of  antiquity  was  displayed.  This  was  brought 
largely  from  Greece  or  executed  in  Rome  by  Greek  artists,  and  at 
the  excavation  of  the  Thermae  during  the  Renaissance  period  much 
of  it  found  its  way  into  the  Vatican  and  other  museums  in  Rome, 
and  in  the  principal  European  cities. 

Finally,  additional  interest  was  given  to  the  interiors  by  the 
perpetual  streams  of  running  water,  issuing  from  the  mouths  of 
sculptured  lions  in  marble  or  brightly  polished  silver,  falling  into 
capacious  marble  basins  and  producing  a  delicious  cooling  effect 
in  the  hot  sultry  weather. 

•  'The  exteriors  appear  to  have  been  treated  very  plainly  in  stucco, 
or  more  wisely  left  as  impressive  masses  of  plain  brickwork, 
perhaps  banded  or  dressed  with  bricks  of  a  different  color. 

The  unbounded  license  of  the  public  baths,  and  their  connection 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  145 

with  amusements  generally,  caused  them  to  be  proscribed  by  the 
Early  Christians,  who  held  that  bathing  might  be  used  for 
cleanliness,  but  not  for  pleasure. 

In  the  fifth  century  the  large  Roman  Thermae  fell  into  disuse 
and  decay,  caused  by  the  destruction  of  the  aqueducts  by  the 
Huns  and  the  gradual  decrease  of  the  Roman  population. 

The  Thermae  of  Agrippa,  Rome  (B.C.  27)  (No.  46  L),  were 
the  earliest  example.  They  have  completely  disappeared,  but 
an  idea  can  be  obtained  from  the  measured  drawings  of  Palladio, 
published  in  Cameron's  "Baths  of  the  Romans,"  1772. 

The  Thermae  of  Titus,  Rome  (A.D.  80)  (No.  69  B),  were 
built  on  the  foundations  of  Nero's  Golden  House. 

The  Thermae  of  Diocletian,  Rome  (A.D.  302)  (No.  46  j),  had 
a  plan,  shown  in  a  restored  condition  in  No.  60  K,  from  which  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  general  distribution  resembled  the  Baths  of 
Caracalla.  The  Tepidarium  is  200  feet  long  by  80  feet  wide  and 
90  feet  high,  and  is  covered  with  quadripartite  vaulting  of  tufa  con- 
crete, springing  from  eight  monolithic  columns  of  Egyptian 
granite,  50  feet  high  and  5  feet  in  diameter,  having  Composite  and 
Corinthian  capitals  of  white  marble  each  supporting  a  portion  of 
highly  ornamental  entablature.  This  Tepidarium  was  converted 
by  Michael  Angelo,  in  A.D.  1561,  into  the  Church  of  S.  M.  degli 
Angeli,  and  in  1740  a  projecting  choir  was  formed  on  one  side  by 
Vanvitelli,  who  thus  converted  the  nave  of  the  church  into  a  kind 
of  transept. 

The  Balneum  or  small  private  bath  was  much  used,  and  the 
three  examples  at  Pompeii  indicate  their  general  characteristics 
and  manner  of  use.  These  baths  were  heated  by  means  of  hot  air 
in  flues  under  the  floors,  and  in  the  walls  from  the  hypocaust  or 
furnace  in  the  basement  (No.  46  F,  G,  H). 

Typical  Roman  baths  are  shown  on  No.  69  G,  j. 

The  so-called  Temple  of  Minerva  Medica,  Rome  (Nos.  46  M 
and  83  A,  B),  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  nymphaeum  attached 
to  the  Baths  of  Gallenius  (A.D.  266).  The  absence  of  a  hypocaust 
or  of  flue  tiles  in  the  walls  prevent  it  from  being  considered  as  a 
Calidarium. 

It  is  a  decagonal  on  plan,  80  feet  in  diameter,  with  semicircular 
niches  to  nine  of  the  sides,  the  tenth  being  the  entrance.  Above 
are  ten  windows  of  large  size  at  the  base  of  the  dome,  in  order  to 
give  the  necessary  light  and  air  to  the  plants.  The  dome  is  formed 
of  concrete  ribbed  with  tiles,  bearing  a  remarkable  similarity  to 
S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna  (No.  83  c,  D).  It  is  particularly  interesting 
in  that  the  rudiments  of  the  pendentive  (see  glossary)  system  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  manner  of  setting  the  dome  on  its  decagonal 
base,  a  system  afterwards  carried  still  further  by  the  Byzantines. 
Buttresses  were  placed  at  points  as  required,  admitting  of  the  use 
of  thinner  walls,  which  is  an  advance  on  the  construction  of  the 

F.A.  L 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


147 


Pantheon  (No.  54),  and  a  step  towards  Gothic  principles  of  con- 
struction. The  pendentives  are  of  the  rudest  kind,  and  probably 
were  entirely  masked  by  the  original  decoration. 

THEATRES  AND  AMPHITHEATRES. 

The  design  of  Greek  theatres  was  adapted  to  suit  Roman 
requirements.  The  auditorium,  instead  of  being  rather  more 
than  a  semicircle  as  in  the  Greek  theatres,  was  here  restricted  to 
a  semicircle,  and  consisted  of  tiers  of  seats  one  above  the  other, 
with  wide  passages  and  staircases  ccmmunicating  with  the  external 
porticos  on  each  story.  At  the  ground  level,  separating  the 
auditorium  of  sloping  seats  from  the  stage,  was  a  semi- 
circular area  which  was  occupied  by  the  Senators,  and  which  in 
its  original  circular  plan  in  Greek  theatres  was  occupied  by  the 
chorus.  The  stage  thus  becoming  all  important,  was  raised  con- 
siderably and  treated  with  great  richness,  and  became  connected 
more  completely  with  the  auditorium.  Theatres  were  still  con- 
structed on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  but  where  the  site  did  not  allow  of 
this  they  were,  by  means  of  the  new  art  of  vaulting,  constructed 
tier  upon  tier  of  connecting  corridors,  in  which  the  people  might 
retreat  in  case  of  sudden  showers. 

The  Theatre  at  Orange,  South  France  (No.  34  B),  held  7,000 
spectators,  and  is  an  example  where  the  auditorium  is  constructed 
and  not  hollowed  out  of  the  side  of  a  hill.  In  diameter  it  is 
340  feet  between  the  inclosing  walls.  Staircases  for  access  to  the 
various  levels  were  placed  on  either  side  of  the  stage,  which  is 
203  feet  wide  by  45  feet  deep,  and  inclosed  by  return  walls  at 
right  angles  to  the  back  wall.  The  great  wall  at  the  back  of  this 
stage,  314  feet  long  by  116  feet  high,  is  ornamented  by  blind 
arcading,  and  has  at  the  summit  two  tiers  of  corbel  stones,  pierced 
with  holes,  through  which  the  velarium  poles  were  placed.  It 
originally  had  a  portico  attached  to  it. 

The  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  Rome  (B.C.  23-13),  is  the  only 
existing  example  of  a  theatre  in  that  city.  The  remains  consist 
of  the  arcading,  two  stories  high,  of  the  semicircular  auditorium, 
the  fa9ade  of  which  was  ornamented  with  the  Tuscan  order  and 
the  Ionic  order  superimposed. 

The  Theatre  of  Herodes  Atticus,  Athens  (No.  17) 
(A.D.  161),  is  also  a  fine  example,  seating  6,000  people.  It  is 
partly  hewn  out  of  the  Acropolis  rock  and  partly  constructed,  the 
seats  having  a  marble  casing.  It  is  held  to  have  been  roofed  with 
cedar,  but  this,  however,  probably  only  applied  to  the  stage. 

Pompeii  had  two  important  theatres,  which  in  recent  years  have 
been  excavated.  The  theatres  at  Taormina,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily,  at  Fiesole,  near  Florence,  and  Aspendus,  in  Asia  Minor,  are 
other  examples. 

L  2 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    XI. 


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ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  149 

The  amphitheatres  are  characteristic  Roman  buildirigs,  being 
found  in  every  important  settlement,  and  in  addition  to  their 
normal  purposes  were  used  for  naval  exhibitions,  the  water  drains 
for  flooding  the  arena  still  existing  in  many  examples.  The 
modern  Spanish  bull  rings  to  some  degree  give  an  idea  of  the 
arrangement  and  uses  of  Roman  amphitheatres.  These  are  good 
exponents  of  the  character  and  life  of  the  Romans,  who  had 
greater  love  for  mortal  combats,  which  were  considered  to  be  a 
good  training  for  a  nation  of  warriors,  than  for  the  tame  mimicry 
of  the  stage. 

The  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  (The  Colosseum),  Rome 
(Nos.  62  and  63),  commenced  by  Vespasian  in  A.D.  70,  and  com- 
pleted (with  the  exception  of  the  upper  story)  by  Domitian  in 
A.D.  82,  is  the  most  important  example.  The  model  in  the  Crystal 
Palace  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  general  distribution  of  its  parts. 
In  plan  it  is  a  type  of  all  the  examples,  consisting  of  a  vast  ellipse 
620  feet  by  513  feet,  having  externally  eighty  openings  on  each 
story,  those  on  the  ground  floor  forming  entrances,  by  means 
of  which  the  various  tiers  of  seats  are  reached.  The  arena 
proper  is  an  oval  287  feet  by  180  feet,  surrounded  by  a  wall 
15  feet  high.  The  seats,  in  solid  stone,  rise  up  from  the  arena, 
having  underneath  them  corridors  and  staircases.  The  dens  for 
the  wild  beasts  were  immediately  under  the  lowest  tiers  of  seats, 
and  consequently  opened  on  to  the  arena,  as  at  Verona  (No.  64). 
The  auditorium  has  four  ranges  of  seats,  the  two  lower  forming 
the  grand  tiers,  the  third  separated  from  the  second  by  a  wall, 
and  the  top  range  under  the  peristyle  forming  the  later  addi- 
tion. Access  to  the  various  seats  is  from  the  eighty  entrances 
by  means  of  staircases  placed  between  the  radiating  walls  and  by 
corridors,  placed  at  intervals  as  shown.  The  radiating  walls  were 
cleverly  constructed,  concrete  being  used  where  least  weight, 
tufa  stone  where  more  weight,  and  travertine  stone  where  the 
heaviest  pressures  had  to  be  supported  (No.  62  B).  The  masonry 
was  laid  without  mortar,  and  the  construction  is  strong  and  solid, 
Joeing  of  an  engineering  character.  The  system  is  one  of  concrete 
vaults  resting  on  walls  of  the  same  material,  2  feet  3  inches  thick, 
faced  with  travertine  stone,  4  feet  thick,  and  having  an  internal 
lining  of  9  inches  of  brickwork,  making  7  jfeet  in  total  thickness. 
The  supports  have  been  calculated  at  one-sixth  of  the  whole  area 
of  the  building. 

The  constructive  principle  consists  of  wedge-shaped_piejs 
radiating  inwards,  the  vaults  running  downwards  to  the  centre 
from  the  high  inclosing  walls ;  consequently  no  building  is  more 
durable  or  more  difficult  to  destroy — a  feeling  well  expressed  by 
the  line  : 

"  \Vhen  falls  the  Colosseum,  Rome  shall  fall." 


152  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  external  fa9ade  is  divided  into  four  stories.  The  three 
lower  ones  have  their  walls  pierced  with  arches,  and  are  orna- 
mented with  half  columns  of  the  Tuscan,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian 
orders,  the  two  latter  being  on  pedestals.  The  upper  story  has 
Corinthian  pilasters,  and  the  height  to  the  top  of  this  order  is 
157  feet.  Between  the  pilasters  are  the  corbels  used  to  support 
the  masts  of  the  velarium. 

In    criticizing    the    general    architectural    character    of    this 
wonderful  building  (No.  63),  points  worthy  of  notice  are  :— 
i.  The  multiplicity  of  its  parts,  viz.,  three  tiers  of  apparently 
countless  arcades  encircling  the  exterior,  divided  and  united 
by  three  tiers  of  orders, 
ii.  The  grand  sweeping  lines  of  the  unbroken  entablatures 

which  entirely  surround  the  building. 

iii.  The  purely  decorative  use  of  the  Classic  orders  of  archi- 
tecture which  being  superimposed  are  in  strong  contrast  to 
the  Grecian  method  of  single  orders, 
iv.  The  thick  piers  behind  the  orders,  connected  by  eighty 

arches  and  supporting  the  weight  of  the  structure. 
The  proportions  of  the  attached  columns  on  the  fa9ade,  which 
all  have   the  same  lower  diameter  are    unusual : — The   Tuscan 
column  is  about  9^  diameters  high  and  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
about  8|  diameters. 

The  Colosseum  was  used  as  a  stone  quarry  by  the  builders  ol 
later  times,  materials  being  taken  from  it  for  the  construction  of 
many  Renaissance  buildings  (page  456). 

The  Amphitheatre,  Verona  (No.  64),  is  in  splendid  pre- 
servation, all  the  stone  seats  being  intact,  although  only  four 
bays  of  the  external  wall  are  still  standing. 

Other  well-known  examples  are  the  Amphitheatres  at  Pompeii, 
Capua,  Pola  in  Istria,  Nimes,  Aries,  El  Djem  near  Carthage,  and 
remains  of  a  roughly  made  example  at  Dorchester,  in  Dorset. 

CIRCI. 

The  plan  of  a  Roman  Circus  was  an  adaptation  of  a  Greek 
stadium,  but,  however,  was  used  for  chariot  or  horse  races,  while 
the  Greek  stadium  was  principally  used  for  foot  races  and 
athletic  sports.  At  Rome  there  were  several  important  examples, 
among  which  were  the  Circus  Maximus  and  those  of  Maxentius, 
Domitian,  Hadrian,  Nero,  Flaminius,  and  Sallust. 

The  Circus  Maxentius  (No.  60  c)  near  Rome,  also  known 
as  the  Circus  of  Romulus,  was  built  by  Maxentius  in  A.D.  311. 
Although  only  part  of  it  now  remains,  it  is  the  most  perfect 
example  of  a  Roman  Circus  existing.  It  consisted  of  a  long  open 
circular-ended  arena  with  a  "spina"  along  its  axis.  Surrounding 
this  were  rows  of  marble  seats  supported  by  raking  vaults  and  an 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


153 


external  wall  of  concrete  faced  with  "opus  mixtum"  (page  117). 
At  one  end  were  the  "  carceres  "  or  stalls  for  horses  and  chariots, 
with  a  central  entrance  for  processions  and  two  side  entrances, 
and  at  the  semicircular  end  was  the  "  porta  triumphalis." 

TRIUMPHAL   ARCHES   AND   PILLARS   OF 
VICTORY. 

These  were  erected  to  emperors  or  generals  in  honour  of  their 
victories.  They  consisted  either  of  a  single  arch  or  of  a  central 
arch  with  a  smaller  one  on  either  side.  These  rest  on  an  impost, 
and  have  Corinthian  or  Composite  columns  on  either  side,  and 
were  adorned  with  architectural  enrichments,  statuary,  and  bas- 
reliefs  relating  to  campaigns.  An  attic  or  surmounting  mass  of 
stonework  was  placed  above,  having  a  dedicatory  inscription. 

(a.)  The  single-arched  type,  of  which  the  central  arch  at  Hyde 
Park  Corner,  London,  is  an  example. 

The  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome  (A.D.  81)  (Nos.  47,  49,  69  A,  c), 
commemorates  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  A.D.  70.  On  each  side  of 
the  arch  are  semi-engaged  columns  of  the  Composite  order,  being 
the  earliest  known  examples,  and  three-quarter  columns  occur  at 
the  angles.  The  archway  has  its  soffit  ornamented  with  deep 
coffers,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  relief  of  the  apotheosis  of  Titus. 
The  inner  jambs  have  reliefs  of  the  emperor  in  a  triumphal  car, 
being  crowned  by  victory,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  spoils  taken  from 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  on  the  other.  The  central  keystones 
project  considerably  in  order  to  support  the  main  architrave,  and 
are  richly  carved,  as  shown  in  No.  67  B. 

Other  well-known  examples  of  this  type  are  the  Arches  of 
Trajan  at  Ancona  (A.D.  1 13),  Trajan  at  Beneventum  (A.D.  114) 
(No.  70  D),  the  Sergii  at  Pola,  Augustus  at  Susa  (Piedmont) 
(B.C.  7),  Augustus  at  Aosta  (Piedmont),  Augustus  at  Rimini 
(A.D.  27),  and  Hadrian  at  Athens. 

The  Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths,  Rome  (A.D.  204)  (No.  49),  is 
not  of  arched  construction,  the  opening  being  spanned  by  an 
entablature. 

(b.)  The  three-arched  type,  of  which  the  Marble  Arch,  London, 
gives  a  general  idea. 

The  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  Rome  (A.D.  204)  (Nos.  47, 
57,  65,  66  and  70),  built  to  commemorate  Parthian  victories,  has 
detached  Composite  columns  resting  on  pedestals.  A  description 
is  given  on  each  of  the  illustrations  Nos.  57  and  65. 

The  Arch  of  Constantine,  Rome  (A.D.  312)  (No.  47),  was 
built  in  honour  of  Constantine's  victory  over  Maxentius,  and  is  one 
of  the  best  proportioned  examples.  It  has  detached  Corinthian 
columns  supporting  an  entablature,  which  returns  round  each 
column,  and  above  the  attic  were  originally  a  quadriga,  horses, 
and  statues. 


ROMAN    EXAMPLES.    XII. 


DWELLING  HOU5ES  THE  ATRm  WAS  THE.  PUI3LIC  PART  r  THE  BUILDING 
INWICHTHE  CLIENTS  WERE  AGttl5TOnED  TO  AWAIT  THEIR  PATRON  JriCR  KE^Rb 
ING  A  A\ODERN  HALL.  THE  PERISTYLE  EORnED  THE  CENTRE  ?THE  RE5IDENTIAL 
PORTION.  THE  ATRIU/A  8  PERI5TTLE  WERE  OPEN  TO  THE  3tf  GIVING  LIGHT  d  AIR 

TOTHESURROUNDINQ  ROO/A5 


SECTION.  ._. 

or 

IU5 


TOLF 


THIS  TRianpH^  ARCH  WAS 

DEDICATED  0V  ROMANS 
IN  HONORS  EMPEROR 
SEPT|A\IU55EVERU5FOR 
HIS  VICTORIES  IN  THE  EAST 
IN  CON  JUNCTION  WITH  HIS 
250N5CARACALLA&CETA 


65- 


H 

Pu 
W 
X 


156  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Arch  at  Orange  is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  this  type 
outside  Italy.  It  has  semi-attached  Corinthian  columns  between 
the  arches  and  three-quarter  columns  at  the  angles. 

Besides  these,  mention  might  be  made  of  the  Arch  of  Janus, 
Rome,  in  the  Forum  Boarium,  built  in  the  reign  of  Septimius 
Severus,  a  four-way  arch  built  as  a  shelter  at  the  junction  of  four 
roads;  and  also  the  arches  at  Palmyra  and  in  North  Africa. 

Arches  were  also  erected  to  form  entrances  to  towns  or  bridges, 
and  in  such  cases  might  serve  the  purposes  of  defence.  Of  this 
type  of  gateway  the  Porta  Nigra,  Treve^7,  the  Porte  S.  Andre, 
Autun,  the  Porte  des  Mars,  Rheims,  and  the  Porta  Aurea, 
Spalato  (Palace  of  Diocletian),  are  among  the  best  known. 

Pillars  of  victory,  or  memorial  columns,  were  sometimes 
erected  to  record  the  triumphs  of  victorious  generals. 

Trajan's  Column  (No.  58  B,  60  j,  L),  was  erected  'in  connec- 
tion with  his  Basilica  (page  139),  and  stood  in  an  open  court  with 
galleries  around  at  different  levels,  from  which  the  bas-reliefs  on 
its  shaft  could  be  viewed. 

"The  sculptures  wind  aloft 

And  lead,  through  various  toils,  up  the  rough  steep 
The  hero  to  the  skies." 

The  column,  of  the  Roman  Doric  order,  stands  on  a  pedestal 
1 6  feet  8  inches  square,  and  18  feet  high,  ornamented  with 
sculptured  trophies  on  three  sides,  and  having  a  doorway  on  the 
fourth.  The  column  is  12  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  is 
provided  with  an  internal  spiral  staircase  of  marble,  lighted  by 
small  openings.  Its  total  height  is  147  feet.  The  sculptures, 
numbering  over  2,500  human  figures,  besides  animals,  and 
carved  on  a  spiral  band  over  800  feet  long  and  about  3  feet 
6  inches  deep,  were  probably  intended  to  represent  the  unwinding 
of  a  scroll  of  parchment  illustrating  incidents  of  Trajan's  war  with 
the  Dacians.  There  is  a  full-sized  cast  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum. 

The  column  erected  in  A.D.  161  to  the  memory  of  Antoninus 
Pius  and  that  erected  to  Marcus  Aurelius  in  memory  of  his 
victories  over  the  Germans  (A.D.  167-179)  were  founded  on  the 
design  of  Trajan's  Column. 

Rostral  columns,  a  type  of  memorial  which,  in  the  time 
of  the  emperors,  was  numerous,  were  erected  to  celebrate  naval 
victories.  Rostra,  or  prows  of  ships  captured  after  a  naval 
victory,  were  used  in  their  ornamentation  (No.  69  H),  and  a  recital 
of  the  deeds  which  led  to  their  erection  was  carved  upon  them. 

TOMBS. 

In  contrast  with-  those  of  the  Greeks,  tombs  were  numerous, 
and  bear  considerable  similarity  to  Etruscan  examples,  in  particular 
that  of  Regolini  Galassi  at  Cervetri. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  157 

The  Romans  either  buried  or  cremated  their  dead,  both  sarco- 
phagi (No.  69  M)  and  urns  being  sometimes  found  in  the  same  tomb 
chamber.  The  bodies  of  the  emperors  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies were  usually  burnt  on  magnificent  pyres,  from  which  an  eagle 
was  set  free,  symbolizing  the  escaping  soul  of  the  dead  emperor. 

In  the  second  century  A.D.  the  practice  of  cremation  became 
less  usual ;  the  richer  classes  embalmed  their  dead  and  placed 
them  in  massive  and  costly  sarcophagi  instead  of  the  smaller 
receptacle  for  ashes. 

There  are  five  varieties  of  Roman  tombs,  as  indicated  on 
No.  52  : — 

(a.)  Columbaria. — These  were  placed  in  subterranean  vaults 
or  caves,  which  are  now  known  as  catacombs,  and  have  rows  of 
niches  in  the  walls  resembling  pigeon-holes— hence  the  name. 
Each  niche  was  reserved  for  a  vase  containing  the  ashes  of  the 
deceased,  with  the  name  inscribed  thereon.  Sarcophagi  were  also 
placed  in  these  tomb-chambers,  some  of  which  in  addition  had 
"  loculi "  or  recesses  for  corpses,  as  in  the  Tomb  of  the  Gens 
Cornelia,,  Rome. 

(b.)  Monumental  tombs  consisted  of  tower-shaped  blocks, 
square  or  circular,  resting  on  a  quadrangular  structure  and 
crowned  with  a  pyramidal  roof.  These  may  be  survivals  of  the 
prehistoric  tumulus  of  earth  with  its  base  strengthened  by  a  ring 
of  stones. 

The  Tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella,  Rome  (B.C.  60),  (on  the  Via  Appia), 
has  a  podium  100  feet  square,  supporting  a  circular  mass 
94  feet  in  diameter,  probably  surmounted  by  a  conical  roof.  The 
tomb-chamber  was  in  the  interior,  and  the  whole  was  faced  with 
travertine  and  crowned  by  an  entablature,  the  frieze  of  which  is 
carved  with  ox-skulls  and  festoons. 

The  Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  Rome  (B.C.  28),  was  erected  for 
himself  and  his  heirs.  Little  is  now  left,  but  it  is  known,  from 
descriptions  of  Strabo,  Tacitus,  and  others,  to  have  had  a  square 
basement  surrounded  with  a  portico  of  columns  and  supporting  a 
circular  mass,  220  feet  in  diameter,  containing  the  mortuary 
chambers,  the  whole  being  capped  by  a  mound  of  earth  laid  out 
in  terraces  and  planted  with  Cyprus  and  evergreen  trees,  and 
crowned  with  a  colossal  statue  of  Augustus.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  converted  into  a  fortress,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
what  remained  of  it,  was  used  as  a  theatre. 

The  Mausoleum  of -Hadnan,  Rome  (A.D.  135)  was  one  of  the 
most  important  of  these  monumental  tombs.  It  is  now  the 
Castle  of  S.  Angelo,  and  consists  of  a  square  basement  about 
300  feet  each  way  and  75  feet  high,  supporting  an  immense 
circular  tower  230  feet  in  diameter  and  140  feet  high,  having 
a  peristyle  of  marble  columns,  surmounted  by  a  conical  marble 
dome,  as  other  examples,  It  was  built  of  concrete,  in  which, 


158  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

towards  the  centre  of  the  mass,  were  formed  the  sepulchral 
chamber  and  converging  passages,  which  slope  upwards  from  the 
ground  level.  On  the  whole,  the  structure  has  been  much  altered 
since  its  construction,  being  converted  in  the  middle  ages  into  a 
fortress  by  the  Popes,  and  is  now  used  as  a  military  barrack. 

(c.)  Pyramid  tombs,  probably  due  to  the  introduction  of 
Egyptian  ideas,  were  also  adopted,  as  in  the  Pyramid  of  Cestius 
(B.C.  62-12),  which  is  formed  of  concrete  faced  with  white 
marble,  and  has  an  internal  tomb-chamber,  the  vault  and  walls 
being  decorated  with  figure  paintings. 

(d.)  Smaller  tombs,  as  isolated  monuments,  were  often 
erected  along  the  sides  of  roads  leading  from  cities,  as  at  Rome 
and  in  the  Street  of  Tombs,  Pompeii : 

"  Those  ancient  roads 

With  tombs  high  verged,  the  solemn  paths  of  Fame  ;    ' 
Deserve  they  not  regard  !  o'er  whose  broad  flints 
Such  crowds  have  roll'd  ;  so  many  storms  of  war, 
So  many  pomps,  so  many  wondeiing  realms." — DYER. 

These  often  have  subterranean  tomb-chambers  for  sarcophagi 
with  niches  for  cinerary  urns,  and  the  walls  and  vaults  were 
ornamented  with  colored  reliefs  in  stucco,  as  in  the  Tomb  of  the 
Pancratii. 

Above  the  ground  the  tomb  resembled  a  small  temple,  often 
with  a  prostyle  portico,  and  the  upper  chamber  contained  portraits 
or  statues  of  deities  and  served  as  mortuary  chapels. 

(e.)  Eastern  tombs. — The  districts  of  Palmyra,  Jerusalem 
and  Petra  in  Syria ;  Caria  in  Asia  Minor,  and  Algeria  and 
Cyrene  in  Africa  possess  many  examples,  some  rock-cut,  and 
some  structural. 

The  Tomb  at  Mylassa,in  Asia  Minor,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
examples  of  the  latter.  The  illustration  (No.  52)  will  show  its 
general  characteristics. 

The  Tomb  at  Dugga,  near  Tunis  (No.  52  G),  somewhat  resembles 
that  at  Mylassa,  but  with  a  walled-up  colonnade. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  memorial  structures  or  cenotaphs 
were  occasionally  erected. 

The  Monument  of  S.  Remi,  in  Provence  (B.C.  first  century) 
(No.  52  H),  consists  of  a  high  pedestal  ornamented  with  bas- 
reliefs  and  supporting  a  story  of  engaged  Corinthian  angle  columns 
with  arched  openings  between.  Above  is  a  circular  story  with 
fluted  Corinthian  columns,  supporting  an  entablature  and  conical 
stone  roof. 

The  I  gel  Monument,  near  Treves,  Germany,  is  of  similar  design. 

AQUEDUCTS. 

The  aqueducts,  although  more  of  an  engineering  than  archi- 
tectural character,  fulfilling  a  utilitarian  purpose  only,  formed  by 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


159 


their  size  and  proportion  striking  features  of  the  Roman  landscape. 
Throughout  the  Empire  remains  are  to  be  seen  showing  the 
importance  put  by  the  Romans  upon  an  adequate  water  supply 
to  their  cities.  Rome  had  to  be  especially  well  supplied  owing 
to  the  inferiority  of  the  local  service  and  the  large  quantity 
required  for  the  reservoirs,  great  thermae  and  public  fountains, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  domestic  supply  for  its  large  population. 

In  any  views  of  the  Campagna  near  Rome,  the  ruined 
aqueducts  are  striking  features,  and  in  approaching  the  Eternal 
City  in  the  days  of  its  glory,  these  enormous  arched  waterways 
must  have  impressed  the  beholder.  Vitruvius  (Book  VIII., 
chapter  vii.)  gives  interesting  information  on  the  subject,  which  is 
added  to  from  other  sources  by  Middleton. 

The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the  simple  hydraulic  law 
that  water  will  rise  to  its  own  level  in  pipes,  and  the  upper  rooms 
of  their  houses  were  supplied  by  "  rising  mains  "  in  the  same  way 
as  modern  buildings.  Owing,  however,  to  the  fact  that  pipes  had 
then  to  be  made  of  weak  and  costly  lead  or  bronze  (cheap  and 
strong  cast-iron  pipes  not  being  in  use),  it  was  found  to  be  more 
economical  by  the  use  of  slave  labour  to  construct  aqueducts  of 
stone,  or  concrete  faced  with  brick,  having  almost  level  water 
channels,  above  or  below  ground  (Vitruvius  recommends  a  fall  of 
6  inches  to  every  100  feet),  on  immense  arches  above  ground,  a 
system  which  even  in  modern  times  has  been  followed  in  the  Croton 
Aqueduct  which  supplies  New  York  City. 

The  principle  of  all  the  examples  is  similar.  A  smooth  channel 
(specus)  lined  with  a  hard  cement,  is  carried  on  arches,  often  in 
several  tiers  and  sometimes  of  immense  height  (say  100  feet),  con- 
veying the  water  from  the  high  ground,  across  valleys,  to  the  city 
reservoirs.  Many  of  them  follow  a  circuitous  course  in  order 
to  prevent  the  slope  of  the  channel  being  too  steep  when  the 
source  of  the  water  was  high  above  the  required  level  of  distribu- 
tion in  Rome.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar  there  were  nine 
of  these  aqueducts  supplying  Rome  with  water. 

The  Aqua  Marcia  (B.C.  144)  and  the  Aqua  Claudia  (A.D.  38) 
still  supply  water  to  Rome.  The  "  Anio  Novus  "  (A.D.  38), 
sixty-two  miles  in  length,  entered  the  city  on  arches  above  those 
of  the  Aqua  Claudia. 

The  Pont-du-Gard,  near  Nimes,  in  France  (B.C.  ig)(Nos.  60 
A,  B  and  61),  is  the  finest  existing  example.  It  forms  part  of  an 
aqueduct  twenty-five  miles  long,  bringing  water  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Uzes.  It  is  about  900  feet  long,  and  is  formed  of 
three  tiers  of  arches  crossing  a  valley  180  feet  above  the  River 
Gard.  On  the  two  lower  tiers  the  central  arch  is  the  widest,  and 
the  others  vary  in  width.  On  the  uppermost  tier  there  are  thirty- 
five  arches  having  14  feet  span,  supporting  the  water-channel. 
The  masonry  is  laid  dry  without  mortar  and,  as  will  be  seen  on 


l6o  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

No.    61,    some  of  the    arch    voussoirs   of  the   intermediate    tier 
projected  to  carry  the  temporary  centering. 

Other  aqueducts  exist  at  Tarragona  and  Segovia,  Spalato  and 
elsewhere. 

BRIDGES. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  Roman  bridges  were  solidity  and 
simplicity,  with  a  view  to  their  withstanding  the  ravages  of 
time  and  the  elements.  The  roadway  was  generally  kept  level 
throughout. 

The  Bridge  at  Rimini  is  the  best  preserved  in  Italy  and  has 
five  arches. 

There  are  examples  of  two  types  of  Roman  bridges  in  Spain 
which  are  equally  impressive,  (a.)  The  many-arched  type,  as 
exemplified  in  the  extreme  length  of  the  bridges  at  Cordova  and 
Alcantara,  (b.)  The  single-arched  type,  of  which  the  romantic 
sweepT  of  the  bridge  at  Toledo,  spanning  the  rocky  valley  of  the 
Tagus,  is  the  best  example. 

PALACES. 

Of  the  Roman  palaces  the  ruins  only  remain,  but  there  is 
enough  to  show  their  enormous  extent  and  imposing  character. 

The  Palaces  of  the  Roman  Emperors. — The  principal 
approach  was  from  the  Forum  Romanum,  by  a  road  which 
branched  off  from  the  Via  Sacra,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Arch  of 
Titus  (No.  47). 

Excavations  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  commenced  by  Napoleon  III. 
in  1863,  and  afterwards  continued  by  the  Italian  Government, 
have  revealed  remains  of  a  group  of  magnificent  palaces.  These, 
commenced  by  Augustus  (A.D.  3),  and  having  additions  by 
Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero  and  Domitian,  were  remodelled  by 
Septimius  Severus,  and  the  giant  remains  attributed  to  him  will 
probably  impress  the  student  of  architecture  most  when  visiting 
the  site. 

The  chief  apartments  in  these  palaces  were  : — The  Tablinum 
or  Throne-room  ;  the  Basilica,  or  hall  for  administering  justice; 
the  Peristylium,  a  square  garden  surrounded  by  a  colonnade; 
the  Triclinium,  or  banqueting  hall  ;  the  Lararium,  or  apartment 
for  statues  of  the  household  gods  ;  and  the  Nymphaeum.  Besides 
these  there  were  many  minor  chambers  of  service,  whose  uses 
cannot  now  be  ascertained. 

The  disposition  of  the  buildings  was  governed  by  axial  lines 
producing  magnificent  vistas.  Irregular  spaces,  caused  by 
additions  being  made  from  time  to  time,  were  rendered  sym- 
metrical by  the  use  of  hemicycles  and  other  devices,  disguising  the 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  l6l 

different  angles  of  the  buildings  in  relation  to  each  other,  a  method 
frequently  used  by  modern  architects. 

The  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalato,  in  Dalmatia  (No.  59) 
(A.D.  300),  is  another  famous  example,  which  formed  the  greater 
part  of  the  mediaeval  town  of  Spalato,  and  has  thus  been  called  a 
city  in  a  house.  It  may  be  described  as  a  royal  country  house,  or 
better,  perhaps,  as  a  chateau  by  the  sea. 

The  original  plan  of  the  palace  was  approximately  a  rectangle, 
occupying  an  area  of  9^  acres,  being  thus  almost  equal  in  extent 
to  the  Escurial  in  Spain  (page  537,  No.  238).  There  was  a  square 
tower  at  each  angle,  and  in  the  centre  of  each  of  the  north,  east 
and  west  sides  was  a  gateway  flanked  by  octagonal  towers, 
between  which  and  those  at  the  angles  were  subsidiary  towers. 
These  gateways  formed  entrances  to  porticoed  avenues  36  feet 
wide,  which,  meeting  in  the  centre,  gave  the  palace  the  character 
of  a  Roman  camp.  On  each  of  the  facades,  between  the  towers, 
were  rich  entrance  gateways;  the  "golden"  on  the  north,  the 
"iron  "  on  the  west,  and  the  "  brazen  "  on  the  east,  ending  these 
main  avenues,  which  divided  the  inclosed  area  into  four  parts,  each 
assigned  to  a  particular  purpose.  The  two  northern  portions  were 
probably  for  the  guests  and  principal  officers  of  the  household ; 
while  the  whole  of  the  southern  portion  was  devoted  to  the  palace, 
including  two  temples,  that  of  Jupiter  (see  under  circular  temples, 
pp.  130,  136)  and  ^Esculapius  (page  125)  and  the  baths.  A  circular 
vestibule,  with  a  front  portico  in  antis,  formed  an  entrance  to  a 
suite  of  nine  chambers  overlooking  the  sea ;  here  were  placed 
the  private  apartments  and  baths  of  the  emperor,  the  finest  being 
the  portico,  524  feet  by  24  feet,  on  the  southern  sea  front.  This 
served  as  a  connecting  gallery,  and  was  probably  filled  with  works 
of  art  (cf.  Elizabethan  gallery,  page  555).  The  columns  to  the 
upper  portion  were  detached  and  rested  on  carved  corbels,  a 
feature  also  seen  in  the  golden  gateway. 

Lining  the  inclosing  walls  of  the  whole  area,  on  three  sides, 
internally,  were  the  cells  that  lodged  the  slaves  and  soldiers  of 
the  imperial  retinue.  The  octagonal  temple,  and  the  more  lofty 
halls  of  the  palace  proper,  being  visible  above  the  inclosing  walls 
in  distant  views  by  land  and  sea,  were  impressive  features  of  the 
group. 

The  architectural  character  is  somewhat  debased  in  style,  broken 
and  curved  pediments  with  decadent  detail  being  employed.  The 
palace  has  a  value,  however,  as  a  transitional  example,  for  the 
entablature  of  the  peristyle  is  formed  as  an  arch,  thus  losing  its 
constructive  significance,  and  in  the  northern  gateway  arches  rest 
directly  on  capitals  without  the  intervention  of  an  entablature, 
being  an  early  example  of  a  principle  carried  to  its  logical  con- 
clusion in  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles. 


F.A. 


M 


l62  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

These  may  be  classified  under — (a.)  The  domus,  or  private  house ; 
(&.)  The  villa,  or  country  house ;  and  (c.)  The  insitla,  or  many- 
storied  tenement. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Greeks  have  already  been  touched  upon 
(page  92),  and  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe  that  Roman 
dwellings  were  evolved  from  them.  They  each  possessed  an 
atrium,  forming  the  more  public  portion  of  the  building,  and  a 
peristyle  beyond,  forming  the  centre  of  the  family  apartments. 
At  Rome,  the  Atrium  Vestae,  or  House/of  the  Vestal  Virgins 
(No.  47),  and  the  House  of  Livia,  are  interesting  examples. 

The  excavations  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  have  thrown 
considerable  light  on  this  important  subject,  and  as  Pompeii  was 
a  Graeco-Roman  city,  the  remains  which  have  been  excavated  are 
believed  to  differ  but  slightly  from  the  later  Greek 'dwellings. 
These  Pompeian  houses  owe  their  preservation  to  an  eruption  of 
Vesuvius,  which  in  A.D.  79  overwhelmed  the  city,  burying  it  in 
ashes  to  a  depth  of  10  feet. 

The  streets  of  Pompeii  were  narrow  (many  only  8,  12,  or  15  feet), 
the  widest  being  23  feet  6  inches,  with  a  roadway  13  feet  6  inches 
and  paths  5  feet  wide.  The  houses  had  plain  fronts  to  the  street, 
the  frontage_on_  either  side  of  the  entrance  passage  beingL-4^fc-oft 
asjshl2p§r~~The  absence  oF  windows  on  the  fronts  is  explained  by 
some  as  being  due  to  a  lack  of  glass,  in  which  case  openings 
towards  the  street  would  have  rendered  privacy  impossible. 

The  rooms  wereji^hted  by  orjenings  giving  on  to  internal  courts 
already  mentioned,  as  are  Eastern  houses  to  this  day,  and  the  inns 
of  France  and  England  in  former  days. 

The  Pompeian  houses  are_  mostly  one  story  in  height,  but 
stairs  and  traces  of  upper  floors  exist.  Such  upper  stones  were 
probably  of  wood,  but  as  a  decree  was  passed  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  limiting  the  height  of  houses  in  Rome  to  75  feet,  brick  or 
masonry  buildings  must  have  been  largely  erected.  The  openings 
were  small,  the  light  being  strong  in  the  sunny  climate  of  Italy. 

The  House  of  Pansa  (No.  65,  A,  B)  may  be  taken  as 
a  good  type  of  domus  or  ordinary  private  house.  It  was  sur- 
rounded by  streets  on  three  sides,  the  garden  occupying  the  fourth, 
and,  besides  the  house  proper,  consisted  of  shops,  bakeries,  and 
three  smaller  houses.  A  prothyrum,  or  entrance  passage,  led  direct 
from  the  street  entrance  to  the  atrium,  which  served  as  the  public 
waiting-room  for  retainers  and  clients,  and  from  which  the  more 
private  portions  of  the  house  were  shut  off.  The  atrium  was  open 
to  the  sky  in  the  centre,  with  a  "  lean-to  "  or  sloping  roof  sup- 
ported by  brackets  round  all  four  sides.  The  impluvium,  or  "water 
cistern,"  for  receiving  the  rain-water  from  these  roofs,  was  sunk 
in  the  centre  of  the  pavement,  while  round  were  grouped  the  front 
rooms,  probably  used  by  servants  or  guests,  or  as  semi-public 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE.  163 

rooms,  e.g.)  libraries,  each  receiving  sufficient  light  through  the 
door  openings. 

An  open  saloon,  or  tablinum,  with  "  fauces,"  or  narrow  passages, 
led  to  the  peristyle,  or  inner  court,  often  the  garden  of  the  house ; 
and  around  were  grouped  the  cubiculae  or  bedrooms,  the  triclinium, 
or  dining-room  (summer  and  winter),  with  different  aspects,  the 
oacus,  or  reception  room,  and  the  alae,  or  recesses,  for  conversation. 
The  dining-rooms  were  fitted  with  three  couches  each  for  three 
people  to  recline  upon,  as  nine  was  the  recognized  number  for  a 
Roman  feast.  The  peristyle  was  the  centre  of  the  private  part  of 
the  house,  corresponding  to  the  hall  of  Elizabethan  times,  and  it 
usually  had  a  small  shrine  or  altar  (Nos.  68  G,  69  E). 

The  walls  and  floors  were  richly  decorated  with  mosaics  and 
paintings. 

The  kitchen  and  pantry  are  in  the  side  of  the  peristyle,  furthest 
from  the  entrance. 

The  Houses  of  the  Faun,  Vettius,  Diomede,  the  Tragic 
Poet,  and  Sallust,  are  other  well-known  examples  of  Pompeian 
houses  which  have  their  floors,  walls,  and  vaults  decorated  in  a 
characteristic  style,  to  which  the  name  "  Pompeian  "  is  now  applied, 
and  which  were  furnished  with  domestic  implements  such  as 
candelabra  (Nos.  68,  69),  and  fountains.  The  floors  of  these  houses 
were  of  patterned  mosaic,  either  in  black  and  white  (No.  69  K)  or 
of  colored  marbles.  The  walls  were  either  painted  to  imitate 
marble  or  executed  in  fresco,  the  darkest  colors  of  the  decorative 
scheme  being  placed  nearer  the  ground.  Pictures  were  some- 
times framed  with  architectural  features  consisting  of  slender 
shafts,  suggestive  of  a  metallic  origin,  with  entablatures  in 
perspective.  The  ceilings,  which  have  to  be  imagined,  had  pro- 
bably painted  and  gilded  timbers,  forming  an  important  element 
in  the  decorative  scheme.  The  roofs  were  covered  with  tiles  or 
bright  colored  terra-cotta. 

Lytton's  great  novel,  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  will  be 
found  of  interest  to  the  student  as  a  description  of  the  habits 
and  life  of  the  Romans. 

The  Pompeian  House  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  designed  by  the 
late  Sir  Digby  Wyatt,  is  an  exceedingly  good  reproduction  of  an 
ordinary  Pompeian  house,  the  decorations  being  copies  of  original 
paintings  at  Pompeii. 

Hadrian's  Villa,  near  Tivoli,  resembled  a  palace  in  its  extent, 
occupying  an  area  of  about  seven  square  miles.  Besides  the 
imperial  apartments  it  was  surrounded  by  terraces,  peristyles, 
palaestra,  theatres,  a  gymnasium,  and  thermae.  Restorations  have 
been  made  by  many  authorities,  as  Piranesi,  Canina,  and  others. 

Examples  of  Roman  villas  exist  in  England  (see  page  280). 

The  insula,  or  tenement  of  many  stories,  seems  to  have  resembled 
the  modern  flat. 

M  2 


164 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


FOUNTAINS. 

Fountains,  both  public  and  private,  have  always  been  one  of  the 
most  striking  features  of  both  ancient  and  modern  Rome  on 
account  of  their  graceful  designs,  rich  material,  and  the  soothing 
effect  in  a  hot  and  low-lying  city  of  the  clear  water  sparkling  in 
the  sun. 

The  public  fountains  were  exceedingly /numerous,  amounting 
to  many  hundreds,  either  as  large  basing  of  water  (locus)  or  as 
spouting  jets  (salientes),  or  the  two  combined  and  ornamented  with 
marble  columns  and  statues. 

Private  fountains  existed  in  great  numbers,  mainly  in  the  courts 
and  gardens  of  the  houses,  and  exhibit  much  variety. of  design. 
They  were  of  colored  marbles  and  porphyries,  often  decorated 
with  bronze  statuettes.  In  some  the  water  issued  in  jets  from 
fishes,  shells,  or  other  objects,  sometimes  supported  by  a  figure  of 
a  nymph.  In  others,  wall  niches  lined  with  glass  and  mosaics 
were  provided  with  lions'  heads,  from  which  issued  the  water,  as 
have  been  found  at  Pompeii. 


4.    COMPARATIVE. 


GREEK. 

A.  Plans.— Designs  have  refine- 
ment and  beauty,  proportion 
being  of  the  first  importance, 
and  there  is  a  dignity  and 
grandeur  of  effect  irrespective  of 
the  smallness  of  scale. 

Unity  was  attained  in  the  self- 
contained  temples,  while  variety 
of  grouping  and  some  picturesque- 
ness  was  attempted  in  the  Pro- 
pylaea  and  Erechtheion  (Nos.  18, 
26,  30). 

Purity  and  severity  of  outline 
caused  by  the  simple  method  of 
post  and  beam,  did  not  lend 
itself  to  such  variety  and  bold- 
ness of  planning  as  resulted 
from  the  arcuated  Roman  style. 

No  mixture  of  constructive  prin- 
ciples occurs  in  the  buildings  of 
the  Greeks,  the  limits  of  whose 
style  have  not  been  yet  success- 
fully expanded. 


ROMAN. 

A.  Plans.— Designs  convey  an 
impression  of  vastness  and 
magnificence,  and  are  charac- 
teristic of  a  powerful  and  ener- 
getic race.  The  Romans  were 
pre-eminently  great  constructors, 
and  knew  how  to  use  the 
materials  at  hand.  This  con- 
structive skill  was  acquired  by 
the  building,  on  a  large  scale, 
of  utilitarian  works,  such  as  the 
aqueducts  and  bridges. 

The  arch,  vault,  and  dome  were  the 
keynotes  to  the  whole  system  of 
the  style,  and  constituted  a  step 
toward  Gothic  architecture.  By 
the  use  of  the  arch,  wide  open- 
ings were  rendered  possible,  and 
by  vaults  and  domes  large  areas 
and  complicated  plans  could  be 
roofed  (Nos.  58  and  59),  giving 
boldness  and  variety  and  leading 
to  the  system  of  intersecting 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


GREEK. 

The  use  of  the  true  arch  is  avoided. 
An  example  of  a  vaulted  building 
is  the  Treasury  of  Atreus,  at  My- 
cenae, where  the  beds  of  the  stones 
are  horizontal  throughout,  each 
bed  overlapping  the  one  below  till 
the  crown  is  reached  (page  54). 

The  Greek  Temples  were  usually 
orientated,  i.e.,  faced  the  east. 

B.  Walls.— Constructed  of  large 
blocks  of  marble,  without  mortar, 
allowing  of  refinement  of  treat- 
ment, and  perfection  of  finish  in 
construction.  Where  coarse  stone 
was  used  it  was  frequently 
covered  with  stucco.  Jointing 
was  not  reckoned  as  a  means  of 
effect.  Stability  was  achieved 
solely  by  the  judicious  observance 
of  the  laws  of  gravity,  the  adher- 
ence of  the  blocks  not  being 
necessary,  for  the  weights  only 
acted  vertically,  and  needed  but 
vertical  resistance.  Even  for 
transmitting  the  pressure  be- 
tween the  blocks  only  metal 
cramps  were  used.  The  employ- 
ment of  marble  directly  shaped 
the  development  of  the  style. 
One-sixteenth  of  an  inch  was 
rubbed  off  the  buildings  on 
completion,  this  polishing  being 
performed  by  slaves. 

The  Anta  (Nos.  21,  26,  27  L,  30, 
and  44  PJ  was  employed  at  ex- 
tremities and  angles  of  cella  walls. 

c.  Openings. — Of  minor  import- 
ance, the  columnar  treatment 
giving  the  necessary  light  and 
shade.  Doorways  are  square- 
headed,  and  often  crowned  with 
a  cornice  supported  by  consoles, 
as  in  the  fine  example  of  the 
north  doorway  at  the  Erech- 
theion,  Athens' (No.  37  D — H). 

Windows,  except  on  rare  occasions, 
as  shown  on  plate  No.  28,  were 
not  used  in  Temples,  illumination 
being  obtained  from  doorways  or 
hypaethral  openings  (Nos.  20  c, 
23  A,  B,  and  27  B,  D). 


ROMAN. 

vaults,  by  which  the  concentra- 
tion of  weights  on  piers  was 
effected.  The  use  of  recesses 
rectangular  and  semicircular  on 
plan  is  a  special  Roman  feature 
(Nos.  50  B,  54  B). 

The  Roman  Temples  were  placed 
without  regard  to  orientation. 

B.  Walls.— Constructed  of  small, 
mean,  and  coarse  materials,  such 
as  brick,  rubble,  and  concrete, 
with  brick  or  marble  facing,  bond 
courses  for  strength  being  intro- 
duced. Such  walls  are  thus  often 
coarse  in  character.  By  the  ex- 
tended use  of  concrete,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  Romans  inaugurated 
the  employment  of  large  masses 
of  irregular  materials,  reduced 
into  fragments  and  bound  together 
by  mortar.  These  materials  were 
not  special  to  any  country,  but 
consisted  of  fragments  of  stone, 
brick  or  hard  rock  and  quarry 
debris,  all  of  which  sufficed  for 
the  most  important  projects. 

Great  haste  was  necessary  in  the 
execution  to  complete  sufficiently 
for  use.  and  doubtless  many 
buildings  were  never  perfectly 
finished. 

The  pilaster  was  the  Roman  de- 
velopment of  the  Greek  Anta 
(Nos.  38  F  and  67  F). 

c.  Openings. — These  were  im- 
portant features,  being  square- 
headed  or  circular,  principally 
the  latter  (No.  62  A).  The 
semicircle  divided  vertically  by 
two  mullion  piers  was  a  favourite 
type  of  window.  Arches  some- 
times had  centering,  supported 
at  the  springing  line,  after- 
wards filled  up  with  brick- 
work, thus  producing  the  seg- 
mental  arch,  common  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  A.D. 
(No.  46  E),  from  the  Basilica  of 
Constantine. 


ROMAN    ORNAMENT. 


ROMAN     ARCHITECTURE. 


I67 


GREEK. 

D.  Roofs. — Extreme     care     was 
bestowed   upon    the   elaborately 
constructed,  and  highly-finished, 
roofs    of   the    temples.      These 
were  of  timber  framing  (Nos.  23 
and  25),  and  were  covered  with 
large  slabs  of  marble  with  cover- 
pieces  which  at  the  eaves  were 
finished  with  richly  carved  ante- 
fixae  (Nos.  16,  19  c  and  20  H,  j). 

The  acroteria  or  blocks  of  stone 
resting  on  the  vertex  and  lower 
extremities  of  the  pediment,  and 
supporting  statuary  or  orna- 
ments were  characteristic  features 
(Nos.  16  A,  20). 

The  ceilings  of  the  peristyles  were 
coffered  in  stone  with  square 
or  rectangular  panels  (No.  21), 
having  carved  enrichments,  the 
richest  examples  being  at  the 
Parthenon  (No.  23)  and  the 
Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius 
(No.  27).  Coffered  ceilings  in 
framed  timber  probably  roofed 
over  the  large  span  of  the  cella. 

E.  Columns. — The  orders   were 
structural   necessities   wherever 
used.      The   column   and   beam 
are  the  keynotes  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture, the  fluting  being  carried 
out  when  the  columns  were  in 
position. 

Orders  never  superimposed  except 
to  interiors  of  Temples  (Nos.  20, 
23,  28  B  and  31  D).  The  only 
Greek  use  of  pedestals  appears 
to  be  that  of  the  Temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus  (No.  31). 


The  Tuscan  Order,  which  is  merely 
a  simplified  form  of  the  Doric, 
was  not  employed  by  the  Greeks. 


The  Doric  Order  (No.  38  A)  was 
largely  used  by  the  Greeks,  their 
most  important  buildings  being 


ROMAN. 

D.  Roofs. — The  noble  vaults  and 
domes  described  on  page  117 
constituted  the  important  de- 
velopment, and  in  many  cases 
were  richly  coffered,  as  at  the 
Pantheon  (N  os.  54,  55).  Timber 
framing  also  appears  to  have 
been  employed,  and  according 
to  Horace,  splendid  wooden 
coffered  ceilings  were  employed 
in  the  houses  of  the  rich.  Roof 
coverings  were  either  of  terra- 
cotta, as  amongst  the  Etruscans, 
or  of  bronze  in  the  more  impor- 
tant buildings,  as  for  example 
the  Pantheon.  According  to 
Vitruvius  flat  terrace  roofs  were 
employed,  which  it  is  believed 
were  constructed  of  T-iron  and 
concrete,  as  in  some  of  the  larger 
halls  of  the  Thermae. 

The  ceilings  internally  were  of 
various  geometric  patterns,  such 
as  octagons  and  squares  in  com- 
bination, as  at  Baalbec. 


E.  Columns. — The  orders  were 
used  in  connection  with  the  arch, 
and  gradually  lost  their  structural 
importance,  being  used  in  a 
decorative  manner,  as  in  the 
Colosseum  at  Rome,  or  in  the 
Triumphal  Arches. 

Orders  often  superimposed,  as  at 
the  Colosseum  (No.  62  A).  The 
Romans  introduced  pedestals  on 
which  they  placed  the  column 
to  secure  greater  height. 

A  canon  of  proportions,  reduced  to 
rules  by  Vitruvius,  was  gradually 
evolved  for  all  the  orders. 

The  Tuscan  Order  has  a  plain 
unfluted  column  and  simple 
entablature  (No.  262  B).  S. 
Paul,  Covent  Garden,  is  a  good 
modern  example  by  Inigo  Jones. 

The  Doric  Order  (No.  38  B),  was 
little  used  by  the  Romans,  not 
being  suited  to  their  ideas  of 


ROMAN    ORNAMENT. 


THIS  TEMPLE 
ALSO  KNOWN 
CASTOR  *  POLLUX 
•THREETOLUflNS 


NOW  EX'U      (D)C<DMS@LE  (LOOKING  OF) 


LAMF5 '  ^  .„ 

5USPENPEP2S;  5 

rifonTHESL^ 

POIMT5 


68, 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


169 


GREEK. 

erected  of  this  order.  It  was 
used  without  a  base,  the  capital 
having  a  plain  square  abacus, 
beneath  which  is  the  echinus 
(No.  40  D),  whose  outline  varies 
in  different  examples.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  columns  proceed 
from  extreme  sturdiness  in  the 
early  examples  to  great  refine- 
ment in  the  late  ones,  and  the 
shaft  is  usually  fluted.  The  archi- 
trave overhangs  the  face  of  the 
column  (Nos.  16  and  38  A),  and 
the  triglyphs  are  over  the  central 
axes  of  the  columns,  except  at 
the  angles,  where  the  end  triglyph 
appears  at  the  extremity  of  the 
frieze  (No.  16  A). 

The  channels  in  the  triglyph  are 
rounded  off  at  the  top. 

The  mutules,  placed  over  tri- 
glyph and  metope  are  much 
inclined. 

The  Ionic  Order  (No.  38  c)  was 
used  with  great  refinement  by 
the  Greeks.  The  distinctive 
capital  has  the  scrolls  showing 
on  two  sides  only,  although  an 
example  of  angle  volutes  is 
found  in  a  special  case  at  Bassas 
(Nos.  27  and  29). 

The  Corinthian  Order  (No.  38  E) 
was  little  used  by  the  Greeks, 
and  the  examples  remaining  are 
thought  by  some  to  indicate  the 
decline  of  Greek  art,  in  that 
sculpture,  as  such,  gave  way  to 
mere  carving. 

The  order  was  practically  not 
introduced  till  the  later  age, 
although  the  earliest  known 
example,  viz.,  that  in  the  cella 
of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Epi- 
carius  at  Bassas,  dates  from 
B.C.  430.  It  appears  to  have 
been  principally  used  in  small 
buildings  only,  such  as  the 
choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
(No.  38  E),  and  the  octagonal 
Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens, 
or  internally  in  buildings  of 
greater  size.  The  Temple  of 


ROMAN. 

splendour  and  magnificence.  The 
Temple  of  Hercules  at  Cora  is 
the  only  temple  in  the  style, 
but  engaged  columns  occur  in 
the  Theatre  of  Marcellus.  The 
Romans  added  a  base,  varied 
the  abacus  and  echinus,  and 
modified  the  cornice,  adding  a 
dentil  course.  The  columns  were 
less  sturdy  and  the  flutes  were 
sometimes  omitted.  The  archi- 
trave does  not  overhang  the  face 
of  the  column,  but  is  in  a  line 
vertical  with  it  (No.  38  B).  In 
this  order  as  approved  by  Palladio 
and  others  the  triglyphs  in  the 
frieze  were  over  the  central  axes 
of  the  columns,  even  at  the  angle. 

The  channels  in  the  triglyph  have 
square  angles  at  the  top. 

The  mutules,  usually  placed  over 
the  triglyph  only,  are  but  slightly 
inclined. 

The  Ionic  Order  (No.  38  D) 
differed  from  the  Greek  chiefly  as 
regards  the  typical  capital,  which 
usually  had  angle  volutes,  thus 
showing  the  face  of  the  scrolls  on 
each  side. 

The  entablature  is  of  a  richer 
description. 

The  Corinthian  Order  (No.  38  F) 
was  the  favourite  of  the  Romans, 
and  was  used  in  the  largest 
temples,  as  those  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  (Nos.  67  A,  68)  and  Ves- 
pasian at  Rome.  The  capital  is 
rich,  the  acanthus  leaves  sur- 
rounding the  "  bell "  often  being 
naturalistic  in  character  and 
derived  from  the  leaves  known 
as  the  "  acanthus  mollis,"  which 
are  blunt-ended  and  flat  in  section, 
or  from  the  olive  leaf,'  as  in  the 
Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 
The  entablature  is  very  much  en- 
riched by  ornamentation,  probably 
derived  from  the  painted  work 
of  the  Greeks.  The  architrave 
has  numerous  and  enriched 
mouldings,  and  the  frieze  is  fre- 
quently carved  with  the  acanthus 


ROMAN    ORNAMENT. 


FIGURE.  IN  SPANDREL 
TO  MAIN  ARCH 


in  LI  IB 


5  HOMEiCOLOOffi)  FRESCO  WALL- IN  PERSPECTIVE  # 


MOW  IN  THE 

EO  NAZIONALE./ 

MAPLES. 


:  NOW  IN 
THE  M05EO  NAZ- 

IONALE.HAPLE5, 


DECORATED  WITH  PROWS  OF  CAPTURED 
,  E.RECTED  AFTER  A  NAVAL  VICTORY 


BLACK  tVHITE  MARBLE.  Tt5S- 
'  EM. 'ABOUT -MICH  5QUARL 
UPON  RED  CEMEflT  GROUND.  ^ 


69. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


171 


GREEK. 

Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens  may 
be  considered  a  Roman  building, 
or  rather  as  a  Greek  design  mainly 
carried  out  by  Romans.  (See 
page  go.)  The  Acanthus  leaves 
surrounding  the  "bell"  were  of 
the  prickly  acanthus  (acanthus 
spinosus)  type  (No.  33  F,  H), 
having  pointed  leaves  of  V- 
shaped  section. 

Shafts  of  columns  were  fluted. 

The  Composite  Order  was  never 
used  by  the  Greeks,  but  a  treat- 
ment somewhat  similar  is  seen 
in  the  capitals  of  the  Erechtheion 
where  the  necking  under  the 
Ionic  scrolls  are  carved  with  the 
Anthemion  ornament  (Nos.  29  E 
and  41). 

F.  Mouldings  (Nos.  39  and 
40). — The  Greeks  relied  for  effect 
on  the  graceful  contour  of  their 
mouldings,  which  approach  conic 
sections  in  profile,  and  which, 
though  often  covered  with  deli- 
cately carved  enrichments,  never 
lose  the  idea  of  grace  of  outline 
which  the  decoration  seems  but 
to  enhance.  Executed  in  a  fine- 
grained marble,  they  were  often 
undercut  so  as  to  produce  a 
fretted  effect. 

Greek  dentils  are  far  apart,  and 
occupy  the  whole  depth  of  the 
moulding. 

Greek  consoles  used  only  as  vertical 
brackets  to  doorways  as  in  the 
Erechtheion  doorway  (No.  37). 

c;.  Ornament  (Nos.  41,  42.  43 
and  44). — The  sculpture  of  the 
Greeks  has  never  been  surpassed, 
whether  executed  in  isolated 
groups  or  in  works  within  the 
boundaries  of  an  architectural 
framing,  as  at  the  Parthenon. 
The  ornamental  sculpture  used 
in  the  tympana  of  the  pediments, 
the  metopes  and  the  friezes,  and 
the  carefully  prepared  cement 
used  as  a  covering  to  stone  or 


ROMAN. 

scroll  or  with  figure  ornaments. 
The  cornice  is  also  considerably 
enriched,  modillions  (consoles, 
brackets  or  corbels)  being  intro- 
duced and  giving  an  apparent 
support  to  the  corona,  and  have 
between  them  sunk  and  sculp- 
tured coffers.  The  mouldings 
under  the  corona  are  much 
enriched  with  carving,  as  is  even 
the  corona  itself. 

Shafts  were  fluted  or  plain. 

The  Composite  Order  was  invented 
by  the  Romans,  being  used  prin- 
cipally in  the  Triumphal  Arches. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  Ionic 
capital  was  combined  with  the 
lower  part  of  the  Corinthian.  In 
other  details  the  order  follows  the 
Corinthian,  but  with  additional 
ornamentation. 

F.  Mouldings  (Nos.  39  and  40). 
— The  Romans  relied  on  the  rich 
carving  cut  upon  their  mouldings, 
which  are  usually  parts  of  circles 
in  profile.     Ostentation  replaces 
refinement,     and    in    the     latest 
examples,   every   member    being 
carved,  a  certain  rich  picturesque- 
ness    of  surface   is  produced    in 
cornices  and  dressings,  although 
the  execution  of  the  carving  to 
the  mouldings  themselves  is  often 
of  inferior  workmanship. 

Roman  dentils  are  close  together, 
of  less  depth,  and  have  a  fillet 
underneath. 

Roman  consoles  used  horizontally  in 
cornices  (No.  68)  and  vertically  in 
keystones  to  arches  (No.  67). 

G.  .Ornament   (Nos.  67,  68  and 
69). — The  Romans  did  not  excel 
either   in  sculpture  or    painting, 
but  Greek  artists  were  employed, 
and  Greek  examples  were  prized 
and  copied.     In  later  times  both 
vaults  and  floors   of  importance 
were    executed    in    mosaic,    but 
many  examples   show  great  vul- 
garity of  sentiment.     In  the  case 
of  marble,  for  wall   facings   and 
floors,  rich  and  good  effects  were 


ASCHOF 

5EPT1MIU5 
SEVEHU5, 
10ME. 


I  MEDIEVAL  CATHEPIALSf 
EOOILATEIAL     «.    TIIANQLE3,       1 


70. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


173 


GREEK. 

brick,  have  already  been  referred 
to  in  the  analysis  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture (page  108).  It  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  exteriors  of  the 
Temples  were  treated  with  color, 
which  must  have  aided  in  the 
general  effect.  Polygnotus  and 
other  great  artists  were  em- 
ployed for  decorative  painting 
upon  the  temples  and  other  build- 
ings, part  of  the  Propylaea  being 
known  as  the  Painted  Loggia. 
The  early  frescoes  were  probably 
in  the  style  of  the  vase  painters 
of  that  period,  while  the  later,  if 
judged  from  the  provincial  imita- 
tions of  Pompeii,  must  have 
been  grand  in  style  and  decora- 
tive in  effect. 

The  Anlhcmion,  or  honeysuckle 
(Nos.  39  J,  42  H,  43  F,  44  A,  E,  F, 
N),  was  the  characteristic  motif 
of  much  Greek  surface  ornament, 
and  was  also  employed  on  cyma- 
recta  mouldings. 


ROMAN. 

produced,  as  the  Romans  were 
connoisseurs  in  marbles,  which 
they  sought  out  and  imported 
from  all  countries.  The  ox-heads 
connected  with  garlands,  so  fre- 
quently carved  on  Roman  friezes, 
are  supposed  to  have  originated 
from  the  actual  skulls  and  gar- 
lands hung  for  decoration  on 
altars  at  which  the  beasts  them- 
selves had  been  slain. 

A  finely  worked  marble  cement 
was  frequently  used  as  a  covering 
to  walls  and  stone  columns,  and 
formed  a  ground  on  which  paint- 
ings could  be  safely  executed,  as 
at  Pompeii.  The  arabesques 
which  adorned  the  walls  of  the 
Baths  of  Titus  (No.  69  A),  in- 
fluenced largely  the  fresco  decora- 
tion of  the  Renaissance  period. 

The  Acanthus  scroll  with  con- 
tinuous stem  and  spirals  adorned 
with  rosettes  or  grotesques,  is 
specially  characteristic  (No.  67  F). 


5.    REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Adam  (R.). — "Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro."     1764. 

Anderson  (W.  J.)  and  Spiers  (R.  Phene). — "  The  Architecture  of  Greece 
and  Rome:  A  Sketch  of  its  Historic  Development."  Large  8vo.  1902. 

Blouet  (G.  A.). — "  Restauration  des  Thermes  Caracalla  a  Rome." 
Folio.  Paris,  1828. 

Cameron  (C.). — "  Description  of  the  Baths  of  the  Romans."     1772. 

Canina  (L.).— "  Gli  Edifizj  di  Roma  Antica."     6  vols.     1848-56. 

Caristie  (A.).—"  Monuments  antiques  a  Orange,  arc  de  triomphe  et 
theatre."  Folio.  Paris,  1856. 

Choisy  (A.). — "  L'Art  de  Batir  chez  les  Romains."    Folio.    Paris,  1873. 

D'Amelio  (P.).— "  Dipinti  Murali  Scelte  di  Pompei."     Folio.     Naples. 

Dennis  (G.).— "  The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria."     2  vols.     1878. 

Durm  (J.).— "Die  Baukunst  der  Etrusker  und  Roemer  "  ("  Handbuch 
der  Architektur").  4to.  Darmstadt,  1885. 

Dutert  (F.). — "  Le  Forum  Remain  et  les  Forums  de  Jules  Caesar, 
d'Auguste,  de  Vespasian,  de  Nerva,  et  de  Traja."  Folio.  Paris,  1876. 

Gell  (Sir  W.)  and  Gandy  (J.  P.).—"  Pompeiana."  3  vols.,  8vo.    1819-32. 

Gusman.— "  La  Villa  Imperiale  de  Tibur."     4to.     Paris. 

Isabelle  (C.  E.).— "  Les  Edifices  Circulates."     Folio.     Paris,  1855. 

Jackson  (T.  G.)— "  Dalmatia,  the  Quarnero,  and  Istria."     8vo.     1887. 

Lanciani  (R.).— "  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries." 
8vo.  Boston,  1888. 


C0MECTOM  OF^PPffiEMT  PfiQWfcTKHB. 

FROM  m  INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  FACES  OF  THE  HNT7E  OF  A 
TEMPLE  AT  PPJENE. 


METHOD  OF  DRAWING 

ENTASIS  OF  COLUMN: 

AB  &  CD  SRE  BOTTOM*  TOP 
DIAMETERS  RESPECTIVELY. 
DESCRIBE  SEMICIRCLES  ON 
THESE.*  AT C  ERECT  PER- 
PENDICULAR CUTTING  URGES 
ONE  IN  X.  DNK  SEGMENT 
M  k  HEIGHT  OF  COLUMN 
WTO  flNY  NUMBER  Of  EQUAL 
PARTS  _5AY  3 -I,  NUMBER 
BOTH  1,2,3  FROM  A.  THRO' 
THE  POINTS  1.23  IN  SEGMENT 
ERECT  PERPENDICULARS 
CUTTING  CORRESPONDING 
WVISIONS  OF  THE  HEIGHT. 
THROUGH  TrfE  POiiTS  TO 
OBTAINED  DRAW  CURV:. 


EFFECT  OF  COLOR  ON 

IN  X  THE  METOPES  *  CELLA  WALL  BEING  BLACK  THE  COLUMNS  APPEAR 
STURDIER  k  THE  ARCHITRAVE,  TRIGLYPH5&  CORNICE  HAVE  IMPORTANCE. 
IN  Y  WITH  REVERSED  COLORING  THE  COLUMNS  APPEAR  THINNER  t 
HIGHER  AND  THE  ENTABLATURE  LOSES  IN  IMPORTANCE. 

THE  PAimffiMW  ATHENS 

THl?  FR<ST  FOHMT  VV<yiN(LINATION  OF  COLUMNS, 

A  llll|u  JLd.o.OJ  Jl    A  Jftvl^il  Ji  —    FRIEZE 


® 


PARALLEL  5TRAIGHUINE5 
HAVING  CONVEX  CURVES  ON 
EITHER  SIDE  APPEAR  WIDER 
APART  IN  THE  CENTRE 


(3) 


E  THE  TEMPLE  FRONT  AS  IT  APPEARS  IN  EXECUTION  WITH  CURVED 
HORIZONTAL  LINES  AND  INCLINED  VERTICAL  FEATURES  AS  AT  G. 

F  THE  TEMPLE  FRONT  AS  IT  WOULD  APPEAR  IF  BUILT  AS  AT  E 

WITHOUT  OPTICAL  CORRECTIONS. 

G  THE  TEMPLE  FRONT  ARRANGED  WITH  THE  in RTICAL  AXES  IN- 
CLINING AND  WITH  CONVEX  3TYLOBATE,  ARCHITRAVE,  ENTAB- 
LflUffi  AND  PEDIMENT,  PRODUCING  RESULT  AS  AT  E. 


PARALLEL  STRAIGHT  LINES 

HAVING  CONCAVE  CURVES  ON 
EITHER  SIDE  APPEAR  CLOSER 
TOGETHER  IN  THE  CENTRE. 
A  SIMILAR  EFFECT  PRODUCED 
BY  INCLINED  LINES  AS  INDICAT- 
ED IN  H«,J  BY  DOTTED  LINES. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


REFERENCE    BOOKS— Continued. 


175 


Mau  (A.).— "Pompeii  :  Its  Life  and  Art,"  translated  by  F.  W.  Kelsey. 
New  York,  1899. 

Middleton  (J.  H.).— "The  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome."     8vo.     1892. 

Nibby  (A.).—"  Descrizone  della  Villa  Adriana."     Rome,  1827. 

Niccolini  (F.). — "  Arte  Pompeiana  :  Monumenti  Scelti."  Small  folio. 
Naples,  1887. 

Niccolini  (F.). — "  Le  Case  e  i  Monumenti  di  Pompeii."  Several  vols. 
large  folio.  Naples,  1854-189-. 

Palladio  (Andrea).—"  I  Quattro  Libri  dell'  architettura  di  A.  Palladio." 
Venice,  1570,  and  other  editions.  The  best  English  translations  are 
those  by  Leoni  (1715)  and  Ware  (1738).  See  also  the  author's  monograph, 
with  Life  and  Work  of  Palladio,  published  in  1902. 

Paulin  (E.).— "  Thermes  de  Diocletian."     Folio.     Paris,  1877. 

Penrose  (F.  C). — "Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius."  Transactions 
R.I.B.A.,  vol.  4,  p.  8. 

Piranesi  (G.  B.  and  F.). — "  Antichita  Romane."  Forming  about  30 
or  40  large  folio  volumes,  each  containing  a  magnificent  series  of  engravings 
of  Buildings  and  Antiquities  in  Ancient  Rome  and  its  Environs.  Circ. 
1748-1791. 

Pliny. — "  Historic  Naturalis  "  (A.D.  23-79). 

Ponce  (N.).— "Description  des  Bains  de  Titus."     Paris,  1786. 

Tatham  (C.  H.). — "Etchings  of  Grecian  and  Roman  Architectural 
Ornament."  Folio.  1826. 

Taylor  (G.  L.)  and  Cresy  (E.).— "  The  Architectural  Antiquities  of 
Rome,  measured  and  delineated."  2  vols.,  folio.  1821-1822. 

Vignola  (G.  B.  da).  —  "  Cinque  Ordini  d' Architettura."  Various 
English  and  French  translations.  4to. 

Vitruvius  (Marcus).—"  The  Architecture  of."  Translated  from  the  Latin 
by  Joseph  Gwilt.  Imp.  8vo.  1826. 

Vulliamy  (H). — "Examples  of  Ornamental  Sculpture  in  Architecture." 
Folio.  1818. 

Wood  (R.).— "  The  Ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Baalbec."      2  vols.     1827. 

Church  (A.  J.).— "Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero."  (Historical 
Novel.) 

For  Classic  Orders,  see  :  — 

Chambers  (Sir  W.)— "The    Decorative    Part  of    Civil   Architecture. 
Folio  and  4to. 

Mitchell  (C.  F.).—"  Classic  Architecture."     Folio.     1901. 

Mauch  (J.  M.  von).— "Die  Architektonischen  Ordnungen  der 
Griechen  und  Roemer."  Folio.  Berlin,  1875. 

N  ormand  (C) .— "  Parallel  of  the  Orders  of  Architecture.''    Folio.    1 829. 

Spiers  (R.  P.).— "The  Orders  of  Architecture:  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Italian."  Folio.  1901. 

The  student  should  visit  the  Crystal  Palace  for  the  Pompeian  House 
and  models  of  the  Roman  Forum,  the  Colosseum,  Pantheon  and  other 
buildings.  The  British  and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museums  should 
be  visited  for  actual  fragments. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


"  A  fuller  light  illumined  all, 
A  breeze  through  all  the  garden  swept." — TENNYSON. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  position  of  Rome  as  the  centre  of  a 
world- wide  empire  was  an  important  factor  (see  page  in),  "  All 
roads  lead  to  Rome,"  and  Christianity,  to  become  universal, 
had  to  grow  up  at  the  capital,  however  eastern  its  birthplace. 
Ravenna,  subdued  by  Justinian  in  A.D.  537,  was  the  connecting 
link  of  the  early  Christian  and  Byzantine  styles  (see  page  193). 

ii.  Geological. — The  quarry  of  the  ruins  of  Roman  buildings 
influenced  the  architectural  treatment  of  the  style,  both  in  regard 
to  construction  and  decoration,  as  columns  and  other  architectural 
features  and  marbles  from  the  older  buildings  were  worked  into 
the  design  of  the  new  basilican  churches  of  the  Christians. 

iii.  Climate. — See  Roman  Architecture  (page  i~  ,). 

iv.  Religion. — History  presents  no  phenomenon  so  striking  as 
the  rise  of  Christianity,  which  spread  so  rapidly  that  in  a  very 
short  period  it  was  diffused  throughout  the  whole  civilized  world. 
In  A.D.  313  Constantine  issued  his  celebrated  decree  from  Milan, 
according  to  Christianity  equal  rights  with  all  other  religions, 
and  in  A.D.  323  he  himself  professed  Christianity,  which  then 
became  the  established  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The 
Christians,  who  up  to  that  period  were  an  unpopular  dissenting 
sect,  and  had  worshipped  in  the  Catacombs,  which  formed  their 
burial-places,  were  now  able  to  hold  their  services  openly  and 
freely. 

The  Council  of  Nice,  A.D.  325,  called  by  Constantine,  was  the 
first  of  several  Councils  of  the  Church  for  the  settlement  of 
disputes  about  heresies. 

A  temporary  reaction  took  place  in  A.D.  360-363,  under  Julian, 
known  as  the  "  Apostate." 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


177 


I 


Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  when  besieged  by  the  Lombards 
at  Rome,  employed  the  imperial  army  of  Constantinople  and  acted 
as  the  defender  of  Rome,  making  common  cause  with  the  people 
against  the  Lombards  and  others. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — On  changing  the  capital  of  the 
empire  from  Rome  to  Byzantium  in  A.D.  324  Constantine  prac- 
tically reigned  as  an  absolute  monarch  till  his  death  in  A.D.  337, 
the  old  Roman  political  system  coming  to  an  end. 

The  division  of  the  Roman  Empire  first  took  place  in  A.D.  364, 
Valentian  being  Emperor  of  the  West  and  his  brother  Valens  of 
the  East. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  reigning  between  the  years  A.D.  379-395, 
reunited  the  Eastern  and  Western  portions  of  the  Empire. 

The  series  of  emperors  in  the  West  came  to  an  end  in  A.D.  476, 
and  the  empire  was  nominally  again  reunited,  Zeno  reigning  at 
Constantinople  over  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires. 

Theodoric  the  Goth  reigned  in  Italy,  A.D.  493-526,  a  period  of 
peace  and  prosperity,  in  which  Byzantine  art  influenced  Early 
Christian  art  by  way  of  Ravenna,  which,  from  493-552,  was  the 
capital  of  the  Gothic  dynasty. 

Kings  of  separate  states  were  then  elected  in  Italy,  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Northern  Africa,  Odoacer,  the  new  king  of  Italy, 
recognizing  the  supremacy  of  the  one  Roman  Emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  emancipation  of  the  West  from  direct  imperial 
control  made  possible  the  development  of  Romano-German 
civilization,  which  facilitated  the  growth  of  new  states  and 
nationalities,  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  Christian  Church  and 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  power  of  the  Bishops  of  Rome. 

From  the  Roman  or  common  speech  several  of  the  chief 
languages  of  modern  Europe  commenced  to  arise,  and  in  conse- 
quence are  called  Romance  languages. 

vi.  Histoncal. — The  Early  Christian  period  is  generally  taken 
as  lasting  from  Constantine  to  Gregory  the  Great,  or  from 
A.D.  300  to  604.  The  Teutonic  invasions  of  Italy  commenced 
about  A.D.  376,  and  Teutonic  settlements  took  place  within  the 
empire  about  this  time,  these  movements  being  caused  by  the 
incursions  of  the  Huns  into  Germany. 

The  West  Goths  sacked  Rome  under  Alaric  in  A.D.  410.  The 
defeat  of  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  at  the  battle  of  Chalons, 
A.D.  451,  aided  in  consolidating  Christianity  in  Europe. 

During  the  reign  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.D.  590  to  604)  the 
Latin  language  and  Early  Christian  architecture,  the  latest  phase 
of  Roman  art,  ceased  to  exist,  and  for  the  next  two  centuries 
architecture  was  practically  at  a  standstill  in  Europe,  when  the 
old  Roman  traditions  were  to  a  great  extent  thrown  aside,  and 
Romanesque  architecture  was  gradually  evolved. 

F.A.  N 


178  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

-One  style  was  evolved  from  another  so  gradually  that  it  is 
impossible  to  say  exactly  where  the  one  ended  and  the  next  began. 
This  gradual  growth  characterizes  progress  in  other  departments 
as  well  as  Architecture.  Each  age  feels  its  way  towards  the 
expression  of  its  own  ideals,  modifying  the  art  of  the  past  to  meet 
fresh  conditions. 

Little  money  being  at  the  command  of  the  Early  Christians,  it 
was  necessary  for  them  to  adopt  places  of  worship  which  could  be 
readily  constructed.  Many  of  the  Roman  Temples,  which  were 
now  rendered  useless  for  their  original  purpose,  were  utilized  for 
the  new  faith,  and  in  addition  new  churches  built  on  the  model  of 
the  old  Roman  basilicas,  and  formed  of  columns  and  other  features 
from  Pagan  buildings,  were  erected. 

These  are  known  as  basilican  churches,  and  were  often  situated 
over  the  entrances  to  their  former  hiding-places  or  crypts,  and 
were  constructed  with  columns  of  different  orders  and  sizes  which 
were  made  to  an  uniform  height  by  the  addition  of  new  pieces  of 
stone,  or  double  bases,  or  in  some  cases  by  the  omission  of  the 
base  mouldings  (No.  77). 

On  this  account,  although  extremely  interesting  from  an  archaeo- 
logical point  of  view,  the  early  buildings  can  hardly  have  the 
value  for  study,  in  the  architect's  mind  at  least,  which  a  new 
manner  in  architecture,  arising  from  new  structural  necessities,  is 
certain  to  possess. 

The  earlier  basilican  churches  had  their  columns  closely  spaced, 
and  were  crowned  with  the  entablature  which  supported  the 
main  wall,  on  which  rested  the  wooden  roof  (No.  75  B),  but 
as  the  arch  came  more  into  general  use  these  columns  were 
spaced  further  apart,  being  connected  by  semicircular  arches 
(Nos.  72,  73  A  and  74). 

The  basilican  church  with  three  or  five  aisles,  covered  by  a 
wooden  roof,  is  the  special  type  of  the  style  as  opposed  to  the 
vaulted  types  of  the  Byzantine  style  (Nos.  80,  81,  84  and  85), 
in  which  a  circular  dome  was  placed  over  a  square  space  by 
means  of  the  pendentive  (No.  79). 

The  architectural  character  is  impressive  and  dignified  ;  due 
to  the  increase  in  the  apparent  size  of  the  basilicas  by  the  long 
perspective  of  the  columns,  and  the  comparative  lowness  of  the 
interiors  in  proportion  to  their  length. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
BASILICAN    CHURCHES. 

The  plans  of  the  basilicas,  or--^^m^JtijJ]s_oi_justice,  were 
copied  by  the  early  Christians  for  their  places  of  worship,  and 


1 


w 

S  -M 

o  c 

*  J 

6tT  tf 


w  ^- 

SI 


0  s 

z  « 

<:  '? 

0  S 

1  o. 


<   H 
ffl  > 


N  2 


l8o  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

thus  became  stepping-stones  from  the  Classic  of  pre-Christian 
times  to  the  Gothic  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
may  be  said  to  commence  with  these  Basilican  churches. 

Some  authorities,  however,  believe  the  early  Christian  churches 
to  have  been  evolved  from  the  Roman  dwelling-house,  where  at 
first  the  community  were  in  the  habit  of  assembling,  or  from 
the  class-room  where  philosophers  taught. 

How  suitable  the  Roman  basilica  type  (No.  58)  was  for 
Christian  worship  is  seen  from  the  plan  of  S.  Clemente, 
Rome,  A.D.  1084  (Nos.  72,  73  B),  which, ^although  rebuilt  in  the 
eleventh  century,  contains  the  original  internal  arrangement  of 
the  churches  of  the  fifth  century. 

An  atrium  or  forecourt,  being  an  open  space  surrounded  by 
arcades,  formed  an  imposing  approach  in  most  of  the  Basilican 
churches.  The  covered  portion  next  the  church  'called  the 
narthex  was  the  place  for  penitents.  In  the  centre  of  the  atrium 
was  a  fountain  or  well,  the  water  from  which  was  used  for  washing 
before  entering  the  church—  a  custom  which  still  survives  in  an 
altered  form  amongst  Catholics,  who  dip  their  fingers  into  a  stoop, 
or  holy-water  basin,  at  the  entrances  of  their  churches. 

The  nave,  lighted  by  a  clerestory  of  small  windows,  had  an  aisle 
on  either  side,  such  aisles  being  usually  half  the  width  of  the 
nave.  ([Occasionally  two  aisles  occur  on  each  side  of  the  nave,  as 
in  the  Basilicas  of  S.  Peter  (No.  75  c),  S.  PaulJ(No.  75  E)  and 
S.  John  Lateran. 

Galleries  for  the  use  of  women  were  sometimes  placed  over  the 
aisles,  as  at  S.  Agnese  and  S.  Lorenzo ;  but  where  none  existed 
the  sexes  sat  apart  on  opposite  sides  of  the  nave. 

A  transept,  called  the  "  bema,"  or  "presbytery,"  which  existed 
in  a  modified  form  in  the  pagan  basilicas,  was  occasionally 
introduced,  converting  the  plan  into  a  Latin  cross,  of  which  the 
nave  was  the  long  arm.  Some  consider,  however,  that  this 
cruciform  ground  plan  was  derived  from  the  buildings  erected 
for  sepulchral  purposes  as  early  as  the  age  of  Constantine. 

A  choir  became  necessary,  owing  to  the  increase  of  .ritual, 
and  was  inclosed  by  low  screen  walls,  or '  "  cancelli "  (from 
which  the  word  chancel  is  derived),  and  provided  with  an 
"  ambo "  or  pulpit  on  either  side,  from  which  the  gospel  and 
Epistle  were  read  (No.  72). 

The  bishop  took  the  place  formerly  occupied  by  the  " pratprf1*®! 
"  qnestor"  (page  136),  until  in  subsequent  ages  the  seat  was  moved 
to  the  side,  becoming  the  bishop's  throne. 

The  presbyters,  or  members  of  the  council  of  the  early  Church, 
occupied  seats  on  either  side  of  the  bishop  formerly  occupied  by 
the  assessors.  The  apse  became  the  sanctuary  which  remained 
circular-ended  in  Northern  Europe. 

The  altar  in  front  of  the  apse,  formerly  used  by  the  Romans 


It/ 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    EXAMPLES.    I. 


73' 


l82  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

for  the  pouring  out  of  libations,  or  sacrifices  to  their  gods,  was 
now  used  for  the  celebration  of  Christian  rites,  and  a  baldachino, 
or  canopy,  supported  on  marble  columns,  was  erected  over  it. 
In  later  times  the  altar  was  frequently  placed  against  the  east  wall 
of  the  apse  (No.  72). 

The  interiors  of  these  buildings  owe  their  rich  effect  to  the  use 
of  glass  mosaic  ("  opus  Grecanicum,"  )  which  was  placed  fre- 
quently in  a  broad  band  (No.  74)  above  the  nave  arcading  and  to 
the  semi-dome  of  the  apse  (No.  78  G,  K),  which  is  frequently  richly 
treated  with  a  central  figure  of  Christ  seared  in  glory  and  set  in 
relief  against  a  golden  background. 

"  Below  was  all  mosaic  choicely  planned, 
With  cycles  of  the  human  tale." 

The  ceilifigs  of  timber  were  also  formed  in  compartments  and 
were  richly  gilded  (Nos.  74  and  76). 

The  pavements  were  formed  out  of  the  abundant  store  of  old 
columns  and  other  marbles  existing  in  Rome,  slices  of  columns 
being  used  as  centres  surrounded  by  bands  of  geometric  inlay 
twisted  with  intricate  designs  (No.  78  B,  L). 

The  old  Basilican  Church  of  S.  Peter  (A.D.  330)  was 
erected  near  the  site  of  the  martyrdom  of  S.  Peter  in  the  circus 
of  Nero.  It  had  a  "transept,"  or  "  bema,"  55  feet  wide,  and 
113  feet  high  (No.  75  A,  B,  c).  Five  arches,  the  centre  called 
the  arch  of  triumph,  gave  access  from  the  body  of  the  church, 
and  at  the  sanctuary  end  was  a  semicircular  apse  on  a  raised 
floor,  against  the  centre  of  the  wall  of  which  was  the  Pope's  seat. 
The  priest  stood  behind  the  altar,  and  thus  faced  east,  as  the 
chancel  was  at  the  west  end  of  the  church. 

S.  John  Lateran  (A.D.  330)  has  been  altered  so  much  in 
modern  times  as  to  have  lost  its  early  character. 

There  were  in  all  thirty-one  Basilican  churches  in  Rome, 
mostly  made  up  of  fragments  of  earlier  pagan  buildings.  The 
interiors  of  these  basilicas  are  impressive  and  severe,  the  repetition 
of  the  long  rows  of  columns  being  grand  in  the  extreme,  as  in  the 
interior  view  of  S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura  (Nos.  74,  75  E),  built 
A.D.  380  by  Theodosius  but  re-erected  in  A.D.  r82i,and  S.  Maria 
Maggiore  (Nos.  75  D  and  76). 

There  are  also  important  examples  at  Ravenna,  a  city  well 
situated  for  receiving  the  influence  of  Constantinople,  and  at  one 
time  the  seat  of  an  Exarch  of  the  Empire.  S.  Apollinare 
Nuovo,  A.D.  493-525,  built  by  Theodoric  the  Goth,  and 
S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  A.D.  538-549,  are  important  three- 
aisled  Basilican  churches  carried  out  by  Byzantine  artists  on 
Roman  models,  and  they  are  interesting  for  the  impost  blocks  to 
the  capitals  supporting  the  pier  arches,  and  the  fine  mosaics. 

At  Torcello,    near   Venice,    the   foundations  of  the  original 


1*3 


CO 

h 
O 


U 

^ 
D 
K 

u 


184  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

bishop's  throne,  surrounded  by  six  rows  of  seats  in  the  apse,  still 
exist,  giving  a  good  idea  of  the  Early  Christian  arrangements. 

BAPTISTERIES 

are  another  description  of  building  met  with  in  Early  Christian 
architecture.  They  were  originally  used  only  for  the  sacrament 
of  baptism ;  hence  the  name  "  Baptistery."  The  form  was 
derived  from  the  Roman  circular  temples  and  tombs,  already 
described  (page  136).  There  was  generally  one  baptistery  in 
each  city,  as  at  Ravenna  and  Florence,  and  it  was  as  a  rule  a 
detached  building,  usually  adjoining  the  atrium  or  fore-court. 
Indeed,  until  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  of  our  era  the  baptistery 
appears  to  have  been  a  distinct  building  ;  but  after  this  period 
the  font  came  to  be  placed  in  the  vestibule  of  the  church. 

In  adopting  the  Roman  tombs  as  models  for  these  buildings, 
the  early  Christians  modified  them  to  some  extent,  for  the  internal 
columns  which  in  Roman  examples  were  generally  used  in 
a  decorative  way  were  now  used  to  support  the  walls  carrying  the 
domes.  To  cover  a  large  area  with  one  roof  was  difficult,  but  by 
the  addition  of  an  aisle  in  one  story  round  a  moderate-sized 
circular  tomb,  the  inner  walls  could  be  replaced  by  columns  in 
the  lower  half,  resulting  in  such  a  building  as  these  early 
baptisteries  (No.  75  H,  j). 

The  Baptistery  of  Constantine,  Rome  (No.  75  j,  K,  L)  is 
octagonal,  and  the  roof  is  supported  by  a  screen  of  eight  columns 
two  stories  in  height. 

The  Baptistery,  Nocera,  between  Naples  and  Salerno,  is 
circular,  being  80  feet  in  diameter,  with  two  rings  of  columns. 
This  building  is  domed  and  covered  with  a  wooden  roof,  and 
appears  to  be  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of  both,  as  the  Roman 
architects  always  allowed  the  stone  vault  to  show  externally,  as 
in  the  Pantheon.  In  the  case  of  this  building,  however,  the  vault 
is  merely  an  internal  ceiling  which  is  covered  with  an  external 
wooden  roof,  and  is  similar  to  the  practice  of  Gothic  architects, 
who,  in  the  mediaeval  period,  covered  the  stone  vaults  of  their 
churches  with  timber  roofs  (No  109). 

S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  Rome  (A.D.  470),  though  not  a 
baptistery,  is  a  good  example  of  a  circular  plan  of  similar  type 
(Nos.  75  F,  G,  H,  and  77),  being  210  feet  in  diameter,  and  with  roof 
supported  on  two  circular  rings  of  columns,  all  taken  from 
older  buildings,  the  outer  range  supporting  arches,  and  the  inner 
a  horizontal  architrave.  The  two  central  columns  are  an  addition 
to  support  the  roof  timbers. 

The  Baptistery,  Ravenna,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  is  an  octagonal  structure  with  two  arcades  in  the  interior 
one  above  the  other.  The  dome,  constructed  of  hollow  tiles,  has 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    EXAMPLES. 


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EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.          187 

fine  mosaics  representing  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  and  altars  with 
the  open  books  of  the  Apostles.  It  resembles  the  Temple  at 
Spalato  (p.  130),  but  with  arcades  instead  of  horizontal  architraves. 

TOMBS. 

S.  Constanza,  Rome  (A.D.  330)  was  erected  by  Constantine 
as  a  tomb  for  his  daughter,  but  was  converted  into  a  church  in 
1256.  It  has  a  dome,  35  feet  in  diameter,  supported  on  twelve 
pairs  of  coupled  granite  columns. 

The  Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna  (A.D.  420)  (No.  73  H, 
j,  K),  is  exceptional,  as  it  is  cruciform  in  plan,  instead  of  the 
usual  circular  form.  It  is  35  feet  by  30  feet  internally,  and  has 
a  raised  lantern  at  the  crossing,  pierced  with  four  windows.  It 
is  domed  by  a  portion  of  a  sphere,  and  is  one  of  the  few  examples 
in  which  the  pendentives  and  dome  are  portions  of  one  hemi-sphere 
(No.  79  H).  Each  of  the  arms  of  the  cross  contains  a  sarcophagus, 
and  the  interior  is  remarkable,  as  it  retains  all  its  ancient  poly- 
chromatic decoration  in  mosaics. 

The  Tomb  of  Theodoric,  Ravenna  (A.D.  530)  (No.  73  c, 
D,  E,  F,  G)  is  two  stories  in  height,  the  lower  story  being  a  decagon, 
45  feet  in  diameter  externally,  and  containing  a  cruciform  crypt. 
Traces  remain  of  an  external  arcade  round  the  upper  portion, 
standing  on  the  decagonal  basement.  The  roof  consists  of  one 
slab  of  stone,  hollowed  out  in  the  form  of  a  flat  dome,  35  feet  in 
diameter,  and  round  the  edge  of  this  block  are  stone  handles,  origin- 
ally used  to  place  this  immense  covering  in  position.  The  ashes 
of  the  founder  were  placed  in  an  urn  on  the  top  of  the  covering. 

Syria  has  a  number  of  interesting  monuments  erected  between 
the  third  and  eighth  centuries,  notably  those  by  Constantine — the 
Church  of  the  Nativity,  Bethlehem,  the  Church  of  the  Ascension, 
Jerusalem,  and  the  octagonal  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  on 
the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  also  at  Jerusalem. 

The  Syrian  type  appears  soon  to  have  broken  away  from 
Roman  influence,  due  largely  to  the  abundance  of  hard  stone,  the 
absence  of  brick,  and  the  distance  from  Rome.  Piers  were  used 
instead  of  columns,  and  roofs  formed  of  stone  slabs  were  usual. 
A  favourite  plan  was  a  circle  placed  in  a  square,  the  angles  being 
filled  with  niches,  as  in  the  Churches  at  Bozrah  and  Ezra.  Such 
are  considered  to  be  prototypes  of  later  Byzantine  churches  of  the 
type  of  S.  Sergius,  Constantinople  (No.  79  E,  F,  G),  and  S.  Vitale, 
Ravenna  (No.  83  c,  D).  Salonica  possesses  important  examples, 
notably  the  domical  Church  of  S.  George.  In  Asia  Minor,  as  at 
Ancyra,  Pergamus,  and  Hierapolis,  and  in  Egypt  and  Algiers  are 
many  examples  of  basilican  and  circular  buildings  of  the  Early 
Christian  period. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  189 

4.     COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plan. — The  early  Christians  adopted  the  Basilican  model  for 
their  churches  (Nos.  73  and  75),  but  in  addition  the  halls,  baths, 
dwelling-houses,  and  even  the  pagan  temples  were  used  for  places 
of  worship. 

An  isolated  circular  church,  used  as  a  baptistery,1  was  generally 
attached  to  the  chief  Basilica  or  cathedral. 

B.  Walls. — These   were    still    constructed   according    to   the 
Roman  methods,  rubble  or  concrete  walling  being   used,  faced 
with  plaster,  brick,  or  stone.     Mosaic  was  used  internally,  and 
sometimes  externally  on  the  west  facades  for  decorative  purposes. 

c.  Openings. — Doors,  windows,  and  niches  were  generally 
spanned  by  a  semicircular  arch,  the  use  of  the  lintel  being  dis- 
pensed with.  The  window  openings  were  small  (No.  78  D,  F)  ; 
those  to  the  nave  being  in  the  clerestory  high  in  the  nave  wall 
above  the  aisle  roof,  a  feature  which  was  developed  in  Gothic 
architecture  (Nos.  73  A,  75  B,  G). 

D.  Roofs. — Wooden    roofs    (No.   75   B),   covered   the   central 
nave,  simple  forms  of  construction  such  as  King  and  Queen  post 
trusses  being  employed..    These  roofs  were  ceiled  in  some  orna- 
mental manner  (No.  74),  the  decoration  of  a  visible  framework 
being  of  a  later  date,  as  at  S.  Miniato,  Florence  (No.  93).     The 
side  aisles  in  the  churches  were  occasionally  vaulted,  and  the  apse 
was  usually  domed  and  lined  with  mosaic  (Nos.  72  and  78  G,  K). 

E.  Columns  (Nos.  72,  77  and  78). — They  are  often  of  different 
design  and  size,  being  mostly  from  earlier  Roman  buildings  which 
had  fallen  into  ruins  &kt  were  purposely  destroyed.    It  was  natural 
that  the  early  Christian  builders,  not  being  good  craftsmen  them- 
selves, should  use  in  their  buildings  the  materials  and  ornaments 
which  had  been  left  by  the  pagan  Roman.     A  rich  and  grandiose 
effect  wTas  often  obtained  at  the  expense  of  fitness  in  the  details 
of  the  design.     Middleton  states  that  all  the  fine  marble  columns 

1  In  later  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods,  these  early  baptisteries,  themselves 
founded  on  the  Roman  circular  temples  and  tombs,  were  treated  as  follows  in  the 
different  European  countries  :  — 

In  Italy,  where  the  churches  were  not  derived  from  a  combination  of  a  circular 
eastern  church  with  a  western  rectangular  nave,  as  in  France,  but  were  direct 
copies  of  the  Roman  basilica,  the  baptistery  always  stands  alone. 

In  France,  circular  churches  were  built  to  stand  alone,  and  when  it  was 
necessary  to  enlarge  them,  the  circular  building  was  retained  as  the  sanctuary  or 
choir,  and  a  straight  lined  nave  was  added  for  the  use  of  the  people.  Thus  from 
the  circular  church  originated  the  apsidal  choir  of  the  Gothic  period. 

In  Germany,  the  earlier  baptistery  was  joined  to  the  square  church  and  formed 
a  western  apse.  The  Germans  also  built  circular  churches,  and  then  added  choirs 
for  the  priests,  that  they  might  pray  apart  from  the  people  (No.  83  E). 

In  England,  the  Gothic  builders  generally  preferred  a  square  east  end,  except 
where  French  influence  made  itself  felt,  as  at  Westminster.  Circular  churches 
were  erected,  as  the  Temple  Church,  London,  but  they  were  few  in  number,  and 
due  to  the  Knights  Templars  (page  219),  being  built  as  copies  of  the  Rotonda  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ORNAMENT. 

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EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  igi 

in  the  churches  of  Rome  have  been  taken  from  ancient  Roman 
buildings,  except  those  in  S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura. 

F.  Mouldings. — These  are  coarse  variations  of  Roman  types, 
and  the  carving  is  of  the  rudest  kind,  though  rich  in  general  effect. 
The  technique  of  the  craftsman  gradually  declined,  and  was  at  a 
low  ebb  during  this  period. 

Enrichments  incised  upon  mouldings  were  in  low  relief,  and 
the  acanthus  ornamentation,  although  still  copied  from  the 
antique,  became  more  conventional  in  form. 

G.  Ornament. — The  introduction  of  much  color  is  a  feature 
of  the  period,  giving  much  richness  to  the  interiors. 

The  domed  apse  (No.  72),  as  has  been  mentioned,  was  lined  with 
mosaic,  the  subject  generally  being  Christ  surrounded  by  angels 
and  saints. 

The  arch  of  triumph,  separating  the  nave  from  the  bema,  was 
ornamented  with  appropriate  subjects  ;  long  friezes  of  figures  line 
the  wall  above  the  nave  arcades  (Nos.  72,  74  and  76),  and  the 
wall  spaces  between  the  clerestory  windows  often  had  mosaics 
representing  subjects  taken  from  Christian  history  or  doctrine. 

The  figures  are  treated  in  strong  colors  on  a  gold  back- 
ground. The  design  is  bold  and  simple,  both  in  form  and 
draperies, .  and  an  earnest  and  solemn  expression,  fitting  well  the 
position  they  occupy,  characterizes  the  groups.  The  method  of 
execution  is  coarse  and  large,  and  no  attempt  was  made  at  neatness 
of  joint  or  regularity  of  bedding.  The  interiors  are,  by  the  aid 
of  these  mosaics,  rendered  exceedingly  impressive. 

In  addition  to  the  richness  of  the  wall  surfaces  formed  of 
colored  mosaics  the  pavements  of  colored  marbles  in  geometric 
patterns  added  much  to  the  rich  effect  of  the  interiors.  These 
pavements  were  formed  largely  of  slices  from  the  old  Roman 
porphyry  columns,  which  were  worked  into  designs  by  connecting 
bands  of  geometrical  inlay  on  a  field  of  white  marble  (Nos.  72,  78). 

The  glass  mosaic  used  to  decorate  the  ambones,  screens,  and 
episcopal  chairs,  as  in  the  fittings  of  the  church  of  S.  Clemente 
at  Rome  (No.  78),  was  of  a  finer  and  more  delicate  description. 

5.      REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Brown  (Prof.  Baldwin).— "From  Schola  to  Cathedral."     8vo.      1886. 

Bunsen  (C.  C.  J.).— "  Die  Basiliken  des  Christlichen  Roms."  Folio. 
Munich,  1843. 

Butler  (A.  J.).— "  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt."    8vo.    1884. 

Butler  (H.  C.)— American  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Syria,  1899— 
1900.  Folio.  New  York,  1904. 

Hubsch  (H.).— "  Monuments  de  1'Architecture  Chretienne  depuis 
Constantin  jusqu'a  Charlemagne."  Folio.  Paris,  1866. 

Vogue  (Marquis  de).— "  Les  Eglises  de  la  Terre-Sainte."     Paris,  1860. 

Vogue.—"  Syrie  Centrale."     2  vols.     Paris,  1865-67. 

Kingsley  (Charles).— "  Hypatia."  )    Historical  Novels 

II  /X1T        /~*    \  LL    C*  T\  1          55  1J  13  LUI  ICdl      l>(L/Vt.lO« 

Perry  (W.  C.). — "  Sancta  Paula."  ) 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 

"So  fair  a  church  as  this  had  Venice  none: 
The  walls  were  of  discoloured  Jasper  stone 
Wherein  was  Christos  carved  ;  and  overhead 
A  lively  vine  of  green  sea  agate  spread." — CHAUCER. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — Byzantium  (renamed  Constantinople  by 
Constantine),  occupies  the  finest  site  in  Europe,  standing  on  two 
promontories  at  the  junction  of  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Sea  of 
Marmora.  It  was  called  "  New  Rome"  by  the  Turks  of  Asia, 
and,  like  the  other  Rome  in  Italy,  it  rests  on  seven  hills.  It 
occupies  an  important  commercial  site,  standing  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  great  highways  of  commerce — the  water  high- 
road from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  land 
high-road  from  Asia  into  Europe ;  a  position  which,  from  early 
times,  gave  it  power  and  influence,  especially  over  the  corn  trade 
carried  on  with  the  western  merchants  on  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Euxine.  The  absence  of  tides  and  the  depth  of  its  harbour, 
an  inlet  known  as  the  "  Golden  Horn,"  four  miles  in  length, 
rendered  its  quays  accessible  to  vessels  of  large  burden. 

ii.  Geological. — Constantinople  possessed  no  good  building 
stone  or  even  material  for  making  good  bricks,  but,  as  far 
as  possible  the  materials  upon  the  spot  had  to  be  employed. 
Most  of  the  marble  used  in  the  new  capital  was  brought  from 
different  quarries  round  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  for  Con- 
stantinople was  a  marble  working  centre  from  which  sculptured 
marbles  were  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  Roman  world. 

Mr.  Brindley,  a  .writer  on  the  subject,  is  of  opinion  that  quite 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  colored  marble  used  in  Santa  Sophia, 
and  the  other  churches  and  mosques  in  Constantinople,  is  Thessa- 
lian  green  (Verde  Antico),  and  that  the  architect  was  influenced 
by  the  kind  of  column  likely  to  be  at  once  obtainable.  The 
quarries  were  situated  in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  the  mono- 
lith columns  being  worked  by  convicts  in  groups  of  sizes  such  as 
the  quarry  could  produce. 


BYZANTINE    ARCHITECTURE.  193 

iii.  Climate. — Owing  to  Constantinople  being  hotter  than 
Rome,  and  to  its  being  further  east,  the  Romans  on  settling 
there  altered  their  method  of  building  to  suit  the  novel  conditions 
due  to  climate  and  their  contact  with  Oriental  arts. 

iv.  Religion. — Constantine  first  made  Christianity  the  state 
religion  (page  176).  The  political  division  that  came  to  pass 
between  east  and  west  was  followed  by  a  separation  of  churches 
also.  This  was  due  to  the  "  Filioque  controversy  "  as  to  whether 
the  Spirit  proceeded  from  the  Father  and  Son  or  from  the  Father 
only  ;  the  Eastern  church  which  still  claims  to  be  the  orthodox 
church,  maintaining  the  latter,  and  the  western  the  former.  The 
iconoclastic  movement  during  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  was 
in  force  and  ended  in  the  admission  of  painted  figures  in  the 
decoration  of  churches,  but  all  sculptured  statues  were  excluded. 
These  and  other  points  of  difference  in  ritual  have  vitally  affected 
eastern  church  architecture  up  to  the  present  day. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Constantine,  whose  system  of 
government  was  an  expansion  of  the  despotic  methods  introduced 
by  Diocletian,  removed  the  capital  from  Rome  to  Byzantium  in 
A.D.  324,  the  position  of  the  latter  city  being  unrivalled  as  a  great 
commercial  centre  on  the  trading  highway  between  east  and  west. 
After  his  death  rival  emperors  troubled  the  state,  and  disputes  in 
the  church  were  rife — the  Council  of  Nice  in  A.D.  325  being  the 
first  of  the  general  councils  called  to  suppress  heresies.  The 
eastern  emperors  lost  all  power  in  Italy  by  endeavouring  to  force 
upon  the  west  their  policy  of  preventing  the  worship  and  use  of 
images.  By  the  election  of  Charlemagne,  chosen  Emperor  of  the 
West  in  A.D.  800,  the  Roman  empire  was  finally  divided. 

vi.  Historical. — Byzantium  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in 
the  seventh  century  B.C.,  and  was  a  Greek  colony  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  fSyzantine  architecture  is  that  which  was 
developed  at  Byzantium  on  the  removal  of  the  capital  from  Rome 
to  that  city.  It  includes  not  only  the  buildings  in  Byzantium  but 
also  those  which  were  erected  under  its  influence,  as  at  Ravenna 
and  Venice,  also  in  Greece,  Russia,  and  elsewhere.  During  the 
reign  of  Justinian  (A.D.  527-565)  Italy  was  recovered  to  the  Eastern 
Empire,  accounting  for  the  style  of  some  of  the  buildings. 

Ravenna  became  important  owing  to  the  Emperor  Honorius 
transferring  his  residence  there  from  Rome  in  A.D.  402,  and  it  was 
created  an  archiepiscopal  see  in  A.D.  438.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire  the  town  was  taken  by  Odoacer,  and  in  A.D.  493 
Theodoric  the  Great  took  the  city,  which,  remaining  the  residence 
of  the  Gothic  kings  till  539,  rivalled  Rome  in  importance.  From 
A.D.  539-752  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Exarch  of  the  Eastern  Roman 
or  Byzantine  Emperors.  The  Byzantine  style  was  carried  on 
until  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in  A.D.  1453, 
when  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

F.A.  o 


194  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  general  architectural  character  depends  on  the  development 
of  the  dome,  induced  by  the  adoption  of  circular  and  polygonal 
plans  for  churches,  tombs  and  baptisteries.  This  is  in  contrast 
with  the  Romanesque  style,  which  developed  the  vault  in  Western 
and  Northern  Europe  (page  224). 

The  change  from  the  old  Roman  forms  was  of  course  gradual, 
but  in  the  course  of  200  years  the  East  asserted  itself,  and  under 
Justinian,  the  Church  of  S.  Sophia  (A. 0/532-537)  was  erected, 
and  remains  the  greatest  achievement  in  the  style — the  interior 
being  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  domed  examples. 

Although  no  line  can  be  stated  as  separating  distinctively  the 
Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  styles,  yet  as  already  stated  the 
Basilican  type  is  characteristic  of  the  former  and  the  vaulted 
church  with  pendentives  of  the  latter. 

A  Byzantine  building  consists  generally  of  a  brick  carcass  or 
"  shell,"  constructed  after  the  size  of  the  marble  shafts  had  been 
assured.  The  walls  of  this  shell  were  finally  sheeted  internally 
with  marble,  and  the  vaults  with  colored  mosaics  on  a  golden 
back-ground.  In  fact  no  church  was  founded  during  this  period 
in  which  mosaic  was  not  intended  to  be  employed,  and  the  decora- 
tion of  S.  Sophia  and  the  churches  of  Nicaea  and  Thessalonica 
show  the  perfection  to  which  this  was  carried  out.  The  core  of 
the  wall  was  generally  of  concrete,  as  in  the  Roman  period,  but 
the  manner  in  which  the  bricks  of  the  casing  were  arranged 
contributed  greatly  to  the  decoration  of  the  exterior.  They 
were  not  always  laid  horizontally,  but  sometimes  obliquely, 
sometimes  in  the  form  of  the  meander  fret,  sometimes  in  the 
chevron  or  herring-bone  pattern,  and  in  many  other  forms  of 
similar  design,  giving  great  richness  and  variety  to  the  facades, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  Thessalonica.  Externally  an 
attempt  was  made  to  render  the  rough  brick  exteriors  of  Roman 
times  more  pleasing,  by  the  use  of  bands  and  relieving  arches  of 
an  ornamental  character. 

Byzantine  art  and  influences  were  carried  westward  by  traders, 
and  are  found  at  S.  Mark,  Venice,  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna,  S.  Front, 
Perigueux,  and  elsewhere,  largely  directing  the  architecture  of 
these  districts. 

The  dome,  already  referred  to,  is  the  prevailing  motif  or  idea  of 
Byzantine  architecture,  and  had  been  a  traditional  feature  in  the 
old  architecture  of  the  East,  and  M.  Choisy,  in  his  "Art  de  Batir 
chez  les  Byzantins,"  traces  the  influence  of  this  tradition  of 
domical  construction  on  Greek  architecture  to  show  how  from 
this  fusion  the  later  imperial  architecture  became  possible. 

Domes  were  now  placed  over  square  apartments,  their  bases 
being  brought  to  a  circle  by  means  of  "  pendentives"  (Nos.  79, 


BYZANTINE    ARCHITECTURE.  195 

80,  82,  836,  84,  86,  me);  whereas  in  Roman  architecture 
these  features  were  as  a  rule  placed  over  a  circular  apartment. 
Windows  were  now  formed  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  dome, 
which  in  the  later  period  was  hoisted  upon  a  high  circular  drum,' 
a  feature  which  was  still  further  embellished  in  the  Renaissance 
Period  by  the  employment  of  a  circular  peristyle  or  colonnade. 
In  vaulting,  porous  stones,  especially  pumice,  were  used ;  some- 
times the  domes  were  constructed  of  pottery,  as  at  S.  Vitale, 
Ravenna  (No.  83  D),  where  it  is  formed  with  urns  and  amphorae 
placed  side  by  side  and  grouted  with  mortar.  The  architecture  of 
the  Byzantines  was  thus  developed  by  the  use  of  brick  in  the 
fullest  manner,  especially  in  domical  vaulting,  and  there  is  an 
absence  of  preparatory  and  auxiliary  work,  M.  Choisy  remarking 
that,  the  "greater  number  of  their  vaults  rose  into  space  without 
any  kind  of  support "  (i.e.,  without  centering),  by  the  use  of  large 
flat  bricks,  which  is  quite  a  distinct  system,  not  derived  from  a 
Roman  but  from  an  Asiatic  source.  Byzantine  art  is  the  Greek 
spirit  working  on  Asiatic  lines,  for  the  dome  on  pendentives 
was  invented  and  perfected  entirely  in  the  East.  In  the  Byzan- 
tine system  of  vaulting  the  vault  surfaces  gave  the  conditions 
of  the  problem,  and  the  groins  or  angles  of  intersections  were  of 
secondary  importance,  presenting  a  direct  contrast  to  the  mediaeval 
buildings  of  Europe. 

The  grouping  of  the  smaller  domes  round  the  larger  central 
one  was  very  effective  externally  (No.  79),  and  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  peculiarities  of  Byzantine  churches  was  that  the  tunnel 
vault  and  the  dome  had  no  additional  outer  covering,  but  were, 
visible  externally  (No.  80  A)  ;  thus  in  no  style  does  the  elevation 
so  closely  correspond  with  the  section  as  in  the  Byzantine. 

From,  the  time  when  the  architect  permitted  the  forms  of  the 
vaults  and  arches  to  appear  as  architectural  features  in  the 
facades,  the  regular  entablatures  of  the  Romans  were  abandoned, 
arid  in  the  church  of  S.  Sophia  is  seen  the  fully-developed  Byzan- 
tine style  :  for  whereas  in  the  older  buildings  of  Rome,  the 
columns  and  entablatures  could  be  and  were  removed  with- 
out causing  the  ruin  of  the  building,  in.S.  Sophia  the  true  Greek 
expression  of  truth  in  construction  was  reverted  to,  its  columns 
and  capitals  being  not  merely  ornamental,  but  really  supporting 
the  galleries.  The  Classic  orders  were  dispensed  with,  and  the 
semicircular  arches  made  to  rest  directly  on  coiumns  designed 
for  the  purpose.  The  capitals,  of  which  there  are  seven  distinct 
types,  four  being  in  S.  Sophia,  assume  a  novel  form  (Nos.  88 
and  89),  appropriate  to  their  new  purpose  of  receiving  the 
springers  of  arches,  the  voussoirs  of  which  were  always  square, 
and  not  set  in  receding  planes,  as  in  so-called  Gothic  architecture. 

As  Freeman  says:  "The  problem  was  to  bring  the  arch  and 
column  into  union — -in  other  words,  to  teach  the  column  to 

o  2 


BYZANTINE   EXAMPLES.    I. 


M      m       "       •  b 
iMHHODMH«TOWEO  BY  CHOKY  OF  COM- 
STRUCTINCDOME5  VHH0UT  CEHTER1NC  BYME^m 

OF  RODS  If  REE  TO  WYE  IH  ^LL  DIRECTIONS  flWD 

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JMMTS1D1HE«WnES1HU$  DWINBHINC1HRU5T 


POTION  EXTERIOR  VIEW 

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79- 


BYZANTINE    ARCHITECTURE.  197 

support  the  arch."  This  was  done  by  shaping  the  block  of 
marble  which  formed  the  capital  so  that  a  simple  transition  from 
the  square  block  to  the  circular  shaft  of  the  column  was  formed. 
Further,  as  Messrs.  Swainson  and  Lethaby  say,  the  numerous 
round  shafts  of  S.  Sophia  exhibit  a  remarkable  and  beautiful 
structural  expedient,  by  which  the  necking  is  entirely  suppressed, 
and  bronze  annulets  surround  the  shafts  under  the  capital  and 
above  the  base.  These  prevent  the  shafts  from  splitting — a  likely 
result,  since  the  monolithic  shafts  had  to  be  set  up  contrary  to 
the  direction  of  the  quarry  bed — and  also  the  lead  seating  from 
being  forced  out  by  the  superincumbent  weight. 

The  science  of  construction  acquired  by  the  Romans  descended 
to  the  Byzantines,  for  the  walls  were  formed  with  a  brick  facing 
and  concrete  core — a  method  also  employed  for  vaults,  bridges, 
and  aqueducts.  The  building  procedure  was  developed  some- 
what as  follows : — the  general  form  of  the  building  being 
more  or  less  decided,  .he  first  thing  necessary  was  to  collect 
monolithic  marble  shafts,  and  it  "  was  necessary  to  have  a  certain 
knowledge  where  such  might  be  quarried  or  otherwise  obtained, 
before  even  the  foundations  were  prepared,  for  the  columns 
decided  the  height  and  points  of  support  of  the  building.'  These 
shafts  once  assured,  the  body  of  the  structure  was  proceeded 
with  as  a  brickwork  shell  without  further  dependence  on  the 
masons,  who  were  only  required  to  prepare  the  bases,  capitals, 
and  cornices,  everything  else  being  completed  as  a  brick 
'  carcass.'  "  The  building  was  thus  made  of  vast  masses  of  thin 
bricks,  with  mortar  joints  of  equal  thickness",  and  when  this 
had  settled  down  and  dried,  the  walls  were  sheeted  with  their 
marble  covering,  the  vaults  overlaid  with  mosaic,  and  the  pave- 
ment laid  down.  In  this  way  the  carcass  was  completed  at  once, 
the  bricklayers  not  having  to  wait  for  the  masons ;  and,  further, 
by  reserving  the  application  of  the  marble  until  the  structure  was 
dry  and  solid,  it  was  possible  to  bring  together  unyielding  marble 
and  brickwork  with  large  mortar  joints  that  must  have  settled 
down  very  considerably.  This  independence  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  structure  was  a  leading  idea  in  Byzantine  construction,  and 
is  obviously  necessary  when  the  quantity  of  mortar  is  so  great 
that  the  bricks  become  secondary  in  height  to  the  joints. 

Brick,  moreover,  was  the  material  preferred  in  the  construction 
of  walls,  and  lent  itself  to  all  the  caprices  of  the  architect ;  for  as 
interiors  were  always  lined  with  marble  and  mosaics,  or  decorated 
with  frescoes,  such  walls  were  the  most  suitable  for  the  recep- 
tion of  these  kinds  of  ornamentation.  Bricks  being  so  much  used, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  Byzantines  took  great  pains  in  their 
manufacture  when  it  is  remembered  that  they  employed  them 
in  their  military  as  well  as  in  their  ecclesiastical  and  domestic 
architecture.  The  form  of  these  varied  a  great  deal,  but  the 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

ordinary  shape  was  like  the  Roman,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  depth, 
and  they  were  always  laid  upon  a  thick  bed  of  mortar,  as 
already  mentioned.  Moulds  were  used  for  the  pieces  forming 
cornices,  and  the  shafts  of  columns  when  of  this  material  were 
built  of  circular  bricks.  The  universal  use  of  brickwork  made  the 
Byzantines  pay  great  attention  to  their  mortar,  composed  of  lime, 
sand,  and  crushed  pottery,  tiles  or  bricks,  and  it  remains  as  hard 
as  that  in  the  best  buildings  of  Rome. 

The  interiors  were  beautified  by  richly  colored  marble  pavements 
in  opus  sectile  or  opus  Alexandrinum  (page  1199. 

The  use  of  natural  stones  in  mosaics  and  inlaid  pavements  had 
been  abolished,  and  the  art  of  enamelling  had  arrived  at  perfec- 
tion, all  the  mosaics  which  still  adorn  the  domes  and  apses  being 
of  colored  glass  enamel  rendered  opaque  by  oxide  of  tin,  an 
invention  which  was  introduced  in  the  Early  Christian -period. 

The  extensive  use  of  rich  marbles  and  mosaics  caused  a  flat 
treatment,  with  an  absence  of  mouldings,  cornices  and  modillions, 
which  were  subordinate  to  the  decorative  treatment. 

The  simple  exteriors  of  brickwork,  with  bandings  of  stone, 
did  not  leave  the  same  scope  for  mouldings  as  in  other  styles. 
Flat  splays  enriched  by  incised  or  low  relief  ornamentation  were 
introduced,  and  mosaic  and  marbles  were  used,  in  a  broad  way, 
as  a  complete  lining  to  a  rough  carcass,  architectural  lines  being 
replaced  by  decorative  bands  in  the  mosaic,  which  was  worked 
on  rounded  angles.  One  surface  melts  into  another  as  the 
mosaic  is  continued  from  arch  and  pendentive  upwards  to  the 
dome,  and  the  gold  of  the  background  being  carried  into  the 
figures,  unity  of  surface  was  always  maintained.  Although 
columns  of  the  richest  marbles  were  taken  from  old  buildings, 
the  importation  and  sale  of  newly  quarried  columns  and  other 
decorative  materials,  such  as  rare  marbles,  did  not  in  the  least 
decrease.  The  Theodosian  code  in  fact  encouraged  this  branch 
of  trade  and  industry,  and  the  mode  of  ornamentation  by  means 
of  colored  marbles  was  carried  to  a  greater  extent  than  ever 
before.  The  quarries  opened  by  the  Romans  continued  to  be 
used,  and  the  workmen  employed  in  them  were  governed  by 
imperial  decrees  issued  specially  for  their  guidance. 


3.     EXAMPLES. 

Byzantine  examples  consist  mainly  of  churches  and  baptisteries. 
In  the  former,  although  a  certain  number  follow  the  Basilican 
type,  the  majority  are  founded  on  the  circular  and  polygonal 
plans  of  the  Roman  and  Early  Christian  periods. 

SS.  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  Constantinople  (A.D.  527), 
erected  by  Justinian,  is  nearly  square  in  plan,  being  a  rectangle  of 


BYZANTINE   EXAMPLES.    II. 


(ELE/ATION 


jftt*      ^Hfifflb 

Han*!         &$\&  A  IIM 


STONE  LMD 

(jr  JUSTINIAN  An  SSL  .  THE. 

CENTRAL  DO"VE  m07F-T  IM 
IS  SUPPORTED 
ABUTTING  8 


WCOF40 
WINDOWS 


LONG  &  25  F?  WIDE.  E*ST 
&  WEST  ABE  "D&M-  DO/ALS 


ARE  IN  2  STORIES.  S.SOPHIA 


&  IS  COVERED  WITH  $AR\- 
CENIC  DECORATIONS.  THE. 
EXTERIOR  15  IN  I3RICK. 

ANTHEMIU5?TRALLES& 
ISIDORUS^MILETUSrARCH1? 


THE  DOME  IS  CONSTRUCTED  9  WELL  BURNT  BRICKS  2  THICK 
WITH  MORTAR  JOINTS  NEARLY  SAME  THICKNESS  IN  LOWER  PART 
?  DOME.  THE  BRICKS  ARE  ABOUT  2/"SQ :  AT  THE  CROWN  THEY 
ARE  2  ?  50.  THE  JOINTS  DO  NOT  RADIATE  TO  CENTRE ,  BUT 
HAVE  A  FLATTER  INCLINATION  WHICH  DIMINISHES  THRUST. 


DIAGRAM  SHEWING  CIRCLE  DEVELOPED 
FROM  SQUARE  BY  MEANS  ?  PENDENTIVES 


200  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

109  feet  by  92  feet  over  all,  and  has  an  interior  arrangement  very 
similar  to  S.  Vitale  (No.  83),  but  it  has  four  niches  only,  and  is 
inclosed  in  a  square  instead  of  an  octagon  (No.  79,  E,  F,  G).  The 
dome,  52  feet  in  diameter  and  66  feet  high,  is  visible  externally, 
having  no  wooden  roof,  and  is  of  a  peculiar  melon-like  form  caused 
by  the  formation  of  ridges  and  furrows  from  base  to  summit. 
This  church,  picturesquely  situated  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus,  is  in  a  ruinous  condition,  but  was  being  partially 
restored  by  the  Sultan  at  the  time  of  the  authors'  visit  in 
January,  1896.  The  beautiful  frescoes  ,and  mosaics  are,  how- 
ever, irreparably  damaged  in  consequence  of  the  penetration  of 
rain  through  the  roof. 

S.  Sophia,  Constantinople  (Hagia  Sophia  =  "  Divine  Wis- 
dom") (Nos.  79,  80,  81),  was  built  by  order  of  Justinian,  in  A.D. 
532-537,  on  the  site  of  two  successive  churches  of  the  s"ame  name, 
i.e. : — (a.)  The  wooden-roofed  basilica,  erected  by  Constantine, 
A.D.  360.  (b.)  The  church  erected  by  Theodosius,  A.D.  415.  The 
architects  were  Anthemius  of  Tralles  and  Isodorus  of  Miletus. 

The  Plan  consists  of  a  central  space  107  feet  square,  bounded 
by  four  massive  piers,  25  feet  square,  connected  above  by  semi- 
circular arches,  and  supporting  a  dome  107  feet  in  diameter  (cf. 
S.  Paul,  London).  East  and  west  are  great  semicircular  spaces, 
crowned  with  semi-domes,  and  out  of  these  are  formed  smaller 
exedrae,  in  their  turn  covered  with  semi-domes.  The  area  thus 
formed  is  a  great  oval-ended  nave  265  feet  by  107  feet. 

Outside  this  central  area  are  aisles  over  50  feet  wide,  in  two 
stories,  north  and  south,  the  upper  story  being  for  women. 
These  aisles  bring  the  main  building  approximately  to  a  square, 
which,  excluding  the  apse  and  narthex,  measures  250  feet  by 
237  feet. 

The  narthex,  to  the  west  of  the  main  building,  was  set  apart 
for  catechumens  and  penitents,  and  forms  a  grand  apartment  over 
200  feet  long  by  30  feet  wide  ;  it  is  in  two  stories,  the  upper  forming 
a  gallery  to  the  church.  Further  west  is  the  outer  narthex  and 
atrium,  with  marble  columns  and  brick  pillars. 

To  the  north  and  south,  forming  continuations  of  the  four  great 
piers  already  mentioned,  are  massive  buttresses,  25  feet  wide  by 
70  feet  long,  pierced  with  double  arches  on  the  ground  and  upper 
story.  These  piers  take  the  thrust  of  the  main  arches  and  dome 
on  the  two  sides  where  there  are  no  semi-domes.  SS.  Sergius 
and  Bacchus  would  resemble  S.  Sophia  in  plan  if  it  were  cut  in 
two  and  a  dome  on  pendentives  placed  over  an  intervening  square, 
and  the  whole  doubled  in  size. 

The  domical  method  of  construction  governs  the  plan,  which  is 
subservient  to  it.  The  square  central  space  is  crowned  with  a 
dome,  1 80  feet  above  the  pavement,  but  in  itself  only  47  feet  in 
height  above  its  base  (i.e.,  less  than  a  semi-dome), 


2O2  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  two  semi-domes,  east  and  west,  abut  against  the  great 
arches  which  support  the  central  dome  and  act  as  buttresses 
to  it  on  the  east  and  west  sides.  The  smaller  exedrae  are  also 
covered  with  semi- domes,  as  has  been  stated.  The  pendentives 
carrying  the  central  dome  have  a  projection  of  25  feet  and  a 
height  of  over  60  feet. 

The  great  piers  supporting  the  dome  are  of  stones,  the  rest  of 
the  building  being  of  brickwork.  The  construction  of  the  dome  is 
explained  on  No.  80. 

Internally,  the  actual  effect  of  the  whole  is  one  of  extreme 
intricacy,  although  the  general  scheme  is  very  simple,  while  scale 
is  obtained  by  the  careful  gradation  of  the  various  parts  from  the 
two-storied  arcades  to  the  aisles  and  lofty  dome,  which  rests, 
with  little  apparent  support,  like  a  canopy  over  the  centre,  or,  as 
Procopius,  an  eye-witness,  described  it,  "  as  if  suspended  by  a 
chain  from  heaven." 

The  impression  is  that  of  one  great  central  domed  space  with 
semicircular  domed  ends,  the  height  gradually  decreasing  from 
179  feet  at  the  centre. 

The  walls  and  piers  are  lined  with  beautifully-colored  marbles 
(Phrygian  white,  Laconian  green,  Lybian  blue,  Celtic  black, 
white  marble  with  black  veins  from  the  Bosphorus,  and  Thessalian 
marble),  in  varied  patterns,  fixed  by  means  of  metal  cramps ;  the 
floors  are  laid  with  colored  mosaics  of  various  patterns,  and  the 
vaults  and  domes  are  enriched  with  glass  mosaics  of  the  apostles, 
angels,  and  saints  on  a  glittering  golden  ground.  Although  many 
of  these  are  now  concealed  by  matting  covered  with  plaster,  or 
are  replaced  by  quotations  from  the  Koran,  yet  the  four  pendentives 
still  exhibit  the  six- winged  seraphim,  whom  Mahometans  acknow- 
ledge under  the.  names  of  the  four  Archangels,  Gabriel,  Michael, 
Raphael,  and  Israfil,  and  when  the  light  is  favourable  the  figure 
of  Christ  can  still  be  seen  in  the  vaults  of  the  apse. 

The  columns  of  many-colored  marbles  are  used  constructively 
to  support  the  galleries  which  rest  on  a  variety  of  groined  vaults. 
Moulded  bronze  rings  encircle  the  column  shafts  at  their  junction 
with  the  capitals  and  bases,  and  elsewhere.  The  lower  stories  of  the 
aisles  (north  and  south  of  the  central  space)  are  supported  by 
four  columns  of  dark  green  marble  from  the  Temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana)  at  Ephesus,  the  upper  stories  having  six  columns  of  the 
same  material.  Each  oi  the  four  small  exedrse  has  two  large 
columns  of  dark  red  porphyry  below,  brought  from  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun  at  Baalbec,  and  six  smaller  columns  on  the  upper  story. 
The  total  number  of  columns  in  the  church  is  107  (the  same 
number  as  the  diameter  of  the  church  in  feet),  of  which  forty  are 
below  and  sixty-seven  above. 

The  capitals  are  mostly  of  the  pyramidal  or  cubiform  type, 
with  small  Ionic  angle  volutes  and  delicately  incised  carving. 


204  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Some  bear  the  monogram  of  Justinian,  and  on  a  column  to  the 
south  exedra  on  entering  is  the  date  534. 

A  variation  of  the  dosseret  block  is  in  general  used  on  the  lines 
of  the  Classical  abacus. 

The  lighting  is  partly  effected  by  forty  small  windows  piercing 
the  dome  at  its  base.  Additional  light  is  introduced  through 
twelve  windows  in  each  of  the  spandrel  walls,  north  and  south,  under 
the  great  arches  which  support  the  dome.  The  bases  of  the  domes 
of  the  smaller  exedrae  are  also  provided  with  windows.  Many  of 
the  windows  are  small  and  spanned  by  semicircular  arches  ;  others 
are  more  elaborate,  as  in  those  to  the  "  Gynseceum,"  or  women's 
gallery,  reached  from  the  exterior  by  four  gently  sloping  ascents, 
one  at  each  corner  of  the  building,  and  from  the  interior  by  stone 
staircases,  in  which  large  semicircular  headed  openings  are 
divided  into  six  by  columns  in  two  heights,  the  lighting  area 
being  filled  with  lattice  work  of  marble  3  inches  thick,  pierced 
with  openings  about  7  inches  square,  filled  with  glass.  Externally 
the  walls  are  faced  with  brick  and  stone  in  alternate  courses. 
The  vaulting  of  the  domes  and  semi-domes  is  visible,  being 
covered  with  lead  i-inch  thick,  resting  on  wooden  battens  placed 
immediately  on  the  brick  vaults.  The  immense  buttresses 
already  referred  to,  make  imposing  external  features,  as  also 
the  two  great  spandrel  walls  between  them,  deeply  recessed  from 
their  face,  and  provided  with  windows  lighting  the  central  area. 
The  plainness  of  the  exterior  causes  the  building  to  depend  for 
effect  entirely  on  the  massiveness  of  its  form  and  the  general 
symmetry  of  its  proportions. 

S.   Sophia   is   the    masterpiece    of   Byzantine    architecture   asS 
the  Parthenon  is  of  Greek,   or    the  Pantheon   of  Roman ;   but/ 
neither  in  plan  nor  treatment  does  it  seem  to  have  been  largely 
imitated,  especially  in  respect  of  the  abutting  semicircular  domes. 

S.  Irene,  Constantinople,  originally  constructed  by  Con- 
stantine  and  several  times  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  finally  about 
A.D.  740,  is  interesting  as  preserving  the  Basilican  plan  of  nave 
and  two  aisles  with  Eastern  apse  and  Western  atrium.  It  has  a 
dome  which  is  believed  to  be  the  earliest  example,  resting  on  a 
high  drum  pierced  with  windows  to  light  the  interior. 

The  Theotokos  Church,  Constantinople,  dating  from  the 
ninth  to  the  twelfth  century,  is  a  small  but  perfect  example, 
having  a  double  narthex  crowned  with  three  domes,  and  a  central 
dome  over  the  church  itself. 

The  Church  of  the  Chora,  Constantinople,  is  an  interest- 
ing example,  dating  originally  from  the  fourth  century,  but  subse- 
quently much  altered.  It  has  a  central  area  crowned  with  a 
dome  resting  on  a  drum  26  feet  in  diameter,  pierced  by  windows, 
and  has  semicircular  windows  on  three  sides  and  an  apse  on  the 
fourth.  It  has  an  inner  and  outer  narthex,  ornamented  with 


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83. 


BYZANTINE  EXAMPLES.    III. 


(WRTHDC  BIOO-1350) 


DOME&ONCOVER 

ESCH^RMOfTHE 
CROSS.  IMEP 
PROBABLY  DERIVED 
FROM  THE  CHURCH? 
THE  (APOSTLES  fl 


SECTION  OH  X.X. 


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9*1 


2O8  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

large  mosaic  decorations,  hence  it  is  now  known  as  the  "  mosaic 
mosque."  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  fagade  of  this  church 
served  as  a  model  for  that  of  S.  Mark,  Venice  (No.  85). 

The  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  Constantinople, 
founded  by  Constantine  the  Great,  but  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  and 
destroyed  in  A.D.  1463,  to  make  way  for  the  Mosque  of  Sultan 
Mahomet  II.,  was  the  second  type  of  Byzantine  plan,  and  is 
interesting  as  being  the  prototype  of  S.  Mark,  Venice  (Nos.  84, 
85,  86)  (see  below). 

S.  Vitale,  Ravenna  (A.D.  526~547)/(No.  83  c,  D),  whose 
prototype  was  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Medica  at  Rome  (No.  83 
A,  B)  is  octagonal  on  plan,  an  inner  octagon  of  50  feet  being 
inclosed  by  an  outer  one  of  no  feet.  The  apsidal  chancel  opens 
from  the  inner  octagon,  by  a  square  bay  cutting  through  the  outer 
aisle.  The  relation  of  the  chancel  to  the  octagon  is  successfully 
designed.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  other  seven  arches  of  the  inner 
octagon  have  columns  placed  on  a  half  circle,  carrying  round  the 
gallery  usual  in  Eastern  churches.  In  many  particulars  Byzan- 
tine influences  are  seen.  The  dome  is  composed  of  earthen  pots, 
and  protected  by  a  wooden  roof,  thus  differing  in  construction  from 
Roman  examples. 

The  church  built  by  Charlemagne,  and  containing  his  tomb,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (No.  83  E,  F),  is  derived  from  this  church  (see 
page  261). 

S.  Mark,  Venice  (Nos.  84,  85  and  86),  was  erected,  for  the 
most  part,  between  A.D.  1063-1071,  the  columns  and  marble 
mosaics  to  the  exterior  being  added  between  1100-1350.  Venice 
was  by  situation  one  of  the  connecting  links  between  the 
Byzantine  and  Franconian  empires,  and  a  great  depot  of  the 
traffic  between  the  East  and  West,  which  is  evident  in  Venetian 
architecture. 

The  plan  of  S.  Mark  (No.  84  c)  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross,  of  equal  arms,  covered  by  a  dome  in  the  centre  (42  feet 
in  diameter),  and  one  over  each  arm  of  the  cross,  and  is  deriyed 
from  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  at  Constantinople.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  the  square  piers,  which  carry  the  dome, 
are  pierced  on  the  ground  floor  and  gallery  levels :  the  gallery 
arcade  connects  the  piers  on  either  side,  the  depth  of  the  gallery 
being  that  of  the  pier.  The  vestibules  fill  out  the  western  arm 
of  the  cross  to  a  square  on  plan. 

The  interior  (Nos.  84  A  and  86)  is  richly  veneered  with  colored 
marbles  casing  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  ;  above,  and  extending  in 
one  great  surface  over  vault  and  dome,  is  a  lining  of  richly  colored 
glass  mosaic,  in  which  are  worked  figures  of  saints  mingled  with 
scenes  from  their  lives,  set  off  by  a  broad  background  of  gold. 
Mosaic,  in  fact,  is  the  real  and  essential  decoration  of  the  church, 
to  which  all  architectural  detail  is  subordinated. 


X 


F.A. 


2IO  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  external  fagade  (No.  85)  has  five  entrances,  enriched  with 
shafts  of  many-colored  marbles  brought  from  Alexandria  and 
the  ruined  cities  of  the  East,  forming  a  rich  and  beautiful  portal. 
Mosaic  panels  also  serve  to  enrich  with  color  the  spandrels  of 
the  arches.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  and  the  external 
domes  are  a  later  casing  upon  the  original  exterior  of  the  usual 
Byzantine  type  (No.  84  A). 

The  effects  of  S.  Mark  have  been  described  by  Ruskin,  who 
says  that  they  depend  not  only  upon  the  most  delicate  sculpture 
in  every  part,  but  also  on  the  most  subtle. /variable,  inexpressible 
color  produced  by  transparent  alabaster,  polished  marble,  and 
lustrous  gold. 

The  Byzantine  style  spread  over  Greece,  Russia,  and  other 
parts,  and  has  been  the  accepted  style  of  the  Greek  church  to  the 
present  day. 

In  Greece  the  buildings  are  small  but  exquisitely  executed,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  little  Metropole  Cathedral  (No.  87),  the  Church 
of  the  Kapnikarea,  and  other  churches  at  Athens  ;  the  Church  of 
Daphni,  near  Athens,  and  the  Monastery  ofS.  Luke  of  Stiris,  on  the 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 

At  Thessalonica  (Salonica),  in  Macedonia,  5.  George  (A.D.  400)  is 
an  early  example  of  a  domed  church,  and  S.  Demetrius  (A.D.  500- 
550)  an  example  of  a  five-aisled  basilica  with  transepts  (not 
showing  externally),  and  galleries. 

In  Russia  among  the  best  known  examples  are  the  Cathedrals 
of  Moscow,  Kieff,  and  Novgorod,  all  of  which  have  a  decided 
Eastern  aspect,  due  to  the  use  of  bulbous-shaped  domes  and  unusual 
details. 

In  Armenia  are  also  interesting  examples  with  local  charac- 
teristics, such  as  the  Church  of  S.  Sophia,  TreUzond. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — Byzantine  churches  are  all  distinguished  by  a 
great  central  square  space  covered  with  a  dome,  supported  by 
means  of  pendentives,  shown  in  No.  79  j,  K.  On  each  side 
extend  short  arms,  forming  a  Greek  cross,  which  with  the  narthex 
and  side  galleries  make  the  plan  nearly  square  (Nos.  80,  84). 
The  narthex  was  placed  within  the  main  walls. 

The  essential  difference  in  plan  between  a  Byzantine  church 
and  an  Early  Christian  basilican  church  are  as  follows  :— 

The  leading  thought  in  a  Byzan-  The  leading  idea   in   an   Early 

tine  church  is  vertical,  by  the  group-  Christian  basilica  is  horizontal,  by 

ing    of  domes    round   a  principal  means   of  the  long  perspective  of 

central  one,  towards  which  the  eye  columns,    which     direct     the    eye 

is  drawn.  towards  the  apsidal  termination. 


I// 


BYZANTINE   EXAMPLES.    IV. 


SKETCH? 

C4THEDML 
FROM  M.E. 


DOME  PlflCED 
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87. 


P  2 


212  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

B.  Walls. — These  were  often  constructed  of  brick.  Internally, 
all  the  oriental  love  of  magnificence  was  developed,  marble 
casing  and  mosaic  being  applied  to  the  walls ;  hence  a  flat 
treatment  and  absence  of  mouldings  prevailed.  Externally  the 
buildings  were  left  comparatively  plain,  although  the  fa$ade 
was  sometimes  relieved  by  alternate  rows  of  stone  and  brick,  in 
various  colors. 

c.  Openings. — Doors  and  windows  are  semicircular  headed 
(No.  89  G,  H),  but  segmental  and  horse- shoe/ arched  openings  are 
sometimes  seen. 

The  windows  are  small  and  grouped  together  (Nos.  80  A  and 
87).  The  universal  employment  of  mosaic  in  Byzantine  churches, 
and  the  consequent  exclusion  of  painted  glass,  rendered  the  use 
of  such  large  windows  as  the  Gothic  architects  employed  quite 
inadmissible,  and  in  the  bright  climate  very  much  smaller  open- 
ings sufficed  to  admit  the  necessary  light.  Tracery  was,  in  con- 
sequence, practically  non-existent  as  a  northern  architect  would 
understand  it.  The  churches  depend  largely  for  light  on  the  ring 
of  windows  at  the  base  of  the  dome,  or  in  the  "  drum,"  or  circular 
base  on  which  the  dome  is  sometimes  raised  (No.  86),  and  on 
openings  grouped  in  the  gable  ends  (No.  80  A).  Such  windows, 
grouped  in  tiers  within  the  semicircular  arch  beneath  the  dome, 
are  a  great  feature  in  the  style. 

Portions  of  the  windows  are  occasionally  filled  with  thin  slabs 
of  translucent  marble  (No.  89  G). 

D.  Roofs.— The  method  of  roofing  these  buildings  was  by 
a  series  of  domes  formed  in  brick,  stone,  or  concrete,  with  fre- 
quently no  further  external  covering.  In  S.  Sophia  the  vaults 
are  covered  with  sheets  of  lead,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  fastened 
to  wood  laths,  resting  on  the  vaults  without  any  wood  roofing 
(No.  80  B).  Hollow  earthenware  was  used  in  order  to  reduce  the 
thrust  on  the  supporting  walls  (No.  83  D). 

The  Byzantines  introduced  the  dome  placed  over  a  square  or 
octagonal  plan  by  means  of  pendentives  (No.  79  j),  a  type  not 
found  in  Roman  architecture. 

In  early  examples  the  pendentives  were  part  of  one  sphere. 
A  good  idea  of  this  type  is  obtained  by  halving  an  orange,  cutting 
off  four  slices,  each  at  right  angles  to  the  last,  to  represent  the 
four  arches,  and  then  scooping  out  the  interior ;  the  portion 
above  the  crown  of  these  semicircles  is  the  dome,  and  the  inter- 
vening triangles  are  the  pendentives.  Such  domes  are  rare, 
however,  perhaps  the  only  example  in  Europe  being  that  over 
the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia(No.  73  H,  j,  K),  already  described 
(page  187).  In  the  later  type  the  dome  is  not  part  of  the  same 
sphere  as  the  pendentives,  but  rises  independently  from  their 
summits  (Nos.  SOB,  in  c).  The  early  domes  were  very  flat; 
in  later  times  they  were  raised  on  a  drum  or  cylinder. 


214  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

E.  Columns.— In  the  earlier  buildings,  these  were  taken  from 
ancient  structures,  which  not  being  so  numerous  in  the  East  as  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  the  supply  was  sooner  exhausted ; 
and  thus  there  was  an  incentive  to  design  fresh  ones.     Capitals 
sometimes  took  a  form  derived  from  the  Roman  Ionic  (No.  89  c) 
or  Corinthian  types  (Nos.  88  and  89  D),  or  consisted  in  the  lower 
portion  of  a  cube  block  with  rounded  corners,  over  which  was 
placed    a   deep   abacus   block,    sometimes    called   a    "dosseret" 
(No.  89  D,  E).     This  represented  the  disused  Classic  architrave, 
and  aided  in  supporting  the  springing  of"  the  arch,  which  was 
larger  in  area  than  the  shaft  of  the  column.     Further,  an  altered 
shape    of  capital  was  required   to  support   the  arch,   a  convex 
form  being  best  adapted.      The  surfaces  of  these  capitals  were 
carved  with  incised  foliage  of  sharp  outline,  having  drilled  eyes 
(No.  88)  between  the  leaves.     Several  other  types  are  shown  in 
No.  89. 

Columns  were  used  constructively,  but  were  always  subordinate 
features,  and  often  only  introduced  to  support  galleries,  the  massive 
piers  alone  supporting  the  superstructure. 

F.  Mouldings. — These  were  unimportant,  their  place  being 
taken  by  broad  flat  expanses  of  wall  surfaces.     Internally,  the 
decorative  lining  of  marble  and  mosaic  in  panels  was  sometimes 
framed  in  billet  mouldings,  probably  derived  from  the  Classic  dentils, 
and  flat    splays  enriched  by  incised    ornamentation   were   used. 
Externally,  the  simple  treatment  of  the  elevations  in  flat  expanses 
of  brickwork,  with  occasional  stone  banded  courses,  did  not  leave 
the  same  scope  for  mouldings  as  in  other  styles. 

G.  Ornament. — The  scheme  of  ornamentation  was  elaborate 
in  the  extreme,  the  walls  being  lined  with  costly  marbles  with  the 
veining  carefully  arranged  so  as  to  form  patterns,  and  the  vaults 
and  upper  part  of  walls  with  glass  mosaic  having  symbolic  figures, 
groups  of  saints  and  representations  of  the  peacock  (the  emblem 
of  immortal  life),  the  whole  forming  a  striking  contrast  to  the  less 
permanent    painted    frescoes   usually  adopted    in    the    Western 
Romanesque  churches  (page  227). 

Mosaic  thus  was  used  in  a  broad  way  as  a  complete  lining  to  a 
rough  structure,  and  architectural  lines  were  replaced  by  deco- 
rative bands  in  the  mosaic.  One  surface  melts  into  another  as 
the  mosaic  sheet  creeps  from  wall,  arch,  and  pendentive  up  to 
the  dome,  and  the  gold  surfaces  being  continued  as  a  background 
to  the  figures,  unity  of  surface  is  always  maintained. 

Greek  rather  than  Roman  technique  was  followed  in  the 
carving,  due  to  the  origin  of  the  craftsmen.  The  carving  was 
mainly  executed  in  low  relief,  and  effect  was  frequently  obtained 
by  sinking  portions  of  the  surfaces.  A  special  character  of  the 
carving  was  due  to  the  use  of  the  drill  instead  of  the  chisel  (No.  88). 
The  acanthus  leaf,  deeply  channelled,  and  of  V-shaped  section,  is 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT. 


2/6' 


IJTZAtfriNE  CORINTHIAN        ft!W)  *  ^SKET  CAPITAL      5IRR  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL 
^  50PHH\  CONTTANTlNOf  LE 


2l6  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

adopted  from  the  Greek  variety,  but  became  more  conventional, 
with  acute-pointed  leaves,  drilled  at  the  several  springings  of 
the  teeth  with  deep  holes. 

The  great  characteristic  of  Byzantine  ornament  as  compared 
with  Classical,  is  that  the  pattern  is  incised  instead  of  seeming 
to  be  applied,  for  the  surface  always  remained  flat,  the  pattern 
being  cut  into  it  without  breaking  its  outline. 

Grecian  and  Asiatic  feeling  strongly  pervades  Byzantine 
ornamentation,  and  this  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
Constantinople  was  a  Greek  city,  and  in  clos6  contact  with  the 
East,  and  Oriental  methods. 

Note. — A  good  general  idea  of  the  exterior  of  a  church  in  this 
style  is  to  be  gained  from  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Moscow 
Road,  Bayswater,  erected  by  Oldrid  Scott,  as  also  the  new 
Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  at  Westminster  by  the  late  John 
F.  Bentley.  The  mosaics  and  casts  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  should  also  be  inspected. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Choisy  (A.).— "L'Art  de  Batir  chez  les  Byzantins."  Folio.   Paris,  1883. 

Didron  (A.  N.). — "Christian  Iconography."    2  vols.,  8vo.    1886. 

Knight  (H.  G.). — "  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Italy."  2  vols.,  folio. 
1842-1843. 

Lethaby  (W.  R.)  and  Swainson  (H.). — "  Church  of  Sancta  Sophia, 
Constantinople."  8vo.  1894. 

Milligen  (A.  van). — "  Byzantine  Constantinople."   8vo.    1899. 

"  Saint  Mark's,  Venice."  A  large  and  beautiful  monograph  in  several 
vols.,  4to  and  folio,  published  by  Signer  Ongania.  Venice,  1881. 

Salzenburg  (W.). — "  Alt-Christliche  Baudenkmale  von  Constantinopel." 
2  vols.,  folio  and  4to.  Berlin,  1854-1855. 

Schultz  (R.  W.)  and  Barnsley  (S.  H.).— "The  Monastery  of  St.  Luke 
of  Stiris  in  Phocis."  Folio.  1901. 

Texier  (C.)  and  Pullan  (R.  P.).—"  Byzantine  Architecture."  Folio. 
1864. 

Scott  (Sir  W.)  —"Count  Robert  of  Paris."     (Historical  Novel.) 


L. 


a/? 


.COLOGNE/ 
ROUEN    EMPIRE     V 


CflLIPHflTE  -       OF    THE 


ROMANESQUE     ARCHITECTURE 
EUROPE. 


IN 


GENERAL    INTRODUCTION.i 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  style  which  grew  up  on  the  decay 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  is  known  as  Romanesque,  was 
carried  on  throughout  practically  the  whole  of  the  Western 
empire — that  is,  in  those  countries  which  had  been  directly  under 
the  rule  of  Rome.  The  position  of  each  country  will  be  slightly 
touched  upon  under  its  own  heading.  The  influence  of  Byzan- 
tine art  brought  through  Ravenna  and  Venice  also  influenced  the 
Italian  Romanesque  in  Lombardy  and  Europe  generally. 

1  Before  treating  of  the  development  of  the  style  peculiar  to  each  country,  a 
general  outline  sketch  is  given. 


2l8  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

ii.  Geological. — In  these  early  times  a  rough  use  of  the 
material  at  hand  characterizes  the  style  in  each  country,  and  will 
be  referred  to  under  the  same. 

iii.  Climate. — Local  styles  were  favoured  by  the  variations 
of  climate  north  and  south  of  the  Alps,  as  referred  to  in  each 
country. 

iv.  Religion. — The  Christian  Church,  which  was  the  civilizing 
and  educating  agency  of  the  period,  was  striving  to  extend  its 
boundaries  in  Northern  Europe,  and  the  erection  of  a  church 
was  often  the  foundation  of  a  city.  The  nlonastic  communities, 
with  the  encouragement  and  aid  of  Charlemagne,  came  into 
existence.  The  papacy  had  been  rising  to  great  power  and 
influence,  and,  directed  with  skill,  it  rivalled  or  controlled  such 
civil  government  as  existed.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  (A.D.  554) 
had  already  conferred  authority  on  the  Bishops  over  the  provincial 
and  municipal  governments,  thus  increasing  the  power  of  the 
Church,  with  which  now  often  rested  the  nomination  of  public 
functionaries  and  judges.  As  East  and  West  drifted  apart  their 
architecture  developed  on  opposite  lines,  but  architecture  of 
Western  Europe  due  to  Eastern  influence  is  classed  as  Byzantine. 
The  different  countries  looked  to  Rome  until  each  developed  its 
own  style.  Religious  enthusiasm  and  zeal  prevailed,  and  was 
manifested  in  magnificent  edifices,  and  in  creed  warfare,  so  that 
when  the  Turks  overran  Palestine,  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Places 
resulted  in  the  long  warfare  known  as  the  Crusades  (1096-1270) 
between  the  Christians  of  the  West  and  the  Mahometans  of  the 
East. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  science,  letters,  art 
and  enlightenment  generally  were  the  monopoly  of  religious 
bodies,  and  pupils  of  monks  afterwards  became  the  designers 
of  many  of  the  great  Gothic  Cathedrals. 

The  feudal  rank  of  bishops  and  abbots  made  them  in  some  sense 
military  chiefs,  occasionally  taking  the  field  in  person.  Schools 
attached  to  certain  monasteries  discharged  to  some  extent  the 
functions  of  universities,  as  those  at  S.  Gall,  Tours,  and  Rheims, 
and  the  aid  thus  rendered  by  monastic  institutions  to  archi- 
tecture was  therefore  important.  Down  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
architecture  was  practised  largely  by  the  clergy  and  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sacred  science,  as  stated  by  Albert  Lenoir  in 
"  1'Architecture  Monastique."  Dr.  Jessop's  "Daily  Life  of  an 
English  Monastery"  is  interesting  as  showing  the  life  led  by  the 
monks,  and  may  be  studied  with  advantage.  (For  a  description 
of  the  typical  plan  of  a  monastery  see  page  276). 

Among  the  chief  monastic  orders  were  the  following  : — 

(i.)  The  Benedictine  order,  founded  in  the  South  of  Italy  in  the 
sixth  century  by  S.  Benedict,  by  whose  decree  architecture, 
painting,  mosaic  and  all  branches  of  art  were  taught.  All  the 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  2IQ 

older  monasteries  in  England  belonged  to  this  order,  Canterbury 
(No.  118  B)  and  Westminster  Abbey  (No.  127)  being  the  chief 
establishments. 

The  usual  arrangement  consisted  of  a  square  cloister  having  on 
one  side  a  church  of  cruciform  plan  with  aisles,  the  transept 
forming  a  part  of  one  side  of  the  cloisters.  The  refectory  was 
usually  parallel  to  the  nave,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  cloister. 
The  dormitory  was  generally  placed  on  another  side  with  a  stair- 
case in  connection  with  the  church  for  night  services. 

The  manuscript  plan  existing  in  the  Library  of  the  monastery 
of  S.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  is  interesting  as  showing  what  was 
considered  a  typical  plan  of  the  buildings  of  this  order  (page  261). 
(2.)  The  Cluniac  order  was  founded  in  A.D.  909,  the  celebrated 
Abbey  at  Cluny  being  the  headquarters.  The  plan  was  especially 
notable  for  double  transepts,  a  feature  which  was  adopted 
in  many  English  Cathedrals,  as  at  Lincoln  (No.  117  F)  and 
Salisbury  (No.  117  E). 

(3.)  The  Cistercian  order  was  founded  in  A.D.  1098,  at  Citeaux, 
in  Burgundy.  In  plan,  the  typical  church  was  divided  into 
three  parts  transversely  by  screens,  walls,  or  steps.  There  were 
frequently  no  aisles.  The  transepts  were  short,  as  also  was  the 
eastern  arm  of  the  cross,  and  the  choir  extended  westward  of  the 
transepts.  There  was  an  absence  of  towers  and  painted  glass. 
The  influence  of  the  Cistercian  foundation  extended  to  various 
countries  of  Europe.  In  England  the  most  important  were 
Furness,  Fountains,  Roche,  and  Kirkstall  Abbeys. 

(4.)  The  Augustinian  order  differed  little  from  the  Benedictine. 
It  was  introduced  into  England  in  A.D.  1105,  and  Bristol,  Carlisle, 
and  Oxford  Cathedrals  were  founded  by  this  order. 

(5.)  The  Premonstratensian  order  was  instituted  at  Premontre,  in 
Picardy,  in  A.D.  1119,  and  Castle  Acre  Priory  in  England  is  an 
example. 

(6.)  The  Carthusian  order  was  founded  by  S.  Bruno,  about 
A.D.  1080,  the  chief  French  establishment  being  the  Grande 
Chartreuse,  near  Grenoble,  others  being  Vauvert,  Clermont  in 
Auvergne,  Villefranche  de  Rouergue,  and  Montrieux.  Two 
churches  were  preferred,  one  for  the  monks  and  the  other  for 
the  people.  In  plan  the  typical  feature  was  the  great  rectangular 
cloister,  surrounded  by  an  arcade  on  which  the  monks'  cells 
opened,  each  being  self-contained  and  with  its  own  garden.  By 
the  rules  of  the  order,  speech  was  interdicted,  and  the  Carthusian 
must  work,  eat  and  drink  in  solitude.  Such  a  regime  explains 
the  extreme  severity  of  their  architecture.  In  Italy  the  establish- 
ments at  Florence  and  the  Certosa  near  Pavia,  and  in  England, 
the  Charterhouse,  London,  were  the  most  important. 

(7.)  The  military  orders  included  the  Knights  Templars  and 
Hospitallers.  The  churches  of  the  Templars  were  circular 


220  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

in  plan,  as  in  the  Temple  Church,  London,  and  those  at 
Cambridge,  Little  Maplestead,  and  Northampton.  It  is  supposed 
they  were  erected  in  imitation  of  the  Rotonda  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem. 

(8.)  The  Friars,  of  which  there  were  several  orders,  were  founded 
at  a  later  period.  Their  churches  were  large,  plain,  and  without 
aisles,  being  designed  for  preaching  purposes. 

(#.)  The  Dominicans  (preaching  or  black  Friars)  were  founded 
by  S.  Dominic  about  A.D.  1170,  anjd  later  held  a  high 
place  in  Christian  art,  Fra  Angelico  freing  the  best  known 
member  of  the  order.  They  came  to  England  about 
A.D.  1217. 

(&.)  The  Franciscans  (mendicant  or  grey  Friars)  were  founded 
by  S.  Francis  of  Assisi,  in  A.D.  1209,  and  were  distinguished 
for  intellectual  capacity,  Roger  Bacon  being  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  members.  They  first  came  to  England 
in  A.D.  1216. 

(c.)  The  Carmelites  (or  white  Friars),  were  driven  out  from 
Mount  Carmel  by  the  Saracens,  in  A.D.  1098.      They  came 
to  England  in  A.D.  1229. 
(d.)  The  Austin  Friars  (or  Hermits). 
(<?.)  Friars  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  instituted  in  A.D.  1197. 
(/.)  Crutched  (or  crouched)  Friars,  instituted    in   Bologna,    in 

A.D.  1169. 

(9.)  The  Jesuits  were  established  in  order  to  crush  the 
Reformation,  and  first  came  to  England  in  A.D.  1538. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  system  of  feudal  tenure,  or  the 
holding  of  land  on  condition  of  military  service,  was  growing  up, 
and  caused  important  changes  in  the  social  and  political  organiza- 
tion of  states.  While  through  its  operation  the  class  of  actual 
slaves  died  out,  still  the  poorer  freemen  gradually  came  to  be 
serfs,  bound  to  the  land  and  passing  with  it,  on  a  change  of 
ownership. 

The  growth  of  the  towns  as  civilization  advanced  is  notice- 
able, and  the  privileges  which  they  acquired,  amounting  almost 
to  independence,  rapidly  gave  them  importance. 

Constant  warfare  rendered  the  condition  of  the  people  unsettled 
during  this  period,  and  skill  in  craftsmanship  was  at  the  lowest 
ebb.  Christianity  and  civilization  gradually  extended  from 
southern  to  western  Europe.  The  clergy— the  scholars  of  the 
period — directed  the  building  of  the  churches,  while  the  influence 
of  the  freemasons  produced  important  results. 

vi.  Historical. — In  the  year  A.D.  799  the  Roman  Empire  in 
the  West  practically  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  by 
the  election  of  the  first  FVankish  King,  Charlemagne,  whose 
election  is  a  convenient  date  to  mark  the  end  of  the  Roman 
Empire  as  such.  Till  the  time  of  Charlemagne  very  little 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  221 

building  was  done,  hut  he  in  a  great  measure  restored  the  arts 
and  civilization  to  Western  Europe  before  his  death  in  A.D.  814. 

Before  the  year  A.D.  1000,  when  it  was  popularly  supposed  that 
the  world  would  come  to  an  end,  little  building  was  carried  out,  but 
after  the  millennium  had  passed,  buildings  sprang  up  in  all  parts, 
with  many  local  peculiarities,  which  will  be  noticed  under  each 
country;  but  the  change  was  slow,  traditional  forms  being  firstly 
transformed  in  general  design  and  detail,  and  then  new  features 
created. 

Nearly  all  the  nations  of  Europe  had  at  this  time  come  into 
existence  ;  France,  Germany,  and  Spain,  were  becoming  powerful 
and  tending  to  set  aside  the  rule  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
which  now  had  become  only  a  title.  In  northern  Europe,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Norway  were  distinct  kingdoms,  and  England 
had  become  welded  into  one  by  the  Norman  kings  at  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century. 

2.    ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  term  Romanesque  may  be  said  to  include  all  those 
phases  of  Western  European  architecture  which  were  more  or 
less  based  on  Roman  art,  and  which  were  being  carried  out,  in 
a  rough  and  ready  way,  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  from  the 
departure  of  the  Romans  up  to  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch 
in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  general  architectural  character  is  sober  and  dignified, 
while  picturesqueness  is  obtained  by  the  grouping  of  the  towers, 
and  projection  of  the  transepts  and  choir. 

As  helping  towards  the  appreciation  of  the  character  of 
Romanesque  architecture,  imagine  an  ancient  civilization  of 
vast  extent,  devoid  of  physical  force,  and  recognisable  only  by 
the  multitude  of  its  monuments,  some  intact,  others  injured  or 
partially  destroyed,  all  unguarded,  and  most  of  them  disused — a 
calamity  which  happens  in  due  course  to  every  great  nation  or 
group  of  peoples  ;  and  further  suppose  that  the  civilization  is 
represented  by  a  man,  dormant,  but  who  slowly,  and  with  many 
a  contortion,  and  many  a  yawn,  threw  off  the  sleep  of  ages  and 
awakened  to  a  sense  of  the  treasure  he  possessed,  of  the  wants  he 
began  to  understand,  of  the  means  to  the  ends  he  would  attain. 
In  his  midst  were  ruins  of  vast  edifices,  some  still  standing  among 
heaps  of  stones  hewn  and  carved,  of  sculptured  capitals  and  friezes, 
of  monoliths  of  porphyry  and  marble,  while  his  own  shelter  afforded 
him  little  protection  either  from  heat  or  cold.  What  happened  ? 
As  time  went  on  he  gathered  up  the  smaller  fragments  and  arranged 
them  perhaps  upon  the  foundations,  still  intact,  of  an  ancient 
building,  and  as  he  gradually  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  uses 
to  which  he  might  apply  this  and  that  fragment,  he  insensibly 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE    JN    EUROPE.  223 

produced  a  new  art  founded  on  the  old.  This  explains  the  birth  of 
Romanesque,  for  on  the  collapse  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire, 
the  quarry  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings  largely  influenced  the 
work  done,  both  in  construction  and  decorative  treatment,  for 
the  earlier  buildings  of  the  period  were  often  built  from  the 
remains  of  ancient  Roman  buildings  in  the  vicinity.  In  the 
course  of  time,  however,  a  new  style  was  evolved,  for,  putting 
aside  spasmodic  efforts,  the  period  of  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth 
centuries  is  remarkable  for  the  tentative  employment  of  a  new 
constructive  principle  and  a  new  use  of  material.  The  first  was( 
the  principle  of  equilibrium  which  succeeded  that  of  inert  \ 
stability  as  used  by  the  Romans,  and  the  second  was  the  employ-  ) 
ment  of  dressed  stonework  in  comparatively  small  pieces,  con£ 
nected  with  mortar  beds  of  considerable  thickness.  This  was  a 
method  not  before  attempted,  because  the  materials  in  use  up  to 
that  time  had  not  demanded  it.  By  this  new  employment  of 
materials,  the  whole  current  of  architecture  was  turned  to  a 
constructive  system  which  should  answer  to  its  needs,  and  which, 
after  many  tentative  experiments,  was  to  lead  to  the  next  glorious 
period  of  architecture — the  thirteenth  century — in  which  elasticity 
of  structure  was  joined  to  the  principle  of  equilibrium. 

In  Italy  (page  228)  there  were  various  early  Christian  edifices 
erected  at  Ravenna  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  centuries,  for 
Ravenna  was  the  principal  city  in  Italy  during  this  period,  being 
the  seat  of  the  Exarch  or  representative  of  the  Byzantine 
Emperor  in  the  western  part  of  his  dominions.  These  buildings 
partake,  naturally,  of  the  elements  of  the  fully  developed  Byzantine 
style,  in  the  same  way  in  which  S.  Mark,  Venice,  and  S.  Front, 
Perigueux,  was  the  result  of  the  close  connection  of  these  centres 
with  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  East  (No.  84). 

In  France  (page  246),  especially  in  the  Western  and  Northern 
Provinces,  the  old  traditional  basilican  plan  was  preferred  and 
adhered  to  during  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  with  certain  , 
exceptions,  notably  S.  Front,  but  the  dome  raised  on  pendentives 
became  the  common  kind  of  vaulting,  in  the  South,  in  conjunction 
with  the  aisleless  nave.  It  is  worthy  of  note  also  that  the  use  of 
the  pointed  arch  occurred  in  the  South  of  France  sooner  than  in 
the  North,  and  it  is  considered  by  some,  but  with  apparently  little 
foundation,  to  have  been  derived  from  contact  with  the  Saracens, 
who  invaded  this  portion  of  France  from  719-732.  Further,  the 
development  of  monasteries  in  the  eleventh  century  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  civilization  and  agriculture,  and  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  architecture.  Provence  was,  moreover,  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  the  chief  centre  of  the  growing  traffic  from 
the  East,  and  the  highway  by  which  artistic  and  other  products  of 
the  Levant  were  dispersed  through  France  and  the  North  of 
Europe.  Similarly,  the  development  from  Roman  to  Gothic  art  was 


224  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

accomplished  through  the  ordeal  of  the  destructive,  yet  purifying 
dissolution .  of  the  Dark  Ages,  whence  the  true  spirit  of  Roman 
construction  emerged,  cleared  to  a  great  extent  of  the  extraneous 
elements  with  which  it  had  been  so  long  encrusted.  '  Up  to  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Provengal  architects  had  led  the 
way,  but  at  this  period  the  lay  architects  of  the  North,  seizing  on 
the  Proven9al  principle  of  the  Pointed  arch,  soon  developed  from 
it  the  magnificent  Gothic  system  of  the  perfected  architecture  of 
the  thirteenth  century. 

/ 
Romanesque    Vaulting. 

The  Roman  system  of  plain  cross  vaulting  (No%  in  A), 
•as  used  in  Europe4  up  to  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  began 
to  be  superseded  by  the  "groin-rib"  type  of  vaulting,  in  which 
a  framework  of  ribs  supported  vaulting  surfaces  of  thinner  stone, 
known  as  "  severies,"  or  "  in-filling."  This  method  introduced 
a  new  principle  in  vaulting,  viz.,  designing  the  profile  of  the 
groin  ribs  and  leaving  the  form  of  the  vaulting  surfaces  to 
adapt  themselves  to  them  ;  whereas  in  Roman  architecture  the 
vaulting  surface  was  first  settled,  and  the  profile  of  the  groins 
followed  as  a  matter  of  course.  It  was  therefore  necessary 
for  the  Romanesque  architects  to  find  the  profile  of  the  ribs, 
and  especially  that  of  the  diagonal  rib,  which  had  previously 
been  settled  without  design,  as  mentioned  above,  by  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  vaulting  surfaces  meeting  at  right  angles. 
If  the  vaulting  surfaces  were  semi-cylindrical  the  diagonal  groin 
was  of  necessity  a  semi-ellipse,  but  the  use  of  ordinates,  as  shown 
in  No.  in  E,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  employed  by  the 
Romanesque  architects,  who  surmounted  the  difficulty  arismg 
from  the  difference  of  span  of  the  diagonal  and  transverse  ribs  as 
follows : — (fl.)  On  the  Continent,  especially  in  Germany  and 
France,  the  vaulting  ribs  were  usually  portions  of  circular  curves 
of  similar  curvature  starting  from  the  same  level,  thus  the  diagonal 
rib,  having  the  longest  span,  rose  to  a  greater  height  than  the 
transverse  and  longitudinal  ribs  (No.  112,  D3).  The  panelling  was 
then  filled  in  on  the  top  of  these  ribs,  and  in  consequence  the 
structure  was  highly  domical.  (&.)  In  England,  however,  where 
the  vaults  were  generally  constructed  with  level  ridges,  this 
domical  form  was  not  used,  the  difference  in  height  between  the 
diagonal  and  the  transverse  ribs  being  equalized  by  stilting  the 
latter  (No.  112  B,  D5,  G)  or  else  by  forming  the  diagonal  rib  as  a 
segment  of  a  circle,  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  ribs  becoming 
semicircular  (No.  112  D2).  In  vaulting  an  oblong  compartment  the 
difference  between  the  heights  of  the  diagonal  and  wall  ribs  was 
still  greater  and  produced  an  awkward  waving  line  of  the  groins 
on  plan  (Nos.  in  B  and  112  c). 

In.  the"  vaulting  of  the  naves  of  the  Romanesque  churches  in 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  225 

Germany,  as  at  Worms  (No.  105  G),  Mayence  and  Spires; 
in  France,  as  at  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (No.  112  E,  F),  and 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  at  Caen,  and  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (No.  157); 
and  in  England,  as  at  Canterbury  ;  the  difficulty  of  spanning  oblong 
compartments  was  surmounted  by  including  two  of  them  in 
one  square  bay  of  vaulting,  each  main  bay  corresponding  with 
two  square  compartments  of  the  side  aisles  (Nos.  94  A,  B,  E 
and  105).  In  some  instances  the  intermediate  pier  was  carried 
up  as  a  .vaulting  shaft  and  formed  the  vaulting  compartment  into 
six  parts  on  plan,  which  was  then  known  as  "  sexpartite " 
(six  part)  vaulting  (Nos.  100  c,  105  B  and  112  F).  The  weight 
of  the  vaulting  in  this  case  was  therefore  supported  by  alternate 
piers,  which  were  accordingly  strengthened  (No.  105  c).  During 
the  following  centuries  this  principle  of  rib  design  became  more 
"complex  by  the  multiplication  of  the  frame-work  of  ribs  described 
under  Gothic  vaulting  (page  272).  It  will  also  be  found  that  all 
these  difficulties  of  accommodating  the  heights  of  ribs  of  different 
spans,  especially  in  oblong  compartments,  were  surmounted  by 
the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch  (No.  HID  and  112  D). 


3.  EXAMPLES  (refer  to  each  country). 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — In  church  architecture  further  developments  from 
the  type  of  the  Early  Christian  Church  took  place.  Charlemagne 
gathered  around  him  artists  and  skilled  workmen,  and  calling 
architecture  out  of  its  sleep,  took  the  Roman  basilica  as  a  model 
for  the  new  churches.  Transepts  were  usually  added,  and  the 
chancel  prolonged  further  east  than  in  the  basilicas,  the  church 
partaking  more  and  more  of  a  well-defined  cross  on  plan,  as 
at  S.  Michele,  Pavia  (Nos.  94  and  95).  The  transepts  were  the 
,same  breadth  as  the  nave,  which  was  usually  twice  the  width  of 
the  aisles.  The  choir  was  raised  considerably  by  means  of  steps, 
and  underneath,  supported  on  piers,  was  formed  a  vaulted  crypt 
as  at  S.  Miniato,  Florence  (No.  93)  and  S.  Michele,  Pavia  (No.  94), 
in  which  the  saints  and  martyrs  were  buried.  The  earlier  examples 
have  choirs  without  aisles,  the  latter,  however,  being  continued 
round  in  later  examples. 

The  cloisters  in  connection  with  the  churches  are  often  of 
great  beauty  and  have  capitals  and  other  features  elaborately 
carved. 

The  towers  are  special  features,  and  of  great  prominence  in 
the  design,  as  at  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  at  Cologne  (Nos.  10^ 

F.A.  Q 


226  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

and  105  c).  They  are  either  square,  octagonal,  or  circular,  with 
well-marked  stories,  having  windows  to  each,  and  are  placed  at 
the  west  and  east  ends  and  the  crossing  of  nave  and  transepts. 

B.  "Walls. — Roman  work  and  precedent,  of  course,  influenced 
all  constructive  art  in  Europe,  although  technical  skill  was  at  a 
very  low  ebb  during  this  period.  Walls  were  in  general  coarsely 
built,  having  on  the  exterior,  buttresses  formed  as  pilaster  strips 
of  slight  projection,  connected  at  the  top  by  horizontal  mouldings, 
or  by  a  row  of  semicircular  arches  resting  on  a  corbel  table 
projecting  from  the  wall.  Semicircular  arxphes,  resting  on  rudely 
formed  capitals,  also  occur.  Other  peculiarities  are  referred  to 
in  the  comparative  table  of  each  country. 

c.  Openings. — The  door  and  window  openings  are  very 
characteristic.  The  principle  upon  which  the  jambs  were  formed 
was  in  receding  planes,  or  rectangular  recesses,  •  known  as 
"  orders,"  in  which  were  placed  circular  columns  or  shafts. 
The  arches  followed  the  same  method,  being  built  in  concentric 
rings  (No.  94  F,  H,  j).  A  continuous  abacus  often  occurs  over 
these  columns,  and  the  profile  of  the  jamb  is  carried  round  the 
semicircular  portion  of  the  arch  in  southern  examples. 

The  principal  doorways  are  usually  placed  in  the  transepts. 
The  characteristic  rose  (or  wheel)  window  occurred  over  the 
principal  door  of  the  church  in  the  west  front,  as  at  IfHey  Church, 
Oxon  (No.  138) ;  also  in  Southern  Italian  examples,  as  at  Palermo. 
D.   Roofs. — The   general  employment  of  vaulting,  especially 
over  the  side  aisles  in  the  eleventh  century,  was  due  to  the  desire 
of  fire-proofing  the  building,  but  the  central  nave  was  still  often 
covered  with  a  plain  wooden  roof. 

The  form  of  arch  universally  employed  was  semicircular 
(No.  94  A),  often  raised,  i.e.t  stilted  (No.  112  D5,  G). 

In  early  examples  rib  mouldings  were  not  used  in  the  vaulting, 
but  when  introduced,  about  noo  A.D.,  were  at  first  plain,  and 
afterwards  moulded  in  a  simple  manner  (No.  94).  Intersecting 
barrel  vaults  (No.  112  G)  were  usual,  and  the  difficulty  in  con- 
structing these  in  oblong  bays  led  to  the  use  of  pointed  arches 
in  later  times.  When  the  crossing  was  crowned  by  an  octa- 
gonal dome,  four  of  the  sides  were  carried  on  "  squinch  "  arches 
(Nos.  94  and  105).  The  Romanesque  architects  used  "  flying 
buttresses"  under  the  aisle  roof,  in  the  case  where  the  thrust  of 
a  vaulted  roof  had  to  be  met  (Nos.  94  and  100);  but  it  was  left 
for  the  Gothic  architects  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  place  them 
above  the  aisle  roof  and  weight  them  with  pinnacles. 

.E.  Columns. — The  shafts  of  .the  columns  have  a  variety  of 

treatments,  flutings  being  used   (Nos.  98  B,   107   L),  of  vertical, 

spiral,  or  trellis  work  form,  or  the  whole  shaft  is  sometimes  covered 

with    sculptured    ornaments.      In   early  examples  forms    of  the 

inthian  or  Ionic  capitals  occur — as  in  the  third  column  from 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  227 

the  right  in  S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London  (No.  135),  where 
Classic  influence  is  apparent.  Also  see  Nos.  98  j,  K,  L,  M,  and 
103  D,  E. 

The  capital  in  later  times  was  often  of  a  cushion  (cubiform) 
shape,  as  in  S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London  (No.  135),  with 
lower  corners  rounded  off  and  no  carving,  or  is  sometimes  richly 
carved  and  scolloped  (Nos.  146  and  148  B,  c). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  were  often  carved  elaborately,  as  will 
be  referred   to  in  English  Romanesque  (Norman)  architecture 
(No.  139). 

The  abacus  over  the  capital  (Nos.  98,  j,  M,  103,  107  and  146)  is 
always  distinctive  in  form  ;  it  is  higher,  but  projects  less  than  in 
the  Classical  style,  and  is  moulded  with  alternate  fillets  and 
hollows.  The  base  to  the  column  (Nos.  107  D,  H,  and  146)  is 
generally  an  adaptation  of  the  old  Classical  form,  or  Attic  base, 
resting  on  a  square  plinth,  at  the 'angles  of  which  flowers  or  animals 
were  occasionally  carved  to  fill  up  the  triangular  part,  and  the  lower 
circular  moulding  often  overhangs  the  plinth. 

G.  Ornament. — The  carving  and  ornaments  were  derived  from 
many  types  of  the  vegetable  and  animal   kingdom   and  treated 
in  a  conventional  way,   often  but   rudely  carved  (No.  139).     In 
the  interiors  fresco  is  more  commonly  used  than  mosaic,  which 
required  great  technical  skill.     Early  stained  glass  was  influenced 
by  Byzantine  mosaic. 

Note. — The  above  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  style 
as  a  whole.  Local  influences  of  taste,  climate,  geography 
and  geological  formations  were  instrumental  in  producing  the 
different  characteristics  of  each  country. 


Q  2 


ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE.1 


CENTRAL    ITALY. 

"  In  Middle  Rome  there  was  in  stone  working 
The  Church  of  Mary  painted  royally  •    •£•.. 

The  chapels  of  it  were  some  two  or  three 
In  each  of  them  her  tabernacle  was 
And  a  wide  window  of  six  feet  in  glass 
Coloured  with  ail  her  works  in  red  and  gold." 

I.   INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  boundaries  of  Central  Italy  extended 
to  Florence  and  Pisa  on  the  north  and  west,  and  to  Naples  on 
the  south.  Pisa  was  by  position  a  maritime  power,  while 
Florence  lay  on  the  great  route  from  south  to  north,  commanding 
the  passage  of  the  Arno. 

ii.  Geological. — Tuscany  possessed  greater  mineral  wealth 
than  any  other  part  of  Italy,  and  building  stone  was  abundant. 
The  ordinary  building  materials  of  Rome  were  bricks,  local 
volcanic  stone  (tufa  or  peperino),  and  Travertine  stone  from 
Tivoli,  a  few  miles  off.  Marble  was  obtained  from  Carrara,  or 
Paros  and  the  other  Greek  isles. 
.  iti.  Climate. — (See  Roman  architecture,  page  112.) 

iv.  Religion. — It  was  during  this  period  that,  although  the 
Popes  had  only  small  temporal  dominions,  they  began  to  make 
their  power  felt  in  civil  government,  and  the  disputes  with  the 
emperors  began.  Pippin,  king  of  the  Franks,  asked  by  the  Pope 
(Stephen  II.),  defended  the  latter  from  the  Lombards  and  gave 
him  the  lands  they  had  seized  and  also  the  chief  city  of  the 
Exarchate  (Ravenna),  which  the  Pope  accepted  in  the  name 
of  S.  Peter.  Thus  in  755  Central  Italy  severed  its  connection 
with  the  Empire  and  became  independent,  thereby  inaugurating 
the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy.  Charlemagne,  invited  by  Pope 
Adrian  I.  (772-779),  advanced  into  Italy  in  773,  and,  after  defeating 
the  Lombards,  entered  Rome  for  the  first  time  in  774.  He  gave  the 

1  The  style  is  divided  into  three — central,  north,  and  south.  The  comparative 
table  of  the  three  together  is  given  on  page  242. 


230  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Dukedom  of  Spoleto  and  other  concessions  to  Adrian,  thus  adding 
to  his  temporal  power,  and  from  this  period  connection  with 
Byzantium  was  broken  off.  Gregory  VII.  -ruled  that  the  clergy 
should  not  marry,  and  that  no  temporal  prince  should  bestow  any 
ecclesiastical  benefice,  decisions  which  resulted  in  the  struggles 
between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  (page  405). 

v.  Social  and  Political. — In  Italy,  especially  in  Tuscany, 
an  artistic  movement,  in  which  architecture  was  most  prominent, 
took  place  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  daughter  arts  of  painting 
and  sculpture  being  in  a  state  of  inaction/7  The  growth  of  an 
industrial  population,  the  increase  of  commerce  and  the  indepen- 
dent views  caused  by  education,  were  important  factors  in  the  rise 
of  Naples,  Pisa  and  Amain  and  other  cities  for  self-defence, 
owing  to  insufficient  protection  from  Constantinople. 

vi.  Historical. — Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Amalfi  sent  merchant 
fleets  to  the  ports  of  the  Holy  Land  for  the  Eastern  Fair 
at  Jerusalem,  and  thus  were  brought  in  contact  with  Eastern 
art.  At  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  century,  Pisa,  the 
rival  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  was  the  great  commercial  and  naval 
power  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  took  the  lead  in- the  wars  against 
the  infidels,  defeating  the  Saracens  in  A.D.  1025,  1030,  and  1089  at 
Tunis.  The  Pisans  were  defeated  by  the  Genoese  in  1284,  which 
led  to  their  decline.  '  The  rise  of  Florence  dates  from  1125,  when, 
owing  to  the  destruction  of  Fiesole,  the  inhabitants  of  this  latter 
city  moved  there,  and  in  the  following  century  its  growing  commerce 
caused  it  to  rival  Pisa. 

Lucca  was  an  important  city  at  this  period,  being  also  a 
republic,  -and  its  architecture  was  influenced  by  that  of  Pisa.  It 
was  rent  by  the  feuds  of  the  two  parties,  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibel- 
lines, the  former  supporting  the-power  of  the  Popes  and  the  latter 
that  of  the  Emperors. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

ITALIAN    (CENTRAL)  '  ^Q&THERN    EUROPEAN 

ROMANESQUE.  ^  ROMANESQUE. 

New  ideas  rarely  found.     Con-  The  principal  aim  is  perfection 

structive  boldness  not  sought  after,  in  the  construction  of  vaulting, 
less  departure  being  made  from  which  influenced  the  whole  design 
the  ancient  Basilican  type.  The  — as  in  Normandy  and  the  Rhine 
Italians  have  always  possessed  a  provinces,  where  vaulting  was  now 
greater  capacity  for  beauty  in  being  developed.  Such  treatment 
detail,  than  for  developing  a  bold  caused  the  introduction  of  many 
and  novel  construction  into  a  new  constructive  ideas.  • 
complete  style. 

The  Byzantine  influence  was  strong,  especially  in  several 
districts,  as  Venice,  Ravenna,  and  Pisa,  which  latter  city  in 
particular  possesses  a  distinct  style  of  its  own. 


ITALIAN  (CENTRAL)  ROMANESQUE.  231 

'••  \ . 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

Pisa  Cathedral  (A.D.  1063-1092)  is  a  fine  example  of  the  style 
(Nos.  91  and  92),  the  interior,  with  rows  of  columns  and  flat  ceiling 
recalling  the  Early  Christian  Basilican  church,  but  the  transepts 
with  segmerital  apse  at  each  end  were  an  advance  on  the  Basilican 
plan.  Over  the  crossing  or  intersection  of  nave  and  transepts 
is  an  elliptical  dome  of  later  date.  Externally,  blind  arcades, 
built  in  stripes  of  red  and  white  marble,  ornament  the  fa9ades, 
which  also  have  small  open  arcades,  one  above  the  other,  producing 
a  fine  impression  (No.  91). 

The  building  depends  for  its  artistic  effect  upon  the  beauty  and 
interest  of  its  ornamental  features  rather  than  the  promise  of  logical 
development  mto  a  new  style  which  a  northern  example  possesses. 

The  Campanile  (Bell  Tower),  Pisa  (A.D.  1172),  is  a  circular 
structure  52  feet  in  diameter,  ornamented  with  eight  stories  of 
arcades  (No.  91).  During  its  erection  the  foundations  gave  way, 
thus  causing  the  tower  to  lean  about  1 1  feet  from  the  vertical. 

The  Baptistery,  Pisa  (Nos.  70  G  and  91),  designed  by  Dioti 
Salvi  in  A.D.  1153,  is  circular,  129  feet  in  diameter,  with  encircling 
aisle  in  two  stories.  Built  of  marble,  it  is  surrounded  externally 
on  the  lower  story  by  half  columns,  connected  by  semicircular 
arches,  above  which  is  an  open  arcade  in  two  heights,  supported  on 
small  detached  shafts.  It  was  not  completed  till  A.D.  1278,  and  has 
Gothic  additions  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  consequence  of  which 
it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  what  the  original  external  design  really 
was.  The  structure  is  crowned  by  an  outer  hemispherical  dome, 
through  which  penetrates  a  conical  dome  60  feet  in  diameter  over 
the  central  space,  and  supported  on  four  piers  and  eight  columns. 
Thus,  if  there  were  another  internal  hemispherical  cupola,  it 
would  resemble  the  constructive  scheme  of  S.  Paul,  London 
(No.  253  B).  This  Baptistery  bears  remarkable  similarity  to  the 
church  of  S.  Donate  (ninth  century)  at  Zara,  in  Dalmatia,  which, 
however,  has  a  space  only  30  feet  in  diameter. 

S.  Michele,  Lucca  (A.D.  1188,  facade  1288), and  S.  Martino, 
Lucca  (A.D.  1060-1070,  fa$ade  1204),  bear  considerable  similarity 
to  the  architecture  of  Pisa,  the  reason  being  that  Lucca  belonged 
to  that  city  when  most  of  its  churches  were  erected. 

Pistoia  Cathedral  (twelfth  century  A.D.),  resembles  these 
churches. 

Rome. — In  the  Romanesque  period,  i.e.,  from  600-1200, 
while  the  architecture  of  the  rest  of  Europe  was  slowly  developing 
towards  the  Gothic  style,  that  of  Rome  was  still  composed  of 
Classic  columns  and  other  features  taken  from  ancient  buildings. 

During  this  period  a  series  of  towers  were  also  erected  in  the 
imperial  city.  The  origin  of  these  is  not  clear,  as  the  custom  of 


232  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

bell  ringing  was  not  then  in  existence,  but  they  may  be  regarded 
as  prototypes  of  the  mediaeval  towers  and  spires. 

The  Cloisters  of  S.John  Lateran,  Rome  (A.D.  1234),  and  of 
S.  Paul  beyond  the  walls,  Rome  (A.D.  1241)  (No.  98  B)  are  of 
extreme  interest.  They  are  formed  in  square  bays,  the  vault 
arches  inclosing  the  arcades  in  groups  of  five  or  more  openings. 
The  special  feature  of  the  cloisters  consists  of  the  small  twisted 
columns  inlaid  with  glass  mosaic  in  patterns  of  great  beauty,  and 
forming  an  evidence  of  the  patient  skill  of  the  craftsman. 

S.  Miniato,  Florence  (No.  93),  is  a  leading  example  of  the 
Central  Italian  style.  The  length  of  the  church  is  divided  into 
three  main  compartments,  and  the  raised  eastern  portion,  under 
which  is  a  crypt, .is  open  to  the  nave.  This  division  of  the  church 
by  piers  seems  a  prelude  to  the  idea  of  vaulting  in  compartments, 
and  is  an  evident  departure  from  the  basilican  type  of  long  unbroken 
ranges  of  columns  or  arcades.  The  marble  panelling,  and  banding 
in  black  and  white  marble  of  the  exterior  and  interior,  were  carried 
to  a  further  extent  in  the  Gothic  period.  Very  notable  is  the  open 
timber  roof  with  its  decoration,  recently  restored,  in  bright  coloring 
of  gold,  green,  blue  and  red. 

For  the  Comparative  table  of  Italian  Romanesque,  see  page 
242. 

NORTH    ITALY. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — Milan,  the  capital  of  Lombardy,  always 
had  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  on  account  of  its  favourable 
situation  in  the  centre  of  that  state,  and  its  proximity  to  several  of 
the  Alpine  passes.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  rich  plains,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  mulberry  (for  the  silkworm),  and  the  vine,  adds 
to  the  general  prosperity  of  the  district. 

Ravenna  and  Venice,  as  trade  connecting  links  with  the  Eastern 
Empire,  reflect  the  culture  and  architectural  forms  derived 
therefrom. 

ii.  Geological. — Brick  is  the  great  building  material  of  the 
plains  of  Lombardy,  and  the  local  architecture  shows  the  influence 
of  this  material. 

iii.  Climate. — North  Italy  has  a  climate  resembling  that 
of  Central  Europe,  i.e.,  a  climate  of  extremes.  Milan  is  near 
enough  to  the  Alps  to  experience  cold  in  winter,  while  in  summer 
the  heat  is  often  excessive. 

iv.  Religion. — At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  Theodosius, 
the  great  emperor,  had  been  forced  to  do  penance  on  account  of  a 
massacre  in  Thessalonica,  S.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (374-398), 
closing  the  doors  of  the  Church  against  him.  This  is  an  instance 


ITALIAN  (CENTRAL)  ROMANEsguE.  . 


93- 


S.  MINIATO,  FLORENCE. 


234  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

of  the  great  power  the  Church  had  acquired.  S.  Ambrose's  fame 
and  influence  maintained  the  Ambrosian  rite,  which  differed  in 
some  points  of  ritual,  such  as  side  altars  not  being  used  (cf. 
Milan  Cathedral,  page  408). 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  devastating  wars  in  the  North 
Italian  plains  led  to  the  gradual  rise  of  the  Venetian  state, 
the  first  form  of  government  being  republican,  but  an  oligarchy 
in  which  a  Duke,  or  Doge,  was  invested  with  supreme  authority 
gradually  grew  up.  Italy  itself  consisted  of  a  number  of  separate 
cities  which  were  independent  commonwealths. 

vi.  Historical. — Venice  from  the  first  kept  up  a  close  alliance 
with  Constantinople,  by  means  of  which  both  the  naval  import- 
ance and  commerce  of  the  little  state  continually  increased, 
especially  after  the  eleventh  century,  by  which  time  commercial 
relations  had  extended  to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  including  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Istria.  The 
barbarians  who  occupied  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  Po  pursued 
a  similar  development  in  spite  of  the  intervening  Alps,  Milan 
being  as  much  German  as  Italian.  In  Italy,  the  old  Roman 
population  eventually  caused  barbarian  influence  to  wane,  but 
until  this  had  come  to  pass  little  building  was  done.  The  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  were  the  great  building  epochs  in  Lombardy. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

NORTH    ITALIAN   ROMANESQUE.  CENTRAL    ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE. 

Arcades  restricted  to  top  of  Arcades  in  several  stories  were 
gables  and  apses.  The  character  employed  as  an  ornament  to  the 
is  less  refined  owing  to  the  use  of  fa£ades  (No.  91).  Marble  facing 
stone  and  brick  rather  than  marble.  was  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
Wide,  flat,  and  severe  facades  form  a  style  in  that  material.  The 
are  typical,  covering  the  whole  Basilican  type  was  closely  adhered 
church,  without  marking  in  any  to,  and  beauty  and  delicacy  of  detail 
wav  the  difference  of  nave  and  were  preferred  to  the  invention  of 
aisles.  A  rose  window  (No.  96)  fresh  architectural  forms  produced 
and  a  porch  resting  on  lions  are  by  a  new  system  of  construction, 
often  the  chief  relief.  Details  show  Detail  much  affected  by  Classic 
a  breaking  away  from  Classic  prece-  remains  and  traditions,  which  re- 
dent.  In  sculpture,  hunting  and  suited  in  the  production  of  carving 
other  scenes  reflecting  the  life  of  and  ornament  of  great  refinement, 
the  northern  invaders  are  frequent,  At  Pisa  ancient  sarcophagi  richly 
and  in  these  a  grotesque  element  sculptured  with  figures  existed,  by 
is  prominent.  whose  study  the  Pisani  were  in- 

The  churches  were  of  the  Basi-  fluenced. 

lican   type,    and    were    nearly    all  The  churches  were  mostly  roofed 

vaulted    and   roofed.      Side    aisles  with  plain  open-timbered  roofs,  the 

are  often  in  two  stories,  the  cleres-  members    of    which     were    orn; 

tory  is  omitted,  the  walls  between  mented  with  bright  coloring, 
the  side  chapels  forming  buttresses. 


ITALIAN   ROMANESQUE  EXAMPLES. 


T!@1M  TO  RECEIVE 


MR 


94- 


ITALIAN  (NORTH)  ROMANESQUE.  237 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

S.   Antonio,   Piacenza  (A.D.   1122),  S.  Ambrogio,   Milan 

(A.D.  1 140),  and  S.  Michele,  Pavia  (A.D.  1 188),  are  good  examples. 
The  latter  (Nos.  94  and  95)  is  vaulted  in  square  bays,  with  side 
aisles  in  two  stories,  and  piers  of  clustered  section. 

S.  Zenone,  Verona  (A.D.  1139)  (No.  96),  is  an  important 
example,  having,  under  the  slope  of  the  gable,  arcaded  corbels, 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  work  in  this  district ;  also  the 
great  western  rose  (wheel)  window,  and  the  projecting  porch  to 
the  main  doorway,  with  columns  supporting  arches,  and  resting  on 
the  backs  of  crouching  lions  (No.  98  G). 

The  origin  of  the  arcaded  galleries  in  many  of  the  more  impor- 
tant churches  of  the  period  (Nos.  91  and  95),  is  interesting,  as 
illustrating  how  such  architectural  features  have  had,  originally, 
a  constructive  meaning.  Thus,  when  a  wooden  roof  was  placed  over 
a  circular  vault,  the  external  walls  did  not  need  to  be  continued 
solid  above  the  springing  of  the  vault,  as  the  ends  of  the  rafters 
exerted  little  thrust ;  hence  this  portion  was  arcaded,  the  arches 
being  connected  with  the  extrados  of  the  vault,  giving  a  deep 
shadow  in  an  appropriate  position  (Nos.  104  and  105  B).  This 
arcading,  from  being  used  merely  in  this  position,  came  to  be 
employed,  in  every  possible  part  of  the  building,  as  a  decorative 
feature,  so  that  it  even  entirely  covered  the  western  facade. 
Similarly  in  the  later  Gothic  periods  in  England,  the  battlemented 
parapet,  primarily  of  use  for  defence  at  the  top  of  the  building,  was 
employed  as  a  decorative  feature  on  window  transoms  and  other 
positions. 

The  Palazzi  Farsetti  and  Loredan,  and  the  Fondaco  dei 
Turchi,  a  great  warehouse  on  the  Grand  Canal,  used  in  the  Eastern 
trade,  are  well-known  examples  at  Venice,  in  which  are  found 
the  characteristic  cubiform  capital,  carrying  semicircular  arches 
which  are  often  stilted. 

The  Campanili,  or  bell  towers,  are  .important  features  of  the 
period.  They  were  not  joined  structurally  with  the  church  to  which 
they  belonged,  as  in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  but  were 
placed  at  some  little  distance,  and  sometimes  connected  with  the 
main  building  by  cloisters  (No.  96). 

These  campanili  occur  in  most  of  the  North  Italian  towns,  and 
in  many  cases  are  rather  civic  monuments  than  integral  portions 
of  the  churches  near  which  they  are  situated,  as  that  of  S.  Mark, 
Venice.  In  these  cases  they  were  erected  as  symbols  of  power, 
or  commemorative  monuments,  being  similar  in  purpose  to  the 
civic  towers  of  Belgium  (page  390). 

In  plan  they  are  always  square,  and  have  no  projecting  but- 
tresses, as  in  countries  north  of  the  Alps,  being  treated  as  plainly 
as  possible,  without  breaks,  and  with  only  sufficient  windows  to 


ITALIAN  (SOUTHERN)  ROMANESQUE.  239 

admit  light  to  the  internal  staircase,  or  sloping  way  ;  the  windows 
increase  in  number  from  one  in  the  lowest  story  to  five  or  more 
in  the  uppermost  story,  which  is  thus  practically  an  open  loggia, 
and  the  whole  is  generally  crowned  with  a  pyramidal  shaped 
roof,  as  is  the  Campanile  of  S.  Zenone,  Verona,  which  is  typical 
(No.  96). 

For  comparative  table  of  Italian  Romanesque,  see  page  242. 

SOUTHERN    ITALY   AND   SICILY. 

"  Therein  be  neither  stones  nor  sticks, 
Neither  red  nor  white  bricks  ; 
But  for  cubits  five  or  six, 
There  is  most  goodly  sardonyx, 
And  amber  laid  in  rows." 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — Being  situated  centrally  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea,  and  being  of  triangular  form,  Sicily  presents  one  side 
to  Greece,  another  to  Italy,  and  the  third  to  North  Africa,  and 
its  history  is  a  record  of  the  successive  influences  of  the  powers 
to  whom  these  countries  belonged. 

ii.  Geological. — The  deposits  of  sulphur  contributed  to  the 
wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  island,  while  the  mountains  afforded 
an  abundant  supply  of  a  calcareous  and  shelly  limestone,  which 
influenced  its  architectural  character. 

iii.  Climate. — The  climate  of  South  Italy  and  Sicily  is  almost 
sub-tropical,  for  palms  grow  in  the  open  air,  and  there  are  cele- 
brated orange  and  lemon  groves  near  Palermo.  On  the  south- 
eastern coast  of  Italy  the  towns  have  the  general  characteristics 
of  Oriental  cities,  the  buildings  having  flat  roofs  and  other  Eastern 
features. 

iv.  Religion. — In  Sicily,  owing  to  Mahometan  influence,  the 
fa9ades  were  ornamented  with  intricate  geometrical  patterns,  which 
were  invented  because  the  Mahometan  religion  forbade  the 
representation  of  the  human  figure  (page  654). 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  Mahometans  introduced  into 
Sicily  valuable  commercial  products,  such  as  grain  and  cotton. 
Their  civilization  was,  howrever,  considerably  aided  by  the  previous 
Byzantine  influences.  Southern  Italy  has  always  maintained  a 
close  connection  with  Sicily,  and  has  yet  to  be  fully  explored  for 
traces  of  its  architectural  development. 

vi.   Historical.—  In  A.D.  827  the  Mahometans  landed  in  Sicily, 

~:icl  gradually  overran  the  whole  island,  and  the  latter  part  of  the 

tenth  century  was  the  most   prosperous  period  of  their   sway. 

Sanguinary  struggles  amongst  certain  sects  led  to  the  insurrec- 

on  of  several  cities,  and  hastened  the  downfall  of  the  Mahometan 

/nasty.     From    1061-1090   the    Normans,    under    Robert   and 


c/ 


Q 
W 
ffi 
H 

CJ 


ITALIAN    (SOUTH)    ROMANESQUE.  24! 

Roger  de  Hauteville,  conquered  the  island,  and  a  descendant  of 
the  latter  was  crowned  at  Palermo,  1 1 30.  During  this  period  Sicily 
prospered,  and  her  fleet  defeated  the  Arabs  and  Greeks,  but  civil 
wars  as  to  the  right  of  succession  led  to  the  island  passing  in 
1268  to  Louis  of  Anjou. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  change  from  the  Byzantine  to  the  Mahometan  dominion, 
and  from  the  latter  to  the  Nvrman  in  the  eleventh  century  is 
traceable.  Byzantine  influence  is  shown  in  the  plans  of  certain 
churches,  as  in  the  Church  of  the  Martorana  at  Palermo,  where 
a  square  space  is  covered  by  a  dome  supported  on  Four  free- 
standing columns. 

Mahometan  influence  is  evident,  particularly  in  the  decorative 
parts  of  churches,  as  mentioned  above. 

Architecture  developed  considerably  under  the  Norman  rule  by 
the  erection  of  cathedrals,  and  a  school  of  mosaic  was  maintained 
in  the  Royal  Palace  during  this  period. 

The  churches  have  either  wooden  roofs,  or  a  Byzantine  dome, 
but  are  hardly  ever  vaulted.  Dark  and  light  stone  was  used  in 
courses  externally,  and  rich  mosaics  and  colored  marbles  were 
employed  as  a  facing  internally.  The  architectural  features  of 
the  interiors,  of  which  Monreale  Cathedral  (No.  97)  has  typical 
examples,  were  subordinate  to  the  mosaic  decorations  which 
clothe  the  walls. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

Monreale  Cathedral  (begun  1174,  No.  97),  on  the  high 
ground  to  the  south-west  of  Palermo,  illustrates  mixed  Byzantine 
and  Mahometan  influences.  In  plan  it  resembles  a  Roman  basilica, 
with  apses  at  the  eastern  end  of  nave  and  aisles^  the  choir  being 
raised  above  the  nave.  The  nave  columns  have,  well  carved 
capitals  of  Byzantine  form,  supporting  pointed  arches,  which  are 
square  in  section,  and  not  in  recessed  planes  as  in  northern 
work.  Pointed  windows  without  tracery  occur  in  the  aisles. 
The  walls  are  ornamented  with  mosaics  in  color,  representing 
scenes  from  biblical  history,  surrounded  by  arabesque  borders. 
A  dado,  about  12  feet  high,  of  slabs  of  white  marble,  is  bordered 
by  inlaid  patterns  in  colored  porphyries.  The  open  timber  roofs, 
intricate  in  design,  are  decorated  in  color  in  the  Mahometan 
style.  The  interior  is  solemn  and  grand,  the  decoration  being 
marked  by  severity,  and  by  great  richness  in  the  material 
employed.  The  low,  oblong,  crowning  lantern,  the  early  bronze 
-^ors,  and  rich  cloisters,  are  notable. 

The  Capella  Palatina,  Palermo  (1132)  (in  the  Royal  Palace), 

F.A.  R 


242  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

was  the  model  for  Monreale  Cathedral,  and  though  of  small  size,  is 
unrivalled  for  richness  of  the  effect  of  the  mosaics.  It  has  a 
richly  treated  ceiling  of  stalactite  forms. 

S.  Giovanni  degli  Eremiti  (1132)  and  the  Martorana 
Church  (1113-1143)  are  other  examples  at  Palermo  which  show 
the  blending  of  Saracenic  and  Byzantine  ideas, 

S.  Nicolo,  Bari  (1197),  is  a  good  and  typical  example  of  the 
churches  of  Southern  Italy  which  are  small  in  comparison  with 
their  northern  contemporaries.  The  entrance  front  is  always 
distinguished  by  a  projecting  porch,  with7  the  columns  resting 
on  lions'  backs,  supporting  a  projecting  roof,  above  which  is  the 
characteristic  wheel-window.  The  detail  of  these  buildings  is 
always  refined  and  graceful,  which  may  be  due  to  some  extent  to 
the  Greek  descent  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  Italy.  The 
crypts  are  a  special  feature,  that  at  Otranto  being  noteworthy  for 
the  numerous  points  of  support  employed  to  carry  the  choir. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

CENTRAL,  NORTH,  AND  SOUTH. 

A.  Plans . — The  plans  of  most  of  the  churches  were  substantially 
the  same  as  the  basilicas,  more  especially  in  Central  Italy ;  in  the 
North  the  churches  are  mostly  vaulted,  modifications  being  intro- 
duced on  the  lines  of  German  work  ;  in  the  South,  the  low  lanterns 
at   the   crossing,   oblong    in   plan,    are    marked   features,    as    at 
Monreale  Cathedral  (No.  97).     The  choir  was  occasionally  raised 
to  admit  of  a  crypt   beneath,  reached  by  steps  from  the  nave. 
A  number  of  circular  examples  were  built  mainly  as  baptisteries, 
that  at  Novara  being  connected  to  the  cathedral  by  an  atrium. 
There  is  a  fine  atrium  at  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan.      In  the  North 
the    open    arcades    of     the     apses    seen    in    conjunction    with 
the  usual  arcaded  octagonal  lantern  at  the  crossing,  constitute 
the  charm  of  the  style.     Projecting  porches  were  preferred  to 
recessed  doorways,  and  are  bold  open-arched  structures,  often  of 
two   stories,  resting   on  isolated  columns,   and  placed  on    huge 
semi-grotesque  lions,  having  a  symbolic  character.    Towers,  as  at 
Piacenza  and  S.  Zenone,  Verona  (No.  96),  are  detached,  being 
straight  shafts  without  buttresses  or  spires,  which,  when  occurring, 
can  be  traced  to  German  influence. 

B.  Walls. — The  flat  blind  arcades  of  the  northern  style  were 
developed    by  the   Pisan  (Central)  architects   in   their  galleried 
facades.     The  west  front,  including  the  aisles,  was  carried  up  to 
a  flat  gable,  with  arcading  following  the  rake,  and  other  arcades 
carried  across  in  bands.     The  Northern  fa9ades  are  flatter,  anri 
sometimes  have  a  large  circular  window  to  light  the  nave.     I 
the  South  this  feature  is  highly  elaborated  with  wheel  tracery,  i 


ITALIAN   ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT. 


R  2 


244  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

in  the  churches  at  Palermo.  Flank  walls  are  occasionally 
decorated  by  flat  pilaster  strips,  connected  horizontally  by  small 
arches,  springing  from  corbels  (No.  98  c). 

c.  Openings. — In  consequence  of  the  bright  climate  the 
openings  are  small  (No.  98  A),  and  opaque  decoration  was 
preferred  to  translucent.  Window  tracery  was  not  developed. 
The  wheel  windows  (No.  96)  just  described  are  only  rudimentary 
in  pattern,  attention  being  chiefly  bestowed  upon  their  decoration, 
as  in  the  rich  carving  of  the  Palermo  examples. 

D.  Roofs. — Where    round-arched    cross/ vaulting,    or    simple 
barrel  vaults,  were  not  employed,  the  timber  roofs  of  the  basilican 
style  often  effectively  decorated  with  color  were  used.     In  the 
southern  examples,  domes  rather  than  vaults  were  attempted,  but 
timber  roofs  are  the  rule  in  Palermo  and  Monreale  (No.  97),  and, 
owing  to  Mahometan  influence,  great  richness  in  timber  ceilings 
was  attained. 

The  nave  roofs  of  Italian  churches  continued  to  be  constructed 
of  wood  with  flat  ceilings  till  the  thirteenth  century.  Plain 
groined  vaults  of  small  span  were  common  and  divided  into 
compartments  by  flat  bands,  a  practice  which  was  continued  in 
the  Gothic  period. 

E.  Columns. — Piers  with  half  shafts  were  employed  rather  than 
columns,  especially  in  the  North,  where  vaulting  was  more  in 
use,    but    coupled   and   grouped    shafts   were    seldom    properly 
developed   in    relation    to   the   vaulting   ribs.     Buttressing   was 
obtained  by  means  of  the  division  walls  between  an  outer  range 
of  chapels,  more  often  than  not  unmarked  on  the  exterior.     In 
Central  Italy,  as  at  Toscanella,  rude  Corinthian  columns  carry 
a  round-arched  arcade,  above  which  the  plain  walls  are  pierced, 
by  the  small  arched  openings  of  the  clerestory,  while  the  roof  is 
of  the  simple  basilican  type.     No.  98  j — M,  show  typical  capitals. 

F.  Mouldings. — Flat  bands  are  characteristic  of  the  Northern 
style.     Strings  were    formed    by   small   arches,    connecting   one 
pilaster  strip  to  another.     Rude  imitations  of  old  Classical  detail 
are  met  with.     Southern  work  is  far   superior   in    detail,  often 
possessing   good    outline,   grace,    and   elegance.     Richness   and 
elaboration  were  attempted  in  the  doorways  (No.  94  H,  j). 

G.  Ornament  (No.  98). — Roughly  carved  grotesques  of  men 
and  animals  (No.  98  E,  F),  vigorous  hunting  scenes,  and  incidents 
of  daily  life  are  found  in  Northern  sculpture.     In  Central  Italy 
greater  elegance  is  displayed,  and  Classic  models  were  copied. 
The  rows  of  apostles  on  the  lintels  of  the  doorways,  as  at  Pistoia, 
are  similar  in  treatment  to  Byzantine  ivories. 

In  Southern  examples,  bronze  doors  are  a  feature,  as  at  Monreale 
Cathedral.  Elaborate  decoration  in  mosaic  exists  as  in  the 
Palermo  churches  and  elsewhere  (No.  98  H),  and  the  use  of  color 
was  the  main  object  in  the  design  of  the  interiors. 


ITALIAN    ROMANESQUE.  245 

5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Cattaneo  (R.).— " Architecture  in  Italy  from  the  Vlth  to  the  Xlth 
Centuries."  Translated  from  the  Italian.  1896.- 

Cresy  and  Taylor.—"  Pisa."     410.      1829. 

Dartein  (F.  de). — "  Etude  sur  1' Architecture  Lombarde."  2  vols.,  folio. 
Paris,  1865-1882. 

Delhi  (A.  J.)  and  Chamberlin  (G.  H.). — "Norman  Antiquities  of 
Palermo  and  Environs."  Folio.  Boston,  1892. 

Gravina  (D.  D.  B.). — "  II  Duomo  di  Monreale."  2  vols.,  large  folio. 
Palermo,  1859. 

Griiner  (L.).— "  Terra-Cotta  Architecture  of  North  Italy."     410.      1867. 

Hittorff  (J.  I.)  et  Zanth  (C.  L.  W.).— "  Architecture  Antique  de  la 
Sicile."  Folio.  Paris,  1827. 

Knight.—"  Normans  in  Sicily."     8vo.     1838. 

Knight  (H.  G.). — "  Saracenic  and  Norman  Remains  to  Illustrate  the 
Normans  in  Sicily."  Folio.  1830. 

Rohault  de  Fleury. — "Monuments  de  Pise  au  Moyen  Age."  2  vols., 
folio  and  4to.  Paris,  1866. 

Osten  (F.). — "  Die  Bauvverke  in  der  Lombardei  vom  7  bis  14 
Jahrhunderts.';  Folio.  Darmstadt,  1846-1854. 

Salazaro  (D.). — "  Studi  sui  Monument!  della  Italia  meridioni  dal  IVe  al 
XIII6  Secolo."  2  vols.,  folio.  Napoli,  1871-1877. 

Schulz  (H.  W.)— "  Denkmaeler  der  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Unter- 
italien."  3  vols.,  folio  and  4to.  Dresden,  1860. 

Street  (G.  E.).— "  Brick  and  Marble  Architecture  of  North  Italy."  8vo. 
1874. 

"Harrison  (F.).— "  Theophano."     (Historical  Novel). 


FRENCH    ROMANESQUE. 


How  reverend  is  the  face  of  this  tall  pile, 

Whose  ancient  pillars  rear  their  marble  heads 

To  bear  aloft  its  arched  and  ponderous  roof, 

By  its  own  weight  made  steadfast  and  immoveable 

Looking  tranquillity.     It  strikes  an  awe 

And  terror  on  the  aching  sight." — CONGREVE. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — France  is  practically  on  the  high  road 
between  the  south  and  north  of  Europe,  and  the  relative  position 
of  each  district  influenced  the  various  prevailing  types  of  archi- 
tecture. When  Rome  was  a  great  power  it  was  by  way  of  Provence 
and  the  Rhone  valley  that  civilization  spread  ;  hence  the  strong 
classical  element  which  is  there  prevalent.  The  trade  with 
Venice  and  the  East  introduced  to  the  district  of  Perigueux  a 
version  of  the  Byzantine  style  in  stone. 

ii.  Geological. — France  is  exceedingly  rich  in  building 
materials,  especially  stone,  of  which  most  of  the  towns  are  built. 
The  soft,  fine-grained  stone  of  Caen,  used  throughout  N.ormandy, 
was  also  exported  to  England.  In  the  volcanic  district  of 
Auvergne  walling  was  executed  in  a  curious  inlay  of  colored 
material. 

iii.  Climate.— I-n  France  there  are  three  climates — (a.)  the 
north  resembles  that  of  the  south  of  England  ;  (b.)  the  west  on 
the  Atlantic  coasts  is  warmer,  owing  to  the  Gulf  Stream  and  warm 
S.W.  winds  ;  (c.)  the  south,  on  the  Mediterranean,  with  a  landscape 
almost  African  in  its  aspect,  is  sub-tropical. 

iv.  Religion. — Christianity,  when  introduced,  took  a  strong 
hold  in  the  Rhone  Valley,  Lyons  contributing  martyrs  to  the 
cause.  In  this  district  the  most  interesting  event  was  the  rise  of 
the  Cistercians  (page  219),  the  severity  of  whose  rules  as  to 
church  building,  caused  a  reaction  from  the  decorative  character 
of  the  later  Romanesque,  as  in  the  fa9ades  of  S.  Gilles,  and 
of  S.  Trophime,  Aries.  Attention  was  then  concentrated  upon 


FRENCH    ROMANESQUE.  347 

the  means  of  producing  grand  and  severe  effects,  and  the  change 
to  the  pointed  style  was  promoted,  by  the  effort  to  solve  the 
problems  of  vaulting. 

v.  Social  and  Political.— Hugh  Capet  ascended  the  Prankish 
throne  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  Paris  being  made 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  At  this  period  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  was  held  by  independent  lords,  and  the  authority  of  the 
king  extended  little  beyond  Paris  and  Orleans.  Lawlessness 
and  bloodshed  were  rife  throughout  the  century,  hence  archi- 
tectural progress  was  impossible  until  a  more  settled  state  of 
society  was  established. 

vi.  Historical. — On  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  Northern 
France  was  invaded  by  the  Northmen,  from  whom  Normandy 
was  named,  and  their  ruler  Rollo  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Norman 
kings  of  England.  The  conquest  of  England  in  1066  marked  the 
transference  of  the  most  vigorous  of  the  Normans  to  England, 
Normandy  becoming  an  English  province  until  the  time  of  King 
John.  The  hold,  however,  which  they  retained  on  their  possessions 
in  France  was  the  cause  of  continual  invasions  and  wars  in  the 
two  countries,  until  the  complete  fusion  of  races  in  both  was 
marked  by  the  loss  of  the  English  possessions  in  France. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  southern  style  is  remarkable  for  its  rich  decorative  facades 
and  graceful  cloisters,  the  buildings  of  Provence  being  a  new 
version  of  old  Roman  features,  which  seem  to  have  aojuiivd  a 
fresh  significance. 

In  Aquitania  and  Anjou  the  vast  interiors  in  one  span,  supported 
by  the  massive  walls  of  the  recessed  chapels,  are  impressive,  and 
seem  to  revive  the  great  halls  of  the  Roman  Thermae.  In  the 
north  the  style  is  the  promising  commencement  of  a  new  epoch, 
having  the  first  tentative  essays  of  a  new  system.  The  interiors 
were  close  set  with  pier  and  pillar,  and  heavily  roofed  with 
ponderous  arching,  forming  a  link  to  the  marvellous  structures  of 
the  next  three  centuries,  where  matter  is  lost  in  the  emotions 
expressed. 

The  plain  thick  walls,  usually  with  flat  external  buttresses  in 
the  north  or  internal  buttresses  in  the  south,  emphasized  the  rich- 
ness of  the  west  fronts  of  the  churches  in  both  districts. 

The  development  of  vaulting,  which  was  different  in  the  north 
and  south  (page  223),  made  much  progress,  especially  along  the 
Loire  Valley.  In  the_ south,  naves  were  covered  with  barrel  vaults, 
whose  thrust  was  resisted  by  half  barrel  vaults,  .over-two-storied 
aisles  (No.  100  B),  thus  suppressing  the  clerestory,  _as  at  N6ti 
Dame  du  Port,  Clermont-Ferrand. 

In  the  north,  naves  were  covered  by  groined  vaults,  often  in 


248  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

square  compartments  and  covered  with  sexpartite  vaulting,  the 
groined  ribs  being  constructed  independently  and  supporting  the 
infilling  or  "  severies." 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

France  exhibits  several  varieties  of  the  Romanesque  style,  in 
which  different  peculiarities  are  traceable,  and  for  this  reason 
it  may  be  divided  into  southern  and  northern  provinces,  the 
main  dividing  line  being  the  Loire. 

The  influence  of  Roman  remains  was  naturally  greatest  in  the 
parts  where  they  more  particularly  occur,  as  at  Nimes,  Aries, 
and  Orange,  and  other  places  in  the  Rhone  Valley. 

The  South  of  France  may  be  roughly  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Aquitania,  Auvergne,  Provence,  Anjou  an,d  Burgundy. 

Aquitania  has  two  distinct  styles,  the 'first  having,  round- 
arched  tunnel-vaults,  and  the  second  having  domes  spheroidal  in 
shape,  elongated  upwards  and  supported  on  pointed  arches,  indi- 
cating an  eastern  influence.^  5.  Sernin,  Toulouse,  is  an  example  of  the 
first  type.  S.  Front,  Pmgueux  (A.D.  1120)  (No.  84),  an  example 
of  the  second  type,  is  due  to  a  large  trade  with  Byzantium. 
It  is  a  Greek  cross  on  plan,  and  closely  resembles  S.  Mark, 
Venice  (page  208).  The  illustration  (No.  84  B)  shows  the 
arches  supporting  the  domes  as  pointed,  but  they  have  latterly 
been  made  semicircular.  Attached  to  the  church  is  a  magnificent 
campanile  in  stone,  consisting  of  a  square  shaft,  surmounted  by 
a  circular  ring  of  columns,  carrying  a  conical  dome.  S.  Front 
acted  as  a  prototype  of  churches  with  cupolas  in  France. 

Angouleme  Cathedral  (No.  100  E,  F,  G)  is  of  the  second  type, 
but  has  a  long  aisleless  nave  with  transepts  provided  with  lateral 
chapels  an cT  an  apsidal  choir  with  four  chapels,  forming  a  Latin 
cross  on  plan.  The  nave  is  covered  with  four  stone  domes,  that 
over  the  crossing  being  carried  above  the  roof  and  having 
a  stone  lantern.  Both  transepts  were  originally  crowned  with 
towers,  but  the  southern  one  was  destroyed  in  1568. 

Cahors  Cathedral  (A.D.  1050-1100)  is  an  imitation  of  S.  Irene 
at  Constantinople  (page  204). 

Auvergne  being  a  volcanic  district,  the  geological  influence  is 
frequently  apparent,  the  buildings  having  a  local  character 
imparted  to  them  by  the  inlaid  decoration  formed  of  different 
colored  lavas,  as  at  Notre  Dame  dn  Port,  Clermont-Ferrand,  and  the 
Church  at  Issoire. 

Provence  has  numerous  remains  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  in  many  of  which  pointed  tunnel-vaults  were  used,  all 
showing  Classical  influence,  as  at  Notre  Dame,  Avignon.  The 
portals  of  S.  Trophime,  Aries  (No.  102),  and  the  Church  at 
5.  Gilles,  exhibit  great  richness  of  effect  and  beauty  of  detail. 
The  cloisters,  consisting  of  columns,  used  in  couples  in  the  depth 


FRENCH    ROMANESQUE.  249 

of  the  wall,  and  carrying  semicircular  arches,  are  specially 
interesting.  The  columns  have  deep  capitals  sculptured  with 
sharp  and  distinctive  foliage  (No.  103  D,  E)  and  support  semi- 
circular arches,  which  are  left  entirely  open,  no  attempt  at  tracery 
filling  being  made. 

Anjou  has  many  examples  rich  in  decorative  treatment,  as 
Notre  Dame  la  Grande,  Poitiers.  The  Abbey  of  Fontevrault 
(A.D.  1101-1119)  resembled  Angouleme  Cathedral  in  its  aisleless 
nave  and  general  arrangement. 

Burgundy  was  specially  rich  in  monastic  establishments 
which  influenced  the  architectural  treatment  of  the  churches, 
many~ot  "whicfi-  faave  been  destroyed.  The  great  Abbey -Church  of 
Cluny  (1089-1131)  was  the  most  famous  in  this  province  and  was 
the  longest  in  1<  ranee,  with  double  side  aisles  to  the  main  body  of 
the  church,  and  a  chevet  of  five  apsidal  chapels.  The  pointed 
arch  was  employed  in  the  arcade  of  the  nave,  which  was  covered 
with  a  great  barrel-vault,  and  the  aisles  probably  had  groined 
vaulting. 

A utun  .Cathedral  ( i OQO- 1 1 3 2s)  is  an  example  of  the  aisleless 
churches  which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  France. 

The  Church  at  Vezelay  (A.D.  noo),  and  that  at  Vienne  are  other 
interesting  examples,  the  former  having  a  groined  vault  instead  of 
the  longitudinal  barrel-vault. 

Toiirnus  Abbey  Church  is  an  interesting  example  in  which  arches 
spanning  the  nave  from  pier  to  pier  support  transverse  vaults, 
under  which  windows  were  formed  in  the  nave  walls. 

The  North  of  France  comprises  the  provinces  of  Central  France, 
with  Paris  as  the  radiating  centre,  and  the  provinces  of  Normandy 
and  Brittany. 

Normandy  possesses  many  fine  examples  of  this  period 
owing  to  its  prosperity  and  the  power  of  the  Norman  dukes. 
These  examples  are  of  the  vaulted  basilican  type,  which  was  being 
developed  towards  the  complete  Gothic  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  city  of  Caen  possesses  a  number  of  examples  illustrating 
the  difficulties  of  vaulting,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  introduction 
of  the  pointed  arch. 

The  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (S.  Etienne),  Caen  (Nos.  100-101), 
commenced  A.D.  1066  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  expiation 
of  having  married  Matilda  in  spite  of  their  close  relationship, 
is  the  best  known  example.  The  plan  seems  to  have  been 
founded  on  the  Romanesque  church  of  Spires  (Germany).  It 
had  originally  an  eastern  apse,  but  this  was  superseded  later  by 
the  characteristic  chevet  (No.  101).  The  west  end  is  flanked  by 
two  square  towers  crowned  by  octagonal  spires  with  angle 
pinnacles,  this  fa9ade  being  a  prototype  of  the  Gothic  schemes  to 
follow.  The  vaulting  illustrates  the  difficulties  of  spanning  oblong 
:ompartments  without  the  aid  of  the  pointed  arch.  Two  bays 


25O  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  the  nave  are  comprised  under  one  vaulting  compartment, 
which  thus  being  approximately  square,  the  rise  of  the  transverse-, 
diagonal,  and  wall  ribs  is  nearly  equal. )  This  resulted  in  a 
system  known  as  sexpartite  vaulting  (page  225)  (Nos.  100  c,  D, 
112  E,  F),  which,  however,  was  superseded  immediately  on  the 
introduction  of  the  pointed  arch,  when  each  compartment,  what- 
ever its  shape,  could  be  vaulted  without  reference  to  the  neigh- 
bouring one,  because  the  difference  between  the  width  of  the  nave 
and  the  distance  longitudinally  between  the  piers  could  be  easily 
surmounted  by  pointed  arches  of  different  radius  manipulated  so 
as  to  equalize  the  height  of  the  ribs. 

The  Abbaye-aux-Dames  (La  Trinite),  Caen  (A.D.  1083)  (No.  99), 
in  which  the  progress  of  intersecting  vaulting  is  seen,  the  Church 
of  S.  Nicholas,  Caen  (A.D.  1084),  and  the  Abbey  Church  of  Mont 
S.  Michel  (since  restored),  are  notable  examples. 

The  Abbey  of  S.  Denis,  near  Paris,  was  erected  by  the  great 
building  abbot,  Abbe  Suger,  in  1144,  and  the  choir  and  west  front 
still  remain  as  left  by  him,  although  a  fourteenth  century  nave  Has 
been  wedged  between  them. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — In    the   south,    internal    buttresses,    inclosing    the 
outer  range  of  chapels,  were  preferred,  as  at  Vienne  cathedral. 
Round  churches  are  rare  in  this  district.     Towers  are  detached, 
resembling  Italian  Gampanili.     Cloisters  were  treated  with   the 
utmost  elaboration^and  jricjmess,  usually  having  double  columns 
with  magnificent  capitals-  which  receive  the  round  arches  of  the 
narrow  bays,  and  were  left  entirely  open,  as  glazing  or  tracery 
were  not  required  by  the  climate. 

In  the  north,  the  increasing  demand  for  vaulted  interiors 
modified  the  planning,  and  the  vaulting  ribs  were  provided 
with  individual  shafts,  which  developed  the  pier  plans.  In  the 
setting  out  of  the  bays  important  changes  were  introduced, 
thus  in  early  plans  the  naves  were  vaulted  in  square  bays  com- 
prising two  aisle  bays  longitudinally  (No.  100),  but  on  the  intro- 
duction of  the  pointed  arch  each  oblong  bay  of  the  nave  formed  a 
vaulting  compartment  corresponding  in  length  to  each  aisle  bay. 

B.  "Walls. — Massiveness  is  the  characteristic  of  all  the  early 
work.    Walls  were  of  rubble  with  facing  stones.     Elaboration  was 
reserved  for  doorways  in  the  arcaded  lower  portion  of  the  fa9ades, 
which  are  often  models  of  simplicity  and  richness.     Buttresses 
are  often  mere  strips  of  slight  projection  (No.  99),  and  the  fa9ades 
were  arranged  in  stories,  with  window  lights  in  pairs  or  groups. 
Flying   buttresses,  admitting  of  high  clerestories  with  windows 
lighting  the  nave,  were  introduced  between  A.D.  1150-1200.     Th 
towers  are  mostly  square  with  pyramidal  roofs  (Nos.  99  and'ioi 


u't 


:- 


FRENCH   ROMANESQUE  EXAMPLES. 


ttOION 


100. 


FRENCH  (NORTH)  ROMANESQUE. 


joi.     THE  ABBAYE-AUX-HOMMES  (S.  ETIENNE),  CAEN, 
View  of  East  End. 


254  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

c.  Openings. — The  earlier  vaulted  churches  have  no  clerestory. 
In  the  south,  narrow  openings  with  wide  splays  to  admit  light 
sufficed,  while  in  the  north  a  commencement  in  grouping  was 
made,  more  especially  in  the  direction  of  filling  in  the  vault 
spandrels  of  the  clerestory  with  arrangements  of  three  and  five 
light  openings.  The  ante-chapels  at  the  Church  at  Vezelay 
(1130)  are  generally  referred  to  as  having  the  earliest  pointed 
vaults  in  France.  Imposing  western  entrances  are  characteristic 
of  this  period. 

D.  Roofs. — In  the  south,  the  early  treatment  was  a  tunnel  vault 
to  the  nave,  buttressed  by  half  tunnels  oyer  the  aisles,  often  in 
two  stories,   thus  not  admitting    of  a    clerestory.      The  pointed 
section  was  sometimes  used,  doubtless  to  lessen  the  thrust  upon 
the  walls,  and  in  order  that  the  roofing  slabs  of  stone  might  be 
carried  direct  upon   the  extrados   of   the  vault.      In    the    north, 
clerestories  of  increased   height  were  obtained  by  means  of  the 
intersecting  nave  vaults  (No.  100),  with  .groin  ribs  (introduced 
in  the  twelfth  century),  whose  thrust  was  taken  by  buttress  arches 
concealed  in  the  aisle  roofs — a  step  towards  the  later  flying  but- 
tresses.    The  vault  in  the  southern  examples  frequently  supports 
the  roofing  slabs  direct,  while  in  the  northern  examples  above  the 
stone  vault  were  constructed  wooden  roofs,  which  supported  the 
covering  independent  of  the  vault. 

E.  Columns. — In  nave  arcades,  either  square  piers,  recessed 
in  planes,  and  having  upon  their  faces  half  round  shafts  carried 
up  to  the  vaulting  ribs  (No.  103  M-P),  were  employed,  or  columns, 
circular  or  octagonal,  and   reminiscent    of    Roman  times,  were 
used,   and  then   the  vaulting  shafts  start   awkwardly  from  the 
abacus  of  their  huge' capitals  (No.    103   D,  E),  imitated  from  the 
Corinthian    order.       The   carrying    up   of    the   vaulting    shafts 
emphasizes  the  division  of  the  nave  into  bays. 

F.  Mouldings. — In    the   south,   the    elegance    due   to   classic 
tradition  contrasts  with  the  rough  axed  decoration  cut  upon  the 
structural  features  of  the  Norman  work.     In  the  latter,  arched 
jambs  are  formed  in  recessed  planes  (No:  102),  with  nook  shafts 
plainly  fluted,  or  cut  with  zigzags.     Capitals  are  cubical  blocks, 
either  plain  or  carved  with  copies  of  acanthus  leaves  from  old 
Roman  examples  (No.  103).     Corbel  tables,  supported  by  plain 
blocks    or    grotesque    heads,    form    the    cornices    of    the    walls 
(No.  103  B,  G,  j). 

G.  Ornament. — Painted  glass  was  not  favoured  in  southern 
examples,  small,  clear-glazed  openings  being  employed  to  set  off 
the  opaque  color  decoration  of  the  walls.    Stained  glass  favouring 
large  openings  was  gradually  developed  in  the  north.     The  diaper 
work  so  common  in  the  spandrels  of  arches,  in  northern  work  is 
supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the  imitation,  in  carving,  of  the 
color    pattern    work,  or  draperies  that  originally  occupied    the 


rn-rn 


FRENCH  ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT. 

|S 


FROM        \  FRIEZE  : 
flpac. 


103. 


FRENCH    ROMANESQUE. 

same  positions.     Figure  sculpture  was  more  frequently  employed 
in  the  southern  buildings  (No.  102). 

The  West  Fronts  of  the  churches  of  the  Charente  District  in 
Aquitania  were  elaborately  treated  with  carved  ornament  repre- 
senting foliage  or  figures  of  men  and  animals.  On  the  ground 
story  the  capitals  so  treated,  were  often  continued  as  a  rich,  broad 
frieze. 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

McGibbon  (D.).—  "The  Architecture  of  Provence  and  the  Riviera.'* 
8vo.  1888. 

Pugin  (A.  W.)  and  Le  Keux. — "Architectural  Antiquities  of  Normandy.*' 
4to.  1828. 

Ramee  (D.). — "  Histoire  de  1;  Architecture."     2  vols.,  8vo.     Paris,  1870. 

Revoil  (H.).— "  Architecture  Romane  du  Midi  de  la  France."  3  vols., 
folio.  Paris,  1864-1873. 

Ruprich-Robert  (V.). — "  L' Architecture  Normande  aux  Xle  et  XI le 
siecles."  2  vols.,  folio.  Paris,  1885-1887. 

Sharpe  (Edmund). — "The  Domed  Churches  of  Charente."  410.   1882. 

Spiers  (R.  Phene). — "Saint  Front  of  Perigueux  and  the  Domed 
Churches  of  Perigord  and  La  Charente."  R.I.B.A.  Journal,  February  20, 
1896. 

Thiollier  (N.  and  F.). — "  L'architecture  religieuse  a  1'epoque  romane 
dans  Tancien  diocese  du  Puy."  Folio.  Le  Puy,  1900. 

Verneilh  (F.  de). — "  L' Architecture  Byzantin  en  France."  4to.  Paris, 
1851. 

Viollet-le-Duc. — "  Dictionnaire  de  1' Architecture."  10  vols.,  Svo. 
Paris,  1859.  A  translation  of  the  article  "Construction"  has  been 
published  under  the  title  of  "  Rational  Building,"  by  G.  M.  Huss.  8vo. 
New  York,  1895. 

Yonge  (C.  M.)—"  Richard  the  Fearless"  (Historical  Novel). 


F.A 


GERMAN    ROMANESQUE. 

"  Both  the  Castell  and  the  Toure 
And  eke  the  hall  and  every  boure, 
Without  peeces  or  joynings, 
But  many  subtle  compassings 
As  babeuries  and  pinnacles 
Imageries  and  tabernacles 
I  saw,  and  eke  full  of  windows 
As  flakes  fallen  in  great  snowes." — CHAUCER. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — On  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  the 
south,  cities  had  been  established  during  the  Roman  occupation, 
and  it  was  in  these  parts  that  Christianity  took  root,  while,  in 
the  north  and  east,  paganism  still  existed. 

ii.  Geological. — The  existence  of  stone  in  the  Rhine  valley 
facilitated  the  erection  in  this  material  of  churches,  rendered 
permanent  and  fireproof  by  the  early  introduction  of  vaulting. 
No  stone  being  found  on  the  sandy  plains  of  Northern  Germany, 
brick  was  there  employed,  and  the  style  of  that  district  is  conse- 
quently varied  from  that  of  the  Rhine  valley. 

iii.  Climate. — The  average  temperature  of  Central  Germany 
may  be  said  to  be  the  same  as  Southern  England,  but  with  wider 
extremes,  as  the  heat  in  the  summer  is  ten  degrees  higher,  and 
in  the  winter  correspondingly  lower,  so  that  carriages  in  Berlin 
are  converted  into  sledges. 

iv.  Religion. — In  the  early  period  the  Germans  looked  much 
to  Rome,  and  Charlemagne,  being  a  strong  supporter  of  Christi- 
anity, forced  the  people  of  Saxony  to  embrace  that  religion.  The 
plan  of  a  typical  church  of  this  period  is  peculiar  in  having 
eastern  and  western  apses.  There  are  also  a  number  of  import- 
ant circular  churches,  built  as  tombs,  or  more  especially  as 
baptisteries,  the  conversion  of  the  tribes  giving  great  importance 
to  that  ceremony. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Germany  united  under  Charle- 
magne afterwards  split  up  into  small  principalities,  whereas 
France,  originally  divided  into  many  distinct  nationalities, 
became  fused  into  an  absolute  monarchy  and  has  remained,  in 


GERMAN    ROMANESQUE.  259 

.spite  of  all  changes,  the  most  united  of  continental  powers.  In 
the  later  portion  of  this  period,  Germany  was  troubled  by  the 
dissensions  of  the  two  rival  parties,  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 
the  one  supporting  the  Church  and  municipal  rights,  and  the 
other  representing  the  Imperial  authority,  but  the  conflict  between 
the  two  took  place  mainly  in  North  Italy  (page  405). 

vi.  Historical.— Charlemagne  (A.D.  768-814),  the  first  Prankish 
king  who  became  Roman  Emperor,  was  crowned  by  the  Pope  at 
Rome,  and  ruled  over  the  land  of  the  Franks,  which  included  all 
Central  Germany  and  Northern  Gaul.  In  addition  he  established 
the  Prankish  dominion  over  Southern  Gaul  and  Northern  Italy 
(No.  90).  In  a  great  measure,  he  restored  the  arts  and  civiliza- 
tion to  Western  Europe,  resulting  in  the  erection  of  many 
important  buildings  in  his  dominions. 

On  Charlemagne's  death  in  A.D.  814  this  empire  crumbled  to 
pieces  through  internal  wars,  and  in  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
country,  the  German  princes  pushed  themselves  into  prominence 
by  demanding  the  right  to  elect  their  own  sovereign — Conrad 
the  First,  reigning  as  King  of  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century.  His  successor,  Otho,  extending  the  boundary  of 
the  German  Empire  southwards  into  Lombardy,  was  crowned 
Emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome,  an  event  which  shows  the  leading 
position  of  the  Prankish  emperors  at  the  period,  and  was  not 
without  its  influence  on  the  architecture  of  these  regions.  The 
political  relations  of  the  Hohenstaufen  (or  Swabian)  Emperors 
(A.D.  1138-1273)  with  Lombardy,  is  evidenced  in  the  similarity 
of  the  architecture  of  the  two  countries.  The  house  of  Hapsburg 
succeeded  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  in  1273,  when  French  Gothic 
architecture  was  introduced,  and  henceforth  copied. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  style  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  North  Italian 
Romanesque,  due  to  certain  influences  dealt  with  previously 
(page  234  and  above). 

The  Rhine  districts  possess  the  most  fully-developed  Roman- 
esque architecture,  and  the  style  lias_fe_wejl  local -^axieiies  than 
that_pf  France.  The  plans  of  the  churches  are  peculiar  in  having 
western  and  eastern  apses,  and  no  great  western  entrance  as  in 
France.  The  general  architectural  character  is  rich  in  the  multi- 
plication of  circular  and  octagonal  turrets,  in  conjunction  with 
polygonal  domes,  and  the  use  of  arcaded  galleries  under  the_eayes. 
The  mosFncKIy"  ornamented  parts  are  the  doorways_aiid_capitals, 
which  are  bold  and  effective  in  execution. 

Vaulting  appears  to  have  been  first  adopted  in  the  Rhenish 
churches  some  fifty  years  after  its  general  adoption  in  France. 

s  2 


GERMAN    ROMANESQUE. 


104.  CHURCH  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  COLOGNE. 

View  of  Apse. 


GERMAN    ROMANESgUE.  261 

The  Germans  may  claim  to  be  the  inventors  of  the  Lombardian 
or  North  Italian  Romanesque,  and  their  round  arched  style  lasted 
till  about  1268. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

Saxony  and  the  Rhine  valley  are  specially  rich  in  Romanesque 
examples,  and  few  works  of  importance  were  erected  elsewhere 
till  the  Gothic  period.  Gernrode  Abbey  Church  (958-1050), 
and  S.  Godehard,  HiMesKeim  (1133),  are  of  the  basITican 
type  with  triple  eastern  apses. 

The  Monastery  of  S.  Gall  (circa  A.D.  820)  in  Switzerland 
(page  276),  of  which  a  complete  plan  was  found  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  is  an  interesting  and  typical  example  of  a  German 
Benedictine  monastery  of  the  period.  It  appears  to  have  been 
prepared  by  Eginhard,  Charlemagne's  architect,  and  consisted  of  a 
double-apse  church  and  cloister,  abbot's  lodging,  school,  refectory, 
dormitory,  guest-house,  dispensary,  infirmary,  orchard,  cemetery, 
granaries,  and  bakehouses. 

The  Church  of  the  Apostles,  Cologne  (A.D.  1220-1250)  is 
one  of  a  series  in  that  city  which  possesses  characteristic  features 
(Nos.  104  and  105  A,  B,  c).  In  plan  it  consists  of  a  broad  nave, 
and  of  aisles  half  the  width  of  the  nave.  The  eastern  portion  has 
three  apses,  opening  from  three  sides  of  the  central  space,  crowned 
by  a  low  octagonal  tower,  giving  richness  and  importance  to  this 
portion  of  the  church.  The  grouping  externally  is  effective,  the 
face  of  the  wall  being  divided  up  by  arcading,  and  crowned  with 
the  characteristic  row  of  small  arches  under  the  eaves  of  the  roof. 
The  bold  dignity  of  this  church  may  be  compared  with  the  con- 
fused effect  of  the  French  chevet,  as  S.  Etienne,  Caen  (No.  101). 

S.  Maria  im  Capitol  (ninth  century),  S.  Martin  (A.D.  1150- 
1170),  and  S.  Cunibert,  are  other  examples  of  triapsal  churches 
for  which  the  city  of  Cologne  is  famous. 

Worms  Cathedral  (1110-1200)  (Nos.  105  and  106)  vies  with 
those  of  Mayence  (A.D.  1036),  Treves  (A.D.  1047),  and  Spires 
(A.D.  1030),  as  the  representative  cathedral  of  this  period.  As 
usual  (Nos.  105  D,  E,  F,  G),  the  vaulting  of  one  bay  of  the  nave 
corresponds  with  two  of  the  aisles,  both  being  covered  with  cross 
vaults.  Twin  circular  towers  flank  the  eastern  and  western  apses, 
and  the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  transept  is  covered  with  a  low 
octagonal  tower,  having  a  pointed  roof.  The  entrances  were  placed 
at  the  side,  a  position  which  found  favour  in  Germany  as  well 
as  in  England.  The  fa9ades  have  semicircular  headed  windows, 
framed  in  with  flat  pilaster  strips  as  buttresses. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  Cathedral  (No.  83  E,  F),  built  A.D.  768-814 
by  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  as  a  royal  tomb-house  for 
himself,  is  interesting  as  resembling  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna 


GERMAN    ROMANESQUE  EXAMPLES. 


mm  LONcrruDrai  ELECTION 


TEMNSEPTS 
PfDOTQH  TRMRMLIN 
TKTOE  ®  A  WWi  WK>TEUfl 


105. 


264  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

(No.  83  c,  D).  A  short  description  is  given  on  No.  83.  The 
building  has  been  much  altered  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
for  the  Gothic  choir  was  added  in  1353  to  1413,  and  the  gables  and 
roof  of  the  octagon  are  of  the  thirteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
The  chapels  surrounding  the  structure  are  of  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  the  western  tower  has  been  added  in 
recent  years.  The  building  is  of  interest,  historically,  as  the 
crowning  place  of  the  Western  Emperors. 

Laach  Abbey  Church  (A.D.  1093-1156)  is  a  Benedictine 
example  built  completely  in  this  style.  On/either  side  of  the 
western  apse,  which  is  used  as  a  tomb-house,  are  the  principal 
entrances  from  the  western  atrium,  and  there  are  three  eastern 
apses.  The  vaulting-bays  of  the  nave  and  aisles  are  of  similar 
width. 

Lubeck  Cathedral  (A.D.  1173),  is  a  type  of  brick  architecture 
peculiar  to  North  Germany  ;  but  the  choir  and  aisles  were  not 
added  till  A.D.  1335  (page  398). 

Germany  is  remarkable  for  a  series  of  double  or  two-storied 
churches,  generally  attached  to  castles,  as  at  Nuremberg,  Lands- 
berg,  and  Steinfurt.  In  these  it  is  held  that  the  upper  chapel  was 
used  by  the  Prince  and  his  personal  retinue,  and  the  lower  by  his 
retainers,  but  in  some  instances  the  upper  church  would  appear 
to  have  been  provided  in  case  of  floods. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — The  naves  and  aisles  are  vaulted  in  square  bays, 
one  vaulting  bay  of  the  nave  being  equal  to  two  of  the  aisles,  as 
in  the  plan  of  Worms  Cathedral  (No.  105  G),  arid  the  Church  of 
the  Apostles,  Cologne  (No.  105  c). 

The  choir  is  always  apsidal,  and  often  raised,  as  in  Lombardy, 
to  admit  of  cry_pts  jbeneath.  Western  as  well  as  eastern  transepts 
occur,  contrasting  in  this  respect  with  Italian  examples,  and  over 
the  crossing  a  tower,  sometimes  octagonal  (No.  106),  is  generally 
found.  Western  apses  are  frequent  (No.  105  G),  as  at  Treves 
and  the  Abbey  Church  at  Laach,  and  apses  also  occur  at  the 
ends  of  transepts,  as  in  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  at  Cologne 
(No.  105  c). 

Numerous  towers,  either  square,  circular,  or  polygonal,  pro- 
ducing a  rich  and  varied  outline,  were  employed,  two  being  usually 
at  the  east  end  flanking  the  apse,  and  two  at  the  west  end,  con- 
nected by  a  gallery  (Nos.  106  and  107  G).  The  towers  rise  in 
successive  stories,-  and  a  characteristic  finish  consists  of  four 
gables  and  a  steep  roof,  a  hip  rafter  rising  from  each  gable  top 
(No.  107  G). 

B.  Walls. — The  blank  walls  are  cut  up  by  flat  pilaster  strips, 
connected  horizontally  by  ranges  of  small  arches  springing  from 


GERMAN  ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT. 


SHOVING  CHflRflCTERl5T  1C  TOWER  ROOP3  E 


107. 


266  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

corbels  (Nos.  105  D  and  107  E).  Owing  to  the  smallness  of  scale 
this  favourite  feature  may  be  considered  as  a  string  course  or 
cornice. 

Open  arcades,  the  origin  of  which  have  already  been  dealt 
with  (page  237),  occur  under  the  eaves  of  roofs,  especially  round 
the  apses  (Nos.  104  and  106).  The  churches  have  sometimes  a 
triforium  and  always  a  clerestory. 

c.  Openings. — No  tendency  towards  tracery  is  found.  The 
windows  are  usually  single,  being  rarely  grouped  (No.  106). 
The  doorways  (Nos.  105  and  107  N)  are  placed  at  the  side,  rarely 
in  the  west  front  or  transept  ends. 

D.  Roofs. — In  the  Rhine  district  a  central  semicircular  barrel 
vault  was  supported  by  half-barrel  vaults  over  the  aisles,  a  system 
which  led  by  degrees  to  complete  Gothic  vaulting.     Timber  roofs 
were  also  employed  for  large  spans.     Tower  roofs,  and  spires  of 
curious  form,  are  a  special  feature  of  the  style.     A  gable  on  each 
tower  face,  with  high  pitched  intersecting  roofs  (No.   107  G),  is 
common,  the  latter  being  formed  by  the  intersections  of  the  planes 
between  the  adjacent  sides  of  adjoining  gables  forming  a  pyramid, 
being  a  step  in  the  evolution  of  spire  growth. 

E.  Columns. — The  nave  arcades  were  generally  constructed  of 
square  piers,  with  half  columns  attached,  and  the  alternation  of 
piers  and  columns  is  a  favourite  German  feature.      The  capitals 
(No.  107  c,  D,  F,  H),  though  bold  in  execution,  are  well  designed, 
being  superior  to  the  later  Gothic  examples. 

F.  Mouldings  (see  Walls). — These  are  as  a  rule  of  indifferent 
design,  but  the  capitals  and  bases  take  a  distinctive  form,  leading 
from  Roman  through  Romanesque  to  Gothic. 

G.  Ornament. — Internally  the  flat  plain  surfaces  were  occa- 
sionally decorated  in  fresco,  and  the  traditions  and  examples  of 
the   early    Christian    and    Byzantine    mosaic    decorations,    were 
carried  on  in  color.     In  the  north  colored  bricks  were  used,  and 
were    unsuitable   for   rich    decoration,    thus   accounting   for    the 
absence  of  sculptured  foliage. 

5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Boisseree  (S.). — "  Denkmale  der  Baukunst  am  Nieder-Rhein."  Folio. 
Munich,  1844. 

Moller  (G.). — <;  Denkmaeler  der  Deutschen  Baukunst."  Folio.  Leipzig, 
1852. 

Hardy  (A.  S.).— "  Passe  Rose  "  (Historical  Novel). 


PIM01 


13™  CENTURY 


108. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE     IN 
EUROPE. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION.  1 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  nations  of  Western  Europe  had  come 
into  existence.  Germany  was  the  centre  of  the  Western  Empire 
and  the  Kingdoms  of  France,  Italy  and  Spain  were  also  becoming 
strong  united  states.  Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway  had  little  to 
do  with  Western  Europe.  England  had  become  thoroughly  united 
under  the  Norman  Kings.  The  map  (No.  108)  gives  the  general 
distribution  of  the  various  countries  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

ii.  Geological. — Refer  to  each  country. 

iii.  Climate. — Refer  to  each  country.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  sun,  in  Northern  Europe,  is  more  suitable  for  Gothic 
than  Classic  Architecture,  for  it  is  a  sun  wheeling  somewhat  low  on 
an  average  round  the  sky,  and  shadows  are  better  caught  by  out- 
standing buttresses  and  the  flying  lateral  members  of  a  Gothic 

1  Before  treating  of  the  development  of  the  style  peculiar  to  each  country,  a 
general  outline  sketch  is  given. 


268  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

facade,  than  by  the  level  lines  of  the  heavy  horizontal  Classic 
cornices,  which  are  more  effective,  under  the  Grecian  or  Italian 
sun,  which  moves  higher  in  the  firmament. 

Snow  and  inclement  weather  were  responsible  for  the  high 
pitched  Gothic  roof  of  Northern  Europe. 

iv.  Religion. — Introductory  remarks  and  a  description  of  the 
various  order  of  monks  are  given  on  page  218.  The  immense 
power  of  the  Popes,  which  was  probably  at  its  height  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  was  evidenced  in  the  way  they  made  and 
unmade  Emperors  and  Kings  and  disposed  of  their  dominions. 
The  clergy,  in  consequence  of  their  learning,  also  took  a  pro^ 
minent  part  in  temporal  affairs,  and  by  so  doing  attracted  wealtri" 
and  power  to  their  orders.  Jn  Germany,  many  of  the  Abbots 
and  Bishops  were  princes  of  the  Empire,  and  the  Archbishops 
of  Cologne,  Treves,  and  Mayence  were  among  the  Electors  of 
the  Emperor.  The  worship  of  relics,  and  of  local  saints  (as  S.  Hugh 
at  Lincoln,  S.  Thomas  at  Canterbury,  S.  Swithun  at  Winchester), 
the  periodical  pilgrimages,  the-adoration  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and 
other  forms  of  ritual,  also  had  their  influence  on  the  monuments. 
Msriokbtry  was  responsible  for  the  addition  of'  lady  chapels  either 
laterally,  as  at  Ely  (No.  117  A),  or  at  the  eastern  extremity,  as 
at  Salisbury  (No.  117  E).  The  demand  for  chapels  dedicated  to 
particular  saints,  for  an  ambulatory  to  be  used  for  processional 
purposes,  and  the  foundation  of  chantry  chapels  where  masses 
for  the  dead  could  be  repeated,  also  affected  the  general  plan  of 
many  buildings. 

v.  Social  and  Political.  -±-  Refer  to  each  country.  The 
growth  of  towns  which  developed  into  important  cities  brought 
.about  an  increase  of  riches  and  the  erection  of  magnificent'build- 
ings  owing  to  municipal  rivalries.  In  Italy,  the  country  was 
divided  into  different  portions  belonging  to  the  larger  towns, 
which  afterwards  became  principalities,  whereas  in  Germany, 
towns  joined  together  for  mutual  defence,  amongst  the  most 
famous  being  those  forming  the  Hanseatic  league.  ".  \  * 

vi.   Historical. — Refer  to  each  country. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  principles  and  character  of  Gothic  architecture  were' similar 
throughout  Western  Europe,  and  are  indicated  on  No.  109.  The 
fully-developed  Gothic  art  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  the  style 
which  had  been  slowly  developing  itself  throughout  Europe  as 
a  necessary  sequence  of  Romanesque  art,  and  is  mainly  recog- 
nized because  of  the  introduction  and  use  in  door  and  window 
openings,  arcades,  vaulting  and  ornamentation  of  the  pointed  arch 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  269 

which,  indeed,  is  so  characteristic  as  to  give  a  suggestion  of  height 
coinciding  with  the  aspiring  tendency  of  the  style  and  its  connection 
•  with  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  period. 

In  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  Gothic 
masons  carried  to  the  utmost  the  use  of  stone  as  a  building 
material,  heaping  it  up  in  towers  that  rose  on  open  archways 
v  through  the  lofty  roofs  of  the  naves  and  transepts,  and  .tapered 
away  in  shell-like  spires  embroidered  in  all  the  fretwork  of  lace- 
like  tracery.  They  hung  it  aloft  in  ponderous  vaults  treated  by 
art  to  seem  the  gossamer  web  of  nature,  scarce  capable  of  bearing 
the  stalactite  pendants  in  which  the  fancy  of  the  fifteenth  century 
^  found  its  expression,  and  eventually  pushing  their  practice  to 
the  furthest  boundaries,  they  cut  the  granular  stone  to  the  thin- 
ness of  fibrous  wood  or  iron,  and  revelled  in  tricks  of  construction 
and  marvels  of  workmanship. 

The  Gothic  architects,  developing  still  further  the  principles  of 
Romanesque  architecture  (page  221),  had  to  employ  the  materials 
at  hand  according  to  their  nature,  and  to  seek  for  those  laws  of 
'  elasticity  and  equilibrium  whidi  were  substituted  for  those  of 
inert  "stability  as  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  This 
elasticity  was  obtained  by  the  employment  of  stone  laid  in 
narrow  courses  with  tolerably  th;ck  mortar  joints. 

Every  vertical  support  in  Gothic  architecture  depended  for  its 
stability  on  being  stayed  by  a  buttress,  which  in  its  turn  was  weighted 
by  a  pinnacle ;  and  every  arch-thrust  met  another  which  counter- 
acted it.  In  the  case  of  the  nave  vaults,  the  collected  pressures  of 
the  vaulting  and  roof  were  counteracted  by  arches,  called  flying 
buttresses,  leaning  against  the  nave  wall  and  supported  at  some 
distance  by  massive  piers,  weighted  with  tall  pinnacles  (Nos. 
109  A,  141  F,  G,  H,  and  153  A).  Walls  became  mere  enclosures, 
and  the  entire  structure  consisted  of  a  framework  of  piers,  but- 
tresses, arches,  and  ribbed  vaulting  held  in  equilibrium  by  the 
combination  of  oblique  forces  neutralizing  each  other  (No.  141). 
Even  the  .walls  themselves  were  occupied  principally  by  glazed 
windows,  divided  by  stone  mullions,  having  their  upper  parts 
designed  with  combinations  of  curves  of  great  variety.  No  such 
system  of  construction,  it  is  evident,  could  have  been  developed 
without  the  employment  of  such  a  material  as  stone,  laid  in 
tolerably  small  courses  with  mortar  joints,  which  gave  the  necessary 
elasticity  to  the  various  pressures. 

These  principles  led  to  the  introduction  of  much  novelty  in 
mouldings,  capitals  and  piers,  for  the  numerous  vaulting  ribs 
being  collected  at  intervals  were  supported  on  capitals  of  a  shape 
formed  to  fit  them,  and  these  were  provided  with  shafts,  some- 
times carried  on  corbels  and  sometimes  continued  to  the  ground, 
influencing  very  largely  the  form  of  the  nave  piers. 

Further,  the  comparative  scarcity  of  materials  taught  the  Gothic 


PRINCIPLE}  OF  (sOTflIC  COM5TBOCTION. 

mwcnvE  mwciTiEs  OF$  mime  ODBMftL 

IN  IKS  WFWHWT  ©F  NMBD  CB»  10W03  (f 


TING  OUT  OF  6ROIH- 
ED  VAULT  WITH 


NNKE  HL'MID  5^1WfIN6  TOM  ftiftllE  KJITSE^Ej 
VBMItl  IT  IDBOOQ,  «K9  W  lp«tt  ^  TO  NUMN 


109. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  271 

architects  to  practise  economy  in  their  use,  the  characteristic 
mouldings  of  the  Mediaeval  period  exhibiting  much  less  waste  of 
material  than  those  common  in  Classic  times. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  constructional  features  them- 
selves to  which  an  attractive  form  was  given,  and  in  this 
particular,  the  architecture  of  this  period  stands  in  close  relation 
to  Greek  art. 

The  same  principle  of  truth  was  upheld,  but  the  form  had 
changed,  and  it  was  no  longer  the  self-contained  Greek  temple,  re- 
poseful in  the  severity  of  horizontal  lines,  but  a  complex,  restless 
structure  whose  aspiring  tendencies  found  expression  in  vertical 
grouping,  unity  being  obtained  by  the  exact  and  necessary 
correlation  between  all  the  parts. 

Although  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  architectural  features  were 
founded  primarily  on  structural  necessity,  yet  others  were  the 
expression  of  artistic  invention  and  of  aesthetic  requirements. 

Form,  in  the  best  types  of  architecture,  is  not  the  result  of 
caprice,  but  is  only  the  expression  of  the  structural  necessities. 
If  the  column  is  a  real  support  and  has  an  expanded  capital  it  is 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  a  particular  load ;  if  the  mouldings 
and  ornaments  have  particular  developments  it  is  because  they 
are  necessary,  and  if  the  vaults  are  divided  by  ribs  it  is  because 
they  are  so  many  sinews  performing  a  necessary  function.  The 
spire  was  evolved  from  no  utilitarian  requirements,  but  was  a 
sign  of  the  communal  spirit — and  an  indication  of  municipal 
prosperity,  of  which  it  formed  an  outward  and  visible 
expression. 

The  architecture  was  adapted  to  a  structure  of  small  stones 
with  thick  mortar  joints,  and  was  a  compromise  between  the 
concrete  walling  and  the  jointed  stones  (without  mortar) 
of  the  Romans.  The  military  organization,  which  had  helped 
to  mould  the  Roman  style,  was  wanting  in  the  Gothic  period, 
stone  having  to  be  sought  in  various  quarries  from  different 
proprietors  and  transported  by  voluntary  aid,  or  by  workmen  who 
were  forced  labourers,  doing  as  little  as  possible,  and  taken  away, 
ever  and  anon,  to  fight  in  their  owners'  battles.  As  to  the 
material  at  hand,  the  Gothic  architects  of  Western  Europe 
possessed  stone  which  was  strong  and  hard,  and  could  be  split 
into  thin  pieces,  but  had  not  at  their  disposal  either  the  marble  of 
Pentelicus  or  the  blocks  of  granite  which  the  Romans  procured 
from  Corsica,  the  Alps,  and  the  East ;  thus  they  were  absolutely 
compelled  to  erect  considerable  buildings  with  thin  courses  of 
stone,  whereas  the  Greeks  erected  small  buildings  with  enormous 
blocks  of  marble,  conditions  naturally  influencing  the  forms  of 
each  style  of  architecture.  Romanesque  architecture  con- 
sisted of  walling  formed  of  a  rubble  core  between  two  faces  of 
stonework,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  loftier 


272  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

and  more  extensive  edifices  being  built,  a  new  method  was 
gradually  evolved.  In  seeking  to  diminish  the  size  of  the  piers 
and  thickness  of  the  walls,  it  was  necessary  for  the  archi- 
tects of  this  period  to  find  a  mode  of  construction  more  homo- 
geneous and  more  capable  of  resistance,  and  to  avoid  the  expense 
of  labour  which  the  carrying  of  material  of  large  size  involved. 

The  walls,  therefore,  became  of  secondary  importance,  their 
place  being  occupied  by  stained  glass  windows,  and  the  support  of 
the  structure  was  effected  entirely  by  means  of  buttresses  or  short 
walls  placed  so  as  best  to  resist  the  thrust  of  thje  vaulting. 

Vaulting. — The  method  was  an  extension  of  the  Roman- 
esque system,  which  was  evolved  from  that  of  the  Romans 
(page  224)  and  consisted  of  a  framework  of  independent  ribs, 
which  were  first  constructed  and  which  supported  thin  panels  of 
stone.  The  difficulties  of  vaulting  oblong  compartments,  were 
now  overcome  by  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch,  which  was 
used  to  cover  the  shorter  spans,  while  the  semicircular  arch  was 
still  used  for  some  time  for  the  diagonal  ribs.  The  ribs  became 
permanent  centres  on  which  the  panels  or  "infilling"  of  thin 
stone  could  rest,  and  enabled  the  building  to  be  erected  all  at 
once  or  in  parts  without  disadvantage  to  the  solidity  of  the  edifice. 
As  indicated  on  Nos.  109  and  141,  the  pressures  of  the  vaults  were 
transmitted  to  the  angles  of  each  compartment  by  the  diagonal 
ribs.  Such  pressures  are  of  two  kinds  :  outwards  by  the  nature  of 
the  arch,  and  downwards  by  the  weight  of  the  material,  the 
resultant  of  the  two  being  in  an  oblique  direction.  The  increase 
of  the  number  and  variety  of  ribs  and  the  consequent  form  of 
the  vaults  (No.  in  D)  during  the  three  centuries  of  Gothic 
architecture  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  studies  of  the 
style. 

The  invention  of  painted  glass  was  an  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  style,  for  traceried  windows  came  to  be  looked 
upon  merely  as  frames  in  which  to  exhibit  painted  transparent 
pictures  displaying  the  incidents  of  Bible  History.  Neither 
the  painted  sculpture  and  hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptian  temples, 
the  colored  and  sculptured  slabs  of  the  Assyrian  palaces,  the 
paintings  of  the  Greek  temples,  nor  the  mosaics  and  frescoes 
of  the  Byzantine  and  Romanesque  periods  produced  color  effects 
that  can  be  compared  with  the  brilliancy  and  the  many-tinted 
splendours  of  the  transparent  walls  of  a  Gothic  cathedral. 
In  the  north  and  west  of  Europe,  where  painted  glass  was  the 
principal  mode  of  decoration,  the  walls  were  kept  internally 
as  flat  as  possible,  so  as  to  allow  the  windows  to  be  seen 
internally  in  every  direction,  all  the  mechanical  expedients  of 
buttresses  and  pinnacles  being  placed  externally.  Further, 
when  by  the  grouping  of  windows  and  the  subsequent  forma- 
tion of  mullions  and  tracery,  the  entire  screen  wall  between 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  273 

the  piers  came  to  be  occupied  by  bright  colored  windows,  these 
of  necessity  took  the  pointed  form  of  the  vault,  originally  adopted 
for  constructive  reasons  arising  from  the  progress  of  the  art  of 
vaulting,  which  was  further  influenced  by  the  desire  for  lofty 
windows  to  act  as  frames  for  the  glass. 


3.   EXAMPLES. 

BUILDINGS    ERECTED    DURING    THE 
MIDDLE    AGES. 

CATHEDRALS  AND  CHURCHES. 

The  construction  of  these  buildings,  many  of  which  were 
founded  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  was  carried  on  from 
generation  to  generation. 

The  place  in  the  national  life  which  the  mediaeval  cathedrals 
occupied  was  an  important  one,  and  must  be  realized  in  order  to 
understand  how  they  were  regarded.  Cathedrals  were  erected 
and  decorated  partly  as  a  means  of  popular  education,  and  they 
were  the  history  books  of  the  period,  taking  the  place  in  the  social 
state  since  occupied,  to  a  large  extent,  by  such  modern  institutions 
as  the  Board  School,  Free  Library,  Museum,  Picture  Gallery  and 
Concert  Hall.  The  sculpture  and  the  painted  glass  reflected  the 
incidents  of  Bible  History  from  the  creation  to  the  redemption 
of  mankind,  the  sculptured  forms  and  brilliant  coloring  being 
easily  understood  by  the  people.  The  virtues  and  vices,  with  their 
symbols,  were  there  displayed,  either  in  glass  or  statuary,  along 
with  their  reward  or  punishment ;  saints  and  angels  told  of  the 
better  life,  and  the  various  handicrafts,  both  of  peace  and  war, 
were  mirrored  in  imperishable  stone  or  colored  glass. 

Architecture  then  as  now  was  also  the  grand  chronicle  of 
secular  history,  past  and  present,  in  which  Kings,  Nobles  and 
Knights  were  represented. 

The  plans  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  as  may  be  seen  on  referring 
to  those  of  England  (Nos.  117,  118,  119,  120  and  127),  France 
(Nos.  155  and  159),  Belgium  (No.  167),  Germany  (Nos.  170 
and  172),  and  Italy  (Nos.  176  and  179),  are  generally  in  the  form 
of  a  Latin  cross,  the  short  arms,  north  and  south,  forming  the 
transepts.  The  cruciform  ground  plan  is  considered  by  some  as 
a  development  from  the  early  Christian  basilicas,  such  as  Old 
S.  Peter,  Rome  (page  182),  and  by  others,  as  evolved  from  the 
cruciform  buildings  erected  for  sepulchral  purposes  as  early  as 
the  period  of  Constantine.  A  tower,  sometimes  crowned  with  a 
spire,  was  generally  erected  over  the  crossing  or  at  the  west  end. 
\s  a  rule  the  nave  is  the  portion  to  the  westward,  and  the  choir, 

F.A.  T 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  275 

containing  the  bishop  and  clergy,  is  that  to  the  eastward  of  the 
crossing. 

~  Each  of  these  divisions  is  further  divided  into  a  central  nave 
and  side  aisles,  separated  by  columns  or  piers.  The  principal 
entrance,  often  richly  ornamented,  is  at  the  west  end,  or  by  a 
porch  on  the  south  or  north  sides. 

The  columns  or  piers  support  arches  (the  nave  arcade),  which 
carry  the  main  walls,  rising  above  the  aisle  roof  (Nos.  109  A 
and  141  G).  Above  this  arcade  are  a  series  of  small  arches, 
opening  into  a  dark  space  caused  by  the  height  of  the  sloping 
roof  of  the  aisle ;  this  is  called  the  triforium,  or  "  blind  story." 
Above  Hhe  triforium  is  a  range  of  windows  in  the  main  wall, 
admitting  light  into  the  upper  part  of  the  nave ;  this  division 
is  called  the  clerestory,  or  "clear  story,"  probably  derived  from 
the  French  word  clair,  light  being  admitted  by  the  windows  in 
this  portion  of  the  nave  wall.  The  head  of  these  windows  is 
generally  the  level  of  the  ridge  of  the  stone  vault  of  the  nave, 
which  is  covered  by  a  high  pitched  wooden  roof. 

The  east  ends  or  choirs,  usually  square-ended  in  England 
(Nos.  117,  118,  119  and  120)  are  generally  richer  than  the 
remainder  of  the  church,  and  the  floor  is  raised  above  the  nave 
level  by  steps. 

The  east  ends  of  Norwich  (No.  118  D),  Gloucester  (No.  118  c), 
Peterborough  (No.  117  D),  Lichfield  (No.  120  j),  and  Canterbury 
(No.  118  B),  all  of  Norman  origin,  were  circular,  while  West- 
minster Abbey  has  a  ring  of  chapels  or  chevet  (No.  127). 

The  lady-chapel  is  placed  beyond  the  choir  at  the  extreme  east 
end,  as  at  Norwich,  Peterborough,  and  Salisbury  (No.  117  E),  or 
on  one  side,  as  at  Ely  (No.  117  A). 

The  cloisters  attached  to  so  many  of  the  English  cathedrals, 
forming  part  of  the  original  monastic  buildings,  were  probably 
derived  from  the  atrium  of  the  Early  Christian  period  (page  180). 
They  are  generally,  but  not  invariably,  south  and  west  of  the  tran- 
sept, in  the  warmest  and  most  sheltered  position,  forming  the 
centre  of  the  secular  affairs  of  the  monastery,  and  a  means  of 
communication  between  different  parts  of  the  Abbey, 

Such  is  the  general  distribution  of  the  parts  of  a  cathedral  or 
large  church,  from  which,  naturally,  there  are  many  deviations, 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  position  and  number  of  transepts 
(Nos.  117,  118,  119,  120,  155,  159,  167  and  187). 

Great  length,  and  central  towers  (see  Chichester,  Durham, 
Worcester,  Rochester,  Oxford,  York,  Chester,  Gloucester  and 
Wells),  are  features  of  English  cathedrals ;  western  towers  also 
occur  in  many  examples,  as  at  Lichfield  (with  spires),  Durham, 
Canterbury,  York,  Wells,  Lincoln  and  Ripon.  Compared  with  such 
long,  low,  and  highly  grouped  examples,  Continental  cathedrals 
seem  short,  high,  and  often  shapeless,  owing  to  the  intricacy  and 

T  2 


276  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

profusion  of  their  buttressing  (Nos.  109,  153,  154).     In  churches, 
a  single  western  tower  is  an  English  characteristic  (No.  130). 
The  interior  of  a  Gothic  cathedral  has  been  thus  described : 

"  The  tall  shafts  that  mount  in  massy  pride, 
Their  mingling  branches  shoot  from  side  to  side  ; 
Where  elfin  sculptors  with  fantastic  clue 
O'er  the  long  roof  their  wild  embroidery  drew  ; 
When  superstition,  with  capricious  hand, 
In  many  a  maze,  the  wreathed  window  planned, 
With  hues  romantic  tinged  the  gorgeous  pane, 
To  fill  with  holy  light  the  wondrous  fane, 
To  aid  the  builder's  model,  richly  rude, 
By  no  Vitruvian  symmetry  subdued." 

The  English  Cathedrals,  as  a  general  rule,  owe  much  of  their 
beauty  to  the  fact  that  they  are  generally  placed  in  a  large  open 
space  called  the  Close,  as  at  Canterbury,  Lincoln  (No.  i25)>and 
Salisbury  (No.  121) — 

"The  ranged  ramparts  bright 
From  level  meadow-bases  of  deep  grass 
Suddenly  sealed  the  light  " — 

or  are  situated  picturesquely  on    the   banks    of  a  river,    as    at 
Worcester,  or  Durham,  described  by  Scott  as, 

"  Grand  and  vast  that  stands  above  the  Wear  ;  " 
or,  as  Milton  so  descriptively  has  it,  are 

"  Bosom'd  high  'mid  tufted  trees." 

The  French  Cathedrals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  often  completely 
surrounded  by  houses  and  shops  (page  368),  which  in  many 
cases  were  actually  built  against  the  wall  of  the  church  itself 
(No.  162).  For  comparison  of  English  and  French  Cathedrals, 
see  page  378. 

MONASTERIES. 

These  were  amongst  the  most  important  structures  erected  in 
the  middle  ages,  and  were  important  factors  in  the  development 
of  mediaeval  architecture.  They  were  erected  by  the  various 
religious  orders  already  referred  to  (page  218). 

The  monks  according  to  their  several  orders  favoured  different 
pursuits.  The  Benedictine  was  the  chronicler  and  most  learned 
of  monks,  and  his  dress  was  adopted  by  University  students  ;  the 
Augustinian  favoured  preaching  and  disputations ;  the  Cistercian1 
was  the  recluse,  the  friend  of  the  poor,  interested  in  agriculture 
and  industrial  pursuits  ;  the  Cluniac  was  the  student  and  artist ; 
the  Carthusian  the  ascetic ;  and  the  Friars  the  missionary 
preachers  of  the  period. 

A  complete  monastery,  of  which  S.  Gall  (page  261)  and 
Westminster  Abbey  (No.  127)  are  good  examples,  included 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  277 

beside  the  church : — (a.)  A  Cloister  Court,  off  which  were  placed 
the  Chapter  House,  with  the  Sacristy  between  it  and  the  church, 
and  the  dormitory  adjoining  the  church,  approached  by  a  separate 
staircase.  The  cellarage  for  beer,  wine  and  oil,  was  often 
placed  under  the  dormitory.  On  the  opposite  side  to  the  church 
were  the  refectory  (dining  hall)  and  kitchens,  thus  placed  to 
keep  away  noise  and  smell.  The  lavatory  was  usually  placed 
in  the  south  cloister  walk  as  at  Westminster,  Wells,  Chester, 
Peterborough  and  Gloucester,  (b.)  An  Inner  Court,  with  infir- 
mary, guest  house,  kitchen,  servants'  hall,  library  and  scriptorium 
(the  writing  and  illuminating  room  for  making  copies  of  books). 
(0.)  A  Common  Court,  with  double  gateway  for  carts,  surrounded 
by  granaries,  bakehouses,  stables,  store  rooms,  servants'  rooms, 
tribunal,  prison,  abbot's  lodging,  and  barn,  (d}  The  Church 
Court  or  Close,  open  to  the  public,  (e.)  Mills,  workshops,  gardens, 
orchards,  and  fishponds. 

Monasteries  answered  the  purpose  of  inns  in  little  frequented 
places,  as  is  the  case  to  this  day  on  the  continent. 

SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE. 

Examples  of  secular  work,  such  as  castles  and  residences  of  the 
nobles,  the  dwellings  of  the  people,  hospitals,  and  other  civil  and 
domestic  work  are  referred  to  under  each  country. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

The  comparative  analysis  of  each  country  is  given  separately, 
and  a  comparative  table  of  the  underlying  differences  between 
the  Gothic  and  Renaissance  styles  is  given  on  page  442. 


5.   REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Lists  are  given  with  each  country. 


ENGLISH     ARCHITECTURE. 

\ 

ANGLO-SAXON,    ROMANESQUE    (NORMAN), 
AND    GOTHIC. 

"  Diffused  in  every  part, 
Spirit  divine  through  forms  of  human  art, 
Faith  had  her  arch, — her  arch  when  winds  blew  loud, 
Into  the  consciousness  of  safety  thrill'd  ; 
And  Love  her  tower-;  of  dread  foundation,  laid 
Under  the  grave  of  things.     Hope  had  her  spire 
Star  high,  and  pointing  still  to  something  higher." — WORDSWORTH. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  position  of  England  may  well  be 
considered  unique. 

"  England,  bound  in  with  the  triumphant  sea, 
Who.se  rocky  shore  beats  back  the  envious  siege. 

This  fortress  built  by  nature  for  herself 
Against  infection  and  the  hand  of  war; 
This  happy  breed  of  men,  this  little  world, 
This  precious  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea, 
Which  serves  it  in  the  office  of  a  wall, 
Or  as  a  moat,  defensive  to  a  house, 
Against  the  envy  of  less  happier  lands." 

SHAKESPEARE,  Richard  II. 

England  being  an  island  with  natural  harbours,  and  lying 
opposite  the  rich  and  populous  plains  of  Europe,  owed  much 
of  her  development  to  the  intercourse  effected  by  her  ships. 
Isolation  by  the  sea  has  had  two  alternating  influences,  for 
it  has  assisted  in  the  development  of  purely  national  characteristics, 
and  by  giving  rise  to  an  incurable  habit  of  travelling,  has  led 
to  the  importation  of  continental  ideas  in  architecture. 

ii.  Geological. — The  geology  of  the  country  is,  in  some  way, 
responsible  for  the  special  character  of  the  buildings  in  different 
parts  of  England,  thus  the  transport  of  stone  by  sea  was  an 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE.  279 

important  reason  for  its  use  in  some  districts,  but  in  the  Fen 
districts,  in  the  absence  of  good  roads,  material  was  conveyed  on 
horseback. 

The  granites  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  the  limestones  of  Port- 
land, and  the  oolitic  formations,  such  as  the  Bath  stones,  have  all 
affected  the  districts  in  which  they  are  found,  although,  of  course, 
as  transport  became  easier,  there  was  a  tendency  for  these 
local  distinctions  to  disappear.  Even  in  the  Middle  Ages 
stone  was  brought  from  a  distance,  Caen  stone  from  Normandy 
being  used  in  the  erection  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  and  other 
churches. 

Brickwork  of  modern  type  came  into  general  use  in  England 
about  A.D.  1300,  after  being  comparatively  unused  since  the 
departure  of  the  Romans,  Little  Wenham  Hall  (A.D.  1260),  in 
Suffolk,  being  probably  the  earliest  brick  building  existing  in 
England. 

During  the  reigns  of  William  and  Mary  and  Queen  Anne, 
brickwork  was  largely  used  in  house  construction  by  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren  and  others.  Hampton  Court  contains  good  examples 
of  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  brickwork. 

In  chalk  districts  the  characteristic  flint  work  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
and  parts  of  the  south  coast,  gives  a  special  character  to  the 
architecture  of  these  districts. 

Terra-cotta  was  also  employed,  as  at  Layer  Marney  Towers, 
Essex  (1500-1525),  and  in  parts  of  Hampton  Court  Palace. 

Where  forests  afforded  abundant  material,  as  in  Lancashire, 
Cheshire  and-  elsewhere,  half-timbered  houses  were  erected,  chiefly 
during  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries  (Nos.  132  j, 
150,  and  247). 

iii.  Climate. — The  climate  is  cool,  temperate,  mild,  and  moist, 
and  is  adapted  for  almost  continuous  work,  during  every  season, 
but  cold,  damp,  and  high  winds  with  much  rain  necessitate  con- 
stant forethought  in  building  to  exclude  the  weather.  The  deep 
porches  and  small  entrances  of  English  cathedrals  are  in  contrast 
with  continental  entrances,  and  are  directly  influenced  by  the 
climate. 

iv.  Religion. — The  conversion  to  Christianity  of  the  Kentish 
King  ^Ethelbert  was  effected  by  S.  Augustine  in  A.D.  597.  By  the 
end  of  the  tenth  century  the  greater  part  of  Europe  had  embraced 
Christianity.  The  power  of  the  papacy  had  steadily  grown,  and 
was  at  its  height  from  the  eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
during  which  period  several  popes  succeeded  in  overruling  the 
civil  power. 

In  England,  attempts  at  the  assertion  of  national  independence 
were  continuous,  but  not  pushed  to  extremes  until  a  later  date. 
The  distinction  between  the  regular  and  secular  clergy  was  fully 
established,  and  the  different  orders  of  monks  had  come  into 


280  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

existence,  their  buildings  exhibiting  characteristic  points  of  differ- 
ence (page  2 1 8).  The  Crusades,  indicating  the  religious  zeal  of 
the  period,  are  referred  to  on  pages  218,  283,  363. 

John  Wycliffe  (d.  1384)  asserted  the  freedom  of  religious 
thought,  and  protested  against  the  dogmas  of  the  papacy. 

Many  of  the  cathedrals  formed  part  of  monastic  foundations 
(page  294),  which  accounts  for  peculiarities  of  plan  differentiating 
them  from  French  Examples. 

The  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
provided  funds  for  the  erection  of  new  mansions. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Britain,  as  a  Roman  colony,  was 
divided  into  five  provinces,  and  progress  was  made  in  agricul- 
ture, building,  and  mining,  the  Roman  dress  and  language  being 
adopted  by  the  British  higher  classes. 

The  Roman  settlements  in  this  country  were,  many  of  them, 
provided  with  basilicas  or  halls  of  justice,  baths,  markets,  temples, 
and  villas  as  at  Bath,  Bignor  in  Sussex,  Darenth  in  Kent, 
and  Fifehead-Neville  in  Dorset. 

The  remains  of  this  epoch  consist  chiefly  of  castles,  such  as 
those  at  Colchester,  York,  Lincoln,  Richborough,  and  Burgh 
Castle  (near  Yarmouth). 

The  word  "Chester,"  as  an  affix,  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
word  castra  =  camp,  and  signifies  a  Roman  settlement  in  this 
country,  as  at  Winchester,  Leicester,  Silchester,  and  Chester. 
The  excavations  at  Silchester  revealed  the  remains  of  a  very 
fine  basilica. 

The  civilizing  power  of  the  Roman  roads  was  of  importance 
in  opening  out  the  country.  The  four  great  roads  in  England 
were : — 

(a.)   W ailing  Street,  London  to  Wroxeter,  near  Shrewsbury. 
(b.)  Ermine   Street,    London   to  Lincoln  via  Colchester  and 
Cambridge. 

(£.)  Fosse  Way,  Cornwall  to  Lincoln. 

(d.)  Icknield   Street,    Bury     St.    Edmunds   to    Salisbury   and 
Southampton. 

A.D.  81.  Agricola  built  his  forts  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth. 

A.D.  1 20.  Hadrian's  wall  built  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway. 

A.D.  210.  The  Emperor  Severus  strengthened  Agricola's  forts. 

After  the  departure  of  the  Romans  in  A.D.  420,  the  remains 
of  Roman  work  were  largely  destroyed  by  the  barbarians  who 
succeeded  them,  but  the  influence  of  their  architecture  continued 
for  a  considerable  period. 

A.D.  449-547.  The  arrival  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  did  not 
improve  matters,  as  they  were  especially  ignorant  in  all  matters 
of  art.  We  are  indebted  to  the  Venerable  Bede  (A.D.  731)  for 
most  of  the  information  regarding  this  period,  and  from  him  is 
learnt  that  a  stone  church  was  a  rarity.  A.D.  650  seems  to  be 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE.  281 

about  the  date  at  which  stone  churches  were  first  built,  and  in 
some  of  these  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  timber  forms  of  the 
earlier  ones  were  executed  in  stone  (No.  134). 

A.D.  603.  See  of  London  revived. 

A.D.  604.  See  of  Rochester  founded. 

A.D.  656.  Monastery  of  Peterborough  founded. 

A.D.  681.  Benedict  Biscop  flourished  as  a  church-builder. 

A.D.  871-901.  King  Alfred  erected,  or  rebuilt,  many  of  the  ruined 
cities  or  monasteries,  but  most  of  these  appear  to  have  been  built 
of  wood,  and  covered  with  thatch. 

A.D.  1017-1035.  King  Cnut  founded  Bury  St.  Edmunds  mon- 
astery. 

A.D.  1061.  Harold's  Collegiate  Church  at  Waltham  conse- 
crated. 

A.D.  1042-1066.  Edward  the  Confessor's  religious  enthusiasm, 
and  his  work  at  Westminster  Abbey  (consecrated  1065). 

A.D.  1066.  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,  and  the 
building  operations  of  Bishop  Gundulf,  at  Rochester  Castle,  the 
Tower  of  London,  and  elsewhere,  influenced  the  construction  of 
strongholds,  by  which  the  invaders  secured  their  position  in  the 
newly-conquered  country. 

A.D.  1174.  William  of  Sens  built  the  choir  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral. 

The  boroughs  led  the  way  in  self-government,  free  speech, 
and  justice;  and  the  formation  of  towns,  around  the  abbeys  or 
castles,  took  place,  though  the  process  was  slow  and  difficult. 

A.D.  1154-1216.  During  this  period  the  fusion  of  the  native 
English  and  Norman  settlers  was  effected,  in  order  to  withstand 
the  strangers  whom  the  Angevin  kings  were  constantly  bringing 
into  England. 

The  Association  of  Freemasons,  founded  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  assisted  materially  in  forwarding  the  technical  progress 
of  the  new  buildings. 

A.D.  1215.  The  Magna  Charta  freed  the  Church,  and  remedied 
abuses. 

A.D.  1265.  Leicester's  Parliament,  to  which  burgesses  were  first 
summoned  from  cities  and  boroughs,  was  called. 

A.D.  1265-1284.  The  conquest  of  Wales  led  to  further  develop- 
ment in  the  planning  and  design  of  castles. 

A.D.  1272-1307.  Edward  I.  abandoned  his  foreign  dominions, 
and  attempted  to  consolidate  Great  Britain. 

The  framework  of  modern  political  institutions  began  to  develop, 
and  peace  and  prosperity  in  commerce  gave  importance  to  a 
middle  class. 

A.D.  1362.  The  English  language  was  ordered  to  be  used  in 
the  law  courts. 

A.D.  1349-1381.  The  rise  of  the  farmer  class  and  free  labourer, 


282  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

owing  to  the  Black  Death,  which  swept  away  half  the  population 
of  England. 

The  poet  Chaucer  (1340-1400)  fought  in  the  army  of 
Edward  III.  against  France,  his  employment  on  diplomatic 
services,  in  Italy  and  Flanders,  exercising  a  marked  influence  on 
his  writings. 

William  of  Wykeham  (d.  1404),  one  of  the  greatest  Gothic 
builders,  carried  out  a  large  number  of  building  operations  at 
Winchester,  including  the  college  and  refacing  of  the  cathedral, 
and  many  other  buildings. 

A.D.  1455-1471.  The  Wars  of  the  Roses,  between  the  rival 
Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  distracted  England  at  this  period.\ 

A.D.   1476.  The   introduction    of   printing  by  Caxton,  a  press  \ 
being  established  by  him  in  the  Almonry  at  Westminster. 

A.D,  1485.  Accession  of  Henry  VII.  united  the  Houses,  of 
York  and  Lancaster,  when  a  great  impulse  was  given  to  the 
development  of  political  institutions.  The  Lady  Margaret, 
Countess  of  Richmond,  as  the  foundress  of  colleges,  developed 
education,  and  influenced  art. 

The  condition  of  the  English  people,  which  can  hardly  be 
considered  apart  from  the  architecture  which  they  produced,  is 
well  treated  in  "A  Short  History  of  the  English  People," 
by  J.  R.  Green,  LL.D. ;  and  should  be  referred  to  by  the  student. 

vi.  Historical. 

B.C.  55.  Julius  Caesar's  first  expedition  into  Britain. 

A.D.  43.  Expedition  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  into  Britain. 

A.D.  84.  Final  conquest  of  Britain  by  Agricola,  the  General  of 
Domitian. 

A.D.  420.  The  Roman  troops  withdrawn  from  Britain. 

A.D.  449-547.  The  English  (the  Low  Dutch  tribes  known  as 
Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes)  conquest  of  Britain. 

A.D.  450-550.  Destruction  of  British  churches  by  heathen 
invaders. 

A.D.  597-681.  Augustine  landed  in  England  and  the  conversion 
to  Christianity  commenced. 

A.D.  802-837.  Egbert  (a  friend  of  Charlemagne),  King  of  the 
West  Saxons,  gradually  brought  the  other  English  kingdoms  and 
the  Welsh  into  subjection. 

A.D.  924.  King  Edward  received  the  homage  of  all  Britain. 

A.D.  1066.  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans  caused 
a  social  and  political  revolution,  the  manners  and  government  of 
the  English  being  transformed,  and  the'  military  organization  of 
feudalism  introduced.  French  traders  at  the  same  time  came 
to  reside  in  London  and  the  large  towns,  thus  bringing  over 
Continental  ideas. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  283 

A.D.  1095-1254.  The  Crusades,  which  brought  about  the  con- 
tact of  East  and  West,  aided  in  the  formation  of  the  great 
universities,  which  had  a  direct  influence  on  feudalism  and  the 
Church. 

A.D.  1338-1453.  The  wars  with  France,  known  as  the  "  Hundred 
Years'  War." 

A.D.  1360.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  ruled  at  Bordeaux,  as 
Prince  of  Aquitaine. 

A.D.  1431.  Henry  VI.  of  England  crowned  King  of  France  at 
Paris. 

c.  A.D.  1500.  The  introduction  of  gunpowder  ruined  feudalism, 
fortresses  which  were  impregnable  against  the  bow  of  the 
yeoman  and  retainer,  crumbling  before  the  new  artillery  which 
lay  at  the  entire  disposal  of  King  Henry  VII.  Houses  were 
henceforward  constructed,  riot  as  castles  or  places  of  defence, 
but  as  residences,  and  from  this  period  modern  ideas  of  domestic 
economy  gradually  transformed  house  planning.  Sutton  Place 
(A.D.  1521-1527),  near  Guildford,  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples 
of  a  non-castellated  domestic  residence  (page  322). 

A.D.  1520.  Henry  VIII.  visited  the  French  King,  Francis  I.,  on 
the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  ;  the  King  and  the  many  knights 
who  followed  in  his  train  returning  imbued  with  the  newly  intro- 
duced Renaissance  style  as  practised  in  France.  Girolamo  da 
Trevigi,an  Italian,  was  appointed  Court  Architect,  and  Henry  VIII. 
encouraged  other  foreign  artists,  amongst  whom  was  Hans 
Holbein,  an  accomplished  painter  of  portraits  and  designer  of 
goldsmiths'  work  and  woodwork. 

These  and  various  other  causes  led  to  the  great  Renaissance 
movement,  which  is  referred  to  on  page  547. 

2.   ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  architectural  character  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Europe 
has  already  been  referred  to  on  page  268. 

The  development  of  mediaeval  architecture  in  England  from  the 
departure  of  the  Romans  till  the  sixteenth  century,  has  a  more 
complete  sequence  of  style  than  in  other  countries.  It  is  usually 
divided  into  periods  having  special  characteristics  and  known  as 
Anglo-Saxon  (page  327),  Norman  (page  328),  Early  English 
(page  335),  Decorated  (page  341),  Perpendicular  (page  349),  and 
Tudor  (page  356),  and  a  comparative  table  showing  the  approximate 
period  covered  by  each  is  given  on  page  327. 

Gothic   Vaulting   in   England. 

The  problems  of  vaulting  during  the  Romanesque  period  have 
been  already  explained  on  page  224,  where  the  essential  differences 
between  Roman  and  Mediaeval  vaulting  are  compared.  The  first 


III. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.    I 


112. 


286  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

consisted  entirely  in  the  design  of  the  vaulting  planes  or  surfaces 
without  reference  to  their  meeting  lines  or  groins,  whereas 
mediaeval  vaulting  consisted  in  profiling  the  groins  which  were 
erected  first  and  supporting  the  vaulting  surfaces  which  were  made 
to  adapt  themselves  to  them. 

The  problem  for  the  mediaeval  architects  was  to  vault,  in  stone, 
the  nave  of  a  church  of  the  basilican  type,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  provide  for  the  lighting  of  the  building  by  means  of  clerestory 
windows  in  the  nave  walls  above  the  aisle  roofs.  The  church 
was  thus  crowned  with  a  fire-resisting  covering  over  which  a 
wooden  roof  was  placed  in  order  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

The  evolution  of  vaulting  in  England,  as  on  the  Continent, 
involved  the  solution  of  a  group  of  constructive  problems  which 
have  been  already  hinted  at  on  page  272.  Thus  it  was  in  con- 
nection with  the  necessity  for  counteracting  the  thrust  of  the  nave 
vaults  brought  down  on  piers  that  the  greater  part  of  the  evolution 
of  the  constructive  side  of  the  style  took  place. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  the  main  features  of  vaulting  in 
each  period,  and  are  indicated  in  Nos.  in  and  112. 

Norman. — The  Roman  system  was  in  vogue  up  to  the  twelfth 
century,  but  the  introduction  of  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  in 
this  period  rendered  temporary  centering  necessary  for  these. 
In  England  the  raising  of  the  diagonal  rib,  which  produced  the 
domical  vault  employed  on  the  Continent,  seems  to  have  been 
but  little  used,  and  the  method  was  either  (a)  to  make  diagonal 
ribs  segmental,  as  in  the  aisles  at  Peterborough  Cathedral 
(No.  112  D,  G);  or  (&)  to  make  the  diagonal  ribs  semicircular  and 
stilt  the  springing  of  the  transverse  and  longitudinal  ribs.  A 
great  advance  was  made  by  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch, 
which  was  used  firstly  for  the  transverse  and  wall  ribs  only,  the 
diagonal  ribs  (i.e.  those  with  the  longest  span)  remaining  semi- 
circular. Norman  vaulting  was  either  (a)  cylindrical  or  barrel 
vaulting,  as  at  the  Tower  of  London  (No.  135) ;  (b)  groined  cross 
vaulting  in  square  bays  (No.  112  A)  ;  (c)  other  shapes  in  which 
the  narrower  vaulting  arches  were  stilted  (No.  112  B,  c),  or,  in 
the  later  period,  were  pointed  ;  (d)  Sexpartite  (six  part)  vaulting 
as  in  the  choir  at  Canterbury  Cathedral,  rebuilt  by  William  of 
Sens  in  A.D.  1174.  Two  views  of  this  type  of  vaulting  at  the 
Abbaye-aux-Hommes  at  Caen  are  shown  in  No.  112  E,  F. 

Early  English  (Thirteenth  Century). — The  pointed  arch 
became  permanently  established,  surmounting  all  the  difficulties  of 
difference  in  span,  and  enabling  vaults  of  varying  sizes  to  intersect 
without  stilting  or  other  contrivances,  as  shown  in  Nos.  in  D 
and  112  j,  L. 

The  cells,  also  known  as  "  severies  "  or  "  infilling  "  were  quite 
subordinate  to  the  ribs  and  were  of  clunch  or  light  stone  in  thin  beds, 
resting  upon  the  back  of  the  ribs.  These  severies  were  of  arched 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  287 

form,  but  often  had  winding  surfaces,  and  were  constructed  so  that 
their  pressure  was  directed  towards  the  piers  and  not  the  wall  rib. 
The  "ploughshare  twist,"  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a 
ploughshare,  was  produced  by  stilting  or  raising  the  springing  of 
the  wall  rib,  when  forming  the  window  arch  bordering  on  a  vaulting 
compartment,  above  that  of  the  diagonal  and  transverse  ribs 
(No.  109  A.)  This  was  a  common  arrangement,  and  was  necessary 
in  order  to  obtain  greater  height  for  the  clerestory  windows. 

The  geometry  of  the  Gothic  system  was  a  rough  use  of  mathe- 
matical truths  in  which  beauty  was  sought  for,  and  not  a  strict 
regard  for  the  exactitude  of  scientific  demonstration.  The  curva- 
ture of  the  ribs  was  obtained  from  arcs  struck  from  one  or  more 
centres,  and  designed  without  reference  to  the  curvature  of 
adjoining  ones,  as  is  seen  in  the  setting  out  of  Gothic  vaulting 
compartment  (No.  in  D).  In  this  lies  the  wThole  difference 
between  the  Roman  and  mediaeval  systems,  for  in  the  former 
the  vaulting  surface  is  everywhere  level  in  a  direction  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  vault,  and  any  horizontal  section  of  a  spandrel  or 
meeting  of  two  cross  vaults  would  be  a  rectangle.  In  the  ribbed 
Gothic  vault,  however,  the  plan  thus  formed  would  have  as  many 
angles  as  ribs,  varying  according  to  the  curve  of  the  latter. 

The  plain  four-part  (quadripartite)  ribbed  vault,  primarily 
constructed  as  a  skeleton  framework  of  diagonal  and  transverse  ribs, 
was  chiefly  used  in  this  period,  as  in  the  naves  of  Durham, 
Salisbury  (No.  112  j,  L),  and  Gloucester,  and  the  aisles  of 
Peterborough. 

Later  in  the  century  intermediate  ribs,  known  as  tiercerons,  were 
introduced  between  the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  as  in  the 
vaulting  of  the  nave  of  Westminster  Abbey  (No.  112  K,  M), 
and  were  especially  needed  to  strengthen  the  vaulting  surfaces 
by  decreasing  the  space  between  the  ribs.  In  such  cases  ridge  ribs 
were  introduced  in  order  to  take  the  thrust  of  the  tiercerons  which 
abut  at  their  summit  at  an  angle,  and  would  have  a  tendency  to 
fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  compartment  unless  resisted  by 
the  ridge  rib.  In  continental  examples  the  ridge  rib  is  often  not 
continuous,  but  only  extends  to  the  last  pair  of  arches  which  abut 
against  it  obliquely. 

Ridge  ribs  are  generally  horizontal  in  England  and  arched  on 
the  Continent,  the  "infilling  "  or  "severy"  having  its  courses 
meeting  at  the  ridge  in  zigzag  lines  as  in  the  nave  of  Westminster 
Abbey  (No.  127  c),  and  the  naves  and  choirs  of  Lincoln,  Exeter 
and  Lichfield  Cathedrals,  and  as  found  in  the  churches  of  South- 
West  France. 

A  wall-rib,  called  a  "  formeret,"  because  forming  a  boundary  for 
each  compartment,  was  also  introduced. 

Decorated  (Fourteenth  Century). — -During  this  period 
there  was  an  increase  and  elaboration  of  intermediate  ribs 


288  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

(tiercerons),  ridge  ribs,  and  a  new  set  of  ribs  known  as  Lierne  ribs, 
from  the  French  lien — to  bind  or  hold.  The  name  "lierne"  is 
applied  to  any  rib,  except  a  ridge  rib,  not  springing  from  an  abacus. 

In  the  early  plain -ribbed  vaulting  each  rib  marked  a  groin,  i.e., 
a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  vaulting  surface,  but  lierne  ribs 
were  merely  ribs  lying  in  a  vaulting  surface,  their  form  being 
determined  independently  of  such  surface,  which,  however, 
regulated  their  curvature. 

These  liernes,  by  their  number  and  disposition,  often  give  an 
elaborate  or  intricate  appearance  to  a  really  simple  vault  (No.  112, 
N,  o,  P,  Q),  and  in  consequence  of  the  star-shaped  pattern  produced 
by  the  plan  of  such  vaults,  it  is  often  called  "  Stellar"  vaulting  (No. 
\ii2  Q).  Examples  of  this  type  exist  in  the  choirs  of  Gloucester 
(A.D.  1337-1377),  Wells,  Ely  (No.  137  F),  Tewkesbury  Abbey 
nave,  Bristol  (No.  112  N,  o),  and  the  vaulting  of  Winchester 
Cathedral  (No.  124  E,  F),  as  carried  out  (A.D.  1390)  by  William 
of  Wykeham. 

The  vaulting  of  this  period  therefore  consisted  of  transverse, 
diagonal,  intermediate,  ridge  and  lierne  ribs — in  fact,  a  vault  of 
numerous  ribs,  and  of  panels  which  became  smaller  and  smaller 
until  a  single  stone  frequently  spanned  the  space  from  rib  to  rib, 
known  as  "  rib  and  panel  "  vaulting. 

Perpendicular  (Fifteenth  Century).  —  The  complicated 
"stellar"  vaulting  of  the  late  fourteenth  and  early  fifteenth  centuries 
(No.  112  P,  Q)  led,  by  a  succession  of  trials  and  phases,  to  a 
peculiarly  English  type  of  vaulting  in  this  century  known  as  fan, 
palm  or  conoidal  vaulting,  in  which  the  main  ribs,  forming  equal 
angles  with  each  other  and  being  all  the  same  curvature,  are 
formed  on  the  surface  of  an  inverted  concave  cone,  and  connected 
at  different  heights  by  horizontal  lierne  ribs. 

The  development  was  somewhat  as  follows: — In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  form  of  an  inverted  four-sided  hollow  rectangular 
pyramid  was  the  shape  given  to  the  vault.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  masons  converted  this  shape,  by  the  introduction  of 
more  ribs,  into  a  polygonal  (hexagonal)  pyramid,  as  in  S.  Sepulchre, 
Holborn,  and  elsewhere.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  setting  out 
of  the  vault  was  much  simplified  by  the  introduction  of  what 
is  generally  known  as  "Fan  "  vaulting,  described  above  (No. 
112  R,  s;. 

Owing  to  the  reduction  of  the  size  of  panels,  due  to  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  ribs,  a  return  was  made  to  the  Roman  method 
of  vault  construction,  for  in  fan  vaulting  the  whole  vault  was  often 
constructed  in  jointed  masonry,  the  panels  being  sunk  in  the  soffit 
of  the  stone  forming  the  vault  instead  of  being  separate  stones 
resting  on  the  backs  of  the  ribs.  The  solid  method  seems  to  have 
been  adopted  first  in  the  crown  of  the  vaults  where  the  ribs  were 
most  numerous.  In  some  "perpendicular"  vaults  the  two 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC.  289 

systems  are  found,  as  at  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge ; 
in  others,  as  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  Westminster,  the  whole  vault 
is  of  jointed  masonry. 

The  difficulty  of  supporting  the  flat  lozenge-shaped  space  in  the 
top  portion  of  the  vault  surrounded  by  the  upper  boundaries  of 
the  hollow  cones  was  comparatively  easy  in  the  cloisters,  where 
this  type  of  vaulting  was  first  introduced,  because  the  vaulting 
spaces  to  be  roofed  were  square  or  nearly  so,  but  when  it  was 
attempted  to  apply  it  to  the  bays  of  the  nave,  which  were 
generally  twice  as  long  transversely  as  longitudinally,  difficulties 
occurred.  In  King's  College  Chapel  (A.D.  1513)  the  conoid  was 
continued  to  the  centre,  but  the  sides  were  cut  off,  thus  forming  an 
awkward  junction  transversely.  In  the  nave  of  Henry  VII. 's 
Chapel  pendants  supported  by  internal  arches  were  placed  away 
from  the  walls  and  the  conoids  supported  on  these,  thus  reducing 
the  size  of  the  flat  central  space,  and  changing  it  from  an  oblong 
to  a  square  on  plan.  At  Oxford  Cathedral  a  somewhat  similar 
method  was  adopted,  the  pendants  also  placed  some  distance  from 
the  wall,  being  supported  on  an  upper  arch,  and  a  polygonal  form 
of  ribs  adhered  to. 

Fan  vaulting  is  confined  to  England,  and  other  examples 
beyond  those  already  mentioned  are  in  the  Divinity  Schools, 
Oxford;  Trinity  Church,  Ely;  Gloucester  Cathedral  (No.  112 
R,  s)  ;  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor ;  the  retro-choir,  Peter- 
borough, and  elsewhere. 

The  depressed  four-centred  arch  (No.  299  M)  is  typical  of  the 
architecture  of  the  Tudor  period,  although  it  seems  to  have  been 
used  in  the  vaulting  of  earlier  churches  (No.  in  D).  It  is  not 
found  out  of  England,  and  appears  to  have  been  first  used  largely 
JLD  &*l  Vaulting,  to  which  the  reason  for  its  adoption  is  held  to  be 
due.  For  example,  if  the  diagonal  rib  is  to  be  a  pointed  two- 
centred  arch,  each  portion  must  obviously  be  less  than  a  quadrant, 
and  the  transverse  and  wall  ribs,  being  shorter,  must  be  con- 
siderably less  than  quadrants,  especially  if  the  compartment  is 
oblong,  and  this  would  m'ake  the  window  arch  in  the  nave  wall 
of  acute  lancet  form  ;  but  the  window  arch  was  made  equilateral 
or  even  less  in  height  compared  to  its  span  in  this  period,  and  so 
the  segments  of  a  diagonal  arch  of  two  centres  preserving  the 
same  curvature  would  not  meet  at  their  summit  without  becoming 
horizontal  or  possibly  bending  downwards  to  each  other.  To 
obviate  this  the  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs  in  an  oblong  com- 
partment were  sometimes  made  as  four-centred  arches,  all  the 
ribs  starting  with  the  same  curvature,  but  at  a  certain  height  the 
portions  above  this  level  were  drawn  with  a  longer  radius  in  order 
that  they  might  meet  the  ribs  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  vault  at 
the  required  height.  These  four-centred  arches  were  afterwards 
applied  to  other  parts  of  the  buildings  in  England,  as  in  arches  to 

F.A.  U 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

doors  and  windows,  and  tracery  work  in  panelling,  possibly  with 
a  desire  to  harmonize  with  the  important  superstructure  of  vaulting. 

The  special  forms  of  vault  used  in  Chapter  Houses  are  referred 
to  on  page  299. 

"  Pendant  "  vaulting  is  a  later  form  often  used  in  connection  with 
fan  vaulting,  in  which  pendants  as  elongated  voussoirs  are  dropped 
from  a  constructive  pointed  arch,  concealed  above  the  vaulting, 
and  form  abutments  to  support  the  pendant  conoids.  Henry 
VII. 's  Chapel  and  Oxford  Cathedral  are  examples  of  this  method 
of  vaulting. 

Examples  of  "  pendant  "  but  not  of  "  fan  "  vaulting  are  frequent 
in  the  Flamboyant  period  (fifteenth  century)  in  France,  as  at 
Caudebec,  and  other  places. 

Bosses. — The  bosses,  or  ornamental  keystones,  which  form  such 
decorative  features  in  Gothic  vaulting,  were  a  constructive 
necessity,  primarily  used  to  cover  the  awkward  junction  "of  the 
various  ribs  meeting  at  all  angles,  in  order  that  the  awkward 
mitres  of  the  rib  mouldings  might  be  hidden  behind  the  ornament 
of  the  boss. 


Open  Timber  Roofs  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  open  timber  roofs  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  a  special 
English  feature  and  may  be  classed  in  the  following  five  divisions, 
being  illustrated  on  No.  113  : — 

(i.)  Tie-beam  Roofs. 

(2.)  Trussed  rafter  or  single-framed  Roofs. 

(3.)  Hammer-beam  Roofs  of  various  forms. 

(4.)  Collar-braced  Roofs,  including  arch-braced  roofs. 

(5.)  Aisle  Roofs  of  several  forms. 

(i.)  The  "Tie-beam  Roof"  is  the  earliest  form  of  which 
there  is  any  record,  and  the  simplest  in  construction,  being 
merely  two  rafters  pitching  one  against  another  with  the  tie- 
beam  inserted,  holding  their  lower  portions  to  counteract  the 
outward  thrust  on  the  walls.  This  was  probably  the  only  form 
known  at  the  Norman  period,  and  it  was  never  entirely  discarded 
by  mediaeval  builders,  being  used  in  every  succeeding  style 
(No.  113  A,  B).  In  the  early  examples,  the  beam  is  merely 
pinned  to  the  wall-plate  at  either  end  and  unconnected  with  the 
rafters.  Various  methods  were  afterwards  adopted  in  order  to 
make  the  truss  harmonize  well  with  other  features.  The  tie 
beam  was  rarely  straight,  being  cambered  or  curved ;  in  the 
later  examples  this  camber  governed  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  the 
purlins  resting  immediately  on  it,  as  at  Wellingborough  Church. 
Curved  braces  were  often  inserted,  connecting  the  tie-beam  with 
wall-pieces  (No.  113  B),  the  whole  being  framed  together  and 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  2QI 

giving  the  favourite  form  of  the  arch,  as  at  Outwell  Church.  In 
roofs  of  steeper  pitch  the  open  space  above  the  tie-beam  was 
filled  in  with  perpendicular  strutting  or  carved  open  work,  as  at 
Outwell  Church,  Norfolk.  A  pillar  or  king-post  and  struts  were 
often  supported  on  the  tie-beam  to  strengthen  the  rafters,  which 
gave  a  pleasing  effect,  as  at  Swardstone  Church  and  also  as 
shown  in  No.  1 13  A,  B.  This  is  an  inversion  of  the  use  of  king-post 
and  tie-beam  as  adopted  in  modern  roofs,  in  which  the  former  acts 
as  a  suspending  piece.  A  timber  arch  was  sometimes  introduced, 
springing  from  a  wall-piece  below  the  tie-beam,  but  as  the  tie-beam 
always  intersected  this  the  result,  as  seen  at  Morton  Church,  Lin- 
colnshire, and  elsewhere,  was  not  satisfactory. 

(2.)  The  "Trussed  Rafter  or  Single-framed  Roof,"  of 
which  there  are  many  examples,  was  probably  chosen  in  order 
to  form  a  space  for  the  pointed  vaults,  and  having  once  been 
used  the  superiority  of  its  construction  and  appearance  led  to 
its  being  largely  substituted  for  the  tie-beam  form.  In  roofs  of 
large  span  each  rafter  had  a  collar  stiffened  by  braces,  which 
were  sometimes  passed  through  the  collar,  as  at  Lympenhoe 
Church,  Norfolk,  and  sometimes  stopped  on  the  underside, 
as  at  Stowe  Bardolph  Church  (No.  113  A).  This  type  of 
roof  was  often  boarded  on  its  underside,  forming  a  pentagonal 
ceiling  ornamented  with  ribs  and  bosses,  as  at  S.  Mary, 
Wimbotsham,  Norfolk.  The  timbers  are  halved  and  held 
together  with  wooden  pins.  As  the  rafters  pitched  on  the 
outside  of  the  wall  a  ledge  was  left  on  the  inside,  and  to 
remove  this  hollow  and  unsightly  appearance  an  upright  strut 
was  introduced,  forming  a  triangular  foot  (No.  113  A).  This 
greatly  added  to  the  stability  of  the  roof,  and  is  held  to  be  the 
origin  of  the  hammer-beam  roof  (No.  113  j).  The  arched  form 
was  obtained  by  the  use  of  curved  braces  fixed  to  the  rafters  and 
collar,  as  at  Solihull  Church. 

(3.)  The  "Hammer-beam  Roof"  is,  as  stated,  considered 
to  be  a  natural  evolution  of  the  triangular  framing  adopted  at 
the  foot  of  the  trussed  rafter  roof  (No.  113  A),  and  consists 
generally  of  hammer-beam,  struts,  collars  and  curved  braces,  as 
shown  in  No.  113  D,  E,  H,  j.  The  hammer-beam  is  merely  the 
lengthening  and  thickening  of  the  "  sole-piece  "  at  the  foot  of 
the  trussed  rafter  (No.  113  j),  the  principal  rafter  being  strutted, 
and  the  weight  of  the  roof  carried  lower  down  the  wall  by  means 
of  a  curved  brace  tenoned  into  the  hammer-beam  and  wall-piece. 
Being  thus  strengthened,  it  forms  a  truss  which,  repeated  at 
intervals  of  10  feet  or  more,  supports  the  intermediate  rafters  of 
the  bay. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the  hammer-beam  arose 
from  the  cutting  away  of  the  tie-beam  in  the  centre  when  a 
curved  brace  is  used  beneath  the  tie-beam.  It  is  improbable, 

U  2 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.     II. 


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ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  293 

however,  that  this  was  the  origin,  and  there  is  little  more 
resemblance  between  a  hammer-beam  roof  and  a  tie-beam  roof 
than  consists  in  their  both  being  double  framed,  i.e.,  both  having 
principals  or  trusses  placed  at  regular  intervals,  as  opposed  to  the 
trussed  rafter  type,  which  has  no  principal.  Moreover,  the  tie- 
beam  was  used  in  all  types  of  roof,  even  in  conjunction  with  the 
hammer-beam  itself,  as  at  Outwell,  where  the  intermediate 
principals  are  supplied  with  hammer-beams  ;  this  is  a  late 
example,  and  was  probably  constructed  after  the  hammer-beam 
type  had  attained  perfection.  Hammer-beams  were  not  con- 
structed until  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  were  not  in 
general  use  until  the  fifteenth  century.  Westminster  Hall  is  the 
earliest  recorded  example,  A.D.  1399  (No.  113  H). 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  form  of  roof  : — 

(a.)  Those  with  hammer-beams,  struts,  collars  and  curved 
braces,  as  Little  Welnetham  Church,  Suffolk.  (#.)  Those  in 
which  the  collar-beam  is  omitted  and  curved  braces  carried  to  the 
ridge,  the  apex  being  framed  into  a  wedge-shaped  strut,  as  at 
Trunch  Church,  Norfolk  (No.  113  D).  (c.}  Those  with  collar- 
beams  and  no  struts  but  curved  braces,  in  which  a  shorter  hammer- 
beam  is  used,  as  at  Capel  S.  Mary,  Suffolk,  (d.)  Those  with  no 
collars  and  no  struts,  curved  braces  only  being  used  from  ridge 
to  hammer-beam,  as  at  Palgrave  Church,  Suffolk.  The  arch- 
braced  roof  is  the  outcome  of  this  latter  form,  (e.)  Those  with  a 
main  arched  rib  springing  from  wall-piece  and  reaching  to  a  collar, 
forming  a  rigid  chief  support,  as  at  Westminster  (No.  113  H)  and 
Eltham. 

Double  hammer-beam  roofs  have  two  ranges  of  hammer- 
beams,  as  at  S.  Margaret,  Ipswich,  and  Middle  Temple  Hall 
(No.  113  E),  the  object  of  the  second  range  being  to  further 
stiffen  the  principals  and  convey  the  weight  on  to  the  first  range 
and  thence  to  the  wall.  They  usually  occur  when  the  pitch  is 
flatter,  but  the  effect  is  more  complicated  and  less  pleasing. 

These  are  the  main  divisions,  but  there  are  various  minor 
modifications  of  the  type. 

(4.)  "Collar-braced  Roofs"  are  a  simplification  of  the 
hammer-beam  form,  and  include  arch-braced  roofs,  so  called 
when  the  collar  is  omitted  and  the  arched  brace  carried  up  to  the 
ridge.  This  form  is  very  like  that  constructed  nearly  a  century 
earlier,  as  at  Tunstead  Church,  but  with  the  important  difference 
that  at  Tunstead  the  braces  are  of  the  same  thickness  as  and 
appear  to  form  part  of  the  principal  rafters,  whereas  the  collar- 
braced  kind  are  not  more  than  4  inches  thick,  while  the 
principals  may  be  about  10  inches.  Pulham  Church,  Norfolk 
(No.  113  c),  is  an  example  of  this  collar-braced  form.  Brinton 
Church  is  another  example  of  the  arch-braced  type.  The  curved 
braces  answer  the  double  purpose  of  strengthening  the  principals 


2Q4  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

and  carrying  the  weight  lower  down  the  wall,  which  they  also  help 
to  steady. 

(5.)  Aisle  Roofs  in  the  early  period  were  merely  a  continua- 
tion of  the  rafters  of  the  nave.  At  North  Walsham,  Norfolk 
(a  tie-beam  roof),  the  tie-beam  of  the  aisle  is  carried  through  the 
wall,  forming  a  corbel  for  the  wall-piece  of  the  nave  roof,  thus 
binding  the  whole  together.  Aisle  roofs  were  usually  simple, 
intermediate  trusses  being  introduced  to  strengthen  the  purlins. 
When  they  were  gabled  they  were  usually  of  low  pitch,  and  the 
hammer-beam  was  rarely  introduced  for  these.  New  Walsingham 
Church  (No.  113  G)  and  Ixworth  Church  (No.  113  F)  are  good 
types  of  aisle  roofs. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

The  student  is  referred  to  Gothic  Architecture  in  Europe 
(page  273)  for  the  different  types  of  buildings  erected  during  the 
Middle  Ages  which  are  here  further  enlarged  upon.  As  mentioned 
in  architectural  character  (page  283),  these  buildings  were  mostly 
erected  in  the  styles  known  as  Norman,  Early  English,  Decorated, 
and  Perpendicular. 

CATHEDRALS. 

Refer  to  the  General  Introduction  to  Gothic  Architecture 
(page  273). 

The  constitution  and  foundation  of  English  Cathedrals  is 
important  and  is  largely  responsible  for  their  monastic  character 
and  general  arrangement. 

They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  : — 
(a.)  Cathedrals  of  the  Old  Foundation. 
(&.)  Cathedrals  of  the  Monastic  Foundation. 
(c.)  Cathedrals  of  the  New  Foundation. 

(a.)  The  Cathedrals  of  the  old  foundation  are  those  which, 
being  served  by  secular  clergy,  were  not  affected  by  the  reforms 
of  Henry  VIII.  The  following  is  a  list : — The  Cathedrals  of 
York,  Lichfield,  Wells,  Exeter,  Salisbury,  Chichester,  Lincoln, 
Hereford,  S.  Paul,  London,  and  the  Welsh  Cathedrals  of 
Llandaff,  Bangor,  S.  David's,  and  S.  Asaph. 

(b.)  The  Cathedrals  of  the  monastic  foundation  are  those  which 
were  originally  served  by  regular  clergy  or  monks,  and  which  were 
reconstituted  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  as  chapters 
of  secular  canons.  The  following  is  a  list : — The  Cathedrals  of 
Canterbury,  Durham,  Rochester,  Winchester,  Worcester,  Nor- 
wich, Ely,  Carlisle,  Peterborough,  Gloucester,  Chester,  Oxford, 
and  Bristol.  Westminster  Abbey  was  a  Cathedral  Church  from 
A.D.  1540-1545. 

When    the    change    in    these    monastic    establishments     was 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC. 


A.          CHICHESTER. 


B. 


DURHAM. 


c. 


ELY. 


D.          WORCESTER. 


E.     ROCHESTER. 


F.         OXFORD. 


G.       CARLISLE.  H,        BRISTOL. 

(Nave  added,  1868.) 

COMPARATIVE  VIEWS  OF  MODELS  OF  ENGLISH  CATHEDRALS, 


114. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC. 


A. 


YORK. 


c.          PETERBOROUGH. 


E.  WINCHESTER. 


B.          CHESTER. 


D.  EXETER. 


F.          HEREFORD. 


G.  WKLLS,  H.        GLOUCESTER. 

COMPARATIVE  VIEWS  OF  MOPELS  OF  ENGLISH  CATHEDRALS, 
U5. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC. 


A.  SALISBURY. 


B.  LINCOLN. 


c.  CANTERBURY. 


D.          NORWICH. 


E.  RlPON.  F.  LlCHFIELD. 

COMPARATIVE  VIEWS  OF  MODELS  OF  ENGLISH  CATHEDRALS, 


2g8  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

made  the  abbot  became  the  bishop,  the  prior  the  dean,  and  the 
monks  became  canons  and  choristers ;  the  personnel  generally 
remaining  the  same. 

(£.)  The  Cathedrals  of  the  new  foundation  are  those  to  which 
bishops  have  been  appointed,  viz.,  Ripon  and  Southwell,  which  are 
old  Collegiate  Churches,  and  the  following  Parochial  Churches  :— 
S.  Albans,  Newcastle,  Wakefield,  Manchester,  and  Truro. 

Diversity  of  style  in  each  building  was  caused  by  the  fact  that 
with  the  single  exception  of  Salisbury  (page  309)  many  were 
erected  in  all  periods,  thus  presenting  a  complete  history  of  the 
evolution  of  Gothic  Architecture. 

Most  of  the  English  Cathedrals  were  founded  or  remodelled 
after  the  Conquest,  including  many  which  formerly  served  as 
churches  of  the  great  monastic  institutions  of  the  period. 

The  character  which  each  Cathedral  possesses  generally  indi- 
cates its  original  purpose. 

Monastic  Cathedrals  are  almost  peculiar  to  England  and 
Germany.  In  these  countries  a  large  proportion  of  the  Cathedral 
Churches  formed  part  of  monastic  establishments  in  which  are 
found  cloisters,  refectories,  dormitories,  chapter  houses,  scrip- 
torium, library,  guest  hall,  infirmary,  prison,  wine  cellars,  mills, 
workshops,  and  gardens  (cf.  Monastery  of  S.  Gall,  page  261). 
Cloisters  were  required  in  monastic  establishments  from  necessity, 
as  they  formed  a  covered  way  for  the  use  of  monks,  round  which 
the  various  buildings  enumerated  above  were  grouped.  They 
were  also  frequently  planned  as  an  ornamental  adjunct  to 
cathedrals  of  the  old  foundation  which  were  not  part  of  monastic 
establishments,  but  were  served  by  secular  clergy,  as  at  Salisbury 
and  Wells. 

The  Collegiate  Churches  of  Lichfield,  Ripon,  Southwell,  York 
and  Manchester,  and  the  Irish,  Scotch  and  Welsh  Cathedrals 
(S.  Davids  excepted)  have  no  cloisters. 

The  French  Cathedrals  were  mostly  erected  in  the  thirteenth 
century  by  funds  provided  by  the  laity,  and  therefore  do  not 
form  part  of  monastic  establishments,  differing  in  not  being 
provided  with  the  buildings  enumerated  above. 

The  English  Cathedrals  are  thus  peculiar  in  retaining  many  of 
the  conventual  features.  The  plans  are  long  and  narrow,  and 
the  choir  is  often  of  nearly  the  same  length  as  the  nave.  The 
extreme  length  is  often  as  much  as  six  times,  whereas  in  France 
it  is  seldom  more  than  four  times  the  width. 

The  absence  of  double  side  aisles  (Chichester  and  Manchester 
excepted)  and  side  chapels  tends  to  show  that  worship  was  more 
congregational  in  form  than  on  the  Continent,  especially  in  France, 
where  they  are  frequently  found. 

The  buildings  founded  by  the  Norman  prelates,  as  Norwich, 
Canterbury,  and  others,  were  provided  with  the  apsidal  easte 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  2QQ 

termination,  sometimes  developed  into  a  chevet,  but  the  English 
type  evolved  through  Durham  to  Lincoln  had  square  eastern 
terminations  from  the  Saxon  prototype  (page  327),  which  produced 
a  very  different  external  effect.  The  transepts  project  considerably, 
and  there  are  occasionally  secondary  transepts,  as  at  Salisbury, 
Canterbury,  Lincoln,  Wells  and  Worcester. 

The  Chapel  of  the  Nine  Altars  at  Durham  (A.D.  1242-1290)  is 
in  reality  an  eastern  transept. 

The  main  entrance  was  frequently  by  a  south-western  porch, 
acting  as  a  screen  against  the  cold  winds,  and  in  contrast  to  the 
large  western  porches  of  the  French  Cathedrals. 

The  English  Cathedrals,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  French 
examples,  owe  their  internal  effect  to  their  enormous  length, 
which  is  further  emphasized  by  the  comparative  lowness  of  the 
nave  vault. 

The  exteriors  are  in  direct  contrast  to  Continental  examples,  for 
the  buildings,  being  mostly  situated  in  a  quiet  "  close  "  "  far  from 
the  madding  crowd,"  and  seen  in  conjunction  with  cloisters, 
refectory  and  outbuildings,  form  a  part  only  of  the  entire 
composition  (page  276). 

The  characteristic  high  central  tower,  as  at  Lincoln,  York,  Ely, 
Gloucester,  Canterbury  and  Durham,  is  rendered  very  effective  in 
contrast  with  the  low  nave.  The  central  tower  is  generally 
accompanied  by  two  western  towers,  and  is  sometimes  crowned 
with  a  high  tapering  spire,  as  at  Salisbury  and  Norwich,  while  at 
Lichfield  (No.  116)  all  three  towers  are  crowned  with  spires. 

Flying  buttresses  are  not  nearly  so  common  as  in  France, 
owing  to  the  comparative  lowness  of  the  nave  vault.  In  France 
the  flying  buttresses  to  the  chevet  end  of  the  building  produce  a 
confused,  restless  effect  (cf.  No.  101)  absent  in  the  English 
buildings. 

Chapter  houses  were  required  for  the  transaction  of  business  by 
the  chapter  or  bishop's  council.     They  were  originally  square  in 
plan,   as    at  Bristol  (A.D.  1142-1170),  but  the  example  at  Durham 
(A.D.   1093-1140)   is  apsidal,  and  that  at  Worcester  (A.D.   1084 
1 1 60)  is  circular  internally. 

The  normal  type  is  octagonal  with  a  central  pillar  to  support 
the  vaulting,  as  at  Lincoln  (1225),  Westminster  (1250),  Salisbury 
(1250),  and  Wells  (1292)  (No.  70  K),  all  of  which  have  vaults 
supported  by  a  central  pillar  and  the  surrounding  walls.  York 
(1280-1330)  is  also  octagonal,  but  has  no  central  pillar,  being 
covered  with  a  sham  wooden  vault  57  feet  in  diameter. 

Note. — See  Nos.  114,  115  and  116  for  comparative  views  of  models 

of  the  Cathedrals,  and  Nos.  117-120  for  the  plans. 
The  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  leading  cathedrals  are  here  indicated, 
and/or  the  sake  of  brevity  the  Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Perpendicular 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  EXAMPLES.  III. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES      IV, 


LADY 
CHAPEL 


NORMAN  CHAPIER- 

vm  CENTRAL 

mm.  ROUND  - 

ARCHEb  VAULTINGS 
PERPENDICULAR 
WlND'W  TRACERY . 


6CALE 


50       0 


400 


500  rr 


118. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    V. 


SCALE 


119. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    VI. 


120. 


304  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE'. 

styles  are  denoted  E.E.,  Dec.,  and  Perp.  respectively.  Those  which  were 
the  churches  of  Benedictine  monasteries  (page  218)  are  distinguished  by 
an  asterisk  *. 

1.  Bangor  (No.  119  D). — Repeatedly  destroyed.     Present  church  is  Dec.  and 
Perp.,  but  suffered  much  in  the  civil  wars.     In  1866  thoroughly  restored  by  Sir  G. 
Scott. 

2.  Bristol  (Nos.    114  H,   120  K). — An   Augustinian  monastery.       Rectangular 
Norman   vaulted   chapter    house.       E.E.    "Elder  Lady  Chapel."      Dec.  choir, 
A.  D.    1306-1332,   and  modern   nave   in   imitation  thereof,   by  Street.       Peculiar 
in  having  nave  and  aisles  of  nearly  equal  height,  with  lofty  aisle  windows,  as  in 
some  German  churches  (cf.   No.    172).     There  is  thus  an  absence  of  the   usual 
triforium  and  clerestory.     Remarkable  canopied  wall  recesses  for  monuments. 

3.  "Canterbury  (Nos.  116  c,  118  B). — A  choir  of  singular  interest,   erected  by 
William  of  Sens,  in  a  style  after  French  models,  on  the  destruction  of  Anselm's 
Norman  choir  in   1170.      On  his  death  the  work  proceeded  under  William  the 
Englishman.     The  singular  contraction  of  the  width  of  the  choir,  in  order  to 
preserve  two  ancient  Norman  chapels,   is  worthy  of  notice.     In  plan  thjs  choir 
resembled  that  of  the  Cathedral  at  Sens. 

At  the  extreme  east  is  the  curious  chapel  called  "  Becket's  Crown."  Extensive 
crypts  are  under  all  the  eastern  portion.  There  are  double  transepts,  the  original 
Norman  work  being  of  singular  interest.  The  splendid  central  tower,  229  feet 
high,  is  in  the  Late  Perp.  style.  The  nave,  also  late,  is  of  lesser  interest,  and 
the  west  front  and  towers  are  unimportant,  except  in  the  general  picturesqueness 
of  the  group.  The  chapter  house  is  oblong,  with  fine  wooden  ceiling.  The 
Perp.  cloisters,  on  the  north  side,  are  of  great  beauty.  A  large  number  of  side 
chapels  resembling  Continental  Cathedrals. 

4.  Carlisle  (No.  114  G,  120  B). — An  Augustinian  Abbey.     The  east  end  a  fine 
composition,  containing  the  most  perfect  of  tracery  windows. 

5.  "Chester  (Nos.   115  B,   120  F).— Originally  the  church  of  the  Benedictine 
order  of  S.    Werburgh.     Built  of  red  sandstone.     Perp.  central  and  lower  portion 
of  south-western  towers.    Cloisters  on  the  north.    Lady  chapel  at  the  east  end. 

6.  Chichester  (No.    114   A,   119   G). — The   chief  example   of  double   aisles, 
really  caused  by  the  formation  of  lateral  chapels.     Fine  central  spire.     Norman 
nave.     The  Bell  Tower  is  the  only  example  of  its  kind  belonging  to  an  English 
Cathedral. 

7.  "Durham  (No.    114  B,   118  E). — Norman  work  (1096-1133).     An  eastern 
transept  called   the    "Chapel  of  the  Nine   Altars,"   in  massive   E.    E.    (1242- 
1290),  and  a  central    Perp.  tower,   216  feet    in  height,  help    to    form    a  group 
which  for  strength  of  outline  and  dignity  have  few,  if  any,  rivals.     Internally,  the 
special  point  is  the  massive  arcade  of  the  Norman   nave,  A.D.    1099-1128,  the 
finest  in  England,  the  pillars  about  the  same  width  as.  the  openings,  and  quaintly 
channelled   with   characteristic   spirals   and    flutes.      The   nave   was   vaulted   in 
A.D.  1133  and  is  said  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  a  Norman  vault  in  England. 

8.  "Ely  (Nos.  1140,  117  A,  136  A,  Band  137  F). —Norman  nave  and  transepts, 
with  timber  roof  and  modern  paintings.     Choir  remarkable  for  splendid  carving. 
Most  noted  feature  is  the  unique  octagon,  70  feet  in  diameter,  by  Alan  of  Wal- 
singham,  in  1322,  replacing  a  lallen  central  tower.     It.  has  a  rich  vault  of  wood 
only,  reaching  to  a  central  octagonal  lantern.    The  sides  of  the  octagon  are  unequal, 
being   alternately    20  feet  and  35  feet.     The  plan  influenced  that  of    S.   Paul, 
London  (No.  253),  which  it  inspired.     Exceptional  lady  chapel,  ico  feet  by  46  feet, 
by  60  feet  high  ;    compare  chapter  house,    Canterbury.     The,  west  front   is  an 
imposing  composition  (180  feet  wide),  owing  to  the  bold  tower,  the  same  width 
as  the  nave  and  215  feet  high,   flanked  originally  with  bold  north  and  south 
transeptal  projections,  ended  by  big  octagonal  turrets. 

In  front  of  the  tower  projects  the  E.E.  (1198-1215)  Galilee  porch,  two  square 
bays  in  plan,  vaulted  and  elaborately  arcaded. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  305 

g.  Exeter  (Nos.  115  D,  119  E). — Unique  in  having  twin  towers  placed  over  the 
north  and  south  transepts  (cf.  S.  Stephen,  Vienna,  page  396).  It  is  the  best 
specimen  of  the  Dec.  style,  and  is  exceptionally  rich  in  varied  tracery  and  carved 
wood  and  stonework. 

10.  *Gloucester  (Nos.   115  H,    118  c). — Very  rich   in    Early  Perp.    vaulting 
(No.  112  R,  s).     Norman  choir  cased  with  Perp.  work,  as  at  Winchester.     Perp. 
cloisters  of  singular  completeness,  on  the  north  side  of  Cathedral.     Central  tower, 
225  feet  high. 

11.  Hereford  (Nos.    115   F,   120  H). — Norman    nave    and   choir,   E.E.    lady 
chapel  and  Dec.  central  tower. 

12.  Lichfield  (Nos.   116  F,  120  j,   124  A,  B,  C,  137  E). — Situated  on  slightly 
sloping  ground  and  built  of  reddish  stone.     The  nave,  transepts,  chapter  house  and 
W.  front  are  in  the  E.E.  style.     The  Dec.  central  and  two  western  spires  of  rich 
and  graceful  character  form  the  only  example  of  the  triple  combination  in  England. 
The  clerestory  windows  of  spherical  triangular  form.     No  cloisters. 

13.  Lincoln  (Nos.  n6B,  117  F,  125,  126). — Rebuilt  1185-1200.     Situated  on 
the  ridge  of  a  steep   hill    dominating  the   town,    in  general    outline  resembling 
Canterbury,  and  having  also  double  transepts  and  central  and  western  towers,  the 
former  (271  feet  high)  being  the  highest  in  England,  excluding  spires.      "  National 
Lincoln"    sums  up  its  greatest  glory,  and  the  student  acquainted  with  Canterbury 
choir  will  see  how  the  French  feeling  is  here  departed  from.      E.E.  nave,  transepts 
and  choir,  and  Dec.   "Angel  choir,"   1256-1314.     The  cloisters  are  on  the  north 
side. 

The  E.E.  decagonal  chapter  house,  vaulted  to  central  pillar,  is  surrounded  by  a 
ring  of  flying  buttresses. 

The  west  front  is  unusual,  consisting  of  a  screen  wall  behind  which  rise  the  two 
western  towers,  whose  lower  parts  are  therefore  invisible. 

14.  Llandaff  (No.    120  c).  —A  long  low  building,  without  transepts  or  side 
chapels,  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  hill.     Two  western  towers.     The  nave  is  much 
restored.     No  triforium.     Square  chapter  house  with  central  pillar.     No  cloisters. 

15.  Manchester  (No.    119  B). — Perp.    (A.D.    1422-1520).       Remarkable   for 
having  double  aisles,  obtained  as  at  Chichester  by  the  inclusion  of  side  chapels. 
Fine  stalls. 

16.  Newcastle. — Late   Dec.    in  style.      Perp.    tower  (A.D.    1474),  with  spire 
resting  on   crown  of  arches,    similar   to  S.    Giles,    Edinburgh,    King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  S.   Dunstan  in  the  East,   London.     Fine  modern  stalls. 

17.  *Norwich  (Nos.  116  D,  118  D). — The  long,  narrow  nave,  aisleless  transepts 
and  choir  with  apsidal  chapels,  are  Norman  (A.  D.  1096-1 145).   The  choir  clerestory, 
the  windows  beneath  clerestory  on  south  side  of  nave,  and  the  vaulting  throughout 
are  Perp.     The  easternmost  apsidal  chapel,  removed  in  the  thirteenth  century  for 
an  oblong  lady  chapel,  since  destroyed.    Bold  central  Perp.  spire.     Chapter  House, 
resembling  that  of  Durham,  destroyed. 

18.  Oxford    (No.     114   F,    119   c). — Originally    the   church   of    a    priory    or 
Augustinian   monks.     The   nave   and   choir   are  Norman   (1158-1180),   and  the 
chapter  house  and  lady  chapel  are  E.E.      Pillars  of  nave,  alternately  circular  and 
polygonal,  supporting  Norman  arches,  beneath  which  is   the   triforium   gallery, 
forming  quite  an  unusual  arrangement  in  order  to  gain  height.     Norman  central 
tower  having  E.E.  upper  part  and  short  spire.     Nave  shortened  by  Card.  Wolsey 
when  building  his  college  of  Christchurch,  forms,  as  it  were,  a  vestibule  to  choir, 
which  has  splendid  fan  vaulting  with  pendants. 

19.  *Peterborough  (Nos.  115  c,  117  D,   122  A,  B,  C,  D,  136  B). — A  Norman 
Cathedral  built  between  A.D.  1117  and  1190.     The  interior  is  considered  to  be 
the  finest  in  the  Norman  style  next  to  Durham.    The  nave  is  covered  with  a  painted 
wooden  ceiling  of  lozenge-shaped  compartments,  ornamenting  what  is  probably 
the  oldest  wooden  roof  in  England.     The  nave  aisles  only  are  vaulted  (cf.  Ely). 
The  apsidal  choir  is  inclosed  in  a  square  chapel  of  Late  Perp.,  fan  vaulted,  as  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge. 

The  grand  western  facade,  158  feet  wide,  constructed  in  A.D    1233,  consists  of 

F.A.  X 


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ENGLISH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.    VII. 


122. 


X  2 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC. 


I23. 


SALISBURY  CATHEDRAL. 
Nave,  looking  East. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  309 

a  portico  of  three  gigantic  arches,  the  full  height  of  the  Cathedral.  A  gable 
crowns  each  arch,  and  the  end  abutments  are  carried  up  as  small  towers  crowned 
with  spires.  Other  towers  rise  from  behind  over  the  end  bays  of  the  aisles,  though 
some  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the  intended  grouping.  A  two-storied  porch  of  the 
Perp.  period  has  been  built  in  the  central  archway. 

20.  Ripon  (Nos.  116  E,  120  G,  1360).— Central  and  two  western  towers.     Rich 
choir  stalls  and  tabernacle  work.     Perfect  western  facade  in  E.E.  style  (restored  by 
Scott). 

21.  *Rochester  (Nos.  114  E,  119  H).— Norman  nave.     E.E.  walled-in  choir 
and  transepts.     The  clerestory  to  nave  and  wooden  roof  are  Perp.     Fine  western 
Norman  doorways. 

22.  *S.  Albans  (No.  119  F). — Much  destroyed  and  altered  in  recent  years. 
Norman  nave,  the  longest  in  England  (284  feet),  transepts  and  choir.     Western 
portion  of  nave  is  E.E.      Dec.    marble  shrine  of   S.   Alban,  recovered  and  re- 
erected  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott. 

23.  S.  Asaph  (No.  119  A).— Rebuilt  in  the  Dec.   style.     Rcof  and  choir  stalls 
are  Perp.     Restored  by  Sir  G.  Scott. 

24.  S.  Davids  (No.  120  E). — Situated  in  a  valley,  beside  the  river  Alan,  and 
close  by  the  sea.      Central  tower.     Two-storied  south  porch.     The  nave  arches 
support  a  carved  oak  roof  of  late  (1508)  design.     Dec.  rood-screen  at  entrance 
to  choir. 

25.  Salisbury  (Nos.  116  A,  117  E,  121,  122  E,  F,  o,  123  and  140  D). — Erected 
on  a  level  site,  surrounded  by  the  green  sward  of  a  wide  close,  broken  only  by  a 
few  elm  trees.     Constructed  almost  entirely  A.I).  1220-1258  in  the  E.E.  style, 
forming  the  type  of  English,  as  Amiens  is  of  French  Gothic.     See  Nos.  154  A, 
159  B,   1 60.     The  plan  has  double  transepts,  central  tower,  and  splendid  Dec. 
spire,  404  feet  high,  being  the  loftiest  in  England.     The  west  facade  is  weak,  but 
there  is  a  fine  north  porch,  boldly  projecting  and  vaulted  internally.     The  cloister 
is  Dec. 

26.  Southwell    (No.   119  K). — Norman   nave,    transepts   and   towers.      E.E. 
choir.     Dec.  octagonal  chapter  house,  the  chief  glory  of  the  Cathedral,  has  no 
central  pillar,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  the  model  for  that  at  York.     Carving 
very  rich  and  well  preserved.     No  cloisters. 

27.  Wells  (Nos.   115  G,  119;)  (1214-1465). — -The  nave,  transeptsand  western 
bays  of  choir  are  E.E. .    The  E.E.  west  front,   150  feet  wide,  including  buttresses, 
is  arcaded  and  enriched  with  sculpture — the  highest  development  of  a  type  of 
fa?ade  found  in  English  Gothic.      Double   transepts,    eastern  lady  chapel,   and 
three  towers.      The  triforium,  of  close  set  openings  with  capitals,  is  unique.     As 
illustrating  the  comparative  height  to  width  of  the  naves  of  English  and  French 
Cathedrals  it  has  been  shown  that  whereas  Wells  is  32  feet  wide  and  67  feet  high 
(two  to  one),  Amiens  is  46  feet  wide  and  140  feet  high  (three  to  one). 

28.  *Westminster  (Nos.  127,  128,  129).— A  Benedictine  monastery  founded 
by  Dunstan  ;  betrays  French  influence  in  its  polygonal  chevet  and  chapels,  internal 
loftiness  (having  the  highest  nave  in  England),  and  strongly  marked  flying  buttresses. 
The  plan  consists  of  a  nave  and  aisles,  transepts  with  aisles,  and  eastern  chevet, 
surrounded  originally  by  five  aps:dal  chapels,  the  only  complete  example  of  this 
feature  in  England.      Of  the  present  structure  the  eastern  portion  was  erected  by 
Henry  III.  in  A.D.  1220-1260.    During  1260-1269  the  four  bays  west  of  the  transept 
were  constructed.     The  nave  was  completed  in  ihe  fifteenth  century  in  imitation 
of  the  older  work,  but  with  Perp.  mouldings.     The  western  towers  were  completed 
in  A.D.    1722-1740,   by  Wren  and  Hawksmoor,   and  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  was 
added  by  Henry  VII.  in  place  of  the  former  lady  chapel,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  elaborate  fan  vault.     The  shrines,  chantry  chapels,  tombs,  and  monuments  are 
exceptionally  fine.     The  cloisters,  in  the  usual  position  to  the  south  of  nave,  have 
open  tracery  and  elaborate  vaulting  of  the  E.E.,  Dec.  and  Perp.  periods. 

29.  *Winchester  (Nos.  115  E,  117  C,  124  D,  E,  F,  137  G).— It  has  the  greatest 
total  length  (560  feet)  of  any  mediaeval  Cathedral  in  Europe.     Norman  transepts 
and  tower,  1070-1107.   The  Norman  nave  and  choir  (1079-1093)  were  transformed 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    VIII 


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2.  HENRY  1   1272  6  HENRY  I » QUEEN  1503 

ELEANOR  I2SO        7  MARY  QUEEN  1 5COT5  587 
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I27. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC. 


128.        HENRY  VII. 's  CHAPEL,  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY. 


3/5" 


W 

W 


316  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

by  William  of  Wykeham  and  his  successors  (1394-1486)  with  a  veneer  of  Perp.  on 
the  Norman  core  and  crowned  with  a  vaulted  roof,  E.E.  rectro  choir,  the  largest 
in  England,  and  Dec.  stalls.  Compare  Gloucester.  Tombs  and  chantries.  Wood 
vaulting  to  choir. 

30.  *  Worcester  (Nos.  114  D,  118  A). — A  level  situation  on    the    banks    of 
the  River  Severn.     Norman  crypt,  north  and  south  transepts  and  circular  chapter 
house,  the  only  one  in  England.     E.E.  choir.     Dec.  and  Perp.  nave,  cloisters  and 
central  tower  (196  feet  high).     Interesting  monuments.     The  Royal  chantries  of 
King  John  and  Prince  Arthur  (No.  145)  are  fine  specimens. 

31.  York  (Nos.  115  A,   117  B).— The  E.E.   transepts   are   remarkable  for  the 
"  classic  beauty  of  their  mouldings  "  (Street).    The  five  sisters — a  name  given  to  the 
lancet  windows  of  the  north  transept — are  each  50  feet  high  and  5  feet   wide. 
The  nave  and  the  octagonal  chapter  house,  without  central  column  and  covered 
with  a  wooden  roof,  of  Edwardian  Gothic  (Dec.,  1261-1324).     Perp.  tower.     No 
cloisters.     It  is  notable  as    the  largest  in   area  and  width   (being  no  less  than 
106  feet  within  the  walls)  of  any  English  cathedral.     The  height  of  the  nave  is 
second  only  to  that  of  Westminster  Abbey.     The  nave  and  choir  are  covered  with 
a  wooden  imitation  of  a  stone  vault.     The  west  front  is  of  the  French  type.     In 
spite  of  the  size  of  the  cathedral  it  compares  unfavourably  with   Durham  for 
grandeur,  strength  of  outline,  and  grouping. 

(For  a  description  of  S.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  see  page  571.) 
Notf.—¥oi  a  comparison  between  English  and  French  cathedrals,  which  will 
enable  their  various  characteristics  to  be  understood,  see  page  378. 

MONASTERIES. 

(See  page  276.) 

PARISH    CHURCHES. 

"  The  portals  of  the  sacred  pile 
Stood  open,  and  we  entered.     On  my  frame 
At  such  transition  from  the  fervid  air, 
A  grateful  coolness  fell,  that  served  to  strike 
The  heart,  in  concert  with  the  temperate  awe 
And  natural  reverence  that  the  place  inspired  : 
Not  raised  in  nice  proportions  was  the  pile, 
But  large  and  massy,  for  duration  built ; 
With  pillars  crowded,  and  the  roof  upheld 
By  naked  rafters,  intricately  cross' d 
Like  leafless  unclerboughs,   mid  some  thick  grove, 
All  withered  by  the  depth  of  shade  above. 

***** 

The  floor 

Jf  nave  and  aisle  in  unpretending  guise 
Was  occupied  by  oaken  benches,  ranged 
In  seemly  rows  ; 

* 
And  marble  monuments  were  here  display'd 

hrongmg  the  walls  ;  and  on  the  floor  beneath 
Sepulchral  stones  appeared,  with  emblems  graven 
And  footworn  epitaphs  ;  and  some  with  small 

Inning  effigies  of  brass  inlaid."-WORDSWORTH 


3/1 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    X. 


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130. 


318  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

with  aisles,  clerestory  with  windows,  and  a  long  and  narrow 
chancel  without  aisles.  There  was  generally  a  single  western 
tower,  finished  with  crenellated  battlements,  but  in  some  of  the 
larger  Parish  Churches,  which  are  cruciform  on  plan,  the  tower 
is  over  the  "crossing."  Where  a  spire  occurs  it  is  usually 
octagonal  on  plan,  and  the  change  from  the  square  to  the  octagon 
was  effected  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  means  of  a  "broach  " 
(No.  140  A)  resting  on  angle  squinch  arches  (No.  130  B),  while  in 
the  following  centuries,  parapets  with  elaborate  corner  pinnacles 
(No.  140  c,  E)  and  flying  buttresses  were  employed  to  connect  the 
tower  and  base  of  the  spire  (No.  140  G,  H). 

The  principal  entrance  was  by  a  porch,  sometimes  of  two 
stories,  on  the  south  side,  near  the  west  end,  although  occasionally 
the  western  tower  emphasized  the  main  entrance.  A  large  number 
were  erected  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

The  typical  English  Church  differs  from  the  French  in  not 
being  vaulted,  and  there  is,  therefore,  an  absence  of  flying 
buttresses.  The  English  developed  the  "  open-timbered  "  roof, 
and  elaborate  specimens  of  constructive  art  were  indulged  in,  ' 
various  types  being  shown  on  No.  113,  culminating  in  the 
"hammer-beam"  variety  of  the  fifteenth  century.  These  were 
often  painted  with  rich  colors,  and  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  have  examples  specially  famous  in  this  respect. 

THE  CASTLES  OF  THE  NOBLES. 

These  form  an  important  part  of  the  architecture  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  were  fortified  up  to  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
They  were  generally  residences  as  well  as  military  posts ;  thus, 
while  complying  with  the  ideas  of  defence,  the  planning  also 
illustrates  the  relation  of  the  vassal  to  his  lord,  who,  while  exacting 
the  former's  service,  was  theoretically  bound  to  maintain  him. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  military  structures  were  all-important, 
over  1,100  castles  being  constructed  during  the  reign  of  Stephen 
alone.  These  consisted  of  (a.)  an  outer  "  bailey  "  or  court,  (b.)  an 
inner  bailey,  and  (c.)  the  donjon  or  keep,  several  stories  in  height ; 
all  being  surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall  with  ramparts  and  parapet 
and  a  deep  moat,  as  in  the  Tower  of  London  (A.D.  1081-1090) 
(No.  131  A),  and  Kenilworth  Castle  (No.  131  c). 

' '  The  battled  towers,  the  donjon  keep, 
The  loophole  grates  where  captives  weep." — SCOTT. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  these  castles  were  further  enlarged 
by  additional  buildings,  clustering  round  the  keep,  the  hall  still 
remaining  the  principal  feature.  Large  hooded  fireplaces  and 
chimneys  became  general.  The  castles  were  less  strongly  ' 
fortified,  as  the  growth  of  the  royal  power  suppressed  petty  wars 
between  rival  nobles,  while  the  invention  of  gunpowder  (A.D.  1500) 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XI. 


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320  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

made  the  moat  comparatively  useless,  and  soon  rendered  quite 
obsolete  the  older  systems  of  defence  (page  549). 

In  the  fourteenth  century  an  increased  desire  for  privacy 
arose,  and  the  highest  development  of  the  Hall  was  attained,  as  in 
Westminster  Hall,  a  royal  palace ;  Ightham  Mote  and  Hever  Hall, 
Kent,  moated  manor  houses  ;  Cranbourne  Manor,  Dorset,  and  Crosby 
Hall,  London,  an  example  of  a  merchant's  home,  referred  to  in 
Shakespeare's  Richard  III.  as  Crosby  Place. 

Penshurst  Place,  Kent  (No.  132  A,  B,  c,  D,  E,  F)  (A.D.  1335),  is  a 
good  example  of  a  nobleman's  house.  The  plan  (No.  132  F) 
indicates  that,  as  in  all  domestic  buildings  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  Hall  was  the  feature  of  primary  importance.  In  this 
case  it  is  68  feet  by  38  feet  8  inches  and  48  feet  high,  with  a 
raised  dais  at  one  end  and  a  screen  at  the  other.  An  external 
elevation  is  given  in  No.  132  A.  The  roof  (No.  132  B,  E)  is  a  fine 
example  of  a  typical  open  timbered  type,  and  the  original  "louvre" 
or  opening  for  the  escape  of  smoke  from  the  central  fire  still  exists. 

A  characteristic  house  of  the  period  consisted  of  a  quadrangular 
plan  with  central  courtyard.  On  the  side  away  from  the  entrance 
was  the  Hall,  the  whole  height  of  the  house,  the  kitchen  being 
adjacent.  The  fire  was  in  the  centre  of  the  Hall  on  "  dogs,"  the 
smoke  being  carried  away  by  the  "  louvre  "  in  the  roof,  as  at 
Penshurst,  or  by  a  wall  fireplace  with  a  hooded  canopy. 

The  porch  or  doorway  led  to  the  entry  which,  by  a  panelled 
partition  or  screen,  was  separated  as  a  vestibule  from  the  Hall 
itself.  Over  this  entry  was  the  minstrels'  gallery,  while  at  the 
further  end  of  the  Hall  was  the  raised  "  dais,"  for  the  seats  of 
the  master  and  his  principal  guests,  and  sometimes,  a  large  bay 
window  gave  external  and  internal  importance  to  that  end. 
The  main  body  of  the  Hall  was  occupied  by  the  servants  and 
retainers.  The  walls  were  hung  with  tapestry  and  with  trophies 
of  the  chase,  and  the  floor  was  often  only  strewn  with  rushes  and 
still  formed,  as  in  the  earlier  periods,  the  sleeping-room  for  the 
retainers,  though  they  were  sometimes  lodged  in  dormitories  in 
the  wings.  The  "solar,"  or  withdra wing-room,  was  often  at 
right  angles  to  the  Hall. 

The  great  banqueting-hall  gradually  ceased  to  be  used  as  the 
common  sleeping-room  on  the  introduction  of  the  withdrawing- 
room,  and  the  fourteenth  century  house  may  be  taken  as  the 
prototype  of  the  modern  country  house,  which  in  its  highest 
development  is  an  expression  of  the  wants,  inclinations,  and 
habits  of  the  country  gentleman  of  to-day,  as  was  the  mediaeval 
castle  of  the  feudal  baron. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  central  fireplace  was  moved  to 
the  side  wall,  becoming  a  distinctive  feature,  and  the  sleeping 
accommodation  was  much  improved,  as  at  Oxburgh  Hall  (No 
131  B). 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XI 


MIRTH  iramm  of  crat  ma 


fl.D.1300-1650. 
'9 1...? ...?     '9'    z.°     3,°    ^PFEET 


132. 

F.A. 


322  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  typical  Tudor  house  consisted 
of  buildings  grouped  around  a  quadrangular  court,- as  at  Layer 
Marney  (A.D.  1520),  Compton  Wynyates  (A.D.  1520)  (No.  150), 
and  Sutton  Place  (A.D.  1521-1527).  The  entrance  was  in  the 
centre  of  one  side  under  a  gatehouse,  which  gave  it  prominence; 
on  the  opposite  side  were  the  hall  and  offices,  the  living  and 
sleeping-rooms  being  ranged  along  the  other  two  sides,  and  such 
rooms  were  usually  "  thoroughfare  "  rooms  or,  in  some  cases, 
only  entered  from  the  courtyard. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  century  the  common  dining-hall  began 
to  decline  in  importance,  owing  to  modern  ideas  of  privacy  being 
introduced  ;  but  the  salient  characteristics  of  the  Elizabethan 
house  are  dealt  with  in  English  Renaissance,  page  553. 


THE    DWELLINGS   OF   THE    PEOPLE. 

The  formation  of  towns  was  often  due  to  considerations  of 
safety,  as  when  traders  and  others  grouped  themselves  around 
the  castles  of  the  great  nobles,  or  formed  a  dependency  to  a 
monastery ;  and  thus  afterwards  arose  in  many  towns  two  rival 
authorities,  viz.,  ecclesiastical  and  secular.  In  the  absence  of 
effective  police,  and  in  the  consequent  insecurity  against  lawless 
vagabonds,  every  city  was  more  or  less  fortified. 

The  undeveloped  state  of  the  towns  is  accountable  for  the 
absence  of  town  halls,  in  contrast  with  France,  Belgium,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  where  many  such  buildings  exist. 

.  In  towns  the  dwellings  often  consisted  of  a  shop  on  the  ground 
floor,  in  which  the  trade  of  the  owner  was  carried  on,  light  being 
obtained  by  a  wide  opening  fronting  the  street.  Behind  the  shop 
were  the  kitchen  and  living-room,  and  an  external  door  led  to  a 
staircase,  which  gave  access  to  the  sleeping-rooms  oil  the  first 
floor.  The  "  Butcher  Row "  at  Shrewsbury,  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  has  ground  floor  shops,  "  solar  "  above,  and  dormitories 
in  the  upper  story. 

The  architecture  was  more  or  less  developed,  in .  proportion 
to  the  condition  of  the  owner,  the  materials  at  hand,  and  other 
local  causes.  In  this  respect  the  passage  way  on  the  first 
floor  to  the  houses  at  Chester  is  a  notable  example.  Houses  of 
half  timber  and  brick  with  overhanging  upper  stories  abounded, 
while  the  Jew's  house  at  Lincoln  is  a  fine  specimen  of  an  early 
stone  residence. 

CHAPELS. 

There  were  different  varieties  of  these,  viz.,  those  forming  apart- 
ments in  palaces  or  other  dwellings,  or  attached  to  convents  and 
monasteries,  those  forming  portions  of  larger  churches,  sepulchral 


Y  2 


324  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

chapels,  those  attached  to  colleges  and  other  educational  institu- 
tions and  those  erected  on  bridges— the  germ  of  all  these  being  a 
large  apartment  to  which  aisles  came  to  be  added. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  different  types  :— 
S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London  (No.  135)  ;  Lambeth 
Palace  Chapel  (No.  132)  (A.D.  1250),  with  the  later  addition  of 
the  Lollard's  tower  (1424-1445);  Merton  College  Chapel, 
Oxford  (1274-1277),  with  later  additions;  the  Chantry  Chapel 
(fourteenth  century),  on  the  Bridge  at  Wakefield  ;  S. 
Stephen's  Chapel,  Westminster  (1349-1364),  since  destroyed 
to  make  way  for  Westminster  Palace ;  King's  College  Chapel, 
Cambridge  (A.D.  1440),  of  which  there  is  a  model  in  the  Guild- 
hall Museum,  London  ;  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor 
(No.  133). (1480-1508);  and  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  West- 
minster" (Nos.  127,  128,  129)  (1500-1512). 

COLLEGES  AND  SCHOOLS. 

From  the  time  of  Alfred  onward  there  existed  a  number  of 
grammar  schools  connected  with  churches,  monasteries,  and 
cathedrals.  Colleges  resembled  the  monastic  establishments  of 
earlier  times  and  were  modelled  on  them  in  many  ways.  The 
hall  was  the  principal  apartment,  and  this  and  the  other  rooms 
were  grouped  around  a  quadrangle,  as  in  the  mediaeval  house. 

Winchester  College  (1387-1393)  was  built  by  William  of 
\Vykeham,  and  Eton  College  (1442)  was  founded  by  Henry  VI. 
(1422-1461).  The  rise  of  Oxford  dates  from  about  1167,  and  that 
of  Cambridge  from  about  1209,  and  many  of  the  principal  colleges 
at  these  Universities  were  erected  as  follows  :  —At  Oxford  :  the 
colleges  of  Merton,  1263-1264;  Worcester,  1289;  Exeter,  1314; 
Oriel,  1326;  Queen's,  1340;  New  College,  1379;  Lincoln,  1427; 
All  Souls,  1437  ;  Magdalen,  1458;  Brasenose,  1509  ;  Corpus  Christi, 
1516;  Christ  Church,  1524;  Trinity,  1554;  and  S.John's,  1555. 
At  Cambridge:  the  colleges  of  Peterhouse,  1284;  Clare,  1326; 
Pembroke,  1347;  Gonville,  1348;  Trinity  Hall,  1350;  Corpus 
Christi,  1352;  King's,  1441  ;  Queens',  1448;  Jesus,  1497;  Christ's, 
1505  ;  S.  John's,  1511  ;  Magdalen,  1542  ;  and  Trinity,  1546. 

BRIDGES. 

These  formed  important  means  of  communication,  and  in  many 
instances  possessed  a  semi-religious  character.  A  few  representa- 
tive examples  may  be  mentioned.  Old  London  Bridge,  com- 
menced in  1176,  was  built  by  the  religious  confraternity  known  as 
the  "Prates  Pontis."  The  " Triangular "  Bridge  at  Croyland, 
Lincolnshire,  still  exists,  having  three  pointed  arches  with  abut- 
ments at  the  angles  of  an  equilateral  triangle  and  having  three 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC.  325 

roadways   and   three    waterways.     The    Bridge   at  Wark worth, 
Northumberland,  is  in  good  preservation. 


HOSPITALS,  ALMSHOUSES  AND  BEDE    HOUSES. 

Many  of  these,  principally  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
were  founded  by  charitable  people,  and  form  interesting  examples 
of  semi-domestic  character.  5.  Mary's  Hospital,  Chichester,  (No. 
132  L,  M,  N)  is  mainly  of  the  fourteenth  century,  although 
belonging  to  a  very  early  foundation,  and  has  bedrooms  and 
sitting-rooms  for  the  inmates  opening  on  to  the  central  hall,  at 
the  end  of  which  is  the  chapel.  Other  examples  are  S.  Cross, 
Winchester  ;  Ford's  Hospital,  Coventry  ;  S.  John's  Hospital, 
Northampton ;  the  Bede  House,  Stamford,  and  almshouses  at 
Cobham,  Kent,  and  elsewhere. 


ANCIENT  TIMBER    HOUSES. 

These  are  still  numerous,  and  the  example  from  Chiddingstone 
(No.  132  j),  dating  about  1637,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  appearance 
of  these  old  timber  houses,  of  which  many  towns,  such  as  Chester, 
and  numerous  villages  throughout  the  country,  can  still  boast 
a  number. 

MINOR   MONUMENTS. 

In  the  cathedrals  and  churches,  the  choir  screens,  tombs,  wall 
tablets,  and  chantries  are  specially  notable.  Many  of  these  are 
worthy  of  careful  study. 


4.     COMPARATIVE. 
PREFATORY  NOTE. 

The  architecture  of  England  during  the  Middle  Ages  can  be 
divided  into  centuries  corresponding  to  the  principal  developments, 
which  have  their  specially  denned  characteristics,  and  each  period 
is  now  treated  in  a  comparative  way  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner  to  the  method  adopted  in  othsr  styles,  the  architectural 
character  and  examples  in  each  period  being  given. 

There  have  been  various  systems  of  classification  adopted  by 
different  writers,  but  those  by  Rickman  and  Sharpe  are  the  best 
known.  Rickman's  divisions  are  made  to  include  periods  corre- 
sponding to  the  reigns  of  English  sovereigns,  which  are  given 
under  each  style  later,  whereas  Sharpe's  divisions  are  governed  by 
the  character  of  the  window  tracery  in  each  period. 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE    (ANGLO-SAXON    STYLE).       327 

A  comparative  table  showing  the  approximate  period  covered  by 
each  is  given  :  — 

Dates,  Rickman.  Sharpe. 

A.  D.  449  (arrival  of  Anglo-Saxons)  to  the  Con- 

quest in  1066     ...............  Saxon,  Saxon. 

1066-1189  (i.e.  to  the  end  of  I2th  cent.)  Norman.  /Norman. 

|    Transition. 

1189-1307  (i.e.  the  1  3th  cent.)    .........   Early  English.  }     f^  Lance^' 

1307-1377  (i.e.  the  I4th  cent.)   .........       Decorated, 


1377-1485  (i>e.  the  I5th  cent.)    .........   Perpendicular,  Rectilinear. 

1485-1558  (i.e.  the  first  half  i6th  cent.)  ......          Tudor.  Tudor. 

Although  the  period  of  each  style  is  thus  defined,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  transition  from  one  style  to  the  next  was 
slow  and  gradual,  and  can  often  hardly  be  traced,  so  minute  are  the 
differences.  It  is  only  for  convenience  in  alluding  to  the  different 
stages  that  the  division  is  made,  for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  mediaeval  architecture  of  England  is  one  continuous  style. 

ANGLO-SAXON  STYLE  (A.D.  449  to  1066). 

The  buildings  are  sometimes  composed  of  the  fragments  of 
Roman  architecture  in  Britain,  or  of  rude  copies,  but  the  scanty 
remains  of  this  period  render  it  difficult  to  estimate  the  character 
of  the  buildings.  It  is  probable  that  timber  was  the  material 
mostly  employed  in  all  classes  of  buildings,  and  that  the  great 
development  in  timber  work  of  the  later  Gothic  styles  was  due 
to  this  early  use.  The  masonry  work  is  considered  to  show  signs 
of  the  influence  of  wood  architecture,  as  in  the  "long  and  short" 
work,  the  triangular-headed  openings,  the  pilaster  strips,  and  the 
baluster  mullions  (No.  134),  but  these  features  are  more  likely 
ru\le  attempts  to  copy  the  contemporary  Romanesque  work  of 
Ravenna  and  other  Italian  towns. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  examples  of  this  period  :  — 
Worth  Church,  Barnack  Church,  Brixworth  (Northants),  Dover 
Castle  and  Church,  Earl's  Barton  (No.  134  A,  B,  D),  Sompting 
(Sussex)  (No.  134  H),  Wickham  (No.  134  F),  Deerhurst  (Glouces- 
tershire) (No.  134  c),  Greensted  Church  (Essex),  and  the  crypt 
at  Ripon  Cathedral. 

A.  Plans.  —  Churches  seem  to  have  been  planned  as  two  simple 
oblongs,  joined  by  a  small  chancel  arch,  the  chancel  being  square- 
ended  (borrowed  from  the  Keltic  type),  lower  and  smaller  than 
the  nave,  and  distinctly  marked  as  such  externally  and  internally. 
There  was  often  a  descent  of  a  few  steps  from  the  nave  into  the 
chancel.  Another  type  of  plan  is  that  of  the  Roman  basilican 
form,  as  Sv  Martin,  Canterbury,  and  Brixworth. 

Towers,  of  which  Earl's  Barton,  Northants  (No.  134),  is  an 
example,  are  without  buttresses. 


328  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

B.  Walls.— These  were  mostly  formed  of  rough  rubble  work 
with  ashlar  masonry  at  the  angles  formed  in  "  long  .and  short" 
courses,  as  at  Earl's  Barton  (No.  134  A).  The  pilaster  strips 
mentioned  above  are  also  features. 

c.  Openings.— These  are  round  or  triangular-headed,  and 
have  square  jambs,  as  at  Deerhurst  Church  (No.  134  c),  and  are 
sometimes  divided  by  a  baluster,  as  at  Wickham  (No.  134  F). 

D.  Roofs. — There  are  no  means  of  knowing  exactly  how  these 
were  treated,. as  none  exist,  but  they  were  probably  either  of 
timber  or  composed  of  loose  stones  in  horizontal  layers  approach- 
ing  each    other    till    they   met  at    the    apex,  as   in    early  Irish 
examples.     Manuscripts  represent  buildings  as  covered  by  slates 
or  shingles. 

E.  Columns. — The  roughly   formed  balusters,  that  occur  in 
belfry  windows,  have  been  mentioned  above,  and  appear  to  have 
been  worked  by  a  lathe.     Piers  in  churches  are  short,  stumpy 
cylinders  crowned  with  square  blocks  of  stone  in   the  place  of 
moulded  capitals  (No.   134  E,  G). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  were  few  in  number  and  consisted  of 
simple  ovolos  and  hollows  coarsely  axed.     Ttfbls  were  few,  hence 
the  use  of  the  axe  in  roughly  finishing  the  contours. 

G.  Ornament. — This  was  probably  scanty,  in  the  absence  of 
technical  ability,  hangings  being  probably  in  use. 

NORMAN  ARCHITECTURE, 

also  known  as  the  English  Romanesque  or  Twelfth  Century  style, 
comprises  the  reigns  of  William  I.,  1066-1087,  William  II.,  1087- 
iioo,  Henry  I.,  1100-1135,  Stephen,  1135-1154,  Henry  II.,  1154- 
1189. 

The  general  appearance  is  bold  and  massive,  and  presents 
many  similarities  with  the  architecture  of  Normandy,  from 
whence  it  was  introduced  during  the  reign  of  William  I.  It 
is  well  described  by  Sir  Walter  Scott : 

"  In  Norman  strength,  that  abbey  frown'd 
With  massive  arches  broad  and  round, 
That  rose  alternate  row  on  row 
On  ponderous  columns,  short  and  low  ; 
Built  ere  the  art  was  known, 
By  pointed  aisle  and  shafted  stalk 
The  arcades  of  an  alley'd  walk 
To  emulate  in  stone  "... 

In  London,  the  principal  examples  are : — 

The  keep  and  S.  John's  Chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London 
(Nos.  131  A  and  135).  The  round  portion  of  the  Temple  Church 
(Transitional).  S.  Bartholomew's  the  Great,  Smithfield. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XIII 


9WMKH  CfflHB 


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136. 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  EXAMPLES.  XIV. 

SHANE. 


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COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

In  the  Provinces,  the  principal  examples  are  :  — 

The  ^reater  portion  of  the  Cathedrals  of  Norwich,  Durham, 
Oxford,*  Gloucester,  Exeter,  Ely,  Hereford,  Peterborough, 
Winchester,  S.  Albans,  Chichester,  Waltham,  and  Tewkesbury 
Abbey.  Barfreston  Church,  Kent,  and  Iffley  Church,  Oxon 
(No.  138),  are  good  examples  of  small  Norman  churches. 

A.  Plans.  —  The  nave  was  considerably  lengthened  from  the 
Saxon  period,  and  transepts  were  employed,  with  usually  a  tower 
at  the  crossing.     Most  of  the  cathedrals  date  from  this  period, 
and  the  general  type  of  plan  laid  down  was  developed  rather  than 
changed,  great  length  being  aimed  at,  as  at  Norwich,  Durham, 
Ely,  S.  Albans,  and  Winchester.     The  chapel  of  the  Tower  of 
Lo'ndon  (No.  135)  is  a  type  of  a  small  chapel  in  the  style. 

The  towers  are  square  and  massive,  as  at  S.  Alban's  Abbey 
and  Iffley  Church  (No.  138). 

In  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  are  some  fifty  churches,  having  at 
their  west  end  round  towers  supposed  to  be  due  to  Scandinavian 
influence,  but  probably  owing  to  these  being  more  readily  con- 
structed, in  the  absence  of  suitable  stone  to  form  square  angles. 

Castles,  owing  to  the  recent  conquest,  were  numerous  and 
important,  commanding  fords  on  the  rivers,  high  roads,  and 
other  strategic  points.  The  Tower  of  London  gives  a  good  idea 
of  the  system  of  defence  adopted  (No.  131  A). 

B.  Walls.  —  These  are  very  thick,  and  frequently  arcaded  in 
later  work,  but  are  often  constructed  with  defective  masonry,  the 
core  being  imperfectly  bonded  with  the  facing. 

The  interiors  have  nearly  an  equal  height  assigned  to  nave 
arcade,  triforium,  and  clerestory,  and  a  passage  was  often  formed 
tetween  the  clerestory  window  and  the  triple  arch  carrying  the 
inside  of  the  wall,  a  method  also  adopted  in  the  churches  at  Caen. 

Buttresses  are  broad  and  flat,  with  little  projection  (No.  141  A), 
and  often  flush  with  the  corbel  table,  which  supports  a  plain 
parapet  (No.  136  A,  B). 

c.  Openings.—  These  were  frequently  formed  with  square  re- 
cesses, known  as  "orders,"  to  their  jambs.  The  windows  are 
isually  small,  narrow  and  deeply  splayed,  with  semicircular  heads. 
They  are  in  single  lights,  but  double  windows  divided  by  a  shaft 
-equently  occur  in  towers.  Three  openings,  of  which  the  centre 
:st,  are  sometimes  grouped  together. 

Doorways  are  deeply  recessed  and  richly  ornamented  with  the 
ornament  and  beak-head,  as  at  Iffley  Church,  Oxon 

0e      Omt        ^^  whh  s 


,n  sculPtural 


with  a^l)^  Wa^°n-beaded>  or  intersecting 

The  roof-trusses  were  of  open  timber,  chiefly  of  king-post  form, 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE    (THE    NORMAN    STYLE) 


138. 


IFFLEY  CHURCH,  NEAR  OXFORD, 
West  Front. 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE    (THE    NORMAN    STYLE). 


,  UNCOLSHIRE   112.0  CHDmOM,STCOHTE8TCAEri 


BILLET,  WINCHESTER    1090 


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139. 


ENGLISH    ARCHITECTURE    (THE    NORMAN    STYLE).        335 

and  having  an  inclination  of  forty-five  degrees,  the  covering 
being  of  lead  or  shingles.  The  simple  framing  is  either  left 
exposed,  or  has  a  flat  ceiling  boarded  and  decorated.  In  fact,  all 
the  existing  cathedrals  or  abbeys  of  this  period  had  originally 
wooden  ceilings,  but  were  vaulted  later,  as  at  Gloucester,  Exeter, 
and  Durham. 

E.  Columns. — These  are  low,  massive,  and  either  polygonal 
or  circular  (No.  135),  as  at  Gloucester,  Bristol,  and  Exeter,  while 
at  Durham    fluting  and  zigzag  channellings  were  worked  on  the 
columns,  without  regard  to  the  courses.     Clustered  piers,  as  at 
Peterborough  (No.  122),  with  rectangular  recesses,  were  also  used, 
often  in  conjunction  with  round  piers,  as  at  Durham  and  Waltham. 
The  small  shafts  occurring  in  the  recessed  orders  of  doorways 
and  windows  were  sometimes  richly  ornamented. 

Capitals  (Nos.  146  and  148),  are  usually  of  the  cushion  form, 
being  sometimes  carved  and  scolloped,  but  occasionally  forms 
reminiscent  of  Roman  architecture  occur,  as  the  Ionic  example, 
in  the  White  Tower,  London  (No.  135).  The  Corinthian  type 
frequently  met  with  in  France  is  rare. 

F.  Mouldings. — -The  ornamented  mouldings,  as  the  chevron 
or  zigzag,  billet,  beak-head,  nail-head,  bowtel,   or  roll  moulding, 
are  shown  on   Nos.   139   and    146,  and  form  a  most   important 
decorative  element  in  the  style. 

Corbel  tables,  supported  by  corbels  or  grotesques,  constitute 
crowning  features  on  walls  and  towers. 

G.  Ornament. — The  plain  treatment  of  the  earlier  period  was 
succeeded  by  the  highly  decorated  work  of  the  late  period,  which 
was  richly  carved  with  nail-head,  corbel,  billet,  and  other  orna- 
mented mouldings  (No.   139). 

Wall  arcades  of  intersecting  arches  (No.  1366),  along  the  lower 
part  of  the  aisle  walls,  constituted  an  effective  dado  decoration. 

It  is  probable  that  hangings  were  employed  in  interiors. 
Rudimentary  decoration,  consisting  of  black  and  white,  or  simple 
colors  in  stripes,  forming  lozenge-shaped  and  other  figures 
roughly  executed  in  distemper,  produced  a  bold  and  not  un- 
pleasing  effect,  as  in  the  roof  at  Peterborough.  Late  in  the  period 
stained  glass  began  to  be  employed,  the  glass,  in  small  pieces,  being 
chiefly  white,  leaded  together  to  form  patterns,  with  the  addition 
of  brown  lines. 

A  Norman  font,  piscina  and  sedilia  are  shown  on  No.  144. 

THE    EARLY    ENGLISH    STYLE. 

Also  known  as  Lancet,  First  Pointed,  Early  Plantagenet,  or 
Thirteen  Century  Style,  comprises  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.,  1189- 
1199;  John,  1199-1216;  Henry  III.,  1216-1272;  Edward  I., 
1272-1307. 

The  style  of  this  period,  shaking  itself  free  from  the  massive 


336  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

Norman,  is  magnificent  and  rich,  strong  in  its  dependence  upon 
proportion,  well-defined  outline,  and  simplicity  in  decoration. 
The  long  trails  of  dog-tooth  ornament  lurking  in  the  dark  furrow 
of  the  channelled  recesses,  the  foliaged  capitals  and  bosses  intrud- 
ing their  luxuriance  upon  the  mouldings  and  hollows,  and  the 
knots  of  pierced  and  hanging  leaves,  extending  like  some  petrified 
garland  or  bower  of  filigree  work  round  the  arch,  almost  impart 
life  and  vegetation  to  the  very  stones  of  these  door  and  window 
openings.  The  tall  and  narrow  lancet  openings  give  an  upward 
tendency  to  the  design,  and  the  boldly  projecting  buttresses  and 
pinnacles,  and  steeply  pitched  roofs,  mark  the  exteriors.  Inter- 
nally, in  place  of  the  massive  Norman  pillar,  slender  groups  of  shafts 
occur  connected  by  bands  to  the  piers.  The  pointed  arch  vaults 
are  bolder,  more  elegant,  and  used  more  frequently  (page  286). 

In  London  the  principal  examples  are  :  — 

The  round  portion  of  the  Temple  Church,  which  may  be  called 
Transitional,  between  Norman  and  Early  English.  The  Eastern 
portion  of  the  Temple  Church.  The  choir,  transepts,  and  first 
four  bays  of  the  nave  of  Westminster  Abbey  (1220-1269),  a  portion 
of  the  Cloisters,  and  the  Chapter  House,  restored  (No.  127). 
The  Chapel  of  Lambeth  Palace  (No.  132  G,  H,  K).  The  Choir, 
Lady  Chapel,  and  nave  (restored)  of  S.  Mary  Overie  (S. 
Saviour),  Southwark. 

In  the  Provinces  the  principal  examples  are  :  — 

Salisbury  Cathedral  (Nos.  121,  122,  and  140  D),  York  (tran- 
septs) (No.  117  B),  Lincoln  (nave)  (No.  117  F),  Rochester  (choir 
and  transepts),  Wells  (nave  and  west  front),  Lichfield,  Ely  (choir 
transepts  and  Gallilee  Porch,  1198-1218)  (No.  136  D),  Worcester 
(choir),  Bristol  (the  Elder  Lady  Chapel). 

A.  Plans   (No.    117  E).—  These    varied    but   little   from    the 

The  vaulting  as  it  advanced  modified  the  planning, 
as,  when  pointed  arches  were  finally  adopted,  nave  compart- 
ments were  made  oblong  in  place  of  the  former  square  divisions. 
Flying  buttresses  were  introduced. 

The  "broach  "  spire  (No.  140  A,  B),  in  which  the  upper  portion 
•s  mn  the  square  tower  without  a  parapet,  is  characteristic. 

B.  Walls.—  These   retain   the   massiveness    characteristic    of 
man  work   but  more  cut  stonework  was  employed,  and  less 

We  filling  the  concentration  of  the  weight   of  the  roof  and 

iTir  On£e  buttresses  leading  to  the  gradual  treatment  of 

J  between  as  a  mere  screen.     The  proportion  of  opening 

1S  often  excellent'  as  in  the 


Pronounced    than    in   the   Norman   period, 
equal  in  projection  to  their  width,  in  order  to 
'  lateral   outward  pressure  of  the  pointed   vaults,  and 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (EARLY    ENGLISH    STYLE).  337 

were  formed  into  stages  by  weathered  set-offs  (Nos.  127  A,  B,  and 
141  B).  Their  arrises  were  often  chamfered,  and  the  different 
stages  were  frequently  gabled.  Flying  or  arched  buttresses  (No. 
141  E)  were  first  utilized  in  this  period,  but  were  not  of  common 
occurrence  till  a  later  period. 

In  the  interiors  the  nave  arcade  usually  occupies  the  lower  half 
of  the  height,  the  upper  half  being  divided  equally  between 
triforium  and  clerestory,  as  at  the  choir  of  Ely,  the  naves  of 
Lichfield  (No.  124  c),  and  Lincoln  ;  but  sometimes,  the  triforium 
was  diminished  in  order  to  provide  a  larger  display  of  glass,  as  at 
Westminster  (No.  127  c)  and  Salisbury  (No.  122  G). 

c.  Openings. — Proportions,  generally,  are  more  slender  than 
in  Norman  work,  and  pointed  arches  came  into  general  use  for 
constructive  reasons,  at  first  in  connection  with  vaulting,  then 
gradually  throughout  the  whole  building. 

The  doorways  are  often  richly  treated,  and  ornamented  with 
carved  foliage  (No.  143  A). 

Windows  (Nos.  122,  136  D,  and  142  A,  B,  c,  E,  F,  G)  are  of 
lancet  form,  and  tracery  was  developed,  especially  the  early  form 
known  as  "plate"  tracery  (No.  142  A,  B),  so-called  because  the 
openings  were  cut  through  a  flat  plate  of  stone. 

Cusps  or  projecting  points  of  Gothic  tracery  were  introduced  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  Early  English  style,  being  let  into  the  soffit 
of  the  arches  in  separate  small  pieces  and  entirely  independent  of 
the  mouldings.  This  form  of  detached  cusping  is  found  generally 
in  the  circular  lights,  the  heads  of  windows  having  cusps  forming 
part  of  the  tracery  itself.  The  spaces  between  the  cusps  are 
known  as  foils  (Lat.  folium = a  leaf)  being  trefoil,  quatrefoil  or 
cinquefoil  when  having  three,  four  or  five  openings. 

Narrow  lancet  windows  are  grouped  in  two,  three,  or  even 
five  lights,  as  in  the  "  Five  Sisters"  in  the  north  transept,  York 
(page  316),  the  glass  being  usually  kept  near  the  exterior  of  the 
wall,  making  the  inside  jamb  very  deep. 

D.  Roofs. — These  are  steeper  than  in  the  last  period,  approach- 
ing the  shape  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  i.e.,  sixty  degrees.     The 
framing  was  exposed  where  there  was  no  vaulted  ceiling.     The 
braces  were  used  to  form  a  waggon  shape,  or  semicircular  ribs  were 
employed,  when  the  close  setting  of  the  flat  rafters  produces  the  effect 
of  barrel  vaulting.   (Vaulting,  see  page  286,  and  Nos.  1 1 1  and  112.) 

E.  Columns. — Piers  consist  of  a  central  circular,  or  octagonal 
shaft,  surrounded  by  smaller  detached  columns  (No.   146),  often 
of  polished  Purbeck  marble,  held  in  place  by  bands  at  intervals, 
as  at  Salisbury  (No.  123)  and  Westminster  Abbey. 

Capitals  were  frequently  moulded,  so  as  to  produce  fine  bold 
shadows  (No.  146),  or  carved  with  conventional  foliage  (No.  148), 
placed  on  the  bell  or  lower  portion  of  the  capital.  The  normal 
abacus  is  circular  on  plan. 

F.A.  Z 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XV. 


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ENGLISH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.    XVI. 


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ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XVII. 


I42. 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  (EARLY  ENGLISH  STYLE).      341 

F.  Mouldings. — These  are  bold,  deeply  undercut,  and  often  of 
pear-shaped   section,    following   the    outline    of   the    rectangular 
recesses  (No.  146).     The  chiselled  dog-tooth  succeeded  the  axed 
nailhead  decoration  of  the  Norman  period. 

G.  Ornament.— The  most  characteristic  ornament  is  the  dog- 
tooth, which  was  generally  placed  in  hollow  mouldings,  and  was 
used   in   great    profusion  (Nos.   143  and   147).      The  chisel   was 
generally  used,  taking  the  place  of  the  axe  in  the  Early  Norman 
period. 

Carved  foliage  is  conventional,  and  crisp  and  fine  in  treatment 
(No.  147),  typical  examples  consisting  of  convex  curling  masses, 
known  as  "  stiff  leaf  foliage." 

Flat  surfaces  are  often  richly  diapered  (see  Glossary,  page  691), 
as  in  Westminster  Abbey  (No.  127). 

Sculptured  figures  of  large  size  were  used,  and  placed  in  niches 
with  canopies  over  them.  The  west  front  of  Wells  (1206-1242) 
has  300  statues,  being  a  grand  composition  where  sculpture  is 
fully  combined  with  architecture. 

In  regard  to  color  work,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  carved 
diapers  of  this  and  the  next  period  are  copies  in  stone  of  the  hang- 
ings or  painted  decorations  of  the  previous  period.  There  is 
ground  for  believing  that  such  carved  diapers  were  colored,  as 
was  the  case  with  Greek  and  Roman  ornament. 

Stained  glass  rapidly  increased  in  importance,  the  pieces 
being  small  and  leaded  up  in  patterns  so  as  almost  to  suggest 
the  cubic  formation  of  mosaic.  A  general  tone  of  color  pervades 
the  windows,  and  an  unrivalled  deep  and  violet-like  blue  was  a 
favourite  tint,  as  in  the  fine  thirteenth  century  glass  at  Canterbury 
Cathedral. 

Examples  of  an  Early  English  font,  piscina,  sedilia,  and  taber- 
nacle are  shown  on  No.  144,  and  a  gable  cross,  finial,  sculptured 
vaulting  bosses,  and  carved  bracket  on  No.  149. 

In  the  Early  English  and  following  periods,  exquisite  decora- 
tive art  was  produced  in  such  works  as  the  Psalters,  Missals, 
Books  of  Hours  and  Chronicles,  in  which  the  huntsman,  fisher- 
man, shepherd,  labourer,  scribe,  saint,  king,  knight  and  monk 
were  represented,  forming  a  valuable  record  of  contemporary 
life.  The  Mediaeval  Room  at  the  British  Museum  contains 
examples  of  armour  metalwork,  ivory  and  woodcarving,  caskets, 
rings  and  utensils,  illustrative  of  the  ornamental  art  of  the 
periods. 

THE  DECORATED  STYLE, 

also  known  as  the  Geometrical  and  Curvilinear,  Middle  Pointed, 
Edwardian,  Later  Plantagenet,  or  Fourteenth  Century  Style, 
comprises  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.,  1307-1327,  Edward  III., 
I327-I377- 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XVI 


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ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    DECORATED    STYLE).  343 

The  general  appearance,  although  there  is  an  increasing  rich- 
ness of  ornamentation,  is  simple,  from,  the  small  number  of  parts, 
and  magnificent,  from  the  size  of  the  windows  filled  in  with 
geometrical  and  flowing  tracery.  Clerestories  were  enlarged  at 
the  expense  of  the  triforium.  Vaulting  ribs  were  more  numerous 
and  complex  than  in  the  previous  style,  the  vault  becoming  a  main 
feature  in  the  effect  of  the  interiors. 

In  London  the  principal  examples  are  : — 

Westminster  Abbey  (three  bays  of  the  eastern  cloister  walk 
and  the  polygonal  chapter  house) ;  the  Chapel  of  S.  Etheldreda, 
Ely  Place,  Holborn,  and  the  Dutch  Church,  Austin  Friars. 

In  the  Provinces  the  principal  examples  are  : — 

Lincoln  Cathedral  (nave  and  east  end,  including  angel  choir, 
1260-1280),  Ely  Cathedral  (the  eastern  portion),  York 
Cathedral  (the  choir,  west  front  and  chapter  house),  Exeter 
and  Lichfield  Cathedrals  (naves),  S.  Albans  (choir),  Salisbury, 
Wells,  and  Southwell  (the  polygonal  chapter  houses),  Stone 
Church,  Kent,  and  the  Eleanor  Crosses. 

A.  Plans. — The  new  plans  were  set  out  with  a  wider  spacing 
in  the  bays,  more  noticeable  in  parish  churches  than  in  cathedrals 
already    started    in    earlier    periods.     The    progress    of   vaulting 
regulated  the  planning  of  the  piers,   and  was  in  itself  strongly 
influenced    by    the    increased    size   of  the  openings   required  to 
exhibit  stained  glass.     In  domestic  architecture  the  "  Hall"  was 
highly  developed,  as  at  Westminster  and  Penshurst  (No.  132). 

Several  of  the  great  central  towers  were  now  carried  up,  as 
Salisbury  (Nos.  IIOA,  121  and  140  D),  Lincoln  (Nos.  116  Band  125). 
and  Lichfield  (No.  116  F). 

Spires,  usually  octagonal,  are  lofty,  and  the  "broach"  form, 
characteristic  of  the  thirteenth  century,  gradually  gave  way  to 
parapets  with  angle  pinnacles  (No.  140  c,  D,  E).  Spire-lights  are 
ornamented  with  crockets  (No.  147  K),  and  ribs  occur  on  the  angles 
of  the  tapering  spires. 

B.  Walls. — The  increased  size  of  the  traceried  windows,  and 
the  importance  of  the  buttresses  are  characteristic  of  the  style, 
and  the  extension  of  tracery  to  the  walls  in  the  shape  of  panelling 
was  now  introduced. 

Buttresses  occur  with  offsets  in  stages,  and  in  later  periods  are 
ornamented  with  niches  (No.  141  c)  and  crocketed  canopies,  as 
in  the  exterior  of  Lincoln  (No.  125).  Angle  buttresses,  set 
diagonally,  were  introduced  in  this  period. 

Parapets  were  often  pierced  with  flowing  tracery  (No.  147  N), 
but  this  was  especially  a  French  feature,  the  English  generally 
keeping  to  the  battlemented  form  (No.  147  M). 

c.  Openings. — The  proportions  of  height  to  width  are  less 
lofty  than  in  the  Early  English  period. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES.    XIX. 


R$EMUA:  ST  MARVS  .  LUCESTER. 


144. 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  EXAMPLES.  XX. 


F,  STEEPLE  ASTON,  OXON.         FULFIT  (EXTERNAL) 
MAGDALENE  Cot-  OXFORD, 


,WOLVERCOT,OXON.        ACLE  LECTON, 
UPWELL  ST  PETERS,  NORFOLK 


,  HANDBOROUGH,  OXFORDSHIRL 

AROODLOFT  WAS  A  GALLERY 
OVER  THE  SCREEN  SEPARATING 
THE  CHOIR  OR  CHANCEL  FROM  THE 
NAVE.  IT  WAS  CONVENIENT  FOR 
LIGHTING  CANDLES.  ETC.,  IN  CON- 
NECTION WITH  THE  IMAGES  ^3 
WHICH  BELONGED  TO  IT.  NOT  MUCH 
IN  USE  BEFORf  THE  I4T-"  CENT-< 


ACHAMTEY.WASA 
CHAPEL  OR  SEPARATE  PART  OF 
A  CHURCH  ENDOWED  FDR  THE 
PURPOSE.  OF  THE  DAILY  OR  £ 
FREQUENT  SAYING  OF  MASS  ON 
BEHALF  OF  THE  FOOTER  AND 
THOSE  WHOM  HE  MIGHT  NAME. 
4T  WAS  OFTEN  ONE  OR  MORE 
BAYS  OF  AN  AISLE  ENCLOSED 
BY  A  SCREW:  ABOUT  THE  MID- 

DLE OF  THE  IZ*  CEN1?  IT  WAS 
CUSTOMARY  TO  ENDOWS 
CHANTRIES  AT  PARTICULAR 
ALTARS.  THE  FOUNDING  A'riD 
ENDOWING  01-  PRIVATE  CHANTF,/ 
CHAPELS  WAS  A  COMMONS 
PRACTICE  AMONG  THE  WEALTHY 
CLASSES  PREVIOUS  TO  THE 

REFORMATION'.  THEY  WERE  a 

MOST  NUMEROUS  IN   ^^ 
ABBEYS  &CATHED-  ( 
RALS,  WHERE  IT  WAS 
A  PRIVILEGE  TO  K.  KJRIED,  h 

H5- 


,  GEDDINGTON  CH.,NORTHANTS. 

A  PARCLOSE  WAS  AN  ENCLOS- 
URE, SCREEN,  OR  RAILING  TO* 
PROTECT  A  TOMB,  TO  SEPARATE 
A  CHAPEL  FROM  THE  MAIN  BODY 
OF  A  CHURCH,  OR  TO  FORM  THF. 
FRONT  OF  A  GALLERY.  ETC. 


CHANTRY  (CONTINUED) 
WHERE  INTERMENT  WAS  NOT  EASILY 
OBTAINED  EXCEPT  BY  SOME  BENE- 
FICIAL OFFERING.  IN  MOST  ENGL- 
ISH CATHEDRALS  MANY  CHANTRY 
CHAPELS  WERE  ACTUALLY  EXTER- 
NAL ADDITIONS  TO  THE  ORIGINAL"* 
BUILDING;  OTHERS  WERE  INDE- 
PENDENT STRUCTURES  WITHIN* 
THE  EDIFICE. 

THE  CHANTRY  CHAPEL  2r  SEPUL- 
CHRAL MONUMENT  TO  ARTHUR 
TUDOR,  PRINCE  OF  WALES.SON 
OF  HENRY  VII  (&.  I486,  D.I502) 
IS  AN  EXAMPLE  Of  THE  LAST 
MENTIONED.  IT  WAS  ERECTED  IN 
1504.  THE  WHOLE  SURFACED 
EXTERNALLY  &  INTERNALLY,  IS 
COVERED  WITH  TRACERY  &  SCULP- 
TURED ORNAMENTS,  8,  THE  ROOF 
BAFINESPECrjiOFFANYAUQIHG 


[FFIGY  OF  BISHOP  GIFFARD.     ENTRANCE  POORS  " 

CHAMTIY, 


FEMALE  EFFIGY 

WORCESTER  CATHEDRAL. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   ORNAMENT.     I. 


DECORATED. 

146. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    DECORATED    STYLE).  347 

Windows  (Nos.  137  and  142)  are  large,  and  divided  by  mullions 
into  two  or  more  lights.  Tracery  at  first  consisted  of  geometric 
forms,  as  in  the  cloisters  of  Salisbury,  the  choir  clerestories  of 
Ely,  Lincoln,  and  Lichfield,  and  the  nave  of  York.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  period  it  was  "  flowing  "  in  character  as  in  the  choirs 
of  Ely  (No.  137  F)  and  Wells. 

The  cusps,  which  in  the  Early  English  style  were  often  planted 
on,  in  this  period  were  cut  out  of  the  stone  forming  the  tracery. 

Doorways  (No.  143)  are  ornamented  with  engaged  shafts,  and 
have  jambs  of  less  depth  than  in  the  Early  English  style. 

Arches  were  formed  by  being  struck  from  the  points  of  equilateral 
triangles,  or  even  of  lower  proportion  (No.  299  i).  The  ogee  arch 
(No.  299  v)  was  also  used. 

The  enlargement  of  clerestory  windows  proceeded  pan  passu 
with  the  diminution  in  height  of  the  triforium  (No.  137  F). 

D.  Roofs. — These  are  of  moderate  pitch,  and  sometimes  have 
open  framing,  of  which  Eltham  Palace  and  S.  Etheldreda,  Ely 
Place,  Holborn,  are  good  examples.     (Vaulting,  see  page  287  and 

No.  112.) 

E.  Columns. — Piers  are  sometimes  diamond-shaped  on  plan, 
with   engaged  shafts   (No.    146).     Small  shafts,  surrounding  and 
attached  to  a  central  column,  were  a  development  from  the  Early 
English. 

The  capitals,  when  moulded,  are  similar  to  those  in  the  Early 
English  style,  but  not  so  deeply  undercut  (No.  146).  W'hen 
carved,  the  foliage  is  more  naturalistic,  and  resembles  the  leaves 
of  the  oak,  ivy,  maple,  or  vine  (No.  148  G). 

F.  Mouldings. — Hollow  mouldings  are  ornamented  with  the 
ball-flower  (No.   147  c),  which  is  specially  characteristic  of  the 
style,  other  mouldings  being  shown  on  Nos.  143  and  146. 

Cornices  and  dripstones  often  have  their  deep  hollows  filled 
with  foliage  and  carving,  and  are  ornamented  with  crockets 
(No.  147  K). 

Dripstones  are  finished  with  carved  heads  or  grotesques,  as  at 
Cley  Church,  Norfolk  (No.  143). 

"The  carved  angels,  ever  eager  eyed 
Stared,  where  upon  their  heads  the  cornice  rests, 
With  hair  blown  back,  and  wings  put  crosswise  on  their  breasiS." 

KEATS. 

Base  mouldings  to  walls  are  strongly  marked,  as  seen  in  the 
exterior  of  Lincoln  (No.  125). 

G.  Ornament. — Carved  .foliage   in    this   period   is   generally 
naturalistic,  and  consists  of  seaweed,  ivy,  oak,  and  vine  leaves, 
and  the  well-known  tablet  flower  (Nos.  147  and  148). 

Stained  glass  led  to  a  great  extension  of  window  openings,  and 
the  development  of  tracery.  In  itself  it  lost  the  mosaic  character 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC   ORNAMENT.     II 


©  _S32 


:5fi:n?1^ 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    PERPENDICULAR    STYLE).       349 

and  became  more  translucent,  the  pieces  being  larger,  and  lighter 
in  tone.  The  subjects  portrayed  became  of  more  importance, 
and  there  was  a  loss  in  the  general  decorative  effect  of  the  interior, 
but  the  glass  in  itself  gained  in  value  and  expression. 

"The  deep-set  windows,  stained  and  traced, 
Would  seem  slow-flaming  crimson  fires." 

Fittings,  more  especially  in  wood,  as  screens,  choir  stalls,  pews, 
and  pulpits,  "began  to  acquire  character  and  importance. 

Shrines  and  tombs  in  masonry  are  elaborate  and  beautiful 
adjuncts  to  the  interiors  of  the  cathedrals  and  large  churches, 
and  the  crockets  and  finials  to  pinnacles  and  canopies  increased 
in  importance  and  gave  additional  richness  to  buildings  of  this 
period  (Nos.  143  D,  147  K). 

Examples  of  a  decorated  font,  piscina,  tabernacle  and  sedilia, 
are  shown  on  No.  144,  a  brass  eagle  lectern  on  No.  145,  and  a 
gable  cross,  finial  and  boss  on  No.  149. 


THE    PERPENDICULAR   STYLE, 

also  known  as  the  Rectilinear,  Late  Pointed,  Lancastrian  or 
Fifteenth  Century  Style,  comprises  the  reigns  of  Richard  II., 
I377-I399»  Henry  IV.,  1399-1413,  Henry  V.,  1413-1422, 
Henry  VI.,  1422-1461,  Edward  IV.,  1461-1483,  Edward  V., 
1483,  Richard  III.,  1483-1485,  Henry  VII.,  1485-1509, 
Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547,  Edward  VI.,  1547-1553,  Mary,  1553- 
1558. 

.  The  general  appearance  varies  much  in  earlier  and  later  work, 
the  latter  being  overladen  with  panelling,  the  main  lines  in  a 
perpendicular  direction  predominating. 

The  windows,  owing  to  their  immense  size,  were  strengthened 
by  transoms  in  tiers  (Nos.  1370  and  142),  by  primary  and  secondary 
mullions,  and,  in  some  great  east  end  windows,  by  an  inner  structure 
forming  a  gallery  across  the  window,  as  at  York.  The  triforium 
practically  disappeared  owing  to  height  of  nave  arcade  and  flat- 
ness of  aisle  roofs,  the  clerestory  and  aisle  windows  being  of 
great  size. 

The  architecture  of  the  last  four  reigns  is  frequently  known  as 
"  Tudor"  architecture  (page  356). 

In  London  the  principal  examples  are  : — Henry  VII. 's  Chapel 
(Nos.  127,  128  and  129)  (a  most  perfect  example),  the  southern 
and  western  portion  of  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey,  .S. 
Margaret,  Westminster,  Porch  (with  vaulting)  S.  Sepulchre's 
Church,  Holborn,  the  Savoy  Chapel  in  the  Strand,  Westminster 
Hall,  and  Crosby  Hall,  London. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC  ORNAMENT.     III. 

COMPARATIVE   EXAMPLES   OF   ENGLISH 
GOTHIC  CARVED   FOLIAGE.' 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    PERPENDICULAR    STYLE).       351 

In  the  Provinces  the  principal  examples  are  : — The  west  fronts 
of  Winchester,  Gloucester,  and  Beverley  ;  S.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor  (Nos.  70  L  and  133),  Sherborne  Minster,  and  King's 
College  Chapel,  Cambridge  (No.  70  M). 

"  This  immense  and  glorious  work  of  fine  intelligence." 

WORDSWORTH. 

Other  examples  are  in  the  Cathedrals  of  Canterbury  (nave), 
York  (choir),  Gloucester  (transept,  choir,  and  cloisters),  Win- 
chester (nave  remodelled)  (Nos.  124,  137  G),  and  the  Beauchamp 
Chapel  at  Warwick  ;  towers  at  Gloucester  and  Canterbury,  and 
many  of  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  (page  324),  and 
numerous  mansions  throughout  the  country. 

A.  Plans. — Owing  to  the  great  building  era  that  had  preceded 
this  period,  ecclesiastical  work  consisted  mostly  of  restorations  or 
additions.     In  church  planning  there  was  a  decrease  in  the  size 
of   the  piers,  and  a  tendency  to  throw  all    pressures  upon  the 
buttresses,  which  have  often  great  depth. 

Towers  are  numerous  and  important,  and  were  generally 
erected  without  a  spire,  as  the  Bell  Tower,  Evesham  (1533). 
When  a  spire  occurs,  it  rises  behind  a  parapet,  as  at  S.  Peter, 
Kettering,  Northants  (No.  140  F). 

(The  plans  of  castles  and  houses  have  been  referred  to  on 
pages  318  and  322). 

B.  Walls. — These  were  profusely  ornamented  with  panelling 
(Nos.     128,    137    G),     resembling    tracery    of  windows,    as    at 
Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  most  elaborate 
specimen  of  the  style. 

The  use  of  flint  as  a  wall  facing,  for  panels  in  conjunction 
with  stone  tracery,  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  was 
common. 

Parapets  are  embattled  or  panelled  (No.  147),  and  often  very 
rich,  as  at  Merton  College,  Oxford. 

Buttresses  project  boldly,  being  sometimes  deep  enough  in  pro- 
jection to  allow  of  a  chapel  being  placed  between,  as  at  King's 
College,  Cambridge.  They  are  also  panelled  with  tracery,  as 
at  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  (No.  128),  and  are  crowned  with  finials 
(Nos.  124  D,  E,  and  128),  which  are  often  richly  ornamented  with 
crockets. 

Flying  buttresses  are  common  and  are  often  pierced,  as  at 
Henry  VII.'s  Chapel  (No.  128). 

c.  Openings. — Arches  in  the  early  period  inclose  an  equi- 
lateral triangle  (No.  299) ;  they  were  afterwards  obtusely  pointed, 
or  struck  from  four  centres  (Nos.  133  and  299),  sometimes 
inclosed  in  a  square  hood-moulding  above  the  head  (No.  143), 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC  ORNAMENT.     IV. 


ELE.HKHAM  FHBHB   D.  HASUNGFIELB  CH. 


-^         ~  ^  — 

E£LMCOLN  CATH.  E£VESTMINSTEEA. 


149. 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    PERPENDICULAR    STYLE).       353 

the  spandrels  thus  formed  being  filled  with  tracery  or  carving 
(No.  148  M,  N). 

Windows  consist  mainly  of  mullions  producing  a  perpendicular 
effect,  hence  the  name  of  the  period.  The  earliest  are  probably 
those  at  Winchester  Cathedral  (No.  124),  executed  under  William 
of  Wykeham,  and  having  mullions  continued  vertically  their 
whole  height  (Nos.  137  G  and  142),  stopping  against  the  main 
arch,  and  strengthened  by  horizontal  transoms.  In  many  cases 
they  are  of  enormous  size,  converting  the  west  end  into  a  wall  of 
glass,  as  at  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor  (No.  133),  the  east 
window  at  Gloucester  (38  feet  wide  by  72  feet  high),  and  King's 
College  Chapel  (No.  142  o), 

Doorways  were  generally  finished  with  a  square  label  over  the 
arch,  and  the  spandrel  filled  with  ornament,  as  shown  in  the 
doorway  of  Merton  College,  Oxford  (No.  143  j). 

Lofty  clerestories  are  general,  and  the  space  of  the  triforium 
(Nos.  124  F  and  137  G)  is  occupied  by  panels,  as  at  S.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  or  by  niches  for  statuary,  as  at  Henry  VII. 's 
Chapel. 

D.  Roofs. — Open  timber  roofs  of  low  pitch  and  of  the  hammer- 
beam  construction  abound ;  they  were  often  richly  ornamented 
with  carved  figures  of  angels,  and  with  pierced  tracery  (No.  113), 
many  examples  existing  in  Norfolk.     The  roof  of  Westminster 
Hall  (No.   113  H),  erected  in  1399,  covers  an  area  of  nearly  half 
an  acre,  being  one  of  the  largest  roofs  unsupported  by  pillars  in 
the   world.      The    later    roofs   in    the    style    became   nearly   flat 
(Nos.  70  j  and  133). 

Fan  vaulting  (No.  112)  is  characteristic  of  the  later  periods 
(page  288),  Henry  VII.'s  Chapel  (No.  129),  King's  College 
Chapel,  Cambridge,  and  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  as  well 
as  the  vaults  of  the  central  towers  of  Canterbury  and  Gloucester 
Cathedrals,  are  well-known  examples. 

E.  Columns. — Piers  (No.  146)  are  generally  oblong  on  plan, 
and  placed  diagonally  with  their  greater  dimension  north  and 
south,   caused  by  the   vaulting   shaft  being  taken    up    from  the 
ground,  on  the  front  of  the  pier  and  not  between  the  arches. 

The  characteristic  pier  consists  of  four  circular  shafts  connected 
by  hollows,  and  with  two  fillets,  these  mouldings  being  carried 
round  the  arch. 

Capitals  are  sometimes  polygonal  on  plan,  and  few  have  the 
abacus  and  bell  perfectly  defined,  the  mouldings  being  weaker 
and  less  effective  (No.  146).  Carved  capitals  have  foliage  of 
conventional  character,  shallow  and  square  in  outline  (No.  148  L). 

Bases  to  piers  are  often  polygonal  on  plan  and  a  typical 
moulding  is  the  "bracket"  mould  (No.  i^.642}. 

F.  Mouldings. — These    were    arranged   on    diagonal    planes 
(No.  146),  being  wide  and  shallow,  and  often  large  and  coarse. 

F.A.  A  A  , 


354 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


Pier  mouldings  are  often  continued  up  from  the  base,  and 
round  the  arch  without  the  intervention  of  capitals. 

Crestings  occur  along  the  top  of  cornice  mouldings  (No.  147), 
and  diminutive  battlements  along  the  transoms  of  windows. 

G.  Ornament.— Canopies  are  often  of  ogee  character,  enriched 
with  crockets  (No.  128). 

Ornaments  and  sculptured  foliage,  usually  conventional  in 
character,  are  shown  in  Nos.  147  and  148.  The  special  orna- 
ments of  the  period  are  the  Tudor  rose,  the  portcullis,  and  the 
fleur-de-lis,  all  of  which  were  used  unsparingly  (see  Henry  VII. 's 
Chapel)  (No.  128),  especially  as  ornaments  in  square  panels. 

Wooden  chancel  screens  are  very  numerous,  the  upper  part 
being  divided  by  mullions.  supporting  tracery^  and  the  whole  was 
elaborately  treated  with  panelling,  niches,  statues,  and  pinnacles ; 
also  with  the  Tudor  flower  cresting  (No.  147  G). 

The  misereres  under  the  choir-stalls  of  the  period  were  carved 
with  delicate  foliage,  grotesques,  and  flowers,  and  the  bench  ends 
with  poppy-heads  (No.  149  o,  p). 

The  tendency  was  to  obtain  ornamental  motifs  in  decoration,  by 
the  application  of  features  on  a  small  scale,  the  tracery  of  windows 
being  repeated  on  the  walls  as  blank  panelling  (Nos.  128, 133,  and 
137  G),  and  battlements  being  carved  along  the  cornices.  The 
golden  tinge  produced  by  silver  stain,  used  along  with  white  glass, 
gave  contrast  to  the  painted  canopies  of  architectural  character 
usually  inclosing  single  figures.  In  very  late  examples,  as  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  gorgeousness  of  coloring  exists  with 
great  confusion  of  form  and  subject,  the  general  design  becoming 
more  pictorial,  and  perspective  being  introduced,  thus  breaking 
away  from  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  material.  This  return 
to  color,  however,  prevented  any  such  completeness  of  one  tone 
effect,  as  in  the  early  work.  Color  decoration  was  freely  employed 
on  roofs,  screens,  pulpits,  and  other  fittings,  as  in  the  churches 
of  Norfolk,  Suffolk  and  elsewhere. 

Examples  of  a  Perpendicular  font,  piscina  and  sedilia  are  shown 
on  No.  144;  a  pew-end,  pulpits,  a  rood-loft,  parclose-screen  and 
chantry  on  No.  145;  and  a  gable  cross,  sanctus  bell,  finial, 
pendant,  boss,  and  poppy-heads  on  No.  149. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  various  phases  of  English  architecture  from  the  time  of 
the  Romans  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  have  been  dealt  with. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Renaissance  of  literature  in  Italy 
was  taking  place,  and  it  became  the  fashion  to  read  the  Latin 
authors.  Architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture  followed  in  the 
tram  of  literature,  and  the  generation  that  wrote  and  spoke 
the  Latin  tongue  desired  to  build  in  the  style  of  ancient 


A  A  2 


356  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Rome.  The  Revived  style  naturally  originated  in  Italy, 
because  there  the  Gothic  style  had  never,  at  any  time,  taken  a 
very  firm  hold,  and  because  of  the  precedent  afforded  by  the 
numerous  Roman  ruins.  From  Italy  it  spread  to  France  and 
England;  and  the  special  forms  it  took,  in  these  countries, 
will  be  considered  under  the  head  of  Renaissance  architecture. 
It  is  exemplified  in  the  more  or  less  debased  but  picturesque 
styles  of  each  country,  effected  by  Renaissance  details  being 
grafted  on  to  the  native  Gothic  style.  Tudor  architecture 
(page  349)  is  the  style  prevalent  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII., 
Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.  and  Mary,  in  which  the  influence 
of  the  Renaissance  movement  is  noticeable,  for  it  is  the  work  of 
those  trained  in  Gothic  art,  but  probably  under  the  direction  of 
a  designer  familiar  with  the  new  features  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
in  some  examples  the  designs  for  the  details  and  mouldings  would 
seem  to  have  been  made  by  a  foreign  artist.  The  Tudor  style 
was  followed  by  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  styles, 
described  under  English  Renaissance  (page  551),  in  which  may 
be  traced  the  increased  influence  of  the  old  Roman  architecture, 
until  the  Early  Renaissance  architecture,  finally  shaking  itself 
clear  of  incongruities,  developed  into  the  Anglo-Classic  or  Later 
Renaissance  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The 
process,  however,  was  slow,  and  Gothic  structures,  more  or  less 
debased,  were  erected  late  into  the  sixteenth  century. 

5.  REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Addy  (S.  O.).—  "The  Evolution  of  the  English  House."     8vo.     1899. 
Bloxam  (M.  H.).—  "  Principles  of  Gothic  Ecclesiastical  Architecture." 
3  vols.,  8vo.     1882. 

Bowman  (H.)  and  Crowther  (T.  S.).—"  Churches  of  the  Middle  Ages." 
2  vols.,  folio.     1857. 

Brandon  (R.  and  J.  A.).—"  Analysis  of  Gothic  Architecture."     1847. 
3ra*idon.—  "  Open  Timber  Roofs  of  the  Middle  Ages."     4to.     1860. 

-"  Parish  Churches."     2  vols.,  410.      1858. 
Britton  (JO-—  "  Cathedral  Antiquities."     13  vols.  in  6,  410.     1814-1835. 

"  Architectural  Antiquities."     5  vols.,  Ato.     1807-1826. 
Brown  (Prof.  G.  Baldwin).-"  The  Arts  in  Early  England."     2  vols, 
1903-      Vol.  2   deals  with  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  from   the 
Conversion  of  the  Saxons  to  the  Norman  Conquest. 

:S(J'^)>7:"RetailsofGothicArchitecture-"   2v61s.,4to.    1846. 
Co  ings.-"  Gothic  Ornaments."     2  vols.,  4to.     1848-1850. 
Collmgs,       English  Mediaeval  Foliage  and  Colour  Decoration."     4to. 


s'  Elevations,  and  Details  of  the  Interior  of 

nlm          IV  lSter-          2  VOls.,  follO.       1822. 

2  vols.,  4*0.     1*86  "alysis    °f   Ancient    Domestic    Architecture." 

(A'  »•)-«  Churches  of  Nene 


ENGLISH    GOTHIC    (THE    PERPENDICULAR    STYLE).        357 

Neale  (J.  P.).—"  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Abbey  Church  of 
St.  Peter,  Westminster."  2  vols.,  4to.  1818. 

Neale  (J.).— "  The  Abbey  Church  of  St.  Alban,  Hertfordshire."     1877. 

Paley  (E.  G.).— "Gothic  Mouldings."     8vo.     1891. 

Parker  (J.  H.). — "Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Gothic  Architecture." 
3  vols.,  8vo.  1830. 

Parker. — "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Gothic  Architecture."     1900. 

Prior  (E.  S.).— "A  History  of  Gothic  Art  in  England."     8vo.-    1900. 

Pugin  (A.  and  A.  W.). — "  Examples  of  Gothic  Architecture."     1838. 

Pugin  (A.). — "Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture."     2  vols.,  4to.     1821. 

Rickman  (T.).—"  Gothic  Architecture."     8vo.     1881. 

Scott  (Sir  G.  Gilbert).— "  Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Architecture."     1879. 

Scott  (G.  G.).— "  An  Essay  on  the  History  of  English  Church  Architec- 
ture." 410.  1 88 1. 

Sharpe  (E.). — "  Seven  Periods  of  English  Architecture."     8vo.     1870. 

Sharpe. — "  Architectural  Parallels."     Large  folio.     1848. 

Sharpe. — "  Mouldings  of  the  Six  Periods  of  British  Architecture."  187 1-74. 

Sharpe. — "A  Treatise  on  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Window  Tracery  in 
England."  2  vols.,  8vo.  1849. 

Statham  (H.  H.),  Editor.—"  Cathedrals  of  England  and  Wales."  (The 
•'Builder"  Series.)  Folio.  1898.  This  work  is  specially  valuable  on 
account  of  its  splendid  series  of  plans  to  a  large  scale. 

Turner  (T.  H.)  and  Parker  (J.  H.).— "  Some  Account  of  the  Domestic 
Architecture  in  England  during  the  Middle  Ages."  3  vols.,  8vo.  1859-1877. 

Walcott  (M.  E.  C.).— "  Church  and  Conventual  Arrangement."    1860. 

Wickes  (C.).— "  Spires  and  Towers  of  the  Mediaeval  Churches  of  Eng- 
land." 3  vols.,  folio.  1853-1859. 

Willis  (R.).— "  Vaults  of  the  Middle  Ages."     (Trans.  R.I.B.A.)     1842. 

Historical  Novels  : 

Roman  Occupation.— Cutts  (E.  L.).     "  The  Villa  of  Claudius." 

Anglo-Saxon.— Creswick  (P.).     "  Under  the  Black  Raven." 

Norman  (nth  Cent.}.— Blake  (M.  M.).    "The  Siege  of  Norwich  Castle." 

Norman  (\2tk  Cent.}.— Scott  (Sir  W.).     "  Ivanhoe." 

Early  English  (i$th  Cent.}.— Green  (E.  E.)     "  A  Clerk  of  Oxford." 

Decorated  (itfh  Cettt.}.— Fairless  (M.).     "The  Gathering  of  Brother 

Hilarius." 

Perpendicular  (i$th  Cent.}. — Lytton.     "  The  Last  of  the  Barons." 
Perpendicular  (\bth  Cent.,    \st  half).— Ainsworth   (H.).      "Windsor 

Castle." 

Note. — A  careful  study  of  the  buildings  themselves  is  necessary 
to  appreciate  thoroughly  the  progress  of  the  style,  and  many 
being  within  the  reach  of  the  student,  measured  drawings 
and  sketches  should  be  made  of  these,  which  will  impress 
the  different  features  on  the  mind  more  thoroughly  than  study 
solely  from  books. 

In  London,  besides  the  examples  already  mentioned  after 
each  period,  an  important  collection  of  architectural  casts  of 
each  period  can  be  seen  at  the  Royal  Architectural  Museum, 
Tufton  Street,  Westminster,  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
and  the  Crystal  Palace. 


EXAMPLES  OF  SCOTTISH   ARCHITECTURE 


*  ODltu 

loTHESAy  CASTLE 


HOSFTCAL,     GLAMIS  CASTLE.  VIEW  ™  THE  SOUTH-WEST 

STlRUNG.  GROUND  FLOOR  PLAN.  ^* 


CJWia  HEUOTlS  HOSPrrAL,rj)t(BuRwi.  ^JiH@SPlTAL,  ENTRANCE  GWEWAY.   €iAfiSEiAMS,Bo'NL-S5 


TH  Sltti  Of  CA5HIS  t  HANSONS  *  SCOTUU0,  rWM  THE  iy?  TO  THL  17"     OS  A  WING  ADDED  AT  ONL  ANGLL.  FORMING  L-PLAN,  &  THIS  MODIFIED  BY  HOT 

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wt  STYH  ms  A  NATIONAL  CNUKTER  or  us  OWN  &  MAMY    CASTLES  THE  BUILDINGS  WERE  ARRANGED  ROUND  WALL  OF  ENCEINTE  TOWING 


CHttOUStC  flAIUttS  IT  6  DMO  M  MACQWOJI  KliOSS  KTO  4  rtBOK-      COUKTYAW)  II  CUITRL     MORL  WNAMLNT  THAN  IN  PREVIOUS  PERIOD. 
nBTfEMOKO^ 


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ma  urn  urn  wui  of  ucum  U.T  OF  STOK  *  nonAK  «  USIA  SIVE  PURPOSES  MOWFIED  &  TRANSFORMED  WTO  ORNAMENTAL  FEATURES  INCH)  o 

w  cr  in  ruwtST  Ksorroi  «w  TOWOZ  TO  nn»  TH  CUCTAKS.  ING  LLABORATL  CORBELUNGS,  ANGLF.  TURRLTS  WITH.CONICAL  TOPS,  LOFTY  ROOFS 

tmairnro'irrrri  nc  CASTUS  iwi  A  TOWER  smj*  TO  TIC  ^  WITH  DORMERS,  FINALS  &  ausTERED  CHIMNEYS.  RENAISSANCE  FEATURES  AND 

IODWI  tUt  WT*  A  INJW  (COURTYATO)  SUWOUNtCD  VflW  A  VML  AnACH  ORNAMENT  GRADUALLY  SUPERSEDED  THOSE  OF  THE  NATIVE  STYLE.  WT  THE  TW 

D  nurro.  T*  L-fiAn  nor  HTHHTO.  CNCLOSKG  WALL  SMALLER  &  ITIONAL  PLANS  WERE  ADHERED  TO.  THE  COURT 

uss  txToaw.  im  «  B^  cucrr.  CWMWIAL  FIATURES  WKE  YARD  PLAH  MORE  FREQUENTLY  USED.  IN  SMALLM 

TWO  PEUOO  (  WOO  -  642)  Tit  ttlf.  PLAN  STU  U5CD.  M  MANY  N5M-  IUK5.TIC  mf.  L.Z.T  *  E  PLAMS  JTTd  ;XWE 


SCOTTISH    ARCHITECTURE. 

Architecture  in  Scotland  followed  on  much  the  same  lines  as 
in  England,  until  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  it 
took  a  more  national  turn.  Inspiration  was  largely  drawn  from 
abroad,  especially  from  France,  with  which  country  there  was  a 
close  political  connection,  causing  a  picturesque  and  interesting 
development  on  French  lines,  especially  after  Robert  Bruce 
(A.D.  1306-1329)  finally  secured  the  independence  of  Scotland. 
In  Melrose  Abbey  is  to  be  seen  the  influence  of  French  and 
Spanish  Art,  while  in  Rosslyn  Chapel  Portuguese  influence  is 
apparent,  for  it  is  very  similar  in  detail  to  the  Church  of  Belem 
near  Lisbon,  ^he  most  important  Cathedrals  are  those -of 
Edinburgh  (S.  Giles),  Glasgow  (No.  120  D)  (having  no  transepts 
but  a  famous  crypt),  S.  Andrew,  Kirkwall,  Dunblane,  Aberdeen 
and  Elgin,  and  the  Abbeys  of  Kelso,  Melrose,  Dunfermline,  Holy- 
rood  and  Dryburgh  are  the  best  known.  In  these  the  lancet 
window,  either  singly  or  in  groups,  was  used  long  after  it  had 
been  discontinued  in  England,  while  in  the  later  period  the 
Flamboyant  tracery  of  French  Gothic  was  followed  in  preference 
to  the  Perpendicular  style  of  English  Gothic. 

The  Pele  or  bastle  houses  were  of  the  tower  class,  with  pro- 
jecting turrets  at  angles,  and  consisted  of  single  rooms  one  over 
the  other,  accessible  by  "  turnpike"  or  winding  stairs. 

The  "corbie"  or  "crow-stepped"  gable  was  used  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  straight-sided  gable  of  England.  In  vaulted  roofs 
a  continuous  barrel  vault  with  surface  ribs-  was  occasionally 
employed. 

Scotland  is  specially  rich  in  castles  and  mansions  of  the  Gothic 
period,  which  possess  distinctive  character,  and  in  which  stone 
was  almost  universally  employed.  In  these  a  picturesque  use  of 
circular  towers,  vast  height  of  walls,  treated  in  a  simple,  and 
almost  bare,  manner,  and  the  planning  of  the  buildings  at  different 
angles,  are  characteristic. 

On  No.  151  is  given  a  series  of  plans  and  sketches  of  different 
types  of  buildings  showing  the  national  character  of  Scottish 
Architecture. 

REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Billings  (R.  W.). — "  Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of 
Scotland.''  4  vols.,  410.  1848. 

MacGibbon  (D).  and  Ross  (T.).— "  The  Castellated  and  Domestic 
Architecture  of  Scotland."  5  vols.,  8vo.  1887. 

MacGibbon  (D.)  and  Ross  (T.).— "  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of 
Scotland."  3  vols.,  8vo.  1896. 

'•Edinburgh  Architectural  Association,  Sketch  Book."     1878-1894. 

"Glasgow  Architectural  Association,  Sketch  Book."     3  vols.     1885. 

Pinches  (F.).— "  The  Abbey  Church  of  Melrose."     Folio.     1879. 


IRISH     ARCHITECTURE. 

Celtic  Architecture. — The  chief  interest  lies  in  the  remains 
of  the  Celtic  Architecture  erected  from  the  sixth  century  to  the 
English  Conquest  in  1169. 

The  early  Churches  were  extremely  small,  and  appear  to  have 
been  used  principally  as  oratories,  where  the  priest  could  officiate, 
and  to  which  a  small  square  chancel  was  attached.  The  naves 
were  covered  with  barrel  vaults,  over  which  was  a  hollow  chamber 
called  an  "  overcroft,"  covered  by  a  steep  pitched  roof,  generally 
of  stone,  as  at  Cormac's  Chapel,  Cashel  (A.D.  1127-1134)  (No.  152), 
probably  the  finest  example  in  Ireland,  S.  Kevin's  Kitchen, 
Glendalough,  and  other  places.  Windows  appear  to  have  been 
unglazed. 

The  Monasteries  form  another  class  of  building,  and  the 
Rev.  Prof.  Stokes  refers  to  a  group  of  seven  small  churches 
found  at  Inchleraun,  similar  to  some  in  Asia  Minor  and  elsewhere. 
The  monastic  cells  at  the  Skellings  are  peculiar,  being  of  beehive 
form,  with  domed  stone  roofs  in  horizontal  courses,  as  in  the  early 
work  in  Greece  at  Mycenae  (No.  15)  and  elsewhere. 

The  Round  Towers  generally  detached  and  placed  near  the 
Church,  have  been  a  subject  of  much  controversy,  but  the 
generally  accepted  view,  originated  by  Mr.  George  Petrie,  is  that 
they  were  used  as  treasure  houses,  refuges,  bell  towers,  and  for 
displaying  lamps  at  night  time,  or  were  probably  erected  as 
symbols  of  power.  They  taper  slightly  towards  the  summit  and 
are  crowned  with  either  a  conical  (No.  152  G)  or  battlemented 
covering  (No.  152  j).  The  entrance  doorway  was  several  feet 
from  the  ground. 

Mediaeval  Architecture.— Within  the  English  domain  the 
influence  of  Continental  art  was  felt  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but 
few  monuments  of  importance  were  erected.  The  Cathedrals  of 
Dublin  (No.  120  A),  Kildare  and  Cashel,  were  the  most  important, 
but  the  absence  of  parish  churches  is  remarkable.  The  Monas- 
teries and  Friaries  (principally  Franciscan)  are  small,  usually 
having  a  nave  and  choir,  probably  some  time  divided  by  a  wooden 
screen,  a  transept  and  southern  aisle,  cloisters,  and  a  tower,  which 
was  added  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  best  known  are  those 
at  Cashel,  Kilconnel,  and  Muckross. 

Owing  to  the  disturbances  in  Elizabethan  times  there  is  no 
domestic  architecture  of  note,  but  the  earlier  castles  built  by  the 
Chieftains  are  interesting. 

REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

2"n  / TT1  («  S1  Of)'~  VN°tes  on  Irish  Architecture."     187^-1877. 
Monographs  on  Ardfert  Cathedral,  Co.  Kerry.'"' 

Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Ireland."     8vo.     1845. 
>tokes  (M.).-«  Early  Christian  Architecture  in  Ireland."    8vo.     1878 


EXAMPLES  OF   IRISH   ARCHITECTURE. 


COIMAC'S  CHAPEL,VICW  or  NORTH 

!,  DEVENISH.  WT©WEH ,  KILREE  .  KILKENNY. 


152. 


FRENCH   GOTHIC. 

(See  page  246  for  French  Romanesque.) 

"  Graceful,  grotesque,  with  ever  new  surprise 
Of  hazardous  caprices  sure  to  please, 
Heavy  as  nightmare,  airy,  light  as  fern, 
Imagination's  very  self  in  stone."— LOWELL. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical.— France  may  be  divided  architecturally, 
into  North  and  South,  by  the  River  Loire,  to  the  north  of  which 
were  settled  the  Franks,  while  to  the  south  were  settled  the 
Romance  race.  (See  page  248.) 

ii.  Geological.— The  excellent  building  stone  found  near  Caen 
aided  in  the  development  of  the  northern  Gothic  style,  and  in  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Auvergne  the  use  of  colored  volcanic 
material  gave  a  decorative  character  to  the  buildings  of  that 
district.  (See  pages  246,  248.) 

iii.  Climate. — (See  page  246  in  French  Romanesque.) 
iv.  Religion.  — Religious  zeal,  which  resulted  in  the  erection 
of  so  many  grand  cathedrals,  was  manifested  also  in  the 
Crusades,  Louis  IX.  leading  the  fourth  (1248-1254).  The  clergy 
as  a  corporate  body  reached  the  summit  of  their  power  and 
influence,  such  being  largely  due  to  their  championship  of  justice 
and  their  adhesion  to  the  royal  cause.  The  Abbe  Suger,  the 
minister  of  Louis  V II.  (i  137-1 180),  who  may  be  styled  the  Cardinal 
Wolsey  of  the  period,  exercised  much  influence  on  church  build- 
ing. Rome  remained  the  controlling  spirit,  though  local  liberties 
were  not  all  swallowed  up  in  centralization.  The  introduction 
of  various  special  cults  gave  fame  to  certain  chapels  and  shrines, 
which  as  pilgrimage  centres  acquired  both  wealth  and  importance, 
which  are  expressed  in  the  richness  of  their  architectural  treatment. 
The  zeal  with  which  the  urban  populations  set  about  building 
cathedrals  has  been  compared  by  Viollet-le-Duc  to  the  commercial 
movement  which  has  covered  Europe  with  railways. 


FRENCH    GOTHIC.  363 

The  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  (see  below)  was  a  move- 
ment against  Christians  who  had  been  declared  by  the  Pope  to  be 
heretics,  and  the  next  stage  was  to  carry  on  a  religious  war 
against  all  who  were  considered  to  be  enemies  of  the  Papacy. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Previous  to  the  commencement  of 
this  period  (A.D.  987),  France  was  inhabited  by  races  of  people 
who,  widely  differing  from  each  other,  and  governed  by  different 
rulers,  were  at  constant  war. 

In  continuation  of  the  Romanesque  style,  the  Gothic  archi- 
tecture of  France,  varies  considerably  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  such  being  due  to  political,  environment,  to  the 
separation  of  the  various  parts  by  different  languages  and  customs, 
and  to  the  Roman  remains,  which  naturally  gave  a  classical  tone 
to  any  new  architectural  development  in  the  southern  districts 
where  they  were  principally  found. 

vi.  Historical. — The  real  beginning  of  the  modern  kingdom 
of  France  may  be  said  to  commence  with  Hugh  Capet,  who  was 
chosen  king  in  987,  with  the  title  "  King  of  the  French." 

Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223)  after  declaring  John,  King  of 
England,  to  have  forfeited  all  the  fiefs  he  held  of  the  French  crown, 
proceeded  to  conquer  Normandy,  and  all  John's  possessions  in 
Northern  Gaul,  with  the  exception  of  Aquitaine.  Philip  next 
defeated  the  combined  forces  of  English,  Germans,  and  Flemings 
at  the  Battle  of  Bovines  in  1214.  Owing  to  the  power  of  France 
at  this  time,  the  English  barons  offered  the  crown  of  England 
to  Philip's  eldest  son  Louis,  to  whom,  as  Louis  VIII.,  the  French 
crown  afterwards  passed.  Louis  IX.,  called  S.  Louis  on 
account  of  his  goodness,  largely  increased  the  power  of  the  crown, 
but  died  at  Tunis  in  1270,  when  setting  out  on  his  last  crusade. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  crusade  preached  against  the 
Albigenses  by  Pope  Innocent,  the  dominions  of  the  Counts  of 
Toulouse  were  conquered  by  S.  Louis  in  1229,  France  thus 
obtaining  a  sea-board  on  three  seas,  viz : — the  Mediterranean, 
Atlantic,  and  the  English  Channel. 

The  development  and  consolidation  of  the  French  kingdom 
thus  corresponds  with  the  great  cathedral- building  epoch  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  main  idea  or  prevailing  principle  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  France  was  the  same  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe  (page  268), 
the  vertical  and  aspiring  tendency  being  accentuated  by  great 
internal  height,  high-pitched  roofs,  numerous  spires  (with  crockets), 
pinnacles,  flying  buttresses,  and  the  long  lines  of  the  tall  traceried 
windows  (Nos.  154,  158,  160,  161  and  162). 


FRENCH   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES 


Sfri' 


FRENCH  GOTHIC. 

COMPARATIVE  VIEWS 

OF  MODELS  OF 
CONTINENTAL  CATHEDRALS. 


A. 


AMIENS. 


B.         ROUEN. 


c.      ANTWERP. 


D.    NOTRE  DAME, 
PARIS. 


E. 


STRASBURG. 


F.      BEAUVAIS. 


FRENCH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.     II 


155- 


*9°        I5°      go0    kftE  Of  HRiKP:!?  94^789  p 


FRENCH    GOTHIC. 


156. 


NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS. 
West  Front. 


368  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  style  is  divided  by  M.  de  Caumont  into  :— 
(i  )  Primary  (Gothique)  or  thirteenth  century. 
(2.)  Secondary  (Rayonnant,    from  the  characteristic  wheel 

tracery  of  the  rose  windows)  or  fourteenth  century. 
(3.)  Tertiary  (Flamboyant)  or  fifteenth  century. 
It  is  proposed,  however,  on  account  of  space,  to  consider  the 
subject  as  one  continuous  development— as,  in  fact,  it  really  was — 
and  to  compare  it  where  necessary  with  English  Gothic. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   ARCHITECTURE. 
CATHEDRALS. 

All  the  great  cathedrals,  numbering  about  150,  were  erected  in 
the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  principally  by  funds 
provided  by  the  laity,  and  not  as  parts  of  monastic  establishments, 
and  in  consequence  vary  considerably  in  plan  and  arrangement 
from  English  cathedrals. 

The  French  cathedrals,  in  situation  and  surroundings,  are  also 
in  marked  contrast  (page  299)  with  English  examples  (Nos.  121 
and  162),  and  are  referred  to  by  Browning,  who  talks  of  that 

"  Grim  town, 

Whose  cramp'd,  ill-featured  streets  huddled  about 
The  minster  for  protection,  never  out 
Of  its  black  belfry's  shade  and  its  bells'  roar." 

Notre  Dame,  Paris,  1163-1214  (Nos.  153  B,  154  D,  156,  157 
and  158),  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  French  Gothic  cathedrals.  The 
plan  is  typical  in  having  a  wide  central  nave  with  double  aisles, 
transepts  of  small  projection  (being  practically  in  a  line  with 
the  side  aisles),  and  the  chevet  arrangement  with  its  double  aisles 
and  exterior  chapels.  The  west  front  (No.  156)  is  the  grandest 
composition  in  France,  the  western  gable  to  the  nave  being 
hidden  by  a  pierced  screen,  connecting  the  two  western  towers, 
The  three  deeply  recessed  western  portals,  the  range  of  statues  in 
niches,  and  the  circular  wheel  window,  are  all  characteristic 
features. 

The  lateral  fa9ades  are  spoilt  by  chapels  having  been  placed 
between  the  buttresses. 

Bourges  Cathedral  (commenced  A.D.  1190)  is  chiefly  remark- 

ble  as  possessing  no  transepts,  for  its  shortness  in  comparison 

5  width,  and  its  general  resemblance  in  plan  to   Notre 

Dame   Paris.     It  has  five  aisles,  in  three  different  heights,  the 

central   being   117  feet,  resembling  Milan  Cathedral  (No.  176), 

though   in   a   different   gradation.     The    vast    nave   of  extreme 

icight    and    with    length    unbroken    by    projecting    transepts, 

presents  an  imposing  appearance.      The  view  westwards   from 


FRENCH  GOTHIC  EXAMPLES. 

H 


MYE  FINISHED,       .o 

WEST  fRONT  Ab  I2M-. 

CHOIR  .TRANSEPTS  . 

.  ^NDTv/OB/lYSCOM-, 

{[PLfTEDBr/qD  1196 j 


I57- 

F.A. 


B  B 


FRENCH    GOTHIC, 


I58. 


NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS 
Interior,  looking  East, 


B  B  2 


FRENCH    GOTHIC. 


160. 


AMIENS  CATHEDRAL. 


FRENCH    GOTHIC.  373 

the  east  end  is  striking,  owing  to  the  picturesque  confusion  of 
innumerable  flying  buttresses,  pinnacles,  and  other  features. 

Chartres  Cathedral  (i  194-1260)  (Nos.  1 10  E  and  155  K)  has  a 
plan  peculiar  in  having  strongly  marked  transepts,  each  crowned 
with  two  towers,  which  with  the  two  western  and  two  contem- 
plated eastern  towers  would  have  made  eight.  The  cathedral  is 
remarkable  for  the  fine  statuary  to  the  north  and  south  porches 
(No.  165  A),  the  rose  window  to  the  northern  transept,  and  the 
flying  buttresses  of  three  arches  one  above  the  other,  the  two 
lower  being  connected  by  radiating  balusters  resembling  the  spokes 
of  a  wheel. 

Rheims  Cathedral  (1212-1241)  (Nos.  155  and  161)  has  a  fine 
plan,  the  west  front  having  three  deeply  recessed  portals  richly 
ornamented  with  sculpture,  and  enclosed  with  richly  ornamented 
gables.  The  upper  portion  has  a  row  of  statues  in  tabernacles 
carried  between  the  two  towers  instead  of  the  open  tracery  arrange- 
ment seen  in  Notre  Dame.  The  flying  buttresses  (No.  141  H) 
show  the  arrangement  adopted  over  a  double  aisle,  in  which  the 
thrust  of  the  nave  vault  is  transmitted  by  arches  to  piers  weighted 
by  pinnacles  and  statuary. 

Amiens  Cathedral  (1220-1288)  (Nos.  154, 159  and  1 60)  is  gene- 
rally referred  to  as  having  the  typical  French  Cathedral  plan,  but  the 
side  chapels  to  the  nave  placed  between  the  buttresses  are  a  later 
addition.  The  interior  is  140  feet  high  to  the  stone  vaulting,  and 
the  roof  of  the  nave  is  over  200  feet  in  height.  The  western 
facade  somewhat  resembles  Notre  Dame  and  Rheims.  The  great 
central  fleche  of  timber  and  lead  is  shown  on  No.  165. 

Bayeux  Cathedral  (twelfth  century)  is  remarkable  for  its 
twenty-two  chapels  and  immense  crypt  under  the  sanctuary,  dating 
from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  century. 

Coutances  Cathedral  (No.  162)  was  erected  A.D.  1254-1274, 
and  is  specially  famous  for  the  excellent  design  of  the  two  western 
towers  and  spires,  and  the  octagonal  lantern  over  the  crossing  of 
nave  and  transepts. 

Noyon  Cathedral  (1157-1228)  with  a  peculiar  plan  resem- 
bling a  combination  of  the  German  triapsal  plan,  and  the  French 
chevet ;  Troyes  Cathedral  (12  ^-fifteenth  century),  a  fine  five- 
aisled  example  with  eastern  chevet  and  rich  western  facade ; 
Soissons  Cathedral  (1160-1212);  La'on  Cathedral  (1150- 
1200),  exceptional  in  having  an  English  type  of  plan  and  group 
of  six  towers;  and  Rouen  Cathedral  (1202-1220),  with  rich 
western  towers  of  a  later  period  and  iron  central  spire,  are  other 
well-known  early  examples. 

The  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris  (1244-1247),  built  by  S.  Louis, 
in  which  the  space  between  the  buttresses  is  occupied  by  windows 
15  feet  wide  and  50  feet  high,  is  often  quoted  as  a  typical  Gothic 
structure.  The  plan  (No.  155  H;  was  in  size  similar  to  that  of 


FRENCH   GOTHIC. 


161, 


RHEIMS  CATHEDRAL. 
West  Front. 


FRENCH    GOTHIC, 


162. 


COUTANCES  CATHEDRAL. 
West  Front. 


376  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

S  Stephen,  Westminster  (No.  119  L),  since  destroyed  for  the 
rebuilding  of  Westminster  Palace.  It  has  a  richly  vaulted 
crypt,  and  such  characteristic  French  features  as  the  apsidal 
termination  and  the  high  stone-vaulted  roof. 

Among  later  examples  in  the  north  of  France,  mostly  in  the 
Flamboyant  style,  are  :— 

S.  Ouen,  Rouen  (1318-1515),  the  choir  (1318-1339)  being 
contemporary  with  that  of  Cologne,  S.  Maclou,  Rouen  (1432- 
1500),  probably  the  richest  Flamboyant  example  in  France, 
S.  Jacques,  Dieppe  (1350-1440),  and  S.  Wulfrand,  Abbe- 
ville (1488-1534). 

In  the  south  of  France  many  buildings  were  erected  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  differing  from  these  northern  cathedrals  in  plan  and 
design  owing  to  the  proximity  of  Roman  buildings. 

Albi  Cathedral  (1282-1512),  a  fortress  church,  consists  of  a 
large  impressive  vaulted  hall  with  an  apsidal  end,  and  having  a 
series  of  flanking  chapels  separated  by  internal  buttresses.  It 
possesses  an  unrivalled  fifteenth  century  rood  screen. 

Beauvais  Cathedral  was  originally  built  1225-1272,  but  was 
partly  reconstructed  1337-1347,  the  transepts  being  added  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  This  building  was  never  com- 
pleted beyond  the  choir  and  chevet  and  the  transepts.  It  has  the 
highest  nave  vault  in  France,  being  160  feet,  and  has  a  nave 
width  of  47  feet  from  centre  to  centre  of  piers. 

The  Church  of  the  Cordeliers,  Toulouse  (fourteenth 
century),  which  was  partially  destroyed  in  1871,  was  another 
example  of  this  type,  and  has  some  similarity  in  plan  with 
that  of  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 

S.  Sernin,  Toulouse,  commenced  in  1096  (referred  to  on 
page  248),  is  a  five-aisled  example,  the  western  portion  and  many- 
storied  octagonal  tower  belonging  to  this  period. 

SECULAR    ARCHITECTURE. 

France  is  especially  rich  in  domestic  architecture,  and  through- 
out the  country  are  to  be  found  castles,  town  halls,  hospitals, 
nouses,  barns,  farmhouses,  granaries,  and  other  buildings,  in  which 
the  principles  of  the  Gothic  style  can  be  studied. 

The  House  of  Jacques  Cceur,  Bourges  (1443),  is  a  fine 
example  of  the  house  of  a  great  merchant  prince  of  the  period. 
It  is  partly  built  on  the  town  ramparts  and  has  a  central  courtyard 
(ISO.  163),  possessing  a  fine  staircase  tower. 

Palais  de  Justice,  Rouen  (1499-1508)  (No.  164),  is  an 
exceedingly  rich  specimen  of  French  municipal  architecture.  The 
mSSS  it  Plerrefon<*s,  restored  by  Viollet-le-Duc,  Mont 
S.  Michel  (Normandy;,  and  the  Chateau  de  Blois  (east  wing) 
,1498-1515),  are  examples  of  military  architecture 


FRENCH    GOTHIC. 


163.  HOUSE  OF  JACQUES  CCEUR,  BOURGES. 


378  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  south  of  France  has  many  examples  of  stone  houses,  and 
throughout  the  country  half-timbered  houses  with  plaster  filling 
are  still  to  be  seen,  as  at  Rouen,  although  fire  and  decay  have 
naturally  reduced  their  number. 

Students  are  often  inclined  to  think  that  Gothic  architecture 
was  confined  to  ecclesiastical  work,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  style  was  employed  in  every  building  of  the  period. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 


FRENCH   GOTHIC. 

A.  Plans  (No.  159).  — Short, 
wide,  and  high.  Length  about  four 
times  the  width. 

Cloisters  rare,  except  in  the  south, 
where  richly  designed  examples  are 
met  with. 

Transepts  have  slight  projec- 
tion, as  may  be  seen  in  the  sheet 
of  comparative  plans  (No.  155). 

Side  chapels  numerous,  due  to 
the  popular  character  of  the  Cathe- 
dral for  the  worship  of  saints  and 
saying  of  masses.  * 

The  apsidal  east  end  developed 
into  the  chevet  by  addition  of  pro- 
cessional aisle  and  chapels,  but 
Laon,  Dol,  and  Poitiers  are  excep- 
tions. 

The  aisles  are  sometimes  double, 
as  at  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (No. 
157),  Amiens,  Bourges,  Rheims  and 
Chartres. 

Two  western  towers  (Nos.  154, 
161  and  162)  characteristic,  the 
probable  reason  being  that  the 
great  height  of  nave  prevented 
a  central  tower  being  effective. 

A  woodeny&V//^  often  constructed 
over  the  crossing,  as  at  Amiens 
(422  feet  high)  (No.  165  B). 

Central  spires  are  common  in 
Normandy. 

Towers  sometimes  attempted  in 
groups  by  placing  four  at  the 
angles  formed  by  the  junction  of 
ic  nave  and  transepts,  and  two  at 
the  west  end,  with  central  flf-che 
only,  as  at  Laon. 

Arcading  '  widely  spaced  and 
jencral  largeness  ot  parts.  Chap- 
ter houses  never  polygonal. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC. 

A.  Plans  (No.  159).  —  Long, 
narrow,  and  low.  Length  about 
six  times  the  width. 

Cloisters  frequent,  owing  to 
monastic  foundation,  and  charac- 
teristic of  English  Cathedrals. 

Transepts  have  bold  projection, 
and  a  second  eastern  transept  is 
found,  as  at  Salisbury  and  Lincoln. 

Side  chapels  seldom  met  with, 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  principal 
cathedrals  were  churches  belonging 
to  monastic  foundations. 

The  square  east  end  charac- 
teristic. The  u  Nine  Altars  "  at 
Durham  as  an  east  end  transept 
is  remarkable. 

The  aisles  are  nearly  always 
single,  Chichester  (No.  119  G) 
and  Manchester  (No.  119  B)  being 
the  only  exceptions  (page  305). 

The  central  tower  the  most 
successful  and  predominant  feature, 
as  at  Gloucester  (No.  1 1 5  H),  Here- 
ford (No.  115  F),  Rochester  (No. 

114  E),  Salisbury  (with  spire).  (No. 
n6A),  and    Norwich   (with  spire) 
(No.  1160);  or  combined  with  one 
western  tower,as  at  Ely  ( No.  1140). 

A  single  western  tower  is  charac- 
teristic of  parish  churches. 

Towers  frequently  arranged  as 
a  group  of  three,  viz.,  two  western 
and  one  central,  as  at  Lincoln 
(No.  1 1 6  B),  Canterbury  (No.  I  i6c), 
Durham  (No.  ii4B)  and  York  (No. 

115  A). 

Arcading  closely  spaced  and 
general  smallness  of  parts.  Chap- 
ter houses  are  often  polygonal. 


u 

£  . 

H 

O 
O 

U 

^ 

w 

« 

UH 


i8o 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE, 


FRENCH  GOTHIC. 

B.  Walls.  —  Early  buttresses 
were  a  development  from  the  slight 
projections  of  the  Romanesque 
period,  or  were  sometimes  semi- 
circular, especially  in  the  apses  of 
churches.  Later  buttresses  of  deep 
projection  have  chapels  between 
them  (No.  157). 

The  weatherings  to  offsets  of 
buttresses  are  flatter  the  higher 
they  occur. 

Buttresses  often  nearly  vertical, 
without  offsets  (No.  153). 

Flying  buttresses  largely  em- 
ployed, being  necessary  on  account 
of  height  and  width  of  aisles  and 
naves.  They  were  used  with  special 
effect  at  the  east  end. 

Interiors  owe  their  effect  largely 
to  their  great  height,  otherwise 
they  are  considerably  less  ornate 
than  the  English  examples. 

Open  tracery  parapets  are  typi- 
cal (Nos.  164  and  165  c,  D). 

The  characteristic  west  front  is 
Notre  Dame,  Paris  (No.  156). 

c.  Openings.  -  •  Doorways 
elaborate  and  rich,  larger  and  finer 
than  in  England,  and  deeply  set 
in  west  fronts,  as  at  Notre  Dame, 
Paris,  Rheims,  and  Coutances 
(Nos.  156,  161  and  162). 

Windows  have  much  "plate" 
tracery,  the  final  development 
in  the  later  period  being  *•  flam- 
boyant "  tracery. 

There  is  an  absence  of  cusps  in 
late  French  tracery. 

Circular  windows  in  west  fronts 
(Nos.  156  and  161)  and  transept 
ends  (No.  153  B),  \\ith  intricate 
tracery,  are  special  features. 

D.  Roofs.— These  are  always 
steep  and  ornamented  with  metal 
ridges  and  finials  (Nos.  154  and 
164). 

They  are  constructed  with  double 
timbers  of  special  type  to  surmount 
high  vaults. 

Wooden  roofs,  treated  ornament- 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC. 

B.  Walls.  —  Early  buttresses 
are  flat  projections.  Later  ones 
are  much  pronounced,  and  strongly 
marked  with  offsets  and  pinnacles, 
and  were  highly  ornamented  with 
niches  and  panelling.  Transitional 
buttresses  may  be  seen  at  Salis- 
bury with  curious  weathering. 

The  weatherings  to  offsets  of 
buttresses  are  steeper  the  higher 
they  occur. 

Buttresses  usually  formed  with 
offsets  (No.  141). 

Flying  buttresses  are  not  so 
prominent  a  feature  because  the 
clerestory  is  comparatively  low,  and 
there  are  seldom  double -aisles  or 
chevet. 

Interiors  owe  much  to  the  elabo- 
ration of  triforium,  complex  piers, 
variety  of  clerestories  and  richness 
of  vaulting. 

Battlemented  parapets  are  typical 
(No.  147  M). 

The  characteristic  west  front  is 
Wells  Cathedral  (No.  1150). 

c.  Openings.  -  Doorways 
often  placed  laterally,  and  provided 
with  a  projecting  porch,  as  at  Glou- 
cester, Canterbury,  and  Salisbury 
(Nos.  115  H,  116  C,  121). 

Windows  develop  on  the  same 
lines,  but  "  plate  "  tracery  was 
seldom  used,  the  final  develop- 
ment, specially  characteristic  of 
English  work,  being  "  Perpendicu- 
lar" tracery. 

Circular  windows  are  not  much 
used  in  England,  although  found 
at  Chichester,  Westminster  Abbey, 
Durham,  and  elsewhere. 

D.  Roofs.  —  These  are  of 
moderate  pitch,  approaching  to 
flalness  in  later  periods  (Nos.  113, 
/22,  133). 

Carpentry  was  more  advanced, 
and  single-framed  timbers  were 
used. 

Wooden  roofs  of  an  ornamental 


FRENCH    GOTHIC. 


381 


FRENCH   GOTHIC. 

ally,  not  much  developed  as  part 
of  design  of  interiors. 

Coverings  of  slates  were  often 
employed. 

Vaults  were  specially  character- 
istic of  the  style. 

These  vaults  are  usually  domical 
and  ridge  ribs  were  rarely  employed, 
very  slight  development  taking 
place,  and  intermediate  and  lierne 
ribs  seldom  used  (page  288)  (Nos. 
109  and  112),  great  height  being  a 
characteristic. 

Pendants  are  frequently  used  in 
the  "  flamboyant "  period. 

The  joints  of  the  severies  are  at 
right  angles  or  parallel  to  the  wall 
ribs  (No.  158). 

E.  Columns.  —  Plain  circular 
nave  colums  are  characteristic,  as 
in  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (No.  165  H). 
and  are  due  to  Roman  tradition. 

There  was  a  difficulty  in  bringing 
down  the  lines'  of  the  vaulting  with 
this  type,  and  clumsy  expedients 
were  in  use,  as  when  the  shafts 
started  just  above  the  square  abacus 
of  the  arcade  columns  (No.  1 58). 

In  the  south  is  found  the  square 
pier  with  attached  three-quarter 
columns  (No.  165,  J,  K,  L). 

The  mouldings  of  the  pier  arches 
sometimes  die  into  the  pillars  with- 
out capitals. 

Capitals  with  foliage  of  the 
Corinthian  type  lasted  well  into  the 
style,  besides  an  early  application  of 
stiff  leaf  foliage,  and  the  crocket 
capital  (No.  165  P,  Q)  was  charac- 
teristic. 

Moulded  "  bell  "  capitals  without 
foliage  rarely  met  with,  except  in 
Normandy. 

The  square  abacus  (No.  165  G,  H) 
derived  from  the  classical  feature 
was  preferred. 

F.  Mouldings.  —  The^e  are 
larger  in  size,  of  less  variety,  and  not 


2ss  variety, 

A 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC. 

character,  as  part  of  design  of 
interiors,  highly  developed. 

Coverings  of  lead  were  generally 
employed. 

Vaults  were  used  more  in  the 
cathedrals  than  in  parish  churches. 

The  vaults  have  level  ridges  and 
have  longitudinal  and  transverse 
ridge  ribs,  which,  being  of  large 
section,  probably  due  to  the  in- 
fluence of  carpentry,  gave  a  strong 
backbone  to  the  vaulting  (No.  1 1 1). 

Vaults,  sometimes  of  wood,  as  at 
York  and  the  Cloisters  of  Lincoln. 

Fan  tracery  vaulting  (Nos.  112 
and  129)  was  peculiar  to  England. 

The  joints  of  the  severies  are 
parallel  to  the  wall  rib,  or  placed 
diagonally  (No.  in  D). 

E.  Columns.  — The  clustered 
shaft  is  a  special  feature,  as  in 
Salisbury  Cathedral  (No.  122),  and 
was  preferred  to  circular  columns. 

The  early  adoption  of  attenuated 
shafts  as  a  continuation  of  the 
vaulting  ribs  being  taken  as  the 
basis  of  the  pier  formation  avoided 
any  such  difficulty  as  was  met  with 
in  France. 

The  development  of  moulded 
piers  was  characteristic,  and  their 
evolution  in  each  period  is  shown 
on  No.  146. 


Capitals  of  a  classic  type  were 
only  occasionally  employed,  as  in 
the  S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of 
London  (No.  135),  early  carved 
capitals  usually  having  "stiff  leaf" 
foliage. 

Moulded  "bell"  capitals  were 
often  employed  in  all  periods,  and 
have  bold  projection,  especially  in 
the  Early  English  period  (No.  146). 

The  round  abacus  (No.  1480,  F,K) 
was  much  used,  and  also  the  octa- 
gonal or  polygonal  (No.  148  G). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  were 
bold,  rich,  and  of  great  variety,  and 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


FRENCH   GOTHIC. 

so  rich  as  in  England,  and  often 
were  kept  some  distance  from 
window  openings. 

Features  and  details  are  coarser, 
less  attention  being  given  to  these 
on  account  of  the  largeness  of 
scale. 

G.  Ornament.  —  Decorative 
figure  sculpture  of  the  highest  type 
was  attained,  and  is  particularly 
seen  in  the  great  doorways  of  the 
west  fronts  of  Notre  Dame  (No. 
156),  Amiens,  Rheims  (No.  161), 
and  in  the  north  and  south  porticos 
of  Chartres,  where  they  are  inclosed 
in  niches  or  tabernacles  surround- 
ing the  arch  in  successive  tiers. 

The  carving  of  such  features  as 
gargoyles,  finials,  crockets  and  cor- 
bels was  either  of  floral  forms  or  of 
animals  and  birds,andwas  of  great 
refinement  (No.  165),  especially  in 
the  South  of  France. 

Stained  glass  was  much  developed, 
and  Chartres  possesses  examples 
which,  in  a  prevailing  tone  of  blue 
tending  to  violet,  give  an  idea  of 
the  general  effect  of  an  interior, 
according  to  the  intent  of  the  artists 
of  the  epoch.  Much  of  the  best 
stained  glass  has,  however,  been 
destroyed. 

Color  decoration  in  frescoes  and 
as  applied  to  sculpture  seems  to 
have  been  fully  developed,  and  it 
would  appear  that  hangings  were 
imitated  in  painted  wall  decora- 
tions. 


ENGLISH   GOTHIC. 

applied  to  capitals  and  pier  arches 
as  well  as  to  door  and  window 
openings. 

Features  and  details  are  of  great 
refinement,  much  attention  being 
given  owing  to  the  smallness  of 
scale. 

G.  Ornament.  —  Decorative 
figure  sculpture  was  not  carried  out 
so  extensively  as  in  France,  but  the 
Cathedrals  of  Wells  and  Lichfield, 
and  Westminster  Abbey,  are  rich  in 
this  respect,  the  west  front  of  the 
former  being  the  most  complete. 

The  "  dog-tooth "  ornament 
(No.  147  A)  is  common. in  early 
examples  of  the  style. 

The  carving  varies  considerably 
in  each  of  the  periods,  being  con- 
ventional in  the  Early  English, 
naturalesque  in  the  Decorated  and 
again  conventional  in  the  Perpen- 
dicular. 

Stained  glass  was  developed  on 
similar  lines  as  in  France,  the 
earlier  examples,  as  at  Canterbury, 
being  in  small  pieces  heavily  leaded, 
whereas  the  later  examples  consist 
of  large  figures  surrounded  with 
representations  of  the  niches  and 
crocketed  canopies  as  executed  by 
the  sculptors. 

Color  decoration  to  wall  surfaces 
and  sculpture  was  much  employed. 

The  painted  roofs  and  screens  of 
the  Perpendicular  period  are 
notable. 


5.    REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

"Archives  de  la  Commission  des  Monuments  Historiques."    4  vols 
folio.     Pans,  1850-1872. 

Baudot  (A  de)  -"  La  Sculpture  Francaise."    Large  folio.     Paris,  1884. 
liurges  (W.).— "  Architectural  Drawings."     Folio      1870 
Cathedrales  de  la  France."     1 50  collotypes,  folio.     Paris,  1899 

-"Abecedaire,  ou  Rudiment  d'Archeologie."    3  vols., 


Corroyer  (E.).— "  Gothic  Architecture."     8vo.     1893 
,902  "Manueld'Arche-ologieFran9aise."     2  vols.,  8vo.     Paris, 


FRENCH    GOTHIC   ORNAMENT. 


A-4L, 


165. 


384  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Gailhabaud  (].)•—"  L'Architecture  du  V.  au  XVI.  Siecle."  i  vol., 
royal  folio,  and  4  vols.,  410.  Paris,  1869-1872. 

Gonse  (L.).— "  L'Art  Gothique."    4to.     Paris. 

Johnson  (R.  J.).— "  Specimens  of  Early  French  Architecture."  Large 
folio.  Newcastle,  1864. 

Lassus  (J.  B.  A.). — "  Monographic  de  la  Cathedrale  de  Chartres."  Folio, 
and  410  text.  Paris,  1867-1881. 

Lassus  (J.  B.  A.)  et  Viollet-le-Duc  (E.  E.). — "  Monographic  de  Notre 
Dame  de  Paris."  Folio.  Paris,  186-?. 

Lenoir. — (A.  A.). — "Architecture  Monastique."     2  vols.     Paris,  1852-6. 

MacGibbon  (D.).— "  The  Architecture  of  Provence  and  the  Riviera." 
8vo.  Edinburgh,  1888. 

Male  (K.).— "  L'Art  Religieux  du  XIIe  Siecle  en  France."  410  Paris, 
1902. 

Moore  (C.  H.). — "  Development  and  Character  of  Gothic  Architecture." 
New  York.  8vo.  1899. 

Nestield  (E.). — "Specimens  of  Medieval  Architecture."     Folio.     1862. 

Pugin  (A.). — "  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Normandy."     410.     1828. 

Ruprich-Robert  (V.  M.  C.).— "  L'Architecture  Normande  aiix  Xle  et 
XI Ic  Siecles."  2  vols,  folio.  Paris,  1889. 

Shaw  (R.  Norman). — "Architectural  Sketches  on  the  Continent." 
Folio.  1858. 

Verdier  (A.)  et  Cattois  (F.  P.).- "Architecture  Civile  et  Domestique 
au  Moyen  Age,  et  de  la  Renaissance."  2  vols.,  410.  Paris,  1858. 

Viollet-le-Duc  (E.  E.).— "  Dictionnaire  Raisonne  de  1'Architecture 
Franchise."  10  vols.,  8vo.  Paris,  1859.  A  translation  of  the  article 
"Construction"  has  been  issued  under  the  title  of  "  Rational  Buildin°-" 
By  G.  M.  Huss.  8vo.  New  York,  1895. 

Lang  (A.).-"  A  Monk  of  Fife."  \ 

James  (G.  P.  R.).-"  Philip  Augustus."  Historical  Novels. 

Blisset  (X.  K.).— "  The  most  famous  Loba." 


BELGIAN  AND   DUTCH   GOTHIC. 

"  The  darkened  roof  rose  high  aloof, 
On  pillars  lofty  and  light  and  small ; 
The  keystone  that  locked  each  ribbed  aisle 
Was  a  fleur-de-lis  or  a  quatre-feuille  ; 
The  corbels  were  carved,  grotesque  and  grim, 
And  the  pillars  with  clustered  shafts  so  trim, 
With  base  and  with  capital  flourished  around 
Seemed  bundles  of  lances  which  garlands  had  bound." — SCOTT. 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  country  of  the  Netherlands  lies  wedged 
in,  as  it  were,  between  the  Germanic  and  Romanic  races  of  the 
European  peoples,  thus  accounting  for  the  dual  influences  found 
in  its  architectural  development,  Belgium  being  under  French, 
and  Holland  under  German  influence. 

ii.  Geological. — The  district  abounds  with  clay  suitable  for 
the  making  of  bricks,  and  the  consequent  effect  upon  the  archi- 
tecture was  considerable,  being  specially  noticeable  in  domestic 
work,  as  in  the  small  house  facades  in  the  towns. 

Stone  was  used  in  Brussels  Cathedral  and  other  examples,  and 
granite  was  also  available,  the  cathedral  at  Tournai  being  wholly 
of  that  material. 

iii.  Climate. — This  is  similar  to  that  of  England,  but  has 
greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

iv.  Religion. — This  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  religions 
of  France,  Germany,  and  Spain,  under  whose  dominion  the 
Netherlands  were  at  different  times. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  mediaeval  architecture  of  these 
countries  developed  with  the  social  progress  of  the  people,  the 
towns  with  independent  municipalities  rivalling  each  other  in  the 
arts  of  war  and  peace.  Many  buildings,  notably  Guildhalls  and 
Town  Halls,  large  in  conception  and  rich  in  detail,  were  erected, 
reflecting  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  merchants  and  weavers 
of  Antwerp,  Louvain,  Ghent,  and  other  cities. 

vi.  Historical. — Flanders,  as  a  fief  of  France,  became  united 
to  Burgundy  by  the  marriage  of  the  first  Duke  of  Valois  to 
Margaret,  the  heiress  of  Flanders.  The  whole  of  the  Netherlands 

F.A.  c  c 


386  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

were  brought  together  under  the  rule  of  the  Dukes  of  Valois, 
descendants  of  the  French  kings.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Netherlands  belonged  to  Charles  V.  (15197.1555)?  During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  cities  of  the  Low  Countries  were  the  richest 
and  most  powerful  in  Europe,  and  were  constantly  at  war  with 
one  another. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL   CHARACTER. 

The  architecture  of  Belgium  during  this  period  was  of  two  main 
types,  that  of  the  hilly  part  partaking  of  German,  and  that  of  the 
level  part  (Flanders)  partaking  of  French  character.  A  mixture 
of  Spanish  features  is  observable  in  many  of  the  domestic  build- 
ings, but  in  the  Town  Halls  a  national  style  of  architecture  was 
evolved,  which  for  this  class  of  buildings  is  unequalled  in  other 
countries.  Dutch  architecture,  although  somewhat  resembling 
German,  has  a  national  character  of  its  own.  Much  of  the  orna- 
ment in  many  of  the  fine,  large,  and  lofty  churches  of  the  fifteenth 
century  has,  however,  been  destroyed,  owing  to  iconoclastic  zeal. 

The  Dutch  character  of  simplicity  is  translated  into  the 
barn-like  churches,  and  for  this  reason  the  architecture  of  Holland 
is  of  less  interest  than  that  of  Belgium. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
ECCLESIASTICAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

The  cathedrals  show  a  general  inclination  to  French  ideas  in 
the  general  disposition  of  their  plans. 

Tournai    Cathedral   (A.D.    1146-1338)   is   a   good  example, 

illustrating  the  styles  of  three  -successive  periods.     The  nave  is 

Romanesque  ;  the  circular-ended  .transepts"  with  four  towers  and 

a  lantern  are  of  the  Transition  period,  and  the  choir,  with  complete 

chevet,  fully  developed  Gothic,  very  light  and  elegant  in  character. 

Brussels  Cathedral  (A.D.  1226-1280)  (No.  167)  is  one  of  the 

finest  examples,  the  choir  (1226)  being  generally  considered  the 

Gothic  work  in  Belgium.     The  eastern  termination  has  a 

half-developed  chevit,  and  the  choir  has  large  side  chapels      The 

vaulting  and  nave  windows  date  from  1350-14^0 

Antwerp  Cathedral  (A.D.  1352-1411)  (Nos'.  154  c,   167)  is 

rhl£ne.S    Ch"r(*  ™  Bfel^um'  and  is  remarkable  for  nave  and 

le  aisles,  the  latterof  equal  heights,  and  narrow  aisleless  tran- 

The  west  front    1422-1518),  with  its  single  western  tower 

g,  Baying  the 


^111'  UtiMCht'  Dordrech*>  Ypres,  and  Ghent 
are  other  well-known  examples. 


BELGIAN  AND  DUTCH  GOTHIC. 


166.  ANTWERP  CATHEDRAL. 


c  c  2 


BELGIAN   GOTHIC   EXAMPLES. 


BELGIAN    AND    DUTCH    GOTHIC, 


168. 


THE  HALLES,  BRUGES. 


390  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

SECULAR   ARCHITECTURE.  ' 

This  reflects  the  independent  and  prosperous  condition  of  the 
medieval  towns.  The  possession  of  a  "beffroi"  (belfry)  attached 
to  the  town  hall  was  an  important  privilege  granted  by  charter, 
and  the  lower  portion,  which  was  of  massive  construction,  was 
frequently  used  as  a  record  office.  The  beffroi  at  Bruges,  352 
feet  high  (No.  168),  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  these  towers, 
and  forms  a  landmark  for  many  miles  round,  its  chequered  history 
being  referred  to  by  Longfellow  :— 

"  In  the  market-place  of  Bruges 

Stands  the  belfry  old  and  brown  ; 
Thrice  consumed  and  thrice  rebuilded, 
Still  it  watches  o'er  the  town." 

The  Town  Halls  are  exceptionally  fine  ;  those  at  'Brussels 
(1401-1455),  Bruges  (1377)  (No.  168),  Louvain  (1448-1463),  and 
Ghent  (1481)  (No.  169)  being  the  more  important.  Many  were 
designed  on  the  same  lines,  and  are  several  stories  in  height, 
surmounted  by  a  high  roof  with  dormer  windows  in  tiers,  the  central 
portion  being  carried  up  as  a  tower,  the  upper  octagonal  portion 
of  which  is  richly  ornamented  (No.  168). 

The  Town  Hall  at  Ghent  (No.  169),  built  in  two  distinct  styles,  is 
a  somewhat  striking  example  of  comparative  architecture,  the 
Gothic  fa9ade(i5i8-i533)  contrasting  with  the  Renaissance  facade 
(1595-1622). 

The  Trade  Halls  for  buying  and  selling  merchandize,  especially 
cloth,  for  which  the  country  was  renowned  at  this  period,  are  also 
very  characteristic,  the  Cloth  Hall  at  Ypres  (1200-1304)  being 
exceptionally  fine. 

The  Guildhalls  were  also  built  as  meeting- places  for  the 
separate  trades  or  guilds,  which  were  very  powerful,  and  there 
are  several  examples  in  the  market-place  of  Brussels. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans.— Short  and  wide  plans  after  French  models  were 
adopted  in  the  cathedrals,  that  at  Antwerp  having  seven  aisles 
(No.  167  F).     The  French  chevet  was  also  adopted. 

B.  Walls.— In  domestic  work  the  long,  unbroken  fa9ades  and 
greater  symmetry  and  regularity  of  the  scheme  are  characteristic, 
being  regarded  in  other  countries  as  non-Gothic  in  design. 

These,  along  with  the  trade  halls  and  guildhalls  of  which  Ypres 
is  probably  the  finest  example,  form  a  class  of  building  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  community,  and  their  free  and  open  appearance 
may  be  compared  with  the  halls  of  Florence  and  Siena. 

c.  Openings.— The   windows    are    richly    ornamented    with 


H 
S3 

W 

33 

o 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

sculpture,  tracery,  and  panelling,  and  bear  a  similarity  and 
regularity  in  position  which  are  marked  features  in  these  large 
buildings. 

D.  Roofs.— In  domestic  work  roofs  have  steep  pitches,  and  are 
either  hipped  (No.  169)  or  ended  by  crow-stepped  and  traceried 
gables    of    picturesque  outline.      Numerous    turrets,    and    bold 
chimney  stacks,  combine  with  the  tiers  of  dormers  to  complete 
the  rich  profusion  of  the  walls  below. 

E.  Columns.— The  use  of  round  pillars  in  the  nave,  instead  of 
clustered  piers,  is  well  exemplified  at  S.  Gudule,  Brussels  (No. 
167  B,  c,  D).     A  peculiar  feature  is  noticeable  in  some  town  hall 
arcades,  where  a  column  is  omitted  by  hanging  up  any  two  arches 
by  means  of  a  long  keystone  from  a  concealed  arch,  as  at  Liege. 

F.  Mouldings.  — Coarse  profusion  is  characteristic  of  Belgian 
Gothic,  possessing  neither  the  vigour  of  French,  nor  the  grace  of 
English,  mouldings. 

c.  Ornament. — In  S.  Waudru,  at  Mons,  blue  stone  is  com- 
bined with  a  red  brick  filling-in  of  the  vault,  in  a  scheme  of 
permanent  decoration,  and  S.  Jacques  at  Liege  is  fully  decorated 
with  paintings  of  a  rather  later  date. 

5.  REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Goctghebuer  (P.  J.).— "  Choix  des  Monumens  des  Pays-Bas."  Folio. 
Ghent,  1827. 

Haghe  (L.).— "  Sketches  in  Belgium  and  Germany."  3  vols.,  folio. 
1840-1850. 

King  (T.  H.).— "Study  Book  of  Mediaeval  Architecture  and  Art." 
4  vols.,  410.  1858-1868. 

Stroobant  (F.).—"  Monuments  d'Architecture  et  de  Sculpture  en 
Belgique."  Folio.  Brussels,  1878. 

Verschelde  (C.).— "  The  Ancient  Domestic  Edifices  of  Bruges."  Bruges, 
1075. 

Ysendyck  (J  J.  Van).— "  Documents  Classes  de  1'Art  dans  les  Pavs- 
Jas."  5  vols.,  folio.  Antwerp,  1880-1889. 

"  Mary  of  Burgundy."     (Historical  Novel.) 


GERMAN    GOTHIC. 

(See  page  258  for  German  Romanesque.) 

"  Some  roods  away,  a  lordly  house  there  was, 
Cool  with  broad  courts,  and  latticed  passage  wet 
From  rush  flowers  and  lilies  ripe  to  set, 
Sown  close  among  the  strewings  of  the  floor ; 
And  either  wall  of  the  slow  corridor 
Was  dim  with  deep  device  of  gracious  things  ; 
Some  angels'  steady  mouth  and  weight  of  wings 
Shut  to  the  side ;  or  Peter  with  straight  stole 
And  beard  cut  black  against  the  aureole 
That  spanned  his  head  from  nape  to  crown  ;  these 
Mary's  gold  hair,  thick  to  the  girdle  tie 
Wherein  was  bound  a  child  with  tender  feet ; 
Or  the  broad  cross  with  blood  nigh  brown  on  it." 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — Germany  was  flanked  on  the  east,  west 
and  south  by  large  and  warlike  empires  having  strong  racial 
differences.  Owing  to  this  situation  it  had  direct  communication 
with  all  the  great  European  States.  The  River  Rhine  was  an 
important  factor  in  the  rise  of  cities  founded  in  the  earlier  period. 

ii.  Geological. — The  plains  of  Northern  and  North  Eastern 
Germany  produce  no  building  material  but  brick,  which  has  a 
great  influence  on  the  architecture  in  these  regions.  Stone  was 
found  in  the  centre  and  south,  and  timber  in  Hanover  and  the 
north-west. 

iii.  Climate. — (See  page  258  in  German  Romanesque). 

iv.  Religion. — The  most  interesting  feature  in  the  religious 
life  of  Germany,  prior  to  the  Reformation,  was  the  civil,  as  well  as 
ecclesiastical,  rule  of  many  of  the  bishops.  Some  of  these  episcopal 
principalities  were  not  finally  abolished  until  the  period  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

v.  Social  and  Political.— Trade  guilds  acquired  great 
importance  during  this  period,  that  of  the  Freemasons  (cf.  page  281) 
having  been  credited  with  much  influence  in  the  design  and 
working  out  of  the  Gothic  style.  In  the  absence  of  records, 
the  truth  as  to  the  individuality  of  the  architects  will  not  easily 
be  made  out. 


394  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

vi.  Historical. — In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
Germany  was  the  heart  and  centre  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Under  the  Swabian  Emperors  long  wars  occurred  with  the 
Lombard  league  of  the  north  Italian  towns  (cf.  page  234).  The 
years  1254-1274,  known  as  the  "great  interregnum,"  because  no 
king  was  universally  acknowledged  by  all  Germany,  were  times  of 
great  confusion  and  lawlessness,  until  the  house  of  Hapsburg 
came  into  power  in  1273. 

The  "  Hanseatic  league,"  an  alliance  of  the  great  commercial 
towns  of  North  Germany,  exercised  considerable  influence  on  the 
peaceful  arts. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  Gothic  architecture  of  Germany  was  borrowed  directly 
from  France,  and  was  not  a  pure  development  of  the  Romanesque, 
as  in  the  latter  country.  This  may  be  ascribed  to  the  monu- 
mental character  of  buildings  in  the  Romanesque  style,  which  had 
been  developed  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  other  countries,  no 
Gothic  building  being  erected  in  Germany  before  the  thirteenth 
century. 

Gothic  was,  therefore,  reluctantly  adopted  at  the  time  when  it 
was  attaining  its  great  perfection  in  France,  but  the  Romanesque 
precedents  were  long  adhered  to. 

In  Northern  Germany,  in  the  valley  of  the  Elbe, 'a  brick 
architecture  was  developed,  as  at  Lubeck  and  the  neighbouring 
cities,  which,  although  not  equalling  that  in  the  valley  of  the  Po, 
has  that  special  character  belonging  properly  to  the  material, 
although  expressed  in  a  somewhat  meagre  manner. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
ECCLESIASTICAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

Cologne  Cathedral  (Nos.  no  c  and  170)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  great  cathedral  in  this  style.  It  resembles  Amiens 
dimensi9  B)'  '  6aStern  Portion  being  a  direct  copy  in  plan  and 

cathedral  of  North  Europe,  having  an  extreme 
a  width  of  275  feet,  giving  a  superficial 


»»  Th!  C°m™e,ncedf  inu  "7?,  and  the  choir  was  completed  in 
'.  remainder  of  the  bmlding  being  completed  according  to 
the  original  design  in  the  nineteenth  century 

The  clear  width  of  nave  between  piers  is  41  feet  6  inches    and 

' 


"  " 


GERMAN    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.     I. 


512-8. 

HIKHr»C.1fWER  35?  •»• 
SBifl.  9MCf  Off 


£ 

HYlHMTHWR. 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  western  towers  have  open-work  spires,  characteristic  of 

wall.     The  cathedral  was  built  by 

"  A  great  master  of  his  craft, 
Erwin  von  Steinbach  ;  but  not  he  alone, 
For  many  generations  labour'd  with  him. 
Children  that  came  to  see  these  saints  in  stone, 
As  day  by  day  out  of  the  blocks  they  rose, 
Grew  old  and  died,  and  still  the  work  went  on, 
And  on  and  on  and  is  not  yet  completed. 

.    .     .    The  architect 

Built  bis  great  heart  into  these  sculptured  stones, 
And  with  him  toiled  his  children,  and  their  lives 
Were  builded  with  his  own  into  the  walls 
As  offerings  to  God."— LONGFELLOW. 

S.  Lambert,  Hildesheim,  has  aisles  and  nave  of  the  same 
height,  being  therefore  a  "  Hall  Church,"  as  are  also  S.  Stephen, 
Vienna,  and  S.  Quintin,  Mayence. 

Freiburg  Cathedral  (1283-1330)  has  a  spire  similar  to  that 
of  Cologne,  but  with  a  total  height  of  385  feet. 

Ratisbon  Cathedral  (1275-1534)  (No.  171),  has  a  regular 
plan,  octagonal  apse  without  ambulatory,  and  western  towers, 
with  open-work  spires  added  in  1859-1869.  The  small  triangular 
porch  is  a  peculiar  feature. 

Ulm  Cathedral  (A.D.  1377-1477)  is  spacious  and  lofty,  being 
notable  for  the  small  ratio  of  support  in  regard  to  its  floor  space, 
and  a  polygonal  eastern  apse  without  ambulatory.  The  western 
tower  is  529  feet  in  height.  It  has  an  arcaded  gallery  to  the 
eaves,  a  remnant  from  Romanesque  traditions,  and  fine  choir 
stalls. 

S.  Elizabeth,  Marburg  (1235-1283)  (No.  172),  is  the 
typical  form,  known  as  the  "  Hall  Church."  The  result  of 
raising  the  side  aisles  to  the  same  height  as  the  nave,  was  to 
abolish  the  triforium  and  clerestory,  to  reduce  the  importance  of 
the  nave,  and  to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  flying  buttresses, 
while  rendering  the  interior  more  spacious. 

Munich  Cathedral,  S.  Barbara,  Kuttenberg,  and  S. 
Martin,  Landshut  (1404),  are  other  examples  of  this  type. 

S.  Stephen,  Vienna  (1300-1510)  (Nos.  no  D,  172  and 
173),  .is  characteristic  in  having  no  clerestory  or  triforium,  the 
three  aisles  nearly  equal  in  width  and  height,  and  one  great  roof 


GERMAN    GOTHIC. 


171 


RATISBON  CATHEDRAL. 
West  Front. 


398  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

covering  the  church  in  one  span.  Tower  porches  occupy  the 
positions  of  transepts  ;  only  one  of  which  is  completed  and  has 
a  splendid  spire,  less  open  than  usual  in  German  work.  The 
vaults  are  traceried,  and  the  original  stained  glass  exists. 

Lubeck  Cathedral  (choir  and  aisles)  and  the  Marien  Kirche, 
Lubeck,  are  types  of  the  brick  architecture  of  North  Germany, 
and  express  the  possibilities  of  design  in  that  material. 

SECULAR   ARCHITECTURE. 

Castles  were  erected  in  goodly  numbers,  as  at  Marienburg 
(1280),  Heilberg  (1350),  and  Meissen  in  Saxony  (1471-1483). 

Town  Halls  (Rathhaus)  at  Brunswick,  Hildesheim, 
Halberstadt,  Miinster  and  Ratisbon  are  the  best  known. 

The  Rathhaus  at  Liibeck  and  other  cities,  and  the  town  gates  of 
the  Baltic  provinces,  are  evidences  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  times. 

In  the  domestic  architecture  the  roof  was  a  large  and  important 
feature,  and  frequently  contained  more  stories  than  the  walls 
supporting  it,  being  used  as  a  "  drying  ground  "  for  the  large 
monthly  wash,  and  planned  with  windows  to  get  a  through  current 
of  air. 

The  planning  of  the  roof-ridge  parallel,  or  at  right  angles,  to 
the  street  in  towns  influenced  the  design  considerably  (see 
page  536  in  German  Renaissance),  thus  in  Nuremberg  the 
ridge  is  generally  parallel  to  the  street,  and  dormer  windows 
are  plentiful,  the  party  walls  being  apparent,  and  artistically 
treated,  while  at  Landshut  and  elsewhere,  the  ridge  being 
generally  at  right  angles  to  the  street,  gables  are  the  result,  and 
these  exhibit  great  variety  of  design  in  scrolls  and  other  features. 

The  dwelling-houses  of  early  date  in  Cologne,  with  their 
stepped  gables,  are  notable. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — These  were  based  upon  (a.)  the  round-arched 
German  style  and  (b.)  the  French  plan.  Apses  often  semi- 
octagonal,  found  at  end  of  transepts,  and  at  east  and  west  ends 
of  churches,  as  at  Naumburg. 

The  chevet  is  uncommon,  although  it  occurs  at  Cologne  (No.  170), 
Magdeburg  (1208-1211),  Lubeck,  Freiburg,  and  Prague. 

Triapsal  plans  are  frequent  (No.  172  D),  and  a  square  outline 
to  the  general  plan  is  not  uncommon. 

Twin  towers  occur  at  west  end  of  Ratisbon  Cathedral  (No.  171). 
In  later  work,  sometimes  only  one  central  tower  occurs,  as  in 
some  English  cathedrals. 

Entrances  are  often  on  north  or  south,  instead  of  being  at  the 


GERMAN  GOTHIC  EXAMPLES. 

n  siWHHt  vn 


172. 


GOTHIC. 


S.  STEPHEN,  VIENNA 


GERMAN    GOTHIC.  401 

west  end.  They  sometimes  have  towers  over  them,  and  take 
the  place  of  transepts  (No.  173). 

Towers  with  spires  were  much  used,  but  the  junction  of  the 
spire  was  often  insufficiently  marked,  the  outline,  though  orna- 
mented, being  weak.  Open-work  tracery  spires  indicate  the  same 
liking  for  this  feature  which  is  seen  in  the  Rhenish  Romanesque 
churches.  The  typical  examples  are  Strasburg  (1429)  (No.  154  E), 
Freiburg  (1300),  Ratisbon  (No.  171),  Cologne  (No.  no  c),  and 
Vienna  (No.  173)  Cathedrals. 

B.  Walls. — The  apsidal  galleries  of  the  Romanesque  style  were 
simply  copied,  without  reference  to  their  origin  and  meaning. 
Tracery  was  employed  on  the  outer  and  inner  wall  surfaces,  the 
mullions  being  often  cut  across  the  openings  behind. 

Lubeck  in  the  north  is  the  centre  of  a  brick  district,  and 
churches  of  this  material  abound,  as  also  in  Bavaria  and  at 
Munich. 

c.  Openings  (No.  174  E,  F). — Tracery  was  elaborated,  double 
tracery  windows  being  used  in  later  examples. 

Excessive  height  is  a  characteristic,  and  the  use  of  two  tiers  of 
windows  was  due  to  the  lofty  aisles  (No.  172).  In  the  north  the 
clerestories  are  excessive  in  size,  starting  as  low  down  as  possible, 
to  provide  a  great  expanse  of  stained  glass. 

D.  Roofs. — Churches   were  nearly  always  vaulted,  but  were 
sometimes  covered  only,  with  a  wooden  roof. 

Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  vaulting,  both  as  regards  its 
size  and  excellence  of  construction. 

Square  vaulting  bays  to  the  nave  were  often  adhered  to, 
corresponding  with  two  aisle  bays,  but  vaulting  in  oblong  bays 
afterwards  became  general,  as  at  Freiburg,  Ratisbon,  Cologne, 
Oppenheim,  and  elsewhere. 

The  special  German  feature  is  the  immense  roof,  covering  nave 
and  aisle  in  one  span  (No.  172),  which  was  due  to  the  side  aisle 
being  made  nearly  as  high  as  the  nave,  and  when  the  aisles  are 
equal  in  height  to  the  nave  it  is  the  recognized  German  type 
known  as  the  "Hall  Church"  (No.  172  F).  Tower  roofs  of  the 
Romanesque  form  were  still  used. 

E.  Columns. — Piers  usual  in  naves  (Nos.  170  and   172)  and 
not  the  columns  found  in  early  French  Gothic,  the  tendency  being 
to  make  them  lofty  posts  carrying  the. roof,  owing  to  the  height 
of  the  aisles. 

F.  Mouldings.  —  Complexity    rather    than     simplicity    was 
striven  after;  thus  interpenetvation  of  mouldings  (fifteenth  century) 
was  a  very  characteristic  treatment,   consisting  of  two  different 
sets  of  mouldings,  appearing  and  disappearing  in  and  out  of  the 
same  stone,  each  being  provided  with  its  own  base  and  capital. 
The  resulting  complicated  intersections  required  great  skill  in  the 
geometrical  setting  out  and  execution. 

F.A.  D  D 


402  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Features  such  as  pinnacles  are  larger  the  higher  they  occur, 
and  therefore  scale  is  destroyed,  as  at  Cologne,  whereas  in 
English  and  French  work  the  features  do  not  increase  in  size. 

G.  Ornament  (No.  174). — Foliage  was  treated  in  a  naturalesque 
manner,  and  the  interlacing  of  boughs  and  branches  is  a  common 
feature  (No.  174  A,  c,  j).  In  general,  the  carving  was  superior 
to  the  design,  the  tracery  of  later  windows  sometimes  repre- 
senting the  branches  of  trees  ("branch  tracery  "),  in  which  technical 
display  was  more  considered  than  grace  of  outline. 

The  Tabernacles  or  Sacrament  Houses  were  developed  in  this 
period,  being  placed  at  one  side  and  forming  a  lofty  and  tower- 
like  structure,  tapering  upwards  in  many  stages.  They  form  an 
important  feature  of  German  decorative  art,  dating  from  the  time 
that  the  consecrated  Host  above  the  altar  went  out  of  use.  They 
are  of  stone  or  wood,  and  either  placed  against  a  wall  or  isolated  ; 
and  were  used  to  keep  the  "  pyx  "  with  the  eucharist,  the  -shrine 
itself  being  closed  by  a  pierced  iron  grating.  They  usually 
represented  a  Gothic  spire  with  its  traceried  windows,  pinnacles, 
statuary  decoration,  and  canopies,  all  erected  in  minature. 

Examples  are  found  throughout  Germany,  and  they  are  some- 
times of  great  height,  as  at  Ratisbon  (52  feet),  Ulm  (90  feet),  and 
the  Lorenz  Kirche,  Nuremburg  (64  feet). 

Stained  glass  and  ironwork  were  well  treated,  and  in  many  cases 
were  most  elaborate. 

The  enforced  use  of  brick  in  the  north  was  unsuitable  for  the 
employment  of  sculptured  work,  and  in  its  place  moulded  and 
colored  brickwork  was  used  as  a  means  of  decoration,  and  the 
interiors  are  plain  and  bare  in  character. 

5.   REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Boisseree  (S.).— "  Histoire  et  description  de  la  Cathedrale  de  Cologne." 
4to  and  folio.  Munich,  1843. 

Foerster  (E.  J.).— "  Denkmaeler  Deutscher  Baukunst."  12  vols.,  folio. 
Leipzig,  1855-1869. 

Hartel  (A.).— "  Architektonische  Detaile  und  Ornamente  der  Kirchlichen 
Baukunst."  2  vols.,  folio.  Berlin,  1891. 

King  (T.  H.).— "  Study-Book  of  Mediaeval  Architecture  and  Art." 
4  vols.,  4to.  1858-1868. 

Lubke  (W.).— "  Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany."     8vo.     1873. 

Moller  (G.).— «  Denkmaeler  der  Deutschen  Baukunst."  Folio 
Leipzig,  1852. 

Puttrich  (L.).— "  Denkmaeler  der  Baukunst  der  Mittelalters  in  Sachsen." 
4  vols.,  folio.  Leipzig,  1836-1850. 

Whewell  (W).-" Architectural  Notes  on   German  Churches."  1842. 

Scott  (Sir  Walter).—"  Anne  of  Gierstein."     (Historical  Novel.) 


GERMAN   GOTHIC   ORNAMENT 


MONK  (g) 

174. 


D  D  2 


ITALIAN   GOTHIC. 

(See  page  228  for  Italian  Romanesque.) 

"  I  will  give  thee  twelve  royal  images 
Cut  in  glad  gold,  with  marvels  of  wrought  stone 
For  thy  sweet  priests  to  lean  and  pray  upon 
Jasper  and  hyacinth  and  chrysopas, 
And  the  strange  Asian  thalamite  that  was 
Hidden  twelve  ages  under  the  heavy  sea, 
Among  the  little  sleepy  pearls  to  be 
A  shrine  lit  over  with  soft  candle  flame. " 

i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — German  influence  in  Lombardy  was 
effected  through  the  connection  of  this  part  of  Italy  and 
Germany  geographically  by  the  Brenner  Pass.  The  work  at 
Venice  was  similarly  influenced  by  an  oversea  trade  connection 
with  the  East. 

ii.  Geological. — The  influence  of  materials  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  style  was  important.  The  colored  marbles  of 
Northern  and  Central  Italy  supplied  abundant  and  beautiful 
material  for  the  elaboration  of  plain  wall  treatment,  as  in 
Florence  (No.  181),  Siena  (No.  182),  Genoa,  Orvieto,  Lucca,  and 
other  places.  Red,  black,  and  white  marbles  were  used  in  stripes, 
and  also  in  panels,  the  architect  relying  much  for  effect  upon 
their  color  and  disposition. 

The  brick  and  terra-cotta  of  Northern  Italy  has  left  a  decided 
impress  on  the  architecture  of  that  district,  many  large  buildings, 
such  as  the  Hospital  at  Milan  and  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  having 
been  erected  in  these  materials. 

iii.  Climate. — The  influence  of  the  climate  and  brilliant 
atmosphere  is  apparent  in  the  small  windows,  which,  with  thick 
walls,  were  necessary  to  keep  out  the  glare  and  heat  of  the  Italian 
sun,  factors  which  also  hindered  the  development  of  tracery. 

The  preference  for  opaque  treatment,  such  as  mosaic  work  and 
fresco  decoration,  was  inherited  from  the  Romans,  while  the 
climate  counteracted  effectually  any  desire  the  Italians  might 
have  had  for  the  suppression  of  the  walls  by  the  employment  of 
large  windows  of  stained  glass,  for  the  reasons  mentioned  above. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  405 

iv.  Religion. — The  real  power  of  the  Pope  as  head  of  the 
Western  Church  died  with  Gregory  X.  (1271-1276).  The 
succeeding  Popes  were  under  the  influence  of  the  King  of  France, 
and  for  nearly  seventy  years  (1309-1376)  resided  at  Avignon,  losing 
authority  and  influence  during  their  absence  from  Rome.  Rival 
Popes  existed  until  a  settlement  was  arrived  at  by  the  Council 
of  Constance,  in  1415.  The  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibel- 
lines  (pages  230,  259)  distracted  Italy  from  1250  to  1409,  a  sub- 
ject dealt  with  by  Mr.  Oscar  Browning  in  his  "  Mediaeval  Italy." 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Italy  at  this  period  was  cut  up 
into  small  principalities  and  commonwealths,  in  which  political 
life  was  full  of  rivalry  and  activity,  and  small  wars  were  of 
constant  occurrence.  The  erection  of  the  Cathedrals  of  Siena, 
Orvieto,  Florence,  Milan  and  Lucca  was  largely  due  to  the  civic 
pride  of  the  various  rival  cities,  while  the  numerous  Town  Halls 
attest  the  growth  of  municipal  institutions.  Tasso  has  a  line  to 
the  effect  that  each  holiday  they  blew  trumpets,  and  proceeded 
to  sack  the  adjoining  town.  Yet  other  countries  looked  to  Italy 
as  the  head  in  arts,  learning  and  commerce.  The  poet  Dante 
(1265-1321)  has  in  his  great  poem  presented  a  summarized  picture 
of  the  age. 

The  revival  of  learning  took  place  in  Italy  nearly  a  century  in 
advance  of  northern  Europe. 

vi.  Historical. — To  the  Latin  conquest  of  Constantinople,  in 
1203,  is  mainly  attributed  the  sudden  development  of  the  formative 
arts  in  the  thirteenth  century  in  Europe,  for  the  citizens  being 
dispersed  during  the  sixty  years  of  Latin  occupation,  all  commerce 
was  transferred  to  the  cities  of  Italy,  and  many  Greek  artists  were 
established  at  Venice,  Pisa,  Siena  and  Florence.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  successive  members  of  the  Visconti  family  ruled  as 
Dukes  of  Milan,  and  were  very  powerful  in  consequence  of  the 
wealth  and  industry  of  the  cities  over  which  they  held  sway.  The 
maritime  commonwealth  of  Genoa  considerably  reduced  the  power 
of  Pisa  in  1284,  and  the  latter  was  conquered  by  Florence  in 
1406.  Florence  became  one  of  the  chief  states  of  Italy  under 
the  powerful  family  of  the  Medici  (page  447). 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  influence  of  Roman  tradition,  as  shown  in  the  Classic  forms 
of  construction  and  decoration,  was^so  great  that  the  verticality 
which  marks  the  Gothic  architecture  in  the  north  of  Europe  does 
not  pervade  the  Italian  examples  to  the  same  extent. 

The  churches  are  especially  noticeable  externally  for  (a.)  the 
flatness  of  the  roofs  (Nos.  181,  182)  ;  (b.)  the  tendency  to  mask  the 
aisle  roofs  by  a  mere  screen  wall  forming  the  west  facade,  without 


ITALIAN  (NORTH)  GOTHIC. 


I75- 


MILAN  CATHEDRAL. 
East  End. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  407 

reference  to  the  slope  of  the  roofs  behind  (No.  182);  (c.)  the 
great  central  circular  window  in  the  west  front  lighting  the  nave ; 
(d.)  the  flatness  and  comparative  unimportance  of  the  mouldings, 
cheir  place  being  more  than  taken  by  the  beautiful  colored 
marbles  with  which  the  facades  were  faced,  and  the  broad 
surfaces  covered  with  fresco  decorations. 

There  is  an  absence  of  pinnacles  due  to  the  unimportance  or 
the  buttresses,  but  the  crowning  cornice  (No.  181),  and  the 
employment  of  elaborately  carved  projecting  porches  at  the  west 
end,  the  columns  of  which  often  rest  on  the  backs  of  lions  and 
other  animals,  are  characteristic  features. 

"  Stern  and  sad  (so  rare  the  smiles 
Of  sunlight)  looked  the  Lombard  piles  ; 
Porch  pillars  on  the  lion  resting, 
And  sombre,  old,  colonnaded  aisles." — TENNYSON. 

Sculpture  partakes  of  classical  purity,  and  is  in  this  respect 
superior  to  that  exhibited  in  northern  examples,  but  it  enters  far 
less  into  the  general  composition  and  meaning  of  the  architecture. 
Corinthian  capitals  of  modified  form  and  the  Roman  acanthus 
were  constantly  used  in  Gothic  buildings  (No.  184). 

Mosaic  was  used  externally  in  panels,  in  continuation  of  early 
ideas  and  practice. 

Terra-cotta  and  brickwork,  in  their  plastic  state  rendered  much 
ornament  easy  of  application,  and  a  smallness  in  detail  followed, 
which  was  eminently  suited  to  the  material,  as,  for  example,  at 
the  Frari  Church  at  Venice  and  elsewhere. 

The  treatment  of  moulded  brickwork  has  never  been  carried 
to  greater  perfection  than  in  North  Italy  during  the  Gothic  and 
Early  Renaissance  period,  especially  in  civic  buildings,  although 
the  effect  of  sublimity  is  perhaps  not  to  be  obtained  in  so  small  a 
material  unless  used  in  the  broad  massive  manner  of  the  Romans. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  beauty  of  detail  or  of  design  on  a 
small  scale  that  may  not  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  moulded 
bricks,  which,  if  carefully  burnt,  are  as  durable  as  most  kinds 
of  stone. 

The  Italian  use'  of  brickwork  was  essentially  the  right  one ; 
the  details  were  small  and  designed  with  taste,  and  the  effect  of 
variegated  color  was  relied  on  instead  of  depth  of  shadow— a 
perfectly  legitimate  and  expressive  use  of  material  where  small 
and  colored  units  are  used.  Stone  of  different  color  was  also 
carried  systematically  in  patterns  through  the  design,  giving  a 
special  character,  as  at  Verona.  •  A  flatness  and  want  of  shadow^ 
is  necessarily  characteristic  of  brick  buildings,  sufficient  projection 
not  being  obtainable  for  cornices,  and  this  was  always  tolerated 
by  the  Italians,  who  allowed  the  material  to  express  its  own 
capabilities  without  trying  to  disturb  its  architectural  function. 


408  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
NORTH    ITALY. 

Milan  Cathedral  (A.D.  1385-1418)  (Nos.  175,  176  A,  B,  c,  177), 
erected  by  the  first  Duke  of  Milan,  is  the  most  important  work  of 
this  period,  and  there  is  a  marked  German  influence,  both  in 
character  and  details.  It  is  the  largest  mediaeval  cathedral,  with 
the  exception  of  Seville,  and  is  built  entirely  of  white  marble. 
The  roof  is  very  flat  in  pitch,  being  constructed  of  massive 
marble  slabs,  laid  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  vaulting. 

In  plan  it  consists  of  a  nave  with  a  very  small  clerestory, 
and  double  aisles  of  extreme  height,  the  nave  terminating  with 
a  circlet  of  columns  in  the  French  manner,  but  inclosed  in  a 
German  polygonal  apse.  To  the  Ambrosian  ritual  is  due  the 
absence  of  side-chapels  in  the  original  scheme.  At  the  crossing 
of  the  nave  and  aisles  is  a  vault  crowned  with  a  marble 'spire, 
designed  by  Brunelleschi  in  A.D.  1440.  The  feature  of  the 
interior  is  the  range  of  immense  shafts  to  the  nave  (No.  177), 
whose  summits  are  treated  with  canopied  niches,  filled  with 
statues,  in  the  place  of  the  ordinary  capitals.  Externally,  the 
character  of  the  whole  design  is  expressive  of  richness  and  lace- 
like  intricacy,  which  is  aided  in  effect  by  the  numerous  pinnacles 
of  glittering  marble  (No.  175). 

"  O  Milan,  O,  the  chanting  quires  ; 
The  giant  windows'  blazon'd  fires  ; 
The  height,  the  space,  the  gloom,  the  glory  ! 
A  mount  of  marble,  a  hundred  spires." — TENNYSON. 

S.  Petronio,  Bologna,  commenced  in  1390,  in  emulation  of 
Florence  Cathedral,  would,  if  completed,  have  been  one  of  the 
largest  churches  of  this  period.  It  was  to  have  consisted  of  a 
nave  and  aisles  and  outer  chapels  on  either  side,  and  resembled 
in  section  the  Cathedral  of  Milan  (No.  176  B,  c).  Many  archi- 
tects, including  Palladio,  have  produced  designs  for  the  unfinished 
west  front. 

The  Certosa,  Pavia,  commenced  in  1396,  having  a  central 
lantern  in  stages,  crowning  an  internal  dome,  and  the  great 
Hospital,  Milan,  where  terra-cotta  was  largely  used,  exemplify 
the  influence  of  brick  and  terra-cotta  on  the  architecture  of  the 
district. 

The  churches  and  palaces  at  Bologna,  Vicenza,  Padua,  Verona, 
Cremona,  and  Genoa  contain  specimens  of  brick  architecture  with 
pleasing  moulded  details. 

S.  Antonip,  Padua  (1237-1307)  is  a  remarkable  design, 
closely  resembling  S.  Mark  in  plan  (page  208),  but  with  seven 
domes  instead  of  five,  and  the  front  porch  omitted.  The  domes 
were  added  in  1475. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.     I 


ITALIAN  (NORTH)  GOTHIC. 


177. 


MILAN  CATHEDRAL. 
Interior,  looking  East. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  411 

Venice  is  remarkable  for  the  civic  and  domestic  architecture 
of  this  period,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Venetian 
state  occupied  a  prominent  position  as  a  great  trading  centre 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  her  power  and  richness  being  due  to  the 
supremacy  of  her  navy. 

"  Where  Venice  sate  in  state,  throned  on  her  hundred  isles." 

S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  (1260-1400),  a  Dominican  church,  and 
S.  Maria  Gloriosa  dei  Frari  (1250- 1280),  a  Franciscan  church, 
are  magnificent  examples,  showing  the  influence  of  the  Monastic 
orders.  The  latter  by  Niccolo  Pisano,  is  of  the  Basilican  type, 
with  six  eastern  chapels,  and  has  a  fine  campanile  adjoining 
the  church  (cf.  Siena,  No.  182).  - 

S.  Anastasia,  Verona  (1261),  and  S.  Andrea,  Vercelli 
(1219),  are  notable  examples,  the  latter  being  peculiar  in  having 
two  western  towers,  and  an  English  type  of  plan. 

The  Doges'  Palace,  Venice  (Nos.  178  and  179  B)  (facade 
A.D.  1424-1442,  by  G.  and  B.  Buon)  is  the  grandest  effort  in 
civic  architecture  of  the  period.  Each  facade  consisted  of  an 
open  arcade  of  two  stories,  one  originally  advanced  in  front  and 
surrounding  the  main  building.  The  latter  was  partly  destroyed 
by  fire  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  was  rebuilt  and  extended 
over  the  double  arcade  in  the  Venetian  style,  with  rose-colored 
and  white  marble,  in  imitation  of  bricks,  arranged  in  patterns, 
the  otherwise  blank  walls  being  broken  by  a  few  large  and  richly 
ornamented  windows.  The  lower  columns  seem  to  rise  out  of 
the  ground,  having  no  bases,  and  the  solid  and  connected  character 
of  the  tracery  gives  some  stability  to  the  design,  so  heavily  loaded 
above.  The  delicate  and  light  carving  in  low  relief  which  occurs  in 
the  capitals  of  the  arcades  is  justly  celebrated,  the  excellence  of 
marble  as  a  material  for  carving  being  largely  responsible  for  the 
refinement  of  execution  in  this  example. 

The  Ca  d'  Oro  Palace,  Venice  (Nos.  179  A  and  180), 
also  by  the  Brothers  Buon,  is  another  fine  specimen  of  the 
domestic  work  with  which  Venice  abounds.  The  tracery 
especially  is  Venetian  in  character,  as  is  also  the  grouping  of 
the  windows  towards  the  centre  of  the  facade,  the  extremities 
of  the  design  being  left  comparatively  solid,  thus  producing  the 
effect  of  a  central  feature  inclosed  by  wings. 

The  Ponte  alle  Grazie  (1237)  and  tne  Ponte  Vecchio 
(1362),  both  at  Florence  ;  the  Bridge  over  the  Adda  at  Trezzo, 
constructed  in  the  fourteenth  century  and  afterwards  destroyed ; 
and  the  Bridge  over  the  Ticino,  Pavia,  are  other  examples  of 
the  secular  architecture  of  the  period. 

The  Palazzi  Foscari,  Contarini-Fasan,  Pisani  (No.  179  c), 
and  Cavalli  are  other  well-known  examples.  A  general  idea  of 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES.     II. 

|l    tfrttfe&fefei 


U»!--J  P^?l@«»  €MlL 


SCALE 


5Q.  .  .  .  Q 


100  ft 


179. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC. 


417 

Venetian  Gothic  is  obtained  from  the  old    front  of   S.  James's 
Hall,    Piccadilly,   and    the    building    in    Lothbury,  opposite  the 


Bank  of  England. 


CENTRAL   ITALY. 


Florence  Cathedral  (Sta.  Maria  dei  Fion)  (1294-1462) 
(No.  176),  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  wide  spacing  (55  feet)  of 
the  nave  arcades,  the  nave  itself,  the  absence  of  a  triforium, 
buttresses  arid  pinnacles  (No.  181),  and  for  the  marble  facades 
in  colored  panelling.  The  cathedral  was  erected  from  the  designs 
of  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  and  the  octagonal  dome,  138  feet  6  inches 
in  diameter,  was  added  in  1420  by  Brunelleschi,  while  the  facade 
was  completed  in  1887.  Internally  the  fine  effect  promised  by 
the  plan  is  not  realized,  vast  masses  of  grey  pietra  serena  stone, 
in  piers  and  arches,  being  contrasted  by  blank  white-washed 
Spandrels.  The  Baptistery  (originally  the  Cathedral),  erected  in 
the  tenth  century,  but  remodelled  by  Arnolfo  in  A.D.  1294,  is  an 
octagonal  structure  faced  with  pilasters  and  richly  colored  orna- 
mentation, being  further  remarkable  for  the  fifteenth  century 
bronze  doors  by  Ghiberti. 

The  Campanile  (Nos.  176  D  and  181),  adjoining,  by  Giotto 
(A.D.  1324),  is  square  on  plan,  292  feet  high,  in  four  stories  of 
increasing  height,  and  is  built  in  red  and  white  marble.  Tracery 
of  an  elementary  character  is  introduced  into  the  windows  in  this 
example,  as  in  the  adjoining  cathedral,  and  inserted  in  the  solidly 
designed  lower  story  are  sculptured  panels  of  great  interest  and 
beauty.  Below  the  present  tile  roof  the  start  of  the  intended 
spire  can  be  traced. 

S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence  (A.D.  1278),  is  an  imposing 
example  erected  by  the  Dominicans,  and  S.  Croce,  Florence 
(1294),  is  a  well-known  example  of  the  same  type. 

The  Palazzo  Vecchio,  Florence  (1298),  by  Arnolfo  di  Cambio 
(with  its  remarkable  tower),  the  Palazzo  Publico,  Siena,  and 
the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  Florence  (1376),  are  examples  of  the 
vigorous  secular  architecture  of  the  period. 

Siena  Cathedral  (A.D.  1243-1284)  (No.  182)  is  remarkable  in 
having  a  dome,  58  feet  in  diameter,  covering  an  irregular  hexa- 
gonal space  at  the  crossing  (No.  179  D),  and  for  its  facade  in  black 
and  white  stripes,  with  three  portals  of  equal  size,  and  charac- 
teristic rose  window.  The  ground  falling  towards  the  east  end, 
allowed  of  a  cry.pt  being  formed  under  the  sanctuary,  which  is 
used  as  a  baptistery.  The  unfinished  elevation  of  this  east  end 
is  a  grand  design. 

The  Campo  Santo,  Pisa  (1278-1283)  (No.  91),  is  a  well- 
known  example,  having  an  unusual  development  of  open  tracery 
in  the  arches  (No.  184  c). 

Orvieto  Cathedral  (A.D.  1290)  resembles  that  of  Siena,  but  is 

F.A.  E  E 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  419 

imbued  more  considerably  with  Northern  Gothic  feeling.  It  is 
mainly  of  one  period,  the  facade  dating  from  1310,  and  is  more 
harmonious  in  design  than  the  Siena  example.  The  nave  is  now 
restored  with  an  open  timber  roof  of  the  Basilican  type. 

S.  Francis,  Assisi  (A.D.  1228-1253),  is  an  example  which  was 
from  the  designs  of  a  German,  Jacobus  of  Meruan.  It  consists 
of  an  upper  and  lower  church,  and  is  very  northern  in  detail, 
depending  much  more  on  its  frescoed  interior  than  upon  the 
architecture  proper  for  its  magnificence  and  character.  Both 
churches  are  vaulted,  built  of  brick  and  plastered,  and  received  a 
complete  treatment  in  painted  decoration  by  Cimabue  and  Giotto. 

In  Rome,  churches  of  the  Basilican  type  were  erected  through- 
out the   Middle  Ages,  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva  (1280)  being 
quoted  as  the  only  Gothic  church  in  Rome. 
\ 

SOUTHERN    ITALY   AND   SICILY. 

The  influences  at  work  in  these  districts  have  already  been 
referred  to  in  Romanesque  (page  239).  The  style  has  been 
described  as  "  Greek  in  essence,  Roman  in  form,  and  Saracenic 
in  decoration." 

Messina  and  Palermo  Cathedrals  have  plans  founded  on 
the  Roman  basilican  type,  the  naves  having  timber  roofs  of  great 
elaboration  and  intricate  construction,  resembling  in  their  effect 
the  honeycomb  work  of  Saracenic  art.  The  pointed  arch  was 
used,  but  without  mouldings  or  even  receding  planes  (No.  183). 

The  main  idea  striven  after  in  these  churches  was  the  unfettered 
display  of  mosaic  decoration,  in  which  the  principal  personages 
of  the  Bible  are  rendered  in  a  stiff  archaic  style,  with  borders  of 
arabesques  in  gold  and  color,  while  the  lower  parts  of  the  walls 
have  a  high  dado  of  white  marble,  with  a  border  introducing  green 
and  purple  porphyry  in  patterns. 

Palermo  Cathedral  is  a  remarkable  example  of  external 
architectural  decoration  in  stones  of  two  colors,  the  apses  in 
particular  being  very  fine.  At  the  west  end  is  a  group  consisting 
of  a  central  and  two  lower  towers,  with  detail  of  an  arbitrary 
style,  but  suggesting  Northern  Gothic  in  its  vigour  of  skyline. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

NORTH,  CENTRAL,  AND  SOUTH. 

A.  Plans. — The  endeavour  to  create  a  great  central  space  in 
the  churches,  as  at  Florence  (No.  176)  and  Siena  Cathedrals 
(No.  179  D),  shows  the  influence  of  Etruscan  and  Roman  models. 

E  E  2 


420  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  widely-spaced  nave  arcades  are  characteristic,  the  triforium 
being  usually  omitted,  as  at  Florence  and  Milan  (No.  176),  and 
the  clerestory  reduced  to  the  unimportance  of  a  vault  spandrel, 
pierced  by  a  small,  and  generally  circular,  window.  These  lofty 
arcades  practically  include  the  aisles  and  nave  in  one  composition 
and  give  the  effect  of  a  single  hall. 

The  nave  vaulting  is  frequently  set  out  in  square  compart- 
ments, as  at  Florence  Cathedral  (No.  176  D)  and  the  Certosa, 
Pavia,  the  side  aisles  having  oblong  ones,  thus  reversing  the 
Northern  Gothic  practice. 

Towers,  usually  isolated,  have  square  shafts  without  buttresses, 
sometimes  beautifully  decorated,  continuing  the  Romanesque  tra- 
dition, and  developing  no  spire  growth,  like  northern  examples. 
The  best  known  are  at  Florence  (No.  181),  Siena  (No.  182), 
Lucca,  Verona  (No.  184  K),  Mantua  and  Pistoja. 

The  most  imposing  external  feature  was  frequently  a  dome,  as 
at  Siena  (No.  182)  and  Florence  (No.  181). 

The  central  lantern  tower,  in  diminishing  stages,  as  at  Chiara- 
valle,  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  and  Milan  Cathedral  (No.  176),  are 
an  advance  on  the  Romanesque  lanterns  at  the  crossing,  and  may 
be  compared  with  English  work. 

B.  Walls. — The  absence  of  large  windows  obviated  the 
necessity  for  projecting  buttresses,  the  high  and  flat  walls  being 
usually  comparatively  solid  throughout  their  length,  and  able 
themselves  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  a  vault  (Nos.  181  and  182). 
From  the  absence  of  vertical  features  and  shadows  in  the  facade, 
flatness  is  the  predominant  characteristic  of  the  style. 

Facades  are  treated  independently  as  decorative  compositions, 
and  often  have  no  relation  to  the  structure  or  roofs  behind 
(No.  182).  These  facades  are  often  incomplete,  being  composi- 
tions in  marble  facing,  in  many  cases  not  finished  on  the 
score  of  expense.  The  marble  was  used  in  bands  of  two  colors 
at  Siena  (No.  182)  and  Orvieto,  each  having  three  high  gables, 
and  in  panelling  at  Florence  (No.  181).  This  surface  treat- 
ment was  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  may  be  compared 
with  northern  methods,  in  which  effect  is  obtained  by  deeply- 
moulded  string  courses,  projecting  buttresses,  and  lofty  pinnacles. 

c.  Openings. — The  windows  are  often  semicircular  headed, 
and  have  shafts  with  square  capitals  of  Corinthian  type,  instead 
of  the  moulded  mullions  of  northern  Gothic  examples  (No.  1840). 
These  slender  shafts  are  often  twisted,  and  even  inlaid  with  glass 
mosaic  known  as  "cosmato"  work,  from  the  family  of  that  name, 
while  the  capitals  are  richly  sculptured. 

Venetian  tracery  is  a  special  form  of  geometrical  combinations 
(No.  178). 

A  moulded  keystone  is  often  provided  to  pointed  arches,  which 
are  frequently  inclosed  by  square  lines  as  a  frame. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  421 

D.  Roofs. — These  are  of  low  pitch,  and  of  small  importance 
in  the  design,  being  scarcely  visible  from  below  (Nos.  179  and  180). 
They  are  often  in  contradiction  to  the  steep  gables  of  the  facades, 
borrowed  from  northern  Europe,  and  treated  solely  as  a  field  for 
mosaic  and  other  elaborate  decoration.     Iron  tie-rodsr-were  often 
used  to  prevent  the  spread  of  roof  timbers  owing  to  insufficient 
buttressing. 

E.  Columns. — The  piers  of  the  arcades  in  the  churches  are 
at   times  surprisingly  clumsy  in    plan,  four    pilasters  combined 
back   to   back   being   a   common  section.       Round    piers,    with 
capitals  and  bases,   recalling  Roman  work,  were  also  used,  but 
the  continuous  sequence  in  the  design  of  such  features,  as  may 
be  traced  north  of  the  Alps,  is  not  observable. 

In    Milan    Cathedral    the    circular    moulded    piers,    by    their 
height  and  size,   and  peculiar  treatment  of  tabernacle  capitals, 
\produce  the  effect  of  a  columnar  interior  (No.  177). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  have  a  flatness  and  squareness  often 
little  changed  from  Roman  work,  and  the  section  of  an  arch  mould 
is  often  identical  with  that  of  the  jamb,  although  there  may  be 
capitals  at  the  impost.     Mouldings  are  throughout  subordinate 
to  surface  decoration,  the  most  interesting  being  those  due  to 
the  use  of  brickwork  in  the  facades. 

G.  Ornament  (No.   184). — Opaque  decoration  was  preferred 
to  translucent ;    the  art  of  fresco,  by  constant  exercise  upon  the 
noblest  subjects  in  the  grandest  buildings,  leading  up  to  the  golden 
age  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael.     Some  buildings,  such  as 
Giotto's  chapel  at  Padua,  and  the  Sistine  chapel  at  Rome,  are 
shells  for    painted    decoration,   almost    devoid    of    architectural 
features.     In  carving  (Nos.  184  A,  B,  E,  F,  G,  H,  L)  and  sculpture 
Classic  tradition  led  to  a   refinement    and    an    elegance  which 
contrasts  with  the  grotesque  element   found  in   northern  work, 
but  on  the  other  hand,  the  general  design  is  often  neglected  in 
the  attention   bestowed  upon  accessories.     It  is  in  the  carving 
and  mosaics   to   the  sumptuous  altars  and  canopy    tombs,  the 
pulpits   (No.    184    B),    pavements   and    choir   stalls,  and  in  the 
veneering  of  the  facades  with  colored  marbles,  that  the  decorative 
character  of  the  style  is  best  seen. 

The  Tomb  of  the  Scaligers,  Verona  (.1329-1380),  is  an  examp'e 
of  rich  decoration,  and  many  of  the  churches  at  Rome  have 
elaborate  inlay  mosaic  work  of  "  cosmato  "  design  on  their  arches 
and  twisted  columns. 


5.   REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Anderson     (R.). — "Examples    of    the    Municipal,    Commercial    and 
Street  Architecture  of  France  and  Italy."     Folio.     1877. 

Cummings  (C.A.). — "  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy  from  the  Time 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC  ORNAMENT. 


KUPU,liTtt[  P^OfPpfl. 


ITALIAN    GOTHIC.  423 

REFERENCE    BOOKS— Continued. 

of  Constantine  to  the  Dawn  of  the  Renaissance."  2  vols.,  8vo.  Boston, 
1901. 

Griiner(L.).— "Terra-Cotta  Architecture  of  North  Italy."    4to.     1867. 

Hittorff  (J.  I.)  et  Zanth  (C.  L.  W.).— "  Architecture  Moderne  de  la 
Sicile."  Folio.  Paris,  1835. 

Knight  (H.  G.). — "  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Italy."  2  vols. 
1842-1844. 

Nesfield  (E.). — "  Specimens  of  Mediaeval  Architecture."     Folio.     1862. 

Rohault-de-Fleury  (G.). — "  La  Toscane  au  Moyen  Age."  2  vols., 
folio.  Paris,  1874. 

Ruskin  (J.).— "Stones  of  Venice."     3  vols.,  8vo.     1886. 

Schulz  (H.  W.). — "  Denkmaeler  der  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in 
Unter-Italien."  Folio  atlas  of  plates,  and  text  in  2  vols.,  4to. 
Dresden,  1860. 

Strack  (H.). — "  Ziegelbauwerke  des  Mittelalters  und  der  Renaissance 
\in  Italien."  Folio.  Berlin,  1889. 

Street  (G.  E.).— "  Brick  and  Marble  in  the  Middle  Ages."     8vo.     1874. 

Waring  (J.  B.)  and  Macquoid  (T.  R.). — ';  Examples  of  Architectural 
Art  in  Italy  and  Spain."  Folio.  1850. 

Henty  (G.  H.).— "The  Lion  of  S.  Mark."    (Historical  Novel.) 


SPANISH   GOTHIC. 

1  Oft  let  me  range  the  gloomy  aisles  alone 
(Sad  luxury  !  to  vulgar  mind  unknown) 
Along  the  walls  where  speaking  marbles  show 
What  wor  hies  foim  the  hallowed  mould  below  ; 
Proud  names,  who  once  the  reins  of  Empire  held  ; 
In  arms  who  triumphed,  or  in  arts  excelled  ; 
Chiefs,  graced  with  scars,  and  prodigal  of  blood  ; 
Stern  patriots,  who  for  sacred  freedom  stood; 
Just  men,  by  whom  impartial  laws  were  given  ; 
And  saints,  who  taught,  and  led  the  way  to  heaven."— TICKELL. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — Spanish  architecture  cannot  be  under- 
stood without  a  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  country. 
The  existence  of  rival  races  and  kingdoms  within  the  peninsula 
was  rendered  possible  by  the  mountainous  character  of  some  parts, 
and  the  subdivision  of  the  country  by  sierras,  or  chains  of  low 
rocky  hills.  The  kingdom  of  Granada,  where  the  Moors  held 
out  until  the  close  of  the  Gothic  period,  was  surrounded  by 
mountains  which  inclosed  a  fertile  plain,  the  finest  in  the  country. 

ii.  Geological. — Stone  was  the  material  generally  employed, 
but  granite  and  some  of  the  semi-marbles,  which  the  country 
throughout  possesses,  were  used  in  places.  Rubble-work,  with 
brick  bonding  courses  and  quoins,  was  used  under  Moorish 
influence  with  much  taste  and  success,  as  in  the  towers  and  gates 
of  the  city  of  Toledo. 

iii.  Climate. — This  varies  with  the  structure  of  the  country, 
which  is  that  of  a  series  of  table-lands  of  varying  elevations, 
divided  by  sierras.  Burgos,  in  the  north,  3;ooo  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  cold,  and  exposed  to  keen  winds  even  in  the  summer, 
while  in  the  south  the  climate  is  sub-tropical. 

iv.  Religion. — Constant  warfare  with  the  Moors  gave  a  certain 
unity  to  Spain,  the  struggle  being  a  war  of  religions  as  well  as  of 
races.  Allegiance  to  the  Papacy  has  been  a  characteristic  of 
Spain,  and  Santiago  was  a  pilgrimage  centre  of  more  than  national 
importance.  The  arrangement  of  the  choirs  and  the  size  and 


SPANISH    GOTHIC.  425 

importance  of  the  chapels  attached  to  the  cathedrals  were  due 
to  the  ritual. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — In  the  Spanish  peninsula,  the 
Christian  states  of  Castile,  Leon,  Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Portugal 
were  all  growing  up  and  gradually  driving  the  Mahometans  into 
the  southern  part  called  Andalusia.  After  many  intermittent 
successes,  as  the  capture  of  Toledo  (1084)  by  Alfonso  VI.,  the 
battle  of  Tolosa  (1212),  gained  by  the  Christians,  was  the  turning 
point,  after  which  Mahometan  influence  gradually  declined.  It 
was  during  the  reign  of  S.  Ferdinand  (1217-1252),  who  united 
Castile  and  Leon,  and  won  back  Seville  and  Cordova,  that  Gothic 
art  took  root,  sown  by  the  spirit  of  conquest  and  aided  by  the 
wealth  of  the  conquered  Moors.  James,  called  the  Conqueror 
(1213-1276),  King  of  Aragon,  pressed  into  the  east  of  Spain 
until  the  kingdom  of  Granada  was  the  only  portion  left  to  the 
Mahometans. 

vi.  Historical. — The  study  of  the  history  of  a  country,  always 
necessary  in  order  to  properly  understand  the  development  of  its 
architecture,  is  specially  required  in  the  case  of  Spain,  which  has 
been  occupied  at  different  times  by  peoples  of  various  races. 
After  the  Romans  left  Spam  the  Vandals  and  Visigoths  took 
possession,  after  which,  A.D.  710-713  (page  655),  the  country  was 
invaded  by  the  Moors  from  North  Africa,  and  for  800  years 
their  influence  was  continuous.  The  evidence  of  this  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  stronghold  of  their  power — the  south  of  Spain — 
where  the  curious  construction,  the  richness  of  the  architecture, 
and  the  exuberance  of  intricate,  and  lace-like,  detail  are  every- 
where apparent.  This  influence  occasionally  reached  far  into  the 
north,  owing  to  the  superior  education  and  ability  of  Moorish 
workmen,  for  although  Toledo  was  captured  by  the  Christians  in 
1085,  the  Spanish  conquests  were  gradual,  and  the  final  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  did  not  take  place  till  1492. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

In  the  south,  as  already  mentioned,  there  was  always  more  or 
less  of  Moorish  influence,  and  from  Toledo,  the  Moorish  capital, 
this  influence  made  itself  felt  in  Saracenic  features,  such  as  the 
horseshoe  arch,  and,  in  later  times,  the  pierced  stonework  tracery 
of  Moorish  design.  '  These  fretwork  screens  occupy  the  whole 
window,  and  are  rich  in  detail.  Elsewhere  buildings,  under 
Moorish  influence,  were  covered  with  intricate  geometrical  and 
flowing  patterns  and  rich  surface  decorations,  for  which  the 
Saracenic  art  is  everywhere  remarkable,  as  in  the  Jews'  syna- 
gogue at  Toledo. 

The  curious  early  churches  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  seem  to 
have  been  executed  by  the  aid  of  Moorish  workmen. 


426  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Gothic  style  was  best  developed  in  Catalonia,  where, 
though  on  French  lines,  as  in  most  parts  of  Spain,  it  has  a  special 
character,  owing  to  the  grand  scale  of  the  single-span  vaulted 
interiors.  Leon  Cathedral  goes  beyond  its  French  original  at 
Amiens,  in  the  expanse  of  window  opening  and  tenuity  of  its 
supports.  The  exteriors  usually  are  flat  in  appearance,  owing 
to  the  space  between  buttresses  being  utilized  internally  for 
chapels,  and  generally,  it  may  be  said  that  a  liking  for  excessive 
ornamentation  without  any  regard  to  its  constructive  character 
is  apparent.  Contrary  to  Northern  Gothic,  broad  wall  surfaces 
and  horizontal  lines  are  special  features  of  the  style. 

The  cloisters  of  many  of  the  cathedrals,  as  Barcelona,  Toledo, 
and  Lerida,  are  characteristic. 

In  the  later  period,  the  grafting  of  classical  details  on  to  Gothic 
forms  produced  some  of  the  most  picturesque  features  imaginable. 


3.    EXAMPLES. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

S.  Isidore,  Leon  (completed  1149),  and  old  Salamanca 
Cathedral  (A.D.  1120-1178),  which  has  a  dome  over  the  crossing 
of  nave  and  transepts,  were  both  influenced  by  the  Southern 
French  Romanesque  models  of  Aquitaine  and  Anjou. 

Santiago  de  Compostela  Cathedral  (A.D.  1078),  on  the 
other  hand,  is  an  example  of  a  building  with  nave,  transepts  and 
a  complete  chevet,  due  to  the  influence  of  Northern  French 
Romanesque.  In  this  church  the  nave  is  covered  with  a  barrel 
vault  and  the  side  aisles  with  cross  vaults. 

Burgos  Cathedral  (A.D.  1230)  is  irregular  in  plan  (No.  190  L). 
It  has  two  towers  to  the  western  fa9ade,  which,  with  their  open- 
work spires  (No.  185),  recall  Cologne,  and  a  richly-treated  lantern 
over  the  crossing  which  was  completed  in  1567.  The  lantern 
(known  as  the  "cimborio  "),  and  the  peculiar  treatment  of  the 
interior  is  shown  m  No.  186.  The  "coro"  or  choir  is  in  the  usual 
position  to  the  westward  of  the  crossing,  the  nave  being  reduced 
to  a  mere  vestibule,  while  the  extraordinary  size  and  importance 
of  the  side  chapels  are  striking,  as  that  of  the  Capilla  del  Con- 
destable  (AD.  1487),  which  is  octagonal,  over  50  feet  in  diameter, 
detail*  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  richness  of  its  late 

Toledo  Cathedral  (A.D.  1227)  (No.  187  D),  is  a  five-aisled 
church  and  resembles  Bourges  (page  368)  in  general  idea.  It  is 
about  the  same  length,  but  nearly  50  feet  wider,  and  has  the 
choir  mclosure  west  of  the  crossing,  with  a  singularly  shallow 


SPANISH    GOTHIC. 


BURGOS  CATHEDRAL. 
View  from  N.W. 


SPANISH    GOTHIC. 


BURGOS  CATHEDRAL. 
View  of  Choir. 


SPANISH    GOTHIC    EXAMPLES. 


jflfME  fflHM  «H-T.  SLIGHTLY  PROJECTING  IHHSEPB  WH 

MRS  OVER  flS  /IT  EXETER,  THE  YflULTlNG  B  EXPOSED  Gffi&CHEYErfl.D.  lOB-li 

EXRRNflL^&flCTS  fl§  ft  ROOF.  THRUST ?\HUDS  COONIR^  g!458.5IDE  CHflPELt5.^SE .._. 

BY  INTERNAL  BUTTRE55E5  ENC105ING  KRWL  CHflFEL^.  flND  EXTREME  WIDTH  (F  WYE . 


CHflPCLDELOS 
RLYDNULVOS 


ocwNflL  UWTERN  o^rcRossiNGON 

EATERNflLROOTS  OF  STONE. 


430 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


apsidal  sanctuary,  in  which  is  placed  an  immense  retdblo  or  reredos 
of  wood,  flanked  by  tiers  of  arcaded  statuary  upon  the  sanctuary 

S.  Gregorio,  Valladolid  (No.  189)  shows  the  lace-like 
character  of  detail  derived  from  Moorish  influence. 

Barcelona  Cathedral  (A.D.  1298)  (No.  187  B),  is  remarkable 
in  that  the  thrust  of  the  vaults  is  taken  by  buttresses,  which  are 
internal  features,  as  at  Albi  in  the  south  of  France,  the  space 
between  being  used  as  chapels. 

Gerona  Cathedral  is  a  further  development  (No.  187  c),  but 
there  are  no  aisles,  the  nave  being  one  vaulted  hall,  73  feet  in 
width,  in  four  compartments.  The  Central  Hall  of  the  Law 
Courts,  although  only  48  feet  in  width,  will  give  an  idea  of  this 
interior. 

S.  Maria  del  Mar,  Barcelona  (A.D.  1328-1383)  (No.  187  A), 
is  a  splendid  example  of  a  town  church.  The  vaults  rest  upon 
octagonal  piers  of  granite  about  4  feet  in  diameter,  the  spacing 
being  wide,  and  the  aisles  and  nave  of  great  height.  There  is 
no  triforium,  and  only  small  clerestory  windows  in  the  spandrels 
of  the  vaults.  Severe  simplicity  is  the  characteristic  of  the 
church  ;  both  inside  and  out  there  are  no  features  but  a  few 
well-studied  mouldings. 

Seville  Cathedral  (1401-1520),  erected  on  the  site  of  a 
mosque  of  the  same  size,  is  the  largest  mediaeval  cathedral  in  any 
country.  It  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  Milan  Cathe- 
dral, but  is  less  fanciful  in  detail,  or,  as  some  would  prefer  to  say, 
of  a  purer  Gothic  style.  The  vaulting  is  rich,  loaded  with  bosses 
in  places,  but  confused  and  weak  in  its  lines.  Externally  there  is 
a  certain  shapelessness  and  absence  of  sky-line.  The  parroquia 
(parish)  church  is  separate,  but  included  within  the  cathedral  area. 

The  peculiarity  of  plan,  having  a  nave,  double  aisles,  and  side 
chapels,  was  no  doubt  caused  by  the  structure  being  made  to 
fill  up  the  space  occupied  previously  by  a  mosque.  It  is  typically 
Spanish  in  having  a  rectangular  outline,  but  it  differs  from  most 
of  the  great  C  atinental  churches  in  having  a  square  east  end, 
and  small  apse.  As  show:ng  the  extraordinary  size  of  this 
cathedral  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  each  of  the  four  side  aisles 
of  Seville  is  practically  equal  both  in  height  and  width  to  the 
nave  of  Westminster  Abbey  (page  309),  while  the  nave  arcades 
have  twice  the  span,  although  the  total  length  of  Seville  is  little 
more  than  that  of  -the  Abbey.  Thus  one  aisle  of  Seville  represents 
the  size  of  the  nave  and  choir  of  the  abbey,  and  is  repeated  four 
times ;  in  addition  to  which  there  is  the  great  nave,  55  feet  wide 
from  centre  to  centre  of  piers,  and  130  feet  high.  Surrounding  the 
church,  and  of  the  same  depth  as  the  aisles,  are  the  chapels.  From 
these  comparisons  an  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  immense  size  of 
this  Spanish  cathedral. 


SPANISH    GOTHIC. 


188.  S.  JUAN  DE  LOS  REYES,  TOLEDO, 

Interior,  showing  Octagonal  Dome. 


SPANISH    GOTHIC. 


S.  GREGORIO,  VALLADOLID 


SPANISH    GOTHIC.  433 

S.  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  Toledo,  A.D.  1476  (No.  188),  is  a  rich 
example  of  a  sepulchral  chapel,  erected  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
comparing  in  its  intended  purpose  with  Henry  VI I. 's  Chapel  at 
Westminster. 

Valencia  (A.D.  1262),  Leon  (A.D.  1260),  and  Barcelona 
(A.D.  1298)  Cathedrals,  all  showing  French  influence,  and 
Lerida  Cathedral  (No.  187  E),  externally  roofed  with  stone,  are 
other  examples  of  early  date. 

In  domestic  work  the  best  examples  are  to  be  found  in  Cata- 
lonia, as  seen  in  Barcelona  municipal  buildings,  and  Valencia 
town  hall. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — In  regard  to  the  plan  of  the  cathedrals,  the  great 
width    and    comparative    shortness    (No.    187)    of   many    of   the 
naves  is  a  prominent  characteristic.     The  position  of  the  choir  is 
generally  to  the   west    of   the  crossing  of   nave   and    transepts, 
as  at  Burgos  (No.  190  L),  an  arrangement  probably  derived  from 
the  Early  Christian  basilicas,  as  S.  Clemente,  Rome  (No.  73  B), 
and  also  seen  at  Westminster  Abbey  (No.   127),  and  Norwich 
Cathedral  (No.  118).       Chapels  are  numerous  and  large,  and  the 
parish  church  is  often  included  in  the  area  of  the  cathedral,  'as 
at  Seville. 

Thecimborio,  or  dome  (Nos.  186  and  188),  at  the  crossing  of  the 
nave  and  transepts,  is  similar  in  treatment  to  examples  in  the 
south  of  France.  S.  Sernin,  Toulouse,  and  Burgos  Cathedral 
resemble  each  other  in  plan,  and  Valencia  and  S.  Ouen,  Rouen, 
in  design.  Internally  octagonal  vaults,  which  are  intricate  in 
design  and  ingenious  in  construction,  are  characteristic,  and  were 
probably  inspired  by  Moorish  work. 

B.  "Walls. — In    design    French   models    were    favoured,    the 
later   work    being   characterized    by    extreme,    and    even    wild, 
ornamentation.     There    is    much  flatness    and    absence    of   sky- 
line in  the  exteriors,  Burgos  having  in  place  of  gables  effective 
horizontal  arcades,  on  the  lines    of  the  facade    of   Notre    Dame 
at  Paris.     Traceried    open-work  spires,    as    in    Germany,    were 
favoured,  those  at  Burgos  being  worthy  of  attention  (No.  185). 

c.  Openings. — These  were  carried  to  excess  in  Leon  Cathedral, 
which  has  not  only  a  glazed  triforium,  but  also  a  large  part  of 
the  wall  surface  of  the  clerestory  glazed  as  well.  Even  in  the 
south,  as  at  Seville,  openings  are  of  large  size,  stained  glass 
being  much  used. 

D.  Roofs. — Vaulting  was  used  freely,  but  developed  in  decora- 
tion, rather  than  in  construction,  such  features  as  tracery,  bosses, 
and  ribs  producing  a  rich  effect,  although  the  lines  are  not  always 

F.A.  F    F 


434 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


good,  and  nothing  to  compare  in  interest  with  English  vaulting 
was  accomplished. 

In  the  south,  wide  interiors,  in  one  span,  were  successfully 
vaulted  in  a  simple  style,  that  at  Gerona  (No.  187  c)  being  no  less 
than  73  feet  span,  and  having  a  total  length  of  270  feet,  including 
duvet.  The  boldest  and  most  original  vaults  are  the  great  flat 
arches,  that  form  galleries  across  the  western  ends  of  the  churches, 
extending  through  nave  and  aisles  in  three  spans.  Their  rich 
soffits  attract  attention  on  entering,  and  their  curves  frame  the 
view  of,  and  give  scale  to,  the  interior  of  the  church  beyond. 

E.  Columns. — The    favourite   feature    of    a    lantern    at    the 
crossing  gives  importance  to  the  central  piers,  which  at  Burgos 
(No.  1 86)  are  circular  in  plan  (rebuilt   1567),  and  contrast  with 
the  great  octagonal  piers  at  S.  Sernin,  Toulouse. 

In  Seville  Cathedral  great  column-like  piers  are  employed  for 
all  the  arcades,  similar  in  effect  to  those  of  Milan,  but  without 
the  tabernacle  capitals.  Carved  capitals  of  characteristic  form 
are  indicated  in  No.  190  E,  j. 

F.  Mouldings. — Refinement    is   not  the    usual  characteristic 
of   Spanish    art.      Original   and   arbitrary  forms    were    mingled 
with  features  borrowed  from  France.     In  Catalonia  the  best  and 
most  artistic  work  was  produced  in  a  restrained   manner.      In 
S.  Maria  del  Mar,  Barcelona  (page  430),  every  moulding    has 
its  purpose  and  expression,  but  this  is  far  from  being  the  character 
of  other  more  numerous  examples  in  Spain. 

G.  Ornament    (No.    190). — The   most    decorative   feature   in 
Spanish  churches  is  the  vast  retablo  (reredos),  which  is  often  as 
wide  as  the  nave,  and  reaches  up  to  the  vaulting.     This  feature 
is  usually  constructed  of  wood,  stone,  or  alabaster,  and  is  crowded 
with  niches,  figures,  canopies  and  panelling  (No.  190  c,  F,  K). 

Those  at  Toledo  and  Seville,  resembling  the  great  English 
altar  screens,  notably  that  at  Christchurch,  Hants,  are  probably 
the  richest  specimens  of  mediaeval  woodwork  in  existence. 

Painting  and  gilding  were  used  to  heighten  the  effect,  the  former 
naturalistic,  and  the  latter  of  such  solidity  that  the  effect  of 
metal  is  obtained. 

Sculpture  in  stone  or  marble  is  often  life-size,  naturalistic,  and 
expressive  (No.  190  H,  M,  N),  and  however  deficient  in  other 
qualities,  it  combines  in  producing  the  notoriously  impressive, 
if  sensational,  interiors  of  Spanish  churches. 

Stained  glass  was  used,  as  at  Seville,  Oviedo,  and  elsewhere, 
being  usually  Flemish  in  style,  heavy  in  outline,  and  strong  to 
gaudiness  in  coloring. 

'Rejas,'  or  rich  and  lofty  grilles  (Nos.  186  and  190  H),  in 
hammered  and  chiselled  iron,  are  also  characteristic,  the  formality 
of  the  long  and  vertical  bars  being  relieved  by  figures  beaten  in 
repousse,  or  in  duplicates  attached  back  to  back,  and  by  freely 


SPANISH   GOTHIC  ORNAMENT. 


F   F   2 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

employed  crestings  and  traceries  adapted  to  the  material.     Few 
things  in  Spain  are  more  original  and  artistic  than  these  Rejas. 

Magnificent  stalls,  each  provided  with  a  separate  canopy  and 
crowned  with  a  tall  spire,  are  common,  Barcelona  Cathedral 
having  some  resembling  those  at  Chester,  while  bishops'  thrones, 
pulpits,  lecterns  and  choir  desks  were  also  elaborately  treated. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

"  Monumentos  Arquitectonicos  de  Espana"  (a  magnificent  work  issued 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Spanish  Government).  89  parts,  atlas  folio 
(not  completed).  Madrid,  1859-1879. 

Street  (G.  E.).— "  Account  of  Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain."   8vo.  1874. 

Villa-Amil  (G.  P.  de).— "  Espana  Artistica  y  Monumental/'  3  vols., 
folio.  Paris,  1842-1850. 

Waring  (J.  BA— - "  Architectural  Studies  in  Burgos."     Folio.     1852. 

Waring  (J.  B.)  and  Macquoid  (T.  R.).— ';  Examples  of  Architectural 
Art  in  Italy  and  Spain."  Folio.  1850. 

Roulet  (M.  F.  N.).— "  God  the  King,  My  Brother."     (Historical  Novel.) 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN 
EUROPE. 


"  New  structures,  that  inordinately  glow, 

Subdued,  brought  back  to  harmony,  made  ripe 

By  many  a  relic  of  ihe  archetype 

Extant  for  wonder  ;  every  upstart  church, 

That  hoped  to  leave  eld  temples  in  the  lurch, 

Corrected  by  the  theatre  forlorn 

That  as  a  mundane  shell,  its  world  late  born, 

Lay,  and  o'ershadowed  it." — BROWNING. 


GENERAL    INTRODUCTION. 

THE  causes  which  led  to  the  re-introduction,  or  re-birth 
(Renaissance),  of  Classic  Architecture  in  Europe  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  are  instructive,  and  must  be  grasped  in 
order  fully  to  understand  so  great  a  change. 

In  this  section  the  Renaissance  movement  as  affecting  the 
whole  of  Europe  will  be  dealt  with. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  Renaissance  movement,  arising  in 
Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century,  spread  from  thence  to  France, 
Germany,  and  England,  and  over  the  whole  of  Western  Europe  — 
over  what  had  been  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West.  The  Eastern 
empire  did  not  come  under  its  influence,  for  the  Greeks  in  the  East, 
who  had  been  the  most  civilized  people  in  Europe,  were  now 
falling  before  the  Turks. 

!h.<cSea1-!     ^  to  each  country. 

iv.  Religion. — The  invention  of  printing,  which  aided  the 
spread  of  knowledge,  the  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  the  diffusion  of 
freedom  of  thought,  led,  among  the  Teutonic  races,  to  a  desire  to 
break  away  from  Romish  influence.  This  desire  was  originally 
fostered  by  Wycliffe  in  England  (A.D.  1377),  and  by  Martin 


438  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Luther  in  Germany  (A.D.  1517),  in  which  countries  Reformation 
in  religion  proceeded  side  by  side  with  Renaissance  in  architecture. 
This  renewed  vigour  in  thought  and  literature  was  accompanied 
by  a  fresh  building  era  in  northern  Europe.  In  England,  civil 
and  domestic  architecture  received  a  special  impulse  from  the 
diffusion  among  laymen  of  the  wealth  and  lands  of  the  monasteries 
dissolved  by  Henry  VIII. 

In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  Reformation  took  no 
hold,  and  where  comparatively  few  churches  had  been  built  in 
the  Gothic  manner  during  the  Middle  Ages,  a  revival  of  eccle- 
siastical architecture  took  place,  and  in  every  important  town 
Renaissance  churches  were  carried  out  on  a  grand  scale  and  in 
a  most  complete  manner.  The  Jesuits  who  headed  the  counter- 
reformation  carried  the  style  into  all  parts,  at  the  same  time 
giving  it  a  special  character  (page  496). 

v.  Social  and  Political. — A  new  intellectual  movement 
manifests  itself  sooner  in  literature  than  in  architecture,  and  thus 
the  former  influences  the  public  taste.  Dante  (1265-1321), 
Petrarch  (1304-1374),  and  Boccaccio  (1313-1375)  aided  in  the 
spread  of  the  newly-discovered  classic  literature,  which  caused  a 
revolt  against  mediaeval  art,  and  the  subsequent  fall  of  Constanti- 
nople in  A.D.  1453  caused  an  influx  of  Greek  scholars  into  Italy, 
whose  learning  was  an  important  influence  in  an  age  which  was  ripe 
for  a  great  intellectual  change.  Thus  a  revival  of  classic  literature 
produced  a  desire  for  the  revival  of  Roman  architecture. 

Again,  among  the  MSS.  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors  brought 
to  light  about  this  time,  was  Vitruvius'  book  of  Architecture, 
written  in  B.C.  50,  which  was  translated  into  Italian  in  A.D. 
1521. 

Erasmus  (1467-1536),  one  of  the  few  Greek  scholars  of  the 
period,  worked  hard  to  direct  the  public  attention  to  the  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  to  the  Greek  classics,  as  a  set-off 
to  the  writings  of  the  mediaeval  philosophers,  whose  authority  had 
for  so  long  borne  an  exclusive  sway. 

Italian  architecture  was  naturally  the  first  to  be  affected, 
because  the  Gothic  style  had  never  taken  a  firm  hold  on  the 
Italians,  who  had  at  hand  the  ancient  Roman  remains,  such  as 
the  Pantheon,  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius,  the  Colosseum,  the 
remains  of  the  great  baths,  and  the  Roman  fora.  In  Italy, 
therefore,  where  feudalism  had  never  fully  established  itself,  and 
where  the  municipalities  had  developed  a  spirit  of  municipal 
enterprise,  practically  a  direct  return  was  made  to  Roman 
forms. 

vi.  Historical.— At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
there  was  a  general  grouping  together  of  the  smaller  states  into 
independent  kingdoms,  under  powerful  rulers,  who  governed  with 
authority,  and  kept  large  standing  armies.  Three  great  inventions 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  439 

had  an  important  influence — gunpowder,  which  had  changed  the 
whole  method  of  warfare  ;  the  mariner's  compass,  which  led  to 
the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies  (1492)  and  America,  and  the 
foundation  of  colonies  by  European  states ;  and,  lastly,  printing, 
which  favoured  that  stirring  of  men's  minds  which  caused  the 
reformation  in  religion,  and  the  revival  of  learning.  Copper- 
plate engraving  was  discovered  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Galileo  (1564-1642)  proved  that  the  earth  was  not  the  centre 
of  the  universe,  but  merely  a  minute  planet  in  the  solar  system. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  century  in  Italy,  and  of  the 
sixteenth  century  in  other  parts  of  Western  Europe,  was  a  break 
in  that  orderly  evolution  of  architecture  which  is  based  on  the 
nature  and  necessities  of  materials. 

In  place  of  such  evolution  there  was  the  worship  of  style,  that 
is,  of  the  past  results  of  the  nature  of  materials  as  formulated  into 
systems.  Such  results  were  worshipped  for  their  own  sake,  and 
often  to  a  great  extent  applied  regardless  of  the  materials  of  their 
execution. 

The  main  features  in  the  style  were  the  Classic  orders  (Nos.  38, 
262),  viz.,  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  which  were  often  used 
decoratively,  as  by  the  Romans,  and  at  other  times  with  their 
true  constructive  significance.  Buildings  designed  for  more 
modern  wants  were  clothed  in  the  classic  garb  of  ancient  Rome, 
but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  in  this  development  no  advance 
was  made.  It  is  true  that  Roman  precedent  was  the  basis,  but 
columns  and  pilasters,  whether  plain,  fluted  or  panelled,  with 
entablature  and  details,  were  applied  in  many  novel  and  pleasing 
forms,  a  system  in  their  application  being  gradually  evolved, 
and  a  style  built  up  which  has  become  the  basis  of  all  modern 
styles. 

Italy,  the  headquarters  of  the  new  movement,  in  the  fifteenth 
century  possessed  skilful  jewellers  and  excellent  medallists,  and 
it  was  by  their  help  that  the  Renaissance  commenced  and 
expanded.  From  their  well-known  good  taste,  architects  con- 
sulted them,  and  often,  indeed,  were  their  pupils,  as  Ghiberti, 
Donatello,  and  Brunelleschi.  Men,  therefore,  who  were  at  once 
painters,  sculptors,  architects,  silversmiths,  jewellers,  and  gold- 
smiths somewhat  naturally  only  looked  at  the  finished  results 
as  the  goal  to  be  aimed  at,  and  were  not  troubled  about  the 
means  to  such  an  end.  The  development  of  the  schools  of 
painting  also  had  their  influence  on  architecture,  and  aided  the 
tendency  which  caused  structures  to  be  looked  upon  as  works  of 


440 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


art,  instead  of  being  dependent  mainly  for  their  form  and  effect 
on  structural  necessities.  For  the  same  reasons,  the  period  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  age  of  accessories,  in  which  iron,  gold  and 
silver  work,  and  tombs,  monuments,  altars,  fonts,  and  fountains, 
were  designed  in  great  numbers,  and,  by  the  whim  and  fanciful- 
ness  of  the  designer,  were  special  features  of  the  style. 

Architecture  ceased  to  a  certain  extent  to  be  subject  to  the 
considerations  of  use,  becoming  largely  independent  of  construc- 
tive exigencies,  and  to  a  greater  extent  an  art  of  free  expression 
in  which  beauty  of  design  was  sought  for. 

Speaking  generally,  there  was  an  endeavour  to  reconcile  the 
Gothic  and  the  Roman  methods  of  construction,  i.e.,  the  body 
and  facing  were  one  and  the  same  thing  constructively,  because 
the  architects  of  the  period,  attracted  by  the  mere  external 
appearance  of  ancient  Roman  art,  but  perceiving  that  this  form 
was  merely  an  envelope,  continued  in  the  matter  of  construction 
to  a  large  extent  to  follow  the  traditions  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  did  not  separate  the  structure  from  the  decoration. 

Owing,  therefore,  to  ignorance  of  Roman  methods,  the  Roman 
manner  of  forming  the  main  walling  of  concrete  and  casing  it  with 
marble,  stone,  or  brick  was  not  followed. 

In  the  Gothic  period  each  stone  was  finished,  moulded,  and 
sculptured  in  the  workshops  before  being  laid — a  method  which 
produced  skilful  and  intelligent  masons  and  stone  dressers,  and 
obliged  the  sculptor  to  make  the  decoration  suit  each  piece  of 
stone.  In  the  Renaissance  period  the  new  mouldings  and  carvings 
could  be  executed  with  more  exactitude  and  less  expense  in  situ, 
and  thenceforward  the  necessity  of  making  the  jointing  accord 
with  the  various  architectural  features  being  no  longer  imperi- 
ously felt,  a  want  of  harmony  between  the  jointing  and  the 
architectural  features  often  resulted. 

A  building,  it  will  be  observed,  was  regarded  rather  as  a  picture 
with  pleasing  combinations  of  lines  and  masses  than  as  a  struc- 
ture of  utility,  being  often  designed  by  men  trained  as  painters, 
sculptors,  or  goldsmiths.  Such  structures  often  have  a  princely 
dignity,  as  in  many  of  the  Roman  palaces  (No.  197),  where  the 
column,  pilaster,  frieze,  and  cornice  were  employed  as  elements  of 
composition  with  special  regard  to  the  artistic  result  and  with 
considerable  originality.  The  wide  and  narrow  spacing  of  the 
pilasters  in  the  Palazzo  Giraud  is  a  novel  form  (No.  195). 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake,  therefore,  to  state  that  Renaissance 
architecture  was  solely  imitative,  for  new  and  delightful  combina- 
tions of  features  were  introduced,  and  architecture  became  to  a 
great  extent  a  personal  art  due  to  the  fancy  of  individual  architects, 
many  of  whom  founded  schools  of  design,  in  which  their  principles 
were  followed  by  their  pupils  and  followers. 

In    the    decorative   detail,    also,    an    advance  was    made.     In 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  441 

metal  work  the  bronze  baptistery  gates  at  Florence  were  won 
in  competition  by  the  sculptor  Ghiberti,  in  1404,  and  are  the 
finest  examples  of  a  class  of  work  for  which  these  craftsmen- 
architects  were  famous.  These  accessories  of  architecture  were 
erected,  or  added  to  many  old  buildings,  both  in  Italy  and 
elsewhere. 

The  Renaissance  architects  followed  the  Byzantine  treatment 
of  the  Dome,  but  increased  it  in  importance  by  lifting  it  boldly 
from  its  substructure  and  placing  it  on  a  "  drum,"  in  which 
windows  were  formed,  thus  making  it  a  great  external  dominating 
feature  (Nos.  202,  212,  254). 

Likewise,  they  were  the  first  to  introduce  as  an  architectural 
"motif"  the  wall  of  massive  rusticated  masonry  with  arched 
openings,  as  in  the  Palazzo  Riccardi,  Florence  (Nos.  191  and 
192),  the  Palazzo  Pesaro,  Venice  (No.  209),  and  elsewhere,  in 
Which  buildings  the  wall  was  frankly  treated  as  architecture,  and 
was  in  no  way  imitative  of  ancient  Roman  buildings. 

Renaissance  Vaulting. — In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Gothic  principles  of  ribbed  vaulting  were  abandoned, 
giving  place  to  the  revival  of  the  Classic  method  of  solid  semicir- 
cular vaulting  (page  117).  This  type  of  vaulting  was  much  used 
in  the  halls,  passages,  and  staircases  of  Renaissance  palaces  and 
churches,  and  was  besides  frequently  built  of  wooden  framing, 
plastered  and  painted  with  colored  decoration,  often  of  remark- 
able richness  and  beauty,  as  at  the  Vatican  palace  by 
Raphael.  In  cases  of  cross-vaulting  with  narrow  and  wide 
spans,  it  appears  that  the  groins  were  now  formed  by  means 
of  l* ordinates "  (No.  in  E),  with  elliptical  soffits,  groins  forming 
a  straight  line  on  plan  instead  of  the  wavy  line  produced  by 
the  intersection  of  a  semicircular  vault  with  one  stilted  above  its 
springing. 

Note.—  Having  now  taken  a  rapid  survey  of  the  causes  which 
led  to  the  revival  of  Classic  architecture  throughout  Europe, 
and  before  proceeding  to  consider  the  development  in  each 
country,  a  comparison  of  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  charac- 
teristics of  the  style  with  the  treatment  which  obtained  in  Gothic 
architecture  is  given. 


3.   EXAMPLES  (refer  to  each  country). 

Although  important  types  of  church  design  were  evolved,  yet 
in  the  main  the  most  characteristic  monuments  were  the 
municipal  buildings,  palaces,  country  houses  and  elaborate 
facades  to  town  buildings.  In  addition,  chapels,  tombs,  gates, 
oratories  and  public  fountains  were  special  creations. 


442 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE, 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 


RENAISSANCE. 

A.  Plans.— Symmetry  and  pro- 
portion of  part  to  part  carefully 
studied  (Nos.  198,  203,  213,  223, 
252). 

Grandeur  gained  by  simplicity 
(Nos. 200, 20 1, 2 54).  Fewness  and 
largeness  of  parts  have  a  ten- 
dency to  make  the  building  appear 
less  in  size  than  it  really  is. 

Towers  are  sparingly  used,  and 
when  they  occur  are  symmetri- 
cally placed.  In  England  those 
at  S.  Paul  (No.  254),  and  Bow 
Church  (No.  255),  are  exceed- 
ingly fine.  The  dome  is  a  pre- 
dominant feature  (Nos.  181,  205, 
212,  223  and  254). 

Interiors  of  churches  were  planned 
on  Roman  principles  (Nos.  193, 
199  and  203),  and  covered  with 
domes  and  pendentives.  The 
parts  are  few,  the  nave  being 
divided  into  three  or  four  com- 
partments (No.  253),  by  which 
a  general  effect  of  grandeur  is 
produced. 

Compare  S.  Paul,  London  (No. 
213). 

B.  Walls.— These  were  con- 
structed in  ashlar  masonry  of 
smooth-faced  walling,  which,  in 
the  lower  stories,  was  occasionally 
heavily  rusticated  (No.  192). 
Materials  are  large,  and  carry 
out  the  Classic  idea  of  fewness 
of  parts.  Stucco  or  plaster  were 
often  used  as  a  facing  material 
where  stone  was  unobtainable. 
The  use  of  the  material  accord- 
ing to  its  nature  was  lost,  the 
design  being  paramount. 

Angles  of  buildings  often  rusti- 
cated, i.e.,  built  in  blocks  of  un- 
smoothed  stone,  as  in  Florence,  or 
carefully  indented  with  patterns 
(No.  197). 


GOTHIC. 


A.  Plans. — Picturesqueness  and 
beauty  of  individual  features 
more  particularly  sought  after 
(Nos.  117,  155,  159  and  187). 

Grandeur  gained  by  multiplicity 
(Nos.  162,  175  and  189).  In 
consequence  of  the  large  number 
of  parts,  the  building  appears 
larger  than  it  really  is. 

Towers  are  a  general  feature,  and 
are  often  crowned  with  a  spire 
(Nos.  no,  114,  115,  116,  121,  140 
and  154).  Small  towers,  turrets, 
and  finials  help  to  emphasize  the 
vertical  tendency  (Nos.  125,  128 
and  173).  The  tower  and  spire 
are  predominant  features. 

Interiors  are  more  irregular,  and 
are  covered  with  stone  vaulting 
(Nos.  112,  123),  or  open-tim- 
bered roofs  (No.  113).  The 
parts  are  many,  a  nave  of  the 
same  length  as  a  Renaissance 
church  probably  divided  into 
twice  as  many  compartments. 

Compare  Cologne  Cathedral  (No. 
213). 

K.  Walls. — These  were  often  con- 
structed of  uncoursed  rubble  or 
small  stones  (No.  136),  not  built 
in  horizontal  layers ;  also  of  brick 
and  rough  flint  work.  Materials 
are  small  in  size,  and  carry  out 
the  Gothic  idea  of  multiplicity. 
Masonry  was  worked  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  material  to 
a  new  and  significant  extent.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  as 
in  a  mosaic,  each  piece  in  a  wall 
has  its  value  in  this  style. 

Angles  of  buildings  often  of  ashlar 
masonry  or  smooth-faced  stone, 
the  rest  of  the  walling  being  of 
rough  materials,  as  rubble  or 
flint. 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE. 


443 


RENAISSANCE. 

Gable  ends  of  churches  and  build- 
ings generally  were  formed  as 
pediments,  with  a  low  pitch 
(Nos.  193  and  211  K)  or  of  semi- 
circular form  (No.  211  A.) 

Simplicity  of  treatment  and  breadth 
of  mass  are  prominent  charac- 
teristics (Nos.  193,  197  and  200} 
of  the  style. 


GOTHIC. 

Gable  ends  are  steep,  occupied  by 
windows,  and  crowned  either 
with  sloping  parapet  or  orna- 
mented timber  barge  boards 
(Nos.  125,  132  j,  138  and  150). 

Boldness  and  richness  of  sky-line 
and  intricacy  of  mass  are  pro- 
minent characteristics  (Nos.  121, 
125,  161,  162,  164  and  173). 


C.  Openings. — Door  and  win- 
dow openings  are  semicircular 
( Nos.  206  D  and  2 1 4  C),  or  square- 
headed  (Nos  194  E  and  206  A). 
The  influence  of  climate  on  these 
was  important.  In  Italy,  with  a 
1  bright  atmosphere,  the  windows 
are  small.  In  northern  Europe, 
with  a  dull  climate,  windows  of 
the  earlier  period  are  large,  and 
often  have  stone  mullions  or 
solid  uprights  dividing  the 
window  space  vertically  (No. 
246).  Openings  generally  come 
over  one  another,  and  are  sym- 
metrically disposed  with  reference 
to  fagade. 

The  Classic  system  of  moulded 
architrave  (No.  94  K)  projecting 
from  the  wall  face  was  revived. 
Doorways  and  other  openings 
are  surrounded  by  such  archi- 
traves, often  richly  carved. 


C.  Openings.— Door  and  window 
openings  usually  pointed  (Nos. 
142,  143,  156  and  161),  and  of 
considerable  size,  are  divided 
by  mullions,  though  not  neces- 
sarily so.  This  treatment  was  for 
the  introduction  of  painted  glass, 
the  use  or  non-use  of  which 
means  of  decoration  influenced 
the  size  and  number  of  the 
openings.  Often  little  attention 
was  paid  to  the  centre  lines,  i.e., 
the  placing  of  openings  over  one 
another.  Windows  and  doors 
were  placed  where  wanted,  with- 
out much  regard  to  symmetry  of 
composition. 

Openings  formed  in  receding 
planes  (Nos.  94  F  j  and  143), 
with  mouldings  of  great  rich- 
ness, were  often  provided  with 
small  circular  shafts  and  carved 
capitals. 


D.  Roofs. — Vaults  are  of  simple 
Roman  form  without  ribs. 
Domes  have  usually  an  internal 
plaster  soffit  or  ceiling,  and  are 
painted  in  colored  fresco,  upon 
which  they  depend  for  their 
beauty.  The  dome  over  a  large 
space  was  generally  constructed 
with  an  inner  and  outer  covering, 
as  S.  Paul,  London  (No.  253). 
Open-timbered  roofs  occur,  as 
in  the  Jacobean  halls,  but  the 
tendency  was  gradually  to  plaster 
them  up  (Nos.  242  and  243).  All 
roofs  other  than  domes  were 
hidden  in  Italy,  but  were  made 
much  of  in  France  and  Germany. 


D.  Roofs . — Vaulting  was  develop- 
ed by  means  of  the  pointed  arch, 
and  depends  for  effect  on  the 
richness  of  the  carved  bosses, 
on  the  setting  out  of  the  ribs  on 
which  the  severy  of  the  vaulting 
rests,  and  on  the  grace  and 
beauty  of  these  curves  (Nos.  109 
and  112).  Open-timbered  roofs 
are  a  beautiful  feature  of  the 
style,  the  most  perfect  specimen 
in  England  being  Westminster 
Hall  (No.  113  H).  Externally 
roofing  is  an  important  element 
in  the  design,  and  in  conjunction 
with  chimneys,  must  be  reckoned 
as  a  means  of  effect. 


444 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


RENAISSANCE. 

E.  Columns.    -      The      Classic 
columns  and  orders  were  revived 
and  used  decoratively  in  fa9ades, 
asintheRomanmanner(Nos.i95, 
196  197,  200,  205,  219  and  248), 
and  structurally  as  for  porticos 
(Nos.  193  A,  K,  198  G,  H  and  254). 

The  shafts  were  often  rusticated, 
fluted  spirally,  or  wreathed  with 
bands  of  foliage  and  fruit. 

"  I,  from  no  building,  gay  or  solemn, 
Can     spare    the    shapely     Grecian 
column." 

F.  Mouldings. — The     principal 
cornice  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  style,  and  in  the  Floren- 
tine palaces  is  bold  and  impres- 
sive   (Nos.    191,    192    and     198). 
Cornices,   however,    often   mark 
each   story    (Nos.  207,  209,  210 
and  215). 

The  contours  of  mouldings  follow 
on  Roman  lines,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  architrave  (Nos.  194,  206, 
214  and  218),  but  many  new 
combinations  of  mouldings  were 
designed. 

Cornices  and  other  features  of 
Classic  origin  (Nos.  191,  192, 
197,  198,  207,  209,  210  and  212) 
occur  in  every  building,  and  are 
beautifully  carved,  refinement 
being  an  essential  quality. 

Cornices,  balconies,  string  bands, 
and  horizontal  features  generally 
(Nos.  197  and  209)  are  strongly 
pronounced,  and  by  their  fre- 
quency and  importance  produce 
an  effect  of  horizon ta/ity. 

G.  Ornament.  —  The     human 
figure    abandoned    as    a    scale, 
statuary  being  often  much  larger 
than  life-size  (Nos.  200,  204,  205 
and  254) 

Stained  glass  was  little  used,  all  the 
best  efforts  at  color  being  obtained 
by  means  of  opaque  decoration, 
as  fresco  or  mosaic,  which  was 
lavishly  applied  to  interiors,  as 


GOTHIC. 

E.  Columns.— Where  used,  they 
were  entirely  structural,  or  ex- 
pressive of  pressures  upon  the 
piers  to  which,  sometimes,  they 
were  attached  (Nos.  123,  158,  160 
and  177).  The  relative  pro- 
portion of  height  to  diameter 
does  not  exist,  and  the  capitals 
and  bases  were  either  heavily 
moulded  or  carved  with  con- 
ventional foliage. 


F.  Mouldings. — The      parapet, 
often    battlemented,   or    pierced 
with    open    tracery    (Nos.    128, 
133  and  147),  took  the  place  of 
a  cornice,  and  was  less  strongly 
marked  than  the  boldly  project- 
ing Classic  cornice. 

The  contours  and  mouldings  are 
portions  of  circles  joined  by 
fillets,  inclosed  in  rectangular 
recesses  in  the  early  peiiods,  or 
in  later  times  based  on  a  diagonal 
splay  (No.  146). 

Tablets  and  string  courses  of 
carved  ornament  occur  (No.  147), 
varying  in  outline  and  treatment 
in  different  centuries.  Mould- 
ings depend  chiefly  for  effect 
upon  light  and  shadow. 

Vertical  features,  such  as  buttresses 
casting  a  deep  shadow,  numerous 
pinnacles,  turrets  (Nos.  153,  154, 
162  and  185),  high  roofs,  with 
towers  and  spires,  produce  an 
effect  of  verticality. 

G.  Ornament.  —  The       human 
figure  adhered  to  as  a  scale,  'thus 
helping  in  giving  relative  value 
to  parts  (Nos.    145  G,    156,    161, 
164,  165  A,  and  177). 

Stained  glass  was  extensively  used, 
being  the  chief  glory  of  internal 
decoration,  and  partly  the  raison 
d'etre  of  the  immense  traceried 
windows,  which  acted  as  a  frame 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    EUROPE.  445 

RENAISSANCE.  GOTHIC. 

in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  by  for  its  reception  (Nos.  124  E,  133, 

Michael  Angelo.  153  B  and  175). 

"  Sgraffito  "       decoration,       i.e.,  Color  for  exteriors  was  dependent 

scratched    and   colored    plaster,  on    the    actual    material,    as    in 

was      sometimes      applied      to  the   colored   marbles   of  central 

exteriors,  as  in  the  Palazzo  del  Italy    (see    No.     181,     Florence 

Consiglio     by     Fra     Giocondo  Cathedral), 
(page  490)  at  Verona. 

Great   efficiency   in   the   crafts    is  Carving  was    often  grotesque  and 

noticeable    in   the   work  of  the  rudely   executed  (Nos.  165,   174 

early      Renaissance      architects  and  190), but  in  the  best  examples, 

(Nos.    194,    206,   214  and   218),  possesses  a  decorative  character 

who    were    often    painters    and  in  harmony  with  the  architecture, 

sculptors,    e.g.,   Donatello,    Ghi-  This  was  effected  by  the  construc- 

berti, and  Delia  Robbia,  examples  tive  features,  such  as  pinnacles, 

of   their    work     being     in     the  buttresses,    and    arches,    them- 

\   Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  selves  being  enriched. 


5.   REFERENCE   BOOKS  (refer  to  each  style). 

Note. — It  is  now  necessary  to  glance  briefly  through  the  chief 
peculiarities  of  the  Renaissance  style  or  manner  in  each 
country,  noticing  the  influence  of  climate  and  race,  and, 
where  possible,  the  social  and  political  causes  which  were  at 
work. 

As  about  this  period  the  names  of  architects  begin  to  be 
prominently  mentioned  in  connection  with  their  own  designs, 
it  will  sometimes  be  convenient  to  group  them  into  schools 
for  that  purpose.  In  this  respect  much  information  may  be 
derived  from  reading  "  The  History  of  the  Lives  and  Works 
of  the  most  celebrated  Architects,"  by  Quatremere  de  Quincy, 
and  the  biographies  of  G.  Vasari,  Milizia,  and  others,  transla- 
tions of  which  are  published,  and  will  be  found  in  the 
R.I.B.A.  Library.  Interest  in  their  works  will  be  much 
increased  by  reading  of  the  influences  which  directed  these 
master-minds,  and  the  various  incidents  in  their  lives  which 
tended  to  influence  their  work. 

The  student  should  study  many  excellent  examples  which 
have  been  collected  in  the  architectural  courts  of  the  Crystal 
Palace,  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  and  elsewhere, 
for  it  is  only  by  a  close  study  of  the  details  themselves  that 
the  style  can  be  thoroughly  grasped. 


ITALIAN     RENAISSANCE.  1 

(See  page  227  for  Italian  Romanesque.) 
(See  page  404  for  Italian  Gothic.) 

"  Come,  leave  your  Gothic,  worn-out  story. 

They  love  not  fancies  just  betrayed, 

And  artful  tricks  of  light  and  shade, 

But  pure  form  nakedly  displayed^. 

And  all  things  absolutely  made." — C LOUGH 

THE  Renaissance  of  Italy  varies  considerably  in  the  chief  centres 
of  the  great  revival,  namely,  Florence,  Rome,  and  Venice, 
and  this  was  due  to  various  social  and  political  causes,  which  will 
be  enumerated  shortly. 

THE   FLORENTINE   SCHOOL. 

"Florence  at  peace,  and  the  calm,  studious  heads 
Come  out  again,  the  penetrating  eyes  ; 
As  if  a  spell  broke,  all  resumed,  each  art 
You  boast,  more  vivid  that  it  slept  awhile 
'Gainst  the  glad  heaven,  o'er  the  white  palace  front 
The  interrupted  scaffold  climbs  anew  ; 
The  walls  are  peopled  by  the  painter's  brush, 
The  statue  to  its  niche  ascends  to  dwell." — BROWNING. 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — It  must  be  remembered  that  Florence  was 
more  than  a  city,  being,  in  fact,  one  of  the  powers  of  Italy, 
although  its  dominions  included  only  a  small  part  of  Central  Italy. 
The  activity  and  influence  of  the  Florentines  caused  a  Pope  to 
declare  that  they  were  the  fifth  element. 

ii.  Geological. — The  quarries  of  Tuscany  supplied  large 
blocks  of  stone  and  marble,  which,  being  near  the  surface,  were 
easily  obtained  for  building  purposes,  and  the  monumental 
character  and  massiveness  of  these  materials  considerably 
influenced  the  style  of  the  architecture. 


ITALIAN  (FLORENTINE)  RENAISSANCE.  447 

iii.  Climate. — Among  other  causes  which  affected  the 
development  of  the  style,  the  bright  and  sunny  climate  rendered 
large  openings  for  light  unnecessary.  The  character  of  the 
climate  is  well  indicated  by  Tennyson  : — 

' '  In  bright  vignettes,  and  each  complete 
Of  tower  or  duomo,  sunny-sweet, 
Or  palace  how  the  city  glittered 
Through  cypress  avenues,  at  our  feet." 

iv.  Religion. — At  this  period  Florence  produced  the  great 
Dominican  preacher,  Savonarola,  whose  reforming  energy  divided 
the  city,  and  swayed  its  policy.  He  looked  to  the  French  king 
to  call  a  general  council '  to  reform  the  Church.  In  art  he 
tended  to  the  Puritan  theory,  and  although  suppressed  by  the 
Pope,  his  influence  on  the  minds  of  his  generation  was  not  lost, 
the  Sistine  frescoes  bearing  witness  to  his  power  over  Michael 
Angelo. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — In  Italy  generally  there  was  a 
wave  of  national  enthusiasm  and  patriotic  feeling  and  an 
endeavour  to  assimilate  the  old  Roman  magnificence  in  art. 
The  Medici  dynasty,  so  intimately  connected  with  the  rise  of 
Florentine  art,  was  founded  by  John  of  Medici  (died  1429),  who 
took  the  popular  side  against  the  nobles,  gradually  usurping 
supreme  authority  over  the  State.  His  son  Cosimo  (died 
1464)  employed  his  wealth  liberally  in  the  advancement  of  art. 
He  founded  the  Medici  Library  and  Platonic  Academy,  and  was 
the  patron  of  Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  Michelozzo,  Lippi,  Masaccio, 
and  others.  Pietro  and  Lorenzo  Medici  succeeded  Cosimo,  and 
Florence — "the  Athens  of  the  Renaissance" — became  the  centre 
of  the  revival  in  art  and  literature. 

The  artists  of  the  period  were  often  at  the  same  time  sculptors, 
painters,  and  architects,  and  among  these  were  : — Luca  .della 
Robbia  (1400-1482),  famous  for  glazed  reliefs  in  terra-cotta, 
some  of  which  are  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum ;  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  (1378-1455),  the  sculptor  of  the  bronze  gates  to  the 
Baptistery,  reproductions  also  being  in  the  same  Museum; 
Donatello  (1386-1466);  Mino  da  Fiesole  (A.D.  1431-1484),  and 
Benedetto  da  Majano  (A.D.  1442-1497),  famous  for  his  bas-reliefs 
and  statues  at  Florence  and  elsewhere.  As  showing  the  com- 
mercial prosperity  of  Florence,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the 
golden  florin  was  first  coined  in  that  city  in  1252,  and  soon  became 
the  general  standard  of  value  in  Europe. 

As  rival  parties  in  the  city  were  engaged  in  constant  hostilities, 
safety  and  defence  were  primary  motives  in  building,  the  palaces 
being  in  reality  semi -fortresses. 

vi.  Historical. — Florence  commenced  to  grow  in  importance 
on  the  removal  of  the  inhabitants  of  Fiesole  to  the  banks  of  the 
Arno  in  1125. 


448  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  grouping  together  of  the  independent  commonwealths  of 
Italy  is  a  feature  of  this  period,  and,  as  in  ancient  Greece,  one 
city  bore  rule  over  another.  Pisa  became  subject  to  Florence  in 
1406,  and  the  latter  gradually  became  the  chief  power  in 
Italy,  and  also  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  artistic  capital. 
During  this  period  the  nobles  were  at  constant  feuds  with  each 
other,  being  divided  into  the  hostile  camps  of  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines  (pp.  230,  259),  the  former  being  generally  successful. 
Dante  Alighieri  (1265-1321)  took  part  in  these  conflicts,  but 
eventually  the  wealthy  family  of  the  Medici  became  the  ruling 
power  in  the  State  (see  above).  In  1494  Charles  VIII.  of  France 
occupied  Florence,  during  his  brief  invasion  of  Italy,  which  arose 
from  his  claims  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The  short-lived 
republic  of  Savonarola  (see  above)  followed,  but  the  Medici, 
in  spite  of  successive  banishments,  were  finally  reinstated  by 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who,  acting  on  behalf  of  the- Ghibel- 
lines, took  the  town  in  1530.  During  a  siege  of  eleven  months, 
Michael  Angelo  acted  as  the  engineer  of  the  republic.  The 
suppression  of  political  liberty  followed,  especially  under  Cosimo  I. 
(1537-1564),  who,  however,  greatly  extended  the  Florentine 
dominions,  Siena  being  ceded  to  him  in  1557  by  the  Emperor. 
His  successors,  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Florence,  followed,  until  in 
1737,  the  House  of  Medici  becoming  extinct,  the  Duchy  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Austria.  In  1801,  as  the  Republic,  and 
afterwards  as  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria,  it  enjoyed  political  freedom 
with  the  exception  of  the  years  1807-1814,  during  which  time  it 
was  incorporated  with  France,  but  in  1860  it  was  united  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  massive  blocks  of  rusticated  masonry  in  the  lower  stories 
(No.  192)  of  the  Florentine  palaces  give  to  these  buildings  that 
character  of  solidity  and  ruggedness  for  which  they  are  remark- 
able. The  palaces  were  all  built  round  interior  courts,  possibly 
derived  from  the  arcaded  cloister  of  the  mediaeval  monastery,  the 
walls  resting  on  columnar  arcades  (No.  191).  The  general 
absence  of  pilasters,  as  decorative  features,  is  specially  noticeable 
in  the  design  of  the  palaces,  which  are  therefore  called  "astylar." 
The  sparing  use  of  carved  detail,  and  in  fact  of  features  of  any 
kind,  gives  a  marked  character  of  simplicity  to  the  style.  The 
grand  effect  of  these  palaces  is  considerably  aided  by  the  massive 
cornice  which  crowns  the  structure,  being  proportioned  to  the 
whole  height  of  the  building,  as  in  the  Riccardi  Palace  (No.  191  D). 
The  columnar  arcade  is  a  special  feature,  as  in  the  Ospedale  degli 
Innocenti  and  the  Loggia  S.  Paolo,  and  mural  monuments  and 
altars  are  exceedingly  rich  with  sculpture  and  decoration. 


ITALIAN  (FLORENTINE)  KE&AISSANCE. 

The  types  of  doors  and  windows  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups  : — 

(0.)  The  arcade  type,  usual  in  the  heavily  rusticated  examples, 
consists  of  a  round  a'rch,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  circular 
column  supporting  a  simple  piece  of  tracery  (Nos.  191  and  194  D)  ;• 
as  at  the  Strozzi,  Pitti,  and  Riccardi  Palaces. 

(b.)  The  architrave  type  is  that  in  which  mouldings  inclose  the 
window,  and  consoles  on  either  side  support  a  horizontal  of 
pediment  cornice,  as  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Pandolfini  Palace' 
and  in  the  Palazzo  Riccardi  (No.  192). 

(c.)  The  order  type  is  that  in  which  the  opening  is  framed  with 
a  pilaster  or  column  on  each  side  supporting  an  entablature 
above,  this  being  the  final  development,  as  employed  in  the' 
Pandolfini  Palace,  ascribed  to  Raphael,  and  also  shown  in 
,No.  194  F, 


3.   EXAMPLES. 

Note. — Having  reached  the  period  when  the  personality  of  the 
architect  has  increased  in  importance,  the  chief  works  of 
Brunelleschi,  Alberti,  and  others,  as  being  the  leaders  of  the 
Florentine  school,  will  be  briefly  enumerated.  • 

BRUNELLESCHI  (A.D.  1377-1446), 

a  Florentine  by  birth,  studied  the  features  and  construction  of 
the  Pantheon  and  other  examples  of  Roman  architecture,  which 
henceforth  exerted  a  considerable  influence  over  his  works,  his 
main  object  being  to  complete  the  unfinished  dome  over  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence. 

The  Dome  of  Florence  Cathedral  (A.D.  1420-1434)  (Nos. 
176  and  181)  was  Brunelleschi's  principal  work,  his  design  being 
accepted  in  competition.  It  is  said  that  it  was  constructed  without 
any  centering,  with  voussoirs  having  horizontal  joints.  It  covers 
an  octagonal  apartment  138  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  is 
raised  upon  an  octagonal  drum  in  which  are  circular  windows 
lighting  the  interior.  The  dome  itself  is  constructed  of  inner 
and  outer  shells,  and  is  pointed  in  form,  being  constructed  on  a 
Gothic  principle  with  eight  main  ribs  and  sixteen  intermediate 
ribs. 

S.  Lorenzo,  Florence  (A.D.  1425)  (No.  193  D),  and  S.  Spirito, 
Florence  (No.  193),  are  both  examples  of  churches  on  the  basilican 
plan,  the  latter  having  aisles  formed  round  the  transepts  and  choir, 
and  a  flat  wooden  ceiling  to  nave,  and  is  probably  the  earliest 

F.A.  G  G 


FLORENTINE   RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.    I. 

T 


ITALIAN  (FLORENTINE)  RENAISSANCE. 


192. 


PALAZZO  RICCARDI,  FLORENCE. 


G  G  2 


L 


FLORENTINE    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES. 

HW 


193, 


ITALIAN  (FLORENTINE)  RENAISSANCE.  453 

instance  where  isolated  fragments  of  entablature  are  placed  on 
each  column  with  the  arches  springing  from  these. 

The  Pazzi  Chapel,  Florence  (in  S.  Croce)  (A.D.  1420) 
(No.  193  A,  B,  c),  is  a  refined  example  of  his  smaller  works, 
consisting  of  a  dome  over  a  square  compartment,  which  is  entered 
through  an  open  colonnade  of  six  columns  supporting  a  decorated 
vault  and  forming  the  front  fa9ade. 

The  Riccardi  Palace  (1430)  (Nos.  191  and  192)  and  the 
Pitti  Palace  (1440),  in  both  of  which  he  appears  to  have  been 
associated  with  Michellozzo  (1397-1473),  are  examples  of  the 
massive  rusticated  buildings  with  heavy  crowning  cornice  for 
which  the  Florentine  style  is  noted. 


ALBERTI  (1404-1472) 

was  a  scholar  deeply  interested  in  classical  literature,  and  his  works 
exhibit  more  decorative  treatment  and  are  less  massive  than 
those  of  Brunelleschi.  He  wrote  a  work  on  architecture,  "  De 
Re  ^Edificatoria,"  which  largely  influenced  men's  minds  in  favour 
of  the  revived  Roman  style. 

The  Ruccellai  Palace,  Florence  (A.D.  1451-1455)  is  known  as 
the  first  Renaissance  building  in  which  superimposed  pilasters 
were  used,  and  shows  a  lighter  and  more  refined  character, 
although  dignity  was  lost  compared  with  the  Pitti  Palace,  by  the 
reduction  in  size  of  the  great  crowning  cornice. 

S.  Francesco,  Rimini  (A.D.  1447-1455),  a  thirteenth  century 
Gothic  church,  was  remodelled  in  the  revived  style,  but  the  fa$ade 
was  never  completed. 

S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence  (A.D.  1470),  was  one  of  the 
first  churches  in  which  consoles  were  placed  in  the  facade  over 
the  side  aisles  to  connect  them  with  the  nave. 

S.  Andrea,  Mantua  (A.D.  1472-1512)  (No.  193),  is  particularly 
notable  and  important  as  the  type  of  many  modern  Renaissance 
churches,  and  consists  of  a  single  nave  with  transepts,  the 
interior  ornamented  with  a  single  order  on  pedestals  supporting  a 
barrel  vault.  Chapels,  alternating  with  entrance  vestibules,  take 
the  place  of  the  customary  aisles  on  each  side  of  the  nave.  Over 
the  intersection  of  the  nave  with  the  transept  is  a  dome,  in  the 
drum  or  lower  portion  of  wrhich  are  windows  lighting  the  interior. 
The  chancel  is  apsidal,  lighted  by  three  windows,  which  cause  the 
entablature  to  be  mitred  round  the  pilasters  of  the  order  which 
carry  the  lunetted  half  dome  of  the  apse. 

The  perfection  of  the  proportions  makes  the  interior  of  this 
church  one  of  the  grandest  in  the  style,  and  the  front  is  reminiscent 
of  a  Roman  triumphal  archway. 


454  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Strozzi    Palace  (1489)  (No.  191),    and  the  Gaudagni 
Palace,  both  by  Cronaca,  are  other  Florentine,  examples. 
Note. — Characteristic  Florentine  ornament  is  shown  in  No.  194. 


4.  COMPARATIVE  (see  page  490). 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

GENERAL. 

Alberti  (L.  B.). — "  De  re  redificatoria.  or  I  dieci  Libri  de'  1'Architettura." 
English  Translation  by  Leoni,  entitled  "Architecture  in  Ten  Books." 
3  vols.,  folio.  1726. 

Anderson  (W.  J.).—"  Architectural  Studies  in  Italy."      1890.  . 

Anderson  (W.  J.).— "The  Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy." 
8vo.  1901. 

Burckhardt  (J.). — "  Die  Renaissance  in  Italien."     Stuttgart,  1867. 

Fletcher  (Banister  F.). — "  Andrea  Falladio."     410.     1902. 

Gruner  (L.). — "  Fresco  Decorations  and  Stuccoes  of  Churches  and 
Palaces  of  Italy."  2  vols.,  plates  in  folio  and  text  in  4to.  1854. 

Kinross  (J.). — "  Details  from  Italian  Buildings."     Folio.     i8§2. 

Melani  (A.). — "  Manuale  di  Architettura  Antica  e   Moderna.''     1899. 

Nicolai  (H.  G.).— "  Das  Ornament  der  Italienischen  Kunst  des  XV. 
Jahrhunderts."  Folio.  Dresden,  1882. 

Oakeshott  (G.  J.). — "Detail  and  Ornament  of  the  Italian  Renaissance." 
Folio.  1888. 

Sanmicheli(M.). — "  Le  Fabbrichecivili  Ecclesiastiche  eMilitari."    1832. 

Schutz  (A.). — "  Die  Renaissance  in  Italien."  4  vols.,  folio.  Hamburg, 
1891-1895. 

Serlio  (S.). — "  I  cinque  libri  d'Architettura."  English  translation  by 
R.  Peake,  entitled  "  The  Five  Books  of  Architecture  made  by  Sebastian 
Serly."  Folio.  1611. 

Strack(H.). — "Central  und  Kuppelkirchen  der  Renaissance  in  Italien." 
2  vols.,  folio.  1882. 


;san< 


FLORENTINE  SCHOOL. 


Gauthier  (M.  P.).— "  Les  edifices  de  la  Ville  de  Genes."  Folio.  Paris. 
1818. 

Geymuller  (H.  Von.)  and  Widmann  (A.).—"  Die  Architektur  der 
Renaissance  in  Toscana."  Folio.  Munich,  1885-1894,  &c. 

Grandjean  de  Montigny  (A.  H.  V.)  et  Famin  (A.). — "Architecture 
Toscane."  Folio.  Paris,  1874. 

Oliphant  (Mrs.).-  "  Makers  of  Florence."     8vo.     1891. 

Raschdorff  (J.  C.).—"  Toscana."     Folio.     Berlin,  1888. 

Reinhardt  (K.).— "  Genua."     Folio.     Berlin,  1886. 

Ruggieri  (F.).— "Scelti  di  Architettura  della  Citta  di  Firertze." 
4  vols.  Florence,  1738. 

Eliot  (George).—"  Romola."     (Historical  Novel.) 


FLORENTINE    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT. 


OWL 

MEDICI  CHAPEL 
Smn  CROCE. 


WINP©W  IN  mm,  BUI.  JTROZZI. .  y 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE 


THE  ROMAN  SCHOOL. 

"  See  the  \vild  waste  of  all-devouring  years  ! 
How  Rome  her  own  sad  sepulchre  appears  ! 
With  nodding  arches,  broken  temples  spread."  —  POPE. 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical.  —  The  unique  character  of  Rome  as  an 
influence  was  its  prestige  as  the  capital  of  an  empire  that  had 
crumbled  away,  and  whose  architecture  was  now  being  revived. 
The  ruins  and  new  buildings  are  important  as  forming  models  for 
the  whole  of  Europe. 

ii.  Geological.  —  The  remains  of  old  Rome,  such  as  the 
Colosseum,  Pantheon,  and  colonnades,  formed  the  quarry  from 
which  much  of  the  material  for  the  Renaissance  buildings  was 
extracted. 

Hi.  Climate.  —  (See  pages  112,  404.) 

iv.  Religion.  —  The  return  of  the  popes  from  Avignon  to  Rome 
in  A.D.  1376  helped  to  restore  her  to  her  former  position  of  import- 
ance and  prosperity.  From  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Constance, 
1415,  the  popes  took  a  more  prominent  position  as  Italian  princes, 
and  during  the  fifteenth  century  they  greatly  extended  their 
temporal  dominions  in  Italy.  Some  hoped  that  Italian  unity  would 
be  effected  under  the  papal  sway,  and  Caesar  Borgia,  ncphc\£  to 
Alexander  VI.,  proposed  to  effect  this  by  absorbing  the  Italian 
states  as  one  would  eat  an  artichoke  —  leaf  by  leaf.  Julius  II. 
besieged  Bologna  in  person,  as  sacred  and  secular  capacities  were 
often  combined  in  the  same  pope.  The  Jesuits,  founded  in  the 
later  Renaissance  period,  existed  to  counteract  the  Reformation, 
by  rendering  the  papal  influence  universal  (see  below). 

v.  Social  and  Political.  —  In  Rome  a  central  government 
existed,  in  consequence  of  which  party  spirit  was  checked,  and 
fortified  palaces  were  not  necessary  as  in  Florence.  Rome  was 
the  home  of  the  old  classic  traditions,  which  naturally  exerted 
great  influence  in  any  new  development. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  the  popes  were  temporal  princes, 
and  great  patrons  of  art  and  learning.  Splendid  new  palaces  and 
churches  were  erected,  and  the  decoration  of  old  ones  carried  on 
by  successive  painters  of  whom  Peruzzi,  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo, 
and  others  were  eminent.  A  school  was  created  for  artists  and 
workmen,  who  afterwards  spread  abroad  the  style  of  the  Renais- 
sance in  other  parts  of  Italy  and  beyond. 

vi.  Historical.  —  During  the  absence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon, 
the  factions  of  the  barons  continued  unchecked,  except  during  the 
brief  rule  of  Rienzi's  republican  state  in  1347.  The  return  of  the 
popes  took  place  in  1376  under  Gregory  XI.  The  scandal  of  rival 


ITALIAN  (ROMAN)  RENAISSANCE.  457 

popes  at  Rome  and  Avignon  was  terminated  in  1415  by  the 
Council  of  Constance,  after  which  Rome  rapidly  gained  in  wealth 
and  prestige.  Julius  II.,  a  warlike  and  ambitious  pope,  extended 
the  temporal  power,  and  founded  the  new  cathedral  of  S.  Peter 
and  the  Vatican. 

Rome  was,  for  the  last  and  seventh  time,  taken  and  plundered 
on  the  6th  May,  1527,  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

Spanish  influence  became  powerful,  and  was  not  always  exerted 
for  good,  but  it  was  replaced  by  that  of  France,  which  was  strong 
under  Louis  XIV.  The  growth  of  the  power  of  Austria  was  next 
felt  throughout  the  Peninsula,  until  the  rise  of  national  feeling 
which,  though  checked  in  1848,  led  in  1870  to  Rome  becoming 
the  capital  of  New  Italy.  This  remarkable  revolution  was  effected 
without  Rome  ceasing  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the  papacy. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  Classic  orders  were  largely  used  in  the  facades  and  court- 
yards (Nos.  195,  196  and  200),  and  a  general  attempt  at  correctness 
and  conformity  to  the  ideas  of  ancient  Roman  architecture  pre- 
vailed. The  size  and  simplicity  of  the  palaces  of  Rome  produce 
an  effect  of  dignity  (No.  197). 

The  principle  which  animated  architects  in  the  later  school  was 
that  of  unity,  which  they  endeavoured  to  attain  by  making  a 
whole  building  appear  to  be  of  a  single  story  ;  thus  two  or  more 
stories  were  included  by  an  order  of  pilasters,  which  was  some- 
times crowned  by  an  attic,  but  never  by  another  superimposed 
order.  Arcuation  was  only  sparingly  introduced,  except  in  the 
form  of  tiers  of  arcades,  in  imitation  of  the  Colosseum. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
BRAMANTE  (1444-1514), 

the  first  Roman  architect  of  note,  was  born  in  the  year  that 
Brunelleschi  died,  educated  as  a  painter  under  Andrea  Mantegna, 
and  was  probably  a  pupil  of  Alberti.  He  was  a  Florentine  by 
birth,  but  studied  at  Rome,  practising  first  in  the  city  of  Milan, 
and  in  the  ducal  dominions. 

S.  Maria  della  Grazie,  Milan  (A.D.  1492),  an  abbey  church 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  to  which  Bramante  added  the  choir, 
transepts  and  dome,  is  essentially  transitional  in  style  with 
Gothic  feeling,  but  is  most  successful  and  suitable  in  detail  for 
the  terra  cotta  with  which  it  was  constructed. 

The  Cancellaria  Palace  (A.D.  1495-1505)  (No.  196)  and  the 
Giraud  Palace  (1503)  (No.  195)  are  examples  of  Bramante's  later 
works,  in  which  a  more  pronounced  classical  tendency  is  seen. 


O 
o 

N 
N 


ROMAN    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     I. 


ITALIAN  (ROMAN)  RENAISSANCE.  461 

The  Cortile  of  S.  Damaso,  the  Cortile  delle  Loggie,  and 
the  Greater  and  Lesser  Belvedere  Courts  in  the  Vatican 

(A.D.   1503),  are  well-known  examples  of  his  secular  work. 

The  Tempietto  in  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio  (1502)  is  a  perfect 
gem  of  architecture,  the  internal  diameter  being  only  15  feet 
(No.  199  A,  B,  c),  founded  in  design  on  the  small  Roman  circular 
temples. 

S.  Maria  della  Pace,  Rome,  erected  in  1484,  had  its  later 
cloister  court  of  arcades  supporting  columns  constructed  in  1504 
by  Bramante. 

Bramante's  works  of  the  middle  period  especially  exhibit  great 
refinement  in  mouldings,  carving,  and  detail ;  thus  he  uses  flat 
pilaste'rs,  and  circular-headed  openings,  framed  by  square  lines 
(Nos.  196  A  and  206  D).  His  "  Ultima  Maniera  "  is  seen  in  the 
bold  and  grand  designs  for  the  Courts  of  Law  (never  finished)  near 
the  Tiber,  and  in  his  "  projects  "  for  S.  Peter  (No.  203  D). 

An  article  on  "The  School  of  Bramante,"  by  Baron  von 
Geymiiller,  which  appeared  in  the  R.I.B.A.  Transactions,  1891, 
is  interesting,  as  tending  to  show  the  influence  which  Bramante, 
who  may  be  called  the  "  continuator  "  of  the  style  of  Alberti, 
exerted  on  the  development  of  the  Renaissance  in  'Rome  and  in 
every  European  country. 

BRAMANTE'S  PUPILS  AND  FOLLOWERS. 

Baldassare  Peruzzi  (1481-1536)  was  the  architect  of  several 
buildings  at  Rome,  and  few  architects  of  the  school  were  so  well 
trained,  and  able  to  execute  works  so  finished  in  detail,  whether 
of  plan,  section,  or  elevation. 

The  Massimi  Palace,  Rome  (A.D.  1536)  (No.  196  c,  D),  an  example 
full  of  refinement  and  beauty,  both  in  design  and  detail,  is  especially 
interesting  in  the  way  the  convexfagade  has  been  treated. 

The  Villa  Faniesina,  Rome  (A.D.  1506),  is  a  two-storied  structure 
(each  story  comprising  an  order)  with  boldly  projecting  wings, 
central  arched  loggia  and  rich  crowning  frieze.  The  latter  was 
ornamented  with  cupids  holding  festoons,  and  contained  windows, 
a  system  afterwards  made  use  of  by  Sansovino  in  the  Library  of 
S.  Mark  (No.  210).  The  remarkable  frescoes  of  this  building 
were  executed  by  Peruzzi  and  Raphael. 

Dorchester  House,  Park  Lane,  London,  by  Vulliamy,  was 
founded  on  this  design. 

S.  Maria  della  Consolazione,  Todi  (1508-1604)  (No.  199),  by  Cola 
da  Caprarola,  is  ascribed  to  his  influence,  but  is  overladen  with 
pilasters. 

Ant.  da  Sangallo  the  younger  (A.D.  1485-1546)  erected  the 
Farnese  Palace,  Rome  (Nos.  197  and  198).  This  is  the  grandest 
of  all  the  examples  of  the  school,  and  is  executed  in  brick  walling 


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with  travertine  dressings  from  the  Colosseum.  Columns  or 
pilasters  are  used  only  in  a  special  way  to  form  frames  -to  the 
windows,  each  of  the  stories  being  well  marked  horizontally  by 
projecting  string  courses.  The  grand  crowning  cornice,  which  was 
a  special  feature  in  the  original  design  (No.  198  B)  was  added  later 
by  Michael  Angelo.  The  internal  open  court  ("  cortile  ")  is  in  the 
style  of  the  Colosseum,  and  a  reduced  cast  of  a  portion  of  it  may 
be  seen  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  Court  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
and  the  "motif"  was  followed  for  the  Reform  Club,  London. 

Raphael  (A.D.  1483-1520)  was  the  nephew  and  pupil  of 
Bramante,  but  authorities  differ  as  to  his  exact  responsibility 
for  the  designs  ascribed  to  him. 

At  Rome,  he  was  engaged  on  S.  Peter,  but  did  little.  He 
designed  the  facade  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Miranda,  and  also  the 
Villa  Madama  (A.D.  1516),  the  stucco  decorations  being  by  Giulio 
Romano. 

The  Pandolfini  Palace,  Florence,  erected  in  1530  (ten  years  after 
his  death),  is  one  of  his  most  famous  designs,  the  "motif"  being 
afterwards  followed  for  the  Travellers'  Club,  London. 

The  excavation  of  the  Baths  of  Titus  gave  Raphael  an  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  the  interior  decoration  of  ancient  Roman 
buildings,  and  the  use  of  hard  stucco  with  painted  decorations 
was  one  of  the  things  he  learned  from  these  remains.  The 
surface  of  the  vaulting  was  found  to  be  painted  with  studies  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  with  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and 
with  such  objects  as  vessels  and  shields,  all  blended  together  in 
fanciful  schemes,  rendered  pleasing  by  bright  coloring. 

The  designs  for  the  decoration  of  the  Vatican  Loggie,  wrhich  he 
carried  out,  were  based  on  these  Roman  examples. 

Giulio  Romano  (A.D.  1492-1546)  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  and 
was  the  architect  of  buildings  at  Mantua,  including  his  master- 
piece the  Palazzo  del  Te,  which  is  a  one-story  building,  decorated 
with  the  Doric  order.  It  is  quadrangular  in  plan,  and  comprises 
large  saloons  round  a  central  court.  The  recessed  arcaded  facade 
to  the  garden  and  the  painted  ceilings  are  remarkable,  and  the 
design  is  perhaps  the  nearest  approach  made  on  the  part  of  a 
Renaissance  architect  to  reproduce  the  features  of  a  Roman  villa. 

G.  BAROZZI  DA  VIGNOLA  (A.D.   1507-1573) 

exercised  great  influence  by  his  writings,  and  was  the  author  of 
"  The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture."  Being  taken  back  to  France 
by  Francis  I.  (page  497),  he  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the 
development  of  French  Renaissance  architecture. 

The  Villa  of  Pope  Julius,  now  the  Etruscan  Museum, 
Rome  (A.D.  1550)  (No.  238  D,  E),  is  one  of  his  best  known  works. 

The  Palace  of  Caprarola  (No.  201)  is  a  pentagonal  semi- 


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fortress  situated  on  the  spur  of  a  mountain  looking  down  into  the 
valley,  recalling  Hadrian's  tomb  in  mass  and  outline,  while  the 
internal  circular  court  is  suggestive  of  the  Colosseum  at  Rome 
(see  the  Chateau  de  Chambord,  page  500). 

S.  Andrea,  Rome  (A.D.  1550)  (No.  199)  one  of  his  earlier  and 
smaller  works,  is  a  simple  oblong  on  plan  having  an  elliptical 
dome  with  pendentives. 

The  two  small  cupolas  at  S.  Peter  (No.  203  E),  and  the 
unfinished  municipal  palace  at  Bologna,  are  other  works. 

The  Gesu  Church  (A.D.  1568-1632)  (No.  199)  is  one  of  many 
designed  on  the  lines  of  S.  Peter,  Rome. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO  (A.D.   1474-1564), 

a  famous  Florentine  sculptor,  and  painter  of  the  roof  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican  (A.D.  1508),  representing  the  Fall 
and  Redemption  of  Mankind,  also  turned  his  attention,  late  in 
life,  to  architecture,  but  reckless  detail  mars  his  work.  He 
finished  the  Farnese  Palace,  and  carried  out  the  Dome  of 
S.  Peter  (page  471),  but  perhaps  his  best  work  was  the  recon- 
struction 'of  the  Palaces  of  the  Capitol  (A.D.  1540-1644) 
(Nos.  200  and  201),  grand  examples  of  one-order  buildings. 

His  principal  works  at  Florence  were  the  Mausoleum  (or 
New  Sacristy)  (A.D.  1520)  (No.  193  D),  having  statues  of  his 
patrols,  Lorenzo  and  Giuliano  de  Medici,  and  the  Laurentian 
Library  (A.D.  1524),  both  at  S.  Lorenzo. 


S.  Peter,  Rome  (1506-1626),  was  the  most  important  build- 
ing erected  in  the  period,  and  many  architects  were  engaged  upon 
it.  In  plan  (Nos.  203  and  213)  it  was  a  Greek  cross,  the  later 
extension  of  the  nave  and  aisles  toward  tne  east  practically 
bringing  the  whole  scheme  to  a  Latin  cross.  This  wras  probably 
effected  so  as  to  inclose  the  whole  of  the  area  of  the  previously 
existing  church  (No.  75  c).  The  nave,  80  feet  wide,  consists  of 
four  bays  of  immense  size,  the  central  crossing  is  covered  by  the 
dome,  137  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  short  transepts  are 
terminated  by  semicircular  a'pses,  the  western  arm  being  precisely 
similar.  The  high  altar  stands  under  the  dome,  within  a 
"  baldachino,"  100  feet  high,  over  the  alleged,  tomb  of  S.  Peter. 
A  vestibule  at  the  East  end  extends  the  whole  width  of  the  church, 
the  chancel  being  at  the  west  end. 

The  interior  (No.  204)  has  one  gigantic  order  of  Corinthian 
pilasters,  crowned  with  semicircular  barrel  vaults,  150  feet  high. 
The  walls  are  faced  with  plaster,  and  colored  to  imitate  marble, 
producing  a  rich  effect,  and  the  dome  is  beautifully  decorated  in 
mosaic. 

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All  comes  united  to  th'  admiring  eyes." — POPE. 


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ITALIAN  (ROMAN)  RENAISSANCE.  471 

The  exterior  (Nos.  202,  203  and  205),  roughly  executed  in 
travertine,  has  an  immense  order  of  Corinthian  pilasters,  108  feet 
high  including  entablature,  with  an  attic  39  feet  high  surrounding 
the  entire  building.  The  view  of  the  dome  from  the  east  except  at 
a  distance,  is  nearly  cut  off  behind  the  screen  wall  of  the  now 
extended  nave.  The  design  owes  much  to  the  circular  four-fold 
colonnades  added  by  Bernini  in  the  seventeenth  century,  which 
inclose  one  of  the  noblest  entrance  courtyards  in  Europe.  A  good 
idea  of  the  building,  in  its  general  distribution,  is  to  be  obtained 
from  the  model  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  in  which,  however,  as  in 
most  drawings  of  the  church,  the  detail  is  rendered  less  offensive 
by  its  smaller  scale. 

S.  Peter  was  recognized  as  a  model  of  which  numberless 
churches  were  erected  throughout  Italy. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  history  of  this  building  : — 

A.D.  1506.- — Bramante,  the  original  architect,  formulated  a 
design  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross  with  entrances  at  East 
end.  His  design  for  the  dome  is  shown  in  No.  203  B,  D. 
Foundation  stone  laid. 

A.D.  1513. — Giuliano  da  Sangallo  (d.  1516),  Raphael,  and  Fm 
Giocondo  (d.  1515),  were  entrusted  with  superintendence 
of  the  work.  Division  of  opinion  existed  as  to  altering 
original  plan  to  a  Latin  cross.  Raphael's  suggested  ground 
plan  is  shown  in  No.  203  j. 

A.D.  1514. — Death  of  Bramante. 

A.D.  1520. — Death  of  Raphael. 

A.D.  1520. — Baldassare  Pevuzzi  appointed  architect,  but  died 
1536.  His  suggested  plan  is  shown  in  No.  203  L.  The 
capture  and  sack  of  Rome  disorganized  all  artistic  work. 

A.D.  1536. — Antonio  da  Sangallo  the  younger  succeeded  him 
as  architect  (d.  A.D.  1546).  Proposed  a  picturesque  design 
of  many  orders,  with  a  central  dome  (No.  203  c)  and  lofty 
campanili.  His  plan  is  shown  in  No.  203  M. 

A.D.  1546. — Michael  Angela  appointed  architect.  He  rejected 
the  innovations  of  Sangallo,  restored  the  design  to  a  Greek 
cross,  strengthened  the  piers  of  the  dome,  which  had 
shown  signs  of  weakness,  and  simplified  the  form  of  the 
aisles,  in  which  process  the  masterly  planning  of  the 
accessories,  by  Raphael,  which  were  to  give  scale  to 
the  interior,  disappeared.  He  planned  and  commenced 
the  construction  of  the  great  dome,  137  feet  6  inches 
internal  diameter,  the  drum  of  which  he  completed,  and  at 
his  death  (1564)  left  drawings  and  models  for  the  completion 
of  the  work  up  to  the  lantern,  the  top  of  which  is  405  feet 
from  the  ground. 

A.D.   1564. —  Vignola   continued    the  building  of  the  church, 


CO 


ITALIAN  (ROMAN)  RENAISSANCE.  473 

adding  the  cupolas  on  either  side  of  the  great  dome.  These 
(Nos.  202,  203  E),  excellent  in  themselves,  are  ineffective  in 
relation  to  the  whole  mass. 

A.D.  1585-1590. — Giacomo  della  Porta  and  Domenico  Fontana 
erected  the  dome  from  Michael  Angelo's  wooden  model. 

A.D.  1605-1612. — Carlo  Maderna,  instructed  by  Paul  V., 
lengthened  the  nave  to  form  a  Latin  cross  (No.  203  K), 
and  erected  the  present  contemptible  facade  (No.  203  E). 

A.D.  1612. — Rainaldi  appointed  architect  and  prepared  designs 
for  campanile,  but  effected  nothing. 

A.D.  1629-1667. — Bernini  erected  the  fourfold  colonnades  in- 
closing the  piazza,  650  feet  wide,  in  front  (Nos.  202,  203  K,  E 
and  205).  He  also  erected  the  brazen  baldachino  under 
the  dome  (No.  204)  with  metal  taken  from  the  portico 
of  the  Pantheon. 


"  With  arms  wide  open  to  embrace 
The  entry  of  the  human  race." — BROWNING. 


In  Baron  von  Geymiiller's  book,  already  mentioned,  there  is  a 
plan,  with  the  portions  of  separate  dates  colored  differently, 
which  is  very  interesting,  and  also  a  comparison  drawn  between 
the  fundamental  principles  of  design  which  characterize  each 
scheme. 

Compare  plans  (No.  213)  : 

S.  Peter.                 Milan  S.  Paul.  S.  Sophia  Cologne. 

(No.  176).  (No.  80) 

Area  in  sq.  yds.               18,000                    10,000  9,35O  8,150                  7A°° 

Length  in  yards.               205                          148  170  118                       156 

Pantheon  Florence 

(No.  54).  (No.  176). 

Diam.  of  .dome.    137  ft.  6  in.     142  ft.  6  in.      109  ft.       107  ft.    138  ft.  6  in. 

Other  examples  in  Rome  are  : — 

The  Papal  Palaces  (A.D.  1574-1590)  on  the  Lateran,  Quirinal 
and  Vatican  Hills,  and  the  Chapel  of  Sixtus  V.  in  S.  Maria 
Maggiore  (A.D.  1543-1607),  were  by  Fontana. 

The  portico  to  north  transept  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano 
(1586)  is  also  by  Fontana. 

The  Facade  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  by  Galilei  (A.D.  1734). 
The  Portico  to  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  by  Fuga  (A.D.  1743).  The 
Palazzo  Borghese  (A.D.  1590),  the  Palazzo  Barberini,  by 
Maderna,  and  the  Fountain  of  Trevi  (A.D.  1735). 

Note. — Characteristic  Roman  ornament  is  shown  in  No.  206. 


4.   COMPARATIVE  (see  page  490). 


ROMAN    RENAISSANCE    ORNAMENT. 


206. 


ITALIAN  (ROMAN)  RENAISSANCE.  475 

5.   REFERENCE     BOOKS. 

Fontana  (G.). — •"  Raccolta  delle  Chiese  di  Roma."   4  vols.,  folio.    1855. 

Geymiiller(H.de).— "The  School  of  Bramante."  R.I.  B.A.  Trans.  1891. 

Geymuller  (H.  de). — "  Les  Projets  primitifs  pour  la  Basilique  de 
St.  Pierre  de  Rome/'  2  vojs.,  410  and  folio.  Paris  and  Vienna,  1875-1880. 

Letarouilly  (P.  M.).— ''Edifices  de  Rome  Moderne."  3  vols.,  folio  and 
4to  vol.  of  text.  Paris,  1868. 

Letarouilly. — "  Le  Vatican  et  la  Basilique  de  Saint-Pierre  de  Rome," 
2  vols.  Paris,  1882. 

Maccari  (E). — 11  Palazzo  di  Caprarola.     Folio.     Berlin. 

Palladio  (A.).—"  1  Quattro  Libri  dell'  Architettura."  The  best  English 
editions  are  those  by  Leoni  and  Ware. 

Percier  (C.)  et  Fontaine  (P.  F.  L.). — "  Choix  de  plus  Celebres  Maisons 
de  Plaisance  de  Rome  et  de  ses  Environs."  Folio.  Paris,  1809. 

Rossi  (D.  de).— "Studio  d' Architettura  Civile  della  Citta  di  Roma." 
,3  vols.,  folio.  Roma,  1720-1721. 

Scamozzi  (O.  B.). —  "  Fabbriche  e  Design!  di  Andrea  Palladio.:>  4  vols., 
folio.  Vicenza,  1776. 

Stiack  (H.).— u  Baudenkmaeler  Roms  des  XV.-X.IX.  Jahrhunderts." 
Folio.  Berlin,  1891. 

Suys  (T.  F.)  et  Haudebourt  (L.  P.).—"  Palais  Massimia  Rome/'  Folio. 
Paris,  1818. 

Lytton  (Lord).—"  Rienzi."  )  Historical  Novels 

Yeats  (S.  L.).— "  The  Honour  of  Savelli."  J  H 

THE     VENETIAN     SCHOOL. 

"  Underneath  day's  azure  eyes, 
Ocean's  nursling,  Venice  lies, 
A  peopled  labyrinth  of  walls, 
Amphitrite's  destined  halls, 
Which  her  hoary  sire  now  paves 
With  his  blue  and  beaming  waves. 
Lo  !  the  sun  upsprings  behind, 
Broad,  red,  radiant,  half-reclined 
On  the  level,  quivering  line 
Of  the  water's  crystalline  ; 
And  before  that  dream  of  light, 
As  within  a  furnace  bright, 
Column,  tower,  and  dome,  and  spire 
Shine  like  obelisks  of  fire, 
Panting  with  inconstant  motion 
From  the  altar  of  dark  ocean 
To  the  sapphire-tinted  sky."— SHELLEY 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — -The  greatness  of  Venice  was  founded  on 
Oriental  commerce,  due  to  her  important  geographical  position, 
and  the  effect  of  this  commercial  prosperity  lasted  well  into 
Renaissance  times  (pages  232,  404).  The  history  of  the  Venetian 
state  was  always  influenced  by  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  the 
peculiar  formation  of  the  coast. 


476  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

ii.  Geological. — Venice  has  the  appearance  of  a  floating  city 
founded  in  the  sea,  churches,  palaces,  and  houses  being  set  upon 
piles  in  a  shallow  lagoon,  a  structural  formation  having  an 
important  influence  on  its  art. 

iii.  Climate. — This  favours  out-door  life,  the  heat  in  summer 
being  great,  though  tempered  by  sea  breezes.  Open  top  stories, 
called  belvederes,  exist  in  many  houses.  The  northern  position 
renders  chimneys  more  prominent  than  in  other  Italian  cities. 

iv.  Religion. — Venice  continued  to  maintain  a  semi-independ- 
ence of  the  Pope,  due  to  her  political  necessities  in  those  days 
of  growing  temporal  power.  Strong  loyalty  to  the  State  even 
among  the  clergy  was  manifested  during  the  attempted  interdict 
of  Paul  V.,  the  learned  theologian  Paolo  Sarpi  (1552-1623) 
being  the  adviser  of  the  State  during  this  crisis  (1607).  The 
tolerance  of  Venetian  policy  is  shown  by  the  erection  of  the 
Greek  church,  an  interesting  example  of  the  local  Renaissance. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — During  the  whole  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  Venice  was  engaged  in  conquering  the  surrounding 
towns,  to  which  Venetian  nobles  were  appointed  governors. 

The  government  of  Venice  was  republican,  and  the  rivalry  of 
the  leading  families  led  to  the  erection  of  fine  and  lasting  monu- 
ments, such  as  the  palaces  which  line  the  Grand  Canal ;  these 
however  were  not  fortresses,  as  at  Florence,  but  the  residences 
of  peaceable  citizens  and  merchant  princes. 

vi.  Historical. — In  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  (1453; 
Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  the  supremacy 
of  Venice  in  the  East  was  undermined.  By  the  discovery  ot 
the  new  route  round  the  Cape  to  India  by  Diaz  in  1486,  its 
commerce  was  diverted  to  the  Portuguese.  During  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  the  Venetians  were  at  constant  war 
with  the  Turks,  and  eventually  in  1715  the  whole  of  her  posses- 
sions, except  in  North  Italy,  were  taken  from  her.  Yet  "  the 
arts  which  had  meanwhile  been  silently  developing  shed  a  glorious 
sunset  over  the  waning  glory  of  the  mighty  republic." 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  Renaissance  movement  had  a  very  different  effect  upon 
.the  architecture  of  Venice  from  that  which  it  produced  upon  the 
architecture  of  Florence,  owing  to  the  previously  existing  circum- 
stances of  the  two  cities.  The  Venetians  had  a  beautiful  type  of 
Gothic  architecture  of  their  own,  and,  being  farther  from  Rome, 
were  not  so  much  under  the  influence  of  that  city  as  was  Florence. 
Therefore,  between  the  periods  of  Gothic  and  fully-developed 
Renaissance,  there  was  a  period  of  transition,  the  earlier  buildings 


ITALIAN  (VENETIAN)  RENAISSANCE.  477 

in  the  new  style  having  Gothic  in  conjunction  with  Renaissance 
details.  A  notable  instance  is  in  the  pointed  arches  of  the  Renais- 
sance facade  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Doges'  Palace  (No.  210  F) 
(see  below). 

The  architecture  of  Venice  is,  in  general,  of  a  lighter  and 
more  graceful  kind  than  that  of  Florence,  columns  and  pilasters 
being  used  freely  in  all  designs.  A  special  Venetian  feature  is 
the  grouping  of  the  windows  near  the  centre,'  leaving  com- 
paratively solid  boundaries  to  the  facades  (No.  207),  which 
facades  are  comparatively  flat,  and  have  no  great  projections, 
in  consequence  of  the  houses  being  situated  on  the  side  of 
canals,  and  having  a  straight  frontage  with  the  water.  The 
rustication  of  walls,  as  at  Florence,  is  unusual,  and  a  cornice 
usually  marks  each  story  (No.  208),  in  contrast  with  the  great 
crowning  Florentine  cornices.  Extreme  depth  was  sometimes 
^•iven  to  the  frieze,  in  which  windows  were  sometimes  placed 
(No.  210  A,  B). 

The  balconies  (No.  209)  are  graceful  and  important  features, 
and  give  light  and  shade  to  the  facade,  having  the  same  effect  as 
the  recessing  of  portions  of  the  structure. 

The  regularity  of  the  disposition  of  a  Venetian  facade  is 
described  by  Browning,  who  talks  of  the 

"  Window  just  with  window  mating, 
Door  on  door  exactly  waiting." 

In  the  later  period  perfection  of  details  is  characteristic  of  the 
Venetian  Renaissance,  as,  for  instance,  in  S.  Mark's  Library 
and  the  palaces  by  Sansovino  (A.D.  1479-1570).  In  Longhena's 
works  and  other  late  examples,  the  detail  became  large  and 
projected  boldly,  producing  strong  effects  of  light  and  shade, 
heavy  rustication  being  used  to  contrast  the  basement  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  facade  (No.  209). 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Court  to  the  Doges'  Palace  (No.  210)  was  commenced 
A.D.  1486,  by  Ant.  Rizzi,  the  Giant's  Staircase,  giving  access  to 
the  upper  portions,  being  erected  by  Sansovino  in  A.D.  1554. 

The  facade  of  the  Geological  Museum  in  Piccadilly  is  founded 
on  the  design  of  the  lower  part  of  the  courtyard  facade  of  this 
palace. 

The  Library  of  S.  Mark  (A.D.  1536)  was  erected  by  San- 
sovino (No.  210),  but  the  continuation  of  the  design,  one  order 
higher  round  S.  Mark's  Square,  was  executed  in  1584  by 
Scamozzi.  This  design  has  been  followed  for  the  Carlton  Club, 
London. 


VENETIAN    RENAISSANCE   EXAMPLES.    I. 

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208. 


VENETIAN    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     II. 


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VENETIAN    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.    III. 


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ITALIAN  (VENETIAN)  RENAISSANCE, 


212. 


S.  MARIA  DELLA  SALUTE,  VENICE. 


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ITALIAN  (VENETIAN)  RENAISSANCE.  485 

The  Zecca,  or  Mint,  was  erected  by  Sansovino,  1536,  and 
has  a  peculiar  treatment  of  column  rustication. 

The  Vendramini  Palace  (A.D.  1481),  by  Pietro  Lombardo 
(Nos.  207  and  208),  has  to  each  story  an  order  of  engaged 
columns — the  earliest  example  in  Venice.  The  windows  are 
semicircular,  with  a  Renaissance  treatment  of  tracery. 

The  Cornaro  Palace  (the  Army  and  Navy  Club,  London, 
being  a  modified  copy),  by  Sansovino  (A.D.  1532)  ;  the  Grimani 
Palace,  by  Sanmicheli  (A.D.  1549);  and  the  Pesaro  Palace 
(A.D.  1650-1680),  by  Longhena  (No.  209),  are  later  examples. 

The  Scuola  di  S.  Marco  (A.D.  1485-1533),  the  facade  of  which 
was  by  Pietro  Lombardo,  is  a  rich  example,  held  to  be  founded  on 
the  facade  of  S.  Mark,  and  has  curious  sculptured  reliefs  in 
perspective. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli  (A.D.  1480)  (No.  211),  by  Pietro  Lom- 
bardo, architect,  has  no  aisles,  and  the  choir  is  raised  twelve 
steps  above  the  nave,  which  is  covered  with  a  roof  of  semi- 
circular form,  not  uncommon  in  Venice.  This  is  emphasized  by  a 
semicircular  pediment  on  the  facade,  a  feature  which  also  occurs 
at  S.  Zaccaria.  The  walls  are  faced  internally  and  externally, 
with  delicately  carved  and  different  colored  marbles.  The  sacristy 
is  beneath  the  raised  choir,  as  shown  in  No.  211  c. 

S.  Zaccaria  (A.D.  1456-1515),  a  transition  example,  and  S. 
Giobbe  (A.D.  1451-1493),  are  other  churches  worthy  of  note. 

S.  Salvatore  (A.D.  1530),  by  Tullib  Lombardo,  the  plan 
derived  from  S.  Mark,  with  domical  and  barrel- vaulted  bays,  and 
S.  Giorgio  dei  Greci  (A.D.  1538),  by  Sansovino  (No.  211),  are 
other  examples  of  the  early  or  transition  period. 

S.  Francesco  della  Vigna,  by  Sansovino  (A.D.  1534-1562),  has 
a  fagade  (1562)  by  Palladio  resembling  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore. 

II  Redentore  (A.D.  1576)  and  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore  (A.D. 
1560)  were  both  by  Palladio  (No.  211),  although  the  facade  of 
the  latter  was  by  Scamozzi  (A.D.  1575).  These  churches  are 
instructive,  as  exhibiting  the  difficulties  of  adopting  the  Classic 
orders  to  the  facades  of  churches  of  the  basilican  plan. 

S.  Maria  della  Salute  (A.D.  1632),  by  Longhena  (Nos.  212  and 
213  E),  groups  most  beautifully  with  the  surroundings  on  the  Grand 
Canal.  In  plan  it  consists  of  an  octagon  with  chapels  projecting 
on  each  side,  the  central  space  being  covered  by  a  circular  dome, 
whose  drum  is  connected  to  the  outer  walls  by  buttresses  (No.  212) 
over  the  aisles,  their  fanciful  shapes  contributing  to  the  rich 
effect.  A  secondary  dome  covers  the  chancel,  which  projects  on 
the  side  opposite  the  entrance,  and  a  small  tower  also  carried  up, 
contributes  to  the  picturesque  grouping  of  the  exterior. 

Note. — Characteristic  Venetian  ornament  is  shown  in  No.  214. 


VENETIAN    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT. 


ITALIAN  (VENETIAN)  RENAISSANCE. 


215.         THE  BASILICA  AT  VICENZA,  BY  PALLADIO. 


488  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

VICENZA  AND  VERONA. 

These  are  notable  cities  possessing  many  examples  of  Renais- 
sance architecture,  and  are  counted  in  the  Venetian  School. 

Vicenza  was  the  birthplace  of  Palladio  (A.D.  1518-1580)  and 
the  scene  of  his  labours.  His  churches  are  referred  to  above. 
He  indefatigably  studied,  and  measured,  all  the  Roman  antiquities, 
as  may  be  seen  by  the  drawings  in  his  book  on  architecture.  His 
designs  were  mostly  erected  in  brick  and  stucco,  the  lower  story 
being  rusticated,  and  the  upper  ones  having  pilasters.  A  second 
method  was  to  comprise  two  floors  in  the  height  of  the  order 
(No.  216  G),  to  obtain  scale  in  that  feature,  and  unity  and  dignity 
in. the  whole  composition.  There  are  several  examples  in  Vicenza 
of  both  of  these  methods,  as  the  Palazzo  Barbarano  (A.D.  1570) 
(No.  216  H),  the  Palazzo  Chierecati  (A.D.  1560),  the  Palazzo  Tiene 
(A.D.  1556),  the  Palazzo  Capitanio  (formerly  Prefitizio)  (No.  216  G), 
and  the  Palazzo  Valmarana  (A.D.  1556). 

The  Teatro  Olimpico  (A.D.  1580),  with  the  stage  built  in 
perspective,  is  an  interesting  building  completed  by  Scamozzi. 

The  Basilica  at  Vicenza,  originally  erected  in  the  mediaeval 
period  (about  1444),  owes  its  importance  to  the  double-storied 
Renaissance  arcades.  These  arcades  (Nos.  215  and  216  A,  B,  c) 
were  designed  by  Palladio  in  1549,  and  are  his  most  famous 
work,  being  built  in  a  beautiful  stone  in  two  stories  of  Doric 
and  Ionic  orders,  separated  by  arches  supported  on  a  minor  order. 
This  is  generally  known  as  the  Palladian  "motif"  and  was  pro- 
duced in  this  case  by  the  necessity  of  making  each  bay  correspond 
with  the  Gothic  hall,  of  which  it  forms  the  frontispiece. 

The  Villa  del  Capra,  Vicenza  (generally  known  as  the  Rotonda), 
is  an  example  of  the  application  of  the  features  of  Classic 
architecture  carried  to  an  extreme  (Nos.  216  D,  E,  F  and  238  B). 
It  is  a  square  building,  with  a  pillared  portico  on  each  face 
leading  to  a  central  rotunda,  which  appears  externally  as  a  low 
dome  above  the  tiled  roof,  hipped  all  ways  from  the  angles  ol 
the  main  building.  The  design  of  this  building  was  utilized  by 
Lord  Burlington  at  Chiswick  (page  581),  and  it  has  also  been 
copied  elsewhere,  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent. 

Although  Palladio's  designs  were  mainly  executed  in  common 
materials  such  as  brick  and  stucco,  and  were  often  never  fully 
carried  out,  still  their  publication  in  books  had  a  far-reaching 
influence  on  European  architecture,  and  he  wl&  followed  in  his 
methods  by  Inigo  Jones  (page  567). 

Verona  owes  many  of  its  most  important  buildings  to 
Sanmicheli  (A.D.  1484-1549),  an  architect  of  ability,  who 
was  also  the  originator  of  a  new  system  of  fortification,  and 
the  entrance  gateways  through  the  fortifications  of  Verona  are 
excellent  instances  of  his  power  of  giving  character  to  his  works, 


THE  COLONMDE5  SURROUNDING  THE  MEDIflEVflL TOI/TOHflLL 
\NERE  ERECTED  IN  1549  flNDFORM  PflLLflDIO.5  &L5T  KNOWN 
WORK,  THE  .SETTING  OUT  OF  THE  BflYS  15  DETERMINED 
BY  THE  WIDTH  OF  THE  OPENINGS  OF  THE  GOTHIC  HflLL, 
flT  THE  flNGLES  WHERE  HE  Wfl.5  UNRESTRICTED  PflLLflDIO 
Hfl5  NflRROWED  THEflRCflDE  THEREBY  GIVING  GREflTER 
STRENGTH  WHERE  REQUIRED 


GENERALLY  KNOWN  flS'THE 
ROTUNDffliflNEXflMPLEOF 
THEflPPUCflTlON  OFTHE  FEATURES 
OFCLtoSICflLflRCHITEaURE 
TO  fl  COUNTRY  VILLfl 


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JCflLE  FOR  PLflNS 

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216. 


4QO 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


by  a  bold  and  original  treatment,  in  which  he  gave  great  extension 
to  the  use  of  rustication  as  a  means  of  effect. 

The  Palazzi  Pompeii  (A.D.  1550)  (No.  217  A),  Bevilacqua,  and 
Canossa,  are  the  best  known  examples  of  his  style  at  Verona. 

The  Palazzo  del  Consiglio  (A.D.  1500)  at  Verona  was  erected 
by  Fra  Giocondo,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  colored 
"  sgraffito  work  "  of  the  facade. 

Note. — Characteristic  ornament  is  shown  in  No.  218. 

4.    COMPARATIVE. 

THE  FLORENTINE,  ROMAN,  AND  VENETIAN  SCHOOLS. 

A.  Plans. 

Florence. — The  utmost  simplicity  and  compactness,  a  style  of 
planning  adapted  to  town,  rather  than  country  buildings. 
Staircases  inclosed  by  walls  (Nos.  19 1,  193)  were  vaulted  by 
ascending  barrel-vaults.  In  church  work,  the  Roman  coffered 
and  vaulted  nave  (No.  193  E),  the  Byzantine  domical  treatment 
(No.  193  A),  and  the  Basilican  (No.  193  j),  were  all  followed. 

Rome. — More  varied  planning  on  a  grander  scale  (Nos.  196,  198 
and  199).  Staircases,  circular  and  elliptical,  with  columnar 
supports,  are  features,  as  those  in  the  Barberini,  Corsini,  and 
Braschi  palaces  and  the  Scala  Regia  of  the  Vatican.  In  church 
work,  the  dome  over  a  circular  space  (Roman  type)  (No.  199  c), 
and  the  dome  on  pendentives  (No.  199  G),  were  used. 

Venice. — Where  an  open  site  permitted,  a  broken,  complex,  and 
picturesque  disposition  was  adopted ;  otherwise  a  straight  front  to 
the  canals  had  to  be  adhered  to  (No.  208).  Staircases,  placed 
in  a  central  area,  surrounded  with  arcades,  belong  to  this  school. 
In  church  work,  the  Roman  barrel-vaulted  type  (No.  211  D),  the 
dome  on  pendentives  and  Basilican  plan  (No.  211),  were  used. 

B.  Walls. 

Florence. — The  style  of  fenestration  and  rusticated  quoins 
(Nos.  191  and  192).  The  astylar  treatment,  which  dispenses 
with  orders  and  makes  each  story  complete  in  itself,  while 
subordinated  as  a  whole  by  the  great  top  cornice  (No.  191) 
was  adopted.  In  pure  wall  treatment  it  is  akin  to  Egyptian  art. 

Rome. — The  style  of  pilasters  (No.  195).  Two  or  more  stories 
are  united  by  an  order  upon  a  graud  scale  (No.  200).  Windows 
are  disturbing  elements,  without  which  the  designs  would  have  the 
unity  of  Greek  temples. 

Venice. — The  style  of  columns  (Nos.  207  and  209).  Stories  are 
defined  by  an  order  to  each.  Excessive  separation  by  the 
entablatures  is  modified,  and  corrected  by  breaking  them  round 
the  columns.  In  the  multiplicity  of  parts  the  style  allies  itself 
to  the  Roman,  as  in  the  Colosseum. 


217. 


218. 


ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE.  493 

c.  Openings. 

Florence. — Openings  are  small,  wide- spaced,  and  severe  in 
treatment  (No.  191).  The  typical  opening  is  an  archway  in 
rusticated  work,  divided  by  a  column  carrying  two  minor  arches, 
forming  a  semi-tracery  head  (No.  194  D).  In  courtyards,  arches 
resting  directly  on  columns  are  typical  (No.  191). 

Rome. — Openings  seem  small  in  relation  to  the  great  order 
adopted  (No.  195).  A  square-headed  opening  was  treated  with  a 
framework  of  architrave  mouldings  (No.  196),  and  later  on  with 
orders  on  a  small  scale,  surmounted  by  pediments  (No.  197). 

Venice. — Openings  are  large,  numerous,  and  close  set ;  the 
arcade  and  colonnade,  as  in  the  Colosseum,  were  adapted  to 
palace  facades.  The  treatment  of  a  centre  and  two  wings, 
obtained  by  window  spacing,  was  continued  from  previous  periods 
(Nos.  207  and  209). 

D.  Roofs. 

Florence. — Flat  pitch  tiled  roofs  are  sometimes  visible  (No.  192). 
Raking  vaults  to  staircases,  and  simple  cross  or  waggon-vaults 
in  halls,  generally  frescoed. 

In  churches,  the  low  dome  over  the  crossing  was  a  favourite 
feature  (No.  193). 

Rome. — Roofs  rarely  visible  (No.  197). 

Vaults  of  a  similar  kind  were  more  elaborated,  treated  with 
coffering  or  stucco  modelling  (No.  198  H),  after  the  style  of  the 
then  newly-discovered  Baths  of  Titus.  Domes  mounted  upon 
a  high  drum  and  crowned  with  a  lantern  are  universal  in  churches 
(No.  199). 

Venice.—  Roofs  having  balustrades  preferred  (No.  210  A). 
Pictorial  effect  was  attempted  in  the  vaulting  of  halls  and  stair- 
cases. Domes  are  grouped  with  towers  in  churches  (Nos.  211 
and  212). 

In  Milan  and  other  North  Italian  cities,  the  low  internal  cupola 
was  often  covered  externally  by  a  lofty  structure  in  diminishing 
stages,  as  at  the  Certosa,  Pavia,  and  S.  Maria  della  Grazie, 
Milan. 

E.  Columns. 

Florence. — Early  examples  do  not  have  the  orders  (No.  192), 
though  columns  were  used  to  arcades,  the  arches  springing  direct 
from  the  capitals  (No.  191). 

Rome. — The  application  of  the  orders  on  a  great  scale  is  the 
"  motif'  of  the  style.  In  their  use,  the  scale  of  openings,  and  the 
internal  necessities  of  the  building,  were  not  regarded,  and  even 
such  features  as  balustrades  were  not  regulated  by  use,  but  by 
the  system  of  proportion  to  the  order  employed  (Nos.  195,  197- 
and  200). 


494 


ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE. 


Venice.— The  problem  of  successive  tiers  of  orders  was  worked 
out  (Nos.  207,  208  and  209)  ;  projecting  columns  were  preferred 
to  pilasters,  and  entablatures  were  usually  broken  round  these 
projections. 

F.  Mouldings. 

Florence.— Moulding  are  few  and  simple.  Those  between 
stories  were  reduced  to  the  minimum,  to  give  full  effect  to  the 
grand  crowning  cornice,  the  details  of  which  were  based  on 
Classic  examples  (Nos.  191  and  194). 

Rome. — Close  adaptation  of  the  features  of  the  Classic  orders 
marks  the  Roman  style  (Nos.  198  and  206),  until  Michael  Angelo, 
and  his  followers,  despising  the  sound  methods  of  the  earlier 
architects,  introduced  their  arbitrary  details. 

Venice. — Prominence  of  detail  is  characteristic  of  the  late 
Renaissance  works  in  Venice ;  entablatures  have  deep  soffits 
and  keystones,  and  great  projection,  while  spandrels  have  figures 
in  high  relief  (Nos.  208,  210  and  214). 

G.  Ornament. 

The  revival  of  fresco  painting  and  its  application  to  buildings 
by  the  artists  of  the  great  schools  of  Italian  painting  had  an 
important  decorative  effect  on  all  the  schools. 

Sculptured  ornament  to  friezes  carved  with  infant  genii,  scrolls, 
fruit  and  masks,  was  abundantly  used  in  the  three  schools. 

Florence  (No.  194). — Decoration,  such  as  carving  and  sculpture, 
is  collected  in  masses,  which  contrast  with  the  plain  wall  surfaces, 
as  in  the  great  stone  shields  at  the  angles  of  palaces  (No.  192). 

Rome  (No.  206). — Stands  midway  between  Florentine  and 
Venetian  work,  having  more  variety  than  prevails  in  the  sternness 
of  the  former,  and  less  exuberance  than  is  found  in  the  latter. 

Venice  (No.  214). — Decoration  is  equally  spread  throughout  the 
facade.  Every  spandrel  has  its  figure,  and  the  high  relief  of 
sculpture  competes  with  the  architectural  detail  in  prominence 
(No.  209). 

5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

"  Calli  e  Canali  in  Venezia  "(published  by  Ongania).  Venice,  1890-1894. 

Cicognara  (Conte  F.  L.). — "  Le  Fabbriche  e  i  Monument!  cospicui  di 
Venezia."  2  vols,,  folio.  Venice,  1838-1840. 

Leoni  (G.).— "The  Architecture  of  Andrea  Palladio."  London, 
1715,  '21,  '42. 

Paoletti  (P.).— "  L'Architettura  e  la  Scultura  del  Rinascimento  in 
Venezia."  3  vols.,  folio.  Venice,  1893. 

Ruskin  (J.)  — "  Examples  of  the  Architecture  of  Venice."    Folio.    1851. 

Ruskin  (J.).—"  Stones  of  Venice."    3  vols.,  8vo.     1851-1853. 

Schmidt  (O.).— "  Vicenza."     Folio.     1898. 

Crawford  (F.  Marion).- "Marietta.''      )  „.  .     .     .  XT       . 

Oliphant( Mrs.).— "Makers  of  Venice."/  Hlstoncal  Novels. 


ITALIAN  (MILAN  AND  GENOA)  RENAISSANCE.         495 


MILAN    AND    GENOA. 

Although  these  cities  formed  no  distinct  school,  as  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Venice,  there  were  many  noteworthy  buildings  which 
may  be  briefly  referred  to. 

Milan  was,  as  it  is  now,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  populous 
of  Italian  towns.  The  powerful  family  of  the  Visconti,  who  in 
former  times  had  built  Milan  Cathedral  (page  408),  greatly 
encouraged  art.  Brick  and  terra-cotta  were  the  materials  chiefly 
to  hand,  and  were  employed  in  the  Church  of  5.  Maria  delta 
Grazie  (A.D.  1492)  (page  457),  by  Bramante,  and  in  the  great 
courtyard  of  the  Ospedale  Maggiore  (A.D.  1457),  by  Filarete,  a 
Florentine.  Both  these  buildings  possess  a  considerable  amount 
of  Gothic  feeling ;  the  detail  is  delicately  and  richly  modelled, 
and  is  very  suitable  to  the  material  employed. 

S.  Satire,  Milan  (A.D.  1474),  by  Bramante,  is  famous  for  its 
chancel  wall,  treated  in  perspective,  and  for  its  octagonal  sacristy. 

The  Certosa,  Pavia,  near  Milan  (page  408),  which  was  erected 
in  the  Gothic  period  (A.D.  1396),  has  the  west  facade  (A.D. 
1476),  by  Borgognone,  in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  is  probably 
the  most  important  of  the  early  examples.  It  is  in  marble,  and 
is  specially  remarkable  for  the  small  scale  of  its  parts,  the  leading 
lines  being  essentially  Lombardian  Gothic,  although  clothed  with 
Renaissance  details.  The  dome  is  interesting  as  a  Renaissance 
copy  of  a  type  used  in  the  Gothic  period  as  at  Chiaravalle 
and  elsewhere.  The  arcaded  galleries,  the  niches  with  statues 
executed  by  the  greatest  sculptors  of  the  day,  and  the  wealth  of 
beautifully  executed  detail,  make  it  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
perfect  specimens  of  the  arts  of  the  architect  and  sculptor. 

Genoa  has  some  remarkable  buildings,  principally  designed  by 
Alessi  (A.D.  1500-1572),  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo.  The  building 
material  at  hand  was  brick,  which  was  covered  with  stucco,  to 
resemble  stone-work. 

The  Genoese  palaces  are  remarkable  especially  for  the  entrance 
courts,  the  arrangement  of  the  vestibules,  courtyards,  and  flights 
of  steps,  in  which  advantage  was  taken  of  the  sloping  sites 
to  produce  beautiful  vistas  of  terraces  and  hanging  gardens 
(No.  217  D).  These  buildings  usually  have  their  basements 
rusticated,  and  pilasters  were  freely  introduced  as  a  decorative 
feature ;  while  the  facades  were  crowned  by  a  bold  projecting 
cornice,  supported  by  large  consoles  (No.  217  B),  the  windows 
occupying  the  square  intervals  between  these  brackets.  Many  of 
the  palaces  were  painted  wholly  in  one  color,  and  received  their 
name  from  it,  as  the  Palazzo  Bianco  (white),  Palazzo  Rosso  (red), 
and  the  bright  coloring,  with  the  help  of  the  Italian  sun,  gives 
them  a  very  bright  appearance.  The  Palazzo  Municipio  (Doria- 


496  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Tursi)  (A.D.  1564)  (No.  217)  and  the  Palazzi  Durazzo,  Balbi,  and 
Cambiassi  are  the  best  known.  S.  Maria  di  Carignano  (A.D.  1552), 
also  by  Alessi,  was  designed  on  the  lines  of  Raphael's  plan  of 
S.  Peter,  Rome. 

Note.— Characteristic  ornament  is  shown  in  No.  218. 

REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Callet  (F.)  et  Lesueur  (J.  B.  C.).— "  Architecture  italienne  :  edifices 
publics  et  particuliers  de  Turin  et  Milan."  Folio.  Pans,  1855. 

Durelli  (G.  and  F.).— "  La  Certosa  di  Pavia."     Folio.     1853. 

Gauthier  (M.  P.).—"  Les  plus  beaux  edifices  de  la  ville  de  Genes." 
Folio.  Paris,  1818. 

Paravicini  (T.  V.).— "  Die  Renaissance  Architektur  der  Lornbardei.'' 
Dresden,  1878. 

Rubens  (P.  P.).—"  Palazzi  antichi  et  moderni  di  Genova."     1663. 

THE   ROCOCO   STYLE. 

The  Rococo,  or  Baroco,  style  is  a  debased  application  to 
architecture  of  Renaissance  features,  which  was  followed  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Such  work  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
mixtures  of  certain  forms  of  the  early  Renaissance,  when  the 
style  was  commencing,  because  the  Rococo  period,  coming  after 
the  reign  of  a  highly  systematized  classical  style,  represents  an 
anarchical  reaction.  Sinuous  frontages,  broken  curves  in  plan  and 
elevation,  and  a  strained  originality  in  detail,  are  the  characteristics 
of  the  period.  Columns  were  placed  in  front  of  pilasters,  and 
cornices  made  to  break  round  them,  and  broken  and  curved  pedi- 
ments, huge  scrolls,  and  twisted  columns  are  also  features  of  the 
style.  In  the  interiors,  the  ornamentation  was  carried  out  to  an 
extraordinary  degree,  without  regard  to  fitness  or  suitability,  and 
consisted  of  exaggerated  and  badly-designed  detail,  often  over- 
emphasized by  gilding  and  sculptured  figures  in  contorted  attitudes. 
This  style,  commencing  at  the  time  when  the  movement  in 
religion  connected  with  the  Jesuits  was  in  progress,  was  adopted 
by  them  for  its  essentially  modern  character,  and  the  features 
described  are  specially  to  be  seen  in  the  Jesuit  churches  through- 
out Italy  and  the  rest  of  Europe,  its  almost  universal  extension 
being  a  monument  to  their  activity.  The  application  of  classical 
ideas  to  modern  forms,  beneath  the  trappings  of  bad  detail,  can 
be  traced  in  the  later  period  of  the  Renaissance  movement. 

Carlo  Madema  (1556-1639),  Bernini  (1589-1680),  and  Borromini 
(1599-1667),  were  among  the  more  famous  who  practised  this 
debased  form  of  art,  and  among  the  most  prominent  examples 
are  the  Roman  churches  of  S.  Maria  delta  Vittovia  by  Maderna, 
5.  Agnese  by  Borromini,  and  many  churches  at  Naples  and 
elsewhere. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

(See  page  246  for  French  Romanesque.) 
(See  page  362  for  French  Gothic.) 

"In  all  new  work  that  would  look  forth 
To  more  than  antiquarian  worth, 
Palladio's  pediments  and  bases, 
Or  something  such,  will  find  their  places." — CLOUGH. 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437) 

i.  Geographical.— Refer  to  pages  246,  362.  France  had  now 
more  clearly  defined  boundaries,  which  hereafter,  in  spite  of  the 
conquests  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon,  were  not  permanently 
extended. 

ii.  Geological. — Refer  to  pages  246  and  362.  Paris  is  built, 
so  to  speak,  in  a  quarry  of  a  fine-grained  building  stone,  and  is 
a  stone  city,  as  London  is  a  brick  city. 

iii.  Climate. — Refer  to  page  246. 

iv.  Religion. — The  Reformation  maintained  practically  no 
hold  in  France,  the  old  order  remaining  until-  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  As,  moreover,  the  supply  of  churches  erected 
during  the  mediaeval  period  proved  adequate,  it  was  the  domestic 
work  which  took  the  lead  in  this  period.  Thus  the  Louis  XIV. 
style,  which  had  an  universal  influence  upon  interiors,  and  furni- 
ture, had  little  effect  upon  churches,  the  Jesuit  style  (page  496) 
prevailing  in  those  built  during  this  period. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — Paris  at  this  time  was  the  capital 
of  a  compact  and  rapidly  consolidating  kingdom,  and  from  Paris 
emanated  any  movement,  not  only  in  architecture,  but  also  in 
science  and  literature.  The  number  of  chateaux  erected  during 
the  early  periods  of  the  Renaissance  in  France  was  due  to 
many  social  causes.  The  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.  in 
1494,  and  by  Francis  I.  in  1527,  in  vindication  of  their  claims 
to  the  thrones  of  Naples  and  Milan,  marks  the  distribution  of 
Italian  artists  and  workmen  over  Europe,  and  more  especially 
France,  many  returning  in  the  train  of  the  French  kings.  Among 
the  chief  of  the  artists  were  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  brought  to 
France  by  Francis  I. ;  Cellini,  Serlio,  Vignola,  Rosso,  Prima- 
ticcio,  and  Cortona.  In  the  later  period,  the  Italian  Bernini  was 

F.A.  K  K 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  guest  of  Louis  XIV.  A  band  of  Italians  journeying  from 
place  to  place  was  responsible  for  much  of  the  picturesque  early 
Renaissance  south  of  the  Loire. 

vi.  Historical. — The  English  were  driven  from  France  in 
1543,  and  the  accession  of  Louis  XL, in  A.D.  1461  practically  led 
to  the  consolidation  of  France  into  one  kingdom  by  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  During  the  first  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  Italy  became  the  battlefield  of  Europe.  In  1494 
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  claiming  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  marched 
through  Italy,  and  in  1508  Louis  joined  the  league  of  Cambray 
formed  against  Venice,  Florence  being  the  ally  of  France  during 
all  this  period.  Francis  I.  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Spaniards  at  the  Battle  of  Pavia,  1525.  In  these  wars  the  French 
kings,  although  failing  in  their  actual  object,  were  thus  brought 
into  contact  with  the  superior  civilization  of  Italy,  and  drawn 
into  the  Renaissance  movement,  at  the  same  time  becoming 
more  absolute  in  their  own  country.  From  1558  to  the  end  of 
the  century,  the  religious' wars,  between  the  Huguenots  and 
Catholics,  distracted  the  country.  The  Massacre  of  S.  Bartho- 
lomew took  place  at  Paris,  1572,  after  which  there  was  an 
emigration  of  Huguenots  to  England.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIII.  (1610-1643)  Cardinal  Richelieu  strengthened  the  royal 
power.  Cardinal  Mazarin  continued  his  policy,  and  Louis  XIV., 
ascending  the  throne  in  1643,  became  an  absolute  monarch.  His 
conquests,  in  the  Netherlands  and  Germany,  led  to  a  general 
coalition  against  him,  and  to  his  great  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Marlborough.  The  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685 
led  to  a  further  emigration  of  Protestants  to  England.  In  the 
reign  of  Louis  XV.  (1715-1774)  the  evil  effects  of  despotism  and 
bad  government  became  more  marked,  and  the  writers  Voltaire, 
Rousseau,  and  others  weakened  authority  by  their  attacks,  and 
prepared  the  ground  for  the  great  revolution  that  began  in 
1792. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL   CHARACTER. 

Refer  to  pages  439,  442. 

The  style  may  be  divided  into  three  periods : 

(a.)  The  Early  Renaissance  Period,  1461-1589  (or  sixteenth 
century)  comprising  the  reigns  of:— Louis  XI.  1461-1483, 
Charles  VIII.  1483-1498,  Louis  XII.  1498-1515,  Francis  I. 
1515-1547'  Henri  II.  1547-1559,  Francis  II.  1559-1560, 
Ch,f;le*  IX'  /56o-i574,  ^d  Henri  III.  1574-1589. 

(0.)  ine  Classical  Penod,  1589-1715  (or  seventeenth  century), 
comprising  the  reigns  of:— Henri  IV.  1589-1610  (introduced 
classic  type),  Louis  XIII.  1610-1643.  and  Louis  XIV.  1643-1715. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 


499 


The  latter  reign  was  a  period  of  remarkable  artistic  activity, 
the  architecture  being  correct  and  dignified  with  a  large  use  of 
the  orders  externally,  while  internally  a  fanciful  style  of  stucco 
and  papier  mache  decoration  of  scrolls,  nymphs,  wreaths,  shells 
and  figures  form  important  elements. 

(£.)  The  Rococo  Period,  1715-1793  (or  eighteenth  century),  com- 
prising the  reigns  of :  — Louis  XV.  1715-1774,  and  Louis  XVI. 
1774-1793. 

In  order  to  understand  better  the  architectural  character  of 
French  Renaissance  it  is  compared  with  Italian  in  the  following 
table  :— 


ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE. 

A  direct  return  to  Classic  forms 
occurred.  Considerable  variety 
however  arose  in  use  and  dis- 
position ,of  the  revived  architec- 
tural features  (No.  204). 

Principal  buildings  erected  in 
towns,  as  Florence,  Rome,  and 
Venice,  being  palaces  for  kings, 
dukes  and  wealthy  and  powerful 
popes  (Nos.  192,  195  and  207). 

Severe  Classic  disposition  not  only 
appropriate  but  necessary  in  the 
narrow  streets  of  Florence  and 
Rome,  or  on  the  straight  water- 
ways of  Venice. 

Influence  of  ancient  Rome  and  her 
buildings  apparent  in  greater 
purity  of  sculptured  detail,  and 
in  ornamental  features. 

A  city  palace  as  in  Florence,  Venice, 
or  Rome  is  principally  seen  from 
the  street,  and  the  architectural 
features  were  often  appltgue,  i.e., 
only  applied  to  the  front  fa9ade 
(No.  207). 

Predominant  characteristics  are 
stateliness  and  a  tendency  to 
Classical  horizontality. 

Early  buildings  were  principally 
churches,  in  consequence  of  the 
comparative  fewness  of  these 
buildings  erected  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  essentially  a 
church-building  age  (Nos.  193, 
199,  203,  211,  212).  although  the 
number  of  Italian  palaces  of  the 
epoch  is  very  large. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

A  period  of  transition  in  which 
Renaissance  details  were  grafted 
on  to  Gothic  forms,  as  at  the 
Church  of  S.  Eustache  (No.  222), 
Paris,  Chateau  de  Blois(No.  219). 

Principal  buildings  erected  in  the 
country,  mostly  on  the  banks  of 
the  Loire,  being  palaces  built 
for  royalty  and  nobility,  as 
Chambord  (No. "220). 

The  picturesque  disposition  ot 
Gothic  origin,  more  in  keeping 
with  the  country  surroundings, 
where  the  chief  buildings  were 
erected  (No.  221). 

Influence  of  Rome  less  apparent, 
partly  because  of  distance  from 
the  headquarters  of  the  Renais- 
sance movement. 

A  country  chateau  is  seen  on  all 
sides,  and  the  importance  of  a 
picturesque  grouping  from  every 
point  of  view  (Nos.  220,  221) 
was  sought  for  in  these  buildings, 
so  that  every  fa$ade  was  of 
importance. 

Predominant  characteristics  are 
picturesqueness,  and  a  tendency 
to  Gothic  verticality  (No.  222). 

Early  buildings  were  principally 
chateaux  for  the  nobility,  who 
vied  with  each  other  in  the  erec- 
tion of  these  important  structures. 
The  large  number  of  the  churches 
of  the  jVliddle  Ages  sufficed  for 
existing  needs.  It  was  essentially 
a  palace-buildingepoch(Nos.  220, 
221  and  223). 

K  K  2 


500  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE.  FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

The  country  houses  of  the  nobles  The   chateaux   on    the    Loire   are 

in  the  Venetian  territory,  in  the  irregular   Gothic  castles,   with  a 

style  of  Palladio,  are  symmetrical  coating    of    Renaissance    detail 

and   stately,  with   no   traces   of  (Nos.  220  and  221)  over  features 

Gothic  influence  (No.  2 16  D,  E,  F).  essentially  Gothic. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Chateau  de  Blois  (A.D.  1508),  erected  by  Louis  XII. 
and  Francis  I.,  is  one  of  the  more  important  examples  (No.  219). 
The  pilaster  treatment  of  the  fa9ade,  the  mullioned  windows 
showing  the  preference  for  the  square  section  of  mullion,  and  the 
rich  crowning  cornice  and  carved  roof  dormers,  are  notable.  The 
shell  ornament,  introduced  from  Venice,  was  largely  employed.  In 
the  famous  "  Staircase  Tower"  by  Francis  I.  (A.D.  i  515-1547),  the 
letter  F  decoratively  formed  among  the  carved  balusters,  and 
vaulting  bosses,  and  the  repetition  of  the  carving  of  the  salamander, 
the  emblem  of  Francis  I.,  are  interesting  (No.  219).  A  Scottish 
version  (minus  the  staircase)  is  to  be  seen  in  Fettes  College, 
Edinburgh. 

The  Chateau  de  Bury  (A.D.  1520)  (No.  220  A,  B),  near  Blois, 
is  a  typical  example  and  may  be  compared  with  a  typical  English 
plan  (Nos.  131  and  244). 

It  consists  of  a  large  square  court,  in  front  of  which  is  a  screen 
wall,  solid  externally,  but  with  a  colonnade  facing  the  court.  The 
entrance  is  in  the  centre  of  this  wall,  and  is  provided  with  a,  porte- 
cochere,  or  carriage  entrance.  The  screen  wall  is  flanked  by  towers, 
circular  externally,  and  square  internally,  and  attached  to  these, 
forming  two  sides  of  the  court,  are  long  wings  containing  the 
servants'  apartments  on  one  side,  and  offices  and  stabling  on 
the  other.  These  are  connected  at  the  further  end  of  the  court 
with  the  main  building  (Corps  de  logis)  in  which  the  family  resided, 
and  which  contained  the  reception  rooms.  Behind  this  main 
building  was  the  garden,  and  in  the  centre  of  one  side  was 
placed  the  chapel.  Each  of  the  side  wings  to  the  court  is 
one  story  lower  than  the  main  building,  which  contained  the 
family  apartments,  as  mentioned  above. 

The  above  description  applies  equally  to  French  town  houses, 
up  to  the  present  day,  with  slight  modifications  dependent  on  site 
and  local  necessities.  In  French  country  houses  the  windows 
face  on  to  an  internal  courtyard,  as  in  the  ancient  Roman  atrium' 
(the  courtyard  corresponding  to  the  atrium),  whereas  in  English 
country  houses  after  the  time  of  Henry  VII.  the  windows  all  face 
outwards,  a  courtyard  being  an  exception  (No.  131). 

The  Chateau  de  Chambord  (A.D.  1526)  (Nos.  220  c,  D,  and 
221),  by  Pierre  Nepveu,  is  one  of  the  most  famous  erected  in  the 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 


Sol 


219. 


CHATEAU   DE  BLOIS. 
The  Staircase  Tower. 


FRENCH  RENAISSANCE  EXAMPLES.    I. 


•  I  II  llJlllilJ.tBl.i 


' 

F/tto  If   BfID   flf  £7Ef ^  '  e&sanrj      r3^r=inn™.  K  U  PI   |     IJU' 


220. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE.  503 

Loire  district  of  central  France,  and  possesses  a  semi -fortified 
character.  The  traditional  circular  towers  of  defence,  roofed  with 
slate  covered  cones,  are  incorporated  in  a  palace  design  infused  with 
Italian  detail.  These  conical  roofs  are  broken  up,  where  possible, 
by  rich  dormers  (No.  225  K,  L,  M)  and  tall  chimneys,  which  give  to 
the  building  its  characteristic  confusion,  yet  richness,  of  sky-line. 
The  main  block,  220  feet  square,  corresponding  to  the  keep  of  an 
English  castle,  was  surrounded,  and  protected  on  three  sides,  by 
buildings  inclosing  a  courtyard  ;  while  the  fourth  side  was  defended 
by  a  moat.  The  central  feature,  or  "donjon, "is  square  on  plan, 
with  four  halls  as  lofty  as  the  nave  of  a  church,  and  tunnel-vaulted 
with  coffered  sinkings.  At  the  junction  of  these  halls  is  the  famous 
double  spiral  staircase,  built  up  in  a  cage  of  stone,  whose  crown- 
ing lantern  is  the  central  object  of  the  external  grouping.  The 
smallness  of  scale  in  regard  to  mouldings,  the  flatness  of  the 
projection  to  the  pilasters,  the  Gothic  feeling  throughout  the 
design,  especially  the  high-pitched  roofs,  the  ornamented  chim- 
neys, and  the  general  vertical  treatment  of  the  features,  make 
this  example  one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  Early  French 
Renaissance  buildings.  An  English  version  is  the  Royal  Holloway 
College,  Egham.  It  may  be  compared  with  advantage  to  the 
pentagonal  semi-fortress  of  Caprarola  (No.  201),  by  Vignola 
(page  463). 

The  Palace  at  Fontainebleau  (A.D.  1528)  was  erected  by 
Le  Breton,  architect,  for  Francis  I.,  whose  favourite  residence 
it  was.  There  is  a  remarkable  irregularity  in  its  plan,  due  in 
part  to  the  convent  it  replaced,  and  Vignola  and  Serlio  seem  to 
have  worked  on  the  design.  Contrary  to  Blois,  the  chief  interest 
of  this  example  lies  in  the  sumptuous  interiors,  as  in  the  saloons 
decorated  by  Benvenuto::  Cellini,  Primaticcio  and  Serlio  (No.  225). 
The  exterior  is  remarkably  plain. 

Other  noteworthy  examples  are  the  Chateau  d'Azay-le- 
Rideau  (A.D.  1520) ;  the  Chateau  de  Chenonceaux  (A.D. 
1515-1523),  picturesquely  situated  by  a  lake,  and  standing  for 
the  most  part  on  a  bridge  over  the  water,  and  the  Chateau  de 
S.  Germain-en- Laye  (A.D.  1539). 

The  Louvre,  Paris.  —  This  may  be  taken  as  the  most 
important  building  in  the  style,  and  its  construction  lasted  from 
the  time  of  Francis  I.  to  Louis  XIV.,  the  building  exhibiting,  in 
consequence,  a  complete  history  of  the  progressive  stages  of  the 
French  Renaissance  style,  as  shown  on  No.  220  F. 

The  general  design  of  the  Louvre  was  originally  intended  to 
cover  the  ground  of  the  fortified  Gothic  palace  which  it  replaced. 
The  present  design  consists  of  two  stories  and  an  attic  (No.  220  E), 
arranged  round  a  courtyard,  400  feet  square. 

Pierre  Lescot  (A.D.  1515-1578),  the  first  architect,  commenced 
the  work  in  1540,  under  Italian  influence,  but  the  original  design 


u 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE.  505 

only  included  a  court  one-fourth  the  present  size.  The  only 
courtyard  in  Italy  to  which  that  of  the  Louvre  may  be  compared 
is  the  Great  Hospital  at  Milan,  commenced  in  1456  by  the 
architect  Filaretc.  This  was  formed  of  open  colonnades  in  two 
stories,  due  no  doubt  to  climatic  influences  ;  whereas  the  Louvre 
is  throughout  of  solid  walling,  broken  up  only  by  pilasters, 
windows,  and  other  architectural  features. 

The  lower  order  is  of  Corinthian,  the  upper  of  Composite 
pilasters,  and  an  order  of  pilasters  of  less  height  was  provided 
for  the  attic  story. 

The  sculptured  work  by  Jean  Goujon  (A.D.  1510-1572)  is 
especially  noteworthy. 

Under  Henri  IV.  (A.D.  1589-1610),  the  gallery  facing  the  Seine 
was  erected  (1595-1608)  by  Du  Cerceau,  and  shows  the  debased 
inclinations  of  the  period,  the  details  being  coarsely  carved 
throughout.  Corinthian  columns  run  through  two  stories,  the 
entablature  was  pierced  for  admission  of  windows,  and  triangular 
or  circular  pediments  were  placed  over  pilasters,  without  any 
reference  to  construction  or  fitness. 

Under  Louis  XIII.  (A.D.  1610-1643)  the  Louvre,  as  built  by 
Lescot,  was  doubled  in  size  by  the  architect  Lemercier,  the 
Pavilion  de  1'Horloge  being  added  to  form  the  centre  of  the 
enlarged  court  fagade. 

Under  Louis  XIV.  Perrault  added  (1688)  the  eastern  fagade, 
600  feet  in  length,  consisting  of  a  solid-looking  basement,  above 
which  is  an  open  colonnade  of  coupled  Corinthian  columns,  and 
additional  stories  were  added  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of 
the  court  to  make  up  the  necessary  height  to  the  eastern  block. 

Under  Napoleon  I.  the  northern  portion  fronting  on  the  Place 
du  Carrousal  (completed  by  Napoleon  III.  (1863-1868)  and  the 
Republic  (1874-1878))  was  constructed  to  connect  this  building 
with  the  Tuileries  Palace. 

Under  Napoleon  III.  the  Louvre  was  finished  by  Visconti, 
during  1852-1857,  by  the  addition  of  the  fa9ades  north  and  south 
of  the  Place  Louis  Napoleon,  forming  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
specimens  of  modern  French  art,  in  which  a  certain  richness 
and  dignity  are  added  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  earlier 
periods. 

The  Tuileries  Palace,  Paris  (A.D.  1564-1572)  was  com- 
menced for  Catherine  de  Medici,  by  Philibert  de  l'Orme.(A.D. 
1515-1570).  Only  a  portion  of  one  side  was  erected,  consisting  of 
a  domical  central  pavilion  with  low  wings  on  either  side.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  two  stories  were  added  by  F.  B.  du  Cerceau. 
The  problem  of  effecting  a  proper  junction  between  this  palace 
and  the  Louvre  was  a  crux  of  long  standing  because  of  the 
want  of  parallelism  between  them,  but  was  finally  effected 
under  Napoleon  III.  as  mentioned  above.  The  destruction  of  the 


506  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Tuileries  during  the  Commune  in  1871,  however,  has  rendered 
the  connecting  galleries  architecturally  ineffective. 

The  Luxembourg  Palace,  Paris  (A.D.  1611)  (No.  223  G,  H), 
was  erected  by  De  Brosse  for  Marie  de  Medici  of  Florence,  the 
intention  being  to  imitate  the  bold  and  simple  treatment  of 
Florentine  buildings.  It  resembles  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence, 
in  the  treatment  of  the.  courtyard. 

It  has  a  French  type  of  plan,  i.e.,  a  "  corp  de  logis,"  315  feet 
by  170  feet  and  three  stories  in  height,  from  which  wings  project 
230  feet,  enclosing  a  courtyard,  and  having  screen  and  porte- 
cochere  in  front.  It  is  now  used  as  a  Senate  House. 

The  Chateau  de  Maisons,  near  Paris  (1658),  was  erected 
by  Francois  Mansard,  architect,  and  is  shown  in  plan  and 
elevation  in  No.  223  E,  F.  It  is  notable  for  the  effective  use  of 
the  Classic  orders  to  each  story,  the  mansard  roofs  treated 
separately  for  the  pavilions  and  central  portion,  and  general 
refinement  of  detail. 

The  Palace  of  Versailles  was  commenced  in  A.D.  1664, 
by  Jules  Hardouin  Mansard  (1647-1708),  for  Louis  XIV., 
and  is  remarkable  only  for  the  uniformity  and  tameness  of  its 
design.  The  dimensions  are  very  large,  the  central  projection 
measuring  320  feet  and  each  wing  500  feet,  thus  giving  a  total  of 
1,320  feet.  Le  Notre  laid  out  the  gardens  which,  with  their 
fountains,  terraces  and  arbours,  are  very  fine. 

In  addition  to  the  important  buildings  mentioned,  there  are 
many  charming  examples  of  the  style,  as  the  House  of  Agnes 
Sorel,  Orleans,  the  Hotel  de  Bourgtheroulde,  Rouen,  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  Beaugency,  and  many  others  throughout 
France. 

Amongst  later  examples  in  Paris  are  the  Arc  de  Triomphe 
(A.D.  1806)  by  Chalgrin  ;  the  Library  of  S.  Genevieve,  with 
its  astylar  facade  (A.D.  1843-1850),  by  Labrouste  ;  the  Louvre, 
completed  by  Visconti ;  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  reconstructed  in  its 
original  style  of  the  Early  Renaissance  (A.D.  1533)  by  Ballu  and 
Deperthes  in  A.D.  1871  ;  and  the  Opera  House  (A.D.  1863-1875) 
by  Gamier. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  early  examples  of  the  incoming  style  consisted  mainly,  as 
in  England,  of  tombs,  pulpits,  altars  and  doorways,  and  additions 
to  churches,  in  which  Renaissance  details  were  often  grafted  on  to 
Gothic  forms.  The  tombs  of  Louis  XII.  (A.D.  1515)  in  S.  Denis 
Cathedral,  near  Paris,  and  Cardinal  d'Amboise  at  Rouen  ;  the 
portals  of  the  church  of  the  Trinity  at  Falaise  ;  the  external 
pulpit  at  the  Chateau  de  Vitre,  and  the  apses  of  S.  Pierre  at 
Caen,  are  examples. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE   EXAMPLES. 


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223. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE.  509 

S.  Eustache,  Paris  (A.D.  1532),  by  Lemercier  (No.  222), 
in  plan  is  a  typical  five-aisled  mediaeval  church,  with  circular 
apsidal  end.  As  to  the  exterior,  it  has  high  roofs,  a  kind  of 
Renaissance  tracery  to  the  windows,  flying  buttresses,  pinnacles, 
deeply -recessed  portals,  and  other  Gothic  features,  clothed  with 
Renaissance  detail.  The  church  is,  in  fact,  laid  out  on  Gothic 
lines,  but  clothed  with  detail  inspired  from  Italian  sources. 

S.  Etienne  du  Mont,  Paris  (A.D.  1517-1538)  is  another 
example  to  which  the  same  remarks  apply.  It  has  a  famous 
rood-screen,  with  double  staircases  and  carved  balustrading  in 
Renaissance  detail,  illustrating  the  highly  developed  technical 
ability  of  the  masons  of  the  period. 

The  Church  of  the  Sorbonne  (A.D.  1629)  was  designed  by 
Lemercier  and  has  a  domical  treatment  with  a  facade  of  super- 
imposed orders. 

S.S.  Paul  and  Louis,  Paris  (A.D.  1627),  is  an  unfortunate 
example  of  the  intermediate  period,  overloaded  with  decoration 
to  its  three-storied  facade. 

Amongst  the  later  examples  are  S.  Sulpice,  Paris  (A.D.  1650)  the 
grand  two-storied  facade  being  added  by  Servandoni  in  A.D.  1750. 

The  Dome  of  the  Invalides,  Paris  (1670-1706),  by  Jules 
Hardouin  Mansard,  which  completed  the  scheme  of  the  Hdtel 
des  Invalides,  commenced  in  1670  by  Bruant,  shows  that  the 
principles  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  were  fully  established. 

In  plan  it  is  a  Greek  cross,  with  the  corners  filled  in  so  as 
to  make  it  a  square  externally  (No.  223  A,  B).  The  dome,  92  feet 
in  diameter,  rests  on  four  piers,  provided  with  openings  to  form 
eight,  thus  bearing  a  similarity  to  S.  Paul,  London.  The  piers 
are  so  formed  as  to  produce  internally  an  octagonal  effect,  the 
openings  leading  to  four  angle  chapels,  which,  being  at  a  different 
level,  appear  independent  of  the  dome.  The  triple  dome  is  pro- 
vided with  windows  in  the  drum,  or  lower  portion,  above  which  is 
an  interior  dome,  175  feet  high,  with  a  central  opening;  over  this 
comes  a  second  or  middle  dome,  with  painted  decorations,  visible 
by  means  of  windows  at  its  base ;  lastly,  over  all  is  an  external 
dome  crowned  by  a  lantern  of  wood,  covered  with  lead. 

The  construction  differs  considerably  from  that  of  S.  Paul, 
London  (No.  253),  where  an  intermediate  brick  cone  supports  the 
external  stone  lantern. 

The  Pantheon  (1755-81),  Paris,  was  erected  from  the  designs  of 
Soufflot  (A.D.  1713-81).  The  plan  (No.  223  D)  is  approximately  a 
Greek  cross,  four  halls  surrounding  a  central  one,  above  which  rises 
a  dome,  69  feet  in  diameter.  The  dome  is  a  triple  one  (No.  223  c) 
as  that  of  the  Invalides,  mentioned  above,  but  the  outer  dome 
is  of  stone  covered  with  lead.  The  exterior  of  the  dome  is  poor 
in  comparison  with  that  of  S.  Paul,  because  of  the  apparent 
weakness  and  want  of  variety  of  the  unbroken  ring  of  free-standing 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE.  5!! 

columns  unattached  to  the  drum.  The  interior  of  the  church  has 
an  order  of  Corinthian  columns  with  an  attic  over,  and  has  been 
decorated  recently  with  frescoes  by  foremost  French  artists.  The 
vaulting  is  ingenious,  and  elegance  has  been  obtained  by  a 
tenuity  of  support,  which  at  one  time  threatened  the  stability  of 
the  edifice.  The  exterior  (No.  224)  has  a  Corinthian  colonnade 
or  portico  at  the  west  end,  the  cornice  to  which  is  carried  round 
the  remainder  of  the  fa9ades,  which  have  a  blank  wall  treat- 
ment, the  light  being  obtained  for  the  nave  by  a  clerestory  over 
the  aisles. 

The  Madeleine,  Paris  (A.D.  1804)  was  erected  by  the  architect 
Vignon.  In  plan  it  is  an  octastyle  peripteral  temple,  350  feet  by  147 
feet,  showing  a  direct  imitation  of  ancient  Roman  architecture,  and 
being  a  further  step  towards  absolute  copyism.  The  external 
order  has  a  defect,  which  often  occurs  in  French  buildings,  viz., 
that  the  columns  are  built  of  small  courses  of  stone,  the  joints  of 
which  confuse  the  lines  of  the  fluting,  and  the  architraves  are 
formed  into  flat  arches  with  wide  joints.  The  interior  is  fine 
and  original,  the  cella,  as  it  would  be  called  in  a  Classic  structure, 
being  divided  into  three  bays,  covered  by  flat  domes,  through 
the  eyes  of  which  is  obtained  all  the  light  for  the  church.  At 
the  east  end  is  an  apse  covered  with  a  half-dome. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

The  essential  differences  between  Italian  and  French  Renais- 
sance \vill  now  be  treated  in  a  comparative  manner,  but  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  subject  is  treated  generally,  and  that 
the  comparisons  state  what  usually  is  the  fact,  although  in  many 
cases  features  are  found  which  do  not  exactly  correspond  with  the 
type. 

ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE.  FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

A.  Plans.— The  great  feature  ot  A.  Plans.— The    castles    of    the 

Italian  houses  is    the   cortile,  or  previous  period  influenced  both 

central    open    courtyard,    which  plan    and    design    of  the    early 

has,  in  all  important    examples,  chateaux,    some   of   which   were 

a  colonnade  or  arcade  round  it.  on   the  site  of,  or  additions  to, 

It  is  usual  for  the  main  wall,  on  such    castles.      Chambord    may 

the  first  floor,  to  stand   on  the  be  counted  as  an  attempt  at  an 

piers  or  columns  of  this  arcade,  ideal    plan    of  a   mansion,   hall 

giving    ampler     space     for    the  castle     and    half    palace    (Nos. 

important   rooms,    which  are   in  220  and  221).     The  typical  house 

Italy,  on    the   first  or   principal  plan   in   the   towns  has   a   main 

floor,  called  the  "piano  nobile  "  block,  with  two  lower  wings  in- 

(Nos.    191,    196,    198,    208    and  closing  a  courtyard  cut  off  from 

217).  the  street  by  a  screen  wall. 


512 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE. 

B.  Walls.  —  Straight  facades 
varied  by  orders,  arcades,  or 
window-dressings  were  crowned 
by  a  deep  cornice  at  the  top 
(Nos.  191, 192,  197, 198  and  210). 
Attics  are  rare,  but  an  open  top 
story  (Belvedere)  is  a  feature 
in  houses  of  all  classes. — Brick- 
work was  used  in  large  and  rough 
masses  with  ashlar  facing,  atten- 
tion being  concentrated  on  the 
window  dressings  or  orders. 
Later  examples,  as  at  Genoa  and 
Vicenza,  are  in  plaster  (Nos. 
216  and  217). 

c.  Openings. — Symmetry  regu- 
lated the  position  of  openings, 
and  in  late  examples  the  use  of 
the  Classic  orders,  rather  than 
convenience,  determined  their 
position  (Nos.  195,  196,  199, 
200,  207,  215  and  216).  Early 
designs  were  often  astylar,  the 
openings  being  the  features  upon 
which  all  the  detail  was  concen- 
trated (Nos.  191,  192  and  197). 
In  the  later  buildings  greater 
plainness  prevails  to  give  effect  to 
the  orders.  In  the  Rococo  period 
a  return  was  often  made  to  the 
astylar  principle,  when  excessive 
prominence  and  exaggeration  of 
detail  marked  the  window  dress- 
ings, As  the  attic  was  rare  in 
Italian  work,  on  account  of  the 
use  of  the  great  cornice,  the  top 
floor  openings  were  often  formed 
as  a  deep  band,  or  frieze,  or  were 
set  between  consoles,  which  give 
support  to  the'  main  cornice. 

D.  Roofs. — Flat  or  low-pitched 
roofs  are  special  features,  for  the 
reason  that  in  a  narrow  street 
the  roofs  could  not  be  seen. 
Chimneys,  if  used  at  all,  were 
masked  as  far  as  possible  (Nos. 
!92>  19S)  except  at  Venice. 

In  early  examples   tile    roofs 
were    made    visible    above    the 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

B.  Walls.  —  The  gables  and 
prominent  stone  dormers  of  the 
early  period  (Nos.  219,  220  and 
225)  gradually  gave  place  to 
pedimented  and  balustraded 
elevations  (Nos.  224  and  226). 
The  mansard  roof  lent  itself  to 
pavilions  which  mark  the  angles 
of  the  facades,  while  the  centre 
often  has  an  attic  (No.  223  E). 
Chimneys  continue  to  be  marked 
features,  though  less  ornamented 
(No.  221).  Stone  was  the  chief^ 
material,  but  red.  brick  was'', 
sometimes  combined  with  it. 

c.  Openings.— In  early,  designs 
the  mullions  and  transoms  of  the 
Gothic  method  continued,  though 
changed  in  detail  (Nos.  219, 
221  and  225  K).  Vertical  cou- 
pling of  windows  was  effectively 
practised,  but  as  the  orders, 
usually  one  for  each  story, 
came  increasingly  into  use,  the 
horizontal  lines  of  their  entabla- 
tures prevailed  (No.  220).  Sym- 
metry in  position  was  carefully 
attended  to  in  late  work. 
Mezzanine  floors  were  much  used 
in  large  mansions,  with  circu- 
lar windows  (No.  226  J,  K), 
the  main  apartments  then  having 
an  upper  row  of  windows,  to  pre- 
serve the  range  of  openings 
externally  (No.  226  R),  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  fa9ade 
treatment.  The  attic  was  a 
special  feature,  and  circular 
windows  (ceil  de  bceuf )  often  occur 
in  it  (No.  223  E). 

D.  Roofs. — High  roofs  are  special 
features,  with  elaborately  carved 
dormer  windows  and  chimneys, 
which  give  sky-line  and  pic- 
turesqueness  to  the  design  when 
viewed  from  a  distance  (Nos.  221 
and  222). 

The  French  invention  of  the 
Mansard  form  preserved  the  roof 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 


513 


ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE. 

great  cornice,  the  later  being 
nearly  always  balustraded  (No. 
210  A).  Domes  were  relied  upon 
for  sky-line  in  churches  (Nos.  193, 
199,211  and  212).  The  "Bel- 
vedere "  gives  character  to  villas. 

E.  Columns.  —  Pilasters     were 
either  plain,  or  carved  with  deli- 
cate foliage  (Nos.    196,  200,  204, 
2060,    214    J,   217,    218),  while 
star-shaped     sinkings     are     un- 
common.    The  pilaster  in  Italy 
was     preferred  *  rather    for     its 
architectural   importance   as  an 
"  order/'  the  panelled  decoration 
being  often  omitted. 

An  "  order  "  was  often  made  to 
include  two  or  more  stories  of  a 
building.  In  churches  especially 
a  single  order  prevails,  which  was 
the  type  of  Palladio  (Nos.  200, 
201,  203,  216). 

F.  Mouldings. — The  heavy  cor- 
nice was  provided  for  protection 
from  the  glare  of  the  Italian  sun 
(Nos.  191,  192  and  197).    In  early 
examples,  string  courses  were  of 
slight  projection,  to  give  value  to 
the  top  cornice.  Where  the  orders 
were  employed,  the  details    as- 
signed to  each  were  used  in  full. 
Mouldings  are  usually  large  but 
well  studied  in  profile. 

G.  Ornament.    (Nos.  194,  206, 
214    and     218).  —  Fresco    and 
modelled  plaster  were  much  em- 
ployed, in    the  early  period  the 
two    being  combined,  as  in  the 
arabesques    of    Raphael.       The 
frescoes    were,    however,    some- 
times out  of  scale  with  the  archi- 
tecture,  and    devoid  of  decora- 
tive value.    Compare  the  Vatican, 
and  the  Palazzo  del   Te,    Man- 
tua.    Later  stucco  work  suffered 
in  the  same  way,  Venice  having 
some  extraordinary  examples  of 
its  abuse.     Interiors,  generally  in 
late  work,  were  regulated  unduly 

F.A. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

as  a  feature  (No.  223),  and  as  it 
lent  itself  to  pavilions,  square 
or  oblong,  such  features  acquired 
great  prominence,as  at  the  Louvre, 
where  they  assume  the  import- 
ance of  towers. 

E.  Columns.  --    Pilasters  were 
decorative    adjuncts    to    Gothic 
features,  rusticated  or    panelled 
in    star  -  shaped    patterns,    but 
sometimes    treated   with    foliage 
(No.  225  H).   At  Chambord  (No. 
225  K),  the  sinkings  were  treated 
with  a  black  inlay,  slates  being 
nailed  in  the  sunk  faces  of  the 
stonework. 

An  "  order "  or  column  was 
usually  given  each  story  (No. 
220).  Columns  usually  do  not 
run  through  two  stories.  The 
influence  of  Vignola  in  this 
respect  is  visible  (Nos.  221,  223). 

F.  Mouldings.  —  Gothic    influ- 
ence  pervaded   the    early  work, 
and    combinations    of    methods, 
Classic    and    Mediaeval,    in   the 
profilings  of  mouldings  were  tried 
(No.    219).     Some  examples,  as 
at  Orleans,  have  extremely  small 
members.        The       architecture 
gradually     acquired     a     special 
character  from  the  treatment  of 
mouldings. 

G.  Ornament  (Nos.  225,  226).— 
The    wood  panelling   of  Gothic 
times    continued    in    the    early 
period,    often    splendidly  carved 
with    arabesque   designs,   as    at 
Blois.    I n  later  work  it  continued, 
but  gradually  lost  the   character 
and  scale  of  the  material.      The 
Raphael  style  of  decoration  was 
introduced  by  Italian  artists,  as 
at  Fontainebleau.      The  tapestry 
and  hangings  of  the  early  period 
were  superseded  by  the  universal 
Louis  XIV.  style  of  internal  wood, 
papier  mache,  and  stucco  decora- 
tion in  white  and  gold.     It  was 

L  L 


FRENCH   RENAISSANCE  ORNAMENT.     I, 


225. 


ilf 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT. 


226. 


L  L  2 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE. 

by  the  features  of  Classic  temple 
architecture,  and  have  often  no 
relation  to  the  requirements  of 
the  occupants.  Sculpture  in  later 
work  lost  touch  with  the  decora- 
tive feeling  of  architecture,  and 
great  extravagances  were  perpe- 
trated, as  in  the  fountains  of 
Rome. 


FRENCH    RENAISSANCE. 

applied  to  every  accessory,  and 
had  the  merit  of  a  certain  fitness 
and  unity.  Sculpture  acquired 
an  increasing  importance,  and 
the  best  available  figure  sculpture 
has  been  used  in  connection  with 
modern  French  architecture. 


5.  REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Berty  (A.). — "  La  Renaissance  Monumentale  en  France."  2  vols.,4to. 
Paris,  1864. 

Chateau  (L.). — "  Histoire  et  Caracteres  de  1'Architecture  en  France. 
8vo.  Paris,  1864. 

Daly  (C.).— "  Motifs  Historiques  d' Architecture  et  de  Sculpture." 
2  vols.,  folio.  Paris,  1870. 

Daly. — "  Motifs  Historiques  :  Decorations  Interieures."     2  vols.,  folio. 

Desjardins  (T.). — "  Monographic  de  THotel  de  Ville  de  Lyon."  Folio. 
Paris,  1867. 

Du  Cerceau  (J.  A.).— "  Les  plus  Excellents  Bastiments  de  P>ance." 
2  vols.,  folio.  Paris,  1868-1870. 

Gurlitt  (C.). — "  Die  Baukunst  Frankreichs."     2  vols.,  folio.     1900. 

Palustre  (L.).— "  La  Renaissance  en  France."  3  vols.,  folio.  Paris, 
1 879- 1 885 .  (Not  completed.} 

Petit  (V.).—"  Chateaux  de  la  Valle'e  de  la  Loire."     Folio.     Paris,  1861. 

Pfnor  (R.).— "  Le  Palais  de  Fontainebleau."  3  vols.,  folio.  Paris, 
1859-1867. 

Rouyer  (E.).— "La  Renaissance  de  Fran9ois  I.  a  Louis  XIII."  Folio. 
Paris. 

Rouyer  (E.)  et  Darcel  (A.).—"  L'Art  Architectural  en  France."  2  vols., 
4to.  Paris,  1863-1866. 

Sauvageot  (C.).— "  Palais,  Chateaux,  Hotels  et  Maisons  de  France." 
4  vols.,  folio.  Paris,  1867. 

Verdier  (A.)  et  Cattois  (F.  P.).—"  L' Architecture  Civile  et  Domestique." 
2  vols.,  4to.  Paris,  1858. 

Chetwode  (R.  D.).— "  John  of  Strathbourne."  I  „•        .  .  *  , 

Weyman  (S.).-"A  Gentleman  of  France."     I  Hlstoncal  Novels- 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE. 

(See  page  258  for  German  Romanesque.) 
(See  page  393  for  German  Gothic.) 

"  My  niche  is  not  so  cramped  but  thence 
One  sees  the  pulpit  o'  the  epistle  side, 
And  somewhat  of  the  choir,  those  silent  seats, 
And  up  into  the  aery  dome,  where  live 
The  angels,  and  a  sunbeam's  sure  to  lurk  ; 
And  I  shall  fill  my  slab  of  basalt  there, 
And  'neath  my  tabernacle  take  my  rest." — BROWNING. 


i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — Refer  to  pages  258  and  393. 

ii.  Geological. — The  absence  of  stone,  in  the  great  alluvial 
plains  of  North  Germany,  influenced  largely  the  architecture  of 
that  district ;  moulded  and  cut  brickwork  was  used  in  every 
variety,  the  general  scale  of  the  detail  being  small,  and  surface 
ornamentation  being  formed  in  raised  patterns. 

iii.  Climate. — Refer  to  pages  258,  393. 

iv.  Religion. — Martin  Luther  (1517-1546)  attacked  the  prac- 
tical abuses  of  certain  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  brought  about 
a  revolution  in  the  religious  life  of  Germany  (see  below).  Luther's 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  High  Dutch  caused  that  language  to 
become  the  recognised  German  tongue.  In  architecture  little 
of  great  interest  was  produced,  old  churches,  with  all  their  fittings, 
continuing  to  be  used,  but  the  prominence  given  to  preaching 
brought  in  galleries  and  congregational  planning. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  country  consisted  of  a  number 
of  small  kingdoms  or  principalities,  each  with  its  own  capital  and 
government,  thus  preventing  any  national  effort  as  in  France, 
which  was  under  one  united  head.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  Heidelberg  was  the  centre  of  "  Humanism," 
and  the  chief  reformed  seat  of  learning  in  Germany.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War,  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  A.D.  1648, 
was  of  social  importance. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  literary  works  of  Winckelmann, 
Goethe  and  others  aroused  interest  in  Greek  architecture. 


518  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

vi.  Historical. — Charles  V.  (Charles  I.  of  Spain)  succeeded  to 
all  the  possessions  of  the  Houses  of  Castile,  Aragon,  Burgundy, 
and  the  Low  Countries,  and  this  marks  the  period  of  the  German 
Renaissance.  In  1516  he  obtained  the  two  Sicilies,  and  in  1519, 
on  the  death  of  Maximilian,  he  was  elected  to  the  Empire,  becoming 
the  most  powerful  emperor  since  Charlemagne. 

In  1517  Luther  nailed  up  his  theses  at  Wittenberg,  marking 
the  commencement  of  the  Reformation,  which  was  aided  largely 
by  the  revival  of  learning,  and  in  1520  he  defied  the  Pope,  by 
publicly  burning  the  bull  of  excommunication  put  forth  against 
him  by  Pope  Leo  X.  The  Diet  of  Spires,  1529,  passed  a  decree 
against  all  ecclesiastical  changes,  against  which  Luther  and  the 
princes  who  followed  him  protested,  hence  the  name  "  Protestant." 
This  led  in  1530  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  and  the  con- 
federation of  Protestant  princes  and  cities,  for  mutual  defence, 
called  the  Smalcaldic  League.  The  war  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  and  the  Catholics  against  the  Protestant  princes 
extended  from  1546-1555,  when  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  was  con- 
cluded, which  left  each  state  free  to  set  up  which  religion  it 
pleased,  but  made  no  provision  for  those  people  who  might  be  of 
different  religion  to  the  government  of  each  state.  This  resulted 
in  persecutions,  and  finally  in  the  great  religious  war,  known  as 
the  "  Thirty  Years'  War,"  commenced  in  1618,  and  carried  on 
in  Germany  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  princes.  Other 
princes,  such  as  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  and  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden,  joined  in  these  wars  on  the  Protestant  side,  under 
the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of 
James  I.  of  England.  Hence  many  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen 
served  in  these  wars,  and  France  joined  in  for  her  own  aggrandize- 
ment, under  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin.  The  Peace  of 
Westphalia,  1648,  provided  once  more  for  religious  equality  and 
tolerance  in  each  state.  The  war  had,  however,  utterly  ruined 
Germany,  and  caused  France  to  become  the  leading  nation  in 
Europe. 

2.   ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

Refer  to  pages  439,  442. 

This  style  as  in  other  countries  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
three  periods  corresponding  to  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries. 

The  Renaissance  style  in  Germany  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
picturesqueness  and  variety  of  grouping,  and  quaintness  and 
grotesqueness  of  ornament,  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  traditions 
of  the  preceding  style. 

It  was  introduced  from  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  while  the  Henri  IV.  style  was  in  vogue,  which  may 


/ 


w 
3 


W 
Q 

s 
ffi 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE. 


THE  RATHHAUS,  COLOGNE, 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE.  521 

account  for  a  good  deal  of  the  grotesqueness  and  crudity  which  it 
possesses. 

German  Renaissance  differs  from  French  in  lack  of  refinement, 
and  in  a  general  heaviness  and  whimsicality  of  treatment,  while 
it  resembles  in  some  respects  our  own  Elizabethan.  It  forms,  in 
fact,  a  connecting  link  between  Elizabethan  architecture  and 
French  Renaissance  of  the  time  of  Henri  IV. 

Examples  are  mostly  found  in  towns,  whereas  in  France  they 
are  principally  found  in  the  country  (page  499). 

The  later  period,  which  commenced  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  has  been  called  the  "  Revival,"  and  was  chiefly 
confined  to  Munich,  Berlin,  and  Dresden.  It  consisted  in  the 
adoption  of  Classic  forms  in  toto,  without  reference  to  their 
applicability,  or  appropriateness. 


3.  EXAMPLES. 

SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE. 

Heidelberg  Castle  has  interesting  examples  of  the  style, 
especially  the  fagade  of  the  Heinrichsbau  (1556)  (No.  227)  of  the 
early  period,  and  the  Fveidrichsbau  of  the  later  period  (A.D.  1601), 
which  have  elaborately-carved  string  courses,  with  an  order  and 
its  entablature  to  each  story,  and  classical  details  surrounding 
the  windows.  Symbolical  statuary  was  prominently  introduced 
(No.  231  A,  B,  c),  but  the  design  suffers  much  from  over- 
ornamentation. 

The  Gewandhaus,  Brunswick,  originally  executed  in  the 
Gothic,  has  its  eastern  gable  (A.D.  1590)  in  this  style.  The  three- 
quarter  columns,  with  pedestals  and  entablatures,  marking  each 
floor,  and  the  immense  gable  comprising  four  stories,  each  provided 
with  an  order  of  vase-shaped  pilasters,  as  in  Elizabethan  work, 
are  characteristic  features.  The  scrolls  by  which  the  stages  of  the 
gable  are  contracted  are  also  typical. 

Nuremberg  and  Hildesheim  are  also  rich  in  domestic 
examples  of  the  period. 

The  Rathhaus  (Town  Hall),  Cologne,  has  a  fine  two-storied 
porch  (1571)  (No.  228),  in  a  style  purer  in  detail  than  usually 
found.  It  consists  of  semicircular  arcading,  with  detached 
Corinthian  columns,  and  a  stone  vaulted  roof.  The  arches  on 
the  first  floor  are  pointed,  as  is  also  the  vaulting. 

The  Town  Hall,  Lemgo,  with  mullioned  windows  and 
shaped  gables  (No.  229  A),  and  the  Town  Hall,  Solothurn 
(No.  229  B),  with  pilasters  and  entablature  to  each  story,  are 
other  characteristic  examples. 

The  Pellerhaus,  Nuremberg  (A.D.    1605)  (No.  230),  is   an 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES. 


229. 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE. 


230. 


THE  PELLERHAUS,  NUREMBERG. 


524  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

example  of  rich  domestic  architecture,  which  also  has  the 
elaborately-treated  stepped  gables,  so  characteristic  of  the  period. 

The  Gateway,  Halberstadt  (1552),  the  Castle,  Stuttgart 
(1553),  the  Rathhaus,  Leipsig  (1556),  the  Rathhaus,  Alten- 
burg  (1562),  the  Zeughaus  at  Danzic  (1605),  the  Rathhaus, 
Heilbronn,  the  Stadtweinhaus,  Munster  (1615),  and  the 
Zwinger  Palace,  Dresden  (1711),  are  a  few  of  the  picturesque 
and  free  examples  of  the  early  period. 

The  Revival  by  Klenze  the  architect  (A.D.  1784-1864)  of  the 
classical  styles  in  Munich,  is  responsible  for  the  Glyptotek,  the 
Pinacothek,  and  the  Walhalla.  The  Brandenburg  Gate, 
Berlin  (A.D.  1784),  is  well  known,  and  the  celebrated  architect 
Schinkel  (1781-1841)  erected  the  New  Theatre,  the  Museum,  and 
the  Polytechnic  School  in  that  city.  In  all  of  these  buildings  the 
great  idea  was  to  copy  classical  forms  and  details,  applying  them 
to  modern  buildings. 

The  Parliament  House,  Vienna,  by  Hansen  (A.EJT.  1843)  is 
an  imposing  edifice. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE, 

The  new  churches  were  few  and  insignificant,  an  abundant 
supply  for  all  practical  needs  remaining  from  the  mediaeval 
period  as  in  France. 

S.  Michael,  Munich  (A.D.  1582)  and  the  Frauenkirche, 
Dresden  (1726-1745)  are  among  the  best  known  buildings, 
and  exhibit  a  desire  for  wide,  open  spaces.  The  latter  especially 
is  notable,  being  140  feet  square  on  plan,  and  having  a  dome 
75  feet  in  diameter,  resting  on  eight  piers.  It  is  constructed 
internally  and  externally  of  stone. 

4.   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans.— The  French  method  of  an  internal  courtyard  was 
adopted.     In  towns,  many-storied  houses  were  erected  with  great 
roofs,  continuing  the  practice  of  the  mediaeval  period. 

B.  Walls.— Gables   assume  fantastic  shapes  (Nos.  229  A  and 
231  E),  and  richness  was  produced  by  the  application  of  columnar 
features  as  ornament  (No.  230).     Brick  and  stone  were  used  singly 
and  in  combination. 

c.  Openings.— Oriel  windows  of  various"1  shapes  and  design 
were  plentifully  used,  both  in  the  fa9ade  itseff  (No,  230)  and  on 
the  angles  of  buildings.  Such  features  did  not  appear  at  Rome, 
Florence,  or  Venice  during  Renaissance  times 

Windows  are  large,  mullioned  (No.  229  A),  and  crowned  by 
grotesque,  or  scrolly  pediments  (No.  2310).  In  the  later  periods 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT. 


OTTO         CH./POJEM 

fflHTJUHINfi  KUK  flf 


231 


526  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  usual   Classic  features  were  adopted  (Nos.    229   E    and    231 
A,  B,  c,  j). 

D.  Roofs. — The   large  roofs   in  the  town    houses,   containing 
many  stories  (Nos.  228  and  230),  are  prominent  features  in  this, 
as  in  the  Gothic,  period.     Such  roofs   served  a  useful  purpose, 
being  used  as  drying-rooms  during  the  periodical  wash.     There 
were  two  methods  of  treatment : — (a)  making  the  ridge  parallel 
to  the  street  front,  as  generally  carried  out   in   Nuremberg;  (ft) 
making  the  ridge  run  at  right  angles  to  the  street,  as  adopted  in 
Landshut,  in  the  south-east  of  Germany,  and  many  other  places. 

The  first  allows  for  the  display  of  many  tiers  of  dormer  windows 
(No.  229  F,  G),  rising  one  above  the  other,  and  the  second  method 
permits  the  use  of  fantastically- shaped  gables  (No.  229  A).  The 
Pellerhaus,  Nuremberg  (No.  230),  shows  a  combination  of  the 
two  methods. 

E.  Columns. — The  orders  were  employed  in  a  free-  manner, 
as  decorative  adjuncts  (Nos.  227-231),  the  stories  being  marked 
by  rich  cornices  ;  the  columns  and  pilasters  were  richly  carved, 
and  are  often  supported  on  corbels. 

F.  Mouldings. — Boldness  and  vigour  must  be  set  against  the 
lack   of  refinement   and  purity  in  detail.      Though  Renaissance 
details  were  affected  in  the  preceding  style,  the  worst  features  of 
the   last  age  of   the  Gothic    style,  such   as   interpenetration    of 
mouldings  and  other  vagaries,  were  given  up. 

G.  Ornament    (Nos.    229  and    231). — Sculpture  is  best  seen 
in  the  native  grotesques  (No.  231  D,  F,  H),  wherein  much  fancy  is 
displayed,  there  being  some  fine  specimens  at  Heidelberg  (No. 
231  A,  B,    c).     The  imitations   of  Italian  carved  pilasters  as  at 
Heidelberg  are  inferior. 

The  late  glasswork  is  interesting,  but  the  art  soon  died  out. 
Fresco  work  was  attempted  during  the  revival  at  the  beginning 
of  the  century  by  the  Munich  school. 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Fritsch  (K.  E.  O.).— "  Denkmaeler  Deutscher  Renaissance/'  4  vols., 
folio.  Berlin,  1891. 

Lambert  (A.)  und  Stahl  (E.).— "  Motive  der  Deutschen  Architectur." 
2  vols.,  folio.  Stuttgart,  1890-1893. 

Ortwein  (A.).—*'  Deutsche  Renaissance."  9  vols.,  folio.  Leipzig, 
1871-1888. 

Pfnor  (R.).— "  Monographic  du  Chateau  d'Heidelburg."  Folio.  Paris, 
1859. 

Ortwein-Scheffers.  —  « Studium  der  Deutschen  Renaissance  und 
Barockstils."  2 -vols.,  410.  Leipzig,  1892. 

Haut  (W.).— l  Lichtenstein."     (Historical  Novel.) 


5V) 


BELGIAN     AND     DUTCH 
RENAISSANCE. 

(See  page  385  for  Belgian  and  Dutch  Gothic.) 


"  Many  scarlet  bricks  there  were 
In  its  walls,  and  old  grey  stone 

On  the  bricks  the  green  moss  grew, 
Yellow  lichen  on  the  stone. 

*         *         *         *         *         * 

Deep  green  water  rilled  the  moat, 

Each  side  had  a  red  brick  lip 

Green  and  mossy  with  the  drip  of  dew  and  rain." — MORRIS. 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — Refer  to  page  385. 

ii.  Geological. — Refer  to  page  385.  Brick  is  the  characteristic 
material  of  this  phase  of  the  Renaissance. 

iii.  Climate. — Refer  to  page  385. 

iv.  Religion. — The  persecutions  begun  under  Charles  V., 
and  continued  under  the  Duke  of  Alva,  viceroy  of  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  led  to  a  revolt  in  1568  which  lasted  till  1609.  The 
Belgians,  being  mainly  Catholics,  rallied  to  Spain,  under  the 
able  rule  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  but  the  Dutch,  strongly 
Protestant,  constituted  the  United  Provinces,  and  finally  under  a 
republic  became  a  great  power.  Their  architectural  expression 
was  limited,  the  barn-like  churches  developing  no  features  of  great 
interest.  The  prominence  given  to  preaching,  and  the  demand 
for  greater  comfort  regulated  planning,  but,  whether  for  lack  of 
interest  or  funds,  nothing  on  a  large  scale  was  attempted. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — In  Holland  the  character  of  the 
Dutch  is  shown  in  their  buildings,  which  are  in  general  .honest, 
matter-of-fact,  and  unimaginative.  The  increase  of  riches  through 
trade  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  by 
Columbus,  was  not,  however,  mirrored  by  the  erection  of 
monumental  structures.  Their  daring  and  activity  in  trade 
made  them  one  of  the  chief  powers  of  Europe  during  the 


528  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

seventeenth  century,  but  their  extensive  colonies  gradually  passed 
over  to  the  English. 

vi.  Historical.— The  Spanish  occupation  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  'the  consequent  influence  of  Spanish  art  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  together  with  the  loss  of  liberty  under  Charles  V., 
and  the  ultimate  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  in  1648,  must  all 
be  taken  into  account  in  this  section.  Belgium,  as  a  Catholic 
country  and  a  Spanish  province  from  A.D.  1506-1712,  remained 
under  the  rule  of  Spain,  when  Holland  freed  herself  under  the 
House  of  Orange. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

Refer  to  pages  439,  442. 

Belgian  examples  are  wild  and  licentious,  but  picturesque  in 
the  matter  of  design  ;  while  Dutch  examples  are  plain,  often 
approaching  dulness.  The  design  of  houses  and  fittings  received 
a  large  amount  of  attention,  and  details  of  internal  work,  including 
furniture,  were  perfected.  Brick  received  its  due  prominence  in 
this  domestic  style. 

3.    EXAMPLES. 

The  Town  Hall,  Antwerp,  erected  by  de  Vriendt  in  A.D.  1565 
(No.  233),  is  one  of  the  most  important  buildings,  the  richness 
and  prosperity  of  this  particular  city  contributing  not  a  little  to 
the  execution  of  this  fine  work.  An  order,  or  row  of  columns, 
and  mullioned  windows  were  employed  in  each  upper  story,  the 
whole  design  being  placed  on  a  sturdy  rusticated  basement,  and 
crowned  by  a  high-pitched  roof  with  dormer  windows. 

The  Hotel  du  Saumon,  Malines,  the  Ancien  Greffe, 
Bruges,  the  Archbishop's  Palace,  Liege,  the  Stadthaus, 
Amsterdam  (only  worthy  of  mention  for  its  great  size),  the 
Hague  Town  Hall  (A.D.  1565),  and  Leyden  Town  Hall 
(A.D.  1579)  (No.  232  G)  are  other  examples.  Among  recent 
works,  the  Palais  de  Justice,  Brussels,  in  the  Neo-Grec 
style,  by  Polaert,  is  an  imposing  edifice. 

Domestic  Architecture. — Although  there  are  few  large  or 
important  works  erected  during  the  Renaissance  period  in  north- 
west Europe,  still  great  benefit  may  be  derived  from  studying 
much  of  the  domestic  and  civic  architecture  ;  for  while  wandering 
through  the  streets  of  these  old-world  towns,  many  charming 
specimens  of  street  architecture,  executed  in  bright  red  brick, 
with  occasional  stone  courses  and  dressings,  and  with  additional 
ornament  of  gracefully-designed  iron  ties  (No.  234  D),  are  met 
with.  In  the  design  of  the  gables,  much  originality  of  treatment 
is  found  (No.  232  D,  G),  leaning  rather  towards  the  work  found  in 


BELGIAN    AND    DUTCH    RENAISSANCE 
EXAMPLES. 


232. 

F.A. 


M  M 


ft! 


BELGIAN    AND   DUTCH    RENAISSANCE 
ORNAMENT. 


234- 


M  M  2 


532  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

some  of  the  old  German  towns,  and  often  verging  on  the  grotesque, 
but  at  the  same  time  thoroughly  suited  to  the  use  of  bricks,  and 
possessing  a  certain  characteristic  quaintness. 

Many  of  these  street  fronts  are  good  examples  of  the  treatment 
of  large  window  spaces. 

In  Holland,  especially,  these  quaint  buildings,  of  varied  colors, 
rising  very  often  from  the  sides  of  canals,  group  most  harmoniously, 
and  form  fascinating  studies  for  water-color  sketching. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — The  great  development  of  domestic  Gothic  formed 
the  groundwork  of  the  achievements  of  the  Renaissance  in  these 
countries.     It  was  in  the  modifications  of  detail  that  the  influence 
of  the  latter  was  felt,  Italian  forms,  generally  much  corrupted, 
being  gradually  adopted. 

B.  Walls. — Gables  of   curly  outline,   grotesque,  picturesque, 
and  rococo  in  character,  are   crowded   together   in    streets   and 
squares.    Their  general  effect  and  grouping  must  be  enjoyed,  with- 
out too  much  inquiry  into  their  rationale  or  detail  (Nos.  232  D,  E,  G 
and  234  D). 

c.  Openings. — These  were  numerous  arid  crowded,  and  were 
in  continuation  of  the  Gothic  practice  (No.  232  D).  The  orders 
took  the  place  of  the  niches,  statuary,  and  traceried  panelling, 
that  surround  the  windows  of  the  previous  period  (Nos.  232  and 

234  c>  G)- 

D.  Roofs. — The  high-pitched  forms  continued  long  in  favour, 

as  well  as  the  dormers,  towers  of  many  stages  (No.  232  c,  E),  and 
visible  chimney  stacks  (Nos.  232  and  233). 

E.  Columns. — The  orders  were  used  as  decorative  features, 
being  heavily  panelled,    rusticated,  and  otherwise  treated  in   a 
licentious  and  grotesque  fashion  (Nos.  232  G  and  234  c,  G,  j). 

F.  Mouldings. — The  same  defect,  that  of  coarseness,  referred 
to  under  Gothic,  continued  in  this  period,  and  the  further  divorce 
of  detail  from  construction  and  material  rather  accentuated  the  evil. 

G.  Ornament   (No.   234).  —  Carving   of  vigorous    grotesques 
occupies  any  vacant  panel  or  space  (Nos.  232  F,  H  and  234  K),  the 
motifs  being  usually  Italian,  "  corrupted  "  or  "  original,"  according 
to  the  critic's  point  of  view.    The  woodwork  (No.  234  A,  B,  F,  H) 
and  stained  glass  of  this  age  are  especially  worthy  of  study. 

5.  REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Ewerbeck  (T.). — "  Die  Renaissance  in  Belgien  und  Holland."  2  vols., 
folio.  Leipzig,  1883. 

George  (E.).— "  Etchings  in  Belgium."     410.     1878. 

Ysendyck  (J.  J.  van).—"  Documents  classes  de  1'Art  dans  les  Pays- 
Bas."  5  vols.,  folio.  Antwerp,  1880-1889. 

Haggard  (H.  R.).— "  Lysbeth."     (Historical  Novel.) 


si* 


SPANISH     RENAISSANCE. 

(See  page  424  for  Spanish  Gothic.) 

"For  God,  the  universal  Architect, 
It  had  been  as  easy  to  erect 
A  Louvre  or  Escurial,  or  a  tower 
That  might  with  Heaven  communication  hold, 
As  Babel  vainly  thought  to  do  of  old  ; 
He  wanted  not  the  skill  or  power." — COWLEY. 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — The  position  and  power  of  Spain,  arising 
from  the  discovery  of  the  new  world,  combined  with  the  vast 
hereditary  and  conquered  possessions  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
made  her  the  leading  nation  in  Europe. 

ii.  Geological. — Refer  to  page  424.  The  presence  of  very 
pure  iron  ore,  in  the  northern  mountains,  facilitated  the  develop- 
ment of  decorative  ironwork.  Granite  was  much  used,  and  brick 
was  also  employed  in  certain  parts. 

iii.  Climate. — Refer  to  page  424. 

iv.  Religion. — The  Reformation  obtained  no  hold  whatever 
in  Spain.  The  religious  aspect  of  the  great  struggle  with  the 
Moors,  and  the  national  character  of  the  church  have  already  been 
mentioned  (page  424).  The  counter  reformation  found  its  motive 
force  in  the  Jesuit  order,  founded  by  a  Spaniard,  Ignatius  de 
Loyola. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  people  were  a  mixed  popula- 
tion, in  which  the  Goths  of  Northern  Europe  and  the  Moors  of 
North  Africa  formed  the  most  important  elements. 

From  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  power  of 
Spain  gradually  increased,  until  she  became  the  chief  power  of 
Europe.  Absolute  despotism  was  the  policy  of  Philip  II.,  Jews 
and  heretics  being  persistently  persecuted.  Under  Philip  III. 
(1598-1621)  the  Moriscos  were  driven  out  of  the  country,  and 
this  proved  a  great  loss  to  Southern  Spain,  which  by  their  hard 
work  had  been  made  to  flourish. 

vi.  Historical. — The  accession  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to 
the  throne,  and  the  fall  of  Granada  in  A.D.  1492,  mark  the 


534  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

consolidation  of  Spain,   the  expulsion    of   the    Moors,    and    the 
beginning  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance. 

The  great  dominions  of  Spain  were  due  to  a  succession  of 
marriages,  Charles  V.  reigning  over  Spain,  the  Netherlands, 
Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Naples,  Germany,  and  Austria.  This 
empire  was  held  together  by  his  skill  in  government,  and  by  the 
excellence  of  the  Spanish  army,  the  infantry  being  the  finest  at 
that  time  in  Europe.  Philip  II.  checked  the  power  of  the  Turks 
by  winning  the  great  naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  1571,  but  his 
harsh  and  despotic  rule  alienated  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
expedition  against  England  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Armada 
in  1588.  Provinces  were  gradually  lost,  and  Spain  as  a  power 
ceased  to  exist.  Napoleon's  invasion,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  led  to  an  outburst  of  national  resistance, 
which  was  aided  by  the  English.  Many  revolutions  followed, 
but  progress,  as  understood  by  other  nations,  has  been  slow. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

Refer  to  pages  439,  442. 

The  style,  as  in  other  European  countries,  may  be  divided  into 
three  tolerably  distinct  periods  : — 

(a)  The  Early  Renaissance  Period,  lasting  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century ;  (b)  The  Classical  Period  of  the  latter  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century  and  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  ; 
and  (c]  The  Rococo  Period  of  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  early  period,  Renaissance  details,  grafted  on  to  Gothic 
forms,  and  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  exuberant  fancy  of 
the  Moorish  work,  produced  a  style  as  rich  and  poetic  as  any 
other  of  the  numerous  phases  of  the  Renaissance  in  Europe. 
The  style  of  this  period,  from  being  minute  in  detail,  is  called 
"  Plateresque,"  from  its  likeness  to  silversmith's  work,  from 
"  platero  " — silversmith. 

The  middle  period  became  more  classical,  as  was  the  case  in 
Europe  generally,  and  the  chief  expositors  were  the  architects 
Berruguete  (d.  1560),  and  Herrera  (d.  1597),  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Angelo. 

The  late  period  shows  that  the  style,  known  as  Churrigueresque, 
fell  away  from  true  principles,  becoming  imbued  with  the  Rococo 
innovations. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 
SECULAR    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  University,  Alcala  (A.D.  1500-1517),  has  an  open  arcaded 
story  under  the  roof— a  specially  characteristic  feature— and  details 
showing  the  lace-like  character  of  the  Plateresque  period. 


SPANISH    RENAISSANCE 


235- 


TOWN  HALL,  SEVILLE. 


SPANISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES. 


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SPANISH    RENAISSANCE.  537 

The  Archbishop's  Palace,  Alcala,  is  also  noteworthy. 
The  "  bracket  "  capitals,  on  the  first  floor  in  the  courtyard,  are 
undoubtedly  of  wooden  origin,  their  use  being  to  decrease  the 
long  bearing  of  the  architrave. 

The  Casa  Miranda,  Burgos  (No.  237),  has  a  "patio"  or 
courtyard,  a  feature  mostly  found  in  Spanish  buildings,  and 
the  columns  have  typical  bracket  capitals. 

The  Casa  Lonja  (Exchange),  Seville,  was  built  (1583-98) 
from  the  designs  of  the  architect  Herrera.  It  has  a  rich  facade 
(No.  235),  and  a  handsome  "  patio "  surrounded  by  a  double 
storied  arcade  in  the  Doric  and  Corinthian  orders.  It  has  been 
considerably  extended  at  later  periods,  but  much  of  the  stone- 
work has  remained  uncarved.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
best  example  of  a  municipal  building  in  Spain. 

The  Alcazar,  Toledo,  an  ancient  square  castle  of  Moorish- 
Gothic  architecture,  has  one  facade  (A.D.  1548)  (No.  236  A)  in  the 
early  Renaissance  of  Charles  V.,  while  the  interior  possesses  a 
fine  "  patio  "  surrounded  by  arcades  in  two  stories,  supported  on 
Corinthian  columns.  On  the  south  side  is  a  grand  staircase 
inclosed  in  a  space,  100  feet  by  50  feet,  and  having  off  the  half 
landing  a  grand  square  two-storied  chapel.  The  back  elevation 
is  an  early  example  of  a  many-storied  building  in  the  classical 
style,  the  whole  of  this  severe  and  monumental  building  being 
executed  in  granite. 

The  Palace  of  Charles  V.,  Granada,  adjoining  the 
"  Alhambra,"  was  erected  in  1527  by  Machuca  and  Berruguete, 
and  is  an  important  structure.  In  plan  it  is  a  square,  205  feet  each 
way,  inclosing  an  open  circular  court  100  feet  in  diameter.  The 
external  fagade  is  two  stories  in  height,  the  lower  being  rusticated, 
and  the  upper  having  Ionic  columns.  Both  basement  and  upper 
story  have  bull's-eye  windows  above  the  lower  openings,  so  that 
mezzanines  could  be  lighted  where  these  occur.  The  circular 
internal  elevation  is  an  open  colonnade  in  two  stories,  with  the 
Doric  order  to  the  lower,  and  the  Ionic  order,  of  small  height,  to 
the  upper  story. 

The  structure  is  built  in  a  golden-colored  stone,  the  central 
feature  of  the  two  visible  fa$ades  being  in  colored  marbles.  The 
sculpture  is  by  Berruguete,  and  the  whole  design,  which  is  of  the 
Bramante  school,  is  the  purest  example  of  Renaissance  in  Spain. 
The  palace  was  never  roofed  in  or  occupied. 

The  Palace  of  the  Escurial  (No.  238  c),  near  Madrid,  was 
commenced  by  Juan  de  Bautista  for  Philip  II.,  but  in  1567 
Herrera  was  appointed  architect.  It  is  a  group  of  buildings  on  a 
site  740  feet  long  by  580  feet  wide,  exclusive  of  palace,  and  con- 
sists of  a  monastery,  college,  palace,  and  church,  all  grouped  into  one 
design.  The  grand  entrance,  in  the  centre  of  the  long  facade, 
leads  into  an  atrium,  to  the  right  of  which  is  the  college  with  its 


SPANISH    RENAISSANCE, 


237.  BURGOS. 

"  Patio"  of  the  House  of  Miranda,  showing  the 
Bracket  Capital. 


SPANISH    RENAISSANCE.  539 

four  courts,  60  feet  square,  surrounded  with  three  stories  of 
arcades,  and  beyond  is  the  great  court  of  the  college.  On  the 
left  of  the  atrium  is  the  monastery,  with  three  courts  60  feet 
square,  and  beyond  is  the  great  court  of  the  palace.  Immediately 
in  front,  at  the  end  of  the  atrium,  is  the  church,  lying  between 
the  courts  of  the  palace  and  the  college.  Behind  the  church, 
which  is  320  feet  by  200  feet,  are  the  state  apartments  of  the 
palace. 

The  plan  of  the  church  is  Italian  in  origin,  following  some- 
what the  type  of  the  Carignano  Church  at  Genoa.  The  detail  is 
classical,  and  shows  that  Herrera  studied  to  some  purpose  in 
Italy.  The  principal  Spanish  feature  is  the  placing  of  the  choir 
on  a  vault,  over  the  lengthened  western  arm  of  the  cross, 
beneath  which  is  a  domed  vestibule — consequently  the  interior 
is,  in  effect,  a  Greek  cross  on  plan. 

In  general  grouping  nothing  could  be  finer  than  the  dome  as  a 
centre,  flanked  by  the  two  towers  and  surrounded  by  the  great 
mass  of  building,  the  whole  being  silhouetted  against  a  back- 
ground of  mountains.  Moreover,  the  palace  proper  at  the  east 
end  is  only  an  annex,  and  does  not  conflict  with  the  church,  as 
the  Vatican  does  with  S.  Peter,  Rome. 

The  entire  structure,  internally  and  externally,  is  built  in 
granite  of  a  gray  color,  with  a  slight  yellow  tinge,  which 
material  may  have  influenced  the  design.  The  taste  of  Philip  II. 
and  Herrera  might  have  produced  something  equally  plain, 
whether  in  granite  or  not,  but  at  least  the  design  may  be  said  to 
be  suited  to  the  material. 

The  masonry  is  excellent,  and  in  blocks  of  great  size,  the 
architraves  of  doors  being  10  to  12  feet  high,  in  one  stone.  The 
external  fa$ades  are  everywhere  five  stories  in  height,  the 
windows  square-headed,  without  dressings  of  any  sort,  and 
without  any  attempt  at  grouping,  so  that  they  are  inferior  in 
effect  to  the  facade  at  the  Alcazar,  described  above. 

The  interior,  however,  is  most  impressive,  being  of  granite  with 
suitable  detail,  and  having  only  the  vaults  colored.  It  has  a 
magnificent  reredos  in  such  quietly-toned  marbles  that  its  richness 
might  pass  notice.  The  architectural  character  is  so  restrained 
that  the  structure  looks  nothing  at  a  cursory  glance. 

ECCLESIASTICAL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Santo  Domingo,  Salamanca(A.D.  1524-1610),  is  an  important 
early  work  with  excellent  figure  sculpture,  and  illustrates  the 
peculiar  richness  of  the  "  Plateresque  "  style  (page  534),  deriving 
its  detail  from  Moorish  influence. 

Burgos  Cathedral  has  a  magnificent  dome  (No.  186)  belonging 
to  the  early  period  (1567),  and  is  an  example  of  the  wealth  of 
detail  so  characteristic  of  the  style. 


540  '  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Granada  Cathedral  (A.D.  1529),  by  Diego  Siloe,  is  a  grand 
example  of  the  Renaissance  churches  of  Southern  Spain.  It  is  a 
translation  of  Seville  Cathedral  into  the  Renaissance  style,  the 
Gothic  system  being  followed,  but  with  the  Classic  orders  applied 
to  the  piers  carrying  the  vaulting.  The  lofty  circular  choir  is 
domed  on  radiating  supports,  ingeniously  disposed,  constituting 
a  fresh  and  original  departure.  The  general  effect  of  the  interior 
is  powerful,  but  unduly  sensational. 

Valladolid  Cathedral  (A.D.  1585),  by  Herrera,  is  more  dis- 
tinctively Classic,  but  remains  incomplete,  although  Herrera's 
model  is  preserved.  The  west  fa£ade  is  imposing,  but  wholly 
out  of  scale,  and  in  the  interior  the  execution  and  detail  are 
incredibly  rough. 

Granada,  Santiago,  Malaga,  and  Carmona  cathedrals 
have  steeples  placed  alongside,  forming  a  class  of  structure  in 
which  Spain  is  especially  rich,  and  which  was  generally  treated 
in  a  most  pleasing  manner. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  a 
reaction  from  the  correct  and  cold  formalities  of  the  school 
of  Herrera,  and  buildings  were  erected  in  a  manner  called 
Churrigueresque,  after  the  name  of  the  architect,  Churriguera, 
in  which  fantastic  forms  were  employed  for  their  own  sake, 
without  reference  either  to  good  taste  or  fitness. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. — In  churches  wide  naves  sometimes   without  any 
aisles  are  usual.    Lanterns  or  domes  are  common  at  the  crossing, 
the  transepts  and  apsidal  chancel,  being  usually  shallow,  and  the 
ritual  choir  remaining  west  of  the  transepts. 

In  houses  the  Patio  (Nos.  236  B  and  237),  or  Spanish  version  of 
the  Roman  atrium,  and  Italian  cortile,  is  universal,  and  has  even 
an  added  seclusion,  which  seems  due  to  Moorish  influence.  The 
streets  of  Toledo  present  walls  all  but  blank  (No.  236  A),  through 
the  doorways  of  which,  when  open,  a  glimpse  only  of  the  patio 
can  be  obtained.  Staircases  are  often  large,  as  in  the  Burgos 
transept  and  the  Casa  Infanta  at  Saragossa,  in  which  latter 
building  the  patio  and  staircase  beyond  are  as  picturesque  and 
fanciful  as  any  in  Spain.  Largeness  of  scale  characterizes 
palaces  as  well  as  churches. 

B.  Walls — Brickwork  was  used  in  large,  rough,  but  effective 
masses,  as  at  Saragossa.    Fine  stonework  was  used  in  other  places, 
and  also  granite,  as  at  the  Escurial  and  in  Madrid.     Gables  were 
never  or  rarely   employed,   but  a  special    feature  is  an    arcade 
(No.  236),  forming  an  open  top  story,  on  which  all  the  decoration 
was    concentrated,  leaving  a  blank  wall    below,   relieved  by  an 
elaborate  doorway.     Arabesque  pierced  parapets  or  crestings  are 


542 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


common  in  the  early  work,  as  the  Palacio  de  Monterey  at  Sala- 
manca. At  Saragossa,  the  great  cornices  of  the  brick  palaces 
are  of  wood,  elaborately  detailed.  Internally  the  great  saloons 
of  the  early  period  are  remarkable,  the  walls,  for  ten  or  more 
feet  in  height,  being  of  plain  stonework,  to  be  hung  with 
draperies. 

c.  Openings. — Doorways  were  emphasized  (No.  236  A),  and  at 
Toledo  they  alone  relieve  the  blank,  narrow,  walled  streets.  A 
special  largeness  of  scale  (No.  239  A),  was  perhaps  due  to  the 
importance  of  a  gateway  in  oriental  countries — a  feature  found 
in  Spain  owing  to  Saracenic  influence. 

Windows  were  treated  with  well-designed  grilles,  and  their 
dressings  in  stonework  are  frame-like  in  character  (Nos.  235, 
236  A  and  239  D),  small  orders,  resting  on  corbels,  often  carrying  a 
highly  ornamented  head  (No.  239  D),  while  the  sill  is  often  absent 
or  untreated. 

D.  Roofs. — These  were  generally  flat  or  of  low  pitch.    Towers, 
however,  have  spires  of  slate  or  lead  work  of  fanciful  outline,  even 
in  designs  of  the  severe  Classic  period,  and  the  angle  towers  of 
the    Escurial  may  be   compared  with   the    spire   of   S.   Martin, 
Ludgate    (London).      Saloons  sometimes    have   a  light-arcaded 
internal  gallery  resting  upon  a  great  projecting  wooden  cornice, 
and   reaching   to   the   flat  wooden  coffered  ceiling,   affording   a 
passage  in  front  of  the  windows  in  the  main  wall,  and  detailed  in 
a  style  suggestive  of  Arab  influence,  as  in  the  "  Audiencia"  at 
Valencia. 

E.  Columns. — In  the  early  style,  the  orders  were  used  in  slight 
and    fanciful    decorative    forms    (Nos.   235,   236    and    237)  ;    the 
baluster  shape,  or  shafts,  of  an  outline  suggestive  of  the  forms  due 
to  wood  turned  in  a  lathe,  were  used  abundantly,  being  decorated 
in  low  relief.      Columns  in  arcades  sometimes   had   very  high 
pedestals,  from  the  top  of  which  the  arches  spring.     In  the  later 
work,   Classic   correctness   prevailed    until  the    outbreak   of  the 
Rococo  period. 

F.  Mouldings. — In  early  work,   much   refinement   (No.   239) 
was  given  to  forms  due  to  Gothic  and  Moorish   influences.     A 
special  feature  is  the  bracket  capital  (Nos.  236  B  and  237),  by 
which  the  long  bearings  of   stone   architraves  are  relieved  by 
corbels  on  either  sid^,  combined  in  treatment  with  the  capital 
itself. 

In  the  middle  period,  the  great  number  of  breaks  which  occur 
in  the  entablatures  mitred  round  columns  (No.  235)  give  to  the 
church  interiors  quite  a  special  effect  by  the  flutter  of  the  many 
mitres. 

G.  Ornament  (No.  239).— Sculpture  varies  much  in  quality. 
Berruguete  was  the  Donatello  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance,  but  his 
figures  often  are  wanting  in  decorative  treatment.     Expression 


SPANISH    RENAISSANCE  ORNAMENT. 

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544  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

was  often  emphasized  unduly,  and  violence  of  action  is  not 
uncommon  (No.  235). 

The  painting  on  the  sculpture  is  usually  crude  and  realistic. 
The  great  retablos  of  alabaster,  stone,  or  wood  are  the  finest 
decorative  feature  of  the  churches,  the  figures  being  often  life- 
size,  and  the  architectural  detail  very  elaborate.  The  iron 
Rejas,  or  grilles,  are  also  a  source  of  effect  (No.  239  A,  B,  D). 

Tile  work  is  excellent  in  Southern  Spain.  Stained  glass  tended 
to  be  loaded  in  color  and  over  vivid,  and  the  drawing  is  frequently 
clumsy,  Flemish  influence,  not  of  the  best  kind,  being  apparent. 
The  fresco  work  of  the  Escurial  is  merely  late  Italian,  and  the 
canvases  of  Murillo  at  Madrid  and  at  the  church  at  Seville,  though 
large  in  scale,  have  the  character  of  paintings  in  oil.  In  the 
accessory  arts,  the  iron  pulpit  (No.  239  E)  is  an  example  of  the 
elaborate  metal  work  of  the  period,  and  armour  design  was  carried 
to  great  perfection  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  subject  of  the  Renaissance  in  Spain  has  been  well  taken 
up  by  architectural  students  of  late  years,  and  the  following 
books  contain  interesting  examples. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Calvert  (A.). — "  Impressions  of  Spain."     8vo.     1903. 

Ford,  (R.).— "  Handbook  to  Spain."     8vo.     1898. 

Junghaendel  (M.)  und  Gurlitt  (C.).— "  Die  Baukunst  Spaniens." 
2  vols.,  folio.  Dresden.  1889-1893. 

"  Monumentos  Arquitectonicos  de  Espana,"  published  by  the  Spanish 
Government.  89  parts,  atlas  folio  (not  completed).  Madrid,  1859-1879. 

Prentice  (A.  N.). — "  Renaissance  Architecture  and  Ornament  in  Spain." 
Folio.  1893. 

Roberts  (D.).— "  Picturesque  Sketches  in  Spain."     Folio.     1837. 

Uhde  (C.). — "  Baudenkmaeler  in  Spanien  und  Portugal."  Folio. 
Berlin,  1889-1892. 

Villa-Amil  (G.  P.  de).— "  Espana  Artistica  y  Monumental."  3  vols., 
folio.  Paris,  1842-1850. 

Waring  (J.  B.)  and  Macquoid  (T.  R.). — "Examples  of  Architectural 
Art  in  Italy  and  Spain."  Folio.  1850. 

Wyatt  (Sir  M.  Digby).— "An  Architect's  Note-book  in  Spain."  410. 
1872. 

Crawford  (F.  M.).— "  In  the  Palace  of  the  King."     (Historical  Novel.) 


6-K 


IWTfl 


240. 


ENGLISH     RENAISSANCE. 


!  St.  Paul's  high  dome  amid  her  vassal  bands 
Of  neighbouring  spires,  a  regal  chieftain  stands 
And  over  fields  of  ridgy  roof's  appear, 
With  distance  softly  tinted,  side  by  side 
In  kindred  grace,  like  twain  of  sisters  dear, 
The  towers  of  Westminster,  her  abbey's  pride  ; 
While  far  beyond  the  hills  of  Surrey  shine 
Through  their  soft  haze,  and  show  their  wavy  line." — BAILLIE. 


i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  437). 

i.  Geographical. — Refer  to  page  278.  It  would  be  hazardous 
during  this  period  to  lay  too  much  stress  upon  the  relations 
of  England  with  the  Continental  powers ;  but  the  relative 
cordiality  of  this  country  with  France,  or  Holland,  might 
be  seen  by  some  to  be  reflected  in  the  architectural  fashion  of 
successive  periods.  The  closing  of  the  Continent  to  travel  during 


F.A. 


N  N 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


24I 


THE  HALL,  HATFIELD,  HERTS. 
Showing  the  Music  Gallery. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  547 

the  great  war  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth,  and  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  certainly  coincided  with  the  worst  phase  of 
English  architecture. 

ii.  Geological. — Refer  to  page  278.  In  the  increase  of 
population  and  cultivation  of  the  land,  the  forests  of  Lancashire, 
Cheshire,  Shropshire,  and  Herefordshire  were  reduced,  and  wood 
had  been  gradually  disused  as  an  external  building  material,  so 
that  the  timber  architecture  of  the  mediaeval  period  had  died  out. 
In  London,  the  introduction  by  Inigo  Jones  of  Portland  stone, 
a  material  very  similar  in  weathering  and  effect  to  that  used  in 
the  Renaissance  palaces  of  Venice,  had  its  influence.  The  use 
of  brick  received  a  great  impetus  after  the  Fire  of  London,  and 
was  again  brought  into  prominence  on  the  introduction  of  the 
Dutch  fashion,  and  thus  "  Flemish  "  bond,  as  a  technical  term, 
has  its  significance. 

Terra  -  cotta  for  ornamental  details  was  introduced  by  the 
Italian  craftsmen  of  Henry  VIII.,  as  in  the  busts  of  Emperors 
at  Hampton  Court  by  Giovanni  da  Majano,  the  tomb  in  the 
Rolls  Chapel  (A.D.  1516)  by  Torrigiano,  and  at  Layer  Marney, 
Essex  (1500-1525). 

iii.  Climate. — A  great  increase  of  warmth  was  found  necessary 
as  greater  comfort  was  demanded,  and  the  opening  out  of  the  great 
coal  industry,  by  cheapening  fuel,  led  to  each  room  having  a  fire- 
place, and  incidentally,  to  other  features  that  did  not  complicate 
the  architecture  of  the  earlier  periods. 

iv.  Religion. — In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  a 
stir  in  religious  matters  took  place  in  Western  Europe,  partly  on 
account  of  abuses  having  crept  into  the  Church,  which  the 
Popes  failed  to  rectify,  and  also  because  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  was  increasingly  felt  to  be  irksome. 

The  suppression  of  the  monasteries  (1536-1540)  caused  the 
diffusion  of  vast  sums  of  money  and  land,  which  Henry  VIII. 
distributed  freely  among  his  courtiers. 

Monasteries  either  fell  into  ruin  or  were  converted  into  cathedral 
churches  on  the  monastic  foundation.  Others  were  cleared  away 
for  the  erection  of  houses  according  to  the  new  style,  the  funds 
for  which  enterprises  proceeded  from  the  newly  seized  revenues. 

The  Act  of  Supremacy,  1559,  settled  the  relation  of  the  English 
Church  to  the  power  of  the  Crown. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  historical  and  other  events 
which  paved  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  the  Renaissance  into 
England  were  many  and  significant,  and  some  of  these  have  been 
dealt  with  (pages  283,  356,  438).  The  following  also  aided  the 
movement  : — 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1455-1485)  caused  a  terrible  destruc- 
tion of  life,  eighty  princes  of  the  blood  being  slain,  while  the 
ancient  nobility  was  almost  entirely  annihilated,  resulting  in  a 

N  N    2 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


242. 


STAIRCASE,  KNOLE,  KENT. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  549 

period  of  architectural  depression,  from  which  there  was  a  reaction 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  new  nobility  and  rich 
merchants  were  naturally  more  susceptible  to  any  fresh  move- 
ment ;  they  desired,  moreover,  important  country  houses,  being 
anxious  to  provide  themselves  with  the  paraphernalia  suited  to 
their  rank,  or  newly  acquired  wealth. 

The  extended  use  of  gunpowder  rendered  ancient  castles  obsolete, 
and  newer  fortresses  tended  to  become  merely  military  posts,  no 
longer  habitable  as  palaces  by  a  king,  or  as  seats  by  the  nobility. 

The  introduction  of  printing  by  Caxton  (1476)  powerfully  aided 
the  new  movement,  as  the  hoarded  knowledge  of  the  world  could 
then  be  disseminated,  causing  the  enlargement  of  men's  ideas  and 
the  increased  spread  of  knowledge  throughout  the  country. 

The  court  of  Henry  VIII.  was  composed  of  men  who  were  con- 
nected with  the  new  movement,  and  amongst  the  artists,  were  : — 
Holbein, from  Basle;  Torrigiano,  who  executed  Henry  VII. 's  Tomb 
in  Westminster  Abbey  (A.D.  1512);  Rouezzano  and  Giovanni  da 
Majano.  A  certain  John  of  Padua  was  also  brought  to  England 
by  Henry  VIII. ,  and  is  usually  credited  with  the  design  of 
Longleat  House,  Wiltshire  (page  557). 

Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  employed  part  of  the  funds 
obtained  from  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  (1536-1540)  to 
the  erection  and  endowment  of  grammar  schools  and  colleges, 
which  play  an  important  part  in  the  development  (pages  324,  557). 

The  Protector  Somerset  commenced  building  schemes  which 
were  interrupted  by  his  execution  (A.D.  1552). 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  (A.D.  1558-1603)  inaugurated  the  era 
of  the  erection  of  the  great  domestic  mansions.  Flemish  and 
.German  workmen  and  weavers  came  to  England  in  large 
numbers,  settling  in  the  eastern  counties  especially,  thereby 
influencing  the  architecture  of  certain  districts.  In  literature  the 
writings  of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Burleigh,  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
had  considerable  influence. 

Finally,  the  wars  against  the  Huguenots  in  France,  and  the 
Massacre  of  S.  Bartholomew  in  A.D.  1572,  led  to  the  emigration 
of  many  skilled  craftsmen  to  England  (page  498),  thus  influencing 
very  largely  the  efficient  execution  of  the  newly-imported  Classic 
architecture. 

vi.  Historical. — Henry  VIII.  had  undisputed  possession  of 
the  English  crown.  He  mixed  generally  with  foreign  affairs,  and 
his  meeting  with  Francis  I.  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold, 
1520,  was  an  event  of  some  significance,  bearing  an  important 
relation  to  the  introduction  of  Renaissance  art  into  England. 
Henry  declared  the  Pope  to  have  no  jurisdiction  in  England,  and 
Edward  VI.  continued  the  Reformation,  but  Mary's  policy  was 
reactionary,  and  marks  the  era  of  Spanish  influence  in  England. 
Under  Elizabeth  (1558-1603),  the  Reformation  was  finally  settled, 


ENGLISH  (ELIZABETHAN)  RENAISSANCE.  551 

and  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588,  marked  the  decline 
of  Spanish  power  in  Europe.  Charles  I.'s  attempts  to  develop 
art  were  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of  Puritanism.  Charles  II. 
was  in  the  pay  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  England  was  much  under 
the  influence  of  French  art.  The  rise  of  Holland  was  taking 
place,  and  on  the  expulsion  of  James  II.  by  William  of  Orange, 
Dutch  influence  made  itself  felt.  With  the  accession  of  George  I. 
(the  Hanoverian  dynasty)  commenced  an  era  of  quiet  domestic 
progress.  The  growth  of  London  proceeded  rapidly,  but  art  in 
England  slowly  deteriorated,  until  the  Exhibition  of  1851  marked 
the  commencement  of  a  revival  in  all  forms  of  art. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

English  Renaissance  architecture  may  be  divided  into  the 
following  periods: — Elizabethan  (A.D.  1558-1603),  see  below; 
Jacobean  (A.D.  1603-1625),  page  561  ;  Anglo- Classic  (Seventeenth 
Century),  page  567  ;  Queen  Anne  and  Georgian  (Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury), page  578  ;  Early  Victorian  (Nineteenth  Century)  (A.D.  1800- 
51),  page  589  ;  Late  Victorian  (Nineteenth  Century)  (1851-1901), 
Page  593. 

THE   ELIZABETHAN    STYLE. 

ELIZABETH  (A.D.   1558-1603). 

Elizabethan  Architecture  was  a  transition  style,  which 
followed  the  Tudor  style  of  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and 
Henry  VIII.  (page  536),  for  many  Gothic  features  were  retained 
and  ornamented  with  Renaissance  details  which  were  at  first 
applied  only  in  a  tentative  manner.  The  style  bears  the  same 
relation  to  Anglo-Classic,  or  fully-developed  English  Renais- 
sance, as  the  Francis  I.  style  does  to  fully-developed  French 
Renaissance. 

As  during  the  Middle  Ages  a  sufficient  number  of  churches  had 
been  erected  for  the  wants  of  the  people,  few  were  built  in  this 
period.  This  was  also  the  case  in  France  and  Germany ;  whereas 
in  Italy  churches  of  this  period  were  many  and  important. 

The  examples  of  Elizabethan  architecture,  like  those  of  the 
French  Renaissance,  were  country  houses  erected  by  powerful 
statesmen,  successful  merchants,  and  newly-enriched  gentry; 
contrasting  with  the  palaces  and  churches  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, principally  erected  in  cities.  The  influence  of  landscape 
gardening  was  important,  for  in  designing  the  house  with  fore- 
court, formal  garden,  arcades,  fountains  and  terraces,  a  special 
and  finished  character  was  given  to  the  buildings  themselves. 

Many  Gothic  features,  such  as  the  tower,  oriel,  large  mullioned 
"bay,"  and  other  windows  (No.  251  B),  gable,  pierced  parapet, 
and  large  chimney  stacks  were  retained. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     I 


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ENGLISH  (ELIZABETHAN)  RENAISSANCE.  553 

The  Elizabethan  style  represents  the  attempt  to  apply  Italian 
architectural  features  to  buildings,  but  it  did  not  confine  itself  to 
architecture  only,  as  it  pervaded  the  whole  of  the  ornamental  arts 
in  furniture,  decoration,  and  fittings,  and  is  in  this  respect  a 
style  complete  in  every  aspect. 

The  alliance  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland  (d.  1513)  with  France 
caused  French  architectural  features  to  be  introduced,  as  at 
George  Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh  (No.  151  j). 


3.  EXAMPLES. 

SECULAR   ARCHITECTURE. 

As  in  other  countries,  the  earliest  examples  of  the  style  consist 
of  small  works  such  as  tombs,  monuments,  doorways,  and  other 
features,  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey,  designed 
by  Torrigiano,  an  Italian,  in  1512,  being  generally  regarded  as  one 
of  the  earliest  examples. 

Elizabethan  Mansions. — As  already  mentioned  (page  551), 
domestic  architecture  received  more  attention  than  any  other  class 
of  building. 

Two  general  types  of  house  plan  were  in  use  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Of  these  the  smaller  type  consisted  of.  a 
hall  placed  centrally,  with  kitchen  and  offices  at  one  end  and  with- 
drawing and  living  rooms  at  the  other,  internal  courts  for  lighting 
being  sometimes  employed,  as  at  Chastleton  in  Oxfordshire.  The 
larger  type  of  house  was  evolved  from  the  quadrangular  plan 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (No.  131  B),  which  the  later  architects 
renounced  by  omitting  the  side  forming  the  entrance,  admitting 
sunlight  and  allowing  free  circulation  of  air  about  the  building. 

The  E-shaped  plan  thus  came  into  existence,  as  at  Hat  field 
House  (No.  131  D,  E).  The  gatehouse  on  the  centre  of  the  side 
forming  the  entrance,  which  was  typical  of  the  Tudor  period, 
as  at  Oxburgh  Hall  (No.  131  B),  became  a  detached  building,  as  at 
Burton  Agnes,  Yorkshire  (A.D.  1610) ;  Cranbonrne,  Dorsetshire; 
Stanway,  Gloucestershire,  and  elsewhere. - 

The  H-shaped  plan  was  evolved  by  extending  the  wings  on 
both  fronts,  as  at  Holland  House,  London  (No.  244  A,  B). 

Other  fanciful  plans  showing  extreme  originality  were  erected, 
as  Longford  Castle,  a  triangular  house  attributed  to  John  Thorpe 
(No.  131  F). 

The  following  features  occur  in  the  principal  examples  : — 

i.  The  great  hall,  retained  from  the  mediaeval  period  (No.  241), 
was  lined  to  a  height  of  8  or  10  feet  with  oak  panelling,  while 
above  were  arranged  the  trophies  of  the  chase,  armour,  portraits 
of  ancestors,  family  relics  and  heirlooms. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     II. 

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ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


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At  one  end  of  the  hall,  by  the  entrance,  is  the  carved  oak 
screen,  over  which  is  the  minstrels'  gallery,  while  at  the  other 
end  is  the  raised  dais  with  tall  bay-window,  the  sill  of  which  is 
almost  at  the  floor  level.  The  hall  fireplace  was  much  elaborated 
(No.  250  K),  and  richly  carved  with  the  coat-of-arms  of  the  owner, 
and  the  roof  (No.  113)  either  with  the  timbers  showing  or  formed 
with  plaster  panels  (No.  241),  was  elaborately  ornamented.  The 
hall  in  the  later  period  became  of  less  importance  as  a  living  room, 
and  was  used  more  as  a  means  of  communication. 

ii.  The  broad  staircase  of  oak  (Nos.  242  and  244  E)  is  a  special 
feature,  with  its  heavily-carved  newels,  pierced  balustrading,  and 
rich  carving.  It  was  generally  placed  in  connection  with  the  hall, 
and  gives  to  the  interior  an  air  of  spaciousness  and  dignity,  its 
importance  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  chief  living  rooms  were 
often  placed  on  the  first  floor  and  therefore  demanded  an  important 
means  of  approach. 

iii.  The  long  gallery  on  the  upper  floor  (Nos.  131  E  and  245  c) 
often  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  house,  the  proportions 
varying  considerably  from  the  hall  in  being  comparatively  low 
and  narrow  in  proportion  to  the  length.  There  is  no  feature  of 
an  old  English  mansion  more  characteristic  than  these  galleries. 
It  served  as  a  means  of  communication  between  the  wings  of  the 
house,  the  hall  being  often  two  stories  in  height.  The  length  is 
frequently  relieved  by  room-like  projecting  bays — those  at  Haddon 
Hall  being  about  15  feet  by  12  feet,  with  stone-mullioned  windows, 
glazed  with  leaded  panes  (No.  243).  The  walls  have  usually 
oak  panelling  the  full  height,  the  ceiling  being  richly  modelled 
in  plaster. 

The  term  '•  picture  gallery"  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  these 
apartments,  and  below  are  dimensions  of  important  galleries,  some 
of  which  belong  to  the  Jacobean  period. 

Aston  Hall  (A.D.  1618-35)  is  136  feet  by  18  feet  and  16  feet 
high. 

Montacute  House  (A.D.  1580)  is  170  feet  long  by  20  feet  6  inches 
wide. 

Hardwick  Hall  (A.D.  1576-1597)  (No.  245  c)  is  166  feet  long, 
22. feet  5  inches  wide  and  26  feet  high. 

Charlton  House  (Wilts)  (A.D.  1607)  is  130  feet  by  22  feet  wide. 

Haddon  Hall  (A.D.  1589)  (No.  243)  is  109  feet  by  18  feet  wide. 

Moreton  Hall  (A.D.   1559)  is  75  feet  by  12  feet  6  inches  wide. 

iv.  The  withdrawing  room,  or  "  solar  "  of  Gothic  times,  a  chapel 
(sometimes),  and  the  bedrooms,  were  other  apartments,  the  latter 
increasing  considerably  in  number  and  importance  during  this 
period. 

An  example  of  an  apartment  treated  with  panelling  its  whole 
height  and  with  elaborate  carved  chimneypiece  is  shown  in 
No.  244  D,  from  Stockton  House,  Wiltshire. 


ENGLISH  (ELIZABETHAN)  RENAISSANCE. 


557 


EXAMPLES  OF  SOME  FAMOUS 

Name. 


Charlecote,  Warwickshire.  A.D 

Kirby,  Northants  (No.  246).  A.D 

Knole,  Kent.  A.D, 

Penshurst,  Kent  (No.  132).  A.D 

Burghley,  Northants.  A.D 

Longleat,  Wilts.  A.D.  1567. 

Montacute  House,  Somerset.  A.D.  1580-1601. 

Wollaton,  Notts.  A.D.  1580.      C" 

Longford  Castle,  Wilts.  A.D.  1580 

(later  fa9ade). 

Westwood,  Worcester.  A.D.  1590. 


ELIZABETHAN  MANSIONS. 
Date.  Architect. 

-  1558. 

•  I570-I575-    John  Thorpe  (?). 
1570. 

,  1570-1585- 
I575-I589-   John  Thorpe. 

John  of  Padua  (?). 


Smithson. 
john  Thorpe. 


Longford  Castle  was  originally  triangular  in  plan  (No. 
131  F),  with  circular  towers  at  each  angle,  and  central  open 
triangular  courtyard.  It  was  added  to  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  now  forms  an  irregular  pentagon  on  plan. 

Moreton  Hall,  Cheshire  (A.D.  1550-1559)  (No.  247),  is  an 
example  of  many  of  the  timbered  houses,  erected  in  the  period, 
for  which  Cheshire  and  Shropshire  are  specially  famous. 

Elizabethan  Colleges.— Many  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  (cf.  list,  page  324)  were  erected  during  this  period, 
and  these  buildings,  situated  within  the  seats  of  revived  learning, 
naturally  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  new  style,  as  object  lessons 
to  the  rising  generation. 

CAMBRIDGE. 


Name. 

The  Gate  of  Honour,  Caius 
College. 

Emmanuel  College. 

Sidney  Sussex  College 
(Court). 

The  Quadrangle,  Clare 
College. 

S.  John's  College  (Court). 

Nevill  Court,  Trinity  Col- 
lege. 

Jesus  College. 

Gateway  of  the  Schools 
(No.  248),  with  super- 
imposed orders. 

Merton  College  (Library). 

Wadham  College. 

Oriel  and  Jesus  Colleges 
(portions  of)  and  others. 

Pembroke  College. 


Date. 

A.D.   1565-1574. 

A.D.    1584. 
A.D.    1595. 

A.D.    1634. 


A.D.   1593-1615. 

OXFORD. 

A.D.   1571. 
A.D.   l6l2. 


A.D.  1600-1624. 
A.D.  l6l2. 
A.D.  l6l2. 

A.D.   1624. 


Architect. 

Theodore  Haveus 
of  Cleves  (?). 

Ralph  Simons. 
Westley. 

Ralph  Simons. 
Ralph  Simons. 


Thomas  Holt. 


Thomas  Holt. 
Thomas  Holt. 
Thomas  Holt. 


u 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


248.          THE  TOWER  OF  THE  OLD  SCHOOLS  (NOW 
THE  BODLEIAN   LIBRARY),  OXFORD. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  561 

Elizabethan  Town  Houses. — Many  interesting  specimens 
of  these  exist,  and  among  them  are  several  houses  of  half-timber 
construction,  as,  for  example,  in  London,  Staple  Inn,  Holborn, 
the  Hall  of  Charterhouse,  Sir  Paul  Pindar's  House,  Bishopsgate 
(now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  and  many  examples 
in  Chester,  and  other  of  the  country  towns  throughout  England. 

4.  COMPARATIVE  (see  page  562). 
5.   REFERENCE    BOOKS   (see  page  565). 


THE   JACOBEAN    STYLE. 
JAMES  I.  (A.D.   1603-1625). 

i.   INFLUENCES  (see  page  545). 
2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

The  Jacobean  style  was  a  development  of  the  Elizabethan, 
gradually  diverging  from  Gothic  picturesqueness  as  classic 
literature  and  models  became  better  known,  and  the  use  of 
the  columns  with  their  entablatures  became  more  general.  The 
celebrated  architect,  John  Thorpe,  erected  several  of  the  mansions 
of  this  epoch,  arid  his  book  of  "compositions,"  preserved  in  Sir 
John  Soane's  Museum,  London,  is  well  worthy  of  study. 

The  buildings  of  this  style  were  most  suitable  to  the  wants  of 
the  people  in  whose  era  they  were  erected.  Some  of  the  detail 
and  ornamentation  may  be  questionable,  but  they  were  at  least 
the  outcome  of  the  social  conditions  of  that  age,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  mansions  erected  during  the  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean 
periods,  most  of  which  are  easily  accessible,  will  give  as  much  if 
not  more  pleasure  than  the  study  of  the  buildings  of  any  other 
period  of  Architecture  in  England.  Jacobean  furniture  design 
continued  on  the  same  lines  as  the  architecture. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

EXAMPLES  OF  SOME  FAMOUS  JACOBEAN  MANSIONS. 
Name.  Date.  Architect. 

Holland  House,  Kensington  A.D.  1607.  Jonn  Thorpe. 

(No.  244). 

Charlton  House,  Wilts.  A.D.  1607. 

Bramshill,  Hants  (No.  250).  A.D.  1607-1612. 

Hatfield  House,  Herts  (Nos.  A.D.  1611. 

131  D,  E,  241  and  249). 

F.A.  o  o 


562 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE 


Name.  Date. 

Cranbourne  Manor  House       A.D.  1612. 
Dorsetshire. 

Audley  End,  Essex. 

Aston  Hall,  Warwickshire. 

Loseley    Park,  near  Guild- 
ford. 

Bolsover Castle,  Derbyshire.    A.D.  1613. 

Blickling     Hall,     Norfolk 

,    (Nos.  244,  250  D,  K). 


A  rchitect. 


A.D.  1603-1616. 
A.D.  1618-1635. 


A.D.    l620. 


Bernard  Jansen 


H.  Smithson. 


4.  COMPARATIVE. 

THE    ELIZABETHAN   AND    JACOBEAN    STYLES. 

A.  Plans.— These  are  often  E  or  H-shaped  (No.  244  B),  the 
entrance  being  in  the  middle  of  the  letter,   and  the    two    ends 
forming  wings,  as  at  Bramshill,  Hardwick(No.  245  c),  Longford, 
Hatfield  (No.  131  D,  E),  Longleat,  Burghley,  Loseley,  and  Audley 
End,  while  many  are  irregular   in    plan,   as   Knole,   Penshurst 
(No.  132  F),  and  Haddon  (ball-room  wing),  such  grouping  being 
often   brought  about  through  the  work  being  an  addition  to  a 
previous  Gothic  house. 

Characteristic  features  are  : — The  great  hall,  the  broad  staircase 
(Nos.  242,  244  E),  the  long  gallery,  and  very  often  a  chapel 
(No.  245  D).  Broad  terraces,  with  balustrades,  raised  above  the 
garden  level  (No.  244  A,  B),  and  wide  flights  of  steps,  are  charming 
features  in  the  style.  Gardens  were  often  laid  out  in  a  formal 
manner,  as  at  Montacute,  Hatfield  and  elsewhere,  with  yews, 
box,  and  other  trees  cut  in  fantastic  patterns. 

B.  Walls. — Elevations  have  the  character  of  picturesqueness, 
the    Classic   orders    being   used    in  a  very    free    manner,    often 
placed  one  above  the  other  in  the  f^ades,  as  at  Hatfield  House 
(No.  249).  the    Gateway  of   the  Schools  at   Oxford  (No.   248), 
Kirby  Hall  (No.  246),  and  Holland  House  (No.  244). 

The  gables  are  often  of  scroll-work,  following  in  a  general  way 
the  slope  of  the  roof  (Nos.  244  and  246). 

The  chimney  stacks  are  special  and  characteristic  features, 
being  often  treated  in  a  prominent  manner  with  orders,  as  at 
Hatfield  and  Kirby  (Nos.  249  and  246)  ;  but  sometimes  they  are 
of  cut  brickwork,  the  shafts  being  carried  up  boldly,  so  that  they 
play  an  important  part  in  the  composition  and  outline  of  the  house. 

Parapets  are  pierced  with  various  characteristic  designs  (Nos. 
249  and  250  A,  B),  the  baluster  being  much  employed. 

c.  Openings. — Bay  windows  were  largely  used,  as  at  Haddon 
(No.  243),  Longleat,  Holland  House  (No.  244),  and  Kirby  Hall 
(No.  246),  and  form  important  features  of  the  style. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT.     I 


250. 


002 


564  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Large  heavily-mullioned  windows  (Nos.  241,  243,  246  and  247), 
filled  in  with  leaded  glass,  and  crossed  by  horizontal  transoms, 
are  special  features  adopted  from  the  late  Gothic  period,  and 
oriel  windows  are  common,  as  at  Bramshill  (No.  250  E). 

Dormers  were  largely  used,  and  turrets  were  in  common  use 
(Nos.  244  A  and  248). 

Arcades  were  often  introduced,  as  at  Hatfield,  Bramshill,  and 
elsewhere,  (Nos.  244,  249  and  250  G). 

Doorways  are  often  elaborate  in  design,  as  in  Nos.  246,  248, 
249  and  250  D. 

"  Through  this  wide  opening  gate 
None  come  too  early,  none  return  too  late." 

D.  Roofs. — High,   flat,  or  low  roofs  with  balustrades,   occur 
both   separately   and  in   the  same    design    (No.  244  A).      Lead 
and  tiles  were  both  used,  and  also  stone  slabs  in  certain  districts. 
The  balustrade,  arcaded,  pierced,  or  battlemented,  is  a  constant 
feature  (Nos.  244  A,  249  and  250). 

E.  Columns.  —  The     orders    were     employed     rarely    with 
purity,   a   characteristic    treatment    being    the   reduction    down- 
wards,   more   especially    in    pilasters,    accompanied    by    bulbous 
swellings  (No.  250  K).     Square  columns  were  used,  banded  with 
strap  ornamentation  (No.   250  G),   and   pilasters  were   similarly 
treated  or  panelled.     At  Longleat,  the  most  Italian-like  example, 
the  topmost  order  is  the  smallest,  corresponding  to  the  compara- 
tive unimportance  of  the  upper  rooms.     Bramshill  has  a  fa9ade- 
centre  which  is  perhaps  the  most  licentious  specimen  of  the  style. 
Arcades  were  much  employed,  especially  in  the  form  of  recessed 
loggie,  as  at  Bramshill  (No.  250  G),  and  Hatfield  (No.  249). 

F.  Mouldings. — These  are  local  and  coarse  in  many  instances, 
but  founded  on  Classic  originals.     A  typical  cornice  consists  of  a 
large  cyma  and  small  ogee  moulding  above  a  corona  of  little 
depth,    and  the  use  of  convex  mouldings,  often  banded  or  carved 
at  intervals.     Plaster  work,  seems  to   have   influenced   in   many 
ways  the  sections  employed  (No.  250  M). 

G.  Ornament  (No.  250). — "Strap"  ornamentation  was  formed 
by  raised  bands,  of  about  the  width  and  thickness  of  a  leather 
strap,    interlaced  in  grotesque   patterns,  and   attached  as  if   by 
nails  or  rivets,  as  in  the  ceilings  (No.  250  H,  j,   M).     It  is  con- 
sidered by  some  to  have  been  derived  from  the  East,  through 
France  and  Italy,  in   imitation  of  the  damascened  work  which 
was  at  that  period  so  common.     This  type  of  detail  is  also  found 
in  pilasters,  as  at  Hatfield  (No.  249),  and  on  piers  and  in  spandrels, 
as  at  Bramshill  (No.  250  G). 

Grotesquely  carved  figures  as  terminals  occur  (No.  250  c),  and 
in  carving  generally,  ribbons,  scrolls,  and  festoons  were  preferred 
to  Gothic  foliage  types. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  565 

Prismatic  rustication,  or  the  projection  of  blocks  of  stone  of 
prismatic  form  (No.  250  G),  occurs  in  pilasters  and  pedestals,  and 
in  later  times  colored  stones  were  inserted  in  their  stead. 

Plaster  (Nos.  242,  243  and  250  M)  was  used  for  ceilings 
with  great  skill  in  design  and  adaptability  to  the  material,  and 
broad  friezes  were  sometimes  modelled  with  much  quaintness  and 
grotesque  feeling,  as  at  Hardwick. 

Tapestries  continued  to  be  used  for  walls,  color  decoration 
making  little  or  no  progress. 

The  screens,  mantelpieces,  entrance  porches,  monuments  and 
tombs  (No.  250  F),  such  as  the  monuments  to  Elizabeth  (A.D.  1604) 
and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  tomb 
of  Lord  Burghley  (No.  251  E),  are  very  numerous  and  charac- 
teristic, a  large  number  being  found  in  churches  throughout  the 
country,  and  many  being  richly  colored.  The  chapel  screen 
from  the  Charterhouse,  London  (No.  251  c) ;  the  doorway  in 
Broughton  Castle  (No.  251  A)  ;  the  bookcase  from  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge  (No.  251  o)  ;  the  throne  and  stalls  from  the 
Convocation  Room,  Oxford  (No.  251  F)  ;  the  pulpit  from  North 
Cray  Church,  Kent  (No.  251  G)  ;  the  cistern  now  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum  (No.  251  H),  and  the  tablet  from  Peterhouse 
College  Chapel,  Cambridge  (No.  251  j),  will  indicate  to  the 
reader  the  manner  in  which  Renaissance  features  were  applied 
to  the  arts  and  crafts  connected  with  architecture. 


5.   REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

ELIZABETHAN  AND  JACOBEAN. 

Clayton  (J.).— "A  Collection  of  the  Ancient  Timber  Edifices  of 
England."  Folio.  1846. 

Davie  (W.  G.). — "  Old  Cottages  and  Farmhouses  in  Kent  and  Sussex." 
4to.  1900. 

Dawber  (E.  Guy). — "  Old  Cottages,  Farmhouses,  and  other  Stone 
Buildings  in  the  Cotswold  District  "  (Gloucestershire,  etc.).  410.  1904. 

Gotch  (J.  A.). — "  Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  England."  2  vols., 
folio.  1891-1894. 

Gotch  (J.  A.). — "Early  Renaissance  Architecture  in  England."     1901. 

Habershon  (M.).— "  The  Ancient  Half-Timbered  Houses  of  England." 
Folio.  1836. 

Harrison  (F.). — "  Annals  of  an  Old  Manor  House "  (Sutton  Place, 
Guildford).  4to.  1893. 

Nash  (J.).— "  Mansions  of  England  in  the  Olden  Time."     1839-1849. 

Parkinson  and  Ould. — "  Old  Cottages,  Farmhouses,  and  other  Half- 
timber  Buildings  of  Shropshire,  Herefordshire,  and  Cheshire."  4to.  1904. 

Richardson  (C.  J.).— "  Studies  from  Old  English  Mansions."     1841-48. 

Richardson. — "  Observations  on  the  Architecture  of  England  during 
the  Reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I."  4to.  1837. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT      II. 


LEA©  CISTERN',  VICTORIA 4  ALBERT  MUSEUM. 

PULPIT,  NORTH  CRAY  CHnKofr  TABLET 

251. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE  567 

REFERENCE    BOOKS— Continued. 

Richardson.— "Architectural  Remains  of  the  Reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I."  Folio.  1840. 

Shaw  (H.).— "  Details  of  Elizabethan  Architecture."     4to.     1839. 

Tanner  (H.).— "English  Interior  Woodwork  of  the  XVI-XVIIIth 
Centuries."  Folio.  1902. 

Taylor  (H.).— "  Old  Halls  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire."     410.     1884. 

John  Thorpe's  Original  Drawings  in  the  Soane  Museum.  A  good 
selection  of  these  are  reproduced  in  Mr.  Gotch's  text-book  on  "  Early 
Renaissance  Architecture." 

ReedQ.  B.)— "Sir  Indar."  ] 

Scott  (Sir  Walter).—"  Kenilworth." 

Scott  (Sir  Walter).—"  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel."       Histoncal  Novels. 

Shorthouse  (J.  H.)— "John  Inglesant." 

THE    ANGLO-CLASSIC,    OR    SEVENTEENTH 
CENTURY   STYLE, 

Comprises,  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  (1625-49),  the  Commonwealth 
(1649-60),  Charles  II.  (1660-85),  James  (1685-89),  William  and 
Mary  (1689-1702). 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  545). 
2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  transitional  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  styles  at  length 
gave  way  before  the  influence  of  Inigo  Jones  and  Wren,  who  are 
considered  the  founders  of  the  Anglo-Classic  style. 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

INIGO   JONES  (1573-1652). 

Long  study  in  Italy,  and  especially  at  Vicenza,  Palladio's 
native  town,  influenced  the  work  of  Inigo  Jones.  He  was 
invited  to  Copenhagen  by  the  King  of  Denmark,  but  returned  to 
England  in  1604.  He  revisited  Italy  in  1612  for  further 
study,  and  on  his  return  introduced  a  purer  Renaissance  style, 
founded  on  Italian  models  and  ornamentation.  The  Italian 
architect  Palladio  was  Inigo  Jones's  favourite  master  in  design, 
his  works  being  carefully  studied  by  him,  and  thus  Palladio 
had  a  great  influence  on  English  architecture. 

The  Commonwealth  intervened,  and  checked  the  execution  of 
many  of  Inigo  Jones's  designs. 

The  following  are  among  his  principal  Buildings  : — 

Chilham  Castle,  Kent  (A.D.  1614-1616),  is  a  transitional 
example  of  brick  with  stone  dressings,  E-shaped  facade,  with 
radiating  side  wings  forming  a  horseshoe  court  at  the  back,  and 
with  a  porch  having  the  baluster-columns  of  the  earlier  periods. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE   EXAMPLES.     III. 


BO«WflTERENTMNCE 
TOOLDYORKHOU5E 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  569 

The  Banqueting  House,  Whitehall  (A.D.  1619-1621), 
is  a  part  only  of  a  Royal  Palace,  which  was  one  of  the  grandest 
architectural  conceptions  of  the  Renaissance  (No.  252).  The 
greater  part  of  the  building  was  to  have  been  of  three  stories, 
each  30  feet  high,  with  a  total  height  to  the  top  of  the  parapet  of 
100  feet.  The  remainder,  as  curtain  wings  to  the  main  blocks,  and 
in  design  like  the  Banqueting  House  (No.  252  c),  was  to  be  75  feet 
high,  divided  into  two  stories.  The  plan  (No.  252  E)  was  arranged 
round  courtyards,  one  of  which  was  to  be  circular,  and  the 
great  court  would  have  vied  with  that  of  the  Louvre  (page  503). 
In  this  design,  proportion,  elegance,  and  purity  of  detail,  are 
more  happily  combined  than  in  any  other  Renaissance  scheme 
of  the  kind. 

S.  Paul,  Covent  Garden  (A.D.  1631-1638),  is  severe  and 
imposing  by  reason  of  its  simplicity  and  good  proportions,  but 
has  been  altered  and  rebuilt  by  subsequent  architects.  The 
arcades  and  buildings  around  the  market  were  also  designed 
by  Inigo  Jones. 

Greenwich  Hospital,  the  river  facade  of  which  was  executed 
by  John  Webb,  a  pupil  of  Inigo  Jones,  has  the  two  lower  stories 
included  under  one  huge  Corinthian  order.  The  hospital  was 
afterwards  added  to  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (page  576). 

York  Water  Gate,  London  (A.D.  1626)  (No.  252),  executed 
by  the  master  mason  Nicholas  Stone,  formed  the  river  entrance 
to  Old  York  House,  since  destroyed.  The  gateway  is  now  in 
the  Embankment  Gardens. 

Houghton  Hall,  Beds  (1616-1621);  Raynham  Hall,  Norfolk 
(1630)  ;  Stoke  Park,  Northants  (1630-1634) ;  the  King's  (Queen's) 
House,  Greenwich  (1639)  (No.  238  A)  ;  Wilton  House,  Wilts 
(additions)  (1640-1648);  Coleshill,  Berks  (1650);  and  Chevening 
House,  Kent  (No.  131  H,  j),  are  examples  of  his  country  houses; 
and  Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel  (1617-1623);  Houses  in  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  and  Great  Queen's  Street  (1620);  the  Barber  Surgeons' 
Hall  (1636-1637)  ;  and  Ashburnham  House,  Westminster  (1640), 
are  examples  of  his  town  buildings. 

SIR  CHRISTOPHER  WREN  (1632-1723) 

was  a  scholar  and  a  mathematician,  being  Professor  of  Astronomy 
at  Gresham  College  and  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  his  early 
mathematical  training  fitting  him  for  the  constructive  skill  shown 
in  his  later  works.  As  an  architect,  Wren  lacked  the  more 
thorough  technical  education  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  was  not  always 
able  to  clothe  his  constructive  forms  in  equally  appropriate  detail, 
but  his  study  of  French  architecture  at  Paris  and  elsewhere  in 
France,  was  an  important  part  of  his  education.  The  works 
on  the  Louvre  were  then  in  progress,  and  constituted  a  great 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     IV. 


t 


ESTIMATED    TIMBER  flWMIIG 
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ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


571 


school  of  art,  and,  in  consequence,  Wren's  work  shows  more 
French  influence  than  that  of  Inigo  Jones,  which  is  pure  Italian. 

Palladio  continued  to  be  the  inspirer  of  English  work,  as  com- 
pared with  Vignola,  whom  the  French  followed,  but  Wren,  who 
never  visited  Italy,  often  gave  a  semi-French  turn  to  his  designs, 
more  especially  in  the  decorative  detail,  as  may  be  seen  on 
comparing  his  work  with  that  of  Inigo  Jones. 

Many  of  his  designs,  in  which  he  was  obliged  to  study  economy, 
indicate,  however,  much  thought,  all  his  designs,  as  Opie  said, 
being  mixed  "with  brains,"  and  indicating  a  careful  study  in 
the  proportion  of  part  to  part. 

Many  of  these,  as  S.  Paul  and  the  City  churches,  were  executed 
in  Portland  stone,  which  by  its  good  weathering  properties  adds 
to  their  dignity  and  importance ;  while  in  domestic  work,  he  used 
red  brick  with  stone  dressings,  as  at  Hampton  Court,  Marl- 
borough  House,  and  elsewhere. 

His  great  opportunity  was  the  destruction  of  London  by  the 
Great  Fire  in  1666,  after  which  he  devised  a  grand  plan  for  the 
reconstruction,  which  was,  however,  abandoned  for  pecuniary  and 
other  reasons,  but  he  was  employed  in  a  large  number  of 
churches,  including  S.  Paul's  Cathedra],  and  other  buildings. 

His  principal  Ecclesiastical  works  were  as  follows : — 

S.  Paul,  London  (1675-1710),  which  ranks  amongst  the 
finest  Renaissance  Cathedrals  in  Europe,  was  Wren's  masterpiece. 
The  first  design,  of  which  there  is  a  fine  model  in  the  northern 
triforium  of  the  Cathedral,  was  in  plan  a  Greek  cross  (No.  253), 
with  a  projecting  western  vestibule  ;  but  the  influence  of  the 
clergy,  who  desired  a  long  nave  and  choir  suitable  for  ritualistic 
purposes,  finally  caused  the  selection  of  the  mediaeval  type  of  plan. 
This,  as  executed,  consists  of  a  great  central  space  at  the  cross- 
ing, arranged  somewhat  similarly  to  Ely  Cathedral,  crowned  by 
a  dome,  and  having  east  and  west  a  nave  and  choir  in  three 
bays  with  aisles,  north  and  south  transepts,  and  a  projecting 
western  vestibule  with  lateral  chapels.  The  building  has  an 
internal  length  of  460  feet,  a  breadth  including  aisles  of  100  feet, 
and  an  area  of  60,000  square  feet.  An  illustration  showing  its 
comparative  size  and  disposition  with  S.  Peter,  Rome,  the 
Pantheon,  Paris,  and  Cologne  Cathedral,  is  given  (No.  213). 

The  internal  piers  (No.  253  B)  are  ornamented  with  pilasters 
of  the  Corinthian  order,  supporting  an  entablature  and  attic, 
above  which  are  formed  the  flat  saucer-like  domes,  86  feet  high. 
Light  is  admitted  by  means  of  windows  in  the  clerestory,  which 
are  not  visible  from  the  exterior.  The  wall  surfaces  have 
recently  been  decorated  with  glass  mosaic,  under  Sir  William 
Richmond,  which  has  given  the  color  it  was  originally  intended 
to  have.  The  dome,  as  shown  in  No.  253  B,  is  of  triple  con- 
struction. It  is  carried  on  eight  piers  (cf.  Dome  of  the  Invalides, 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


254; 


S.  PAUL,  LONDON. 
West  Front. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


573 


Paris,  page  500),  and  is  109  feet  at  the  base  of  the  drum, 
diminishing  to  102  feet  at  the  top.  The  inner  dome  of  brick- 
work, 1 8  inches  thick,  has  its  summit  281  feet  high,  and  the 
intermediate  conical  dome  also  of  brickwork  18  inches  thick, 
supports  the  stone  lantern,  ball  and  cross,  which  latter  has 
a  height  of  365  feet.  The  outer  dome  is  formed  of  timber 
covered  with  lead,  and  rests  on  the  intermediate  dome  (No.  253  B). 
Eight  openings  are  formed  in  the  summit  for  the  admission  of 
light  to  the  inner  domes. 

The  exterior  is  exceedingly  effective,  and  is  made  to  group 
well  with  the  central  dome.  The  facades  have  two  orders  totalling 
108  feet  in  height,  the  lower  Corinthian  and  the  upper  Composite, 
but  as  the  aisles  are  only  one  story  high,  the  upper  story  on 
the  flanks  is  a  screen  wall  introduced  to  give  dignity,  and  to 
act  as  a  counterweight  to  the  flying  buttresses  concealed 
behind  it,  which  receive  the  thrust  of  the  nave  vault.  The 
western  front,  180  feet  wide,  and  approached  by  a  broad  flight 
of  steps,  is  flanked  by  two  finely  proportioned  towers,  215  feet 
high,  having  between  them  the  double  storied  portico  of  coupled 
columns  supporting  a  pediment  in  which  there  is  a  fine  repre- 
sentation of  the  conversion  of  S.  Paul. 

The  dome  externally  is  probably  the  finest  example  in  Europe, 
the  projecting  masses  of  masonry  at  the  meeting  of  nave  and 
transepts  expressing  the  support  of  the  dome  from  the 
ground  upwards.  The  colonnade  to  the  drum  is  particularly 
effective,  being  formed  of  three-quarter  columns  attached  to 
radiating  buttress  walls,  having  every  fourth  intercolumniation 
filled  in  solid,  and  thus  giving  an  appearance  of  strength  and 
solidity  which  is  lacking  in  the  Pantheon,  Paris.  Behind  the 
balustrade,  known  as  the  "  Stone  Gallery,"  rises  an  attic  above 
supporting  the  dome,  which  is  crowned  with  lantern  and  cross. 

The  poetess  Joanna  Baillie  has  well  described  the  majestic 
appearance  of  S.  Paul  on  a  foggy  day  : — 

"  Rear'd  in  the  sky, 

'Tis  then  St.  Paul's  arrests  the  wandering  eye  ; 
The  lower  parts  in  swathing  mists  conceal'd 
The  higher  through  some  half-spent  shower  reveal'd. 
So  far  from  earth  removed,  that  well  I  trow, 
Did  not  its  form  man's  artful  structure  show, 
It  might  some  lofty  Alpine  peak  be  deem'd, 
The  eagle's  haunt,  with  cave  and  crevice  seam'd. 
Stretched  wide  on  either  hand,  a  rugged  screen, 
In  lurid  dimness  nearer  streets  are  seen, 
Like  shoreward  billows  of  a  troubled  sea 
Arrested  in  their  rage." 

Time  Building,  Architects.  Master  Mason.  Bishops. 

S.  Paul,  London.  35  years.  One.  One.  One. 

S.   Peter,  Rome.  100  years.  Six.  Twenty. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     V. 


^D(6TI  SIR  CHRIST* 
WREN  ARCHITECT 
CONSIDERED  THE 
MASTERPIECE  OT 
WREN5  5PIRE5 
THE  TREATMENT  ? 
THE  INVERTED  CON- 
SOLES GIVES  VARIETY 
To  THE  OUTLINE 


255- 


WREN  ARCHITECT. 
dN  EXAMPLE  OF  REPmTION 
IN  THE  FIVE  DECREASING 
STORIES  OF  THIL-SPIRE  WHICH 
15  CARRIED  ONffl  OGEE 
SHAPED  DOME  BROUGHT 
To-mESQlWREBYPLTlIN 
PENDENTIYE5. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     VI. 


THE  PRINCIPALFEATURE  OR^fTIFOF 
THIS  [WILDING  15  \QO*L  SUPPORTED 


ON  8  PILLARS  WITH  4  "WE.  IN  THE 
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EXTERNAL  EFfECT 


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256. 


576  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Wren  was  also  responsible  for  the  erection  of  some  fifty- 
three  City  churches  in  the  Renaissance  style  between  1670-1711. 
These  are  models  of  simplicity  and  restraint,  and  are  notable  for 
skilful  planning  on  awkward  and  confined  sites,  and  general 
suitability  for  Protestant  worship,  in  which  a  central  preaching 
space  is  considered  more  important  than  the  "long-drawn  aisle" 
for  processional  purposes,  characteristic  of  mediaeval  churches. 
Among  the  more  important  of  these  are  the  following  :— 

S.  Stephen,  Walbrook  (1672-1679)  (No.  256),  has  original 
and  ingenious  planning,  and  is  deservedly  famous  for  the  excellent 
effect  produced  by  small  means  within  a  limited  area,  the  sixteen 
columns,  inclosed  in  a  rectangle,  carrying  cross  vaulting  and  a 
central  cupola,  the  latter  resting  on  eight  of  the  columns. 

Bow  Church,  Cheapside  (1680),  is  the  most  successful  of 
a  type  of  Renaissance  steeple  (No.  255  A,  B)  of  which  Wren  may 
be  called  the  inventor,  in  which  a  square  tower  supports  a 
pyramidal  spire  in  receding  stages  clothed  with  classical  details. 

S.  Bride,  Fleet  Street  (1680)  (Nos.  255  c,  D,  257),  is 
another  example  generally  considered  less  successful  because  of 
the  telescopic  effect  of  similar  stories,  a  fault  which  was  avoided 
in  Bow  Church  by  the  use  of  inverted  consoles. 

S.  Martin,  Ludgate,  has  a  steeple  simpler  in  design,  but 
exceedingly  picturesque  in  the  group  that  it  forms  in  conjunction 
with  Wren's  masterpiece,  S.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

S.  Clement  Danes  (1684)  and  S.  James,  Piccadilly 
(No.  257),  are  successful  though  plain  examples  of  his  galleried 
interiors. 

The  Western  Towers  of  Westminster  Abbey ;  S. 
Dunstan  in  the  East  (1698) ;  S.  Mary,  Aldermary 
(1711);  S.  Michael,  Cornhill  (1721),  are  examples  of  his 
Gothic  treatment  of  spires. 

Pembroke  College  Chapel,  Cambridge  (1663-1664)  was 
one  of  his  earliest  works. 

The  Secular  works  of  Wren  were  numerous  : — 

The  Sheldonjan  Theatre,  Oxford  (1664),  is  an  evidence  of 
his  scientific  skill  in  the  constructive  carpentry  of  the  roof,  and 
in  the  splendid  acoustic  properties  of  the  hall. 

The  Inner  Court,  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (1665);  the 
Library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (1679) ;  the  Library 
of  Queen's  College,  Oxford  (1682) ;  and  the  School  Room 
at  Winchester  (1684),  are  other  examples  of  his  collegiate 
work. 

The  Monument,  London  Bridge  (1671);  the  Fountain 
Court  and  Garden  Facade  of  Hampton  Court  Palace 
(1690);  the  Two  Blocks  of  Greenwich  Hospital  furthest 
from  the  river,  combined  in  a  group  at  once  picturesque  and 
stately;  Chelsea  Hospital,  the  Royal  Palace,  Winchester 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     VI 


CHORCH 
Y  L9NDON. 
4M68&3R  CHRISTOPHER  WREW  /JRCHT. 

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COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

(1683),  Morden  College,  Blackheath,  Maryborough  House, 
Pall  Mall  (1709),  and  the  Banqueting  Hall  (Orangery)  in 
Kensington  Palace  Gardens,  are  a  few  examples  which  show 
the  large  number  of  different  classes  of  buildings  upon  which 
he  was  engaged,  and  their  suitability  to  the  several  purposes  for 
which  they  were  designed. 

The  Temple,  London  (1674-1684)  with  its  plain  brickwork 
facades  and  interesting  wooden  doorways,  is  an  example  of  his 
simpler  style  to  which  character  is  given,  as  in  the  principal 
entrance  gateway  to  Fleet  Street. 

Temple  Bar,  London  (1670),  removed  to  Iheobalds  Park, 
Herts,  is  a  pleasing  example  of  a  smaller  type  of  monumental 
work. 

4.  COMPARATIVE  (see  page  585). 

5.  REFERENCE  BOOKS  (see  page  588). 

THE  "QUEEN   ANNE,"   "GEORGIAN,"    "PEDIMENT 
AND     PORTICO,"    OR    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 

STYLE, 

Comprises  the  reigns  of  Anne  (1702-14),  George  I.  (1714-27), 
George  II.  (1727-60),  George  III.  (1760-1820). 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  545). 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth,  and  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  plan  of  the  smaller  type  of  house  was  usually  a  square, 
as  at  the  King's  (Queen's)  House,  Greenwich  (No.  238  A),  or  an 
oblong,  as  at  Chevening  (No.  131  H,  j),  both  already  mentioned 
(page  569).  In  the  square  type  the  centre  was  frequently  occupied 
by  the  top-lit  saloon,  two  stories  in  height,  as  at  Greenwich.  In 
the  oblong  type,  the  house  was  usually  roughly  divided  into  three, 
the  centre  third  being  occupied  by  the  hall,  saloon  and  staircases. 
The  basement  in  both  types  contained  the  kitchen,  storerooms  and 
cellars. 

In  the  larger  type  of  house,  the  ground  floor  was  frequently 
treated  as  a  basement,  the  first  floor  being  the  principal  one, 
reached  by  an  external  flight  of  steps  as  at  Rainham  in  Norfolk, 
Castle  Howard  (No.  258  A,  B,  c),  and  Kedlestone  (No..  258  D, 
E,  F),  and  this  led  to  the  internal  staircase  being  reduced  in 
importance.  The  hall,  saloon,  and  reception-rooms,  to  which 
everything  was  sacrificed,  were  placed  in  a  central  block,  either 
square  or  oblong  on  plan  (No.  258  C,.F)  superseding  the  E  and 
H -shaped  Jacobean  plans.  On  either  side  symmetrical  detached 
wings  were  added,  as  at  Holkham  Hall  (No.  131  K),  or  connecting 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     VIII. 


afwm§w(i7itoji  JOHN  WIN&RUGH  m\ 

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580  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

portions  of  quadrant  form,  often  treated  as  colonnades,  as  at  Stoke 
Park,  Northants  (No.  1310),  Castle  Howard,  Yorkshire  (No.  258  c), 
Blenheim,  Oxfordshire  (No.  238  F),  Latham  Hall,  Lancashire,  Moor 
Park,  Herts,  and  Kedlestone,  Derbyshire  (No.  258  F). 

The  Jacobean  gallery  survived  in  a  modified  form,  as  at  Castle 
Howard  (No.  258),  Chatsworth,  and  Holkham  (No.  131  K),  and 
many  other  examples. 

The  publication,  by  the  Earl  of  Burlington,  of  the  designs  of 
Inigo  Jones,  and  of  the  drawings  of  the  "  Antiquities  of  Rome," 
by  Palladio,  in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  are  thus  referred  to 
by  Pope  in  one  of  his  epistles  to  the  Earl  of  Burlington. 

"You  show  us,  Rome  was  glorious,  not  profuse, 
And  pompous  buildings  once  were  things  of  use. 
Yet  shall,  my  lord,  your  just,  your  noble  rules, 
Fill  half  the  land  with  imitating  fools  ; 
Who  random  drawings  from  your  sheets  shall  take, 
And  of  one  beauty  many  blunders  make  ; 
Load  some  vain  church  with  old  theatric  state, 
Turu  arcs  of  triumph  to  a  garden  gate  ; 
****** 

Shall  call  the  winds  through  long  arcades  to  roar, 
Proud  to  catch  cold  at  a  Venetian  door." 

This  passage  suggests  what  really  did  happen,  and  well 
characterizes  the  style  of  architecture.  There  were  many 
famous  architects  of  this  period  and  as  they  were  contem- 
poraries, practising  at  the  same  time,  their  names  and  principal 
works  are  given. 

The  design  of  the  buildings,  not  excepting  the  domestic  class, 
was  influenced  by  a  passion  for  symmetry  and  grandeur,  which 
almost  entirely  put  aside  as  unworthy  of  consideration  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  the  people  who  had  to  occupy  them, 
a  point  remarked  upon  by  Pope  : — 

"'tis  very  fine, 

But  where  d'ye  sleep,  or  where  d'ye  dine  ? 
I  find  by  all  you  have  been  telling 
That  rtis  a  house,  but  not  a  dwelling." 

Or  the  remark  of  Lord  Chesterfield  to  General  Wade  may  be 
quoted,  viz.,  that  the  latter  had  better  take  a  lodging  opposite  his 
Palladian  mansion  (by  Lord  Burlington),  if  he  liked  nothing  but 
the  front. 

The  fact  must  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  at  this  time 
there  grew  up  a  national  style,  most  of  the  less  important 
houses  for  the  middle  class  people  being  erected  in  the  useful 
and  modest  Queen  Anne  and  Georgian  type  of  square  house.  More- 
over, corridor  planning  did  much  for  convenience  and  comfort  in 
domestic  architecture,  and  the  fast  developing  trade  of  the  joiner 
admitted  of  the  elaboration  of  internal  fittings. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


3.  EXAMPLES. 


Nicholas  Hawksmoor  (1666- 
1763)  was  a  pupil  of  Wren  and 
followed  him  in  his  practice.  Prin- 
cipal works:— S.  George,  Blooms- 
bury  ;  S.  Mary  Woolnoth  ;  S. 
George  in  the  East  ;  S.  Anne, 
Limehouse  ;  Christ  Church,  Spital- 
fields — all  in  London.  He  also 
assisted  Sir  John  Vanbrugh  at 
Castle  Howard  and  Blenheim. 
His  works  were  much  influenced 
both  by  Wren  and  Vanbrugh,  but 
ideas  of  some  originality  and 
grandeur  were  too  often  marred 
by  eccentricities  of  treatment,  and 
his  architectural  detail,  as  with 
other  of  Wren's  pupils,  was  often 
badly  designed. 

Hawksmoor  held  several  Govern- 
ment appointments,  notably  clerk 
of  the  works  at  Kensington  Palace 
and  Greenwich  Hospital. 

James  Gibbs  (1683-1754).  Princi- 
pal works  were  : — S.  Martin  in 
the  Fields  ;  S.  Mary-le-Strand 
(A.D.  1714)  (the  tower  is  an  oblong 
on  plan),  the  steeple,  S.  Clement 
Danes  Church  ;  and  Bartholomew's 
Hospital — all  in  London  ;  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Library,  Oxford,  and  the 
Senate  House,  Cambridge.  He 
published  a  book  of  his  own  de- 
signs, in  which  the  above  works, 
with  others,  may  be  found. 

William  Talman  (d.  1715),  Chats- 
worth,  Derbyshire  (A.D.  1681),  Dyn- 
ham  House,  Gloucestershire,  and 
works  at  Hampton  Court. 

Kent  (1684-1748),  in  collabora- 
tion with  the  Earl  of  Burlington, 
erected  the  Horse  Guards,  London, 
notable  for  skilful  grouping  ;  the 
Treasury  Buildings,  Horse  Guards 
Parade  ;  Devonshire  House.  Picca- 
dilly, and  Holkham  Hall,  Norfolk 
(No.  131  K). 

The  Earl  of  Burlington  (A.D. 
1695-1753),  an  amateur  architect 
and  patron  of  Kent  and  other 
artists.  He  designed  the  Palladian 
Villa  at  Chiswick  —  an  English 


Sir  John  Vanbrugh  (1666-1726). 
Principal  works: — Blenheim  Palace 
(No.  238  F),  the  most  important 
mansion  of  the  period  erected  in 
England,  is  both  picturesque  and 
stately,  and  it  is  the  commencement 
of  the  Palladian  type  of  house,  in 
which  a  striving  after  symmetry 
and  monumental  grandeur,  at  the 
expense  of  usefulness,  led  to  the 
debasement  of  architecture.  In 
the  plan  of  Blenheim  there  is  an 
extensive  use  of  corridors  as  com- 
municating passages,  being  a  great 
development  in  planning,  and  a 
step  towards  the  privacy  which  is 
now  insisted  upon.  Castle  Howard, 
Yorkshire  (A.D.  1714)  (No.  258),  is  an 
example  of  a  ponderous  character. 
King's  Weston,  Gloucestershire 
(A.D.  1713),  and  Seaton  Delaval, 
Northumberland,  are  other  works. 

Thomas  Archer  (d.  1743)  was  a 
pupil  of  Sir  John  Vanbrugh.  He 
erected  S.  John,  Westminster,  in 
the  Rococo  style,  and  S.  Philip, 
Birmingham,  in  the  somewhat 
heavy  style  of  his  master. 

Colin  Campbell  (d.  1734)  was 
the  compiler  of  the  'k  Vitruvius 
Britannicus,"  which  contains  plans 
and  elevations  of  all  the  country 
houses  of  any  importance  erected 
during  the  century.  His  best 
known  works  were  the  front  and 
gateway  of  old  Burlington  House 
(1717),  Houghton,  Norfolk  (1723), 
and  Wanstead,  Essex  (1720). 

Isaac  Ware  (d.  1766).  He 
erected  Chesterfield  House,  May- 
fair,  and  was  the  author  of  "A 
Complete  Body  of  Architecture." 

Sir  Robert  Taylor  (1714-1788). 
He  was  the  architect  of  the  Pelican 
Fire  Office,  Lombard  Street  ;  and 
Ely  House,  Dover  Street. 

George  Dance,  senior  (d.  1768), 
City  architect  of  London,  erected 
the  Mansion  House,  London.  His 
better  known  son  was  the  designer 
of  Newgate,  the  most  appropriate  of 


582 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


translation  of  the  Villa  Capra,  near 
Vicenza  (page  488). 

The  Brothers  Adam.  Robert 
Adam  (1728-1792)  published  "Dio- 
cletian's Palace  at  Spalato,"  in  the 
year  1760,  a  book  which  influenced 
architectural  design.  Other  designs 
are  two  sides  of  Fitzroy  Square  ;  the 
Adelphi  Terrace  (named  after  the 
four  brothers)  ;  the  screen  in  front 
of  the  Admiralty,  Whitehall  ( 1 760) ; 
Caen  Wood,  Hampstead ;  Kedle- 
stone  Hall,  Derbyshire  (No.  258) ; 
Stratford  Place,  London  ;  Lans- 
downe  House,  London  (1765)  ; 
Stowe  House,  Buckingham  ;  Sion 
House,  near  London  (A.D.  1761- 
1762);  Kenwood  House,  Hamp- 
stead (A.D.  1764),  and  many 
private  houses  in  London,  and 
the  College  and  Register  Office, 
Edinburgh. 

Thex  brothers  Adam  were  the 
authors  of  a  marked  style  of  in- 
terior decoration  that  is  known 
by  their  name.  Furniture  and 
decoration  were  treated  together 
with  the  design  of  the  rooms 
themselves  with  refined  and 
elegant  details.  Adams'  chimney- 
pieces  are  specially  characteristic. 

Henry  Holland  (1740-1806) 
erected  Claremont  House,  Esher  ; 
Carlton  House,  on  the  site  now 
occupied 'by  Waterloo  Place  (the 
Corinthian  columns  being  employed 
at  the  National  Gallery)  ;  Brooks's 
Club,  London,  and  the  vestibule  to 
Dover  House,  Whitehall,  which  is 
a  charming  and  refined  piece  of 
work. 

James  Wyalt(  1748- 1813)  studied 
in  Rome.  The  Pantheon  (1772) 
in  Oxford  Street,  and  White's 
Club,  are  works  in  London  ; 
Lee  Priory,  Kent ;  Castle  Coote, 
Ireland  ;  Bowden  Park,  Wiltshire  ; 
and  Fonthill  Abbey  (1795-1822). 
He  undertook  the  restoration  of 
many  of  the  cathedrals  and  im- 
portant churches  in  England  and 
Wales,  but  the  small  knowledge 
of  the  true  spirit  of  Gothic  archi- 


prison  designs  and  lately  demo- 
lished ;  also  of  S.  Luke's  Hospital. 

John  ^00^(1704-1754)  of  Bath, 
in  conjunction  with  Dawkins,  pub- 
lished the  "  Illustrations  of  Baalbec 
and  Palmyra"  in  1750,  creating  a 
taste  for  Roman  magnificence. 
His  best  known  work  is  Prior  Park, 
Bath  (A.D.  1735-1743),  and  various 
other  works  in  that  city. 

Sir  William  Chambers  (1726- 
1796),  first  Treasurer  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  wrote  the  "  Treatise  on 
the  Decorative  Part  of  Civil 
Architecture."  He  carried  on  the 
traditions  of  the  Anglo-Palladian 
school,  objecting  strongly  to  the 
Greek  revival  then  commencing. 
The  proportions  he  adopted  for  the 
Classic  orders  are  given  in  Nos. 
261,  262.  He  travelled  largely  in 
Europe  and  the  East.  His 
great  work  is  Somerset  House, 
commenced  in  1776  (No.  259), 
which  is  grand,  dignified,  and 
simple  in  its  parts.  A  single  order 
runs  through  t\vo  stories,  and 
rustication  is  largely  employed. 
The  character  of  his  work  in 
general  is  correct  and  refined,  but 
lacking  somewhat  in  originality 
and  strength. 

fames  Gandon  (1742-1823),  a 
pupil  of  Sir  W.  Chambers,  erected 
the  Custom  House  and  the  Law 
Courts  at  Dublin. 

Sir  John  Soane  (1750-1837),  a 
pupil  of  George  Dance,  junior, 
studied  in  Italy  (1788).  He  was 
appointed  architect  to  the  Bank  of 
England.  This  important  building 
occupied  many  years  of  his  life, 
and  constitutes  his  masterpiece, 
the  Corinthian  order  of  the  Temple 
at  Tivoli  being  closely  followed. 
Comparing  this  design  with  New- 
gate, it  fails  in  the  quality  of  appa- 
rent suitability  of  purpose.  His  early 
designs  are  Palladian,  and  his  later 
ones  are  thoss  of  an  original  mind, 
but  he  was  unable  to  clothe  them 
with  suitable  details,  and  there  is 
a  consequent  taint  of  eccentricity. 
The  Dulwich  picture  gallery  is  by 


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ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE   ORNAMENT. 


260. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  585 

tecture  then  existing  is  responsible  him.      Sir  John  Soane's  Museum, 

for  his  inability  to  effect  these  with  in  Lincoln's   Inn  Fields,   formerly 

success.  Pugin  has  starred  him  with  his  private  house,  contains  interest- 

the  affix  "  the  destroyer."  ing  drawings  and  models. 


4.    COMPARATIVE. 

ANGLO-CLASSIC,  QUEEN  ANNE  AND  GEORGIAN  STYLES. 

A.  Plans. — These   are  marked    by    regularity  and  symmetry, 
sometimes  showing  signs  of    being  dictated  by  a   preconceived 
elevation.     The   Italian    use   of  a  piano   nobile  above   a    storage 
basement,    affected     the    planning    of     many      country    houses 
(No.   258).     Excessive  cellarage,  or  kitchen  offices,  occupy  the 
ground  floor,  and  the  best  rooms  are  reached  by  a  great  external 
staircase  and  portico  (No.  258  D),  or  by  a  mean  approach  from  a 
side    door    through     the    basement.     Octagonal,    circular,     and 
elliptical-shaped   apartments,    often    cubical    in    proportion,    are 
usual  (No.  258  c),  and  suites  of   such   saloons  are  arranged  in 
various   combinations.      Staircases   receive  much  attention,    in- 
genious domical,  or  other  top  lights,  being  introduced.     Corridors 
gradually  supersede  the  hall  and  en  suite  or  thoroughfare  systems 
of  planning  (Nos.  131  G,  H,  j,  K,  238  F,  252  E  and  258  c,  F). 

B.  Walls. — These  are  usually  thick,  and  filled  in  solid  between 
the  varied  shapes  of  the  rooms,  on  plan.     Brick  was  used  most 
commonly  for  walling,    and  often    for  the  facing,    but   in   later 
work  it  was  usually  stuccoed.     Stone  was  used  as  an  ashlar  facing 
and  for  dressings.    Unbroken  surfaces  contrasted  with  the  porticos, 
pilasters,  or  window  dressings  of  the  composition  (No.  258),  and 
blank  walls,  to  mask  undesirable  necessities,  are  not  uncommon. 
Chimneys  are  often  concealed.     Pediments  are  the  only  form  of 
gable,  and  are  used  with  and  without  balustrades. 

c.  Openings. — Windows  were  reduced  in  number  as  much  as 
possible,  but  infrequency  of  openings  was  compensated  for  by 
large  and  unobstructed  window  areas  (No.  260  B),  sometimes  of  a 
special  Venetian  Character  (No.  261  c).  Porticos,  arcades,  and 
doorways  (No.  261),  were  regulated  by  the  proportions  of  the 
Classic  orders,  and  the  minimum  condition  of  having  to  pass 
through  them  (No.  260  A,  c,  E)  ;  the  maximum  scale  was  a  question 
of  material  and  expense.  Gate  piers  are  frequently  in  excellent 
proportion  (No.  260  G).  Vertical  grouping  of  windows  was  effec- 
tively developed,  as  in  houses  in  Hanover  Square,  and  the  large 
compositions  of  windows  to  more  than  one  room  or  story  were  not 
affected  by  party-wall  or  floor  divisions,  as  in  the  houses  of  the 
Brothers  Adam  in  Fitzroy  Square,  and  elsewhere. 

D.  Roofs. — "  No  roof  but  a  spherical  one  being  sufficiently 
dignified  "  for  this  style,  balustrades  or  attics  conceal  the  small 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE    EXAMPLES.     IX. 


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PHILIBERT 
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588  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

amount  of  low-pitched  roof  covering  the  building  (No.  258). 
In  the  smaller  works,  tiled  roofs  having  a  wooden  eaves  cornice, 
were  often  effectively  used.  Domes,  cupolas,  and  turrets  were 
well  designed,  those  on  a  large  scale  being  lead  covered,  while 
small  examples  were  sometimes  entirely  of  wood.  The  splendid 
steeples  of  the  period,  in  stone  and  wood,  covered  with  lead, 
rival  mediaeval  spires  in  fanciful  and  skilful  outlines  (No.  255). 

E.  Columns. — The    orders   were  used    wherever    funds   per- 
mitted (No.  260).     Single  order  porticos  of  large  scale  were  not 
possible  owing  to   the   small   size   of  stone   obtainable,  but    on 
the    introduction   of    stucco   and   iron    these   could    be   erected. 
Pilasters,   however,  were  most  often  of  two  or  more  stories  in 
height  (Nos.  258  A  and  259).     Columns,  often  purely  decorative 
in  function,  were  employed  in  interiors  with  considerable  effect. 
The  canons  of  proportion  first  laid  down  by  Vitruvius  (page  167) 
were  still  further  insisted  on  by  Sir  W.  Chambers  (Nos.  261,  262), 
who  took  various  Renaissance  architects  as  his  guide. 

F.  Mouldings. — The  standard  mouldings  of  the  Classic  orders 
became  the   stock-in-trade  of  every  workman,  being  applied  in 
every   material    with    small  modification    (Nos.   260,    262),    and 
design   is   thus    often   found   of   equal    standard  in   very   varied 
classes  of  building.     The  large  employment  of  wood,  in  which 
material  smallness  of  scale  was  rendered  possible,  admitted  of 
much  elaboration  and  refinement  in  such  features  as  the  main 
external  cornices  and  doorways. 

G.  Ornament  (No.   260). — Wall  tablets  (No.  260  D),  tombs 
(No.  260  j),  and  chimney-pieces  (No.   260  H,  K)  are  among  the 
most  pleasing  decorative  features  in  the  style.     Whitewash  was 
usual,  but  sometimes  fresco  decorations  were  employed,  artists 
such  as  Verrio  and  Sir  James  Thornhill  being  engaged.     The 
orders  were  executed  with  facility  in  wood  or  plaster,  or  both, 
and  small  buildings  resembling  Roman  Temples  (No.  261  E)were 
most   effectively  grouped    in    parks   and   gardens.      Decoration, 
founded  on  Roman,  or  in  the  later  period,  on  Greek  examples, 
was  modelled  in  stucco  with  great  skill  and  effect,  and  French 
work  of  the  style  of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  successors   was  also 
followed,  while  the  Brothers  Adam  and  others  imported  Italian 
workmen,  who  carried  the  art  to  a  high  pitch  of  technical  excellence. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

LATER   ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 
(SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES.) 

Adam  (R.  and  J.).— "  Works  in  Architecture."  3  vols.,  folio.   1773-1822. 
Adam  (R.  and  J.),  Decorative  Work  of."    (A  selection  of  plates  repro- 
duced from  the  above.)     Folio.     1901. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  589 

Belcher  (J.)  and  M.  E.  Macartney. — "  Later  Renaissance  Architec- 
ture in  England."  2  vols.,  folio.  1897-1901. 

Birch  (G.  H.).— "  London  Churches  of  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth 
Centuries."  Folio.  1896. 

Blomfield  (R.).— "A  History  of  Renaissance  Architecture  in  England." 
2  vols.,  8vo.  1897.  (Also  abridged  edition.  8vo.  1900.) 

Clayton  (J.).—"  Works  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren  — the  Parochial 
Churches  of  London  and  Westminster."  Folio.  1848-1849 

Gibbs  (J.).—u  Book  of  Architecture."     Folio.     1728. 

"  Inigo  Jones's  Designs."     By  W.  Kent.    Folio.    1835. 

Paine  (T.). — "  Plans,  etc.,  of  Noblemen's  and  Gentlemen's  Houses." 
2  vols.,  folio.  1767-1783. 

Papworth  (W.). — "  Renaissance  and  Italian  Styles  of  Architecture  in 
Great  Britain."  8vo.  1883. 

Stratton  (A.).— "The  Life,  Work,  and  Influence  of  Sir  Christopher 
Wren."  Folio.  1897. 

Swan  (A.). — "  Designs  in  Architecture."     2  vols.,  folio.     1757. 

Taylor  (A.  T.). — "  Towers  and  Steeples  designed  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren."  1881. 

Triggs  (H.  Inigo)  and  H.  Tanner,  jun.— "  Some  Architectural  Works 
of  Inigo  Jones."  Folio.  1901. 

Triggs  (H.  Inigo).—"  Formal  Gardens  in  England  and  Scotland." 
Folio.  1902. 

"  Vitruvius  Britannicus."  By  Campbell,  Woolfe,  and  Gandon.  5  vols., 
folio.  1715-1771. 

Ware  (I.). — "  Complete  Body  of  Architecture."     Folio.     1756. 

Wren  (C.  and  S.). — "  Parenfalia."  Folio.  (Contains  much  interesting 
information  concerning  the  life  and  work  of  Sir  Christopher.)  1750. 

Hope  (A.).—"  Simon  Dale."  \ 

Lytton  (Lord).—"  Devereux."  / 

Scott  (Sir  W.).—"  Woodstock."  I  „.        .     .  ,T       . 

Thackeray  (W.  M.).-"  Esmond."  > Historical  Novels. 

Thackeray  (W.  M.).— "  The  Virginians." 

Wingfield  (L.).— "  Lady  Grizel." 

THE   EARLY   VICTORIAN    STYLE 

(THE  AGE  OF  REVIVALS), 

Comprises   the    reigns  of   George    IV.   (1820-30),   William  IV. 
(1830-37),  and  Victoria  (part  of)  (1837-51). 

i.  INFLUENCES  (see  page  545). 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

The  notes  on  this  period  are  merely  -given  as  explanatory 
of  the  general  course  of  architecture  at  this  time.  The  beginning 
of  the  century  saw  Palladianism  on  the  decline,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  eclecticism  as  a  governing  idea  in  architectural  design. 

On  the  one  hand,  isolation  from  the  Continent,  due  to  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  shut  out  new  ideas  in  art,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
Stuart  and  Revett's  "Antiquities  of  Athens"  (A.D.  1762), 
Robert  Adam's  "  Spalato  "  (A.D.  1764),  Inwood's  "  Erechtheion  " 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  59! 

(A.D.  1831),  the  writings  of  Professor  Cockerell  and  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti  (A.D.  1769),  caused  an  increased 
interest  in  Classic  architecture  and  the  erection  of  buildings 
copied  from  Greek  originals,  which  is  known  as  the  "  Greek 
Revival,"  a  movement  much  strengthened  by  the  importation  of 
the  Elgin  marbles  in  1801-1803. 

Somewhat  later,  the  influence  of  literature  helped  to  produce 
what  is  known  as  the  "  Gothic  Revival."  Battey  Langley's 
"Gothic  Architecture  Improved,"  Rickman's  "  Attempt  to  Dis- 
criminate the  Gothic  Styles"  (A.D.  1819),  the  writings  of  Coney, 
Paley,  Wild,  Cotman  and  the  elder  Pugin,  Brandon's  "  Churches 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  other  works,  Britton's  Architectural 
Antiquities  of  Great  Britain  "  (1807-1826),  the  "  Cathedral  Anti- 
quities of  Great  Britain"  (1814-1835),  and  the  works  of  other 
writers,  caused  an  increasing  interest  to  be  taken  in  Gothic 
Architecture.  This  interest  was  further  aided  by  the  erection  of 
Strawberry  Hill  (1760-1770),  a  Pseudo-Gothic  Abbey,  by 
Horace  Walpole,  and  Fonthill  Abbey  (a  monastic  building  with 
modern  internal  arrangements),  by  James  Wyatt,  already  referred 
to  (page  582). 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

Note.— Examples  in  the  Classic  and  Gothic  schools  of  architec- 
ture, which  now,  for  the  first  time,  run  concurrently,  are  placed 
side  by  side. 

THE   CLASSIC    SCHOOL.  THE   GOTHIC  SCHOOL. 

H.  W.Inrwood(-ifj^\-\^>^}\  New  Savage:  S.  Luke,  Chelsea  (1820), 

Church   of  S.   Pancras  (1819),  an  an  early  attempt  at  revived  Gothic, 

attempt    to    copy    absolutely    the  the  galleried  church  of  the  period 

purest  of  Greek  detail,  reproducing  being  clothed  with  details,  directly 

in  many  respects  the  Erechtheion,  copied  from    old    cathedrals    and 

Athens.  churches. 

Nash  (1752-1835),  of  the  Regency,  Sir  Jeffrey  Wyatville  (1766- 
introduced  the  age  of  stucco  :  Hay-  1840) :  transformed  Windsor  Castle 
market  Theatre;  Buckingham  in  1826.  This  started  a  fashion  for 
Palace,  since  altered  by  Blore  ;  castellated  mansions,  internally  of 
Regent  Street,  with  Quadrant  (the  the  traditional  architecture,  and  ex- 
colonnades  have  since  been  re-  ternally  battlemented  and  turreted 
moved) ;  All  Souls,  Langham  Place,  in  imitation  of  the  Edwardian 
and  the  laying  out  of  Regent's  castles,  as  at  Belvoir  Castle. 
Park  in  palatial  blocks  of  synime-  William  Wilkins :  New  Court, 
tricai  architecture.  Trinity  College,  Cambs.,  and  the 

William    Wilkins   (1778-1839)  :  New    Buildings,    King's    College, 

University   College,    London  ;  the  Cambs. 

National  Gallery  (fettered  with  con-  John  Shaw  (A.D.  1776-1832) :   S. 

ditions)  ;     S.    George's    Hospital,  Dunstan  in  the  West,  Fleet  Street 

London;  Museum  at  York  ;  Down-  (A.D.  1831-1832),  a  fine  treatment 

ing    College,    Cambs.,    and     The  of  a  town  church,  since  spoilt  by 

Grange  House,  Hants  (1820).  erection  of  adjacent  buildings. 


592 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


THE   CLASSIC   SCHOOL. 

Sir  Robert  Smirke  (1780-1867), 
a  pupil  of  Sir  John  Soane  :  The 
British  Museum  (1823-1847)  (in 
which  remark  the  application  of 
the  useless  but  grandeur-giving 
porticos  to  public  buildings)  ; 
General  Post  Office  ;  King's  Col- 
lege, London  (1831). 

George  Basevi  (1795-1845),  a 
pupil  of  Sir  John  Soane,  erected 
Fitzwilltam  Museum,  Cambs. 

Decimus  Burton  (1800-1881)  : 
Screen  at  Hyde  Park  Corner  in 
1824  ;  Athenaeum  Club,  Pall  Mall, 
and  United  Service  Club,  Pall  Mall. 

H.  L.  Elmes  (1815-1847)  :  S. 
George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  won  in 
competition,  is  the  most  perfect 
design  of  the  Classic  School,  the 
main  hall  recalling  the  Roman 
Thermae  (page  144).  Externally  a 
colonnade  and  portico  design  is 
handled  with  great  effect.  On  the 
death  of  Elmes,  Prof.  Cockerell  com- 
pleted the  decoration  of  the  interior. 
The  vault  was  executed  in  hollow 
tiles  by  Sir  Robert  Rawlinson. 

Sir  IV.  TV/*  (1798-1873)  :  Royal 
Exchange,  London. 

Prof.  C.  R.  Cockerell,  R.A..  (1788- 
1863),  travelled  much  in  Greece  and 
Italy,  and  published  "The  Greek 
Temples  of  yEgina  and  Bassae." 
He  erected  the  Taylor  and  Ran- 
dolph Institute,  Oxford  ;  the  Sun 
Fire  Office,  Threadneedle  Street, 
London  (recently  altered)  ;  Banks 
of  England  at  Manchester,  Bris- 
tol, and  Liverpool  ;  and  Han- 
over Chapel,  Regent  Street  (1825) 
(lately  demolished). 

Sir  Charles  Barry  (1795-1860) 
travelled  extensively  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Italy.  He  abandoned 
the  fashion  of  useless  porticos, 
and  brought  in  the  "  astylar " 
treatment  of  design.  The  Travel- 
lers' Club,  Pall  Mall,  shows  the 
influence  of  the  Pandolfini  Palace, 
Florence,  and  was  followed  by  the 
Reform  Club,  Pall  Mall,  a  design 
inspired  by  the  Farnese  Palace, 
Rome.  In  Bridgewater  House,  the 


THE   GOTHIC    SCHOOL. 

Augustus  Wei  by  Northmore 
Pugin  (1812-1852),  from  being- 
employed  upon  his  father's  books 
of  mediaeval  architecture,  acquired 
an  extraordinary  knowledge  of  the 
style.  He  published  a  rousing 
pamphlet  contrasting  the  "  de- 
graded "  architecture  of  the  day 
with  what  he  called  the  "  Chris- 
tian "  style.  A  new  spirit  of 
church  building  was  awakened, 
and,  by  the  earnest  study  of  old 
work,  a  new  era  in  the  Gothic 
revival  began.  Pugin  erected  more 
than  sixty-five  churches  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  many  in 
the  colonies,  besides  convents, 
monasteries,  mansions  and  schools, 
and  made  a  vast  number  of  designs 
in  collaboration  with  or  as  assistant 
to  others.  He  had  not  yet  arrived 
at  the  meridian  of  his  power  when 
he  died  at  the  age  of  forty. 

In  the  Gothic  revival  Pugin 
sought  to  restore  the  fervour  of 
faith  and  the  self-denying  spirit 
which  were  the  real  foundations  of 
the  artistic  greatness  and  moral 
grandeur  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Amongst  the  numerous  works 
which  he  erected,  only  the  few 
following  typical  examples  can 
be  mentioned  : — Roman  Catholic 
churches  at  Nottingham,  Derby, 
and  elsewhere  ;  S.  George's  Cathe- 
dral, Southwark,  and  S.  Augus- 
tine's, Ramsgate,  1855.  He  worked 
under  Sir  Charles  Barry  on  the 
stained  glass,  metal  work,  fittings, 
and  ornamental  work  generally  of 
the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Sir  Charles  Barry  :  Birmingham 
Grammar  School,  1833  ;  Houses 
of  Parliament,  commenced  1840 
(No.  263),  in  which  symmetry  of 
the  leading  lines  on  plan,  simplicity 
of  idea,  and  richness  of  character 
pervade  the  whole  design,  which  is 
Classic  in  inspiration,  Gothic  "in 
clothing,  and  carried  out  with 
scrupulous  adherence  to  the  spirit 
and  detail  of  the  Perpendicular 
period. 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


593 


THE  CLASSIC  SCHOOL. 

third  of  the  series  (1849),  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Gothic  revival  is 
evidently  felt,  greater  richness  is 
sought  after,  and  the  Italian  feeling 
is  less  strong.  His  final  work,  the 
Town  Hall  at  Halifax,  is  a  still 
more  ornate  example  of  the  Re- 
naissance, the  intention  being  to 
combine  picturesqueness  with  sym- 
metrical stateliness.  Other  impor- 
tant works  in  the  country  are : 
Trentham  Hall  (where  landscape 
gardening  of  the  Italian  School  is 
admirably  carried  out),  Shrublands, 
Highclere,  and  Cliefden. 

Sir  James  Pennethorne  (1801- 
1871),  assistant  to  Nash,  and 
influenced  by  Barry,  discarded 
porticos  as  unnecessary,  and  fol- 
lowed on  Renaissance  rather  than 
Classic  lines  :  Geological  Museum, 
Piccadilly  (after  courtyard  of  the 
Doge's  Palace,  Venice);  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,  Burlington 
Gardens  ;  Somerset  House,  western 
wing  (A.D.  1857);  Record  Office, 
Fetter  Lane.  Orders  were  sparingly 
used,  and  detail  is  refined. 


THE  GOTHIC   SCHOOL. 

Pugin,  under  Sir  Charles  Barry, 
directed  the  execution  of  the  fittings, 
agreeing  with  the  style  of  the  build- 
ing, and  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
previous  buildings  of  the  Revival. 

The  immediate  effect  of  the 
design  of  this  great  building  was 
slight.  It  was  the  climax  of  the 
first  idea  of  the  movement — that 
of  carrying  on  the  Tudor  style — so 
that,  at  the  time  of  its  completion, 
in  1860,  the  attention  of  all  was 
riveted  on  the  earlier  phases  of 
mediaeval  architecture  which  every- 
one was  engaged  in  imitating. 

The  end  of  the  period  of  Sir 
Charles  Barry  marks  the  close  of  the 
Classic  Revival.  The  influence  of 
the  Gothicists  was  now  paramount, 
and  the  final  touch  to  this  influence 
was  given  by  the  1851  Exhibition, 
which  in  the  end  has  done  so  much 
to  raise  the  arts  and  crafts  to  a 
higher  state  of  perfection. 


THE   LATE   VICTORIAN    STYLE, 

Comprises  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Victoria  (1851-1901). 

The  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  caused  the  raising  into 
prominence  of  the  minor  arts,  such  as  metal  work,  glass  painting, 
mosaics,  decoration,  and  sculptured  works,  and  formed  a  starting 
point  for  the  arts  of  the  Victorian  age.  The  popularization  of 
architecture  by  the  architectural  courts  and  models  of  buildings 
in  the  various  styles  aroused  an  interest  in  the  subject.  The  publi- 
cation of  "The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture"  and  "The  Stones 
of  Venice,"  by  Ruskin,  in  1851,  and  the  works  of  Beresford-Hope, 
Parker,  Prof.  Willis,  Sharpe,  Whewell,  Rev.  J.  L.  Petit,  Brandon, 
and  others,  helped  on  the  Gothic  movement,  while  Prof.  Cockerell 
and  Prof.  Donaldson  were  writing  on  the  Classic  side. 

The  foundation  of  the  South  Kensington  (now  Victoria  and 
Albert)  Museum  carried  further  the  influence  of  the  1851 
Exhibition,  by  its  illustration  of  ancient  decorative  art,  and  by 
the  atelier  which  was  there  maintained  for  some  years. 

The  restoration  of  a  large  number  of  cathedrals  and  churches, 
and  the  erection  of  many  new  churches,  had  powerfully  aided 


F.A. 


Q  0 


594 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  Gothic  revival,  which  it  was  attempted  to  extend  to  buildings 
for  every  purpose  ;  until  the  movement  met  with  a  severe  check 
in  the  decision,  acquiesced  in  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  to  erect  the 
Home  and  Foreign  Offices  (1860-1870)  in  the  Classic,  or  as  it 
was  called,  the  modern  style.  The  design  thus  dictated  to  Scott 
was  not  likely  to  be  a  masterpiece,  and  it  is  in  fact  but  a  poor 
compromise  between  modern  French  and  the  traditional  Italian 
ideas  of  the  Renaissance.  After  this  crisis  a  new  movement,  due 
to  Norman  Shaw,  Nesfield,  and  Philip  Webb,  then  arose  in 
favour  of  the  Queen  Anne  style,  or  Free  Classic,  for  domestic 
buildings,  while  churches  and  kindred  buildings  continued  to  be 
erected  in  a  developed  style  of  Gothic  architecture. 

The  work  of  Shaw,  Nesfield,  and  Webb  influenced  the  design 
of  smaller  buildings  in  suburbs  and  country. 


CLASSIC  SCHOOL. 

E.  M.  Barry  (1831-1 880) :  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  ;   The  Art  Union 
Building,  Strand  ;    Charing  Cross 
Station.     He  endeavoured  to  intro- 
duce the  Early  French  Renaissance, 
as  in  the  Temple  Chambers,  Victoria 
Embankment,  London. 

Nelson :  Junior  United  Service 
Club. 

F.  P.     Cockerell:     The     Free- 
masons' Tavern. 

Sir  Gilbert  Scott  (1810-1877)  : 
The  Foreign  Office. 

Sir  Digby  Wyatt  (1820-1877)  : 
Courtyard  to  India  Office. 

Messrs.  Banks  and  Barry  :  Dul- 
vvich  College  ;  Burlington  House 
(the  Courtyard  and  facade  to 
Piccadilly). 

Sydney  Smirke :  The  story  added 
to  Burlington  House  ;  British  Mu- 
seum reading-room  ;  Carlton  Club, 
Pall  Mall,  after  the  library  of  S. 
Mark,  Venice. 

Lewis  Vulliamy :  Dorchester 
House,  London,  after  a  Roman 
Renaissance  palace,  has  unique 
decorative  work  inside  by  Alfred 
Stevens. 

John  Gibson :  National  Pro- 
vincial Banks  in  London  and  the 
provinces,  in  which  the  Classic 
orders  embracing  two  stories  are 
freely  introduced  ;  the  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Christian  Know- 
ledge, in  Northumberland  Avenue, 


GOTHIC   SCHOOL. 

Sir  Gilbert  Scott  (-1810-1877): 
Camber  well  Church  ;  S.  Mary, 
Stoke  Newington  ;  the  Martyrs' 
Memorial,  Oxford  ;  church  at 
Haley  Hill,  Halifax  (1855)  5  church 
at  Hamburg ;  S.  George,  Don- 
caster  (1853)  ;  S.  Mary's  Cathe- 
dral, Edinburgh  ;  S.  Mary  Abbott, 
Kensington  ;  the  Albert  Memorial  ; 
S.  Pancras  Station  ;  buildings  in 
Broad  Sanctuary,  Westminster ; 
many  other  new  churches,  houses, 
and  restorations. 

Owen  Jones :  S.  James's  Hall,  a 
modern  version  of  Venetian  Gothic. 

Benjamin  Ferrey :  S.  Stephen, 
Westminster. 

William  B2itlerfield :  Keble 
College,  Oxford  ;  All  Saints, 
Margaret  Street,  London  ;  and 
S.  Alban,  Holborn,  all  of  which 
show  the  increasing  desire  for  and 
study  of  color. 

G.  E.  Street  (1824-1881)  :  S. 
Mary  Magdalene,  Paddington  ;  S. 
James  the  Less,  Westminster,  1861; 
the  Law  Courts,  London  ;  house 
in  Cadogan  Square  ;  the  Convent, 
East  Grinstead  ;  house  and  church 
at  Holmwood,  and  elsewhere. 

W.  Burges  (1828-1881)  :  Cork 
Cathedral  (1870)  ;  restored  Cardiff 
Castle,  and  built  his  own  house  in 
Melbury  Road,  London  ;  the  Speech 
Room,  Harrow  School. 

A*.      Brandon :      Catholic      and 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE. 


595 


CLASSIC   SCHOOL. 

London,  since  altered  ;  Todmorden 
Town  Hall. 

Sir  Horace  Jones  :  The  Smith - 
field  Market  and  Guildhall  School 
of  Music. 

Capt.  Fowke  and  Assistants: 
The  Science  College,  South  Ken- 
sington, and  the  Albert  Hall. 

Grassland:  Holloway  College, 
Egham  (after  Chateau  de  Cham- 
bord). 

Whichcord:  S.  Stephen's  Club  ; 
National  Safe  Deposit,  London. 

Davis  and  Emmanuel :  City  of 
London  Schools. 

Burns:  Buccleuch  House,White- 
hall. 

Alexander  Thomson,  of  Glasgow, 
known  as  "Greek  Thomson": 
several  buildings  at  Glasgow  with  a 
peculiar  severe  treatment  of  modern 
Greek  which  had  much  influence. 

H.  Currey :  S.  Thomas's  Hos- 
pital. 

Bodley  and  Garner :  London 
School  Board  Offices.  Thames 
Embankment.  The  student  con- 
fined to  London  may  obtain  an 
idea  of  the  early  French  Renais- 
sance style  by  an  inspection  ot 
this  building. 

H.  Gribble:  The  Oratory  at 
Brompton,  west  front  and  dome 
added  later.  (The  Italian  style  a 
condition  of  the  competition.) 

W.  Young:  Glasgow  Municipal 
Buildings,  in  the  Palladian  manner; 
Gosford  Park;  War  Office,  White- 
hall. 

Learning  Brothers:  Admiralty 
Buildings,  Whitehall.  (The  result 
of  an  open  competition  which 
practically  sounded  the  death  knell 
of  Gothic  architecture  for  public 
buildings.) 

R.  Norman  Shaw :  New  Zea- 
land Chambers,  Leadenhall  Street, 
London  ;  country  houses,  as 
"  Wispers  ";  Lowther  Lodge,  Ken- 
sington, and  houses  at  Bedford 
Park,  Chiswick  ;  Alliance  Assur- 
ance Office,  Pall  Mall ;  houses  at 
Queen's  Gate,  London ;  house  near 


GOTHIC  SCHOOL. 

Apostolic  Church,  Gordon  Square, 
London,  1859. 

E.  W.  Godwin :  Congleton 
Town  Hall,  Bristol  Assize  Courts, 
and  Northampton  Town  Hall, 
since  altered. 

A.  Waterhouse :  Manchester 
Town  Hall  and  Assize  Courts  ; 
Natural  History  Museum,  1879  ; 
Prudential  Assurance  Offices,  Hoi- 
born  ;  Eaton  Hall,  Cheshire ;  City 
Guilds  of  London  Institute,  South 
Kensington. 

Deane  and  Woodward:  The 
Oxford  Museum,  directly  the  out- 
come of  Ruskin's  teaching. 

Philip  IVebb:  "Clouds."  Hamp- 
shire ;  Lord  Carlisle's  house,  Ken- 
sington ;  offices  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields. 

W.  E.  Nesfield:  Lodges  at  Kew 
and  Regent's  Park,  and  many 
houses. 

J.  L.  Pearson,  R.A.:  Truro 
Cathedral.  His  eight  London 
churches  : 

(1)  Holy    Trinity,    Bessborough 

Gardens  (1850). 

(2)  S.  Anne,  Lower  Kennington 

Lane. 

(3)  S.  Augustine,  Kilburn. 

(4)  S.  John,  Red  Lion  Square. 

(5)  S.  Michael,  West  Croydon. 

(6)  S.  John,  Upper  Norwood. 

(7)  Catholic   Apostolic     Church, 

Maida  Hill. 

(8)  S.  Peter,  Vauxhall. 

Chiswick  Parish  Church  (addi- 
tions) ;  S.  John,  Redhill  ;  S.  Alban, 
Birmingham. 

Astor  Estate  Offices,  Thames 
Embankment. 

James  Brooks:  Churches  in  Hol- 
land Road,  Kensington,  Gospel  Oak, 
and  many  others  round  London. 

G oldie :  S.  James,  Spanish 
Place,  London. 

G.  G.  Scott :  S.  Agnes,  Ken- 
nington ;  churches  at  Southwark 
and  Norwich  ;  the  Greek  Church, 
Moscow  Road,  London  ;  S.  Mark, 
Leamington,  1879  ;  additions  to 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge. 

Q  Q  2 


596 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


CLASSIC  SCHOOL 

Salisbury,  in  the  Wren  style ; 
"  Craigside,"  "  Dawpool,"  and  "  Bry- 
anston,"  near  Salisbury ;  houses 
at  Hampstead  ;  Harrow  Mission 
Church,  Wormwood  Scrubs  ;  New 
Scotland  Yard  (Anglo-Classic). 

T.  G.  Jackson:  Work  at  Oxford  ; 
the  Examination  Schools  and 
additions  to  colleges  in  revived 
Elizabethan. 

Ernest  George  and  Peto  (Influ- 
ence of  Flemish  Renaissance) : 
Works  at  Collingham  Gardens  and 
Cadogan  Square,  London  ;  houses 
at  Streatham  Common  ;  Buchan 
Hill,  Sussex,  and  others. 

H.  L.  Florence:  Hotel  Victoria, 
Holborn  Viaduct  Hotel  and  Station; 
Woolland's  premises,  Knights- 
bridge. 

E.  R.  Robson  and  ] .  /.  Steven- 
son :  Work  for  London  School 
Board  ;  London  typical  style  in 
red  brick  dressings  and  yellow 
stocks. 

E.  R.  Robson:  Institute  of  Water 
Colors,  Piccadilly;  the  New  Gallery; 
the  People's  Palace,  London. 

R.  IV.  Edis :  Constitutional, 
Junior  Constitutional,  and  Badmin- 
ton Clubs,  London. 

T.  E.  Colcutt :  imperial  Insti- 
tute ;  City  Bank,  London  ;  Palace 
Theatre;  Lloyd's  Registry  Office, 
London. 

E.  W.  Mountford:  Sheffield 
Town  Hall ;  Battersea  Town  Hall ; 
Battersea  Polytechnic  ;  Liverpool 
Technical  Schools  and  Art 
Galleries  ;  Central  Criminal  Court, 
Old  Bailey,  London. 

J.  M.  Brydon :  Chelsea  Town 
Hall  and  Polytechnic  ;  Bath 
Municipal  Buildings,  Art  Gallery 
and  Pump  Room  ;  Government 
Offices,  Westminster. 

J.  Belcher:  Institute  of  Chartered 
Accountants  ;  Colchester  Town 
Hall ;  Eastern  Telegraph  Co. 
Offices,  Finsbury  Circus,  Electra 
House,  Moorgate  St.,  London  (a 
monumental  example  of  street  archi- 
tecture), and  several  large  houses. 


GOTHIC   SCHOOL. 

Basil  Champneys :  Girton  and 
Newnham  Colleges,  Cambridge ; 
Indian  Institute  and  Mansfield 
College,  Oxford  ;  S.  Bride's  Vicar- 
age, London  ;  Rylands5  Library, 
Manchester. 

Bodley  and  Garner :  Church  at 
Hoar  Cross,  Staffordshire  ;  Clum- 
ber Church ;  churches  at  Hack- 
ney Wick,  Castle  Allerton,  Leeds, 
Folkestone,  and  elsewhere. 

John  F.  Bentley :  New  Cathedral, 
Westminster ;  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Rood,  Watford  ;  S.  Luke's 
Church,  Chiddingstone  Causeway  ; 
S.  Thomas's  Seminary,  Hammer- 
smith ;  S.  John,  Hammersmith  ; 
S.  John,  Brentford  ;  S.  Mary,  Clap- 
ham,  and  many  others. 

Sir  Arthur  Blomfield:  S.  Mary, 
Portsea,  and  many  other  churches  ; 
Sion  College,  Thames  Embank- 
ment ;  the  Church  House,  West- 
minster ;  All  Saints,  Brighton 
(also  see  "  Greek  Architecture, ' 
page  56). 

Palcy  and  Austin  :  Stock  port 
and  other  churches  in  Lanca- 
shire. 

Douglas and Fordham :  Churches 
and  domestic  half-timber  work,  in 
Chester  and  elsewhere. 

/.  D.  Sedding(\*3j-\%<)2) :  Holy 
Trinity  Church,  Chelsea  (1890), 
marks  the  raising  of  the  arts  and 
crafts  into  their  proper  importance  ; 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Redeemer, 
Clerkenwell  (a  new  version  of  the 
Wren  style)  ;  S.  Clement,  Bourne- 
mouth, and  domestic  work 
adjacent  ;  Children's  Hospital, 
Finsbury,  London,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  H.  WT.  Wilson,  S.  Peter, 
Ealing. 

Sir  Aston  Webb  and  Ingress  Bell: 
Birmingham  Assize  Courts;  In- 
surance Buildings,  Moorgate  Street, 
London  ;  Christ's  Hospital,  Hor- 
sham,  Sussex. 

Sir  Aston  Webb:  Metropolitan 
Life  Office,  Moorgate  Street  ; 
French  Church,  Soho  Square,  W. 

Ernest     Newton :       Houses     at 


ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE.  5Q7 

CLASSIC  SCHOOL.  GOTHIC   SCHOOL. 

Sir  Aston  Webb:  Victoria  and  Haslemere,  Wokingham  and  else- 
Albert  Museum  (South  Kensing-  where. 

ton) ;  Naval  College,  Dartmouth  ;  Leonard  Stokes :  Churches   and 

Victoria    Memorial     Processional  schools   at   Folkestone,   Liverpool, 

Avenue,  London.  and  elsewhere. 

H.  T.  Hare:    Oxford  Municipal  W.     D.     Carce :    Churches    at 

Buildings  ;      Stafford      Municipal  Exeter,  Fordington, and  elsewhere  ; 

Buildings  ;    Henley    Town    Hall  ;  Episcopal     Palaces,     Bristol     and 

Crewe  Town  Hall.  Canterbury. 

Lanchester,           Stewart       and  G.       H.       Fellowes       Prynne: 

Richards:  Cardiff  Town  Hall  and  Churches  at  Staines,  Dulwich  and 

Law  Courts.  elsewhere. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  the  pages  of  the  professional  journals 
have  contained  most  of  the  noteworthy  buildings  erected,  and  it 
is  a  source  of  much  pleasure  and  instruction  to  go  through  these 
records  of  the  developments  which  have  taken  place,  for  they  seem 
to  show  that  a  style  or  manner  in  architecture  is  being  slowly 
worked  out,  which  may,  it  is  hoped,  resist  all  revivals  and 
fashions,  and  become  the  free  expression  of  our  own  civilization, 
and  the  outward  symbol  of  the  twentieth  century. 

British   Colonial  Architecture. 

The  development  of  architecture  in  the  great  self-governing 
colonies,  such  as  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Canada,  has  to  a 
large  extent  followed  the  lead  of  the  mother  country,  and  buildings 
have  been  and  are  erected  both  in  the  Classic,  Gothic  and  Renais- 
sance styles.  As  in  England,  Classic  is  principally  though  not 
wholly  reserved  for  secular  buildings,  and  Gothic  for  ecclesiastical 
buildings,  a  homely  type  of  design  resembling  our  own  Georgian 
style  being  employed  for  smaller  domestic  works  of  the  country- 
house  type.  Some  of  the  larger  works  are  of  importance  and  are 
an  evidence  of  the  political  growth  of  those  colonies  in  which  they 
are  situate.  Among  those  in  the  "Classic"  school  are  the  MacGill 
University,  Montreal,  and  the  Parliament  House,  Melbourne  ;  and 
a  large  number  of  banks,  insurance  offices,  city  halls,  and  law 
courts.  In  the  "Gothic"  school,  Melbourne  Cathedral,  and  the 
Parliament  House  at  Ottawa  are  outstanding  examples.  The 
Parliament  House  at  Sydney  was  intended  to  be  rebuilt  in  this 
style,  but  the  building  was  not  proceeded  with  further  than  the 
foundation,  the  old  buildings  being  still  in  use. 


ARCHITECTURE     IN     THE     UNITED 
STATES. 

"  Built  in  the  old  Colonial  clay, 
When  men  lived  in  a  grander  way, 

With  ampler  hospitality  ; 
A  kind  of  old  Hobgoblin  Hall, 

Now  somewhat  fallen  to  decay, 
With  weather  stains  upon  the  wall 

And  stairways,  worn  and  crazy  doors', 

And  creaking  and  uneven  floors, 
And  chimneys  huge,  and  tiled  and  tall." — LONGFELLOW. 

THE  study  of  the  progress  of  architecture  in  a  new  country, 
untrammelled  with  precedent  and  lacking  the  conditions  obtaining 
in  Europe,  is  interesting  ;  but  room  is  not  available  for  more 
than  a  cursory  glance. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  (1725-1775)  buildings  were 
erected  which  have  been  termed  "colonial"  in  style,  corresponding 
to  what  is  understood  in  England  as  ' '  Queen  Anne  "  or  "  Georgian ' ' 
(page  578). 

In  the  "New  England"  States  wood  was  the  material  principally 
employed,  and  largely  affected  the  detail.  Craigie  House,  Cambridge 
(1757),  is  typical  of  the  symmetrical  buildings.  It  has  elongated 
Ionic  half-columns  to  its  fa9ade,  shuttered  sash  windows,  the 
hipped  roof  and  the  dentil  cornice  of  the  "  Queen  Anne  "  period  ; 
the  internal  fittings  resembling  those  of  Adam  and  Sheraton. 

The  early  buildings  were  mainly  churches  or  "meeting  houses," 
erected  after  the  manner  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  S.  Michael 
at  Charlestown  (1752)  (the  probable  architect  being  Gibbs,  the 
designer  of  the  Radcliffe  Library  at  Oxford),  S.  Paul,  New  York 
(1767),  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia  (1727-1735),  were  among  the 
early  churches. 

In  Virginia,  as  at  Brandon,  Shirley,  and  Maryland,  the  homes 
of  the  tobacco  planters,  many  of  the  best  examples  of  country 
houses  were  erected. 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia  (1729-1735),  the  Old  State  House 
at  Boston  (17 47),  and  the  Town  Hall  at  Newport  are  other  well-known 
buildings. 

The  Spanish  rule  in  Florida  and  California  is  responsible  for 


ARCHITECTURE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  599 

many  forts,  churches  and  mission  houses,  which  bear  resemblance 
to  the  Spanish  Renaissance  buildings. 

Between  the  Declaration  of  Independence  (1776)  and  the  war 
of  1812,  owing  to  the  erection  of  new  State  capitals,  a  more  monu- 
mental type  was  evolved.  Among  the  buildings  of  importance 
a  few  only  can  be  mentioned. 

The  original  Capitol  at  Washington  (1793-1830),  by  Thornton, 
Hallet  and  Latrobe. 

Virginia  University  (1817),  by  Jefferson,  recently  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  rebuilt  in  a  similar  manner  by  McKim,  Mead  and  White, 
and  the  Massachusetts  State  House  at  Boston  (1795),  by  Bullfinch, 
recently  enlarged  and  restored. 

The  Classic  Revival  (1812-1870)  of  Europe  reached  the  States 
somewhat  late,  but  produced  similar  results. 

Among  the  buildings  were  the  Wings  and  Dome  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington  (1858-1873),  by  Walters,  which  became  the  model  for 
many  public  buildings.  The  Customs  House  at  New  York,  the 
United  States  Mint,  Philadelphia,  the  Treasury  at  Washington,  Boston 
Custom  House,  several  State  capitols,  the  Town  Hall,  Philadelphia, 
and  the  Capitol  at  Albany,  begun  in  1871. 

The  Gothic  Revival  was  confined  principally  to  churches 
(1840-1876).  Grace  Church  (1845)  and  S.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New 
York  (begun  in  1858),  both  by  Renwick  ;  Trinity  Church,  New  York 
(1839-1846),  by  R.  Upjohn  ;  the  State  Capitol  at  Hartford,  by  R. 
M.  Upjohn  (1873-1878) ;  the  Museum  at  Boston  (1876-1880) ;  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia  (1876)  ;  Memorial  Hall,  Harvard 
College  (1870-1877),  are  examples  of  this  revival. 

Recent  Architecture. — The  industrial  activity  which  followed 
the  civil  war  (1861-1865),  and  the  devastating  conflagrations  of 
Chicago  (1871)  and  Boston  (1872)  all  helped  to  create  greater 
interest  in  architecture,  while  such  exhibitions  as  that  at  Phila- 
delphia (1876),  Chicago  (1893)  and  S.  Louis  (1904)  have  aided  in 
enlarging  the  national  ideas. 

Two  architects,  H.  H.  Richardson  (1826-1886),  and  R.  M.  Hunt 
(1827-1895)  also  helped  the  movement,  both^in  very  different 
ways.  Richardson,  although  a  pupil  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  worked  in  the  non-academic  French  Romanesque  manner, 
and  greatly  influenced  his  contemporaries  and  successors. 

Trinity  Church,  Boston  (1877),  Pittsburgh  County  Buildings,  the 
Albany  City  Hall,  work  at  Harvard  University,  and  many  charming 
small  libraries  round  Boston,  are  his  well-known  examples. 

R.  M.  Hunt  has  been  specially  employed  in  the  erection  of 
large  town  and  country  houses,  among  which  may  be  mentioned, 
Houses  at  Newport,  "  Biltmore " — a  country  chateau  in  North 
Carolina — many  city  buildings,  including  the  Lennox  Library,  New 
York  (1871-1877),  and  the  additions  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York. 


GARRICK  (FORMERLY  SCHILLER)  THEATRE,  CHICAGO. 
264. 


ARCHITECTURE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  6oi 

The  abnormal  progress  of  American  industries  during  the  last 
25  years,  the  general  use  of  lifts  and  fireproof  construction  and 
the  cost  of  land  has  caused  the  erection  of  many  important  town 
buildings  of  great  height. 

In  some  the  walls  have  been  constructed  of  a  framework  of 
steel,  supporting  masonry  brick  or  terra-cotta  inclosing  walls. 
Such  buildings  are  essentially  modern  in  character,  but  are  not 
necessarily  ugly  in  design.  Among  the  most  important  are  the 
Garrick  (Schiller)  Theatre,  Chicago  (No.  264),  by  Messrs.  Adler  and 
Sullivan,  a  most  successful  and  chaste  design  as  applied  to  a  high 
building,  which  is  in  reality  a  tower,  The  Monadnock  Building  and 
the  Masonic  Temple  at  Chicago,  by  Messrs.  Burnham  and  Root. 

The  Ames  Building  and  Tremont  Temple  in  Boston;  Madison 
Square  Theatre  in  Neiv  York,  and  the  enormous  buildings  of  the 
leading  newspapers,  insurance  offices  and  trusts  are  notable. 

Domestic  Architecture. — The  houses  of  small  type  have 
been  very  successfully  treated,  wood  being  largely  employed  in 
the  country  districts. 

The  plan  of  these  houses  often  shows  great  originality,  the 
staircase,  sitting-hall,  piazza,  and  a  picturesque  grouping  of  steep 
roofs,  being  main  features. 

Among  later  buildings  of  note  are  5.  John  the  Divine,  New  York ; 
President  Grant's  Tomb,  Riverside  Drive,  New  York  ;  Chicago  Public 
Library,  by  Shepley,  Rutan,  and  Coolidge ;  Congressional  Library 
at  Washington,  by  Petz,  Smithmeyer  and  Green  ;  New  York  Public 
Library,  by  Carrere  and  Hastings  ;  the  State  House,  Providence,  by 
McKim,  Mead  and  White ;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia 
(various  buildings),  by  Cope  and  Stewardson ;  Libraries  at  Wash- 
ington and  Atlantic  City,  by  Ross  and  Ackermann  ;  the  Ponce  de  Leon 
Hotel  at  Florida,  in  the  Spanish  Renaissance  style,  by  Carrere  and 
Hastings,  and  the  Boston  Public  Library,  a  modern  Renaissance 
design  by  McKim,  Mead  and  White,  which  has  had  a  good  deal  of 
influence  in  the  designing  of  recent  library  buildings.  The  same 
architects  have  erected  very  scholarly  and  refined  buildings  at  the 
Columbia  University  at  New  York. 

The  designs  of  the  various  buildings  for  the  Chicago  Exposi- 
tion (1893)  differed  largely  from  expectation.  Many  looked  for 
some  new  development  in  either  iron  or  terra-cotta,  or  perhaps 
wood  alone,  being  in  a  country  which  is  the  centre  of  the  lumber 
market ;  but  "  extremes  meet,"  and  an  exposition  of  architecture 
on  the  wilds  of  the  western  prairie  turned  out  to  be  a  collection 
of  well-studied  Parisian  designs. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  imitative  element  will  not  cause  these 
great  Classic  designs  to  be  reproduced  elsewhere  for  town  halls, 
museums  and  other  buildings,  but  that  American  architects 
already  advancing  so  rapidly  along  certain  new  lines  of  departure, 
will  value  the  lessons  they  teach  without  copying  their  exact 


602 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


forms ;  if  not  there  will  be  another  great  American  Classic  revival 
of  the  French  type  which  will  go  far  beyond  any  craze  such  as  has 
occurred  in  England  and  do  a  great  deal  to  retard  the  true  progress 
of  art  in  America. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  certain  that  there  is  a  great  future  for 
American  Architecture  if  only  the  architects  will,  as  much  as 
possible,  express  themselves  in  the  language  of  their  own  times. 
No  advance  can  be  made  by  the  copying  of  ancient  buildings,  as 
has  been  done  in  certain  cases,  constituting  a  retrogressive  move- 
ment, and  showing  a  sad  want  of  the  appreciation  of  the  true 
value  of  art. 

The  great  historic  styles  must  of  course  be  well  studied,  not 
for  the  forms  with  which  they  abound,  but  for  the  principles 
which  they  inculcate,  much  in  the  same  way  that  the  literature 
of  the  past  is  studied  in  order  to  acquire  a  good  literary  style. 
If  architecture  is  thus  studied  a  good  result  will  be  assured,  and 
the  architect  will  produce  works  reflecting  the  hopes,  needs,  and 
aspirations  of  the  life  and  character  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives. 


A 

HISTORY    OF    ARCHITECTURE 

ON    THE 

COMPARATIVE    METHOD. 


PART    II. 

THE    NON-HISTORICAL   STYLES. 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

THE  non-historical  styles — Indian,  Chinese  and  Japanese  and 
Central  American — are  those  which  developed  mainly  on  their 
own  account  and  exercised  little  direct  influence  on  other 
styles.  They  can  thus  be  studied  independently,  and  need  not 
interrupt  the  story  of  the  evolution  of  European  Historical  Archi- 
tecture dealt  with  in  Part  I.,  which  would  probably  be  the  case 
if  they  were  placed  in  their  chronological  order.  The  position 
which  they  should  occupy  in  a  History  of  Architecture  is,  how- 
ever, a  matter  of  doubt,  but  it  is  thought  that  by  keeping  them 
quite  separate  from  the  historical  styles,  it  will  make  for  greater 
clearness  to  the  student. 

Saracenic  architecture  is  also  placed  in  Part  II.,  as  its  connection 
with  European  architecture  is  not  generally  considered  important, 
although  it  certainly  influenced  it  to  some  extent. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  late  Mr.  Fergusson's  investiga- 
tions on  the  subject.  He  was  the  first  to  piece  together  the 
story  of  Indian  and  Eastern  architecture,  not  only  by  his  own 
patient  researches,  but  by  utilizing  the  vast  amount  of  material 
brought  to  light  by  General  Cunningham  and  a  score  of  others,  who 
had  been  working  mainly  in  connection  with  government  depart- 
ments. Mr.  Fergusson's  chronology  is  founded  on  his  own  labours 
and  such  investigations,  and  is  the  one  which  has  been  followed. 

The  study  of  Indian  and  indeed  of  all  Eastern  art  enlarges 
the  view,  since  it  presents  many  novel  forms  to  which  one  is 


604  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

unaccustomed,  and  which,  doubtless  because  of  their  unusual 
character,  often  strike  one  as  ugly  or  bizarre.  It  is,  however, 
a  question  of  taste  and  education  as  to  whether  this  impression 
is  really  due  to  this  unusual  character,  or  whether  such  forms 
would  not  be  considered  beautiful  if  sanctioned  by  custom. 

"  Use  is  second  nature;  "  and  Indian  architecture  was  no  doubt 
beautiful  to  those  who  were  engaged  on  it  and  to  whom  it  was 
meant  to  appeal. 

It  is  certain  that  in  no  other  style  was  such  patient  care  and 
labour  bestowed  on  the  minutest  detail.  From  an  architect's 
point  of  view,  these  non-historical  styles  can  scarcely  be  so 
interesting  as  those  which  have  progressed  on  the  solution  of 
constructive  problems,  resolutely  met  and  overcome,  as  was  the 
case  in  Europe  from  the  Classic  period  to  that  of  the  Renaissance. 

In  India  and  the  East,  decorative  schemes  seemed  to  have 
outweighed  any  such  problems. 

The  student  should  visit  the  Indian  Museum  at  South 
Kensington,  which  possesses  a  most  valuable  collection  of 
portions  of  original  buildings,  casts  of  details,  and  models  of 
temples,  monuments  and  houses. 


265. 


INDIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


More  thought  than  woe  was  in  her  dusky  face, 
For  she  was  prophesying  of  her  glory  : 
And  in  her  wide  imagination  stood 
Palm-shaded  temples  and  high  rival  fanes 
By  Oxus  or  on  Ganges'  sacred  isles." — KEATS. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical — India — a  three-cornered  country — occupies 
an  area  fifteen  times  greater  than  Great  Britain.  Bounded  on 
the  North  by  the  Himalayas  on  the  North- West  by  the  Suleiman 
mountains,  and  on  the  East  by  the  heights  of  Southern  Assam, 
the  remaining  portion  is  bounded  by  the  sea.  The  coasts, 
deficient  in  good  harbours,  may  have  helped  to  keep  the  people 
aloof  from  extraneous  influences  ;  but  by  her  position  she  was 
destined  to  receive  the  human  overflow  from  the  ancient  breeding 
grounds  of  Central  Asia. 

The  rivers,  as  the  Nerbudda,  Ganges,  Indus,  Krishna,  and 
Jumna,  were  important  as  affording  employment  to  thousands  of 
boatmen,  and  were  utilized  for  rafting  down  timber  used  for 
building  from  the  immense  forests.  By  forming  trade  routes  or 
cheap  highways  they  assisted  in  the  formation  of  great  cities.  The 
Ganges-Jumna  Valley  contains  some  of  the  principal  cities  of 
architectural  importance.  Delhi  (the  "  Rome  of  India  "),  a  collec- 
tion of  ruins  of  different  cities,  covers  nearly  50  square  miles. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Mogul  Emperors  (page  671).  Its 
architectural  importance  was  probably  gained  through  being  at 
the  junction  of  four  historic  roads,  viz. :  that  from  the  Lower 
Ganges,  the  Hindu  Koosh,  the  Indus  Valley  and  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay.  Delhi  is  therefore  the  centre  of  India,  as  London  is 
of  England. 

The  rock-cut  temples  on  the  Western  Ghats  are  attributed  by 
some  to  the  influence  of  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Assyria,  as  they 
contain  capitals  and  columns  of  similar  design.  The  proximity 
of  the  Greek  Bactrian  Kingdom  in  the  north-west  had  consider- 
able classical  influence  on  the  architecture,  primarily  of  the 


606  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Gandhara  district,  and  thence  over  Northern  India  generally. 
On  the  east  coast  the  country,  being  comparatively  open,  was 
accessible  to  the  spread  of  civilization,  and  this  being  so,  the 
ancient  dynasties  of  Southern  India  fixed  their  capitals  there. 
On  the  west  coast,  a  narrow  strip  of  lowland  only  intervening 
between  the  Ghats  and  the  seaboard  caused  the  inhabitants  to 
remain  to  this  day  aloof  from  civilizing  movements. 

The  map  (No.  265)  taken  from  Choisy's  "  Histoire  de  1' Archi- 
tecture," indicates  the  different  type  of  building  characteristic 
of  each  portion  of  India. 

ii.  Geological. — The  centre  of  the  Peninsula  and  the  hill 
country  generally  abound  in  excellent  building  stone,  which  had 
considerable  influence  on  Indian  architecture  from  the  earliest 
times.  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  pink  marble  of  Rajputana, 
with  which  the  principal  buildings  at  Delhi  and  Agra  were  con- 
structed, also  the  trap  of  the  Deccan,  the  sandstone  of  the  Godavari, 
and  the  Nardada,  and  the  granite  of  Southern  India. 

At  Hullabid,  an  indurated  potstone  of  volcanic  origin  is  found, 
so  close  grained  as  to  take  a  polish. 

In  West  India,  the  rock-cut  "  Chaityas"  of  the  Buddhists  were 
rendered  possible  by  the  geological  formation,  being  composed  of 
horizontal  strata  of  trap  formation,  uniform  in  texture  and  of 
considerable  thickness,  rising  from  the  ground  as  perpendicular 
cliffs,  into  the  face  of  which  the  temples  were  cut. 

At  Mahavellipore  and  Ellora,  the  Dravidian  monolithic  rock- 
cut  free-standing  temples,  known  as  "  Raths,"  were  hewn  out  of 
the  Indian  amygdaloidal  trap  formations  of  these  districts.  Terra- 
cotta seems  to  have  been  employed  in  early  times,  and  may  have 
influenced  later  work  in  producing  the  exuberance  of  ornament, 
rendered  easy  by  the  pressing  of  plastic  clay  into  moulds. 

A  wooden  origin  is  traceable  to  nearly  all  the  Buddhist  archi- 
tectural forms.  Teak  is  the  principal  wood  of  the  country,  being 
found  in  large  forests  on  the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats,  and 
in  the  Himalayas.  Other  woods  are  ebony,  and  the  bamboo  of 
the  jungle.  Palms  (which  afford  food,  drink,  clothing  and  building 
material  to  the  native)  grow  mostly  on  the  lowlands  of  the  coast. 

In  the  low-lying  plains  of  Bengal,  brick  was  used  to  some 
extent,  but  the  alluvial  soil  of  this  district  does  not  afford  good 
material  for  brick-making. 

Lime  for  building  is  obtained  by  burning  limestone  and  Kankar, 
a  nodular  form  of  impure  lime  found  in  most  river  valleys,  and 
from  shells  plentifully  found  in  the  marshes. 

iii.  Climate. — India  lies  mostly  within  the  tropics.  Two  prin- 
cipal seasons,  wet  and  dry,  divide  the  year.  Thus,  the  climate 
being  tropical,  flat  terraced  roofs,  used  for  coolness,  exercise,  or 
sleeping,  predominate,  as  in  Egypt  (page  29),  Assyria  and  Persia. 

The  genera)  use  of  the  great  fan  or  punkah  in  the  hot  season 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  607 

is  significant  of  the  intense  heat  which  prevails,  which  influenced 
the  size  and  forms  of  architectural  openings. 

The  pierced  screen  or  lattice  window  in  Indian  and  all  Eastern 
art  is  a  decorative  feature  due  to  persistent  sunshine,  and  acting 
as  a  fine  architectural  screen  against  the  excessive  light  and  heat. 
Water  storage  being  important  for  irrigation  and  as  a  provision 
for  the  dry  season,  rendered  necessary  the  number  of  canals,  reser- 
voirs, and  tanks  in  connection  with  temples  and  palaces.  These 
form  such  special  features  in  Indian  architecture. 

iv.  Religion. — The  Early  Vedic  religion,  of  which  the  "  Rig- 
Veda"— a  collection  of  poems  addressed  to  the  gods — forms  the 
literary  memorial,  had  existed  long  before  the  rise  of  Buddhism 
in  the  sixth  century  B.C. 

Buddkist.—Saky*  Muni  (Buddha— the  "Enlightened"),  the 
founder  of  Buddhism,  was  born  in  B.C.  623,  and  died  B.C.  543, 
and  from  the  age  of  thirty-five  spent  his  life  in  preaching. 

Asoka  (B.C.  272-236)  adopted  and  made  Buddhism  the  state 
religion,  as  Constantine  did  with  Christianity.  It  remained  so 
for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  i.e.,  from  B.C.  250  till  A. D.  750.  From 
the  foundation  of  Buddhism,  the  first  great  bond  of  union  among 
the  Indian  races,  can  be  traced  the  historical  architecture  of 
India,  an  architecture  of  religion,  in  which  the  sacred  buildings 
were  originally  not  temples  to  gods  but  monasteries  or  memorial 
shrines  to  holy  men. 

Relic  worship,  an  essential  feature  of  the  Buddhist  religion, 
necessitated  the  erection  of  the  many  important  topes  or  dagobas 
containing  a  relic  of  a  deceased  saint,  such  as  a  tooth,  bone,  toe- 
nail,  or  even  hair. 

The  tenets  of  Buddhism  are  inscribed  on  the  monuments 
chronologically  at  Buddh  Gaya,  Bharbut,  the  topes  and  gateways 
at  Sanchi  and  elsewhere,  few  other  records  existing. 

Tree  and  serpent  worship,  which  was  introduced  by  the 
non-Aryan  peoples  of  India,  still  prevails,  and  is  responsible 
for  many  decorative  emblems,  as  seven-headed  serpents.  The 
celebrated  "Bo-Tree"  at  Anuradhapura,  in  Ceylon,  has  been 
worshipped  for  over  two  thousand  years. 

Jaina. — This  religion,  which  rose  to  importance  about  A.D.  1000, 
seems  to  have  been  founded  on  Buddhism.  A  statue  of  one  of 
the  twenty-four  Jinas  or  saints  (with  distinctive  sign,  as  a  bull, 
elephant,  monkey,  crocodile,  rhinoceros,  or  lion)  is  placed  in 
each  temple.  The  extraordinary  number  of  image  cells  in  one 
building,  numbering  236,  has  led  some  to  suppose  that  the  Jains 
believed  the  saint  was  honoured  in  direct  ratio  to  the  number  of 
his  statues. 

Hindu. — The  modern  Hindu  religion,  generally  known  as  the 
Brahmanical  (the  name  of  the  priestly  order),  dates  from  about 
A.D.  750.  It  was  the  joint  product  of  Vedic,  Brahmanism  and 


608  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Buddhism,  and  was  in  reality  a  social  league  resting  upon  caste, 
a  complicated  system  of  division  of  the  people  according  to  face, 
occupation,  and  geographical  position.  It  broadly  divided  all 
classes  of  the  community  into :  (a.)  Brahmans  or  priests,  law-givers, 
poets,  and  scientists  ;  (b.)  Rajputs  ;  (c.)  Vaisyas,  or  Aryan  agricul- 
tural settlers  and  craftsmen;  (d.)  Sudras  or  serfs.  Each  caste 
became,  as  it  were,  a  trade-guild,  to  whose  care  the  manufactures, 
muslins,  decorative  art  and  treatment  of  precious  stones  of 
mediaeval  India  were  due.  The  Brahmanical  idea  on  the  trans- 
migration of  souls  did  not  encourage  tomb  building.  Monastic 
life  ceased  with  the  decay  of  Buddhism,  monasteries  being  replaced 
by  hypostyle  halls,  serving  as  shelters  for  pilgrims  and  having 
sacred  lakes  occasionally  surrounded  with  porticos. 

For  the  Mahometan  religion  in  India,  see  page  654. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  people  of  India  have  never 
become  amalgamated,  but  have  continued  to  consist  of  several 
races,  under  conditions  practically  unchanged  for  centuries,  and 
mostly  independent  of  each  other,  hence  the  different  phases  of 
architecture  and  the  want  of  unity  shown  therein. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  people  consist  of:  (a.)  The  non-Aryan 
tribes,  or  aborigines ;  (b.)  the  Aryan  or  Sanskrit-speaking  race, 
now  called  Brahmans  and  Rajputs  ;  (c.)  Hindus,  a  mixed  population 
formed  of  the  above ;  and  (d.)  Mahometans. 

The  tenure  of  land  by  feudal  princes  or  lords  was  an  important 
factor.  Such  lands  produced  enormous  revenues,  which  were 
spent  in  the  erection  of  religious  monuments,  largely  for  self- 
gratification. 

Among  the  most  intellectual  class  the  spiritual  and  contempla- 
tive aspects  of  life  overpowered  the  practical  and  political,  and 
influenced  architecture  in  avoiding  constructive  problems. 

Architecture,  as  a  recorder  of  events,  is  silent  from  the  expiring 
years  of  Buddhism,  A.D.  750,  to  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh 
century,  between  which  periods  Indian  history  is  also  a  blank. 
The  "  Mahawanso  "  of  Ceylon,  however,  forms  a  history  of  that 
island  from  B.C.  250. 

The  great  Buddhist  monastery  of  Nalanda,  to  the  south  of 
Patna,  accommodating  10,000  priests,  and  existing  for  the  first 
five  hundred  years  of  our  era,  corresponded  to  the  European 
monasteries  of  the  Middle  Ages,  attracting  and  disseminating  all 
the  learning  of  the  age.  The  Chinese  pilgrims  to  India  in  A.D.  400 
and  630  have  left  interesting  descriptions  of  their  visit  to  this  and 
other  buildings.  The  Jains  regarded  temple  building  as  a  social 
virtue,  leading  to  a  happy  future  state.  Thus  private  individuals 
endowed  such  buildings,  which  were  numerous  rather  than  grand. 

The  absorption  of  human  personality  under  the  caste  system 
was  not  favourable  to  domestic  architecture,  which  has  remained 
in  a  rudimentary  state. 


INDIAN    EXAMPLES   AND   ORNAMENT, 


A  ToVER  oR  5IKRA  BENDIHG  1MWARD5  ToWARD5  THE 
5UW1T  AMD  5URM°UNTEDBY  Ari'AMALAKA"   •     • 


266. 


F.A. 


R    R 


6lO  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Sir  W.  Hunter's  "  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples  "  forms 
an  excellent  resume,  which  should  be  studied  by  all  who  require 
an  insight  of  Indian  art  and  life. 

vi.  Historical. — Alexander's  conquests  in  North-West  India 
(B.C.  327)  (cf.  page  48),  brought  that  country  in  touch  with 
European  and  Western  Asiatic  art,  thus  Greek,  Assyrian  and 
Persian  influences  are  apparent  on  the  architectural  detail  in  that 
region.  From  the  time  of  Alexander  to  the  time  of  Vasco  da 
Gama  (A.D.  1498)  Europe  had  little  direct  influence  on  the  East. 

The  proximity  of  the  Greek  Bactrian  Kingdom  (B.C.  323-130), 
which,  along  with  India,  fell  to  Seleukos  Nikator,  one  of  Alex- 
ander's generals  and  founder  of  the  Syrian  monarchy,  exercised 
considerable  classical  influence  over  Northern  India. 

The  Mahometan  invasion  in  the  thirteenth  century  led  to 
Saracenic  features  being  adopted  in  India,  producing  an  Indian 
version  of  that  style. 

The  Sanskrit  grammar  of  Panini,  compiled  about  B.C.  350,  is 
still  the  foundation  of  the  study  of  the  Aryan  language.  The 
epic  poems  known  as  the  "  Mahabbarata,"  or  chronicles  of  the 
Delhi  Kings  up  to  B.C.  1200,  and  the  "  Ramayana,"  or  story  of 
the  Aryan  advance  into  Southern  India  about  B.C.  1000,  are 
works  by  the  Brahmans  that  may  be  compared  to  Homer's 
"  Iliad  "  and  Virgil's  "  ^Eneid." 

The  Tartar  or  Scythic  inroads,  from  B.C.  126  to  the  fifth 
century  A.D.,  succeeded  those  of  the  Greeks. 

During  A.D.  1746-1858  the  foundation  of  British  rule  in  India 
was  progressing,  and  from  the  latter  year  the  annexation  to  the 
British  Crown,  effected  by  Royal  proclamation,  has  caused  an 
intermingling  of  European  and  native  art. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL     CHARACTER. 

The  various  Indian  styles  are  divided  with  approximate  dates 
and  localities,  the  periods,  however,  frequently  overlapping,  as 
follows  : — 

(i.)  The  Buddhist  style  (B.C.  250- A.D.  750).  India  (North  of 
the  Dekkan)  and  Ceylon. 

(2.)  The  Jaina  style  (A.D.  1000-1300),  with  later  revivals. 
The  whole  of  India  from  the  Himalayas  to  Cape  Comorin. 

(3.)  The  Hindu  (or  Brdhman)  style,  which  may  be  subdivided 
into 

(a.)  The  Northern  Hindu  or  Brahman  style  (or  North   Indian) 

(A.D.  600  to  the  present  time). 

(b.)  The  Chalukyan  style  (or  Central  Indian)  (A.D.  1000-1300). 
(c.)  The  Dravidian  style  (or  South  Indian)  (A.D.  1350-1750). 
(i.)  Buddhist   Architecture.— As   only   rock-cut   examples 
are  existent,  the  appearance  of  the  structural  temples  is  only  to 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  6ll 

be  conjectured  from  these.  The  rock-cut  temples  have  but 
one  external  facade,  which  is  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  and 
the  architecture  is  therefore  mainly  internal,  but  interesting  in 
showing  an  undoubted  imitation  of  timber  originals.  Wooden 
forms  were  repeated  long  after  their  significance  was  dead  (cf.  Greek 
Architecture,  page  59).  With  the  exception  of  the  one  fa9ade,  the 
ornament  was  lavished  on  the  interior  columns  and  roof,  the 
former  of,  which  were  short  and  overladen  with  ornament,  the 
latter  being  generally  semicircular,  with  ribs  showing  a  timber 
derivation  (Nos.  267  and  268). 

(2.)  Jaina  Architecture. — The  Temples  have  the  small 
square  shrine-cell,  lighted  from  the  door  only,  and  crowned  with  a 
high  pyramidal  tower,  with  curvilinear  sides,  forming  an  imposing 
feature.  In  front,  forming  an  entrance  porch,  is  the  hall,  with 
columns  having  bracket  capitals  "and  sometimes  angular  struts, 
such  capitals  supporting  a  dome  or  domes,  invariably  built  in 
horizontal  courses  of  stone.  Thus  the  domes,  often  of  different 
heights  in  the  same  building,  exert  no  lateral  thrust,  and  are 
easily  supported  on  columns,  without  the  aid  of  buttresses,  as 
frequently  in  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  styles.  The  internal 
ensemble  thus  presents  a  light  and  graceful  character,  further 
enhanced  by  the  method  of  planning,  consisting  of  an  "  in  and  out " 
or  cruciform  shape,  also  characteristic  (No.  272).  Sculptured 
ornament,  of  grotesque  and  symbolic  design,  covers  the  whole 
structure  and  is  bewildering  in  its  richness,  leaving  little  plain 
wall  surface,  and  differing  essentially  from  European  work.  The 
temples  were  picturesquely  perched  on  mountain  tops  or  nestled 
in  secluded  valleys,  the  Jains  valuing  rightly  the  effect  of 
environment  on  their  architecture. 

3.  Hindu  (or  Bralimanical)  Architecture  varies  in  its  three 
special  styles.  All  three  have  the  small  shrine-cell  and  preceding 
porches,  the  same  excessive  carving  and  sculpture,  which  are 
impressive  by  this  evident  tribute  of  labour  to  the  gods.  The  prin- 
cipal Brahmanical  Temples,  like  those  of  Egypt,  show  progres- 
sive additions  of  sanctuaries  and  inclosures,  grouped  around  or 
attached  to  the  original  shrine.  Beyond  this,  the  grandeur  of 
their  imposing  mass  produces  an  impression  of  majestic  beauty. 
The  effect  depends  almost  wholly  on  richness  of  surface  and 
outline,  rather  than  on  abstract  beauty  of  form,  and  contrasts 
very  strongly  with  Grecian  architecture.  (a.)  The  Northern 
Brahman,  in  comparison  with  the  Dravidian  style,  has  a  curved 
pyramidal  roof  to  the  "vimana"  instead  of  a  storied  one,  and  is 
without  columns  to  the  preceding  porch.  (&.)  The  Chalukyan 
style  is  affected  by  its  northern  and  southern  rivals,  taking 
features  from  each  without  losing  its  special  character.  The  star- 
shaped  plan  and  curved  pyramidal  tower  are  in  contrast  with 
the  storied  towers  of  the  Dravidian  style.  (c.)  The  Dravidian 

R  R  2 


6I2  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

style  has  the  "  vimana"  or  cell  crowned  by  a  horizontal  system 
of  stoned  towers,  each  story  ornamented  with  cells.  The 
"  gopuras "  or  gateways  to  the  inclosures  recall  the  pylons  of 
Egyptian  facades  (No.  7),  and  the  "choultries"  or  halls  of  a 
thousand  columns,  are  characteristic  and  akin  to  the  hypostyle 
halls  (page  24). 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

(i.)  BUDDHIST  ARCHITECTURE  (B.C.  250-A.D.  750). 
The  monuments  can  bs  divided  into  : — 

1.  Stambhas  (or  Lats). 

2.  Topes  (or  Stupas). 

3.  Rails. 

4.  Chaityas  (or  Temples). 

5.  Viharas  (or  Monasteries). 

1.  Stambhas,  or  Lats,  were  columns  on  which  were  carved 
inscriptions,  the  top  being  crowned  with  emblems,  such  as  the 
elephant  and  lion,  often  reminiscent  of  Persepolitan  architecture 
(No.  13).     The  bsst  known  is  the  Lat  at  Allahabad,  B.C.  250. 

2.  Topes,    or     Stupas    (Sanscrit  sthupa  =  a    mound),    were 
mounds   erected    (a)  to  commemorate  some  sacred  spot ;   (b)  to 
contain  sacred  relics  and  then  known  as  dagobas  or  receptacles 
for  relics. 

The  principal  group  is  that  known  as  the  Bhilsa  Topes,  north 
of  the  Nerbudda  River,  and  the  best  known  of  the  group  is  the 
Sanchi  Tope  (B.C.  250-A.D.  100).  It  is  a  solid  mound  of  brick- 
work, faced  with  stone  and  cement,  and  contains  the  relic  near 
its  base.  It  is  106  feet  in  diameter,  42  feet  high,  crowned  by  a 
"Tee"  or  relic  casket,  and  is  placed  on  a  platform  14  feet  high, 
surrounded  by  a  procession  path,  railing  and  four  gateways.  An 
excellent  model  is  in  the  Indian  Museum,  South  Kensington. 

Other  groups  are  at  Sarnath  (near  Benares),  Buddh-Gaya, 
Amravati  (remains  in  the  British  Indian  Museums),  and 
Jarasandha. 

3.  Rails  were  often  used  as  inclosures  to  the  Topes.     They 
clearly    indicate   a   wooden    origin    (No.    266   A,    F),    and    were 
elaborately  ornamented  with  sculpture.     The  rail  and  gateways 
(of   which    there    is   a   full-size    cast    in    the    Indian    Museum 
(No.  266  A))  surrounding  the  Sanchi  Tope  are  the  best  known, 
and  date  from  the  first  century  of  our  era.     The  height  is  35  feet 
and  width  30  feet.    The  symbolic  sculpture  is  of  historic  interest : 
it  tells  the  life  story  of  Buddha,  and  illustrates  the  worship  of 
relics,  trees,  the  law,  and  battle  scenes.      These   gateways  are 
the   prototypes   of  the  numberless   pailoos  (page  642). 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

4.  Chaityas,  or  Temples  (B.C.  250-A.D.  750),  are  all 
excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock,  thus  presenting  only  one  external 
face.  They  recall  the  rock-cut  tombs  of  Upper  Egypt  (No.  6). 
The  normal  type  resembles  in  plan  an  English  three-aisled 
cathedral  with  circular  apse,  containing  the  shrine,  at  the  end 
furthest  from  the  entrance.  The  roofs  are  hewn  to  a  semi- 
circular form,  and  have  ribs  resembling  timber  work.  In  many, 
the  frontal  screen  of  horse-shoe  form,  through  which  the  only 
light  was  admitted,  was  of  wood.  The  principal  groups  are 
hewn  in  the  face  of  the  Western  Ghats,  to  -the  east  of  Bombay, 
at  Bhaja'(B.c.  250),  Nassick  (B.C.  129),  Karli  (B.C.  78),  Ellora, 
Ajunta  (No.  268),  and  Elephanta  (No.  269). 

The  cave  at  Karli  (No.  267),  resembles  the  choir  of  Norwich 
Cathedral  in  general  arrangement  and  dimensions.  It  is  126  feet 
long,  45  feet  wide,  and  45  feet  high.  The  columns  separating 
nave  and  aisles  are  octagonal,  with  elephant  capitals,  which 
support  the  circular  roof. 

5.  Viharas,  or  Monasteries. — The  rock-cut  examples  are 
in  proximity  to  the  Chaityas.  The  normal  type  is  a  central 
square  space,  with  or  without  columns,  surrounded  by  chambers 
for  the  priests,  and  occasionally  containing  a  sanctuary  for  the 
shrinje.  In  Gandhara  (North-West  India),  General  Cunningham 
has  opened  out  some  structural  monasteries,  probably  of  the 
fourth  century  A.D.,  some  of  which  contain  courts  for  shrines. 
Their  details  show  Greek  and  Byzantine  influence,  the  acanthus 
leaf  (No.  44  j),  the  Byzantine  cube-capital  (No.  89),  and  the 
Corinthian  capital  being  met  with. 

In  Ceylon  are  numerous  remains  of  topes,  chaityas  and 
viharas,  principally  at  Anuradapura,  the  capital  from  B.C.  400- 
A.D.  769,  and  Pollonarua. 

(2.)  JAINA  ARCHITECTURE  (A.D.  1000-1300,  with 
later  revivals). 

The  examples  mostly  belong  to  the  great  age  of  Jaina  archi- 
tecture from  A.D.  1000-1300,  although  a  revival  took  place 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  corresponding  to  the  Renaissance  in 
Europe.  The  style  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  founded 
on  Buddhist  architecture.  The  monuments,  mainly  religious, 
were  erected  in  all  parts  of  India,  the  principal  examples  being  in 
the.  North. 

The  normal  type  of.  temple  is  a  square  "  vimana  "  or  idol 
cell,  lit  from  the  door  only,  roofed  with  a  Sikra  or  Pyramidal 
storied  tower  in  receding  stages,  recalling  the  Chaldaean  Temples 
(No.  12  A,  c).  The  cell  contains  the  cross-legged  seated  figure  of 
the  saint.  In  front  of  the  vimana  is  a  columned  hall  or  portico 
of  varying  extent,  generally  cruciform  on  plan.  In  the  centre  of 


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618  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  hall  is  a  pointed  dome  supported  on  eight  columns  with 
bracket  capitals  and  raking  struts,  the  octagon  thus  formed  being 
brought  to  a  square  by  the  four  angle  columns  which  complete 
the  characteristic  Jaina  plan  (No.  266  c).  In  the  larger  monu- 
ments the  temple  is  placed  in  an  inclosure,  against  the  wall  of 
which  the  image  cells  open  on  to  the  internal  courtyard. 

In  Northern  India  the  principal  monuments  are  at  Mount 
Abu  (No.  270),  Palitana  (No.  271),  Girnar  (in  the  Gujerat 
district),  Parisnath,  Gwalior  (No.  272),  Sadri  and  Khajuraho. 

At  Mount  Abu — a  granite  plateau  5,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
interspersed  with  luxuriant  vegetation— are  two  important 
examples  in  white  marble.  That  erected  A.D.  1032,  by  Vimala 
Sah  (No.  270),  has  a  splendid  portico  hall,  the  columns  having 
bracket  capitals  (No.  266  B),  from  which  raking  struts  in  marble 
appear  to  support  the  architrave.  The  interior  of  the  dome  is 
sculptured  with  concentric  rings  of  ornament,  having  at  the  base 
sixteen  statues  and  in  the  centre  a  richly  carved  pendant  or 
ornament,  recalling  those  at  Caudebec,  in  Normandy,  or  in 
Henry  VI I. 's  Chapel,  Westminster. 

The  most  fully  developed  building  is  perhaps  the  Temple  at 
Sadri,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Aravulli  Mountains.  Resting 
on  a  lofty  substructure,  approximately  200  feet  square,  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  range  of  eighty-six  cells,  each  crowned  with  a 
pyramidal  roof.  There  are  five  shrines,  one  being  central  and 
one  at  each  angle,  and  four  open  courts  for  the  admission  of  light. 
Twenty  domes,  24  feet  in  diameter,  supported  on  400  columns, 
are  placed  symmetrically  .in  sets  of  five,  forming  a  Greek  cross 
on  plan.  The  .centre  one  is  three  stories  in  height  and  36  feet 
in  diameter,  and  is  formed  as  usual  in  horizontal  stone  courses. 

The  external  .appearance,  with  the  domes  of  different  heights 
and  the  pointed  sikras,  presents  a  ricrrand  varied  character,  with 
the  mountains,  as  a  background. 

Modern  Jaina  temples  are  mostly  tinged  with  Mahometan 
influence,'  having  bulbous  domes  and  foliated  pointed  arches. 
In  these  the-sikfa  is  often  absent. 

In  India  the  normal  type  varies,  open  courtyards  containing 
immense  statues  sometimes  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  as  the  statue, 
70  feet  in  heigHt,  at  Sravana'Belgula. 


(3.)  HINDU    (OR   BRAHMAN)    ARCHITECTURE. 
(a.)  NORTHERN    HINDU    (A.D.  600  to  the  present  time). 

The  normal  type  of  plan  consists  of  the  vimana  or  cell  crowned 
with  curved  pyramidal  roof,  and  the  porch  without  columns 
crowned  with  stepped  roof  in  stories.  Each  facade  has  rectangular 
projections  in  the  centre,  which  increased  in  depth  as  the  style 


INDIAN  (JAINA)  ARCHITECTURE. 


271. 


PALITANA. 
The  great  Chawmukh  Temple. 


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INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  623 

developed,  until  they  formed  the  points  of  a  square  on  plan.  In 
addition  to  these  two  chambers,  others  were  added  in  more  important 
examples.  The  large  inclosures  and  gateways  of  the  Dravidian 
style  are  wanting.  Orissa,  on  the  east  coast,  contains  a  remark- 
able series  of  monuments  dating  from  A.D.  500-1200.  The'ancient 
city  of  Bhuvaneswar  contains  some  hundreds  of  examples:  The 
best  known  is  the  Great  Temple  (A.D.  617-657),  quoted  as  the 
finest  in  India.  It  is  a  four-chambered  example  ;  every  stone  on 
its  facades  is  carved,  the  courses  being  deeply  rusticated.  The 
principal  vimana  is  crowned  with  the  usual  northern  high  curved 
pyramidal  roof  with  melon  ornament  and  finial. 

Other  examples  are  at  Kanaruc  (No.  266  E)  (the  Black 
Pagoda,  ninth  century),  and  Puri  (the  four-chambered  temple 
of  Juganat,  A.D.  1174),  the  latter  being  placed  in  a"  large  double 
inclosure  surrounded  by  a  wall  20  feet  high. 

In  Dharwar,  on  the  western  coast,  are  examples  in.  which 
pillars  are  employed,,  as  the  Temple  of  Papanetha,  A.D.  500, 
influenced  by  Dravidian  architecture. 

Important  groups  exist  at  Chandravati,  in  Rajputana  (A.D. 
600),  Baroli  (A.D.  750),  and  Udaipor  (A.D.  1060).  At  Khajuraho 
(A.D.  954-1000)  is  a  group  of  thirty  important  temples,  of  which 
that  dedicated  to  Kandarya  Mahadeo  is  the"' most  important.  It 
is  a  two-chambered  example,  placed- on  a  well-proportioned  stylo- 
bate,  with  three  rows  of  sculptured  figures,- half  life-size,  nearly  one 
thousand  in  number.  The  sikra  is  enriched  by  the  addition  of 
sculptured  representations  of  itself— a  favourite  Indian  method. 

Modern  monuments  exist  at  Chittore,  Gwalior,  Kantonugger 
(A.D.  1704),  and  Amritzar  (A.D.  1704),  the  sacred  metropolis  of 
the  Sikhs. 

Civil  Architecture. — Palaces,  tombs,  and  ghats  (landing 
places)  abound.  The  ghats,  lining  the  great  rivers,  such  as  the 
Ganges,  are  typical  Indian  features ;  they  are  used  by  the  Hindus 
as  bathing  places,  and  consist  of  long  ranges  of  steps,  stopped 
by  kiosks  and  backed  by  buildings  with  ornamental  fa9ades;  used 
as  shelters,  or  temples. 


(b.)  CHALUKYAN  ARCHITECTURE  (A.D.  1000-1200). 

The  special  features  are  the  placing  of  the  temple  on  a  terrace 
3  or  4  feet  high,  the  star-shaped  plan  of  the  vimana,  or  idol  cell, 
and  the  formation  of  its  roof  as  a  straight-sided  cone  in  richly 
ornamented  steps,  with  crowning  vase  ornament  as  in.  the  Temple 
at  Umber  (No.  273).  Elaborate  pierced  marble  slabs  are  placed 
in  window  openings.  Walling  stones  without  mortar  were  also 
used  in  certain  instances. 

The  province  of  Mysore  contains  the  principal  monuments,  as 
at  Somnathpur  (A.D.  1043),  Baillur  (A.D.  1114),  and  Hullabid 


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INDIAN  (DRAVIDIAN)  ARCHITECTURE. 


277-  MANDURA. 

The  West  Gateway  and  Gopura  beyond. 


INDIAN   (DKAVIDIAN)  ARCHITECTURE. 


278.  TARPUTRY. 

Portion  of  Entrance  to  the  old  Temple. 


S  S  2 


628  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

(A.D.  1224),  (No.  274).  The  double  temple  at  the  latter  place  is 
placed  on  a  terrace  5  feet  high,  the  temples  being  side  by  side.  In 
front  of  each  is  a  detached  pillared  porch  containing  a  shrine  for  the 
idol.  The  walls  are  exceedingly  rich  in  sculpture,  and  have  friezes 
700  feet  long,  carved  with  numerous  representations  of  elephants, 
lions,  horsemen,  birds,  and  bas-reliefs  of  scenes  representing  the 
conquest  of  Ceylon. 

(c.)  DRAVIDIAN  ARCHITECTURE  (A.D.  1350-1750). 

Raths.  —  The  rock-cut  examples  known  as  "  Raths "  at 
Mahavellipore  (near  Madras),  and  Ellora  (A.D.  750-950),  are 
peculiar  (No.  275).  They  differ  from  other  rock-cut  examples, 
being  monolithic  free  standing  temples,  the  surrounding  rock  being 
cut  away  so  that  external  fa£ades  are  visible. 

Temples. — The  normal  type,  as  in  the  Jaina  examples,  has  a 
square  vimana  to  contain  the  image  of  the  deity,  and  is.  crowned 
with  a  many-storied  pyramidal  roof;  in  front  is  a  "  mantapa  "  or 
porch  (No.  276).  In  addition  are  the  "  choultries  "  or  halls  of  1,000 
columns,  placed  close  to  the  Temples,  and  the  characteristic 
"gopuras,"  or  gate  pyramids  (No.  277),  forming  entrances  to  the 
inclosures  which  usually  surround  the  shrines.  In  conjunction 
are  planned  the  shrines,  lakes  (or  tanks  of  water  for  religious 
purposes),  and  flights  of  steps ;  such  are  often  grouped  with  little 
regard  to  symmetry,  and  inclosed  by  a  high  wall,  as  in  Egyptian 
temples. 

Tanjore  (fourteenth  century),  with  its  thirteen-storied  highly- 
enriched  pyramidal  sikra  (No.  276),  Mandura  (A.D.  1623-1645), 
with  its  celebrated  Gopura  (No.  277),  and  Choultrie,  333  feet  by 
105  feet,  and  columns  with  life-sized  sculptured  figures  attached  ; 
Seringham  (seventeenth  century),  with  its  fifteen  great  gopuras, 
Tinnevelly,  with  its  double  temple  and  hall  of  1,000  columns, 
Conjeveram,  Vellore  (A.D.  1350),  Tarputry  (No.  278),  and 
Chillambaram  (seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century),  are  the 
best  known  monuments. 

4.   COMPARATIVE. 

Note. — In  order  to  assist  the  student,  the  analysis  of  the  three 
styles— Buddhist,  Jaina,  Hindu  (or  Brahman) — is  taken  in  one 
table. 

A.  Plans. 

(a.)  Buddhist.— The  remains  of  Buddhist  Chaityas  (Temples) 
are  all  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  and  therefore  have  only  one  external 
fasade.  In  plan  they  resemble  Christian  Cathedrals  in  having 
three  aisles  formed  by  two  rows  of  piers  ;  the  sanctuary,  around 
which  the  aisle  is  carried,  is  semi-circular. 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  629 

The  viharas  (or  monasteries)  are  also  rock-cut.  They  consist 
generally  of  a  central  hall  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  cells  for 
the  priests.  In  later  and  larger  examples,  columns  are  introduced 
in  the  central  space  to  support  the  rock  overhead.  In  the  most 
important  examples  the  sanctuary  is  placed  in  a  special  apartment, 
and  provided  with  a  screen  of  columns  as  at  Nassick. 

(b.)  Jaina. — Temples  owe  much  of  their  attractiveness  to  their 
environment,  by  being  picturesquely  grouped  on  mountain  tops  or 
in  wooded  valleys.  In  plan  they  consist  of  a  square  cell  containing 
the  image  of  the  Jina,  roofed  with  a  high  curvilinear  pyramidal 
Tower  called  a  "  Sikra."  In  front  was  a  pillared  portico,  crowned 
by  a  pointed  dome  usually  supported  on  eight  pillars  forming 
points  of  an  octagon,  and  brought  to  a  square  by  inserting  four 
angle  columns  (No.  266  c).  The  columns  are  extended  so  as  to 
make  the  whole  structure  cruciform  on  plan,  which  is  apparent 
externally. 

The  planning  of  the  dome  on  the  octagonal  base  causes  the 
width  of  the  central  nave  to  the  aisles  to  be  in  the  proportion  of  10 
to  7.  A  somewhat  similar  treatment  has  been  adopted  in  the 
successful  interior  of  S.  Stephen,  Walbrook  (No.  256). 

In  important  examples,  the  temple  is  placed  in  a  great  open 
court,  round  which  cells  are  planned.  At  Girnar  there  are  seventy 
of  such  cells,  each  containing  a  cross-legged  statue  of  the  Jina, 
to  whom  the  Temple  is  dedicated. 

(c.)  Hindu  (or  Brahman']. — The  Hindu  Temples  are  similar  in 
plan  to  the  Jaina  temples,  with  local  differences — for  instance, 
Dravidian  Temples  have,  in  addition,  the  characteristic  choultries, 
or  halls  of  1,000  columns,  and  are  generally  surrounded  by  a 
wall,  inclosing  lakes  or  tanks  of  water  for  priestly  purposes,  while 
Chalukyan  Temples  are  usually  star-shaped  on  plan. 

B.  Walls. — These  were  constructed  principally  of  the  granite, 
stone  or  marble  with  which  the  country  abounds,  the  massive 
blocks  being  sometimes  laid  without  mortar.  Plain  walling  seems 
to  have  been  avoided,  and  sculpture  is  employed  in  a  bewildering 
and  confusing  way  (see  Ornament,  page  632).  The  characteristic 
Eastern  treatment  of  decorating  with  sculptures  the  whole  surface 
of  the  walls  is  employed  in  all  three  styles. 

In  the  Dravidian  style  the  gopuras  or  gate  pyramids  resemble, 
in  their  massiveness  only,  the  pylons  of  the  Egyptian  Temples 
(No.  7). 

c.  Openings. 

(0.)  Buddhist.  —  In  rock-cut  examples,  the  horseshoe  form 
occurs  on  the  fa9ade  (No.  268),  forming,  as  it  were,  one  great 
eye,  and  being  the  only  opening  for  light.  Within  this  arch  was 
usually  an  open  decorated  framework  of  wood,  probably  used  as  a 
screen  to  the  glaring  Eastern  sun ;  thus  the  subdued  light  was 


630  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

thrown  on  the  shrine  from  behind  the  spectator,  producing  a 
favourable  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  the  close-set  columns  of 
the  interior  (No.  267). 

(ft.)  Jaina. — Openings  are  normally  square-headed.  Domes, 
when  employed,  were  formed  of  horizontal  courses,  as  in  early  Greek 
architecture  (No.  15  A).  Such  a  system  was  necessary  in  the  case 
of  domes  supported  on  slender  columns,  which  could  sustain  no 
outward  thrust.  In  their  pillared  porches,  horizontal  stone 
architraves  rested  on  the  bracket  capitals,  and  a  characteristic 
Eastern  feeling  was  produced  by  the  stone  struts  supporting  them 
(No.  270),  features  which  were  evidently  derived  from  a  timber 
form  (No.  266  B). 

An  extension  of  the  bracket  capital  is  sometimes  applied  to 
walls,  lintels  being  supported  at  intervals  by  detached  brackets 
built  out  in  horizontal  courses. 

The  struts,  already  mentioned,  were  occasionally  filled,  in  with 
ornament,  thus  forming  a  triangular-headed  opening  (No.  271). 

(c.)  Hindu. — Flat-headed  openings  .are  the  usual  type,  but 
variations  are  caused  in  roofs  by  the  use  of  bracketing  shafts 
supporting  purlins  of  stone,  on  which  inner  brackets  were  placed, 
thus  gradually  reducing  the  span,  till  stone  slabs  could  roof  the 
apartment,  as  at  the  Dravidian  temple  at  Chillambaram. 

The  Chalukyan  buildings  have  pierced  window  slabs,  as  at  Baillur 
and  Hullabid  (No.  274).  Such  are  formed  in  star-shaped  patterns 
ornamented  with  foliaged  bands  or  with  mythological  subjects. 
These  slabs,  filling  in  the  whole  opening,  are  a  great  contrast 
to  other  styles,  being  somewhat  similar,  however,  to  Byzantine 
and  Saracenic  buildings. 

D.  Roofs. 

Buddhist. — In  the  early  rock-cut  chaityas,  semi-circular  roofs 
are  excavated  in  the  rock  and  ornamented  with  wooden  ribs  or 
stone  imitations  of  them  (Nos.  267  and  268). 

Jaina. — The  sikra,  or  stone  roof,  which  crowned  the  idol-cell 
had  a  high  curved  outline  crowned  with  a  melon  ornament  and 
finial  (No.  271).  Such  a  curved  outline,  Mr.  Fergusson  suggests, 
may  have  been  produced  by  following  the  outline  of  an  internal 
pointed  dome,  formed  with  slabs  of  stone  in  horizontal  courses. 
Jaina  porches  are  crowned  with  (i)  roofs  formed  of  flat  slabs  of 
stone,  or  (2)  pointed  domes  formed  in  horizontal  courses. 

(i.)  The  flat  slab  roofs  were  evolved  from  the  simple  square 
slab  of  stone  resting  on  architraves  supported  on  four  columns. 
Larger  spaces  were  roofed  by  using  a  succession  of  triangular 
slabs  as  a  base  for  the  original  square  slab  to  rest  on  (No.  266  c). 
Still  larger  spaces  were  roofed  by  the  insertion  of  two  extra 
columns  on  each  face  to  support  the  long  architrave,  and  making 
twelve  columns  in  all  to  each  compartment,  the  intermediate 
columns  forming  an  octagon  on  plan. 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  631 

(2.)  The  pointed  Jaina  dome  seldom  exceeds  30  feet  in 
diameter.  It  is  invariably  formed  in  horizontal  courses  (compare 
the  Treasury  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae,  No.  15).  Such  domes,  if  of 
any  size,  are  of  necessity  pointed  or  conical  in  section  (No.  266 
D,  E),  so  that  a  single  stone  can  crown  the  top.  When  placed 
on  the  octagonal  plan  as  indicated  above,  the  triangular  portions 
(or  pendentives  from  the  octagon  to  the  circle)  are  formed  by  a 
circular  stone  cornice  supported  at  the  re-entering  angles  by 
projections  from  the  capitals  (No.  270).  The  bearing  of  the 
architrave  was  apparently  lessened  by  the  use  of  bracket  capitals 
and  struts,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  these  have  any  constructive 
value  (Nos.  266  B  and  270). 

The  decoration  of  such  domes  followed  the  horizontal  lines 
of  the  construction,  the  ornament  being  arranged  in  concentric 
rings,  the  central  or  top  stone  forming  a  pendant. 

Hindu.— Dravidian  examples  have  the  roof  covering  the  vimana 
of  the  storied  pyramidal  type  (No.  276),  normally  carried  to  a 
considerable  height  and  carved  with  representations  of  itself  along 
each  well-defined  story. 

Chalukyan  examples  have  the  towers  either  of  the  storied 
Dravidian  type,  following  the  curvilinear  outline  of  the  Northern 
Hindu  examples,  or  form  a  straight-sided  cone  arranged  in 
steps. 

E.  Columns. — Indian  columns  are  most  characteristic  features, 
and  are  unlike  those  in  any  other  style.  No  systems  of  simple 
well-known  types  existed,  as  in  Greece  or  Rome  (No.  38).  The 
origin  of  their  form  is  unknown,  but  it  seems  certain  that  they 
come  of  a  wooden  prototype.  The  shaft  is  as  much  ornamented 
as  the  capital  and  base  (No.  266  L).  The  bracket  capital  (No.  266) 
is  a  characteristic  Indian  feature  taking  a  variety  of  forms. 

Buddhist  columns  are  often  octagonal  on  plan  (No.  267).  In 
the  great  rock-cut  Chaityas  at  Karli,  Bedsa  and  elsewhere,  they 
are  stumpy,  closely  set  together,  thus  screening  the  wall  behind, 
which,  of  course,  had  no  openings.  They  thus  gave  the  necessary 
light  and  shade  to  the  interior,  as  did  the  columns  to  the  exterior 
of  a  windowless  Greek  temple.  The  numerous  forms  of  capitals, 
resembling  in  certain  instances  the  Assyrian  and  Persepolitan 
examples,  are  bewildering.  Sculptured  lions,  horses,  or  elephants, 
supporting  men,  women,  and  the  "chakra"  or  Buddhist  wheel 
occur,  as  at  Bedsa.  In  others,  as  at  Karli,  torus  or  Dutch  cheese- 
like  mouldings  ornamented  with  palm  leaves  occur  under  a 
capital  of  a  coarse  Roman-Doric  type  (No.  269). 

In  North-west  India,  in  the  Gandhara  district,  Greek  or 
Byzantine  influence  produced  capitals  with  delicate  acanthus- 
leaf  carvings. 

Jaina.— Columns  are  a  special  feature  and  exhibit  great  variety 
Of  design.  The  capitals  are  of  the  "  bracket  "  type,  probably 


632  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

derived  from  a  timber  original.  Sometimes,  as  at  Mount  Abu 
(No.  270),  they  are  superimposed,  the  upper  ones  supporting  an 
architrave  which  is  upheld  in  the  centre  by  stone  struts  resting 
on  the  lower  capital. 

Hindu. — In  the  Dravidian  choultries,  there  was  great  scope 
for  the  inventiveness  of  the  Hindu  craftsman.  The  capitals  are 
of  the  bracket  type,  and  in  some  instances  not  more  than  two 
columns  in  a  building  are  alike. 

Some,  as  at  Madura,  have  life-sized  figures  of  saints,  or  Yalis 
(weird  lion-like  monsters)  attached  to  them  (No,  266  c),  forming 
a  contrast  to  Greek  caryatides  (No.  44  M).  In  other  cases,  a 
compound  pier  of  a  sturdy  and  light  column  is  employed 
(No.  266  L). 

F.  Mouldings. — Normally  these   are   of  a   bulbous    swelling 
outline,  those  to  the  columns  often  lacking  refinement.     A  form 
made  by  overlapping  rectangular  slabs  is  frequently  used  in  the 
bases  and  capitals  of  columns  and  dagobas.     In  other  iristances, 
as  at  Bedsa,  a  semi-circular  open-work  moulding,  recalling  basket- 
work,  is  employed.    The  plain  torus  is  used,  and  the  double-convex 
shape  into  which  the  cross  pieces  of  the  "rails"  are  cut,  are 
used  as  deep  horizontal  bands  of  ornaments,  taking  the  place  of 
mouldings  proper  (No.  266  F). 

G.  Ornament. — This    is    principally    confined    to     sculpture 
carried  out  with  a  profuseness  unknown  in  other  styles.    Executed 
principally  in  hard  stone,  and  having  little  plain  wall  surface  to 
frame   it,    it    forms    a    monument    of  patient    labour,    perhaps 
unequalled. 

The  sculpture  is  so  bound  up  with  the  peoples'  religion  and 
mythology,  of  which  indeed  it  forms  the  mirror,  that  the  two 
cannot  be  considered  separately.  In  Jaina  architecture,  each  of 
the  twenty-four  Jinas  (see  Religion,  page  607)  had  a  distinctive 
sign  which  was  utilised  by  the  sculptors.  The  trident,  shield, 
and  chakra  (or  wheel),  the  "rail"  ornament  (copied  from  the 
Sanchi  tope)  and  imitations  of  window  fronts  and  fagades  are 
also  repeated  on  the  fronts  of  the  early  chaityas,  as  at  Bedsa, 
Nassick,  and  elsewhere. 

A  most  characteristic  feature  was  the  representation  on  a  fagade 
or  tower  of  numerous  small  carved  representations  of  itself.  This 
method  was  also  used  in  Assyria,  and  the  remains  often  enable 
a  fanciful  restoration  to  be  made. 

Painted  decorations  or  frescoes  were  often  employed,  as  at 
Ajunta,  the  walls  of  the  cave  being  left  plain  for  the  purpose. 

The  use  of  sculptured  figures  as  a  means  of  decoration  was  a 
later  phase. 

The  evolution  of  the  sculptured  umbrellas  surmounting  the 
Dagoba  (or  shrine)  is  interesting  as  being  the  prototype  of  the 
nine-storied  pagodas  of  China,  On  the  Gateways  at  Sanchi  (a 


INDIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  633 

plaster  copy  is  at  the  Indian  Museum,  South  Kensington)  are 
represented  legendary  events  from  the  life  and  religion  of  Buddha, 
the  worship  of  trees  and  relics,  and  warlike  scenes  (No.  266  A). 
The  three,  five,  or  seven-headed  Naga  or  serpent  is  frequently 
used.  Besides  the  animals  already  mentioned,  others  such  as 
horses,  lions,  "hansas"  (sacred  geese),  form  favourite  subjects  with 
Buddhist  sculptors,  and  are  a  striking  contrast  to  the  motifs  of 
Mahometan  sculpture  (page  680). 

Note. — In  further  India  (or  Indo-China),  as  in  Burma,  Siam, 
Java,  and  Cambodia,  are  temples,  monasteries  and  pagodas,  many 
of  which  are  of  great  size  and  importance,  but  of  which  space 
does  not  admit  of  more  than  passing  reference. 


5.  REFERENCE    WORKS. 

Burgess  (J.). — "  Archaeological  Survey  of  Western  India."  5  vols.  1874- 
1883. 

Cole  (H.  H.). — "  Illustrations  of  Ancient  Buildings  in  Muttra  and 
Agra."  2  vols.,  folio.  1869-1873. 

Cole  (H.  H.). — "Illustrations  of  Ancient  Buildings  in  Kashmir."  410. 
1869. 

Cunningham  (Sir  A.). — "  Archaeological  Survey  of  India."  23  vols. 
Simla,  1871-1887. 

De  Forest  (L.). — "  Indian  Domestic  Architecture."  Folio.  Boston, 
U.S.A.,  1885. 

Fergusson  (Jas.). — "  Picturesque  Illustrations  of  the  Ancient  Archi- 
tecture of  Hindostan."  Folio.  1848. 

Fergusson. — "Illustrations  of  the  Rock-cut  Temples  of  India."  8vo. 
and  folio  Atlas  of  Plates.  1845. 

Fergusson. — "  Architecture  at  Ahmedabad."     4to.     1866. 

Fergusson. — "  History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture."  Svo. 
1891. 

Griffin  (Sir  Lepel). — "  Famous  Monuments  of  Central  India."     1886. 

Jacob  (S.  S.).— "  Jeypore  Portfolio  of  Architectural  Details."  6  vols., 
folio.  1 890. 

Le  Bon  (G.).— "  Les  Monuments  de  1'Inde."     Folio.     1893. 

Ram  Raz. — "  Architecture  of  the  Hindoos."     4to.     1834. 

Smith  (E.  W.).  —  "Portfolio  of  Indian  Architectural  Drawings." 
Parts  I,  and  II. ,  folio.  1897. 


CHINESE     AND     JAPANESE     ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 


;  See  what  a  love  shell, 
Small  and  pure  as  a  pearl. 


Frail,  but  a  work  divine, 
Made  so  fairly  well, 
With  delicate  spire  and  wall, 
How  exquisitely  minute 
A  miracle  of  design." 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. 

The  Chinese  Empire  —  comprising  China  proper,  Thibet, 
Mongolia,  and  Corea— is  larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  but  possesses  four  great 
trading  riv.ers  by  which  merchandise  is  carried,  facilitating 
internal  commerce.  In  addition  a  network  of  canals  for  irrigation 
and  navigation  is  spread  over  the  low-lying  provinces,  and  these, 
with  the  navigable  rivers,  form  the  principal  highways  of  China. 
The  "  Grand  Canal,"  extending  from  Tientsin  to  Hangchow,  is 
600  miles  in  length.  The  coast  has  excellent  harbours,  which 
must  have  assisted  the  intercourse  with  India  and  Assyria,  and 
the  consequent  influence  of  their  architectural  forms.  The  Chinese 
pagoda  was  a  direct  imitation  of  an  Indian  prototype  (page  632), 
or  may  have  been  derived  from  the  pyramidal  many-storied 
buildings  found  in  lower  Chaldaea. 

Japan  presents  many  points  of  resemblance  to  Great  Britain  : 
both  have  highly  indented  coast  lines  with  good  harbours ;  both 
are  insular  empires  well  situated  for  commerce  and  lying  opposite 
populous  continents ;  both  are  at  the  head  of  great  oceanic 
waterways,  the  one  of  the  Pacific,  the  other  of  the  Atlantic; 
and  both  are  warmed  by  ocean  currents  producing  equable 
temperatures. 


CHINESE    AND    JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  635 

ii.  Geological. 

China. — The  abundance  of  metals,  coal,  salt,  iron,  and  copper, 
have  always  made  China  one  of  the  richest  of  countries. 

China,  as  primitive  India,  employed  wood  for  building ;  such  was 
rendered  possible  by  the  vast  forests  of  bamboo  and  pine  which 
existed  in  ancient  China.  Pekin,  which  was  first  made  the  Imperial 
capital  about  A.D.  1260,  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  in 
1662  and  1731,  when  important  buildings  were  wrecked.  Brick- 
making  is  considered  by  many  to  have  been  introduced  from  the 
West,  in  imitation  of  those  found  in  the  ruins  of  Mesopotamia. 

Large  beds  of  porcelain  clay  are  found  in  the  province  of 
Che-kiang  and  elsewhere.  In  city  walls  the  brick  is  usually 
about  1 8  inches  long,  and  in  buildings  a  small  grey-colored 
brick  is  often  used.  Tiles,  plain,  glazed,  and  colored,  are  almost 
exclusively  used  for  the  roofs,  yellow  being  the  Imperial  color. 
Stone  is  used  for  bridges,  gateways  and  public  works,  and  marble 
for  balustrading  around  tombs  and  important  buildings. 

Japan. — The  prevalence  of  earthquakes  has  favoured  wooden 
construction,  in  which  the  Japanese  exhibit  scientific  ingenuity  in 
the  framing  together  of  the  various  parts. 

Stone  in  Japan  is  unstratified,  hence  it  is  frequently  used  in 
polygonal  blocks,  particularly  for  the  lower  part  of  walls,  on  which 
is  erected  the  upper  wooden  construction. 

Forests  occupy  four  times  the  area  of  the  tilled  land,  with  a 
greater  diversity  of  trees  than  any  other  country  in  the  world  ; 
bamboo  is  largely  used  in  house  construction. 

iii.  Climate. 

China. — The  geological  formation  of  the  mountains,  which  run 
east  and  west,  direct  the  sea  winds  which  moderate  the  tempera- 
ture. North  China  has  a  short  but  frosty  winter  and  warm  and 
rainy  summer.  During  the  monsoons  very  heavy  rains  occur, 
which  influenced  such  features  as  the  widely  projecting  roof  with 
steep  surfaces  admitting  of  the  easy  discharge  of  rain-water. 
Roofs  are  turned  up  at  the  eaves  to  admit  light  without  the  heat 
of  the  sun  (Nos.  281  and  283). 

Fires  being  principally  used  for  domestic  purposes  and  not  for 
comfort,  chimneys  are  unimportant  features  and  seldom  provided, 
the  charcoal  or  wood  fire  being  allowed  to  eject  its  fumes  into  the 
cooking  apartments. 

Japan.— Houses,  where  possible,  face  the  south,  as  a  protection 
against  cold.  The  deeply  projecting  eaves  protect  from  the 
summer  sun  and  the  high  inclosing  walls  of  courtyard  against 
the  winter  wind.  In  summer  the  moveable  casement  windows 
and  partitions  forming  the  fronts  of  the  houses,  and  offering  little 
resistance  to  the  penetration  of  heat,  are  removed,  leaving  them 
entirely  open  to  the  breezes. 


636  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

iv.  Religion. 

There  are  three  religions  : — 

T     r,  .       ( Confucianism  (Confucius,  born  B.C.  551,  died  B.C.  475). 

a  "(Buddhism  (introduced  from  India  about  A.D.  90). 
T     T  (Taoism,  or  Sintuism. 

n  japan  |Buddhism  (introduced  A.D.  550). 

China. — Confucianism  is  a  code  of  moral  doctrines  and  conduct, 
and  can  scarcely  be  called  a  religion.  An  absence  of  important 
religious  structures  is  probably  the  result  of  there  being  no 
dominant  priesthood;  this  absence  has  been  the  wonder  of 
travellers,  because  the  Chinese  have  probably  been  civilized  as 
long  as  the  Egyptians,  who,  mainly  in  consequence  of  their 
religious  ideas,  created  an  architecture  unequalled  in  its  grandeur. 

Temples  and  shrines  erected  to  Buddha  or  Confucius,  though 
numerous,  are  unimportant.  In  addition,  the  poor  family  has  its 
altar  and  household  gods  and  the  wealthy  family  its  ancestral  hall 
of  worship. 

Ancestral  worship  is  so  profound  and  leads  to  such  a  veneration 
for  graves  that  the  Chinese  will  plough  around  them  for  genera- 
tions without  being  guilty  of  the  sacrilege  of  destroying  them. 

Japan. — Sintuism  is  the  national  religion,  but  Buddhism  is  also 
prevalent.  The  extraordinary  number  of  images  of  every  possible 
size  and  material  is  to  be  remarked. 

In  Japan  the  Buddhist  religion,  with  its  mysterious  and  awe- 
inspiring  symbols,  acted  on  the  artistic  Japanese  nature,  ever 
ready  to  depict  beautiful  and  fantastic  forms ;  thus  demons,  monsters 
and  conventional  representations  are  found  in  conjunction  with  the 
birds  and  landscapes  of  the  changing  seasons. 

v.  Social  and  Political. 

China. — The  Chinese  government  is  autocratic,  the  Emperor 
being  head  of  State  and  Church,  and  the  provinces  being  governed 
by  mandarins.  The  Emperor  is  at  once  the  worshipper  and  priest 
of  the  important  Pekin  temples,  an  instance  of  the  old  idea  of 
priest-king. 

The  nobility  is  not  hereditary,  and  property  is  divided  equally 
among  children  at  death.  There  is  little  family  pride  to  cause,  as 
in  England,  the  erection  of  castles  and  residences  with  which  the 
life  of  the  family  could  be  associated. 

The  "  guilds  "  into  which  many  trades  or  crafts  are  formed  have 
an  important  influence.  They  date  from  about  A.D.  600,  and 
resemble  in  constitution  the  mediaeval  guilds  of  Europe. 

A  point  affecting  domestic  architecture  is  the  law  which 
regulates  the  forms  and  dimensions  of  the  residence  for  each  class 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  social  condition  of  the  Indian  and  West 
Asiatic  countries  which  were  governed  by  monarchs  supreme  in 


CHINESE    AND   JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  637 

authority  was  productive  of  architectural  works  tending  to  the 
glorification  of  such  monarchs. 

China,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  termed  the  country  of  the 
middle  classes — "  Literati,"  small  proprietors  and  merchants — 
whose  buildings  indicate  special  regard  to  utility  and  whose 
temples  express  merely  the  desire  to  accommodate  the  present 
needs  rather  than  to  show  to  future  generations  those  feelings  of 
eternal  sublimity  that  mark  the  styles  of  Egypt  and  Greece. 

Japan. — Tea  drinking  is  held  to  have  had  its  influence  on  the 
industrial  arts,  due  in  part  to  its  spread  in  the  fifteenth  century 
and  the  formation  of  tea  clubs,  thereby  producing  a  demand  for 
domestic  utensils  and  leading  to  a  special  treatment  of  such 
buildings  and  their  gardens.  Government  decrees  as  to  size  and 
arrangement  of  buildings  exercised  influence. 

Up  to  the  revolution  of  1868  the  country  was  governed  by  the 
Shogun  or  chief  vassal  of  the  Mikado,  at  which  period  Western 
parliamentary  ideas  were  introduced. 

vi.  Historical. 

China. — The  early  history  of  China  is  wrapped  in  the  mists 
of  antiquity. 

The  Chow  Dynasty. — Che-Hwang-te,  first  universal  Emperor 
(B.C.  246-210),  built  the  "  Great  Wall,"  B.C.  214,  and  constructed 
roads,  canals. 

The  Eastern  Han  Dynasty  (A.D.  23-220). — During  the  reign  of 
Ming  Te,  Buddhism  was  introduced  from  India. 

The  Western  Tsin  Dynasty  (A.D.  265-590). — During  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Sze-Ma-Yen,  the  Emperor  Theodosius  sent 
ambassadors  to  China  (A.D.  284). 

The  Tang  Dynasty  (A.D.  618-907). — Tai-tsung  (A.D.  618-649) 
purchased  the  alliance  of  the  Turks  as  the  Emperor  Justinian  had 
done  in  A.D.  558,  and  regained  Eastern  Persia  up  to  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Ambassadors  from  Persia  and  Rome  came  to  China 
in  A.D.  645. 

The  Emperor  Woo-Tsung  (A.D.  841-847)  abolished  Temples 
and  Monasteries. 

The  Emperor  E-Tsung  (A.D.  860-874)  revived  Buddhism. 

During  the  tenth  century  the  Chinese  Emperor  invaded 
Chaldaea,  penetrating  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  maintained  a 
protectorate  in  Mesopotamia  for  more  than  sixty  years.  It  is 
possible  that  Chaldaean  temples  were  the  prototypes  of  many 
Chinese  structures  and  even  of  pagodas  in  receding  stages. 
From  this  expedition  some  date  the  art  of  enamelled  brickwork 
as  employed  in  China. 

The  Mongul  or  Yuen  Dynasty  (A.D.  1259-1368).— Under  the 
Emperor  Kublai  (A.D.  1259-1294)  China  reached  her  greatest 
extent,  and  with  the  exception  of  Hindustan,  Arabia,  and  Western 


638  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Asia,  all  the  Mongul  princes  as  far  as  the  Dnieper  were  tributary. 
The  Emperor  undertook  public  works  and  patronized  literature. 
It  was  during  his  reign  (A.D.  1260)  that  the  Persian  workmen 
introduced  the  art  of  making  blue  and  white  porcelain. 

The  Ming  Dynasty  (A.D.  1368-1644). — Nankin,  the  capital, 
afterwards  changed  to  Pekin.  Japan  invaded  Corea  in  1592. 

The  Manchu  Tartar  Dynasty  (A.D.  1644  to  the  present  day). — 
The  shaved  head  and  pigtail  are  emblems  of  Tartar  sovereignty. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  German  Jesuits 
influenced  the  studies  of  the  first  Emperors.  Kang-he  (A.D.  1661- 
1721)  added  Thibet  to  the  Empire  and  published  the  Dictionary 
of  the  Chinese  language.  Keen-lung  (A.D.  1735-1795)  invaded 
Burmah,  Cochin-China,  and  Nepaul,  and  crushed  the  Mahometan 
rebellion.  He  received  Lord  Macartney  as  first  ambassador  of 
George  III.  In  1840  war  was  declared  by  England  against 
China ;  this  marks  the  period  of  the  influence  of  European 
intervention.  In  1873  the  foreign  ministers  obtained  the  right 
of  audience  with  the  Emperor. 

Japan. — The  Emperor  Zinmu,  B.C.  660,  was  a  contemporary  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  From  that  time  onward  the  government  of 
the  country  was  undertaken  by  the  Mikado,  or  spiritual  Emperor, 
the  Shogun,  or  temporal  Emperor,  being  Commander-in-Chief. 
Till  A.D.  1543  Japanese  history  is  purely  local,  but  in  that  year 
the  Portuguese  landed  and  commenced  trading,  and  in  1549 
S.  Francis  Xavier  introduced  Christianity.  In  1638  Christianity 
was  interdicted  and  isolation  from  foreign  countries  was  effected. 
In  1854,  however,  after  an  isolation  of  over  200  years,  treaties  of 
commerce  were  made  with  foreign  nations.  This  period  marks 
the  commencement  of  the  influence  of  European  art  on  Japan. 
In  1868  the  present  Mikado,  the  i22nd  of  his  line,  suppressed 
the  Shogun  and  reigned  as  supreme  constitutional  Emperor. 


2.  ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 

China. — The  architecture  is  a  faithful  index  of  the  civilization 
of  the  country,  which  seems  to  have  been  stationary  from  the 
earliest  times. 

Throughout  its  course,  the  architecture  appears  to  have  been 
subject  to  little  progress,  and  it  has  exerted  but  little  influence  on 
other  styles.  Bright  coloring  forms  an  important  part,  applied 
permanently  in  the  shape  of  glazed  tiles  or  majolica  work.  The 
architecture  of  China  and  Japan  is  pre-eminently  one  of  wood- 
cedar,  pine,  chesnut  or  bamboo— which  is  framed  up  to  receive 
the  sliding  screens  which  run  in  grooves  (No.  281). 

The  Pagodas,  or  towers,  in  receding  stories,  with  gaily- 
colored  curved  roofs  to  which  bells  were  attached,  and  adorned 


CHINESE   AND   JAPANESE   ARCHITECTURE.  639 

with  figures  in  high  relief  at  the  angles,  form  a  characteristic 
class  of  structure  (No.  280). 

No  distinction  is  made  between  civil  and  religious  architecture. 
In  China,  the  temple  is  only  a  better  kind  of  house,  provided 
with  an  altar. 

Japan.— The  Japanese  buildings  have  a  special  character  of 
minuteness,  both  in  architectural  features,  carving,  and  decoration, 
contrasting  forcibly  with  those  of  other  nations — as  Egypt  and 
Rome — in  which  the  great  idea  was  vastness  of  size  and  grandeur 
of  proportion. 

Japanese  buildings  have  a  quality  of  refinement  and  delicacy, 
and  their  wooden  constructions  are  framed  together  with  such 
artistic  skill  as  to  render  them  akin  to  joinery  (No.  283). 

Chinese  and  Japanese  architecture  is  especially  notable  for 
curved  sloping  roofs,  forming  a  contrast  with  that  of  Egypt  and 
India,  where  flat  terrace  roofs  predominate.  The  projecting  roofs 
supported  on  a  succession  of  small  brackets  form  a  most  striking 
feature,  being  ornamented  with  dragons  and  other  fabulous  animals. 

The  accessories  of  Japanese  Temple  architecture,  such  as  the 
gateways,  belfries  and  font  sheds,  form  an  important  setting  to  the 
main  structure,  as  do  also  the  quaintly  laid-out  gardens  with  their 
summer-houses,  rustic  arbours,  and  fishponds. 


3.  EXAMPLES. 

Temples  and  Monasteries. — The  Temples  of  Heaven  and 
Earth  (Agriculture)  (No.  281  D)  at  Pekin,  have  been  described 
by  the  late  Mr.  Simpson.  The  former  contains  two  altars  with 
sloping  roofs  in  stages,  and  is  placed  in  an  open  space,  one  mile 
square,  surrounded  by  a  triple  inclosure  in  which  are  the  priests' 
lodgings.  (For  normal  type  of  temple  see  page  646.) 

In  the  plains  of  China  such  buildings  are  usually  planned 
on  symmetrical  lines.  In  mountainous  Japan,  use  is  made  of 
steps  and  terraces,  wooded  backgrounds  and  long  rows  of  stone 
or  bronze  standard  lanterns  to  produce  a  picturesque  effect. 
Accessory  buildings,  suctras  pagodas,  a  stage  for  sacred  dances, 
and  storehouses,  are  grouped  around. 

Palaces. — In  the  past,  as  capital  succeeded  capital,  palaces 
for  the  Emperors  and  officials  have  been  erected.  Such  were 
often  of  great  extent.  The  Summer  Palace  at  Pekin  (destroyed 
1860),  of  which  a  Pavilion  is  shown  in  No.  281  F,  was  an  important 
example.  It  covered  twelve  square  miles  and  contained  some 
thirty  residences  for  the  Emperor  and  his  ministers,  among  these 
the  "Hall  of  Audience,"  120  feet  long,  42  feet  wide,  and  20  feet 
high,  formed  the  principal  apartment.  The  whole  group  was  set 
among  pleasure  gardens,  lakes  and  grottoes  on  a  magnificent  scale. 


CHINESE    ARCHITECTURE, 


280. 


SHANGHAI. 
A  typical  Chinese  Pagoda. 


F.A. 


T  T 


642  COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 

Pagodas,  derived  from  Indian  prototypes,  are  characteristic. 
They  vary  from  three  to  thirteen  stories  in  height,  a  usual 
number  being  nine  (No.  280).  They  are  constructed  in  various 
materials,  from  wood  to  cast  iron,  are  solid  or  hollow,  the  latter 
having  staircases  leading  to  each  floor  level.  Pagodas  had 
formerly  a  religious  significance,  but  those  erected  latterly  are 
secular  in  character,  sometimes  being  monuments  of  victory. 
They  are  usually  polygonal  in  plan,  thus  enabling  the  junctions 
of  the  roofs  in  each  story  to  be  elaborately  ornamented. 
The  Pagoda  at  Nankin  (destroyed  in  1856),  called  the  Porcelain 
Tower,  was  a  well-known  example  (No.  281  E).  It  was  an 
octagon  40  feet  in  diameter  and  200  feet  high.  The  eaves  of  the 
roofs  to  each  story  curled  upwards,  and  from  the  angles  bells, 
numbering  150,  were  hung.  It  was  built  of  brick,  coated  with 
colored  slabs  of  green  glazed  porcelain,  on  which  its  effect 
mainly  depended.  It  contained  about  2,000  images.  Pagodas 
are  distributed  in  considerable  numbers  over  the  country.  The 
Tung-chow  Pagoda  (a  thirteen-storied  example),  the  Tang-chow 
Pagoda  (a  nine-storied  example),  both  at  Pekin,  the  "  Flowery  " 
Pagoda,  Canton,  the  Hang-chow  Pagoda,  the  Sao-chou>  Pagoda 
(nine  stories),  and  others  at  Shanghai,  Ningpo,  and  Nankin,  are 
well-known.  A  good  example  is  in  Kew  Gardens,  and  there 
are  many  models  in  the  Indian  Museum,  South  Kensington. 

In  Japan  the  Pagodas  are  mostly  five-storied,  square  in  plan,  and 
about  150  feet  high;  they  are  attached  to  the  important  temples. 
The  lower  story  contains  the  images  and  shrines,  the  upper  ones 
serving  as  "belvederes."  They  were  introduced  with  Buddhism 
from  China,  but  those  now  standing  mostly  date  from  the 
seventeenth  century ;  the  upper  stories  have  projecting  roofs  with 
bracketed  cornices  supporting  bronze  bells. 

The  Pailoos  of  China  (No.  282)  are  a  common  feature,  and 
have  a  family  resemblance  to  the  Torans  of  India  as  the 
Sanchi  tope  (No.  266  A),  and  those  of  Japan.  They  were  erected 
as  memorial  arches  in  memory  of  deceased  persons,  generals, 
philosophers,  or  of  virtuous  widows.  They  are  constructed  of 
stone,  or  more  frequently  of  wood,  and  have  one  or  three  openings, 
formed  by  posts  supporting  horizontal  rails  bearing  an  inscription 
and  crowned  with  bold  projecting  roofs,  covered  with  gaily- 
colored  tiles. 

Bridges  are  important  structures  in  a  country  abounding  in 
rivers  and  canals.  The  greater  proportion  have  piers  supporting 
arches  formed,  not  of  radiating  voussoirs,  but  with  horizontal 
courses,  the  slabs  often  measuring  5  feet  in  length,  2  feet  wide, 
and  6  or  8  inches  in  thickness. 

Tombs,  in  consequence  of  the  great  reverence  for  the  dead, 
are  finished  with  care,  and  have  respect  paid  to  them.  They  are 
either  conical  mounds  cut  in  the  rock,  or  structural.  Those  of 


CHINESE  iAND  JAPANESE   EXAMPLES. 


•4NESEMME 
CUKSHflbEr, 


(THREETWE5  XALE 
DOTT5)  UNE5  5H9W  MflT5  6X3  WHICH  REGULfllt 


281. 


T    T    2 


CHINESE    AND    JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  645 

the  Ming  Dynasty  (A.D.  1368-1644),  to  the  North  of  Pekin,  are 
entered  through  triumphal  gateways  of  white  marble  and  an 
avenue,  a  mile  in  length,  of  large  monolithic  figures,  thirty-two 
in  number,  and  12  feet  in  height,  representing  camels,  horses, 
priests,  elephants,  lions,  and  griffins.  Each  of  the  thirteen  tombs 
consists  of  an  earthen  mound,  half-a-mile  in  circumference,  and 
supported  by  a  retaining  wall  20  feet  high,  and  seem  founded  on 
such  monuments  as  the  Sanchi  tope  in  India.  Family  tombs  are 
frequently  of  horseshoe  form  in  plan,  cut  into  the  hillside,  with 
mythical  animals  guarding  the  entrance. 

Houses  are  chiefly  of  wooden  or  glazed  porcelain  construction, 
formed  to  a  large  extent  of  moveable  partitions  which  slide  in 
framework.  There  is  generally  only  one  floor.  The  roofs  are 
of  steep  pitch,  with  boldly  projecting  eaves,  and  have  highly 
ornamented  ridges  of  colored  and  glazed  tiles  with  the  ends 
turned  up,  or  are  finished  with  grotesque  animals  or  fantastic 
ornaments.  The  framing  is  effected  in  bamboo  and  other  woods, 
and  is  frequently  painted  red,  green,  or  blue.  The  houses  owe 
much  of  their  character  to  their  environment,  being  placed  in 
gardens  arranged  to  suggest  some  natural  landscape,  with 
fountains,  artificial  rocks,  woodland  scenery,  lakes,  flower  beds, 
hanging  plants,  bridges  spanning  watercourses  and  stepping 
stones,  which  are  seen  in  the  models  at  the  Indian  Museum  at 
South  Kensington. 

Town  houses  of  any  importance  are  made  up  of  a  collection  of 
isolated  pavilions  surrounded  by  small  gardens.  Three  principal 
divisions  occur,  viz.,  (a)  The  vestibule  or  porter's  lodge,  giving  on 
to  the  street ;  (b)  the  audience  chamber  and  family  rooms ;  and 
(c)  the  kitchen  and  servants'  rooms  (No.  281  A). 

In  Japan  the  employment  of  wooden  houses  and  the  consequent 
fear  of  fire  has  had  much  influence  in  producing  the  detached 
character  which  some  of  the  larger  examples  possess.  In  the 
plan  of  a  middle-class  dwelling  (No.  281  j,  H),  the  general  arrange- 
ment is  shown.  In  such  an  example  the  walls  are  constructed  of 
slight  vertical  posts  and  horizontal  beams  covered  with  weather- 
boarding.  The  portion  giving  on  to  the  verandah  has  sliding 
shutters  between  the  posts.  The  internal  partitions  are  formed 
of  paper  slides,  6  feet  high,  with  plastered  or  wooden  frieze 
over. 

Tea  Houses  (No.  281  K)  are  characteristic  institutions, 
generally  of  wood  construction,  inclosed  by  thin  shutters  readily 
removed  during  the  summer.  They  usually  have  verandahs  and 
are  set -in  specially  designed  gardens. 

Engineering  Works.  —  Canals  and  bridges  have  been 
extensively  carried  out.  The  Great  Wall  (B.C.  214)  is  1,400 
miles  long,  20  to  30  feet  high,  and  25  feet  thick.  It  is  formed 
with  a  battered  face  and  carried  over  mountain  heights,  down 


646  COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

deep  gorges,  across  lofty  tablelands  and  rivers,  like  a  huge  snake 
turned  to  stone. 

Other  buildings  are  public  baths  (No.  281  L,  M),  restaurants, 
hotels,  and  theatres. 

Cities. — In  China  cities  are  of  four  classes,  and  are  mostly 
quadrilateral  or  circular,  with  moats  encircling  the  walls,  and 
principal  gates  facing  cardinal  points.  Pekin  is  a  triple  city :  the 
outer  is  the  Tartar  city  having  an  inclosing  wall  sixteen  miles  long, 
within  that  is  the  Imperial  city,  surrounded  by  a  wall  nine  miles 
long,  and  the  innermost  city  contains  the  Imperial  Palace  (No.  279). 
The  walls  surrounding  these  cities  are  of  immense  size  and  vary 
from  30  to  60  feet  wide  at  the  top. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plans. 

China. — The  normal  type  of  temple  consists  of  three  Buildings 
parallel  with  and  entered  through  each  other.  Such  are 
approached  by  massive  flights  of  steps,  gateways  and  bridges. 
The  larger  proportion  are  lofty  one-storied  buildings  with 
open-timbered  roofs. 

The  Buddhist  temples  resemble  those  of  India,  consisting  of 
successive  open  courts  and  porticos,  and  in  addition,  kitchens, 
refectories  and  sleeping  cells  for  the  priests. 

Japan. — The  Sintu  temples  are  distinguished  from  the  Buddhist 
by  having  in  front  a  "  toran  "  or  gateway  consisting  of  upright 
pillars  of  granite,  supporting  two  or  more  transverse  beams  in  the 
same  material.  It  is  considered  necessary  to  pass  under  such 
gateways  for  prayers  to  be  effectual. 

In  houses  the  sizes  of  all  living  rooms  are  regulated  by  the 
Japanese  mats  (tatami)  with  which  the  floors  are  covered ;  and 
which  always  measure  one  "ken  "  (six  feet)  by  one  "  half-  ken  " 
wide,  each  room  being  some  multiple  of  these  (No.  281  j,  M). 
The  Royal  mats  are  7  feet  by  3  feet  6  inches. 

The  houses  of  both  countries  owe  their  bright  and  cheerful  cha- 
racter chiefly  to  their  setting,  being  placed  in  gardens  with  hanging 
flowers,  fountains,  rockery,  and  flights  of  steps  (page  645). 

The  Pagodas  were  mostly  octagonal  on  plan. 

B.  Walls. 

China. — Stone  is  employed  for  more  important  edifices,  but 
ordinary  building  materials  are  brick  (used  principally  for  the  base 
of  walls)  and  wood.  Most  Chinese  buildings,  even  when  of  wood, 
are  raised  on  a  stone  platform  to  protect  the  building  from  damp. 
Brick  is  sometimes  finished  with  a  glazed,  colored  surface,  or  the 
walls  have  a  facing  of  glazed  tiles  or  majolica.  Walls  are  often  con- 
structed hollow,  as  described  by  Sir  William  Chambers,  thus  saving 
material  and  effecting  a  more  equable  temperature  in  the  houses. 


CHINESE    AND   JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  647 

The  "taas"  or  "pagodas"  are  of  brick,  covered  with  highly- 
colored  and  glazed  tiles  or  marble.  Such  structures  vary  from 
three  to  nine  stories,  each  being  reduced  in  height  and  provided 
with  projecting  roof  (Nos.  280,  281  E). 

The  verandah,  or  portico  on  wooden  columns,  is  characteristic 
of  the  style  and  a  special  feature  of  the  dwelling-houses. 

Japan. — Most  of  the  houses  are  of  wood-framing  and  card-board, 
which  is  safer  in  the  frequent  earthquakes  than  stone  or  brick. 

Temples  (No.  281  G)  have  walls  formed  of  timber  posts,  and  rails 
dividing  the  walls  into  regular  oblong  panels,  frequently  moveable. 
These  receive  either  plaster,  boarding,  or  carved  and  painted  panels. 
Light  is  introduced  principally  through  the  doorways. 

An  elaborate  system  of  cornice  bracketing  crowns  the  walls 
forming  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  Japanese 
buildings  (No.  283).  Immediately  above  the  pillars  a  highly 
decorated  frieze-like  space  occurs,  over  this  the  bracketing  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  projecting  wooden  corbels,  supporting  heavy 
horizontal  beams  and  rafters  with  decorated  faces,  the  total  pro- 
jection of  the  roof  beyond  the  wall  often  being  as  much  as  8  feet. 
The  disposition  of  the  pillars,  posts,  brackets  and  rafters  forming 
these  cornices  appears  to  be  according  to  well-known  modules  of 
measurement.  Compare  the  canons  laid  down  by  Vitruvius  and 
the  Renaissance  architects  of  Europe. 

Optical  illusions  are  sometimes  corrected  by  cambering  the 
underside  of  beams  (cf.  Greek  Architecture,  page  51). 

c.  Openings. 

China. — Windows  are  square- headed,  induced  by  the  rectangular 
framing  of  timber  posts,  or  lashing  together  of  bamboos.  They  are 
frequently  filled  in  with  the  lining  of  the  oyster  shell,  which  is  as 
transparent  as  talc,  and  admits  an  effective,  subdued  light.  Glass 
is  seldom  found  in  the  native  windows,  paper  being  often  used  as 
a  substitute. 

Doorways  are  of  similar  form  varied  in  outline  by  the  use  of 
fretted  pendants  from  the  horizontal  timbers. 

Japan. — Owing  to  the  great  projection  of  the  roofs  and  the 
lowness  of  the  openings,  direct  light  from  the  sky  is  seldom 
obtained,  the  light  of  the  interior  being  reflected  from  the  ground 
(No.  281  G).  The  windows  are  either  filled  in  with  trellis  work 
or  bars  on  the  outside,  and  with  wooden  shutters  and  paper  slides 
on  the  inside. 

In  connection  with  Temples  are  numerous  gateways,  one  or  two 
storied,  the  latter  having  muniment  rooms  over. 

D.  Roofs. 

China. — The  framing  is  of  open  timber  construction  (No.  283  p). 
Such  roofs  appear  to  be  supported  independently  of  the  inclosing 


CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE   ORNAMENT. 


GARDEN  TEWIE 


CHINESE    AND    JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  649 

walls,  being  erected  previously,  and  supported  on  wooden  posts 
(No.  281).  The  angles  are  usually  turned  up  sharply  and  orna- 
mented with  fantastic  dragon  ornaments  (Nos.  281  F  and  283  H,  j,  K). 
Such  a  form  shelters  the  house  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  while 
admitting  daylight,  and  throws  the  rain-water  clear  of  the  walls. 
The  ridges  have  elaborate  ornamental  cresting  (No.  283  R,  s). 

The  roofs  are  mainly  covered  with  enamelled  and  colored  tiles 
of  S  shape  (pan-tiles),  placed  in  beds  of  mortar,  which  is  also  used 
to  form  cover-joints  as  a  protection  from  the  action  of  driving 
winds. 

The  method  of  forming  the  trusses  supporting  the  tile  work  is 
by  a  system  of  rigid  rectangles  (not  triangles  as  in  Europe), 
formed  of  bamboos  held  together  by  wooden  tenons.  The  weight 
of  the  roof  acts  vertically,  no  oblique  thrust  coming  on  the  walls 
(No.  283  c). 

The  roof  is  the  principal  ornament  of  the  building  which  it 
shelters,  and  contrasts  very  strongly  with  the  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Renaissance  styles,  in  which  there  is  often  an  evident  endeavour 
to  hide  the  roof.  It  is  considered  a  sign  of  dignity  to  possess 
several  roofs  one  over  the  other,  which  serve  to  protect  the  interior 
of  the  house  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Some  derive  the  hollow  curved  form  of  roof  from  a  "  tent " 
origin ;  others,-  with  greater  reason,  think  the  form  resulted  from 
the  use  of  bamboos,  which  bend  when  weight  is  put  upon  them. 

The  connection  between  the  roof  and  the  pillars  which  sustain 
it  is  often  effected  by  brackets,  which  give  support  and  strength. 

The  soffits  are  usually  divided  into  square  or  octagonal  coffers 
by  means  of  raised  ribs  with  brass  socketings  at  their  intersection. 

Japan. — The  gable  ends  (No.  281  G)  often  have  cusped  barge- 
boards  with  carved  pendants.  A  curious  form  of  roof  is  pro- 
duced by  terminating  the  upper  portion  of  the  main  roof  in  a. 
gable  vertically  above  the  end  wall,  but  continuing  the  lower 
portion  round  the  ends  in  a  hipped  form,  thus  presenting  a  roof 
which  is  half  hip  and  half  gable  (No.  281  G).  The  covering  is 
usually  of  flat  and  roll  tiles  placed  alternately,  the  ridge  and  hip 
crestings  consisting  of  several  layers  of  tiles  in  mortar  crowned 
with  large  moulded  tile  capping  (No.  283  M,  N,  R,  s). 

E.  Columns. 

China. — The  lightness,  strength,  and  convenience  of  the  bamboo 
caused  it  to  be  used  in  preference  to  squared  timbers,  its  nature 
not  allowing  it  to  be  squared.  It  consists  of  a  hard  outer  casing 
of  great  strength  and  an  interior  of  pith  which  is  of  no  construc- 
tive value.  Such  a  wood  was  of  importance  in  influencing  a 
system  of  construction  (Nos.  281  A  and  283  A,  B,  c,  D)  quite 
different  from  the  framed  European  truss. 

The  slender  columns  often  consist  of  plain  circular  posts  with 


650  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE, 

moulded  base,  without  capital  of  any  kind,  but  provided  with 
bracketed  tops  of  various  design  (No.  283  A,  B,  G).  Such  a 
treatment  differentiates  Chinese  architecture  from  most  others, 
in  which  the  capital  forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  archi- 
tectural features,  giving  the  date  and  style  of  a  structure. 

Japan. — According  to  Mr.  J.  Conder,  the  intercolumniation  is 
regulated  by  a  standard  of  about  six  feet,  called  a  "  Ken,"  which 
is  divided  into  twenty  minutes,  each  minute  being  divided  into 
twenty-two  seconds. 

Pillars  are  square,  round,  or  octagonal ;  the  round  ones  being 
often  reeded  and  the  square  ones  panelled.  Sometimes  they  are 
inclined  inwards,  instead  of  being  vertical. 

F.  Mouldings. 

These  appear  to  be  little  used.  Their  place  was  taken  by  the 
colored  glazed  tiles,  projecting  ends  of  timber  rafters,  and  the 
like.  The  bases  to  columns  are  often  of  moulded  bronze,  consisting 
of  cyma  and  ovolo,  or  cavetto  and  ovolo  (No.  283). 

G.  Ornament. 

China. — The  ornament  faithfully  expresses  the  national  charac- 
teristic of  oddness.  All  Eastern  nations  appear  to  have  a  natural 
instinct  for  harmonizing  color,  and  to  this  the  Chinese  are  no 
exception. 

Colored  ornament  is  applied  to  the  buildings  in  the  form  of 
enamel  glazed  tiles,  painted  woodwork,  and  landscape  and  figure 
subjects.  It  is  in  the  minor  arts  that  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
excel,  in  their  silk  and  cotton  manufactures,  in  their  carvings  in 
wood  and  ivory,  and  their  vessels  of  porcelain. 

The  umbrella  is  an  old  symbol  of  dominion  and  power,  and 
the  triple  umbrella  is  one  of  the  most  important  insignia  of  the 
Emperor  of  China. 

Japan. — The  colored  and  carved  panels  forming  the  inclosing 
walls,  the  elaborately  formed  and  colored  projecting  eaves  to  the 
roofs,  and  the  ramma  or  pierced  ventilating  friezes  under  the 
cornices  are  characteristic.  In  these,  panels  in  high  relief 
frequently  occur,  representing  such  subjects  as  the  chrysanthe- 
mum and  jay,  or  the  stork  and  pine  tree. 

For  ornamental  purposes,  brass  caps,  usually  gilded  to  preserve 
them  from  corrosion,  and  incised  in  patterns,  are  fixed  to  the  ends 
of  projecting  timbers,  to  the  junctions  of  beams  and  pillars,  the 
bases  and  neckings  of  posts,  and  on  doors  to  hide  the  connection 
of  the  stiles  and  rails,  and  the  open  joints  due  to  shrinkage. 
Embossed  gilt  metal  work  is  also  liberally  applied  to  the  gable 
boards  and  pendants. 

Color  decoration,  introduced,  it  is  said,  from  China  in  the  sixth 
century,  is  very  generally  applied  to  the  inside  and  outside  of 


CHINESE    AND   JAPANESE    ARCHITECTURE.  651 

Japanese  Temples.  The  beams,  brackets,  carvings  and  flat  spaces 
are  picked  out  in  bright  coloring  and  gilding,  the  colors  being 
blue,  green,  brown,  purple,  madder,  and  vermilion.  The  wall 
paintings  are  generally  on  a  gold  ground,  and  represent  animals, 
birds  and  flowers.  Supporting  pillars  are  usually  black,  red,  or  gold. 

Among  subjects  for  decoration,  birds  of  bright  plumage — as 
cranes,  peacocks,  pheasants,  ducks — flowers,  water-plants,  trees, 
bamboos  and  lions  are  the  most  frequent,  combined  with  weird 
and  grotesque  demons  derived  from  earlier  Indian  sources,  and 
resulting  in  a  curious  mixture  of  conventional  and  realistic  forms. 

The  Japanese  are  also  renowned  in  pottery,  lacquer  ware, 
ivory  carving  and  inlaying. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Allom  (T.).— "The  Chinese  Empire."  Illustrated.  2  vols.,  8vo.  1858- 
1859. 

Chamberlain  (B.  H.).  —  "Things  Japanese."     8vo.     1890. 

Chambers  (Sir  W.). — "  Designs  of  Chinese  Buildings."     Folio.     1757. 

Conder  (J.). — "  Notes  on  Japanese  Architecture.''  (R.  I.  B.  A.  Trans.) 
1886-1887. 

Dresser  (C.). — "Japan  :  its  Architecture,  Art,  and  Art  Manufactures." 
1882. 

Edkins  (J.). — "  Chinese  Architecture."     8vo.     Shanghai,  1890. 

Gonse  (L.). — "  L'Art  Japonais."     8vo.     Paris. 

Grattan  (F.  M.).— "  Notes  upon  the  Architecture  of  China."  (R.  I.  B.  A. 
Trans.)  1894. 

Humbert  (A.). — "  Le  Japon  IllustreV'    2  vols.,  folio.     Paris,  1870. 

Morse  (E.  S.). — "Japanese  Homes  and  their  Surroundings."  8vo. 
Boston,  U.S.A.  1886. 

Owen  Jones. — "  Examples  of  Chinese  Ornament."     Folio.     1867. 

Paleologue  (M.).— "L'Art  Chinois."     8vo.     Paris,  1887. 


ANCIENT  AMERICAN 
ARCHITECTURE. 


THE  architecture  of  Central  America  is  so  unimportant  in  its 
general  aspect  that  a  few  words  will  suffice  to  explain  its 
character. 

In  Mexico  an  Aztec  architecture  from  the  twelfth  century  A.D. 
to  the  Spanish  conquest  in  the  sixteenth  century  existed  quite 
apart  from  and  uninfluenced  by  all  other  styles,  yet  bearing  a 
general  resemblance  to  some  of  them. 

The  temples  had  a  base  like  an  Egyptian  pyramid,  but  were 
flat-topped,  the  summit  being  reached  by  flights  of  steps  on  all 
sides,  or  they  were  formed  as  storied  terraces.  On  the  top  was 
the  temple  proper  with  a  sloping  roof.  Examples  exist  at  Cholula 
near  Mexico,  at  Palenque  in  Yucatan,  and  elsewhere. 

The  Palaces,  as  at  Zayi  and  Uxmal,  appear  to  have  derived 
their  features  and  ornament  from  timber  originals,  rising  in 
receding  terraces  and  roofed  with  slabs  of  stone  forming 
horizontal  arches  as  in  early  Greek  work  at  Mycenae  (No.  15). 

In  Peru,  dating  from  the  tenth  century,  are  remains  of  flat- 
roofed  buildings  erected  by  the  Incas,  probably  derived  from  mud 
originals,  and  executed  in  polygonal  blocks  of  Cyclopean  masonry 
of  regular  courses,  similar  to  early  Etruscan  work  (page  119). 


REFERENCE   BOOKS. 

Catherwood.— "  Views  of  Ancient  Monuments  in  Central  America. 
Chiapas  and  Yucatan."  Folio.  1844. 

Charnay  (D.).— "  The  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World."     8vo.     1887. 

Kingsborough  (Lord).— "The  Antiquities  of  Mexico.'1 

Penafiel  (A.).—"  Monumentos  del  Arte  Mexicano  Antiguo."  3  vols., 
folio.  Berlin,  1890. 

Prescott.— "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Stephens  (J.  L.).— "  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan."  2  vols.  New 
York,  1858. 

Stuebel  (A.)  and  Uhle.— "  Die  Ruinenstaette  von  Tiahuanaco  in  Hoch 
lande  des  Alten  Peru."  Folio.  Breslau,  1892. 


284. 


SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

'•  That  haze  which  seems 
•     Floating  about  the  panel,  if  there  gleams 
A  sunbeam  over  it,  will  turn  to  gold, 
And  in  light  graven  characters  unfold 
The  Arab's  wisdom  everywhere  ;  what  shade 
Marr'd  them  a  moment,  those  slim  pillars  made, 
Cut  like  a  company  of  palms  to  prop 
The  roof,  each  kissing  top  entwined  with  top 
Leaning  together.  "—BROWNING. 


i.  INFLUENCES. 

i.  Geographical. — The  extent  of  the  countries  brought  under 
the  influence  of  the  Mahometan  religion  is  indicated  in  the  map 
(No.  284).  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  North 
Africa  and  Spain  were  in  turn  wholly  or  in  part  subjected. 
India  boasts,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ganges,  a  succession  of 
Mahometan  capitals  due  to  the  waves  of  invasion  bursting  through 
the  north-west  frontier. 

Saracenic  architecture  differs  from  many  other  styles  in  being 
the  product  of  a  religion  which  had  no  special  country.  Differing 
widely  in  general  treatment  and  in  detail,  the  style  was  imposed 
on  each  country  brought  under  its  influence.  The  term  Saracen 
was  that  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  the  tribes 


654  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

occupying  the  deserts  west  of  the  Euphrates.  Its  exact  origin 
appears  to  be  unknown,  but  it  is  generally  taken  as  being  derived 
from  the  Arabic  "  Sahra,"  a  desert.  The  name  was  given  to  the 
followers  of  Mahomet,  and  is  so  used  throughout  this  chapter 
irrespective  of  nationality. 

ii.  Geological. — As  the  geological  formation  differed  in  each 
country,  local  materials  and  methods  of  building  were  employed, 
and  marble,  stone,  brick,  plaster  and  wood  were  all  employed. 
Domes  were  frequently  constructed  of  brick  plastered  externally 
and  internally,  or  of  stone,  as  in  India.  They  were  generally 
built  in  projecting  horizontal  courses,  thus  avoiding  oblique 
pressure  on  the  supporting  walls. 

In  Spain,  brick  and  plaster  were  the  principal  materials 
responsible  for  the  peculiar  decorative  surface  treatment.  In 
Northern  and  Central  India,  marble  and  red  sandstone  were 
available,  and '  a  more  monumental  type  was  evolved,  richness 
in  surface  decoration  being  obtained  by  the  inlay  of  precious 
stones. 

iii.  Climate.  —  The  buildings,  being  for  the  most  part  in 
Eastern  or  Southern  climes,  have  small  openings,  and  no  large 
entrances  or  window  surfaces,  although  a  special  treatment  of 
monumental  entrance  gateways  was  evolved  in  India  (Nos. 
294  B,  E,  295  and  297).  Such  features  are  always  subservient  to 
practical  necessity  and  to  climatic  influences. 

iv.  Religion. — The  essence  of  the  Mahometan  faith — the  last 
of  the  three  great  religions  which  have  arisen  from  among  the 
Semitic  nations— is  contained  in  the  words  from  the  Koran, 
"  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mahomet  is  His  prophet." 
The  Koran  was  compiled  by  Mahomet  (born  A.D.  570,  died  632), 
from  the  Bible,  Talmud,  Apocryphal  Gospels,  and  other  sources. 
Most  of  the  states  which  embraced  Mahometanism  became 
independent,  and  only  yielded  nominal  obedience  to  the  Chief 
Caliph  ;  thus  in  Syria,  Persia,  Egypt,  North  Africa  and  Spain, 
independent  Caliphs  reigned,  accentuating  the  differences  of 
style.  The  prohibition  in  decoration  and  sculpture  of  the  use 
of  all  natural  objects,  including  the  human  and  animal  forms, 
probably  led  to  the  intricate  form  of  geometrical  surface  decora- 
tion known  as  Arabesques,  partly  influenced  by  Byzantine  art 
(Nos.  290  and  291). 

The  Arab  was  a  fatalist  (Islam  =  God's  will  be  done),  to 
whom  the  present  was  everything,  and  such  a  condition  often 
helped  to  the  erection  of  buildings,  not  permanent  in  themselves, 
but  decorated  with  pleasing  forms  and  colors  with  poor  materials, 
such  as  plaster.  Local  conditions  and  variety  of  temperament, 
however,  affected  such  treatment,  for  in  India  and  Egypt  tomb 
houses  of  a  permanent  nature  were  constructed. 

Such  tomb  houses,  as  the  Taj  Mehal  at  Agra  (Nos.  294  A,  B,  c, 


SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE.  655 

and  297),  formed  pleasure  houses  during  the  life  of  the  founder. 
The  Moslems  separate  the  sexes,  and  for  royal  personages 
separate  tomb  houses  were  often  designed. 

v.  Social  and  Political. — The  war  of  conquest  by  which 
Islam  was  .to  subjugate  the  world  bears  an  important  relation  to 
the  evolution  of  the  style,  and  is  outlined  in  the  next  section. 

Each  Caliph  being  a  spiritual  and  temporal  ruler,  a  junction  of 
church  and  state  was  effected,  which  was  responsible  for  the 
many  religious  buildings  erected,  and  for  the  power  wielded  by 
each  Caliph  for  perpetuating  his  memory.  Architecture  was 
also  continually  receiving  an  impetus  by  the  building  of  new 
capitals,  consequent  on  the  change  of  dynasties.  The  position  of 
women  in  the  social  system  influenced  the  planning  and  design  of 
palaces  and  houses,  in  consequence  of  the  isolation  of  the  harem. 
In  towns,  such  influence  was  responsible  for  the  elaborate  and 
intricate  lattice  decoration  of  the  windows,  which  prevented  the 
women  within  from  seeing  or  being  seen. 

In  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments"  are  described  the 
Mahometan  religion,  customs  and  general  Eastern  life,  which  the 
student  will  find  interesting  and  instructive. 

vi.  Historical.  —  Saracenic  chronology  dates  from  the 
"Hejira"  or  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina  in 
A.D.  622. 

After  the  first  four  Caliphs,  who  were  friends  or  kinsmen  of 
Mahomet,  came  the  dynasty  of  the  "  Ommiads "  reigning  at 
Damascus.  They  were  overthrown  in  750  by  the  descendants 
of  Abbas,  the  uncle  of  Mahomet,  who  founded  the  "  Abbasides  " 
dynasty  with  Bagdad  as  the  capital. 

Syria  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  A.D.  632-639. 

Egypt  fell  in  638.  The  foundation  of  Cairo  by  the  Fatimite 
dynasty  dates  from  A.D.  971.  Saladin,  however,  reconquered 
Egypt  to  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad  in  1171,  and  in  1187  drove  the 
Christians  from  Jerusalem. 

North  Africa  was  brought  under  subjection  between  the  years 
A.D.  647-709,  Carthage  being  taken  in  698. 

Spain  was  overrun  by  the  Moors  in  A.D.  710-713,  and  the 
independent  Caliphate  of  Cordova  was  established.  This  was 
divided  later  into  the  four  petty  kingdoms  of  Seville,  Granada, 
Toledo  and  Valentia,  all  of  which  were  gradually  recovered  by 
the  Christians  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  The 
fall  of  Granada  in  1492  marks  the  end  of  the  Moorish  rule 
in  Spain. 

Sicily  was  occupied  by  the  Moors  in  the  eighth  century ;  they 
grafted  their  style  on  to  the  Christian  architecture.  Sicily  was 
recaptured  by  the  Christians  in  1090. 

Persia  was  conquered  from  A.D.  632-651.  The  Saracenic 
architecture  of  that  country  was  then  largely  founded  on  and 


656  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

influenced  by  the  architecture  of  the  Sassanian  empire  (A.D. 
226-641),  which  it  transplanted.  In  the  time  of  Haroun-el- 
Raschid  (786-809),  Bagdad,  the  capital  of  the  Abbasides  dynasty, 
was  the  centre  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Omar  Khayyam  (1075-1 125)  was  the  Astronomer- Poet  of  Persia. 

Turkey. — Constantinople  was  conquered  in  A.D.  1453  by  the 
Seljuk  Turks,  who  in  1299  had  commenced  their  conquering 
career  under  Osman  I.  in  Bithynia.  This  marks  the  period 
of  Byzantine  influence  on  later  Saracenic  architecture,  for 
S.  Sophia,  the  great  Byzantine  cathedral,  is  henceforth  the 
motif  of  the  style. 

The  Indian  States  began  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Mahometan 
invaders  in  A.D.  1000.  The  Pathan  dynasty  (1193-1554)  included 
the  whole  of  North  India.  There  were  besides  several  inde- 
pendent kingdoms  with  capitals  at  Jaunpore,  Gujerat,  Malwa, 
Bengal,  Kalbergah,  Bijapur,  Golconda  and  others. 

The  Mogul  Empire  (1526-1857)  was  founded  by  Babar,  who 
consolidated  the  Moslem  Empire  by  the  gradual  absorption  of  the 
petty  kingdoms.  To  this  dynasty,  especially  at  the  capitals, 
Delhi,  and  Futtehpore  Sikri,  and  Agra,  belong  the  best  known 
examples.  Akbar  the  Great  (1556-1605)  removed  the  capital 
from  Delhi  to  Agra,  and  afterwards  founded  Futtehpore  Sikri  as 
the  capital  of  the  empire. 

Shah  Jahan  (1628-1658)  raised  the  Mogul  Empire  to  its 
highest  strength  and  magnificence.  He  erected  buildings  in  North 
India,  forming  splendid  memorials  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  as  the 
"Taj  Mehal"  and  the  "Pearl  Mosque"  at  Agra,  the  "Great 
Mosque  "  and  Palace  at  Delhi,  the  latter  celebrated  for  its  "  Dewan 
Khas,"  or  court  of  audience. 

From  1720-1761  the  Mogul  Empire  was  declining.  Invaders 
came  from  Central  Asia,  and  others  (French  and  English)  from 
the  south.  Titular  emperors  only,  ruled  from  this  period. 

For  a  chronological  summary  of  the  dynasties,  Sir  W. 
Hunter's  book  should  be  consulted. 

2.  ARCHITECTURAL  CHARACTER. 

It  is  difficult  to  express  the  character  which  the  style  posseses, 
because  of  the  varied  nature  it  took  in  countries  whose  inhabitants 
differed  widely  in  origin,  and  whose  local  types  of  architecture 
influenced  that  of  the  new  religion. 

Mosques,  tombs  and  dwelling-houses  form  the  most  important 
buildings.  The  mosques  were  undoubtedly  more  internal  than 
external  in  their  architecture,  thus  resembling  the  Egyptian 
temples.  Within  the  inclosing  wall  the  forest  of  columns  and  the 
low  flat  roofs  in  the  earlier  mosques,  and  the  richly  decorated  wall 
surfaces  and  domes  of  the  later  periods,  have  especial  character. 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  657 

On  the  exterior  the  pointed  or  bulbous  (pear-shaped)  domes 
crowning  the  main  structures,  and  the  graceful,  tall  and  elaborately 
decorated  minarets  (signal-post  or  light-house),  used  by  the  priests 
to  call  the  faithful  to  prayer,  impress  the  beholder  very  differently 
to  any  style  already  considered.  The  same  importance  of 
internal  treatment  applies  to  dwelling-houses  which  are  plain 
outside,  but  have  the  ornamentation  lavished  on  the  porticos, 
walls,  and  pavements,  of  the  interior.  The  architecture  hardly 
ra.nks  among  those  great  styles  which  have  been  evolved  on  con- 
structive principles,  for  it  is  from  the  decorative  side  that  it  is 
specially  impressive.  The  surface  decoration  is  important,  and 
must  have  been  largely  due  to  the  prohibition  of  natural  forms 
laid  down  in  the  Koran.  The  pointed,  horseshoe,  multifoil,  and 
ogee  arches  are  all  used  (No.  291). 

The  introduction  of  vaulting  into  Egypt  dates  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Fatimite  dynasty  and  the  foundation  of  the  city 
of  Cairo  (A.D.  971). 

The  use  of  "  stalactite"  vaulting  was  first  applied  in  a  similar 
position  to  the  "  pendentive  "  which  the  Byzantines  introduced 
(Nos.  79,  80,  82).  Its  origin  was  probably  derived  from  the 
corbelling  over  of  slabs  of  stone  to  form  a  resting-place  for  the 
circular  dome  over  a  square  plan.  The  ornament  was  eventually 
used  for  the  bracketing  of  minaret  galleries,  the  upper  part  of 
niches,  the  crowning  member  of  walls,  and  elsewhere. 

Note. — For  the  disposition  of  the  essential  parts  of  a  mosque 
and  the  name  given  to  each,  see  under  Plans  (page  678). 

3.  EXAMPLES. 

a.  Arabian.  e.  Persian. 

b.  Syrian.  /.  Turkish. 

c.  Egyptian.  g.  Indian. 

d.  Spanish. 

(a.)  ARABIAN    SARACENIC. 

Although  Arabia  was  the  birthplace  of  the  new  faith,  neither 
Mecca  nor  Medina  can  boast  of  any  noteworthy  buildings.  ^  The 
Arabs  were  only  required  to  turn  towards  Mecca  at  prayer  times, 
which  was  as  easy  in  the  desert  as  in  a  building,  and  the  erection 
of  mosques  appears  to  have  been  immaterial. 

At  Mecca,  however,  is  the  Great  Mosque,  repaired  and  added 
to  by  successive  Egyptian  Caliphs,  and  finally  by  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  now  existing, 
it  is  an  irregular  shaped  inclosure  internally,  570  feet  by  380  feet, 
surrounded  by  arcades  of  pointed  arches,  with  an  outer  inclosing 
wall  having  gateways  and  minarets.  In  the  centre  of  the  inclosure 

u  u 


F.A. 


SARACENIC  (EGYPTIAN)  ARCHITECTURE. 


V ' 


,285.  MOSQUE  OF  KAIT-BEY,  CAIRO. 

Showing  Minaret  and  typical  form  of  Dome  with  Surface 
Ornament. 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  659 

is  the  Kaabeh  or  holy  shrine,  to  which  all  other  mosques  must, 
by  the  Kibleh  in  the  Mihrab  (niche),  indicate  the  direction. 


(b.)  SYRIAN    SARACENIC. 

In   Syria  three  important   buildings  only  need  be  mentioned. 

The  Mosque-el- Aksah  (A.D.  691),  on  the  Temple  platform  at 
Jerusalem,  consists  of  a  3-aisled  basilica,  to  which  were  added 
double  aisles  on  both  sides. 

The  Mosque-el-Walid  (A.D.  705)  is  a  3-aisled  structure  placed 
laterally  on  one  side  of  an  open  space. 

The  Dome  of  the  Rock  (known  as  the  Mosque  of  Omar), 
on  the  Temple  platform  of  Jerusalem,  was  built  in  the  eighth 
century,  Saladin  (1189)  rebuilt  the  dome,  and  it  was  restored  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  plan  it  consists  of  a  central  circular 
space  crowned  with  a  dome,  pierced  with  windows.  This  space 
is  surrounded  by  four  massive  piers,  with  intermediate  columns  of 
Corinthian  type  brought  from  older  buildings.  These  support  an 
entablature  on  which  are  placed  semi-circular  arches.  The  central 
portion  is  surrounded  by  two  aisles,  octagonal  in  plan.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  interior  was  encased  with  marble,  and  the 
exterior  with  colored  Persian  tiles  and  marble. 


(c.)  EGYPTIAN    SARACENIC. 

The  principal  examples  are  at  Cairo.  One  of  the  earliest 
buildings  is  the  Mosque  of  Amru  (seventh  century),  built  by 
the  Caliphs  Abd-el-Melik  and  Walid.  It  consists  of  a  central 
open  space,  surrounded  by  rows  of  columns,  taken  from  Roman 
and  Byzantine  buildings,  and  supporting  arches,  at  right  angles  to 
the  Mihrab  wall. 

The  Mosque  of  Ibn  Tooloon  (A.D.  879)  (No.  286  A,  B)  is  on 
similar  lines,  but  with  piers  and  angle  shafts  instead  of  columns. 
These  support  pointed  arches,  square  in  section.  The  construction 
is  of  brick  with  plaster  surface.  The  windows  are  entirely  filled 
in  with  geometrical  tracery,  and  the  minarets  are  reckoned  the 
earliest  in  Egypt. 

At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  series  of  mosques  was 
commenced  which  corresponds  in  date  with  the  Gothic  development 
in  Europe.  The  first  of  the  series  is  the  Mosque  of  Kalaoon 
(A.D.  1287).  This  was  followed  by  the  Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan 
(A.D.  1356),  which  differs  from  the  normal  type,  being  cruciform  in 
plan  (No.  286  c,  D).  The  central  space  measures  117  feet  by 
105  feet,  off  which  are  four  rectangular  arms  covered  with  pointed 
tunnel  vaults.  The  southern  arm  contains  the  Mihrab,  and 
beyond  is  the  Founder's  Tomb,  about  70  feet  square  on  plan, 

u  u  2 


SARACENIC  EXAMPLES  IN  SPAIN  AND  EGYPT. 

TO^11  <fl/ftM*.ffWBl  50ILE5  ff.7.ft...9  100 

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EXTERtlflL  MCflDE  Hfl5  5W 
OF  WIHOOW3  ONE  WYE 


286. 


SARACENIC    (EGYPTIAN)    ARCHITECTURE. 


287.     i-  -'  CAIRO. 

The  Mosque  of  Kait-Bey,  showing  Mihrab  (Niche) 
and  Mimbar  (Pulpit). 


SARACENIC  (SPANISH)  ARCHITECTURE. 


288. 


CORDOVA. 

Interior  of  Mosque,  showing  peculiar  form  of  Colonnades 
in  two  heights. 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  663 

with  a  dome  supported  on  stalactite  pendentives.  On  either  side 
are  minarets  (No.  286  c),  one  being  300  feet  in  height.  Externally 
the  mosque  is  surrounded  by  walls  crowned  by  a  massive  cornice, 
and  divided  into  nine  stories,  having  a  total  height  of  100  feet. 

The  Mosque  of  Sultan  Barkook  (A.D.  1384)  is  famous  for 
its  graceful  dome  over  the  tomb  chamber,  and  for  its  minarets. 
In  the  following  century  the  columned  Mosque  El-Muayyad 
(1415),  and  the  small  yet  richly  finished  Mosque  of  Kait-Bey 
(1472)  (Nos.  285  and  287),  with  elaborate  minaret,  are  the  best 
known.  After  this  period  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance 
movement  in  Europe  (page  437)  arrested  the  local  character  of 
Saracenic  Architecture. 

(d.)  SPANISH    SARACENIC. 

Algiers,  Tunis,  Barbary,  Tripoli  and  Morocco  in  North  Africa 
formed  connecting  links  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
development  of  the  style,  but  these  districts  have  been  only 
scantily  investigated. 

After  the  Moorish  conquest  of  the  Peninsula  in  the  eighth 
century,  a  series  of  buildings  was  erected  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  Basilicas  (page  178),  extended  in  width  by  numerous 
parallel  arcades.  In  these,  the  dome  on  pendentives  is  generally 
absent,  and  there  is  considerable  ingenuity  in  geometrical  design  and 
colored  decoration.  Roman  remains  influenced  the  development. 

The  Mosque,  Cordova  (A.D.  786)  was  commenced  by  the 
Caliph  Abd-el-Rahman,  and  has  since  been  enlarged,  eastwards 
and  southwards,  by  successive  rulers,  until  it  consists  of  a  paral- 
lelogram 422  feet  by  573  feet.  The  enclosed  portion  itself  occupies 
more  area  than  any  Christian  Cathedral,  consisting  of  nineteen 
aisles  placed  North  and  South,  with  thirty-three  bays  to  each  aisle. 
The  height  is  only  30  feet.  The  colonnades  are  in  two  heights 
(No.  288),  formed  of  columns  of  varying  design,  mostly  from  older 
Roman  buildings.  From  the  upper  and  lower  columns  spring 
arches,  the  lower  ones  of  circular  cinquefoil  pattern,  and  the 
upper  of  horseshoe  form,  the  alternate  lower  columns  being 
made  to  appear  connected  by  a  subsidiary  treatment  of  the  lower 
arches  (No.  288). 

The  Churches  of  S.  Cristo  de  la  Luz  and  S.  Maria  la 
Bianca,  both  at  Toledo,  are  interesting  because  of  their  Saracenic 
features  and  detail. 

The  Alcazar  (el  Kasr  =  the  castle),  Seville,  dating  chiefly  from 
1350-69,  is  much  dilapidated,  but  still  possesses  some  interesting 
remains  as  the  principal  fa9ade  and  Patio  de  las  Doncellas. 

The  Giralda,  Seville  (A.D.  1195),  so  called  from  the  vane 
which  turns  ("gira  "),  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  towers  in  the 
world.  The  upper  part  was  burnt  and  rebuilt  in  A.D.  1395.  It 


SARACENIC  (SPANISH)  ARCHITECTURE 


289. 


THE  GIRALDA,  SEVILLE. 


SARACENIC  (SPANISH)  ARCHITECTURE. 


290. 


THE  ALHAMBRA  AT  GRANADA. 
Stalactite  Capital,  from  Courtyard. 


SARACENIC  ORNAMENT  IN  SPAIN  AND  EGYPT. 


®< =  c    1*-'   ••- *s       i 


W//J 

UUU 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  667 

resembles  (No.  289)  other  examples  in  Morocco  and  Tunis,  and 
was  probably  erected  as  a  symbol  of  power.  It  is  45  feet  square, 
and  rises  to  a  height  of  185  feet,  being  terminated  by.  a  belfry 
erected  in  1568,  making  the  total  height  275  feet.  As  seen  by 
the  illustration,  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  is  panelled  with 
geometric  ornament. 

The  Alhambra,  Granada  (A.D.  1309-1354),  a  portion  of  a 
royal  palace,  and  probably  the  most  famous  of  all  Saracenic  struc- 
tures, was  practically  rebuilt  in  1309-1354  by  Abd-el-Walid  and 
his  successors.  The  plan  (No.  286  E)  consists  mainly  of  two 
oblong  courts,  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The  first  of  these, 
the  "Court  of  the  Lions,"  115  feet  by  66  feet,  is  the  most 
elaborate.  The  pillars  are  alternately  single  and  coupled 
(No.  286  F)  and  crowned  with  capitals  peculiar  to  the  Alhambra 
(Nos.  290  and  291  A,  c).  The  arcading  is  of  wood,  covered  with 
richly-stuccoed  decoration  (No.  290).  A  copy  of  this  court,  two- 
thirds  the  size,  was  erected  in  1854  at  the  Crystal  Palace  by  the 
late  Mr.  Owen  Jones. 

The  "  Hall  of  Judgment "  (No.  286  E)  is  at  its  Eastern  end,  and 
on  either  side  are  the  small  halls  of  the  "  Two  Sisters  "  and  of 
the  "  Abencerrages,"  with  roofs  covered  with  stalactite  decoration. 
The  other  main  court,  known  as  the  "  Court  of  the  Alberca,"  rias 
its  longer  axis  placed  North  and  South,  and  is  138  feet  by  74  feet. 
On  the  South  is  a  two-storied  arcade,  and  to  the  North  is  the 
"Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,'1  35  feet  square,  with  deeply-recessed 
windows  on  three  sides  giving  views  of  the  town  beneath. 
This  hall  is  crowned  by  a  polygonal  dome  with  arabesque 
decorations. 

The  Alhambra  forms  a  series  of  apartments,  halls,  and  courts, 
framed  in  a  setting  of  arcades,  fountains,  and  gardens,  whose 
subtle  effect  it  is  difficult  to  analyse.  The  richly  modelled  geome- 
tric plaster  decoration,  brilliantly  painted  and  gilded,  has  probably 
never  been  surpassed. 

"i    -,  " 

(f.)  PERSIAN    SARACENIC. 

The  architecture  evolved  by  the  Saracens  in  Persia  was  largely 
founded  on  that  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  (see  Historical),  the 
remains  of  which  are  chiefly  palaces.  The  fire  worship  of  the 
people  required  no  temples,  but  the  palaces  indicate  the  influence 
of  the  older  Assyrian  and  Persian  architecture.  In  these  Sas- 
sanian buildings,  e.g.,  the  Palaces  at  Serbistan  (A.D.  350), 
Firouzabad  (A.D.  450),  and  Ctesiphon  (A.D.  550),  constructive 
skill  is  shown,  the  lower  courses  of  the  vaults  and  domes  being 
built  in  horizontal  layers,  to  avoid  the  oblique  pressure  which 
would  occur  with  radiating  voussoirs.  The  remains  ot 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  669 

Palace  at  Mashita  (A.D.  627)  are  considered  by  Mr.  Fergusson 
to  show  a  prototype  of  Persian  and  Indian  Saracenic  work. 
Under  the  Abbasides  dynasty,  Haroun-al-Raschid  (786-809) 
erected  several  important  buildings  at  Bagdad.  The  ruins  of 
these  tombs  are  sometimes  taken  to  indicate  the  source  of  the 
stalactite  vault. 

The  Mosque,  Tabreez  (A.D.  1204)  is  a  domical  structure, 
with  impressive  entrance  and  a  decoration  of  colored  glazed 
brick  in  intricate  patterns. 

The  Tomb  at  Sultanieh  (A.D.  1303-1316)  is  an  octagonal 
structure,  crowned  by  a  pointed  dome  80  feet  in  diameter. 

The  great  Mosque,  Ispahan,  by  Shah  Abbas  the  Great 
(1585-1629),  has  a  large  open  courtyard  surrounded  by  two- 
storied  arcades.  Special  features  are  the  immense  pointed 
portal  arches,  the  bulbous  dome,  and  the  round  minaret,  while 
permanent  decorative  effect  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  many- 
colored  glazed  bricks  and  tiles,  the  treatment  of  blue  being 
particularly  successful,  recalling  the  palaces  of  Nineveh  and 
Persepolis. 

(/.)  TURKISH    SARACENIC. 

On  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453  by  the  Seljuk  Turks, 
a  type  of  architecture  based  on  Byzantine  structure,  such  as 
S.  Sophia,  was  evolved.  In  these  are  to  be  found  spherical 
domes,  plain  pendentives,  semi-circular  apses  crowned  with  semi- 
domes,  and  the  strong  supporting  buttresses  such  as  exist  in 
S.  Sophia.  In  consequence  there  is  an  absence  of  the  flat  ceilings 
and  columned  courts  of  other  types. 

The  "  Suleimaniyeh,"  or  Mosque  of  Suleiman  I.,  "The 
Magnificent"  (A.D.  1550-1556)  (No.  292),  was  erected  by  Sinan 
the  architect.  It  has  a  forecourt  nearly  200  feet  in  width, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  cloister  roofed  with  small  domes. 
In  the  centre  of  the  forecourt  is  the  usual  fountain,  and  at  the 
four  corners  are  minarets. 

The  main  structure  resembles  S.  Sophia,  but  is  of  smaller 
dimensions,  the  dome  having  a  diameter  of  86  feet  with  a  height 
of  156  feet.  The  gallery  over  the  aisles  is  reached  by  two  flights 
of  circular  steps.  Internally  the  walls  are  covered  with  colored 
marbles,  the  mihrab  being  white,  with  a  frame  of  colored  Persian 
tiles.  The  decoration  is  effected  by  inscriptions  from  the  Koran. 
The  garden  behind  the  mosque  contains  two  octagonal  tombs, 
that  of  the  founder  and  his  favourite  wife.  The  former  is  built 
of  many-colored  marbles  lined  internally  with  blue  and  white 
tiles,  surrounded  by  an  arcade,  and  crowned  with  a  dome  decorated 
with  arabesques  and  supported  on  eight  marble  columns. 

The  "Ahmediyeh"  (Mosque  of  Ahmed  I.)  (A.D.  1608-1614), 
differs  in  being  an  exact  square  on  plan.  The  central  dome  is 


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SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  671 

supported  on  massive  circular  pillars  and  is  surrounded  by  semi- 
domes,  and  in  the  four  angles,  bringing  the  plan  to  a  square,  are 
smaller  domes.  Blue  tiles  form  a  special  feature  of  the  interior. 
There  are  six  minarets,  marking  the  boundaries  of  the  mosque 
and  forecourt. 

The  fountains  at  Constantinople  and  other  Eastern  cities  are 
special  features  of  interest  (No.  293).  They  have  a  niche  on  each 
face  and  wide-spreading  eaves  to  the  roof.  The  water  tank, 
inclosed  by  a  grating  or  grille,  from  which  the  metal  cups  are 
filled,  occupies  a  central  position.  The  exterior  is  often  faced  with 
marble  or  ornamented  in  plaster  or  glazed  tiles,  having  arabesques 
and  inscriptions  in  gold  letters  on  blue  and  green  grounds. 

(£.)  INDIAN    SARACENIC. 

As  already  mentioned  (page  610),  Indian  Saracenic  must  have 
been  influenced  by  the  remains  of  the  Sassanian  Empire  (A.D.  226- 
641).  The  various  dynasties,  with  their  dates,  have  been  given 
under  Historical  (page  656).  These  periods  overlap  consider- 
ably, and  render  the  progress  of  the  style  difficult  to  classify 
shortly.  Only  a  few  of  the  principal  structures  can  be  even 
mentioned.  The  use  of  marble  and  sandstone  gives  a  monu- 
mental character  to  the  buildings,  not  possessed  by  other  types 
of  Saracenic  architecture.  The  dome  on  the  square  plan  is  used, 
but  the  stalactite  pendentive  appears  to  have  been  uncommon, 
its  place  being  taken  by  a  peculiar  form  of  arching  and  cor- 
belling in  horizontal  courses  (No.  294  j).  Colossal  pointed  portal 
arches,  with  semi-domes  (No.  294  E)  and  round  minarets,  are  special 
features. 

Delhi,  the  capital  of  the  Pathan  dynasty  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  became  the  capital  of  the  Indian  Mahometan  Empire, 
and  may  be  compared  in  its  architectural  importance  with  Athens, 
Rome,  or  Constantinople.  Amongst  numerous  ruins  of  mosques 
and  tombs  are  the  Kutub  Mosque  and  Kutub  Minaret,  a 
fine  model  of  the  latter  being  at  the  Indian  Museum,  South 
Kensington. 

The  Tomb  of  Shere  Shah,  at  Sasseram,  stands  on  a  platform 
with  angle  pavilions,  in  the  middle  of  a  sheet  of  water.  It  is 
octagonal  on  plan,  surmounted  by  a  dome,  as  are  also  the  angles 
at  the  receding  stages. 

Thejumma  Musj id  (i.e.,  principal  mosque),  Jaunpore  (1419). 
and  the  Atala  Musjid,  have  pointed  keel-arches  and  bracket 
capitals,  with  roofs  of  flat  slabs. 

The  Jumma  Musjid,  Ahmedabad  (141 1),  shows  the  influence 
of  Hindu  trabeated  architecture  in  conjunction  with  the  pointed 
arch.  It  has  fifteen  domes  of  different  heights,  each  supported  on 
twelve  pillars. 


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SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE.  675 

The  celebrated  Jumma  Musjid,  Mandu  (1405-1432),  consists 
of  an  inclosed  space  290  feet  by  275  feet,  having  a  square  court- 
yard, surrounded  on  each  side  by  arcades  of  eleven  pointed 
arches.  The  piers  supporting  these  are  of  red  sandstone,  and 
numberless  pointed  domes  crown  the  spaces  between  them. 

The  Adinah  Mosque  is  at  Gaur,  the  ancient  capital  of  Bengal. 
The  arcades  surrounding  the  rectangle  are  crowned  by  no  less 
than  385  domes  of  similar  design.  The  architecture  of  this 
province  is  influenced  by  the  absence  of  stone.  Brick  is  the 
building  material,  and  an  essentially  arcuated  style  is  the  result. 

At  Kalburgah  is  a  mosque  which  is  a  deviation  from  the  normal 
type,  in  that  the  whole  area,  216  feet  by  176  feet,  was  roofed  in 
by  a  series  of  domes,  light  being  introduced  through  high  pointed 
arched  openings  in  the  outer  walls. 

Bijapur  possesses  some  famous  examples,  erected  under  the 
Adil  Shaki  dynasty.  The  Jumma  Musjid,  Bijapur  (A.D.  1557- 
:579)  (No-  294  H>  J)  occupies  a  rectangle  of  257  feet  by  331  feet. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  squares,  each  covered  with  a  flat  dome. 
In  this  building  and  the  Tomb  of  Mahmud  are  domes  with 
singular  pendentives.  The  latter  building  has  a  dome,  97  feet  in 
diameter,  placed  on  a  platform  formed  by  intersecting  pendentive 
arches  carried  from  each  alternate  pier ;  thus  the  space  to  be  covered 
is  reduced,  and  the  weight  of  the  pendentives  acting  inwards 
tends  to  counteract  the  outward  thrust  of  the  dome,  as  at  the 
Jumma  Musjid,  Bijapur  (No.  294  j). 

Mogul  Architecture. —The  architecture  of  all  previous  periods 
was  eclipsed  by  the  architecture  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  (A.D.  1526- 
1761).  Some  of  the  principal  examples  are  tombs,  and  were 
erected  at  Agra,  the  capital.  These  were  mostly  octagonal, 
erected  on  a  garden  platform,  and  laid  out  with  ornamental  foun- 
tains, the  angles  and  entrances  being  accentuated  by  domed 
pavilions.  Such  tombs  were,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  founder, 
used  as  festal  halls. 

At  Futtehpore  Sikhri,  King  Akbar  (1556-1605)  erected  a  group 
of  important  buildings,  one  of  which  is  the  Mosque  (No.  294  D,  E). 
This  is  a  three-domed  structure,  290  feet  by  80  feet,  occupying 
one  side  of  an  open  court,  the  whole  inclosure  measuring  550  feet 
by  470  feet,  and  containing  two  royal  tombs.  The  southern  and 
western  gateways  are  specially  noteworthy  (Nos.  294  E  and  295) 
as  being  of  a  style  which  prevailed  throughout  the  period,  and 
which  may  be  contrasted  with  the  Greek,  Roman  and  Gothic 
•  styles  in  the  treatment  of  entrance  gateways.  In  the  example 
(No.  295)  the  doorway  is  placed  at  the  back  of  a  recessed  opening, 
which  is  crowned  by  a  semi-dome.  By  this  means  the  openings 
led  up  to  the  high  inclosing  arch  of  the  outer  wall  by  an  easy 
gradation,  giving  all  the  size  and  dignity  required  for  a  noble 
portal  without  disturbing  the  aesthetic  qualities  of  scale. 

X  X   2 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  677 

^  In  the  courtyard  of  this  mosque  is  the  marble  Tomb  of  Selim 
Chistee  (No.  294  D,  F,  G),  with  broad  spreading  eaves  and 
elaborately  carved  bracket  capitals  (Nos.  296  and  298  F),  of  which 
there  is  a  cast  in  the  Indian  Museum,  South  Kensington.  The 
windows  have  pierced  tracery  of  geometric  pattern,  a  characteristic 
Saracenic  treatment  (No.  296). 

The  celebrated  Dewan-Kas,  or  private  audience  hall,  of  which 
a  plan  and  elevation  are  given  (No.  298  H,  j),  has  inlay  work  of 
precious  stones  on  its  walls. 

Shah  Jehan  (1628-1658),  grandson  of  Akbar,  erected  at  New 
Delhi  a  palace  of  great  size,  of  which  only  portions  remain.  It 
occupied  a  space  of  1,600  feet  by  3,200  feet,  and  had  immense 
portal,  entrance  hall,  courtyards,  bazaars,  audience  and  music 
halls,  baths  and  gardens,  besides  accommodation  for  distinguished 
guests  and  court  attendants. 

The  Taj-Mehal,  Agra  (No.  294  A,  B,  c),  was  also  erected 
by  Shah  Jehan.  It  forms  a  part  of  one  of  the  most  famous 
groups  of  architectural  monuments  in  the  world.  It  is  a  royal 
mausoleum  of  white  marble  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  raised 
platform  18  feet  high  and  313  feet  square,  each  angle  being 
marked  by  a  minaret  133  feet  high.  In  plan  it  is  symmetrical, 
being  a  square  of  186  feet,  with  the  angles  taken  off.  It  has  a 
central  dome,  80  feet  high  (No.  294  c)  and  58  feet  in  diameter, 
crowned  by  an  outer  dome  of  the  same  height  (No.  297).  Around 
the  central  dome  are  two-storied  aisles,  each  angle  being  pro- 
vided with  a  small  dome  supported  on  pillars.  The  entrances 
are  in  the  centre  of  each  face  and  are  of  the  usual  recessed  type, 
crowned  with  a  four-centred  arch  set  in  a  square  frame.  The 
light  to  the  interior  is  introduced  through  two  pierced  marble 
screens  in  the  upper  story,  producing  a  dim  and  subdued  effect 
on  the  interior.  The  Taj  is  specially  famous  for  its  inlay  of 
precious  stones — jasper,  bloodstone  and  agate,  in  ornamental 
scrolls  and  fretwork — which  impart  a  rich  effect  to  the  fabric. 
In  its  setting  of  cypress  trees,  marble  fountains,  lakes  and 
terraces  (No.  297),  the  Taj  produces  an  enchanting  effect,  which 
has  been  remarked  by  all  travellers. 

Shah  Jehan  also  erected  other  notable  buildings,  including  the 
Muti  Musjid,  or  Pearl  Mosque,  Agra.  It  is  built  of  white 
marble,  and  is  a  three-domed  mosque,  placed  on  one  side  of  a 
court,  about  150  feet  square. 

The  Jumma  Musjid,  Delhi,  has  a  similar  type  of  plan.  It 
is  built  of  red  sandstone  and  white  marble,  and  is  peculiar  in 
being  designed  only  for  external  effect,  but  seldom  sought  for  in 
mosques  (see  page  656). 

After  Shah  Jehan,  few  buildings  of  importance  were  erected, 
but  a  decline  set  in,  due  in  part  to  the  introduction  of  European 
modes  and  the  influence  of  Classic  revivalism. 


678  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

4.  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Plan. — The   essential   requirement  of   a   mosque    (Arabic, 
mesgid  =  place  for  prostration) — the  principal  type  of  building — 
is  an  unroofed  inclosure  approximating  a  parallelogram  on  plan, 
with  central  fountain  for  ablution,  as    enjoined    by    the   Koran. 
This   occupies   a   position  similar  to  that  in   the  atrium  of  the 
Christian  basilican  church.     Around  this  open  space  were  placed 
colonnades  (No.   286  A),  for  protection  from  the  sun.     The  side 
towards     Mecca    was     the     most     frequented    part,     and    was 
generally  of    extra   depth.       It  contained  the  Kibleh    (indicating 
the  direction  of  Mecca)  in  the  Mihrab,  or  niche,  and  the  mimbar 
(pulpit)  placed  alongside  (Nos.  286  A,  c  and  287).      Near  at  hand 
is    the    "  dikka"    or  tribune,    from    which    the    "  unam "    reads 
passages  from   the    Koran   and   intones    the   prayers.      Minarets 
accentuate  certain  portions  of  the  plan,  and  are  generally  polygonal 
(Nos.  285,  286  c  and  298  G). 

A  second  type  of  plan  is  the  Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan  at 
Cairo  (No.  286  c),  which  is  cruciform  on  plan,  the  centre  portion 
only  being  left  open.  The  four  arms  are  arched  over  with  pointed 
vaults,  and  behind  the  mihrab  is  placed  the  founder's  tomb 
crowned  with  a  dome. 

A  third  type  of  plan  was  based  on  the  Byzantine  model,  in 
which  the  mosque  proper  was  independent,  having  a  front 
courtyard,  and  a  garden  behind  in  which  the  tomb  of  the  founder 
was  placed. 

The  Khans  (or  Hotels),  often  erected  in  the  great  cities 
(ex.  Khan  of  Kait-Bey  at  Cairo),  had  an  open  court,  round  which 
were  placed  numerous  chambers  used  by  the  merchants  or 
travellers,  who  came  from  all  parts  to  dispose  of  their  goods.  In 
Constantinople  there  are  180  of  these  buildings. 

The  dwelling-houses  are  planned  with  interior  courts  in  the  Eastern 
manner,  on  to  which  the  principal  rooms  face.  The  windows 
towards  the  street  are  small  and  strongly  barred  in  the  lower 
stories,  those  to  the  upper  stories  being  often  ornamented  with 
lattice  work  (No.  291  B).  Special  regard  is  paid  to  privacy  in  the 
planning  of  the  corridors  and  in  the  isolation  of  the  harem  or 
women's  apartments.  There  is  generally  a  principal  court, 
approached  from  the  entrance,  in  which  is  placed  a  summer-house 
and  fountain. 

B.  Walls. — Constructed    of  local   materials,  and  ornamented 
with  minute  surface  decoration,  either  in  plaster,  precious  stones, 
or  glazed  tiles  (page  680).      In  the  Alhambra,  Granada,  the  walls 
are  inlaid  with  glazed  tiles  to  a  height  of  4  feet,  above  which  a 
separate  scheme  of  arabesque  treatment  is  carried  out.     In  Cairo 
many  of  the  walls  are  of  stone  on    the  ground  floor,  the  upper 
part  being  of  brick  faced  with  plaster,  or  of  wood.     They  seem 


SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE.  679 

specially  treated  for  the  privacy  of  the  inmates,  the  windows, 
often  with  balconies,  being  fitted  with  elaborately  designed  lattice 
work,  of  which  there  are  examples  in  the  Indian  Museum,  South 
Kensington.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  banding  of  the  walls  in 
alternate  courses  of  stones  of  different  colors  or  of  bricks 
(No.  285).  The  minarets  are  generally  richly  finished,  they  are 
usually  square  on  plan,  changing  in  the  upper  stories  to  polygonal 
and  circular,  each  story  being  marked  by  projecting  balconies 
supported  on  stalactite  bracketing  and  with  pierced  balustrading, 
as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  Mosque  of  Kait-Bey  (No.  285). 
The  larger  mosques  have  several  minarets  (No.  292). 

A  type  of  bold  cresting  often  crowned  the  walls  instead  of  a 
cornice  (Nos.  285  and  291  o,  p).  The  noble  type  of  entrance, 
specially  used  in  India  (Nos.  294  E,  295  and  297),  consisting  of  a 
high  four-centred  arch  in  a  square  frame,  resembling  a  Tudor 
arch,  and  crowned  by  a  semi-dome,  has  already  been  described 
(page  675).  In  later  Mogul  architecture  the  walls  were  divided  into 
panels  by  perpendicular  and  horizontal  inclosing  lines  (No.  295). 

c.  Openings. — Windows  were  usually  small,  being  regulated 
to  some  extent  by  the  Southern  climate  in  which  Saracenic  work 
was  mostly  carried  out.  They  were  often  grouped  together  and 
occasionally  had  their  entire  surface  fitted  with  elaborate  tracery 
work  of  marble  and  plaster,  schemed  into  geometrical  patterns— 
the  small  open  spaces  being  of  colored  glass  (Nos.  291  B  and  296). 
Compare  with  Gothic  treatment. 

Four  types  of  arch  were  employed  :— 

(«.)  The  Pointed  Arch,  square  in  section  and  not  moulded 
(No.  291  L). 

(b.)  The  Ogee  or  Keel  Arch,  used  in  Persia  and  India  (No.  291  K). 

(c.)  The  Horseshoe  Arch,  used  in  Spain  and  North  Africa 
(No.  291  M). 

(d.)  The  Multifoil  or  Scolloped  Arch,  an  especially  Spanish 
feature  (Nos.  288  and  291  N). 

Such  forms  are  used  for  arcades,  window  and  door  openings. 
In  arcades  they  either  rest  on  columns  (No.  286  F)  or  piers 
(No.  286  B),  and  are  frequently  tied  in  at  their  springing  by 
wooden  beams  or  iron  rods.  Voussoirs  of  interlocking  patterns 
were  also  used,  as  at  the  Mosque  of  Kait-Bey  (Nos.  287  and  291  G,H). 
The  doorways  were  often  surrounded  with  elaborate  carved  work, 
inclosed  in  a  square  frame,  with  stalactite  cornices  (No.  291  F). 

D.  Roofs.— The  ceilings  to  undomed  mosques  were  generally 
left  with  flat  timbers,  brilliantly  colored  and  gilded.  In  some 
instances,  as  at  the  Alhambra,  timber  was  canvased  over  and 
plastered  before  being  colored. 

The    Dome    is    a    special    feature,    occurring   in  the  pn 
mosques  and  tombs,  and  is  of  the  various  forms  already  stated  as 
employed   for   arches  ;    it   is   seldom   spherical   as  in    Byzantn 


680  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

architecture.  Domes  are  sometimes  built  of  brick  in  horizontal 
courses,  plastered  inside  and  out.  Others  of  a  later  period  are  of 
stone,  also  of  horizontal  courses,  and  with  geometrical  patterns 
worked  on  the  external  surface,  as  at  the  Mosque  of  Kait-Bey 
(No.  285),  which  differs  from  the  Byzantine  and  Renaissance 
treatment.  Windows  are  frequently  placed  in  the  lower  parts 
(No.  292),  which  were  occasionally  ornamented  with  a  fringe  of 
sculptured  foliage  (No.  297).  Domes  were  nearly  always  placed 
over  square  apartments,  as  in  the  Byzantine  style,  and  the  Saracenic 
architect  had  to  face  the  same  difficulty,  which  he  overcame  by  a 
series  of  small  pointed  niches  placed  in  rows  one  above  the  other. 
Each  projected  in  front  of  the  one  below  (Nos.  286  D  and  291  F), 
and  by  easy  gradation  bringing  the  square  to  the  circular  ring 
from  which  the  dome  sprung  (No.  286  D,  F).  This  is  known  as 
"stalactite"  work,  and  forms  in  fact  the  Saracenic  pendentive,  a 
striking  contrast  with  the  Byzantine  feature,  which  was  always  a 
plain  curved  surface  (Nos.  79  j,.8o  B,  82  and  86).  Such  penden- 
tives  were  often  constructed  of  plaster  and  wood. 

.In  India,  where  domical  construction  was  carefully  worked  out, 
a  peculiar  form  of  angle  or  squinch  arch  was  adopted  (No.  294  j). 

E.  Columns. — Many  of  the  earlier  and  later  buildings  have 
ready-made   columns,    re-erected   from    Roman    and    Byzantine 
buildings    (No.    288).     They    were  often,   therefore,  of    different 
design,   producing  an   incongruous  effect.     At  the   Alhambra,  a 
type  of  capital  with  square  upper  portion  and  long  necking  was 
evolved  (Nos.  290  and  291  A,  c).    The  columns  supporting  these  are 
very  slender,  the  height  being  twelve  diameters.     The  capitals  in 
the  Alhambra  are  either  treated  with  conventional  scrolls  (No.  291 
A,  c),  or  are  formed  with  a  stalactite  treatment  (Nos.  290  and  291  j). 
Such  capitals  have  an  upward  continuation,  of  post-like  shape, 
against  the  sides  of  which  the  stilted  arch  abuts,  being  supported 
by  a  piece  of  stalactite  corbelling,  as  seen  in  the  same  example 
(No.  290). 

In  India,  local  Hindu  influence  produced  a  short  stunted  pier 
quite  Eastern  in  character  (No.  298  c,  E). 

F.  Mouldings. — Mouldings  are  unimportant,  their  place  being 
taken   by  the    elaborate    surface    decoration  already  referred  to. 
Such  a  treatment  as  the  stalactite  work  used  in  rows  one  above 
the  other,  produces,  however,  a  moulded  effect  in  itself,  similar 
to  a  crowning  Classic  cornice  (N  os.  285,  287  and  290).    Mouldings, 
when    used,    follow   on    Byzantine   models  of  plain  cavetto  and 
torus,  and  as  a  frame  to  doorways  and  windows  often  take  the 
form  known  as  the  "  billet,"  which  was  also  used  in  Romanesque 
architecture  (No.  139  c,  G). 

G.  Ornament. — This  was  chiefly  surface  ornament,  bounded  by 
flat  planes,  and  regulated,  as  far  as  motif  was  concerned,  by  the 
rules  of  the  Koran,  which  prohibited  the  copying  of  natural  objects. 


SARACENIC  ORNAMENT  IN    INDIA. 


FLAT  TERRACE  RQDFC9M-, | 
MPN IHEWTERHC9UN1WE5  ' 


682  COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Compare  in  this  respect  the  elaborate  sculpture  of  a  Gothic 
facade,  or  the  Classic  treatment  of  a  Greek  temple  or  Roman 
triumphal  arch.  Debarred  from  the  use  of  such  an  important 
quarry  of  forms,  the  Saracens  were  led  to  evolve  and  perfect  a 
scheme  of  decoration  in  which  the  science  of  geometry  was  an 
important  factor.  They  covered  their  buildings  with  geometric 
intertwining  designs,  which,  in  addition,  they  treated  with 
gorgeous  coloring  in  red,  white,  blue,  silver,  and  gold,  producing 
a  most  brilliant  fretted  surface,  or  "  carpet-like  "  effect. 

Among  different  types  are  :— 

(a.)  Mnemonic  ornament,  consisting  of  inscriptions  from  the 
Koran,  worked  into  decorative  panels,  and  composed  either  of 
lettering  in  the  older  style,  known  as  Kufic,  or  of  the  flowing 
character  of  the  later  Italic  lettering  (No.  290). 

(b.)  Surface  ornament  in  various  planes,  known  as  "superposed" 

The  term  arabesque  (Arabian-like)  is  applied  generally  to 
geometrical  surface  designs,  whether  in  plaster  or  painted  tiles. 
In  these  designs  endless  variety  is  obtained  by  the  joining 
together  of  straight  and  curved  lines,  forming  geometric  figures  of 
all  conceivable  forms  (No.  291  B),  the  straight  lines  never  forming 
a  right  angle  at  their  junction. 

(c.)  Stalactite  decoration,  primarily  used  to  form  the  pendentives 
of  domes  (No.  286  D,  F),  was  afterwards  used  decoratively  in 
door-heads  (Nos.  287  and  291  F),  capitals  (Nos.  290  and  291  j),  and 
on  walls  generally.  Examples  of  this  treatment  can  be  seen  in  the 
Mosque  of  Kait-Bey  at  Cairo  (Nos.  285  and  287). 

The  stalactite  pendentive  is  comparatively  rare  in  Spanish 
Saracenic.  The  Saracens  also  excel  in  their  surface  decoration, 
as  applied  to  the  accessories  of  architecture.  The  mushrebiyehs 
(Arabic,  shardb  =  a  draught),  or  elaborate  lattice-work  screens 
formed  of  numerous  turned  pieces  of  wood,  are  characteristic. 
Such  screens  are  used  to  windows,  projecting  bay  windows, 
portions  of  fa9ades  in  town  houses,  and  the  drinking  fountains. 
The  mimbars  (No.  287)  are  richly  carved  with  such  latticework  and 
with  stalactite  ornament.  They  are  also  inlaid  with  ebony  ivory, 
and  have  interlocking  arch  voussoirs  of  colored  marbles.  An 
elaborate  example  is  that  of  the  Sultan  Kait-Bey  (No.  287). 

The  student  should  visit  the  Saracenic  galleries  at  the  Indian 
Museum,  S.  Kensington,  where  an  excellent  idea  can  be  obtained 
of  the  ornamental  features  and  color  decoration  of  the  style. 


5.  REFERENCE    BOOKS. 

Bourgoin  (J.).— "  Les  Arts  Arabes."     Folio.     Paris,  1873. 
Bourgoin.—    Precis  de  1'Art  Arabe."     Paris,  1890. 

Bourgoin.—"  Les  Elements  de  1'Art  Arabe  "  ("  Le  trait  des  entre-lacs"). 
Paris,  1879. 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  683 

Coste  (P.  X.). — "  Architecture  Arabe,  ou  Monuments  de  Kaire."  2  vols. 
4to  and  folio.  Paris,  1837-1839. 

Delhi  (A.)  and  Chamberlin  (G.  H.). — "  Norman  Monuments  of  Palermo 
and  Environs."  Folio.  Boston,  U.S.A.,  1892. 

Gayet  (A.).—"  L'Art  Arabe."     8vo.     Paris. 

Gravini  (D.  B.). — "  II  Duomo  di  Monreale."  2  vols.,  410  and  folio. 
Palermo,  1859. 

Owen-Jones. — "  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections  and  Details  of  the 
Alhambra."  2  vols.,  folio.  1845. 

Junghandel  (M.). — "  Die  Baukunst  Spanien."  2  vols.  (Vol.  i  deals 
with  Arabian  and  Moorish  work.)  Dresden. 

Knight  (H.  G.). — "  Saracenic  and  Norman  Remains  in  Sicily."  Folio. 
1830. 

Le  Bon  (G.). — "  La  Civilisation  des  Arabes/'     Paris,  1884. 

Murphy  (J.  C.). — "  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain."     Folio.     1728. 

Prisse  d'Avennes  (E.). — "  L'Art  Arabe  d'apres  les  Monuments  du 
Kaire."  3  vols.  folio  and  I  4to.  Paris,  1877. 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


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ORSESHOE     HORSESHOE     HORSESHOE        LANCET 


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FOUR  STRAICH 


FLAT  ARCH 


THE  DOTTED  LINES 
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CENTRED 


SHOULDERED 


"  Architecture  is  the  printing  press  of  all  ages,  and  gives  a  history  of  the  state 
of  society  in  which  it  was  erected." — MORGAN. 


GLOSSARY   OF   ARCHITECTURAL   TERMS, 

WITH    REFERENCES   TO   THE 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Abacus  (Gk.  abax—a.  board).  —  A 
square  or  rectangular  table  forming  the 
crowning  member  of  a  capital.  In 
Grecian  Doric,  square  without  chamfer 
or  moulding  (No.  38  A).  In  Grecian 
Ionic,  thinner  with  ovolo  moulding 
only  (No.  38  c).  In  the  Roman  Ionic 
and  the  Corinthian,  the  sides  are 
hollowed  on  plan  and  have  their  angles 
cut  off  (Nos.  38  D  and  67  c).  In  the 
Romanesque  period,  the  abacus  is 
deeper  but  projects  less  and  is  moulded 
with  rounds  and  hollows,  or  merely 
chamfered  on  the  lower  edge  (Nos. 
98j,  K,  L,  M,  103  A,  D,  107  C,  D,  F,  K 
and  146).  In  Gothic  architecture  the 
circular  or  octagonal  abacus  was  mostly 
favoured  in  England  (No.  148),  while 
the  square  or  octagonal  abacus  is  a 
French  feature  (No.  165). 

Abutment.  —  The  solid  masonry 
which  resists  the  lateral  pressure  of  an 
arch  (Nos.  54,  79,  80,  153,  199,  223, 
253  E  and  256). 

Acanthus. — A  plant,  whose  leaves 
conventionally  treated,  form  the  lower 
portions  of  the  Corinthian  capital 
(Nos.  33,  44  J,  67  A,  78  A,  c,  88  and 
256  C)/ 

Acropolis  (Gk.  =  upper  city). — 
Most  ancient  Greek  cities  were  built 
upon  hills,  the  citadel  on  the  summit 
of  the  hill  being  known  as  the  Acropolis, 
and  containing  the  principal  temples 
and  treasure  houses  (Nos.  I  and  17). 

Acroteria(Gk.  the  summit  or  vertex, 
the  extremity  of  anything). — Bases  or 
blocks  of  stone  resting  on  the  vertex 
and  lower  extremities  of  the  pediment 
and  intended  for  the  support  of  statuary 
or  ornaments  (No.  16  A). 


Adytum  (Gk.  =  a  recess).— A  secret 
chamber  in  certain  temples  from  which 
the  public  were  excluded,  and  from 
which  oracles  were  delivered. 

Agora. — The  Greek  Forum ,  a  place 
of  open  air  assembly  or  market. 

Aisle  (Lat.  ala  =  a.  wing). — The 
lateral  divisions  which  run  parallel  with 
the  nave  in  mediaeval  and  other  build- 
ings (Nos.  75,  105,  117,  155,  203  and 

253)- 

Ambo. — A  raised  pulpit  from  which 
the  Epistle  and  Gospel  were  read 
(Nos.  72,  73  B  and  82). 

Amphi-prostyle  (Gk.  columns  at 
both  ends).  —  A  Temple  having  a 
portico  at  both  extremities  (No.  18  E) 
(see  page  58). 

Ancones  (Gk.  elbow  or  hollow). — 
A  small  console  on  each  side  of  a 
door  supporting  an  ornamental  cornice 
(Nos.  37  D,  E,  F,  and  206  j). 

Annulet  (Lat.  anmtlus  =  a.  ring). — 
A  small  flat  fillet  encircling  a  column. 
It  is  used  several  times  repeated  under 
the  ovolo  or  echinus  of  the  Doric 
Capital  (Nos.  19,  27  N,  38  A,  40  D  and 
262  A). 

Anta  (plural  ante}.  —  Pilasters 
terminating  the  side  wall  of  a  temple, 
and  having  base  and  capital  differing 
from  those  of  adjacent  columns  (see 
Pilaster)  (Nos.  18,  21  B,  38  F,  41  P  and 
44  F). 

Antefixse  (Lat.  ante,  before,  figo,  I 
fix). — Ornamental  blocks,  fixed  verti- 
cally at  regular  intervals  along  the 
lower  portion  of  a  roof,  to  cover  the 
joints  of  the  tiles  (Nos."i6  D,  20  J  and 
44  N). 

Anthemion     (Gk.  =  flower).  —  A 


688 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


term  given  to  the  honeysuckle  or 
palmette  ornament  of  several  varieties, 
used  in  cornices,  in  the  necking  oi 
Ionic  capitals,  and  elsewhere  in  Greek 
and  Roman  Architecture  (Nos.  29  E, 
37  E,  39  j,  41  M  and  44  A,  F). 

Apophyge  (Gk.  a  flying  off). — The 
cavetto  or  concave  sweep  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  column  proper,  con- 
necting it  with  the  fillet  (Nos.  29  o  and 

40  N). 

Apse  (Gk.  signifying  an  arch). — 
The  circular  or  multangular  termina- 
tion of  a  church  choir,  the  term 
being  firstly  applied  to  a  Roman 
basilica.  The  apse  is  a  continental 
feature,  and  contrasts  with  the  square 
termination  of  English  Gothic  work 
(Nos.  100  D,  F,  105  C,  G,  127  D,  155, 
157  D  and  159  B. 

Apteral  (Gk.  without  wings). — A 
temple  without  columns  on  the  sides 
(No.  18  A,  B,  D,  E). 

Araeostyle  (No.  39  v). — A  term 
given  when  the  space  between  two 
columns  is  i£  diameters. 

Arcade.  —  A  range  of  arches 
supported  on  piers  or  columns,  and 
attached  or  detached  from  the  wall 
(Nos.  62  A,  63,  74,  178,  183  and  249). 

Arches  are  of  various  forms,  and 
can  be  best  understood  by  referring  to 
No.  299. 

Architrave  (Gk.  =  chief  beam). — 
The  beam  or  lowest  division  of  the 
entablature  which  extends  from  column 
to  column  (Nos.  16  A,  37  A,  D  and 
194  E).  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  moulded  frame  which  bounds  the 
sides  and  head  of  a  door  or  window 
opening. 

Archivolt. — The  mouldings  on  the 
face  of  an  arch  resting  on  the  impost 
(Nos.  94  H  and  103  F). 

Arris. — The  sharp  edge  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  two  surfaces. 

Ashlar.  —  Squared  stonework  in 
regular  courses,  in  contradistinction  to 
rubble  work 

Astragal  (Gk.  =  a  knuckle-bone).— 
A  small  semicircular  moulding,  often 
ornamented  with  a  bead  or  reel 
(No.  39  c,  D).  Torus  is  the  name 
applied  to  large  mouldings  of  similar 
section  (No.  39  p,  Q). 

Astylar. — A  treatment  of  facade 
without  columns  (No.  192). 

Atlantes.  —  Carved     male    figures 


serving  as  pillars,  also  called  Telaniones 
(No.  28  N). 

Atrium  (Nos.  65  B  and  73  B).— In 
Roman  architecture  the  outer  or  en- 
trance court  surrounded  by  a  roof,  but 
open  to  the  sky  in  the  centre.  In  large 
houses  it  had  a  colonnade.  In  early 
Christian  and  later  architecture  the 
open  space  before  the  entrance  doors 
(pages  162,  1 80). 

Attic. — A  term  generally  applied  to 
the  upper  story  of  a  building  above  the 
main  cornice ;  also  applied  to  low 
rooms  in  a  roof  (Nos.  164  and  216  G,  H). 

Baldachino. — A  canopy  supported 
by  columns,  generally  placed  over  an 
altar  or  tomb  (Nos.  72,  76,  93  and  204). 

Ball-flower.  —  The  characteristic 
ornament  of  Decorated  Gothic  archi- 
tecture (No.  147  c). 

Baluster. — A  small  pillar  or  column 
supporting  a  handrail  (Nos.  234  H,  242 
and  244  E)  or  coping,  the  whole  being 
called  a  balustrade  (No.  250  A,  B). 

Baptistery.  —  A  separate  building 
to  contain  a  font,  for  the  baptismal  rite 
(No.  91). 

Base. — The  lower  portion  of  any 
structure  or  architectural  feature. 

Basement.— The  lowest  story  of  a 
building,  also  applied  to  an  underground 
story. 

Basilica  (Gk.  basileus,  a  king). — 
A  term  which  came  to  be  applied  to 
a  large  hall  for  the  administration  of 
justice  (page  136)  (Nos,  58,  73  A,  B  and 

74). 

Battlement. — A  parapet  having  a 
series  of  indentations,  which  are  called 
embrasures,  the  raised  portions  being 
known  as  merlons  (Nos.  127  A,  132  and 
147  M). 

Bay. — The  division  or  compartment 
into  which  the  nave  or  roof  of  a  building 
is  divided  (Nos.  122  and  167  A,  c). 

Bead. — A  small  cylindrical  moulding 
often  carved  with  an  ornament  resem- 
bling a  string  of  beads  (see  page  106) 
(No.  39  c,  D). 

Belfry. — A  term  generally  applied 
to  the  upper  room  in  a  tower  in  which 
the  bells  are  hung  (No.  130  E),  and 
thus  often  to  the  tower  itself. 

Bema. — A  raised  stage  or  platform 
reserved  for  the  higher  clergy  in  Early 
Christian  Churches.  Synonymous  with 
sanctuary,  it  forms  the  germ  of  the  tran- 
sept in  later  architecture  (No.  75  c,  E), 


GLOSSARY. 


689 


Billet. — A  moulding  used  in  Norman 
times  ;  it  consists  of  short  cylindrical  or 
square  pieces  occurring  at  intervals  (No. 
139  C,  D,  G). 

Boss  (Fr.  bosse  =  lump  or  knob). — 
A  projecting  ornament,  placed  at  the 
intersection  of  the  ribs  of  ceilings, 
whether  vaulted  or  flat.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  curved  termination 
to  the  weather-mouldings  of  doors  and 
windows.  Bosses  are  often  carved 
with  great  delicacy,  with  heads  of 
angels  or  flowers  and  foliage  (Nos. 
109  A,  112,  143  D,  J,  148  o,  P,  and 
149  j,  K,  L,  M). 

Bowtell. — A  Gothic  circular  mould- 
ing, probably  derived  from  the  word 
bottle  (No.  146). 

Bracket.  —  A  projecting  ornament 
carrying  the  upper  members  of  a 
cornice  (see  Ancones  and  Console). 
Generally  formed  with  scrolls  or  volutes 
at  the  two  ends  (Nos.  67  D,  191  A,  B, 
and  198  B,  c). 

Broach-spire. — An  octagonal  spire 
rising  above  a  tower  without  a  parapet, 
and  having  the  angles  of  tower  covered 
with  pyramidal  forms,  as  in  Early 
English  works  (No.  140  A,  B). 

Buttress  (Fr.  aboutir=to  lie  out). 
—  A  mass  of  masonry  projecting  be- 
yond the  face  of  the  wall  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  an  arch  or  vault.  The 
development  in  each  century  will  be 
noted  under  each  style  (Nos.  79,  100  B, 

109  A,   127  A,  B,    141,    153  A). 

K  flying  buttress  is  an  arch  resting 
on  a  detached  pier  some  distance  from 
a  wall,  the  inner  end  resting  against 
the  church  wall  to  take  the  thrust  of 
the  vaulting  (page  269)  (Nos.  IOD  B, 
109  A,  141  E,  F,  G,  H,  153  A  and 

157    B). 

Byzantine  architecture.  —  The 
style  evolved  at  Constantinople  or  By- 
zantium in-the  fifth  century  (page  192), 
and  which  is  essentially  the  style  of 
the  P^astern  or  Greek  church  to  the 
present  day. 

Campanile. — An  Italian  name  for 
a  bell  tower,  generally  detached  from 
the  main  building  (Nos.  96,  114  A,  181, 
184  K,  214  K  and  254). 

Canopy. —A  covering  over  niches 
and  tombs  (Nos.  128,  174  A,  C,  M  and 
190  F,  H,  M,  N). 

Capital  (Lat.  caput  =  a  head). — 
The  upper  portion  of  a  column  or 

F.A. 


pilaster  (Nos.   10,   13,  A,  C,  G,  33,  38, 

57,  67  A,  G,  88,  89,  98). 

Caryatides  (Nos.  42,  44  M).— Sculp- 
tured human  female  figures  used  as 
columns  or  supports  (page  108).  Tradi- 
tionally taken  to  represent  the  women 
of  Caria,  who  sided  with  the  Persians 
against  the  Greeks,  and  were  made 
slaves. 

Caisson.— A  panel  or  coffer  in  a 
ceiling  (see  Coffers)  (No>.  65  c,  68  B, 
74,  198  H). 

Caulicoli  (cf.  page  85)  [Lat.  caulis 
=  a  stalk]. — The  eight  stalks  support- 
ing the  volutes  in'  the  upper  part  of  a 
Corinthian  capital  (No.  33). 

Cavetto  (Iial.  cavare,  to  d:g  out). 
— A  simple  concave  moulding  (No. 
39  E,  F). 

Chancel  (Lat.  cancellus  =  %.  screen). 
— The  portion  set  apart  for  the  clergy 
and  choir  and  separated  by  a  screen 
from  the  body  of  the  church  (Nos.  127 
D  and  130  c). 

Chapels. —  Places  of  worship,  at- 
tached to  churches,  in  honour  of  parti- 
cular saints.  Sometimes  erected  as 
separate  buildings  (No.  159). 

Chapter-house  (Lat.  capitulum}. — 
It  was  the  place  of  assembly  for  the 
abbot  or  prior  and  members  of  a 
monastery  for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness, and  usually  opened  out  of  the 
cloisters  on  the  easternmost  side,  as  at 
Westminster  (No.  1270).  In  England, 
it  was  usually  po'ygonal  on  plan,  with 
a  vault  resting  on  a  central  pillar.  Ex. 
Lincoln  (No.  117  F),  Wells  (No. 
119  j),  Westminster  (No.  127  D).  It 
was  sometimes  oblong,  as  at  Canter- 
bury (No.  118  B). 

Chevet. — A  term  applied  to  a  cir- 
cular or  polygonal  termination  of  a 
church,  known  as  the  apse,  surrounded 
by  an  aisle  off  which  are  chapels  (No. 
159  B).  Such  chapels  sometimes  open 
direct  into  the  nave  (No.  loo  F). 

Choir  (see  Chancel). 

Choragus. — A  term  given  in  Greece 
to  those  who  superintended  a  musical 
entertainment,  and  provided  a  chorus 
at  their  own  expense. 

Cinquefoil  ( No.  299  T).  —A  perfora- 
tion of  rive  points  (see  Quatrefoil). 

Clepsydra  (Gk.  =  a  stealing  away  of 
water). — An  instrument  for  measuring 
time  by  the  discharge  of  water,  a  water 
clock. 

Y  Y 


690 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE, 


Clerestory.— The  upper  division  in 
the  nave  of  a  church  above  the  triforium 
(Nos.  109  A,  127,  136  and  137).  Pro- 
bably derived  from  the  French  clair  = 
light,  which  was  obtained  at  this  stage. 

Cloisters.  —  Covered  passages  of 
communication,  surrounding  a  square 
open  space  called  the  garth,  and  con- 
necting the  cathedral  to  the  chapter- 
house, refectory,  and  other  parts  of  the 
monastery  to  which  they  were  attached 
(Nos.  114  A,  B,  D,  116  A,  D,  G,  and 
127  D.  They  were  generally  placed  on 
the  south  of  the  nave,  and  west  of  the 
transept,  as  at  Westminster  (No. 
127  D).  The  desire  for  sunlight  and 
warmth  probably  suggested  this  posi- 
tion. 

Coffers  (Lacunarid) , — Sunk  panels 
formed  in  ceilings,  vaults,  or  domes 
(Nos.  54  A,  55,  74,  76,  204,  218  G). 

Column  (Lat.  columna). — A  vertical 
support,  generally  consisting  of  a  base, 
shaft,  and  capital  (Nos.  38,  55,  77). 

Composite.— An  order  employed 
by  the  Romans,  having  a  capital  com- 
posed of  the  upper  part  of  the  Ionic 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  Corinthian 
(No.  57  A,  B). 

Console  (Nos.  44  K,  L,  226  G,  H) 
(see  Bracket,  Modillion,  and  Ancones). 

Coping. — The  capping  (whence  the 
name)  or  covering  to  a  wall. 

Corbels  (Lat.  corbis  =  a  basket) 
are  blocks  of  stone  projecting  from  a 
wall,  and  supporting  the  beams  of  jt 
roof  or  any  weight  ;  they  are  often 
elaborately  carved  and  moulded  (Nos. 
103  B,  G,  j,  138,  174)  and  194  c). 

Corbel  Table. — A  plain  piece  of 
projecting  wall  supported  by  a  range  of 
corbels  and  forming  a  parapet,  generally 
crowned  by  a  coping  (Nos.  98  C,  103  B 
and  136). 

Corinthian  (cf.  page  85). — The  third 
order  of  Grecian  architecture  (No.  38  E). 

Cornice  (Fr.  corniche). — In  Greek 
architecture  the  crowning  or  upper 
portion  of  the  entablature  (Nos.  16  A 
and  40  A),  used  as  the  term  for  any 
crowning  projection  (Nos.  191,  192, 
197  and  198). 

Corona. — The  square  projection  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  cornice,  having 
a  broad  vertical  face  generally  plain, 
and  with  its  soffit  or  under  portion 
recessed  so  as  to  form  a  "drip,"  which 
(as  its  name  implies)  prevents  water 


from  running  down  the  building  (No. 
40  A,  B,  P,  Q,  R). 

Cortile. — The  Italian  name  adopted 
in  English  for  the  internal  area,  or 
courtyard,  surrounded  by  an  arcade  in 
a  palace,  or  other  edifice  (Nos.  191  E,  G 
and  198  F). 

Crocket  (Fr.  croc  =  &  hook).— Pro- 
jecting leaves  or  bunches  of  foliage  used 
in  Gothic  architecture  to  decorate  the 
angles  of  spires,  canopies  (No.  147  ], 
K,  L),  as  in  the  spires  of  Ratisbon 
(No.  171). 

Cross. — The  symbol  of  Christianity, 
generally  placed  on  the  summits  of 
gables  and  in  other  positions  of  promi- 
nence. It  is  often  contained  in.  a 
circle,  and  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  became  richly  floriated 
and  of  more  complicated,  forms  (No. 
149  A,  B,  c). 

Crypts  (Gk.  cryptos  =  hidden ).— 
These  are  vaults,  either  entirely  or 
partly  beneath  a  building.  In  churches 
they  generally  occur  beneath  the 
chancel  (Nos.  94  A,  199  B,  211  c,  and 
253  E).  In  early  times  they  were  used 
as  places  of  burial. 

Cupola  (L.  cupa  =  cup).  —  A 
spherical  roof,  rising  like  an  inverted 
cup  over  a  circular,  square,  or  multan- 
gular building  (Nos.  54,  80,  81,  83, 
84,  85,  87,  176,  181,  199,203,212,  223, 
253,  and  254). 

Cusps  (Lat.  cuspis  =  a  point). — The 
trefoil,  and  quatrefoil,  terminations  of 
Gothic  tracery  (Nos.  142,  143). 

Cyma  (Gk.  =  wave  or  billow). — A 
moulding  with  an  outline  of  two  curves. 
For  cyma  recta,  and  cyma  reversa,  see 
pages  1 02,  1 06. 

Cymatium. — The  crowning  member 
of  a  cornice,  so  called  from  its  contour 
resembling  that  of  a  wave  (No.  40  Q,  R). 

Dado. — The  portion  of  a  pedestal 
between  its  base  and  cornice.  A  term 
also  applied  to  the  lower  portions  of 
walls  when  decorated  separately  (Nos. 
49  c,  E  and  57  A,  H). 

Dai's. — A  raised  portion  at  the  end 
of  a  mediaeval  or  other  hall,  where  the 
master  dined  apart  from  his  retainers. 
The  term  is  now  often  applied  to  any 
raised  portion  of  an  apartment  (No. 
132  F). 

Decastyle.  —  A  portico  of  ten 
columns  (No.  53  A). 

Decorated     (cf.    page    341).— The 


GLOSSARY. 


6gi 


second  of  the  three  divisions  of  English 
Gothic  architecture,  which  was  evolved 
during  the  fourteenth  century. 

Dentils  (Lat.  denies  =  teeth). — 
Tooth-like  ornaments  occurring  origin- 
ally in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
cornices  (Nos.  38  and  191  A,  B). 

Diaper.  —  Any  small  pattern  of 
flowers  repeated  continuously  over 
the  wall,  as  in  the  nave  of  Westminster 
Abbey  (No.  127  c). 

Diastyle  (No.  39  u). — A  term  given 
when  the  space  between  two  columns 
is  three  diameters. 

Dipteral  (Gk.  =  double-winged). — 
A  temple  having  a  double  range  of 
columns  on  each  of  its  sides  (No.  18  j). 

Dog-tooth.— An  ornament  resem- 
bling its  name,  specially  occurring  in 
Early  English  work  (No.  147  A). 

Dome  (It.  duomo  =  cathedral,  from 
Lat.  domus  =  house). — The  custom  in 
Italy  being  to  erect  cupolas  over  churches, 
the  word  dome  in  English  and  French 
has  passed  from  the  building  to  this 
form  of  roof  (see  Cupola). 

Doric  (ff.  page  59).— The  first  and 
simplest  "order  "  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture (No.  38  A). 

Dormer. — A  window  in  a  sloping 
roof.  It  was  usually  the  window  of 
the  sleeping  apartments,  hence  the 
name  (Nos.  223  E,  225  K  and  226  F). 

Dripstone,  label,  or  hood-mould,  the 
termination  of  a  projecting  moulding 
in  Gothic  architecture  placed  over  the 
heads  of  doorways,  windows,  and  arch- 
ways, generally  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  off  the  rain  (Nos.  142  and 

143). 

Early  English. — The  first  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  England,  which  was  evolved  during 
the  thirteenth  century  (cf.  page  335). 

Eaves. — The  lower  portion  of  a 
roof  projecting  beyond  the  face  of  the 
wall  (Nos.  163  and  233). 

Echinus.  —  Properly  the  egg-and- 
dart  ornament  originally  used  in  the 
Ionic  capital  ;  often  applied  to  the  bold 
projecting  ovolo  of  the  Doric  capital 
(Nos.  16  A,  19  and  40  D). 

Entablature. —  The  portion  of  a 
structure  supported  by  a  colonnade, 
in  Greek  architecture  comprising  the 
architrave,  frieze  and  cornice  (Nos. 
16  A  and  38). 

Entasis    (cf.    page    51).— A    slight 


swelling  on  the  shaft  of  a  column  which 
prevents  a  hollow  appearance. 

Eustyle  (No.  39  T).— A  term  given 
when  the  space  between  two  columns 
is  2\  diameters. 

Exedra  (Gk.  =  out  of  a  chair).— 
A  recess  occurring  in  a  larger  room 
(Nos.  65  B  and  80  c).  In  Greek  build- 
ings, the  disputations  of  the  learned 
were  held  in  such  recesses,  so  called 
from  containing  a  number  of  seats. 
The  Romans  applied  the  term  to  any 
semi-circular  recess  with  benches,  and  to 
the  rooms  used  as  parlours  (No.  60  K). 

Facade. — The  front  view  or  eleva- 
tion of  a  building  (Nos.  85,  2CO  and 
210  A,  F). 

Fan  Vault. — A  system  of  vaulting 
peculiar  to  English  Perpendicular  work, 
all  the  ribs  having  the  same  curve, 
resembling  the  frame-work  of  a  fan 
(Nos.  112  R  and  129). 

Fascia  (Lat.  fades  =  a  face).— A 
flat  vertical  face  usually  found  in  the 
entablature  of  an  order  (see  page  77). 
The  architrave  of  the  Ionic  and  Corin- 
thian orders  is  divided  into  two  or  more 
fascias  (Nos.  38  and  262). 

Fillet.— A  small  flat  band  which 
occurs  chiefly  between  mouldings  to 
separate  them  from  each  other,  and  as 
the  uppermost  member  of  a  cornice 
(No.  39  A,  B). 

Finial  (Lat.yfrwV  =  the  end). — The 
top  or  finishing  portion  of  a  pinnacle, 
bench  end  or  other  architectural  feature 
(Nos.  141  c,  F,  H,  149  E,  F,  G,  o,  P, 
232  B). 

Flamboyant  (Fr.yfo/;/^a«=flame). 
—Tracery  in  which  the  stonework  is 
made  to  flow  upwards  in  long  wavy 
divisions  like  flames  of  fire  (Nos.  142  P, 

175)- 

Fleche.— A  term  generally  applied 
to  a  wooden  spire  surmounting  a  roof 
(Nos.  165  B  and  232  c,  E). 

Fluting. — The  vertical  channelling 
on  the  shaft  of  a  column  (Nos.  38  and 
40  K,  L,  M,  o). 

Flying  -  buttress.  —  A  buttress 
springing  by  means  of  an  arch  over  the 
aisle  of  a  church,  and  counteracting  the 
thrust  of  the  nave  vault  (Nos.  100  B, 
109  A,  141  E,  F,  G,  H,  153  A  and  157  B) 
(see  Buttress). 

Formeret.—  The  half  ribs  against 
the  wall  in  a  groined  ceiling.  The 
English  term  is  "wall-rib." 

Y  Y  2 


692 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Fresco. — The  term  applied  origin- 
ally to  painting  on  a  wall  while  the 
plastering  is  wet.  Often  used  to  mean 
any  wall  painting  not  in  oil  colors, 
but  more  properly  called  "tempera" 
or  "  encaustic"  (No.  693). 

Frieze  (It.  fregio  =  adorn). — The 
middle  division  of  the  entablature  (Nos. 
1 6  A,  38  and  198  B)  (see  Zoophoros). 

Gable. — The  triangular  portion  of 
a  wall,  marked  by  the  enclosing  line 
of  the  roof  (Nos.  132  j,  232,  234  D, 
244  A  and  247).  ( In  Classic  architecture 
it  is  called  the  pediment  (Nos.  16  A, 

20  B,  21  A,  23,  28  C,  O,  51,   56)  ). 

Galilee. — A  porch  used  as  a  chapel 
for  penitents,  built  near  the  west  end  of 
abbey  churches.  The  origin  of  the  term 
is  conjectural.  Some  derive  it  from  the 
Latin  galeria,  a  long  porticus  or  porch. 
Galilees  at  Ely  (No.  117  A),  Lincoln. 
(No.  117  F),  and  Durham  (No.  n8E). 

Gallery  (Nos.  131  E  and  243). — A 
passage  common  to  rooms  in  an  upper 
story  or  a  long  room  to  hold  pictures. 

Gargoyle.  —  A  projecting  water- 
spout in  Gothic  architecture  to  throw 
off  the  water  from  the  roof,  often 
grotesquely  carved  (No.  165  C,  E). 

Groin. — The  angle  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  vaults  (Nos.  ill,  112). 

Guilloche  (No.  39  P)  (Gk.  =  snake- 
like).  —  An  interlaced  ornament  like 
network,  frequently  used  to  enrich  the 
"torus"  moulding  (page  106). 

Guttae  (or  Drops). — Small  pyramids 
or  cones  occurring  under  the  triglyphs 
and  mutules  of  the  Doric  entablature 
(Nos.  1 6  G,  H,  19,  21  H,  L,  K,  and  23  G). 

Hagioscope  (or  squint). — A  term 
used  for  oblique  openings  found  in 
mediaeval  church  walls  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  the  altar. 

Half-timbered  construction. — A 
structure  formed  of  wooden  posts,  and 
the  interstices  filled  with  brick  or 
plaster  (Nos.  132  j,  150  and  247). 

Hammer  -  beam  roof.  —  A  late 
Gothic  form  of  roof  without  a  direct 
tie,  the  finest  example  being  Westmin- 
ster Hall  (No.  113  D,  H)  (page  293). 

Hecatompedon  (No.  23  H)  (Gk.  =  a 
hundred-foot  temple). — A  temple  of  one 
hundred  feet  in  length.  A  term  applied 
to  the  Parthenon,  whose  cella  was  100 
Attic  feet  in  length  internally.  By 
some  applied  to  the  width  of  the 
le,  the  length  along  the  upper 


step  of  the  Parthenon  being  100  Attic 
feet  =  101*241  English  feet. 

Hexastyle. — A  row  of  six  columns 
(No.  1 8  F). 

Hieron  (Gk.  =  a  holy  place).  — The 
whole  of  the  sacred  inclosure  attached 
to  a  temple,  including  the  priests 
dwellings  and  the  grounds. 

Hood- Mold  (see  Dripstone). 

Hypsethral  (Gk.  =  under  the  air). 
— A  building  or  temple  without  a  roof 
or  possessing  a  central  space  open  to 
the  sky  (Nos.  5  A,  20,  23,  25,  27). 

Hypostyle. — A  pillared  hall  (No. 
5  A). 

Hypotrachelium  (Gk.  =  under  the 
neck).  —  The  channels  or  grooves 
beneath  the  trachelium  at  the  junction 
of  capital  and  shaft  of  a  column  (Nos. 
19,  27  N,  38  A)  (see  Trachelium). 

Impost  (Lat.  impono  =  I  lay  on). — 
The  member  usually  formed  of  mould- 
ings, on  which  the  arch  immediately 
rests  (Nos.  72,  94  H,  107  J,  N,  143. 

Intercolumniation.  —  The  space 
between  the  columns  (No.  39  R,  s,  T, 
u,  v). 

Ionic  (cf.  page  77)  (Nos.  29,  30  c, 
31)  35>  S^-  The  second  order  of 
Grecian  architecture. 

Jambs. — -The  sides  of  the  openings 
of  doors  and  windows  (Nos.  94  J,  K 
and  143  C,  G,  L,  M).  The  portion  out- 
side the  window  frame  is  called  the 
reveal. 

Keel  Moulding. — A  moulding  like 
the  keel  of  a  ship  formed  of  a  circle  on 
which  is  a  fillet ;  used  in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  (No.  146).  Also 
applied  to  a  similar  form  of  arch 
(No.  299  v). 

Keystone. — The  central  stone  of  an 
arch  (Nos.  57  c,  67  B  and  in  B,  C,  E). 

King-post. — A  post  extending  from 
the  ridge,  supporting  the  tie-beam  in 
the  centre  (Nos.  252  D  and  253  E). 

Label  (see  Dripstone). 

Lacunaria. — The  sunk  panels  or 
coffers  in  ceilings  (No.  21)  (pages  67, 132). 

Lancet  arch. — A  sharp  pointed 
arch,  resembling  a  lancet,  chiefly  in  use 
during  the  Early  English  thirteenth 
century  period  (Nos.  142  F  and  299  H). 

Lych  Gate. — A  covered  gateway, 
forming  a  resting-place  for  the  coffin 
before  entering  the  churchyard,  and 
under  which  the  first  portion  of  the 
burial  service  is  usually  read. 


GLOSSARY. 


Lierne. — A  short  intermediate  rib 
in  vaulting  (No.  112  N,  p). 

Lintel. — The  piece  of  timber  or 
stone  that  covers  an  opening,  and 
supports  a  weight  above  it  (Nos.  6,  8, 
20,  and  37). 

Loggia. — A  gallery  open  to  the  air, 
and  forming  a  shelter. 

Metope  (Gk.  =  a  hole  between). — 
The  space  between  the  Doric  triglyphs. 
In  ancient  examples  it  was  left  quite 
open,  hence  the  name  (Nos.  16  A, 
20  B,  21,  and  44  H). 

Mezzanine. — A  low  story  between 
two  lofty  ones  (Fr.  Entresol). 

Miserere. — A  seat,  made  to  turn 
up  in  order  to  afford  support  to  a 
standing  person.  The  underside  is 
frequently  grotesquely  carved  (No.  174 
G,  H). 

Modillions.  -  -  The  projecting 
brackets  in  the  Corinthian  cornice 
(Nos.  38  F,  68  A,  D,  191  A,  B,  198  B). 

Module. — A  measure  of  proportion, 
by  which  the  parts  of  a  Classic  order  or 
building  are  regulated,  being  usually 
the  semi-diameter  of  a  column,  which 
is  divided  into  thirty  parts  or  minutes 
(Nos.  38  and  262). 

Mosaic. — The  formation  of  deco- 
rative surfaces  by  small  cubes  of  stone, 
glass  and  marble ;  much  used  in 
Roman  and  later  times  for  floors  and 
wall  decoration  (Nos.  69  K,  72,  and 
78  B,  H,  L). 

Mouldings. — The  contours  given  to 
projecting  members  (see  F.  Mouldings 
in  each  style,  Nos.  39,  40  and  146). 

Mullions. — Used  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecturej  to  divide  the  windows  into 
different  numbers  of  lights,  these  being 
usually  glazed  in  leaded  panes  (Nos.  142 
and  175). 

Mutule. — The  projecting  inclined 
blocks  in  the  Greek  Doric  cornice, 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  ends 
of  wooden  rafters  (Nos.  21  H.  K,  L  38  A, 
and  262  A). 

Narthex. — A  long  arcaded  Porch 
forming  an  entrance  into  a  Christian 
basilica,  originally  appropriated  to 
penitents  (Nos.  75  E  and  80  c). 

Naos.  —  The  cell  or  principal 
chamber  in  a  temple  (No.  18  H).  M  he 
English  nave  is  derived  from  the  Gk. 
naos,  and  signifies  the  central  or  main 
division  of  the  plan  (Nos.  130  c  and 
159  A,  B). 


Naumachia  (Gk.=  a  battle  of  ships) 
—A  building  erected  for  the  exhibition 
of  sea-fights,  sometimes  refers  to  the 
spectacle  itself. 

Nave  (see  Naos).  —  The  central 
division  of  a  church,  west  of  the  choir. 

Necking.— The  space  between  the 
astragal  of  the  shaft  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  cap  proper  in  the  Roman 
Doric  (Nos.  38  and  40  N). 

Newel. —(i)  The  central  shaft, 
round  which  the  steps  of  a  circular 
staircase  wind  ;  (2)  also  applied  to  the 
post  in  which  the  handrail  is  framed 
(Nos.  242,  244  E  and  250  c). 

Niche. — A  recess  in  a  wall  for  the 
reception  of  a  statue  or  ornament 
(Nos.  128  and  194). 

Norman. — The  stylewhich  preceded 
the  Early  English  in  this  country,  also 
termed  English  Romanesque  (Nos. 

122  A,  B,  C,  D,   135,   136  A,  B,  138,  139. 

Nymphaeum.— (Literally,  a  build- 
ing consecrated  to  the  nymphs).  A 
chamber  for  plants,  flowers,  and  run- 
ning water,  ornamented  with  statues 
and  forming  a  cool  and  agreeable 
retreat  (see  page  132). 

Octastyle.  —  A  range  of  eight 
columns  (Nos.  18,  23). 

Ogee  (cyma-reversa). — A  form  of 
moulding  (No.  39  M)  or  arch  (No. 
299  v). 

Opisthodomos  (No.  18  H,  23  H) 
(also  called  Epinaos  or  posticum)  (Gk.  = 
a  backroom,  or  behind  a  house). — In 
Greek  architecture  an  open  vestibule 
within  the  portico,  at  the  end  behind 
the  cella  in  most  peripteral  or  dipteral 
temples,  corresponding  to  the  pronaos 
at  the  principal  end,  into  which  opens 
the  main  entrance. 

Order  (page  53). — In  architecture, 
signifies  a  column,  with  its  base,  shaft 
and  capital,  and  the  entablature  which 
it  supports  (Nos.  38  and  262). 

Oriel. — A  window  corbelled  from 
the  face  of  wall  by  means  of  projecting 
stones  (No.  250  E). 

Ovolo.— A  convex  moulding  which 
was  much  used  in  Classic  architecture 
(No.  39  N,  o). 

Panel. — A  sunken  compartment  such 
as  occurs  in  walls,  ceilings,  doors  and 
wainscoting  (Nos.  214  G,  225  C,  E, 
244  D). 

Parapet  (Ital.  parapetto  =  breast 
).  _  The  upper  portion  of  the 


694 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


wall  above  the  roof;  it  is  sometimes 
battlemented,  a  method  derived  from 
purposes  of  defence  (Nos.  134  A, 
147  M,  N,  O,  157  A,  B  and  165  C,  D). 

Patera.— Flat  ornaments  in  all 
styles  of  architecture  are  called  paterae, 
the  term  being  derived  from  the  circular 
ornaments  resembling  the  Classical 
dishes  used  for  holding  wine  in  the  sacri- 
ficial libations. 

Pavimentum. — A  pavement  formed 
by  means  of  pieces  of  tile,  marble,  stone, 
flints  or  other  material  set  in  cement, 
and  consolidated  by  beating  down  with 
a  rammer  (pavicitla),  whence  its  name. 

Pediment. — In  Classic  architecture 
the  triangular  termination,  of  the  roof 
of  a  temple  (Nos.  16  A,  20  A,  B,  21  A, 
23  and  28  c,  o).  In  Gothic  architec- 
ture called  the  Gable. 

Pendentive. — The  triangular  curved 
surface  by  means  of  which  a  circular 
or  octagonal  dome  is  supported  on  a 
square  compartment  (Nos.  79,  82  J,  K, 
86  and  in  c). 

Peripteral. — An  edifice  surrounded 
by  a  range  of  columns  (No.  18  H). 

Peristyle. — A  range  of  columns 
surrounding  a  court  or  temple  (No.  18). 

Perpendicular  (cf.  page  349). — A 
phase  of  English  Gothic  evolved  from 
the  Decorated  style,  and  in  use  during 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  in 
England,  so  called  from  the  lines  of 
tracery  in  use  (Nos.  137  G,  142  N,  o). 

Pier. — A  supporting  mass  other  than 
a  column  between  windows,  doors,  and 
other  openings ;  a  support  on  which 
the  arch  of  a  bridge  rests.  The  term 
is  sometimes  given  to  a  pillar  in  Gothic 
Architecture  (Nos.  214  G,  225  c,  E, 
244  p). 

Pilaster. — An  anta  or  square  pillar, 
projecting  about  one-sixth  of  its  breadth 
from  the  wall,  and  of  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  order  with  which  it  is 
used  (Nos.  37  B,  38  F,  67  F,  194  G,  j, 
and  195). 

Pinnacle.  —  A  small  turret-like 
termination,  placed  on  the  top  of 
buttresses  or  elsewhere,  often  orna- 
mented upon  its  angles  by  bunches  of 
foliage  called  crockets  (Nos.  109  A,  127, 
128,  141  F,  H,  153  and  232  A). 

Piscina  (Lat.  =  a  reservoir  of  water) 
is  a  small  niche  near  the  altar,  with  a 
hole  in  the  bottom  to  carry  off  the 
water  in  which  the  priest  washed  his 


hands,  and  also  that  in  which  the 
chalice  was  rinsed  (No.  144  E,  F,  G,,  H). 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  swim- 
ming pond  in  Roman  baths. 

Pitch  of  Roof.— The  inclination  of 
its  surface  to  the  horizon. 

Plan.  —  The  representation  of  a 
building  showing  the  general  distribu- 
tion of  its  parts  in  horizontal  section 
(Nos.  18,  117,  118,  119,  120,  155). 

Plinth. — The  lower  square  member 
of  the  base  of  a  column  also  applied  to 
the  projecting  base  of  any  building 
(Nos.  38  and  262). 

Podium. — A  low  pedestal  wall  ; 
also  the  inclosing  wall  of  the  arena  of 
an  amphitheatre  (Nos.  51,  62,  64). 

Portico.— The  space  inclosed  within 
columns  and  forming  a  covered  ambu- 
latory (Nos.  20  B,  22,  51.  54,  56). 

Presbytery  (No.  159  D). — A  word 
applied  vaguely  to  the  choir,  the 
sacristy,  and  the  space  between  the 
high  altar  and  the  lady  chapel  (also 
called  the  Retro-choir). 

Priory. — A  monastic  establishment 
presided  over  by  a  Prior,  who  was  a 
subordinate  to  the  Abbot. 

Pronaos  (Nos.  18,  23  E,  H). — The 
part  of  the  temple  in  front  of  the  naos 
(often  synonymous  with  Portico). 

Propylaeum  (Gk.  =  a  portal  in 
front  of). — An  entrance  gate  or  vesti- 
bule, in  front  of  a  building  or  set  of 
buildings.  Examples  at  Athens  (Nos. 
17,  26),  Priene,  Sunium  and  Eleusis. 

Prostyle  (Gk.  =  a  column  in  front). 
— An  open  portico,  standing  in  front  of 
the  building  to  which  it  belongs  (No.  18). 

Pseudo  -  dipteral  (Gk.  =  false 
double-winged),  a.  temple  which  is 
apparently  two  columns  in  depth,  but 
from  which  the  inner  range  of  columns 
is  omitted  (No.  18  L). 

Pteroma. — A  term  applied  to  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  cella  of  a  temple 
and  thence  to  the  spaces  between  the 
walls  and  the  columns  of  the  peristyles. 

Pulvinated  (Lat  =a  pillow). — A 
frieze,  whose  face  is  convex  in  profile, 
is  said  to  be  pulvinated  (No.  37  C,  215, 
upper  frieze). 

Pycnostyle  (No.  39  R). — A  term 
given  when  the  space  between  two 
columns  is  ij  diameter. 

Quadriga. —  A  four-horsed  chariot 
often  surmounting  a  monument. 

Quatrefoil(  Fr.  yuatre-feutlfassfoiu 


GLOSSARY. 


695 


leaves).  — In  tracery  a  circular  panel 
divided  into  four  leaves  (No.  142  K, 
L). 

Quoin. — A  term  generally  applied 
to  the  corner  stones  at  the  angles  of 
buildings,  and  hence  to  the  angle 
itself  (Nos.  197  and  198  D). 

Refectory. — The  dining  hall  in  a 
monastery,  convent  or  college. 

Renaissance  (Fr.  rebirth). —The 
re-introduction  of  Classic  forms  in  archi- 
tecture, all  over  Europe,  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  (For  the 
causes  which  led  up  to  this  movement, 
see  page  437. ) 

Reredos.  —  The  screen,  or  orna- 
mental work,  at  the  back  of  the 
altar.  In'  Manchester,  S.  Albans, 
and  Durham  Cathedrals  they  are 
carved  structures  reaching  to  the  roof. 
Rib. — A  projecting  band  on  a  ceiling, 
on  various  kinds  of  vaults,  and  else- 
where (Nos.  109,  in,  112  (cf.  pages  283, 
290). 

Ridge. — The  highest  point  of  a  roof, 
running  from  end  to  end. 

Rococo  style. — A  debased  appli- 
cation of  Renaissance  features  (see  page 
496). 

Roll  moulding  (No.  146). — Also 
called  scroll  moulding  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  scroll  of  paper,  one  edge  of 
which  projects  over  the  other  part. 

Rood  loft. — A  raised  gallery  in 
front  of  the  Chancel  arch,  to  carry  a 
crucifix  or  rood,  used  for  reading  por- 
tions of  the  church  service.  The 
framing  under,  known  as  the  rood  screen, 
separates  the  chancel  from  the  rest  of 
the  church  (No.  145  E). 

Rose -window,  see  wheel-window 
(Nos.  153  B,  156  and  161). 

Rostrum  (Gk.  =  prow  of  a  ship). — 
The  plural  "rostra"  denoted  the 
tribune  in  the  Forum  Romanum,  from 
which  orators  addressed  the  people.  It 
was  so  called  because  decorated  with 
the  prows  of  ships  taken  in  war. 

Rustication. — A  method  of  forming 
stonework  with  recessed  joints,  prin- 
cipally employed  in  Renaissance  build- 
ings as  at  Florence  (No.  192). 

Screen. — A  partition  or  inclosure  of 
wood,  often  elaborately  carved,  and 
separating  the  choir  from  the  nave. 
The  Latin  cancellus  =  screen,  cor- 
rupted to  "chancel,"  primarily  used 
for  the  inclosing  object,  was  afterwards 


applied  to  that  which  it  inclosed  (Nos. 
86  and   123). 

Scotia  (Gk.  scotia  =  darkness). — 
The  concave  moulding  in  the  base  of 
a  column,  throwing  a  deep  shadow 
(Nos.  39  G,  H,  40  H,  T,  U). 

Section. — A  term  used  by  architects 
to  express  the  representation  of  a  build- 
ing, divided  into  two  parts  by  a  vertical 
plane,  so  as  to  show  the  construction. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  any  solid  in 
the  same  way  (Nos.  62  B,  73  D,  146, 
203  F,  o). 

Sedilia  (Lat.  =  seat).— The  seats 
for  the  priests,  generally  of  masonry, 
placed  in  the  wall  on  the  south  side  of 
the  chancel  (No  144  M,  N,  o). 

Shaft. — The  portion  of  the  column 
between  the  base  and  capital  (Nos. 
16  A,  B  and  38). 

Soffit. — The  ceiling;  the  underside  of 
any  architectural  member  (No.  198  A). 

Solar. — A  mediaeval  term  for  an 
upper  chamber,  usually  the  private 
chamber  of  the  owner. 

Span. — The  width  or  opening  of 
an  arch,  roof,  or  beam,  between  its 
supports. 

Spandrel.  —  The  triangular  space 
between  the  curve  of  an  arch  and  the 
square  inclosing  it  (Nos.  127  G,  143  J 
and  148  M,  N). 

Spire. — The  pointed  termination  to 
the  tower  of  a  church  in  Gothic  or 
Renaissance  architecture  ;  usually  octa- 
gonal on  plan ;  in  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture, carried  up  in  stories  yNos.  121, 
130,  140  and  255). 

Squinch  arch.  —  Arches  placed 
diagonally  at  the  angles  in  the  interiors 
of  towers  to  bring  them  from  the  square 
to  the  octagon,  and  so  support  the 
octagonal  spire  (No.  188). 

Stalls.— Divisions  or  fixed  seats  for 
the  clergy  and  choir,  often  elaborately 
carved  (No.  126).  They  have  large 
projecting  elbows  and  carved  "  mise- 
reres," and  are  often  surmounted  by 
overhanging  canopies.  The  bishop's 
seat  is  called  the  "  throne."  The  stu- 
dent should  visit  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel 
at  Westminster,  and  the  Abbey  Choir. 
Steeple.— The  term  applied  to  the 
tower  of  a  church,  including  the  spire 
(Nos.  130  and  255). 

Stilted  arch.— An  arch  having  its 
springing  line  above  the  line  of  impost 
mouldings,  to  which  it  is  connected 


6g6 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


with  vertical  pieces  of  walling  or  stilts 
(No.  112  B,  G). 

Stoa.  —  In  Grecian  architecture,  a 
portico  ;  a  term  corresponding  with  the 
Latin  porticus  and  the  Italian  portico 
(No.  17). 

Story.  —  The  space  between  two 
adjacent  floors. 

Stylobate. — The  base  or  sub-struc- 
ture on  which  a  colonnade  is  placed 
(No.  16  A). 

Systyle  (No.  39  s). — A  term  given 
when  the  space  between  two  columns 
is  two  diameters. 

Temenos. — The  sacred  precinct  in 
which  stood  a  temple  or  other  sanc- 
tuary. 

Tenia. — The  band  or  fillet  forming 
the  upper  member  of  the  Doric  archi- 
trave (No.  16  A). 

Terra-cotta. — Earth  baked  or  burnt 
and  formed  into  moulds,  and  used 
ornamentally.  A  fine  example,  used 
constructionally,  is  Button  Place,  near 
Guildford. 

Tetrastyle.  —  A  portico  of  four 
columns  (No.  18  D,  E). 

Tholos. — The  dome  (cupola)  of  a 
circular  building,  hence  applied  to  the 
building  itself  (see  Tholos  at  Epidaurus) 
(No.  i8K). 

Torus. — A  large  convex  moulding, 
used  principally  in  the  bases  of  columns 
(No.  39  p,  Q)  (see  Astragal). 

Trabeated  (Lat.  trabs=&  beam). — 
A  style  of  architecture  such  as  the 
Greek,  in  which  the  beam  forms  the 
constructive  type  (Nos.  16,  20,  21,  23). 

Tracery. — The  ornamental  pattern 
work  in  stone,  filling  the  upper  part 
of  a  Gothic  window  ;  it  may  be  either 
"plate"  or  "bar"  tracery.  The 
character  of  "plate"  tracery  is  such 
that  it  appears  to  have  been  cut  out  of 
a  slab  or  plate  of  stone  with  special 
reference  to  the  shape  of  the  lights, 
whereas  "bar"  tracery  was  designed 
principally  for  the  pleasing  forms  pro- 
duced by  combinations  of  various 
geometrical  figures.  It  is  also  applied 
to  work  of  the  same  character  in  wood 
panelling  (Nos.  142,  147  N,  o,  and 
153  B). 


Trachelium. — The  necking  of  a 
Greek  Doric  column  between  the 
annulets  and  the  grooves  or  hypo- 
trachelium. 

Transept. — The  part  of  a  church, 
projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
building  (Nos.  130  C  and  159  A). 

Transoms.  —  The  horizontal  divi- 
sions or  cross-bars  to  windows  (Nos. 
142  N,  O,  225  K  and  229  A). 

Trefoil  (trois-feuilles  =  three  leaves). 
— A  term  applied  to  this  distribution 
in  Gothic  tracery  (Nos.  142  B,  C,  E  and 
299  Q,  R,  s). 

Triforium. — The  space  formed  be- 
tween the  sloping  roof  over  the  aisle 
and  the  aisle  vaulting.  It  occurs  in 
large  churches  only,  and,  from  having 
no  windows  to  the  open  air,  is  often 
called  a  blind  story  (Nos.  logA,  122  D,  G 
and  127  c). 

Triglyphs  (Gk.  three  =  channels). 
— These  occur  in  the  frieze  of  the  Doric 
entablature  (Nos.  16  A  and  38  A,  B). 

Turrets  are  small  towers,  often  con- 
taining staircases  (No.  133). 

Tympanum. — The  triangular  space 
within  the  raking  and  horizontal  cor- 
nices of  a  pediment  (see  frontispiece  and 
No.  16  A). 

Vault. — An  arched  covering  in  stone 
or  brick  over  any  space  (Nos.  46,  62  B, 
79,  in,  and  112). 

Vestibule.  —  An  ante-room  to  a 
larger  apartment,  or  to  a  house. 

Volute  (Lat.  vohita  =  a  scroll). — 
The  scroll  or  spiral  occurring  in  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals  (Nos.  29  C, 
38  D,  E,  F,  40  F.  and  41). 

Voussoir.  —  The  wedge-shaped 
blocks  forming  an  arch  (No.  in). 

Weathering. — The  slope  given  to 
the  upper  surface  of  cornices  and 
mouldings,  to  throw  off  the  rain. 

Wheel-window. — A  circular  win- 
dow, whose  mullions  converge  like  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel,  hence  the  name 
(Nos.  153  B  and  i6j). 

Zoophoros. — A  frieze  in  which  re- 
liefs of  animals  are  introduced,  as  in 
the  Panathenaic  frieze  on  the  cella 
wall  of  the  Parthenon  (No.  23  F) 
(see  Frieze), 


INDEX. 


Abacus  (see  Glossary). 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  (La  Trinite,  Caen), 

250. 
Abbaye-aux'Hommes      (S.      Etienne), 

249. 

Abbe  Suger,  362. 
Abbeville,  S.  Wulfrand,  376. 
Abbey,  Dryburgh,  359. 

Bunfermline,  359. 

Holyrood,  359. 

Kelso,  356. 

Melrose,  359. 

S.  Albans,  332. 

Tewkesbury,  332. 

Waltham,  332. 

Westminster,  309,  336,  343,  349. 
Abbey  of  Fontevrault,  249. 
Abbey  of  S.  Denis,  250. 
Abbey  Church,  Gerrirode,  261. 

Laach,  264. 

Tournus,  249. 

Cluny,  249. 

Mont  S.  Michel,  250. 
Aberdeen  Cathedral,  359. 

King's  College,  305. 
Abu-Simbel,  temple  of,  24. 
Abutment  (see  Glossary). 
Abydos,  temple  of  Sethos  I.,  24. 

tombs  at,  20. 

Academy  of  Arts,  Philadelphia,  599. 
Acanthus  (see  Glossary). 
Acanthus  leaf,  Greek  use  of,  106. 

in  India,  614. 

Roman  use  of,  173. 

two  varieties  of,  106. 
Ackermann,  architect,  601. 
Acropolis  (see  Glossary). 
Acropolis,  Athens,  55,  79,  93. 
Acroteria  (see  Glossary). 
Adam  Brothers,  architects,  582. 
Adam,  publications  by,  582. 
Adams'  style  of  decoration,  582,  588. 
Adelphi  Terrace,  582. 
Adinah  Mosque,  Gaur,  675. 
Adler  and  Sullivan,  architects,  601. 


Admiralty  Building,  Whitehall,  595. 

Admiralty,  Whitehall,  screen  at,  582. 

Adytum  (see  Glossary). 

^Egina,  temple  of  Aphaia,  49,  66,  67. 

yEsculapius,  temple  of,  125. 

Agora  (see  Glossary), 

Agora,  97. 

Agra,  Taj  Mehal,  654,  656,  677. 

Muti  Musjid  (Pearl  Mosque),  656, 

677. 

Agriculture,  temple  of,  639. 
Agrigentum,  temple  of  Jupiter,  58.  66, 

75- 

Temple  of  Concord,  66. 

Temple  of  Juno,  66. 

Temple  of  Zeus,  58,  66,  75. 
Agrippa,  baths  of,  145. 
Ahmedabad,  Jumma  Musjid,  671. 
Ahmediyeh,  Constantinople,  669. 
Aisle  (see  Glossary). 
Aisle  roof,  290,  294. 
Aix-la-Chapelle  Cathedral,  261. 
Ajunta,  temple,  614,  632. 
Alan  of  Walsingham,  304. 
Albany,  capitol,  599. 

City  Hall,  599. 
Albert  Hall,  London,  595. 
Albert  Memorial,  London,  594. 
Alberti,  architect,  453. 
Albi  Cathedral,  376. 
Alcala,  University,  534 

Palace,  537. 
Alcantara,  bridge,  1 60. 
ATcazar,  Seville,  663. 

Toledo,  537. 
Alessi,  architect,  495. 
Alexander  the  Great's  Conquests,  48, 
610. 

Sarcophagus,  94. 
Alhambra,    Granada,    667,    678,    679, 

680. 

Allahabad,  Lat  at,  612. 
All  Saints,  Brighton,  596. 
All  Saints,  Margaret  Street,  594. 
All  Souls',  London,  591. 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Alliance  Assurance  office,  London,  595. 
Almshouses,  Cobham,  325. 
Altar,  position   in  Basilican  churches, 

1 80. 

Altenburg,  Rathhaus  at,  524. 
Ambo  (see  Glossary). 
Ames  Building,  Boston,  601. 
Amiens  Cathedral,  24,  309,   373,  378, 

394- 
Ammon,  Temple  of,  Karnac,  22,  24. 

Temple  of,  Luxor.  22,  28. 
Amphi-prostyle  (see  Glossary). 
Amphitheatre,  Roman,  147,  149. 

Aries,  152. 

Capua,  152. 

Dorchester,  152. 

Flavian,  149. 

Nimes,  152. 

Tola,  152. 

Verona,  152. 
Amravati,  tope,  612. 
Amritzar,  temple,  623. 
Amru,  mosque,  Cairo,  659. 
Amsterdam,  Stadthaus,  528. 
Ancien  Gretfe,  Bruges,  528. 
Ancient  American  architecture,  652. 
Palaces,  652. 
Temples,  652. 
Ancones  (see  Glossary). 
Anglo-Classic  style,  567. 
Anglo-Palladian  school,  582. 
Anglo-Saxon  style,  283,  327. 
Angouleme  Cathedral,  248. 
Annulet,  63  (see  Glossary). 
Anta  (see  Glossary), 
Antefixae  (see  Glossary). 
Anthemion  (see  Glossary),  106,  173. 
Anthemius  of  Tralles,  architect,  200. 
Antoninus  and  Faustina,  temple,  123. 
Antwerp  Cathedral,  386. 

Town  Hall,  528. 
Anuratlapura,  tope,  614. 
Aosta,  arch  of  Augustus,  153. 
Aphaia,  temple  of,  y£gina,  66,  67. 
Apodyteria,  141. 
Apollo,  temple  of,  Delos,  66. 
Apollo-Didymaeus,  Miletus,  temple,  56, 

58,  79,  84,  85,  87,  88. 
Apollo  Epicurius,   Bassse,   temple,   58, 

66,  72,  79-  87. 
Apollodorus   of    Damascus,    architect, 

139- 

Apophyge  (see  Glossary). 

Apostles,  church  of  the,  Cologne,  261. 

Apse  (see  Glossary). 

polygonal  in  Germany,  408. 

triple  Eastern,  261. 


Apse — continued. 

Western,  261,  264. 
Apteral  (see  Glossary). 
Aqueducts,  158. 

Anio  Novus,  159 

Aqua  Claudia,  159 

Aqua  Marcia,  159. 

Croton,  159 

Pont  du  Gard,  Nimes,  159. 

Segovia,  160. 

Spalato,  160. 

Tarragona,  1 60. 
Arabesque,  173,  654,  682. 
Arabian  Saracenic  Architecture,  657. 
Arseostyle  (see  Glossary). 
Arc  de  Triomphe,  Paris,  506. 
Arcade  (see  Glossary). 
Arcaded  galleries,  influence  on  Roman- 
esque buildings,  237. 
Arcades,  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean,  564. 

wall,  335. 
Arch  of  Augustus  at  Susa,  153. 

of  Constantine,  Rome,  153. 

Goldsmith's,  Rome,  153. 

Horse-shoe  (India),  629. 

of  Janus,  Rome,  156. 

Ogee,  657. 

at  Orange,  156. 

pointed,  introduction  of,  6. 

pointed,  351. 

Saracenic,  657. 

Septimius  Severus,  153. 

Sergii  at  Pola,  153. 

Squinch  (see  Glossary),  226. 

Titus,  Rome,  153. 

Trajan,  Ancona,  153. 

Trajan  Beneventum,  153. 

use  by  Assyrians,  35,  43. 

use  in  Greek  art,  54. 

use  by  Romans,  5,  114,  164. 
Arches  (see  Glossary). 

Saracenic,  679. 

Triumphal,  153. 

Archaic  temple,  Ephesus,  77,  79. 
Archbishop's  Palace,  Alcala,  534. 

Liege,  528. 

Archer,  Thomas,  architect,  581. 
Architecture  defined,  4. 

Grecian,  origin  of,  5. 

orders  of,  defined,  5,  53. 

origins  of,  I. 

two  types  of,  6. 
Architrave  (see  Glossary). 
Archivolt  (see  Glossary). 
Aries,  amphitheatre,  152. 

St.  Trophime,  246,  248. 
Army  and  Navy  Club  London,  485. 
Arnolfo  cli  Cam  bio,  417. 


INDEX. 


699 


Arris  (see  Glossary). 

Art  Galleries,  Liverpool,  596. 

Art  Union  Buildings,  London,  594. 

Artaxerxes,  palace  of,  41. 

Artemis  (Diana),  temple  of,  Ephesus, 

58,  79,  84,  202. 

Ascension,  church  of,  Jerusalem,  187. 
Ashburnham  House,  569. 
Ashlar  (see  Glossary). 
Ashur-nasir-pal,  palace  of,  40. 
Asia  Minor,  architecture  in,  55. 

Rock -cut  Tombs,  94. 
Aspendus,  theatre  at,  147. 
Assisi,  S.  Francis,  419. 
Assize  Courts,  Birmingham,  596. 

Bristol,  595. 

Manchester,  595. 
Assyrian  Architecture,  59. 

ornament,   influence  on  Greek,  44. 

palaces,  theories  as  to  roofing.  40. 

sculpture,  44. 
Aston  Hall,  555,  562. 
Astor  Estate  Office,  London,  595. 
Astragal  (see  Glossary). 
Astylar,  448,  490,  592  (see  Glossary). 
Atala  Musjid,  Jaunpore,  671. 
Atlantic  City,  library,  601. 
Athena,  temple  of,  Corinth,  63. 

temple  of,  Syracuse,  66. 

temple  of,  Priene,  51,  79. 
Athenaeum  Club,  Pall  Mall,   London, 

592. 
Athens,  Acropolis,  55,  79,  93. 

Choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates, 
85,  87,  169, 

Erechtheion,  58,  79,  81,  97,  591. 

Kapnikarea,  church  of  the,  210. 

Lysicrates,  monument  of,  85,  87. 

Metropole  Cathedral.  210. 

Odeion  of  Herodes  Atticus,  147. 

Old  Temple  of  Athena,  No.  17. 

Parthenon,  51,  58,  61,  66,  67,  102. 

Propylsea,  58,  66,  79,  93,  100. 

Stadion  at,  97. 

Stoa,  or  Portico,  85. 

Temple  on  the  Ilissus,  79. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  56, 
58,  85,  87,  90,  123. 

Temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  58,  79. 

Theatre  of  Dionysos,  92. 

Theseion,  58,  66,  67. 

Tower  of  the  Winds,  58,  87,  88, 

100. 

Atlantes  (see  Glossary). 

Atreus,  treasury  of,  Mycene,  3,  54,  631. 

Atrium,  1 80  (see  Glossary). 

Atrium  Veslse,  162. 

Attic  (see  Glossary). 


Attic  base,  77. 
Audiencia,  Valencia,  542. 
Audley  End,  Essex,  562. 
Augustinian  order,  219. 
Augustus,  arch  of,  153. 

mausoleum  of,  Koine,  157. 
Austin  Friars,  220. 
Australia,  architecture  in,  597. 
Autun  Cathedral,  249. 

Porte  S.  Andre,  156. 
Avebury,  cromlech,  3. 
Avignon,  N6tre  Dame,  248. 
Azay-le-Rideau,  chateau,  503. 
Aztec  architecture,  652. 

Baalbec,  circular  temple,  130,  136. 

Great  Temple,  58,  125,  202. 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  125,  130. 
Babel,  Tower  of,  39. 
Babylonia,  use  of  arch,  4. 
Babylonian  architecture,  37. 
Bagdad,  buildings  at,  669. 
Bailey,  318. 
Baillur,  temple,  623. 
Balbi,  palace,  Genoa,  496. 
Balcony,  Venetian,  477. 
Baldachino,  181  (see  Glossary). 
Ball-flower,  347  (see  Glossary). 
Ballu,  architect,  506. 
Balneum,  Roman,  145. 
Baluster  (see  Glossary). 
Baluster  mullions,  327. 
Balustrades,  Elizabethan  or  Jacobean, 

564- 

Bangor  Cathedral,  504. 
Bank  of  England,  Bristol,  592. 

Liverpool,  592. 

London,  582. 

Manchester,  592. 

Banks  and  Barry,  architects,  594. 
Banqueting    hall,    Kensington    Palace 

Gardens,  578. 

Banqueting  house,  Whitehall,  569. 
Baptisteries,  Early  Christian,  184. 

Constantine,  Rome,  184. 

Florence,  417. 

Nocera,  184. 

origin  of,  136. 

Pisa,  231. 

Ravenna,  184. 

treatment  of  in  England,  189. 
France,  189. 
Germany,  189. 
Italy,  189. 

Baptistery  (see  Glossary). 
Barbara  no  Palace,  488. 
Barberini  Palace,  Rome,  473. 

staircase  at,  490. 


700 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Barber  Surgeons'  Hall,  569. 
Barcelona  Cathedral,  426,  430,  433. 

S.  Maria  del  Mar,  430. 

Town  Hall,  433. 
Barfreston  Church,  332. 
Bari,  S.  Nicolo,  242. 
Barnack  Church,  327. 
Baroco  style,  496. 
Baroli,  temple,  623. 
Barry,  Sir  Charles,  architect,  592. 

works  by,  592,  593. 
Barry,  E.  M.,  architect,  594. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital,  581. 
Base  (see  Glossary). 
Base,  attic,  77. 
Basement  (see  Glossary). 
Basevi,  architect,  592. 
Basilica,  or  Hall  of  Justice,  136,   160 
(see  Glossary). 

Amelia,  139. 

Farno,  139. 

Julia,  139. 

Maxentius,  139. 

Psestum,  61,  66. 

Pompeii,  139. 

Rome,  139. 

Silchester,  139. 

Trajan's,  139. 

Treves,    139. 

Vicenza,  488. 
Basilican  Churches,  178. 

S.  Agnes,  Rome,  180. 

S.  Clemente,  180. 

S.  John  Lateran,  180,  182. 

S.  Lorenzo,  180. 

S.  Maria  Maggiore,  182. 

S.  Paul  beyond  the  Walls,  180, 182. 

S.    Peter   (old   basilican   church), 
180,  182. 

S.  Appollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna, 
182. 

S.  Appollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna, 

182. 
Bassse,  tern  pie  of  Apollo,  58,  66,  72,  77, 

79,  87- 

Bastle  houses,  359. 
Bath,  art  gallery,  596. 

municipal  buildings,  596. 
Prior  Park,  582. 
Pump  Room,  596. 
Baths,  or  Thermse,  141. 
Agrippa,  145. 
Caracalla,  142. 
Diocletian,  145. 
Gallienus,  145. 
Titus,  145,  173,  463. 
Battle  of  Marathon,  48. 
Salamis,  46 


Battlement  (see  Glossary). 

Bautista,  Juan  de,  architect,  537. 

Bay  (see  Glossary). 

Bay  windows,  551,  562. 

Bayeux  Cathedral,  373. 

Bead  (see  Glossary). 

Bead  moulding,  106. 

Beak-head,  332,  335. 

Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick,  351. 

Beaugency,  Hotel  de  Ville,  506. 

Beauvais  Cathedral,  376,  394. 

Bede  Houses,  the,  325. 

Bedford    Park,   Chiswick    (houses  at), 

595- 

Bedrooms,  Elizabethan,  555. 
Bedsa,  temple,  631,  632. 
Beehive  huts,  3. 

tombs,  54. 
Beffroi,  390. 

Bruges,  390. 
Belcher,  architect,  596. 
Belem,  church  of,  359. 
Belfry  (see  Glossary). 
Belgian  and  Dutch  Gothic  architecture, 

385. 

Gothic  ornament,  392. 
Belgian  and  Dutch  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture, 527. 

domestic  architecture,  528. 

ornament,  532. 

sculpture,  532. 
Bell  Capitals,  381. 
Bell,  Ingress,  architect,  596. 
Bell  tower,  Evesham,  351. 
Belvedere  Courts,  Vatican,  461. 
Belvederes,  476,  512,  642. 
Belvoir  Castle,  591. 
Belzoni's  Tomb,  Thebes,  20. 
Bema  (see  Glossary). 
Benedetto  da  Majano,  447. 
Benedictine  order,  218. 
Beni  Hasan,  tombs  at,  20,  59. 
Bentley,  architect,  216,  596. 
Benvenuto,  architect,  503. 
Berlin,  Brandenburg  Gate,  524. 

Museum,  524. 

New  Theatre,  524. 

Polytechnic  school,  524. 
Bernini,  architect,  471,  473,  496. 
Berruguete,  architect,  534,  537,  542. 
Bethlehem,  Church  of  the  Nativity,  187 
Beveiley  Minster,  351. 
Bevelacqua  Palace,  Verona,  490. 
Bhaja,  temple,  614. 
Bhilsa  topes,  612. 
Bhuvaneswar,  Great  Temple,  623. 

monument,  623. 
Bianco  Palace,  495, 


INDEX. 


701 


Bijapur,  Jumma  Musjid,  675. 
(mosque),  675. 
tomb  of  Mahmud,  675. 
Billet,  335  (see  Glossary). 
"  Biltmore,"  North  Carolina,  599. 
Bird's-beak  moulding,  63,  106. 
Birmingham,  assize  courts,  596. 
Grammar  school,  592. 
S.  Alban,  595. 
S.  Philip,  581. 

Birs-Nimroud,  temple  of,  37. 
Blenheim,  (near  Oxford),  580,  581. 
Blickling  Hall,  Norfolk,  562. 
Blois,  chateau  de,  378,  500. 

staircase  tower,  500. 
Blomfield,  architect,  596. 
Blore,  architect,  591. 
Bodley   and    Garner,    architects,    595, 

596. 

Bologna,  churches  and  palaces  at,  408. 
palace  at,  408,  467. 
S.  Petronio,  408. 
Bolsover  Castle,  Derbyshire,  562. 
Borghese  Palace,  Rome,  473. 
Borgognone,  architect,  495. 
Borromini,  architect,  496. 
Boss  (see  Glossary). 
Boss,  Decorated,  349. 
Early  English,  341. 
Perpendicular,  354. 
Bosses,  the  use  of,  290,  433. 
Boston,  Ames  Building,  60 1. 
Custom  House,  599. 
Massachusetts  State  House,  599. 
Museum,  599. 
Old  State  House,  598. 
Public  Library,  601. 
Tremont  Temple,  60 1. 
Trinity  Church,  599. 
Bourges  Cathedral,  368. 

house  of  Jacques  Cceur,  376. 
Bourgtheroulde,  Hotel  de,  Rouen,  506. 
Bournemouth,  S.  Clement,  596. 
Bow  Church,  Cheapside,  576. 
Bowden  Park,  Wilts,  582. 
Bowtel  (see  Glossary). 
Bowtel  moulding,  335. 
Bozrah,  church  at,  187. 
Bracket  (see  Glossary). 
Bracket,  Chinese,  650. 

capital,  Indian,  618,  630,  631,  632 
capitals,  Spanish,  537. 
Early  English,  341. 
mould,  353. 
Brahmanical  architecture,  611,  618. 

temples,  611. 

Bramante,  architect,  457,  471,  495- 
Bramshill,  Hants,  561. 


Branch  tracery,  402. 
Brandenburg  Gate,  Berlin,  524. 
Brandon,  architect,  594. 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Braschi  Palace,  Rome,  490. 
Brick  architecture,   33,   35,    385,  393, 
394,   398,   402,   404,  407,  408,' 
R.  .    488,  517,532,540,  547,  585-- 
Brickwork,  Byzaiitine,  197. 
Chinese,  635,  637,  646. 
Roman,  117. 
use  in  England,  279. 
Bridge,  Alcantara,  160. 
Cordova,  160. 
Croyland,  324. 
Old  London,  324. 
over  the  Adda  Trezzo,  411. 
over  the  Ticino,  Pavia,  411. 
Rimini,  160. 
Toledo,  1 60. 
Warkworth,  325. 
Bridges,  Roman,  160. 
Chinese,  642, 
English,  324. 
Bridgewater  House,  592. 
Brighton,  All  Saints,  596. 
Brinton  Church,  Norfolk,  293. 
Bristol,  assize  court,  595. 
bank  at,  592. 
Cathedral,  304,  336. 
British  Colonial  architecture,  597. 
British  Museum,  37,  39,  40,  43,  44,  55, 
72,   81,  82,   84,   94,    132,    142, 
341,  592,  594. 

Britton,  publications  by,  591. 
Brixworth  Church,  327. 
Broach  Spire,  318,  343  (see  Glossary). 
Brompton  Oratory,  595. 
Brooks,  architect,  595. 
Brooks'  Club,  London,  582. 
Broughton  Castle,  doorway,  565. 
Bruant,  architect,  509. 
Bruges,  Ancien  Greffe,  528- 
Cathedral,  386. 
the  Beffroi,  390, 
Town  Hall,  390. 
Brunelleschi,  architect,  408,  439,  447, 

449. 
Brunswick,  Gewandhaus,  521. 

Town  Hall,  398. 
Brussels,  Palais  de  Justice,  528. 
Cathedral,  385,  386,  392. 
Town  Hall,  390. 
Bryanston,  near  Salisbury,  596. 
Brydon,  architect,  596. 
Buccleuch  House,  Whitehall,  595. 
Buchan  Hill,  Sussex,  596. 
Buckingham  Palace,  591. 


702 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


Buddh-Gaya,  tope,  612. 
Buddhist  architecture,  610,  612. 

religion,  607. 

Rock-cut  Temples,  611. 
Building  Acts  of  Rome,  113. 
Buildings,  Public,  Greek,  97. 
Bullfinch,  architect,  599. 
Buon,    Giovanni     and     Bartolommeo, 

architects,  411. 
Burges,  W.,  architect,  594. 
Burghley,  Lord,  tomb  of,  565. 
Burghley,  Northants,  557. 
Burgos,  Casa  Miranda,  537. 

Cathedral,  426,  433,  539. 

dome  at,  426. 
Burlington,  Earl  of,  architect,  488,  580, 

581. 

Burlington  House,  London,  594. 
Burma,  architecture,  633. 
Burnham  and  Root,  architects,  601. 
Burns,  architect,  595, 
Burton,  architect,  592. 
Burton  Agnes  House,  Yorks,  553. 
Bury,  chateau  de,  5°°- 
Butcher  Row,  Shrewsbury,  322. 
Butterfield,  architect,  594. 
Buttress,  Norman,  332. 

Early  English,  336. 

Decorated,  343. 

Perpendicular,  351. 
Buttress,  use  of,  269  (see  Glossary). 
Buttresses  Flying,  299,  318,  337,  351, 

373- 

Byzantine  architecture,   192  (see  Glos- 
sary). 

influence  of,  194,  217,  230,  241. 

dome,  194,  490. 

mosaics,  198,  214. 

method  of  building,  197. 

ornament,  214. 

prototypes  of  churches,  187. 

sculpture,  214. 

walling,  194,  212. 

Ca  d'Oro  Palace,  411. 

Cadogan   Square,   houses   in.  London, 

594,  596. 
Caen,  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  250. 

Abbaye-aux-IIommes,  249. 

S.  Pierre,  506. 

S.  Nicolas,  250. 
Caen  Wood,  Hampstead,  582. 
Cahors  Cathedral,  248. 
Cairo,  mosque  of  Amru,  659. 

El  Muayyad,  663. 

Ibn  Tooloon,  659. 

Kait-Bey,  659,  679,  680,  682. 

Kalaoon,  659. 


Cairo — continued. 

Sultan  Barkook,  663. 

Sultan  Hassan,  659,  678. 
Caisson  (see  Glossary). 
Caius    College,    Cambridge,     Gate    of 

Honour,  557. 
Calidarium,  141. 
Callicrates,  architect,  66,  67,  79. 
Callimachus  of  Corinth,  85. 
Camber  well  Church,  594.. 
Cambiassi  Palace,  Genoa,  496. 
Cambodia  architecture,  633. 
Cambridge,    Caius    College,     Gate    of 
Honour,  557. 

Christ  College,  324. 

Clare  College,  324. 
Quadrangle,  557. 

Corpus  Christi  College,  324. 

Downing  College,  591. 

Emmanuel  College,  557. , 

Fitzwilliam  Museum,  592. 

Girton  College,  596. 

Gonville  College,  324. 

Jesus  College,  324. 

King's  College,  324,  351,  354,  591. 

King's  College  Chapel,  289,  324, 
351,  353,  376. 

Magdalen  College,  324.    . 

Newnham  College,  596. 

Pembroke  College,  324,  595. 

Pembroke  College  Chapel,  576. 

Peterhouse  College,  324. 

Queen's  College,  324. 

Senate  House,  581. 

Sidney  Sussex  College,  557. 

S.  John's  College,  324,  557. 

Trinity  College,  324. 
Nevill,  557. 
New  Court,  591. 

Trinity  Hall  College,  324. 
Cambridge,     U.S.A.,    Craigie    House, 

598. 

Campanile,  237  (see  Glossary). 
Campanile,   S.  Zenone,    Verona,   239, 
420. 

Florence,  417,  420. 

Lucca,  420. 

Mantua,  420. 

Pisa,  231. 

Pistoja,  420. 

Siena,  420. 

Campbell,  architect,  581. 
Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  417. 
Canada,  architecture  in,  597. 
Cancellaria  Palace,  457. 
Canephora,  102. 
Canopies,  354  (see  Glossary). 
Canossa  Verona,  490. 


INDEX. 


703 


Canterbury  Cathedral,  304, 

S.  Martin,  327. 

Canton  (Flowery)  Pagoda,  642. 
Capel  S.  Mary,  Suffolk,  293. 
Capella  Palatina,  241. 
Capilla  del  Condestable,  426. 
Capital  (see  Glossary). 
Capital,  Corinthian,  85. 

Doric,  61. 

Ionic,  77. 

Capitanio  Palace,  Vicenza,  488. 
Capitol,  Albany.  599. 

Rome,  palaces,  467. 

Washington,  599. 

Capra,  Villa  del,  Vicenza,  488,  582. 
Caprarola,  architect,  461. 
Caprarola,  palace,  463,  503. 
Capua,  amphitheatre,  152. 
Caracalla,  Thermae  of,  142. 
Cardiff  Castle,  594. 

Law  Courts,  597. 

Town  Hall,  597. 
Cardinal  d'Amboise,  506. 
Carlisle  Cathedral,  304. 
Carlton  Club,  London,  477,  594. 
Carlton  House,  London,  582. 
Carmona  Cathedral,  steeple,  540. 
Carnac,. Brittany,  Monolith,  3. 
Caroe,  architect,  597. 
Caryatid  Portico,  Athens,  82,  84. 
Caryatides  (see  Glossary). 
Carrere  and  Hastings,  architects,  601. 
Carthusian  order,  219. 
Casa  Infanta,  Saragossa,  540. 

Lonja,  Seville,  537. 

Miranda,  Burgos,  537. 
Cashel,  roof  at,  36  j. 

Cathedral,  360. 

Cormac's  Chapel,  360. 
Castle,  Chilham,  567. 

Coote,  582. 

Dover,  327. 

Heidelberg,  521. 

Heilberg,  398. 

Howard,  578,  580,  581. 

Kenilworth,  318. 

Marienberg,  398. 

mediaeval,  318. 

Meissen,  398. 

S.  Angelo,  Rome,  157. 

Stuttgart,  524. 

Castles  of  the  English  nobles,  318. 
Castor  and  Pollux,  temple,  123. 
Catacombs,  Rome,  157,  176. 
Catalonia,  domestic  work,  433. 
Cathedral,  Athens,  210. 
Cathedrals,  English.  294. 

French,  368. 


Cathedrals — continued. 

French  and  English  compared,  276, 
298,  299,  378. 

German,  394. 

Irish,  360. 

Italian,  408,  417,  419. 

Scotch,  359. 

Spanish,  426. 

Welsh,  305,  309. 

Cathedrals  and  churches  of  the  middle 
ages,  273. 

plans  of,  273. 
Catholic    Apostolic     Church,    Gordon 

Square,  London,  595. 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  Maida  Hill, 

London,  595. 

Caudebec,  pendant  vaulting,  290. 
Caulicoli  (see  Glossary). 
Cavalli,  palazzo,  Venice,  411. 
Caves,  i,  2,  4. 
Caves,  Rome,  157. 

Cavetta  moulding,  106  (see  Glossary). 
Cecilia  Metella,  tomb,  157. 
Cella,  Greek,  46. 
Cellini,  497,  503. 
Celtic  architecture,  360. 
Cephron,  pyramid  of,  17. 
Ceres,  Poestum,  temple  of,  66. 
Certosa,  Pavia,  219,  408,  495. 
Cestius,  pyramid  of,  158. 
Chaityas,  Indian,  606,  612,  614,  628. 
Chakra,  631. 
Chalgrin,  architect,  506. 
Chalukyan  temples,  623,  629. 
Chalukyian  architecture,  611,  623. 
Chambers,  Sir  William,  architect,  582, 
588. 

publication  by,  582. 

classic  orders  (proportions),  582. 
Chambord,  chateau  de,  500. 
Champneys,  architect,  596. 
Chancel  (see  Glossary). 
Chancel  screens,  354. 
Chandravati,  temple,  623. 
Chantries,  316,  325,  354. 
Chantry  Chapel,  Wakefield,  324. 
Chapel  (see  Glossary). 
Chapel  of  the  Condestable,  426. 

King's  College,  Cambridge,   324, 

351- 

Lambeth  Palace,  336. 
Lincoln's  Inn,  569. 
Nine  Altars,  Durham,  299. 304, 378. 
S.  Ethelreda,  Holborn,  343,  347- 
S.  Stephen,  Westminster,  324. 
Savoy,  349. 
Sixtus  V.,  473. 
Wakefield,  324. 


704 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Chapels,  English  mediaeval,  322. 
Chapter  houses,  299  (see  Glossary). 
Charing  Cross  Station,  London,  594. 
Charlecote,  557. 
Charlestown,  S.  Michael,  598. 
Charlton,  Wilts,  555. 
Charterhouse,  London,  219. 
Hall  of,  561. 
Chapel  screen,  565. 
Chartres  Cathedral,  373- 
Chastleton  House,  Wilts,  553,  561. 
Chateau  d'Azay-le-Rideau,  503. 

de  Blois,  378,  500. 

Bury,  500. 

Chainbord,  500,  595. 

Chenonceaux,  503. 

French  (typical  plan),  500. 

de  Maisons,  $06. 

de  Pierrefonds,  376. 

de  S.  Germain-en-Laye,  503. 

de  Vitre,  506. 
Chatsworth,  580,  581. 
Chedanne,  architect,  130,  134. 
Chelsea  Hospital,  576. 
Chenonceaux,  chateau  de,  503. 
Cheops,  pyramid  of,  17. 
Chester  Cathedral,  304. 

churches,  596. 

houses  at,  325,  561,  596. 
Chesterfield  House,  London,  581. 
Chevening  House,  569,  578. 
Chevet,  the  249,  299,  309,   368,  373, 
376,   378,    386,    390,   398,  426, 
434  (see  Glossary). 
Chiaravalle,  central  lantern  tower,  420. 

Tower,  420. 
Chicago,  U.S.,  Exhibition,  599,  601. 

Garrick  (Schiller)  Theatre,  601. 

Masonic  Temple,  60 1. 

Monadnock  Building,  60 1. 

Public  Library,  601. 
Chichester  Cathedral,  304,  332. 

S.  Mary's  Hospital,  325. 
Chiddingstone,  houses,  325. 

S.  Luke,  596. 

Chieracati  Palace,  Vicenza,  488. 
Chilham  Castle,  Kent,  567- 
Chillambaram,  temple,  628,  630. 
Chimnies,  512,  551,  562,  588. 
Chinese  and  Japanese  architecture,  634.. 

baths,  646. 

bridges,  642,  645. 

canals,  634,  645. 

cities,  646. 

engineering  works,  645. 

Grand  Canal,  634. 

Great  Wall,  637,  645. 

hotels,  646. 


Chinese   and   Japanese    architecture— 
continued. 

houses,  645. 

monasteries,  639. 

ornament,  650. 

pagodas,  634,  638,  642. 

pailoos,  642. 

palaces,  639. 

restaurants,  646. 

tea  houses,  645. 

temples,  639. 

theatres,  646. 

tombs,  642. 
Chiswick,  villa  at,  488,  581. 

parish  church,  595. 
Chittore,  temple,  623. 
Choir,  1 80  (see  Glossary). 

screens,  325. 
Cholual,  temple,  652. 
Chora,  Church  of  the,  Constantinople, 

204. 
Choragic  monument  ot  Lysicrates,   85, 

87. 

Choragus  (see  Glossary). 
Choultrie,  Mandura,  628. 
Choultries,  Indian,  612,  628,  629. 
Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Christchurch,  Hampshire,  434. 

Spitalfields,  581. 

Philadelphia,  598. 
Christ's    Hospital,    Horsham,    Sussex, 

596. 

Christian  religion,  176. 
Chryselephantine  statue  at  Parthenon, 

69. 

Church  House,  Westminster,  596. 
Church  of  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  509. 
Churches,  London,  by  Wren,  576. 
Churrigufira,  architect,  540. 
Churrigueresque  style,  534,  540. 
Cimabue,  419. 
City  Bank,  London,  596. 

Guilds  Institute,  London,  595. 

of  London  Schools,  595. 
Cimborio,  426,  433. 
Cinquefoil,  337  (see  Glossary). 
Circi,  Roman,  151. 
Circus  Maxentius,  Rome,  152. 
Circular  temples,  Baalbec,  130,  136. 

Pantheon,  130. 

Roman,  123. 

Temple  of  Mater  Matuta,  130. 
Cistercian  order,  219. 
City  Hall,  Albany,  599. 
Civil  Service  Commission,  Burlington 

Gardens,  593. 
Clare  College,  Cambridge,  324. 

Quadrangle,  557. 


INDEX 


7°5 


Claremont  House,  Esher,  582. 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  London,  27. 
Clepsydra  (see  Glossary). 
Clerestory,      43,      275,       343        (see 

Glossary). 
Clermont-Ferrand,    Notre     Dame    du 

Port,  247,  248. 
Cley  Church,  Norfolk,  347. 
Cliefden,  593. 

Cloaca  Maxima,  Rome,  1 19. 
Cloister,  S.  John  Lateran,  232. 
Cloisters,  275,  378,  426  (see  Glossary). 
Close,  church,  277,  299. 
Cloth  Hall,  Ypres,  390. 
Clouds,  Hampshire,  595. 
Clumber  Church,  Notts,  596. 
Cluniac  order,  219. 
Cluny,  abbey  church  of,  249.* 
Cnidus,  lion  tomb,  94,  100. 
Cobham,  Almshouses,  325. 
Cockerel!,  Prof.,  architect,  75,  592. 

publications  by,  591,  592. 
Cockerell,  F.  P.,  architect,  594. 
Coffers  (see  Glossary). 
Colchester  Town  Hall,  596. 
Coleshill,  Berks,  569. 
Collar-braced  roof,  293. 
Collcutt,  architect,  596. 
College,  Edinburgh,  582. 

Eton,  324. 

Colleges,    Cambridge,    Cains    (Gate  of 
Honour),  557. 

Christ's,  324. 

Clare,  324,  557. 

Corpus  Christi,  324. 

Downing,  591. 

Emmanuel,  557. 

Girton,  596. 

Gonville,  324. 

Jesus,  324. 

King's,  324,  351,  354,  591. 

King's  College  Chapel,  289,  324, 
35i»  353,376, 

Magdalene,  324. 

Newnham,  596. 

Pembroke,  324,  595. 

Pembroke  College  Chapel,  576. 

Peterhouse,  324. 

Queens',  324. 

S.  John's,  324,  557. 

Sidney  Sussex,  557. 

Trinity,  324. 

Nevill  Court,  557. 
New  Court,  591. 

Trinity  Hall,  324. 
Colleges,  Oxford,  All  Souls,  324. 

Brasenose,  324. 

Christchurch,  324. 

F.A. 


Colleges,  Oxford— continued. 

Corpus  Christi,  324. 

Exeter,  324. 

Lincoln,  324. 

Magdalen,  324. 

Merton,  324,  351,  353. 

New,  324. 

Oriel,  324. 

Queen's,  324. 

S.  John's,  324. 

Trinity,  324. 

Worcester,  324. 
Collegiate  churches,  298. 
Collingham  Gardens,  London,  works  at, 

596. 
Cologne  Cathedral,  394,  401,  473. 

Chevet,  398. 

Church  of  the  Apostles,  261. 

dwelling-houses,  298. 

Rathhaus,  521. 

S.  Cunibert,  261. 

S.  Maria  im  Capitol,  261. 

S.  Martin,  261. 
Color  in  Greek  art,  53. 
Colosseum,  Rome,  114,  149. 
Columbaria,  Rome,  157. 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  6oi. 
Column  (see  Glossary). 
Column,  Antoninus  Pius,  156. 

entasis,  51,  61. 

rostral,  156. 

Trajan's,  139,  156. 
Columns  in  western  asiatic  architecture, 

43- 
Comparison  : 

Belgian  and    Dutch    Renaissance, 

538. 

Early  Christian  and  Byzantine,  210. 
Elizabethan  and  Jacobean   styles, 

562. 
French  and  German  Renaissance, 

521. 

Gothic  and  Renaissance,  442. 
Greek  and  Roman,  164. 
Italian   and    French   Renaissance, 

442. 

Composite  order,   53,   171    (see   Glos- 
sary). 

Compton  Wynyates,  322. 
Concord,  temple  of,  Agrigentum,  66. 

temple  of,  Rome,  123. 
Concrete,  use  of,  by  Romans,  115. 
Confucianism,  636. 
Congleton  Town  Hall,  595. 
Congressional     Library,     Washington, 

601. 

Conjeveram,  temple,  628. 
Connestable,  chapel  of  the,  426. 

Z  Z 


yo6 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Conoidal  vaulting,  288. 
Consiglio,  Palace,  Verona,  490. 
Console  (see  Glossary). 
Constantine,  Arch  of,  Rome,  153. 

baptistery,  184. 

Constantinople,  Church  of  the  Chora, 
204. 

Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  208. 

Church  of  Theotokos,  204. 

fountains,  671. 

mosque  of  Suleiman  I.,  669. 

mosque  of  Ahmed  L,  669. 

S.  Irene,  204. 

SS.  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  198,  200. 

S.  Sophia,  195,  200,  473,  669. 
Constitutional  Club,  London,  596. 
Contarini-Fasan  Palace,  411. 
Convent,  East  Grinstead,  594. 
Convocation    Room,    Oxford,    Throne 

and  Stalls,  565. 
Cope,  Architect,  60 1. 
Coping  (see  Glossary). 
Corbel  tables,  335  (see  Glossary). 
Corbels  (see  Glossary). 
Corbie  gable,  359. 
Cordeliers,    Church  of  the,   Toulouse, 

376. 
Cordova,  bridge,  1 60. 

mosque,  663. 

Corinth,  temple  of  Athena,  47,  63. 
Corinthian     order,    53,    85,    102,    169 

(see  Glossary). 
Corinthian  capital,  86,  87. 
Cork  Cathedral,  594. 
Cormac's,  chapel,  360. 
"overcrott,"  360. 
Cornaro  Palace,  Venice,  485. 
Cornice  (see  Glossary). 
Coro,  426. 

Corona  63,  106  (see  Glossary) . 
Corps  de  Logis,  500. 
Corpus    Christi    College,    Cambridge, 

324. 

Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Corsini  Palace,  Rome,  490. 
Cortile,  511  (see  Glossary). 
Cortile  of  S.  Damaso,  461. 

della  Loggie,  461. 
Cortona  artist,  497. 
Cosmato  work,  420. 
Cossutius,  architect,  87,  90. 
County  Buildings,  Pittsburg,  599. 
Court  of  the  Alberca,  Alhambra,    Gra- 
nada, 667. 

of  the  Lions,  667. 
Coutances  Cathedral,  373. 
Covent  Garden,  Theatre,  594. 
Coventry,  Ford's  Hospital,  325. 


Craigie    House,    Cambridge,    U.S.A., 

598. 

Craigside  near  Salisbury,  596. 
Cranbourne  House,   Dorsetshire,   553, 

562. 

Manor,  320. 

Cremona,  churches  and  palaces  at,  408. 
Crestings,  354. 
Crete,  palace  at  Knossos,  54. 
Crewe  Town  Hall,  597. 
Crocket  (see  Glossary). 
Cromlechs,  3. 
Crosby  Hall,  320,  349. 
Cross  (see  Glossary). 
Cronaca,  architect,  454. 
Crossland,  architect,  595. 
Croton  aqueduct,  New  York,  159. 
Croyland,  Triangular  Bridge,  324. 
Cruciform  plan  of  churches,  273. 
Crutched  Friars,  220. 
Crypt  (see  Glossary). 
Crystal  Palace,  30,  163,  445,  463,  471, 

667. 

Cupola  (see  Glossary). 
Currey,  architect,  595. 
Ctesiphon,  palace,  667. 
Cusps,  337  (see  Glossary). 
Custom  House,  Boston,  599. 

Dublin,  582. 

Custom's  House,  New  York,  599. 
Cyclopean  walls,  49,  54- 
Cyclopean  work,  119. 
Cyma  (see  Glossary). 
Cyma-recta  moulding,  102. 
Cyma-reversa  moulding,  106. 
Cymatium,  63  (see  Glossary). 
Cyprus,  Ionic  capitals  at,  77. 
Cyrene  rock -cut  tombs,  94. 

Dado  (see  Glossary). 

Dai's,  320  (see  Glossary). 

Damascus,    Mosque-el-Walid     (Omay- 

yade),  659. 

Dance,  George,  sen.,  architect,  581. 
Dance,  George,  jun. ,  architect,  581. 
Danzic,  Zeughaus  at,  524. 
Daphne  of  Miletus,  architect,  79,  84, 

87. 

Daphni,  church  at,  210. 
Darius,  tomb  of,  41. 
Dartmouth,  Naval  College,  597. 
Davis  and  Emmanuel,  architects,  595. 
Dawkins  and   Wood,    publication  by, 

582. 

Dawpool,  near  Salisbury,  596. 
Deane  and  Woodward,  architects,  595- 
De  Brosse,  architect,  506. 
Decastyle  (see  Glossary). 


INDEX. 


707 


Decorated,  geometrical  or  curvilinear, 

style,  283,  341  (see  Glossary), 
ornaments,  347. 
vaulting,  287. 

Deerhurst  Church,  327,  328. 
Delhi,  Dewan  Khas,  656. 
Jumma  Musjid,  677. 
Kutub  Minaret,  671. 
Kutub  Mosque,  671. 
mosque,  656. 

palace  of  Shah  Jehan,  656,  677. 
Delia  Robbia,  445,  447. 
Delos,  temple  of  Apollo,  66. 
Delphi,  architecture  at,  55. 

stadion  at,  97. 

Demeter,  temple,  at  Eleusis,  66. 
Demetrius  of  Ephesus,  architect,  79,  84. 
Denderah,  temple  of  Hathor,  25. 
Dentils  (see  Glossary). 
Deperthes,  architect,  506. 
Derby,  R.C.  church  at,  592. 
Der-el-Bahri,  temple  of,  20,  22. 
Devonshire  House,  Piccadilly,  581. 
Dewan  Khas,  Delhi,  656. 

Futtehpore  Sikhri,  677. 
Dharwar,  temple,  623. 
Diagonal  rib,  287. 
Diana,  temple  of,  Nimes,  123,  125. 
(Artemis),  temple  of,  Ephesus,  58, 

79,  84,  202. 
Diaper  (see  Glossary). 
Diastyle  (see  Glossary). 
Dieppe,  S.  Jacques,  376. 
Dikha,  in  mosques,  678. 
Diocletian,  baths  of,  145. 
palace  at  Spalato,  161. 

gateway,  156. 
Diomede,  house  of,  163. 
Dionysos,  temple  of,  at  Teos,  79. 

theatre  of,  at  Athens,  92. 
Dipteral  (see  Glossary). 
Doge's  Palace,  Donjou,  318,  503. 

Venice,  411,  477,  593- 
Dog-tooth   ornament,    336   (see    Glos- 
sary). 

Dolmens,  3,  2. 
Dome  (see  Glossary). 
Dome,  Byzantine,  194,  490. 
Florence  Cathedral,  449. 
Invalides,  509. 
Jaina.  611,  618,  629,  630. 
of  the  Rock,  659. 
Renaissance,  443. 
Roman,  117,  118,  164. 
Saracenic,    654,    656,    657,    667, 

669,  671,  679,  680. 

Domestic  architecture,  United  States, 
601. 


Domestic  architecture  —  continued. 

Venetian,  411. 

Domestic  buildings,  Greek,  92. 
Dominicans,  order  of,  220. 
Domus,  162. 

Donatello,  439,  445,  447. 
Doncaster,  S.  George,  594. 
Dorchester  Amphitheatre,  152. 
Dorchester  House,  461,  594. 
Dordrecht  Cathedral,  386. 
Doric  capitals,  61. 

columns,  61. 

temples,  63,  66. 

Doric   order,    53,    58,    102,    167    (see 
Glossary). 

guttse  in,  59. 

prototypes  59. 

Dormer  windows,  512,  564  (see  Glos- 
sary). 

Dorset,  Cranbourne  Manor,  320. 
Douglas     and      Fordham,    architects, 

596. 

Dover  Castle  and  Church,  327. 
Dover  House,  Whitehall,  582. 
Downing  College,  Cambridge,  591. 
Dravidian  architecture,  6il,  628. 

temples,  628. 
Dresden,  Frauenkirche,  524. 

Zwinger  Palace,  524. 
Dripstones,  347  (see  Glossary). 
Dryburgh  Abbey,  359. 
Dublin  Cathedral,  360. 

Custom  House,  582. 

Law  Courts,  582. 
Du  Cerceau,  architect,  505. 
Dugga,  tomb  at,  158. 
Dulwich,  church  at,  597. 

College,  594. 

Picture  Gallery,  582. 
Dunblane  Cathedral,  359. 
Dunfermline  Abbey,  359. 
Durazzo  Palace,  496. 
Durham  Cathedral,  304,  332. 

Chapel  of  nine  altars,   299,    304, 

378. 

Dutch  church,  Austin  Friars,  343. 
Dwelling-house,  evolution  of,  55. 
Dwellings,  Egyptian,  27. 

English  mediaeval,  322. 

German  Gothic,  398. 

Greek,  92. 

lake,  3. 

of  the  Romans,  162. 

Saracenic,  678. 
Dynham  House,  Gloucestershire,  581. 

Earl's  Barton,  327,  328. 
Early  Basilican  churches,  178. 

2,  Z   2 


708 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE 


Early  Christian  architecture,  176. 

baptisteries,  184. 

churches,  178. 

mosaics,  182,  191. 

ornament,  191. 

tombs,  187. 

walling,   189. 
Early  English  style,  283  (see  Glossary). 

ornament,  341- 

vaulting,  286. 
Eaton  Hall,  Cheshire,  595. 
Eaves  (see  Glossary). 
Echinus,  63  (see  Glossary). 
Echinus  of  capital,  63. 

moulding,  77. 
Eclfou,  temple  of,  25,  28. 
Edinburgh  College,  582. 

George  Heriot's  Hospital,  553. 

Fettes  College,  500. 

Register  Office,  582. 

S.  Mary's  Cathedral,  594. 
?:dis,  architect,  596. 
Egesta,  temple  of,  66. 
Egham,  Holloway  College,  503,  595. 
Egypt,  map  of  (No.  3). 

primitive  architecture  of,  12. 

sphinx,  17. 
Egyptian  architecture,  4. 

columns,  29. 

court,  Crystal  Palace,  30. 

dwellings,  27.  • 

obelisks,  22,  27. 

ornament,  29. 

pylons,  22. 

pyramids,  15,  17. 

roofs,  28. 

sculpture,  29. 

temples,  15,  20,  28. 

tombs,  15,  1 8,  20. 

Egyptian-Saracenic  architecture,  659. 
Eleanor  crosses,  343. 
Elephanta,  temple,  614. 
Elephantine,  mammeisi  at,  22. 
Eleusis,  Hall  of  the  Mysteries,  66. 

propylaea,  93. 

Teleskrion,  58. 

temple,  58. 

vestibule,  87. 
Elgin  Cathedral,  359. 
Elgin,  Lord,  72. 
Elgin  marbles,  591. 
Elizabeth,  monument  to,  Westminster 

Abbey,  565. 
Elizabethan  arcades.  564. 

balustrades,  564 
bedrooms,  555. 

chimneys,  551. 
colleges,  557. 


Elizabethan — continued, 

fireplace,  555. 

gables,  562. 

gallery,  555. 

hall,  553- 

mansions,  553. 

panelling,  555. 

plaster  ceilings,  564,  565. 

tapestries,  565. 

terraces  and  steps,  562. 

town  houses,  561. 

style,  356,  551. 

windows,  562. 
Ellora,  Rath,  628. 

temple,  614. 
Elmes,  architect,  592. 
El-Muayyad  Mosque,  Cairo,  663. 
Eltham  Palace,  roof  at,  293,  347. 
Ely  Cathedral,  304,  332,  336,  343,  571. 

Trinity  Church,  289. 
Ely  House.  Dover  Street,  London,  581. 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  557. 
England,  use  of  brickwork  in,  279. 

Roman  camps,  280. 
roads,  280. 
settlements,  280. 

terra-cotta,  279. 
English  architecture,  278. 

almshouses,  325. 

ancient  timber  houses,  325. 

Anglo-Classic,  327,  567. 

Anglo-Palladian  School,  582. 

Anglo-Saxon,  283. 

Bede  houses,  325. 

castles  and  residences,  318. 

cathedrals,  294. 

chapels,  322. 

colleges  and  schools,  324. 

Decorated    geometrical   or   curvi- 
linear style,  283,  341. 

dwellings  of  the  people,  322. 

Early  English  (Lancet)  style,  283, 

Elizabethan    and   Jacobean   orna- 
ment, .564. 

sculpture,  564. 
Elizabethan  style,  356,  551. 
Georgian  style,  578. 
Gothic  ornament,  382. 

sculpture,  341,  347,  354,  382. 

vaulting,  283,- 
hospitals,  325.' 
Jacobean  style,  356,  561. 
nineteenth  century,  589,  593. 
Norman  (Romanesque),  283,  328. 
parish  churches,  316. 
Perpendicular  style,  349. 
Queen  Anne  style,  578. 


INDEX. 


709 


English  architecture — continued. 

Renaissance,  545. 

ornament,  588. 

styles  of,  325. 

Tudor  period,  356. 
Entablature  (see  Glossary). 
Entablature,    main   divisions,    53,    63, 

.  77.  87. 

Entasis  (see  Glossary). 
Entasis  of  columns,  51,  61. 
Ephesus  (archaic  temple).  77,  79    84. 

Palaestra,  97. 

stadion  at,  97. 

temple  of  Artemis,  58,  7.9,  84,  202. 
Epidauros,  propylaaa,  93. 

stadion  at,  97. 

theatre  at,  92. 

Tholos  at,  58,  66,  87,  100. 
Erechtheton,   Athens,  58,  79,    81,   97, 

59I-. 

caryatid  portico,  81. 

doorway  at,  loo. 

pandroseion  at,  81. 
Ermine  Street,  280. 
Erwin  von  Steinbach,  396. 
Escurial  Palace,  Madrid,  161,  537,  542. 
Esher,  Claremont  House,  582. 
Eton  College,  324. 
Etruscan  architecture,  ifg. 

museum,  Rome,  463. 
Etruscans,  5,  113. 
Eustyle  (see  Glossary). 
Evesham,  bell  tower,  351. 
Examination  Schools,  Oxford,  596. 
Exedra  (see  Glossary). 
Exeter  Cathedral,  305,  332,  343. 

churches  at,  597. 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Exhibition,  Chicago,  599,  601. 

of  1851,  593. 

Philadelphia,  599. 

S.  Louis,  599. 
Ezra,  church  at,  187. 

Fa$ade  (see  Glossary). 

Falaise,  church  at,  506. 

Fan  vault  (see  Glossary). 

Fan  vaulting,  288,  353,  381. 

Farnese  Palace,  Rome,  461,  592. 

Farnesina,  Villa,  Rome,  461. 

Farno,  Basilica  at,  139. 

Farsetti  Palace,  237.' 

Fascia  (see  Glossary). 

Faucis,  163. 

Faun,  house  of  the,  163. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  533. 

Ferrey,  architect,  594- 

Fettes  College,  Edinburgh,  500. 


Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  result  of, 

549- 

Fiesole,  theatre  at,  147. 
Filarete,  architect,  495,  505. 
Fillet  moulding,  106  (see  Glossary). 
Finial,  Early  English,  341. 

Decorated,  349. 

Perpendicular,  354. 
Firouzabad,  palace,  667. 
Fitzroy  Square,  London,  houses,  582. 
Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge,  592. 
Flamboyant    period,    French    Gothic, 

368,  381- 

Flamboyant  tracery.  380 (see  Glossary). 
Flavian  amphitheatre,  149. 
Fleche  (see  Glossary). 
Fleche,  Amiens,  373,  378. 

Laon,  378. 

flemish  influence  on  Spanish  Renais- 
sance, 544. 
Fleur-de-lis,  354. 
Florence,  baptistery,  417. 

bronze  baptistery  gates,  441. 

campanile,  417,  420. 

Cathedral,  405,  417,  473. 

dome,  449. 

Gaudagnt  Palace,  454- 

Laurentian  Library,  467. 

Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  417- 

Loggia  S.  Paolo,  448. 

Medici  mausoleum,  467. 

Ospedale  degli  Innocenti,  448. 

Palazzo  Vecchio,  417,  441. 

Pandolfini  Palace,  449,  463,  592. 

Pazzi  Chapel,  453. 

Pitti  Palace,  449,  453,  506. 

Ponte  alle  Grazie,  411. 

Ponte  Vecchio,  411. 

Renaissance  at,  446. 

Riccardi  Palace,  448,  449,  453. 

Ruccellai  Palace,  453. 

S.  Croce,  417. 

S.  Lorenzo,  449,  467. 

S.  Maria  Novella,  417,  453. 

S.  Miniato,  232. 

S.  Spirito,  449. 

Strozzi  Palace,  449,  454- 
Florence,  H.  L.,  architect,  596. 
Florida,  Ponce  de  Leon  Hotel,  601. 
Fluting  (see  Glossary). 
Fluting,  variety  in  Doric  columns.  61. 

carried  out  in  sittt,  167. 
Flying-buttress,  299,  318,  337,  351,  373. 

(see  Glossary). 
Foliage,  stiff  leaf,  341,  381. 
Folkestone,      churches     and     schools, 

597- 
Fondaco  dei  Turchi,  237. 


710 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


Font,  Decorated,  349. 
Early  English,  341. 
Norman,  335. 
Perpendicular,  354. 
Fontainebleau,  503. 
Fontana,  architect,  473. 
Fontevrault  Abbey,  249. 
Fonthill  Abbey,  582,  591. 
Fora,  Roman,  120. 
Ford's  Hospital,  Coventry,  325. 
Foreign  Office,  London,  594. 
Formal  Gardens,  Elizabethan,  562. 
Formeret  (see  Glossary). 
Fortuna  Virilis,  temple,  123. 
Forum  Romanum,  Rome,  120,  130. 

of  Trajan,  120. 
Foscari,  palace,  411. 
Fosse  Way,  280. 
Fountain      Court,      Hampton      Court 

Palace,  576. 

Fountain  of  Trevi,  Rome,  473- 
Fountains  at  Constantinople,  671. 

Roman,  164. 
Four-centred  arch,  289. 
Fovvke,  architect,  595. 
France,  Reformation  in,  497. 
Franciscans,  22O. 
Frari  Church,  Venice,  407. 
Frauenkirche,  Dresden,  524. 
Freemason's  Tavern,  London,  594. 
Freiburg  Cathedral,  396,  401. 

Chevet,  398. 

Freidrichsbau,  Heidelberg,  521. 

French  Gothic  architecture,  362. 

Cathedrals.  368. 

three  periods  of,  368. 

French  Gothic  ornament,  382. 

sculpture,  382. 

French  Renaissance  architecture,  497. 
ornament,  513. 
periods  of,  498. 
sculpture,  516. 
French  Romanesque  architecture,  223, 

246. 

ornament,  254. 
sculpture,  257. 
towers,  250,  494. 
Fresco  (see  Glossary;. 
Frescoes,  266,  382,  443,  444,  447,  494, 

511,  526,  588,  632. 
Friars,  the,  220. 

Friars  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  220. 
Frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  72. 
Frigidarium,  141. 
Fuga,  architect,  473. 
Furniture,  Jacobean,  561. 
Futtehpore  Sikhri,  675. 
Dewan  Khas,  677. 


Futtehpore  Sikhri— continued. 
mosque,  675. 
tomb  of  Selim  Chistee,  677. 

Gable  (see  Glossary). 

Gable  cross,  341,  349,  354. 

Gables,  scroll  work,  562. 

Galilee  porch,  304,  336  (see  Glossary). 

Galilei,  architect,  473. 

Galla  Placidia,  tomb  of,  187. 

Gallery  (see  Glossary). 

Gallery,  Elizabethan,  555. 

minstrels',  320. 
Gallienus,  baths  of,  145. 
Gandhara  Monastry,  614. 
Gandon,  architect,  582. 
Garden  Facade,  Hampton  Court  Palace, 

576. 
Gardening  (landscape    to  Elizabethan 

houses,  551 

.Gargoyle  (see  Glossary). 
Gamier,  architect,  27,  506. 
Garrick    (Schiller)    Theatre,     Chicago, 

601. 
Gate  of  Honour,  Cambridge,  557. 

of  Lions,  Mycenae,  55. 
Gateway,  Halberstadt,  524. 

Sanchi,  632. 

Schools,  Oxford,  557. 
Gaudagni  Palace,  Florence,  454. 
Gaur,  Adinah  Mosque,  675. 
General  Post  Office,  London,  592. 
Genoa,  Bianco,  495. 

Cambiassi,  496. 

churches  and  palaces  at,  408. 

Durazzo,  496. 

Municipio,  495. 

Palazzo  Balbi,  496. 

Renaissance  at,  495. 

Rosso,  495. 

S.     Maria    dei     Carignano,     496, 

539- 
Geological    Museum,    Piccadilly,    477, 

593- 

George  and  Peto,  architects,  596. 
George  Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh, 

553- 
Georgian  style,  578. 

pediments,  585. 

staircases,  585. 
German  Gothic  architecture,  393. 

cathedral,  394. 

ornament,  402. 

polygonal  apse,  408. 

sculpture,  402. 
German  Renaissance  architecture,  517 

ornament,  526. 

sculpture,  526. 


INDEX. 


711 


German  Romanesque  architecture,  258. 

ornament,  266. 

towers,  264. 

two-storied  churches,  264. 
Gernroue  abbey  church,  261. 
Gerona  Cathedral,  430. 
Gesu  Church,  Rome,  467. 
Gewandhaus,  Brunswick,  521. 
Ghats,  Indian,  623. 
Ghent  Cathedral,  386. 

Town  Hall,  390. 
Ghiberti,  architect,  417,  439,  441,  445, 

447- 
Giant's      Staircase,      Doges'      Palace, 

Venice,  477. 

Gibbs,  James,  architect,  581. 
Gibson,  John,  architect,  594. 
Gigantomachia  at  Pergamon,  108. 
Giocondo,  architect,  445,  471,  490. 
Giotto,  417,  419. 
Giotto's  Chapel,  Padua,  421. 
Gira,  663. 

Giralda,  Seville,  663. 
Giraud  Palace,  Rome,  440,  457. 
Girgenti  (see  "  Agrigentum  "),  66. 
Girnar,  temple,  618,  629. 
Girton  College,  Cambridge,  596. 
Gizeh,  Great  Pyramid  at,  17. 
Glasgow,  buildings  at,  595- 

Cathedral,  359. 

municipal  buildings,  595. 
Glass,  painted,  254,  272. 

stained,  335,  341,  347,  382>  4O2, 

433.  434,  444,  544- 
Glendalough,     S.      Kevin's     Kitchen, 

360. 
Gloucester  Cathedral,   289,   305,   332, 

351,  353- 

Glyptotek,  Munich,  524. 

Gods  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  46. 

Godwin,  architect,  595. 

Goldie,  architect,  595. 

Goldsmiths,  arch  of  the,  Rome,  153. 

Gonville  College,  Cambridge,  324. 

Gopura,  Mandura,  628. 

Gopuras,  Indian,  612,  628,  629. 

Gosford  Park,  595. 

Gothic  architecture  in  Europe,  267. 

method  of  construction,  269. 

towers,  299,  442. 

walls,  369,  442. 
Gothic  vaulting  in  England,  283. 

Europe,  272,  443. 
Goujon,  J.,  sculptor,  505. 
Grace  Church,  New  York,  599. 
Grange  House,  Hants,  391. 
Granada,    Alhambra,    537,    667,    678, 
679,  680. 


Granada — continued. 
Cathedral,  540. 

steeple  at,  540. 
Court  of  the  Alberca,  667. 
Court  of  the  Lions,  667. 
Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  667. 
Hall  of  Judgment,  667. 
Palace  of  Charles  V.,  537. 
Great  Fire  of  London,  571. 
Great  Hospital  at  Milan,  505. 
Great  Mosque,  Delhi,  656. 

Mecca,  657. 

Great  Temple  of  Palmyra,  125. 
Great  Wall,  China,  637. 
Greece,  map  of,  45  (No.  14). 
Greek  architecture,  45. 
agora,  97. 
arch,  use  of,  54. 
character  of,  49. 
columns,  102. 
dwellings,  92. 
Hellenic  period,  49,  55. 
Minoan  period  of,  53. 
mouldings,  102. 
Mycenaean  ait,  53. 
ornament,  106,  171. 
palaces  and  domestic  buildings,  92. 
Palaestra  (Gymnasia),  97,  141. 
pediments,  69. 
propylaea,  93. 
public  buildings,  97. 
refinements  in,  51. 
sculpture,  106. 
stadion,  97. 
stele,  94,  108. 
stoae,  or  colonnades,  97. 
theatres,  90. 

orchestra  in,  90. 
tombs,  93. 
Greek  temples,  28. 

absence  of  windows  in,  $6. 
cella  of,  46. 
different  kinds  of,  58. 
hypaethral,  56. 
methods  of  lighting,  56,  69. 
roofs  of,  56. 

Greek  church,    Moscow   Road,  Bays- 
water,  216,  595. 
Green,  architect,  60 1. 
Greensted,  church,  Essex,  327. 
Greenwich  Hospital,  569,  576. 

King's  Hou^e,  569,  578. 
Gribble,  architect,  595. 
Grimani  Palace,  Venice,  485. 
Groin  (see  Glossary). 
Groin-rib  vaulting,  224. 
Guildford,  Sutton  Place,  283. 
Guildhall  School  of  Music,  London,  595. 


7I2 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Guildhalls,  Belgian,  390. 
Guilloche  (see  Glossary). 
Gunpowder,  result  of  use,  549. 
Guttse    in   Doric   order,    59,    63    (see 

Glossary). 

Gwalior,  temple,  618,  623. 
Gymnasia,  Greek,  97,  141. 
Gynaeceum,  204. 

Haarlem  Cathedral,  386. 
Haddon  Hall,  555. 
Hadrian,  Arch  of,  Athens,  153. 
Hadrian,  tomb  of,  157. 
Hagioscope  (see  Glossary). 
Hague,  the  Town  Hall,  528. 
Halberstadt  gateway  at,  524. 

Town  Hall,  398. 
Half-timber  houses,  322,  325,  378,  561, 

596. 

Half-timbered  construction   (see  Glos- 
sary). 

Halicarnassos,  mausoleum,  79,  94,  100. 
Halifax,  church  at  Haley  Hill,  594. 

Town  Hall,  593. 

Hall  Church  type  of  plan,  396,  401. 
Hall,  Crosby,  London,  320,  349. 

Elizabethan,  553. 

Hever,  Kent,  320. 

Middle  Temple,  293. 

of  Audience,  Pekin,  639. 

of  Ambassadors,  667. 

of  Charterhouse,  561. 

of  Judgment,  667. 

of  the  Mysteries,  Eleusis,  66. 

Oxburgh,  320. 

S.  James's,  Piccadilly,  417. 

Westminster,  293,  320,  343,    349, 

353,  443- 

Hallet,  architect,  599. 

Hamburg,  church  at,  594. 

Hammer-beam    roof,   291    (see    Glos- 
sary). 
-Hampton  Court,  547,  571,  576,  581. 

Hang-chow  Pagoda,  642. 

Hanover  Chapel,  Regent  Street,  592. 

Hanover  Square,  houses,  585. 

Hausen,  architect,  524. 

Hardwick  Hall,  555. 

Hare,  architect,  596. 

Harem,  in  dwelling  houses,  678. 

Harrow   Mission  Church,  Wormwood 
Scrubs,  London,  596. 

Harrow  School,  speech  room,  524. 

Hartford,  U.S.,  State  Capitol,  599. 

Harvard  College,  Memorial  Hall,  599. 
University,  599. 

Harpy  Tomb  at  Xanthos,  93. 

Haslemere,  houses  at,  597. 


Hatfield  House,  Herts.,  553,  561. 
Hathor,  temple  of,  Denderah,  25,  28. 
Haveus,  Theodore,  architect,  557. 
Hawksmoor,  Nicholas,  architect,  309, 

581. 

Haymarket  Theatre,  London,  591. 
Hecatompedon  (see  Glossary). 
Heckington,  S.  Andrew's,  316, 
Heidelberg,  Freidrichsbau,  521. 

Heinrichsbau,  521. 
Heilberg  Castle,  398. 
Heilbronn,  Rathhaus  at,  524. 
Heinrichsbau,  Heidelberg,  521. 
Hellenic  period  of  Greek  architecture, 

49,  55- 

Henley  Town  Hall,  597. 
Henry    VII. 's    Chapel,    Westminster, 

289,  349,  351,  353- 
Hephaestos,  temple  of.  66,  67. 
Hera,  temple  of,  Samos,  79. 
Heraion,  Olympia,  63. 
Herculaneum,  excavations  at,  162. 
Hereford  Cathedral,  305,  332. 
Hermogenes,  architect,  79. 
Herodes  Atticus,  theatre  of,  147. 
Herodotus,  10,  48. 
Herrera,  architect,  534,  537,  540. 
Heaven  and  Earth,  Temple  of,  Pekin, 

639- 

Hever  Hall,  320. 
Hexastyle  (see  Glossary). 
Hieron  (see  Glossary). 
Highclere,  593. 
Hildesheim,  domestic  work,  521. 

S.  Godehard,  261. 

S.  Lambert,  396. 

Town  Hall,  398. 
Hindu  architecture,  611,  618. 

(Brahmanical),  Religion,  607. 

temples,  611. 
Hippodrome,  Greek,  97. 
Hoar  Cross,  Staffs.,  church  at,  596. 
Holbein,  549. 

Holborn,  S.  Sepulchre,  349. 
Holborn  Viaduct  Hotel  and    Station, 

596. 

Holkham  Hall,  578,  580,  581. 
Holland,  Henry,  architect,  582. 
Holland  House,  London,  553,  561. 
Holloway  College,  Egham,  503,  595. 
Holmwood,  house  and  church  at,  594. 
Holt,  architect,  557. 
Holy  Apostles,  Constantinople,  208. 
Holyrood  Abbey,  359. 
Holy  Sepulchre,  Church  of,  Jerusalem. 

187,  189. 

Holy   Trinity,    Bessborough    Gardens, 
London,  595. 


INDEX. 


713 


Home   and  Foreign   Offices,    London, 

594- 

Honeysuckle  ornament,  106. 
Hood-mold  (see  Glossary). 
Horse  Guards,  London,  581. 
Horse-shoe  arch,  India,  629. 
Horsham,  Christ's  Hospital,  596. 
Hospital,  Greenwich,  569. 

Milan,  408. 
Hospitallers,  the,  219. 
Hotel  de  Bourgtheroulde,  Rouen,  506. 
Hotel  de  Ville,  Beaugency,  506. 
Hotel  de  Ville,  Paris,  506. 
Hotel  des  Invalides,  509. 
Hotel  du  Saumon,  Malines,  528. 
Hotel  Victoria,  London,  596. 
Houghton  Hall,  Beds.,  569,  581. 
House  of  Agnes  Sorel,  Orleans,  506. 

Diomede,  163 

Faun,  163. 

Jacques  Cceur,  Bourges,  376. 

Li  via,  162 

Nero's  Golden,  145. 

Pansa,  162. 

Sallust,  163. 

Tragic  Poet,  163. 

Vettius,  163. 

House  of  the  Vestal  Virgins,  162. 
Houses,  half-timber,  322. 
Houses  of  Parliament,  London,  592. 
Hullabid,  temple,  623. 
Hunt,  R.  M,,  architect,  599. 
Huts,  i,  3. 

Hyde  Park  Corner,  screen  at,  592. 
Hypaethral  (see  Glossary). 
Hypsethral  court,  Karnac,  22. 

temples,  56. 
Hypocaust,  145. 
Hypostyle  (see  Glossary). 
Hypostyle  hall,  Karnac,  24,  41,  90. 

of  Xerxes,  40,  41. 
Hypotrachelium,  63  (see  Glossary). 

Ibn  Tooloon,  mosque,  Cairo,  659. 

Icknield  Street,  280. 

Ictinus,  architect,  66,  67,  72,  79,  87. 

Iffley  Church,  Oxon,  332. 

Igel  Monument,  Treves,  158. 

Ightham  Mote,  320. 

Ilissus,  temple  on  the,  58,  79. 

Illusions,  optical,  51,  61,  647. 

Imperial  Institute,  London,  596. 

Imperial  Palace,  Pekin,  646, 

Impluvium,  162. 

Impost  (see  Glossary). 

Inchleraun,  churches  at,  360. 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  598. 

India  Office,  London,  594. 


Indian  architecture,  605. 

architecture  divided  into  styles,  6 10. 

Ghats,  623. 

temple  (rock-cut),  611. 

temples,  614. 

Institute,  Oxford,  596. 

Museum,  S.  Kensington,  604,  612, 
633,  642,  645,  671,  677,  679, 
682. 

ornament,  632. 

Saracenic  architecture,  671. 
Indo-China  architecture,  633. 
Inigo  Jones,   architect,  547,   567,  569, 

571,  580. 

Innocenti,  Ospedale  degli,  448. 
Insula,  162. 

Intercolumniation  (see  Glossary). 
Interpenetration  of  mouldings,  401. 
Invalides,  Dome  of  the,  509. 
Inwood,  architect,  591- 
Ionic  (see  Glossary). 
Ionic  capitals,  77« 

order,  53,  77,  102,  109. 

volute,  derivations  of,  77. 
Ipswich,  S.  Margaret's,  293. 
Irish  architecture,  360. 
Isis,  temple  of,  Philae,  25,  28. 
Isodorus  of  Miletus,  architect,  200. 
Ispahan,  Great  mosque  at,  36,  669. 
Issoire,  church  at,  248. 
Italian  Gothic  architecture,  404,  408, 
417,  419. 

ornament,  421. 

sculpture,  421. 

towers,  420. 

use  of  brick  and  terra  cotta,  404, 

407,  408. 
Italian  Renaissance  architecture,  440. 

Florentine  School,  446. 

Genoa,  495. 

Jesuit,  496. 

Milan,  495. 

ornament,  494,  513. 

Rococo,  496. 

Roman  School,  456. 

sculpture,  494,  516. 

Venetian  School,  475. 

Verona,  488. 

Vicenza,  488. 

Italian  Romanesque  architecture,  223, 
228. 

Central  Italy,  228. 

North  Italy,  232. 

ornament,  244. 

sculpture,  244. 

Southern  Italy,  239. 

towers,  242. 
Ixworth  Church,  294. 


714 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE, 


Jackson,  architect,  596. 
Jacobean  arcades,  564. 

balustrades,  564. 

formal  gardens,  562. 

furniture,  561. 

ornament,  564. 

plasterwork,  564. 

sculpture,  564. 

style,  356,  561. 

terraces,  562. 

windows,  562. 

Jacobus  of  Meruan,  architect,  419. 
Jacques  Cceur,  Bourges,  house  of,  376. 
Jaina  architecture,  611,  614. 

domes,  607. 

religion,  607 

temples,  6n. 
Jambs  (see  Glossary). 
Jansen,  architect,  562. 
Janus,  arch  of,  Rome,  156. 
Japan,  pagodas  in,  642. 
Japanese  architecture,  634. 

cornice  bracketing,  647. 

majolica  work,  638. 

tatami  (mats),  646. 

tea  houses,  645. 
Jarasandha,  tope  at,  612. 
Jaunpore,  Atala  Musjid,  671. 

Jumma  Musjid,  671. 
Java  architecture,  633. 
Jefferson,  architect,  599. 
Jerusalem,   Church  of   the   Ascension, 
187. 

Mosque,  659. 

Mosque-el-Aksah,  659. 
Mosque  of  Omar,  659. 

Rotonda  of  the  Sepulchre,  187. 

temple  at,  41,  187. 
Jesuits,  the,  220,  496. 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  324. 


Oxford,  557. 
's  house,  Lincoln,  322. 


Jew's 

Jewish  architecture,  41. 

Jews'  Synagogue,  Toledo,  425. 

John  of  Padua,  549,  557. 

Jones,  Inigo,  architect,   547,  567,  571, 

580. 

Jones,  Owen,  architect,  594,  667. 
Jones,  Sir  H.,  architect,  595. 
Juganat,  temple  of,  Puri,  623. 
Jumma  Musjid,  Ahmedabad,  671. 

Bijapur,  675. 

Delhi,  677. 

Jaunpore,  671. 

Mandu,  675. 

Junior  Constitutional  Club,  London, 596. 
Junior   United  Service  Club,  London, 
594- 


Juno,  temple  of,  Agrigentum,  66. 
Jupiter,  temple  of,  Baalbec,  125,  130. 
temple    of,     Diocletian's     Palace, 

Spalato,  136. 

Jupiter  Capitolinus,  temple  of,  90,  120. 
Jupiter  Olympius,  temple,  Athens,  56, 

58,  85,  87,  90,  123. 
Jupiter,  temple  of,   Spalato,   130,  136. 
Jupiter  Stator,  temple,  123. 

Kaabeh  (Holy  Shrine  at  Mecca),  659. 
Kait-Bey,  Khan,  Cairo,  678. 
Kait-Bey,    mosque,    Cairo,    663,    679, 

680,  682. 

Kalaoon,  mosque,  Cairo,  659. 
Kalburgah,  mosque,  675. 
Kanaruc,  temple,  623. 
Kandarya  Mahadeo,  Khaguraho,  623. 
Kantonugger,  monument  at,  623. 
Kapnikarea  Church,  Athens,  210. 
Karli,  temple,  614,  631. 

cave  at,  614. 

Karnac,  Great  Temple  of  Ammon,  22, 
24. 

Hypaethial  court,  22. 

Hypostyle  hall,  24,  41,  90. 

temple  of  Khons,  22. 

temples,  22,  24. 
Keble  College,  Oxford,  594. 
Kedlestone  Hall,  578,  580,  582. 
Keel  moulding  (see  Glossary). 
Kelso  Abbey,  359. 
Kenilworth  Castle,  318. 
Kent,  Hever  Hall,  320. 

Ightham  Mote,  320. 

Penshurst  Place,  320. 
Kent,  William,  architect,  581. 
Kenwood  House,  Hampstead,  582. 
Kettering  Church,  351. 
Kew  Gardens,  pagoda  in,  642. 
Kew,  lodge  at,  595. 
Keystone  (see  Glossary). 
Khans,  678. 

Khajuraho,  temple,  618,  623. 
Khons,  temple  of,  22. 
Khorsabad,  temple  at,  37,  43. 

ornamentation  at,  36. 

palace  of  Sargon,  39. 
Kibleh,  659,  678. 
Kieff  Cathedral,  210. 
Kilconnel  monastery,  360. 
Kildare  Cathedral,  360. 
King-post  (see  Glossary). 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  305. 

Cambridge,  324,  351,  354,  591. 

London,  592. 

King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  289, 
324.  35i>353>  376. 


INDEX. 


715 


King's  House,  Greenwich,  569,  578. 

King's  Weston,  581. 

Kirby  Hall,  Northants,  557. 

Kirkwall  Cathedral,  359. 

Klenze,  architect,  524. 

Knights  Templars,  219. 

Knole,  Kent,  557. 

Knossos,  Crete,  palace  at,  54.,  92. 

Koyunjik.  Nineveh,  mound  at,  34. 

sculptured  slabs,  36,  40,  44. 
Kuttenberg,  S.  Barbara,  396. 
Kutub  Minaret,  671. 

Mosque,  671. 

Laach,  abbey  church,  264. 

Label  (see  Glossary). 

Lady  Chapel,  275. 

Labrouste,  architect,  506. 

Lacunaria  (see  Glossary). 

Lacus  (Roman  Fountains),  164. 

Lake  dwellings,  3. 

Lambeth  Palace  Chapel,  324,  336. 

Lancet  arch  (see  Glossary). 

Lanchester,    Stewart     and     Rickards, 

architects,  597. 

Landsberg,  two-storeyed  church,  264. 
Landscape    gardening   to   Elizabethan 

houses,  551. 

Landshut,  S.  Martin,  396. 
Laon  Cathedral,  373. 
Latham  Hall,  Lanes,  580. 
Lararium,  160. 
La  Trinite,  Caen,  250. 
Latrobe,  architect,  599. 
Lat  at  Allahabad,  612. 
Lats,  612. 

Laurentian  Library,  Florence,  467. 
Law  Courts,  central  hall,  594. 
Law  Courts,  Dublin,  582. 
Layer  Marney,  279,  322,  547. 
Learning,  architects,  595. 
Leamington,  S.  Mark,  595. 
Leaning  tower  at  Pisa,  231. 
Le  Breton,  architect,  503. 
Lee  Priory,  Kent,  582. 
Lectern,  decorated,  349. 
Leeds,  church  at,  596. 
Leipsig,  Rathhaus  at,  524. 
Lemercier,  architect,  505,  509. 
Le  Notre,  architect,  506. 
Lemgo  Town  Hall,  521. 
Lennox  Library,  New  York,  599. 
Leon  Cathedral,  426,  433. 

S.  Isidore,  426. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  497. 
Lerida  Cathedral,  426,  433. 
Lesbos,  Ionic  capital  at,  77. 
Lescot,  architect,  503,  505. 


Leyden  Town  Hall,  528. 
Libon,  architect,  63. 
Library  of  S.  Mark,  Venice,  461,  477 
594- 

S.  Gene  vie  ve,  Paris,  506. 
Lichfield  Cathedral,  305,  336,  343. 
Liege,  archbishop's  palace,  528. 

S.  Jacques,  392. 
Lierne  (see  Glossary). 
Lierne  rib,  288. 
Lincoln  Cathedral,  7CK    ??6    ^j.7 

/"•    11  /"v    r       i  J-rJ' 

College,  Oxford,  324. 

Jew's  house,  322. 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  houses  in,  569. 

Chapel,  569. 
Lintel  (see  Glossary). 
Lion  Gate,  Mycenae,  55. 
Lion  Tomb  at  Cnidus,  94,  100. 
Lippi,  architect.  447. 
Little  Welnetham  Church,  Suffolk,  293. 
Liverpool,  Banks  at,  592. 

S.  George's  Hall,  144,  592. 

Technical  Schools,  596,  597. 
Livia,  the  house  of,  162. 
Locmariaker,  Brittany,  Monolith,  3.' 
Llandaff  Cathedral,  305. 
Loggia  (see  Glossary). 
Loggia,  S.  Paolo,  448. 

dei  Lanzi,  Florence,  417. 
Lollards'  Tower,  Lambeth  Palace,  324. 
Lombardo,  Pietro,  architect,  485. 
Lombardo,  Tullio,  architect,  485. 
London,  Adelphi  Terrace,  582. 

Admiralty  buildings,  595. 

Admiralty,  screen  at,  582. 

Albert  Hall,  595. 

Albert  Memorial,  594. 

Alliance  Assurance  offices,  595. 

All  Saints,  Margaret  Street,  594. 

All  Souls',  Langham  Place.  591. 

Army  and  Navy  Club,  485. 

Art  Union  building,  594. 

Ashburnham  House,  569. 

Astor  estate  offices,  595. 

Athenaeum  Club,  592. 

Badminton  Club,  596. 

Bank  of  England,.  582. 

Banqueting  house,  569. 

Banqueting  Hall,  Kensington,  578. 

Barber  Surgeons'  Hall,  569. 

Bartholomew's  Hospital,  581. 

Battersea,  Polytechnic,  596. 
Town  Hall,  596. 

Bow  Church,  Cheapside,  576. 

Bridgewater  House,  592. 

British  Museum,  37,  39,  40,  43,  44, 
55,  72,  81,  82,  84,  94,  97,  132, 
142,  341,  592,  594. 


7i6 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


London — continued. 

Broad    Sanctuary,      Westminster, 

594- 

Brooks'  Club,  582. 
Buccleuch  House,  Whitehall,  595. 
Buckingham  Palace,  591. 
Burlington  House,  594. 
Cadogan  Square,  houses,  594>  59°- 
Caen  Wood,  Hampstead,  582. 
Camberwell  Church,  594. 
Carlton  Club,  477,  594- 
Carltou  House  (destroyed),  582. 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  Gordon 

Square,  595. 
Maida  Hill,  595. 
Central  Criminal  Court,  596. 
Civil  Service  Commission,  593. 
Chapel  of  S.  Etheldreda,  343-347- 
Charing  Cross  Station,  594. 
Charterhouse,  219.  $61. 

screen,  565. 
Chelsea  Hospital,  576. 
Chelsea  Polytechnic,  596. 

Town  Hall,  596. 

Chesterfield  House,  Mayfair,  581. 
Children's  Hospital,  Finsbury.  596. 
Christchurch,  Spitalfields,  581. 
Church  House,  Westminster,  596. 
City  Bank,  596. 
City  Guilds  Institute,  595. 
City  of  London  Schools,  595. 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  27. 
Collingham  Gardens,  596. 
Constitutional  Club,  596. 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  594. 
Crosby  Hall,  320,  349. 
Crystal   Palace,  30,  163,  445,  463, 

471,  667. 

Devonshire  House,  581. 
Dorchester  House,  461,  594. 
Dover  House,  Whitehall,  582. 
Duke  of  Buccleuch's  house,  595. 
Dulwich  College,  594. 

Picture  Gallery,  582. 
Dutch  Church,  343. 
Eastern    Telegraph    Co.'s    offices, 

596. 

Electra  House,  596. 
Ely  House,  Dover  Street,  581. 
Exhibition,  1851... 593. 
Fitzroy   Square,    houses   in,     582, 

585- 

Foreign  Office,  593,  594. 
Freemasons'  Tavern,  594. 
French  Church,  Soho  Square,  596. 
General  Post  Office,  592. 
Geological  Museum,  477,  593. 
Gospel  Oak,  church  at,  595. 


London — continued. 

Government  Offices,  596. 
Great  Fire,  571. 
Greek  Church,  216,  595. 
Guildhall  School  of  Music,  595. 
Hackney  Wick,  church  at,  596. 
Hanover   Chapel,    Regent  Street, 

592. 

Hanover  Square,  houses  in,  585. 
Harrow  Mission  Church,  596. 
Hay  market  Theatre,  591. 
Holborn  Viaduct  Hotel,  596. 

Station,  596. 
Holland  House,  503. 
Holland  Road,  church  at,  595. 
Holy  Redeemer,  Church  of,  596. 
Holy  Trinity,  Bessborough  Gardens, 

595- 

Holy  Trinity  Church,  Chelsea,  596. 
Home  Office,  593. 
Horse  Guards,  581. 
Hotel  Victoria,  596. 
Houses  of  Parliament,  592. 
Hyde  Park  Corner,  592. 
Imperial  Institute,  596. 
India  Office,  594. 
Indian    Museum,    S.    Kensington, 

604,  612,  633. 
Institute  of  Chartered  Accountants, 

5?6- 

Institute  of  Water  Colors,  596. 

Insurance  Buildings,  596. 

Junior  Constitutional  Club,  596. 

Junior  United  Service  Club,  594. 

Kew,  lodge  at,  595. 

Kew  Gardens,  pagoda,  642. 

King's  College,  592. 

Lambeth  Palace  Chapel,  324,  336. 

Lansdowne  House,  582. 

Law  Courts,  142,  430,  594. 

Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  offices,  595. 

Lollards'  Tower,  324. 

Lloyd's  Registry  office,  596. 

Lord  Carlisle's  House,  Kensington, 

595- 

Lothbury,  building  in,  417. 
Lowther  Lodge,  595. 
Mansion  House,  $81. 
Marlborough  House,  571,  578. 
Melbury  road,  house  in,  594- 
Metropolitan  Life  office,  596. 
Middle  Temple  Hall,  293. 
Monument,  576. 

Morden  College,  Blackheath,  578. 
National  Gallery,  591. 
National  Provincial  Banks,  594. 
National  Safe  Deposit,  595. 
Natural  History  Museum,  S95- 


INDEX. 


717 


London — continued. 

New  Cathedra],  Westminster,  596. 
New  Gallery,  596. 
Newgate,  581,  582. 
New  Scotland  Yard,  595. 
New  Zealand  Chambers,  595. 
Oratory,  Broinpton,  595. 
Palace  Theatre,  596. 
Pantheon,  Oxford  Street,  582. 
Paul  Pindar's  House,  561. 
Pelican  Fire  office,  581. 
People's  Palace,  596. 
Prudential  Assurance  office,  595. 
Queen's  Gate,  houses,  595. 
Record  office,  Fetter  Lane,  593. 
Regent's  Park,  buildings,  591. 

lodge  in,  595. 
Regent's    Street,   with    Quadrant, 

591- 

Reform  Club,  463,  592. 
Royal  Exchange,  592. 
S.  Agnes,  Kennington,  595. 
S.  Alban,  Holborn,  594. 
S.  Anne,  Limehouse,  581. 
S.  Anne,  Lower  Kennington  Lane, 

,  595- 

S.  Augustine,  Kilburn,  595. 

S.  Bartholomew  the  Great,  328. 

S.  Bride,  Fleet  Street,  576. 

S.  Bride's  Vicarage,  596. 

S.  Clement  Danes,  576,  581. 

S.  Dunstan,  Fleet  Street,  591. 

S.  Dunstan  in  the  East,  305,  576. 

S.  George,  Bloomsbury,  581. 

S.  George's  Cathedral,  Southwark, 

592. 

S.  George's  Hospital,  591. 
S.  George  in  the  East,  581. 
S.  James,  Piccadilly,  576. 
S.  James,  Spanish  Place,  595. 
S.   James's  Hall,  Piccadilly,  417, 

594- 

S.  James  the  Less,  594. 
S.  John,  Brentford,  596. 
S.  John,  Hammersmith,  596. 
S.  John,  Red  Lion  Square,  595. 
S.  John,  Westminster,  581. 
S.  John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London. 

324,  328,  335. 
S.  Luke,  Chelsea,  591. 
S.  Luke's  Hospital,  582. 
S.  Margaret,  Westminster,  349. 
S.  Martin  in  the  fields,  581. 
S.  Martin's  Tower,  542,  576. 
S.  Mary  Abbots,  594. 
S.  Mary  Aldermary,  57^- 
S.  Mary,  Clapham,  596. 
S.  Mary  Magdalene,  594. 


London — continued. 

S.  Mary  Overie(S.  Saviour's),  336. 

S.  Mary,  Stoke  Newington,  594. 

S.  Mary  Woolnoth,  581. 

S.  Mary-le-Strand,  581. 

S.  Michael,  Cornhill,  576. 

S.  Panci as  Church,  591. 

S.  Pancras  Station,  594. 

S.  Paul's  Cathedral,  443,  473,  509 

571- 

S.  Paul,  Coverit  Garden,  569. 
S.  Peter,  Vauxhall,  595. 
S.  Peter,  Ealing,  596. 
S.  Sepulchre,  288,  349. 
S.  Stephen,  Walbrook,  576,  629. 
S.  Stephen,  Westminster,  324,  594. 
S.  Stephen's  Club,  595. 
S.  Thomas's  Hospital,  595. 
S.  Thomas's  Seminary,  596. 
Savoy  Chapel,  Strand,  349. 
School  Board  offices,  595. 

works  for,  596. 
Science  College,  595. 
Sion  College,  596. 
Smithfield  Market,  595. 
Soane  Museum,  561,  585. 
Society  for  Promotion  of  Christian 

Knowledge,  594. 
Somerset  House,  582,  593. 
Southwark,  church  at,  595. 
Staple  Inn,  Holborn,  561. 
Stratford  Place,  582. 
Streatham  Common,  houses,  596. 
Sun  Fire  office,  592. 
Temple  Bar,  578. 
Temple  Chambers,  578,  594. 
Temple  Church.  189.  220.  328,  336. 
Tower  of  London,  318,  332. 
Travellers'  Club,  463,  592. 
Treasury  Buildings,  581. 
United  Service  Club,  592. 
University  College,  591. 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  156, 

445,  447,  5<>i,  565.  593.  597- 
War  Office,  595. 
Westminster  Abbey,  309,  336,  343, 

Henry    VII. 's    Chapel,    289, 
324,  349,  35 i»  353- 

tombs,  553. 

Western  Towers,  576. 
Westminster  Cathedral,  216. 
Westminster  Hall,   293,  320,  343, 

349,  353,  443- 

Westminster  Palace,  142,  324. 
White  Tower,  335. 
White's  Club,  582. 
Woolland's  premises,  596. 


7i8 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


London  — continued, 

York  Water  Gate,  569. 
Long-and-short  work,  327. 
Longford  Castle,  553,  557. 
Longhena,  architect,  485. 
Longleat,  Wilts.,  549,  557. 
Lord  Elgin,  72. 
Loseley  Park,  562. 
Louvain  Town  Hall,  390. 
Louvre,  320. 
Louvre,  Paris,  41,  503,  506,  569. 

Pavilion  de  l'Horloge,5c>5. 
Lowther  Lodge,  595. 
Lubeck  Cathedral,  264,  398. 

Marien  Kirche,  398. 

Rathhaus,  398. 
Luca  della  Robbia,  445,  447. 
Lucca  Cathedral,  405. 
tower  at,  420. 

San  Michele,  231. 

S.  Martino,  231. 
Luxembourg  Palace,  5°6- 
Luxor,  Temple  of  Ammon,  22,  28. 
Lych  gate  (see  Glossary). 
Lycia,  tombs,  37,  93,  94. 
Lysicrates'  monument,  85,  87,  169. 

MacGill  University,  597. 
Machuca,  architect,  537. 
Madama  Villa,  Rome,  463. 
Madeleine,  Paris,  511. 
Maderna,  architect,  473,  496. 
Madison  Square  Theatre,  New  York, 

601. 

Madura,  temple  at,  632. 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  324. 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Magdeburg,  chevet,  398. 
Mahavellipore,  Rath,  628. 
Mahmud,  tomb  of,  675. 
Mahometan   influence   in    Sicily,    239, 

244. 

Mahometan  religion,  654. 
Maison  Carrie,  Nimes,  123.  125. 
Maisons,  chateau  de,  506. 
Majano,  architect,  547,  549. 
Majolica  work,  638,  646. 
Malaga  Cathedral,  540. 

steeple,  540. 

Malines,  Hotel  du  Saumon,  528 
Mammeisi  at  Elephantine,  22. 
Manchester  Assize  Courts,  595. 

banks  at,  592 

Cathedral,  305. 

Rylands'  Library,  596. 

Town  Hall,  595. 
Mandu,  Jumma  Musjid,  675. 
Mandura,  temple,  628. 


Manetho,  n. 

Mansard,  Frangois,  architect,  506. 
Mansard,  J.  H.,  architect,  506,  509. 
Mansard  roof  invention,  512. 
Mansfield  College,  .Oxford,  596. 
Mansion  House,  London,  581. 
Mantapa,  628. 
Mantegna,  architect,  457. 
Mantua,  Palazzo  del  Te,  463. 

St.  Andrea,  453. 

tower,  420. 

Marathon,  battle  of,  48. 
Marburg,  S.  Elizabeth,  396. 
Marcellus,  theatre  of,  Rome,  147. 
Marienburg  Castle,  398. 
Marien  Kirche,  Lubeck,  396. 
Marble,  use  of  in  Italian  Gothic,  420, 

421. 

Maryborough  House,  571,  576. 
Mars  Ultor,  temple  of,  123,  125. 
Martorana  church,  242. 
Martyrs'  Memorial,  Oxford,  594. 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,   monument  to, 

Westminster  Abbey,  565. 
Masaccio,  447. 
Mashita  Palace,  669. 
Masonic  Temple,  Chicago,  601. 
Massachusetts    State     House,    Boston, 

599- 

Massimi  Palace,  Rome,  461. 
Mastaba  of  Thy,  18. 
Mastabas,  Egyptian,  18. 
Mater   Matuta,  temple  of,  Rome,  130, 

134- 
Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  157. 

Hadrian,  157. 

Halicarnassos,  79,  94,  100. 

Medici,  Florence,  467. 
Maxentius,  basilica  of,  139. 
Mayence  Cathedral,  261. 

S.  Quintin,  396. 
McKim,  architect,  599,  601. 
Mead,  architect,  599,  601. 
Mecca,  mosque  at,  657. 
Mediaeval  castles,  318. 

cathedrals,  273. 

dwellings,  English,  322. 

roofs,  290. 

Medinet-Habou,  temple  of.  20,  22. 
Meissen  Castle,  398. 
Melbourne  Cathedral,  597. 

Parliament  House,  597. 
Melrose  Abbey,  359. 
Memorial  Hall,  Harvard  College,  599. 
Menhirs,  3. 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  324,  351,  353. 

Library,  557. 
Merton  College  Chapel,  Oxford,    324. 


INDEX. 


719 


Messina  Cathedral,  419. 
Metopes,  63  (see  Glossary). 
Metropole  Cathedral,  Athens,  210. 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  599- 
Mexico,  architecture,  652. 
Mezzanine  floors,  512  (see  Glossary). 
Michael  Angelo,    architect,  445,    448, 

463,  467,  471. 
Michelozzo,  447,  453. 
Middle  Temple  Hall,  London,  293. 
Mihrab,  659,  678. 
Milan,  architecture,  495. 

Cathedral,  41,  405,  408,  421,  473. 
Hospital,  408,  495,  505. 
S.  Ambrogio,  237. 
S.  Maria  della  Grazie,  457,  495. 
S.  Satire,  495. 
Miletus,  temple  of  Apollo  Didymoeus, 

56,  58,  79,  84,  85,  87-88. 
Mimbar,  678,  682. 
Minaret,  Kutub,  671. 
Minarets,  678—679. 
Minerva  Medica,  Rome,  145,  208. 
Minerva  Polias,  Temple  of,  Priene,  79. 
Mino  da  Fiesole,  447. 
Minoan  architecture,  53,  92. 
Minstrels'  Gallery,  320. 
Miserere,  354  (see  Glossary). 
Mnemonic  ornament,  682. 
Muesicles,  architect,  66,  79,  81,  93. 
Modillions  (see  Glossary). 
Module  (see  Glossary). 
Mogul  architecture,  675. 
Monadnock  Building,  Chicago,  601. 
Monasteries,  276,  547. 

suppression  of,  549. 
Monastery,  Chinese,  639. 
Indian,  612,  614. 
Irish,  360. 
of  Nalanda,  608. 
of  S.  Gall,  219,  261,  276. 
of  S.  Luke,  of  Stiris,  210. 
Westminster  Abbey,  276. 
Monastic  cells  at  Skellings,  360. 

orders,  218. 
Monoliths,  3. 
Monreale  Cathedral,  241. 
Mons,  S.  Waudru,  392. 
Mont  St.  Michel,  abbey  church,  250. 

chateau,  376. 
Montacute,  gallery,  555. 

house,  557. 

Montreal,  MacGill  University,  597. 
Monument  Igel,  158. 

of  Lysicrates,  Athens,  85,  87,  169. 
Nereid,  94. 
of  S.  Remi,  158. 
Monument,  the  London,  576. 


Monuments,  mediaeval,  325. 

Moor  Park,  Herts. ,  580. 

Moorish  influence  on  Spanish  art,  425, 

430. 

Morden  College,  Blackheath,  576. 
Moreton  Hall,  557. 

gallery,  555. 
Mosaic  (see  Glossary). 
Mosaic,  Byzantine,  198,  214. 
Early  Christian,  182,  191. 
Italian  Gothic,  407,  421. 
pavements,  198. 
Renaissance,  444. 
Roman,  119. 
Moscow  Cathedral,  210. 
Mosque,  Adinah,  at  Gaur,  675. 
Ahmed  I.,  669. 
Amru,  659. 
Atala  Musjid,  671. 
Cordova,  663. 
El-Aksah,  659. 
El-Muayyad,  663. 
El-Walid  (Omajyade),  659. 
Futtehpore-Sikhri,  675. 
Great,  Delhi,  656. 
Ibn  Tooloon,  659. 
Ispahan,  36,  669. 
Jumma  Musjid,  Ahmedabad,  671. 
Bijapur,  675. 
Delhi,  677. 
Jaunpore,  671. 
Mandu,  675. 

Kait-Bey,  663,  679,  680,  682. 
Kalaoon,  659. 
Kalburgah,  675. 
Kutub,  671. 
Mecca,  657. 
Omar,  41,  659. 
Pearl,  Agra,  656,  677. 
Sulieman  I.,  669. 
Sultan  Barkook,  663. 
Sultan  Hassan,  659,  678. 
Tabreez,  669. 

Moulding,  bird's-beak,  63,  106. 
Mouldings  (see  Glossary). 
Mount  Abu,  temple,  618. 
Mountford,  architect,  596. 
Muckross,  monastery,  360. 
Mul Honed  windows,  551,  555- 
Mullions  (see  Glossary). 
Multifoil  arch,  Saracenic,  657. 
Munich  Cathedral,  396. 
Glyptotek,  524. 
Pinacothek,  524. 
Revival  in,  524. 
S.  Michael's  Church,  524. 
Wallhalla,  524. 
Municipal  buildings  at  Glasgow,  595. 


720 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


Municipio  palace  at  Bologna,  467. 
Municipio  palace  at  Genoa,  495. 
Minister,  Stadtweinhaus,  524. 

Town  Hall,  398. 
Museum,  Berlin,  524. 

Boston,  599. 

British,   37,  39,  40,  43,  44,  55,  72. 
81,   82,  84,  94,    132,    142,  341, 

592,  594- 

Etruscan,  Rome.  463. 

Oxford,  595. 

York.  591. 
Mushrebiyehs,  682. 
Muti  Musjid,  Agra,  677. 
Mutule  (see  Glossary). 
Mutules  in  Greek-Doric  order,  63. 
Mycenae,  early  work  at,  47,  49,  119. 

Lion  Gate,  55. 

tholoi  at,  54. 

treasury  of  Atreus,  3,  54,  631. 
Mycenaean  art,  47,  53,  61,  77. 
Mycerinos,  pyramid  of,  17. 
Mylassa,  tomb  at,  158. 

Nailhead,  335. 

Nalanda,  monastery,  608. 

Nankin,  pagoda,  642. 

Naos  or  cella,  56  (see  Glossary). 

Narthex,  180  (see  Glossary). 

Nash,  architect,  591. 

Nassick,  temple,  614,  629. 

National  Gallery,  London,  $ti. 

National  Safe  Deposit,  London,  595. 

Nativity,   Church    of  the,    Bethlehem, 

187. 
Natural    History    Museum,     London, 

595- 

Naukratis,  Temple  at,  77. 
Naumachia  (see  Glossary). 
Naval  College,  Dartmouth,  597. 
Nave,  1 80  (see  Glossary). 
Naxos,  temple  at,  77. 
Neandra,  Ionic  capitals  at,  77. 
Necking  (see  Glossary). 
Necropolis  at  Thebes,  22. 
Nelson,  architect,  594. 
Nemesis,  temple  of,  Rhamnus,  66. 
Neptune,  temple,  Paestum,  58,  102. 
Nepveu,  Pierre,  architect,  500. 
Nereid  monument  at  Xanthos,  94. 
Nero's  Golden  House,  145. 
Nesfield,  architect,  594,  595. 
Nevill  Court,  Trinity  College,  557. 
Newcastle  Cathedral,  305. 
New  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Newel  (see  Glossary). 
Newgate  Prison,  581,  582. 
Newnham  College,  Cambridge,  596. 


Newport,  houses  at,  599. 

Newport,  U.S.A.,  Town  Hall,  598. 

New  Scotland  Yard,  London,  596. 

New  theatre,  Berlin,  524. 

Newton,  architect,  596. 

New  Walsingham  Church,  294. 

New  York,  Colombia  University,  601. 

Customs  House,  599. 

Grace  Church,  599. 

Lennox  Library,  599. 

Madison  Square  Theatre,  601. 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  599. 

President  Grant's  tomb,  601. 

Public  Library,  601. 

S.  John  the  .Divine,  601. 

S.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  599^ 

S.  Paul's,  598. 

Trinity  Church,  599. 
New  Zealand,  architecture  in,  597. 
Niches,  353  (see  Glossary). 
Nike  Apteros,  temple,  58,  79. 
Nimes,  amphitheatre,  152. 

Maison  Carree,  123,  125. 

Pont  du  Gard,  159. 

Temple  of  Diana,  123,  125. 
Nimroud,  palace,  39,  43,  44. 
Nine  Altars,  Durham,  Chapel  of,  299, 

3°4>  378. 
Nineveh,  excavations  at,  40. 

Palace,  of  Ashur-nasir-pal,  40. 

Palace  of  Sennacherib,  40. 
Ning-po,  pagoda,  642. 
Nobles,  castles  of,  318. 
Nocera,  baptistery,  184. 
Norfolk,  churches,  279,  318,  332,  354. 
Norman    (Romanesque)     architecture, 
283,  328  (see  Glossary). 

vaulting,  286. 
Northampton,  S.  John's  Hospital,  325. 

Town  Hall,  595. 

Northern    Hindu   (Braham)    Architec- 
ture, 611,  618. 

North  Walsham  Church,  Norfolk,  294. 
Norwich  Cathedral, 305,  332. 

church  at,  595. 
Notre  Dame,  Avignon,  248. 
N6tre  Dame  du  Port,  Clermont-Ferrand 
248. 

suppression  of  clerestory,  247. 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  24.  368. 

La  Grande,  Poitiers,  249. 
Nottingham,  R.  C.  church  at,  592. 
Novgorod  Cathedral,  210. 
Noyon  Cathedral,  373. 
Nuremberg,  domestic  work,  521. 

Pellerhaus,  521. 
two-storeyed  church   264. 
Nymphaeum,  145  (see  Glossary). 


INDEX. 


721 


Obelisks,  Egyptian,  22,  27. 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  27. 
Octastyle  (see  Glossary). 
OdeionofHerodes  Atticus,  Athens,  147. 
Ogee  (see  Glossary). 
Ogee  arch,  Saracenic,  657. 
Old  State  House,  Boston,  598. 
Olympia,  architecture  at,  55. 

Philipeion  at,  58,  79,  87. 

Heraion,  63,  66. 

Temple  of  Zeus,  63,  66. 
Omar  Khayyam  (poet),  34. 
Omar,  mosque  of,  41,  659. 
Open-timber  roofs,  290,  318,  443. 
Open-work  spires,   396,  401,  426,  433. 
Opera  House,  Paris,  506. 
Opisthodomos  (see  Glossary). 
Oppenheim,  vaulting  at,  401. 
Optical  illusions,  647. 
Opus  Albarium,  119. 

Alexandrinum,  119. 

Grecanicum,  182. 

Incertum,  115. 

Mixtum,  117. 

Reticulatum,  117. 

Sectile,  119. 

Spicatum,  119- 

Tessalatum,  119. 
Orange,  arch  of,  156. 

Roman  theatre,  147. 
Order  (see  Glossary). 
Order,  Composite,  171. 

Corinthian,  85,  102,  169. 

Doric,  59,  102,  167. 

Ionic,  77,  102,  169. 

Tuscan,  167. 
Orders  in  Gothic,  332. 
Orders  of  architecture,  5   53,  167. 
Orders  of  Friars,  220. 

Austin,  220. 

Carmelites,  220. 

Crutched,  220. 

Dominicans,  220. 

Franciscans,  220. 

Friars  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  220. 
Orders,  proportions  by  Chambers,  582, 

588. 
Orders,  monastic,  218. 

Augustinian,  219. 

Benedictine,  218. 

Carthusian,  219. 

Cistercian,  219. 

Cluniac,  219. 

KnightsTemplars  and  Hospitallers, 
219. 

Premonstratensian,  219. 
Ordinates  in  vaulting,  441. 
Oriel  (see  Glossary). 

F.A. 


Oriel  College,  Oxford,  324,  557. 
Oriel  windows,  551. 
Orissa,  monuments,  623. 
Orleans,  House  of  Agnes  Sorel,  506. 
Orme,  Philibert  de  1',  505. 
Ornament,  Anglo-Saxon,  328. 
Assyrian,  44  (No.  13). 
Assyrian,  influence  on  Greek,  44. 
Belgian  and  Dutch  Gothic,  392. 
Byzantine,  214  (No.  89). 
Chinese       and      Japanese,      650 

(No.  283). 
Decorated,  347. 
Early  Christian,  191  (No.  78). 
Early  English  Gothic,  341. 
Egyptian,  29  (No.  10). 
Gothic  in  England,  382  (Nos.  146, 

147,  148,  149). 
Europe,  444. 
France,  382  (No.  165). 
Germany,  402  (No.  174). 
Italy,  421  (No.  184). 
Spain,  434  (No.  190). 
Greek,  106,   171   (No.  41,  42,  43, 

44)- 

Indian,  632  (No.  266). 
Norman,  335  (No.  139). 
Perpendicular,  354. 
Renaissance  in  Europe,  444. 

Belgian      and      Dutch,     532 

(No.  234). 
Elizabethan  and  Jacobean,  564 

(No.  250). 

English,  588  (Nos.  251,  260). 
Florentine,  494  (No.  194). 
French,  513  (Nos.  225,  226). 
Genoese    and    Veronese, 

(No.  218). 

German,  526  (No.  231). 
Italian,  513. 
Roman,  494  (No.  206;. 
Spanish,  542  (No.  239). 
Venetian,  494  (No.  214). 
Roman,  171  (Nos.  67,  68,  69). 
Romanesque  in  Europe,  227. 
France,  254  (No.  103). 
Germany,  266  (No.  107). 
Italy,  244  (No.  98).^ 
Saracenic,  Spain  and  Egypt,  680 

(No.  291). 

Indian,  680  (No.  298,. 
Orvieto  Cathedral,  405,  417. 
Ospedale  degli  Innocenti,  448. 

Maggiore,  Milan,  495,  505. 
Ottawa  Parliament  House,  597. 
"  Overcroft,"  Cormac's  Chapel,  Cashel, 

360. 
Oviedo  Cathedral,  434. 


722 


COMPARATIVE   ARCHITECTURE. 


Ovolo  (see  Glossary). 
Ovolo  moulding,  106. 
Oxburgh  Hall,  320,  553. 
Oxford,  All  Souls  College,  324. 

Brasenose  College,  324. 

Cathedral,  289,  305,  332. 

Christ  Church  College,  324 

Corpus  Christi  College,  324. 

Divinity  Schools,  289. 

Examination  Schools,  596. 

Exeter  College,  324. 

Iffley  Church,  332. 

Indian  Institute,  596. 

Jesus  College,  557. 

Keble  College,  594. 

Lincoln  College,  324. 

Magdalen  College,  324. 

Mansfield  College,  596. 

Martyrs'  Memorial,  594. 

Merton  College,  324,  351,  353. 

Merton  College  Library,  557. 

Merton  College  Chapel,  324. 

Municipal  buildings,  597. 

Museum,  595. 

New  College,  324. 

Oriel -College,  324,  557. 

Pembroke  College,  557. 

Queen's  College,  324,  576. 

kadcliffe  Library,  581. 

S.  John's  College,  324. 

Schools  gateway,  557. 

Sheldonian  Theatre,  576. 

Taylor  and  Randolph  Institute,  592. 

Trinity  College,  324,  576. 

Wadham  College,  557. 

Worcester  College,  324. 
Olympia,      Olympius       (Olympeion), 
Temple  of  Zeus,  66,  75,  87,  90. 

Palaestra  (gymnasia),  97. 

Stadion,  97. 

Stoa  Pcecile,  Echo  colonnade,  97. 

Padua,  churches  and  palaces  at,  408. 

Giotto's  chapel,  421. 

John  of,  549,  557. 

S.  Antonio,  408. 
Paeonius  of  Ephesus,  architect,  79,  84, 

87. 
Psestum,  architecture  at,  55. 

capitals  at,  63. 

temple  (Basilica),  49,  61,  66. 

temple  of  Ceres,  66. 
Neptune,  58,  102. 
Poseidon,  66,  69. 
Pagan  religion,  Assyrian,  33. 

Egyptian,  10. 

Greek,  46. 

Roman,  112. 


Pagodas,  634,  638,  642. 

Canton  (flowery),  642. 

Hang-chow,  642. 

Japanese,  642. 

Kew  Gardens,  642. 

Nankin,  .642. 

Ning-poo,  642. 

Sao-chow,  642. 

Shanghai,  642, 

Tang-chow,  642. 

Tung-chow,  642. 
Pailoos,  612,  642. 

Chinese,  642. 
Painted  glass,  254,  272. 
Palace,  Archbishop's,  Alcala,  537. 

of  Artaxerxes,  41. 

of  Ashur-Nasir-Pal,  40. 

Balbi,  Genoa,  496. 

Barbarano,  Vincenza,  488. 

Barbarini,  Rome,  473,  490. 

Bevilacqua,  Verona,  490. 

Bianco,  Genoa,  495. 

Blenheim,  580,  581. 

Bologna,  408,  467. 

Borghese,  Rome,  473. 

Braschi,  Rome,  490. 

Ca  d'Oro,  Venice,  411. 

Cambiassi,  Genoa,  496. 

Cancellaria,  Rome,  457. 

Canossa,  Verona,  490. 

Capitanio,  Vicenza,  488. 

Capitol,  Rome,  467. 

Caprarola,  463,  503. 

Cavalli,  Venice,  411. 

Charles  V.,  Granada,  537. 

Chierecati,  Vicenza,  488. 

Consiglio,  Verona,  445,  490. 

Contarini-Fasan,  411. 

Cornaro,  Venice,  485. 

Corsini,  Rome,  490. 

Ctesiphon,  667. 

of  Darius,  40,  41. 

Delhi,  656,  677. 

Del  Te,  Mantua,  463. 

Diocletian,  Spalato,  156,  161. 

Doge's,  Venice,  411. 
court,  477. 

Durazzo,  Genoa,  496. 

Escurial,  161,  537. 

Farnese,  Rome,  461,  592. 

Farsetti,  237. 

Firouzabad,  667. 

Fontainebleau,  503. 

Foscari,  Venice,  411. 
Gaudagni,  454. 

Giraud,  Rome,  440,  457. 
Grimani,  Venice,  485. 
Khorsabad,  39. 


INDEX. 


723 


Palace — continued, 

King  Minos,  Knossos,  54,  92. 

Loredan,  237. 

Luxembourg,  506. 

Mashita,  669. 

Massimi,  Rome,  461. 

Monterey-Salamanca,  542. 

Municipio,  Bologna,  467. 

Nimroud,  39,  43,  44. 

Nineveh,  39,  44,  669. 

Pandolfini,  449,  463,  592. 

Papal,  Rome,  473. 

Persepolis,  40,  669. 

Pesaro,  Venice,  441,  485. 

Pisani,  Venice,  411. 

Pitti,  449,  453,  506. 

Pompeii,  Verona,  490. 

Publico,  Siena,  417. 

Riccardi,  Florence,  441,  448,  449, 

453- 

Rosso,  Genoa,  495. 

Royal,  Palermo,  241. 

Ruccellai,  Florence,  453. 

Sargon,  39. 

Sennacherib.  40. 

Serbistan,  667. 

Strozzi,  449,  454. 

Summer,  Pekin,  639. 

Susa,  41. 

Tiene,  Vicenza,  488. 

Tiryns,  47,  54,  93- 

Tuileries,  505. 

Uxmal,  652. 

Valmarana  Vicenza,  488. 

Vatican,  Rome,  441. 

Vecchio,  417. 

Vendramini,  485. 

Versailles,  506. 

Xerxes,  40,  41. 

Zayi,  652. 

Palaces,  Assyrian,  theories  as  to  rooting, 
40. 

Chinese  and  Japanese,  369. 

Greek,  92. 

Mycenaean,  61. 

Roman,  92,  160. 

of  the  Roman  Emperors,  160. 
Palestra,  Greek,  97,  141. 

Olympia,  97. 
Palais  de  Justice,  Brussels,  528. 

Rouen,  376. 
Palenque  Temple.  652. 
Palermo,  Capella  Palatina,  241. 

Cathedral.  419. 

Martorana  Church,  242. 

S.  Giovanni  degli  Eremiti,  242. 
Paley  and  Austin,  architects,  596. 
Palgrave  Church,  Suffolk,  293. 


Palitana,  temple,  618. 
Palladian  motif,  488. 

type  of  house,  581. 
Palladio,  architect,  488,  567,  571, 

580. 

Palm  vaulting,  288. 
Palmette  ornament,  106. 
Palmyra,  Great  Temple  at,  125. 
Panathenaic  frieze,  72. 
Pandolfini  Palace,  449.  463,  592. 
Pandroseion,  Athens,  81. 
Panel  (see  Glossary). 
Panelling  Elizabethan,  555. 
Pansa,  house  of,  162. 
Pantheon,  Oxford  Street,  London,  582. 

Paris,  473,  509. 

Rome,  59,  130,  147. 

hypaethral  opening  at,  58,  134. 
Parapet  (see  Glossary). 
Parapets,  pierced,  562. 
Parclose-screen,  perpendicular,  354. 
Paris,  Arc  de  Triomphe,  506. 

Chateau  de  Mai>ons,  506. 

Church  of  the  Sorbonne,  509. 

Hotel  des  Invalides,  509. 

Hotel  de  Ville,  506.  - 

Louvre,  the,  41,  503,  506,  569. 
Pavilion  de  1'Horloge,  505. 

Luxembourg  Palace,  506. 

Madeleine,  511. 

Notre  Dame,  24,  368. 

Opera  House.  506. 

Pantheon,  473,  509. 

Place  Louis  Napoleon,  505. 

Sainte  Chapelle.  373. 

S.  Etienne  du  Mont,  509. 

S.  Eustache,  509. 

S.  Genevieve,  506. 

SS.  Paul  and  Louis,  509. 

S.  Sulpice,  509. 

Tuileries,  505. 
Parish  churches,  English,  316. 

Spanish,  430,  433. 
Parisnath,  temple,  6 1 8. 
Parliament  House,  Melbourne,  597. 

Ottawa,  597. 

Sydney,  597. 

Vienna,  524. 
Parochial  churches,  298. 
Paros,  temple  of  Poseidon,  63. 
Parthenon,  Athens,  entasis  of  column, 
6l. 

inclination  of  columns,  51,  58,  66, 

67,  102. 

Patera  (see  Glossary). 
Patio,  Spanish,  537,  540. 

de  las  Doncellas,  663. 
Pausanias,  67. 

3A2 


724 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Pavia,  bridge  over  the  Ticino,  411. 

Certosa,  219,  208,  495. 

S.  Michele,  237. 

Pavilion  de  1'Horloge,  Paris,  505. 
Pavimentum  (see  Glossary). 
Pazzi  Chapel,  453. 
Peace,  Temple  of,  139. 
Pearl  mosque,  Agra,  656,  677. 
Pearson,  architect,  595. 
Pediment  (see  Glossary). 
Pediments  in  Greek  architecture, 

Georgian,  585. 
Pekin,  Hall  of  Audience,  639. 

Imperial  Palace,  646. 

Summer  Palace,  639. 

Tang-chow,  pagoda,  642. 

Temple   of    Heaven    and    Earth, 

639. 

Tung-chow,  pagoda,  642. 
Pelasgic  architecture,  49,  54. 
Pele  or  bastle  houses,  359. 
Pelican  Fire  office,  581. 
Pellerhaus,  Nuremberg,  521. 
Pembroke    College,    Cambridge,    324, 

576,  595- 

bookcase,  565. 

Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  557. 
Pendant,  354. 

vaulting,  289,  290. 
Pendentive  (see  Glossary). 
Pendentive,  Saracenic,  657. 
Pennethorne,  Sir  James,  architect,  593. 
Penshurst  Place,  Kent,  320,  343,  557. 
Peperino  stone,  112. 
Pergamon,  sculptures  at,  108. 
Pericles,  48,  67,  93. 
Perigueux,  S.  Front,  194,  248. 
Peripteral  (see  Glossary). 
Peristyle  (see  Glossary). 
Peristylium,  1 60. 
Perpendicular  (see  Glossary). 
Perpendicular  style,  283,  349. 

vaulting,  288. 
Perrault,  architect,  505. 
Persepolis,  buildings  at,  40. 

columns  at,  36. 

Hall  of  the  Hundred  Columns,  40. 

Hypostyle  Hall  of  Xerxes,  40,  41. 

palace  of  Darius,  40. 

palace  of  Xerxes,  40. 

Prop yl sea,  40. 

Persian  architecture,  40,  667. 
Peruvian  architecture,  642. 
Peruzzi,  Baldassare,  architect,  461,  471. 
Pesaro  Palace,  Venice,  441,  485. 
Peterborough  Cathedral,  305,  332. 
Peterhouse  College,  Cambridge,  324. 

tablet,  365. 


Petz,  architect,  601. 
Pew-end,  354. 
Phidias,  53,  67. 

Philadelphia,   Academy  of  Fine   Arts, 
599- 

Christ  Church,  598. 

Exhibition,  599. 

Independence  Hall,  598. 

Town  Hall,  599. 

United  States  Mint,  599. 

University  of  Pennsylvania  at,  60 1 . 
Philse,  Temple  of,  Isis,  25. 
Philipeion,  Olympia,  58. 
Philon,  architect,  66. 
Piacenza,  S.  Antonio,  237. 
Piano  Nobile,  511,  585. 
Picture  gallery,  derivation  of,  555. 
Pier  (see  Glossary). 
Pierrefonds.  chateau  de,  376. 
Pilaster  (see  Glossary). 
Pilaster  stripes,  327. 
Pillars  of  Victory,  153,  156. 
Pinacothek,  Munich,  524. 
Pinnacle  (see  Glossary). 
Pisa,  baptistery,  231. 

campanile,  231. 

Campo  Santo,  417. 

Cathedral,  231. 

Leaning  Tower,  231. 
Pisani  Palace,  411. 
Pisano  Niccolo,  architect.  411. 
Piscina  (see  Glossary). 

Decorated,  349. 

Early  English,  341. 

Norman,  335. 

Perpendicular,  354. 
Pibtoia  Cathedral,  231. 

tower,  420. 

Pitch  of  roof  (see  Glossary). 
Pitti  Palace,  449,  453,  506. 
Pittsburgh    county    buildings,     United 

States,  599. 
Plan  (see  Glossary). 
Plans  of  mediaeval  cathedrals,  273. 
Plaster  work,  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean 

564- 

Plate  tracery,  380. 
Plateresque  style,  534,  539. 
Plinth  (see  Glossary). 
Pliny,  88,  90. 
Ploughshare  twist,  287. 
Podium,  121  (see  Glossary). 
Pointed  arch,  268,  286,  419. 
Poitiers,  Notre  Dame  la  Grande,  249 
Pola,  amphitheatre,  152. 

Arch  of  the  Sergii,  153. 
Polaert.  architect,  528. 
Pollonarua,  614. 


INDEX. 


725 


Polycleitos  the  younger,  66,  87,  92. 
Polytechnic  School,  Berlin,  524. 
Pompeian  House,  Crystal  Palace.  163. 
Pompeii,  excavations,  162. 

amphitheatre,  152. 

basilicas  at,  139. 

Street  of  Tombs,  158. 
Ponce  de  Leon. Hotel,  Florida,  601. 
Pont  du  Card,  Nimes,  1 59. 
Ponte  alle  Grazie,  Florence,  411. 
Ponte  Vecchio,  Florence,  411. 
Pope  Julius,  villa,  463. 
Poppy-heads,  354. 

Porta,  Giacomo  della,  architect,  473. 
Porta  Nigra,   Treves,  156. 
Portcullis,  354. 
Porte-cochere,  500,  506. 

S.  Andre,  Autun,  156. 

des  Mars,  Rheims,  156. 
Portico  (see  Glossary). 
'Portland  stone  used  by  Wren,  571. 
Portsea,  S.  Mary,  596 
Poseidon,  temple,  island  of  Pares,  63. 

Psestum,  66,  69, 102. 

Sunium,  66. 
Pozzolana,  1 12,  118. 
Prague,  chevet,  398. 
Praxiteles,  53. 

Premonstratensian  order,  219. 
Presbyter^  (see  Glossary). 
Priene,  temple  of  Athena  Polias,  51,  79. 

*-Propylsea,  93. 

Primary  period,  French  Gothic,  368. 
Primaticcio,  architect,  497,  503. 
Piince  Arthur's  Chantry,  316. 
Printing,  introduction  of,  549. 
Prior  Park,  Bath,  582. 
Priory  (see  Glossary). 
Prismatic  rustication,  5^5- 
Pronaos  (see  Glossary). 
Propylsea,  Athens,   58,  66,  79,  93,  97, 

IOD. 

Eleusis,  93. 

Epidauros,  93. 

Priene,  93. 

Sunium,  93. 

Propylaeum  (see  Glossary). 
Prostyle  (see  Glossary). 
Prothyrum,  162. 

Prototypes  of  later  Byzantine  churches, 
187. 

S.  Vitale,  Ravenna,  208. 
Providence,  State  House,  U.S.A.,  601. 
Prudential  Assurance  office,    London, 

595- 

Prynne,  architect,  597. 
Pseudo-dipteral  (see  Glossary). 
Pteroma  (see  Glossary). 


Ptolemy,  dynasty  of,  48. 
Public  buildings,  Greek,  97. 
Publico  Palazzo,  Siena,  417. 
Pugin,  architect,  592. 

publications  by,  592. 
Pulham  Church,  293. 
Pulpit,  354,  565. 
Pulpit   at   North   Cray  Church,   Kent, 

56> 

Pulpits,  iron,  in  Spain,  544. 
Pulvinated  (see  Glossary). 
Puri,  temple,  623. 
Pycnostyle  (see  Glossary). 
Pylons  Egyptian,  22. 
Pyramid  of  Cestius,  Rome,  158. 
Pyramids,  Egypt,  3,  17,  39,  41. 
Pythius,  architect,  79. 

Quadrangle,  Clare  College,  557. 
Quadriga  (see  Glossary). 
Quadripartite  vaulting,  287. 
Quatrefoil,  337  (see  Glossary). 
Queen  Anne  style,  578. 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  324. 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  324. 

Library,  576. 

Queen's  House,  Greenwich.  569,  578. 
Quoins,  490  (see  Glossary). 

Radcliffe  Library,  Oxford,  581. 
Rail?,  612. 

Rainaldi,  architect,  473. 
Rameses,  tomb  of,  20. 
Ramesseum,  the,  Thebes,  20,  22. 
Ramma,  ventilating  frieze,  650. 
Ramsgate,  S.  Augustine,  592. 
Raphael,  architect,  463,  471. 
Rath,  Ellora,  606. 

Mahavellipore,  606. 
Rathhaus,  Altenburg,  524. 

Cologne,  521. 

Heilbroon,  524. 

Leipsig,  524. 

Lubeck,  398. 
Raths,  606,  628, 
Ratisbon  Cathedral,  396,  398,  401. 

Town  Hall,  398. 
Ravenna,  baptistery,  184. 

Early  Christian  edifices,  223. 

S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  182. 

S.  Apollinare  Nuovo,  182. 

S.  Vitale,  145,  194,  200,  208,  261. 

tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  187. 

tomb  of  Theodoric,  187. 
Rawlinson,  Sir  Robert,  592. 
Raynham  Hall,  569,  578. 
Rayonnant  p3riod,  French  Gothic,  308 
Record  Office,  London,  593- 


726 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Redentore  Church,  Venice,  485. 
Redhill,  S.  John,  595. 
Refectory,  277  (see  Glossary). 
Reform  Club,  London,  463,  592. 
Reformation  in  Europe,  438. 

France,  497. 

Register  College,  Edinburgh,  582. 
Regula,  63. 
Rejas,  434,  544. 
Religion,  Buddhist,  607. 

Christian,  176. 

Confucianism,  636. 

Hindu,  Brahmanical,  607. 

Jaina,  607. 

Mahometan,  654. 

Pagan,  10,  33,  46,  112. 

Taoism  (Sintuism),  637. 
Renaissance  (see  Glossary). 
Renaissance   architecture,    Belgian  and 
Dutch,  527. 

English,  545. 

Europe,  437. 

French,  497. 

German,  517. 

Italian,  446. 

ornament,  444. 

Spanish,  533. 

towers,  442,  576. 

vaulting,  441,  443. 
Renwick,  architect,  599. 
Repousse  worlc,  434. 
Reredos  (see  Glossary). 
Retablo,  430,  434,  544. 
Revival  in  Munich,  524. 
Rhamnus,  temple  of,  Themis,  58,  66. 

temple  of,  Nemesis,  66. 
Rheims  Cathedral,  373. 

Porte  de  Mars,  156. 
Rib  (see  Glossary). 
Rib,  lierne,  288. 

wall,  287. 

tierceron,  287. 

Riccardi  Palace,  441,  448,  449,  453. 
Richardson,  architect,  599. 
Richmond,  Sir  William,  571. 
Ridge  (see  Glossary). 
Ridge-rib,  287. 
Rimini,  Arch  of  Augustus,   153. 

bridge,  160. 

S.  Francesco,  453. 
Ripon  Cathedral,  309.  327. 
Rizzi,  Antonio,  architect,  477. 
Roads  made  by  the  Romans,  280. 
Robson,  architect,  596. 
Rochester  Cathedral,  309,  336. 
Rock-cut  temples,  India,  61 1. 
Rococo  style,  496  (see  Glossary). 
Roll  moulding,  335  (see  Glossary). 


Roman  amphitheatre,  147,  149, 
aqueducts,  158. 
architecture,  5,  in. 
balneum,  145. 
basilicas,  136. 
bridges,  160. 
building  acts,  113. 
building  stones,  1 12. 
camps,  92,  280. 
caves,   157,  176. 
circi,  152. 

decoration  of  buildings,  118. 
dwellings,  162. 
emperors,  114. 
fountains,  164. 
mosaic,  119. 
mural  paintings,  119. 
palaces,  92,  1 60. 
roads  in  England,  280. 
sculpture,  171. 
settlements  in  England,  280. 
temples,  121. 
theatres,  147. 
thermae,  141. 
tombs,  156,  158. 
use  of  arch,  5,  114. 
use  of  concrete,  115. 
vaulting,  117,  164. 
walling,  115. 
Romanesque   architecture    in    Europe, 

217. 

vaulting,  224. 

Romano,  Giulio,  architect,  463. 
Rome,  Arch  of  Constantine,  153. 

the  Goldsmiths,  153. 

Tanus,  156. 

Septimius  Severus,  153. 

Titus,  153. 
Atrium  Vestse,  162. 
Baptistery  of  Constantine,  184. 
Barberini  Palace,  473,  490, 
Basilican  churches,  r/8. 
Basilicas  or  Halls  of  Justice,  136, 

139- 

of  Maxentius,  139. 

vaulted,  139. 

with  wooden  roofs,  136. 
Borghese  Palace,  473. 
Braschi  Palace,  490. 
Cancellaria  Palace,  457. 
Castle  of  S.  Angelo,  157. 
Castor  and  Pollux,  temple  of,  123. 
Catacombs,  157,  176. 
Circus  Maxentius,  152. 
Cloaca  Maxima,  119. 
Cloisters  of  S.  John  Lateran,  232. 
Column  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  156. 
Column  to  Antoninus  Pius,  156. 


INDEX. 


727 


Rome — continued. 
Columbaria,  157. 
Concord,  temple  of.  123. 
Corsini  Palace,  490. 
Etruscan  Museum,  463. 
Farnese  Palace,  461,  592. 
Farnesina  Villa,  461. 
Flavian  Amphitheatre  (Colosseum), 

114,  149. 
Fora,  1 20. 

Fortuna  Virilis,  temple  of,  123. 
Forum  Romanum,  120. 
Forum  of  Trajan,  120. 
Fountain  of  Trevi,  473. 
Gens  Cornelia,  tomb  of,  157. 
Gesu  Church,  467. 
Giraud  Palace,  440,  457. 
Jupiter  Capitolinus,  90,  120. 
Mars  Ultor,  temple  of,  123. 
Massimi  Palace,  461. 
Mater  Matuta,  130. 
Mausoleum  of  Augustus,   157. 

of  Hadrian,  157. 
Maxentius,  basilica  of,  139. 
Minerva  Medica,  145,  208. 
Nero's  Golden  House,  145. 
Palace   of  the  Roman   Emperors, 

1 60. 

Palazzo  Giraud,  440,  457. 
Pantheon,  59,  130,  147. 

hypsethral,  opening  at,  58. 

lighting  of,  134. 
Papal  Palaces,  473. 
Pyramid  of  Cestius,  158. 
Renaissance,  456. 
Romanesque  towers,  231. 
Rostral  columns,  156. 
S.  Agnes,  496. 
S.  Andrea,  467. 
S.  Clemente,  180. 
S.  Constanza,  187. 
S.    Giovanni     in     Laterano,   182, 

473- 

S.  Lorenzo,  123,  463. 
S.  Maria  degli  Angeli,  145. 
S.  Maria  Maggiore,  182. 
Chapel  of  Sixtus  V.,  473. 
S.  Maria  della  Pace,  461. 
S.  Maria  della  Vittoria,  496. 
S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  419. 
S.  Maria  Egiziaca,  123. 
S.  Paul,  182,  232. 
S.  Peter,  Rome,  467,  473.  . 
S.  Peter  (old  Basilica),  182. 
S.   Pietro  in  Montorio,  tempietto, 

461. 

S.  Stefano  Rotonda,  184. 
Sistine  Chapel,  421,  445.  4^7- 


Rome — contin  ued. 

Temple,  Antoninus  and  Faustina, 

123. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  123. 
Concord,  123. 
Fortuna  Virilis,  123. 
Jupiter  Capitolinus,  90,  120. 
Jupiter    Stator    (Castor    and 

Pollux),  123. 
Mars  Ultor,  123,  125. 
Mater  Matuta,  130,  134. 
Minerva  Medica,  145. 
Peace    (Basilica    Maxentius), 

139- 

Saturn,  123. 

Venus  and  Rome,  123,  125. 
Vespasian,  123. 
Vesta,  59,  130. 
Theatre  of  Marcellus,  147. 
Thermae  or  baths,  141. 
of  Agrippa,  145. 
Caracalla,  142. 
Diocletian,  145. 
Titus,  145,  173,  463. 
Tomb  of  Augustus,  157. 
Tomb  of  Cecilia  Malella,  157. 
of  the  Gens  Cornelia,  157. 
of  Hadrian,  157. 
Tombs,  156. 
Trajan's  Basilica,  139. 
column,  139,  156. 
Triumphal  arches   and    pillars   of 

victory,  153. 
Vatican  Loggie,  463. 

Palace,  441. 
Villa  Madama,  463. 

Pope  Julius,  463. 
Rood-lofts,  354  (see  Glossary). 
Roofs,  aisle.  294. 

collar-braced,  293. 
of  Greek  temples,  56. 
hammer-beam,  291. 
Land  shut,  398. 
mediaeval,  290. 
Nuremberg,  398. 
open  timber,  290,  318,  443. 
tie-beam,  290. 
trussed  rafter,  291. 
Rose  window  (see  Glossary). 
Roses,  Wars  of,  result  of,  457. 
Ross,  architect,  601. 
Rosslyn  Chapel,  359. 
Rosso,  artist,  497. 
Rosso  Palace,  Genoa,  495. 
Rostral  columns,  156. 
Rostrum  (see  Glossary). 
Rouen  Cathedral,  373. 

Hotel  de  Bourgtheroulde,  506. 


728 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


Rouen — continued .  S. 

houses  at,  378.  S. 

Palais  de  Justice,  376.  S. 

S.  Maclou,  376. 

S.  Ouen,  376,  433. 

Rouezzano,  artist,  549.  S. 
Round  towers,  Ireland,  360. 

Royal  Exchange,  London,  592.  S. 

Royal  Palace,  Winchester,  576.  S. 

Ruccellai  Palace,  Florence,  453.  S. 

Ruskin,  writings,  593.  S. 

Rustication  (see  Glossary).  S. 

Rustication,  Elizabethan,  565.  S. 

Rylands'  Library,  Manchester,  596.  S. 

O. 

Sacrament    houses   (German    Gothic)         S. 

402.  S. 

Sadri,  temple,  618.  S. 
S.  Agnes,  Kennington,  595. 

S.  Agnese,  Rome,  496.  S. 

S.  Alban's  Abbey,  309,  332,  343.  S. 

S.  Alban,  Birmingham,  595.  S. 
S.  Alban,  Holborn,  594. 
S.  Ambrogio,  Milan,  237. 

S.  Anastasia,  Verona, '411.  S. 

S.  Andrea,  Mantua,  453.  S. 

S.  Andrea,  Rome,  467.  S. 

S.  Andrea,  Vercelli,  411.  S. 

S.  Andrew,  Heckington,  316.  S. 

S.  Andrew's  Cathedral,  359.  S. 

S.  Angelo,  Castle  of,  157  S. 

S.  Anne,  Limehouse,  581.  S. 
S.  Anne's  Church,  Lower  Kennington       S. 

Lane,  London,  595.  S. 

S.  Antonio,  Padua,  408.  S. 

S.  Antonio,  Piacenza,  237.  S. 

S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  182.  S. 

S.  Apollinare  Nuovo,   182.  S. 

S.  Asaph's,  309.  S. 
S.  Augustine,  Kilburn,  London,  595.           S. 

S.  Augustine,  Ramsgate,  592.  S. 

S.  Barbara,  Kuttenberg.  396.  S. 

S.  Bartholomew,  Smithfield,  328.  S. 

S.  Bride,  Fleet  Street,  576.    "  S. 
S.  Bride's  Vicarage,  596. 

S.  Chapelle,  Paris,  373.  S. 

S.  Clement,  Bournemouth,   596.  S. 
S.  Clement  Danes,  steeple,  576,  581. 

S.  Clemente,  Rome,  182.  S. 

S.  Constanza,  Rome,  187.  S. 

S.  Cristo  de  la  Luz,  Toledo,  663.  S. 
S.  Croce,  Florence,  417. 

S.  Cross,  Winchester,  325.  S. 
S.  Cunibert,  Cologne,  261. 

S.  David,  309.  S. 
S.  Demetrius,  Thessalonica,  210. 

S.  Denis  Abbey,  250.  S. 

S.  Domingo,  Salamanca,  539.  S. 


Donato,  at  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  231. 
Dunstan,  Fleet  Street,  591. 
Dunstan  in  the  East,  305,  576. 
Elizabeth,  Marburg,  396. 
Etheldreda,  Holborn,  343.  347. 
Etienne  (Abbaye-aux  -  Homines), 

Caen,  242. 

Etienne  clu  Mont,  Paris,  509. 
Eustache,  Paris,  509. 
Francesco  della  Vigna,  485. 
Francesco.  Rimini,  453. 
Francis,  Assisi,  419. 
Front,  Perigueux,  194,  248. 
Gall,  Monastery  of,  219,  261. 
Genevieve,  library  of,  506. 
George,  Bloomsbury,  581. 
George's  Cathedral,  Southwark,  592. 
George's     Chapel,    Windsor,     289, 

324,  351,  353- 

George,  Doncaster,  594. 

George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  592. 

George's  Hall,  Liverpool  (reproduc- 
tion of  Great  Hall  of  Caracalla's 
Bath),  144,  592. 

George's  Hospital,  591. 

George  in  the  East,  London,  581. 

George,  Thessalonica,  187,  210. 

Germain-en-Laye,  chateau,  503. 

Giles,  Edinburgh,  305,  359. 

Gilles,  246,  248. 

Giobbe,  485. 

Giorgio  dei  Greci,  485. 

Giorgio  Maggiore,  Venice,  485. 

Giovanni  degli  Eremiti,  242. 

Giovanni  in  Laterano,  473- 

Giovanni  e  Paolo,  411. 

Godehard,  Hildesheim,  261. 

Gregorio,  Valladolid,  430. 

Gudule,  Brussels,  392. 

Isidore,  Leon,  426. 

Irene,  Constantinople,  204. 

Jacques,  Dieppe,  376. 

Jacques,  Liege,  392. 

James's  Hall,  Piccadilly  (idea  of 
Venetian  Gothic),  417,  594. 

James,  Piccadilly,  576. 

James,     Spanish     Place,     London, 

595- 

James  the  Less,  Westminster,  594. 
John,  Brentford,  596. 
John's  Chapel,  Tower  of  London, 

324,  328,  335. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  234. 

Oxford,  324. 
John's   College,  Cambridge  Court, 

John,  Hammersmith,  596. 

John's  Hospital,  Northampton,  325. 


INDEX. 


S.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  182. 

cloisters,  232. 

S.  John,  Red  Lion  Square,  London,  595. 
S.  John,  Upper  Norwood,  595. 
S.  John,  Redhill,  595. 
S.  John  the  Divine,  New  York,  60 1. 
S.  John,  Westminster,  581. 
S.  Juan  de  !os  Reyes,  Toledo,  433. 
S.  Kevin's  Kitchen,  360. 
S.  Lambert,  Hildesheim,  396. 
S.  Lorenzo,  Florence,  449. 
S.  Lorenzo,  Rome,  123,  463. 
S.  Louis  Exhibition,  599. 
S.  Luke's  Church,  Chelsea,  591. 
S.  Luke,  Chiddingstone  Causeway,  596. 
S.  Luke's  Hospital,  London,  582. 
S.  Luke's  Monastery,  210. 
.S.  Maclou,  Rouen,  376. 
S.  Margaret,  Westminster,  349. 
S.  Maria  degli  Angeli,  145. 
S.  Maria  dei  Fiori,  417. 
S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  485. 
S.  Maria  del  Mar,  Barcelona,  430. 
S.  Maria  della  Consolazione,  Todi,  461. 
S.  Maria  della  Grazie,  457,  495. 
S.  Maria  della  Pace,  Rome,  461. 
S.  Maria  della  Salute,  485. 
S.  Maria  della  Vittoria,  Rome,  496. 
S.  Maria  di  Carignano,  Genoa,  496,  539. 
S.  Maria  Egiziaca,  123. 
S.  Maria  Gloriosa  dei  Frari,  411. 
S.  Maria  in  Capitol,  Cologne,  261. 
S.  Maria  la  Bianca,  Toledo.  663. 
S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome,  182. 

Chapel  of  Sixtus  V.,  473. 
S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  417,  453. 
S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  419. 
S.  Mark,  Leamington,  595. 
S.  Mark,  Venice,  194,  208. 

Library,  461,  477,  594. 
S.  Martin,  Canterbury,  327. 
S.  Martin  in  the  Fields,  581. 
S.  Martin,  Cologne,  261. 
S.  Martin,  Landshut,  396. 
S.  Martin,  Ludgate,  542,  576. 
S.  Martino,  Lucca,  231. 
S.  Mary,  Portsea,  596. 
S.  Mary,  Stoke  Newington,  564. 
S.  Mary  Abbots,  Kensington,  594. 
S.  Mary  Aldermary,  576. 
S.  Mary,  Clapham,  596. 
S.  Mary  Magdalene,  Paddington,  594. 
S.  Mary-le-Strand,  581. 
S.    Mary  Overie  (St.  Saviour's),  South- 

wark,  336. 

S.  Mary  Woolnoth,  Lombard  Street,  581. 
S    Mary's  Cathedral,  Edinburgh,  594. 
S.  Mary's  Hospital,  Chichester,  325. 


729 

S.  Michael,  Charlestown,  U.S.A.,  599. 

S.  Michael,  West  Croydon,  595. 

S.  Michael,  Munich,  524. 

S.  Michele,  Lucca,  231. 

S.  Michele,  Pavia,  237. 

S.  Miniato,  Florence,  232. 

S.  Nicholas  Church,  Caen,  250. 

S.  Nicolo,  l>ari,  242. 

S.  Ouen,  Rouen,  376,  433. 

S.  Pancras  Church,  591. 

S.  Pancras  Station,  594. 

S.  Paolo,  Loggia,  Florence,  44S. 

S.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,    99. 

S.  Paul,  Covent  Garden,  569. 

S.  Paul,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  598. 

S.  Paul,  Rome,  182,  232. 

S.  Paul's,  London,  443,  473,  509,  571. 

time  occupied  in  building,  573. 
SS.  Paul  and  Louis,  Paris,  509. 
S.  Peter,  Ealing,  596. 
S.  Peter,  Kettering,  351. 
S.  Peter,  Rome,  467 — 473. 

cupolas,  467. 

dome,  467, 

general  history  of  building,  471 

old  basilicn,  Rome,  182. 

time  building,  573. 
S.  Peter,  Vauxhall,  595. 
S.  Petronio,  Bologna,  408. 
S.  Philip,  Birmingham,  581. 
S.  Pierre,  Caen,  506. 
S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  Tempietto.  461 
S.  Quintin,  396. 
S.  Remi,  monument  of,  158. 
S.  Salvatore,  485. 
S.  Satiro,  Milan,  495. 
S.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  336. 
S.  Sepulchre,  Holbom,  288,  349. 
SS.    Sergius   and    Bacchus,  Constanti- 
nople, 198,  200. 

S.  Sernin,  Toulouse,  248,  376,  433. 
S.   Sophia,   Constantinople,    195,  200, 

473,  669- 

S.  Sophia,  Trebizond,  210. 
S.  Spirito,  Florence,  449. 
S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  184. 
S.  Stephen,  Vienna,  396. 
S.  Stephen,  Wa'brook,  576,  629. 
S.  Stephen,  Westminster,  324,  594. 
S.  Stephen's  Club,  London,  595. 
S.  Sulpice,  Paris,  509. 
S.  Thomas's  Hospital,  London,  595. 
S.  Thomas's  Seminary,  596. 
S.  Trophime,  Aries,  246—248. 
S.  Vitale,  Ravenna,  145,  194,  200,  208, 

261. 

S,  Waudru,  Mons,  392. 
S.  Werburgh,  Benedictine  order  of,  304. 


730 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


S.  Wulfrand,  Abbeville,  376. 
S.  Zaccaria,  Venice,  485. 
S.  Zenone,  Verona,  237. 

scroll  work  gables,  562. 

campanile,  239. 
Sakkara,  Mastaba  of  Thy,  18. 
Salamanca  Cathedral,  426. 

Casa  Monterey,  542. 

S.  Domingo,  539. 
Salamis,  battle  of,  48. 
Salientes  (Roman  fountains),  164. 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  309,  336,  343. 

house  near,  595. 
Sallust,  house  of,  163. 
Salonica,  church  of  St.  George,  187. 
Salvi,  Dioti,  architect,  231 
Samos,  temple  of  Hera,  79. 
Sanchi,  gateway,  612,  632. 

tope,  612,  642. 
Sanctus-bell,  354. 

Sangallo,  Ant.  di,  architect,  461,  471. 
Sangallo  Giuliano,  471. 
San  Micheli,  architect,  485,  488. 
Sansovino,  architect,  461,  477,  485. 
Santiago  de  Compostela  Cathedral,  426. 
Santiago  Cathedral,  steeple.  540. 
Sao-chow,  pagoda,  642. 
Saracenic,  Arabian,  657. 

architecture,  653. 

dwelling-houses,  678. 

Egyptian,  659. 

Indian,  671. 

pendentive,  657- 

Persian,  667. 

Spanish,  663. 

Syrian,  659. 

Turkish,  669. 

vaulting,  657. 

Saragossa,  Casa  Infanta,  540. 
Sarcophagus,  Alexander,  94. 

from  a  tomb,  Cnidus,  94. 
Sargon,  Palace  of,  39. 
Sarnath,  tope  at,  612. 
Sasseram,  tomb,  671. 
Saturn,  temple  of,  Rome,  123. 
Satyrus,  architect,  79,  94. 
Savage,  architect,  501. 
Savoy  Chapel,  Strand,  London,  349. 
Scala-Regia  of  the  Vatican,  490. 
Scaligers,  tomb  of  the,  421. 
Scamozzi,  architect,  477,  488. 
Schinkel,  architect,  524. 
School  Board  Offices,  Thames  Embank- 
ment, 595. 

Schools  and  colleges,  324. 
Science,  College  of,  595. 
Scopas,  sculptor,  94. 
Scotia  moulding,  106  (see  Glossary). 


Scott,  G.  G.,  architect,  595. 

Scott,  Sir  G.,  architect,  304,  309,  594. 

Scott,  Oldrid,  architect,  216. 

Scottish  architecture,  359. 

Screen  (see  Glossary). 

Sculpture  (Classic), 

Assyrian,  44. 

Byzantine,  214. 

Egyptian,  29. 

Greek,  106. 

Roman,  171. 
Sculpture  (Gothic), 

English,  341,  347,  354,  382. 

French,  382. 

German,  402. 

Italian,  421. 

Spanish,  434. 
Sculpture  (Renaissance), 

Belgian  and  Dutch,  532. 

Elizabethan  and  Jacobean,  564. 

French,  516. 

German,  526. 

Italian,  494,  516. 

Spanish,  544. 
Sculpture  (Romanesque), 

French,  257. 

Italian,  244. 

Scuola  di  S.  Marco,  Venice,  485. 
Seat  on  Delaval,  581. 
Section  (see  Glossary). 
Sedding,  architect,  596. 
Sedilia  (see  Glossary). 
Sedilia,  Decorated,  349. 

Early  English,  341. 

Norman,  335. 

Perpendicular,  354. 
Segovia  aqueduct,  160. 
Selim  Chistee,  tomb,  677. 
Selinus,  Great  Temple,  58,  66. 
Senate  House,  Cambridge,  581. 
Sennacherib,  Palace  of,  40. 
Sens  Cathedral,  304. 

William  of,  286,  304. 
Septimius  Severus,  arch,  153. 
Serbistan  Palace,  667. 
Sergii,  arch  of  the,  Pola,  153. 
Seringham,  temple,  628. 
Serlio,  architect,  497,  503. 
Servandoni,  architect,  509. 
Sethos  I.,  temple  of,  24. 

tomb  of,  20. 

Severy  (vaulting),  224,  286. 
Seville,  Alcazar,  663. 

Patio  de  las  Doncellas,  663. 
Seville,  Casa  Lonja,  537. 

Cathedral,  430. 

Giralda,  663. 
Sexpartite  vaulting,  225. 


INDEX. 


Sgraffito,  13,  445. 

Shaft  (see  Glossary). 

Shanghai,  pagoda,  642. 

Shaw,  John,  architect,  591. 

Shaw,  Norman,  architect,  594,  595. 

Sheffield  Town  Hall,  596. 

Sheldonian  Theatre,  576. 

Sherborne  Minster,  351. 

Shepley,  Rutan  and  Coolidge,  601. 

Shere  Shah  tomb,  671. 

Shrewsbury,  Butcher  Row,  322. 

Siam  architecture,  633. 

Sicily,  architecture  at,  55. 

Sidney  Sussex  College,  557. 

Sidon,  Alexander  sarcophagus,  94. 

Tomb  of  the  Weepers,  94. 
Siena  Cathedral,  405,  417. 

Palazzo  Publico,  417. 

tower  at,  420. 
Sikra,  614,  629,  630. 
Silchester,  basilica  at,  139. 
Siloe,  Diego,  architect,  540. 
Simons,  Ralph,  architect.  557. 
Sinan,  architect,  669. 
Sintu  temples,  646. 
Sion  House,  582. 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  569. 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  304,  309,  594. 
Sir  Paul  Pindar's  house,  561. 
Sistine  Chapel,  421,  445,  467. 
Skellings,  monastic  cells,  360. 
Smirke,  Sir  Robert,  architect,  592. 
Smirke,  Sidney,  architect,  594. 
Smithmeyer,  architect,  601. 
Smithson,  architect,  557,  562. 
Soane,  Sir  John,  582. 

museum,  561,  585. 
Soffit  (see  Glossary). 
Soisson  Cathedral,  373. 
Solar,  320,  555  (see  Glossary). 
Sole-piece,  291. 

Solomon,  temple  of,  Jerusalem,  187. 
Solothurn  Town  Hall,  521. 
Somerset  House,  London,  582,  593. 
Somnathpur,  temple,  623. 
Sompting  Church,  327. 
Sorbonne,  Church  of  the,  Paris,  509. 
Soufflot,  architect,  509. 
Southwell  Cathedral,  309,  343. 
Spalato,  Diocletian's  Palace,  156,  161, 
temple  of  ^Esculapius,  125. 
temple  of  Jupiter,  130,  136. 
Span  (see  Glossary). 
Spandrel  (see  Glossary). 
Spandril,  494  (see  Glossary). 
Spanish  Gothic  architecture,  424. 

cathedrals,  426. 

Moorish  influence,  424.  425. 


731 

Spanish  Gothic  ornament,  434. 
Spanish  Renaissance, Moorish  influence, 

534- 

ornament,  542. 
periods  of,  534. 
Spanish  Saracenic,  663. 
Sphinx,  Egypt,  17. 
Spire  (see  Glossary). 
Spire,  broach,  318,  336,  343. 

evolution  of,  336,  343,  351. 
Spires,  cathedral,  261. 
Spires,  German  Gothic,  401. 

open  work,  396,  401,  426,  433. 

Renaissance,  576,  588. 
Squinch  arch,  226  (see  Glossary) 
Sravana  Belgula,  618. 
Stadion,  Athens,  97. 

Delphi,  97. 

Ephesus,  97. 

Epidauros,  97 

Olympia,  97. 

Roman,  141. 

Thebes,  97. 

Stadhaus,  Amsterdam,  528. 
Stadtweinhaus  at  Munster,  524. 
Stafford  municipal  buildings,  597. 
Stained  glass,  254,  335,  341,  347,  382, 

402,  433,  434,  444,  544. 
Staircases  (Italian  Renaissance),  490. 

Elizabethan,  555. 

Georgian,  585. 
Stalactite  bracketting,  679. 

vaulting,  657,  682. 

work,  680,  682. 
Stalls  (see  Glossary). 
Stambhas  (or  Lats),  6 1 2. 
Stamford,  the  Bede  House.  325. 
Stanway  House,  553. 
Staple  Inn,  London,  561. 
State  Capitol,  at  Hartford,  599. 
State  House,  Providence,  601. 
Steeple  (see  Glossary). 
Stellar  vaulting,  288. 
Steinbach,  Erwin  von,  396. 
Steinfurt,  two-storeyed  church,  264. 
Stele,  94,  108. 
Stevens,  artist,  594. 
Stevenson,  architect,  596. 
Stewardson,  architect,  601. 
Stiff  leaf  foliage,  341. 
Stilted  arch  (see  Glossary). 
Stilting  of  arches,  286. 
Stoa  (see  Glossary). 
Stoa  or  portico,  Athens,  85. 
Stoa  Pcecile,  Olympia,  97. 
Stoae  or  colonnade,  97. 
Stockport  Church,  596. 
Stockton  House,  Wilts..  555. 


732 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Stpke  Park,  Kent,  569,  580. 

Stokes,  architect,  597. 

Stone  Church,  Kent,  343. 

Stone,  Nicholas,  mason,  569. 

Stonehenge.  cromlech  at,  3. 

Stones,  Roman  building,  112. 

Storey  (see  Glossary). 

Stowe  house,  Buckingham,  582. 

Stowe-Bardolph  Church,  291. 

Strap  ornament,  564. 

Strasburg  Cathedral,  396. 

Stratford  Place,  Oxford  Street,  582. 

Strawberry  Hill,  591. 

Street,  architect,  304,  594. 

Street  of  Tombs,  Pompeii,  158. 

Strozzi,  palace,  449,  454. 

Stupas  (topes),  612. 

Stuttgart,  castle,  524. 

Styles  of  English  architecture,  325. 

Stylobate  (see  Glossary). 

Sudatorium,  141. 

Suffolk,  churches  in,  318.  354. 

Suger,  Abbe,  362. 

Suleimaniyeh  Mosque,  669. 

Sultan  Barkook  Mosque,  663. 

Sultanieh  tomb,  669. 

Sultan  Hassan  Mosque,  659,  678. 

Sun,    temple    of,     Baalbec,    58,     125, 

202. 

Sun  Fire  office,  London,  592. 
Sunium,  temple  of  Poseidon,  56. 

propylaea,  93. 
Susa,  arch  of  Augustus,  153. 

columns  at,  46. 

palaces,  41. 

Sutton  Place,  283,  322. 
Sydney,  Parliament  House,  597. 
Syracuse,  temple  of  Athena,  66. 
Syria  tombs  in,  187. 
Syrian  Saracenic  architecture,  659. 
Systyle  (see  Glossary). 

Taas,  647  (see  Pagodas). 
Tabernacle,  Decorated,  349. 

Early  English,  341. 

German  Gothic,  402. 
Tablinum,  160,  163. 
Tabreez  Mosque,  669. 
Taj  Mehal,  Agra,  654,  677. 
Talman,  William,  581. 
Tang-chow,  pagoda,  642. 
Tanjore,  temple,  628. 
Taoism  Religion,  637. 
Taormina,  theatre  at,  147. 
Tapestries,  Elizabethan,  565. 
Tarputry,  temple,  628. 
Tarragona  aqueduct,  160. 
Taylor,  Sir  Robert,  architect,  581. 


Taylor  and  Randolph  College,  592. 
Teatro  Olimpico,  Vicenza,  488. 
Teleskrion,  Eleusis,  58. 
Temenos,  56  (see  Glossary). 
Temple   Church,    London,    189,    328, 

33°- 
Temple,  Abu-Simbel,   24. 

^Egina,  49. 

^Esculapius,  Spalato,  125,  161. 

Agrigentum  (Jupiter),  58,  66,  75. 

Ajunta,  614,  632. 

Ammon,  Karnac,  22,  24. 

Ammon  Luxor,  22,  28. 

Amritzar,  623. 

Antoninus  and  Faustina,  123 

Anuradapura,  614. 

Aphaia,  66,  67. 

Apollo  (Bassae),  66,  72.  77,  79   87. 

Apollo  (Delos),  66. 

Apollo-Didymaeus,  56,  58,  79,  84, 
85,  87,  88. 

Artemis,  Ephesus  (Archaic).  77. 

Artemis,  Ephesus,  79,  84,  202. 

Athena,  Corinth,  63. 

Athena  Polias,  Priene,  51,  79. 

Athena,  Syracuse,  66. 

Baalbec,  58,  125,  130,  202. 

Baalbec,  circular  temple,  130,  136. 

Baillur,  623. 

Baroli,  623. 

Basilica,  Paestum,  49,  61,  66. 

Bedsa,  631,  632. 

Bhaja,  614. 

Bhuvaneswar,  623. 

Birs-Nimroud,  37. 

Buddhist,  6ll,  614. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  123. 

Ceres,  Paestum,  66. 

Chambers,  London,  594. 

Chalukyan,  623,  629. 

Chandravati,  623. 

Chillambaram,  628,  630. 

Chinese  and  Japanese,  639. 

Chittore,  623. 

Cholula,  652. 

circular  (Roman),  123,  130. 

circular,  Baalbec,  130,  136. 

Concord,  66,  123. 

Conjeveram,  628. 

Corinth,  47. 

Demeter,  66. 

Dharvvar,  623. 

Der-el-bahri,  22. 

Diana,  Nimes,  123,  125. 

Diana,  Ephesus,  58,  84   202. 

different  kinds  of,  58. 

Dionysus,  Teos,  79. 

Doric,  63,  66. 


INDEX. 


733 


Tem  pi  e — continued. 

Dravidian,  628. 

Edfou,  25,  28. 

Ephesus  (Archaic),  77. 

Egesta,  Sicily,  66. 

Egyptian,  15. 

Elephanta,  614. 

Eleusis,  58. 

Ellora,  614,  628. 

Erechtheion,  58,  79,  81. 

Fortuna  Virilis,  123. 

Girnar,  618,  629. 

Greek,  56. 

Gwalior,  618. 

Hatlior,  Denderah,  25,  28. 

Heaven  and  Earth,  639. 

Hephsests,  66,  67. 

Hera,  Samos,  79. 

Heraion,  Olympia,  63,  66. 

Hindu  (Brahmanical),  611,  623. 

Hullabid,  623 

Hypaethral,  56. 

Ilissus,  on  the,  79. 

Indian,  611,  614. 

Isis,  Philae,  25,  28. 

Jaina,  611,  614. 

Jerusalem,  41. 

Juganat,  623. 

Juno,  Agrigentum,  66. 

Jupiter  Capitolinus,  90,  120. 

Jupiter,  Spalato,  130,  136. 

Jupiter  Olympius.  Athens,   56,  58, 

85,  87,  90. 
Jupiter  Stator,  123. 
Kanaruc,  623. 
Kantonugger,  623. 
Karli,  614,  631. 
Khajuraho,  6 1 6,  623. 
Khons,  22. 
Khorsabad,  37. 
Madura,  632. 
Mahavellipore,  628. 
Maison  Carree,  Nime~,  123,  125. 
Mandiira,  628. 
Mars  Ultor,  123,  125. 
Mater  Matuta,  130,  134. 
Medinet-Habou,  22. 
Minerva  Medica,  Rome,  145,  208. 
Minerva  Polias,  Priene,  79. 
Mount  Abu,  618. 
Nassick,  614,  629,  632. 
Naukratis,  at,  77. 
Naxos,  at,  77. 
Nemesis,  Rhajainus,  66. 
Neptune,  Paestum,  58,  102. 
Nike  Apteros,  58,  79. 
Northern  Hindu,  618,  623. 
Orissa,  623. 


Temple — continued. 

Psestum,  49,  63.  69. 

Palenque,  652. 

Palitana,  618. 

Palmyra,  Great  Temple  at,  125. 

Pantheon,  Rome,  59,  130. 

lighting  of,  134. 
Parisnath,  618. 
Parthenon,  58,  66,  67. 
Peace,  of,  139. 
Philipeion,  Olympia,  79,  87. 
Pollonarua,  614. 
Poseidon  (Sunium),  63,  66. 
Priene,  51. 
Puri,  623. 

Ramesseum,  Thebes  20,  22. 
Rhamnus,  58,  66. 
Roman,  121. 
Sadri,  618. 
Saturn,  123. 
Selinus,  58,  66. 
Seringham,  628. 
Sethos  I.,  24. 
Sintu,  646. 

Solomon,  Jerusalem,  187. 
Somnathpiir,  623. 
Sravana  Belgnla,  618. 
Sun,   of  the,   Baal  bee  (Great),  58 

125,  202. 
Tanjore,  628. 
Tarputry,  628. 
Themis,  Rhamnus,  66. 
Theseus,  Athens,  58,  66,  67. 
Tinnevelly.  628. 
Udaipor,  623. 
Umber,  623. 
Vellore,  628. 

Venus  and  Rome,  123,  125,  130. 
Vespasian,  123. 
Vesta,  Rome,  59. 
Vesta,  Tivoli,  59,  130,  134,  582. 
Zeus,  Agrigentum,  66,  75. 
Zeus,  Olympia,  63,  66. 
Temples,  Ancient  American,  652. 
Greek,  56,  69. 
Roman,  121. 

ceilings  of,  123. 
Tenia,  63  (see  Glossary). 
Tent,  3. 

Teos,  temple  of  Dionysus,  79. 
Tepidarium,  141. 
Terraces  to  Jacobean  houses,  562. 
Terra-cotta  (see  Glossary). 
Terra-cotta,  use  in  England.  279,  547. 
India,  606. 
Italy,  404,  407,  408. 
Tetrastyle  (see  Glossary). 
Tewkesbury  Abbey,  332. 


734 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


Theatre  at  Aspendus,  147. 
Theatre  of  Dionysus,  Athens,  92. 

Epidauros.  92. 

Fiesole,  147. 

Marcellus,  Rome,  147. 

Odeion  of  Herodes  Atticus,  147. 

Orange,  147. 

Taormina,  147. 
Theatres,  Greek,  90. 

Roman,  147. 
Thebes,  Dei-el-Bahri,  temple  of,  20,  22. 

Necropolis  at,  22. 

Ramesseum,  20,  22. 

Stadion,  97. 

temples,  22. 

tomb  of  Rameses,  20. 

tomb  of  Sethos  I,  20. 

tombs  at,  20. 

Themis,  temple  of,  Rhamnus,  66. 
Theodoric,  tomb  of,   187. 
Theotokos,  church  of  the,  204. 
Thermae,  141. 

Agrippa,  145.. 

Caracalla,  142. 

Diocletian,   145. 

pavings  of,  144. 

Rome,  142. 

Titus,  145,  173,  463- 
Theron,  architect,  75. 
Theseion,  Athens,  58,  66,  67. 
Thessalonica,  churches  at,  210. 
Tholos  (see  Glossary). 
Tholos,  tombs.  54. 

Epidauros,  58,  66,  87,  100. 
Thompson,  architect,  595. 
Thornhill,  Sir  James,  artist,  588. 
Thornton,  architect,  599. 
Thorpe,  architect,  553,  557,  561. 
Thy,  Mastaba  of,  18. 
Tie-beam  roof,  290. 
Tiene  Palace,  Vicenza,  488. 
Tierceron-rib,  287. 
Timber  roofs,  open,  290,  318,  443. 

forms  used  in  stone  architecture,  37. 
Tinnevelly,  temple,  628. 
Tiryns,  palace  at,  47,  54,  93. 

early  work  at,  119. 
Tite,  Sir  W.,  architect,  592. 
Titus,  arch  of,  153. 

baths  of,  145,  173,  463. 
Tivoli,  temple  of  Vesta,  59, 130,  134, 582. 

Hadrian's  Villa,  163. 
Todi,  S.  Maria  della  Consolazione,  461. 
Todmorden  Town  Hall,  595. 
Toledo,  Alcazar,  537. 

bridge,  160. 

Cathedral,  426. 

Jews'  Synagogue,  425. 


Toledo — continued. 

S.  Cristo  de  la  Luz,  663. 

S.  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  433. 

S.  Maria  la  Bianca,  663. 
Tomb,  Belzoni's,  Thebes,  20. 

of  Cardinal  d'Amboise,  506. 

Cecilia  Metella,  Rome,  157. 

of  Darius,  41. 

D"gga,  158. 

Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna,  187. 

Gens  Cornelia,  Rome,  157. 

Hadrian;  157. 

Halicarnassus,  jg±  _94j_ioo. 

Harpy,  XanThos,  93. 

Lion,  Cnidus,  94,  100. 

Louis  XII.,  S.  Denis,  Paris,  506. 

Mahmud,  675. 

Mylassa,  158. 

Nereid  monument,  94. 

Rameses,  20. 

Scaligers,  of  the,  421. 

Selim  Chistee,  677. 

Sethos  L,  20. 

Shere  Shah,  Sasseram,  671. 

Sultanieh,  669. 

Theodoric,  187. 

Tholos,  54. 

Weepers,  of  the,  94. 
Tombs,  Africa,  158. 

Asia  Minor,  158. 

bee  hive,  54. 

Beni-Hasan,  20,  59. 

Chinese,  642. 

Early  Christian,  187. 

Egyptian,  15,  18,  20. 

English  Renaissance,  565,  588. 

Greek,  93. 

Lycian,  37,  94. 

Mediaeval,  325. 

Ming  dynasty,  of  the,  645. 

Roman,  156,  158. 

Street  of,  Pompeii,  1 58. 

Syrian,  158. 
Topes,  612. 
Torans,  642,  646. 
Torcello,  Bishop's  throne  at,  182. 
Torrigiano,  sculptor,  547,  549,  553. 
Torus  moulding,  106  (see  Glossary). 
Toulouse,  S.  Sernin,  248,  376,  453. 

Church  of  the  Cordeliers,  376. 
Tournai  Cathedral,  385,  386. 
Tournus  Abbey  Church,  249. 
Tower  of  Babel,  39. 

Earl's  Barton,  327. 

of  London,  318,  332. 

S.  John's  Chapel,  324,  328. 

of   the   Winds.    Athens,    58,    87, 
88,  100. 


INDEX. 


735 


Towers,  Anglo-Saxon,  327. 

Decorated,  343. 

Early  English,  336. 

French  Gothic,  378. 

German  Gothic,  398,  401. 

Gothic,  299,  318,  420,  442. 

Irish,  360. 

Italian  Gothic,  420. 

Layer  Marney,  279. 

Norman,  332. 

Perpendicular,  351. 

Renaissance,  442,  542,  576. 

Romanesque,   231,  237.  242,  250, 

264. 
bell,  237 

round,  Irish,  360 

Scotch,  359. 
Town  Hall,  Antwerp,  528. 

Bruges,  390. 

Brunswick,  398. 

Brussels,  390. 

Cardiff,  597. 

Colchester,  596. 

Congleton,  595. 

Crewe,  597. 

Ghent,  390. 

Hague,  528. 

Halberstadt,  398. 

Halifax,  593. 

Henley,  597. 

Hildesheim,  398. 

Lemgo,  521. 

Leyden,  528. 

Louvain,  390. 

Lubeck,  398. 

Manchester,  595. 

Munster,  398. 

Newport,  598. 

Northampton,  595. 

Philadelphia,  599. 

Ratisbon,  398. 

Sheffield,  596. 

Solothurn,  521. 

Todmorden,  595- 

Valencia,  423. 
Trabeated  (see  Glossary). 
Tracery  (see  Glossary). 
Tracery,  Venetian,  420. 
Trdchelium  (see  Glossary). 
Trade  halls,  390. 
Tragic  Poet,  house  of,  163. 
Trajan,  arch  of,  Acona,  153. 

arch  of,  Beneveutum,  153. 

column  of,  139,  156. 

forum  of,  1 20. 
Trajan's  basilica,  139. 
Transept,  180,  275,  299  (see  Glossary ). 
Transoms  (see  Glossary). 


Transverse  rib,  287. 
Travellers'  Club,  London,  463,  592. 
Travertine  stone,  112. 
Treasury  Buildings,  London,  581. 
Treasury  of   Atreus,    Mycence,  3,   54, 
631. 

at  Washington,  599. 
Trebizond,  S.  Sophia,  210. 
Trefoil  (see  Glossary). 
Tremont  Temple,  Boston,  601. 
Trentham  Hall,  593. 
Treves,  basilica  at,  139. 

Cathedral,  261. 

Igel  monument,  158. 

Ponta  Nigra,  156. 
Trevi,  fountain  of,  473. 
Trezzo,  bridge  over  the  Adda,  411. 
Triapsal  churches,  261. 
Triclinium,  160,  163. 
Trifoil,  337  (see  Glossary). 
Triforium  (see  Glossary). 
Triforium,  origin  of,  275. 
Triglyphs,  63  (see. Glossary). 
Trinity  Church,  Boston,  599. 

Ely,  289. 

Falaise,  506. 

New  York,  599. 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  324. 

Nevill  Court,  557. 

New  Court,  591. 

Trinity    College,  Cambridge,  Libraiy, 
576. 

Oxford,  324,  576. 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  324. 
Triumphal  arches,  Roman,  153. 
Troyes  Cathedral,  373. 
Trunch  Church,  Norfolk,  293. 
Truro  Cathedral,  298,  595. 
Trussed  rafter  roof,  291. 
Tudor  architecture,  356. 

rose,  354. 
Tufa  stone,  112. 
Tuileries  Palace,  505. 
Tumuli,  3. 

Tung-chow,  pagoda,  642. 
Tunstead  Church,  293. 
Turkish  Saracenic  architecture,  669. 
Turnpike,  359. 
Turrets  (see  Glossary). 
Tuscan  order,  53,  167. 
Twist,  ploughshare,  287. 
Two-storeyed     churches,    Nuremberg, 

264. 
Tympanum  (see  Glossary). 

Udaipor,  temples,  623. 
Ulm  Cathedral,  396. 
Umber,  temple  at,  623. 


736 


COMPARATIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 


United  Service  Club,  London,  592. 
United  States  architecture,  598. 

domestic  architecture,  601. 

Mint,  Philadelphia,  599. 
University  College,  London,  591. 
University  at  Alcala,  534, 

Harvard,  599.  . 

of  Pennsylvania,   at   Philadelphia, 
601. 

Virginia,  599. 
Upjohn,  architect,  599. 
Utrecht  Cathedral,  386. 
Uxmal  Palace,  652. 

Valencia,  Audiencia,  542. 

Cathedral,  433. 

Town  Hall,  433. 
Valladolid  Cathedral,  540. 

S.  Gregorio,  430. 
Valmarana  Palace,  Vicenza,  488. 
Vanbrugh,  Sir  John,  architect,  581. 
Vatican,  Cortile  delle  loggie,  461. 

Cortile      of       S.        Damaso, 

461. 

Greater  Belvedere  Court,  461. 
Lesser   Belvedere  Court,  461. 

loggie  at,  461,  463. 

Palace,  441. 

Scala  Regia,  490. 

Sistine  Chapel,  421,  445,  467. 
Vault  (see  Glossary). 
Vaulting,  barrel,  360. 

bosses,  290,  341. 

Byzantine,   195- 

conoidal,  288. 

Decorated,  287. 

Early  English,  286,  336. 

fan,  288,  353,  381. 

Gothic,  272,  443. 

groin-rib,  224. 

Norman,  286,  332. 

palm,  288. 

pendant,  289,  290. 

perpendicular,  288. 

ploughshare  twist,  287. 

pressure  of,  272. 

quadripartite,  287. 

Renaissance,  441,  443,  490. 

Roman,  164. 

Romanesque,  224. 

Saracenic.  657. 

Scotch,  359. 

sexpartite,  225. 

Spanish  Gothic,  433- 

stalactite,  657. 

stellar,  288. 

Vecchio  Palace,  Florence.  417. 
Vellore,  temple,  628. 


Vendramini  Palace,  485. 
Venetian  balconies.  477. 

tracery,  420. 

Venice,  civic  and  domestic  architects 
411. 

Cavalli  Palace,  411. 

Contarini-Fasan  Palace,  411. 

Cornaro  Palace,  485. 

Doges'  Palace,  411. 
court,  477. 

Farsetti  Palace,  237. 

Fondaco  dei  Turchi,  237. 

Foscari  Palace,  411. 

Frari  Church,  407. 

Grimani  Palace,  485. 

Loredan  Palace,  237. 

Pesaro  Palace,  441,  485. 

Pisani  Palace,  411. 

Redentore  Church,  485. 

Renaissance  at,  475.' 

S.  Francesco  della  Vigna,  485. 

S.  Giobbe,  485. 

S.  Giorgio  dei  Greci,  485. 

S.  Giorgio  Maggiore,  485. 

S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  411. 

S.     Maria     Gloriosa     dei    Frari, 
411. 

S.  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  485. 

S.  Maria  della  Salute,  485. 

S.  Mark's,  194,  208. 

S.  Mark's  Library,  461,  477,  894. 

S.  Salvatore,  485. 

S.  Zaccaria,  485. 

Scuoladi  S.  Marco,  485. 

Vendramini  Palace,  485. 

Zecca,  485. 

Venus  and  Rome,  temple  of,  123,    125. 
Vercelli,  S.  Andrea,  411. 
Verona,  amphitheatre,  152. 

churches  and  palaces  at,  408. 

Palazzo  Bevilacqua,  490. 
Canossa,  490. 
del  Consiglio,  445.  490. 
Pompeii,  490. 

Renaissance  at,  488. 

S.  Anastasia,  411. 

S.  Zenone,  237. 

campanile,  239. 

tomb  of  the  Scaligers,  421. 

tower  at,  420. 
Verrio,  fresco  artist,  588. 
Versailles,  palace,  506. 
Vespasian,  temple  of,  123. 
Vesta,  Rome,  temple  of,  59,  130. 

Tivoli,   temple  of,    59,    130,    134, 

582 

Vestal  Virgins,  house  of,  Rome,  162. 
Vestibule  (see  Glossary). 


INDEX. 


737 


Vestibule  at  Eleusis,  87. 
Vettius,  house  of,  163. 
Vezelay,  church  at,  249. 
basilica  at,  488. 
-1les  and  palaces,  408. 
.zzo  Barbarano,  488. 
Capitanio,  488. 
Chierecati,  488. 
Tiene,  488. 
Valmarana,  488 
Renaissance  at,  488. 
Teatro  Olimpico,  488. 
Villa  del  Capra,  488,  582. 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  156,  445, 

447,  561,  565,  593,  597. 
Victory,  pillars  of,  153,  156. 
Vienna,  Parliament  House,  524. 

St.  Stephen,  396. 
Vienne,  church  at,  249. 
Vignola,  architect,  463,  471,  497,  503, 

571. 

Vignon,  architect,  511. 
Viharas,  Indian,  612,  614. 
Villa,  162. 

at  Chiswick.  488,  581. 

del  Capra,  Vicenza,  488,  582. 

Farnesina,  Rome,  461. 

of  Hadrian,  Tivoli,  163. 

Madama,  463. 

of  Pope  Julius,  463. 
Vimana,  611,  612,  614. 
Viollet-le-Duc,  13. 

restorations  by,  376. 

theories  on  Egyptian  architecture, 

*3- 

Virginia  University,  599. 
Visconti,  architect,  505,  506. 
Vitre",  chateau  de,  506. 
Vitruvius,  I,  51,   56,  90,  92,  93,  108, 

120,  159,  438. 
Vitruvius  Britannicus,  581. 
Vitruvius'  canon  of  proportions  for  the 

orders,  647. 
Volute  (see  Glossary). 
Volute,  derivations  of,  77. 

method  of  describing  Ionic,  77. 
Voussoir  (see  Glossary). 
Vriendt,  architect,  528. 
Vulliamy,  architect,  461,  594. 

Wadham  College,  Oxford,  557. 
Wakefield,  bridge  at,  324. 

Cathedral,  298. 
Walhalla,  Munich,  524. 
Wall  arcades,  335. 

rib,  287. 

tablets,  325,  588. 
Walls,  Anglo-Saxon,  328. 

F.A. 


Walls— continued. 

Belgian  and  Dutch  Gothic,  390. 

Byzantine,  194,  212. 

Chinese,  646. 

Cyclopean,  54. 

Decorated,  343. 

Early  Christian,  189. 

Early  English,  336. 

Elizabethan  and  Jacobean,  562. 

French  Gothic,  380. 

German  Gothic,  401. 

Gothic,  269,  442. 

Greek  and  Roman,  165. 

Indian,  629. 

Italian  Gothic,  420. 

Norman,  332. 

Perpendicular,  351. 

Renaissance,  442,  490 
Belgian,  532. 
English,  585. 
French,  512. 
German,  524. 
Italian,  490,  512. 
Spanish,  540. 

Roman,  115. 

Saracenic,  678. 

Walsham,  North,  church,  294. 
Walsingham,  Alan  of,  304. 

Church,  New,  294. 
Walters,  architect,  599. 
Waltham  Abbey,  332. 
Wanstead  House,  Essex,  581. 
War  Office,  London,  595. 
Ware,  Isaac,  architect,  581. 
Warkworth,  bridge  at,  325. 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  547. 
Warwick,  Beauchamp  Chapel,  351. 
Warwickshire,    Compton    Wynyates, 

322. 

Washington,  U.S..  Capitol  at,  599. 
wings  and  domes,  599. 

Congressional  Library  at,  601. 

Treasury,  599. 
Waterhouse,  architect,  595. 
Watford,   Church  of  the  Holy  Rood, 

596. 

Watling  Street,  280. 
Way,  Fosse,  280. 
Weathering  (see  Glossary). 
Webb,  architect,  569. 
Webb,  Philip,  architect,  594,  595. 
Webb,    Sir    Aston,    architect,    596. 

597- 

Weepers,  Tomb  of  the,  94. 
Wells  Cathedral,  309,  336,  343. 
Welnetham  Church,  Little,  293. 
Welsh  cathedrals,  305,  309. 
Western  Asia,  map,  32. 


738 


COMPARATIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


Western  Asiatic  architecture,  31. 

columns,  43. 

mouldings,  43. 

ornament,  44  (No.  13). 

roofs,  43. 

three  periods  of,  37. 

use  of  arch,  43. 
Westley,  architect,  557. 
Westminster  Abbey,  309,  336,  343,  349. 

Henry   VII. 's   Chapel,    279,    309, 

324,  349,  35 l,  353- 
tomb,  553. 

monuments,  565. 

tombs,  565. 

western  towers,  576. 
Westminster,  Cathedral,  216,  596. 

Hall,  293,  320,  343,  349,  353,  443. 

Palace,  142,  324. 

S.  James  the  Less,  594. 

S.  John,  581. 

S.  Margaret,  349. 

S.  Stephen,  324,  594. 
Westwood,  Worcester,  557. 
Wheel  window  (see  Glossary). 
Whichcord,  architect,  595. 
White,  architect,  599.  60 1. 
White  Tower,  London,  335. 
White's  Club,  London,  512. 
Whitehall  Banqueting  House,  569. 
Whitewash,  588. 
Wickham  Church,  327,  328. 
Wilkins,  William,  architect,  591. 
William  the  Englishman.  304. 
William  of  Sens,  286,  304. 
William  of  Wykeham,  316,  324,  353. 
Wilson,  H.  W.,  architect,  596. 
WTilton  House,  569. 
Winchester  Cathedral,  309, 332. 35 1 . 353. 

College,  324. 

Royal  Palace,  576. 

S.  Cross,  325. 

Schoolroom,  576. 

Windows,     absence     of,     in      Greek 
temples,  56. 

bay,  551,  562. 

Greek  and  Roman,  165. 

Mullioned,  551,  555. 

oriel,  551. 

oyster  shell,  647. 

slabs,  pierced,  in  India,  630. 


Winds,  Tower  of  the,  58,  87,  88,  100. 
Windsor  Castle,  591. 

S.  George's  Chapel,  289,  324,  351, 

353- 

Withdrawing  room,  Elizabethan,  555. 
Wispers,  595. 

Wokingham,  houses  at,  597. 
Wood,  John,  582. 
Wood   and    Dawkins,   publication   by, 

582. 

Woollaton,  Notts.,  557. 
Worcester  Cathedral,  316,  336. 
Worcester  College,  Oxford,  324. 
Worms  Cathedral,  261. 
Worth  Church,  327. 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  309,  569,  581. 
Wyatt,  James,  architect,  582,  591. 
Wyatt,  Sir  D.,  163,  594. 
Wyatville,  Sir  Jeffrey,  architect,  591. 
Wykeham,  William  of,  316,  324,  353. 


Xanthos,  Nereid  monument,  94. 

Harpy  tomb,  93. 
Xerxes,  Expedition  against  Greece, 

Hypostyle  Hall  of,  40,  41. 

Palace  of,   Persepolis,  40. 
Susa,  41. 

Propylsea,  40. 


York  Cathedral,  316,  336,  343,  351. 
York,  Museum  at,  591. 
York  Water-gate,  London,  569. 
Young,  architect,  595. 
Ypres,  cathedral  at,  386. 
Cloth  Hall  at,  390. 


Zara,  S.  Donato,  231. 

Zayi  Palace,  652. 

Zecca  at  Venice,  485. 

Zeughaus,  Danzic,  524. 

Zeus,  Olympia,  temple  of,  63.  66. 

Temple  of,  Agrigentum,  58,  66,  75. 

Olympius,  Athens,  87,  90. 
Ziggurats,  Chaldsea,  37,  41. 
Zig-zag  Ornament,  332,  335. 
Zoophoros  (see  Glossary). 
Zwinger  Palace,  Dresden,  524. 


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