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COLLEGE   HISTORIES   OF  ART 

EDITED    BY 

JOHN   C.    VAN   DYKE,    I..H.D. 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

A.    D.    F.    HAMLIN 


COLLEGE  HISTORIES  OF  ART 

EDITED    BY 

JOHN  C.  VAN   DYKE,  L.H.D. 

PxOFKSSOk    OF    THE     HlSTORY    OF     ART    IN     RfTGERS 

College 


HISTORY  OF  PAINTING 
By  John  C.  Van  Dyke,  the  Editor  of  the  Series.    With 
Frontispiece  and   no  Illustrations,  Bibliographies,  and 
Index.    Crown  8vo,  $1.50. 

HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 
By  Alfred  D.  F.  Hamlin,  A.M..  Adjunct  Professor  of 
Architecture.  Columbia  College.  New  York.  With 
Frontispiece  and  2^9  Illustrations  and  Diagrams,  Bibli- 
ographies, Glossary-  Index  of  Architects,  and  a  General 
Index.    Crown  8vo,  $2.00. 

HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE 

By  Allan  Marquand.  Ph.D..  L.H.D..  and  Artmir  L. 
Frothingham,  Jr.,  Ph.D..  Professors  of  Archseology 
and  the  History  of  Art  in  Princeton  University.  With 
Frontispiece  and  112  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo,  fi.jc 


M       = 


A  TEXT-BOOK 


OF   THE 


History  of  Architecture 


A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.M. 

ADJUNCT-PROFESSOR    OF    ARCHITECTURE    IN    THE    SCHOOL   OF    MINES, 
COLUMBIA    COLLEGE 


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SEVENTH  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 
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PREFACE. 

The  aim  of  this  work  has  been  to  sketch  the  various 
periods  and  styles  of  architecture  with  the  broadest  possi- 
ble strokes,  and  to  mention,  with  such  brief  characterization 
as  seemed  permissible  or  necessary,  the  most  important 
works  of  each  period  or  style.  Extreme  condensation 
in  presenting  the  leading  facts  of  architectural  history 
has  been  necessary,  and  much  that  would  rightly  claim 
place  in  a  larger  work  has  been  omitted  here.  The  dan- 
ger was  felt  to  be  rather  in  the  direction  of  too  much 
detail  than  of  too  little.  While  the  book  is  intended 
primarily  to  meet  the  special  requirements  of  the  college 
student,  those  of  the  general  reader  have  not  been  lost 
sight  of.  The  majority  of  the  technical  terms  used  are 
defined  or  explained  in  the  context,  and  the  small  remain- 
der in  a  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  work.  Extended  criti- 
cism and  minute  description  were  out  of  the  question,  and 
discussion  of  controverted  points  has  been  in  consequence 
as  far  as  possible  avoided. 

The  illustrations  have  been  carefully  prepared  with  a 
view  to  elucidating  the  text,  rather  than  for  pictorial 
effect.  With  the  exception  of  some  fifteen  cuts  repro- 
duced from  Liibke's  Geschichte  der  Architektur  (by  kind  per- 
mission of  Messrs.  Seemann,  of  Leipzig),  the  illustrations 
are  almost  all   entirely   new.      A   large   number  are  from 


VI  PREFACE. 

original  drawings  made  by  myself,  or  under  my  direction, 
and  the  remainder  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  half-tone 
reproductions  prepared  specially  for  this  work  from  photo- 
graphs in  my  possession.  Acknowledgments  are  due  to 
Messrs.  H.  W.  Buemming,  H.  D.  Bultman,  and  A.  E. 
Weidinger  for  valued  assistance  in  preparing  original  draw- 
ings;  and  to  Professor  W.  R.  Ware,  to  Professor  W.  H. 
Thomson,  M.D.,  and  to  the  Editor  of  the  Series  for  much 
helpful  criticism  and  suggestion. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  lists  of  monuments  appended  to  the 
history  of  each  period  down  to  the  present  century  may 
prove  useful  for  reference,  both  to  the  student  and  the 
general  reader,  as  a  supplement  to  the  body  of  the  text. 


A.  D.  F.  Hami.in. 


Columbia  College,  New  York, 
January  20,  1896. 


TABLE  OF    CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Preface       v 

List  of  Illustrations xi 

General  Bibliography xix 

Introduction        .                        xxi 

CHAPTER   I. 

Primitive  and  Prehistoric  Architecture                        .        .  i 

CHAPTER  II. 

Egyptian  Architecture 6 

CHAPTER   III. 

Egyptian  Architecture,  Continued 16 


CHAPTER   IV. 
Chaldean  and  Assyrian  Architecture    .....      28 


CHAPTER  V. 
Persian,  Lycian,  and  Jewish  Architecture    ....      35 


CHAPTER  VI. 
\  / 
-  Greek  Architecture   .... 

vii 


Mil  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VII.  PACK 

Greek  Architecture,  Continued 60 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Roman  Architecture 74 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Roman  Architecture,  Continued -88 

CHAPTER   X. 

Early  Christian  Ar<  iiiii.<  11  ke 1  ic 

CHAPTER   XI. 

Byzantine  Architecture 120 

CHAPTER    XII. 

N        AM)        MOHAMMEDAN        Ak<  II I  I  H    I  I   KK —    ARABIAN, 
MORRSQI  K,    PERSIAN,     INDIAN,    AND    TURKISH  .  .  .       I35 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
Early  Mrdlcval  Archito  n  re  in  Italy  and  Fran  .    155 

CHAPTER   xiv. 

Early   Mki.i  v.vai.  ARCHITECTVES  IN  GERMANY,  GrRAT   BRITAIN, 

AND  MAIN         ..........      wi 


I   H  A  ITER    XV. 
GOTHK  Architecture r»2 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
Gothic  Architecture  in  1 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER   XVII.  PACE 

Gothic  Architecture  in  Great  Britain  ....    218 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

x/<3othic  Architecture  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and 

Spain 237 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
x/Gothic  Architecture  in  Italy 254 


CHAPTER  XX. 
Early  Renaissance  Architecture  in  Italy     ....    2^0 


*3 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

Renaissance  Architecture  in  Italy — The  Advanced  Renais- 
sance and  Decline 288 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
Renaissance  Architecture  in  France      .       .       .       .       .    308 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

Renaissance    Architecture    in    Great    Britain    and    the 

Netherlands 326 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 
Renaissance  Architecture  in   Germany,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal   338 


^TMPTfjP    VVTr 
Tie  Classic  Revivals  in  Europe       .  _^D      ....     354 


X  TABLE  OF   CONTEN  IS. 

CHAPTER   XXVI.  PAGr 

Rkcent  Architecture  in  Europe 368 

LllAl'lllk  .IM4L 
Architecture  in  the  United  States        .  ^.        .        .        .383 

CHAPTER    XXVIII. 
Oriental  Architecture — India,  China,  and  Japan         .        .    401 


Glossary 427 


Index  of  Architects 419 


Index 423 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  authorship  of  the  original  drawings  is  indicated  by  the  in  tials 
affixed  :  A.  =  drawings  by  the  author ;  B.  =  H.  \V.  Buemming  ;  Bn.  =  II. 
1).  Bultman  ;  Ch.  ss  Chateau,  L  Architecture  en  France  ;  G.  =  drawings 
adapted  from  Gwilt's  Encyclopaedia  of  Architecture ,•  L.  =  Ltibke's  Ge- 
schichte  der  Arckitektur ;  W.  =  A.  E.  Weidinger.  All  other  illustra- 
tions are  from  photographs. 


Frontispiece.      The  Parthenon    Restored  (from  model   in    Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York) 
i   Section  of  Great  Pyramid  (A.) 

2  Section  of  King's  Chamber  (A.) 

3  Plan  of  Sphinx  Temple  (A.) 

4  Ruins  of  Sphinx  Temple  (A.) 

5  Tomb  at  Abydos  (A.) 

6  Tomb  at  Beni-Hassan  (A.)         *. 

7  Section  and  Half-plan  of  same  (A.) 

8  Plan  of  the  Ramesseum  (A.) 

9  Temple  of  Edfou.     Plan  (B.) 
io  Temple  of  Edfou.     Section  (B.)  . 

11  Temple  of  Karnak.      Plan  (L.)     . 

12  Central  Portion  of  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak  (from  model  in  Met 

ropolitan  Museum,  New  York) 

13  Great  Temple  of  Ipsamboul 

14  Edfou.      Front  of  Hypostyle  Hall 

15  Osirid  Pier  (Medinet  Abou)  (A.) 

16  Types  of  Column  (A.) 

17  Egyptian  Floral  Ornament-Forms  (A.) 

18  Palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad.      Plan  (L.) 

19  Gate,  Khorsabad  (A.) 

20  Assyrian  Ornament  (A.) 

21  Column  from  Persepolis  (B.) 

22  Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae  (A.) 

xi 


8 
9 
9 
10 
11 
11 
12 
M 
17 
17 
18 

20 
21 

23 
24 
25 
26 

30 
32 
34 
37 
44 


Xll 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


23  Polygonal  Masonry,  Mycenae  (A.) 

24  Tholos  of  Atreus  ;  Plan  and  Section  (A.)     . 

25  Tholos  of  Atreus,  Doorway  (after  Clarke)  (A.  1 

26  Greek  Doric  Order  (A.)       .... 

27  Doric  Order  of  the  Parthenon.     (From  cast  in 

seum,  New  York)  .... 

28  Greek  Ionic  Order,  Miletus  (A.) 

29  Side  View  of  Ionic  Capital  (B.)  . 

30  Greek  Corinthian  Order  (A.) 

31  Types  of  Greek  Temple  Plans  (A.)     . 

32  Carved  Anthemion  Ornament,  Athens 

33  Temple  of  Zeus,  Agrigentum  ;   Plan  (A.)    . 

34  Ruins  of  the  Parthenon       .... 

35  Plan  of  the  Erechtheum  (A.) 

36  West  End  of  the  Erechtheum  (A.) 

37  Propylaea  at  Athens.     Plan  ((J.) 

38  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates.     (From  model  in 

tan  Museum,  New  York) 

39  Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus,  Athens.      Plan  (A.) 

40  Plan  < if  (i reek  Theatre  (A.) 

41  Mausoleum  at  1  lalicarnassus  ( A. ) 

42  Roman     Doric    Order    from     Theatre  of   Manellus. 

Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York) 

43  Roman  Ionic  Order  (A.)     .... 

44  Roman  Corinthian  Order.     (FrOB  model    in 

seum,  New    York)  .... 

45  Roman  Arcade  with  Engaged  Columns  (A  ) 
40  liarrel  Vault  (A.) 

■  >ined  Vault  (A.) 
48   Roman  Wall  Masonry  (P.) 
40.  Roman  Carved  Ornament    (Lnteraa  Moaeum) 

JO   Roman  Ceiling  Panels  (A.) 

-1     I  emple  of  Tort  una  Yirilis.     Plan 

-2   1  ircular    Temple.  Tivoli  (A.) 

53  Temple  of  Venus  anil  Rome.     Plan  (A.)      . 

54  Plan  of  the  Pantheon  ( P.  1  . 

55  Interior  of  the  Pantheon      .... 

56  Exterior  of  the  Pantheon.       (Model    in    Metro 

New  York)  ..... 

-rum  and  Basilica  of  Trajan  (A.) 


Metropolitan  Mu 


M 


Metropol 


(Model  i 


etropolitan   Mu 


97 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xlll 


Rome  ( 


58  BasiHca  of  Constantine.    Plan  (G.) 

59  Ruins  of  Basilica  of  Constantine 

60  Central  Block,  Therma;  of  Caracalla.      Plan  (G 

61  Roman  Theatre,  Herculanum 

62  Colosseum  at  Rome.    Half  Plan  (A.) 

63  Arch   of   Constantine.      (Model   in  Metropolitan    Museum 

York) 

64  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalato.     Plan  (G.)    . 

65  Plan  of  House  of  Pansa,  Pompeii  (A.) 

66  Plan  of  Santa  Costanza,  Rome  (A.)     . 

67  Plan  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Paul-beyond-the-Wall 

68  St.  Paul-beyond-the-Walls.     Interior 

69  Church  at  Kalb  Louzeh  (A.) 

70  Cathedral  at  Bozrah.     Plan  (A.) 

71  Diagram  of  Pendentives  (A.)       . 

72  Spandril,  Hagia  Sophia      .... 

73  Capital  with  Impost-Block,  S.  Vitale 

74  Plan  of  St.  Sergius,  Constantinople  (A.) 

75  Plan  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople  (A.) 

76  Section  of  Hagia  Sophia  (A.) 

77  Interior  of  Hagia  Sophia  (full  page)    . 

78  Plan  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice  (A.)  . 

79  Interior  of  St.  Mark's  .... 

80  Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  Cairo.      Sanctuary 

81  Mosque  of  Kaid  Bey,  Cairo 

82  Moorish  Detail,  Alhambra 

83  Interior  of  Great  Mosque,  Cordova     . 

84  Plan  of  the  Alhambra  (A.)      .     . 

85  Tomb  of  Mahmud,  Bijapur.     Section  (A.)  . 

86  The  Taj   Mahal,  Agra         .... 

87  Mosque  of  Mehmet  II.,  Constantinople.      Plan  (L.) 
S8  Exterior  of  Ahmediyeh  Mosque,  Constantinople 

89  Interior  of  Suleimaniyeh  Mosque,  Constantinople 

90  Interior  of  San  Ambrogio,  Milan 

91  West  Front  and  Campanile,  Cathedral  of  Piacenza 

92  Baptistery,  Cathedral,  and  Leaning  Tower,  Pisa 

93  Interior  of  Pisa  Cathedral  .... 

94  Plan  of  St.  Front,  Perigueux  (G.) 

95  Interior  of  St.  Front  (P.)  .  ... 

96  Plan  of  Notre  Dame  du  Port,  Clermont  (Ch.) 


A.) 


New 


TACK 

98 

99 

100 
101 
102 

104 
106 
107 
in 

"3 
114 
116 

"7 

123 

125 
126 
127 
128 
128 
129 
132 
133 
137 
139 
141 
142 
144 
147 
M9 
151 
152 
153 
157 
158 
160 
161 
164 
165 
166 


XIV 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


97  Section  of  same  (Ch.)        ..... 

98  A  Six-part  Ribbed  Vault  (A.) 

99  Plan  of  Minster  at  Worms  (G.)  .         .         . 

100  One  Bay,  Cathedral  oi  Spires  (L.)  .  . 

101  East  End,  Church  of  the  Apostles,  Cologne     . 
X02   Plan  of  Durham  Cathedral  (Bn.) 

103  One  Bay,  Transept  of  Winchester  Cathedral  (G.) 

104  Front  of  Iffley  Church  (A.)        .... 

105  Constructive  System  of  Gothic  Church  (A.) 

106  Plan  of  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris  (Bn.) 
i<>7  Early  Gothic  Flying  Buttress  (Bn.) 

108  Ribbed  Vault,  English   Type  (Bn.  after   Bebcock) 

109  Penetrations  and  Intersections  of  Vaults  (Bn.)  . 

110  Plate  Tracery,  Charlton-on-Oxmore 

111  Bar  Tracer),  St.  Michael's,  Warfield  (W.) 

112  Rose  Window  from  St.  Ouen,  Rouen  (G.) 

113  Flamboyant  Detail,  Strasburg 

114  Early  Gothic  Carving  (A.)         .... 

115  Carving,  Decorated  Period,  from  Southwell  Minster 

116  Plan  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (L.) 

117  Interior  of  Notre  Dame  .... 

118  Interior  of  I. e  Mans  Cathedral 

1 1  «>  Vaulting  with  Zigzag  Kidge  Joints  (A.)     . 
190  One  Bay,  Abbey  of  St.  Denis  (G.) 

121  The  Sainte  Chapelle,  Paris.    Exterior 

122  Amiens  Cathedral  ;    Plan  (G.) 

123  Alby  Cathedral.     Plan  (A.  after  I.iibke)     . 

124  West  Front  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris      . 

125  West  Front  of  St  M.kIou,  Kouen     . 

ij'.  French  Gothic  Capitate  (A.)    .... 

127  House  of  |;i<  ijiics  (  11  tir,  BourgCS  (L.) 

128  Plan  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  (Bn.)    . 

129  Ribbed  Vaulting,  Choir  of  Fxeter  Cathedral 
1  ;■ .    I  iemc  Vaulting,  Tewkesbury  Ablwy 

131  Vault  of  Chapter  Mouse,  Wells 

132  Cloister*  of  SalJaboty  Cathedral 

133  Perpendicular  .  Windsor 

134  West  Front,  Lichfield  <  etbedral 

135  0  Choir,  Lichfield  Cathedral  {A  ) 

136  Pan  Vaulting,  Henry  VIL's  Chapel 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XV 


137  Eastern  Part,  Westminster  Abbey      Plan  (L.) 

138  Roof  of  Nave,  .St.  Mary's,  Westonzoyland  (W.) 

139  One  Bay,  Cathedral  of  St.  George,  Limburg  (L. 

140  Section  of  St.  Elizabeth,  Marburg  (Bn.) 

141  Cologne  Cathedral,  Plan  (('..) 

142  Church  of  Our  Lady,  Treves  (L.) 

143  Plan  of  Ulm  Cathedral  (L.)      . 

144  Town  Hall,  Louvain        . 

145  Facade  of  Burgos  Cathedral 

146  Detail  from  S.  Gregorio,  Valladolid 

147  Duomo  at  Florence,  Plan  (G.) 

148  Duomo  at  Florence.    Nave 

149  One  Bay,  Cathedral  of  S.  Martino,  Lucca  (L. ) 

150  Interior  of  Sienna  Cathedral 

151  Facade  of  Sienna  Cathedral 

152  Exterior  of  the  Certosa,  Pavia 

153  Plan  of  the  Certosa,  Pavia 

154  Upper  Part  of  Campanile,  Florence 

155  Upper  Part  of  Palazzo  Vecchio,  Florence 

156  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  Florence 

157  West  Front  of  Doge's  Palace,  Venice 

158  Capital,  Palazzo  Zorzi,  Venice 

159  Section  of  Dome,  Duomo  of  Florence  (Bn.) 

160  Exterior  of  Dome,  Duomo  of  Florence 

161  Interior  of  S.  Spirito,  Florence 

162  Court  of  Riccardi  Palace,  Florence 

163  Facade  of  Strozzi  Palace,  Florence 

164  Tomb  of  Pietro  di  Noceto,  Lucca 

165  Vendramini  Palace,  Venice 

166  Facade  of  Giraud  Palace,  Rome  (L.) 

167  Plan  of  Farnese  Palace,  Rome  (L.) 

168  Court  of  Farnese  Palace,  Rome 

169  Bramante's  Plan  for  St.  Peter's,  Rome  (L.) 

1 70  Plan  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  as  now  standing  (Bn 

171  Interior  of  St.  Peter's  (full  page) 

172  Library  of  St.  Mark,  Venice     . 

173  Interior  of  San  Severo,  Naples 

174  Church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  Napl 

175  Court  Facade,  East  Wing  of  Blois    . 

176  Staircase  Tower,  Blois 


after  G.) 


XVI 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


177  Plan  of  Chateau  of  Chambord  (A.) 

178  Upper  Part  of  Chateau  of  Chambord 

179  Detail  of  Court  of  Louvre,  southwest  portion 

180  The  Luxemburg  Palace,  Paris 

181  Colonnade  of  the  Louvre 

182  Dome  of  the  Invalides,  Paris     . 

183  Facade  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris 

184  Burghley  House 
1S5   Whitehall  Palace.     The  Banqueting  Hall 

186  Plan  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London  (G.) 

187  Exterior  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 

188  Plan  of  Blenheim  (G.)      . 

189  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  London     . 

190  Renaissance  Houses,  Bntndl 

191  The  Castle,  Hamelschenburg 

192  The  Friedrichsbau,  Heidelberg  Castle 

193  Pavilion  of  Zwinger  Palace,  Dresden 
104   Marienkirche,  Dresden 
t-h    Portal  of  University,  Salamanca 

196  Court  (Patio)  of  Casa  de  Zaporta 

197  Palace  of  Charles  V. ,  Granada 

1  cade  of  British  Museum,  London 
St  George's  Hall,  Liverpool     . 
200  The  Old   Museum.  Berlin 
I  he  Propylcea,  Munich 

202  Plan  of  the  Pantheon,  1 

203  Exterior  of  the  Pantheon 

204  Arch  of  Triumph  of  I'Etoile,  Paris 

!  he   Madeleine,  P  . 

«>r  of  Kcole  des  Beaux-Art  1 
.  Isaac's  Cathedral,  St.  Petersburg 
208  Plan  of  Ixmvre  and  Tuik-ric- 
\ilion  Richelieu,  Louvre 

210  Grand  Stain   I  'jx-ra    HottM 

211  fountain  of   I.ongchampN.  Marseilles 

.'ii«'-ra  Museum.   Paris     . 
val    Theatre,  Dresden 

214  Maria-  Theresienhof.  Vienna 

215  Houses  of  Parliament.  London 

OOrtS,  Manchester 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV11 

PAGE 

217  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington     ....  381 

21 8  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia 386 

219  Craigie  House,  Cambridge  (Mass.) 387 

220  National  Capitol,  Washington  .......  389 

221  Custom  House,  New  York        ..."....  390 

222  Trinity  Church,  Boston 394 

223  Public  Library,  Woburn  (Mass.) 395 

224  Times  Building,  New  York 396 

225  Country  House  (Mass.) 398 

226  Porch  of  Temple  of  Vimalah  Sah,  Mount  Abu  ....  406 

227  Tower  of  Victory,  Chittore 407 

228  Double  Temple  at  Hullabid  :  Detail 410 

229  Shrine  of  Soubramanya,  Tanjore 412 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(This  includes  the  leading  architectural  works  treating  of  more  than 
one  period  or  style.  The  reader  should  consult  also  the  special  references 
at  the  head  of  each  chapter.  Valuable  material  is  also  contained  in  the 
leading  architectural  periodicals  and  in  monographs  too  numerous  to 
mention.) 

Dictionaries  and  Encyclopedias. 

Agincourt,  History  of  Art  by  its  Monuments  ;  London. 

Architectural  Publication  Society,  Dictionary  of  Architecture; 
London. 

Bosc,  Dictionnaire  raisonne  d 'architecture ;  Paris. 

Durm  and  others,  Handbuch  der  Architektur ;  Stuttgart. 
(This  is  an  encyclopedic  compendium  of  architectural  knowl- 
edge in  many  volumes ;  the  series  not  yet  complete.  It  is 
referred  to  as  the  Hdbuch.    d.  Arch.) 

Gwilt,  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture  ;  London. 

Longfellow  and  Frothingham,  Cyclopedia  of  A  rchitecture  in 
Italy  and  the  Levant ;  New  York. 

Planat,  Encyclope'die  d' architecture  ;  Paris. 

Sturgis,  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building  ;  New  York. 

General  Handbooks  and  Histories. 

Biihlmann,  Die  Architektur  des  klassischen  Alterthums  und 
der  Renaissance  ;  Stuttgart.  (Also  in  English,  published  in  New 
York.) 

Choisy,  Histoire  de  I' 'architecture  ;    Paris. 

Durand,  Recueil  et parallele  d 'edifices  de  tous  genres  ;  Paris. 

Fergusson,  History  of  Architecture  in  All  Countries  ;  London. 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher,  A  History  of  Architecture ;  London. 

xix 


XX  GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gaflhaband,  L'  Architecture  du  Vine,  an  XVI lime.  Steele; 
Paris. — Monuments  anciens  et  modernes  ;   Paris. 

Kugler,  Gcschichte  der  Baukunst;  Stuttgart. 

Longfellow,  The  Column  and  the  Arch  ;  New  York. 

Liibke,  Gcschichte  der  Architektur ;  Leipzig. — History  of 
Art,  tr.  and  rev.  by  R.  Sturgis ;  New  York. 

Perry,  Chronology  of  Mediaeval  and  Renaissance  A  rchitecturt  ; 
Ix>ndon. 

Reynaud,  Traits  d 'architecture ;   Paris. 

Rosengarten,  Handbook  of  Architectural  Styles  ;  Ixmdon  and 
New  York. 

Simpson,  A  History  of  Architectural  Development;   Jondon. 

Spiers,  Architecture  East  and  West;   I<ondon. 

Stratham,  Architecture  for  General  Readers  ;    London. 

Sturgis,  European  Architecture  ;  New  York. 

Transactions  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects ; 
London. 

Viollet-le-Duc,  Discourses  on  Architecture  ;   Boston. 

Theory,  the  OxonSj  Etc 

Chambers,  A  Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture ;    Ixjndon. 

Daviler,  Cours  d' 'architecture  de  Vignole  ;  Paris. 

l.vjuie,  Traiti  itimentaire  d' architecture  ;    Paris.  /* 

(iuadet,  Thiorie  de  I 'architecture  ;    Paris.  , 

Robinson,    Principles   of  Architectural   Composition;    New    ,. 
York. 

Ruskin,  The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture  ;    I/>ndon.  ^ 

StalgM,  //,>,-<•  to  Judge  Architecture  ;   New  York. 

Tuckerman,  Vi\rnola,  the  Five  Orders  of  Architecture  ;  New 
York. 

Yan  Brunt,  Greek  Lines  and  Other  Essays  ;   Boston. 

Yan  Pelt,  A  Discussion  of  Composition. 

Ware,  The  American  Vignola  ;  Sr  ran  ton. 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

A  history  of  architecture  is  a  record  of  man's  efforts  to 
build  beautifully.     The  erection   of   structures   devoid   of 
beauty  is  mere  building,  a  trade  and  not  an  art.     Edifices 
in   which  strength   and  stability  alone  are  sought,  and  in 
designing  which  only  utilitarian  considerations  have  been 
followed,  are  properly  works  of  engineering.     Only  when 
the  idea  of  beauty  is  added  to  that  of  use  does  a  structure 
take  its  place  among  works  of  architecture.     We  may,  then, 
define  architecture  as  the  art  which  seeks  to  harmonize  in  a 
building  the  requirements  of  utility  and  of  beauty.     It  is 
^  the  most  useful  of  the  fine  arts  and  the  noblest  of  the  use- 
'     ful  arts.     It  touches  the  life  of  man  at  every  point.     It  is 
s^    concerned  not  only  in  sheltering  his  person  and  ministering 
•     to  his  comfort,  but  also  in   providing  him  with  places  for 
Xl    worship,  amusement,  and  business  ;  with  tombs,  memorials, 
embellishments  for  his  cities,  and  other  structures  for  the 
varied  needs  of  a  complex  civilization.     It  engages  the  ser- 
vices of  a  larger  portion  of  the  community  and  involves 
greater  outlays  of  money  than  any  other  occupation  except 
agriculture.     Everyone  at   some    point  comes   in   contact 
with  the  work  of  the  architect,  and  from  this  universal  con- 
tact architecture  derives  its  significance  as  an  index  of  the 
civilization  of  an  age,  a  race,  or  a  people. 

xxi 


xxn  INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  historian  of  architecture  to  trace 
the  origin,  growth,  and  decline  of  the  architectural  styles 
which  have  prevailed  in  different  lands  and  ages,  and  to 
show  how  they  have  reflected  the  great  movements  of  civil- 
ization. The  migrations,  the  conquests,  the  commercial, 
social,  and  religious  changes  among  different  peoples  have 
all  manifested  themselves  in  the  changes  of  their  architect- 
ure, and  it  is  the  historian's  function  to  show  this.  It  is 
also  his  function  to  explain  the  principles  of  the  styles, 
their  characteristic  forms  and  decoration,  and  to  describe 
the  great  masterpieces  of  each  style  and  period. 

STYLE  is  a  quality  ;  the  "historic  styles  "  are  phases  of 
development.  Style  is  character  expressive  of  definite  con- 
ceptions, as  of  grandeur,  gaiety,  or  solemnity.  An  historic 
style  is  the  particular  phase,  the  characteristic  manner  of 
design,  which  prevails  at  a  given  time  and  place.  It  is  not 
the  result  of  mere  accident  or  caprice,  but  of  intellectual, 
moral,  social,  religious,  and  even  politicai  conditions. 
Gothic  architecture  could  never  have  been  invented  by  the 
Greeks,  nor  could  the  Egyptian  styles  have  grown  up  in 
Italy.  Each  style  is  based  upon  some  fundamental  principle 
springing  from  its  surrounding  civilization,  which  under- 
goes successive  developments  until  it  either  reaches  perfec- 
tion or  its  possibilities  are  exhausted,  after  which  a  period 
of  decline  usually  sets  in.  This  is  followed  either  by  a  re- 
action and  the  introduction  of  some  radically  new  principle 
leading  to  the  evolution  of  a  new  style,  or  by  the  final  de- 
cay and  extinction  of  the  civilization  and  its  replacement 
by  some  younger  and  more  virile  element.  Thus  the  his- 
tory of  architecture  appears  as  a  connected  chain  of  causes 
and  effects  succeeding  each  other  without  break,  each  style 
growing  out  of  that  which  preceded  it,  or  springing  out  of 
the  fecundating  contact  of  a  higher  with  a  lower  civiliza- 
tion. To  study  architectural  styles  is  therefore  to  study  a 
branch  of  the  history  of  civilization. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXlii 

Technically,  architectural  styles  are  identified  by  the 
means  they  employ  to  cover  enclosed  spaces,  by  the  char- 
acteristic forms  of  the  supports  and  other  members  (piers 
columns,  arches,  mouldings,  traceries,  etc.),  and  by  their 
decoration.  The  plan  should  receive  special  attention,  since 
it  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  points  of  support,  and 
hence  the  nature  of  the  structural  design.  A  comparison, 
for  example,  of  the  plans  of  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak 
(Fig.  ii,//)  and  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine  (Fig.  58) 
shows  at  once  a  radical  difference  in  constructive  principle 
between  the  two  edifices,  and  hence  a  difference  of  style. 

STRUCTURAL  PRINCIPLES.  All  architecture  is  based  on  one 
or  more  of  three  fundamental  structural  principles  ;  that  of 
the  lintel,  of  the  arch  or  vault,  and  of  the  truss.  The  princi- 
ple of  the  lintel  is  that  of  resistance  to  transverse  strains, 
and  appears  in  all  construction  in  which  a  cross-piece  or 
beam  rests  on  two  or  more  vertical  supports.  The  arch  or 
vault  makes  use  of  several  pieces  to  span  an  opening  be- 
tween two  supports.  These  pieces  are  in  compression  and 
exert  lateral  pressures  or  thrusts  which  are  transmitted  to  the 
supports  or  abutments.  The  thrust  must  be  resisted  either 
by  the  massiveness  of  the  abutments  or  by  the  opposition  to 
it  of  counter-thrusts  from  other  arches  or  vaults.  Roman 
builders  used  the  first,  Gothic  builders  the  second  of  these 
means  of  resistance.  The  truss  is  a  framework  so  composed 
of  several  pieces  of  wood  or  metal  that  each  shall  best  resist 
the  particular  strain,  whether  of  tension  or  compression,  to 
which  it  is  subjected,  the  whole  forming  a  compound  beam 
or  arch.  It  is  especially  applicable  to  very  wide  spans,  and 
is  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  modern  construction. 
How  the  adoption  of  one  or  another  of  these  principles 
affected  the  forms  and  even  the  decoration  of  the  various 
styles,  will  be  shown  in  the  succeeding  chapters. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  Geographically  and  chronolog- 
ically, architecture  appears  to  have  originated  in  the  Nile 


XXIV  INTRODUCTION. 

valley.  A  second  centre  of  development  is  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  not  uninfluenced  by  the 
older  Egyptian  art.  Through  various  channels  the  Greeks 
inherited  from  both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  art,  the  two 
influences  being  discernible  even  through  the  strongly  origi- 
nal aspect  of  Greek  architecture.  The  Romans  in  turn, 
adopting  the  external  details  of  Greek  architecture,  trans- 
formed its  substance  by  substituting  the  Etruscan  arch  for 
the  Greek  construction  of  columns  and  lintels.  They  de- 
veloped a  complete  and  original  system  of  construction  and 
decoration  and  spread  it  over  the  civilized  world,  which  has 
never  wholly  outgrown  or  abandoned  it. 

With  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  rise  of  Constantinople 
these  forms  underwent  in  the  East  another  transformation, 
called  the  Byzantine,  in  the  development  of  Christian  domi- 
cal church  architecture.  In  the  North  and  West,  mean- 
while, under  the  growing  institutions  of  the  papacy  and  of 
the  monastic  orders  and  the  emergence  of  a  feudal  civiliza- 
tion out  of  the  chaos  of  the  Dark  Ages,  the  constant  pre- 
occupation of  architecture  was  to  evolve  from  the  basilica 
type  of  church  a  vaulted  structure,  and  to  adorn  it  through- 
out with  an  appropriate  dress  of  constructive  and  symbolic 
ornament  Gothic  architecture  was  the  outcome  of  this 
preoccupation,  and  it  prevailed  throughout  northern  and 
n  Europe  until  nearly  or  quite  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

During  this  fifteenth  century  the  Renaissance  style  ma- 
t  tired  in  Italy,  where  it  speedily  triumphed  over  ( rOthic  fash- 
ions and  produced  a  marvellous  series  of  civic  monuments, 
palaces,  and  churches,  adorned  with  forms  borrowed  or 
imitated  from  classic  Roman  art.  This  influence  spread 
through  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  ran  a  Course 
of  two  centuries,  after  which  a  period  of  servile  classicism 
was  followed  by  a  rapid  decline  in  taste.  I 'o  this  succeeded 
the  eclecticism  and  confusion  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to 


INTRODUCTION.  XXV 

which  the  rapid  growth  of  new  requirements  and  develop- 
ment of  new  resources  have  largely  contributed. 

In  Eastern  lands  three  great  schools  of  architecture  have 
grown  up  contemporaneously  with  the  above  phases  of 
Western  art  ;  one  under  the  influence  of  Mohammedan 
civilization,  another  in  the  Brahman  and  Buddhist  archi- 
tecture of  India,  and  the  third  in  China  and  Japan.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  richest  and  most  important.  Primarily 
inspired  from  Byzantine  art,  always  stronger  on  the  decora- 
tive than  on  the  constructive  side,  it  has  given  to  the  world 
the  mosques  and  palaces  of  Northern  Africa,  Moorish  Spain, 
Persia,  Turkey,  and  India.  The  other  two  schools  seem  to 
be  wholly  unrelated  to  the  first,  and  have  no  affinity  with 
the  architecture  of  Western  lands. 

Of-  Mexican,    Central    American,   and    South    American 
architecture  so  little  is  known,  and  that  little  is  so  remote 
in  history  and  spirit  from  the  styles  above  enumerated,  that 
it  belongs  rather  to  archaeology  than  to  architectural  his 
tory,  and  will  not  be  considered  in  this  work. 

Note. — The  reader's  attention  is  called  to  the  Appendix 
to  this  volume,  in  which  are  gathered  some  of  the  results  of 
recent  investigations  and  of  the  architectural  progress  of  the 
last  few  years  which  could  not  readily  be  introduced  into 
the  text  of  this  edition.  The  General  Bibliography  and  the 
lists  of  books  recommended  have  been  revised  and  brought 
up  to  date. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PRIMITIVE   AND   PREHISTORIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

Books' Recommended  :  Desor,  Les  constructions  lacustres 
du  lac  de  Neufchatel.  Fergusson,  Rude  Stone  Monuments. 
R.  C.  Hoare,  Ancient  Wiltshire.  Lyell,  The  Antiquity  of 
Man.  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times.  Nadaillac,  Prehistoric 
America.  Rougemont,  L'age  du  Bronze.  Tylor,  Primitive 
Culture. 

EARLY  BEGINNINGS.  It  is  impossible  to  trace  the  early 
stages  of  the  process  by  which  true  architecture  grew  out 
of  the  first  rude  attempts  of  man  at  building.  The  oldest 
existing  monuments  of  architecture — those  of  Chaldaea  and 
Egypt — belong  to  an  advanced  civilization.  The  rude  and 
elementary  structures  built  by  savage  and  barbarous  peo- 
ples, like  the  Hottentots  or  the  tribes  of  Central  Africa, 
are  not  in  themselves  works  of  architecture,  nor  is  any  in- 
stance known  of  the  evolution  of  a  civilized  art  from  such 
beginnings.  So  far  as  the  monuments  testify,  no  savage 
people  ever  raised  itself  to  civilization,  and  no  primitive 
method  of  building  was  ever  developed  into  genuine  archi- 
tecture, except  by  contact  with  some  existing  civilization 
of  which  it  appropriated  the  spirit,  the  processes,  and  the 
forms.  How  the  earliest  architecture  came  into  existence 
is  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem. 

PRIMITIVE  ARCHITECTURE  is  therefore  a  subject  for  the  ar- 
chaeologist rather  than  the  historian  of  art,  and  needs  here 
only  the  briefest  mention.  If  we  may  judge  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  primitive  races  of  antiquity  by  that  of  the  sav- 
age and  barbarous  peoples  of  our  own  time,  they  required 
1 


2  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

only  the  simplest  kinds  of  buildings,  though  the  purposes 
which  they  served  were  the  same  as  those  of  later  times  in 
civilized  communities.  A  hut  or  house  for  shelter,  a  shrine 
of  some  sort  for  worship,  a  stockade  for  defence,  a  cairn  or 
mound  over  the  grave  of  the  chief  or  hero,  were  provided 
out  of  the  simplest  materials,  and  these  often  of  a  perish- 
able nature.  Poles  supplied  the  framework  ;  wattles,  skins, 
or  mud  the  walls  ;  thatching  or  stamped  earth  the  roof. 
Only  the  simplest  tools  were  needed  for  such  elementa- 
ry construction.  There  was  ingenuity  and  patient  labor 
in  work  of  this  kind  ;  but  there  was  no  planning,  no  fit- 
ting together  into  a  complex  organism  of  varied  materials 
shaped  with  art  and  handled  with  science.  Above  all, 
there  was  no  progression  toward  higher  ideals  of  fitness 
and  beauty.  Rudimentary  art  displayed  itself  mainly  in 
objects  of  worship,  or  in  carvings  on  canoes  and  weapons, 
executed  as  talismans  to  ward  off  misfortune  or  to  charm 
the  unseen  powers;  but  even  this  art  was  sterile  and  never 
grew  of  itself  into  civilized  and  progressive  art. 

Yet  there  must  have  been  at  some  point  in  the  remote 
past  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Somewhere  and  somehow 
the  people  of  Egypt  must  have  developed  from  crude  be- 
ginnings the  architectural  knowledge  and  resource  which 
meet  us  in  the  oldest  monuments,  though  every  vestige  of 
that  early  age  has  apparently  perished.  But  although 
nothing  has  come  down  to  us  of  the  actual  work  of  the 
builders  who  wrought  in  the  primitive  ages  of  mankind, 
there  exist  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  almost  countless 
monuments  of  a  primitive  character  belonging  to  relatively 
recent  times,  but  executed  before  the  advent  of  historic 
civilization  to  the  regions  where  they  are  found.  A  gen- 
eral resemblance  among  them  suggests  a  common  heritage 
of  traditions  from  the  hoariest  antiquity,  and  throws  light 
on  the  probable  character  of  the  transition  from  barbaric 
to  civilized  architecture. 


PRIMITIVE   AND    PREHISTORIC   ARCHITECTURE.        3 

prehistoric  MONUMENTS.  These  monuments  vary  widely 
in  age  as  well  as  in  excellence  ;  some  of  them  belong  to 
Roman  or  even  Christian  times ;  others  to  a  much  remoter 
period.  They  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes,  the 
megalithic  structures  and  lake  dwellings.  The  latter  class 
may  be  dismissed  with  the  briefest  mention.  It  comprises 
a  considerable  number  of  very  primitive  houses  or  huts 
built  on  wooden  piles  in  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  and  sev- 
eral other  countries  in  both  hemispheres,  and  forming  in 
some  cases  villages  of  no  mean  size.  Such  villages,  built 
over  the  water  for  protection  from  attack,  are  mentioned 
by  the  writers  of  antiquity  and  portrayed  on  Assyrian  re- 
liefs. The  objects  found  in  them  reveal  an  incipient  but 
almost  stationary  civilization,  extending  back  from  three 
thousand  to  five  thousand  years  or  more,  and  lasting 
through  the  ages  of  stone  and  bronze  down  into  historic 
times. 

The  megalithic  remains  of  Europe  and  Asia  are  far  more 
important.  They  are  very  widely  distributed,  and  consist 
in  most  cases  of  great  blocks  of  stone  arranged  in  rows, 
circles,  or  avenues,  sometimes  with  huge  lintels  resting 
upon  them.  Upright  stones  without  lintels  are  called  w^«- 
liirs  %-/stand'mg  in  pairs  with  lintels  they  are  known  as  dol- 
mens ;  the  circles  are  called  cromlechs.  Some  of  the  stones 
are  of  gigantic  size,  some  roughly  hewn  into  shape  ;  others 
left  as  when  quarried.  Their  age  and  purpose  have  been 
much  discussed  without  reaching  positive  results.  It  is 
probable  that,  like  the  lake  dwellings,  they  cover  a  long 
range  of  time,  reaching  from  the  dawn  of  recorded  history 
some  thousands  of  years  back  into  the  unknown  past,  and 
that  they  were  erected  by  races  which  have  disappeared 
before  the  migrations  to  which  Europe  owes  her  present 
populations.  That  most  of  them  were  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  these  prehistoric  peoples  is  gen- 
erally admitted  ;  but  whether  as  temples,  tombs,  or  memo- 


4  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

rials  of  historical  or  mythical  events  cannot,  in  all  cases,  be 
positively  asserted.  They  were  not  dwellings  or  palaces,  and 
very  few  were  even  enclosed  buildings.  They  are  imposing 
by  the  size  and  number  of  their  immense  stones,  but  show 
no  sign  of  advanced,  art,  or  of  conscious  striving  after  beauty 
of  design.  The  small  number  of  "  carved  stones,"  bearing 
singular  ornamental  patterns,  symbolic  or  mystical  rather 
than  decorative  in  intention,  really  tends  to  prove  this 
statement  rather  than  to  controvert  it  It  is  not  impossi- 
ble that  the  dolmens  were  generally  intended  to  be  covered 
by  mounds  of  earth.  This  would  group  them  with  the 
tumuli  referred  to  below,  and  point  to  a  sepulchral  purpose 
in  their  erection.  Some  antiquaries,  Fergusson  among 
them,  contend  that  many  of  the  European  circles  and 
avenues  were  intended  as  battle-monuments  or  trophies. 

There  are  also  walls  of  great  antiquity  in  various  parts 
of  Europe,  intended  for  fortification  ;  the  most  important 
of  these  in  Greece  and  Italy  will  be  referred  to  in  later 
chapters.  They  belong  to  a  more  advanced  art,  some  of 
them  even  deserving  to  be  classed  among  works  of  archaic: 
architecture. 

The  tumuli,  or  burial  mounds,  which  form  so  large  a  part 
of  the  prehistoric  remains  of  both  continents,  are  interest* 
ing  to  the  architect  only  as  revealing  the  prototypes  of  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt  and  the  subterranean  tombs  of  Mv<  rn,r 
and  other  early  Greek  centres.  The  piling  of  huge  cairns 
or  commemorative  heaps  of  stone  is  known  from  the  Script- 
I  and  other  ancient  writings  to  have  been  a  custom  of 
the  greatest  antiquity.  The  pyramids  and  the  Mausoleum 
at  Halicarnassus  are  the  most  imposing  and  elaborate  out- 
growths of  this  pra<  ti< v,  of  which  the  prehistoric  tumuli  are 
the  simpler  manifestations. 

These  crude  and  elementary  products  of  undeveloped 

civilizations  have  no  place-,  however,  in   any  list  of  genuine 
architectural  works.     They  belong  rather  to  the  domain  of 


PRIMITIVE   AND   PREHISTORIC   ARCHITECTURE.       5 

archaeology  and  ethnology;  and  have  received  this  brief 
mention  only  as  revealing  the  beginnings  of  the  builder's 
art,  and  the  wide  gap  that  separates  them  from  that  gen- 
uine architecture  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  following 
chapters. 

MONUMENTS  :  The  most  celebrated  in  England  are  at  Avebury,  an 
avenue,  large  and  small  circles,  barrows,  and  the  great  tumuli  of  Bartlow 
and  Silbury  "  Hills  ;"  at  Stonehenge,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  great  megalithic 
circles  and  many  barrows;  "  Sarsen  stones"  at  Ashdown  ;  tumuli,  dol- 
mens, chambers,  and  circles  in  Derbyshire.  In  Ireland,  many  cairns  and 
circles.  In  Scotland,  circles  and  barrows  in  the  Orkney  Islands.  In 
France,  Carnac  and  Lokmariaker  in  Brittany  are  especially  rich  in  dol- 
mens, circles,  and  avenues.  In  Scandinavia,  Germany,  and  Italy,  in  In- 
dia and  in  Africa,  are  many  similar  remains. 


CHAPTER   II. 
EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  Champollion,  Monuments  de  P  Egypte 
et  de  la  Nubie.  Choisy,  Hart  de  bdlir  chez  les  Egyptiens. 
Flinders-Petrie,  History  of  Egypt ;  Ten  Years  Digging  in  Egypt, 
1 881-91.     Jomard,  Description  de  P  Egypte,  Antiquites.    Lep- 

sius,  Denkmaler  aus  Aegypten  und  Aethiopien.  Mariette,  Mon- 
uments of  Upper  Egypt.  Maspero,  Egyptian  Arc/neology.  Vcx- 
rot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt.  I'risse 
d'Avennes,  Histoire  de  Part  egyptien.  Reber,  History  of 
Ancient  Art.  Rossellini,  Monumenti  del  Egitto.  Wilkinson, 
Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Egyptians. 

land  and  people.  As  long  ago  as  5000  B.C.,  the  Egyptians 
were  a  people  already  highly  civilized,  and  skilled  in  the  arts  of 
peace  and  war.  The  narrow  valley  of  the  Nile,  fertilized  by  the 
periodic  overflow  of  the  river,  was  flanked  by  rocky  heights, 
nearly  vertical  in  many  places,  which  afforded  abundance 
of  excellent  building  stone,  while  they  both  isolated  the 
Egyptians  and  protected  them  from  foreign  aggression. 
At  the  Delta,  however,  the  valley  widened  out,  with  the 
falling  away  of  these  heights,  into  broad  lowlands,  from 
which  there  was  access  to  the  outer  world. 

The  art  history  of  Egypt  may  be  divided  into  five  pe- 
riods as  follows  : 

I.  The  Ancient  EMPIRE  (<  ir.  4500  ?-}ooo  B.C.).  compris- 
ing the  first  ten  dynasties,  with  Memphis  as  the  capital. 

II   The  First  Thebam  Monarchy  or  Middle  Empire 

(3000-2100  B.C.)  comprising  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thir 
teenth  dynasties  rjignmg  at    Thebes 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  7 

The  Hyksos  invasion,  or  incursion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings, 
interrupted  the  current  of  Egyptian  art  history  for  a  period  of 
unknown  length,  probably  not  less  than  four  or  five  centuries. 

III.  The  Second  Theban  Monarchy  (i7oo?-iooo  b.c), 
comprising  the  eighteenth  to  twentieth  dynasties  inclusive, 
was  the  great  period  of  Egyptian  history  ;  the  age  of  con- 
quests and  of  vast  edifices. 

IV.  The  Decadence  or  Saitic  Period  (1000-324  b.c), 
comprising  the  dynasties  twenty-one  to  thirty  (Saitic,  Bu- 
bastid,  Ethiopic,  etc.),  reigning  at  Sais,  Tanis,  and  Bubastis, 
and  the  Persian  conquest  ;  a  period  almost  barren  of  im- 
portant monuments. 

(Periods  III.  and  IV.  constitute  together  the  period  of 
the  New  Empire,  if  we  omit  the  Persian  dominion.) 

V.  The  Revival  (from  324  b.c.  to  cir.  330  a.d.)  comprises 
the  Ptolemaic  or  Macedonian  and  Roman  dominations. 

THE  ANCIENT  EMPIRE :  THE  PYRAMIDS.  The  great  works 
of  this  period  are  almost  exclusively  sepulchral,  and  include 
the  most  ancient  buildings  of  which  we  have  any  remains. 
While  there  is  little  of  strictly  architectural  art,  the  over- 
whelming size  and  majesty  of  the  Pyramids,  and  the  audac- 
ity and  skill  shown  in  their  construction,  entitle  them  to  the 
first  place  in  any  sketch  of  this  period.  They  number  over 
a  hundred,  scattered  in  six  groups,  from  Abu-Roash  in  the 
north  to  Meidoum  in  the  south,  and  are  of  various  shapes 
and  sizes.  They  are  all  royal  tombs  and  belong  to  the  first 
twelve  dynasties  ;  each  contains  a  sepulchral  chamber,  and 
each  at  one  time  possessed  a  small  chapel  adjacent  to  it, 
but  this  has,  in  almost  every  case,  perished. 

Three  pyramids  surpass  all  the  rest  by  their  prodigious 
size  ;  these  are  at  Ghizeh  and  belong  to  the  fourth  dynasty. 
They  are  known  by  the  names  of  their  builders ;  the  oldest 
and  greatest  being  that  of  Cheops,  or  Khufu  ;  *  the  second, 

*  The  Egyptian  names  known  to  antiquity  are  given  here  first  in  the 
more  familiar  classic  form,  and  then  in  the  Egyptian  form. 


8 


HiSTORV    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


that  of  Chephren,  or  Khafra  ;  and  the  third,  that  of  Myceri- 
nus,  or  Menkhara.  Other  smaller  ones  stand  at  the  feet  of 
these  giants. 

The  base  of  the  "  Great  Pyramid  "  measures  764  feet  on 
a  side  ;  its  height  is  482  feet,  and  its  volume  must  have 
originally  been  nearly  three  and  one-half  million  cubic 
yards  (Fig.  1).  It  is  constructed  of  limestone  upon  a  pla- 
teau of  rock  levelled  to  receive  it,  and  was  finished  exter- 


\ 


\ 


^||P^ 


FIG.    I.—  nCTMM    OF   GREAT    I'VKAMID. 

«,  Kintfs  Chamber;  b.  Queen's  Chamber ;  c,  Chamber  cut  in  Rock. 


nally,  like  its  two  neighbors,  with  a  coating  of  polished 

stone,  supposed  by  >omc  to  have  been  dispose!  in  bands  of 
different  colored  granites,  but  of  which  it  was  long  ago 
led.  It  contained  three  principal  chambers  and  an 
elaborate  system  of  inclined  passages,  all  executed  in 
finely  cut  granite  and  limestone.  The  sarcophagus  was  in 
the  uppermost  chamber,  above  which  the  superincumbent 
weight  was  relieved  by  open  Spaces  and  a  species  of  rudi- 
mentary arch  of  A -shape  (Fig.  2).  The  other  two  pyra- 
mids differ  from  that  of  Cheops  in  the  details  of  their 
gemenl  and  in  size,  not  in  the  principle  of  their  con- 
struction.    Chephren    is   454    feet    high,    with    a    base    717 


Kt.Vl'TIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


feet  square.  Mvcerinus,  which  still  retains  its  casing  of 
pink  granite,  is  but  218  feet  in  height,  with  a 'base  253  feet 
on  a  side. 

Among  the  other  pyramids  there  is  considerable  variety 
both  of  type  and  material.  At 
Sakkarah  is  one  190  feet  high, 
constructed  in  six  unequal  steps 
on  a  slightly  oblong  base  measur- 
ing nearly  400  X  357  feet.  It  was 
attributed  by  Mariette  to  Ouene- 
phes,  of  the  first  dynasty,  though 
now  more  generally  ascribed  to 
Senefrou  of  the  third.  At  Abu- 
Seir  and  Meidoum  are  other 
stepped  pyramids  ;  at  Dashour  is 
one  having  a  broken  slope,  the 
lower  part  steeper  than  the  up- 
per. Several  at  Meroe  with  un- 
usually steep  slopes  belong  to 
the  Ethiopian  dynasties  of  the 
Decadence.  A  number  of 
pyramids  are  built  of  brick. 

TOMBS.  The  Ancient  Em- 
pire has  also  left  us  a  great 
number  of  tombs  of  the  type 
known  as  Mastabas.  These 
are  oblong  rectangular  struct- 
ures of  stone  or  brick  with 
slightly  inclined  sides  and  flat 
ceilings.  They  uniformly  face 
the  east,  and  are  internally  di- 
vided into  three  parts ;  the 
chamber  or  chapel,  the  senlab, 

and  the  well.  In  the  first  of  these,  next  the  entrance,  were 
placed  the  offerings  made  to  the  Ka  or  "  double,"  for  whom 


FIG.   2. — SECTION     OF     KING  S 
CHAMBER. 


FIG.    3. — PLAN    OF   SPHINX   TEMPLE. 


IO 


HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


also  scones  of  festivity  or  worship  were  carved  and  painted 
on  its  walls  to  minister  to  his  happiness  in  his  incorporeal 
life.  The  serdabs,  or  secret  inner  chambers,  of  which  there 
were  several  in  each  mastaba,  contained  statues  of  the  de- 
funct, by  which  the  existence  and  identity  of  the  Ka  were 
preserved.  Finally  came  the  well,  leading  to  the  mum- 
my chamber,  deep  underground,  which  contained  the  sar- 
cophagus. The  sarcophagi,  both  of  this  and  later  ages, 
are  good  examples  of  the  minor  architecture  of  Egypt  ; 
many  of  them  are  panelled  in  imitation  of  wooden  con- 
struction and  richly  decorated  with  color,  symbols,  and 
hieroglyphs. 

OTHER  MONUMENTS.  Two  other  monuments  of  the  An- 
cient Empire  also  claim  attention  :  the  Sphinx  and  the  adja- 
cent so-called  "  Sphinx 
temple  "  at  (ihizeh.  The 
first  of  these, a  huge  sculp- 
ture carved  from  the  rock, 
represents  Harmachis  in 
the  form  of  a  human- 
headed  lion.  It  is  ordina- 
rily partly  buried  in  the 
sand  ;  is  70  feet  long  by  66 
feet  high,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  striking  monuments  of 
Egyptian  art.  Close  to  it  lie  the  nearly  buried  ruins  of  the  tem- 
ple once  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  Sphinx,  but  now  proved 
by  ivtric  to  have  been  erected  in  connection  with  the  second 
pyramid.  The  plan  and  present  aspect  of  this  venerable 
edifice  arc  shown  in  Pigs.  3  and  4.  The  hall  was  roofed  with 
stone  lintels  carried  on  sixteen  square  monolithic  piers  of 
alabaster.  The  whole  was  buried  in  a  rectangular  mass  of 
:ry  and  revetted  internally  with  alabaster,  but  was 
wholly  destitute  internally  as  well  as  externally  of  d< 
tion  or  even  of  moulding*  With  the  exception  of  scanty 
remains  of  a  few  of  the  pyramid-temples  or  chapels,  and  the 


HI..    4.—  KLIN-    OF   SPHINX   TEMPLE. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


II 


FIG.    5. — TOMB    AT   ABYDOS. 


temple  discovered  by  Petrie  in  Meidoum,  it  is  the  only  sur- 
vival from  the  temple  architecture  of  that  early  age. 

THE  MIDDLE  EMPIRE  :  TOMBS.  The  monuments  of  this 
period,  as  of  the  pre- 
ceding, are  almost  whol- 
ly sepulchral.  We  now 
encounter  two  types  of 
tombs.  One,  structural 
and  pyramidal,  is  repre- 
sented by  many  exam- 
ples at  Abydos,  the  most 
venerated  of  all  the  bur- 
ial grounds  of  Egypt 
(Fig.  5).  All  of  these  are 
buifTofJrrick,  arlcTare  of 
moderate  size  and  little  artistic  interest.     The  second  type 


is  that  oftombs  cut  in  the  vertical  cliffs  of  the  west  bank 
of  the  Nile  Valley.     The  entrance  to  these  faces  eastward 

as  required  by  tradi- 
tion ;  the  remoter  end 
of  the  excavation  point- 
ing toward  the  land  of 
the  Sun  of  Night.  But 
such  tunnels  only  be- 
come works  of  archi- 
tecture when,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  customary 
mural  paintings,  they 
receive  a  decorative 
treatment  in  the  design 
of  their  structural  forms.  Such  a  treatment  appears  in 
several  tombs  at  Beni-Hassan,  in  which  columns  are  re- 
served in  cutting  away  the  rock,  both  in  the  chapel- 
chambers  and  in  the  vestibules  or  porches  which  precede 
them.    These  columns  are  polygonal  in  some  cases,  clustered 


FIG.    6. — TOMB    AT    BENI-HASSAN. 


J2 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


in  others.  The  former  type,  with  eight,  sixteen,  or  thirty- 
two  sides  (in  these  last  the  arrises  or  edges  are  emphasized 
by  a  slight  concavity  in  each  face,  like  embryonic  fluting), 
have  a  square  abacus,  suggesting  the  Greek  Doric  order, 
and  giving  rise  to  the  name  proto- Doric  (Fig.  6).  Col- 
umns of  this  type  are  also  found  at  Karnak,  Kalabsh^, 
Amada,  and  Abydos.  A  reminiscence  of  primitive  wood 
construction  is  seen  in  the  dentils  over  the  plain  architrave 
of  the  entrance,  which  in  other  respects  recalls  the  tripie 


— — ' — **  

''\^r'''"'"j'"'''''/''"""/'"/'"''/""'""'''/'//"'"'"'" 

I 


®    <§> 


FKi.    7.—  SUCTION    ANI>    HAI.F-I'l  AN    OK    A    TOMH    AT    BFNI-I 


entrances  to  certain  mastabas  of  the  Old  Empire.  These 
dentils  are  imitations  of  the  ends  of  rafters,  and  to  some 
an  iMBOlogista  suggest  a  wooden  origin  for  the  whole  system 
of  Columnar  design.  but  these  rock-COt  shafts  and  heavy 
architraves  in  no  respect  resemble  wooden  prototypes, 
but  point  rather  to  an  imitation  cot  in  the  nuk  of  a  well- 
developed,  pre-existing  system  Of  stone  const  nut  ion,  some 
of  whose  details,  however,  were  undoubtedly  derived  from 
early  methods  of  building  in  wood.  The  vault  was  below 
the    chapel    and    reached    by    a    separate    entrance.       The 

serdab  «.i-  replaced  by  a  niche  in  which  was  the  figure  ol 
the  defunct    carved   from    the    native    rock.     Some  of  the 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  13 

tombs  employed  in  the  chapel-chamber  columns  of  quatrefoil 
section  with  capitals  like  clustered  buds  (Fig.  7),  and  this 
type  became  in  the  next  period  one  of  the  most  character- 
istic forms  of  Egyptian  architecture. 

TEMPLES.  Of  the  temples  of  this  period  only  two  have 
left  any  remains  of  importance.  Both  belong  to  the  twelfth 
dynasty  (cir.  2200  B.C.).  Of  one  of  these  many  badly  shat- 
tered fragments  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Bubastis; 
these  show  the  clustered  type  of  lotus-bud  column  men- 
tioned above.  The  other,  of  which  a  few  columns  have 
been  identified  among  the  ruins  of  the  Great  Temple  at 
Karnak,  constituted  the  oldest  part  of  that  vast  agglomera- 
tion of  religious  edifices,  and  employed  columns  of  the  so- 
called  proto-Doric  type.  From  these  remains  it  appears 
that  structural  stone  columns  as  well  as  those  cut  in  the 
rock  were  used  at  this  early  period  (2200  B.C.).  Indeed,  it 
is  probable  that  the  whole  architectural  system  of  the  New 
Empire  was  based  on  models  developed  in  the  age  we  are 
considering  ;  that  the  use  of  multiplied  columns  of  various 
types  and  the  building  of  temples  of  complex  plan  adorned 
with  colossal  statues,  obelisks,  and  painted  reliefs,  were 
perfectly  understood  and  practised  in  this  period.  But  the 
works  it  produced  have  perished,  having  been  most  prob- 
ably demolished  to  make  way  for  the  more  sumptuous  edi- 
fices of  later  times. 

THE  NEW  EMPIRE.  This  was  the  grand  age  of  Egyptian  ar- 
chitecture and  history.  An  extraordinary  series  of  mighty 
men  ruled  the  empire  during  a  long  period  following  the 
expulsion  of  the  Hyksos  usurpers.  The  names  of  Thoth- 
mes,  Amenophis,  Hatasu,  Seti,  and  Rameses  made  glorious 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties.  Foreign  con- 
quests in  Ethiopia,  Syria,  and  Assyria  enlarged  the  terri- 
tory and  increased  the  splendor  of  the  empire.  The  major- 
ity of  the  most  impressive  ruins  of  Egypt  belong  to  this 
period,  and  it  was  in  these  buildings  that  the  characteristic 


14 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


^H 


r-- 


•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 


;*r*rn: 


elements  of  Egyptian  architecture  were  brought  to  perfec- 
tion and  carried  out  on  the  grandest  scale. 

TOMBS  OF  THE  NEW  EMPIRE.  Some  of  these  are  stria  -Aural, 
others  excavated  ;  both  types  displaying  considerable  vari- 
ety in  arrangement  and  detail.  The 
rock-cut  tombs  of  Bab-el-Molouk, 
among  which  are  twenty-five  royal 
sepulchres,  are  striking  both  by 
the  simplicity  of  their  openings 
and  the  depth  and  complexity  of 
their  shafts,  tunnels,  and  chambers. 
From  the  pipe-like  length  of  their 
tunnels  they  have  since  the  time  of 
Herodotus  been  known  by  the  name 
syrinx.  Every  precaution  was  taken 
to  lead  astray  and  baffle  the  Intend- 
ing violator  of  their  sanctity.    They 

penetrated  hundreds  of  feet  [n  to  the 

rOCk  ;  their  chambers,  often  formed 
with  columns  and    vault-like   roots, 

wen-  resplendent  with  colored  reliefs 

and  ornament  destined  to  solace 
and  sustain  the  shadowy  Ka  until 
the  soul  itself,  the  Ma,  should  arrive 
before    the    tribunal   of  Osiris,   the 

Sun  of  Night.     Most  impressively 

df)  these  brilliant  pictures,*  intend- 
ed to  be  forever  shut   away   from    human   eyes,   attest   the 

erity  of  the  Egyptian  belief  and  the  conscientious^ 

of  the  art  which  it  inspired. 

While  the  tomb  of  the  private  citizen  was  complete  in  it- 
self,  containing  the    Ka-statues    and    often    the   chapel,    as 
well  as  the  mummy,  the   royal   tomb  demanded   something 
more  elaborate  in  stale  and  arrangement.      In   some  cases 
*  See  Van  lake's  History  of  Tainting,  Figure  I. 


-I  I   V.    OK    M    RAMKS- 

■tnt 


,     Satuluary  :     i,     Hyfiottylf 

1 1  .ill :    ,,     Scnntf    court  :  </, 
Mmtrnncr  lourf  ;  e,  I'ylont. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  1 5 

external  structures  of  temple-form  took  the  place  of  the 
underground  chapel  and  serdab.  The  royal  effigy,  many 
times  repeated  in  painting  and  sculpture  throughout  this 
temple-like  edifice,  and  flanking  its  gateways  with  colos- 
sal seated  figures,  made  buried  Ka-statues  unnecessary. 
Of  these  sepulchral  temples  three  are  of  the  first  magni- 
tude. They  are  that  of  Queen  Hatasu  (XVIIIth  dynasty) 
at  Deir-el-Bahari ;  that  of  Rameses  II.  (XlXth  dynasty), 
the  Ramesseum,  near  by  to  the  southwest  ;  and  that 
of  Rameses  III.  (XXth  dynasty)  at  Medinet  Abou  still 
further  to  the  southwest.  Like  the  tombs,  these  were  all 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile ;  so  also  was  the  sepulchral 
temple  of  Amenophis  III  (XVIIIth  dynasty),  the  Ameno- 
pheum,  of  which  hardly  a  trace  remains  except  the  two 
seated  colossi  which,  rising  from  the  Theban  plain,  have 
astonished  travellers  from  the  times  of  Pausanias  and 
Strabo  down  to  our  own.  These  mutilated  figures,  one  of 
which  has  been  known  ever  since  classic  times  as  the 
"  vocal  Memnon,"  are  56  feet  high,  and  once  flanked  the 
entrance  to  the  forecourt  of  the  temple  of  Amenophis. 
The  plan  of  the  Ramesseum,  with  its  sanctuary,  hypostyle 
hall,  and  forecourts,  its  pylons  and  obelisks,  is  shown  in 
Figure  8,  and  may  be  compared  with  those  of  other  temples . 
given  on  pp.  17  and  18.  That  of  Medinet  Abou  resembles 
it  closely.  The  Ramesseum  occupies  a  rectangle  of  590  x 
182  feet;  the  temple  of  Medinet  Abou  measures  500  x  160 
feet,  not  counting  the  extreme  width  of  the  entrance  pylons. 
The  temple  of  Hatasu  at  Deir-el-Bahari  is  partly  excavated 
and  partly  structural,  a  model  which  is  also  followed  on  a 
smaller  scale  in  several  lesser  tombs.  Such  an  edifice  is 
called  a  hemispeos. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE— Continued. 

Books  Recommended  :  Same  as  for  Chapter  II. 

TEMPLES.  The  surpassing  glory  of  the  New  Empire  was  its 
great  temples.  Some  of  them  were  among  the  most  stupen- 
dous creations  of  structural  art.  To  temples  rather  than  pal- 
aces were  the  resources  and  energies  of  the  kings  devoted, 
and  successive  monarchs  found  no  more  splendid  outlet  for 
their  piety  and  ambition  than  the  founding  of  new  temples 
or  the  extension  and  adornment  of  those  already  existing. 
By  the  forced  labor  of  thousands  of  fellaheen  (tin-  system  is 
in  force  to  this  day  and  is  known  as  the  C0rv&)  architectural 
piles  of  vast  extent  could  be  erected  within  the  lifetime  of 
a  monarch.  As  in  the  tombs  the  internal  walls  bore  pict- 
ures for  the  contemplation  of  the  Ka,  so  in  the  temples 

the  external  walls,  for  the  glory  of  the  king  and  the  de- 
lectation of  the  people,  were  covered  with  colored  reliefs 
reciting  the.-  monarch's  glorious  deeds.  Internally  the 
worship  and  attributes  of  the  gods  were  represented  in  a 
similar  manner,  in  endless  iteration. 

THE  TEMPLE  SCHEME.  This  is  admirably  shown  in  the 
temple  of  Khonsu,  at  Karnak,  built  by  Rameses  MI.  (XXth 
dynasty),  and  in  the  temple  of  Edfou  (Fitfs.  9  and  10),  though 
this  belong!  to  the  Roman  period.  It  comprised  a  sanctu- 
ary hyOOStyle  (columnar)  hall,  known  as  the  "hall 
of  assembly,"  and  a  forecourt  preceded  by  a  double  pylon  or 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


17 


gateway.  Each  of  these  parts 
might  be  made  more  or  less  com- 
plex in  different  temples,  but  the 
essential  features  are  encountered 
everywhere  under  all  changes  of 
form.  The  building  of  a  temple 
began  with  the  sanctuary,  which 
contained  the  sacred  chamber  and 
the  shrine  of  the  god,  with  sub- 
ordinate rooms  for  the  priests  and 
for  various  rites  and  functions. 
These  chambers  were  low,  dark, 
mysterious,  accessible  only  to  the 
priests  and  king.  They  were  given 
a  certain  dignity  by  being  raised 
upon  a  sort  of  platform  above  the 
general  level,  and  reached  by  a 
few  steps.  They  were  sumptu- 
ously decorated  internally  with 
ritual  pictures  in  relief.  The 
hall  was   sometimes  loftier,  but 

set  on  a  slightly  lower  level  ;  its  massive  columns  sup- 
ported a  roof  of  stone  lintels,  and  light  was  admitted  either 
through  clearstory  windows  under  the  roof  of  a  central 
portion  higher  than  the  sides,  as  at  Karnak,  or  over  a  low 
screen-wall  built  between  the  columns  of  the  front  row,  as 
at  Edfou  and  Denderah.  This  method  was  peculiar  to  the 
Ptolemaic  and  Roman  periods.     The  court  was  usually  sur- 


F1G.    9. — TEMPLE    OF   EDFOU.       PLAN. 


FIG.   10.— TEMPLE    OK    EDFOU.      SECTION. 


i8 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


rounded  by  a  single  or  double  colonnade  ;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, this  colonnade  only  flanked  the  sides  or  fronted  the 
hall,  or  again  was  wholly  wanting.  The  pylons  were  twin 
buttress-like  masses  flanking  the  entrance  gate  of  the  court. 
They  were  shaped  like  oblong  truncated  pyramids,  crowned 
by  flaring  cornices,  and  were  decorated  on  the  outer  face 
with  masts  carrying  banners,  with  obelisks,  or  with  seated 
colossal  figures  of  the  royal  builder.  An  avenue  of  sphinxes 
formed  the  approach  to  the  entrance,  and   the  whole  tem- 


HG,     U.— TEMt'LK    OF    KAKSAK.       PLAN. 


pie  precinct  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  usually  of  crude 
brick,  pierced  by  one  or  more  gates  with  or  without 
pylons.  The  piety  of  successive  monarehs  was  displayed 
in  the  addition  of  new  hypostyle  halls,  courts,  pylons,  or 
obelisks,  by  which  the  temple  was  successively  extended 
in  length,  and  sometimes  also  in  width,  by  the  increased 
dimensions  of  the  new  courts.  The  great  Temple  of  Kar- 
nak  most  strikingly  illustrates  this  growth.  Begun  by 
Osourtesen  (Xllth  dynasty)  more  than  2000  years  B.C, 
it  was  not  completed  in  its  present  form  until  the  time  of 
the  Ptolemies,  when  the  last  of  the  pylons  and  external 
gates  were  erected. 

The   variations   in    the   details  of    this  general  type   were 
numerous.     Thus,  at  Kl  Kab,  the  temple  of  Amenophis  III. 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE  19 

has  the  sekos  and  hall  but  no  forecourt.  At  Deir-el- 
Medineh  the  hall  of  the  Ptolemaic  Hathor-temple  is  a  mere 
porch  in  two  parts,  while  the  enclosure  within  the  circuit 
wall  takes  the  place  of  the  forecourt.  At  Karnak  all  the 
parts  were  repeated  several  times,  and  under  Amenophis 
III.  (XVIIIth  dynasty)  a  wing  was  built  at  a  nearly  right 
angle  to  the  main  structure.  At  Luxor,  to  a  complete  typi- 
cal temple  were  added  three  aisles  of  an  unfinished  hypo- 
style  hall,  and  an  elaborate  forecourt,  whose  axis  is  inclined 
to  that  of  the  other  buildings,  owing  to  a  bend  of  the  river 
at  that  point.  At  Abydos  a  complex  sanctuary  of  many 
chambers  extends  southeast  at  right  angles  to  the  general 
mass,  and  the  first  court  is  without  columns.  But  in  all 
these  structures  a  certain  unity  of  effect  is  produced  by  the 
lofty  pylons,  the  flat  roofs  diminishing  in  height  over  suc- 
cessive portions  from  the  front  to  the  sanctuary,  the  sloping 
windowless  walls  covered  with  carved  and  painted  pictures, 
and  the  dim  and  massive  interiors  of  the  columnar  halls. 

TEMPLES  OF  KARNAK.  Of  these  various  temples  that  of 
Amen-Ra  is  incomparably  the  largest  and  most  imposing. 
Its  construction  extended  through  the  whole  duration  of 
the  New  Empire,  of  whose  architecture  it  is  a  splendid 
rteum'e  (Fig.  11).  Its  extreme  length  is  1,215  feet,  and  its 
greatest  width  376  feet.  The  sanctuary  and  its  accessories, 
mainly  built  by  Thothmes  I.  and  Thothmes  III.,  cover  an 
area  nearly  456  X  290  feet  in  extent,  and  comprise  two  hypo- 
style  halls  and  countless  smaller  halls  and  chambers.  It  is 
preceded  by  a  narrow  columnar  vestibule  and  two  pylons  en- 
closing a  columnar  atrium  and  two  obelisks.  This  is  entered 
from  the  Great  Hypostyle  Hall  (//  in  Fig.  11  ;  Fig.  12),  the 
noblest  single  work  of  Egyptian  architecture,  measuring  340 
X  170  feet,  and  containing  134  columns  in  sixteen  rows,  sup- 
porting a  massive  stone  roof.  The  central  columns  with  bell- 
capitals  are  70  feet  high  and  nearly  12  feet  in  diameter  ;  the 
others  are  smaller  and  lower,  with  lotus-bud  capitals,  sup- 


20  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

porting  a  roof  lower  than  that  over  the  three  central  aisles 

A  clearstory  of  stone-crated  windows  makes  up  the  differ- 
ence  in  height  between  these  two  root's.  The  interior,  thus 
lighted,  was  splendid  with  painted  reliefs,  which  helped  not 
only  to  adorn  the  hall  but  to  give  scale  to  its  massive  parts. 
The  whole  stupendous  creation  was  the  work  of  three  kings 
—  Kameses  I.,  Seti  I.,  and  Rameses  II.  (XlXth  dynasty). 
In   front  of  it  was  the  great  court,  Hanked  by  columns, 


FIG.    12. — CENTRAL    PORTION    Of    IIVI-OSTVI.K    HAM.    AT   KARNAK. 

(From  mode!  in  Metropolitan  Mtiwum,  New  York.) 

and  still  showing  the  ruins  of  a  central  avenue  of  colossal 
pillars  begun,  but  never  completed,  by  the  Bubastid  kings 
of  the  XXI Id  dynasty.  One  or  two  smaller  Structures  and 
the  curious  lateral  wing  built  by  Amenophis  III.,  interrupt 
the  otherwise  orderly  ami  symmetrical  advance  of  this 
plan  from  the  sanctuary  to  the  huge  first  pylon  (last  in 
point  of  date)  erected  by  the  Ptolen 

The  smaller  temple  of  Khonsu,  south  of  that  of  Amen- 
Ra,  has  already  been  alluded  to  as  a  typical  example  of 
templar  design.  Next  to  Karnak  in  importance  comes  the 
Temple  of  Luxor  in  its  immediate  neighborhood.  It  has 
two  forecourts  adorned  with   double-aisled  colonnades  and 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


21 


connected  by  what  seems  to  be  an  unfinished  hypostyle 
hall.  The  Ramesseum  and  the  temples  of  Medinet  Abou 
and  Deir-El-Bahari  have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  15). 
At  Gournah  and  Abydos  are  the  next  most  celebrated 
temples  of  this  period  ;  the  first  famous  for  its  rich  clus- 
tered lotus-columns,  the  latter  for  its  beautiful  sanctuary 


FIG.    13. — GREAT   THMHLE    OF    II'SAMBIH'L. 


chambers,  dedicated  each  to  a  different  deity,  and  covered 
with  delicate  painted  reliefs  of  the  time  of  Seti  I. 

GROTTO  TEMPLES.  Two  other  styles  of  temple  remain  to 
be  noticed.  The  first  is  the  subterranean  or  grotto  temple, 
of  which  the  two  most  famous,  at  Ipsamboul  (Abou-simbel). 
were  excavated  by  Rameses  II.  They  are  truly  colossal 
conceptions,  reproducing  in  the  native  rock  the  main  feat- 
ures of  structural  temples,  the  court  being  represented  bv 
the  larger  of  two  chambers  in  the  Greater  Temple  (Fig.  13) 


22  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

Their  facades  are  adorned  with  colossal  seated  figures  of 
the  builder  ;  the  smaller  has  also  two  effigies  of  Nefert- 
Ari,  his  consort.  Nothing  more  striking  and  boldly  impres- 
sive is  to  be  met  with  in  Egypt  than  these  singular  rock-cut 
facades.  Other  rock-cut  temples  of  more  modest  dimen- 
sions are  at  Addeh,  Feraig,  Beni-Hassan  (the  "  Speos  Arte- 
midos"),  Beit-el  -  Wali,  and  Silsileh.  At  Gherf-Hossein, 
Asseboua,  and  Derri  are  temples  partly  excavated  and  partly 
structural. 

PEKIPTERAL  TEMPLES.  The  last  type  of  temple  to  be 
noticed  is  represented  by  only  three  or  four  structures  of 
moderate  size  ;  it  is  the  peripteral,  in  which  a  small  cham- 
ber is  surrounded  by  columns,  usually  mounted  on  a  terrace 
with  vertical  walls.  They  were  mere  chapels,  but  are  among 
the  most  graceful  of  existing  ruins.  At  Philae  are  two 
structures,  one  by  Nectanebo,  the  other  Ptolemaic,  resem- 
bling peripteral  temples,  but  without  cella-chamber^  or 
roofs.  They  may  have  been  waiting-courts  for  the  adjoin- 
ing temples.  That  at  Elephantine  (Amenophis  III.)  has 
square  piers  at  the  sides,  and  columns  only  at  the  ends. 
Another  by  Thothmes  II.,  at  Medinet  Abou,  formed  only  a 
part  (the  seko>  ?)  of  a  larger  plan.  At  Edfou  is  another, 
belonging  to  the  Ptolemaic  period. 

LATER  TEMPLES.  After  the  architectural  inaction  of  the 
me  a  marvellous  recrudescence  of  splendor 
under  the  Ptolemies,  whose  Hellenic  origin  and  sympathies 
did  not  lead  them  into  the  mistaken  effort  to  imp 
models  upon  Egyptian  art.  The  temples  cici  ted  under 
their  dominion,  and  later  under  Roman  rule,  vied  with  the 
grandest  works  of  the  Ran  Uld  surpassed   them  in 

the  rich  elaboration  and  variety  of  their  architectural  de- 
tails. The  temple  at  Edfou  (Pigs.  9,  10,  14)  is  the  most  per- 
fectly  preserved,  and  conforms  most  closely  to  the  typical 
plan  ;  that  of  I-i->,  at  Philae,  is  the  most  elaborate  and 
orriate.     Denderuh    also    possesses   a   group  of  admirably 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


23 


preserved  temples  of  the  same. period.  At  Esneh,  and  at 
Kalabshe  and  Kardassy  or  Ghertashi  in  Nubia  are  others 
In  all  these  one  notes  innovations  of  detail  and  a  striving 
for  effect  quite  different  from  the  simpler  majesty  of  the 
preceding  age  (Fig.  14).  One  peculiar  feature  is  the  use 
of  screen  walls  built  into  the  front  rows  of  columns  of  the 
hypostyle  hall.  Light  was  admitted  above  these  walls, 
which  measured  about  half  the  height  of  the  columns  and 


FIG.   14. — EDFOU.       FRONT   OF    HYPOSTYLE    HALL. 


were  interrupted  at  the  centre  by  a  curious  doorway  cut 
through  their  whole  height  and  without  any  lintel.  Long 
disused  types  of  capital  were  revived  and  others  greatly 
elaborated  ;  and  the  wall-reliefs  were  arranged  in  bands 
and  panels  with  a  regularity  and  symmetry  rather  Greek 
than  Egyptian.  -?*" 

ARCHITECTUBAL  DETAILS.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
purely  utilitarian  vaulted  structures,  all  Egyptian  architect- 
ure was  based  on  the  principle  of  the  lintel.  Artistic  splen- 
dor depended  upon  the  use  of  painted  and  carved  pictures, 
and  the  decorative  treatment  of  the  very  simple  supports 


24 


HISTORY   OK  ARCHITE4    II  RE. 


employed.  Piers  and  columns  sustained  the  root.,  of  such 
chambers  as  were  too  wide  for  single  lintels,  and  produced, 
in  halls  like  those  of  Karnak,  of  the  Ramesseum,  or  of 
Denderah,  a  stupendous  effect  by  their  height,  massiveness, 
number,  and  colored  decoration.  The 
simplest  piers  were  plain  square 
shafts  ;  others,  more  elaborate,  had 
lotus  stalks  and  (lowers  or  heads  of 
Hathor  carved  upon  them.  The 
most  striking  were  those  against 
whose  front  faces  were  carved  co- 
lossal figures  of  Osiris,  as  at  Luxor, 
Medinet  Abou,  and  Karnak  (Fig.  15). 
The  columns,  which  were  seldom 
over  six  diameters  in  height,  were 
treated  with  greater  variety  ;  the 
shafts,  slightly  tapering  upward,  were 
either  round  or  clustered  in  section, 
and  usually  contracted  at  the  base 
The  capitals  with  which  they  were 
crowned  were  usually  of  one  of  the  five  chief  types  descrrcx  <1 
below.  Besides  round  and  clustered  shafts,  the  Middle 
Empire  and  a  few  of  the  earlier  monuments  of  the  New  Em- 
pire employed  polygonal  or  slightly  (luted  shafts  (see  p.  n), 
as  at  Beni  Hassan  and  Karnak  ;  these  had  a  plain  square 
abacus,  with  sometimes  a  cushion-like  echinus  beneath  it. 
A  round  plinth  served  as  a  base  t'nv  most  of  the  columns. 

capitals.     The  ft\c  chief  types  of  capita]  were:  a,  the 

plain  lotus  bud,  as  at  Karnak  (Great  Hall)  ;  />,  the  clustered 
lotus  bud  (Beni-Hassan,  Karnak.  I. uxor,  (iournah,  etc) 
the  tdmpiiniform  or  inverted  bell  (central  aisles  at  Karnak, 
I. uxor,  the  Ramesseum);  </,  the  palm-capital,  frequent  in 
the  Liter  temples;  and  <\  the  Hathor-headed,  in  which 
heads  of  Hathor  adorn  (he  four  fares  of  a  cubical  ma 
surmounted   by  a  model  of  a    shrine  (Scdinga,  Edfou,  Den- 


PMi    15.— OSIKII)     f'IP.K     (ME- 
DMBT  ai. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


25 


derail,  Esneh).  These  types  were  richly  embellished  and 
varied  by  the  Ptolemaic  architects,  who  gave  a  clustered 
or  quatrefoil  plan  to  the  bell-capital,  or  adorned  its  surface 
with  palm  leaves.  A  few  other  forms  are  met  with  as  ex- 
ceptions.    The  first  four  are  shown  in  Fig.  16. 

Every  part  of  the  column  was  richly  decorated  in  color. 
Lotus- leaves  or  petals  swathed  the  swelling  lower  part  of 
the  shaft,  which  was  elsewhere  covered  with  successive 
bands  of  carved  pictures  and  of  hieroglyphics.  The  capi- 
tal was  similarly  covered  with  carved  and  painted  orna- 
ment, usually  of  lotus-flowers  or  leaves,  or  alternate  stalks 
of  lotus  and  papyrus. 

The  lintels  were  plain  and  square  in  section,  and  often 
of  prodigious  size.  Where  they  appeared  externally  they 
were  crowned  with  a  simple  cavetto  cornice,  its  curved  sur- 
face covered  with  col- 
ored flutings  alternating 
with  cartouches  of  hie- 
roglyphics. Sometimes, 
esnecially  on  the  screen 
walls  of  the  Ptolemaic 
age,  this  was  surmount- 
ed by  a  cresting  of  ad- 
ders or  uraei  in  closely 
serried  rank.  No  other 
form  of  cornice  or  crest- 
ing is  met  with.  Mould- 
ings as  a  means  of  archi- 
tectural effect  were  singularly  lacking  in  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture. The  only  moulding  known  is  the  clustered  torus 
{torus  =  a  convex  moulding  of  semicircular  profile),  which 
resembles  a  bundle  of  reeds  tied  together  with  cords  or 
ribbons.  It  forms  an  astragal  under  the  cavetto  cornice 
and  runs  down  the  angles  of  the  pylons  and  walls. 

POLYCHROMY  AND  ORNAMENT.     Color  was   absolutely   es- 


TYPES   OF   COLUMN. 


«,  Campaniform  ;  d,   Clustered  Lotus-Column  . 
c,  Simple  Lotus-Column  ;  d,  Palm-Column. 


26  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

sential  to  the  decorative  scheme.  In  the  vast  and  dim  in- 
teriors, as  well  as  in  the  blinding  glare  of  the  sun,  mere 
sculpture  or  relief  would  have  been  wasted.  The  applica- 
tion of  brilliant  color  to  pictorial  forms  cut  in  low  relief, 
or  outlined  by  deep  incision  with  the 
edges  of  the  figures  delicately  rounded 
[intaglio  rilievd)  was  the  most  appropriate 
treatment  possible.  The  walls  and  col- 
umns were  covered  with  pictures  treat- 
ed in  this  way,  and  the  ceilings  and 
lintels  were  embellished  with  symbolic 
forms  in  the  same  manner.  All  the 
ornaments,  as  distinguished  from  the 
,LORAL    paintings,  were  symbolical,  at  least  in 

ORNAMENT-FORMS.  I  «5     »  /  > 

their  origin.  Over  the  gateway  was  the 
solar  disk  or  globe  with  wide-spread  wings,  the  symbol  of 
the  sun  winging  its  way  to  the  conquest  of  night ;  upon 
the  ceiling  were  sacred  vultures,  zodiacs,  or  stars  spangled 
on  a  blue  ground.  Externally  the  temples  presented  only 
masses  of  unbroken  wall  ;  but  these,  as.  well  as  the  pylons, 
were  covered  with  huge  pictures  of  a  historical  character. 
Only  in  the  tombs  do  we  find  painted  ornament  of  a  purely 
conventional  sort  (Fig.  17).  Rosettes,  diaper  patterns, 
spirals, and  checkers  are  to  be  met  with  in  them  ;  but  many 
of  these  can  be  traced  to  symbolic  origins.* 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  only  remains  of  palaces 
are  the  pavilion  of  Rameses  III.  at  Medinet  Abon,  and 
another  at  Scmneh.  The  Royal  Labyrinth  has  so  com- 
pletely perished  that  even  its  site  is  uncertain.  The  Egyp- 
tians lived  so  much  out  of  doors  that  the  house  was  a  less 
important  edifice  than  in  colder  climates.  Egyptian  dwell- 
ing! were  probably  in  most  cases  built  of  wood  or  crude 

*See  Oioodyear's  Grammar  of  tht  Lotus  for  an  elaborate  and  ingen- 
ious presentation  of  the  theory  of  a  common  lotus-origin  for  all  the  conven- 
tional forms  occurring  in  Egyptian  ornament. 


EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  2j 

brick,  and  their  disappearance  is  thus  easily  explained.  Re- 
lief pictures  on  the  monuments  indicate  the  use  of  wooden 
framing  for  the  walls,  which  were  probably  filled  in  with 
crude  brick  or  panels  of  wood.  The  architecture  was  ex- 
tremely simple.  Gateways  like  those  of  the  temples  on  a 
smaller  scale,  the  cavetto  cornice  on  the  walls,  and  here 
and  there  a  porch  with  carved  columns  of  wood  or  stone, 
were  the  only  details  pretending  to  elegance.  The  ground- 
plans  of  many  houses  in  ruined  cities,  as  at  Tel-el-Amarna 
and  a  nameless  city  of  Amenophis  IV.,  are  discernible  in  the 
ruins  ;  but  the  superstructures  are  wholly  wanting.  It  was 
in  religious  and  sepulchral  architecture  that  the  construc- 
tive and  artistic  genius  of  the  Egyptians  was  most  fully 
manifested. 

MONUMENTS :  The  principal  necropolis  regions  of  Egypt  are  centred 
about  Ghizeh  and  ancient  Memphis  for  the  Old  Empire  (pyramids  and 
mastabas),  Thebes  for  the  Middle  Empire  (Silsileh,  Beni  Hassan),  and 
Thebes  (Vale-  of  the  Kings,  Vale  of  the  Queens)  and  Abydos  for  the  New 
Empire. 

The  Old  Empire  has  also  left  us  the  Sphinx,  Sphinx  temple,  and  the 
temple  at  Meidoum. 

The  most  important  temples  of  the  New  Empire  were  those  of  Karnak 
(the  great  temple,  the  southern  or  temple  of  Khonsu),  of  Luxor,  Medinet 
Abou  (great  temple  of  Rameses  III.,  lesser  temples  of  Thothmes  II.  and 
III.  with  peripteral  sekos  ;  also  Pavilion  of  Rameses  III.)  ;  of  Abydos  ; 
of  Gournah  ;  of  Eilithyia  (Amenophis  III.)  ;  of  Soleb  and  Sesebi  in  Nubia  ; 
of  Elephantine  (peripteral)  ;  the  tomb  temple  of  Deir-el-Bahari,  the 
Ramesseum,  the  Amenopheum  ;  hemispeos  at  Gherf  Hbssein  ;  two  grotto 
temples  at  Ipsamboul. 

At  Meroe  are  pyramids  of  the  Ethiopic  kings  of  the  Decadence. 

Temples  of  the  Ptolemaic  period  ;  Philae,  Denderah. 

Temples  of  the  Roman  period  :  Koum  Ombos,  Edfou  ;  Kalabshe, 
Kardassy  and  Dandour  in  Nubia  ;  Esneh, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CHALDEAN   AND  ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  RECOMMENDED  :  As  before,  Reber.  Also,  Bab- 
elon,  Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities.  Botta  and  Eland  in, 
Monuments  tic  Ninivc.  Layard,  Discoveries  in  Nineveh  ;  Xin- 
ereli  and  its  Remains.  Loft  us,  Vnnc/s  and  Researches  in 
Chaldira  and  Susiana.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in 
Chaldaa  and  Assyria.  Peters,  Nippur.  Place,  Ninive  et 
I'Assyrie. 

SITUATION;  HISTORIC  PERIODS.  The  Tigro-Euphrates  val- 
ley was  the  seat  of  a  civilization  nearly  or  quite  as  old  as  that 
of  the  Nile,  though  inferior  in  its  monumental  art.  The 
kingdoms  of  Chaldssa  and  Assyria  which  ruled  in  this  val- 
ley, sometimes  as  rivals  and  sometimes  as  subjects  one  of 
the  other,  differed  considerably  in  character  and  culture. 
But  the  scarcity  of  timber  and  the  lack  of  good  building- 
stone  except  in  the  limestone  table-lands  and  more  distant 
mountains  of  upper  Mesopotamia,  the  abundance  of  clay, 
and  the  flatness  of  the  country,  imposed  upon  the  builders 
of  both  nations  similar  restrictions  of  conception,  form, 
and  material.  'Both  peoples,  moreover,  were  probably,  in 
part  at  least,  of  Semitic  race.*  The  Chalda-ans  attained 
Civilisation  as  early  as  4000  »?.(•.,  and  had  for  Centuries  main- 
tained fixed  institutions  and  practised  the  arts  and  sciences 
when  the  Assyrians  began  their  career  a-  a  nation  of  con- 
querors by  reducing  Chaldssa  to  subjection. 

*  This  is  denied  by  tome  recent  writers,  so  far  as  the  <  h.ild  xatU  are  con- 
cerned,  and  is  not  intended  here  to  apply  to  the.  Accadians  and  Summer- 
ians  of  primitive  ChSfcfara. 


CHALD.EAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   ARCHITECTURE.        29 

The  history  of  Chakheo- Assyrian  art  may  be  divided  into 
three  main  periods,  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Early  Chai.d.kan,  4000  to  1250  n.c 

2.  The  Assyrian,  1250  to  6c6  B.C. 

3.  The  Barylonian,  606  to  538  b.c. 

In  538  the  empire  fell  before  the  Persians. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  MONUMENTS.  Recent  excavations 
at  Nippur  (Niffer),  the  sacred  city  of  Chaldaea,  have  uncov- 
ered ruins  older  than  the  Pyramids.  Though  of  slight 
importance  architecturally,  they  reveal  the  early  knowledge 
of  the  arch  and  the  possession  of  an  advanced  culture.  The 
poverty  of  the  building  materials  of  this  region  afforded 
only  the  most  limited  resources  for  architectural  effect. 
Owing  to  the  flatness  of  the  country  and  the  impracticabil- 
ity of  building  lofty  structures  with  sun-dried  bricks,  ele- 
vation above  the  plain  could  be  secured  only  by  erecting 
buildings  of  moderate  height  upon  enormous  mounds  or 
terraces,  built  of  crude  brick  and  faced  with  hard  brick  or 
stone.  This  led  to  the  development  of  the  stepped  pyra- 
mid  as  the  typical  form  of  Chalda^o-Assyrian  architecture. 
Thick  walls  weFe  necessary  both  for  stability  and  for  pro- 
tection from  the  burning  heat  of  that  climate.  The  lack  of 
stone  for  columns  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  heavy 
beams  for  long  spans  made  broad  halls  and  chambers  im- 
possible. The  plans  of  Assyrian  palaces  look  like  assem- 
blages of  long  corridors  and  small  cells  (Fig.  18).  Neither 
the  wooden  post  nor  the  column  played  any  part  in  this 
architecture  except  for  window-mullions  and  subordinate 
members*  It  is  probable  that  the  vault  was  used  for  roof- 
ng  many  of  the  halls  ;  the  arch  was  certainly  employed 
for   doors   and  the   barrel-vault   for   the  drainage-tunnels 

*  See  Fergusson,  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  for  an  ingenious 
but  unsubstantiated  argument  for  the  use  of  columns  in  Assyrian  palaces. 


30 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


under  the  terraces,  made  necessary  by  the  heavy  rainfall. 
What  these  structures  lacked  in  durability  and  height  was 
made  up  in  decorative  magnificence.  The  interior  walls 
were  wainscoted  to  a  height  of  eight  or  nine  feet  with 
alabaster  slabs  covered  with   those   low-relief  pictures  of 


l8.--PAI.ACB    OF   SAR<.<>N    AT    K  Hi  .K-.AHA1). 


hunting   scenes,    battles,   and    gods,    whieh    now   enrich    the 

museums  of  London,  Paris,  and  other  modern  <  it  its.  Else- 
where painted  plaster  or  more  durable  enamelled  tile  in  brill- 
iant colors  embellished  the   walls,  and,  doubtless,  rugs  and 

tapestries  added  their  riehness  to  this  an  liitei  tural  splendor. 

CHALDJEAN  AECHITECTURE.      The  ruins    at    Mugheir  (the 

Biblical    Ur),  dating,  perhaps,  from    2200  B.C.,  belong  to  the 

two-storied  terrace  or  platform  of  a  temple  to  Sin  or  Hurki. 


CHALD.EAN  AND   ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE.        31 

The  wall  of  sun-dried  brick  is  faced  with  enamelled  tile. 
The  shrine,  which  was  probably  small,  has  wholly  disap- 
peared from  the  summit  of  the  mound.  At  Warka  (the  an- 
cient Erech)  are  two  terrace-walls  of  palaces,  one  of  which 
is  ornamented  with  convex  flutings  and  with  a  species  of 
mosaic  in  checker  patterns  and  zigzags,  formed  by  terra-cotta 
cones  or  spikes  driven  into  the  clay,  their  exposed  bases 
being  enamelled  in  the  desired  colors.  The  other  shows  a 
system  of  long,  narrow  panels,  in  a  style  suggesting  the 
influence  of  Egyptian  models  through  some  as  yet  unknown 
channel.  This  panelling  became  a  common  feature  of  the 
later  Assyrian  art  (see  Fig.  19).  At  Birs-Nimroud  are  the 
ruins  of  a  stepped  pyramid  surmounted  by  a  small  shrine. 
Its  seven  stages  are  said  to  have  been  originally  faced  with 
glazed  tile  of  the  seven  planetary  colors,  gold,  silver,  yellow, 
red,  blue,  white,  and  black.  The  ruins  at  Nippur,  which 
comprise  temples,  altars,  and  dwellings  dating  from  4000  B.C., 
have  been  alluded  to.  Babylon,  the  later  capital  of  Chaldaea, 
to  which  the  shapeless  mounds  of  Mujelibeh  and  Kasr  seem 
to  have  belonged,  has  left  no  other  recognizable  vestige  of 
its  ancient  magnificence. 

ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  Abundant  ruins  exist  of  Nine- 
veh, the  Assyrian  capital,  and  its  adjacent  palace-sites. 
Excavations  at  Koyunjik,  Khorsabad,  and  Nimroud  have 
laid  bare  a  number  of  these  royal  dwellings.  Among  them 
are  the  palace  of  Assur-nazir-pal  (885  b.c.)  and  two  palaces 
of  Shalmaneser  II.  (850  b.c)  at  Nimroud  ;  the  great  palace 
of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad  (721  b.c.)  ;  that  of  Sennacherib  at 
Koyunjik  (704  b.c.)  ;  of  Esarhaddon  at  Nimroud  (650  b.c)  ; 
and  of  Assur-bani-pal  at  Koyunjik  (660  B.C.).  All  of  these 
paiaces  are  designed  on  the  same  general  principle,  best 
shown  by  the  plan  (Fig.  18)  of  the  palace  of  Sargon  at 
Khorsabad,  excavated  by  Botta  and  Place. 

In  this  palace  two  large  and  several  smaller  courts  are 
surrounded  by  a  complex  series  of  long,  narrow  halls  and 


3  2 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITFXTl  RK. 


small,  square  chambers.  One  court  probably  belonged  to 
the  harem,  another  to  the  kind's  apartments,  others  to  de- 
pendents and  to  the  service  of  the  palace.  The  crude  brick 
walls  are  immensely  thick  and  without  windows,  the  only 
openings  being  for  doors.  The  absence  of  columns  made 
wide  halls  impossible,  and  great  size  could  only  be  attained 
in  the  direction  of  length.  A  terraced  pyramid  supported 
an  altar  or  shrine  to  the  southwest  of  the  palace  ;  at  the 


fig.    19.— <;ate,   KIIDKSAHAP. 


west  corner  was  a  temple,  the  substructure  of  which  was 
crowned  by  a  cavetto  cornice  showing  plainly  the  influence 

of  Egyptian  models.  The  whole  palace  stood  upon  a  stu- 
pendous  platform   faced  with   cut   stone,  an    unaccustomed 

extravagance  in  Assyria. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS  There  is  no  evidence  that  the 
Assyrians  ever  used  eolmnnar  supports  except  in  minor  or 
accessory  details.  There  are  few  halls  in  any  of  the  ruins 
too  wide  to  be  spanned  by  gOOd  Syrian  Cedar  beams  or 
palm  timbers,  and  these  few  >  in  to  have  had  vaulted 

Ceilings.  So  clumsy  a  feature  as  the  central  wall  in  the 
great  hall  of  Ksarhaddon's  palace  at  Nimroud  would  never 
have   been   resorted   to   for  the   Support  of  the  ceiling,  had 


CIIALD.KAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   ARCHITECTURE.        33 

the  Assyrians  been  familiar  with  the  use  of  columns.  That 
they  understood  the  arch  and  vault  is  proved  by  their 
admirable  terrace-drains  and  the  fine  arched  gate  in  the 
walls  of  Khorsabad  (Fig.  19),  as  well  as  by  bas-reliefs  rep- 
resenting dwellings  with  domes  of  various  forms.  More- 
over, a  few  vaulted  chambers  of  moderate  size,  and  fallen 
fragments  of  crude  brick  vaulting  of  larger  span,  have 
been  found  in  several  of  the  Assyrian  ruins. 

The  construction  was  extremely  simple.  The  heavy  clay 
walls  were  faced  with  alabaster,  burned  brick,  or  enamelled 
tiles.  The  roofs  were  probably  covered  with  stamped 
earth,  and  sometimes  paved  on  top  with  tiles  or  slabs  of 
alabaster  to  form  terraces.  Light  was  introduced  most 
probably  through  windows  immediately  under  the  roof  and 
divided  by  small  columns  forming  mullions,  as  suggested  by 
certain  relief  pictures.  No  other  system  seems  consistent 
with  the  windowless  walls  of  the  ruins.  It  is  possible  that 
many  rooms  depended  wholly  on  artificial  light  or  on  the 
scant  rays  coming  through  open  doors.  To  this  day,  in  the 
hot  season  the  population  of  Mosul  takes  refuge  from  the 
torrid  heats  of  summer  in  windowless  basements  lighted 
only  by  lamps. 

ORNAMENT.  The  only  structural  decorations  seem  to 
have  been  the  panelling  of  exterior  walls  in  a  manner  re- 
sembling the  Chaldaean  terrace-walls,  and  a  form  of  par- 
apet like  a  stepped  cresting.  There  were  no  character- 
istic mouldings,  architraves,  capitals,  or  cornices.  Nearly 
all  the  ornament  was  of  the  sort  called  applied,  i.e.,  added 
after  the  completion  of  the  structure  itself.  Pictures  in 
low  relief  covered  the  alabaster  revetment.  They  depicted 
hunting-scenes,  battles,  deities,  and  other  mythological  sub- 
jects, and  are  interesting  to  the  architect  mainly  for  their 
occasional  representations  of  buildings  and  details  of  con- 
struction. Above  this  wainscot  were  friezes  of  enamelled 
brick  ornamented  with  symbolic  forms  used  as  decorative 
3 


34 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


*€  «  I ««. «  ««<<  «  «««  ZZT 


F1C.    20. — ASSYRIAN    ORNAMENT. 


motives;  winged  bulls,  the  "  sacred  tree"  and  mytholog- 
ical monsters,  with  rosettes,  palmettes,  lotus-flowers,  and 
guillochcs  (ornaments  of  interlacing  bands  winding  about 
regularly  spaced  buttons  or  eyes).  These  ornaments  were 
also  used  on  the  archivolts  around  the  great  arches  of 
palace  gates.     The  most  singular  adornments  of  these  gates 

were  the  carved  "  portal  guardi- 
ans "  set  into  the  deep  jambs — 
colossal  monsters  with  the  bodies 
of  bulls,  the  wings  of  eagles,  and 
human  heads  of  terrible  counte- 
nance. Of  mighty  bulk,  they  were 
yet  minutely  wrought  in  every 
detaij  of  head-dress,  beard,  feath- 
ers, curly  hair,  and  anatomy. 

The  purely  conventional  or- 
naments mentioned  above — the 
rosette,  guilloche,  and  lotus-flower,  and  probably  also  the 
palmette,  were  derived  from  Egyptian  originals.  They 
were  treated,  however,  in  a  quite  new  spirit  and  adapted 
to  the  special  materials  and  uses  of  their  environment. 
Thus  the  form  of  the  palmette,  even  if  derived,  as  is  not 
unlikely,  from  the  Egyptian  lotus-motive,  was  assimilated 
to  the  more  familiar  palm-forms  of  Assyria  (Fig.  20). 

Assyrian  architecture  never  rivalled  the  Egyptian  in 
grandeur  or  constructive  power,  in  seriousness,  or  the 
higher  artistic  qualities.  It  did,  however,  produce  impos- 
ing results  with  the  poorest  resources,  and  in  its  use  of  the 
arch  and  its  development  of  ornamental  forms  it  furnished 
trototypes  for  some  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
iter  Asiatic  art,  which  profoundly  influenced  both  Greek 
and  Byzantine  architecture. 

MONUMENTS:  The  most  Important Chaldaeaa  and  Assyrian  monuments 

of  which  there  are  extant  remains,  have  already  been  enumerated  in  the 
text.      It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  duplicate  the  list  here. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PERSIAN,  LYCIAN  AND  JEWISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Babelon  ;  Bliss,  Exca- 
vations at  Jerusalem.  Reber.  Also  Dieulafoy,  L  Art  antique 
de  la  Perse.  Fellows,  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia.  Fer- 
gusson,  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Flandin  et  Coste,  Perse 
ancienne.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in 'Persia;  His- 
tory of  Art  in  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Caria,  ana'  Lycia  ;  History  of 
Art  in  Sardinia  and  Judcea.  Texier,  L1  Armlnie  et  la  Perse  ; 
L'Asie  Mineure.     De  Vogii£,  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem . 

PERSIAN  ARCHITECT  USE.  With  the  Persians,  who  under 
Cyrus  (536  b.c.)  and  Cambyses  (525  B.C.)  became  the  masters 
of  the  Orient,  the  Aryan  race  superseded  the  Semitic,  and 
assimilated  in  new  combinations  the  forms  it  borrowed  from 
the  Assyrian  civilization.  Under  the  Achaemenidae  (536  to 
330  b.c)  palaces  were  built  in  Persepolis  and  Susa  of  a 
splendor  and  majesty  impossible  in  Mesopotamia,  and  rival- 
ling the  marvels  in  the  Nile  Valley.  The  conquering  nation 
of  warriors  who  had  overthrown  the  Egyptians  and  As- 
syrians was  in  turn  conquered  by  the  arts  of  its  vanquished 
foes,  and  speedily  became  the  most  luxurious  of  all  nations. 
The  Persians  were  not  great  innovators  in  art ;  but  inhabit- 
ing aland  of  excellent  building  resources,  they  were  able  to 
combine  the  Egyptian  system  of  interior  columns  with  de- 
tails borrowed  from  Assyrian  art,  and  suggestions,  derived 
most  probably  from  the  general  use  in  Persia  and  Central 
Asia,  of  wooden  posts  or  columns  as  intermediate  supports. 
Out  of  these  elements  they  evolved  an  architecture  which 


36  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

has  only  become  fully  known  to  us  since  the  excavations  of 
M.  and  Mme.  Dieulafoy  at  Susa  in  1882. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PERSIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  The  Persians  used 
both  crude  and  baked  bricks,  the  latter  far  more  freely  than 
was  practicable  in  Assyria,  owing  to  the  greater  abundance 
of  fuel.  Walls  when  built  of  the  weaker  material  were 
faced  with  baked  brick  enamelled  in  brilliant  colors,  or  both 
moulded  and  enamelled,  to  form  colored  pictures  in  relief. 
Stone  was  employed  for  walls  and  columns,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  brick,  for  the  jambs  and  lintels  of  doors  and 
windows.  Architraves  and  ceiling-beams  were  of  wood. 
The  palaces  were  erected,  as  in  Assyria,  upon  broad  plat- 
forms, partly  cut  in  the  rock  and  partly  structural,  ap- 
proached by  imposing  flights  of  steps.  These  palaces  were 
composed  of  detached  buildings,  propylaea  or  gates  of 
honor,  vast  audience-halls  open  on  one  or  two  sides,  and 
chambers  or  dwellings  partly  enclosing  or  flanking  these 
halls,  or  grouped  in  separate  buildings.  Temples  appear  to 
have  been  of  small  importance,  perhaps  owing  to  habits  of 
out-of-door  worship  of  fire  and  sun.  There  are  few  struct- 
ural tombs,  but  there  are  a  number  of  imposing  royal  sep- 
ulchres cut  in  the  rock  at  Naksh-i-Roustam. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  The  Persians,  like  the  Egyp- 
tians, used  the  column  as  an  internal  feature  in  hvpostvle 
halls  of  great  size,  and  externally  to  form  porches,  and  per- 
haps, also,  open  kiosks  without  walls.  The  great  Hall  of 
Xerxes  at  Persepolis  coven  100,000  square  feet — more 
than  double  the  area  of  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak. 
But  the  Persian  column  was  derived  from  wooden  proto- 
types and  used  with  irooden architraves,  permitting  a  wider 
spacing  than  is  possible  with  stone.  In  the  present  in- 
stance thirty-six  columns  sufficed  for  an  area  which  in  the 
Karnak  hall  contained  one  hundred  and  thirty-four.  The 
shafts  being  slender  and  finely  fluted  instead  of  painted  or 
carved,  the  effect  prouueed  was  totally  different   from  that 


PERSIAN,   LYCIAN,    AND   JEWISH    ARCHITECTURE.      37 


sought  by  the  Egyptians.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
the  column  was  the  capital,  which  was  forked  (Fig.  21) 
In  one  of  the  two  principal  types  the  fork,  formed  b) 
the  coupled  fore-parts  of  bulls  or 
symbolic  monsters,  rested  directly 
on  the  top  of  the  shaft.  In  the 
other,  two  singular  members  were 
interposed  between  the  fork  and  the 
shaft ;  the  lower,  a  sort  of  double 
bell  or  bell-and-palm  capital,  and 
above  it,  just  beneath  the  fork,  a  cu- 
rious combination  of  vertical  scrolls 
or  volutes,  resembling  certain  orna- 
ments seen  in  Assyrian  furniture. 
The  transverse  architrave  rested  in 
the  fork  ;  the  longitudinal  archi- 
trave was  supported  on  the  heads 
of  the  monsters.  A  rich  moulded 
base,  rather  high  and  in  some  cases 
adorned  with  carved  leaves  or  flut- 
ings,  supported  the  columns,  which 
in  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  were  over  66 
feet  high  and  6  feet  in  diameter. 
The  architraves  have  perished,  but 
the  rock  -  cut  tomb  of  Darius  at 
Naksh-i-Roustam  reproduces  in  its 

facade  a  palace-front,  showing  a  banded  architrave  with 
dentils — an  obvious  imitation  of  the  ends  of  wooden  rafters 
on  a  lintel  built  up  of  several  beams. 

These  features  of  the  architrave,  as  well  as  the  fine  flut- 
ings  and  moulded  bases  of  the  columns,  are  found  in  Ionic 
architecture,  and  in  part,  at  least,  in  Lycian  tombs.  As  all 
these  examples  date  from  nearly  the  same  period,  the  origin 
of  these  forms  and  their  mutual  relations  have  not  been 
fully   determined.      The    Persian    capitals,    however,    are 


-COLUMN    FROM    PER- 
SEPOLIS. 


38  HISTORY  OF   ARC  HI  l'l.<  TURK. 

unique,  and  so  far  as  known,  without  direct  prototypes  or 
derivatives.  Their  constituent  elements  may  have  been 
borrowed  from  various  sources.  One  can  hardly  help  see- 
ing the  Egyptian  palm-capital  in  the  lower  member  of  the 
compound  type  (Fig.  21). 

The  doors  and  windows  had  banded  architraves  or  trims 
and  cavetto  cornices  very  Egyptian  in  character.  The  por- 
tals were  flanked,  as  in  Assyria,  by  winged  monsters  ;  but 
these  were  built  up  in  several  courses  of  stone,  not  carved 
from  single  blocks  like  their  prototypes.  Plaster  or,  as  at 
Susa,  enamelled  bricks,  replaced  as  a  wall-finish  the  As- 
syrian alabaster  wainscot.  These  bricks,  splendid  in  color, 
and  moulded  into  relief  pictures  covering  large  surfaces, 
are  the  oldest  examples  of  the  skill  of  the  Persians  in  a 
branch  of  ceramic  art  in  which  they  have  always  excelled 
down  to  our  own  day. 

LYCIAN  AECHITECTUEE.  The  architecture  of  those  Asiatic 
peoples  which  served  as  intermediaries  between  the  ancienr 
civilizations  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  on  the  one  hand  and  oi 
the  Greeks  on  the  other,  need  occupy  us  only  a  moment  in 
passing.  None  of  them  developed  a  complete  and  inde- 
pendent style  or  produced  monuments  of  the  first  rank. 
Those  chiefly  concerned  in  the  transmission  of  ideas  were 
the  Cypriotes,  Phoenicians,  and  I.yeians.  The  part  played 
by  other  Asiatic  nations  is  too  slight  to  be  considered  here. 
Prom  Cyprus  the  (Greeks  could  have  learned  little  beyond  a 
few  elementary  notions  regarding  sculpture  and  pottery, 
although  it  is  possible  that  the  volute-form  in  Ionic  archi- 
tecture was  originally  derived  from  patterns  on  Cypriote 
pottery  and  from  certain  Cypriote  steles,  where  it  appears 
as  a  modified  lotus  motive.  The  Phoenicians  were  the 
World's  traders  from  a  very  early  age  down  to  the  Persian 
conquest  They  ttOt  only  distributed  through  the  Mediter- 
ranean lands  the  manufactures  <>f  Egypt  and  Assyria,  but 
also  counterfeited  them  anil  adopted   their  forms  in   deco- 


PERSIAN,   LYCIAN,   AND  JEWISH    ARCHITECTURE.      39 

rating  their  own  wares.  But  they  have  bequeathed  us  not 
a  single  architectural  ruin  of  importance,  either  of  temples 
or  palaces,  nor  are  the  few  tombs  still  extant  of  sufficient 
artistic  interest  to  deserve  even  brief  mention  in  a  work  of 
this  scope. 

In  Lycia,  however,  there  arose  a  system  of  tomb-design 
which  came  near  creating  a  new  architectural  style,  and 
which  doubtless  influenced  both  Persia  and  the  Ionian  col- 
onies. The  tombs  were  mostly  cut  in  the  rock,  though  a 
few  are  free-standing  monolithic  monuments,  resembling 
sarcophagi  or  small  shrines  mounted  on  a  high  base  or 
pedestal. 

In  all  of  these  tombs  we  recognize  a  manifest  copying  in 
stone  of  framed  wooden  structures.  The  walls  are  pan- 
elled, or  imitate  open  structures  framed  of  squared  timbers. 
The  roofs  are  often  gabled,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a 
pointed  arch  ;  they  generally  show  a  banded  architrave, 
dentils,  and  a  raking  cornice,  or  else  an  imitation  of  broadly 
projecting  eaves  with  small  round  rafters.  There  are  sev- 
eral with  porches  of  Ionic  columns ;  of  these,  some  are  of 
late  date  and  evidently  copied  from  Asiatic  Greek  models. 
Others,  and  notably  one  at  Telmissus,  seem  to  be  examples 
of  a  primitive  Ionic,  and  may  indeed  have  been  early  steps 
in  the  development  of  that  splendid  style  which  the  Ionic 
Greeks,  both  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Attica,  carried  to  such 
perfection. 

JEWISH  ARCHITECTURE.  The  Hebrews  borrowed  from 
the  art  of  every  people  with  whom  they  had  relations,  so 
that  we  encounter  in  the  few  extant  remains  of  their  archi- 
tecture Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Phoenician,  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Syro-Byzantine  features,  but  nothing  like  an  independent 
national  style.  Among  the  most  interesting  of  these  re- 
mains are  tombs  of  various  periods,  principally  occurring 
in  the  valleys  near  Jerusalem,  and  erroneously  ascribed  by 
popular  tradition   to   the  judges,   prophets,  and    kings   of 


40  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Israel.  Some  of  them  are  structural,  some  cut  in  the 
rock  ;  the  former  (tomb  of  Absalom,  of  Zechariah)  deco- 
rated with  Doric  and  Ionic  engaged  orders,  were  once  sup- 
posed to  be  primitive  types  of  these  orders  and  of  great 
antiquity.  They  are  now  recognized  to  be  debased  imita- 
tions of  late  Greek  work  of  the  third  or  second  century 
B.C.  They  have  Egyptian  cavetto  cornices  and  pyramidal 
roofs,  like  many  Asiatic  tombs.  The  openings  of  the  roc  k- 
cut  tombs  have  frames  or  pediments  carved  with  rich  sur- 
face ornament  showing  a  similar  mixture  of  types — Roman 
triglyphs  and  garlands,  Syrian-Greek  acanthus  leaves,  con- 
ventional foliage  of  Byzantine  character,  and  naturalistic 
carvings  of  grapes  and  local  plant-life.  The  carved  arches 
of  two  of  the  ancient  city  gates  (one  the  so-called  Golden 
Gate)  in  Jerusalem  display  rich  acanthus  foliage  somewhat 
like  that  of  the  tombs,  but  more  vigorous  and  artistic.  If 
of  the  time  of  Herod  or  even  of  Constantine,  as  claimed 
by  some,  they  would  indicate  that  Greek  artists  in  Syria 
created  the  prototypes  of  Byzantine  ornament.  They  are 
more  probably,  however,  Byzantine  restorations  of  the  6th 
century  a.d. 

The  one  great  achievement  of  Jewish  architecture  w;is 
the  national  Temple  of  Jehovah,  represented  by  three  suc- 
cessive edifices  on  Mount  Moriah,  the  site  of  the  present 
so-called  "  Mosque  of  Omar."  The  first,  built  by  Solo- 
mon (1012  i:.( .)  appears  from  the  Biblical  description* 
to  have  combined  Egyptian  conceptions  (successive  courts, 
lofty  entrance -pylons,  the  Sanctuary  and  the  sekos  or 
'•Holy  of  Holies")  with  Phoenician  and  Assyrian  details 
and  workmanship  (cedar  woodwork,  empaistic  decoration 
or  overlaying  with  rrf>oitss/  metal  work,  the  isolated  brazen 
columns  Jachin  and  Boaz).  The  whole  stood  on  a  mighty 
platform  built  up  with  stupendous  masonry  and  vaulted 
chambers  from  the  valley  surrounding  the  rock  on  three 
*  1  Kings  vi.-vii.  ;  2  Chronicles  iii.-iv. 


PERSIAN,    LYCIAN,   AND   JEWISH    ARCHITECTURE.      41 

sides.  This  precinct  was  nearly  doubled  in  size  by  Herod 
(18  B.C.)  who  extended  it  southward  by  a  terrace-wall  of 
Still  more  colossal  masonry.  Some  of  the  stones  are  twen- 
ty-two feet  long  ;  one  reaches  the  prodigious  length  of 
forty  feet.  The  "Wall  of  Lamentations"  is  a  part  of  this 
terrace,  upon  which  stood  the  Temple  on  a  raised  platform. 
As  rebuilt  by  Herod,  the  Temple  reproduced  in  part  the  an- 
tique design,  and  retained  the  porch  of  Solomon  along  the 
east  side  ;  but  the  whole  was  superbly  reconstructed  in 
white  marble  with  abundance  of  gilding.  Defended  by  the 
Castle  of  Antonia  on  the  northwest,  and  embellished  with  a 
new  and  imposing  triple  colonnade  on  the  south,  the  whole 
edifice,  a  conglomerate  of  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Roman 
conceptions  and  forms,  was  one  of  the  most  singular  and 
yet  magnificent  creations  of  ancient  art. 

The  temple  of  Zerubbabel  (515  B.C.),  intermediate  be- 
tween those  above  described,  was  probably  less  a  re-edifi- 
cation of  the  first,  than  a  new  design.  While  based  on  the 
scheme  of  the  first  temple,  it  appears  to  have  followed 
more  closely  the  pattern  described  in  the  vision  of  Ezekiel 
(chapters  xl.-xlii.).  It  was  far  inferior  to  its  predecessor 
in  splendor  and  costliness.     No  vestiges  of  it  remain. 

MONUMENTS.  Persian  :  at  Murghab,  the  tomb  of  Cyrus,  known  as 
Gabre-Madre-Soleiman — a  gabled  structure  on  a  seven-stepped  pyramidal 
basement  (525  B.C.).  At  Persepolis  the  palace  of  Darius  (521  B.C.)  ;  the 
Propylaea  of  Xerxes,  his  palace  and  his  harem  (?)  or  throne-hall  (480  B.C.). 
These  splendid  structures,  several  of  them  of  vast  size,  resplendent  with 
color  and  majestic  with  their  singular  and  colossal  columns,  must  have 
formed  one  of  the  most  imposing  architectural  groups  in  the  world.  At 
various  points,  tower-like  tombs,  supposed  erroneously  by  Fergusson  to 
have  been  fire  altars.  At  Naksh-i-Roustam,  the  tomb  of  Darius,  cut  in  the 
rock.  Other  tombs  near  by  at  Persepolis  proper  and  at  Pasargadne.  At 
the  latter  place  remains  of  the  palace  of  Cyrus.  At  Susa  the  palace  of 
Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  (480-405  B.C.). 

There  are  no  remains  of  private  houses  or  temples. 

I.ycian  :  the   principal  Lycian    monuments  are  found  in  Myra,  Anti- 


42  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

phellus,  and  Telmissus.     Some  of   the    monolithic    tombs    have  been    re- 
moved to  the  British  and  other  European  museums. 

JEWISH  :  the  temples  have  been  mentioned  above.  The  palace  of  Solo- 
mon. The  rock-cut  monolithic  tomb  of  Siloam.  So-called  tombs  of 
Absalom  and  Zechariah,  structural  ;  probably  of  Herod's  time  or  later. 
Rock-cut  Tombs  of  the  Kings  ;  of  the  Prophets,  etc.  City  gates  (Hero- 
dian  or  early  Christian  period). 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Reber.  Also,  Anderson 
and  Spiers,  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Baumeister, 
Denkmaler  der  Klassischen  Alterthums.  Botticher,  Tektonik 
der  Hellenen.  Chipiez,  Histoire  critique  des  ordres  grecs. 
Curtius,  Adler  and  Treu,  Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olympia. 
Durm,  Antike  Baukunst  (in  Handbuch  d.  Arch).  Frazer,  Pau- 
sanias'  Description  of  Greece.  Hitorff,  Larchitecture  poly- 
chrome chez  les  Grecs.  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon.  Penrose, 
An  Investigation,  etc.,  of  Athenian  Architecture.  Perrot  and 
Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Primitive  Greece ;  La  Grece  de 
P Epopee;  La  Grece  archaique.  Stuart  and  Revett,  Antiquities 
of  Athens.  Tarbell,  History  of  Greek  Art.  Texier,  L'Asie 
Mineure.     Wilkins,  Antiquities  of  Magna  Grcecia. 

GENERAL  CONSIDEBATIONS.  Greek  art  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  European  civilization.  The  Hellenic  race  gathered 
up  influences  and  suggestions  from  both  Asia  and  Africa  and 
fused  them  with  others,  whose  sources  are  unknown,  into  an 
art  intensely  national  and  original,  which  was  to  influence 
the  arts  of  many  races  and  nations  long  centuries  after  the 
decay  of  the  Hellenic  states.  The  Greek  mind,  compared 
with  the  Egyptian  or  Assyrian,  was  more  highly  intellect- 
ual, more  logical,  more  symmetrical,  and  above  all  more 
inquiring  and  analytic.  Living  nowhere  remote  from  the 
sea,  the  Greeks  became  sailors,  merchants,  and  colonizers. 
The  Ionian  kinsmen  of  the  European  Greeks,  speaking  a 
dialect  of  the  same  language,  populated  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  and  many  of  the  islands,  so  that  through  them  the 


44 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Greeks  were  open  to  the  influences  of  the  Assyrian,  Phoeni- 
cian, Persian,  and  Lycian  civilizations.  In  Cyprus  they  en- 
countered Egyptian  influences,  and  finally,  under  Psammet- 
ichus,  they  established  in  Egypt  itself  the  Greek  city  of 
Naukratis.  They  were  thus  by  geographical  situation,  by 
character,  and  by  circumstances,  peculiarly  fitted  to  receive, 
develop,  and  transmit  the  mingled  influences  of  the  East 
and  the  South. 

PREHISTORIC  MONUMENTS.*  Authentic  Greek  history  be- 
gins with  the  first  Olympiad,  776  B.C.  The  earliest  mon- 
uments of  that  historic 
architecture  which  devel- 
oped into  the  masterpieces 
of  the  Periclean  and  Alex- 
andrian ages,  date  from 
the  middle  of  the  follow- 
ing century.  But  there  are 
a  number  of  older  build- 
ings, belonging  presuma- 
bly to  the  so-called  Heroic 
Age,  which,  though  seem- 
ingly    unconnected     with 

the  later  historic  develop- 
ment of  Greek  architect- 
ure, are  still  worthy  of 
note.  They  are  the  work  of  a  people  somewhat  advanced 
in  civilization,  probably  the  I'elasgi,  who  preceded  the  Dori- 
ans on  Greek  soil,  and  consist  mainly  of  fortifications, 
walls,  gates,  and  tombs,  the  most  important  of  which  are  at 
Mycenae  and  Tiryns.  At  the  latter  place  is  a  well-defined 
acropolis,  with  massive  walls  in  which  are  passages  Covered 

by  stones  successively  overhanging  or  corbelled  until  they 

t.    The  masonry  is  of  huge  stones  piled  without  cement. 

\t   Mycena  the  city  wall  is  pierced  In  the  remarkable  Lion 

Gate  (Fig.  22),  consisting  of  two  jambs  and  a  huge  lintel, 

*  1- or  enlargement  on  tbu  topic  Me  Appeadix  A. 


tU..    22.— I.ION    GATE    AT    MVCKN^. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  45 

over  which  the  weight  is  relieved  by  a  triangular  opening. 
This  is  filled  with  a  sculptured  group,  now  much  defaced, 
representing  two  rampant  lions  flanking  a  singular  column 
which  tapers  downward.  This  symbolic  group  has  rela- 
tions with  Hittite  and  Phrygian  sculptures,  and  with  the 
symbolism  of  the  worship  of  Rhea  Cybele.  The  masonry 
of  the  wall  is  carefully  dressed  but  not  regularly  coursed. 
Other  primitive  walls  and  gates  showing  openings  and 
embryonic  arches  of  various  forms,  are  found  widely  scat- 
tered, at  Samos  and  Delos,  at  Phigaleia,  Thoricus,  Argos 
and  many  other  points.  The  very  earliest  are  hardly  more 
than  random  piles  of  rough  stone.  Those  which  may  fairly 
claim  notice  for  their  artistic 
masonry  are  of  a  later  date 
and  of  two  kinds  :  the  coursed, 
and  the  polygonal  or  Cyclo- 
pean, so  called  from  the  tra- 
dition that  they  were  built  by 
the  Cyclopes.  These  Cyclo-  fig.  23.— polygonal  masonry. 
pean  walls  were  composed  of 

large,  irregular  polygonal  blocks  carefully  fitted  together 
and  dressed  to  a  fairly  smooth  face  (Fig.  23).  Both  kinds 
were  used  contemporaneously,  though  in  the  course  of 
time  the  regular  coursed  masonry  finally  superseded  the 
polygonal. 

THOLOS  OF  ATBEUS.  All  these  structures  present,  however, 
only  the  rudiments  of  architectural  art.  The  so-called 
Tholos  (or  Treasury)  of  Atreus,  at  Mycenae,  on  the  other 
hand,  shows  the  germs  of  truly  artistic  design  (Fig.  24).  It 
is  in  reality  a  tomb,  and  is  one  of  a  large  class  of  prehistoric 
tombs  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  globe,  consisting 
of  a  circular  stone-walled  and  stone-roofed  chamber  buried 
under  a  tumulus  of  earth.  This  one  is  a  beehive-shaped 
construction  of  horizontal  courses  of  masonry,  with  a  stone- 
walled passage,  the  dromos,  leading  to  the  entrance  door. 


46 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Though    internally  of  domical    form,  its  construction   with 
horizontal   beds  in  the  masonry   proves  that  the  idea  of  the 

true  dome  with  the  beds 
of  each  course  pitched  at 
an  angle  always  normal 
to  the  curve  of  the  vault, 
was  not  yet  grasped.  A 
small  sepulchral  chamber 
opens  from  the  great  one, 
by  a  door  with  the  cus- 
tomary relieving  triangle 
over  it. 

Traces  of  a  metal  lin- 
ing have  been  found  on 
the  inner  surface  of  the 
dome  and  on  the  jambs 
of  the  entrance  -  door. 
This  entrance  is  the  most 
artistic  and  elaborate  part 
of  the  edifice  (Fig.  25). 
The  main  opening  is  enclosed  in  a  three-banded  frame,  and 
was  once  flanked  by  columns  which,  as  shown  by  fragments 
still  existing  and  by  marks  on  either 
side  the  do«>r,  tapered  downward  as  in 
the  sculptured  column  over  the  Lion 
(iate.  Shafts,  bases,  and  capitals 
•  covered  with  zig-zag  bands  or 
chevrons  of  fine  spirals.  This  well- 
studied  decoration,  the  banded  jambs, 
and    the    curiously    inverted    columns 

(of  which  several  other  examples  exist 

in  or  near   Mycenae),  all   point  to  a 

fairly   developed    art,    derived    partly 

from    Egyptian    and    partly    from    Asiatic     sources.       That 

Kgyptian    influences   had   affected   this  early  art  is  further 


FIG.    24. — THOI.OS   OF   ATRKl'S. 

SH  THIN. 


FIG.  25.— THOLOS  OF  ATRKl'S. 
DOOKWAY. 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE.  47 

proved  by  a  fragment  of  carved  and  painted  ornament  on  a 
ceiling  in  Orchomenos,  imitating  with  remarkable  closeness 
certain  ceiling  decorations  in  Egyptian  tombs. 

HISTORIC  monuments  ;  the  ORDERS.  It  was  the  Dorian s 
and  Ionians  who  developed  the  architecture  of  classic 
Greece.  This  fact  is  perpetuated  in  the  traditional  names, 
Doric  and  Ionic,  given  to  the  two  systems  of  columnar  de- 
sign which  formed  the  most  striking  feature  of  that  archi-  S 
tecture.  While  in  Egypt  the  column  was  used  almost  ex- 
clusively as  an  internal  support  and  decoration,  in  .Greece 
it  was  chiefly  employed  to  produce  an  imposing  exterior  ef- 
fect. It  was  the  most  important  element  in  the  temple 
architecture  of  the  Greeks,  and  an  almost  indispensable 
adornment  of  their  gateways,  public  squares,  and  temple 
enclosures.  To  the  column  the  two  races  named  above 
gave  each  a  special  and  radically  distinct  development,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  Periclean  age  that  the  two  forms  came 
to  be  used  in  conjunction,  even  by  the  mixed  Doric-Ionic 
people  of  Attica.  Each  of  the  two  types  had  its  own 
special  shaft,  capital,  entablature,  mouldings,  and  orna- 
ments, although  considerable  variation  was  allowed  in  the 
proportions  and  minor  details.  The  general  type,  however, 
remained  substantially  unchanged  from  first  to  last.  The 
earliest  examples  known  to  us  of  either  order  show  it  com- 
plete in  all  its  parts,  its  later  development  being  restricted 
to  the  refining  and  perfecting  of  its  proportions  and  details. 
The  probable  origin  of  these  orders  will  be  separately  con- 
sidered later  on. 

THE  DORIC.  The  column  of  the  Doric  order  (Figs.  26,  27) 
consists  of  a  tapering  shaft  rising  directly  from  the  stylo- 
bate  or  platform  and  surmounted  by  a  capital  of  great  sim- 
plicity and  beauty.  The  shaft  is  fluted  with  sixteen  to 
twenty  shallow  channellings  of  segmental  or  elliptical  sec- 
tion, meeting  in  sharp  edges  or  arrises.  The  capital  is 
made  up  of  a  circular  cushion  or  echinus  adorned  with  fine 


43 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


grooves  called  annuhe,  and  a  plain  square  abacus  or  cap 
Upon  this  rests  a  plain  architrave  or  epistyle,  with  a  narrow 
fillet,  the  taenia,  running  along  its  upper  edge.     The  frieze 

above  it  is  divided  into  square 
panels,  called  the  metopes,  sepa- 
rated by  vertical  triglyphs  having 
each  two  vertical  grooves  and 
chamfered  edges.  There  is  a 
triglyph  over  each  column  and 
one  over  each  intercolumniation, 
or  two  in  rare  instances  where 
the  columns  are  widely  spaced. 
The  cornice  consists  of  a  broadly 
projecting  corona  resting  on  a 
be  J -mould  of  one  or  two  simple 
mouldings.  Its  under  surface, 
called  the  soffit,  is  adorned  with 
mutules,  square,  flat  projections 
having  each  eighteen  guttie  de- 
pending from  its  under  side. 
Two  or  three  small  mouldings 
run  along  the  upper  edge  of  the 
corona,  which   has  in  addition, 

over  each  slope  of  the  gable,  a 
gutter-moulding  or  cymatium.  The  cornices  along  the 
horizontal  edges  of  the  roof  have  instead  of  the  cymatium 
a  row  of  anteji.\,r,  ornaments  of  terra-<  Otta  <>r  marble  placed 
opposite  the  foot  of  each  tile-ridge  of  the  roofing.  The 
enclosed  triangular  field  of  the  gable,  called  the  tympanum, 
was  in  the  larger  monuments  adorned  with  sculptured 
groups  resting  on  the  shelf  formed  by  the  horizontal  cor- 
nice  below.  Carved  ornaments  called  acroieria  commonly 
embellished  the  three  angles  of  the  gable  or  pediment. 

POLYCHBOMY.      It   has   been   fully  proved,  after  a  century 
of  debate,  that   all   this  elaborate  system   of  parts,  seven 


FIG.    26. — GREEK    DORIC   ORDER. 

A,  Cre/idoma,  or  Stylobate  : 
6,    Column;    c.    Architrave ;    it, 

'1  tenia  :  e,  Frieze :  f,  Horizontal 
cornice:   g,    Raking   cornice;    h. 

Tympanum  0/ pediment ;  h,  Mt- 
tofie. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


49 


and  dignified  in  their  simplicity  of  form,  received  a  rich 
decoration  of  color.  While  the  precise  shades  and  tones 
employed  cannot  be  predicated  with  certainty,  it  is  well 
established  that  the  triglyphs  were  painted  blue  and  the 
metopes  red,  and  that  all  the  mouldings  were  decorated 
with  leaf-ornaments,  "  eggs-and-darts,"  and  frets,  in  red, 
green,  blue,  and  gold.  The  walls  and  columns  were  also 
colored,  probably  with  pale  tints  of  yellow  or  buff,  to  re- 
duce the  glare  of  the  fresh  marble  or  the  whiteness  of  the 
fine  stucco  with  which  the  surfaces  of  masonry  of  coarser 
stone  were  primed.  In  the  clear  Greek  atmosphere  and 
outlined  against  the  brilliant  sky,  the  Greek  temple  must 
have  presented  an  aspect  of  rich,  sparkling  gayety. 

ORIGIN  OP  THE  ORDER.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
details  of  the  Doric  frieze  and  cornice  were  reminiscences 
of  a  primitive  wood  construction.  The  triglyph  suggests 
the  chamfered  ends  of 
cross-beams  made  up  of 
three  planks  each  ;  the 
mutules,  the  sheathing 
of  the  eaves  ;  and  the 
guttae,  the  heads  of  the 
spikes  or  trenails  by 
which  the  sheathing 
was  secured.  It  is 
known  that  in  early 
astylar  temples  the  me- 
topes were  left  open 
like  the  spaces  between 

the  ends  Of   Ceiling-raf-  fig.  27.— dokic  order  of  the  Parthenon. 

ters.      In    the     earlier 

peripteral  temples,  as  at  Selinus,  the  triglyph-frieze  is  re- 
tained around  the  cella-wall  under  the  ceiling  of  the  colon- 
nade, where  it  has  no  functional  significance,  as  a  survival 
from  times  antedating  the  adoption  of  the  colonnade,  when 


50  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  tradition  of  a  wooden  roof-construction  showing  ex 
temally  had  not  yet  been  forgotten. 

A  similar  wooden  origin  for  the  Doric  column  has  been 
advocated  by  some,  who  point  to  the  assertion  of  Pausa- 
nias  that  in  the  Doric  Heraion  at  Olympia  the  original 
wooden  columns  had  with  one  exception  been  replaced  by 
stone  columns  as  fast  as  they  decayed.  (Seep.  62.)  This, 
however,  only  proves  that  wooden  columns  were  sometimes 
used  in  early  buildings,  not  that  the  Doric  column  was  de- 
rived from  them.  Others  would  derive  it  from  the  Egyp- 
tian columns  of  Beni  Hassan  (p.  12),  which  it  certainly  re- 
sembles. But  they  do  not  explain  how  the  Greeks  could 
have  been  familiar  with  the  Beni  Hassan  column  long  be- 
fore the  opening  of  Egypt  to  them  under  Psammetichus  ; 
nor  why,  granting  them  some  knowledge  of  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture, they  should  have  passed  over  the  splendors  of  Kar- 
nak  and  Luxor  to  copy  these  inconspicuous  tombs  perched 
high  up  on  the  cliffs  of  the  Nile.  It  would  seem  that  the 
(ireeks  invented  this  form  independently,  developing  it  in 
buildings  which  have  perished  ;  unless,  indeed,  they  brought 
the  idea  with  them  from  their  primitive  Aryan  home  in  A 

THE  IONIC  ORDER  was  characterized  by  greater  slenderness 
of  proportion  and  elegance  of  detail  than  the  Doric,  and 
depended  more  on  carving  than  on  color  for  the  decoration 
of  its  members  (Fig.  28).  It  was  adopted  in  the  fiftii  cen- 
tury BX.  by  the  people  of  Attica,  and  used  both  for  civic  and 
religious  buildings,  sometimes  alone  and  sometimes  in  con- 
junction with  the  Doric.  The  column  was  from  eight  to 
ten  diameters  in  height,  against  four  and  one-third  to  seven 
for  the  Doric.  It  stood  on  a  base  which  was  usually  coin- 
posed  of  two  tori  (see  p.  25  for  definition)  separated  by  a 
scotia  (a  concave  moulding  of  semicircular  or  semi-elliptical 
profile),  and  was  sometimes  provided  also  with  a  square  flat 
base-block,  the////////.  There  was  much  variety  in  the  pro- 
portions and  details  of  these  mouldings,  which  were  often 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


51 


enriched  by  (lutings  or  carved  guilloches.  The  tall  shall 
bore  twenty-four  deep  narrow  flutings  separated  by  narrow 
fillets.  The  capital  was  the  most  peculiar  feature  of  the 
order.  It  consisted  of  a  bead  or  astragal  and  echinus,  over 
which  was  a  horizontal  band  ending  on  either  side  in  a 
scroll  or  volute,  the  sides  of  which  presented  the  aspect 
shown  in  Fig.  29.  A  thin  moulded  abacus  was  interposed 
between  this  member  and  the  archi- 
trave. 

The  Ionic  capital  was  marked  by 
two  awkward  features  which  all  its 
richness  could  not  conceal.  One 
was  the  protrusion  of  the  echinus 
beyond  the  face  of  the  band  above 
it,  the  other  was  the  disparity  be- 
tween the  side  and  front  views  of 
the  capital,  especially  noticeable  at 
the  corners  of  a  colonnade.  To 
obviate  this,  various  contrivances 
were  tried,  none  wholly  successful. 
Ordinarily  the  two  adjacent  exte- 
rior sides  of  the  corner  capital  were  treated  alike,  the  scrolls 
at  their  meeting  being  bent  out  at  an  angle  of  450,  while 
the  two  inner  faces  simply  intersected,  cutting  each  other 
in  halves. 

The  entablature  comprised  an  architrave  of  two  or  three 
flat  bands  crowned  by  fine  mouldings  ;  an  uninterrupted 
frieze,  frequently  sculptured  in  relief  ;  and  a  simple  cornice 
of  great  beauty.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  bed-mould- 
ings there  was  in  most  examples  a  row  of  narrow  blocks  or 
dentils  under  the  corona,  which  was  itself  crowned  by  a  high 
cymatium  of  extremely  graceful  profile,  carved  with  the 
rich  "  honeysuckle  "  {anthemioti)  ornament.  All  the  mould- 
ings were  carved  with  the  "egg-and-dart,"  heart-leaf  and 
anthemion  ornaments,  so  designed  as  to  recall  by  their  out- 


FIG.     28. — GREEK     IONIC    OR- 
DER.      (MILETUS.) 


52 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


ifflAffl&ffl&smjmi 


line  the  profile  of  the  moulding  itself.  The  details  of  this 
order  were  treated  with  much  more  freedom  and  variety 
than  those  of  the  Doric.  The  pediments  of  Ionic  build- 
ings were  rarely  or  never  adorned  with  groups  of  sculpture. 
The  volutes  and  echinus  of  the  capital,  the  fluting  of  the 
shaft,  the  use  of  a  moulded  circular  base,  and  in  the  cornice 
the  high  corona  and  cymatium,  these  were  constant  ele- 
ments in  every  Ionic  order,  but  all  other  details  varied 
widely  in  the  different  examples. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  IONIC  ORDER.  The  origin  of  the  Ionic  order 
has  given  rise  to  almost  as  much  controversy  as  that  of  the 
Doric.     Its    different    elements   were    apparently   derived 

from  various  sources. 
The  Lycian  tombs  may 
have  contributed  the 
denticular  cornice  and 
perhaps  also  the  gen- 
eral form  of  the  column 
and  capital.  In  the  Per- 
sian architecture  of  the 
sixth  century  n.c,  the 
high  moulded  base,  the 
narrow  flutings  of  the 
shaft,  the  carved  bead- 
moulding  and  the  use  of 
scrolls  in  the  capital  are 
characteristic  features,  which  may  have  been  borrowed  by 
the  Ionians  during  the  same  century,  unless,  indeed,  they 
were  themselves  the  work  of  fonic  or  Lycian  workmen  in 
Persian  employ.  The  banded  architrave  and  the  use  of  the 
volute  in  the  decoration  of  stele-caps  (from  <rrq\rj  =  a  me- 
morial stone  OT  COltimn  standing  isolated  and  upright), 
furniture,  and  minor  structures  are  common  features  in 
Assyrian,  Lycian,  and  other  Asiatic  architecture  of  early 
date.     The   volute  or  scroll  itself  as  an  independent  deco- 


FIG.   29.— SIDE  VIEW  OF  IONIC  CAPITAL. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


53 


rative  motive  may  have  originated  in  successive  variations 
of  Egyptian  lotus-patterns.*  But  the  combination  of  these 
diverse  elements  and  their  development  into  the  final  form 
of  the  order  was  the  work  of  the  Ionian  Greeks,  and  it  was 
in  the  Ionian  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  that  the  most  splen- 
did examples  of  its  use  are  to  be 
found  (Halicarnassus,  Miletus,  Pri- 
ene,  Ephesus),  while  the  most  grace- 
ful and  perfect  are  those  of  Doric- 
Ionic  Attica. 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  This  was 
a  late  outgrowth  of  the  Ionic  rather 
than  a  new  order,  and  up  to  the  time 
of  the  Roman  conquest  was  only  used 
for  monuments  of  small  size  (see  Fig. 
38).  Its  entablature  in  pure  Greek 
examples  was  identical  with  the 
Ionic  ;  the  shaft  and  base  were  only 
slightly  changed  in  proportion  and 
detail.  The  capital,  however,  was  a 
new  departure,  based  probably  on 
metallic  embellishments  of  altars, 
pedestals,  etc.,  of  Ionic  style.  It 
consisted  in  the  best  examples  of  a 
high  bell-shaped  core  surrounded  by 
one  or  two  rows  of  acanthus  leaves, 
above  which  were  pairs  of  branching 
scrolls  meeting  at  the  corners  in  spi- 
ral volutes.  These  served  to  support  the  angles  of  a 
moulded  abacus  with  concave  sides  (Fig.  30).  One  ex- 
ample, from  the  Tower  of  the  Winds  (the  clepsydra  of 
Andronicus  Cyrrhestes)  at  Athens,  has  only  smooth  pointed 
palm-leaves  and  no  scrolls  above  a  single  row  of  acanthus 
leaves.  Indeed,  the  variety  and  disparity  among  the  dif- 
*  As  contended  by  W.  H.  Goodyear  in  his  Grammar  of  the  Lotus. 


FIG.    30. — GREEK   CORINTHIAN 
ORDER. 

(From  the  monument  of  Lysi- 
crates.) 


54  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ferent  examples  prove  that  we  have  here  only  the  first 
steps  toward  the  evolution  of  an  independent  order,  which 
it  was  reserved  for  the  Romans  to  fully  develop. 

GREEK  TEMPLES  ;  THE  TYPE.  With  the  orders  as  their  chief 
decorative  element  the  Greeks  built  up  a  splendid  archi- 
tecture of  religious  and  secular  monuments.     Their  noblest 
works  were  temples,  which  they  designed  with  the  utmost 
simplicity  of  general  scheme,  but  carried  out  with  a  mastery 
of  proportion  and  detail  which  has  never  been  surpassed. 
Of  moderate  size  in  most  cases,  they  were  intended  prima- 
rily to  enshrine  the  simulacrum  of  the  deity,  and   not,  like 
Christian  churches,  to  accommodate  great  throngs  of  wor- 
shippers.    Nor  were  they,  on  the 
■■■■        ■       ■    it— ■"■€     other  hand,  sanctuaries  designed, 
like  those  of  Egypt,  to  exclude  all 
-  -  L>  —I     !■  ■J     but  a  privileged    few  from  secret 

a  *  V  "    '*  V  *l    rites  performed  only  by  the  priests 

and  king.  The  statue  of  the  deity 
was  enshrined  in  a  chamber,  the 
/ides  (see  plan,  Fig.  31),  often  of 
considerable  size,  and  accessible 
to  the  public  through  a  columnar 

F-..3..-TV.ES  OF  GREEK  TEMPLE         porch  tne        *„,„„„,•.  \         smaller 

rums.  - 

,,  /»  Antis:  t,  Prost,u:  c,    chamber,    the     opisthodomus,    was 
Amphifirostyit :   d.   Peripteral     sometimes   added    iii    the    rear    of 

{The  Parthenon) :  .V,  Saos ;    O,        ., 

Ofihthodomu, :  S,  Statue.  llu'    «"«    SailCtUatV,    tO    MTV, 

treasury  or  depository  for  votive 
offerings.  Together  these  formed  a  wiudowless  Structure 
called  the  cella,  beyond  which  was  the  rear  porch,  the/W- 
ticum  or  efinaos.     This  whole  structure  was  in  the  larger 

temples  surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  the  peristyle,  which 
formed  the  most  splendid  feature  of  Creek  architecture. 
The  external  aisle  on  either  side  of  the  cella  was  called  the 

pteroma.    A  single  gabled  roof  covered  the  entire  building. 

The  Greek  colonnade  was   thus  an   exterior   feature,  sur- 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  55 

rounding  the  solid  cella-wall  instead  of  being  enclosed  by  it 
as  in  Egypt.  The  temple  was  a  public,  not  a  royal  monument ; 
and  its  builders  aimed,  not  as  in  Egypt  at  size  and  overwhelm- 
ing sombre  majesty,  but  rather  at  sunny  beauty  and  the  high- 
est perfection  of  proportion,  execution,  and  detail  (Fig.  34). 

There  were  of  course  many  variations  of  the  general 
type  just  described.  Each  of  these  has  received  a  special 
name,  which  is  given  below  with  explanations  and  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  31. 

In  antis  ;  with  a  porch  having  two  or  more  columns  en- 
closed between  the  projecting  side-walls  of  the  cella. 

Prostylar  (or  prostyle)  ;  with  a  columnar  porch  in  front 
and  no  peristyle. 

Amphiprostyhxr  (or  -style) ;  with  columnar  porches  at  both 
ends  but  no  peristyle. 

Peripteral ;  surrounded  by  columns. 

Pseudoperipteral ;  with  false  or  engaged  columns  built 
into  the  walls  of  the  cella,  leaving  no  pteroma. 

Dipteral ;   with    double   lateral    ranges  of   columns  (see 

Fig-  39)- 

Pseudodipteral ;  with  a  single  row  of  columns  on  each 
side,  whose  distance  from  the  wall  is  equal  to  two  interco- 
lumniations  of  the  front. 

Tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  octastyle,  decastyle,  etc.  ;  with  four,  six, 
eight,  or  ten  columns  in  the  end  rows. 

CONSTBUCTION.  All  the  temples  known  to  us  are  of  stone, 
though  it  is  evident  from  allusions  in  the  ancient  writers 
that  wood  was  sometimes  used  in  early  times.  (See  p.  62.) 
The  finest  temples,  especially  those  of  Attica,  Olympia,  and 
Asia  Minor,  were  of  marble.  In  Magna  Grsecia,  at  Assos, 
and  in  other  places  where  marble  was  wanting,  limestone, 
sandstone,  or  lava  was  employed  and  finished  with  a  thin, 
fine  stucco.  The  roof  was  almost  invariably  of  wood  and 
gabled,  forming  at  the  ends  pediments  decorated  in  most 
cases  with  sculpture.     The  disappearance  of  these  inflam- 


s 


56  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE, 

mable  and  perishable  roofs  has  given  rise  to  endless  specu- 
lations as  to  the  lighting  of  the  cellas,  which  in  all  known 
ruins,  except  one  at  Agrigentum,  are  destitute  of  windows. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  light  was  admitted  through 
openings  in  the  roof,  and  even  that  the  central  part  of  the 
cella  was  wholly  open  to  the  sky.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
termed  hypcet/irat,  from  an  expression  used  in  a  description 
by  Vitruvius;*  but  this  description  corresponds  to  no 
known  structure,  and  the  weight  of  opinion  now  inclines 
against  the  use  of  the  hypoethral  opening,  except  possibly  in 
one  or  two  of  the  largest  temples,  in  which  a  part  of  the 
cella  in  front  of  the  statue  may  have  been  thus  left  open. 
But  even  this  partial  hypathros  is  not  substantiated  by  direct 
evidence.  It  hardly  seems  probable  that  the  magnificent 
chryselephantine  statues  of  such  temples  were  ever  thus 
left  exposed  to  the  extremes  of  the  climate,  which  are  often 
severe  even  in  Greece.  In  the  model  of  the  Parthenon  de- 
signed by  Ch.  Chipiez  for  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New 
York,  a  small  clerestory  opening  through  the  roof  admits  a 
moderate  amount  of  light  to  the  cella;  but  this  ingenious 
device  rests  on  no  positive  evidence  (see  Frontispiece).  It 
seems  on  the  whole  most  probable  that  the  cella  was  lighted 
entirely  by  artificial  illumination  ;  but  the  controversy  in 
its  present  state  is  and  imist  be  wholly  speculative. 

The  wooden  roof  was  covered  with  tiles  of  terra-cotta  <>i 
marble.  It  was  probably  ceiled  and  panelled  on  the  undef 
side,  and  richly  decorated  with  color  and  gold.  The  pter- 
om.i  had  under  the  exterior  roof  a  ceiling  of  stone  or  mar- 
ble, deeply  panelled  between  transverse  architraves. 

The  naos  and  opisthodomus  being  in  the  larger  temples 
too  wide  to  be  spanned  by  single  beams,  were  furnished 
with  interior  columns  to  afford  intermediate  support.  To 
avoid  the  extremes  of  too  great  massiveness  and  excessive 
slenderness  in  these  columns,  they  were  built  in  two  stages, 
•Lib  III.,  Cap.  I. 


GREEK-ARCHITECTURE. 


57 


and  advantage  was  taken  of  this  arrangement,  in  some 
cases,  at  least,  to  introduce  lateral  galleries  into  the  naos. 

SCULPTURE  AND  CARVING.  All  the  architectural  member- 
ing  was  treated  with  the  greatest  refinement  of  design  and 
execution,  and  the  aid  of  sculpture,  both  in  relief  and  in 
the  round,  was  invoked 
to  give  splendor  and 
significance  to  the  mon- 
ument. The  statue  of 
the  deity  was  the  focus 
of  internal  interest, while 
externally,  groups  of 
statues  representing  the 
Olympian  deities  or  the 
mythical  exploits  of 
gods,  demigods,  and 
heroes,  adorned  the  ga- 
bles. Relief  carvings  in 
the  friezes  and  metopes 
commemorated  the  fa- 
vorite national  myths. 
In  these  sculptures  we 
have  the  finest  known 
adaptations  of  pure 
sculpture  —  i.e.,  sculpt- 
ure treated  as  such  and 
complete  in    itself  —  to 

an  architectural  framework.  The  noblest  examples  of  this 
decorative  sculpture  are  those  of  the  Parthenon,  consisting 
of  figures  in  the  full  round  from  the  pediments,  groups  in 
high  relief  from  the  metopes,  and  the  beautiful  frieze  of 
the  Panathenaic  procession  from  the  cella-wall  under  the 
pteroma  ceiling.  The  greater  part  of  these  splendid  works 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  whither  they  were  removed 
by   Lord    Elgin    in    1801.      From    Olympia,    Aegina,    and 


:arved  anthemion  ornament. 

ATHENS. 


58  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Phigaleia,  other  master- works  of  the  same  kind  have  been 
transferred  to  the  museums  of  Europe.  In  the  Doric  style 
there  was  little  carving  other  than  the  sculpture,  the  orna- 
ment being  mainly  polychromatic.  Greek  Ionic  and  Co- 
rinthian monuments,  however,  as  well  as  minor  works  such 
as  steles,  altars,  etc.,  were  richly  adorned  with  carved 
mouldings  and  friezes,  festoons,  acroteria,  and  other  em- 
bellishments executed  with  the  chisel.  The  anthemion 
ornament,  a  form  related  to  the  Egyptian  lotus  and  Assy- 
rian palmette,  most  frequently  figures  in  these.  It  was 
made  into  designs  of  wonderful  vigor  and  beauty  (Fig.  ,32). 
DETAIL  AND  EXECUTION.  In  the  handling  and  cutting  of 
stone  the  Greeks  displayed  a  surpassing  skill  and  delicacy. 
While  ordinarily  they  were  content  to  use  stones  of  moder- 
ate size,  they  never  hesitated  at  any  dimension  ne<  essary 
for  proper  effect  or  solid  construction.  The  lower  drums 
of  the  Parthenon  peristyle  are  6  feet  (>' _■  inches  in  diameter, 
and  2  feet  10  inches  high,  cut  from  single  blocks  of  l'entelic 
marble.-  The  architraves  of  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  are 
each  made  up  of  two  lintels  placed  side  by  side,  the  longesl 
17  feet  7  inches  long,  3  feet  10  inches  high,  and  2  feel  1 
inches  thick.  In  the  colossal  temples  of  Asia  Minor,  where 
the  taste  for  the  vast  and  grandiose  was  more  pronounced, 
blocks  of  much  greater  size  were  used.  These  enormous 
stones  were  cut  and  fitted  with  the  most  scrupulous  exa<  t- 
mss.    The  walls  of  all  important  structures  were  built  in 

regular  courses  throughout,  every  stone  carefully  bedded 
with  extremely  1  lose  joints.  The  masonry  w.ts  usually  laid 
up  without  cement  and  clamped  with  metal  ;  there  is  no 
filling  in  with  rubble  and  concrete  between  men  facings  of 
cut  stone,  as  in  most  modern  work.  When  the  only  avail- 
able stone  iras  of  1  ".use  texture  it  was  finished  with  a  coat- 
ing of  fine  StUCCO,  in  which  sharp  edges  and  minute  detail 
could  be  worked. 

The  details  were,  in    the   best    period,  executed   with  the 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  59 

most  extraordinary  refinement  and  care.  The  profiles  of 
capitals  and  mouldings,  the  carved  ornament,  the  arrises  of 
the  flutings,  were  cut  with  marvellous  precision  and  deli- 
cacy. It  has  been  rightly  said  that  the  Greeks  "  built  like 
Titans  and  finished  like  jewellers."  But  this  perfect  finish 
was  never  petty  nor  wasted  on  unworthy  or  vulgar  design. 
The  just  relation  of  scale  between  the  building  and  all  its 
parts  was  admirably  maintained  ;  the  ornament  was  dis- 
tributed with  rare  judgment,  and  the  vigor  of  its  design 
saved  it  from  all  appearance  of  triviality. 

The  sensitive  taste  of  the  Greeks  led  them  into  other 
refinements  than  those  of  mere  mechanical  perfection.  In 
the  Parthenon  especially,  but  ajso  in  lesser  degree  in  other 
temples,  the  seemingly  straight  lines  of  the  building  were 
all  slightly  curved,  and  the  vertical  faces  inclined.  This 
was  done  to  correct  the  monotony  and  stiffness  of  absolutely 
straight  lines  and  right  angles,  and  certain  optical  illusions 
which  their  acute  observation  had  detected.  The  long  hor- 
izontal lines  of  the  stylobate  and  cornice  were  made  convex 
upward  ;  a  similar  convexity  in  the  horizontal  corona  of  the 
pediment  counteracted  the  seeming  concavity  otherwise  re- 
sulting from  its  meeting  with  the  multiplied  inclined  lines 
of  the  raking  cornice.  The  columns  were  almost  imper- 
ceptibly inclined  toward  the  cella,  and  the  corner  inter- 
columniations  made  a  trifle  narrower  than  the  rest ;  while 
the  vertical  lines  of  the  arrises  of  the  flutings  were  made 
convex  outward  with  a  curve  of  the  utmost  beauty  and 
delicacy.  By  these  and  other  like  refinements  there  was 
imparted  to  the  monument  an  elasticity  and  vigor  of 
aspect,  ah  elusive  and  surprising  beauty  impossible  to  de- 
scribe and  not  to  be  explained  by  the  mere  composition  and 
general  proportions,  yet  manifest  to  every  cultivated  eye.* 

*  These  refinements,  first  noticed  by  Allason  in  1814,  and  later  confirmed 
by  Cockered  and  Haller  as  to  the  columns,  were  published  to  the  world  in 
1838  by  IIofTer,  verified  by  Penrose  in  1846,  and  further  developed  by  the 
investigations  of  Ziller  and  later  observers. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

GREEK    ARCHITECTURE— Continued. 

Books  Recommended  :  Same  as  for  Chapter  VI.  Also, 
Bacon  and  Clarke,  Investigations  at  Assos.  Espouy,  Frag- 
ments d'arehitee  urt  antique.  Harrison  and  Verrall,  Mythology 
ami  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens.  Hitorff  et  Zanth,  Recual 
des  Monuments  de  S&geste  et  Se/inonte.  Magne,  Le  Parthenon. 
Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Die  griechischen  Tempel  in  Unter~ 
italien  und  Sicilien.     Waldstein,  The  Argive  Herceum. 

HISTORIC  DEVELOPMENT.  The  history  of  Greek  architect- 
ure, subsequent  to  the  Heroic  or  Primitive  Age,  may  be 
divided  into  periods  as  follows  : 

The  Archaic  ;  from  650  to  500  b.c. 

The  Transitional  ;  from  500  to  460  b.c,  or  to  the  re- 
vival of  prosperity  after  the  Persian  wars. 

The  Periclean  ;  from  460  to  400  b.c. 

The  FLORID  or  Alexandrian  ;  from  400  to  300  B.C. 
The  Decadent  ;  300  to  100  b.c. 

The  Roman  ;   100  ill.  to  200  ad. 

These  dates  are,  of  course,  somewhat  arbitrary  ;  it  is 
impossible  to  set  exact  bounds  to  style-periods,  which  must 
inevitably  overlap  at  certain  points,  but  the  dates,  as  given 
above,  will  assist  in  distinguishing  the  successive  phases  of 
the  history. 

ARCHAIC  PERIOD.  The  archaic  period  is  characterized  by 
•'  Insure  use  <>f  the  Doric  order,  which  appears  iii  the 
earliest  monuments  complete  in  all  its  parts,  but  heavy  in  its 
proportions  and  coarse  in  its  execution.  The  oldest  known 
temples  of  this  period  are  the  Apollo  Temple  at  Corinth  (650 
b.c.  ?),  and  the  Northern  Temple  on  the  acropolis  at  Selinus  in 
Sicily  (cir.  610-590  B.C.),  They  are  both  of  a  coarse  lime- 
stone covered  with  stucco.  The  columns  are  low  and  mas- 
sive (41/3   to  4^  diameters  in   height),  widely  spaced,  and 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  6l 

carry  a  very  high  entablature.  The  triglyphs  still  appear 
around  the  cella  wall  under  the  pteroma  ceiling,  an  illogical 
detail  destined  to  disappear  in  later  buildings.  Other  tem- 
ples at  Selinus  date  from  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century  ;  they  have  higher  columns  and  finer  profiles 
than  those  just  mentioned.  The  great  Temple  of  Zeus  at 
Selinus  was  the  earliest  of  five  colossal  Greek  temples  of 
very  nearly  identical  dimensions ;  it  measured  360  feet  by  167 
feet  in  plan,  but  was  never  completed.  During  the  second 
half  of  the  sixth  century  important  Doric  temples  were 
built   at    Paestum   in   South 


I 

m 

1 


Italy,  and  Agrigentum  in 
Sicily  ;  the  somewhat  primi- 
tive temple  at  Assos  in  Asia 
Minor,  with  uncouth  carv- 
ings of  centaurs  and  mon- 
sters on  its  architrave,  be-  *  ■  '""  ■  '^ 
longs  to  this  same  period,  fig.  33.— temple  of  zeus.  agrigentum. 
The    Temple    of    Zeus    at 

Agrigentum  (Fig.  3$)  's  another  singular  and  exceptional 
design,  and  was  the  second  of  the  five  colossal  temples 
mentioned  above.  The  pteroma  was  entirely  enclosed  by 
walls  with  engaged  columns  showing  externally,  and  was  of 
extraordinary  width.  The  walls  of  the  narrow  cella  were 
interrupted  by  heavy  piers  supporting  atlantes,  or  applied 
statues  under  the  ceiling.  There  seem  to  have  been  win- 
dows between  these  figures,  but  it  is  not  clear  whence  they 
borrowed  their  light,  unless  it  was  admitted  by  the  omis- 
sion of  the  metopes  between  the  external  triglyphs. 

THE  TRANSITION.  During  the  transitional  period  there 
was  a  marked  improvement  in  the  proportions,  detail,  and 
workmanship  of  the  temples.  The  cella  was  made  broader, 
the  columns  more  slender,  the  entablature  lighter.  The 
triglyphs  disappeared  from  the  cella  wall,  and  sculpture  of 
a  higher  order  enhanced  the  architectural  effect.     The  pro- 


62  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

files  of  the  mouldings  and  especially  of  the  capitals  became 
more  subtle  and  refined  in  their  curves,  while  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ionic  order  in  important  monuments  in  Asia 

Minor  was  preparing  the  way  for  the  splendors  of  the  I'cr- 
ielean  age.  Three  temples  especially  deserve  notice  :  the 
Athena  Temple  on  the  island  of  .ZEgina,  the  Temple  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  the  so-called  Theseum— perhaps  a 
temple  of  Heracles — in  Athens.  They  belong  to  the  pe- 
riod 470-450  B.C.  ;  they  are  all  hexastyle  and  peripteral, 
and  without  triglyphs  on  the  cella  wall.  Of  the  three  the 
uid  in  the  list  is  interesting  as  the  scene  of  those  rites 
which  preceded  and  accompanied  the  I'anhellenic  Olympian 
games,  and  as  the  central  feature  of  the  Altis,  the  most 
complete  temple-group  and  enclosure  among  all  (Ireek  re- 
mains. It  was  built  of  a  coarse  conglomerate,  finished 
with  fine  stucco,  and  embellished  with  sculpture  by  the 
greatest  masters  of  the  time.  The  adjacent  Heraion  (tem- 
ple of  Hera)  was  a  highly  venerated  and  ancient  shrine, 
originally  built  with  wooden  columns  which,  according 
to  Pausanias,  were  replaced  one  by  one,  as  they  decayed, 
by  stone  columns.       The  truth   of  this  statement  is  attested 

by  the  discovery  of  a  singular  variety  of  capitals  among  it* 

ruins,  corresponding  to  the  various  periods  at  which  they 
were  added.  The  Theseum  is  the  most  perfectly  preserved 
of  all  (Ireek  temples,  and  in  the  refinement  of  its  forms  is 
only  surpassed  by  those  of  the  Periclean  age. 

THE  PEBICLEAN  AGE.  The  Persian  wars  may  be  taken 
as  the  dividing  line  between  the  Transition  period  and 
the  l'erielean  agei  'I  he  ,'lan  of  national  enthusiasm  that 
followed   the   expulsion    of  the   invader,  and    the   glory   and 

wealth  which  accrued   to  Athens  ;<s  the  champion  of  all 

Hellas,  resulted  in  a  splendid  reconstruction  of  the  Attic 
monuments  as  well  as  a  revival  of  building  activity  in  Asia 

Minor.     By  the  wise  administration  of  Pericles  and  by  the 

genius   of    Ictinus,  Phidias,  and    other  artists   of  surpassing 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


<53 


skill,  tin-  Acropolis  at  Athens  was  crowned  with  a  group  of 
buildings  and  statues  absolutely  unrivalled.  Thief  among 
them  was  the  Parthenon,  the  shrine  of  Athena  Parthenos, 
which  the  critics  of  all  schools  have  agreed  in  considering 
the  most  faultless  in  design  and  execution  of  all  buildings 
erected  by  man  (Figs.  31,  34,  and   Frontispiece).     It  was 


K1U.    34.— KUINS   OF  THE    1'ARTHKNON. 


an  octastyle  peripteral  temple,  with  seventeen  columns  on 
the  side,  and  measured  220  by  100  feet  on  the  top  of  the 
stylobate.  It  was  the  work  of  Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  built 
to  enshrine  the  noble  statue  of  the  goddess  by  Phidias,  a 
standing  chryselephantine  figure  forty  feet  high.  It  was 
the  masterpiece  of  Greek  architecture  not  only  by  reason  of 
its  refinements  of  detail,  but  also  on  account  of  the  beauty 
of  its  sculptural  adornments.  The  frieze  about  the  cella 
wall   under  the  pteroma  ceiling,  representing  in  low  relief 


64 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


with  masterly  skill  the  Panathenaic  procession  ;  the  sculpt- 
ured groups  in  the  metopes,  and  the  superb  assemblages  of 
Olympic  and  symbolic  figures  of  colossal  size  in  the  pedi- 
ments, added  their  majesty  to  the 
perfection  of  the  architecture. 
Here  also  the  horizontal  curva- 
tures and  other  refinements  are 
found  in  their  highest  develop- 
ment. Northward  from  it,  upon 
the  Acropolis,  stood  the  Erech- 
theum,  an  excellent  example  of 
the  Attic-Ionic  style  (Figs.  35,  36). 
Its  singular  irregularities  of  plan  F,r-  a*-*""  of  nomw 
and  level,  and  the  variety  of  its  detail,  exhibit  in  a  striking 
way  the  Greek  indifference  to  mere  formal  symmetry  when 
confronted  by  practical  considerations.  The  motive  in  this 
case  was  the  desire  to  include  in  one  design  several  existing 
and  venerated  shrines  to  Attic  deities  and  heroes — Athena 
Pofias,  Poseidon,  Pandrosus,  Krechtheus,  Boutes,  etc.  He- 
gun  by  unknown  architects  in  479  B.C.,  and  not  completed 

until  408  B.C.,  it  re- 
mains in  its  ruin 
still  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  at- 
tractive of  ancient 
buildings.  Its  two 
colonnades  of  dif- 
fering design,  its 
beautiful  north 
doorway,  and  the 
unique  and  noble 
caryatid  porch  or 
balcony  on  the  south  side  arc  unsurpassed  in  delicate  beauty 
combined  with  vigor  of  design.  *  A  smaller  monument  of  the 
Ionic  order,  the   amphiprostyle   temple  to   Nike    Apteros — 

*  Sec  Appendix,  p.  427. 


'..— WKST   ENI)    Of    BM4  IITMF.l'M,  KKSToKBD. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. 


65 


FIG.    37. — PROPVL.SA    AT   ATHENS.       PLAK. 


the  Wingless  Victory — stands  on  a  projecting  spur  of  the 
Acropolis  to  the  southwest.  It  measures  only  27  feet  by 
18  feet  in  plan  ;  the  cella  is  nearly  square  ;  the  columns  are 
sturdier  than  those  of  the  Erechtheum,  and  the  execution 
of  the  monument  is  admirable.  It  was  the  first  complet- 
ed of  the  extant  build- 
ings of  the  group  of 
the  Acropolis  and  dates 
from  466  B.C. 

In  the  Propylaea  (Fig. 
37),  the  monumental 
gateway  to  the  Acropo- 
lis, the  Doric  and  Ionic 
orders  appear  to  have 
been  combined  for  the 
first  time  (437  to  432 
B.C.).  It  was  the  mas- 
ter work  of  Mnesicles. 
The  front  and  rear  facades  were  Doric  hexastyles  ;  ad- 
joining the  front  porch  were  two  projecting  lateral  wings 
employing  a  smaller  Doric  order.  The  central  passage- 
way led  between  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns  to  the  rear 
porch,  entered  by  five  doorways  and  crowned,  like  the 
front,  with  a  pediment.  The  whole  was  executed  with  the 
same  splendor  and  perfection  as  the  other  buildings  of 
the  Acropolis,  and  was  a  worthy  gateway  to  the  group  of 
noble  monuments  which  crowned  that  citadel  of  the  Attic 
capital.  The  two  orders  were  also  combined  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Phigalaea  (Bassae).  This  temple 
was  erected  in  430  b.c.  by  Ictinus,  who  used  the  Ionic 
order  internally  to  decorate  a  row  of  projecting  piers  in- 
stead of  free-standing  columns  in  the  naos,  in  which  there 
was  also  a  single  Corinthian  column  of  rather  archaic  de- 
sign, which  may  have  been  used  as  a  support  for  a  statue 
or  votive  offering. 


66  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ALEXANDRIAN  AGE.  A  period  of  reaction  followed  the 
splendid  architectural  activity  of  the  Periclean  age.  A 
succession  of  disastrous  wars — the  Sicilian,  Peloponnesian, 
and  Corinthian — drained  the  energies  and  destroyed  the 
peace  of  European  Greece  for  seventy-five  years,  robbing 
Athens  of  her  supremacy  and  inflicting  wounds  from  which 
she  never  recovered.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  triumph  of  the  Macedonian  empire  over 
all  the  Mediterranean  lands  inaugurated  a  new  era  of 
architectural  magnificence,  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
keynote  of  the  art  of  this  time  was  splendor,  as  that  of  the 
preceding  age  was  artistic  perfection.  The  Corinthian 
order  came  into  use,  as  though  the  Ionic  were  not  rich 
enough  for  the  sumptuous  taste  of  the  time,  and  capitals 
and  bases  of  novel  and  elaborate  design  embellished  the 
Ionic  temples  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Didymaeus  at  Miletus,  the  plinths  of  the  bases  were  made 
octagonal  and  panelled  with  rich  scroll-carvings  ;  and  the 
piers  which  buttressed  the  interior  faces  of  the  cella- 
walls  were  given  capitals  of  singular  but  elegant  form,  mid- 
way between  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  types.  This  temple 
belongs  to  the  list  of  colossal  edifices  already  referred  to  ; 
its  dimensions  were  366  by  163  feet,  making  it  the  largest 
of  them  all.  The  famous  Artemisium  (temple  of  Arte  ms 
or  Diana)  measured  342  by  163  feet.  Several  of  the  columns 
of  the  latter  were  enriched  with  sculptured  figures  encir- 
cling the  lower  drums  of  the  colossal  shafts.  The  most  lav- 
ish expenditure  was  bestowed  upon  small  structures,  shrines, 
and  sarcophagi.  The  graceful  monument  still  visible  in 
Athens,  erected  by  the  choraegus  Lysicrates  in  token  of 
his  victory  in  the  choral  competitions,  belongs  to  this  period 
.'330  B.C.).  It  is  circular,  with  a  slightly  domical  imbricated 
roof,  and  is  decorated  with  elegant  engaged  Corinthian  col- 
umns (Fig.  38).  In  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Constantinople 
are  several  sarcophagi  of  this  period  found  at  Sidon,  but 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


67 


executed  by  Greek  artists,  and  of  exceptional  beauty.  They 
are  in  the  form  of  temples  or  shrines  ;  the  finest  of  them, 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  made  for  Alexander's 
favorite  general  Perdiccas,  and 
by  others  for  the  Persian  satrap 
who  figures  prominently  on  its 
sculptured  reliefs,  is  the  most 
sumptuous  work  of  the  kind  in 
existence.  The  exquisite  poly- 
chromy  of  its  beautiful  reliefs 
and  the  perfection  of  its  rich 
details  of  cornice,  pediment,  til- 
ing, and  crestings,  make  it  an 
exceedingly  interesting  and  in- 
structive example  of  the  minor 
architecture  of  the  period. 

THE  DECADENCE.  After  the  de- 
cline of  Alexandrian  magnifi- 
cence Greek  art  never  recovered 
its  ancient  glory,  but  the  flame 
was  not  suddenly  extinguished. 
While  in  Greece  proper  the  works 

of  the  second  and  third  centuries  B.C.,  are  for  the  most  part 
weak  and  lifeless,  like  the  Stoa  of  Attalus  (175  B.C.)  and  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  (the  Clepsydra  of  Andronicus  Cyrrhes- 
tes,  100  B.C.)  at  Athens  or  the  Portico  of  Philip  in  Delos, 
there  were  still  a  few  worthy  works  built  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  splendid  Altar  erected  at  Pergamon  by  Eumenes  II. 
(circ.  180  B.C.)  in  the  Ionic  order,  combined  sculpture  of  ex- 
traordinary vigor  with  imposing  architecture  in  masterly 
fashion.  At  Aizanoi  an  Ionic  Temple  to  Zeus,  by  some  at- 
tributed to  the  Roman  period,  but  showing  rather  the  charac- 
ter of  good  late  Greek  work,  deserves  mention  for  its  elegant 
details,  and  especially  for  its  frieze-decoration  of  acanthus 
leaves  and  scrolls  resembling  those  of  a  Corinthian  capital. 


38. — CHORAGIC    MONUMENT  OF 
LVSICRATES. 

(Restored  model,  N.  Y.) 


68  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ROMAN  PERIOD.  During  this  period,  i.e.,  throughout  the 
second  and  first  centuries  B.C.,  the  Roman  dominion  was 
spreading  over  Greek  territory,  and  the  structures  erected 
subsequent  to  the  conquest  partake  of  the  Roman  charac- 
ter and  mingle  Roman  conceptions  with  Greek  details  and 
vice  versd.    The  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  at  Athens  (Fig. 

39),  a  mighty  dipteral  Co- 

■  ■■■■■■■■■■■  ■■■■■■il  rinthian    edifice    measuring 

■  ■■■■■■■■^^^■^"■■4  354  by  171  feet,  standing  on 

■  ■  ■_  >  *  *  1'  *  'm\  *  ^fr^--*  "  "  3  a  vast  terrace  or  temenos 

■  ■  B^^^^i-^  ■  ■  3  surrounded  by  a  buttressed 
fmimi umi  wall,    was    begun    by  Anti- 


, — B^-- — jy— -j^  ochus  Epiphanes  (170  B.C.) 

01]  the  site  of  an  earlier  un- 

FIC.    39.—  TEMI1.K    OK    OLYMPIAN  . 

ATHENS>  finished  Doric  temple  of  the 

time  of  Pisistratus,  and  car- 
ried out  under  the  direction  of  the  Roman  architect,  ( 
sutius.  It  was  not,  however,  finally  completed  until  the  time 
of  Hadrian,  130  A.D.  Meanwhile  Sulla  had  despoiled  it  of 
several  columns*  which  he  carried  to  Rome  (86  is.c),  to  use 
in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol, 
where  they  undoubtedly  served  as  models  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Roman  Corinthian  order.  The  columns  were 
57  feet  high,  with  capitals  of  the  most  perfect  Corinthian 
type  ;  fifteen  are  now  standing,  and  one  lies  prostrate  near 
by.  To  the  Roman  period  also  belong  the  Agora  Gate 
((in.  35  1:1  .),  the  Arch  of  Hadrian  (117  a.d.),  the  Odeon 
of  Regilla  or  of  Eierodei  Atticus  (143  a.d.),  at  Athens, 
and   many  temples  and   tombs,  theatres,  arches,  etc.,  in  the 

k  provin 

/ 

*  I..  Bevier,  in  Papers  of  the  American  Classical  School  at  Athens  (vol. 
i.,  pp.  195,  196),  contend!  that  these  were  columns  left  from  the  old  Doric 
temple.  This  is  untenable,  for  Sulla  would  certainly  not  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  carry  away  archaic  Doric  columns,  with  sue  1  splendid  Corin- 
thian columns  before  him. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE.  69 

SECULAR  MONUMENTS;  PROPYL.EA.  The  stately  gateway 
by  which  the  Acropolis  was  entered  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. It  was  the  noblest  and  most  perfect  of  a  class  of 
buildings  whose  prototype  is  found  in  the  monumental  co- 
lumnar porches  of  the  palace-group  at  Persepolis.  The 
Greeks  never  used  the  arch  in  these  structures,  nor  did 
they  attach  to  them  the  same  importance  as  did  most  of 
the  other  nations  of  antiquity.  The  Altis  of  Olympia,  the 
national  shrine  of  Hellenism,  appears  to  have  had  no  cen- 
tral gateway  of  imposing  size,  but  a  number  of  insignificant 
entrances  disposed  at  random.  The  Propylaea  of  Sunium, 
Priene  and  Eleusis  are  the  most  conspicuous,  after  those 
of  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  Of  these  the  Ionic  gateway  at 
Priene  is  the  finest,  although  the  later  of  the  two  at  Eleu- 
sis is  interesting  for  its  anta-capitals.  (Anta  =  a  flat  pilas- 
ter decorating  the  end  of  a  wing-wall  and  treated  with  a 
base  and  capital  usually  differing  from  those  of  the  adja- 
cent columns.)  These  are  of  Corinthian  type,  adorned  with 
winged  horses,  scrolls,  and  anthemions  of  an  exuberant 
richness  of  design,  characteristic  of  this  late  period. 

COLONNADES,  ST02E.  These  were  built  to  connect  public 
monuments  (as  the  Dionysiac  theatre  and  Odeon  at 
Athens)  ;  or  along  the  sides  of  great  public  squares,  as  at 
Assos  and  Olympia  (the  so-called  Echo  Hall) ;  or  as  inde- 
pendent open  public  halls,  as  the  Stoa  Diple  at  Thoricus. 
They  afforded  shelter  from  sun  and  rain,  places  for  prom- 
enading, meetings  with  friends,  public  gatherings,  and  simi- 
lar purposes.  They  were  rarely  of  great  size,  and  most  of 
them  are  of  rather  late  date,  though  the  archaic  structure 
at  Paestum,  known  as  the  Basilica,  was  probably  in  reality 
an  open  hall  of  this  kind. 

THEATRES,  ODEONS.  These  were  invariably  cut  out  of  the 
rocky  hillsides,  though  in  a  few  cases  (Mantinsea,  Myra, 
Antiphellus)  a  part  of  the  seats  were  sustained  by  a  built-up 
substructure  and  walls  to  eke  out  the  deficiency  of  the  hill- 


70 


HISTORY    OF   AKCIIITKCTURE. 


S  3         II 

••••••••  ••••••••  |^J t  • 

PIC.    40. — PLAN   OF   GREEK   THEATRE. 

o,  Orchestra  ;  /,  Logeion  ;  /,  Paraskettai , 
t,  J,  Stoa. 


slope  under  them.     The  front  of  the  excavation   was  en- 
closed by  a  stage  and  a  set  scene  or  background,  built  up 

so  as  to  leave  somewhat 
over  a  semicircle  for  the 
orchestra  or  space  enclosed 
by  the  lower  tier  of  seats 
(Fig.  40).  An  altar  to  Dio- 
nysus (Bacchus)  was  the  es- 
sential feature  in  the  fore- 
ground of  the  orchestra, 
where  the  Dionysiac  choral 
dance  was  performed.  The 
seats  formed  successive 
steps  of  stone  or  marble 
sweeping  around  the  slop- 
ing excavation,  with  carved  marble  thrones  for  the  priests, 
archons,  and  other  dignitaries.  The  only  architectural  dec- 
oration of  the  theatre  was  that  of  the  set  scene  or  skctir,  which 
with  its  wing-walls  (paraskenai)  enclosing  the  stage  {iageio/i\ 
was  a  permanent  structure  of  stone  or  marble  adorned  with 
doors,  cornices,  pilasters,  etc  This  has  perished  in  nearly 
every  case  ;  but  at  Aspendus,  in  Asia  Minor,  there  is  one  still 
fairly  well  preserved,  with  a  rich  architectural  decoration 
on  its  inner  face.  The  extreme  diameter  of  the  theatres 
varied  greatly  ;  thus  at  Aizanoi  it  is  187  feet,  and  at  Syra- 
cuse 495  feet.  The  theatre  of  Dionysus  at  Athens  (finished 
325  n.(  .)  could  accommodate  thirty  thousand  spectators. 

The  odeon  differed  from  the  theatre  principally  in  being 
smaller  and  entirely  covered  in  by  a  wooden  roof.  The 
Odeon  of  Eegilla,  bttilt  by  Herodes  Atticus  in  Athens  (143 
A.D.),    is  a    well-preserved    specimen   of    this  class,  but   all 

traces  of  its  cedar  ceiling  and  of  its  intermediate  supports 
have  disappeared. 

BUILDINGS  FOR  ATHLETIC  CONTESTS.  These  comprised 
stadia  and   hippodromes  for  races,  and  gymnasia  and  pa- 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE.  Jl 

laestrae  for  individual  exercise,  bathing,  and  amusement.  The 
stadia  and  hippodromes  were  oblong  enclosures  surrounded 
by  tiers  of  seats  and  without  conspicuous  architectural  feat- 
ures. The  palcestra  or  gymnasium — for  the  terms  are  not 
clearly  distinguished — was  a  combination  of  courts,  cham- 
bers, tanks  (piscina?)  for  bathers  and  exedroz  or  semicircular 
recesses  provided  with  tiers  of  seats  for  spectators  and 
auditors,  destined  not  merely  for  the  exercises  of  athletes 
preparing  for  the  stadium,  but  also  for  the  instruction  and 
diversion  of  the  public  by  recitations,  lectures,  and  discus- 
sions. It  was  the  prototype  of  the  Roman  thermae,  but 
less  imposing,  more  simple  in  plan  and  adornment.  Every 
Greek  city  had  one  or  more  of  them,  but  they  have  almost 
wholly  disappeared,  and  the  brief  description  by  Vitruvius 
and  scanty  remains  at  Alexandria  Troas  and  Ephesus  fur- 
nish almost  the  only  information  we  possess  regarding  their 
form  and  arrangement. 

TOHBS.  These  are  not  numerous,  and  the  most  important 
are  found  in  Asia  Minor.  The  greatest  of  these  is  the 
famed  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  the  monument 
erected  to  the  king  Mausolus  by  his  widow  Artemisia  (354 
b.c;  Fig.  41).  It  was  designed  by  Satyrus  and  Pythius  in 
the  Ionic  style,  and  comprised  a  podium  or  base  50  feet 
high  and  measuring  80  feet  by  100  feet,  in  which  was  the 
sepulchre.  Upon  this  base  stood  a  cella  surrounded  by 
thirty-six  Ionic  columns,  and  crowned  by  a  pyramidal  roof, 
on  the  peak  of  which  was  a  colossal  marble  quadriga  at  a 
height  of  130  feet.  It  was,  superbly  decorated  by  Scopas 
and  other  great  sculptors  with  statues,  marble  lions,  and  a 
magnificent  frieze.  The  British  Museum  possesses  frag- 
ments of  -this  most  imposing  monument.  At  Xanthus  the 
Nereid  Mouumeut,  so  called  from  its  sculptured  figures  of 
Nereides,  was  a  somewhat  similar  design  on  a  smaller  scale, 
with  sixteen  Ionic  columns.  At  Mylassa  was  another  tomb 
with  an  open  Corinthian  colonnade  supporting  a  roof  formed 


72 


HISTORY   OF   AK(  II!'H:(    IURK 


in  a  stepped  pyramid.  Some  of  the  later  rock-cut  tombs  of 
Lycia  at  Myra  and  Antiphellus  may  also  be  counted  as 
Hellenic  works. 


FIG.    41. — MAt'SOt.RI'M    AT   HAMCARNASSUS. 

(As  restored  by  the  author.) 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  This  never  attained  great  im- 
portant* in  Greece, and  <>ui  knowledge  of  the  typical  Greek 
house  is  principally  derived  from  literary  sources.  Very 
few  remains  of  Greek  houses  have  been  found  sufficiently 

well  preserved  to  permit  of  restoring  even   the  plan.     It  is 

probable    that    they  resembled    in    general    arrangement 

the  houses  of  Pompeii  (see  p.  107) ;  but  that  they  were 
generally  insignificant  in  size  and  decoration.  The  exte- 
rior walls  were  pierced  only  by  the  entrance  doors,  all  light 
being  thrived    from    one   or   more    interior   courts.      In  the 

Ionian  epoch  there  must  have  been  greater  display 

and  luxury  in  domestic  architecture,  but  no  remains  have 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE.  73 

come  down  to  us  of  sufficient  importance  or  completeness 
to  warrant  further  discussion. 

MONUMENTS.  In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  in  the  text  the 
following  should  be  enumerated  : 

Prehistoric  Period.  In  the  Islands  about  Santorin,  remains  of 
houses  antedating  1500  B.C.  ;  at  Tiryns  the  Acropolis,  walls,  and  miscel- 
laneous ruins  ;  the  like  also  at  Mycenae,  besides  various  tombs ;  walls 
and  gates  at  Samos,  Thoricus,  Menidi,  Athens,  etc. 

Archaic  Period.  Doric  Temples  at  Metapontium  (by  Durm  assigned 
to  610  B.C.),  Selinus,  Agrigentum,  Paestum  ;  at  Athens  the  first  Parthe- 
non ;  in  Asia  Minor  the  primitive  Ionic  Artemisium  at  Ephesus  and 
the  Heraion  at  Samos,  the  latter  the  oldest  of  colossal  Greek  temples. 

Transitional  Period.  At  Agrigentum,  temples  of  Concord,  Castor 
and  Pollux,  Demeter,  Aesculapius,  all  circ.  480  B.C.  ;  temples  at  Selinus 
and  Segesta. 

Periclean  Period.  In  Athens  the  Ionic  temple  on  the  Illissus,  de- 
stroyed during  the  present  century  ;  on  Cape  Sunium  the  temple  of  Athena, 
430  B.C.,  partly  standing  ;  at  Nemea,  the  temple  of  Zeus  ;  at  Tegea,  the 
temple  of  Athena  Elea  (400?  B.C.)  ;  at  Rhamnus,  the  temples  of  Themis 
and  of  Nemesis ;  at  Argos,  two  temples,  stoa,  and  other  buildings  ;  all 
these  were  Doric. 

Alexandrian  Period.  The  temple  of  Dionysus  at  Teos  ;  temple  of 
Artemis  Leucophryne  at  Magnesia,  both  about  330  B.C.  and  of  the  Ionic 
order. 

Decadence  and  Roman  Period.  At  Athens  the  Stoa  of  Eumenes, 
circ.  170  B.C.  ;  the  monument  of  Philopappus  on  the  Museum  hill,  110  A. D.  ; 
the  Gymnasium  of  Hadrian,  114  to  137  A.D.  ;  the  last  two  of  the  Corin- 
thian order. 

Theatres.  Besides  those  already  mentioned  there  are  important  re- 
mains of  theatres  at  Epidaurus,  Argos,  Segesta,  Iassus  (400?  B.C.),  Delos, 
Sicyon,  and  Thoricus ;  at  Aizanoi,  Myra,  Telmissus,  and  Patara,  besides 
many  others  of  less  importance  scattered  through  the  Hellenic  world.  At 
Taormina  are  extensive  ruins  of  a  large  Greek  theatre  rebuilt  in  the  Roman 
period. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  RBCOlfMSHDCD :  As  before,  Anderson  and  Spiers, 
Baumeister,  Reber.  Choisy,  D  Art  de  bdtir  chcz  les  Romains. 
Desgodetz,  Rome  in  her  Ancient  Grandeur.  Durni,  Die  Bau- 
kunst  iter  Etrusker;  Die  Baukunst  der  Romer.  Lanciani, 
Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Modem  Discovery ;  New  Tales 
of  Old  Rome ;  Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome.  De 
Mar'ha,  Archeologie  ctrusque  et  romaine.  Middleton,  Ancient 
Rome  in  1888. 

LAND  AND  PEOPLE.  The  geographical  position  of  Italy 
conferred  upon  her  special  and  obvious  advantages  for  tak- 
ing up  and  carrying  northward  and  westward  the  arts  of 
civilization.  A  scarcity  of  good  harbors  was  the  only  draw- 
back amid  the  blessings  of  a  glorious  climate,  fertile  soil, 
varied  scenery,  and  rich  material  resources.  From  a  re- 
mote antiquity  Dorian  colonists  had  occupied  the  southern 
portion  and  the  island  of  Sicily,  enriching  them  with  splen- 
did monuments  of  Doric  art  ;  and  Phoenician  commerce 
had  brought  thither  the  products  of  Oriental  art  and  indus- 
try. The  foundation  of  Rome  in  753  B.C.  established  the 
nucleus  about  which  the  sundry  populations  of  Italy  were 
to  crystallize  into  the  Roman  nation,  under  the  dominating 
influence  of  the  Latin  element.  Later  on,  the  absorption 
of  the  conquered  Etruscans  added  to  this  composite  people 
a  race  of  builders  and  engineers,  as  jrel  rude  and  uncouth 
in  their  art,  but  destined  to  become  a  powerful  factor  in 
developing  the  new  architecture  that  was  to  spring  from 
the  contact  of  the  practical  Romans  with  the  noble  art  of 
the  Greek  centres. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  75 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  While  the  Greeks  bequeathed 
to  posterity  the  most  perfect  models  of  form  in  literary  and 
plastic  art,  it  was  reserved  for  the  Romans  to  work  out, 
the  applications  of  these  to  every-day  material  life.  The  > 
Romans  were— above  all  things  a  practical  people.  Their 
consummate  skill  as  organizers  is  manifest  in  the  marvel- 
lous administrative  institutions  of  their  government,  under 
which  they  united  the  most  distant  and  diverse  nationali- 
ties. Seemingly  deficient  in  culture,  they  were  yet  able  to 
recast  the  forms  of  Greek  architecture  in  new  moulds,  and 
to  evolve  therefrom  a  mighty  architecture  adapted  to  wholly 
novel  conditions.  They  brought  engineering  into  the  ser- 
vice of  architecture,  which  they  fitted  to  the  varied  require- 
ments of  government,  public  amusement,  private  luxury, 
and  the  common  comfort.  They  covered  the  antique 
world  with  arches  and  amphitheatres,  with  villas,  baths, 
basilicas,  and  temples,  all  bearing  the  unmistakable  impress 
of  Rome,  though  wrought  by  artists  and  artisans  of  divers 
races.  Only  an  extraordinary  genius  for  organization  could 
have  accomplished  such  results. 

The  architects  of  Rome  marvellously  extended  the  range 
of  their  art,  and  gave  it  a  flexibility  by  which  it  accommo- 
dated itself  to  the  widest  variety  of  materials  and  condi- 
tions. They  made  the  arch  and  vault  the  basis  of  their 
system  of  design,  employing  them  on  a  scale  previously  un- 
dreamed of,  and  in  combinations  of  surpassing  richness  and 
majesty.  They  systematized  their  methods  of  construction 
so  that  soldiers  and  barbarians  could  execute  the  rough 
mass  of  their  buildings,  and  formulated  the  designing  of 
the  decorative  details  so  that  artisans  of  moderate  skill 
could  execute  them  with  good  effect.  They  carried  the 
principle  of  repetition  of  motives  to  its  utmost  limit,  and 
sought  to  counteract  any  resulting  monotony  by  the  scale 
and  splendor  of  the  design.  Above  all  they  developed 
planning  into  a  fine  art,  displaying  their  genius  in  a  won- 


76  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

derful   variety  of  combinations   and   in    an    unfailing  sense 

of  the  demands  of  constructive  propriety,  practical  con- 
venience, and  artistic  effect.  Where  Egyptian  or  Greek 
architecture  shows  one  type  of  plan,  the  Roman  shows  a 
score. 

GREEK  INFLUENCE.  Previous  to  the  closing  years  of  the 
Republic  the  Romans  had  no  art  but  the  Etruscan.  The 
few  buildings  of  importance  they  possessed  were  of  Etrus- 
can design  and  workmanship,  excepting  a  small  number 
built  by  Greek  hands.  It  was  not  until  the  Empire  that 
Roman  architecture  took  on  a  truly  national  form.  True 
Roman  architecture  is  essentially  imperial.  The  change 
from  the  primitive  Etruscan  style  to  the  splendors  of  the 
imperial  age  was  due  to  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  states. 
Not  only  did  the  Greek  campaigns  enrich  Rome  with  an 
unprecedented  wealth  of  artistic  spoils  ;  they  also  brought 
into  Italy  hosts  of  Greek  artists,  and  filled  the  minds  ol 
the  campaigners  with  the  ambition  to  realize  in  their  own 
dominions  the  marble  colonnades,  the  temples,  theatres, 
and  propylaea  of  the  Greek  cities  they  had  pillaged.  The 
Greek  orders  were  adopted,  altered,  and  applied  to  ar- 
caded  designs  as  well  as  to  peristyles  and  other  open 
colonnades.  The  marriage  of  the  column  and  an  h  gave 
birth  to  a  system  of  forms  as  characteristic  of  Roman 
architecture  as  the  Doric  or  Ionic  colonnade  is  of  the 
Greek. 

THE  ROMAN  ORDERS.  To  meet  the  demands  of  Roman 
taste  the  BtruScan  column  was  retained  with  its  simple  en- 
tablature ;  the  Doric  and  lonii  were  adopted  in  a  modified 
form;  the  Corinthian  was  developed  into  a  complete  and 
independent    order,   and    the   Composite   was  added    to   the 

list.  A  regular  system  of  proportions  for  all  these  five 
orders  was  gradually  evolved,  and  the  mouldings  were 
profiled  with  arcs  of  circles  instead  of  the  subtler  Greek 
curves.      In    the    building   of    many  -  storied    structures   the 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


77 


ciders  were  superposed,  the  more  slender  over  the  stur- 
dier, in  an  orderly  and  graded  succession.  The  immense 
extent  and  number  of  the  Roman  buildings,  the  coarse 
materials  often  used,  the  relative  scarcity  of  highly  trained 
artisans,  and  above  all,  the  necessity  of  making  a  given 
amount  of  artistic  design  serve  for  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  architecture,  combined 
to  direct  the  designing  of  detail 
into  uniform  channels.  Thus  in 
time  was  established  a  sort  of  canon 
of  proportions,  which  was  reduced 
to  rules  by  Vitruvius,  and  revived 
in  much  more  detailed  and  precise 
form  by  Vignola  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

In  each  of  the  orders,  including 
the  Doric,  the  column  was  given  a 
base  one  half  of  a  diameter  in  height 
(the  unit  of  measurement  being  the 
diameter  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
shaft,  the  crassitudo  of  Vitruvius). 
The  shaft  was  made  to  contract 
about  one-sixth  in  diameter  toward 
the  capital,  under  which  it  was  termi- 
nated by  an  astragal  or  collar  of 
small  mouldings  ;  at  the  base  it  end- 
ed in  a  slight  flare  and  fillet  called 
the  cincture.  The  entablature  was 
in  all  cases  given  not  far  from  one  quarter  the  height  of  the 
whole  column.  The  Tuscan  order  was  a  rudimentary  or 
Etruscan  Doric  with  a  column  seven  diameters  high  and  a 
simple  entablature  without  triglyphs,  mutules,  or  dentils. 
But  few  examples  of  its  use  are  known.  The  Doric  (Fig.  42) 
retained  the  triglyphs  and  metopes,  the  mutules  and  guttae  of 
the  (ireek  ;  but  the  column  was  made  eight  diameters  high, 


FIG.  42. — ROMAN  DORIC  ORDER 
(THEATRE  OF  MARCELLUS). 


'I 


73 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


HilfliMJiMjl 


the  shaft  was  smooth  or  had  deep  flutings  separated  by  nar- 
row fillets,  and  was  usually  provided  with  a  simple  moulded 
base  on  a  square  plinth.  Mutules  were  used  only  over  the 
triglyphs,  and  were  even  replaced  in  some  cases  by  dentils  ; 
the  corona  was  made  lighter  than  the  Greek,  and  a  cyma- 
tium  replaced  the  antefixae  on  the  lateral  cornices.  The 
Ionic  underwent  fewer  changes,  and  these  principally  in 
the  smaller  mouldings  and  details  of  the  capital.  The  col- 
umn was  nine  diameters  high  (Fig.  43).  The  Corinthian 
was  made  into  an  independent  order  by  the  designing  of  a 
special  base  of  small  tori  and  scoiiie,  and  by  sumptuously 
carved  modillions  or  brackets  en- 
riching the  cornice  and  supporting 
the  corona  above  a  denticulated 
bed  -  mould  (Fig.  44).  Though  the 
first  designers  of  the  modillion  were 
probably  Greeks,  it  must,  never- 
theless, be  taken  as  really  a  Roman 
device,  worthily  completing  the  es- 
sentially Roman  Corinthian  order. 
The  Composite  was  formed  by  com- 
bining into  one  capital  portions  <>f 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  and  giv- 
ing to  it  a  simplified  form  of  the 
Corinthian  cornice.  Tift-  Corinthian 
order  remained,  however,  the  fa- 
vorite order  of  Roman  architecture. 
U8E  OF  THE  OEDERS.  The  Romans 
introduced  many  innovations  in  the 
general  use  and  treatment  of  the 
orders.  Monolithic  shafts  were  preferred  to  those  built  up 
of  superposed  drums.  The  fluting  was  omitted  on  these, 
and  when  hard  and  semi-precious  stone  like  porphyry  or 
verd-antique  was  the  material,  it  was  highly  polished  to 
bring  out  its  color.     These  polished  monoliths  were  often 


£ 


irTTTTTTTl 


flO     4J—  ROMAN    IONIC    ORDER. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


79 


of  great  size,  and  they  were  used  in  almost  incredible 
numbers. 

Another  radical  departure  from  Greek  usage  was  the 
mounting  of  columns  on  pedestals  to  secure  greater  height 
without  increasing  the 
size  of  the  column  and 
its  entablature.  The 
Greek  anta  was  devel- 
oped into  the  Roman 
pilaster  or  flattened 
wall-column,  and  every 
free  column,  or  range  of 
columns  perpendicular 
to  the  facade,  had  its 
corresponding  pilaster 
to  support  the  wall-end 
of  the  architrave.  But 
the  most  radical  inno- 
vation was  the  general 
use  of  engaged  columns 
as  wall  -  decorations  or 
buttresses.  The  en- 
gaged column  projected 
from  the  wall  by  more 
than  half  its  diameter, 
and  was  built  up  with 
the  wall  as  a  part  of  its 
substance  (Fig.  45).  The 

entablature  was  in  many  cases  advanced  only  over  the  col- 
umns, between  which  .it  was  set  back  almost  to  the  plane 
of  the  wall.  This  practice  is  open  to  the  obvious  criticism 
that  it  makes  the  column  appear  superfluous  by  depriving  it 
of  its  function  of  supporting  the  continuous  entablature. 
The  objection  has  less  weight  when  the  projecting  entabla- 
ture over  the  column  serves  as  a  pedestal  for  a  statue  or 


FIG.  44.- 


CO.RINTHIAN    ORDER  (TEMPLE  OF  CASTOR 
AND    POLLUX). 


So 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECT!.  KK. 


similar  object,  which  restores  to  the  column  its  function  as 
a  support  (see  the  Arch  of  Constantine,  Fig.  63), 

ARCADES.  The  orders,  though  probably  at  first  used  only 
as  free   supports   in    porticos   and    colonnades,  were  early 

applied  as  decorations  to 
arcaded  structures.  This 
practice  became  general  with 
the  multiplication  of  many- 
storied  arcades  like  those  ot 
the  amphitheatres,  the  en- 
gaged columns  being  set 
between  the  arches  as  but- 
tresses, supporting  entabla- 
tures which  marked  the  divi- 
sions into  stories  (Fig.  45). 
This  combination  has  been 
"  assailed  as  a  false  and  illogi- 
cal device,  but  the  critic  ism 
proceeds  from  a  too  narrow- 
conception  of  architectural 
propriety.  It  is  defensible 
upon  both  artistic  and  logi- 
cal -rounds  ;  for  it  not  only 
furnishes  a  most  desir- 
=».  able   play  of    light   and 

shade    and     a    pleasing 

contrast  of  re<  tangular 

and  curved  lines,  but  by 
emphasizing  the  con- 
structive divisions  and  elements  of  the  building  and  the 
vertical  support  of  the  piers,  it  also  contributes  to  the  ex- 
pressiveness and  vigor  of  the  design. 

VAULTING.  The  Romans  substituted  vaulting  in  brick, 
concrete,  or  masonry  for  wooden  ceilings  wherever  possible, 
both   in  public  and  private  edifices.     The  Etruscans  were 


-ROMAN  ARCADI   \MIH   KMGAOBO 
COtXMNs. 

(V  rom  the  Colosseum.) 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


8l 


jpruy 


FIG.    46. — BARREL  VAULT. 


the  first  vault-builders,  and  the  Cloaca.  Maxima,  the  great 
sewer  of  Republican   Rome  (about  500  b.c.)  still  remains  as 
a  monument  of  their  engineering  skill.      Probably  not  only 
cmm  Etruscan    engineers    (whose    tradi- 

tions were  perhaps  derived  from  Asi- 
atic sources  in  the  remote  past),  but 
Asiatic  builders  also  from  conquered 
eastern  provinces,  were  engaged 
together  in  the  development  of  the 
wonderful  system  of  vaulted  con- 
struction to  which  Roman  architect- 
ure so  largely  owed  its  grandeur. 
Three  types  of  vault  were  commonly 
used  :  the  barrel-vault,  the  groined  or  four-part  vault,  and 
the  dome. 

The  barrel  vault  (Fig.  46)  was  generally  semi-cylindrical 
in  section,  and  was  used  to  cover  corridors  and  oblong  halls, 
like  the  temple-cellas,  or  was  bent  around  a  curve,  as  in 
amphitheatre  passages. 

The  groined  vault  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two 
barrel-vaults  (Fig.  47).  When  several  compartments  of 
groined  vaulting  are  placed  together 
over  an  oblong  plan,  a  double  ad- 
vantage is  secured.  Lateral  win- 
dows can  be  carried  up  to  the  full 
height  of  the  vaulting  instead  of 
being  stopped  below  its  springing ; 
and  the  weight  and  thrust  of  the 
vaulting  are  concentrated  upon  a 
number  of  isolated  points  instead 
of  being  exerted  along  the  whole 
extent  of  the  side  walls,  as  with 
the  barrel-vault.  The  Romans  saw  that  it  was  sufficient 
to  dispose  the  masonry  at  these  points  in  masses  at  right 
angles  to  the  length  of  the  hall,  to  best  resist  the  lateral 
6 


FIG.    47. — GROINED   VAULT. 

St  St  Groins. 


82  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

thrust  of  the  .vault.  This  appears  clearly  in  the  plan  of  the 
Basilica  of  Constantine  (Fig.  58). 

The  dome  was  in  almost  all  Roman  examples  supported 
on  a  circular  wall  built  up  from  the  ground,  as  in  the  Pan- 
theon (Fig.  54).  The  pendentive  dome,  sustained  by  four  or 
eight  arches  over  a  square  or  octagonal  plan,  is  not  found 
in  true  Roman  buildings. 

The  Romans  made  of  the  vault  something  more  than  a 
mere  constructive  device.  It  became  in  their  hands  an 
element  of  interior  effect  at  least  equally  important  with 
the  arch  and  column.  No  style  of  architecture  has  ever 
evolved  nobler  forms  of  ceiling  than  the  groined  vault  and 
the  dome.  Moreover,  the  use  of  vaulting  made  possible 
effects  of  unencumbered  spaciousness  and  amplitude  which 
could  never  be  compassed  by  any  combination  of  piers  and 
columns.  It  also  assured  to  the  Roman  monuments  a  du- 
ration and  a  freedom  from  danger  of  destruction  by  fire  im- 
possible with  any  wooden-roofed  architecture,  however  no- 
ble its  form  or  careful  its  execution. 

CONSTRUCTION.  The  constructive  methods  of  the  Romans 
varied  with  the  conditions  and  resources  of  different  prov- 
inces, but  were  everywhere  dominated  by  the  same  prac- 
tical spirit.  Their  vaulted  architecture  demanded  for  the 
support  of  its  enormous  weights  and  for  resistance  to  its 
disruptive  thrusts,  piers  and  buttresses  of  great  mass.  To 
construct  these  wholly  of  cut  stone  appeared  preposterous 
and  wasteful  to  the  Roman.  Italy  abounds  in  clay,  lime, 
and  a  volcanic  product,  pozzolana  (from  Puteoli  or  Pozzuoli, 
where  it  has  always  been  obtained  in  large  quantities), 
which  makes  an  admirable  hydraulic  cement.  With  these 
materials  it  was  possible  to  employ  unskilled  labor  for  the 
great  bulk  of  this  massive  masonry,  and  to  erect  with  the 
greatest  rapidity  and  in  the  most  economical  manner  those 
stupendous  piles  which,  even  in  their  ruin,  excite  the  ad- 
miration of  every  beholder. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  83 

STONE,  CONCRETE,  AND  BRICK  MASONRY.  For  buildings  of 
an  externally  decorative  character  such  as  temples,  arches 
of  triumph,  and  amphitheatres,  as  well  as  in  all  places  where 
brick  and  concrete  were  not  easily  obtained,  stone  was  em- 
ployed. The  walls  were  built  by  laying  up  the  inner  and 
outer  faces  in  ashlar  or  cut  stone,  and  filling  in  the  inter- 
mediate space  with  rubble  (random  masonry  of  uncut  stone) 
laid  up  in  cement,  or  with  concrete  of  broken  stone  and 
cement  dumped  into  the  space  in  successive  layers.  The 
cement  converted  the  whole  into  a  conglomerate  closely 
united  with  the  face-masonry.  In  Syria  and  Egypt  the 
local  preference  for  stones  of  enormous  size  was  gratified, 
and  even  surpassed,  as  in  Herod's  terrace-walls  for  the  tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem  (p.  41),  and  in  the  splendid  structures  of 
Palmyra  and  Baalbec.  In  Italy,  however,  stones  of  mod- 
erate size  were  preferred,  and  when  blocks  of  unusual  di- 
mensions occur,  they  are  in  many  cases  marked  with  false 
joints,  dividing  them  into  apparently  smaller  blocks,  lest 
they  should  dwarf  the  building  by  their  large  scale.  The 
general  use  in  the  Augustan  period  of  marble  for  a  decora- 
tive lining  or  wainscot  in  interiors 
led  in  time  to  the  objectionable  prac- 
tice of  coating  buildings  of  concrete 
with  an  apparel  of  sham  marble  ma- 
sonry, by  carving  false  joints  upon  an 
external  veneer  of  thin  slabs  of  that 
material.       Ordinary    concrete    walls 

r  ^       f  ,  ...  11,   1  1  FIG.    48. — ROMAN    WALL   MA- 

were  frequently  faced  with  small  blocks  sonry. 

of  tufa,  called,  according  to  the  man-       a,  Brickwork :  b.  Tufa 

ner  of  its  application,  opus  reticulatum,     aMar ■■  r->  °J"'S  reticu- 

latum;  i,  Opus  incertum. 

opus  incertum,  opus  spicatum,  etc.     (Fig. 

48).  In  most  cases,  however,  the  facing  was  of  carefully 
executed  brickwork,  covered  sometimes  by  a  coating  of 
stucco.  The  bricks  were  large,  measuring  from  one  to  two 
feet  square  where  used  for  quoins  or  arches,  but  triangular 


84  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

where  they  served  only  as  facings.  Bricks  were  also  used 
in  the  construction  of  skeleton  ribs  for  concrete  vaults  of 
large  span. 

VAULTING.  Here,  as  in  the  wall-masonry,  economy  and 
common  sense  devised  methods  extremely  simple  for  ac- 
complishing vast  designs.  While  the  smaller  vaults  were, 
so  to  speak,  cast  in  concrete  upon  moulds  made  of  rough 
boards,  the  enormous  weight  of  the  larger  vaults  precluded 
their  being  supported,  while  drying  or  "  setting,"  upon  timber 
centrings  built  up  from  the  ground.  Accordingly,  a  skeleton 
of  light  ribs  was  first  built  on  wooden  centrings,  and  these 
ribs,  when  firmly  "  set,"  became  themselves  supports  for 
intermediate  centrings  on  which  to  cast  the  concrete  fill- 
ings between  the  ribs.  The  whole  vault,  once  hardened, 
formed  really  a  monolithic  curved  lintel,  exerting  no  thrust 
whatever,  so  that  the  extraordinary  precautions  against 
lateral  disruption  practised  by  the  Romans  were,  in  fart, 
in  many  cases  quite  superfluous. 

DECORATION.  The  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  in  the 
Forum  (long  miscalled  the  temple  of  Jupitor  Stator),  is  a 
typical  example  of  Roman  architectural  decoration,  in 
which  richness  was  preferred  to  the  subtler  refinements 
of  design  (see  Fig.  44).  The  spdendid  figure -sculpture 
which  adorned  the  Greek  monuments  would  have  been 
inappropriate  on  the  theatres  and  thcrnue  of  Rome  Of 
the  provinces,  even  had  there  been  the  taste  or  the  skill  to 
produce  it.  Conventional  carved  ornament  was  substituted 
in  its  place,  and  developed  into  a  splendid  system  of  highly 
decorative  forms.  Two  principal  elements  appear  in  this 
Oration — the  acanthus-leaf,  as  the  basis  of  a  whole  series 
of  wonderfully  varied  motives  ;  and  symbolism,  represented 
principally  by  what  are  technically  termed  grotesque* — in- 
congruous combinations  of  natural  forms,  as  when  an  in- 
fant's body  terminates  in  a  bunch  of  foliage  (Fig.  49).  Only 
to  a  limited   extent  do  we  find   true  sculpture  employed  as 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


85 


decoration,    and    that    mainly    for    triumphal    arches    or 
memorial  columns. 

The  architectural  mouldings  were  nearly  always  carved, 
the  Greek  water-leaf  and  egg-and-dart  forming  the  basis  of 
most  of  the  enrichments  ;  but  these  were  greatly  elabo- 
rated and  treated  with  more  minute  detail  than  the  Greek 
prototypes.    Friezes  and  bands  were  commonly  ornamented 


tin-*  \^ri •*&&£?    Cfra 

'mmmmm 


FIG.    49, — ROMAN    CARVED    ORNAMENT. 

(Lateran  Museum.) 

with  the  foliated  scroll  or  rinceau  (a  convenient  French 
term  for  which  we  have  no  equivalent).  This  motive  was 
as  characteristic  of  Roman  art  as  the  anthemion  was  of  the 
Greek.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  stem  throwing  out  al- 
ternately on  either  side  branches  which  curl  into  spirals 
and  are  richly  adorned  with  rosettes,  acanthus-leaves, 
scrolls,  tendrils,  and  blossoms.  In  the  best  examples  the 
detail  was  modelled  with  great  care' and  minuteness,  and 
the  motive  itself  was  treated  with  extraordinary  variety 
and  fertility  of  invention.  A  derived  and  enriched  form  of 
the  anthemion  was  sometimes  used  for  bands  and  friezes  ; 
and   grotesques,  dolphins,  griffins,    infant   genii,  wreaths, 


86 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


festoons,  ribbons,  eagles,  and  masks  are  also  common  feat- 
ures in  Roman  relief  carving. 

The  Romans  made  great  use  of  panelling  and  of  moulded 
plaster  in   their  interior  decoration,  especially  for  ceilings. 

The    panelling    of    domes    ;m<l 

|"       Jj  ^2^2^  L      "^      vaults     was      usually     roughly 

S^^fifi  nlyiil  l^^ffl      shaped  in    their  first   construc- 

•^^  ia^^P  iSc^teS       tion   aiu'   finished   afterward    in 

I  fe^^l  BraS^S?!       stucco  with   rich    moulding  and 

^W*2i  i^PlN  ^^^^      rosettes.     The  panels  were  no! 
»>>.  *&&  hse£j&s-|II  ftW-^aJ     aiw;ivs   square  or  rectangular, 

as  in  Greek  ceilings,  but  of  va- 
rious geometric  forms  in  pleas- 
panels  and  decorations  were 
wrought  in  relief  in  a  heavy 
coating  of  plaster  applied  to 
the  finished  structure,  and  these 
stucco  reliefs  are  among  the 
most  refined  and  charming  prod- 
ucts of  Roman  art.  (Baths  of  Titus  ;  Baths  at  Pompeii  ; 
Palace  of  the  Caesars  and  tombs  at  Rome.) 

COLOR  DECORATION.  Plaster  was  also  used  as  a  ground  for 
painting,  executed  in  distemper  or  by  the  encaustic  process, 
wax  liquefied  by  a  hot  iron  being  the  medium  for  applying 
the  color  in  the  latter  case.  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  fur- 
nish countless  examples  of  brilliant  wall-painting  in  which 
strong  primary  colors  form  the  ground,  and  a  semi-natu- 
ralistic, semi-fantastic  representation  of  figures,  architect- 
ure and  landscape  is  mingled  with  festoons,  vines,  and 
purely  conventional  ornament.  Mosaic  was  also  employed 
to  decorate  floors  and  wall-spaces,  and  sometimes  for  ceil- 
ings.*    The   later  imperial   baths  and    palaces  were  espe- 

•Sce  Van  Dyke's  History  of  Painting,  p.  33. 


FIG.    50.  —ROMAN   CKILING   PANELS. 

(«,  From  Palmyra  ;  b.  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine.) 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  87 

cially  rich  in  mosaic  of  the  kind  called  opus  Grecanicum, 
executed  with  numberless  minute  cubes  of  stone  or  glass, 
as  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla  and  the  Villa  of  Hadrian  at 
Tivoli. 

To  the  walls  of  monumental  interiors,  such  as  temples, 
basilicas,  and  thermae,  splendor  of  color  was  given  by 
veneering  them  with  thin  slabs  of  rare  and  richly  colored 
marble.  No  limit  seems  to  have  been  placed  upon  the 
costliness  or  amount  of  these  precious  materials.  Byzan- 
tine architecture  borrowed  from  this  practice  its  system  of 
interior  color  decoration. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE— Continued. 

Hooks  RECOMMENDED  :  Same  as  for  Chapter  VIII. 
Also,  Guhl  and  Ivorner,  Life  of  the  Ancient  Creeks  and 
Romans.  Adams,  Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Spalatro.  Burn, 
Rome  and  the  Campagna.  Cameron,  Roman  Baths.  Mail, 
tr.  by  Kelcey,  Pompeii,  its  Life  and  Art.  Mazois,  Raines  de 
Pompeii.  Von  Presuhn,  Die  neueste  Ausgrabungen  zu  Pom- 
peii.    Wood,  Ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Baalbec. 

THE  ETRUSCAN  STYLE.  Although  the  first  Creek  archi- 
tects were  employed  in  Rome  as  early  as  493  B.C.,  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Republic  was  practically  Etruscan  until  near- 
ly 100  b.c.  Its  monuments,  consisting  mainly  of  city  walls, 
tombs,  and  temples,  are  all  marked  by  a  general  uncouth- 
ness  of  detail,  denoting  a  lack  of  artistic  refinement,  but 
they  display  considerable  constructive  skill.  In  the 
Etruscan  walls  we  meet  with  both  polygonal  and  regularly 
coursed  masonry  ;  in  both  kinds  the  true  arch  appears  as 
the  almost  universal  form  for  gates  and  openings.  A  famous 
example  is  the  Augustan  Cate  at  Perugia,  a  late  work  rebuilt 
about  40  b.c,  but  thoroughly  Etruscan  in  style.  At  Vola- 
terra  (Volterra)  is  another  arched  gate,  and  in  Perugia  frag- 
ments of  still  another  appear  built  into  the  modern  walls. 

The  Etruscans  built  both  structural  and  excavated 
tombs  ;  they  consisted  in  general  of  a  single  chamber 
with  a  slightly  arched  or  gabled  roof,  supported  in  the 
larger  tombs  on  heavy  square  pins.    The  interiors  were 

covered    with   pictures  ;    externally    there    was  little    orna- 
ment   except    about    the  gable    and  doorway.     The    latter 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


89 


had  a  stepped  or  moulded  frame  with  curious  crossettes  or 
ears  projecting  laterally  at  the  top.  The  gable  recalled  the 
wooden  roofs  of  Etruscan  temples,  but  was  coarse  in  detail, 
especially  in  its  mouldings.  Sepulchral  monuments  of  other 
types  are  also  met  with,  such  as  cippi  or  memorial  pillars, 
sometimes  in  groups  of  five  on  a  single  pedestal  (tomb  at 
Albano). 

Among  the  temples  of  Etruscan  style  that  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus  on  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  destroyed  by  fire  in 
80  b.c,  was  the  chief.  Three  narrow  chambers  side  by  side 
formed  a  cella  nearly  square  in  plan,  preceded  by  a  hexa- 
style  porch  of  huge  Doric,  or  rather  Tuscan,  columns  ar- 
ranged in  three  aisles,  widely  spaced  and  carrying  ponder- 
ous wooden  architraves.  The  roof  was  of  wood  ;  the 
cymatium  and  ornaments,  as  well  as  the  statues  in  the  pedi- 
ment, were  of  terra-cotta,  painted 
and  gilded.  The  details  in  general 
showed  acquaintance  with  Greek 
models,  which  appeared  in  debased 
and  awkward  imitations  of  triglyphs, 
cornices,  antefixae,  etc. 

GREEK  STYLE.  The  victories  of 
Marcellus  at  Syracuse,  212  B.C., 
Fabius  Maximus  at  Tarentum  (209 
b.c),  Flaminius  (196  b.c),  Mum- 
mius  (146  b.c),  Sulla  (86  b.c),  and 
others  in  the  various  Greek  prov- 
inces, steadily  increased  the  vogue 
of  Greek  architecture  and  the  num- 
ber of  Greek  artists  in  Rome.  The 
temples  of  the  last  two  centuries 
b.c,  and  some  of  earlier  date,  though 
still  Etruscan  in  plan,  were  in  many  cases  strongly  Greek  in 
the  character  of  their  details.  A  few  have  remained  to  our 
time  in   tolerable    preservation.     The  temple  of  Fortuna 


FIG.    51. — TEMl'LE    FOR  II  N  A 
VIRILIS.       PLAN. 


90 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Virilis  (really  of  Fors  Fortuna),  of  the  second  century  (?) 
B.C.,  is  a  tetrastyle  prostyle  pseudoperipteral  temple  with 
a  high  podium  or  base,  a  typical  Etruscan  cella,  and  a  deep 

porch,  now  walled  up,  but 
thoroughly  Greek  in  the  ele- 
gant details  of  its  Ionic  order 
(Fig.  51).  Two  circular  tem- 
ples, both  called  erroneously 
Temples  of  Vesta,  one  at 
Rome  near  the  Cloaca  Maxi- 
ma, the  other  at  Tivoli,  be- 
long among  the  monuments 
of  Greek  style.  The  first  was 
probably  dedicated  to  Hercu- 
les, the  second  probably  to 
the  Sibyls;  the  latter  being 
much  the  better  preserved  of 
the  two.  Both  were  surround- 
ed by  peristyles  of  eighteen 
Corinthian  columns, and  prob- 
ably covered  by  domical  roofs 
with  gilded  bronze  tiles.  The 
Corinthian  order  appears  here 
complete  with  its  modillion 
cornice,  but  the  crispness  of 
the  detail  and  the  fineness  of 
the  execution  are  Greek  and  not  Roman.  These  temples 
date  from  about  72  u.c,  though  the  one  at  Rome  was 
probably  rebuilt  in  the  first  century  A.D.  (Fig.  52). 

IMPERIAL  ARCHITECTURE ;  AUGUSTAN  AGE.  F.vcn  in  the 
temples  of  Greek  style  Roman  conceptions  of  plan  and 
composition  are  dominant.  The  Creek  architect  was  not 
free  to  reproduce  textually  Greek  designs  or  details,  how- 
ever strongly  he  might  impress  with  the  Greek  character 
whatever  he  touched.     The  demands  of  imperial  splendor 


riO.    52.— CIRCULAR  TKMPLE.      TIVOLI. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  91 

and  the  building  of  great  edifices  of  varied  form  and  com- 
plex structure,  like  the  thermae  and  amphitheatres,  called 
for  new  adaptations  and  combinations  of  planning  and 
engineering.  The  reign  of  Augustus  (27  B.c-14  a.d.)  in- 
augurated the  imperial  epoch,  but  many  works  erected  before 
and  after  his  reign  properly  belong  to  the  Augustan  age  by 
right  of  style.  In  general,  we  find  in  the  works  of  this  period 
the  happiest  combination  of  Greek  refinement  with  Roman 
splendor.  _It  was  in  this  period  that  Rome  first  assumed  the 
aspect  of  an  opulent  and  splendid  metropolis,  though  the 
way  had  been  prepared  for  this  by  the  regularization  and 
adornment  of  the  Roman  Forum  and  the  erection  of  many 
temples,  basilicas,  fora,  arches,  and  theatres  during  the 
generation  preceding  the  accession  of  Augustus.  His  reign 
saw  the  inception  or  completion  of  the  portico  of  Octavia, 
the  Augustan  forum,  the  Septa  Julia,  the  first  Pantheon, 
the  adjoining  Thermae  of  Agrippa,  the  theatre  of  Mar- 
cellus,  the  first  of  the  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine,  and 
a  long  list  of  temples,  including  those  of  the  Dioscuri 
(Castor  and  Pollux),  of  Mars  Ultor,  of  Jupiter  Tonans  on 
the  Capitol,  and  others  in  the  provinces  ;  besides  colon- 
nades, statues,  arches,  and  other  embellishments  almost 
without  number. 

LATER  IMPERIAL  WORKS.  With  the  successors  of  Augus- 
tus splendor  increased  to  alfnost  fabulous  limits,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  vast  extent  and  the  prodigality  of  ivory  and 
gold  in  the  famous  Golden  House  of  Nero.  After  the 
great  fire  in  Rome,  presumably  kindled  by  the  agents  of 
this  emperor,  a  more  regular  and  monumental  system  of 
street-planning  and  building  was  introduced,  and  the  first 
municipal  building-law  was  decreed  by  him.  To  the  reign  of 
Vespasian  (68-79  a.d.)  we  owe  the  rebuilding  in  Roman 
style  and  with  the  Corinthian  order  of  the  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter Capitolinus,  the  Baths  of  Titus,  and  the  beginning  of 
the  Flavian  amphitheatre  or  Colosseum.     The   two   last- 


92  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

named  edifices  both  stood  on  the  site  of  Nero's  Golden 
House,  of  which  the  greater  part  was  demolished  to  make 
way  for  them.  During  the  last  years  of  the  first  century 
the  arch  of  Titus  was  erected,  the  Colosseum  finished, 
amphitheatres  built  at  Verona,  Pola,  Reggio,  Tusculum, 
Nimes  (France),  Constantine  (Algiers),  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culanum  (these  last  two  cities  and  Stabiae  rebuilt  after  the 
earthquake  of  63  a.o.),  and  arches,  bridges,  and  temples 
erected  all  over  the  Roman  world. 

The  first  part  of  the  second  century  was  distinguished 
by  the  splendid  architectural  achievements  of  the  reign  of 
Hadrian  (117-138  a.o.)  in  Rome  and  the  provinces,  espe- 
cially Athens.  Nearly  all  his  works  were  marked  by  great 
dignity  of  conception  as  well  as  beauty  of  detail.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  century  a  very  interesting  series  of 
buildings  were  erected  in  the  Hauran  (Syria),  in  which 
(ireek  and  Arab  workmen  under  Roman  direction  pro- 
duced examples  of  vigorous  stone  architecture  of  a  mingled 
Roman  and  Syrian  character. 

The  most  remarkable  thermae  of  Rome  belong  to  the 
third  century — those  of  (aracalla  (211-217  a.d.)  and  of 
Diocletian  (284-305  a.d.)  —  their  ruins  to-day  ranking 
among  the  most  imposing  remains  of  antiquity.  In  Syria 
the  temples  of  the  Sun  at  Baalbec  and  Palmyra  (273  \.i»., 
under  Aurelian),  and  the  great  palace  of  Diocletian  at 
Spalato,  in  Dalmatia  (300  a.o.),  are  still  the  wonder  of  the 
few  travellers  who  reach  those  distant  spots. 

While  during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  there  was  a 
marked  decline  in  purity  and  refinement  of  detail,  many  of 
the  later  works  of  the  period  display  a  remarkable  freedom 
and  originality  in  conception.  Bat  these  works  are  really 
not  Roman,  they  are  foreign,  that  is,  provincial  products  ; 
and  the  transfer  of  the  capital  to  Byzantium  revealed  the  in- 
ising  degree  in  which  Rome  was  coming  to  look  to  the 
for  her  Strength  and  her  art. 


ROM  AX   ARCHITECTURE. 


93 


TEMPLES.  The  Romans  built  both  rectangular  and  circu- 
lar temples,  and  there-  was  much  variety  in  their  treatment. 
In  the  rectangular  temples  a  high /odium,  or  basement,  was 
substituted  for  the  Greek  stepped  stylobate,  and  the  pro- 
Style  plan  was  more 

common  than  the  pe-      esm » « . I rr»l  •  •  •  •  % ^—j 

ripteral.  The  cella  ['lll"*"*,*f*it 
was  relatively  short 
and  wide,  the  front 
porch  inordinately 
deep,  and  frequently 
divided  by  longitudi- 
nal rows  of  columns 
into  three  aisles.  In 
most  cases  the  exte- 
rior of  the  cella  in 
prostyle  temples  was 
decorated  by  engaged 
columns.  A  barrel 
vault  gave  the  inte- 
rior an  aspect  of  spa- 
ciousness impossible 
with  the  Greek  sys- 
tem of  a  wooden 
ceiling  supported  on 
double  ranges  of  col- 
umns. In  the  place  of 
these,  free  or  engaged 
columns    along    the 

side-walls  received  the  ribs  of  the  vaulting.  Between  these 
ribs  the  ceiling  was  richly  panelled,  or  coffered  and  sump- 
tuously gilded.  The  temples  of  Fortuna  Virilis  and  of 
Faustina  at  Rome  '(the  latter  built  141  a.d.,  and  its  ruins 
incorporated  into  the  modern  church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Mi- 
randa), and  the  beautiful  and  admirably  preserved  Maison 


FIG.    53. — TE.MrLE   OF   VENUS   AND    ROME.       PLAN. 


94 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Carree,  at  Nlmes  (France)  (4  a.d.)  are  examples  of  this 
type.  The  temple  of  Concord,  of  which  only  the  podium 
remains,  and  the  small  temple  of  Julius  (both  of  these  in  the 
Forum)  illustrate  another  form  of  prostyle  temple  in  which 
the  porch  was  on  a  long  side  of  the  cella.  Some  of  the 
larger  temples  were  peripteral.  The  temple  of  the  Dioscuri 
(Castor  and  Pollux)  in  the  Forum,  was  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  of  these,  certainly  the  richest  in  detail  (Fig.  44). 
Very  remarkable  was  the  double  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome, 
east  of  the  Forum,  designed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  about 
130  a.d.  (Fig.  53).  It  was  a  vast  pseudodipteral  edifice 
containing  two  cellas  in  one  structure,  their  statue-niches 
or  apses  meeting  back  to  back  in  the  centre.  The  temple 
stood  in  the  midst  of  an  imposing  columnar  peribolus  en- 
tered by  magnificent  gateways.  Other  important  temples 
have  already  been  rr^ntioned  on  p.  91. 

Besides  the  two  circular  temples  already  described,  the 
temple  of  vesta,  adjoining  the  House  of  the  Vestals,  at  the 
east  end  of  the  Forum  should  be 
mentioned.  At  Baalbec  is  a  cir- 
cular temple  whose  entablature 
curves  inward  between  the  widely- 
spaced  columns  until  it  touches  the 
Cells  in  the  middle  of  each  inter- 
columniation.  It  illustrates  the 
caprices  of  design  which  sometimes 
resulted  from  the  disregard  of  tra- 
dition and  the  striving  after  origi- 
nality (273  A. P.). 

THE  PANTHEON.  The  noblest  of 
all  circular  temples  of  Rome  and  of 
the  worl1  was  the  Pantheon.  It 
was  built  by  .Vadrian,  11 7-138  a.d., 
on  the  site  of  the  earlier  rectangular  ten;ole  of  the*  same 
name  erected  by  Agrippa.     It  measures  142  fc^t  in  diameter 


FIG.    54. —  PLAN    OF  THE    PAN- 
THEON. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


95 


**■    "tOtaMp>     «^^™»     JIIMKf.    ^$0    ''"*" 


internally  ;  the  wall  is  20  feet  thick  and  supports  a  hemi- 
spherical dome  rising  to  a  height  of  140  feet  (Figs.  54,  55). 
Light  is  admitted  solely  through  a  round  opening  28  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  top  of 
the  dome,  the  simplest 
and  most  impressive 
method  of  illumina- 
tion conceivable.  The 
rain  and  snow  that 
enter  produce  no  ap- 
preciable effect  upon 
the  temperature  of 
the  vast  hall.  There 
is  a  single  entrance, 
with  noble  bronze 
doors,  admitting  di- 
rectly to  the  interior, 
around  which  seven 
niches,  alternately 
rectangular  and  semi- 
circular in  plan  and 
fronted  by  Corinthian 

columns,  lighten,  without  weakening,  the  mass  of  the  encir- 
cling wall.  This  wall  was  originally  incrusted  with  rich 
marbles,  and  the  great  dome,  adorned  with  deep  coffering 
in  rectangular  panels,  was  decorated  with  rosettes  and 
mouldings  in  gilt  stucco.  The  dome  appears  to  have  been 
composed  of  numerous  arches  and  ribs,  filled  in  and  finally 
coated  with  concrete.  A  recent  examination  of  a  denuded 
portion  of  its  inner  surface  has  convinced  the  writer  that 
the  interior  panelling  was  executed  after,  and  not  during, 
its  construction,  by  hewing  the  panels  out  of  the  mass  of 
brick  and  concrete,  without  regard  to  the  form  and  posi- 
tion of  the  origin  skeleton  of  ribs. 

The  exterior  (Fig.  56)  was  less  successful  than  the  inte- 


FIG.    55. — INTERIOR   OF  THE    PANTHEON. 


96  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

rior.  The  gabled  porch  of  twelve  superb  granite  columns 
50  feet  high,  three-aisled  in  plan  after  the  Etruscan  mode, 
and  covered  originally  by  a  ceiling  of  bronze,  was  a  rebuild- 
ing with  the  materials  and  on  the  plan  of  tin-  original  pro- 
naos  of  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa.  The  circular  wall  behind 
it  is  faced  with  fine  brickwork,  and  displays,  like  the  dome, 


PIO.    <jr'-       UIU1UM    OK   THE    I'ANTHF'iN. 

(From  model  in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.) 

many  curious  arrangements  of  discharging  arches,  reminis- 
-  of  traditional  constructive  precautions  here  wholly 
useless  and  fictitious  because  only  skin-deep.     A  revetment 
A  marble  below  and  plaster  above  once  concealed  this  brick 
facing.     The  portico,  in  spite  of  its  too  steep  gable  (once 
filled  with  a  "  gigantomachia  "  in  gilt  bronze)  and  its 
what  awkward   association  with   a  round  building,  is  n< 
theless  a  noble  work,  its  capitals  in  Pentelic  marble  ranking 
among  the  finest  known  examples  of  the  Roman  Corinl 
Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Pantheon  is  one  of  the  great  master 
s  of  the  world's  architecture. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


97 


FORA  AND  BASILICAS.  The  fora  were  the  places  for  gen- 
eral public  assemblage.  The  chief  of  those  in  Rome,  the 
Forum  Magnum,  or  Forum  Romanum,  was  at  first  merely  an 
irregular  vacant  space,  about  and  in  which,  as  the  focus  of 
the  civic  life,  temples,  halls,  colonnades,  and  statues  grad- 
ually accumulated.  These  chance  aggregations  the  system- 
atic Roman  mind  reduced  in  time  to  orderly  and  monumental 
form  ;  successive  emperors  extended  them  and  added  new 
fora  at  enormous  cost  and  with  great  splendor  of  architect- 
ure. Those  of  Julius,  Augustus,  Vespasian,  and  Nerva  (or 
Domitian),  adjoining  the  Roman  Forum,  were  magnificent 
enclosures  surrounded 
by  high  walls  and  single 
or  double  colonnades. 
Each  contained  a  temple 
or  basilica,  besides  gate- 
ways, memorial  columns 
or  arches,  and  countless 
statues.  The  Forum  of 
Trajan  surpassed  all  the 
rest  ;  it  covered  an  area 
of  thirty-five  thousand 
square  yards,  and  in- 
cluded, besides  the  main 
area,  entered  through  a 
triumphal  arch,  the  Ba- 
silica Ulpia,  the  temple 
of  Trajan,  and  his  colos- 
sal Doric  column  of  Vic- 
tory. Both  in  size  and 
beauty  it  ranked  as  the  chief  architectural  glory  of  the 
city  (Fig.  57).  The  six  fora  together  contained  thirteen 
temples,  three  basilicas,  eight  triumphal  arches,  a  mile  of 
porticos,  and  a  number  of  other  public  edifices.*     Besides 

*  Lanciani  :  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries,  p.  89. 


FIG.    57. — FORUM    AND    BASILICA   OF   TRAJAN. 


98  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

these,  a  net-work  of  colonnades  covered  large  tracts  of  the 
city,  affording  sheltered  communication  in  every  direction, 
and  here  and  there  expanding  into  squares  or  gardens  sur- 
rounded by  peristyles. 

The  public  business  of  Rome,  both  judicial  and  commer- 
cial, was  largely  transacted  in  the  basilicas ^  large  buildings 
consisting  usually  of  a  wide  and  lofty  central  nave  Hanked  by 
lower  side-aisles,  and  terminating  at  one  or  both  ends  in 
an  apse  or  semicircular  recess  called  the  tribune,  in  which 
were  the  seats  for  the  magistrates.  The  side-aisles  were 
separated  from  the  nave  by  columns  supporting  a  clear- 
story wall,  pierced  by  windows  above  the  roofs  of  the 
side-aisles.  In  some  cases  the  latter 
were  two  stories  high,  with  galleries  ; 
in  others  the  central  space  was  open 
to  the  sky,  as  at  Pompeii,  suggesting 
the  derivation  of  the  ha  >ilica  from 
the  open  square  surrounded  by  col- 
onnades, or  from  the  forum  itself, 
with  which  we  And   it  usually  associ- 

,";7nNKU'>^CON  ated-  The  most  important  basilicM 
•in  Rome  were  the  Sempronian,  the 
iEmilian  (about  54  n.e.),  the  Julian  In  the  Forum 
lHini  (51  B.C.),  and  the  TTlpian  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan  (113 
A. i).).  The  last  two  were  probably  open  basilh  as,  only  the 
side-aisles  being  roofed.  The  Ulpian  (Fig.  57)  was  the  most 
magnificent  of  all,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  Forum  of 
Trajan  formed  one  of  the  most  imposing  of  those  monu- 
mental aggregations  of  columnar  architecture  which  con- 
tributed so  largely  to  the  splendor  of  the  Roman  capital. 

These  monuments  frequently  suffered  from  the  burning 
of  their  wooden  roofs.  It  was  Constantine  who  completed 
the  first  vaulted  and  fireproof  basilica,  begun  by  his  pre- 
decessor and  rival,  Maxentius,  on  the  site  of  the  former 
Temple  of  Peace  (Figs.  58,  59).     Its  design  reproduced  on  a 


ROMA?     ARCHITECTURE. 


99 


grand  scale  the  plan  of  the  tepidarium-halls  of  the  thermae, 
the  side-recesses  of  which  were  converted  into  a  continuous 
side-aisle  by  piercing  arches  through  the  buttress-walls  that 
separated  them.  Above  the  imposing  vaults  of  these  re- 
cesses and  under  the  cross-vaults  of  the  nave  were  windows 
admitting  abundant  light.     A  narthexy  or  porch,  preceded 


59. — BASILICA    OF   CONSTANTINE.      RUINS. 


the  hall  at  one  end  ;  there  were  also  a  side  entrance  from 
the  Via  Sacra,  and  an  apse  or  tribune  for  the  magistrates 
opposite  each  of  these  entrances.  The  dimensions  of  the 
main  hall  (325  x  85  feet),  the  height  of  its  vault  (117  feet), 
and  the  splendor  of  its  columns  and  incrustations  excited 
universal  admiration,  and  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on 
later  architecture. 

THERMJE.  The  leisure  of  the  Roman  people  was  largely- 
spent  in  the  great  baths,  or  therma,  which  took  the  place 
substantially   of    the   modern   club.      The   establishments 


IOO 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHI'I  2CTURE. 


erected  by  the  emperors  for  this  purpose  were  vast  and 
complex  congeries  of  large-and  small  halls,  courts,  and  cham- 
bers, combined  with  a  masterly  comprehension  of  artistic- 
propriety  and  effect  in  the  sequence  of  oblong,  square,  oval, 
and  circular  apartments,  and  in  the  relation  of  the  greater 
to  the  lesser  masses.  They  were  a  combination  of  the  Greek 
pahestra  with  the  Roman  balnea,  and  united  in  one  harmoni- 
ous design  great  public 
swimming-baths,  private 
baths  for  individuals  and 
families,  places  for  gym- 
nastic exercises  and 
games,courts,  peristyles, 
gardens,  halls  for  liter- 
ary entertainments, 
lounging-rooms,  and  all 
the  complex  accommo- 
dation required  for  the 
service  of  the  whole  es- 
tablishment. They  were 
built  with  apparent  dis- 
regard of  cost,  and 
adorned  with  splendid  extravagance.  The  earliest  were 
the  Baths  of  Agrippa(27  B.C.)  behind  the  Pantheon  ;  next 
may  be  mentioned  those  of  Titus,  built  on  the  Substructions 
of  Nero's  Golden  House.  The  remains  of  the  Thermae  of 
Caracalla  (21 1  \.n.)  form  the  most  extensive  mass  of  ruins 
in  Rome,  and  clearly  display  the  admirable  planning  of  this 
and  similar  establishments.  A  gigantic  block  of  buildings 
containing  the  three  great  halls  for  cold,  warm,  and  hot 
baths,  stood  in  the  centre  of  a  vast  enclosure  surrounded 
by    private   baths.  .md    halls   for   lecture-audiences 

and  other  gatherings.  The  enclosure  was  adorned  with 
statues,  flower-gardens,  and  places  for  out-door  games. 
The  Baths  of  Diocletian  (302  a.d.)  embodied  this  arrange- 


trmirryittfTTT 

o     .      .      .      . 3°/ 

•  ■ 

FIG.  60.—  THERMS  OF  CARACALLA.  PLAN  OF 
CENTRAL  BLOCK. 
A,  Caldarium,or  Hot  Bath  :  B,  Intermediate 
Chamber  :  C,  l'f/>idarium,  or  Warm  Path  :  D, 
Rrigidarium,  or  Cold  Bath:  E,  Peristyles: 
a,  Cymnasth  Rooms :  6,  Dressing-  Rooms  :  c, 
Cooling  Rooms  :  d.  Small  Courts  ;  e,  Entrances/ 
r,  /  'eslibules. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  103 

Capua,  and  many  cities  in  the  foreign  provinces  there  are 
well-preserved  remains  of  similar  structures. 

Closely  related  to  the  amphitheatre  were  the  circus  and 
the  stadium.  The  Circus  Maximus  between  the  Palatine 
and  Aventine  hills  was  the  oldest  of  those  in  Rome.  That 
erected  by  Caligula  and  Nero  on  the  site  afterward  partly 
occupied  by  St.  Peter's,  was  more  splendid,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  capable  of  accommodating  over  three  hundred 
thousand  spectators  after  its  enlargement  in  the  fourth 
century.  The  long,  narrow  race-course  was  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a  low  parapet,  the  spina,  on  which 
were  the  goals  (inetce)  and  many  small  decorative  structures 
and  columns.  One  end  of  the  circus,  as  of  the  stadium 
also,  was  semicircular  ;  the  other  was  segmental  in  the  cir- 
•us,  square  in  the  stadium  ;  a  colonnade  or  arcade  ran 
fcong  the  top  of  the  building,  and  the  entrances  and  exits 
ar?re  adorned  with  monumental  arches. 

jn  TRIUMPHAL  ARCHES  AND  COLUMNS.  Rome  and  the  pro- 
TiMcial  cities  abounded  in  monuments  commemorative  of 
victory,  usually  single  or  triple  arches  with  engaged  col- 
umns and  rich  sculptural  adornments,  or  single  colossal 
columns  supporting  statues.  The  arches  were  characteris- 
tic products  of  Roman  design,  and  some  of  them  deserve 
high  praise  for  the  excellence  of  their  proportions  and  the 
elegance  of  their  details.  There  were  in  Rome  in  the  sec- 
ond century  a.d.,  thirty-eight  of  these  monuments.  The 
Arch  of  Titus  (71-82  a.d.)  is  the  simplest  and  most  perfect 
of  those  still  extant  in  Rome  ;  the  arch  of  Septimius  Sev- 
erus  in  the  Forum  (203  a.d.)  and  that  of  Constantine  (330 
a.d.)  near  the  Colosseum,  are  more  sumptuous  but  less 
pure  in  detail.  The  last-named  was  in  part  enriched  with 
sculptures  taken  from  the  earlier  arch  of  Trajan.  The 
statues  of  Dacian  captives  on  the  attic  (attic=z  species  of 
subordinate  story  added  above  the  main  cornice)  of  this 
arch  were  a  fortunate  addition,  furnishing  a  raison-d 'etre 


io4 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHIIT.CTURE. 


1  l(,.    63. — ARCH    OF   CONSTANTINE. 

(From  model  in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.) 


for  the  columns  and  broken  entablatures  on  which  they 
rest.  Memorial  columns  of  colossal  size  were  erected  by 
several   emperors,  both    in    Rome  and    abroad.     Those   of 

Trajan  and  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  are  still  stand- 
ing in  Rome  in  perfect 
preservation.  The  first 
was  140  feet  high  in- 
cluding the  pedestal 
and  the  statue  which 
surmounted  it  ;  its  cap- 
ital marked  the  height 
of  the  ridge  levelled  by 
the  emperor  for  the  fo- 
rum on  which  the  col- 
umn stands.  Its  most 
striking  peculiarity  is 
the  spiral  band  of  reliefs  winding  around  the  shaft  from 
bottom  to  top  and  representing  the  Dacian  campaigns 
of  Trajan.  The  other  column  is  of  similar  design  and 
dimensions,  but  greatly  inferior  to  the  first  in  execution. 
Both  are  really  towers,  with  interior  stair-cases  leading  to 
the  top. 

TOMBS.  The  Romans  developed  no  special  and  national 
type  of  tomb,  and  few  of  their  sepulchral  monuments  were 
of  large  dimensions.  The  most  important  in  Rome  were  the 
pyramid  of  Cains  Cestius  (late  first  century  B.C.),  and  the 
circular  tombs  of  Cecilia  Metella  (fio  b.<  .).  Augustus  (14 
a.m.)  and  Hadrian,  now  the  Castle  of  S.  Angelo  (138  \.i».). 
The  latter  was  composed  of  a  huge  cone  of  marble  sup- 
ported on  a  cylindrical  structure  230  feet  in  diameter  stand- 
ing on  a  square  podium  300  feet  long  and  wide.  The  cone 
probably  once  terminated  in  the  gilt  bronze  pine-cone  now 
in  the  Giardino  delta  Pigna  of  the  Vatican.  In  the  Mauso 
leum  of  Augustus  a   mound  of  earth   planted   with   trees 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  105 

crowned  a  similar  circular  base  of  marble  on  a  podium  220 
feet  square,  now  buried. 

The  smaller  tombs  varied  greatly  in  size  and  form.  Some 
were  vaulted  chambers,  with  graceful  internal  painted  deco- 
rations of  figures  and  vine  patterns  combined  with  low-relief 
enrichments  in  stucco.  Others  were  designed  in  the  form 
of  altars  or  sarcophagi,  as  at  Pompeii  ;  while  others  again 
resembled  aediculse,  little  temples,  shrines,  or  small  towers 
in  several  stories  of  arches  and  columns,  as  at  St.  Remy 
(France). 

PALACES  AND  DWELLINGS.  Into  their  dwellings  the  Romans 
carried  all  their  love  of  ostentation  and  personal  luxury. 
They  anticipated  in  many  details  the  comforts  of  modern 
civilization  in  their  furniture,  their  plumbing  and  heating, 
and  their  utensils.  Their  houses  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes  :  the  palace,  the  villa,  the  dotnus  or  ordinary  house, 
and  the  insula  or  many-storied  tenement  built  in  compact 
blocks.  The  first  three  alone  concern  us,  and  will  be  taken 
up  in  the  above  order. 

The  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine  Hill  comprised  a 
wide  range  in  style  and  variety  of  buildings,  beginning  with 
the  first  simple  house  of  Augustus  (26  B.C.),  burnt  and  re- 
built 3  a.d.  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Nero  added  to  the 
Augustan  group  ;  Domitian  rebuilt  a  second  time  and  en- 
larged the  palace  of  Augustus,  and  Septimius  Severus  re- 
modelled the  whole  group,  adding  to  it  his  own  extraordi- 
nary seven-storied  palace,  the  Septizonium.  The  ruins  of 
these  successive  buildings  have  been  carefully  excavated, 
and  reveal  a  remarkable  combination  of  dwelling-rooms, 
courts,  temples,  libraries,  basilicas,  baths,  gardens,  peri- 
styles, fountains,  terraces,  and  covered  passages.  These 
were  adorned  with  a  profusion  of  precious  marbles,  mosaics, 
columns,  and  statues.  Parts  of  the  demolished  palace  of 
Nero  were  incorporated  in  the  substructions  of  the  Baths 
of   Titus.     The    beautiful   arabesques   and   plaster   reliefs 


io6 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


which  adorned  them  were  the  inspiration  of  much  <>f  the 
fresco  and  stucco  decoration  of  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
At  Spalato,   in   Dalmatia,  are    the  extensive   ruins  of  the 

great  Palace  of  Diocle- 
tian, which  was  laid 
out  on  the  plan  of  a 
Roman  camp,  with  two 
intersecting  avenues 
(Fig.  64).  It  comprised 
a  temple,  mausoleum, 
basilica,    and    other 

i_*  _ \    1^      structures    besides 

^-  3 ;  —s&K  Hf  •  t  those    portions    devot- 

ed to  the  purposes  of 
a  royal  resident 

45$^  iM^[HP£x  D    Thc  vma  was  in  re- 

ality  a  country  palace, 
arranged  with  special 
reference  to  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  exposure 
to  the  sun  and  shade, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  a  wide  prospect  Fiat  lis,  temples, 
exedrce,  theatres,  tennis-courts,  sun-rooms,  and  shaded  por- 
ticoes were  connected  with  the  house  proper,  which  was 
built  around  two  or  three  interior  courts  or  peristyles. 
Statues,  fountains,  and  colossal  vases  of  marble  adorned 
the  grounds,  which  were  laid  out  in  terraces  and  tr 
with  all  the  fantastic  arts  of  the  Roman  landscape-gardener, 
The  most  elaborate  and  extensive  villa  was  that  of  Ha- 
drian, at  Tibur  (Tivoli)  ;  its  ruins,  covering  hundreds  <<f 
.  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  spots  to  visit  in  the 
-hborhood  of  Rome. 

There  are  few  remains  in  Rome  of  the  domus  or  private 
house.  Two,  however,  have  left  remarkably  interesting 
ruins — the  Atrium  Vestae,  or   House  of  the  Vestal  Virgins, 


FIG.  64. — PALACK  OF  DIOCLETIAN.   SPALATO. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE 


IO7 


east  of  the  Forum,  a  well-planned  and  extensive  house  sur- 
rounding a  cloister  or  court  ;  and  the  House  of  Livia,  so- 
called,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  the  walls  and  decorations  of 
which  are  excellently  preserved.  The  typical  Roman  house 
in  a  provincial  town  is  best  illustrated  by  the  ruins  of  Pom- 
peii and  Herculanum,  which, 

buried    by   an    eruption    of  fiortus  or  Garden 

Vesuvius  in  79  a.d.,  have 
been  partially  excavated 
since  1721.  The  Pompeiian 
house  (Fig.  65)  consisted  of 
several  courts  or  atria,  some 
of  which  were  surrounded 
by  colonnades  and  called 
peristyles.  The  front  portion 
was  reserved  for  shops,  or 
presented  to  the  street  a 
wall  unbroken  save  by  the 
entrance  ;  all  the  rooms  and 
chambers  opened  upon  the 
interior  courts,  from  which 
alone  they  borrowed  their 
light.  In  the  brilliant  cli- 
mate of  southern  Italy  win- 
dows were  little  needed,  as 
sufficient  light  was  admitted 
by  the  door,  closed  only  by 
portieres  for  the  most  part ; 
especially  as  the  family  life 
was  passed  mainly  in  the 
shaded  courts,  to  which  fountains,  parterres  of  shrub- 
bery, statues,  and  other  adornments  lent  their  inviting 
charm.  The  general  plan  of  these  houses  seems  to  have 
been  of  Greek  origin,  as  well  as  the  system  of  decora- 
tion used  on  the  walls.     These,  when  not  wainscoted  with 


:ITPTl 

abx  ala 


FIG.    65. — HOUSE   OF    PANSA,    POMPEII. 

j,  Shops  :  v.  Vestibule  ;  J",  Family  Rooms  ; 
£,  Kitchen  ;  /,  Lararium  ;  P,  P,  P,  Peri- 
styles. 


IO»  HISTORY    OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

marble,  were  covered  with  fantastic,  but  often  artistic, 
painted  decorations,  in  which  an  imaginary  architecture  as 
of  metal,  a  fantastic  and  arbitrary  perspective,  illusory  pict- 
ures, and  highly  finished  figures  were  the  chief  elements. 
These  were  executed  in  brilliant  colors  with  excellent  effect. 
The  houses  were  lightly  built,  with  wooden  ceilings  and 
roofs  instead  of  vaulting,  and  usually  with  but  one  story  on 
account  of  the  danger  from  earthquakes.  That  the  work- 
manship anil  decoration  were  in  the  capital  often  superior 
to  what  was  to  be  found  in  a  provincial  town  like  Pompeii, 
is  evidenced  by  beautiful  wall-paintings  and  reliefs  discov- 
ered in  Rome  in  1879  and  now  preserved  in  the  Museo 
delle  Terme.  More  or  less  fragmentary  remains  of  Roman 
houses  have  been  found  in  almost  every  corner  of  the 
Roman  empire,  but  nowhere  exhibiting  as  completely  as 
in  Pompeii  the  typical  Roman  arrangement. 

WORKS  OF  UTILITY.  A  word  should  be  said  about  Roman 
engineering  works,  which  in  many  cases  were  designed 
with  an  artistic  sense  of  proportion  and  form  which  raises 
them  into  the  domain  of  genuine  art.  Such  were  especially 
the  bridges,  in  which  a  remarkable  effect  of  monumental 
grandeur  was  often  produced  by  the  form  and  proportions 
of  the  arches  and  piers,  and  an  appropriate  use  of  rough 
and  dressed  masonry,  as  in  the  Pons  i£lius  (Ponte  S.  An- 
the  great  bridge  at  Alcantara  (Spain),  ami  the  Pool 
du  Gard,  in  southern  France.  The  aqueducts  are  impres- 
sive rather  by  their  length,  scale,  and  simplicity,  than  by 
any  special  refinements  of  design,  except  where  their  arches 
are  treated  with  some  architectural  decoration  to  form 
gates,  as  in  the  Porta  Maggiore,  at  Rome. 

MONUMENTS  :  1  Those  which  have  no  important  extant  remains  are  given 
in  italics. )    Tl  Mil  I  I  :  Jupiter  (',;/> /'/.>//'// •-  «,  Liter,  and  l.i- 

bera,  404  K.c.  (ruins  of  later  rebuilding  in  S.  Mari.i  in  <  osmedin)  ;  first  T. 
0/ CtHCtrd  (rebuilt  in  AdfUSfl  ',  first  marble  temple  in  por- 

tico of  Metdlus,  by  a(ireck.  Hermodorus,  143  H.c.  ;  temples  of  Fortune  at 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE.  IO9 

Pneneste  and  at  Rome,  and  of  "  Vesta  "  at  Rome,  83-78  B.C.  ;  of  "  Vesta" 
at  Tivoli,  and  of  Hercules  at  Cori,  72  B.C.  ;  first  Pantheon,  27  B.C.  In 
Augustan  Age  temples  of  Apollo,  Concord  rebuilt,  Dioscuri,  Julius,  Jupi- 
ter Stalor,  Jupiter  Tonans,  Mars  Ultor,  Minerva  {at  Rome  and  Assisi), 
Maison  Carree  at  Nimes,  Saturn ;  at  Puteoli,  Pola,  etc.  T.  of  Peace; 
T.Jupiter  Capitolinus,  rebuilt  70  a.d.  ;  temple  at  Brescia.  Temple  of 
Vespasian,  96  A.D.  ;  also  of  Minerva  in  Forum  of  Nerva  ;  of  Trajan,  117 
A.D.  ;  second  Pantheon  ;  T.  of  Venus  and  Rome  at  Rome,  and  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  at  Athens,  135-138  a.d.  ;  Faustina,  141  a.d.  ;  many  in  Syria ; 
temples  of  Sun  at  Rome,  Baalbec,  and  Palmyra,  cir.  273  A.D.  ;  of  Romulus, 
305  a.d.  (porch  S.  Cosmo  and  Damiano).  Places  of  Assembly  :  Fora — 
Roman,  Julian,  46  B.C.  ;  Augustan,  40-42  B.C.  ;  of  Peace,  75  A.D.  ;  Nerva, 
97  a.d.  ;  Trajan  (by  Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  117  a.d.  Basilicas  :  Sem- 
proniaii,  j-Emilian,  1st  century  B.C.  ;  Julian,  51  B.C.  ;  Septa  Julia,  26  B.C.  ; 
the  Curia,  later  rebuilt  by  Diocletian,  300  A.D.  (now  Church  of  S.  Adriano) ; 
at  Fa  no,  20  A.D.  (?) ;  Forum  and  Basilica  at  Pompeii,  60  a.d.  ;  of  Trajan  ; 
of  Constantine,  310-324  a.d.  Theatres  (th.)  and  Amphitheatres 
(amp.) :  th.  Pompey,  55  B.C.  ;  of  Balbus  and  of  Marcellus,  13  B.C. ;  th. 
and  amp.  at  Pompeii  and  Herculanum  ;  Colosseum  at  Rome,  78-82  a.d.  ; 
th.  at  Orange  and  in  Asia  Minor ;  amp.  at  Albano,  Constantine,  Nimes, 
Petra,  Pola,  Reggio,  Trevi,  Tusculum,  Verona,  etc.  ;  amp.  Castrense  at 
Rome,  96  a.d.  Circuses  and  stadia  at  Rome.  Thermae:  of  Agrippa,  27 
B.C.  ;  of  Nero ;  of  Titus,  78  a.d.  ;  Domitian,  90  a.d.  ;  Caracalla,  211 
A.D.  ;  Diocletian,  305  A.D.  ;  Constantine,  320  A.D.  ;  "  Minerva  Medica," 
3d  or  4th  century  a.d.  Arches  :  of  Stertinius,  196  B.C.  ;  Scipio,  190  B.C.; 
Augustus,  30  B.C.  ;  Titus,  71-82  a.d.  ;  Trajan,  117  A.D.  ;  Severus,  203 
A.D. ;  Constantine,  320  A.D. ;  of  Drusus,  Dolabella,  Silversmiths,  204  A.D.; 
Janus  Quadrifrons,  320  a.d.  (?) ;  all  at  Rome.  Others  at  Benevento,  An- 
cona,  Rimini  in  Italy  ;  also  at  Athens,  and  at  Reims  and  St.  Chamas  in 
France.  Columns  of  Trajan,  Antoninus,  Marcus  Aurelius  at  Rome; 
others  at  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  etc.  Tombs  :  along  Via  Appia  and 
Via  Latina,  at  Rome  ;  Via  Sacra  at  Pompeii  ;  tower-tombs  at  St.  Remy 
in  France  ;  rock-cut  at  Petra  ;  at  Rome,  of  Caius  Cestius  and  Cecilia  Me- 
tella,  1st  century  B.C.  ;  of  Augustus,  14  a.d.  ;  Hadrian,  138  a.d.  Pal- 
aces and  Private  Houses  :  On  Palatine,  of  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Nero, 
Domitian,  Septimius  Severus,  Elagabalus  ;  Villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli ; 
palaces  of  Diocletian  at  Spalato  and  of  Constantine  at  Constantinople. 
House  of  Livia  on  Palatine  (Augustan  period)  ;  of  Vestals,  rebuilt  by 
Hadrian,  cir.  120  a.d.  Houses  at  Pompeii  and  Herculanum,  cir.  60-79 
a.d.  ;  Villas  of  Gordianus  ("  Tor'  de'  Schiavi,"  240  a.d.),  and  of  Sallust 
at  Rome,  and  of  Pliny  at  Laurentium. 


CHAPTER    X. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  Hansen,  Die  Basiliken  christlichen 
Rams.  Butler,  Architecture  and  other  Arts  in  Northern  Cen- 
tra/ Syria.  Corroyer,  V architecture  romane.  Camming*, 
A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy.  Essenwein  (Handbuch  d. 
Architektur  ,  Ausg&nge  der  kiassischen  Bauhunst.  (lutensohn 
u.  Knap]),  Denhmdler  der  christlichen  Religion.  Htlbsch, 
Monti  mints  de  P  architecture  chrio'eune.  Lanciani,  Pagan  'tint 
Christian  Rome.  Mothes,  Die  BasiKhenform  l»i  ,/en  Christen, 
etc.  Okely,  Development  of  Christian  Architecture  in  Italy. 
Von  Quast,  Die  a  !te  litis  (lie  hen  Bauwerht  %U  Ravenna.  De 
Rossi,  Roma  Sottcrtanea.  De  Vogue,  Syrie  Centrale ;  Eglises 
ile  la  Tern  Sainte. 

INTRODUCTORY.  The  official  recognition  of  Christianity 
in  the  year  328  by  Constantine  simply  legalized  an  institu- 
tion which  had  been  for  three  centuries  gathering  momen- 
tum for  its  final  conquest  of  the  antique  world.  The  new 
religion  rapidly  enlisted  in  its  service  for  a  common  purpose 
and  under  a  common  impulse  races  as  wide  apart  in  blood 
and  culture  as  those  which  had  built  up  the  art  of  imperial 
Rome.  It  was  Christianity  which  reduced  to  civilization  in 
the  West  the  Germanic  hordes  that  had  overthrown  Koine, 
bringing  their  fresh  and  hitherto  untamed  vigor  to  the  task 
of  recreating  architecture  out  of  the  decaying  fragments  of 
tit.  So  in  the  East  its  life-giving  influence  awoke 
the  slumbering  Greek  art-instinct  to  new  triumphs  in  the 
arts  of  building,  less    refined    and    perfect   indeed,  but  not 

-  sublime  than  those  of  the  Periclean  age.  Long  before 
the Constantinian  edict,  the  Christians  in  the  Eastern  prov- 
inces had  enjoyed  substantial  freedom  of  worship.  Meet- 
ing often   in  the  private  basilicas  of  wealthy  converts,  and 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  Ill 

finding  these,  and  still  more  the  great  public  basilicas, 
suited  to  the  requirements  of  their  worship,  they  early  be- 
gan to  build  in  imitation  of  these  edifices.  There  are  many 
remains  of  these  early  churches  in  northern  Africa  and 
central  Syria. 

early  christian  ART  in  ROME.  This  was  at  first  wholly 
sepulchral,  developing  in  the  catacombs  the  symbols  of  the 
new  faith.  Once  liberated,  however,  Christianity  appro- 
priated bodily  for  its  public  rites  the  basilica-type  and 
the  general  substance  of  Roman  architecture.  Shafts  and 
capitals,  architraves  and  rich  linings  of  veined  marble,  even 
the  pagan  Bacchic  symbolism  of  the  vine,  it  adapted  to  new 
uses  in  its  own  service.  Constantine  led  the  way  in  archi- 
tecture, endowing  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem  with  splendid 
churches,  and  his  new  capital  on  the 
Bosphorus  with  the  first  of  the  three 
historic  basilicas  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Wisdom  (Hagia  Sophia).  One  of  the 
greatest  of  innovators,  he  seems  to 
have  had  a  special  predilection  for 
circular  buildings,  and  the  tombs  and 
baptisteries  which  he  erected  in  this 
form,  especially  that  for  his  sister 
Constantia  in  Rome  (known  as  Santa 
Costanza,  Fig.  66),  furnished  the  pro-  FIG  ^^  COSTANZA) 
totype  for  numberless  Italian  baptis-  rome. 

teries  in  later  ages. 

The  Christian  basilica  (see  Figs.  67,  68)  generally  com- 
prised a  broad  and  lofty  nave,  separated  by  rows  of  columns 
from  the  single  or  double  side-aisles.  The  aisles  had  usually 
about  half  the  width  and  height  of  the  nave,  and  like  it  were 
covered  with  wooden  roofs  and  ceilings.  Above  the  columns 
which  flanked  the  nave  rose  the  lofty  clearstory  wall,  pierced 
with  windows  above  the  side-aisle  roofs  and  supporting  the 
immense  trusses  of  the  roof  of  the  nave.    The  timbering  of 


112  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  latter  was  sometimes  bare,  sometimes  concealed  by  a 
richly  panelled  ceiling,  carved,  gilded,  and  painted.  At  the 
further  end  of  the  nave  was  the  sanctuary  or  apse,  with  the 
seats  for  the  clergy  on  a  raised  platform,  the  bcrna,  in  front 
of  which  was  the  altar.  Transepts  sometimes  expanded  to 
right  and  left  before  the  altar,  under  which  was  the  confi-s- 
sio  or  shrine  of  the  titular  saint  or  martyr. 

An  atrium  or  forecourt  surrounded  by  a  covered  arcade 
preceded  the  basilica  proper,  the  arcade  at  the  front  of  the 
church  forming  a  porch  or  uarthex,  which,  however,  in  some 
cases  existed  without  the  atrium.  The  exterior  was  ex- 
tremely plain  ;  the  interior,  on  the  contrary,  was  resplen- 
dent with  incrustations  of  veined  marble  and  with  sumptuous 
decorations  in  glass  mosaic  (called  opus  Grecanicum)  on  a 
blue  or  golden  ground.  Especially  rich  were  the  half-dome 
of  the  apse  and  the  wall-space  surrounding  its  arch  and 
called  the  triumphal  arch  ;  next  in  decorative  importance 
came  the  broad  band  of  wall  beneath  the  clearstory  win- 
dow-,. Upon  these  surfaces  the  mosaic-workers  wrought 
with  minute  cubes  of  colored  glass  pictures  and  symbols 
almost  imperishable,  in  which  the  glow  of  color  and  a  cer- 
tain decorative  grandeur  of  effect  in  the  composition  went 
far  to  atone  for  the  uncouth  drawing.  With  growing 
wealth  and  an  increasingly  elaborate  ritual,  the  furniture 
and  equipments  of  the  church  assumed  greater  architectural 
importance.  A  large  rectangular  space  was  retained  for 
the  choir  in  front  of  the  bema,  and  enclosed  by  a  breast* 
high  parapet  of  marble,  richly  inlaid.  On  either  side  were 
the  pulpits  or  ambones  for  the  Gospel  and  Epistle.  A  lofty 
canopy  was  built  over  the  altar,  the  baldaquin,  supported  on 
four  marble  columns.  A  few  basilicas  were  built  with  side- 
.  in  two  stories,  as  in  S.  I.oren/.o  and  Sta.  Agnese. 
Adjoining  the  basilica  in  the  earlier  examples  were  the 
baptistery  and  the  tomb  of  the  saint,  Circular  or  polygonal 
buildings  usually  ;  but   in   later  times  these  were   replaced 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  113 

by  the  font  or  baptismal  chapel  in  the  church  and  the  con- 
frssio  under  the  altar. 

Of  the  two  Constantinian  basilicas  in  Rome,  the  one 
dedicated  to  St.  Peter  was  demolished  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury ;  that  of  St.  John  Lateran  has  been  so  disfigured  by 
modern  alterations  as  to  be  unrecognizable.  The  former  of 
the  two  adjoined  the  site  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  in 
the  circus  of  Caligula  and  Nero  ;  it  was  five-aisled,  380 
feet  in  length  by  2 1 2  feet  in 
width.  The  nave  was  80 
feet  wide  and  100  feet 
high,  and  the  dispropor-  \ 
tionately  high  clearstory 
wall  rested  on  horizontal 
architraves  carried  by  col- 

.  ...  FIG.    67. — PLAN    OF   THE    BASILICA   OF   ST.    PAUL. 

umns.  The  impressive  di- 
mensions and  simple  plan  of  this  structure  gave  it  a 
majesty  worthy  of  its  rank  as  the  first  church  of  Christen- 
dom. St.  Paul  beyond  the  Walls  (S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura), 
built  in  386  by  Theodosius,  resembled  St.  Peter's  closely 
in  plan  (Figs.  67,  68).  Destroyed  by  fire  in  1821,  it  has 
been  rebuilt  with  almost  its  pristine  splendor,  and  is,  next 
to  the  modern  St.  Peter's  and  the  Pantheon,  the  most  im- 
pressive place  of  worship  in  Rome.  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,* 
though  smaller  in  size,  is  more  interesting  because  it  so 
largely  retains  its  original  aspect,  its  Renaissance  ceiling  hap- 
pily harmonizing  with  its  simple  antique  lines.  Ionic  col- 
umns support  architraves  to  carry  the  clearstory,  as  in  St. 
Peter's.  In  most  other  examples,  St.  Paul's  included,  arches 
turned  from  column  to  column  perform  this  function.  The 
first  known  case  of  such  use  of  classic  columns  as  arch-bear- 
ers was  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalato  ;  it  also  appears 
in  Syrian  buildings  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  a.u. 

*  Hereafter  the  abbreviation  S.  M.  will  be  generally  used  instead  of  the 
name  Santa  Maria. 
8 


H4 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  basilica  remained  the  model  for  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture in  Rome,  without  noticeable  change  either  of  plan 
or  detail,  until  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.  All  the  earlier 
examples  employed  columns  and  capitals  taken  from  ancient 

ruins,  often  incongruous 
and  ill-matched  in  size  and 
order.  San  Clemente  ( i  < HS4) 
has  retained  almost  intact 
its  early  aspect,  its  choir- 
enclosure,  baldaquin,  and 
ambones  having  been  well 
preserved  or  carefully  re- 
stored. Other  important 
basilicas  are  mentioned  in 
the  list  of  monuments  on 
pages  118,  119. 

JtAVENNA.  The  fifth  and 
s  i  .\  t  h  centuries  endowed 
Ravenna  with  a  number  of 
notable  buildings  which, 
with  the  exception  of  the 
cathedral,  demolished  in  the 
last  century,  have  been  pre- 
served to  our  day.  Subdued 
by  the  Byzantine  emperof 
Justinian  in  537,  Ravenna  became  the  meeting-ground 
irly  Christian  and  Byzantine  traditions  and  the  basili- 
Can  and  circular  plans  are  both  represented.  The  two 
churches  dedicated  to  St.  Apollinaris,  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo 
(520)  in  the  city,  and  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  (538)  three 
miles  distant  from  the  city,  in  what  was  formerly  the 
port,  are  especially  interesting  for  their  fine  mosaics, 
and  for  the  impost-blocks  interposed  above  the  capitals  of 
their  columns  to  receive  the  springing  of  the  pier-arches. 
These  blo<  ks  appear  to  be  somewhat  crude  modifications 


- 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  1 1  5 

ol  the  fragmentary  architraves  or  entablatures  employed 
in  classic  Roman  architecture  to  receive  the  springing 
of  vaults  sustained  by  columns,  and  became  common  in 
Byzantine  structures  (Fig.  73).  The  use  of  external  arcad- 
ing  to  give  some  slight  adornment  to  the  walls  of  the 
second  of  the  above-named  churches,  and  the  round  bell- 
towers  of  brick  which  adjoined  both  of  them,  were  first 
steps  toward  the  development  of  the  "wall-veil"  or  ar- 
caded  decoration,  and  of  the  campaniles,  which  in  later  cen- 
turies became  so  characteristic  of  north  Italian  churches 
(see  Chapter  XIII.).  In  Rome  the  campaniles  which  ac- 
company many  of  the  mediaeval  basilicas  are  sauare  and 
pierced  with  many  windows. 

The  basilican  form  of  church  became  general  in  Italy,  a 
large  proportion  of  whose  churches  continued  to  be  built 
with  wooden  roofs  and  with  but  slight  deviations  from  the 
original  type,  long  after  the  appearance  of  the  Gothic  style. 
The  chief  departures  from  early  precedent  were  in  the  ex- 
terior, which  was  embellished  with  marble  incrustations 
as  in  .S.  Miniato  (Florence)  ;  or  with  successive  stories 
of  wall-arcades,  as  in  many  churches  in  Pisa  and  Lucca 
(see  Fig.  90)  ;  until  finally  the  introduction  of  clustered 
piers,  pointed  arches,  and  vaulting,  gradually  transformed 
the  basilican  into  the  Italian  Romanesque  and  Gothic 
styles. 

SYRIA  AND  THE  EAST.  In  Syria,  particularly  the  central 
portion,  the  Christian  architecture  of  the  3d  to  8th  centuries 
produced  a  number  of  very  interesting  monuments.  The 
churches  built  by  Constantine  in  Syria — the  Church  of  the 
Nativity  in  Bethlehem  (nominally  built  by  his  mother),  of 
the  Ascension  at  Jerusalem,  the  magnificent  octagonal 
church  on  the  site  of  the  Temple,  and  finally  the  some- 
what similar  church  at  Antioch — were  the  most  notable 
Christian  monuments  in  Syria.  The  first  three  on  the  list, 
still  extant  in  part  at  least,  have  been  so  altered  by  later 


I  10 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE 


additions  and  restorations  that  their  original  forms  are  only 
approximately  known  from  early  descriptions.  They  were 
all  of  large  size,  and  the  octagonal  church  on  the  Temple 
platform  was  of  exceptional  magnificence.*  The  columns 
and  a  part  of  the  marble  incrustations  of  the  early  design 
are  still  visible  in  the  "  Mosque  of  Omar,"  but  most  of  the 
old  work  is  concealed  by  the  decoration  of  tiles  applied 
by  the  Moslems,  and  the  whole  interior  aspect  altered  by 
the  wood-and-plaster  dome  with  which  they  replaced  the 

simpler  roof  of  the  original. 
Christian  architecture  in 
Syria  soon,  however,  di- 
verged from  Roman  tradi- 
tions. T h e  abundance  of 
hard  stone,  the  total  lack  of 
clay  or  brick,  the  remote- 
from  Rome,  led  t<>  a 
peculiar  independence  and 
originality  in  the  forms  and 
details  of  the  ecclesiastical 
as  well  as  of  the  domestic: 
architecture  of  central 
Syria.  These  innovations  upon  Roman  models  resulted  in 
the  development  of  distinct  types  which,  but  for  the  arrest 
of  progress  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in  the  seventh 
century,  WOOld  doubtless  have  inaugurated  a  new  and  in- 
dependent style  of  architecture.      Piers  of  masonry  came 

•  Ftryuwon  (History  of  Arckittctwt,  vol.  ii..  pp.  408,  432)  contend! 
that  this  was  the  real  (onstantinian  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  that 
the  one  called  to-day  by  that  name  was  erected  by  the  Crusaders  in  the 
twelfth  century.  The  more  general  view  is  that  the  latter  was  originally 
built  by  <  onst.mtine  as  the  Church  of  the  Sepulchre,  though  subsequently 
much  altered,  and  that  the  octagonal  edifice  was  also  his  work,  but  erected 
under  some  other  name.  Whether  this  church  was  later  incorporated  in 
the  "  Mosque  of  Omar."  or  merely  furnished  some  of  the  materials  for  its 
construction,  is  not  quite  clear. 


FIG.   69.— CHC'KCH   AT   KALB   LOl'ZEII. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


117 


to  replace  the  classic  column,  as  at  Tafkha  (third  or  fourth 
century),  Rouheiha  and  Kalb  Louzeh  (fifth  century  ?  Fig. 
69)  ;  the  ceilings  in  the  smaller  churches  were  often 
formed  with  stone  slabs  ;  the  apse  was  at  first  confined 
within  the  main  rectangle  of  the  plan,  and  was  sometimes 
square.  The  exterior  assumed  a  striking  and  pictur- 
esque variety  of  forms  by  means  of  turrets,  porches,  and 
gables.  Singularly  enough,  vaulting  hardly  appears  at  all, 
though  the  arch  is  used  with  fine  effect.  Conventional  and 
monastic  groups  of  buildings  appear  early  in  Syria,  and 
that  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites  at  Kelat  Seman  is  an  impres- 
sive and  interesting  monument.  Four  three-aisled  wings 
form  the  arms  of  a  cross,  meet- 
ing in  a  central  octagonal  open 
court,  in  the  midst  of  which 
stood  the  column  of  the  saint. 
The  eastern  arm  of  the  cross 
forms  a  complete  basilica  of 
itself,  and  the  whole  cross  meas- 
ures 330  x  300  feet.  Chapels, 
cloisters,  and  cells  adjoin  the 
main  edifice. 

Circular  and  polygonal  plans 
appear  in  a  number  of  Syrian 
examples  of  the  early  sixth  cen- 
tury. Their  most  striking  feat- 
ure is  the  inscribing  of  the  circle  or  polygon  in  a  square 
which  forms  the  exterior  outline,  and  the  use  of  four 
niches  to  fill  out  the  corners.  This  occurs  at  Kelat  Seman 
in  a  small  double  church,  perhaps  the  tomb  and  chapel 
of  a  martyr  ;  in  the  cathedral  at  Bozrah  (Fig.  70),  and  in 
the  small  domical  church  of  St.  George  at  Ezra.  These 
were  probably  the  prototypes  of  many  Byzantine  churches 
like  St.  Sergius  at  Constantinople,  and  San  Vitale  at 
Ravenna  .(Fig.  74),  though   the  exact  dates  of  the  Syrian 


:athedral  at  bozrah. 


Il8  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

churches  are  not  known.  The  one  at  Ezra  is  the  only 
one  of  the  three  which  has  a  dome,  the  others  having  been 
roofed  with  wood. 

The  interesting  domestic  architecture  of  this  period  is 
preserved  in  whole  towns  and  villages  in  the  Hauran,  which, 
deserted  at  the  Arab  conquest,  have  never  been  reoccupied 
and  remain  almost  intact  but  for  the  decay  of  their  wooden 
roofs.  They  are  marked  by  dignity  and  simplicity  of  de- 
sign, and  by  the  same  picturesque  massing  of  gables  and 
roofs  and  porches  which  has  already  been  remarked  of  the 
churches.  The  arches  are  broad,  the  columns  rather  heavy, 
the  mouldings  few  and  simple,  and  the  scanty  carving  vig- 
orous and  effective,  often  strongly  Byzantine  in  type. 

Elsewhere  in  the  Eastern  world  are  many  early  churches 
of  which  even  the  enumeration  would  exceed  the  limits  of 
this  work.  Salonica  counts  a  number  of  basilicas  and  sev- 
eral domical  churches.  The  church  of  St.  George,  now  a 
mosque,  is  of  early  date  and  thoroughly  Roman  in  plan  and 
ion,  of  the  same  class  with  the  Pantheon  and  the  tomb 
of  Helena,  in  both  of  which  a  massive  circular  wall  is  light- 
ened by  eight  niches.  At  Angora  (Ancyra),  Hierapolis,. 
Pergamus,  and  other  points  in  Asia  Minor  ;  in  Egypt,  Nu- 
bia, and  Algiers,  are  many  examples  of  both  circular  and 
basilican  edifices  of  the  early  centuries  of  Christianity.  In 
Constantinople  there  remains  but  a  single  representative  of 
the  basilican  type,  the  church  of  St.  John  Studius,  now  the 
Emir  Akhor  mosque. 

M0NUMENT8:  ROMI  :  4th  century  :  St.  Peter's,  Sta.  Costanza,  330?  ; 
Ma.  Pudentiana,  335  (rebuilt  1598);  tomb  of  St.  Helena;  Baptistery  of 
<  onstantine  ;  St.  Paul's  beyond  the  Walls,  386  ;  St.  John  Lateral]  (wholly 
remodelled  in  modern  times).  5th  century  :  Baptistery  of  St.  John  Lateran  ; 
Sta.  Sabina,  425  ;  Sta.  Maria  Maggiorc,  432  ;  S.  I'ietro  in  Vincoli,  442 
(greatly  altered  in  modern  times).  6th  century:  S.  Lorenzo,  5S0  (the 
older  portion  in  two  stories)  ;  SS.  Cosmo  e  Damiano.  7th  century  :  Sta. 
Agnese,  625  ;  S.  Giorgio  in    Velabro,   682.     8th   century  :   Sta.    Maria  in 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  I  19 

Cosmedin  ;  S.  Crisogono.  9th  century  :  S.  Nereo  ed  Achilleo ;  Sta.  Pras- 
sede ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Dominica.  12th  and  13th  centuries:  S.  Clemente, 
1 1 18  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere  ;  S.  Lorenzo  (nave)  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Ara 
Coeli.  RAVENNA  :  Baptistery  of  S.  John,  400  (?)  ;  S.  Francesco  ;  S.  Gio- 
vanni Evangelista,  425  ;  Sta.  Agata,  430  ;  S.  Giovanni  Battista,  439 ; 
tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  450  ;  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo,  500-520  ;  S.  Apollinare 
in  Classe,  538  ;  St.  Victor  ;  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin  (the  Arian  Baptist- 
ery) ;  tomb  of  Theodoric  (Sta.  Maria  della  Rotonda,  a  decagonal  two- 
storied  mausoleum,  with  a  low  dome  cut  from  a  single  stone  36  feet  in 
diameter),  530-540.  Italy  in  General  :  basilica  at  Parenzo,  6th  cen- 
tury ;  cathedral  and  Sta.  Fosca  at  Torcello,  640-700  ;  at  Naples  Sta. 
Restituta,  7th  century  ;  others,  mostly  of  ioth-i3th  centuries,  at  Murano 
near  Venice,  at  Florence  (S.  Miniato),  Spoleto,  Toscanella,  etc.  ;  bap- 
tisteries at  Asti,  Florence,  Nocera  dei  Pagani,  and  other  places.  In  Sy- 
ria and  the  East  :  basilicas  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  of  the 
Sepulchre  and  of  the  Ascension  at  Jerusalem  ;  also  polygonal  church 
on  Temple  platform  ;  these  all  of  4th  century.  Basilicas  at  Bakouzah, 
Hass,  Kelat  Seman,  Kalb  Louzeh,  Rouheiha,  Tourmanin,  etc.  ;  circular 
churches,  tombs,  and  baptisteries  at  Bozrah,  Ezra,  Hass,  Kelat  Seman, 
Rouheiha,  etc.  ;  all  these  4th-8th  centuries.  Churches  at  Constantinople 
(Holy  Wisdom,  St.  John  Studius,  etc.),  Hierapolis,  Pergamus,  and  Thes- 
salonica  (St.  Demetrius,  "  Eski  Djuma")  ;  in  Egypt  and  Nubia  (Djemla, 
Announa,  Ibreem,  Siout,  etc.)  ;  at  Orleansville  in  Algeria.  (For  churches, 
etc.,  of  8th-ioth  centuries  in  the  West,  see  Chapter  XIII.) 


CHAPTER  XL 

BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Essenwein,  Hiibsch, 
Von  Quast.  Also,  Bayet,  L Art  Byzantin.  Choisy,  L  Art 
de  bdtir  chcz  les  Byzantins.  Lethaby  and  Swainson,  Sancta 
Sophia.  Ongania,  La  Basilica  di  San  Marco.  Pulgher,  An- 
cicnncs  EgSses  ByaanHnes  de  Constantinople.  Salzenberg, 
Alkhristlichc  Baudrnkmalc  von  Constantinopel.  Texier  and 
Pullan,  Byzantine  Architecture. 

ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTER.  The  decline  and  fall  of  Rome 
arrested  the  development  of  the  basilican  style  in  the  West, 
as  did  the  Arab  conquest  later  in  Syria.  It  was  otheru 
in  the  new  Eastern  capital  founded  by  Constantine  in  the 
ancient  Byzantium,  which  was  rising  in  power  and  wealth 
while  Rome  lay  in  ruins.  Situated  at  the  strategic  point 
of  the  natural  highway  of  commerce  between  East  and 
West,  salubrious  and  enchantingly  beautiful  in  its  sur- 
roundings the  new  capital  grew  rapidly  from  provincial 
insignificance  to  metropolitan  importance.  Its  founder 
had  embellished  it  with  an  extraordinary  wealth  of  build- 
in:^,  in  whit  h,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  trained  architet  ts, 
quantity  and  cost  doubtless  outran  quality.  But  at  least 
the  tatnenesfl  of  blindly  followed  precedent  was  avoided, 
and  this  departure  from  traditional  tenets  contributed  un- 
doubtedly to  the  originality  of  Byzantine  architecture.  A 
lar^e  part  of  the  artisans  employed  in  building  were  then, 
as  BOW,  from  Asia  Minor  and  the  /Egean  Islands,  (ireek  in 
race  if  not  in  name.  An  Oriental  taste  for  brilliant  and  har- 
monious color  and  for  minute  decoration  spread  over  broad 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE.  121 

surfaces  must  have  been  stimulated  by  trade  with  the  Far 
East  and  by  constant  contact  with  Oriental  peoples,  cos- 
tumes, and  arts.  An  Asiatic  origin  may  also  be  assigned 
to  the  methods  of  vaulting  employed,  far  more  varied  than 
the  Roman,  not  only  in  form  but  also  in  materials  and  pro- 
cesses. From  Roman  architecture,  however,  the  Byzan- 
tines borrowed  the  fundamental  notion  of  their  structural 
art ;  that,  namely,  of  distributing  the  weights  and  strains 
of  their  vaulted  structures  upon  isolated  and  massive  points 
of  support,  strengthened  by  deep  buttresses,  internal  or  ex- 
ternal, as  the  case  might  be.  Roman,  likewise,  was  the  use 
of  polished  monolithic  columns,  and  the  incrustation  of  the 
piers  and  walls  with  panels  of  variegated  marble,  as  well  as 
the  decoration  of  plastered  surfaces  by  fresco  and  mosaic, 
and  the  use  of  opus  sectile  and  opus  Alexandrinum  for  the 
production  of  sumptuous  marble  pavements.  In  the  first  of 
these  processes  the  color-figures  of  the  pattern  are  formed 
each  of  a  single  piece  of  marble  cut  to  the  shape  required  ; 
in  the  second  the  pattern  is  compounded  of  minute  squares, 
triangles,  and  curved  pieces  of  uniform  size.  Under  these 
combined  influences  the  artists  of  Constantinople  wrought 
out  new  problems  in  construction  and  decoration,  giving  to 
all  that  they  touched  a  new  and  striking  character. 

There  is  no  absolute  line  of  demarcation,  chronological, 
geographical,  or  structural,  between  Early  Christian  and 
Byzantine  architecture.  But  the  former  was  especially 
characterized  by  the  basilica  with  three  or  five  aisles,  and 
the  use  of  wooden  roofs  even  in  its  circular  edifices  ;  the 
vault  and  dome,  though  not  unknown,  being  exceedingly 
rare.  Byzantine  architecture,  on  the  other  hand,  rarely 
produced  the  simple  three-aisled  or  five-aisled  basilica,  and 
nearly  all  its  monuments  were  vaulted.  The  dome  was  es- 
pecially frequent,  and  Byzantine  architecture  achieved  its 
highest  triumphs  in  the  use  of  the  pendentive,  as  the  trian- 
gular spherical  surfaces  are  called,  by  the  aid  of  which  a 


122  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

dome  can  be  supported  on  the  summits  of  four  arches  span- 
ning the  four  sides  of  a  square,  as  explained  later.  There 
is  as  little  uniformity  in  the  plans  of  Byzantine  buildings 
as  in  the  forms  of  the  vaulting.  A  few  types  of  church- 
plan,  however,  predominated  locally  in  one  or  another  cen- 
tre ;  but  the  controlling  feature  of  the  style  was  the  dome 
and  the  constructive  system  with  which  it  was  associated. 
The  dome,  it  is  true,  had  long  been  used  by  the  Romans, 
but  always  on  a  circular  plan,  as  in  the  Pantheon.  It  is 
also  a  fact  that  pendentives  have  been  found  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  older  than  the  oldest  Byzantine  examples.  But 
the  special  feature  characterizing  the  Byzantine  dome  on 
pendentives  was  its  almost  exclusive  association  with  plans 
having  piers  and  columns  or  aisles,  with  the  dome  as  the 
central  and  dominant  feature  of  the  complex  design  | 
plans,  Figs.  74,  75,  78).  Another  strictly  Byzantine  pra<  ti<  e 
was  the  piercing  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  dome  with  win- 
dows forming  a  circle  or  crown,  and  the  final  development 
of  this  feature  into  a  high  drum. 

CONSTRUCTION.  Still  another  divergence  from  Roman 
methods  was  in  the  substitution  of  brick  and  stone  ma- 
sonry for  concrete.  Brick  was  used  for  the  mass  as  well  as 
the  facing  of  walls  and  piers,  and  for  the  vaulting  in  many 
buildings  mainly  built  of  stone.  Stone  was  used  either 
alone  or  in  combination  with  brick,  the  latter  appearing 
in  bands  of  four  or  five  courses  at  intervals  of  three  or 
four  feet.  In  later  work  a  regular  alternation  of  the  two 
materials,  course  for  course,  was  not  uncommon.  In  piers 
intended  to  support  unusually  heavy  loads  the  stone  was 
very  carefully  cut  and  fitted,  and  sometimes  tied  and 
clamped  with  iron. 

Vaults  were  built  sometimes  of  brick,  sometimes  of  cut 
stone  ;  in  a  few  cases  even  of  earthenware  jars  fitting  into 
each  other,  and  laid  up  in  a  continuous  contracting  spiral 
from  the  base  to  the  crown  of  a  dome,  as  in  San  Vitale  at 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 


123 


Ravenna.  Ingenious  processes  for  building  vaults  without 
centrings  were  made  use  of — processes  inherited  from  the 
drain-builders  of  ancient  Assyria,  and  still  in  vogue  in  Ar- 
menia, Persia,  and  Asia  Minor.  The  groined  vault  was 
common,  but  always  approximated  the  form  of  a  dome,  by 
a  longitudinal  convexity  upward  in  the  intersecting  vaults. 
The  aisles  of  Hagia  Sophia  *  display  a  remarkable  variety 
of  forms  in  the  vaulting. 

DOMES.  The  dome,  as  we  have  seen,  early  became  the 
most  characteristic  feature  of  Byzantine  architecture  ;  and 
especially  the  dome  on  pendentives.  If  a  hemisphere  be  cut 
by  five  planes,  four  per- 
pendicular to  its  base  and 
bounding  a  square  in- 
scribed therein,  and  the 
fifth  plane  parallel  to  the 
base  and  tangent  to  the 
semicircular  intersections 
made  by  the  first  four, 
there  will  remain  of  the 
original  surface  only  four 
triangular  spaces  bounded 
by  arcs  of  circles.  These 
are  called  pendentives  (Fig. 
71  a).  When  these  are  built 
up  of  masonry,  each  course 
forms  a  species  of  arch,  by  virtue  of  its  convexity.  At 
the  crown  of  the  four  arches  on  which  they  rest,  these 
courses  meet  and  form  a  complete  circle,  perfectly  stable 
and  capable  of  sustaining  any  superstructure  that  does  not 
by  excessive  weight  disrupt  the  whole  fabric  by  overthrow- 

*  "St.  Sophia,"  the  common  name  of  this  church,  is  a  misnomer.  It 
was  not  dedicated  to  a  saint  at  all,  but  to  the  Divine  Wisdom  (Hagia 
Sophia),  which  name  the  Turks  have  retained  in  the  softened  form  "  Aya 
Sofia." 


FIG.    71. — DIAGRAM    OF    PENDENTIVES. 


124  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

ing  the  four  arches  which  support  it.  Upon  these  pen- 
dentives,  then,  a  new  dome  may  be  started  of  any  desired 
curvature,  or  even  a  cylindrical  drum  to  support  a  still 
loftier  dome,  as  in  the  later  churches  (Fig.  71  b).  This 
method  of  covering  a  square  is  simpler  than  the  groined 
vault,  having  no  sharp  edges  or  intersections  ;  it  is  at  least 
as  effective  architecturally,  by  reason  of  its  greater  height 
in  the  centre  ;  and  is  equally  applicable  to  successive  bays 
of  an  oblong,  cruciform,  and  even  columnar  building.  In 
the  great  cisterns  at  Constantinople  vast  areas  are  covered 
by  rows  of  small  domes  supported  on  ranges  of  columns. 

The  earlier  domes  were  commonly  pierced  with  windows 
at  the  base,  this  apparent  weakening  of  the  vault  being  com- 
pensated for  by  strongly  buttressing  the  piers  between  the 
windows,  as  in  Hagia  Sophia.  Here  forty  windows  form  a 
crown  of  light  at  the  spring  of  the  dome,  producing  an  ef- 
lYi  t  almost  as  striking  as  that  of  the  simple  oculus  of  the 
Pantheon,  and  celebrated  by  ancient  writers  in  the  most 
extravagant  terms.  In  later  and  smaller  churches  a  high 
drum  was  introduced  beneath  the  dome,  in  order  to  secure, 
by  means  of  longer  windows,  more  light  than  could  be  ob- 
tained by  merely  piercing  the  diminutive  domes. 

Buttressing  was  well  understood  by  the  Byzantines, 
whose  plans  were  skilfully  devised  to  provide  internal 
abutments,  which  were  often  continued  above  the  roofs  of 
the  side-aisles  to  prop  the  main  vaults,  pre* \t  was 

done   by    the    Romans    in    their    therm. e  and   similar  halls. 

But  the  Byzantines,  while  adhering  less  strictly  than  the 

Romans  to  traditional  forms  and  processes,  and  displaying 
much  more  ready  contrivance  and  special  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends,  never  worked  out  this  pregnant  structural 
principle  to  its  logical  conclusion  as  did  the  Gothic  archi- 
-  of  Western  Europe  a  few  centuries  later. 
DECORATION.  The  exteriors  of  Byzantine  buildings  (ex- 
cept  in   some  of  the  small   churches   of   late   date)  were 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE. 


\2 


generally  bare  and  lacking  in  beauty.  The  interiors,  on 
the  contrary,  were  richly  decorated,  color  playing  a  much 
larger  part  than  carving  in  the  designs.  Painting  was  re- 
sorted to  only  in  the  smaller  buildings,  the  more  durable 
and  splendid  medium  of  mosaic  being  usually  preferred. 
This  was,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  the  vaults  and  to  those  por- 
tions of  the  wall-surfaces  embraced  by  the  vaults  above 
their  springing.  The  colors  were  brilliant,  the  background 
being  usually  of  gold,  though  sometimes  of  blue  or  a  deli- 
cate green.  Biblical  scenes,  symbolic  and  allegorical  fig- 
ures and  groups  of  saints  adorned  the  larger  areas,  partic- 
ularly the  half-dome  of  the  apse,  as  in  the  basilicas.  The 
smaller  vaults,  the  sof- 
fits of  arches,  borders 
of  pictures,  and  other 
minor  surfaces,  received 
a  more  conventional 
decoration  of  crosses, 
monograms,  and  set 
patterns. 

The  walls  throughout 
were  sheathed  with 
slabs  of  rare  marble  in 
panels  so  disposed  that 
the  veining  should  pro- 
duce symmetrical  fig- 
ures. The  panels  were 
framed  in  billet-mould- 
ings, derived  perhaps 
from  classic  dentils  ;  the  billets  or  projections  on  one  side 
the  moulding  coming  opposite  the  spaces  on  the  other.  This 
seems  to  have  been  a  purely  Byzantine  feature. 

CARVED  DETAILS.  Internally  the  different  stories  were 
marked  by  horizontal  bands  and  cornices  of  white  or  inlaid 
marble  richly  carved.     The  arch-soffits,  the  archivolts  or 


FIG.    72.— SPANDRIL.       HACIA    SOI'HIA. 


126 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


hands  around  the  arches,  and  the  spandrils  between  them 
were  covered  with  minute  and  intricate  incised  carving. 
The  motives  used,  though  based  on  the  acanthus  and  an- 
themion,  were  given  a  wholly  new  aspect.  The  relief  was 
low  and  flat,  the  leaves  sharp  and  crowded,  and  the  effect 
rich  and  lacelike,  rather  than  vigorous.  It  was,  however, 
well  adapted  to  the  Covering  of  large  areas  where  genera] 
effect  was  more  important  than  detail.  Even  the  capital! 
were  treated  in  the  same  spirit.  The  impost-block  was  al- 
most universal,  except  where  its  use  was  rendered  unnec- 
essary by  giving  to  the  capital  itself  the  massive  pyrami- 
dal form  required  to 
receive  properly  the 
spring  of  the  arch  or 
vault.  In  such  cases 
(more  frequent  in  Con- 
stantinople than  else* 
where)  the  surface  of 
the  capital  was  simply 
covered  with  incised 
carving  of  foliage,  l>as- 

kctwork,  monograms. 
etc.  ;  rudimentary  vo- 
lutes in  a  few  cases 
recalling  classic  tra- 
ditions (Figs.  72,  73). 
The  mouldings  were 
weak  and  poorly  exe- 
cuted, and  the  vigor- 
ous profiles   of   classic 

cornices  were  only  remotely  suggested  by  the    charai  ter- 

•ions  of  mouldings  which  took  their  place. 
PLAN8.      The  remains  of  I'yzaiitine  architecture  are  almost 
exclusively   Of   churches   and    baptisteries,  but    the    plans  of 
eedingly  varied.      The    first   radical    departure 


ITAI     WITH    IMPOST    II  <"   K. 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE.  1 27 

from  the  basilica-type  seems  to  have  been  the  adoption  of 
circular  or  polygonal  plans,  such  as  had  usually  served  only 
for  tombs  and  baptisteries.  The  Baptistery  of  St.  John  at 
Ravenna  (early  fifth  century)  is  classed  by  many  authorities 
as  a  Byzantine  monument.  In  the  early  years  of  the  sixth 
century  the  adoption  of  this  model 
had  become  quite  general,  and  with 
it  the  development  of  domical  de- 
sign began  to  advance.  The  church 
of  St.  Sergius  at  Constantinople 
(Fig.  74),  originally  joined  to  a  short 
basilica  dedicated  to  St.  Bacchus 
(afterward  destroyed  by  the  Turks), 
as  in  the  double  church  at  Kelat 
Seman,  was  built  about  520  ;  that 
of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  was  be- 
gun a  few  years  later;  both  are  FIG-  74- _ST-  SERGIUS>  CON- 
STANTINOPLE. 

domical  churches  on  an  octagonal 

plan,  with  an  exterior  aisle.  Semicircular  niches — four  in  St. 
Sergius  and  eight  in  San  Vitale — projecting  into  the  aisle, 
enlarge  somewhat  the  area  of  the  central  space  and  giVe  va- 
riety to  the  internal  effect.  The  origin  of  this  characteristic 
feature  may  be  traced  to  the  eight  niches  of  the  Pantheon, 
through  such  intermediate  examples  as  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Medica  at  Rome.  The  true  pendentive  does  not  appear  in 
these  two  churches.  Timidly  employed  up  to  that  time  in 
small  structures,  it  received  a  remarkable  development  in 
the  magnificent  church  of  Hagia  Sophia,  built  by  Anthe- 
mius  of  Tralles  and  Isodorus  of  Miletus,  under  Justinian, 
532-538  a.d.  In  the  plan  of  this  marvellous  edifice  (Fig. 
75)  the,  dome  rests  upon  four  mighty  arches  bounding  a 
square,  into  two  of  which  open  the  half-domes  of  semicir- 
cular apses.  These  apses  are  penetrated  and  extended  each 
by  two  smaller  niches  and  a  central  arch,  and  the  whole 
vast  nave,  measuring  over   200  x  100  feet,  is   flanked  by 


128 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


enormously  wide  aisles  connecting  at  the  front  with  a 
majestic  narthex.  Huge  transverse  buttresses,  as  in  the  Ba- 
silica of  Constantine  (with  whose 
structural  design  this  building 
shows  striking  affinities),  divide 
the  aisles  each  into  three  sec- 
tions. The  plan  suggests  that 
of  St.  Sergius  cut  in  two,  with  a 
lofty  dome  on  pendentives  over 
a  square  plan  inserted  between 
the  halves.  Thus  was  secured  a 
noble  and  unobstructed  hall  of 
unrivalled  proportions  and  great 
beauty,  covered  by  a  combina- 
tion of  half-domes  increasing  in 
span  and  height  as  they  lead  up 
successively  to  the  stupendous 
central  vault,  which  rises  180  feet  into  the  air  and  fitly 
crowns  the  whole.  The  imposing  effect  of  this  low-curved 
but  loftily-poised  dome,  resting  as  it  does  upon  a  crown  of 
windows,  and  so  disposed  that  its  summit  is  visible  from 
every  point  of  the  nave  (as  may  be  easily  seen  from  an 
examination  of  the  section,  Fig.  76),  is  not  surpassed  in  any 
interior  ever  erected. 


FIG.    75. — FLAN    OF    HAGIA    SOFHIA. 


■ 


V 


i 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE.  131 

The  two  lateral  arches  under  the  dome  are  filled  by  clear- 
story walls  pierced  by  twelve  windows,  and  resting  on  ar- 
cades in  two  stories  carried  by  magnificent  columns  taken 
from  ancient  ruins.  These  separate  the  nave  from  the  side- 
aisles,  which  are  in  two  stories  forming  galleries,  and  are 
vaulted  with  a  remarkable  variety  of  groined  vaults.  All 
the  masses  are  disposed  with  studied  reference  to  the  re- 
sistance required  by  the  many  and  complex  thrusts  exerted 
by  the  dome  and  other  vaults.  That  the  earthquakes  of 
one  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  have  not  de- 
stroyed the  church  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  sufficiency  of 
these  precautions. 

Not  less  remarkable  than  the  noble  planning  and  con- 
struction of  this  church  was  the  treatment  of  scale  and 
decoration  in  its  interior  design.  It  was  as  conspicuously 
the  masterpiece  of  Byzantine  architecture  as  the  Parthenon 
was  of  the  classic  Greek.  With  little  external  beauty,  it  is 
internally  one  of  the  most  perfectly  composed  and  beauti- 
fully decorated  halls  of  worship  ever  erected.  Instead 
of  the  simplicity  of  the  Pantheon  it  displays  the  com- 
plexity of  an  organism  of  admirably  related  parts.  The 
division  of  the  interior  height  into  two  stories  below  the 
spring  of  the  four  arches,  reduces  the  component  parts  of 
the  design  to  moderate  dimensions,  so  that  the  scale  of 
the  whole  is  more  easily  grasped  and  its  vast  size  em- 
phasized by  the  contrast.  The  walls  are  incrusted  with 
precious  marbles  up  to  the  spring  of  the  vaulting  ;  the 
capitals,  spandrils,  and  soffits  are  richly  and  minutely  carved 
with  incised  ornament,  and  all  the  vaults  covered  with 
splendid  mosaics.  Dimmed  by  the  lapse  of  centuries  and 
disfigured  by  the  vandalism  of  the  Moslems,  this  noble  in- 
terior, by  the  harmony  of  its  coloring  and  its  impressive 
grandeur,  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  all  time  (Fig.  77). 

LATER  CHURCHES.  After  the  sixth  century  no  monuments 
were  built  at  all   rivalling   in   scale  the   creations  of  the 


132 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


former  period.  The  later  churches  were,  with  few  excep- 
tions, relatively  small  and  trivial.  Neither  the  plan  nor 
the  general  aspect  of  Hagia  Sophia  seems  to  have  been 
imitated  in  these  later  works.  The  crown  of  dome-windows 
was  replaced  by  a  cylindrical  drum  under  the  dome,  which 
was  usually  of  insignificant  size.  The  exterior  was  treated 
more  decoratively  than  before,  by  means  of  bands  and  in- 
crustations of  colored  marble,  or  alternations  of  stone  and 
brick  ;  and  internally  mosaic  continued  to  be  executed  with 
great  skill  and  of  great  beauty  until  the  tenth  century,  wlu-n 
the  art  rapidly  declined.  These  later  churches,  of  which  a 
number  were  spared  by  the  Turks,  are,  therefore,  generally 
pleasing  and  elegant  rather  than  striking  or  imposing. 

foreign  monuments.  The  influence  of  Byzantine  art 
was  wide-spread,  both  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  leading 
city  of  civilization  through  the  Dark  Ages,  Constantino- 
ple influenced  Italy  through  her 
political  and  commercial  relations 
with  Ravenna,  (lenoa,  and  Yen- 
ice.  The  church  of  St.  Mark  in 
the  latter  city  was  one  result  of 
this  influence  (Figs.  78,  79).  I'.e- 
gun  in  1063  to  replace  an  earlier 
church  destroyed  by  fire,  it  re- 
ceived through  several  centuries 
additions  not  always  Byzantine  in 
character.  Yet  it  was  mainly  the 
work  of  Byzantine  builders,  who 
copied  most  probably  the  church 
of  the  Apostles  at  Constantinople, 
built  by  Justinian.  The  picturesque  but  wholly  unstructural 
use  of  columns  in  the  entrance  porches,  the  upper  part->  of 
the  facade,  the  wooden  cupolas  over  the  five  domes,  and  the 
pointed  art  ties  in  the  narthex,  are  deviations  from  Byzan- 
tine traditions  dating  in  part  from   the  later   Middle  Ages 


FIG.    78. — PLAN    (IK    ST.    MAKk's, 

VK'. 


l'.YXANTINE    ARCHITECTURE. 


>33 


Nothing  could  well  be  conceived  more  irrational,  from  a 
structural  point  of  view,  than  the  accumulation  of  columns 
in  the  entrance-arches  ;  but  the  total  effect  is  so  pictur- 
esque and  so  rich  in  color,  that  its  architectural  defects 
are  easily  overlooked.  The  external  veneering  of  white 
and    colored  marble  occurs  rarely  in  the  East,  but  became 


FIG.    79. — INTERIOR    OF   ST.    MARK  S. 

a  favorite  practice  in  Venice,  where  it  continued  in  use  for 
five  hundred  years.  The  interior  of  St.  Mark's,  in  some 
respects  better  preserved  than  that  of  Hagia  Sophia,  is 
especially  fine  in  color,  though  not  equal  in  scale  and  gran- 
deur to  the  latter  church.  With  its  five  domes  it  has  less 
unity  of  effect  than  Hagia  Sophia,  but  more  of  the  charm  of 
picturesqueness,  and  its  less  brilliant  and  simpler  lighting 
enhances  the  impressiveness  of  its  more  modest  dimensions. 


134  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  Russia  and  Greece  the  Byzantine  style  has  continued 
to  be  the  official  style  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Russian 
monuments  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  somewhat  fantastic 
aspect,  the  Muscovite  taste  having  introduced  many  inno- 
vations in  the  form  of  bulbous  domes  and  other  eccentric 
details.  In  Greece  there  are  few  large  churches,  and  some 
of  the  most  interesting,  like  the  Cathedral  at  Athens,  are 
almost  toy-like  in  their  diminutiveness.  On  Mt.  Athos 
(Hagion  Oros)  is  an  ancient  monastery  which  still  retains 
its  Byzantine  character  and  traditions.  In  Armenia  (as  at 
Ani,  Etchmiadzin,  etc.)  are  also  interesting  examples  of 
late  Armeno-Byzantine  architecture,  showing  applications 
to  exterior  carved  detail  of  elaborate  interlaced  ornament 
looking  like  a  re-echo  of  Celtic  MSS.  illumination,  itself, 
no  doubt,  originating  in  Byzantine  traditions.  But  the 
greatest  and  most  prolific  offspring  of  Byzantine  architec- 
ture appeared  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  m  tlic 
new  mosque-architecture  of  the  victorious  Turks. 

MONUMENTS.  COMtTAHTWOPLE :  St.  Sergius,  520;  Hagia  Sophia, 
532-53S  ;  Holy  Apostles  by  Justinian  (demolished);  Holy  Peace  (St. 
Irene)  originally  by  Constantine,  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  and  again  in  8th 
century  by  Leo  the  Isaurian  ;  Hagia  Theotokos,  12th  century  (?)  ;  Mone- 
tea  Choral  <"  Kahire  Djami"),  10th  century;  Bantokrator  ;  "1 
Djami."  Cisterns,  especially  the  "  Bin  l'.ir  Direk"  (1,001  columns)  and 
"  Yere  Batan  Serai  ;  "  palaces,  few  vestiges  except  the  great  hall  of  the 
Blachern.x-    palace.      Sai.osh  \  :    Churches— of    Divine    Wisdom 

V.ardias,  St.  F.lias.      RAVKHKA  :   San    Yitale,  527-540.      VMM- 

'   **•,  ^77-1071  ;  "  Fondaco  dei  Turchi,"  now  <  "ivic  Museum, 

12th  century.     Other  churches  at   Athens  an«i    Mt.    Athos;    at    Misitra. 

pllfll.  etc.  ;  in  Armenia  at  Ani.  Dighoor,  F.tchmiad/in. 

Koiithais.    I'it/ounda,    Csunlar.   etc.;  tombs  at   Ani,  Yar/hahan,  etc.  ;  in 

I    at    Kieff  (St.   Basil,  Cathedral),     Kostroma,  Moscow  (Assumption, 

m1,    Yasili   Blaghennoi,    etc.),    Novgorod,  Tchernigoff  ;  at  Kurtea 

iish  in  Wallachia,  and  many  other  places. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

(ARABIAN,    MORESQUE,    PERSIAN,    INDIAN,    AND    TURKISH.) 

Books  Recommended  :  Bourgoin,  Les  Arts  Arabes.  Coste, 
Monuments  du  Caire ;  Monuments  modernes  de  la  Perse. 
Cunningham,  Archozological  Survey  of  India.  Fergusson. 
Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture.  De  Forest,  Indian  Archi- 
tecture and  Ornament.  Flandin  et  Coste,  Voyage  en  Perse. 
Franz-Pasha,  Die  Baukunst  des  Islam.  Gayet,  L  Art  Arabe  ; 
L'Art  Persan.  Girault  de  Prangey,  Essai  sur  f  architecture 
des  Arabes  en  Espagne,  etc.  Goury  and  Jones,  The  Alham- 
bra.  Jacob,  Jeypore  Portfolio  of  Architectural  Details.  Le 
Bon,  La  civilisation  des  Arabes;  Les  monuments  dc  I'Inde. 
Owen  Jones,  Grammar  of  Ornament.  Parvillee,  D Architec- 
ture Ottomane.  Prisse  d'Avennes,  DArt  Arabe.  Texier, 
Description  de  PA  rme'tiie,  la  Perse,  etc. 

GENERAL  SURVEY.  While  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  at 
its  zenith,  the  new  faith  of  Islam  was  conquering  Western 
Asia  and  the  Mediterranean  lands  with  a  fiery  rapidity, 
which  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  history.  The  new  archi- 
tectural styles  which  grew  up  in  the  wake  of  these  con- 
quests, though  differing  widely  in  conception  and  detail  in 
the  several  countries,  were  yet  marked  by  common  charac- 
teristics which  set  them  quite  apart  from  the  contemporary 
Christian  styles.  The  predominance  of  decorative  over 
structural  considerations,  a  predilection  for  minute  surface- 
ornament,  the  absence  of  pictures  and  sculpture,  are  found 
alike  in  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkish,  and  Indian  buildings, 
though  in  varying  degree.  These  new  styles,  however,  were 
almost  entirely  the  handiwork  of  artisans  belonging  to  the 


I3<5  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

conquered  races,  and  many  traces  of  Byzantine,  and  even 
after  the  Crusades,  of  Norman  and  Gothic  design,  are 
recognizable  in  Moslem  architecture.  But  the  Orientalism 
of  the  conquerors  and  their  common  faith,  tinged  with  the 
poetry  and  philosophic  mysticism  of  the  Arab,  stamped 
these  works  of  Copts,  Syrians,  and  Greeks  with  an  unmis- 
takable character  of  their  own,  neither  Byzantine  nor  Early 
Christian. 

ARABIC  ARCHITECTURE.  In  the  building  of  mosques  and 
tombs,  especially  at  Cairo,  this  architecture  reached  a  re- 
markable degree  of  decorative  elegance,  and  sometimes  of 
dignity.  It  developed  slowly,  the  Arabs  not  being  at  the 
outset  a  race  of  builders.  The  early  monuments  of  Syria 
and  Egypt  were  insignificant,  and  the  sacred  Kaabah  at 
Mecca  and  the  mosque  at  Medina  hardly  deserve  to  be 
called  architectural  monuments  at  all.  The  most  impor- 
tant early  works  were  the  mosques  of  Amrou  at  Cairo  (642, 
rebuilt  and  enlarged  early  in  the  eighth  century),  of  El 
Aksah  on  the  Temple  platform  at  Jerusalem  (691,  by  AM- 
el-Melek),  and  of  El  Walid  at  Damascus  (705-732,  recently 
seriously  injured  by  fire).  All  these  were  simple  one- 
storied  structures,  with  flat  wooden  roofs  carried  on  par- 
allel ranges  of  columns  supporting  pointed  arches,  the 
arcades  either  closing  one  side  of  a  square  court,  or  sur- 
rounding it  completely.  The  long  perspectives  of  the  aisles 
and  the  minute  decoration  of  the  archivolts  and  ceilings 
alone  gave  them  architectural  character.  The  beautiful 
Dome  of  the  Rock  (Kubbet-es-Sakhrah,  miscalled  the 
Mosque  <>f  Omar)  on  the  Temple  platform  at  Jerusalem  is 
either  a  remodelled  Constantinian  edifice,  or  in  large  part 
composed  of  the  materials  of  one  (see  p.  1  16). 

The  splendid  mosque  of  Ibn  Touloun  (876-885)  was  built 
on  tin-  same  plan  as  that  of  Amrou,  but  with  cantoned  piers 
instead  of  columns  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  variety 
of  perspective  and  richness  of  effect.     With  the  incoming 


SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAta'MEDAN    ARCHITECTURE.      137 


of  the  Fatimite  dynasty,  however,  and  the  foundation  of 
the  present  city  of  Cairo  (971),  vaulting  began  to  take  the 
place  of  wooden  ceilings,  and  then  appeared  the  germs  of 
those  extraordinary 
applications  of  ge- 
ometry to  decorative 
design  which  were 
henceforth  to  be  the 
most  striking  feature 
of  Arabic  ornament. 
Under  the  Ayub  dy- 
nasty, which  began 
with  Salah-ed-din 
(Saladin)  in  11 72, 
these  elements,  of 
which  the  great  Bar- 
kouk  mosque  (1149) 
is  the  most  imposing 
early  example,  de- 
veloped slowly  in  the 
domical  tombs  of  the 
Kara/ah  at  Cairo, 
and  prepared  the  way 
for  the  increasing 
richness  and  splen- 
dor of  a  long  series 
of  mosques,  among 
which  those  of  Kala- 
oun  ( 1 284-1318),  Sul- 
tan Hassan  (1356),  El  Mu'ayyad  (1415),  and  Kaid  Bey  (1463), 
were  the  most  conspicuous  examples  (Fig.  80).  They  mark, 
indeed,  successive  advances  in  complexity  of  planning,  in- 
genuity of  construction,  and  elegance  of  decoration.  To- 
gether they  constitute  an  epoch  in  Arabic  architecture, 
which  coincides  closely  with  the  development  of  Gothic 


FIG.    80.— MOSQUE   OF   SULTAN    HASSAN,    CAIRO  : 
SANCTUARY. 

a,  Mihrab  :  i,  Mimber. 


133  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

vaulted  architecture  in  Europe,  both  in  the  stages  and  the 
duration  of  its  advances. 

The  mosques  of  these  three  centuries  are,  like  the  mediae- 
val monasteries,  impressive  aggregations  of  buildings  of 
various  sorts  about  a  central  court  of  ablutions.  The  tomb 
of  the  founder,  residences  for  the  imams,  or  priests,  schools 
(madrassah),  and  hospitals  {mdristdn)  rival  in  importance  the 
prayer-chamber.  This  last  is,  however,  the  real  focus  of 
interest  and  splendor  ;  in  some  cases,  as  in  Sultan  Hassan, 
it  is  a  simple  barrel-vaulted  chamber  open  to  the  court  ; 
in  others  an  oblong  arcaded  hall  with  many  small  domes  ; 
or  again,  a  square  hall  covered  with  a  high  pointed  dome 
on  pendentives  of  intricately  beautiful  stalactite-work  (see 
below).  The  ceremonial  requirements  of  the  mosque  were 
simple.  The  court  must  have  its  fountain  of  ablutions 
in  the  centre.  The  prayer-hall,  or  mosque  proper,  must 
have  its  mi/irdb,  or  niche,  to  indicate  the  kibleh,  the  direc- 
tion of  Mecca  ;  and  its  mimber,  or  high,  slender  pulpit  for 
the  reading  of  the  Koran.  These  were  the  only  absolutely 
indispensable  features"  of  a  mosque,  but  as  early  as  the 
ninth  century  the  minaret  was  added,  from  which  the  call 
to  prayer  could  be  sounded  over  the  city  by  the  mueddin. 
Not  until  the  Ayubite  period,  however,  did  it  begin  to  as- 
sume those  forms  of  varied  and  picturesque  grace  which 
lend  to  Cairo  so  much  of  its  architectural  charm. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  While  Arabic  architecture,  in 
Syria  and  Egypt  alike,  possesses  more  decorative  than  con- 
structive originality,  the  beautiful  forms  of  its  domes,  pen- 
dentives, and  minarets,  the  simple  majesty  of  the  great 
pointed  barrel-vaults  of  the  Hassan  mosque  and  similar 
monuments,  and  the  graceful  lines  of  the  universally  used 
pointed  arch,  prove  the  Coptic  builders  and  their  later 
hie  successors  to  have  been  architects  of  great  ability. 
The  Arabic  domes,  as  seen  both  in  the  mosques  and  in  the 
remarkable  group  of  tombs  commonly  called  "tombs  of  the 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       1 39 


Khalifs,"  are  peculiar  not  only  in  their  pointed  outlines 
and  their  rich  external  decoration  of  interlaced  geomet- 
ric motives,  but  still  more  in  the  external  and  internal 
treatment  of  the  pendentives,  exquisitely  decorated  with 
stalactite  ornament. 
This  ornament,  de- 
rived, no  doubt,  from 
a  combination  of 
minute  corbels  with 
rows  of  small  niches, 
and  presumably  of 
Persian  origin,  was 
finally  developed 
into  a  system  of  ex- 
traordinary intricacy, 
applicable  alike  to 
the  topping  of  a  niche 
or  panel,  as  in  the 
great  doorways  of 
the  mosques,  and  to 
the  bracketing  out 
of  minaret  galleries 
(Figs.  81,  82).  Its  ap- 
plications show  a  be- 
wildering variety  of  forms  and  an  extraordinary  aptitude 
for  intricate  geometrical  design. 

decoration.  Geometry,  indeed,  vied  with  the  love  of 
color  in  its  hold  on  the  Arabic  taste.  Ceiling-beams  were 
carved  into  highly  ornamental  forms  before  receiving  their 
rich  color-decoration  of  red,  green,  blue,  and  gold.  The 
doors  and  the  number  were  framed  in  geometric  patterns 
with  slender  intersecting  bars  forming  complicated  star- 
panelling.  The  voussoirs  of  arches  were  cut  into  curious 
interlocking  forms  ;  doorways  and  niches  were  covered  with 
stalactite  corbelling,  and  pavements  and  wall-incrustations, 


FIG.    8l.— MOSQUE   OF    KAID    BEY,    CAIRO. 


140  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

whether  of  marble  or  tiling,  combined  brilliancy  and  har- 
mony of  color  with  the  perplexing  beauty  of  interlaced 
star-and-polygon  patterns  of  marvellous  intricacy.  Stained 
glass  added  to  the  interior  color-effect,  the  patterns  being 
perforated  in  plaster,  with  a  bit  of  colored  glass  set  into 
each  perforation — a  device  not  very  durable,  perhaps,  but 
singularly  decorative. 

OTHER  WOEKS.  Few  of  the  mediaeval  Arabic  palaces 
have  remained  to  our  time.  That  they  were  adorned  with 
a  splendid  prodigality  appears  from  contemporary  accounts. 
This  splendor  was  internal  rather  than  external  ;  the  pal- 
ace, like  all  the  larger  and  richer  dwellings  in  the  East, 
surrounded  one  or  more  courts,  and  presented  externally 
an  almost  unbroken  wall.  The  fountain  in  the  chief  court, 
the  diwdn  (a  great,  vaulted  reception-chamber  opening 
upon  the  court  and  raised  slightly  above  it),  the  ddr,  or 
men's  court,  rigidly  separated  from  the  kareem  for  the 
women,  were  and  are  universal  elements  in  these  great 
dwellings.  The  more  common  city-houses  show  as  their 
most  striking  features  successively  corbelled-out  stories 
and  broad  wooden  eaves,  with  lattice-84  reens  covering 
single  windows,  or  almost  a  whole  facade,  composed  oj 
turned  work  (iiKis/nafriyva),  in  designs  of  great  beauty. 

The  fountains* gates,  and  minor  works  of  the  Arabs  dis- 
play the  same  beauty  in  decoration  and  color,  the  same 
general  forms  and  details  which  characterize  the  larger 
works,  but  it  is  impossible  here  to  particularize  further 
with  regard  to  them. 

Moresque.  Elsewhere  in  Northern  Africa  the  Arabs  pro- 
duced DO  such  important  works  as  in  Egypt,  nor  is  the 
architecture  of  the  other  Moslem  states  so  well  preserved  or 

so  well  known.  Constructive  design  would  appear  to  have 
been  there  even  more  completely  subordinated  to  decora- 
tion ;  tiling  and  plaster-relief  took  the  place  of  more  archi- 
tectural elements  and  materials,  while  horseshoe  and  cusped 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       141 


arches  were  substituted  for  the  simpler  and  more  architect- 
ural pointed  arch  (Fig.  82).  The  courts  of  palaces  and 
public    buildings    were 


surrounded  by  ranges 
of  horseshoe  arches  on 
slender  columns ;  these 
last  being  provided  with 
capitals  of  a  form  rare- 
ly seen  in  Cairo.  Tow- 
ers were  built  of  much 
more  massive  design 
than  the  Cairo  mina- 
rets, usually  with  a 
square,  almost  solid 
shaft  and  a  more  open 
lantern  at  the  top, 
sometimes  in  several 
diminishing  stories. 

HISPANO-MORESQUE. 
The  most  splendid 
phase  of  this  branch  of 
Arabic  architecture  is 
found  not  in  Africa  but 
in  Spain,  which  was 
overrun  in  710-713  by 
the  Moors,  who  estab- 
lished there  the  inde- 
pendent   Khalifate    of 

r  FIG.    82. — MOORISH    DETAIL,    AI.HAMBRA. 

CordOVa.  I  hlS       Was  Showing    stalactite     and  perforated    work, 

later  Split  UP  intO   pettV      Moorish    cusped    arch,    Hispano-Moresque  cap- 

itais,  and  decorative  inscriptions. 

kingdoms,  of  which  the 

most  important  were  Granada,  Seville,  Toledo,  and  Valen- 
cia. This  dismemberment  of  the  Khalifate  led  in  time  to 
the  loss  of  these  cities,  which  were  one  by  one  recovered 
by  the  Christians  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 


142 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


turies  ;  the  capture  of  Granada,  in  1492,  finally  destroying 
the  Moorish  rule. 

The  dominion  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  was  marked  by  a 
high  civilization  and  an  extraordinary  activity  in  building. 
The  style  they  introduced  became  the  national  style  in  the 
regions  they  occupied,  and  even  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  was  used  in  buildings  erected  by  Christians  and  by 
Jews.  The  "  House  of  Pilate,"  at  Seville,  is  an  example  of 
this,  and  the  general  use  of  the  Moorish  style  in  Jewish 
synagogues,  down  to  our  own  day,  both  in  Spain  and  abroad, 

originated  in  the  erec- 
tion of  synagogues  for 
the  Jews  in  Spain  by 
Moorish  artisans  and  in 
Moorish  style,  both  dur- 
ing and  after  the  period 
of  Moslem  supremacy! 

Besides  innumerable 
mosques,  castles,  bridg- 
es, aqueducts,  gates,  and 
fountains,  the  Moors 
erected  several  monu- 
ments of  remarkable 
size    and    magnifh  in<  e. 

Specially  worthy  of  no- 
tice among  them  are  the 

( rreat   Mosque  at  ( \>r- 

dova,    the    Alcazars    of 
Seville  and  Malaga,  the 
Giralda  at    Seville,   and 
the    Alhambra  at    ( Ca- 
nada. 
The  Mosque  at  Cordova,  begun  in  786  by  'Abd-er-Rah- 
man,  enlarged  in  876,  and   again  by  HI  Mansour  in  976,  is  a 
va>t  art  aded  ball  375  feet  x  420  feet  in  extent,  but  only  30 


no.  83.— iNTRKioK  of  nra  grsat  Moaom  at 


SASSANIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.      143 

feet  high  (Fig.  83).  The  rich  wooden  ceiling  rests  upon  sev- 
enteen rows  of  thirty  to  thirty-three  columns  each,  and  two 
intersecting  rows  of  piers,  all  carrying  horseshoe  arches  in 
two  superposed  ranges,  a  large  portion  of  those  about  the 
sanctuary  being  cusped,  the  others  plain,  except  for  the 
alternation  of  color  in  the  voussoirs.  The  mihrdb  niche  is 
particularly  rich  in  its  minutely  carved  incrustations  and 
mosaics,  and  a  dome  ingeniously  formed  by  intersecting 
ribs  covers  the  sanctuary  before  it.  This  form  of  dome 
occurs  frequently  in  Spain. 

The  Alcazars  at  Seville  and  Malaga,  which  have  been  re- 
stored in  recent  years,  present  to-day  a  fairly  correct  coun- 
terpart of  the  castle-palaces  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They 
display  the  same  general  conceptions  and  decorative  feat- 
ures as  the  Alhambra,  which  they  antedate.  The  Oiralda 
at  Seville  is,  on  the  other  hand,  unique.  It  is  a  lofty  rectan- 
gular tower,  its  exterior  panelled  and  covered  with  a  spe- 
cies of  quarry-ornament  in  relief  ;  it  terminated  originally 
in  two  or  three  diminishing  stages  or  lanterns,  which  were 
replaced  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  present  Renais- 
sance belfry. 

The  Alhambra  is  universally  considered  to  be  the  mas- 
terpiece of  Hispano-Moresque  art,  partly  no  doubt  on  ac- 
count of  its  excellent  preservation.  It  is  most  interesting  as 
an  example  of  the  splendid  citadel-palaces  built  by  the  Moor- 
ish conquerors,  as  well  as  for  its  gorgeous  color-decoration 
of  minute  quarry-ornament  stamped  or  moulded  in  the  wet 
plaster  wherever  the  walls  are  not  wainscoted  with  tiles.  It 
was  begun  in  1248  by  Mohammed-ben- Al-Hamar,  enlarged 
in  1279  by  his  successor,  and  again  in  1306,  when  its 
mosque  was  built.  Its  plan  (Fig.  84)  shows  two  large  courts 
and  a  smaller  one  next  the  mosque,  with  three  great  square 
chambers  and  many  of  minor  importance.  Light  arcades 
surround  the  Court  of  the  Lions  with  its  fountain,  and 
adorn  the  ends  of  the  other  chief  court  ;  and  the  stalactite 


144 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


lETHTtr. 


pendentive,  rare  in  Moorish  work,  appears  in  the  "  Hall  of 
Ambassadors"  and  some  other  parts  of  the  edifice.  But 
its  chief  glory  is  its  ornamentation,  less  durable,  less  archi- 
tectural than  that  of  the  Cairene  buildings,  but  making  up 

for  this  in  delicacy 
and  richness.  Mi- 
nute vine -patterns 
and  Arabic  inscrip- 
tions are  interwov- 
en with  waving  in- 
tersecting lines, 
forming  a  net-like 
framework,  to  all  of 
w  li  i  c  h  deep  red, 
blue,  black, and  gold 
give  an  indescriba- 
ble richness  of  ef- 
fect. 

The  Moors  also 
overran  Sicily  in  tin- 
eighth  century,  but 
while  their  architecture  there  profoundly  influenced  that 
of  the  Christians  who  recovered  Sicily  in  1090,  and  copied 
the  style  of  the  conquered  Moslems,  there  is  too  little  of 
the  original  Moorish  architecture  remaining  to  claim  men- 
tion here. 

8A8SANIAN.      The  Sassanian  empire,  which  during  the  four 
Centuries   from    226    to  641  AJX    had    withstood    koine   and 

extended  its  own  sway  almost  to  India,  left  on  Persian  soil  a 
number  of  interesting  monuments  which  powerfully  influ- 
enced the  Mohammed. in  style  of  that  region.  The  Sassanian 
buildings  appear  to  have  been  principally  palaces,  and  were 

all  vaulted.      With  their  long  barrel-vaulted  halls,  combined 

with  square  domical  chambers,  a^  in  Firouz-Abad  and  Ser- 

bistan,  they  exhibit  reinmix  en<  es   of  antique  Assyrian    tia- 


FIG.    84.  -  TI.AN    OF   THE    AI.HAMBRA. 

A,  Hall  of  Ambassadors  :  a,  Mosque  :  b.  Court  of 
Mosque  ;  c,  Sata  delta  Barca  ;  d,  d,  fiat lis  :  <•,  flail 
0/ the  Two  Sisters  ;  _/",  f,  /,  Hall  of  the  Tribunal ;  g. 
Half  0/ the  Abencerrages. 


SASSANIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN  ARCHITECTURE.      145 

•dition.  The  ancient  Persian  use  of  columns  was  almost 
entirely  abandoned,  but  doors  and  windows  were  still 
treated  with  the  banded  frames  and  cavetto-cornices  of 
Persepolis  and  Susa.  The  Sassanians  employed  with  these 
exterior  details  others  derived  perhaps  from  Syrian  and 
Byzantine  sources.  A  sort  of  engaged  buttress-column 
and  blind  arches  repeated  somewhat  aimlessly  over  a  whole 
facade  were  characteristic  features  ;  still  more  so  the  huge 
arches,  elliptical  or  horse-shoe  shaped,  which  formed  the 
entrances  to  these  palaces,  as  in  the  Tak-Kesra  at  Ctesiphon. 
Ornamental  details  of  a  debased  Roman  type  appear,  min- 
gled with  more  gracefully  flowing  leaf-patterns  resembling 
early  Christian  Syrian  carving.  The  last  great  monument 
of  this  style  was  the  palace  at  Mashita  in  Moab,  begun  by 
the  last  Chosroes  (627),  but  never  finished,  an  imposing  and 
richly  ornamented  structure  about  500  x  170  feet,  occupy- 
ing the  centre  of  a  great  court. 

PERSIAN -MOSLEM  ARCHITECTURE.  These  Sassanian  pal- 
aces must  have  strongly  influenced  Persian  architecture 
after  the  Arab  conquest  in  641.  For  although  the  ar- 
chitecture of  the  first  six  centuries  after  that  date  suf- 
fered almost  absolute  extinction  at  the  hands  of  the  Mon- 
gols under  Genghis  Khan,  the  traces  of  Sassanian  influence 
are  still  perceptible  in  the  monuments  that  rose  in  the  fol- 
lowing centuries.  The  dome  and  vault,  the  colossal  por- 
tal-arches, and  the  use  of  brick  and  tile  are  evidences  of 
this  influence,  bearing  no  resemblance  to  Byzantine  or 
Arabic  types.  The  Moslem  monuments  of  Persia,  so  far  as 
their  dates  can  be  ascertained,  are  all  subsequent  to  1200, 
unless  tradition  is  correct  in  assigning  to  the  time  of 
Haroun  Ar  Rashid  (786)  certain  curious  tombs  near  Bag- 
dad with  singular  pyramidal  roofs.  The  ruined  mosque  at 
Tabriz  (1300),  and  the  beautiful  domical  Tomb  at  Sultani- 
yeh  (13 13)  belong  to  the  Mogul  period.  They  show  all 
the  essential  features  of  the  later  architecture  of  the  Sufis 
10 


146  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

(1499-1694),  during  whose  dynastic  period  were  built  the  Still 
more  splendid  and  more  celebrated  Meidan  or  square,  the 
great  mosque  of  Mesjid  Shah,  the  Bazaar  and  the  College  or 
Medress  of  Hussein  Shah,  all  at  Ispahan,  and  many  other 
important  monuments  at  Ispahan,  Bagdad,  and  Teheran. 
In  these  structures  four  elements  especially  claim  atten- 
tion ;  the  pointed  bulbous  dome,  the  round  minaret,  the 
portal-arch  rising  above  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  build 
ing,  and  the  use  of  enamelled  terra-cotta  tiles  as  an  exter- 
nal decoration.  To  these  may  be  added  the  ogee  arch 
(ogee  =  double-reversed  curve),  as  an  occasional  feature. 
The  vaulting  is  most  ingenious  and  beautiful,  and  its  forms, 
whether  executed  in  brick  or  in  plaster,  are  sufficiently  va- 
ried without  resort  to  the  perplexing  complications  of 
stalactite  work.  In  Persian  decoration  the  most  striking 
qualities  are  the  harmony  of  blended  color,  broken  up  into 
minute  patterns  and  more  subdued  in  tone  than  in  the 
Hispano- Moresque,  and  the  preference  of  flowing  lines  and 
floral  ornament  to  the  geometric  puzzles  of  Arabic  design. 
Persian  architecture  influenced  both  Turkish  and  Indo- 
Moslem  art,  which  owe  to  it  a  large  part  of  their  decorative 
charm. 

INDO-MOSLEM.  The  Mohammedan  architecture  of  India  is 
so  distinct  from  all  the  native  Indian  styles  and  so  related 
to  the  art  of  Persia,  if  not  to  that  of  the  Arabs,  that  it  prop- 
erly belongs  here  rather  than  in  the  later  chapter  on  Orien- 
tal styles.  It  was  in  the  eleventh  century  that  the  states 
of  India  first  began  to  fall  before  Mohammedan  invaders, 
but  not  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the  great 
Mogul  dynasty  was  established  in  Hindostan  as  the  domi- 
nant power.  During  the  intervening  period  local  schools 
of  Moslem  architecture  were  developing  in  the  Pathan 
country  of  Northern  India  (1 193—1554),  in  Jaunpore  and 
Gnjerat  ('396-1572),  in  Scinde,  where  Persian  influence  pre- 
dominated ;   in   Kalburgah  and  Bidar  (1 347-1426).     These 


SASSANIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.      147 


schools  differed  considerably  in  spirit  and  detail  ;  but  un- 
der the  Moguls  (i 494-1 706)  there  was  less  diversity,  and 
to  this  dynasty  we  owe  many  of  the  most  magnificent 
mosques  and  tombs  of  India,  among  which  those  of  Bijapur 
retain  a  marked  and  distinct  style  of  their  own. 

The  Mohammedan  monuments  of  India  are  characterized 
by  a  grandeur  and  amplitude  of  disposition,  a  symmetry 
and  monumental  dignity  of  design  which  distinguishes 
them  widely  from  the 
picturesque  but  some- 
times trivial  buildings 
of  the  Arabs  and  Moors. 
Less  dependent  on  col- 
or than  the  Moorish  or 
Persian  structures,  they 
are  usually  built  of  mar- 
ble, or  of  marble  and 
sandstone,  giving  them 
an  air  of  permanence 
and  solidity  wanting  in 
other  Moslem  styles  ex- 
cept the  Turkish.  The 
dome,  the  round  mina- 
ret, the  pointed  arch,  and  the  colossal  portal-arch,  are  uni- 
versal, as  in  Persia,  and  enamelled  tiles  are  also  used,  but 
chiefly  for  interior  decoration.  Externally  the  more  digni- 
fied if  less  resplendent  decoration  of  surface  carving  is 
used,  in  patterns  of  minute  and  graceful  scrolls,  leaf  forms, 
and  Arabic  inscriptions  covering  large  surfaces.  The  Arabic 
stalactite  pendentive  star-panelling  and  geometrical  inter- 
lace are  rarely  if  ever  seen.  The  dome  on  the  square 
plan  is  almost  universal,  but  neither  the  Byzantine  nor  the 
Arabic  pendentive  is  used,  striking  and  original  combina- 
tions of  vaulting  surfaces,  of  corner  squinches,  of  corbel- 
ling and  ribs,  being  used  in  its  place.     Many  of  the  Pathan 


FIG.    85. — TOMB   OF   MAHMl'D,    BIJAPUR.      SECTION. 


I48  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

domes  and  arches  at  Delhi,  Ajmir,  Ahmedabad,  Shepree, 
etc.,  are  built  in  horizontal  or  corbelled  courses  supported 
on  slender  columns,  and  exert  no  thrust  at  all,  so  that 
they  are  vaults  only  in  form,  like  the  dome  of  the  Tholos 
of  Atreus  (Fig.  24).  The  most  imposing  and  original  of 
all  Indian  domes  are  those  of  the  Jumma  Musjid  and  of  the 
Tomb  of  Mahmud,  both  at  Bijapur,  the  latter  137  feet  in 
span  (Fig.  85).  These  two  monuments,  indeed,  with  the 
Mogul  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  not  only  deserve  the  first  rank 
among  Indian  monuments,  but  in  constructive  science 
combined  with  noble  proportions  and  exquisite  beauty 
are  hardly,  if  at  all,  surpassed  by  the  greatest  triumphs 
of  western  art.  The  Indo-Moslem  architects,  moreover, 
especially  those  of  the  Mogul  period,  excelled  in  providing 
artistic  settings  for  their  monuments.  Immense  platforms, 
superb  courts,  imposing  flights  of  steps,  noble  gateways, 
minarets  to  mark  the  angles  of  enclosures,  and  landscape 
gardening  of  a  high  order,  enhance  greatly  the  effect  of 
the  great  mosques,  tombs,  and  palaces  of  Agra,  Delhi,  lut- 
tehpore  Sikhri,  Allahabad,  Secundra,  etc. 

The  most  notable  monuments  of  the  Moguls  are  the 
Mosque  of  Akbar  (1 556-1605)  at  l-'uttehpore  Sikhri,  the 
tomb  of  that  sultan  at  Secundra,  and  his  pain  e  at  Alla- 
habad ;  the  Pearl  Mosque  at  Agra  and  the  Jumma  Musjid  at 
Delhi,  one  of  the  largest  and  noblest  of  Indian  mosques, 
both  built  by  Shah  Jehan  about  1650 ;  his  immense  but 
now  ruined  palace  in  the  lame  City  ;  and  finally  the  un- 
rivalled mausoleum,  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  built  during 
his  lifetime  as  a  festal  hall,  to  serve  as  his  tomb  after 
death  (Fig.  86)*  This  last  is  the  pearl  of  Indian  archite* 
ture,  though  it  is  said  to  have  been  designed  by  a  Kuropean 
an  hitect,  French  or  Italian.  It  is  a  white  marble  structure 
185  feet  square,  centred  in  a  court  313  feet  square,  forming 
a  platform  18  feet  high.  The  corners  of  this  court  are 
marked  by  elegant  minarets,  and  the  whole  is  dominated  by 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.       149 

the  exquisite  white  marble  dome,  58  feet  in  diameter,  80 
feet  high,  internally  rising  over  four  domical  corner  chapels, 
and  covered  externally  by  a  lofty  marble  bulb-dome  on  a 
high  drum.  The  rich  materials,  beautiful  execution,  and  ex- 
quisite inlaying  of  this  mausoleum  are  worthy  of  its  majes- 


FIG.    86. — TAJ    MAHAL,    AGRA. 


tic  design.  On  the  whole,  in  the  architecture  of  the  Mo- 
guls in  Bijapur,  Agra,  and  Delhi,  Mohammedan  architecture 
reaches  its  highest  expression  in  the  totality  and  balance 
of  its  qualities  of  construction,  composition,  detail,  orna- 
ment, and  settings.  The  later  monuments  show  the  decline 
of  the  style,  and  though  often  rich  and  imposing,  are  lack- 
ing in  refinement  and  originality. 

TURKISH.     The  Ottoman  Turks,  who  began  their  conquer- 
ing career  under  Osman   I.  in  Bithynia  in  1299,  had  for  a 


150  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

century  been  occupying  the  fairest  portions  of  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  when,  in  1453,  they  became  masters  of  Constan- 
tinople. Hagia  Sophia  was  at  once  occupied  as  their  chief 
mosque,  and  such  of  the  other  churches  as  were  spared, 
were  divided  between  the  victors  and  the  vanquished. 
The  conqueror,  Mehmet  II.,  at  the  same  time  set  about  the 
building  of  a  new  mosque,  entrusting  the  design  to  a  By- 
zantine, Christodoulos,  whom  he  directed  to  reproduce, 
with  some  modifications,  the  design  of  the  "Great  Church  " 
— Hagia  Sophia.  The  type  thus  officially  adopted  has 
ever  since  remained  the  controlling  model  of  Turkish 
mosque  design,  so  far,  at  least,  as  general  plan  and  con- 
structive principles  are  concerned.  Thus  the  conquer- 
ing Turks,  educated  by  a  century  of  study  and  imita- 
tion of  Byzantine  models  in  Brusa,  Nicomedia,  Smyrna, 
Adrianople,  and  other  cities  earlier  subjugated,  did  what 
the  Byzantines  had,  during  nine  centuries,  failed  to  do. 
The  noble  idea  first  expressed  by  Anthemius  and  Isidorus 
in  the  Church  of  Hagia  Sophia  had  remained  undevel- 
oped, unimitated  by  later  architects.  It  was  the  Turk 
who  first  seized  upon  its  possibilities,  and  developed  there- 
from a  style  of  architecture  less  sumptuous  in  color  and 
decoration  than  the  sister  styles  of  Persia,  Cairo,  or  India, 
but  of  great  nobility  and  dignity,  notwithstanding.  The 
low-curved  dome  with  its  crown  of  buttressed  windows,  the 
plain  spherical  pendentives,  the  great  apses  at  each  end, 
covered  by  half-domes  and  penetrated  by  smaller  niches, 
the  four  massive  piers  with  their  projecting  buttress-massei 
extending  across  the  broad  lateral  aisles,  the  narthex  and 
the  arcaded  atrium  in  front — all  these  appear  in  the  great 
Turkish  mosques  of  Constantinople.  In  the  Conqueror's 
mosque,  however,  two  apses  with  half-domes  replace  the 
lateral  galleries  and  clearstory  of  Hagia  Sophia,  making 
a  perfectly  quadripartite  plan,  destitute  of  the  emphasis 
and  significance  of  a  plan  drawn  on  one  main  axis  (Fig.  87). 


SASSANIAN   AND    MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.      151 


The  same  treatment  occurs  in  the  mosque  of  Ahmed  I., 
the  Ahmediyeh  (1608  ;  Fig.  88),  and  the  Yeni  Djami  ("  New 
Mosque  ")  at  the  port  (1665).  In  the  mosque  of  Osman  III. 
(1755)  the  reverse  change  was  effected  ;  the  mosque  h^s  no 
great  apses,  four  clearstories  filling  the  four  arches  under  the 
dome,  as  also  in  several  of  the  later  and  smaller  mosques. 
The  greatest  and  noblest  cf  'he  Turkish  mosques,  the 
Suleimaniyeii,  Dun.  in  1553  by  Soliman  the  Magnificent,  re- 
turned to  the  Byzantine  combination  of  two  half-domes 
with  two  clearstories  (Fig.  89). 

In  none  of  these  monuments  is  there  the  internal  magnif- 
icence of  marble  and 
mosaic  of  the  Byzan- 
tine churches.  These 
are  only  in  a  measure 
replaced  by  Persian 
tile-wainscoting  and 
stained  -  glass  win- 
dows of  the  Arabic 
type.  The  division 
into  stories  and  the 
treatment  of  scale 
are  less  well  man- 
aged than  in  the  Ha- 
gia  Sophia  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  proportion  of  height  to  width  is  generally 
admirable./  The  exterior  treatment  is  unique  and  effect- 
ive, far  superior  to  the  Byzantine  practice.  The  massing  of 
domes  and  half-domes  and  roofs  is  more  artistically  ar- 
ranged ;  and  while  there  is  little  of  that  minute  carved  de- 
tail found  in  Egypt  and  India,  the  composition  of  the  lat- 
eral arcades,  the  simple  but  impressive  domical  peristyles 
of  the  courts,  and  the  graceful  forms  of  the  pointed  arches, 
with  alternating  voussoirs  of  white  and  black  marble,  are 
artistic  in  a  high  degree.     The  minarets  are,  however,  in- 


FIG.    87. — MOSQUE    OF    MEHMET   II. 
PLAN. 


CONSTANTINOPLE. 


(The  dimensions  figured  in  metres.) 


152 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


ferior  to  those  of  Indian,  Persian,  and   Arabic  art,  though 
graceful  in  their  proportions. 

Nearly  all  the  great  mosques  are  accompanied  by  the 
domical  tombs  (turbe/i)  of  their  imperial  founders.  Some  of 
these  are  of  noble  size  and  great  beauty  of  proportion  and 
decoration.     The  Tomt  of  Roxelana  (Khourrem),  the  fa- 


ne. 88.— EXTERIOR   AHMEDIVEH   MOSQUE. 


vorite  wife  of  Soliman  the  Magnificent  (1553),  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  all,  and  perhaps  the  most  perfect  gem  of  Turk- 
ish architecture,  with  its  elegant  arcade  surrounding  the 
octagonal  domical  mausoleum-chamber.  The  monumental 
fountains  of  Constantinople  also  deserve  mention.  Of 
these,    the   one  erected   by  Ahmet  III.  (1710),  near  Hagia 


SASSANIAN   AND   MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE.      1 53 


Sophia,  is  the  most  beautiful.  They  usually  consist  of  a 
rectangular  marble  reservoir  with  pagoda-like  roof  and 
broad  eaves,  the  four  faces  of  the  fountain  adorned  each 
with  a  niche  and  ba- 
sin, and  covered  with 
relief  carving  and 
gilded  inscriptions. 

PALACES.  In  this 
department  the 
Turks  have  done  littie 
of  importance.  The 
buildings  in  the  Se- 
raglio gardens  are 
low  and  insignificant. 
The  Tchinli  Kiosque, 
now  the  Imperial  Mu- 
seum, is  however,  a 
simple  but  graceful 
two-storied  edifice, 
consisting  of  four 
vaulted  chambers  in 
the  angles  of  a  fine 
cruciform  hall,  with 
domes  treated  like 
those  of  Bijapur  on  a  small  scale  ;  the  tiling  and  the  veranda 
in  front  are  particularly  elegant  ;  the  design  suggests  Per- 
sian handiwork.  The  later  palaces,  designed  by  Armenians, 
are  picturesque  white  marble  and  stucco  buildings  on  the 
water's  edge  ;  they  possess  richly  decorated  halls,  but  the 
details  are  of  a  debased  European  rococo  style,  quite  un- 
worthy of  an  Oriental  monarch. 


-INTERIOR     OF     SILEIMANI YEH,     CONSTANTI- 
NOPLE. 


MONUMENTS.  Arabian  :  "  Mosque  of  Omar,"  or  Dome  of  the  Rock, 
63S  ;  El  Aksah,  by  'Abd-el-Melek,6o,i,  both  at  Jerusalem  ;  Mosque  'Amrou 
at  Cairo,  642  ;  mosques  at  Cyrene,  665  ;  great  mosque  of  El  Walid,  Da- 


154  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

mascus,  705-717.  Bagdad  built,  755.  Great  mosque  at  Kairouan,  737.  At 
Cairo,  Ibn  Touloun,  876;  Cama-El-Azhar,  971  ;  Barkouk,  1149  ;  "  Tombs 
of  Khalifs  "  (Karafah),  1250-1400  ;  Moristan  Kalaoun,  1284  ;  Medreseeo 
Sultan  Hassan,  1356  ;  El  Azhar  enlarged  ;  El  Muayed,  1415  ;  Kaid  Bey, 
1463  ;  Sinan  Pacha,  1468  ;  "  Tombs  of  Mamelukes,"  16th  century.  Also 
palaces,  baths,  fountains,  mosques,  and  tombs.  IfOUSQUE  :  Mosque  at  Sa- 
ragossa,  713  ;  mosque  and  arsenal  at  Tunis,  742  ;  great  mosque  at  Cordova, 
786,  876,  975  ;  sanctuary,  14th  century.  Mosques,  baths,  etc.,  at  Cordova, 
Tarragona,  Segovia,  Toledo,  960-980  ;  mosque  of  Sobeiha  at  Cordova,  981. 
Palaces  and  mosques  at  Fez  ;  great  mosque  at  Seville,  11 72.  Extensive 
building  in  Morocco  close  of  12th  century.  Ciralda  at  Seville,  1 160;  Al- 
cazars in  Malaga  and  Seville,  1 225-1 300  ;  Alhambra  and  Generalife  at 
Granada,  1248,  1279,  1306  ;  also  mosques,  baths,  etc.  Yussuf  builds  pal- 
ace at  Malaga,  1348  ;  palaces  at  Granada.  Persian  :  Tombs  near  I 
dad,  786  (?) ;  mosque  at  Tabriz,  1300  ;  tomb  of  Khodabendeh  at  Sultani- 
yeh,  1 313  ;  Meidan  Shah  (square)  and  Mesjid  Shah  (mosque)  at  Ispahan, 
17th  century  ;  Medresseh  (school)  of  Sultan  Hussein,  18th  century  ; 
palaces  of  Chehil  Soutoun  (forty  columns)  and  Aineh  Khaneh  (Palace  of 
Mirrors).  Baths,  tombs,  bazaars,  etc.,  at  Cashan,  Koum,  Kasmin,  etc. 
Aminabad  Caravanserai  between  Shiraz  and  Ispahan  ;  bazaar  at  Ispahan. 

INDIAN:  Mosque  and  "  Kutub  Minar"  (tower)  dr.  1200;  Tomb  of 
Altumsh,  1236  ;  mosque  at  Ajmir,  1211-1236  ;  tomb  at  Old  Delhi  ;  Adina 
Mosque,  Maldah,  1358.  Mosques  J umma  Musjid  and  Lai  1  >urwa/a  at 
Jaunpore,  first  half  of  15th  century.  Mosque  and  bazaar,  Kalhurgah, 
1435  (?)  Mosques  at  Ahmedabad  and  Sirkedj,  middle  15th  century. 
Mosque  Jumma  Musjid  and  Tomb  of  Mahmud,  Bijapur,  dr.  1550.  Tomb 
of  Humayfin,  Delhi;  of  Mohammed  (.bans,  ( iwalior  ;  mosque  at  rutteh- 
pore  Sikhri  ;  palace  at  Allahabad  ;  tomb  of  Akbar  at  Secundra,  all  by  Ak- 
bar,  1556-1605.  Palace  and  Jumma  Musjid  at  Delhi  ;  Mmi  Musjid  (Pearl 
mosque)  and  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  by  Shah  Jehan,  1628-1658. 

Ti  kkish  :  Tomb  of  Osman,  Brusa,  1326;  Green  Mosque  (Yeshil 
Djami)  Brusa,  dr.  1350.  Mosque  at  Knik  (Nicxa),  1376.  Mehmediyeh 
(mosque  Mchmet  II.)  Constantinople,  1453;  mosque  at  Evoiib  ;  Tchinli 
Kiosque.l.y  Mehmet  II.,  1450-60;  mosque  Bayazid,  I5<*>  ;  Selim  I.,  t« 
Suleimaniyeh,  by  Sinan,  1553;  Ahmediyeh  by  Ahmet  I.,  1608;  Yeni  Djami, 
1665  ;  Nouri  Osman,  by  Osman  III.,  1755;  mosque  Mohammed  AM  in 
Cairo,  1824.  Mosque  at  Adrianople.  Kuans,  cloistered  courts  for  public 
business  and  commercial  lodgers,  various  dates,  i&th  and  17th  centuries 
(Yalide  Khan,  Vizir  Khan),  vaulted  bazaars,  fountains,  Seraskierat 
Tower,  all  at  Constantinople. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

EARLY    MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE 

IN   ITALY  AND    FRANCE. 

Books  Recommended  :  Cattaneo,  L 'Architecture  en  Italic 
Chapuy,  Le  moyen  age  monumental.  Corroyer,  Architecture 
romane.  Cummings,  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy.  En- 
lart,  Manuel  d'archeologie /ran false.  Hiibsch,  Monuments  de 
P architecture  chretienne.  Knight,  Churches  0/  Northern  Italy. 
Lenoir,  Architecture  monastique.  Osten,  Bauwerke  in  der  Lom- 
bardei.  Quicherat,  Melanges  d'histoire  et  d'archeologie.  Reber, 
History  of  Mediaeval  Architecture.  Revoil,  Architecture  romane 
du  midi  de  la  France.  Rohault  de  Fleury,  Monuments  de 
Pise.  Sharpe,  Churches  of  Charente.  De  Verneilh,  U Archi- 
tecture byzantine  en  France.  Viollet-le-Duc,  Dictionnaire 
raisonne  de  l' architecture  f ran  false  (especially  in  Vol.  I., 
Architecture  religieuse)  ;  discourses  on  Architecture. 

EARLY  MEDLEVAL  EUROPE.  The  fall  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire in  476  a.d.  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in 
architecture  outside  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  The  so- 
called  Dark  Ages  which  followed  this  event  constituted 
the  formative  period  of  the  new  Western  civilization,  dur- 
ing which  the  Celtic  and  Germanic  races  were  being  Chris- 
tianized and  subjected  to  the  authority  and  to  the  edu- 
cative influences  of  the  Church.  Under  these  conditions  a 
new  architecture  was  developed,  founded  upon^ethe  tradi- 
tions of  the  early  Christian  builders,  modified  In  different 
regions  by  Roman  or  Byzantine  influences.  For  Rome  re- 
covered early  her  antique  prestige,  and  Roman  monuments 
covering  the  soil  of  Southern  Europe,  were  a  constant  ob- 


I5<5  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

ject  lesson  to  the  builders  of  that  time.  To  this  new  archi- 
tecture of  the  West,  which  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  first  began  to  achieve  worthy  and  monumental 
results,  the  generic  name  of  Romanesque  has  been  com- 
monly given,  in  spite  of  the  great  diversity  of  its  manifesta- 
tions in  different  countries. 

character  OF  THE  ARCHITECTURE.  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture  was  pre-eminently  ecclesiastical.  Civilization  and 
culture  emanated  from  the  Church,  and  her  requirements 
and  discipline  gave  form  to  the  builder's  art.  But  the 
basilican  style,  which  had  so  well  served  her  purposes  in 
the  earlier  centuries  and  on  classic  soil,  was  ill-suited  to 
the  new  conditions.  Corinthian  columns,  marble  incrusta- 
tions, and  splendid  mosaics  were  not  to  be  had  for  the  ask- 
ing in  the  forests  of  Gaul  or  Germany,  nor  could  the  Lom- 
bards and  Ostrogoths  in  Italy  or  their  descendants  repro- 
duce them.  The  basilican  style  was  complete  in  itself, 
possessing  no  seeds  of  further  growth.  The  priests  and 
monks  of  Italy  and  Western  Europe  sought  to  rear  with 
unskilled  labor  churches  of  stone  in  which  the  general  dis- 
positions of  the  basilica  should  reappear  in  simpler,  more 
massive  dress,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  in  a  fireproof  con- 
struction with  vaults  of  stone.  This  problem  underlies 
all  the  varied  phases  of  Romanesque  architecture  ;  its  final 
solution  was  not,  however,  reached  until  the  Gothic  period, 
to  which  the  Romanesque  forms  the  transition  and  step- 
ping-stone. 

MEDIAEVAL  ITALY.  Italy  in  the  Dark  Ages  stood  midway 
between  the  civilization  of  the  Eastern  Empire  and  the 
semi-barbarism  of  the  West.  Rome,  Ravenna,  and  Venice 
early  became  centres  of  culture  and  maintained  continu- 
ous commercial  relations  with  the  East.  Architecture  did 
not  lack  either  the  inspiration  Of  the  means  for  advancing 
OB  new  lines.  But  its  advance  was  by  no  means  the  same 
everywhere.     The    unifying    influence    of  the   church    was 


EARLY  MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


'57 


counterbalanced  by  the  provincialism  and  the  local  diversi- 
ties of  the  various  Italian  states,  resulting  in  a  wide  variety 
of  styles.  These,  however,  may  be  broadly  grouped  in  four 
divisions  :  the  Lombard,  the  Tuscan  -  Romanesque,  the 
Italo-Byzantine,  and  the  unchanged  Basilican  or  Early 
Christian,  which  last,  as  was  shown  in  Chapter  X.,  contin- 
ued to  be  practised  in  Rome  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 
LOMBARD  STYLE.  Owing  to  the  general  rebuilding  of  an- 
cient churches  under  the  more  settled  social  conditions  of 


FIG.    90. — INTERIOR    OF   SAN    AMBROGIO,    MILAN. 

the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  little  remains  to  us  of 
the  architecture  of  the  three  preceding  centuries  in  Italy, 
except  the  Roman  basilicas  and  a  few  baptisteries  and  cir- 
cular churches,  already  mentioned  in  Chapter  X.  The  so- 
called  Lombard  monuments  belong  mainly  to  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries.  They  are  found  not  only  in  Lom- 
bardy,  but  also  in  Venetia  and  the  Emilia.  Milan,  Pavia, 
Piacenza,  Bologna,  and  Verona  were  important  centres  of 
development  of  this  style.  The  churches  were  nearly  all 
vaulted,  but  the  plans  were  basilican,  with  such  variations 


i58 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


III! 


as  resulted  from  efforts  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  vaulted 
construction.     The    nave    was   narrowed,    and    instead    of 
I  rows  of  columns  carrying  a  thin  clearstory 

A  wall,  a  few  massive  piers  of  masonry,  con- 

A  nected  by  broad  pier-arches,  supported  the 

t  heavy  ribs  of  the  groined  vaulting,  as  in  S. 

flB  Ambrogio,  Milan  (Fig.  90).     To   resist  the 

M  thrust  of  the  main  vault,  the  clearstory  was 

sometimes  suppressed,  the  side  aisle  carried 
up  in  two  stories  forming  galleries,  and  rows 
of  chapels  added  at  the  sides,  their  partitions 
forming  buttresses.  The  piers  were  often 
of  clustered  section,  the  better  to  receive 
the  various  arches  and  ribs  they  supported. 
The  vaulting  was  in 
square  divisions 
or  vaulting-bays,  each 
embracing  two  pier- 
arches  which  met  up- 
on an  intermediate 
pier  lighter  than  the 
others.  Thus  the 
whole  aspect  of  the  in- 
terior was  revolution- 
ized. The  lightness, 
■  paci  ousness,  and 
decorative  elegance 
of  the  basilicas  were 
here  exchanged  for  a 
sombre  and  massive 
dignity  severe  in  its 
plainness.  The  choir 
was  sometimes  raised 
afew  feet  above  the  nave,  to  allow  of  a  crypt  and  con/essio  be- 
neath, reached  by  broad  flights  of  steps  from  the  nave.    Sta 


hi.    gi.     Mill  nam  and   campanile   ok   caihk- 
IjKAI.,   PIAI  I 


EARLY   MEDLEVAL    ARCHITECTURE.  1 59 

Maria  della  Pieve  at  Arezzo  (9th-nth  century),  S.  Michele 
at  Pavia  (late  nth  century),  the  Cathedral  of  Piacenza 
(11 22),  S.  Amhrogio  at  Milan  (12th  century),  and  S.  Zeno  at 
Verona  (1139)  are  notable  monuments  of  this  style. 

LOMBARD  EXTERIORS.  The  few  architectural  embellish- 
ments employed  on  the  simple  exteriors  of  the  Lombard 
churches  were  usually  effective  and  well  composed.  Slen- 
der columnettes  or  long  pilasters,  blind  arcades,  and  open 
arcaded  galleries  under  the  eaves  gave  light  and  shade  to 
these  exteriors.  The  facades  were  mere  frontispieces  with 
a  single  broad  gable,  the  three  aisles  of  the  church  being 
merely  suggested  by  flat  or  round  pilasters  dividing  the 
front  (Fig  91).  Gabled  porches,  with  columns  resting  on 
the  backs  of  lions  or  monsters,  adorned  the  doorways. 
The  carving  was  often  of  a  fierce  and  grotesque  character. 
Detached  bell-towers  or  campaniles  adjoined  many  of  these 
churches  ;  square  and  simple  in  mass,  but  with  well-dis- 
tributed openings  and  well-proportioned  belfries  (Piacenza 
S.  Zeno  at  Verona,  etc.).* 

THE  TUSCAN  ROMANESQUE.  The  churches  of  this  style 
(sometimes  called  the  Pisan)  were  less  vigorous  but  more 
elegant  and  artistic  in  design  than  the  Lombard.  They 
were  basilicas  in  plan,  with  timber  ceilings  and  high  clear- 
stories on  columnar  arcades.  In  their  decoration,  both  in- 
ternal and  external,  they  betray  the  influence  of  Byzantine 
traditions,  especially  in  the  use  of  white  and  colored  marble 
in  alternating  bands  or  in  panelled  veneering.  Still  more 
striking  is  the  external  decorative  application  of  wall-ar- 
cades, sometimes  occupying  the  whole  height  of  the  wall 
and  carried  on  flat  pilasters,  sometimes  in  superposed  stages 
of  small  arches  on  slender  columns  standing  free  of  the 
wall.  In  general  the  decorative  element  prevailed  over  the 
constructive  in  the  design  of  these  picturesquely  beautiful 
churches,  some  of  which  are  of  noble  size.  The  Duomo 
(cathedral)  of  Pisa,  built  1063-1118,  is  the  finest  monument 

*  See  Annendix  R. 


i6o 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  style  (Figs.  92,93).  It  is  312  feet  long  and  118 
wide,  with  long  transepts  and  an  elliptical  dome  of  later 
date  over  the  crossing  (the  intersection  of  nave  and  tran- 
septs). Its  richly  arcaded  front  and  banded  flanks  strik- 
ingly exemplify  the  illogical  and  unconstructive  but  highly 
decorative  methods  of  the  Tuscan  Romanesque   builders 


92. — BAPT1STKRV, 


Hie  <  in  iiku  Baptistery  (1 153),  with  its  lofty  domical  cen- 
tral hall  surrounded  by  an  aisle,  an  imposing  development 
of  the  type  established  by  Constantine  (p.  1 11),  and  the 
famous  Leaning  Tower  (1 174),  both  designed  with  external 
arcading,  combine  with  the  Duomo  to  form  the  most  re- 
markable group  of  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  Italy,  if  not  in 
Europe  (Fig.  92). 
The  same  st)le  appears  in   more  flamboyant  shape  in 


EARLY   MEDI.EVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


161 


some  of  the  churches  of  Lucca.  The  cathedral  S.  Martino 
(1060;  facade,  1204  ;  nave  altered  in  fourteenth  century)  is 
the  finest  and  largest  of  these;  S.  Michele  (facade,  1288) 
and  S.  Frediano  (twelfth  century)  have  the  most  elaborately 
decorated  facades.  The  same  principles  of  design  appear  in 
the  cathedral  and  several  other  churches  in  Pistoia  and  Prato; 
but  these  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  Gothic  period. 


FIG.    93. — INTERIOR   OF    FISA   CATHEDRAL. 


FLORENCE.  The  church  of  S.  Miniato,  in  the  suburbs  of 
Florence,  is  a  beautiful  example  of  a  modification  of  the 
Pisan  style.  It  is  in  plan  a  basilica  with  two  piers  inter- 
rupting the  colonnade  on  each  side  of  the  nave  and  sup- 
porting powerful  transverse  arches.  The  interior  is  embel- 
lished with  bands  and  patterns  in  black  and  white,  and  the 
woodwork  of  the  open-timber  roof  is  elegantly  decorated 
with  fine  patterns  in  red,  green,  blue,  and  gold— a  treatment 
common  in  early  mediaeval  churches,  as  at  Messina,  Or- 
vieto,  etc.  The  exterior  is  adorned  with  wall-arches  of 
11 


162  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

classic  design  and  with  panelled  veneering  in  white  and 
dark  marble,  instead  of  the  horizontal  bands  of  the  Pisan 
churches.  This  system  of  external  decoration,  a  blending 
of  Pisan  and  Italo-Byzantine  methods,  became  the  estab- 
lished practice  in  Florence,  lasting  through  the  whole 
Gothic  period.  The  Baptistery  of  Florence,  originally  the 
cathedral,  an  imposing  polygonal  domical  edifice  of  the  tenth 
century,  presents  externally  one  of  the  most  admirable 
examples  of  this  practice.  Its  marble  veneering  in  black 
and  white,  with  pilasters  and  arches  of  excellent  design,  is 
attributed  by  Vasari  to  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  but  is  by  many 
considered  to  be  much  older,  although  restored  by  that 
architect  in  1294. 

Suggestions  of  the  Pisan  arcade  system  are  found  in 
widely  scattered  examples  in  the  east  and  south  of  Italy, 
mingled  with  features  of  Lombard  and  Byzantine  design. 
In  Apulia,  as  at  Bari,  Caserta  Vecchia  (1100),  Molfetta 
(1192),  and  in  Sicily,  the  Byzantine  influence  is  conspic- 
uous in  the  use  of  domes  and  in  many  of  the  decorative  de- 
tails. Particularly  is  this  the  case  at  Palermo  and  Mun- 
reale,  where  the  churches  erected  after  the  Norman  con- 
quest— some  of  them  domical,  some  basilican — show  a 
strange  but  picturesque  and  beautiful  mixture  of  Roman- 
esque, Byzantine,  and  Arabic  forms.  The  Cathedral  of 
Monreale  and  the  churches  of  the  Eremiti  and  La  Martorana 
at  Palermo  are  the  most  important. 

The  Italo-Byzantine  style  has  already  found  mention  in 
the  latter  part  of  Chapter  XI.  Venice  and  Ravenna  were 
its  chief  centres;  while  the  influence,  both  of  the  parent 
style  and  of  its  Italian  offshoot  wa*.  as  we  have  just  shown, 
very  widespread. 

WESTERN  ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE.  In  Western  Eu- 
rope the  unrest  and  lawlessness  which  attended  the  un- 
settled relations  of  society  under 'the  feudal  system  long 
retarded   the   establishment   of  that  social   order  without 


EARLY   MEDI/EVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  163 

which  architectural  progress  is  impossible.  With  the 
eleventh  century  there  began,  however,  a  great  activity  in 
building,  principally  among  the  monasteries,  which  repre- 
sented all  that  there  was  of  culture  and  stability  amid  the 
prevailing  disorder.  Undisturbed  by  war,  the  only  abodes 
of  peaceful  labor,  learning,  and  piety,  they  had  become  rich 
and  powerful,  both  in  men  and  land.  Probably  the  more  or 
less  general  apprehension  of  the  supposed  impending  end 
of  the  world  in  the  year  1000  contributed  to  this  result  by 
driving  unquiet  consciences  to  seek  refuge  in  the  monas- 
teries, or  to  endow  them  richly. 

The  monastic  builders,  with  little  technical  training,  but 
with  plenty  of  willing  hands,  sought  out  new  architect- 
ural paths  to  meet  their  special  needs.  Remote  from  classic 
and  Byzantine  models,  and  mainly  dependent  on  their  own 
resources,  they  often  failed  to  realize  the  intended  results. 
But  skill  came  with  experience,  and  with  advancing  civiliza- 
tion and  a  surer  mastery  of  construction  came  a  finer  taste 
and  greater  elegance  of  design.  Meanwhile  military  archi- 
tecture developed  a  new  science  of  building,  and  covered 
Europe  with  imposing  castles,  admirably  constructed  and 
often  artistic  in  design  as  far  as  military  exigencies  would 
permit. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  STYLE.  The  Romanesque  architecture 
of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  in  Western  Europe 
(sometimes  called  the  Round- Arched  Gothic)  was  thus  pre- 
dominantly though  not  exclusively  monastic.  This  gave  it 
a  certain  unity  of  character  in  spite  of  national  and  local 
variations.  The  problem  which  the  wealthy  orders  set 
themselves  was,  like  that  of  the  Lombard  church-builders 
in  Italy,  to  adapt  the  basilica  plan  to  the  exigencies  of 
vaulted  construction.  Massive  walls,  round  arches  stepped 
or  recessed  to  lighten  their  appearance,  heavy  mouldings 
richly  carved,  clustered  piers  and  jamb-shafts,  capitals 
either  of  the  cushion  type  or  imitated  from  the  Corinthian, 


164 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


and  strong  and  effective  carving — all  these  are  features 
alike  of  French,  German,  English,  and  Spanish  Romanesque 
architecture. 

THE  FRENCH  ROMANESQUE.  Though  monasticism  pro- 
duced remarkable  results  in  France,  architecture  there  did 
not  wholly  depend  upon  the  monasteries.  Southern  Gaul 
(Provence)  was  full  of  classic  remains  and  classic  traditions 
while  at  the  same  time  it  maintained  close  trade  relations 
with  Venice  and  the  East.*  The  church  of  St.  Front  at 
Perigueux,  built  in  1047,  reproduced  the  plan  of  St.  Mark's 
with  singular  fidelity,  but  without  its  rich  decoration,  and 
with  pointed  instead  of  round  arches  (Figs.  94,  95).  The 
domical  cathedral  of  Canon  (1 050-1 100),  an  obvious  imitation 

of  S.  Irene  at  Constantinople, 
and  the  later  and  more  Gothic 
Cathedral  of  Angouleme  display 
a  notable  advance  in  architec- 
tural skill  outside  of  the  mon- 
asteries. Among  the  abbeys, 
Fontevrault  (noi-1119)  closely 
resembles  Angouleme,  but  sur- 
passes it  in  the  elegance  of  its 
choir  and  chapels.  In  these 
and  a  number  of  other  domical 
churches  of  the  same  Franco- 
Pyzantine  type  in  Aquitani 
substitution  of  the  Latin  crOSS 
in  the  plan  for  the  Greek  cross 
no.  94.-p1.AN  of  vr.  front.  use(j  in  gt>  Front,  evinces  the 
Gallic  tendency  to  work  out  to  their  logical  end  new 
ideas  or  new  applications  of  old  ones.  These  striking 
variations  on  Byzantine  themes  might  have  developed 
into  an  independent  local  style  but  for  the  overwhelming 

*  See  Viollet-!e-I)uc,  DUHomtairt  niisonn/,  article  ARCHITECTURE,  vol. 
i.    pp.  66  et  Mtf.j  also  dc  Yerneilh,  V Architatute  bymntim  tn  Frame, 


EARLY    MEDLKVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


165 


tide  of   Gothic    influence  which  later  poured  in  from  the 
North. 

Meanwhile,  farther  south  (at  Aries,  Avignon,  etc.),  classic 
models  strongly  influenced  the  details,  if  not  the>plans,  of 
an  interesting  series  of 
churches  remarkable  es- 
pecially for  their  porches 
rich  with  figure  sculpt- 
ure and  for  their  elab- 
orately carved  details. 
The  classic  archivolt, 
the  Corinthian  capital, 
the  Roman  forms  of  en- 
riched mouldings,  are 
evident  at  a  glance  in 
the  porches  of  Notre 
Dame  des  Doms  at  Avig- 
non, of  the  church  of  St. 
Gilles,  and  of  St.  Tro- 
phime  at  Aries. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF 
VAULTING.  It  was  in 
Central  France,  and 
mainly  along  the  Loire,  that  the  systematic  development 
of  vaulted  church  architecture  began.  Naves  covered 
with  barrel-vaults  appear  in  a  number  of  large  churches 
built  during  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  with  ap- 
sidal  and  transeptal  chapels  and  aisles  carried  around  the 
apse,  as  in  St.  Etienne,  Nevers,  Notre  Dame  du  Port  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand (Fig.  96),  and  St.  Paul  at  Issoire.  The  thrust 
of  these  ponderous  vaults  was  clumsily  resisted  by  half- 
barrel  vaults  over  the  side-aisles,  transmitting  the  strain  to 
massive  side-walls  (Fig.  97),  or  by  high  side-aisles  with  trans- 
verse barrel  or  groined  vaults  over  each  bay.  In  either 
case  the  clearstory  was  suppressed — a  fact  which  mattered 


FIG.    95. — INTERIOR    OF   ST.    FRONT,    PERIGfEUX. 


i66 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  96. — PLAN   OF 

NOTRE  DAME  DV  TORT, 

CLERMONT. 


little  in  the  sunny  southern  provinces.  In  the  more  cloudy 
North,  in  Normandy,  Picardy,  and  the  Royal  Domain,  the 
nave-vault  was  raised  higher  to  admit  of 
clearstory  windows,  and  its  section  was  in 
some  cases  made  like  a  pointed  arch,  to 
diminish  its  thrust,  as  at  Anton.  But  these 
eleventh-century  vaults  nearly  all  fell  in, 
and  had  to  be  reconstructed  on  new  prin- 
ciples. In  this  work  the  Clunisians  seem 
to  have  led  the  way,  as  at  Cluny  (1089)  and 
Vezelay  (1 100).  In  the  latter  church,  one  of 
the  finest  and  most  interesting  French  edi- 
fices of  the  twelfth  century,  a  groined  vault 
replaced  the  barrel-vault,  though  the  ob- 
long plan  of  the  vaulting-bays,  due  to  the 
nave  being  wider  than  the  pier-arches,  led 
to  somewhat  awkward  twisted  surfaces  in  the  vaulting. 
But  even  here  the  vaults  had  insufficient  lateral  buttressing, 

and  began  to  crack  and  set- 
tle ;  so  that  in  the  great 
ante -chapel,  built  thirty 
years  later,  the  side-aisles 
were  made  in  two  stories, 
the  better  to  resist  the 
thrust,  and  the  groined 
vaults  themselves  were 
constructed  of  pointed  sec- 
tion. These  seem  to  be  the 
earliest  pointed  groined 
vaults  in  France.  It  wrai 
not  till  the  second  half 
of  that  century,  however 
{1 150-1200),  that  the  flying 
buttress  was  combined  with  such  vaults,  so  as  to  permit  of 
high  clearstories  for  t lie  better  lighting  of  the  nave  ;  and 


FIG.  97.— SECTION    Or   NOTRE    DAME    DU   PORT, 
CLERMONT. 


EARLY    MEDLKVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


167 


the  problem  of  satisfactorily  vaulting  an  oblong  space  with 
a  groined  vault  was  not  solved  until  the  following  century. 

ONE-AISLED  CHURCHES.  In  the  Franco-Byzantine  churches 
already  described  (p.  164)  this  difficulty  of  the  oblong 
vaulting-bay  did  not  occur,  owing  to  the  absence  of  side- 
aisles  and  pier-arches.  Following  this  conception  of  church- 
planning,  a  number  of  interesting  parish  churches  and  a  few 
cathedrals  were  built  in  various  parts  of  France  in  which 
side-recesses  or  chapels  took  the  place  of  side-aisles.  The 
partitions  separating  them  served  as  abutments  for  the 
groined  or  barrel-vaults  of  the  nave.  The  cathedrals  of 
Autun  (1150)  and  Langres  (1160),  and  in  the  fourteenth 
century  that  of  Alby,  employed  this  arrangement,  common  in 
many  earlier  Provencal  churches  which  have  disappeared. 

SIX-FART  VAULTING.  In  the  Royal  Domain  great  archi- 
tectural activity  does  not  appear  to  have  begun  until  the 
beginning  of  the  Gothic 
period  in  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century.  But 
in  Normandy,  and  es- 
pecially at  Caen  and 
Mont  St.  Michel,  there 
were  produced,  between 
1046  and  1 1 20,  some  re- 
markable churches,  in 
which  a  high  clearstory 
was  secured  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  vaulted  nave, 
by  the  use  of  "  six-part  " 
vaulting  (Fig.  98).  This 
was  an  awkward  expe- 
dient, by  which  a  square 
vaulting-bay  was  dividt- 

ed  into  six  parts   by  the  groins   and  by   a  middle  trans- 
verse rib,  necessitating  two  narrow  skew  vaults  meeting  at 


FIG.  98.— A  SIX-PART  RIBBED  VAULT,  SHOWING 
TWO  COMPARTMENTS  WITH  THE  FILLINGS 
COMPLETE. 

a,  a,  Transverse  ribs  (doubleaux)  ;  b,  b,  Wall- 
ribs  {formerets)  ;  c,  c,  Groin-ribs  (diagonaux). 
(All  the  ribs  are  semicircles.) 


1 68  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  centre.  This  unsatisfactory  device  was  retained  for 
over  a  century,  and  was  common  in  early  Gothic  churches 
both  in  France  and  Great  Britain.  It  made  it  possible  to  re- 
sist the  thrust  by  high  side-aisles,  and  yet  to  open  windows 
above  these  under  the  cross-vaults.  The  abbey  churches 
of  St.  Etienne  (the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes)  and  Ste.  Trinite 
(Abbaye  aux  Dames),  at  Caen,  built  in  the  time  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  were  among  the  most  magnificent  churches 
of  their  time,  both  in  size  and  in  the  excellence  and  ingenu- 
ity of  their  construction.  The  great  abbey  church  of 
Mont  St.  Michel  (much  altered  in  later  times)  should  also 
be  mentioned  here.  At  the  same  time  these  and  other 
Norman  churches  showed  a  great  advance  in  their  internal 
composition.  A  well-developed  triforium  or  subordinate 
gallery  was  introduced  between  the  pier-arches  and  clear- 
story, and  all  the  structural  membering  of  the  edifice  was 
better  proportioned  and  more  logically  expressed  than  in 
most  contemporary  work. 

ARCHITECTURAL  DETAILS.  The  details  of  French  Roman- 
esque architecture  varied  considerably  in  the  several  prov- 
inces, according  as  classic,  Byzantine,  or  local  influences 
prevailed.  Except  in  a  few  of  the  Aquitanian  churches, 
the  round  arch  was  universal.  The  walls  were  heavy  and 
built  of  rubble  between  facings  of  stones  of  moderate  size 
dressed  with  the  axe.  Windows  and  doors  were  widely 
splayed  to  diminish  the  obstruction  of  the  massive  walls, 
and  were  treated  with  jamb  -  shafts  and  recessed  arches. 
These  were  usually  formed  with  large  cylindrical  mould- 
ings, richly  carved  with  leaf  ornaments,  zigzags,  billets, and 
grotesques.  Figure-sculpt  <ire  was  more  generally  used  in  the 
South  than  in  the  North.  The  interior  piers  were  some- 
times cylindrical,  but  more  often  clustered,  and  where  square 
bays  of  four-part  or  six-part  vaulting  were  employed,  the  piers 
were  alternately  lighter  and  heavier.  Each  shaft  had  its  in- 
dependent capital  either  of  the  block  type  or  of  a  form  re- 


EARLY   MEDLEVAL   ARCHITECTURE.  169 

sembling  somewhat  that  of  the  Corinthian  order.  During 
the  eleventh  century  it  became  customary  to  carry  up  to  the 
main  vaulting  one  or  more  shafts  of  the  compound  pier  to 
support  the  vaulting  ribs.  Thus  the  division  of  the  nave 
into  bays  was  accentuated,  while  at  the  same  time  the  hori- 
zontal three-fold  division  of  the  height  by  a  well-defined  tri- 
forium  between  the  pier-arches  and  clearstory  began  to  be 
likewise  emphasized. 

VAULTING.  The  vaulting  was  also  divided  into  bays  by 
transverse  ribs,  and  where  it  was  groined  the  groins  them- 
selves began  in  the  twelfth  century  to  be  marked  by  groin- 
ribs.  These  were  constructed  independently  of  the  vault- 
ing, and  the  four  or  six  compartments  of  each  vaulting-bay 
were  then  built  in,  the  ribs  serving,  in  part  at  least,  to  sup- 
port the  centrings  for  this  purpose.  This  far-reaching 
principle,  already  applied  by  the  Romans  in  their  concrete 
vaults  (see  p.  84),  appears  as  a  re-discovery,  or  rather  an 
independent  invention,  of  the  builders  of  Normandy  at  the 
close  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  flying  buttress  was 
a  later  invention  ;  in  the  round-arched  buildings  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  buttressing  was  mainly 
internal,  and  was  incomplete  and  timid  in  its  arrangement. 

EXTERIORS.  The  exteriors  were  on  this  account  plain 
and  flat.  The  windows  were  small,  the  mouldings  simple, 
and  towers  were  rarely  combined  with  the  body  of  the 
church  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Then  they  appeared  as  mere  belfries  of  moderate  height, 
with  pyramidal  roofs  and  effectively  arranged  openings, 
the  germs  of  the  noble  Gothic  spires  of  later  times.  Ex- 
ternally the  western  porches  and  portals  were  the  most 
important  features  of  the  design,  producing  an  imposing 
effect  by  their  massive  arches,  clustered  piers,  richly  carved 
mouldings,  and  deep  shadows. 

CLOISTERS,  ETC.  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  other 
monastic  buildings  which  were  grouped  around  the  abbey 


I/O  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

churches  of  this  period.  These  comprised  refectories, 
chapter-halls,  cloistered  courts  surrounded  by  the  conven- 
tual cells,  and  a  large  number  of  accessory  structures  foi 
kitchens,  infirmaries,  stores,  etc.  The  whole  formed  an 
elaborate  and  complex  aggregation  of  connected  buildings, 
often  of  great  size  and  beauty,  especially  the  refectories 
and  cloisters.  Most  of  these  conventual  buildings  have 
disappeared,  many  of  them  having  been  demolished  daring 
the  Gothic  period  to  make  way  for  more  elegant  structures 
in  the  new  style.  There  remain,  however,  a  number  of 
fine  cloistered  courts  in  their  original  form,  especially  in 
Southern  France.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
are  those  of  Moissac,  Elne,  and  Montmajour. 


MONUMENTS.  Italy.  (For  basilicas  and  domical  churches  of  6th-i 2th 
centuries  see  pp.  118,  no.) — Before  nth  century:  Sta.  Maria  at  Toaca* 
nella,  altered  1206  ;  S.  Donato,  Zara  ;  chapel  at  Friuli  ;  baptistery  at 
Boella.  nth  century:  S.  Ciovanni,  Viterbo  ;  Sta.  Maria  della  Pieve,  Arez- 
20  ;  S.  Antonio,  Piacenza,  1014  ;  Fremiti,  1132,  and  La  Martorana,  1 143. 
both  at  Palermo  ;  Duomo  at  Bari,  1027  (much  altered) ;  Duomo  and  baptis- 
tery, Novara,  1030  ;  Duomo  at  Parma,  begun  1058  ;  Duomo  at  Pisa,  1063- 
1118;  S.  Miniato,  Florence,  io63-i2th  century  ;  S.  Micheleat  Pavia  and 
Duomo  at  Modena,  late  nth  century. — 12th  century:  to  Calabria  and 
Apulia,  cathedrals  of  Trani,  1100;  Caserta,  Vecchia,  I100-I153  ;  Molfetta, 
1162;  Benevento ;  chnrchet  S.  (liovanni  at  Prindisi,  S.  Xiccolo  at  Bari, 
1139.  In  Sicily,  Duomo  at  Monreale,  1174-1189.  In  Northern  Italy,  S. 
Tomaso  in  Limine,  Bergamo,  riOO  (?)  ;  Sta.  (liulia,  Bread*;  S.  Lorenzo, 
Milan,  rebuilt  m<)  ;  Duomo  at  Piacenza,  1122  ;  S.  Zeno  at  Verona,  11 30  ; 
S.  Ambrogio,  Milan,  1140,  vaulted  in  13th  century;  baptistery  at  I'i-vi, 
1153-1278  ;  Leaning  Tower,  Pfaa,  1174.  —  14th  century:  S.  Michele, 
Lucca,  1188;  S.  (.iovanni  and  S.  lrediano,  Lucca.  In  Dalmatia,  cathe- 
dral at  Zara,  1 192-1204.  Many  castles  and  early  town-halls,  as  at  Pari, 
Brescia,  Lucca,  etc. 

Franck:  Previous  to  nth  century  :  St.  Cerminy-des-Pres,  806  ;  Chapel 
of  the  Trinity,  St.  Honorat-dcs-Lcrins  ;  Ste.  Croix  de  Montmajour. — nth 
century:  ('e'risy-la-Kon't  and  abbey  church  of  Mont  St.  Michel,  1020  (the 
latter  altered  in  12th  and  16th  centuries;  Yi^nory  ;  St.  Cenou;  porch  of 
St.  Bcnoit-sur-I.oire,  1030;  St.   Sepulchre  at    Neuvy,  1045  ;  Ste.    Trinif; 


EARLY    MEDLEVAL   ARCHITECTURE.  171 

(Abbaye  aux  Dames)  at  Caen,  1046,  vaulted  1140;  St.  Etienne  (Abbaye 
aux  Hommes)at  Caen,  same  date  ;  St.  Front  at  Perigueux,  cir.  1150  ;  Ste. 
Croix  at  Quimperle,  1081;  cathedral,  Cahors,  1050-1110;  abbey  churches 
of  Cluny  (demolished)  and  Vezelay,  1089-1100  ;  circular  church  of  Rieux- 
Merinville,  church  of  St.  Savin  in  Auvergne,  the  churches  of  St.  Paul  at 
Issoire  and  Notre- Dame-du-Port  at  Clermont,  St.  Hilaire  and  Notre-Dame- 
la-Grande  at  Poitiers  ;  also  St.  Sernin  (Saturnin)  at  Toulouse,  all  at  close  of 
nth  and  beginning  of  12th  century. — 12th  century:  Domical  churches  of 
Aquitania  and  vicinity  ;  Solignac  and  Fontevrault,  11 20  ;  St.  Etienne 
(Perigueux),  St.  Avit-Senieur  ;  Angouleme,  Souillac,  Broussac,  etc.,  early 
12th  century;  St.  Trophime  at  Aries,  1110,  cloisters  later;  church  of 
Vaison  ;  abbeys  and  cloisters  at  Montmajour,  Tarascon,  Moissac  (with 
fragments  of  a  10th-century  cloister  built  into  present  arcades);  St.  Paul-du- 
Mausolee  ;  Puy-en-Velay,  with  fine  church.  Many  other  abbeys,  parish 
churches,  and  a  few  cathedrals  in  Central  and  Northern  France  especially. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

EARLY   MEDI/EVAL   ARCHITECTURE.— Continued. 

IN    GERMANY,    GREAT    BRITAIN,    AND    SPAIN. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  HUbsch  and  Reber. 
Bond,  Gothic  Architecture  in  England.  Also  Brandon,  Analysis 
of  Gothic  Architecture.  Boisseree,  Xicder  Rhein.  Ditchfield, 
The  Cathedrals  of  ling/and.  Hasak,  Die  romanische  und  die 
gotische  Baukunst  (in  Handbuch  d.  Arch.).  Liibke,  Die 
Mittelolterliche  Kunst  in  W'estfahn.  Moller,  Denkmdler  det 
deutschen  Baukunst.  Puttricri,  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in 
Such  sen.  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the  Styles  of 
Architecture.  Scott,  English  Church  Architecture.  Van  Rens- 
selaer, English  Cathedrals. 

MEDIAEVAL  GERMAN y.  Architecture  developed  less  rap- 
idly and  symmetrically  in  Germany  than  in  France,  notwith- 
standing the  strong  centralized  government  of  the  empire. 
The  early  churches  were  of  wood,  and  the  substitution  of 
stone  for  wood  proceeded  slowly.  During  the  (arolingian 
epoch  (800-919),  however,  a  few  important  building!  were 
erected,  embodying  Byzantine  and  classic  traditions.  Among 
these  the  most  notable  was  the  Minster  or  palatine  ehapel 
of  Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  an  obvious  imitation 
of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna.  It  consisted  of  an  octagonal 
domed  hall  surrounded  by  a  vaulted  aisle  in  two  stories, 
but  without  the  eight  niches  of  the  Ravenna  plan.  It 
preceded  by  a  porch  flanked  by  turrets.  The  Byzan- 
tine type  thus  introduced  iras  repeated  in  later  churches. 
a>  in  the  Nuns'  Choir  at  Kssen  (947)  and  at  <  )tttnarsheim 
(1050).     In  the  great  monastery  at   Pulda  a  basilica  with 


EARLY   MEDLEVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


173 


transepts  and  with  an  apsidal  choir  at  either  end  was  built  in 
803.  These  choirs  were  raised  above  the  level  of  the  nave,  to 
admit  of  crypts  beneath  them,  as  in  many  Lombard  churches ; 
a  practice  which,  with  the  reduplication  of  the  choir  and 
apse  just  mentioned,  became  very  common  in  German 
Romanesque  architecture. 

early  CHURCHES.  It  was  in  Saxony  that  this  architecture 
first  entered  upon  a  truly  national  development.  The  early 
churches  of  this  province  and  of  Hildesheim  (where  archi- 
tecture flourished  under  the  favor  of  the  bishops,  as  else- 
where under  the  royal  influence)  were  of  basilican  plan  and 
destitute  of  vaulting,  except  in  the  crypts.  They  were 
built  with  massive  piers,  sometimes  rectangular,  sometimes 
clustered,  the  two  kinds  often  alternating  in  the  same  nave. 
Short  columns  were,  however,  sometimes  used  instead  of 
piers,  either  alone,  as  at  Paulinzelle  and  Limburg-on-the- 
Hardt  (1024-39),  or  alternating  with  piers,  as  at  Hecklin- 
gen,  Gernrode  (958-1050),  and  St.  Godehard  at  Hildesheim 
(1133).  A  triple  eastern  apse,  with  apsidal 
chapels  projecting  eastward  from  the  tran- 
septs, were  common  elements  in  the  plans, 
and  a  second  apse,  choir,  and  crypt  at  the 
west  end  were  not  infrequent.  Externally 
the  most  striking  feature  was  the  association 
of  two,  four,  or  even  six  square  or  circular 
towers  with  the  mass  of  the  church,  and  the 
elevation  of  square  or  polygonal  turrets  or 
cupolas  over  the  crossing.  These  adjuncts 
gave  a  very  picturesque  aspect  to  edifices 
otherwise  somewhat  wanting  in  artistic  in- 
terest. 

RHENISH  CHURCHES.     It  was  in  the  Rhine 
provinces  that  vaulting  was  first  applied  to 
the  naves  of  German  churches,  nearly  a  half  century  after 
its  general  adoption  in  France.     Cologne  possesses  an  in- 


FIG.    99. — PLAN   OF 

MINSTER   AT 

WORMS. 


174 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


teresting  trio  of  churches  in  which  the  Byzantine  dome  on 
squinehes  or  on  pendentives,  with  three  apses  or  niches 
opening  into  the  central  area,  was  associated  with  a  long 
three  aisled  nave  (St.  Mary-in-the-Capitol,  begun  in  9th 
century ;  Great  St.  Martin's,  1 150-70 ;  Apostles'  Church,  1 160- 
99  :  the  naves  vaulted  later).  The  double  chapel  at  Schwarz- 
Rheindorf,  near  Bonn  (1151),  also  has  the  crossing  covered 
by  a  dome  on  pendentives. 

The  vaulting  of  the  nave  itself  was  developed  in  another 
series  of  edifices  of  imposing  size,  the  cathedrals  of  May- 

ence  (1036),  Spires  (Speyer),  and 
Worms,  and  the  Abbey  of  Laach, 
all  built  in  the  nth  century  and 
vaulted  early  in  the  12th.  In  the 
first  three  the  main  vaulting  is  in 
square  bays,  each  covering  two 
bays  of  the  nave,  the  piers  of 
which  are  alternately  lighter  and 
heavier  (Figs.  99, 100).  At  Laach 
the  vaulting -bays  are  oblong, 
both  in  nave  and  aisles.  There 
was  no  triforium  gallery,  and 
stability  was  secured  only  by  ex- 
cessive thickness  in  the  piers 
and  clearstory  walls,  and  by 
bringing  down  the  main  vault 
as  near  to  the  side-aisle  roofs  as 
possible. 

EHENI8H  EXTERIORS.        These 

great    churches,  together  with 
of    Bonn    and    Limburg- 

on-the-Lahn   and    the  cathedral 

of    Treves  (Trier,   1047),  are  interesting,  not  only  by  their 

size  and  dignity  of  plan  and  the  somewhat  rude  massive- 

18  of  their  construction,  but  even  more  so  by  the  pictur- 


FIG.  100. — ONH   BAV  09  I  ATMEMML 

AT   MIKKs. 


EARLY   MEDLKVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


175 


esqueness  of  their  external  design  (Fig.  101).  Especially 
successful  is  the  massing  of  the  large  and  small  turrets 
with    the    lofty    nave-  * 

roof  and  with  the  aps- 
es at  one  or  both  ends. 
The  systematic  use  of 
arcading  to  decorate  the 
exterior  walls,  and  the 
introduction  of  open 
arcaded  dwarf  galleries 
under  the  cornices  of 
the  apses,  gables,  and 
dome -turrets,  gave  to 
these  Rhenish  church- 
es an  external  beauty 
hardly  equalled  in  oth- 
er contemporary  edi- 
fices. This  method  of 
exterior  design,  and  the 
system  of  vaulting  in 
square  bays  over  double 
bays  of  the  nave,  were 
probably  derived  from 

the  Lombard  churches  of  Northern  Italy,  with  which  the 
Hohenstauffen  emperors  had  many  political  relations. 

The  Italian  influence  is  also  encountered  in  a  number 
of  circular  churches  of  early  date,  as  at  Fulda  (9th- 
11th  century),  Driigelte,  Bonn  (baptistery,  demolished), 
and  in  facades  like  that  at  Rosheim,  which  is  a  copy  in  lit- 
tle of  San  Zeno  at  Verona. 

Elsewhere  in  Germany  architecture  was  in  a  backward 
state,  especially  in  the  southern  provinces.  Outside  of 
Saxony,  Franconia,  and  the  Rhine  provinces,  very  few 
works  of  importance  were  erected  until  the  thirteenth 
century. 


FIG.   lOI. — EAST    END    Oh'   CHURCH    OF  THE  APOS- 
TLES,   COLOGNE. 


176  HISTORY   OF    ARCHITECTURE. 

SECULAR  ARCHITECTURE.      Little  remains  to  us  of   ttl< 

alar  architecture  of  this  period  ill  Germany,  if  we  except  the 

great  feudal  castles,  especially  those  of  the  Rhine,  which 
were,  after  all,  rather  works  of  military  engineering  than  of 
architectural  art.  The  palace  of  Charlemagne  at  Aix  (the 
chapel  of  which  was  mentioned  on  p.  172)  is  known  to  have 
been  a  vast  and  splendid  group  of  buildings,  partly,  at  least 
of  marble  ;  but  hardly  a  vestige  of  it  remains.  Of  the  ex 
tensive  Palace  of  Henry  III.  at  Goslar  there  remain  well-de- 
fined ruins  of  an  imposing  hall  of  assembly  in  two  aisles 
with  triple-arched  windows.  At  Brunswick  the  east  wing  of 
the  Burg  Dankwargerode  displays,  in  spite  of  modern  alter- 
ations, the  arrangement  of  the  chapel,  great  hall,  two  forti- 
fied towers,  and  part  of  the  residence  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
The  Wartburg  palace  (Ludwig  III.,  cir.  1 150)  is  more  gen- 
erally known — a  rectangular  hall  in  three  stories,  with  win- 
dows effectively  grouped  to  form  arcades  ;  while  at  (ielnhau- 
sen  and  Miinzenberg  are  ruins  of  somewhat  similar  buildings. 
A  few  of  the  Romanesque  monasteries  of  Germany  have 
left  partial  remains,  as  at  Maulbronn,  which  was  almost  en- 
tirely rebuilt  in  the  Gothic  period,  and  isolated  buildings  in 
Cologne  and  elsewhere.  There  remain  also  in  Cologne  a 
number  of  Romanesque  private  houses  with  coupled  win- 
dows and  stepped  gables. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  Previous  to  the  Norman  conquest  (1060) 
there  was  in  the  British  Isles  little  or  no  architecture 
worthy  of  mention.  The  few  extant  remains  of  Saxon  and 
Celtic  buildings  reveal  a  singular  poverty  of  ideas  and  want 
of  technical  skill.  These  scanty  remains  are  mostly  of 
towers  (those  in  Ireland  nearly  all  round  and  tapering,  with 
conical  tops,  their  use  and  date  being  the  subjects  of  much 
controversy)  and  crypts.  The  tower  of  Karl's  Barton  is 
the  most  important  and  best  preserved  of  those  in  England. 
With  the  Norman  conquest,  however,  began  an  extraor- 
dinary  activity    in    the   building   of    churches   and   abbeys. 


EARLY    MEDLKVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


177 


William  the  Conqueror  himself  founded  a  number  of  these, 
and  his  Norman  ecclesiastics  endeavored  to  surpass  on 
British  soil  the  contemporary  churches  of  Normandy.  The 
newj  churches  differed  somewhat  from  their  French  proto- 
types ;  they  were  narrower  and  lower,  but  much  longer, 
especially  as  to  the  choir  and 
transepts.  The  cathedrals  of 
Durham  (1096- 1133)  and  Nor- 
wich (same  date)  are  important 
examples  (Fig.  102).  They  also 
differed  from  the  French  churches 
in  two  important  particulars  ex- 
ternally ;  a  huge  tower  rose  usu- 
ally over  the  crossing,  and  the 
western  portals  were  small  and 
insignificant.  Lateral  entrances 
near  the  west  end  were  given 
greater  importance  and  called 
Galilees.  At  Durham  a  Galilee 
chapel  (not  shown  in  the  plan), 
takes  the  place  of  a  porch  at  the 
west  end,  like  the  ante-churches  of 
St.  Benoit-sur-Loire  and  V^zelay. 

THE  NORMAN  STYLE.  The  Anglo- 
Norman  builders  employed  the?, 
same  general  features  as  the  Ro- 
manesque builders  of  Normandy, 
but  with  more  of  picturesqueness  and  less  of  refinement 
and  technical  elegance.  Heavy  walls,  recessed  arches, 
round  mouldings,  cubic  cushion-caps,  clustered  piers,  and  in 
doorways  a  jamb-shaft  for  each  stepping  of  the  arch  were 
common  to  both  styles.  But  in  England  the  Corinthian 
form  of  capital  is  rare,  its  place  being  taken  by  simpler  forms. 

NORMAN  INTERIORS.     The  interior   design  of   the   larger 
churches  of  this  period  shows  a  close  general  analogy  to 
12 


FIG.    I02. — PLAN   OF   DURHAM 
CATHEDRAL. 


1 78 


IIISToRV    OF   ARCHITECTURE, 


contemporaneous  French  Norman  churches,  as  appears  by 
comparing  the  nave  of  Walthum  or  Peterboro'  with  that  of 
CeVisy-la-Foret,  in  Normandy.  Although  the  massiveness 
of  the  Anglo-Norman  piers  and  walls  plainly  suggests  the 
intention  of  vaulting  the  nave,  this  inten- 
tion seems  never  to  have  been  carried  out 
except  in  small  churches  and  crypts.  All 
the  existing  abbeys  and  cathedrals  of 
this  period  had  wooden  ceilings  or  were, 
like  Durham,  Norwich,  and  Gloucester, 
vaulted  at  a  later  date.  Completed  as 
they  were  with  wooden  nave-roofs,  the 
clearstory  was,  without  danger,  made 
quite  lofty  and  furnished  with  windows 
of  considerable  size.  These  were  placed 
near  the  outside  of  the  thick  wall,  and  a 
passage  was  left  between  them  and  a 
triple  arch  on  the  inner  face  of  the  wall 
— a  device  imitated  from  the  abbeys  at 
Caen.  The  vaulted  side-aisles  were  low, 
with  disproportionately  wide  pier-arc  lies, 
above  which  was  a  high  triforium  gallery 
under  the  side -roofs.  Thus  a  nearly 
equal  height  was  assigned  to  each  of 
the  three  stories  of  the  bay,  disregarding 
that  subordination  of  minor  to  major 
parts  which  gives  interest  to  an  archi- 
tectural composition.  The  piers  were  quite  often  round,  as 
at  Gloucester,  Hereford,  and  Bristol.  Sometimes  round  piers 
alternated  with  clustered  piers,  as  at  Durham  and  Walthum  ; 
and  in  some  cases  clustered  piers  alone  were  employed,  as 
at  I'lterboro*  and  in  the  transepts  of  Winchester  (Fig.  103). 
FACADES  AND  DOORWAYS.  All  the  details  were  of  the  sim- 
haracter,  except  in  the  doorways.  These  were  richly 
adorned  with  clustered  jamb-shafts  and  elaborately  carved 


FIG.    I03. — ONE    BAV  OF 

TRANSIT,    WINCHESTER 

CATHEDRAL. 


EARLY    MEDL-KVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


179 


mouldings,  but  there  was  little  variety  in  the  details  of 
this  carving.  The  zigzag  was  the  most  common  feature, 
though  birds'  heads  with  the  beaks  pointing  toward  the 
centre  of  the  arch  were  not  uncommon.  In  the  smaller 
churches  (Fig.  104)  the  doorways  were  better  proportioned 
to  the  whole  facade  than  in  the  larger  ones,  in  which  they 
appear  as  relatively  insignificant  features.  Very  few  ex 
amples  remain  of  impcrtant 
Norman  facades  in  their 
original  form,  nearly  all  of 
these  having  been  altered 
after  the  round  arch  was 
displaced  by  the  pointed 
arch  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  twelfth  century.  Iffley 
church  (Fig.  104)  is  a  good 
example  of  the  style. 

SPAIN.  During  the  Ro- 
manesque period  a  large 
part  of  Spain  was  under 
Moorish  dominion.  The 
capture  of  Toledo,  in  1062, 
by  the  Christians,  began 
the  gradual  emancipation 
of  the  country  from  Mos- 
lem rule,  and  in  the  north- 
ern provinces  a  number  of  important  churches  were  erected 
under  the  influence  of  French  Romanesque  models.  The 
use  of  domical  pendentives  (as  in  the  Panteon  of  S.  Isidoro, 
at  Leon,  and  in  the  cimborio  or  dome  over  the  choir  at 
the  intersection  of  nave  and  transepts  in  old  Salamanca 
cathedral)  was  probably  derived  from  the  domical 
churches  of  Aquitania  and  Anjou.  Elsewhere  the  north- 
ern Romanesque  type  prevailed  under  various  modifica- 
tions,  with  long   nave  and  transepts,  a  short  choir,  and  a 


FIG.    IO4. — FRONT  OF   IFFLEY   CHURCH. 


l80  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

complete  chevet  with  apsidal  chapels.  The  church  of  8t. 
Iago  at  Compostella  (1078)  is  the  finest  example  of  this 
class.  These  churches  nearly  all  had  groined  vaulting  over 
the  side-aisles  and  barrel-vaults  over  the  nave,  the  con- 
structive system  being  substantially  that  of  the  churches 
of  Auvergne  and  the  Loire  Valley  (p.  165).  They  differed, 
however,  in  the  treatment  of  the  crossing  of  nave  and  tran- 
septs, over  which  was  usually  erected  a  dome  or  cupola  or 
pendentives  or  squinches,  covered  externally  by  an  impos 
ing  square  lantern  or  tower,  as  in  the  Old  Cathedral  at  Sal 
amanca,  already  mentioned  (1120-78)  and  the  Collegi- 
ate Church  at  Toro.  Occasional  exceptions  to  these  types 
are  met  wTith,  as  in  the  basilican  wooden-roofed  church  of  S. 
Millan  at  Segovia  ;  in  S,  Isidoro  at  Leon,  with  chapels  and 
a  later-added  square  eastern  end,  and  the  circular  church 
of  the  Templars  at  Segovia. 

The  architectural  details  of  these  Spanish  churches  did 
not  differ  radically  from  contemporary  French  work.  As 
i>i  France  and  England,  the  doorways  were  the  most  ornate 
parts  of  the  design,  the  mouldings  being  carved  with  ex- 
treme richness  and  the  jambs  frequently  adorned  with 
statues,  as  in  S.  Vincente  at  Avila.  There  was  no  such 
logical  and  reasoned-out  system  of  external  design  as  in 
France,  and  there  is  consequently  greater  variety  in  the 
facades.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  the 
architecture  of  this  period  is  its  apparent  exemption  from 
the  influence  of  the  Moorish  monuments  which  abounded 
on  every  hand.  This  may  be  explained  by  the  hatred 
which  was  felt  by  the  Christians  for  the  Moslems  and  all 
their  works. 

MONUMENTS.  C.kkmanv  :  Previous  to  nth  century:  Circular 
churches  of  Holy  Cross  at  MOnster,  and  of  Fulda  ;  palace  chapel  of  Charle- 
magne at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  804;  St.  Stephen,  Mayence,  990;  primitive 
nave  and  crypt  of  St.  Genoa,  Cologne,  10th  century;  Torsch. — nth 
century  •  Churches  of  Gernrode,  Goslar,  and  Merseburg  in  Saxony  ;  cathe- 


EARLY   MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  l8l 

dral  of  Bremen  ;  first  restoration  of  cathedral  of  Treves  (Trier),  ioio,  west 
front,  1047  ;  Limburg-on-Hardt,  1024  ;  St.  Willibrod,  Echternach,  103 1  ; 
east  end  of  Mayence  Cathedral,  1036  ;  Church  of  Apostles  and  nave  St. 
Mary-in-CapitoI  at  Cologne,  1036  ;  cathedral  of  Spires  (Speyer)  begun 
1040 ;  Cathedral  Hildesheim,  1061  ;  St.  Joseph,  Bamberg,  1073  ;  Abbey 
of  Laach,  1093-1156;  round  churches  of  Bonn,  Drtlgelte,  Nimeguen  ; 
cathedrals  of  Paderborn  and  Minden. — 12th  century:  Churches  of  Klus, 
Paulinzelle,  Hamersleben,  noo-iiio;  Johannisberg,  1130  ;  St.  Godehard, 
Hildesheim,  1133;  Worms,  the  Minster,  1118-83;  Jerichau,  1144-60; 
Schwarz-Rheindorf,  1151;  St.  Michael,  Hildesheim,  1162;  Cathedral 
Brunswick,  1172-94  ;  Lubeck,  1172  ;  also  churches  of  Gaudersheim,  Wiirz- 
burg,  St.  Matthew  at  Treves,  Limburg-on-Lahn,  Sinzig,  St.  Castor  at 
Coblentz,  Diesdorf,  Rosheim  ;  round  churches  of  Ottmarsheim  and  Rip- 
pen  (Denmark) ;  cathedral  of  Basle,  cathedral  and  cloister  of  Zurich  (Swit- 
zerland). 

England:  Previous  to  nth  century:  Scanty  vestiges  of  Saxon 
church  architecture,  as  tower  of  Earl's  Barton,  round  towers  and  small 
chapels  in  Ireland. — nth  century:  Crypt  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  1070; 
chapel  St.  John  in  Tower  of  London,  1070 ;  Winchester  Cathedral,  1076- 
93  (nave  and  choir  rebuilt  later)  ;  Gloucester  Cathedral  nave,  1089-1100 
(vaulted  later) ;  Rochester  Cathedral  nave,  west  front  cloisters,  and  chap- 
ter-house, 1090-1130;  Carlisle  Cathedral  nave,  transepts,  1093-1130  ; 
Durham  Cathedral,  1095-1133,  vaulted  1233  ;  Galilee  and  chapter-house, 
1133—53  ;  Norwich  Cathedral,  1096,  largely  rebuilt  1118-93  ;  Hereford 
Cathedral,  nave  and  choir,  1099-1115. — 12th  century:  Ely  Cathedral, 
nave,  1107-33  I  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  1116  ;  Peterboro'  Cathedral,  11 17-45  '. 
Waltham  Abbey,  early  12 th  century;  Church  of  Holy  Sepulchre,  Cam- 
bridge, 1130-35;  Worcester  Cathedral  chapter-house,  1140  (?)  ;  Oxford 
Cathedral  (Christ  Church),  1150-80;  Bristol  Cathedral  chapter-house 
(square),  11 55 ;  Canterbury  Cathedral,  choir  of  present  structure  by 
William  of  Sens,  1175  ;  Chichester  Cathedral,  1 180-1204  ;  Romsey  Abbey, 
late  12th  century;  St.  Cross  Hospital  near  Winchester,  1 190(7).  Many 
more  or  less  important  parish  churches  in  various  parts  of  England. 

Spain.  For  principal  monuments  of  gth-i  2th  centuries,  see  text,  latter 
part  of  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

Books  Recommended  :  Adamy,  Architektonik  des  gotischt  n 
Stils.  Corroyer,  V Architecture  gothique.  Enlart,  Manuel 
a*  archtologie  fran$aise.  Hasak,  Einzelheiten  des  Kirchenbaues 
(in  Hdbuch  d.  Arch.).  Moore,  Development  and  Character  of 
Gothic  Architecture.  Parker,  Introduction  to  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. Scott,  Mediaeval  Architecture.  Viollet-le-Duc,  Dis- 
courses on  Architecture ;  Dictionnaire  raisonni  de  /'architecture 
francaise. 

INTBODUCTOBY.  The  architectural  styles  which  were  de- 
veloped in  Western  Europe  during  the  period  extending 
from  about  1150  to  1450  or  1500,  received  in  an  unscien- 
tific age  the  wholly  erroneous  and  inept  name  of  Gothic. 
This  name  has,  however,  become  so  fixed  in  common  usage 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  substitute  for  it  any  more 
scientific  designation.  In  reality  the  architecture  to  which 
it  is  applied  was  nothing  more  than  the  sequel  and  out- 
growth of  the  Romanesque,  which  we  have  already  studied. 
Its  fundamental  principles  were  the  same  ;  it  was  concerned 
with  the  same  problems.  These  it  took  up  where  the  Ro- 
manesque builders  left  them,  and  worked  out  their  solution 
under  new  conditions,  until  it  had  developed  out  of  the 
simple  and  massive  models  of  the  early  twelfth  century  the 
splendid  cathedrals  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies in  England,  France,  Germany,  the  Low  Countries  and 
Spain. 

THE  CHUBCH  AND  ABCHITECTUBE.  The  twelfth  century 
was  an  era  of  transition  in  society,  as  in  architecture.  The 
ideas  of  Church  and  State  were  becoming  more  clearly  de- 
fined in  the  common  mind.     In  the  conflict  between  feudal- 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


183 


ism  and  royalty  the  monarchy  was  steadily  gaining  ground. 
The  problem  of  human  right  was  beginning  to  present  it- 
self alongside  of  the  problem  of  human  might.  The  re- 
lations between  the  crown,  the  feudal  barons,  the  pope, 
bishops,  and  abbots,  differed  widely  in  France,  Germany, 
England,  and  other  countries.  The  struggle  among  them 
for  supremacy  presented  itself,  therefore,  in  varied  aspects  ; 
but  the  general  outcome  was  essentially  the  same.  The 
church  began  to  appear  as  something  behind  and  above 
abbots,  bishops,  kings,  and  barons.  The  supremacy  of 
the  papal  authority  gained  increasing  recognition,  and 
the  episcopacy  began  to  overshadow  the  monastic  institu- 
tions ;  the  bishops  appearing  generally,  but  especially  in 
France,  as  the  cham- 
pions of  popular 
rights.  The  prerog- 
atives of  the  crown 
became  more  firmly 
established,  and  thus 
the  Church  and  the 
State  emerged  from 
the  social  confusion 
as  the  two  institu- 
tions divinely  ap- 
pointed for  the  gov- 
ernment of  men. 

Under  these  in- 
fluences ecclesiasti- 
cal   architecture    ad- 


vanced 
strides. 


with 
No 


FIG.   105. — CONSTRUCTIVE  SYSTEM    OF  GOTHIC   CHURCH. 
ILLUSTRATING    PRINCIPLES  OF    ISOLATED   SUPPORTS 
longer  AND  BUTTRESSING. 


rapid 


hampered  by  monas- 
tic restrictions,  it  called  into  its  service  the  laity,  whose 
guilds  of  masons  and  builders  carried  from  one  diocese  to 
another  their  constantly  increasing  stores  of  constructive 


1 84 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


knowledge.  By  a  wise  division  of  labor,  each  man  wrought 
only  such  parts  as  he  was  specially  trained  to  undertake. 
The  master-builder — bishop,  abbot,  or  mason — seems  to 
have  planned  only  the  general  arrange- 
ment and  scheme  of  the  building,  leav- 
ing the  precise  form  of  each  detail  to 
be  determined  as  the  work  advanced, 
according  to  the  skill  and  fancy  of  the 
artisan  to  whom  it  was  intrusted.  Thus 
was  produced  that  remarkable  variety 
in  unity  of  the  Gothic  cathedrals  ;  thus, 
also,  those  singular  irregularities  and 
makeshifts,  those  discrepancies  and 
alterations  in  the  design,  which  are 
found  in  every  great  work  of  medi- 
aeval architecture.  Gothic  architec- 
ture was  constantly  changing,  attack- 
ing new  problems  or  devising  new- 
solutions  of  old  ones.  In  this  char- 
acter of  constant  flux  and  develop- 
ment it  contrasts  strongly  with  the 
classic  styles,  in  which  the  scheme 
and  the  principles  were  early  fixed  and 
remained  substantially  unchanged  for 
centuries. 
STRUCTURAL  PRINCIPLES.  The  pointed  arch,  so  commonly 
regarded  as  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Gothic 
styl'  s,  was  merely  an  incidental  feature  of  their  develop- 
ment. What  really  distinguished  them  most  strikingly  was 
the  systematic  application  of  two  principles  which  the 
Roman  and  Byzantine  builders  had  recognized  and  applied, 
but  which  seem  to  have  been  afterward  forgotten  until 
they  were  revived  by  the  later  Romanesque  architects. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  concentration  of  strains  upon  iso- 
lated points  of  support,  made  possible  by  the  substitution 


MG.     to6. — PLAN     OP    SAINTE 
CHAI'KU.E,     IAK1S,    (MOW* 
'   1'PKESSION   OP  SIDE- 
WALLS. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


185 


of  groined  for  barrel  vaults.  This  led  to  a  corresponding 
concentration  of  the  masses  of  masonry  at  these  points  ; 
the  building  was  constructed  as  if  upon  legs  (Fig.  105). 
The  wall  became  a  mere  filling-in  between  the  piers  or 
buttresses,  and  in  time  was,  indeed,  practically  suppressed, 
immense  windows  filled  with  stained  glass  taking  its  place. 
This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris,  built 
1242-47  (Figs.  106,  122).  In  this  remarkable  edifice,  a  series 
of  groined  vaults  spring  from  slender  shafts  built  against 
deep  buttresses  which  receive  and  resist  all  the  thrusts. 
The  wall-spaces  between  them  are  wholly  occupied  by 
superb  windows  filled  with  stone  tracery  and  stained  glass. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  combine  the  materials  used  more 
scientifically  or  effectively. 
The  cathedrals  of  Gerona 
(Spain)  and  of  Alby  (France  ; 
Fig.  123)  illustrate  the  same 
principle,  though  in  them  the 
buttresses  are  internal  and 
serve  to  separate  the  flanking 
chapels. 

The  second  distinctive  prin- 
ciple of  Gothic  architecture 
was  that  of  balanced  thrusts. 
In  Roman  buildings  the  thrust 
of  the  vaulting  was  resisted 
wholly  by  the  inertia  of  mass 
in  the  abutments.  In  Gothic 
architecture  thrusts  were  as 
far  as  possible  resisted  by 
counter-thrusts,  and  the  final 
resultant  pressure  was  trans- 
mitted by   flying  half-arches 

across  the  intervening  portions  of  the  structure  to  external 
buttresses  placed  at  convenient  points.     This  combination 


FIG.    107. 


-EARLY   GOTHIC   FLYING     BUT- 
TRESS. 


1 86 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITl-XTURE. 


of  flying  half-arches  and  buttresses  is  called  the  flying-buttress 
(Fig.  107).  It  reached  its  highest  development  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  in  the  cathedrals  of  central 
and  northern  France. 

BIBBED  VAULTING.  These  two  principles  formed  the 
structural  basis  of  the  Gothic  styles.  Their  application  led 
to  the  introduction  of  two  other  elements,  second  only  to 
them  in  importance,  ribbed  vaulting  and  the  pointed  arch. 

The  first  of  these  resulted  from  the  effort  to  overcome 
certain  practical  difficulties  encountered  in  the  building  of 
large  groined  vaults.  As  ordinarily  constructed,  a  groined 
vault  like  that  in  Fig.  47,  must  be  built  as  one  structure, 
upon  wooden  centrings  supporting  its  whole  extent.  The 
Romanesque  architects  conceived  the  idea  of  construct- 
ing an  independent  skeleton  of  ribs. 
Two  of  these  were  built  against  the 
wall  (wail-ribs),  two  across  the  nave 
(transverse  ribs) ;  and  two  others 
were  made  to  coincide  with  the 
groins  (Figs.  98,  108).  The  groin  - 
ribs,  intersecting  at  the  centre  of 
the  vault,  divided  each  bay  into  four 
triangular  portions,  or  compartuients, 
each  of  which  was  really  an  inde- 
pendent vault  which  could  be  sepa- 
rately constructed  upon  light  cen- 
trings supported  by  the  groin-ribs  themselves.  This  prin- 
ciple, though  identical  in  essence  with  the  Roman  system 
of  brick  skeleton-ribs  for  concrete  vaults,  was,  in  applica- 
tion and  detail,  superior  to  it,  both  from  the  scientific  and 
artistic  point  of  view.  The  ribs,  richly  moulded,  became, 
in  the  hands  of  the  Gothic  architects,  important  decorative 
features.  In  practice  the  builder  gave  to  each  set  of  ribs 
independently  the  curvature  he  desired.  The  vaulting-sur- 
faces  were  then  easily  twisted  or  warped  so  as  to  fit  the  va- 


ne. 108.  —  RIBBF.I)  VAULT, 
ENGLISH  TVI'K,  Willi  I'l- 
VIDED  GKOIN-  KIIIS  ANI> 
RIDGE-KIHS. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


I87 


rious  ribs,  which,  being  already  in  place,  served  as  guides 
for  their  construction. 

THE  POINTED  ARCH  was  adopted  to  remedy  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  the  construction  of  oblong  vaults.  It  is 
obvious  that  where  a  narrow  semi-cylindrical  vault  inter 
sects  a  wide  one,  it  produces 
either  what  are  called  penetra- 
tions, as  at  a  (Fig.  109),  or  in- 
tersections like  that  at  b,  both 
of  which  are  awkward  in  as- 
pect and  hard  to  construct.  If, 
however,  one  or  both  vaults 
be  given  a  pointed  section,  the 
narrow  vault  may  be  made  as 
high  as  the  wide  one.  It  is 
then  possible,  with  but  little 
warping  of  the  vaulting  sur- 
faces, to  make  them  intersect 
in  groins  ey  which  are  vertical 
plane  curves  instead  of  wavy 
loops  like  a  and  b. 

The  Gothic  architects 
availed  themselves  to  the  full 
of  these  two  devices.  They 
built  their  groin-ribs  of  semi-circular  or  pointed  form,  but  the 
wall-ribs  and  the  transverse  ribs  were,  without  exception, 
pointed  arches  of  such  curvature  as  would  bring  the  apex  of 
each  nearly  or  quite  to  the  level  of  the  groin  intersection. 
The  pointed  arch,  thus  introduced  as  the  most  convenient 
form  for  the  vaulting-ribs,  was  soon  applied  to  other  parts 
of  the  structure  This  was  a  necessity  with  the  windows  and 
pier-arches,  which  would  not  otherwise  fit  well  the  wall- 
spaces  under  the  wall-ribs  of  the  nave  and  aisle  vaulting. 

TRACERY  AND  GLASS.     With  the  growth  in  the  size  of  the 
windows  and  the  progressive  suppression  of  the  lateral  walls 


FIG.  I09. — PENETRATIONS   AND    INTERSEC- 
TIONS  OK   VAULTS. 

a,  a,  Penetrations  by  small  semi- 
circular vaults  sprung  from  same  level, 
b.  Intersection  by  small  semi-circular 
vault  sprung  from  higher  level ;  groins 
form  luavy  lines,  c,  Intersection  by 
narrow  pointed  vault  sprung  from  same 
level ;  groins  are  plane  curz>es. 


1 88 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  vaulted  structures,  stained  glass  came  more  and  more 
generally  into  use.  Its  introduction  not  only  resulted  in  a 
notable  heightening  and  enriching  of  the  colors  and  scheme 
of  the  interior  decoration,  but  reacted  on  the  architecture, 
intensifying  the  very  causes  which  led  to  its  introduction. 
It  stimulated  the  increase  in  the  size  of  windows,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  walls,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  de- 
velopment of  tracery.  This  latter  feature  was  an  absolute 
necessity  for  the  support  of  the  glass.  Its  evolution  can 
be  traced  (Figs,  no,  in,  112)  from  the  simple  coupling 
of  twin  windows  under  a  single  hood-mould,  or  discharging 
arch,  to  the  florid  net-work  of  the  fifteenth  century.     In 

its  earlier  forms  it  consisted 
merely  of  decorative  openings, 
circles,  and  quatrefoils,  pierced 
through  slabs  of  stone  {plate- 
traccry),  filling  the  window- 
heads  over  coupled  windows. 
Later  attention  was  bestowed 
upon  the  form  of  the  stone- 
work, which  was  made  lighter 
and  richly  moulded  (bar-trac- 
ery), rather  than  upon  that  of 
the  openings  (Fig.  in).  Then 
the  circular  and  geometric  pat- 
terns employed  were  aban- 
doned for  more  flowing  and 
capricious  designs  {Flamboyant  tracery,  Fig.  112)  or  (in 
Kngland)  for  more  rigid  and  rectangular  arrangements 
{Perpendicular,  Fig.  134).  It  will  be  shown  later  that  the 
periods  and  styles  of  Gothic  architecture  are  more  easily 
identified  by  the  tracery  than  by  any  other  feature. 

CHURCH  PLANS.  The  original  basilica  -  plan  underwent 
radical  modifications  during  the  12th -15th  centuries. 
These  resulted  in  part  from    the  changes  in  construction 


FIG.  I IO. — PLATE   TRACERY,    CHARLTOK 
ON-OXMORE. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


189 


which  have  been  described,  and  in  part  from  altered  eccle- 
siastical conditions  and  requirements.  Gothic  church  archi- 
tecture was  based  on  cathedral  design  ;  and  the  require- 
ments of  the  cathedral 


differed  in  many  re- 
spects from  those  of  the 
monastic  churches  of 
the  preceding  period. 

The  most  important 
alterations  in  the  plan 
were  in  the  choir  and 
transepts.  The  choir 
was  greatly  lengthened, 
the  transepts  often 
shortened.  The  choir 
was  provided  with  two 
and  often  four  side- 
aisles,  and  one  or  both 
of  these  was  commonly 
carried  entirely  around 
the  apsidal  termination  FIG-  1: 
of  the  choir,  forming  a 
single  or  double  ambulatory.  This  combination  of  choir, 
apse,  and  ambulatory  was  called,  in  French  churches,  the 
chevet. 

Another  advance  upon  Romanesque  models  was  the  mul- 
tiplication of  chapels — a  natural  consequence  of  the  more 
popular  character  of  the  cathedral  as  compared  with  the 
abbey.  Frequently  lateral  chapels  were  built  at  each  bay  ot 
the  side-aisles,  filling  up  the  space  between  the  deep  but- 
tresses, flanking  the  nave  as  well  as  the  choir.  They  were 
also  carried  around  the  chevet  in  most  of  the  French  cathe- 
drals (Paris,  Bourges,  Reims,  Amiens,  Beauvais,  and  many 
others)  ;  in  many  of  those  in  Germany  (Magdeburg,  Co- 
logne, Frauenkirche  at  Treves),  Spain  (Toledo,  Leon,  Bar- 


-BAR   TRACERY,    ST.    MICHAEL'S,  WAR- 
FIELD. 


190 


HISTORY   OK  ARCHITECTURE. 


celona,  Segovia,  etc.),  and  Belgium  (Tournay,  Antwerp).  In 
England  the  choir  had  more  commonly  a  square  eastward 
termination.  Secondary  transepts  occur  frequently,  and 
these  peculiarities,  together  with  the  narrowness  and  great 
length  of  most  of  the  plans,  make  of  the  English  cathedrals 
a  class  by  themselves. 

proportions  AND  composition.  Along  with  these  modifi- 
cations of  the  basilican  plan  should  be  noticed  a  great  in- 
crease in  the  height  and  slenderness  of  all  parts  of  the 
structure.     The  lofty  clearstory,  the  arcaded  triforium-pas- 

sage  or  gallery  beneath 
it,  the  high  pointed 
pier-arches,  the  mul- 
tiplication of  slender 
clustered  shafts,  and 
the  reduction  in  tine 
area  of  the  piers, .gave 
to  the  Gothic  churches 
an  interior  aspect  whol- 
ly different  from  that 
of  the  simpler,  lower, 
and  more  massive  Ro- 
manesque edifices.  The 
perspective  effects  of 
the  plans  thus  modified, 
especially  of  the  com- 
plex choir  and  ,/it'vet  with  their  lateral  and  radial  chapels, 
were  remarkably  enriched  and  varied. 

The  exterior  was  even  more  radically  transformed  by 
these  changes,  and  by  the  addition  of  towers  and  spires  to 
the  fronts,  and  sometimes  to  the  transepts  and  to  their  in- 
tion  with  the  nave.  The  deep  buttresses,  terminating 
in  pinnacles,  the  rich  traceries  of  the  great  lateral  windows, 
the  triple  portals  profusely  sculptured,  rose-windows  of  great 
size  under  the   front  and  transept  gables,  combined  to  pro- 


KIG.    112.— ROSE    WINDOW,  CHURCH   OP   ST.    OUEN, 
ROUBN. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


I9I 


duce  effects  of  marvellously  varied  light  and  shadow,  and 
of  complex  and  elaborate  structural  beauty,  totally  un- 
like the  broad  simplicity  of  the  Romanesque  exteriors. 

DECORATIVE  DETAIL.  The  mediaeval  designers  aimed  to 
enrich  every  constructive 
feature  with  the  most  ef- 
fective play  of  lights  and 
shades,  and  to  embody  in 
the  decorative  detail  the 
greatest  possible  amount 
of  allegory  and  symbol- 
ism, and  sometimes  of 
humor  besides.  The 
deep  jambs  and  soffits  of 
doors  and  pier  -  arches 
were  moulded  with  a  rich 
succession  of  hollow  and 
convex"*"  members,  and 
adorned  with  carvings  of 
saints,  apostles,  martyrs, 
and  angels.  Virtues  and 
vices,  allegories  of  re- 
ward and  punishment, 
and  an  extraordinary 
world  of  monstrous  and 
grotesque  beasts,  devils, 
and  goblins  filled  the 
capitals  and  door-arches, 
peeped  over  tower  -  par- 
apets, or  leered  and 
grinned    from    gargoyles 

and  corbels.  Another  source  of  decorative  detail  was 
the  application  of  tracery  like  that  of  the  windows  to 
wall-panelling,  to  balustrades,  to  open-work  gables,  to 
spires,  to  choir-screens,  and  other   features,  especially   in 


FIG.  113. —  FLAMBOYANT    DETAIL     FROM    Fl'LPIl 
IN    STRASBURG   CATHEDRAL. 


T92 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  late  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  (cathedrals   of 

York,  Rouen,  Cologne  ;  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel,  Westminster). 
And  finally  in  the  carving  of  capitals  and  the  ornamentation 
of  mouldings  the  artists  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  their 
successors  abandoned  completely  the  classic  models  and 
traditions  which  still  survived  in  the  early  twelfth  century. 
The  later  monastic  builders  began  to  look  directly  to  nat- 
ure for  suggestions  of  decorative  form.  The  lay  builders 
who  sculptured  the  capitals  and  crockets  and  finials  of  the 
early  Gothic  cathedrals  adopted  and  followed  to  its  fir.:.lity 
this  principle  of  recourse  to  nature,  especially  to  plant  life. 
At  first  the  budding  shoots  of  early  spring  were  freely  imi- 
tated or  skilfully  conventionalized,  as  being  by  their  thick 
and  vigorous  forms  the  best  adapted  for  translation  into 
stone  (Fig.  114).  During  the  thirteenth  century  the  more 
advanced  stages  of  plant  growth,  and  leaves  more  complex 
and  detailed,  furnished  the  models  for  the  carver,  who  dis- 
played his  skill  in  a  closer  and  more  literal  imitation  of 
their  minute   veinings  and   indentations  (Fig.  115).     This 

artistic  adaptation  of 
natural  forms  to  archi- 
tectural decoration  de- 
generated later  into  a 
minutely  realistic  copy- 
ing of  natural  foliage, 
in  which  cleverness  of 
execution  took  the 
place  of  original  inven- 
tion. The  spirit  of  dis 
play  is  characteristic 
of  all  late  Gothic  work.  Slenderness,  minuteness  of  de- 
tail, extreme  complexity  and  intricacy  of  design,  an  unre- 
strained profusion  of  decoration  covering  every  surface, 
a  lack  of  largeness  and  vigor  in  the  conceptions,  are  con- 
spicuous traits  of  Gothic  design  in   the  fifteenth  century, 


PMm    IH        IWIT    <,OTHIC   CARVING. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


193 


alike  in  France,  England,  Germany,  Spain,  and  the  Low 
Countries.     Having  worked   out   to  their   conclusion   the 
structural  principles  bequeathed  to  them  by  the  preceding 
centuries,  the  authors 
of  these  later  works 
seemed  to  have  devot- 
ed themselves  to  the 
elaboration    of    mere 
decorative  detail,  and 
in     technical      finish 
surpassed  all  that  had 
gone  before  (Fig.  1 13). 

CHARACTERISTICS 
SUMMARIZED.  In  the 
light  of  the  preceding 
explanations  Gothic 
architecture  may  be 
defined  as  that  system 
of  structural  design 
and  decoration  which 

grew  up  out  of  the  effort  to  combine,  in  one  harmonious 
and  organic  conception,  the  basilican  plan  with  a  complete 
and  systematic  construction  of  groined  vaulting.  Its  devel- 
opment was  controlled  throughout  by  considerations  of 
stability  and  structural  propriety,  but  in  the  application  of 
these  considerations  the  artistic  spirit  was  allowed  full  scope 
for  its  exercise.  Refinement,  good  taste,  and  great  fertility 
of  imagination  characterize  the  details  and  ornaments  of 
Gothic  structures.  While  the  Greeks  in  harmonizing  the  re- 
quirements of  utility  and  beauty  in  architecture  approached 
the  problem  from  the  aesthetic  side,  the  Gothic  architects 
did  the  same  from  the  structural  side.  Their  admirably 
reasoned  structures  express  as  perfectly  the  idea  of  vast- 
ness,  mystery,  and  complexity  as  do  the  Greek  temples  that 
of  simplicity  and  monumental  repose. 
25 


:arving,    decorated    period, 
southwell  minster. 


194  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

i  The  excellence  of  Gothic  architecture  lay  not  so  much  in 
1  its  individual  details  as  in  its  perfect  adaptation  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  was  developed — its  triumphs  were 
achieved  in  the  building  of  cathedrals  and  large  churches. 
In  the  domain  of  civil  and  domestic  architecture  it  produced 
nothing  comparable  with  its  ecclesiastical  edifices,  because 
it  was  the  requirements  of  the  cathedral  and  not  of  the 
palace,  town-hall,  or  dwelling,  that  gave  it  its  form  and 
character. 

PERIODS.  The  history  of  Gothic  architecture  is  commonly 
divided  into  three  periods,  which  are  most  readily  distin- 
guished by  the  character  of  the  window-tracery.  These 
periods  were  not  by  any  means  synchronous  in  the  different 
countries ;  but  the  order  of  sequence  was  everywhere  the 
same.  They  are  here  given,  with  a  summary  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  each. 

Early  Pointed  Period.  [Early  French  ;  Early  English 
or  Lancet  Period  in  England  ;  Early  German,  etc.]  Simple 
groined  vaults  ;  general  simplicity  and  vigor  of  design  and 
detail ;  conventionalized  foliage  of  small  plants  ;  plate  tra- 
cery, and  narrow  windows  coupled  under  pointed  arch  with 
circular  foiled  openings  in  the  window-head.  (In  France, 
n6o  to  1275.) 

Middle  Pointed  Period.  [Fayonnant  in  France  ;  Deco- 
rated or  Geometric  in  England.]  Vaults  more  perfect  ;  in 
Kngland  multiple  ribs  and  liernes  ;  greater  slenderness 
and  loftiness  of  proportions  ;  decoration  much  richer,  less 
vigorous  ;  more  naturalistic  carving  of  mature  foliage ; 
walls  nearly  suppressed,  windows  of  great  size,  bar  tracery 
with  slender  moulded  or  columnar  mullions  and  geometric 
combinations  (circles  and  cusps)  in  window-heads,  circular 
(rose)  windows.     (In  France,  1275  to  1375.) 

Florid  Gothic  PERIOD.  \  Flamboyant  m  France  ;  Ferpen- 
Jicular  in  England.]  Vaults  of  varied  and  richly  decorated 
design  ;  fan-vaulting  and  pendants   in   England,  vault-ribs 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE.  195 

curved  into  fanciful  patterns  in  Germany  an  J  Spain  ;  pro- 
fuse and  minute  decoration  and  cleverness  of  technical  ex- 
ecution substituted  for  dignity  of  design  ;  highly  realistic 
carving  and  sculpture,  flowing  or  flamboyant  tracery  in 
France ;  perpendicular  bars  with  horizontal  transoms  and 
four-centred  arches  in  England  :  "  branch-tracery  "  in  Ger- 
many.    (In  France,  1375  to  1525.) 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Adamy,  Corroyer,  Enlart, 
Hasak,  Moore,  Reber,  Viollet-le-Duc*  Also  Chapuy,  Le 
tnoyen  age  monumental.  Chateau,  Hisioire  et  carac teres  de 
rarchitecture  francaise.  Davies,  Architectural  Studies  in 
France.  Ferree,  The  Chronology  of  the  Cathedral  Churches 
of  France.  Johnson,  Early  French  Architecture.  King,  The 
Study  book  of  Mediaeval  Architecture  and  Art.  Lassus  and 
Viollet-le-Duc,  Notre  Dame  de  Paris.  Nesfield,  Specimens  of 
Mediaeval  Architecture.    Pettit,  Architectural  Studies  in  France. 

cathedral-building  IN  FRANCE.     In  the  development  of 
the  principles  outlined  in  the  foregoing  chapter  the  church- 
builders  of  France  led  the  way.     They  surpassed  all  their 
contemporaries  in  readiness  of  invention,  in  quickness  and 
directness  of  reasoning,  and  in  artistic  refinement.     These 
qualities  were   especially  manifested   in  the  extraordinary 
architectural  activity  which  marked  the  second  half  of  the 
twelfth  century  and  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth.     This 
was  the  great  age  of  cathedral-building  in  France.     Th( 
adhesion  of  the  bishops  to  the  royal  cause,  and  their  posi- 
tion in  popular  estimation  as  the  champions  of  justice  am 
human  rights,  led  to  the  rapid  advance  of  the  episcopacy  ii 
power  and  influence.     The  cathedral,  as  the  throne-churcl 
of  the  bishop,  became  a  truly  popular  institution.     Ne\ 
cathedrals  were   founded  on  every   side,  especially  in  the 

*  Consult  especially  articles  Architkcture,  Catheurale,  Chapelli 
Construction,  Eglise,  Maison,  VoOte. 


/ 

GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE.  197 

Royal  Domain  and  the  adjoining  provinces  of  Normandy, 
Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  and  their  construction  was 
warmly  seconded  by  the  people,  the  communes,  and  the 
municipalities.  "  Nothing  to-day,"  says  Viollet-le-Duc,* 
"  unless  it  be  the  commercial  movement  which  has  covered 
Europe  with  railway  lines,  can  give  an  idea  of  the  zeal  with 
which  the  urban  populations  set  about  building  cathedrals  ; 
.  .  .  a  necessity  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  be- 
cause it  was  an  energetic  protest  against  feudalism."  The 
collapse  of  the  unscientific  Romanesque  vaulting  of  some  of 
the  earlier  cathedrals  and  the  destruction  by  fire  of  others 
stimulated  this  movement  by  the  necessity  for  their  imme- 
diate rebuilding.  The  entire  reconstruction  of  the  cathe- 
drals of  Bayeux,  Bayonne,  Cambray,  Evreux,  Laon,  Lisieux, 
Le  Mans,  Noyon,  Poitiers,  Senlis,  Soissons,  and  Troyes  was 
begun  between  1 130  and  izoo.f  The  cathedrals  of  Bourges, 
Chartres,  Paris,  and  Tours,  and  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  all  of 
the  first  importance,  were  begun  during  the  same  period, 
.  and  during  the  next  quarter-century  those  of  Amiens,  Au- 
xerre,  Rouen,  Reims,  Seez,  and  many  others.  After  1250 
the  movement  slackened  and  finally  ceased.  Few  impor- 
tant cathedrals  were  erected  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  chief  among  them  being  at  Beauvais 
(actively  begun  1247),  Clermont,  Coutances,  Limoges,  Nar- 
bonne,  and  Rodez.  During  this  period,  and  through  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  French  architecture  was 
concerned  rather  with  the  completion  and  remodelling  of 
existing  cathedrals  than  the  founding  of  new  ones.  There 
were,  however,  many  important  parish  churches  and  civil 
or  domestic  edifices  erected  within  this  period. 

STRUCTURAL  DEVELOPMENT  :  VAULTING  By  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  use  of  barrel-vaulting  over  the  nave 
had  been  generally  abandoned  and  groined  vaulting  with 

*  Dictionnaire raisonnd 'de  V architecture  francaise,xo\.  ii.,  pp.  280,  281. 
f  See  Ferree,  Chronology  of  Cathedral  Churches  of  France. 


198 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


its  isolated  points  of  support  and  resistance  had  taken  its 
place.  The  timid  experiments  of  the  Clunisian  architects 
at  Ve'zelay  in  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  and  vault-ribs 
also  led,  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  to  far- 
reaching  results.  The  builders  of  the  great  Abbey  Church 
of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  begun  in  1140  by  the  Abbot  Suger, 
appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  develop  these  tentative  de- 
vices into  a  system.  In  the  original  choir  of  this  noble 
church  all  the  arches,  alike  of  the  vault-ribs  (except  the 
groin-ribs,  which  were  semi-circles)  and  of  the  openings, 
were  pointed  and  the  vaults  were  throughout  constructed 
with  cross-ribs,  wall-ribs,  and  groin-ribs. 
Of  this  early  work  only  the  chapels  re- 
main. In  other  contemporary  monu- 
ments, as  for  instance  in  the  cathedral 
of  Sens,  the  adoption  of  these  devices 
was  only  partial  and  hesitating. 

NOTRE    DAME    AT     PARIS.        The     next 

great  step  in  advance  was  taken  in   the 

cathedral  of  Notre  Dame*  at  Paris  (Figs. 

116,  117,    125).     This  was  begun,   under 

Maurice  <le  Sully  in  1 163,  on  the  site  of 

the  twin  cathedrals  of  Ste.  Marie  and  St. 

Ktienne,  and  the  choir  was,  as  usual,  the 

first  portion  erected.     By  1 196  the  choir, 

transepts,  and  one  or  two  bays  of  the 

nave   were  substantially  finished.     The 

\,f,    completeness,    harmony,    and    vigor    of 

no.,.6.-Pi.AN ok notre    conception    of   this    remarkable   church 

damk,  pakis.  contrast  strikingly  with   the  makeshifts 

and  hesitancy  displayed  in  many  contemporary  monuments 

*  This  cathedral  will  be  hereafter  referred  to,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  by 

the  name  of  Nitre  Dmme.    other  cathedrals  having  the  same  name  will 

be   distinguished   by   the  addition   of  the   name  of   the   city,   as    "  Notre 
]>ame  at  Clermont- I'errand." 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE. 


199 


in  other  provinces.  The  difficult  vaulting  over  the  radiat- 
ing bays  of  the  double  ambulatory  was  here  treated  with 
great  elegance.  By  doubling  the  number  of  supports  in 
the  exterior  circuit  of  each  aisle  (Fig.  116)  each  trapezoidal 
bay  of  the  vaulting  was  divided  into  three  easily  managed 
triangular  compartments.  Circular  shafts  were  used  be- 
tween  the  central  and    side  aisles.     The  side  aisles  were 


FIG.    117. — INTERIOR    OF   NOTRE   DAME,    PARIS. 

doubled  and  those  next  the  centre  were  built  in  two  stories, 
providing  ample  galleries  behind  a  very  open  triforium. 
The  nave  was  unusually  lofty  and  covered  with  six-part 
vaults  of  admirable  execution.  The  vault-ribs  were  vigor- 
ously moulded  and  each  made  to  spring  from  a  distinct 
vaulting-shaft,  of  which  three  rested  upon  the  cap  of  each 
of  the  massive  piers  below  (Fig.  117).  The  Cathedral  of 
Bourges,  begun  1190,  closely  resembled  that  of  Paris  in 
plan.  Both  were  designed  to  accommodate  vast  throngs  in 
their  exceptionally  broad  central  aisles  and  double  side 
aisles,  but  Bourges  has  no  side-aisle  galleries,  though  the 
inner  aisles  are  much  loftier  than  the  outer  ones.     Though 


200 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


later  in  date  the  vaulting  of  Bourges  is  inferior  to  that  of 

Notre  Dame,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  trapezoidal 

bays  of  the  ambulatory. 

The  masterly  examples  set  by  the  vault-builders  of  St. 

Denis  and  Notre  Dame  were  not  at  once  generally  followed. 

Noyon,Senlis,  and  Sois- 
sons,  contemporary  with 
these,  are  far  less  com- 
pletely Gothic  in  style. 
At  Le  Mans  the  groined 
vaulting  which  in  1158 
was  substituted  for  the 
original  barrel-vault  of 
the  cathedral  is  of  very 
primitive  design,  singu- 
larly heavy  and  awk- 
ward, although  nearly 
contemporary  with  that 
of  Notre  Dame  (Kig. 
118). 

DOMICAL  GROINED 
VAULTING.  The  build- 
ers of  the  South  and 
West,  influenced  by  Aquitanian  models,  adhered  to  the 
square  plan  and  domical  form  of  vaulting-bay,  even  after 
they  had  begun  to  employ  groin-ribs.  The  latter,  as  at 
first  used  by  them  in  imitation  of  Northern  examples,  had 
no  organic  function  in  the  vault,  which  was  still  built  like  a 
dome.  About  1145-1160  the  cathedral  of  St.  Maurice  at 
Angers  was  vaulted  with  square,  groin-ribbed  vaults,  dom- 
ical in  form  but  not  in  construction.  The  joints  no  longer 
described  horizontal  circles  as  in  a  dome,  but  oblique 
perpendicular    to   the  groins  and   meeting  in    zig- 

tag   lints  at   the   ridge   (Kig.    119).      This  method    became 
common  in  the  West  and  was  afterward  generally  adoptee' 


j^M  Hi, 

j'i 

Mis' 

1 

tli 

FIG.    Il8.— LE    MANS   CATHEDRAL.      NAVE. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


20 1 


by  the  English  architects.    The  Cathedrals  of  Poitiers  (1 162) 
and  Laval  (La  Tri,nit£,  11 80-1 185)  are  examples  of  this  sys- 
tem, which  at  Le  Mans  met  with  the  Northern  system  and 
produced  in    the  cathe- 
dral the  awkward  com- 
promise described  above. 

THIRTEENTH- CENTUBY 
VAULTING.  Early  in  the 
thirteenth  century  the 
church  -  builders  of 
Northern  France  aban- 
doned the  use  of  square 
vaulting  -  bays  and  six- 
part  vaults.  By  the  adop- 
tion of  groin-ribs  and  the 
pointed  arch,  the  building 
of  vaults  in  oblong  bays 
was  greatly  simplified. 
Each  bay  of  the  nave 
could  now  be  covered  with  its  own  vaulting-bay,  thus  doing 
away  with  all  necessity  for  alternately  light  and  heavy  piers. 
It  is  not  quite  certain  when  and  where  this  system  was  first 
adopted  for  the  complete  vaulting  of  a  church.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres,  begun  in 
1 194  and  completed  before  1240,  deserves  this  distinction, 
although  it  is  possible  that  the  vaults  of  Soissons  and 
Noyon  may  slightly  antedate  it.  Troyes  ( 1 1 70-1 267),  Rouen 
(1202-1220),  Reims  (1212-1242),  Auxerre  (1215-1234,  nave 
fourteenth  century),  Amiens  (1 220-1 288),  and  nearly  all  the 
great  churches  and  chapels  begun  after  1200,  employ  the 
fully  developed  oblong  vault. 

BUTTRESSING.  Meanwhile  the  increasing  height  of  the 
clearstories  and  the  use  of  double  aisles  compelled  the  be- 
stowal of  especial  attention  upon  the  buttressing.  The 
nave  and    choir  of   Chartres,  the  choirs   of   Notre  Dame, 


FIG.  II(). GROINED   VAULT   WITH   ZIG-ZAG    RIDGE- 
JOINTS. 

a  shows  a  small  section  of  filling  with  courses 
parallel  to  the  ridge,  for  comparison  with  the 
other  compartments. 


202  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Bourges,  Rouen,  and  Reims,  the  chevet  and  later  the  choir 
of  St.  Denis,  afford  early  examples  of  the  flying-buttress 
(Fig.  107).  These  were  at  first  simple  and  of  moderate 
height.  Single  half-arches  spanned  the  side  aisles  ;  in  No- 
tre Dame  they  crossed  the  double  aisles  in  a  single  leap. 
Later  the  buttresses  were  given  greater  stability  by  the 
added  weight  of  lofty  pinnacles.  An  intermediate  range  of 
buttresses  and  pinnacles  was  built  over  the  intermediate 
piers  where  double  aisles  flanked  the  nave  and  choir,  thus 
dividing  the  single  flying  arch  into  two  arches.  At  the 
same  time  a  careful  observation  of  statical  defects  in  the 
earlier  examples  led  to  the  introduction  of  subordinate 
arches  and  of  other  devices  to  stiffen  and  to  beautify  the 
whole  system.  At  Reims  and  Amiens  these  features  re- 
ceived their  highest  development,  though  later  examples  are 
frequently  much  more  ornate. 

INTERIOR  DESIGN.  The  progressive  change  outlined  in 
the  last  chapter,  by  which  the  wall  was  practically  sup- 
pressed, the  windows  correspondingly  enlarged,  and  every 
part  of  the  structure  made  loftier  and  more  Blender,  resulted 
in  the  evolution  of  a  system  of  interior  design  well  repre- 
sented by  the  nave  of  Amiens.  The  second  story  or  gal- 
lery over  the  side  aisle  disappeared,  but  the  aisle  itself  was 
very  high.  The  triforium  was  no  longer  a  gallery,  but  a  rich- 
ly arcaded  passage  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  correspond- 
ing to  the  roofing-space  over  the  aisle,  and  generally  treated 
like  a  lower  stage  of  the  clearstory.  Nearly  the  whole 
space  above  it  was  occupied  in  each  bay  by  the  vast  clear- 
story window  filled  with  simple  but  eff<  ometric  tra- 
cery over  slender  mullions.  The  side  aisles  were  lighted 
by  windows  which,  like  those  in  the  clearstory,  occupied 
nearly  the  whole  available  wall-space  under  the  vaulting. 
The  piers  and  shafts  were  all  (  Ill8t<  red  and  remarkably 
slender.  The  whole  construction  <  -t  edifice,  which 
c<>ver>   nearly  eighty  thousand                        t,  is  a  marvel    of 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


203 


lightness,  of  scientific  combinations,  and  of  fine  execution. 
Its  great  vault  rises  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  forty 
feet.  The  nave  of  St.  Denis,  though  less  lofty,  resembles 
it  closely  in  style  (Fig.  120).  Earlier  cathedrals  show  less  of 
the  harmony  of  proportion,  the  perfect  working  out  of  the 
relation  of  all  parts  of  the  composi- 
tion of  each  bay,  so  conspicuous  in  the 
Amiens  type,  which  was  followed  in 
most  of  the  later  churches. 

WINDOWS:  TKACERY.  The  clearstory 
windows  of  Noyon,  Soissons,  Sens,  and 
the  choir  of  Vezelay  (1200)  were  simple 
arched  openings  arranged  singly,  in 
pairs,  or  in  threes.  In  the  cathedral  of 
Chartres  (1 194-1220)  they  consist  of 
two  arched  windows  with  a  circle  above 
them,  forming  a  sort  of  plate  tracery 
under  a  single  arch.  In  the  chapel 
windows  of  the  choir  at  Reims  (12 15) 
the  tracery  of  mullions  and  circles  was 
moulded  inside  and  out,  and  the  inter, 
mediate  triangular  spaces  all  pierced 
and  glazed.  Rose  windows  were  early 
used  in  front  and  transept  facades. 
During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  they  were  made  of  vast  size 
and  great  lightness  of  tracery,  as  in 
the  transepts  of  Notre  Dame  (1257)  and  the  west  front  of 
Amiens  (1288).  From  the  design  of  these  windows  is  de- 
rived the  name  Rayonnant,  often  applied  to  the  French 
Gothic  style  of  the  period  1275-1375. 

THE  SAINTE  CHAPELLE.  In  this  beautiful  royal  chapel  at 
Paris,  built  1242-47,  Gothic  design  was  admirably  exempli- 
fied in  the  noble  windows  15  by  50  feet  in  size,  which  per- 
haps furnished  the  models  for    those  of  Amiens  and  St. 


FIG.    I20. — ONE    BAY,    ABBEY 
OF   ST.    DENIS. 


204 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Denis.  Each  was  divided  by  slender  mullions  into  four 
lancet-like  lights  gathered  under  the  rich  tracery  of  the 
window  -  head.  They  were  filled  with  stained  glass  of 
the  most   brilliant   but   harmonious   hues.      They   occupy 

the  whole  available  wall- 
space,  so  that  the  ribbed 
vault  internally  seems  al- 
most to  rest  on  walls  of 
glass,  so  slender  are  the 
visible  supports  and  so 
effaced  by  the  glow  of 
color  in  the  windows. 
Certainly  lightness  of 
construction  and  the  sup- 
pression of  the  wall-ma- 
sonry could  hardly  be 
carried  further  than  here 
(Fig.  121).  Among  other 
chapels  of  the  same  type 
are  those  in  the  palace 
of  St.  (lermain-en-Laye 
(1240),  and  a  later  exam- 
ple in  the  chateau  of  Vin- 
cennes,  begun  by  Charles 
VI.,  but   not  finished  till 

i525- 
PLANS.  The  most  radical  change  from  the  primitive 
basil ican  type  was,  as  already  explained  in  the  last  chapter, 
the  continuation  of  the  side  aisles  around  the  apse  to  form 
a  chart ;  and  later,  the  addition  of  chapels  between  the  ex- 
ternal buttresses.  Radiating  chapels,  usually  semi-octagons 
or  semi-decagoni  in  plan,  early  appeared  as  additions  to  the 
chn<ft  (Fig.  12a).  These  may  have  originated  in  the  apsidal 
chapels  of  Romanesque  churches  in  Auvergneand  the  South, 
as  at  Issoire,  Clermont  -  l'crrand,   Le   l'uy,  and  Toulouse 


FIO.    121. — THK    STK.    (HMKI.l.E,    I'ARIS. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


205 


They  generally  superseded  the  transept-chapels  of  earlier 
churches,  and  added  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  interior 
perspective,  especially  when  the  encircling  aisles  of  the 
chevet  were  doubled.  Notre  Dame,  as  at  first  erected, 
had  a  double  ambulatory,  but  no  chapels.  Bourges  has 
only  five  very  small  semicircular  chapels.  Chartres  (choir 
1220)  and  Le  Mans,  as  reconstructed  about  the  same  date, 
have  double  ambulatories  and  radial  chapels.  After  1220 
the  second  ambulatory  no  longer  appears.  Noyon,  Soissons, 
Reims,  Amiens,  Troyes,  and  Beauvais,  Tours,  Bayeux,  and 
Coutances,  Clermont,  Limoges,  and  Narbonne  all  have  the 
single  ambulatory  and  radiating  chevet-chapels.  The  Lady- 
chapel  in  the  axis  of  the  church  was 
often  made  longer  and  more  important 
than  the  other  chapels,  as  at  Amiens, 
Le  Mans,  Rouen,  Bayeux,  and  Coutan- 
ces. Chapels  also  flanked  the  choir  in 
most  of  the  cathedrals  named  above, 
and  Notre  Dame  and  Tours  also  have 
side  chapels  to  the  nave.  The  only 
cathedrals  with  complete  double  side 
aisles  alike  to  nave,  choir,  and  chevet, 
were  Notre  Dame  and  Bourges.  It  is 
somewhat  singular  that  the  German 
cathedral  of  Cologne  is  the  only  one 
in  which  all  these  various  character- 
istic French  features  were  united  in 
one  design  (see  Fig.  140). 

Local  considerations  had  full  sway 
in  France,  in  spite  of  the  tendency 
toward  unity  of  type.  Thus  Dol,  Laon,  and  Poitiers  have 
square  eastward  terminations  ;  Ch&ions  has  no  ambulatory  ; 
Bourges  no  transept.  In  Notre  Dame  the  transept  was 
almost  suppressed.  At  Soissons  one  transept,  at  Noyon 
both,  had  semicircular  ends.    Alby,  a  late  cathedral  of  brick, 


122. — PLAN   OF  AMIENS 
CATHEDRAL. 


206 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


founded  in   1280,  but   mostly  built  during   the  fourteenth 
century,  has  neither  side  aisles  nor  transepts,  its  wide  nave 

being    flanked    by    chapels  sepa- 
rated by  internal  buttresses  (Fig. 

123)- 

SCALE.  The  French  cathedrals 
were  nearly  all  of  imposing  di- 
mensions. Noyon,  one  of  the 
smallest,  is  333  feet  long ;  Sens 
measures  354.  Laon,  Bourges, 
Troyes,  Notre  Dame,  Le  Mans, 
Rouen,  and  Chartres  vary  from 
396  to  437  feet  in  extreme  length  ; 
Reims  measures  483,  and  Amiens, 
the  longest  of  all,  521  feet.  Notre 
Dame  is  124  feet  wide  across  the 
five  aisles  of  the  nave  ;  Bourges, 
somewhat  wider.  The  central 
aisles  of  these  two  cathedrals,  and 
of  Laon,  Amiens,  and  Beauvais,  have  a  span  of  not  far  from 
40  feet  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  piers  ;  while  the  ridge 
of  the  vaulting,  which  in  Notre  Dame  is  108  feet  above  the 
pavement,  and  in  Bourges  125,  reaches  in  Amiens  a  height 
of  140  feet,  and  of  nearly  160  in  Beauvais.  This  emphasis 
of  the  height,  from  3  to  3)A  times  the  clear  width  of  the 
nave  or  choir,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
French  cathedrals.  It  produces  an  impressive  effect,  but 
tends  to  dwarf  the  great  width  of  the  central  aisle. 

EXTEEIOE  DESIGN.  Here,  as  in  the  interior,  every  feature 
had  its  constructive  raison  d'etre,  and  the  total  effect  was 
determined  by  the  fundamental  structural  scheme.  This 
was  especially  true  of  the  lateral  elevations,  in  which  the 
pinnacled  buttresses,  the  flying  arches,  and  the  traceried 
windows  of  the  side  aisle  and  clearstory,  repeated  uniform- 
ly at  each  bay,  were  the  principal  elements  of  the  design 


FIG.    123. 


PLAN   OF   CATHRDRAL 
OK   ALHV. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE. 


207 


The  transept  facades  and  main  front  allowed  greater  scope 
for  invention  and  fancy,  but  even  here  the  interior  mem- 
bering  gave  the  key  to  the  composition.  Strong  buttresses 
marked  the  division  of  the  aisles  and  resisted  the  thrust  of 
the  terminal  pier  arches,  and  rose  windows  filled  the  greater 
part  of  the  wall  space  under  the  end  of  the  lofty  vaulting. 
The  whole  structure  was  crowned  by  a  steep-pitched  ro.of  of 
wood,  covered  with  lead,  copper,  or  tiles,  to  protect  the  vault 
from  damage  by  snow  and  moisture.  This  roof  occasioned 
the  steep  gables  which 
crowned  the  transept 
and  main  facades.  The 
main  front  was  fre- 
quently adorned, above 
the  triple  portal,  with 
a  gallery  of  niches  or 
tabernacles  filled  with 
statues  of  kings.  Dif- 
ferent types  of  com- 
position are  represent- 
ed by  Chartres,  Notre 
Dame,  Amiens,  Reims, 
and  Rouen,  of  which 
Notre  Dame  (Fig.  124) 
and  Reims  are  per- 
haps the  finest.  Notre 
Dame  is  especially  re- 
markable for  its  state- 
ly simplicity  and  the 
even  balancing  of  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  ele- 
ments. 

PORCHES.  In  most  French  church  facades  the  porches 
were  the  most  striking  features,  with  their  deep  shadows 
and  sculptured   arches.     The    Romanesque   porches   were 


NOTRE    DAME,    PARIS. 


208 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


usually  limited  in  depth  to  the  thickness  of  the  front  wall. 
The  Gothic  builders  secured  increased  depth  by  projecting 
the  portals  out  beyond  the  wall,  and  crowned  them  with 
elaborate  gables.  The  vast  central  door  was  divided  in  two 
by  a  pier  adorned  with  a  niche  and  statue.  Over  this  the 
tympanum  of  the  arch   was  carved  with  scriptural  reliefs  ; 


FIG.    I25-—  WEST   FRONT   OF   ST.    MACLOU,    ROUEN. 


the  jambs  and  arches  were  profusely  adorned  with  figures 
of  saints,  apostles,  martyrs,  and  angels,  under  elaborate 
canopies.  The  porches  of  Laon,  Bourges,  Amiens,  and 
Reims  are  especially  deep  and  majestic  in  effect,  the  last- 
named  (built  1380)  being  the  richest  of  all.  Some  of 
the  transept  facades  also  had  imposing  portals.  Those  of 
Chartres  (1 210-1245)  rank  among  the  finest  works  of 
Gothic  decorative  architecture,  the  south  porch  in  some 
ts  surpassing  that  of  the  north  transept.     The  portals 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN  FRANCE.  20Q 

of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries  were  remark- 
able for  the  extraordinary  richness  and  minuteness  of  their 
tracery  and  sculpture,  as  at  Abbeville,  Alencon,  the  cathe- 
dral and  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  (Fig.  125),  Tours,  Troyes, 
Vendome,  etc. 

towers  AND  SPIRES.  The  emphasizing  of  vertical  ele- 
ments reached  its  fullest  expression  in  the  towers  and 
spires  of  the  churches.  What  had  been  at  first  merely  a 
lofty  belfry  roof  was  rapidly  developed  into  the  spire,  ris- 
ing three  hundred  feet  or  more  into  the  air.  This  develop- 
ment had  already  made  progress  in  the  Romanesque  period, 
and  the  south  spire  of  Chartres  is  a  notable  example  of  late 
twelfth-century  steeple  design.  The  transition  from  the 
square  tower  to  the  slender  octagonal  pyramid  was  skil- 
fully effected  by  means  of  corner  pinnacles  and  dormers. 
During  and  after  the  thirteenth  century  the  development 
was  almost  wholly  in  the  direction  of  richness  and  com- 
plexity of  detail,  not  of  radical  constructive  modification. 
The  northern  spire  of  Chartres  (15 15)  and  the  spires  of 
Bordeaux,  Coutances,  Senlis,  and  the  Flamboyant  church  of 
St.  Maclou  at  Rouen,  illustrate  this  development.  In  Nor- 
mandy central  spires  were  common,  rising  over  the  cross- 
ing of  nave  and  transepts.  In  some  cases  the  designers 
of  cathedrals  contemplated  a  group  of  towers  ;  this  is  evi- 
dent at  Chartres,  Coutances,  and  Reims.  This  intention 
was,  however,  never  realized  ;  it  demanded  resources  be- 
yond even  the  enthusiasm  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Only 
in  rare  instances  were  the  spires  of  any  of  the  towers  com- 
pleted, and  the  majority  of  the  French  towers  have  square 
terminations,  with  low-pitched  wooden  roofs,  generally  in- 
visible from  below.  In  general,  French  towers  are  marked 
by  their  strong  buttresses,  solid  lower  stories,  twin  win- 
dows in  each  side  of  the  belfry  proper — these  windows  be- 
ing usually  of  great  size — and  a  skilful  management  of  the 
transition  to  an  octagonal  plan  for  the  belfry  or  the  spire. 


210 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


CAKVING  AND  SCULPTUBE.  The  general  superiority  of 
French  Gothic  work  was  fully  maintained  in  its  decorative 
details.  Especially  fine  is  the  figure  sculpture,  which  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  attained  true  nobility 
of  expression,  combined  with  great  truthfulness  and  deli- 
cacy of  execution.  Some  of  its  finest  productions  are 
found  in  the  great  doorway  jambs  of  the  west  portals  of 
the  cathedrals,  and  in  the  ranks  of  throned  and  adoring 


fig.  126. — nam  a  Gothic  capitals. 

a,  From  Saintc  Chapelle,  Paris,  13th  century.     />,  14th-century  capital  from  transept  of 
Notre  Dame,  Paris.     <-,  15th-century  capital  from  north  spire  of  Char 


angels  which  adorned  their  deep  arches.  These  reach 
their  highest  beauty  in  the  portals  of  Reims  (1380).  The 
tabernacles  or  carved  niches  in  which  such  statues  were  set 
were  important  elements  in  the  decoration  of  the  exteriors 
of  churches. 

Foliage  forms  were  used  for  nearly  all  the  minor  carved 
ornaments,  though  grotesque  and  human  figures  sometimes 
took  their  place.     The  gargoyles  through  which  th< 
water  was  discharged   clear  of  the  building,  we; 
always  composed   in   the   form   of  hideous   monsti 
symbolic  beasts,  like  the  oxen   in  the  towers  of 
monsters    like    those    which    peer    from    the    to  v. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.  211 

trades  of  Notre  Dame,  were  employed  with  some  mystical 
significance  in  various  parts  of  the  building.  But  the  cap- 
itals, corbels,  crockets,  and  finials  were  mostly  composed  of 
floral  or  foliage  forms.  Those  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  were  for  the  most  part  simple  in  mass,  and  crisp 
and  vigorous  in  design,  imitating  the  strong  shoots  of  early 
spring.  The  capitals  were  tall  and  slender,  concave  in 
profile,  with  heavy  square  or  octagonal  abaci.  With  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  century  this  simple  and  forcible 
style  of  detail  disappeared.  The  carving  became  more 
realistic  ;  the  leaves,  larger  and  more  mature,  were  treated 
as  if  applied  to  the  capital  or  moulding,  not  as  if  they 
grew  out  of  it.  The  execution  and  detail  were  finer  and 
more  delicate,  in  harmony  with  the  increasing  slenderness 
and  lightness  of  the  architecture  (Fig.  126  a,  b).  Tracery 
forms  now  began  to  be  profusely  applied  to  all  manner  of 
surfaces,  and  open-work  gables,  wholly  unnecessary  from 
the  structural  point  of  view,  but  highly  effective  as  decora- 
tions, adorned  the  portals  and  crowned  the  windows. 

LATE  GOTHIC  MONUMENTS.  So  far  our  attention  has  been 
mainly  occupied  with  the  masterpieces  erected  previous  to 
1250.  Among  the  cathedrals,  relatively  few  in  number, 
whose  construction  is  referable  to  the  second  half  of  the 
century,  that  of  Beauvais  stands  first  in  importance.  De- 
signed on  a  colossal  scale,  its  foundations  were  laid  in  1225, 
but  it  was  never  completed,  and  the  portion  built — the 
choir  and  chapels — belonged  really  to  the  second  half  of 
the  century,  having  been  completed  in  1270.  But  the  col- 
lapse in  1284  of  the  central  tower  and  vaulting  of  this  in- 
complete cathedral,  owing  to  the  excessive  loftiness  and 
slenderness  of  its  supports,  compelled  its  entire  reconstruc- 
tion, the  number  of  the  piers  being  doubled  and  the  span  of 
the  pier  arches  correspondingly  reduced.  As  thus  rebuilt, 
the  cathedral  aisle  was  47  feet  wide  from  centre  to  centre 
of  opposite  piers,  and  163  feet  high  to  the  top  of  the  vault. 


212  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Transepts  were  added  after  1500.  Limoges  and  Narbonne, 
begun  in  1272  on  a  large  scale  (though  not  equal  in  size 
to  Beauvais),  were  likewise  never  completed.  Both  had 
choirs  of  admirable  plan,  with  well-designed  chevet-chapels. 
Many  other  cathedrals  begun  during  this  period  were  com- 
pleted only  after  long  delays,  as,  for  instance,  Meaux,  Rodez 
(1277),  Toulouse  (1272),  and  Alby  (1282J,  finished  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  Clermont  (1248),  completed  under 
Napoleon  III.  But  between  1260  or  1275  and  1350,  work 
was  actively  prosecuted  on  many  still  incomplete  cathe- 
drals. The  choirs  of  Beauvais  (rebuilding),  Limoges,  and 
Narbonne  were  finished  after  1330  ;  and  towers,  transept- 
facades,  portals,  and  chapels  added  to  many  others  of  ear- 
lier date. 

The  style  of  this  period  is  sometimes  designated  as  Ray- 
onnant,  from  the  characteristic  wheel  tracery  of  the  rose- 
windows,  and  the  prevalence  of  circular  forms  in  the  lateral 
arched  windows,  of  the  late  thirteenth  and  early  fourteenth 
centuries.  The  great  rose  windows  in  the  transepts  of 
Notre  Dame,  dating  from  1257,  are  typical  examples  of  the 
style.  Those  of  Rouen  cathedral  belong  to  the  same  cat- 
egory, though  of  later  date.  The  facade  of  Amiens,  com- 
pleted by  1288,  is  one  of  the  finest  works  of  this  style,  of 
which  an  early  example  is  the  elaborate  parish  church  of 
St.  Urbain  at   Troves. 

THE  flamboyant  STYLE.  The  geometric  treatment  of 
the  tracery  and  the  minute  and  profuse  decoration  of  this 
period  gradually  merged  into  the  fantastic  and  unrestrained 
extravagances  of  the  Flamboyant  style,  which  prevailed 
until  the  advent  of  the  Renaissance — say  1525.  The  con- 
tinuous logical  development  of  forms  ceased,  and  in  its  place 
caprice  and  display  controlled  the  arts  of  design.  The 
finest  monument  of  this  long  period  is  the  fifteenth-century 
nave  and  central  tower  of  the  church  of  St  Ouen  at  Rouen, 
parish  church  of  the  first  rank,  begun  in  13 18,  but  not  fi 


; 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.  213 

ished  until  1515.  The  tracery  of  the  lateral  windows  is  still 
chiefly  geometric,  but  the  western  rose  window  (Fig.  112) 
jmdjthe__jiiag-»*ficent  central  tower  or  lantern,  exhibit  in 
their  tracery  the  florid  decoration  and  wavy,  flame-like  lines 
of  this  style.  Slenderness  of  supports  and  the  suppression  of 
horizontal  lines  are  here  carried  to  an  extreme  ;  and  the 
church,  in  spite  of  its  great  elegance  of  detail,  lacks  the 
vital  interest  and  charm  of  the  earlier  Gothic  churches. 
The  cathedral  of  Alencon  and  the  church  of  St.  Marion  at 
Rouen,  have  portals  with  unusually  elaborate  detail  of  tra- 
cery and  carving;  while  the  facade  of  Rouen  cathedral 
(1509)  surpasses  all  other  examples  in  the  lace-like  minute- 
ness of  its  open-work  and  its  profusion  of  ornament.  The 
churches  of  St.  Jacques  at  Dieppe,  and  of  St.  Wulfrand  at 
Abbeville,  the  facades  of  Tours  and  Troyes,  are  among  the 
masterpieces  of  the  style.  The  upper  part  of  the  facade 
of  Reims  (1 380-1428)  belongs  to  the  transition  from  the 
Rayonnant  to  the  Flamboyant.  While  some  works  of  this 
period  are  conspicuous  for  the  richness  of  their  ornamenta- 
tion, others  are  noticeably  bare  and  poor  in  design,  like  St. 
Merri  and  St.  SeVerin  in  Paris. 

SECULAR  AND  MONASTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  building  of 
cathedrals  did  not  absorb  all  the  architectural  activity  of 
the  French  during  the  Gothic  period,  nor  did  it  by  any 
means  put  an  end  to  monastic  building.  While  there  are 
few  Gothic  cloisters  to  equal  the  Romanesque  cloisters  of 
Puy-en-Velay,  Montmajour,  Elne,  and  Moissac,  many  of  the 
abbeys  either  rebuilt  "their  churches  in  the  Gothic  style 
after  1150,  or  extended  and  remodelled  their  conventual 
buildings.  The  cloisters  of  Fontfroide,  Chaise-Dieu,  and 
the  Mont  St.  Michel  rival  those  of  Romanesque  times, 
while  many  new  refectories  and  chapels  were  built  in  the 
same  style  with  the  cathedrals.  The  most  complete  of 
these  Gothic  monastic  establishments,  that  of  the  Mont  St 
Michel  in   Normandy,  presented  a  remarkable  aggregation 


214  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

of  buildings  clustering  around  the  steep  isolated  rock  on 
which  stands  the  abbey  church.  This  was  built  in  the 
eleventh  century,  and  the  choir  and  chapels  remodelled  in 
the  sixteenth.  The  great  refectory  and  dormitory,  the 
cloisters,  lodgings,  and  chapels,  built  in  several  vaulted 
stories  against  the  cliffs,  are  admirable  examples  of  the 
vigorous  pointed-arch  design  of  the  early  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Hospitals  like  that  of  St.  Jean  at  Angers  (late  twelfth  cen- 
tury), or  those  of  Chartres,  Ourscamps,Tonnerre,and  Beaune, 
illustrate  how  skilfully  the  French  could  modify  and  adapt 
the  details  of  their  architecture  to  the  special  requirement* 
of  civil  architecture.  Great  numbers  of  charitable  institu- 
tions were  built  in  the  middle  ages  —  asylums,  hospitals, 
refuges,  and  the  like — but  very  few  of  those  in  France  are 
now  extant.  Town  halls  were  built  in  the  fifteenth  century 
in  some  places  where  a  certain  amount  of  popular  inde- 
pendence had  been  secured.  The  florid  fifteenth-century 
Palais  de  Justice  at  Rouen  (1499-1508)  is  an  example  of 
another  branch  of  secular  Gothic  architecture.  In  all  these 
monuments  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  is  admirable. 
Wooden  ceilings  and  roofs  replaced  stone,  wherever  required 
by  great  width  of  span  or  economy  of  construction.  There 
was  little  sculpture  ;  the  wall-spaces  were  not  suppressed 
in  favor  of  stained  glass  and  tracery;  while  the  roofs  were 
usually  emphasized  and  adorned  with  elaborate  crestings 
and  finials  in  lead  or  terra-cotta. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  These  same  principles  con- 
trolled the  designing  of  houses,  farm  buildings,  barns, 
granaries,  and  the  like.  The  common  closely-built  Freni  h 
city  house  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  century  is  illus- 
trated by  many  extant  examples  at  Cluny,  Provins,  and 
other  towns.  A  shop  opening  on  the  street  by  a  large  arch, 
a  narrow  stairway,  and  two  or  three  stories  of  rooms  lighted 
by  clustered,  pointed-arched  windows,  constituted  the  com- 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE. 


215 


mon  type.  The  street  front  was  usually  gabled  and  the 
roof  steep.  In  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century  half- 
timbered  construction  began  to  supersede  stone  for  town 
houses,  as  it  permitted  of  encroaching  upon  the  street  by 
projecting  the  upper  stories.  Many  of  the  half-timbered 
houses  of  the  fifteenth  century  were  of  elaborate  design. 
The  heavy  oaken  uprights  were  carved  with  slender  colon- 


FIG.  127. — HOUSE    OF   JACQUES   COUTR,   BOURGES. 

(After  Viollet-le-Duc.) 


nettes  ;  the  horizontal  sills,  bracketed  out  over  the  street, 
were  richly  moulded  ;  picturesque  dormers  broke  the  sky- 
line, and  the  masonry  filling  between  the  beams  was  fre- 
quently faced  with  enamelled  tiles. 

The  more  considerable  houses  or  palaces  of  royalty, 
nobles,  and  wealthy  citizens  rivalled,  and  in  time  surpassed, 
the  monastic  buildings  in  richness  and  splendor.  The 
earlier  examples  retain  the  military  aspect,  with  moat  and 
donjon,   as  in  the    Louvre    of  Charles  V.,  demolished   in 


2l6  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  sixteenth  century.  The  finest  palaces  are  of  late  date, 
and  the  type  is  well  represented  by  the  Ducal  Palace  at 
Nancy  (1476),  the  Hotel  de  Cluny  (1485)  at  Paris,  the  Hotel 
Jacques  Coeur  at  Bourges  (Fig.  127),  and  the  east  wing  of 
Blois  (1498-15 15).  These  palaces  are  not  only  excellently 
and  liberally  planned,  with  large  halls,  many  staircases,  and 
handsome  courts;  they  are  also  extremely  picturesque  with 
their  square  and  circular  towers,  slender  turrets,  elaborate 
dormers,  and  rich  carved  detail. 


MONUMENTS  :  (C.  =  cathedral  ;  A.  ss  abbey  ;  trans.  =  transept  ;  cadi 
edifice  is  given  under  the  date  of  its  commencement ;  subsequent  altera- 
tions in  parentheses.)  Between  1130  and  1200:  Vezelay  A.,  ante-chapel, 
1130;  St.  Germer-de-FIy  C,  n 30-1 150 (chapel  later) ;  St.  Denis.  A. .  choir. 
I i^o(choir  rebuilt,  nave  and  trans.,  1240) ;  SensC,  1 140-68  (\V.  front,  13th 
century  ;  chapels,  spire,  14th)  ;  SenlisC.  1 145—83  (trans.,  spire,  13th  cen- 
^tUjjO.;  NoyonC,  M4q-I20o(W.  front,  vaults,  13th  century)  ;  St.  ( lermain- 
9  A.,  Paris,  choir,  1 1 50  (Romanesque  nave) ;  Angers  C,  1 1 50  (choir, 
trans.,  1274);  Langres,  1150-1200;  I.aonC,  1150-1200;  l.e Mans C,  nave, 
1 1 50-58  (choir,  1217-54);  SoissoosC,  1 160-70  (choir,  1212;  nave  chapels, 
14th  century);  Poitiers  C,  1 162-1204;  ^otrellanie^-l'aris^cixoir,  1163-96 
(nave,  W.  front  finished,  1235  ;  trans,  fronts,  and  chapels,  1257-75);  Char- 
-l rr s  C^_YY\ejuL J-L70 |_jje*U-iiiai»ly~j  194-98  (trans,  porches.  W.  rose,  1210- 
Ilte;  N.  spire,  1506) ;  Tours  C,  H7o(rebuilt,  1267  ;  trans.,  portals,  1375; 
W.  portals,  chapels,  15th  century;  towers  finished,  1507-47);  Laval  C, 
1180-85  (choir,  1 6th  century)  ;  Mantes,  church  Notre  Dame,  1 180-1200  ; 
Bourges  CM  1100-95  (E.  end,  1210;  W.  end,  1275);  St.  Nicholas  at 
Caen,  1190  (vaults,  15th  century)  ;  Reims,  church  St.  Re'my,  choir,  end  of 
I2th  century  (Romanesque  nave);  church  St.  Leu  d'Esserent,  choir  late 
12th  century  (nave,  13th  century)  ;  Lyons  ('.,  choir,  end  of  12th  century 
(nave.  13th  and  14th  centuries)  ;  Etampes,  church  Notre  Dame,  12th  and 
13th  centuries.— 13th  century  :  Evreux  C,  1202-75  (trans.,  central  tower, 
1417  ;  \V.  front  rebuilt,  16th  century)  ;  Rouen  C,  1202-20  (trans,  portals, 
1280;  W.  front,  1507);  Nevers,  121 1,  N.  portal,  1280  (chapels,  S.  por- 
tal, 15th  century);  Reims  ('.,  1212-42  (YV.  front,  13S0  ;  \Y.  towers, 
1420)  ;  Piyonnc  <'.,  1213  (nave,  vaults,  YV.  portal,  14th  century)  ;  Troyes 
CM  choir,  1214  (central  tower,  nave,  YV.  portal,  and  towers,  15th  century) ; 
Auxerre  C,  1215-34  (nave,  W.  end,  trans.,  14th  century);  Amiens  C, 
1220-88  ;  St.  Etienne  at  Chalons-sur-Marne,  1230  (spire,  1520)  ;  SeezC, 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE.  217 

1230,  rebuilt  1260  (remodelled  14th  century)  \  Notre  Dame  de  Dijon, 
1230  ;  Reims,  Lady  chapel  of  Archbishop's  palace,  1230  ;  Chapel  Royal 
at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  1240;  Ste.  Chapelle  at  Paris,  1242-47  (W.  rose, 
15th  century)  ;  Coutances  C,  1254-74  ;  Beauvais  C,  1247-72  (rebuilt 
1337-47  ;  trans,  portals,  1500-48)  ;  Notre  Dame  de  Grace  at  Clermont, 
1248  (finished  1350)  ;  Dol  C,  13th  century;  St.  Martin-des-Champs  at 
Paris,  nave  13th  century  (choir  Romanesque)  ;  Bordeaux  C,  1260  ; 
Narbonne  C,  1272-1320;  Limoges,  1273  (finished  16th  century);  St. 
Urbain,  Troyes,  1264;  Rodez  C,  1277-1385  (altered,  completed  16th 
century)  ;  church  St.  Quentin,  1280-1300  ;  St.  Benigne  at  Dijon,  1280-91  ; 
Alby  C,  1282  (nave,  14th  ;  choir,  15th  century  ;  S.  portal,  1473-1500)  ; 
Meaux  C,  mainly  rebuilt  1284  (W.  end  much  altered  15th,  finished  16th 
century)  ;  Cahors  C,  rebuilt  1285-93  (W.  front,  15th  century);  Orleans, 
1287-1328  (burned,  rebuilt  1601-1829). — 14th  century  :  St.  Bertrand  de 
Comminges,  1304-50  ;  St.  Nazaire  at  Carcassonne,  choir  and  trans,  on 
Romanesque  nave;  Montpellier  C,  1364;  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen,  choir, 
1318-39  (trans.,  1400-39  ;  nave,  1464-91  ;  W.  front,  1515)  ;  Royal  Chapel 
at  Vincennes,  1385  (?)-i525. — 15th  and  16th  century  :  St.  Nizier  at  Lyons 
rebuilt ;  St.  Severin,  St.  Merri,  St.  Germain  l'Auxerrois,  all  at  Paris  ;  Notre 
Dame  de  l'Epine  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  ;  choir  of  St.  Etienne  at  Beauvais  ; 
Saintes  C,  rebuilt,  1450  ;  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  (finished  16th  century)  ; 
church  at  Brou  ;  St.  Wulfrand  at  Abbeville  ;  abbey  of  St.  Riquier — these 
three  all  early  16th  century. — Houses,  Castles,  and  Palaces  :  Bishop's 
palace  at  Paris,  1160  (demolished)  ;  castle  of  Coucy,  1220-30;  Louvre  at 
Paris  (the  original  chateau),  1225-1350  ;  Palais  de  Justice  at  Paris,  originally 
the  royal  residence,  1225-1400  ;  Bishop's  palace  at  Laon,  1245  (addition 
to  Romanesque  hall)  ;  castle  Montargis,  13th  century  ;  castle  Pierrefonds, 
Bishop's  palace  at  Narbonnne,  palace  of  Popes  at  Avignon — all  14th  cen- 
tury •  donjon  of  palace  at  Poitiers,  1395  ;  Hotel  des  Ambassadeurs  at 
Dijon,  1420  ;  house  of  Jacques  Cceur  at  Bourges,  1443  ;  Palace,  Dijon, 
1467  ;  Ducal  palace  at  Nancy,  1476  ;  Hotel  Cluny  at  Paris,  1490  ;  castle 
of  Creil,  late  15th  century,  finished  in  16th  ;  E.  wing  palace  of  Blois,  1498- 
1515,  for  Louis  XII.;  Palace  de  Justice  at  Rouen,  1499-1508. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE  IN   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Corroyer,  Parker, 
Reber.  Also,  Bell's  Series  of  Handbooks  of  English  Cathedrals. 
Billings,  The  Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical  A  ntiam  ties  of Scotland. 
Bond,  Gothic  Architecture  in  England.  Brandon,  Analysis  of 
Gothic  Architecture.  Britton,  Cathedral  Antiquities  of  Great 
Britain.  Ditchfield,  The  Cathedrals  of  England.  Murray,  Hand- 
books of  the  English  Cathedrals.  Parker,  Introduction  to  Gothic 
Architecture  ;  Glossary  of  Architectural  Terms  ;  Companion  to 
Glossary,  etc.  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the  .Styles 
of  English  Architecture.  Sharpe,  Architectural  Parallels  ; 
The  Seven  Periods  of  English  Architecture.  Van  Rensse- 
laer, English  Cathedrals.  Winkles  and  Moule,  Cathedral 
Churches  of  England  and  Wales.  Willis,  Architectural  His- 
tory of  Canterbury  Cathedral  ;  ditto  of  Winchester  Cathedral  ; 
Treatise  on  Vaults. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER.  Gothic  architecture  was  developed 
in  England  under  a  strongly  established  royal  power,  with 
an  episcopate  in  no  sense  hostile  to  the  abbots  or  in  arms 
against  the  barons.  Many  of  the  cathedrals  had  monastic 
chapters,  and  not  infrequently  abbots  were  invested  with 
the  episcopal  rank. 

English  Gothic  architecture  was  thus  by  no  means  pre- 
dominantly an  architecture  of  cathedrals.  If  architectural 
activity  in  England  was  on  this  account  less  intense  and 
widespread  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  than  in 
France,  it  was  not,  on  the  other  hand,  so  soon  exhausted. 
Fewer  new  cathedrals  were  built,  but  the  progressive  re- 
building of  those  already  existing  seems  not. to  have  ceased 
until  the  middle  or  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.     Architect- 


COTI1IC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.     219 


ure  in  England  developed  more  slowly,  but  more  uniform- 
ly, than  in  France.  It  contented  itself  with  simpler  prob- 
lems ;  and  if  it  failed  to  rival  Amiens  in  boldness  of  construc- 
tion and  in  lofty  majesty,  it  at  least  never  perpetrated  a 
folly  like  Beauvais.  In  richness  of  internal  decoration,  es- 
pecially in  the  mouldings  and  ribbed  vaulting,  and  in  the 
picturesque  grouping  of  simple  masses  externally,  the  Brit- 
ish builders  went  far  toward  atoning  for  their  structural 
timidity. 

EARLY  GOTHIC  BUILDINGS.  The  pointed  arch  and  ribbed 
vault  were  importations  from  France. 
Early  examples  appear  in  the  Cistercian 
abbeys  of  Furness  and  Kirkstall,  and 
in  the  Temple  Church  at  London 
(1185).  But  it  was  in  the  Choir  of 
Canterbury,  as  rebuilt  by  William  of 
Sens,  after  the  destruction  by  fire  in 
1 1 70  of  Anselm's  Norman  choir,  that 
these  PVench  Gothic  features  were 
first  applied  in  a  thoroughgoing  man- 
ner. In  plan  this  choir  resembled  that 
of  the  cathedral  of  Sens ;  and  its 
coupled  round  piers,  with  capitals 
carved  with  foliage,  its  pointed  arches, 
its  six-part  vaulting,  and  its  chevet, 
were  distinctly  French.  The  Gothic 
details  thus  introduced  slowly  sup- 
planted the  round  arch  and  other  Nor- 
man features.  For  fifty  years  the  styles  were  more  or  less 
mingled  in  many  buildings,  though  Lincoln  Cathedral,  as  re- 
built in  1 185-1200,  retained  nothing  of  the  earlier  round- 
arched  style.  But  the  first  church  to  be  designed  and  built 
from  the  foundations  in  the  new  style  was  the  cathedral 
of  Salisbury  (1220-1258  ;  Fig.  128).  Contemporary  with 
Amiens,  it  is  a  homogeneous  and   typical   example  of  the 


FIG.  128. — PLAN  OF  SALISBURY 
CATHEDRAL. 


220  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Early  English  style.  The  predilection  for  great  length  ob- 
servable in  the  Anglo-Norman  churches  (as  at  Norwich  and 
Durham)  still  prevailed,  as  it  continued  to  do  throughout 
the  Gothic  period  ;  Salisbury  is  480  feet  long.  The  double 
transepts,  the  long  choir,  the  square  east  end,  the  rela- 
tively low  vault  (84  feet  to  the  ridge),  the  narrow  grouped 
windows,  all  are  thoroughly  English.  Only  the  simple 
four-part  vaulting  recalls  French  models.  Westminster 
Abbey  (1245-1269),  on  the  other  hand,  betrays  in  a  marked 
manner  the  French  influence  in  its  internal  loftiness  (100 
feet),  its  polygonal  chevet  and  chapels,  and  its  strongly 
accented  exterior  flying-buttresses  (Fig.  137). 

MIXTURE  OF  STYLES.  Very  few  English  cathedrals  are  as 
homogeneous  as  the  two  just  mentioned,  nearly  all  having 
undergone  repeated  remodellings  in  successive  periods. 
Durham,  Norwich,  and  Oxford  are  wholly  Norman  but  for 
their  Gothic  vaults.  Ely,  Rochester,  Gloucester,  and  Here- 
ford have  Norman  naves  and  Gothic  choirs.  Peterborough 
has  an  early  Gothic  facade  and  late  Gothic  retro-choir  added 
to  an  otherwise  completely  Norman  structure.  Winchester 
is  a  Norman  church  remodelled  with  early  Perpendicular  de- 
tails. The  purely  Gothic  churches  and  cathedrals,  except 
parish  churches — in  which  England  is  very  rich — are  not 
marly  as  numerous  in  England  as  in  France. 

PERIODS.  The  development  of  English  Gothic  archi- 
tecture followed  the  same  general  sequence  as  the  French, 
and  like  it  the  successive  stages  were  most  conspicuously 
characterized  by  the  forms  of  the  tracery. 

The  Early  English  or  Lancet  period  extended  roundly 
from  1 1 75  or  1 1 80  to  1280,  and  was  marked  by  simplicity, 
dignity,  and  purity  of  design. 

The  Decorated  or  Geometric  period  covered  another 
century,  1280  to  1380,  and  was  characterized  by  its  decora- 
tive richness  and  greater  lightness  of  construction. 

The    Pi  Kit  ndicui.ar    period    extended    from    1380,  or 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      22  1 


thereabout,  well  into  the  sixteenth  century.  Its  salient 
features  were  the  use  of  fan-vaulting,  four-centred  arches, 
and  tracery  of  predominantly  vertical  and  horizontal  lines. 
The  tardy  introduction  of  Renaissance  forms  finally  put 
an  end  to  the  Gothic  style  in  England,  after  a  long  period 
of  mixed  and  transitional  architecture. 

VAULTING.  The  richness  and  variety  of  English  vaulting 
contrast  strikingly  with  the  persistent  uniformity  of  the 
French.  A  few  of  the  early 
Gothic  vaults,  as  in  the  aisles 
of  Peterborough,  and  later 
the  naves  of  Durham,  Salis- 
bury, and  Gloucester,  were 
simple  four -part,  ribbed 
vaults  substantially  like  the 
French.  But  the  English 
disliked  and  avoided  the 
twisted  and  dome-like  sur- 
faces of  the  French  vaults, 
preferring  horizontal  ridges, 
and,  in  the  filling-masonry, 
straight  courses  meeting  at 
the  ridge  in  zigzag  lines,  as 
in  southwest  France  (see  p. 
200).  This  may  be  seen  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  The 
idea  of  ribbed  construction 

was  then  seized  upon  and  given  a  new  application.  By 
springing  a  large  number  of  ribs  from  each  point  of  sup- 
port, the  vaulting-surfaces  were  divided  into  long,  narrow, 
triangles,  the  filling  of  which  was  comparatively  easy 
(Fig.  129).  The  ridge  was  itself  furnished  with  a  straight 
rib,  decorated  with  carved  rosettes  or  bosses  at  each  inter- 
section with  a  vaulting-rib.  The  naves  and  choirs  of 
Lincoln,   Lichfield,   Exeter,  and  the  nave  of  Westminster 


FIG.    I2g. — RIBBED     VAULTING,     CHOIR    OF 
EXETER   CATHEDRAL. 


222 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


illustrate  this  method.  The  logical  corollary  of  this 
practice  was  the  introduction  of  minor  ribs  called  Hemes, 
connecting  the  main  ribs  and  forming  complex  reticulated 
and  star-shaped  patterns.  Vaults  of  this  description  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  in  England.  One  of  the  richest 
is  in  the  choir  of  Gloucester  (1337-1377).  Less  correct 
constructively  is  that  over  the  choir  of  Wells,  while  the 
choir  of  Ely,  the  nave  of  Tewkesbury  Abbey  (Fig.  130),  and 


FIG.    I30.  — NKT   OR    MKRNH    TAOLTflfG,    TRWKK<-IUT»Y    ABBEY. 


all  the  vaulting  of  Winchester  as  rebuilt  by  William  of 
Wykeham  (1390),  illustrate  the  same  system.  Such  vaults 
are  called  Heme  or  star  vaults. 

FAN-VAULTING.  The  next  step  in  the  process  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  vaults  of  the  choir  of  Oxford  Cathedral  (Christ 
Church),  of  the  retro-choir  of  Peterborough,  of  the  clois- 
ters of  Gloucester,  and  many  other  examples.  The  di- 
verging ribs  being  made  of  uniform  curvature,  the  severeys 
(the  inverted  pyramidal  vaulting-masses  springing  from  each 
support)  became  a  species  of  <  on<  ave  conoids,  meeting  at  the 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      223 


ridge  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a  series  of  flat  lozenge-shaped 
spaces  at  the  summit  of  the  vault  (Fig.  136).  The  ribs  were 
multiplied  indefinitely,  and  losing  thus  in  individual  and 
structural  importance  became  a  mere  decorative  pattern  of 
tracery  on  the  severeys.  To  conceal  the  awkward  flat  loz- 
enges at  the  ridge,  elaborate  panelling  was  resorted  to  ;  or, 
in  some  cases,  long  stone  pendents  were  inserted  at  those 
points — a  device  highly  decorative  but  wholly  unconstruc- 
tive.  At  Cambridge, 
in  King's  College 
Chapel,  at  Windsor, 
in  St.  George's  Chap- 
el, and  in  the  Chapel 
of  Henry  VII.  at 
Westminster,  this 
sort  of  vaulting  re- 
ceived its  most  elab- 
orate development. 
The  fan-vault,  as  it 
is  called,  illustrates 
the  logical  evolution 
of  a  decorative  ele- 
ment from  a  struct- 
ural starting-point, 
leading  to  results  far 
removed    from     the 

original  conception.  Rich  and  sumptuous  as  are  these 
ceilings,  they  are  with  all  their  ornament  less  satisfactory 
than  the  ribbed  vaults  of  the  preceding  period. 

CHAPTER-HOUSES.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  forms  of 
ribbed  vaulting  was  developed  in  the  polygonal  halls  erect- 
ed for  the  deliberations  of  the  cathedral  chapters  of  Lincoln 
(1225),  Westminster  (1250),  Salisbury  (1250),  and  Wells 
(1292),  in  which  the  vault-ribs  radiated  from  a  central  col- 
umn to  the  sides  and  angles  of  the  polygon  (Fig.  131).     If 


FIG.     131. — VAULT   OF   CHAPTER-HOUSE,    WELLS. 


224  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

these  vaults  were  less  majestic  than  domes  of  the  same  di- 
ameter, they  were  far  more  decorative  and  picturesque,  while 
the  chapter-houses  themselves  were  the  most  original  and 
striking  products  of  English  Gothic  art.  Every  feature 
was  designed  with  strict  regard  for  the  structural  system 
determined  by  the  admirable  vaulting,  and  the  Sainte  Cha- 
pelle  was  not  more  logical  in  its  exemplification  of  Gothic 
principles.  To  the  four  above-mentioned  examples  should 
be  added  that  of  York  (1280-1330),  which  differs  from 
them  in  having  no  central  column  :  by  some  critics  it  is 
esteemed  the  finest  of  them  all.  Its  ceiling  is  a  Gothic 
dome,  57  feet  in  diameter,  but  unfortunately  executed  in 
wood.  Its  geometrical  window-tracery  and  richly  canopied 
stalls  are  admirable. 

OCTAGON  AT  ELY.  The  magnificent  Octagon  of  Ely  Cathe- 
dral, at  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  transepts,  belongs  in 
the  same  category  with  these  polygonal  chapter-house 
vaults.  It  was  built  by  Alan  of  Walsingham  in  1337,  after 
the  fall  of  the  central  tower  and  the  destruction  of  the  ad- 
jacent bays  of  the  choir.  It  occupies  the  full  width  of  the 
three  aisles,  and  covers  the  ample  space  thus  enclosed  with 
a  simple  but  beautiful  groined  and  ribbed  vault  of  WOOfj 
reaching  to  a  central  octagonal  lantern,  which  rises  much 
higher  and  shows  externally  as  well  as  internally.  Unfort- 
unately, this  vault  is  of  wood,  and  would  require  important 
modifications  of  detail  if  carried  out  in  stone.  But  it  is  so 
noble  in  general  design  and  total  effect,  that  one  wonders 
the  type  was  not  universally  adopted  for  the  crossing  in  all 
cathedrals,  until  one  observes  that  no  cathedral  of  impor- 
tance was  built  after  Walsingham's  time,  nor  did  any  other 
central  towers  opportunely  fall  to  the  ground. 

WINDOWS  AND  TEACEBY.      In   the   Early    English    Period 
(1 200-1 280    or  1300)    the    windows  were    tall  and    narrow 
{lancet  windows),  and  generally  grouped  by  twos  and  thn 
though  sometimes  four  and  even  five  are  seen  together  (as 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      225 


the  "Five  Sisters"  in  the  N.  transept  of  York).  In  the 
nave  of  Salisbury  and  the  retro-choir  of  Ely  the  side  aisles 
are  lighted  by  coupled  windows  and  the  clearstory  by  triple 
windows,  the  central  one  higher  than  the  others — a  surviv- 
ing Norman  practice.  Plate-tracery  was,  as  in  France,  an 
intermediate  step  leading  to  the  development  of  bar-tra- 
cery (see  Fig.  no).  The  English  followed  here  the  same 
reasoning  as  the  French.  At  first  the  openings  constituted 
the  design,  the  intervening  stonework  being  of  secondary 
importance.  Later  the  forms  of  the 
openings  were  subordinated  to  the 
pattern  of  the  stone  framework  of 
bars,  arches,  circles,  and  cusps.  Bar- 
tracery  of  this  description  prevailed 
in  England  through  the  greater  part 
of  the  Decorated  Period  (i  280-1380), 
and  somewhat  resembled  the  con- 
temporary French  geometric  tracery, 
though  more  varied  and  less  rigidly 
constructive  in  design.  An  early 
example  of  this  tracery  occurs  in 
the  cloisters  of  Salisbury  (Fig.  132)  ; 
others  in  the  clearstories  of  the 
choirs  of  Lichfield,  Lincoln,  and  Ely, 

the  nave  of  York,  and  the  chapter-houses  mentioned  above, 
where,  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  received  its  earliest  develop- 
ment. After  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  lines  of 
double  curvature  were  introduced,  producing  what  is  called 
flowing  tr&czry,  somewhat  resembling  the  French  flamboyant, 
though  earlier  in  date  (Fig.  111).  Examples  of  this  style 
are  found  in  Wells,  in  the  side  aisles  and  triforium  of  the 
choir  of  Ely,  and  in  the  S.  transept  rose-window  of  Lincoln. 
THE  PERPENDICULAR  STYLE.  Flowing  tracery  was,  how- 
ever, a  transitional  phase  of  design,  and  was  soon  super- 
seded by  Perpendicular  tracery,  in  which  the  mullions  were 
^5 


FIG.  132. — CLOISTERS,  SALIS- 
BURY CATHEDRAL  (SHOWING 
UPPER  PART  OF  CHAPTER- 
HOUSE). 


226 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


carried  through  to  the  top  of  the  arch  and  intersected  by 
horizontal  transoms.  This  formed  a  very  rigid  and  me- 
chanically correct  system  of  stone  framing,  but  lacked  the 
grace  and  charm  of  the  two  preceding  periods.  The  ear- 
liest examples  are  seen  in  the  work  of  Edington  and  of 
Wykeham  in    the   reconstructed  cathedral    of   Winchester 

(i 360-1 394),  where  the 
tracery  was  thus  made 
to  harmonize  with  the 
accentuated  and  multi- 
plied vertical  lines  of 
the  interior  design.  It 
was  at  this  late  date 
that  the  English  seem 
first  to  have  fully  ap- 
propriated the  Gothic 
ideas  of  emphasized 
vertical  elements  and 
wall  surfaces  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  The 
development  of  fan- 
vaulting  had  led  to  the 
adoption  of  a  new  form 
of  arch,  the  four-cen- 
tred or  Tint  or  arch  (Fig. 
I33)>  to  fit  under  the 
depressed  apex  of  the 
vault.  The  whole  design  internally  and  externally  was 
thenceforward  controlled  by  the  form  of  the  vaulting  and 
of  the  openings.  The  windows  were  made  of  enormous 
size,  especially  at  the  east  end  of  the  choir,  which  was 
square  in  nearly  all  English  churches,  and  in  the  west  win- 
dows over  the  entrance.  These  windows  had  already 
reached,  in  the  Decorated  Period,  an  enormous  size,  as 
York  ;  in  the   Perpendicular    Period  the  two  ends    of  tl 


FIG.     133.— PKRPRNDICl'LAR   TRACKRV,    WEST    WIN- 
DOW   Of    ST.    GSOBGX**,     WIMiMiR. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE    IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      227 

church  were  as  nearly  as  possible  converted  into  walls  of 
glass.  The  East  Window  of  Gloucester  reaches  the  pro- 
digious dimensions  of  38  by  72  feet.  The  most  complete 
examples  of  the  Perpendicular  tracery  and  of  the  style  in 
general  are  the  three  chapels  already  mentioned  (p.  223) ; 
those,  namely,  of  King's  College  at  Cambridge,  of  St.  George 
at  Windsor,  and  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

CONSTKTJCTIVE  DESIGN.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
English  Gothic  design  was  its  studious  avoidance  of  temer- 
ity or  venturesomeness  in  construction.  Both  the  height 
and  width  of  the  nave  were  kept  within  very  moderate 
bounds,  and  the  supports  were  never  reduced  to  extreme 
slenderness.  While  much  impressiveness  of  effect  was  un- 
doubtedly lost  thereby,  there  was  some  gain  in  freedom  of 
design,  and  there  was  less  obtrusion  of  constructive  ele- 
ments in  the  exterior  composition.  The  flying-buttress  be- 
came a  feature  of  minor  importance  where  the  clearstory 
was  kept  low,  as  in  most  English  churches.  In  many  cases 
the  flying  arches  were  hidden  under  the  aisle  roofs.  The 
English  cathedrals  and  larger  churches  are  long  and  low, 
depending  for  effect  mainly  upon  the  projecting  masses  of 
their  transepts,  the  imposing  square  central  towers  which 
commonly  crown  the  crossing,  and  the  grouping  of  the 
main  structure  with  chapter-houses,  cloisters,  and  Lady- 
chapels. 

FRONTS.  The  sides  and  east  ends  were,  in  most  cases, 
more  successful  than  the  west  fronts.  In  these  the  Eng- 
lish displayed  a  singular  indifference  or  lack  of  creative 
power.  They  produced  nothing  to  rival  the  majestic 
facades  of  Notre  Dame,  Amiens,  or  Reims,  and  their  portals 
are  almost  ridiculously  small.  The  front  of  York  Cathe- 
dral is  the  most  notable  in  the  list  for  its  size  and  elaborate 
decoration.  Those  of  Lincoln  and  Peterborough  are,  how- 
ever, more  interesting  in  the  picturesqueness  and  singularity 
of  their  composition.     The  first-named  forms  avast  arcaded 


228 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


screen,  masking  the  bases  of  the  two  western  towers,  and 
pierced  by  three  huge  Norman  arches,  retained  from  the 
original  facade.  The  west  front  of  Peterborough  is  likewise 
a  mask  or  screen,  mainly  composed  of  three  colossal  re- 
cessed arches,  whose  vast  scale  completely  dwarfs  the  little 

porches  which  give  ad- 
mittance to  the  church. 
Salisbury  has  a  curious- 
ly illogical  and  ineffec- 
tive facade.  Those  of 
Lichfield  and  Wells  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  im- 
posing and  beautiful 
designs,  the  first  with 
its  twin  spires  and  rich 
arcading  (Fig.  134),  the 
second  with  its  unu- 
sual wealth  of  figure- 
sculpture,  and  massive 
square  towns. 

CENTRAL  T0WZS8. 
These  are  the  most 
successful  features  of 
English  exterior  de- 
sign. Most  of  them  form  lanterns  internally  over  the  <  p  «*• 
ing,  giving  to  that  point  a  considerable  increase  of  dignity. 
Externally  tiny  are  usually  massive  and  lofty  square  tow  its, 
and  having  been  for  the  most  part  completed  during 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  they  are  marked 
by  great  richness  and  elegance  of  detail.  Durham,  York, 
Ely,  Canterbury,  Lincoln,  and  Gloucester  may  be  mentioned 
as  notable  examples  of  such  square  towers  ;  that  of  Canter- 
bury is  the  finest.  Two  or  three  have  lofty  spires  over 
the  lantern.  Among  these,  that  of  Salisbury  is  chief,  rising 
424  feet  from  the  ground,  admirably  designed  in  every  de- 


no.    134.— WEST    FRONT,  LICHFIELD   CATHF.DKAL. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.      229 


tail.  It  was  not  completed  till  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  but  most  fortunately  carries  out  with  great 
felicity  the  spirit  of  the  earlier  style  in  which  it  was  begun. 
Lichfield  and  Chichester  have  somewhat  similar  central 
spires,  but  less  happy  in  propor- 
tion and  detail  than  the  beautiful 
Salisbury  example. 

INTERIOK  DESIGN.  In  the  Nor- 
man churches  the  pier -arches, 
triforium,  and  clearstory  were 
practically  equal.  In  the  Gothic 
churches  the  pier-arches  gener- 
ally occupy  the  lower  half  of  the 
height,  the  upper  half  being  divid- 
ed nearly  equally  between  the  tri- 
forium and  clearstory,  as  in  Lin- 
coln, Lichfield  (nave),  Ely  (choir). 
In  some  cases,  however  (as  at 
Salisbury,  Westminster,  W  i  n- 
chester,  choir  of  Lichfield),  the 
clearstory  is  magnified  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  triforium  (Fig.  135). 
Three  peculiarities  of  design 
sharply  distinguish  the  English 
treatment  of  these  features 
from   the    French.     The    first   is 

the  multiplicity  of  fine  mouldings  in  the  pier-arches ; 
the  second  is  the  decorative  elaboration  of  design  in 
the  triforium  ;  the  third,  the  variety  in  the  treatment  of 
the  clearstory.  In  general  the  English  interiors  are  much 
more  ornate  than  the  French.  Black  Purbeck  marble  is 
frequently,  used  for  the  shafts  clustered  around  the  central 
core  of  the  pier,  giving  a  striking  and  somewhat  singular 
effect  of  contrasted  color.  The  rich  vaulting,  the  highly 
decorated  triforium,  the  moulded  pier-arches,  and  at  the 


FIG.    135. — ONE    BAY   OF   CHOIR, 
LICHFIELD    CATHEDRAL. 


23O  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

end  of  the  vista  the  great  east  window,  produce  an  impres- 
sion very  different  from  the  more  simple  and  lofty  state- 
liness  of  the  French  cathedrals.  The  great  length  and  low- 
ness  of  the  English  interiors  combine  with  this  decorative 
richness  to  give  the  impression  of  repose  and  grace,  rather 
than  of  majesty  and  power.  This  tendency  reached  its 
highest  expression  in  the  Perpendicular  churches  and 
chapels,  in  which  every  surface  was  covered  with  minute 
panelling. 

CAKVINO.  In  the  Early  English  Period  the  details  were 
carved  with  a  combined  delicacy  and  vigor  deserving  of  the 
highest  praise.  In  the  capitals  and  corbels,  crockets  and 
finials,  the  foliage  was  crisp  and  fine,  curling  into  convex 
masses  and  seeming  to  spring  from  the  surface  which  it 
decorated.  Mouldings  were  frequently  ornamented  with 
foliage  of  this  character  in  the  hollows,  and  another  orna- 
ment, the  dog-tooth  or  pyramid,  often  served  the  same  pur- 
pose, introducing  repeated  points  of  light  into  the  shadows 
of  the  mouldings.  These  were  fine  and  Complex, deep  hol- 
lows alternating  with  round  mouldings  (bdwtets)  sometimes 
made  pear-shaped  in  section  by  a  fillet  on  one  side.  Cuspin* 
— the  decoration  of  an  arch  or  circle  by  triangular  projec- 
tions on  its  inner  edge — was  introduced  during  this  period, 
and  became  an  important  decorative  resource,  especially  in 
tracery  design.  In  the  Decorated  Period  the  foliage  wis 
less  crisp  ;  sea-weed  and  oak-leaves,  closely  and  confusedly 
bunched,  were  used  in  the  capitals,  while  crockets  were 
larger,  double-curved,  with  leaves  swelling  into  convexities 
like  oak-galls.  Geometrical  and  flowing  tracery  were  de- 
veloped, and  the  mouldings  of  the  tracery-bars,  as  of  other 
features,  lost  somewhat  in  vigor  and  sharpness.  The  Imll- 
flower  or  button  replaced  the  dog's-tooth,  and  the  hollows 
were  less  frequently  adorned  with  foliage. 

In  the  Perpendicular  Period  nearly  all  flat  surfaces  were 
panelled  in  designs  resembling  the  tracery  of  the  windows. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT   HRITAIN.      23 1 

The  capitals  were  less  important  than  those  of  the  preced- 
ing periods,  and  the  mouldings  weaker  and  less  effective. 
The  Tudor  rose  appears  as  an  ornament  in  square  panels 
and  on  fiat  surfaces  ;  and  moulded  battlements,  which  first 
appeared  in  Decorated  work,  now  become  a  frequent  crown- 
ing motive  in  place  of  a  cornice.  There  is  less  originality 
and  variety  in  the  ornament,  but  a  great  increase  in  its 
amount  (Fig.  136). 


FIG.    136. — FAN-VAULTING,    HENRY    VII.'S    CHAPEL,    WESTMINSTER   ABBEY. 

PLANS.  English  church  plans  underwent,  during  the 
Gothic  Period,  but  little  change  from  the  general  types  es- 
tablished previous  to  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Gothic 
cathedrals  and  abbeys,  like  the  Norman,  were  very  long 
and  narrow,  with  choirs  often  nearly  as  long  as  the  nave,  and 
almost  invariably  with  square  eastward  terminations.  There 
is  no  example  of  double  side  aisles  and  side  chapels,  and 
apsidal  chapels  are  very  rare.  Canterbury  and  Westminster 
(Fig.  137)  are  the  chief  exceptions  to  this,  and  both  show 
clearly  the  French  influence.  Another  striking  peculiarity 
of  the  English  plans  is  the  frequent  occurrence  of  second- 


232 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


ary  transepts,  adding  greatly  to  the  external  picturesqueness. 
These  occur  in  rudimentary  form  in  Canterbury,  and  at 
Durham  the  Chapel  of  the  Nine  Altars,  added  1 242-1 290  to 
the  eastern  end,  forms  in  reality  a  secondary  transept.   This 

feature  is  most  per- 
fectly developed  in  the 
cathedral  of  Salisbury 
(Fig.  128),  and  appears 
also  at  Lincoln,  Worces- 
ter, Wells,  and  a  few 
other  examples.  The 
English  cathedral  plans 
are  also  distinguished 
by  the  retention  or  in- 
corporation of  many 
conventual  features, 
such  as  cloisters,  libra- 
ries, and  halls,  and  by 
the  grouping  of  chap- 
ter-houses and  Lady- 
chapels  with  the  main 
edifice.  Thus  the  Eng- 
lish cathedral  plans  and 
those  of  the  great  ab- 
bey churches  present  a 
marked  contrast  with 
those  of  France  and  the 
Continent  generally.  While  Amiens,  the  greatest  of  French 
cathedrals,  is  521  feet  long,  and  internally  140  feet  high,  Ely 
measures  565  feet  in  length,  and  less  than  75  feet  in  height. 
Notre  Dame  is  148  feet  wide  ;  the  English  naves  are  usu- 
ally under  80  feet  in  total  width  of  the  three  aisles. 

PARISH  CHURCHES.  Many  of  these  were  of  exceptional 
beauty  of  composition  and  detail.  They  display  the  great- 
est variety  of  plan,  churches  with  two  equal-gabled  naves 


FIG.  I37.— EASTERN  HALF  OF  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 
PLAN. 

tf,  Henry  VH.U  chapel. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN   GREAT  BRITAIN.      233 


side  by  side  being  not  uncommon.  A  considerable  propor- 
tion of  them  date  from  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, and  are  chiefly  interesting  for  their  square,  single, 
west  towers  and  their  carved  wooden  ceilings  (see  below). 
The  tower  was  usually  built  over  the  central  western 
porch  ;  broad  and  square,  with  corner  buttresses  terminat- 
ing in  pinnacles,  it  was  usually  finished  without  spires. 
Crenelated  battlements  crowned  the  upper  story.  When 
spires  were  added  the  transition  from  the  square  tower  to 
the  octagonal  spire  was  effected  by  broaches  or  portions  of 
a  square  pyramid  intersecting  the  base  of  the  spire,  or  by 
corner  pinnacles  and  flying-buttresses. 

WOODEN  CEILINGS.  The  English  treated  woodwork  with 
consummate  skill.  They  invented  and  developed  a  variety 
of  forms  of  roof-truss 
in  which  the  proper 
distribution  of  the 
strains  was  combined 
with  a  highly  decora- 
tive treatment  of  the 
several  parts  by  carv- 
ing, moulding,  and  ar- 
cading.  The  ceiling 
surfaces  between  the 
trusses  were  handled 
decoratively,  and  the 
oaken  open  -  timber 
ceilings  of  many  of  the 
English  churches  and  fig.  138.— roof  of  nave,  st.  mary's,  westonzoy- 
civic  or  academic  halls  LAND- 

(Christ  Church  Hall,  Oxford  ;  Westminster  Hall,  London) 
are  such  noble  and  beautiful  works  as  quite  to  justify  the 
substitution  of  wooden  for  vaulted  ceilings  (Fig.  138).  The 
hammer-beam  truss  was  in  its  way  as  highly  scientific,  and 
aesthetically  as  satisfactory,  as  any  feature  of  French  Gothic 


234  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

stone  construction.  Without  the  use  of  tie-rods  to  keep 
the  rafters  from  spreading,  it  brought  the  strain  of  the  roof 
upon  internal  brackets  low  down  on  the  wall,  and  produced 
a  beautiful  effect  by  the  repetition  of  its  graceful  curves  in 
each  truss. 

CHAPELS  AND  HALLS.  Many  of  these  rival  the  cathedrals 
in  beauty  and  dignity  of  design.  The  royal  chapels  at 
Windsor  and  Westminster  have  already  been  mentioned,  as 
well  as  King's  College  Chapel  at  Cambridge,  and  Christ 
Church  Hall  at  Oxford.  To  these  college  halls  should  be 
added  the  chapel  of  Merton  College  at  Oxford,  and  the 
beautiful  chapel  of  St.  Stephen  at  Westminster,  most  un- 
fortunately demolished  when  the  present  Parliament  House 
was  erected.  The  Lady-chapels  of  Gloucester  and  Ely, 
though  connected  with  the  cathedrals,  are  really  indepen- 
dent designs  of  late  date,  and  remarkable  for  the  richness 
of  their  decoration,  their  great  windows,  and  elaborate 
ribbed  vaulting.  Some  of  the  halls  in  mediaeval  castles  and 
manor-houses  are  also  worthy  of  note,  especially  for  their 
timber  ceilings. 

minor  monuments.  The  student  of  Gothic  architecture 
should  also  give  attention  to  the  choir-screens,  tombs,  and 
chantries  which  embellish  many  of  the  abbeys  and  cathe- 
drals. The  rood-screen  at  York  is  a  notable  example  of 
the  first ;  the  tomb  of  De  Gray  in  the  same  cathedral,  and 
tombs  and  chantries  in  Canterbury,  Winchester,  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  Ely,  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  and  other  churches  are 
deservedly  admired.  In  these  the  English  love  for  orna- 
ment, for  minute  carving,  and  for  the  contrast  of  white  and 
colored  marble,  found  unrestrained  expression.  To  these 
should  be  added  the  market-crosses  of  Salisbury  and  Win- 
chester, and  Queen  Eleanor's  Cross  at  Waltham. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE.  The  mediaeval  castles  of  Great 
Britain  belong  to  the  domain  of  military  engineering  rather 
than  of  the  history  of  art,  though  occasionally  presenting 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GREAT  BRITAIN.      235 

to  view  details  of  considerable  architectural  beauty.  The 
growth  of  peace  and  civic  order  is  marked  by  the  erection 
of  manor  -  houses,  the  residences  of  wealthy  landowners. 
Some  of  these  houses  are  of  imposing  size,  and  show  the 
application  to  domestic  requirements,  of  the  late  Gothic 
style  which  prevailed  in  the  period  to  which  most  of  them 
belong.  The  windows  are  square  or  Tudor-arched,  with 
stone  mullions  and  transoms  of  the  Perpendicular  style, 
and  the  walls  terminate  in  merlons  or  crenelated  parapets, 
recalling  the  earlier  military  structures.  The  palace  of 
the  bishop  or  archbishop,  adjoining  the  cathedral,  and 
the  residences  of  the  dean,  canons,  and  clergy,  together 
with  the  libraries,  schools,  and  gates  of  the  cathedral  en- 
closure, illustrate  other  phases  of  secular  Gothic  work. 
Few  of  these  structures  are  of  striking  architectural  merit, 
but  they  possess  a  picturesque  charm  which  is  very  attrac- 
tive. 

Not  many  stone  houses  of  the  smaller  class  remain  from 
the  Gothic  period  in  England.  But  there  is  hardly  an  old 
town  that  does  not  retain  many  of  the  half-timbered  dwell- 
ings of  the  fifteenth  or  even  fourteenth  century,  some  of 
them  in  excellent  preservation.  They  are  for  the  most 
part  wider  and  lower  than  the  French  houses  of  the  same 
class,  but  are  built  on  the  same  principle,  and,  like  them, 
the  woodwork  is  more  or  less  richly  carved. 

MONUMENTS :  (A.  =  abbey  church  ;  C.  =  cathedral ;  r.  =  ruined  ; 
trans.  =  transept ;  each  monument  is  given  under  the  date  of  the  earliest 
extant  Gothic  work  upon  it,  with  additions  of  later  periods  in  parentheses.) 

Early  English:  Kirkstall  A.,  1152-82,  first  pointed  arches;  Canter- 
bury C,  choir,  1175-84  (nave,  1378-1411  ;  central  tower,  1500)  ;  Lincoln 
C,  choir,  trans.,  1 192-1200  (vault,  1250:  nave  and  E.  end,  1260-80);  Lich- 
field C,  1200-50  (W.  front,  1275  ;  presbytery,  1325) ;  Worcester  C,  choir, 
1203-18,  nave  partly  Norman  (W.  end,  1375-95) ;  Chichester  C,  1204-44 
(spire  rebuilt  17th  century) ;  FountainsA.,  1205-46;  SalisburyC,  1220-58 
(cloister,  chapter-h.,  1263-84;  spire,  1331);  Elgin C,  1224-44  ;  Wells  C, 
H75-i2o6(\V.  front  1225, choirlater, chapter-h.,  1292) ;  RochesterC.,1225- 


236  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

39  (nave  Norman)  ;  York  C,  S  trans.,  1225  ;  N.  trans.,  1260  (nave,  chap- 
ter-h.,  1291-1345  ;  \V.  window,  1338  ;  central  tower,  1389-1407  ;  E.  win- 
dow, 1407) ;  Southwell  Minster,  1233-94  (nave  Norman)  ;  Ripon  C,  1233- 
94  (central  tower,  1459)  ;  Ely  C,  choir,  1229-54  (nave  Norman  ;  octagon 
and  presbytery,  1323-62) ;  Peterborough  C,  W.  front,  1237  (nave  Norman  ; 
retro-choir,  late  14th  century)  ;  Netley  A.,  1239  (r.)  ;  Durham  C,  "  Nine 
Altars"  and  E.  end  choir,  1235-90  (nave,  choir,  Norman;  W.  window, 
1 341  ;  central  tower  finished,  1480) ;  Glasgow  C.  (with  remarkable  Early 
English  crypt),  1242-77  ;  Gloucester  C,  nave  vaulted,  1239-42  (nave 
mainly  Norman  ;  choir,  1337-51  ;  cloisters,  1375-1412  ;  W.  end,  1420- 
37  ;  central  tower,  1450-57)  ;  Westminster  A.,  1245-69;  St.  Mary's  A., 
York,  1272-92  (r.). 

Decorated:  Merton  College  Chapel,  Oxford,  1 274-1 300  ;  Hereford 
C,  N.  trans.,  chapter-h.,  cloisters,  vaulting,  1275-92  (nave,  choir,  Nor- 
man) ;  Exeter  C,  choir,  trans.,  1279-91  ;  nave,  1331-50  (E.  end  re- 
modelled, 1390)  ;  Lichfield  C,  Eady-chapel.  1310  ;  Ely  C,  Lady-chapel,' 
1321-49;  Melrose  A.,  1327-99  (nave,  1500;  r.) ;  St  Stephen's  Chapel. 
Westminster,  1349-64  (demolished) ;  Edington  church,  1352-61  ;  Carlisle 
C,  E.  end  and  upper  parts,  1352-95  (nave  in  part  and  S.  trans.  Norman  ; 
tower  finished,  1419) ;  Winchester  C,  W.  end  remodelled,  1360-66  (nave 
and  aisles,  1394-1410;  trans,  partly  Norman);  York  C,  Lady-chapel, 
1362-72  ;  churches  of  Patrington  and  Hull,  late  14th  century. 

Perpendicular  :  Holy  Cross  Church,  Canterbury,  1380;  St.  Mary's, 
Warwick,  1381-91  ;  Manchester  C,  1422;  St.  Mary's,  P.ury  St.  Ed- 
munds, 1424-33;  Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick,  1439;  Kind's  CoUagjj 
Chapel,  Cambridge,  1440  ;  vaults,  1508-15  ;  St.  Mary's  Redcliffe,  Bristol, 
1442  ;  Roslyn  Chapel,  Edinburgh,  1446-90;  Gloucester  C,  Lady  chapel, 
1457-98  :  St.  Mary's,  Stratford-on-Avon,  1465-91  ;  Norwich  C,  upper 
part  and  E.  end  of  choir,  1472-99  (the  rest  mainly  Norman)  ;  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  1481-1508  ;  choir  vaulted,  1507-20;  Path  A.,  1500-39; 
Chapel  of  Henry  VII.,  Westminster,  1503-20. 

Academic  and  Secular  Buildings  :  Winchester  Castle  Hall,  1222- 
35  ;  Merton  College  Chapel,  Oxford,  1274-1300  ;  Library  Merton  College, 
1354-78  ;  Norborough  Hall,  1356  j  Windsor  Castle,  upper  ward,  1359-73  I 
Winchester  College,  1387-93;  Wardour  Castle,  1392  ;  Westminster  Hall. 
rebuilt,  1397-99  ;  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Coventry,  1401  14  ;  Warkworth  Castle, 
1440  ;  St.  John's  College,  All  Soul's  College,  Oxford,  1437  ',  Eton  College, 
1441-1522;  Divinity  Schools,  Oxford,  1445-54;  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1475-80,  tower,  1500  ;  Christ  Church  Hall,  Oxford,  1529. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE    IN   GERMANY,  THE   NETH- 
ERLANDS,  AND   SPAIN. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Corroyer,  Reber. 
Also,  Adler,  Mittelalterliche  Backstein-Bauwerke  des  preus- 
sischen  Staates.  Essenwein  (Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.),  Die  romanische 
und  die  gothische  Baukunst;  der  Wohnbau.  Hasak,  Die  ro- 
manische und  die  gothische  Baukunst ;  Kirchenbau;  Einzelheiten 
des  Kirchenbaues  (both  in  Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.).  Hase  and  others, 
Die  mittelalterlichen  Baudenkmaler  Niedersachsens.  Kallen- 
bach,  Chronologic  der  deutschen  mittelalterlichen  Baukunst. 
Liibke,  Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Redtenbacher,  Leitfaden  turn  Studium  der  mittelalterliche?i 
Baukunst.  Street,  Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain.  Uhde,  Bau- 
denkmaler  in  Spanien.  Ungewitter,  Lehrbuch  der  gothischen 
Constructional.    Villa  Amil,  Hispania  Artistica  y  Monumental. 

EARLY  GOTHIC  WORKS.  The  Gothic  architecture  of  Ger- 
many is  less  interesting  to  the  general  student  than  that  of 
France  and  England,  not  only  because  its  development  was 
less  systematic  and  more  provincial,  but  also  because  it 
produced  fewer  works  of  high  intrinsic  merit.  The  intro-^ 
duction  into  Germany  of  the  pointed  style  was  tardy,  and 
its  progress  slow.  Romanesque  architecture  had  created 
imposing  types  of  ecclesiastical  architecture,  which  the  con- 
servative Teutons  were  slow  to  abandon.  The  result  was 
a  half-century  of  transition  and  a  mingling  of  Romanesque 
and  Gothic  forms.  St.  Castor,  at  Coblentz,  built  as  late  as 
1208,  is  wholly  Romanesque.  Even  when  the  pointed  arch 
and  vault  had  finally  come  into  general  use,  the  plan  and 
the  constructive  system  still  remained  predominantly  Ro- 
manesque. The  western  apse  and  short  sanctuary  of  the 
earlier  plans  were  retained.     There  was  no  triforium,  the 


238  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

clearstory  was  insignificant,  and  the  whole  aspect  low 
and  massive.  The  Germans  avoided,  at  first,  as  did  the 
English,  the  constructive  audacities  and  difficulties  of  the 
French  Gothic,  but  showed  less  of  invention  and  grace 
than  their  English  neighbors.  When,  however,  through 
the  influence  of  foreign  models,  especially  of  the  great 
French  cathedrals,  and  through  the  employment  of  for- 
eign architects,  the  Gothic  styles  were  at  last  thoroughly 
domesticated,  a  spirit  of  ostentation  took  the  place  of  the 
earlier  conservatism.  Technical  cleverness,  exaggerated 
ingenuity  of  detail,  and  constructive  tours  de  force  charac- 
terize most  of  the  German  Gothic  work  of  the  late  four- 
teenth and  of  the  fifteenth  century.  This  is  exemplified 
in  the  slender  mullions  of  Ulm,  the  lofty  and  complicated 
spire  of  Strasburg,  and  the  curious  traceries  of  churches 
and  houses  in  Nuremberg. 

PERIODS.  The  periods  of  German  mediaeval  architecture 
corresponded  in  sequence,  though  not  in  date,  with  the 
movement  elsewhere.  The  maturing  (,f  the  true  Gothic 
styles  was  preceded  by  more  than  a  half-century  <>f  transi- 
tion. Chronologically  the  periods  may  be  broadly  Stated 
as  follow-  : 

Thk  Transitional,  1 170-1225. 

Thk  Early  Pow  1 1 1>,  1225-1275. 

Thk  Middle  <>k  Drcoratkd,  1275-1350. 

Thk  Florid,  1350-1530. 

These  divisions  are,  however,  far  less  clearly  defined 
than  in  France  and  England.  The  development  of  forms 
was  less  logical  and  consequential,  and  less  uniform  in  the 
different  provinces,  than  in  those  western  lands. 

CONSTRUCTION.  As  already  remarked,  a  tenacious  hold  of 
Romanesque  methods  is  observable  in  many  German  (iothic 
monuments.  Broad  trail-surfaces  with  small  windows  and 
a  general  massiveness  and  lowness  of  proportions  were  long 
preferred   to    the    more    slender   and    lofty   forms   of  true 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY. 


239 


Gothic  design.  Square  vaulting-bays  were  persistently  ad- 
hered to,  covering  two  aisle-bays.  The  six-part  system 
was  only  rarely  resorted  to,  as  at  Schlettstadt,  and  in  St. 
George  at  Limburg-on-the-Lahn  (Fig.  139).  The  ribbed 
vault  was  an  imported  idea,  and  was  never  systematically 
developed.  Under  the  final  dominance  of  French  models 
in  the  second  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  vaulting  in  ob- 
long bays  became  more  gen- 
eral, powerfully  influenced  by 
buildings  like  Freiburg,  Co- 
logne, Oppenheim,  and  Ratis- 
bon  cathedrals.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  growing 
taste  for  elaboration  and  rich 
detail  led  to  the  introduction 
of  multiplied  decorative  ribs. 
These,  however,  did  not  come 
into  use,  as  in  England,  through 
a  logical  development  of  con- 
structive methods,  but  purely  as 
decorative  features.  The  Ger- 
man multiple-ribbed  vaulting  is, 
therefore,  less  satisfying  than 
the  English,  though  often  ele- 
gant. Conspicuous  examples  of 
its  application  are  found  in  the 

cathedrals  of  Freiburg,  Ulm,  Prague,  and  Vienna  ;  in  St. 
Barbara  at  Kuttenberg,  and  many  other  important  churches. 
But  with  all  the  richness  and  complexity  of  these  net-like 
vaults  the  Germans  developed  nothing  like  the  fan-vaulting 
or  chapter-house  ceilings  of  England. 

SIDE  AISLES.  The  most  notable  structural  innovation  of 
the  Germans  was  the  raising  of  the  side  aisles  to  the  same 
height   as    the    central    aisle    in    a    number   of   important 


FIG.  139. — ONE   BAY   OF   CATHEDRAL   OF 
ST.    GEORGE,    LIMBURG. 


24o 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


churches.  They  thus  created  a  distinctly  new  type,  to 
which  German  writers  have  given  the  name  of  hall-church. 
The  result  of  this  innovation  was  to  transform  completely 
the  internal  perspective  of  the  church,  as  well  as  its  struct- 
ural membering.     The  clearstory  disappeared  ;  the  central 

aisle  no  longer  dominated 
the  interior ;  the  pier-arch- 
es and  side-walls  were 
greatly  increased  in  height, 
and  flying  buttresses  were 
no  longer  required.  The 
whole  design  appeared  in- 
ternally more  spacious,  but 
lost  greatly  in  variety  and 
in  interest.  The  cathedral 
of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna 
is  the  most  imposing  in- 
stance of  this  treatment, 
which  first  appeared  in  the 
church  of  St.  Elizabeth  at 
Marburg  (1235-83;  Figs 
140).  St.  Barbara  at  Kuttenberg,  St.  Martin's  at  Landshut 
(1404),  and  the  cathedral  of  Munich  are  others  among 
many  examples  of  this  type. 

TOWEBS  AND  SPIRES.  The  same  fondness  for  spires  which 
had  been  displayed  in  the  Rhenish  Romanesque  churches 
produced  in  the  Gothic  period  a  number  of  strikingly  beau- 
tiful church  steeples,  in  which  openwork  tracery  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  solid  stone  pyramids  of  earlier  examples. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  spires  are  those  of  Freiburg 
(1300),  Strasburg,  and  Cologne  cathedrals,  of  the  church  at 
Ksslingen,  St.  Martin's  at  Landshut,  and  the  cathedral  of 
Vienna.  In  these  the  transition  from  the  simple  square 
tower  below  to  the  octagonal  belfry  and  spire  is  generally 
managed  with  skill.     In  the  remarkable  tower  of  the  cathe- 


FIG.    140. — SECTION   OF   ST.    ELIZABETH,    MAR- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY.  24 1 

dral  at  Vienna  (1433)  the  transition  is  too  gradual,  so  that 
the  spire  seems  to  start  from  the  ground  and  lacks  the 
vigor  and  accent  of  a  simpler  square  lower  portion.  The 
over-elaborate  spire  of  Strasburg  (1429,  by  Junckher  of 
Cologne  ;  lower  parts  and  facade,  1277-1365,  by  Erwin  von 
Steinbach  and  his  sons)  reaches  a  height  of  468  feet ;  the 
spires  of  Cologne,  completed  in  1883  from  the  original 
fourteenth-century  drawings,  long  lost  but  recovered  by  a 
happy  accident,  are  500  feet  high.  The  spires  of  Ratisbon 
and  Ulm  cathedrals  have  also  been  recently  completed  in 
the  original  style. 

DETAILS.  German  window  tracery  was  best  where  it 
most  closely  followed  French  patterns,  but  it  tended  al- 
ways towards  the  faults  of  mechanical  stiffness  and  of  tech- 
nical display  in  over-slenderness  of  shafts  and  mullions. 
The  windows,  especially  in  the  "  hall-churches,"  were  apt 
to  be  too  narrow  for  their  height.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
ingenuity  of  geometrical  combinations  took  the  place  of 
grace  of  line,  and  later  the  tracery  was  often  tortured  into 
a  stone  caricature  of  rustic-work  of  interlaced  and  twisted 
boughs  and  twigs,  represented  with  all  their  bark  and  knots 
{branch-tracery).  The  execution  was  far  superior  to  the  de- 
sign. The  carving  of  foliage  in  capitals,  finials,  etc.,  calls 
for  no  special  mention  for  its  originality  or  its  departure 
from  French  types. 

PLANS.  In  these  there  was  more  variety  than  in  any 
other  part  of  Europe  except  Italy.  Some  churches,  like 
Naumburg,  retained  the  Romanesque  system  of  a  second 
western  apse  and  short  choir.  The  Cistercian  churches 
generally  had  square  east  ends,  while  the  polygonal  east- 
ern apse  without  ambulatory  is  seen  in  St.  Elizabeth  at 
Marburg,  the  cathedrals  of  Ratisbon,  Ulm  and  Vienna,  and 
many  other  churches.  The  introduction  of  French  ideas 
in  the  thirteenth  century  led  to  the  adoption  in  a  number  of 
cases  of  the  chevet  with  a  single  ambulatory  and  a  series  of 
16 


242 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


< 


* 

•  -.  A  ■.  /■•-.  /  \  n\ 

........ 


radiating  apsidal  chapels.     Magdeburg  cathedral  (i*  | 

was  the  first  erected  on  this  plan,  which  was  later  followed 
at  Altenburg,  Cologne,  Freiburg,  Lubeck,  Prague  and 
Zwettl,  in  St.  Francis  at  Salzburg  and  some  other  churches. 

Side  chapels  to  nave  or  choir 
appear  in  the  cathedrals  of 
LUbeck,  Munich,  Oppenheim, 
Prague  and  Zwettl.  Cologne 
Cathedral,  by  far  the  largest 
and  most  magnificent  of  all,  is 
completely  French  in  plan,  unit- 
ing in  one  design  the  leading 
characteristics  of  the  most  not- 
able French  churches  (Fig.  141). 
It  has  complete  double  aisles  in 
both  nave  and  choir,  three- 
aisled  transepts,  radial  chevet- 
chapels  and  twin  western  tow- 
ers. The  ambulatory  is,  how- 
ever, single,  and  there  are  no 
lateral  chapels.  A  typical  Ger- 
man treatment  was  the  east- 
ward termination  of  the  church  by  polygonal  chapels,  one 
in  the  axis  of  each  aisle,  the  central  one  projecting  beyond 
its  neighbors.  Where  there  were  five  aisles,  as  at  Xanten, 
the  effect  was  particularly  fine.  The  plan  of  the  curious 
polygonal  church  of  Our  Lady  (Liebfrauenkirche  ;  1227-43) 
built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  circular  baptistery  at  Treves, 
would  seem  to  have  been  produced  by  doubling  such  an  ar- 
rangement on  either  side  of  the  transverse  axis  (Fig.  142). 

historical  development.  The  so-called  Golden  Portal 
of  Freiburg  in  the  Erzgebirge  is  perhaps  the  first  distinct- 
ively (iothic  work  in  Germany,  dating  from  1190.  From 
that  time  on,  (iothic  details  appeared  with  increasing  fre- 
quency, especially  in  the  Rhine  provinces,  as  shown  in  many 


OOLOOm   CATHEDRAL. 

ILAN. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY. 


243 


transitional  structures.  Gelnhausen  and  Aschaffenburg  are 
early  13th-century  examples  ;  pointed  arches  and  vaults 
appear  in  the  Apostles'  and  St.  Martin's  churches  at  Co- 
logne ;  and  the  great  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at 
Neuweiler  in  Alsace  has  an  almost  purely  Gothic  nave  of 
the  same  period.  The  churches  of  Bamberg,  Fritzlar,  and 
Naumburg,  and  in  Westphalia  those  of  Mtinster  and  Osna- 
briick,  are  important  examples  of  the  transition.  The 
French  influence,  especially  the  Burgundian,  appears  as 
early  as  12 12  in  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg,  imitating  the 
choir  of  Soissons,  and  in  the  structural  design  of  the  Lieb- 
frauenkirche  at  Treves  as  already  mentioned  ;  it  reached 
complete  ascendancy  in  Alsace  at  Strasburg  (nave  1240- 
75),  in  Baden  at  Freiburg  (nave  1270)  and  in  Prussia  at 
Cologne  (1 248-1320).  Stras- 
burg Cathedral  is  especially 
remarkable  for  its  facade,  the 
work  of  Ervvin  von  Steinbach 
and  his  sons  (1277-1346),  de- 
signed after  French  models, 
and  its  north  spire,  built  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Cologne 
Cathedral,  begun  in  1248  by 
Gerhard  of  Riel  in  imitation 
of  the  newly  completed  choir 
of  Amiens,  was  continued  by 
Master  Arnold  and  his  son 
John,  and  the  choir  was  conse- 
crated in  1322.  The  nave  and 
W.  front  were  built  during  the 

first  half  of  the  14th  century,  though  the  towers  were  not 
completed  till  1883.  In  spite  of  its  vast  size  and  slow 
construction,  it  is  in  style  the  most  uniform  of  all  great 
Gothic  cathedrals,  as  it  is  the  most  lofty  (excepting  the 
choir  of  Beauvais)   and  the   largest  excepting  Milan  and 


FIG.  142. — CHURCH  OF  OUR  LADY, 
TREVES. 


244 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Seville.  Unfortunately  its  details,  though  pure  and  cor- 
rect, are  singularly  dry  and  mechanical,  while  its  very  uni- 
formity deprives  it  of  the  picturesque  and  varied  charm 
which  results  from  a  mixture  of  styles  recording  the  labors 
of  successive  generations.  The  same  criticism  may  be 
raised  against  the  late  cathedral  of  Ulm  (choir,  1377-1449  ; 
nave,  1477;  Fig.  143).  The  Cologne  influence  is  observable 
in  the  widely  separated  cathedrals  of 
Utrecht  in  the  Netherlands,  Metz  in  the 
W.,  Minden  and  Halberstadt  (begun 
1250  ;  mainly  built  after  1327)  in  Saxony, 
and  in  the  S.  in  the  church  of  St.  Cath- 
erine at  Oppenheim.  To  the  E.  and  S., 
in  the  cathedrals  of  Prague  (Bohemia)  by 
Matthew  of  Arras  (1344-52)  and  Ratis- 
bon  (or  Regensburg,  1275)  the  French  in- 
fluence predominates,  at  least  in  the  de- 
tails and  construction.  The  last-named 
is  one  of  the  most  dignified  and  beautiful 
of  German  Gothic  churches — German  in 
plan,  French  in  execution.  The  French 
influence  also  manifests  itself  in  the  de- 
tails of  many  of  the  peculiarly  German 
churches  with  aisles  of  equal  height  (see 
I).  240). 
More  peculiarly  German  are  the  brick  churches  of  Nor 
Germany,  where  stone  was  almost  wholly  lacking.  In  these, 
flat  walls,  square  towers,  and  decoration  by  colored  tiles 
and  bricks  are  characteristic,  as  at  Brandenburg  (St.  Gode- 
hard  and  St.  Catherine,  1346-1400),  at  Prentzlau,  Tiinger- 
miinde,  Konigsberg,  &c.  Lubeck  possesses  notable  monu- 
ments of  brick  architecture  in  the  churches  of  St.  Mary 
and  St.  Catherine,  both  much  alike  in  plan  and  in  the  flat 
and  barren  simplicity  of  their  exteriors.  St.  Martin's  at 
Landghut  in  the  South  is  also  a  notable  brick  church. 


FIG.    143.— PLAN   OF 
VLM   CATHEDRAL. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY.  245 

LATE  GOTHIC.  As  in  France  and  England,  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  were  mainly  occupied  with  the  com- 
pletion of  existing  churches,  many  of  which,  up  to  that  time, 
were  still  without  naves.  The  works  of  this  period  show 
the  exaggerated  attenuation  of  detail  already  alluded  to, 
though  their  richness  and  elegance  sometimes  atone  for 
their  mechanical  character.  The  complicated  ribbed  vaults 
of  this  period  are  among  its  most  striking  features  (see  p. 
239).  Spire-building  was  as  general  as  was  the  erection  of 
central  square  towers  in  England,  during  the  same  period. 
To  this  time  also  belong  the  overloaded  traceries  and  mi- 
nute detail  of  the  St.  Sebald  and  St.  Lorenz  churches  and 
of  several  secular  buildings  at  Nuremberg,  the  facade  of 
Chemnitz  Cathedral,  and  similar  works.  The  nave  and 
tower  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna  (1359-1433),  the  church  of 
Sta.  Maria  in  Gestade  in  the  same  city,  and  the  cathedral 
of  Kaschau  in  Hungary,  are  Austrian  masterpieces  of  late 
Gothic  design. 

SECULAR  BUILDINGS.  Germany  possesses  a  number  of  im- 
portant examples  of  secular  Gothic  work,  chiefly  municipal 
buildings  (gates  and  town  halls)  and  castles.  The  first 
completely  Gothic  castle  or  palace  was  not  built  until  1280, 
at  Marienburg  (Prussia), "  and  was  completed  a  century 
later.  It  consists  of  two  courts,  the  earlier  of  the  two 
forming  a  closed  square  and  containing  the  chapel  and 
chapter-house  of  the  Order  of  the  German  knights.  The 
later  and  larger  court  is  less  regular,  its  chief  feature  being 
the  Great  Hall  of  the  Order,  in  two  aisles.  All  the  vaulting 
is  of  the  richest  multiple-ribbed  type.  Other  castles  are  at 
Marienwerder,  Heilsberg  (1350)  in  E.  Prussia,  Karlstein  in 
Bohemia  (1347),  and  the  Albrechtsburg  at  Meissen  in  Sax- 
ony (1471-83). 

Among  town  halls,  most  of  which  date  from  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Ratis- 
bon  (Regensburg),  Munster  .and  Hildesheim,  Halberstadt, 


246  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

Brunswick,  Liibeck,  and  Bremen — the  last  two  of  brick. 
These,  and  the  city  gates,  such  as  the  Spahlenthor  at  Basle 
(Switzerland)  and  others  at  Liibeck  and  Wismar,  are  gen- 
erally very  picturesque  edifices.  Many  fine  guildhalls 
were  also  built  during  the  last  two  centuries  of  the  Gothic 
style  ;  and  dwelling-houses  of  the  same  period,  of  quaint 
and  effective  design,  with  stepped  or  traceried  gables,  lofty 
roofs,  openwork  balconies  and  corner  turrets,  are  to  be 
found  in  many  cities.    Nuremberg  is  especially  rich  in  these. 

THE  NETHERLANDS,  as  might  be  expected  from  their 
position,  underwent  the  influences  of  both  France  and 
Germany.  During  the  thirteenth  century,  largely  through 
the  intimate  monastic  relations  between  Tournay  and  No- 
yon,  the  French  influence  became  paramount  in  what  is  now 
Belgium,  while  Holland  remained  more  strongly  German  in 
style.  Of  the  two  countries  Belgium  developed  by  far  the 
most  interesting  architecture.  Some  of  its  cathedrals,  no- 
tably those  of  Tournay,  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Malines  (Mech- 
lin), Mons  and  Louvain,  rank  high  among  structures  of 
their  class,  both  in  scale  and  in  artistic  treatment.  The 
Flemish  town  halls  and  guildhalls  merit  particular  atten- 
tion for  their  size  and  richness,  exemplifying  in  a  worthy 
manner  the  wealth,  prosperity,  and  independence  of  the 
weavers  and  merchants  of  Antwerp,  Ypres,  Ghent  (Gand), 
Louvain,  and  other  cities  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

CATHEDRALS  AND  CHURCHES.  The  earliest  purely  Gothic 
edifice  in  Belgium  was  the  choir  of  Ste.  Gudule  (1225)  at 
Brussels,  followed  in  1242  by  the  choir  and  transepts  of 
Tournay,  designed  with  pointed  vaults,  side  chapels,  and  a 
complete  chevet.  The  transept-ends  are  round,  as  at  No- 
yon.  It  was  surpassed  in  splendor  by  the  Cathedral 
Antwerp  (1352-1422),  remarkable  for  its  seven -aisled 
nave  and  narrow  transepts.  It  rovers  some  70,000  square 
feet,  but  its  great  size  is  not  as  effective  internally  as  it 
should  be,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  details  and  the  lacl 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN   BELGIUM. 


247 


of  finely  felt  proportion  in  the  various  parts.  The  late 
west  front  (1422-15 18)  displays  the  florid  taste  of  the 
wealthy  Flemish  burgher  population  of  that  period,  but  is 
so  rich  and  elegant,  especially  its  lofty  and  slender  north 
spire,  that  its  over-decoration  is  pardonable.  The  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Rombaut 
at  Marlines  (choir, 
1366;  nave,  1454-64) 
is  a  more  satisfactory 
church,  though  small- 
er and  with  its  west- 
ern towers  incom- 
plete. The  cathedral 
of  Louvain  belongs  to 
the  sameperiod(i373- 
1433).  St.  Wandru 
at  Mons  (1450-15 28) 
and  St.  Jacques  at 
Liege  (1522-58)  are 
interesting  parish 
churches  of  the  first 
rank,  remarkable  es- 
pecially for  the  use  of 
color  in  their  inter- 
nal decoration,  for 
their  late  tracery  and  ribbed  vaulting,  and  for  the  absence 
of  Renaissance  details  at  that  late  period. 

TOWN  HALLS:  GUILDHALLS.  These  were  really  the  most 
characteristic  Flemish  edifices,  and  are  in  most  cases  the 
most  conspicuous  monuments  of  their  respective  cities. 
The  Cloth  Hall  of  Ypres  (1304)  is  the  earliest  and  most 
imposing  among  them  ;  similar  halls  were  built  not  much 
later  at  Bruges,  Louvaiu,  Malines  and  Ghent.  The  town 
halls  were  mostly  of  later  date,  the  earliest  being  that  of 
Bruges  (1377).     The  town  halls  of  Brussels  with  its  impos- 


FIG.    144. —  I'OWN    HALL,    LOUVAIN. 


248  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

ing  and  graceful  tower,  of  Louvain  (1448-63  ;  Fig.  144)  and 
of  Oudenarde  (early  16th  century)  are  conspicuous  monu- 
ments of  this  class. 

In  general,  the  Gothic  architecture  of  Belgium  presents 
the  traits  of  a  borrowed  style,  which  did  not  undergo  at  the 
hands  of  its  borrowers  any  radically  novel  or  fundamental 
development.  The  structural  design  is  usually  lacking  in 
vigor  and  organic  significance,  but  the  details  are  often 
graceful  and  well  designed,  especially  on  the  exterior.  The 
tendency  was  often  towards  over-elaboration,  particularly 
in  the  later  works. 

The  Gothic  architecture  of  Holland  and  of  the  Scandi- 
navian countries  offers  so  little  that  is  highly  artistic  or 
inspiring  in  character,  that  space  cannot  well  be  given 
in  this  work,  even  to  an  enumeration  of  its  chief  monu- 
ments. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  The  beginnings  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  Spain  followed  close  on  the  series  of  campaigns 
from  1 21 7  to  1252,  which  began  the  overthrow  of  the  Moor- 
ish dominion.  With  the  resulting  spirit  of  exultation  and 
the  wealth  accruing  from  booty,  came  a  rapid  development 
of  architecture,  mainly  under  French  influence.  Gothic 
architecture  was  at  this  date,  under  St.  Louis,  producing  in 
France  some  of  its  noblest  works.  The  great  cathedrals  of 
Toledo  and  Burgos,  begun  between  1220  and  1230,  were 
the  earliest  purely  Gothic  churches  in  Spain.  San  Vincente 
at  Avila  and  the  Old  Cathedral  at  Salamanca,  of  somewhat 
earlier  date,  present  a  mixture  of  round-  and  pointed-arched 
forms,  with  the  Romanesque  elements  predominant.  To- 
ledo Cathedral,  planned  in  imitation  of  Notre  Dame  and 
Bourges,  but  exceeding  them  in  width,  covers  75,000  square 
feet,  and  thus  ranks  among  the  largest  of  European  cathe- 
drals. Internally  it  is  well  proportioned  and  well  detailec 
recalling  the  early  French  masterworks,  but  its  exterior 
less  commendable. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN. 


249 


In  the  contemporary  cathedral  of  Burgos  the  exterior  is  at 
least  as  interesting  as  the  interior.  The  west  front,  of  Ger- 
man design,  suggests  Cologne  by  its  twin  openwork  spires 
(Fig.  145)  ;  while  the  crossing  is  embellished  with  a  sump- 
tuous dome  and  lantern  or  cimborio,  added  as  late  as  1567. 
The  chapels  at  the  east  end,  especially  that  of  the  Condest- 
abile  (1487),  are  or- 
nate to  the  point  of 
overloading,  a  fault  to 
which  late  Spanish 
Gothic  work  is  pecu- 
liarly prone.  Other 
thirteenth- century 
cathedrals  are  those 
of  Leon  (1260),  Va- 
lencia (1262),  and 
Barcelona  (1298),  all 
exhibiting  strongly 
the  French  influence 
in  the  plan,  vaulting, 
and  vertical  propor- 
tions. The  models 
of  Bourges  and  Paris 
with  their  wide  naves, 
lateral  chapels  and 
semicircular  chevets 
were  followed  in  the  cathedral  of  Barcelona,  in  a  number  of 
fourteenth-century  churches  both  there  and  elsewhere,  and 
in  the  sixteenth-century  cathedral  of  Segovia.  In  Sta. 
Maria  del  Pi  at  Barcelona,  in  the  collegiate  church  at 
Manresa,  and  in  the  imposing  nave  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Oerona  (1416,  added  to  choir  of  1312,  the  latter  by  a 
Southern  French  architect,  Henri  de  Narbonne),  the  in- 
fluence of  Alby  in  southern  France  (see  p.  206)  is  dis- 
cernible.     These    are   one-aisled    churches   with    internal 


145.— FAC/ 


)F    BURGOS   CATHEDRAL. 


250  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

buttresses  separating  the  lateral  chapels.  The  nave  of 
Gerona  is  73  feet  wide,  or  double  the  average  clear  width 
of  French  or  English  cathedral  naves.  The  resulting  effect 
is  not  commensurate  with  the  actual  dimensions,  and  shows 
the  inappropriateness  of  Gothic  details  for  compositions  so 
Roman  in  breadth  and  simplicity. 

SEVILLE.  The  largest  single  edifice  in  Spain,  and  the  larg- 
est church  built  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe,  is  the 
Cathedral  of  Seville,  begun  in  1401  on  the  site  of  a  Moor- 
ish mosque.  It  covers  124,000  square  feet,  measuring  415 
X  298  feet,  and  is  a  simple  rectangle  comprising  five  aisles 
with  lateral  chapels.  The  central  aisle  is  56  ft.  wide  and 
145  high  ;  the  side  aisles  and  chapels  diminish  gradually  in 
height,  and  with  the  uniform  piers  in  six  rows  produce  an 
imposing  effect,  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  transepts  or  chevet. 
The  somewhat  similar  New  Cathedral  of  Salamanca  (15 10- 
1560)  shows  the  last  struggles  of  the  Gothic  style  against 
the  incoming  tide  of  the  Renaissance. 

LATER  MONUMENTS.  These  all  partake  of  the  over-decor- 
ation which  characterized  the  fifteenth  century  throughout 
Europe.  In  Spain  this  decoration  was  even  less  construc- 
tive in  character,  and  more  purely  fanciful  and  arbitrary, 
than  in  the  northern  lands  ;  but  this  very  rejection  of  all 
constructive  pretense  gives  it  a  peculiar  charm  and 
far  to  excuse  its  extravagance  (Fig.  146).  Decorative 
vaulting-ribs  were  made  to  describe  geometric  patterns 
of  great  elegance.  Some  of  the  late  Gothic  vaults  by 
the  very  exuberance  of  imagination  shown  in  their  de- 
signs, almost  disarm  criticism.  Instead  of  suppressing  the 
walls  as  far  as  possible,  and  emphasizing  all  the  vertical 
lines,  as  was  done  in  France  and  England,  the  later  Gothic 
architects  of  Spain  delighted  in  broad  wall-surfaces  and 
multiplied  horizontal  lints.  Upon  these  surfaces  they  lav- 
ished carving  without  restraint  and  without  any  organic 
relation  to  the  structure  of  the  building.     The  arcades 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN. 


251 


cloisters  and  interior  courts  {patios)  were  formed  with  arches 
of  fantastic  curves  resting  on  twisted  columns  ;  and  internal 
chapels  in  the  cathedrals  were  covered  with  minute  carving 
of  exquisite  workman- 
ship, but  wholly  irra- 
tional design.  Prob- 
ably the  influence  of 
Moorish  decorative  art 
accounts  in  part  for 
these  extravagances. 
The  eastern  chapels  in 
Burgos  cathedral,  the 
votive  church  of  San 
Juan  de  los  Reyes  at 
Toledo  and  many  por- 
tals of  churches,  con- 
vents and  hospitals 
illustrate  these  ten- 
dencies. 

POBTUGAL  is  an  al- 
most unknown  land 
architecturally.  It 
seems  to  have  adopted 
the  Gothic  styles  very 
late  in  its  history. 
Two  monuments,  how- 
ever, are  conspicuous, 
the  convent  church- 
es of  Batalha  (1390- 


K1G.     146.- 


-DETAIL,     PORTAL     S. 
DOLID. 


1REGORIO,     VALLA- 


1520)  and  Belem,  both 
marked  by  an  extreme 
overloading  of  carved  ornament.  The  Mausoleum  of  King 
Manoel  in  the  rear  of  the  church  at  Batalha  is,  however,  a 
noble  creation,  possibly  by  an  English  master.  It  is  a  poly- 
gonal   domed  edifice,  some  67  feet  in  diameter,  and  well 


252  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

designed,  though  covered  with  a  too  profuse  and  somewhat 
mechanical  decoration  of  panels,  pinnacles,  and  carving. 

MONUMENTS:  Gkrmany  (C  =  cathedral  ;  A  =  abbey  ;  tr.  =  tran- 
septs).— 13th  century:  Transitional  churches:  Bamberg  C. ;  Naumburg 
C;  Collegiate  Church,  Fritzlar  ;  St.  George,  Limburg-on-Lahn  ;  St.  Cas- 
tor, Coblentz  ;  Heisterbach  A.; — all  in  early  years  of  13th  century.  St. 
Gereon,  Cologne,  choir  1212-27  ;  Liebfrauenkirche,  Treves,  1227-44  ; 
St.  Elizabeth,  Marburg,  1235-83  ;  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Neuweiler,  1250; 
Cologne  C,  choir  1248-1322  (nave  14th  century  ;  towers  finished  1883)  ; 
Strasburg  C,  1250-75  (E.  end  Romanesque  ;  facade  1277-1365  ;  tower 
1429-39)  ;  Halberstadt  C,  nave  1250  (choir  1327  ;  completed  [490)  ; 
Altenburg  C,  choir  1255-65  (finished  1379)  ;  Wimpfen-im-Thal  church 
1259-78  ;  St.  Lawrence,  Nuremberg,  1260  (choir  1439-77)  ;  St.  Cathe- 
rine, Oppenheim,  1262-1317  (choir  1439)  ;  Xanten,  Collegiate  Church, 
1263  ;  Freiburg  C,  1270  (W.  tower  1300;  choir  1354);  Toul  C,  1272  ; 
Meissen  C,  choir  1274  (nave  1312-42)  ;  Ratisbon  C,  1275  ;  St.  Mary's, 
Lubeck,  1276  ;  Dominican  churches  at  Coblentz,  Cebweiler  ;  and  in  Swit- 
zerland at  Basle,  Berne,  and  Zurich  — 14th  century  :  Wiesenkirche,  Sost, 
1313  ;  Osnabrtick  C,  1318  (choir  1420)  ;  St.  Mary's,  Prentzlau,  1325  ; 
Augsburg  C,  1321-1431  ;  Metz  C,  1330 rebuilt  (choir  i486)  ;  St.  Stephen's 
C,  Vienna,  1340  (nave  15th  century  ;  tower  1433)  ;  ZwetteC. ,  1343  ;  Prague 
C,  1344;  church  at  Thann,  1351  (tower  finished  16th  century);  Lieb- 
frauenkirche, Nuremberg,  1355-61  ;  St.  Sebaldus  Church,  Nuremberg, 
1361-77  (nave  Romanesque)  ;  Minden  C,  choir  1361  ;  Ulm  C,  1377 
(choir  1449  ;  nave  vaulted  147 1  ;  finished  16th  century) ;  Sta.  Barbara,  Kut- 
tenberg,  1386  (nave  1483) ;  Erfurt  C.  ;  St.  Elizabeth,  Kaschau  ;  Schlett- 
stadt  C. — 15th  century  :  St.  Catherine's,  Brandenburg,  1401  ;  Frauen- 
kirche,  Esslingen,  1406  (finished  1522);  Minster  at  Berne,  1421  ;  Peter- 
Paulskirche,  Gorlitz,  1423-97  ;  St.  Mary's,  Stendal,  1447  ;  Frauenkirchc, 
Munich,  1468-88  ;  St.  Martin's,  I.andshut,  1473. 

I  \k  Mom  mkms.  Schloss  Marienburg,  1341  ;  Moldau-brid^c 
and  tower,  Prague,  1344  ;  Karlsteinburg,  1348-57;  Albrechtsburg,  Meis- 
sen, 1471-83;  Nassau  House,  Nuremberg,  1350;  Council  houses  (Kath- 
hauser)  at  Brunswick,  1393  ;  Cologne,  1407-15  ;  Basle  ;  Breslau  ;  LUbeck  ; 
MUnster;  Prague  ;  Ulm  ;  City  Gates  of  Basle,  Cologne,  Ingolstadt,  Lu- 
cerne. 

Tin  NHHSBLAMM  Brussels  C.  (Ste.  Gudule).  1226-80;  Tournai 
C,  choir  1242  (nave  finished  1380);  Notre  Dame,  Bruges,  1239-97; 
Notre  Dame,  Tongres,  1240  ;  Utrecht  C,  1251  ;  St.  Martin,  Ypres,  1254; 
Notre  Dame,   Diuant,    1255  ;  church  at  Dordrecht ;  church  at  Aerscl 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE  IN   SPAIN.  253 

1337  ;  Antwerp  C,  1352-1411  (W.  front  1422-1518)  ;  St.  Rombaut,  Ma- 
lines,  1355-66  (nave  1456-64);  St.  Wandru,  Mons,  1450-1528;  St. 
Lawrence,  Rotterdam,  1472  ;  other  15th  century  churches — St.  Bavon, 
Haarlem;  St.  Catherine,  Utrecht;  St.  Walpurgis,  Sutphen  ;  St.  Bavon, 
Ghent  (tower  1461)  ;  St.  Jaques,  Antwerp ;  St.  Pierre,  Louvain  ;  St. 
Jacques,  Bruges  ;  churches  at  Arnheim,  Breda,  Delft  ;  St.  Jacques,  Liege, 
1522. — Secular  :  Cloth-hall,  Ypres,  1200-1304  ;  cloth-hall,  Bruges, 1284  ; 
town  hall,  Bruges,  1377  ;  town  hall,  Brussels,  1401-55  ;  town  hall,  Lou- 
vain, 1448^-63  ;  town  hall,  Ghent,  1481  ;  town  hall,  Oudenarde,  1527  ; 
Stiindehuis,  Delft,  1528  ;  cloth-halls  at  Louvain,  Ghent,  Malines. 

Spain. — 13th  century  :  Burgos  C,  1221  (facade  1442-56  ;  chapels  1487  ; 
cimborio  1567);  Toledo  C,  1227-90  (chapels  14th  and  15th  centuries); 
Tarragona  C,  1235  ;  Leon  C,  1250  (facade  14th  century)  ;  Valencia  C. , 
1262  (N.  transept  1350-1404  ;  facade  1381-1418);  Avila  C,  vault  and  N. 
portal  1292-1353  (finished  14th  century)  ;  St.  Esteban,  Burgos;  church  at 
Las  Huelgas. — 14th  century  :  Barcelona  C,  choir  1298-1329  (nave  and 
transepts  1448  ;  facade  16th  century)  ;  Gerona  C,  1312-46  (nave  added 
1416)  ;  S.  M.  del  Mar,  Barcelona,  1328-83  ;  S.  M.  del  Pino,  Barcelona, 
same  date;  Collegiate  Church,  Manresa,  1328;  Oviedo  C,  1388  (tower 
very  late);  Pampluna  C,  1397  (mainly  15th  century). — 15th  century  : 
Seville  C,  1403  (finished  16th  century  ;  cimborio  1517-67)  ;  La  Seo, 
Saragossa  (finished  1505)  ;  S.  Pablo,  Burgos,  1415-35  ;  El  Parral,  Segovia, 
1459;  Astorga  C.,.1471;  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  Toledo,  1476;  Car- 
thusian church,  Miraflores,  1488  ;  San  Juan,  and  La  Merced,  Burgos. — 
16th  century:  Huesca  C,  1515  ;  Salamanca  New  Cathedral,  1510-60; 
Segovia  C,  1522  ;  S.  Juan  de  la  Puerta,  Zamorra. 

Secular. — Porta  Serranos,  Valencia,  1349  ;  Casa  Consistorial,  Barce- 
lona, 1369-78  ;  Casa  de  la  Disputacion,  same  city  ;  Casa  de  las  Lonjas, 
Valencia,  1482. 

Portugal.  At  Batalha,  church  and  mausoleum  of  King  Manoel,  fin- 
ished 15 1 5  ;  at  Belem,  monastery,  late  Gothic. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ITALY. 

Books  Recommended  ;  As  before,  Corroyer,  Reber. 
Also,  Cummings,  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy.  I)e 
Fleury,  La  Toscane  an  meyen  age.  Gruner,  The  Terra 
Cotta  Architecture  of  Northern  Italy.  Mothes,  Die  Bau- 
kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Italien.  Norton,  Historical  Studies 
of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Osten,  Bairwerke 
der  Lomhardei.  Street,  Brick  and  Marble  Architecture  of 
Italy.  Willis,  Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  especially  of  Italy. 

OENEEAL  CHAEACTEE.  The  various  Romanesque  styles 
which  had  grown  up  in  Italy  before  1200  lacked  that  unity 
of  principle  out  of  which  alone  a  new  and  homogeneous  na- 
tional style  could  have  been  evolved.  Each  province  prac- 
tised its  own  style  and  methods  of  building,  long  after  the 
Romanesque  had  given  place  to  the  Gothic  in  Western 
Europe.  The  Italians  were  better  decorators  than  build- 
ers, and  cared  little  for  Gothic  structural  principles.  Mo- 
saic and  carving,  sumptuous  altars  and  tombs,  veneering! 
and  inlays  of  colored  marble,  broad  flat  surfaces  to  be 
covered  with  painting  and  ornament — to  secure  these  they 
were  content  to  build  crudely,  to  tie  their  insufficiently 
buttressed  vaults  with  unsightly  iron  tie-rods,  and  to  make 
their  church  facades  mere  screen-walls,  in  form  wholly  un- 
related to  the  buildings  behind  them. 

When,  therefore,  under  foreign  influences  pointed  arches, 
tracery,   clustered   shafts,   crockets    and    fmials   came   in 
use,   it   was  merely  as  an    imported   fashion.     Even  wh 
foreign  architects  (usually   Germans)   were  employed,   t 


es, 

= 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN  ITALY.  255 

composition,  and  in  large  measure  the  details,  were  still 
Italian  and  provincial.  The  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Assisi 
(1228-53,  by  Jacobus  of  Meruan,  a  German,  superseded 
later  by  an  Italian,  Campello),  and  the  cathedral  of  Milan 
(begun  1389,  perhaps  by  Henry  of  Gtniind),  are  conspicu- 
ous illustrations  of  this.  Rome  built  basilicas  all  through 
the  Middle  Ages.  Tuscany  continued  to  prefer  flat  walls 
veneered  with  marble  to  the  broken  surfaces  and  deep  but- 
tresses of  France  and  Germany.  Venice  developed  a 
Gothic  style  of  facade-design  wholly  her  own  (see  p.  267). 
Nowhere  but  in  Italy  could  two  such  utterly  diverse  struct- 
ures as  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  and  the  cathedral  at  Milan 
have  been  erected  at  the  same  time. 

CLIMATE  AND  TRADITION.  Two  further  causes  militated 
against  the  domestication  of  Gothic  art  in  Italy.  The  first 
was  the  brilliant  atmosphere,  which  made  the  vast  traceried 
Windows  of  Gothic  design,  and  its  suppression  of  the  wall- 
surfaces,  wholly  undesirable.  Cool,  dim  interiors,  thick 
walls,  small  windows  and  the  exclusion  of  sunlight,  all 
necessary  to  Italian  comfort,  were  incompatible  with  Gothic 
ideals  and  methods.  The  second  obstacle  was  the  persist- 
ence of  classic  traditions  of  form,  both  in  construction  and 
decoration.  The  spaciousness  and  breadth  of  interior 
planning  which  characterized  Roman  design,  and  its  ampli- 
tude of  scale  in  every  feature,  seem  never  to  have  lost 
their  hold  on  the  Italians.  The  narrow  lofty  aisles,  multi- 
plied supports  and  minute  detail  of  the  Gothic  style  were 
repugnant  to  the  classic  predilections  of  the  Italian  build- 
ers. The  Roman  acanthus  and  Corinthian  capital  were 
constantly  imitated  in  their  Gothic  buildings,  and  the 
round  arch  continued  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  to  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  the  pointed  arch  (Figs.  149,  150). 

EARLY  BUILDINGS.  It  is  hard  to  determine  how  and  by 
whom  Gothic  forms  were  first  introduced  into  Italy,  but  it 
was  most  probably  through  the  agency  of  the  monastic  or- 


256 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


ders.  Cistercian  churches  like  that  at  Chiaravalle  near 
Milan  (1208-21),  and  most  of  those  erected  by  the  mendi- 
cant orders  of  the  Franciscans  (founded  1210)  and  Domini- 
cans (1216),  were  built  with  ribbed  vaults  and  pointed 
arches.  The  example  set  by  these  orders  contributed 
greatly  to  the  general  adoption  of  the  foreign  style.  S. 
Francesco  at  Assisi,  already  mentioned,  was  the  first  com- 
pletely Gothic  Franciscan  church,  although  S.  Francesco  at 
Bologna,  begun  a  few  years  later,  was  finished  a  little  ear- 
lier. The  Dominican  church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  and 
the  great  Franciscan  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Gloriosa  dei 
Frari,  both  at  Venice,  were  built  a  little  later.     Sta.  Maria 

Novella  at  Florence  (1278),  and 
Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva  at 
Rome  (1280),  both  by  the  broth- 
ers Sis  to  and  Ristoro,  and  S.  An- 
astasia  at  Verona  (1261)  are  the 
masterpieces  of  the  Dominican 
builders.  S.  Andrea  at  Vercelli  in 
North  Italy,  begun  in  1 2 1 9  under 
a  foreign  architect,  is  an  iso- 
lated early  example  of  lay  Gothic 
work.  Though  somewhat  Eng- 
lish in  its  plan,  and  (unlike  most 
Italian  churches)  provided  with 
two  western  spires  in  the  Eng- 
lish manner,  it  is  in  all  other  re- 
spects thoroughly  Italian  in  as- 
pect. The  church  at  Asti,  begun 
in  1229,  suggests  German  models 
by  its  high  side  walls  and  narrow 
windows. 
CATHEDRALS.  The  greatest  monuments  of  Italian  Gothic 
design  are  the  cathedrals,  in  which,  even  more  than  was  the 
case   in   France,  the  highly  developed  civic  pride  of  the 


FIG.    147.— IHOMO  AT  FLORENCE. 

MAN. 

a.  Campanile. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


257 


municipalities  expressed  itself.  Chief  among  these  half 
civic,  half  religious  monuments  are  the  cathedrals  of  Sienna 
(begun  in  1243),  Arezzo  (1278),  Orvieto  (1290),  Florence 
(the  Duomo,  Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore,  begun  1294  by  Arnolfo 
di  Cambio),  Lucca  (S. 
Martino,  1350), Milan 
(1389-1418),  and  S. 
Petronio  at  Bologna 
(1390).  They  are  all 
of  imposing  size ; 
Milan  is  the  largest 
of  all  Gothic  ca- 
thedrals except  Se- 
ville. S.  Petronio  was 
planned  to  be  600 
feet  long,  the  present 
structure  with  its 
three  broad  aisles 
and  flanking  chap- 
els being  merely  the 
nave  of  the  intend- 
ed edifice.  The  Du- 
omo at  Florence  (Fig. 
147)  is  500  feet  long 
and  covers  82,000 
square  feet,  while  the  octagon  at  the  crossing  is  143  feet  in 
diameter.  The  effect  of  these  colossal  dimensions  is,  how- 
ever, as  in  a  number  of  these  large  Italian  interiors,  singu- 
larly belittled  by  the  bareness  of  the  walls,  by  the  great  size 
of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  composition,  and  by  the  lack 
of  architectural  subdivisions  and  multiplied  detail  to  serve 
as  a  scale  by  which  to  gauge  the  scale  of  the  ensemble. 

INTERIOR  TREATMENT.      It   was    doubtless    intended    to 
cover  these  large  unbroken  wall-surfaces  and  the  vast  ex- 
panse of  the  vaults  over  naves  of  extraordinary  breadth, 
17 


FIG.    I48. — NAVE    OF   DUOMO   AT    FLORENCE. 


258 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


with  paintings  and  color  decoration.  This  would  have  rem- 
edied their  present  nakedness  and  lack  of  interest,  but  it 
was  only  in  a  very  few  instances  carried  out.  The  double 
church  of  S.  Francesco  at  Assisi,  decorated  by  Cimabue, 

Giotto,  and  other  early  Tuscan 
painters,  the  Arena  Chapel  at 
Padua,  painted  by  Giotto,  the 
Spanish  Chapel  of  S.  M.  Novella, 
Florence,  and  the  east  end  of  S. 
Croce,  Florence,  are  illustra- 
tions of  the  splendor  of  effect 
possible  by  this  method  of  dec- 
oration. The  bareness  of  effect 
in  other,  unpainted  interiors  was 
emphasized  by  the  plainness  of 
the  vaults  destitute  of  minor  ribs. 
The  transverse  ribs  were  usually 
broad  arches  with  flat  soffits,  and 
the  vaulting  was  often  sprung 
from  so  low  a  point  as  to  leave 
no  room  for  a  triforium.  Mere 
bull's-eyes  often  served  for  clear- 
story windows,  as  in  S.  Anas* 
tasia  at  Verona,  S.  Petronio  at 
Bologna,  and  the  Florentine  Du- 
omo.  The  cathedral  of  S.  Martino  at  Lucca  (Fig.  149)  is 
one  of  the  most  complete  and  elegant  of  Italian  Gothic  in- 
teriors, having  a  genuine  triforium  with  traceried  arches. 
Even  here,  however,  there  are  round  arches  without  mould- 
ings, flat  pilasters,  broad  transverse  ribs  recalling  Roman 
arches,  and  insignificant  bull's-eyes  in  the  clearstory. 

The  failure  to  produce  adequate  results  of  scale  in  the 
interiors  of  the  larger  Italian  churches,  has  been  already  al- 
luded to.  It  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  Duonio 
Florence,  the  nave  of  which  is  72  feet  wide,  with  four  pier- 


FIG.   149. — ONE    BAY,  NAVE  OF   CATHE- 
DRAL  (>r   SAN    MARTINO,    LUCCA. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


259 


arches  each  over  55  feet  in  span.  The  immense  vault,  in 
square  bays,  starts  from  the  level  of  the  tops  of  these 
arches.  The  interior  (Fig.  148)  is  singularly  naked  and  cold, 
giving  no  conception  of  its  vast  dimensions.  The  colossal 
dome  is  an  early  work  of  the  Renaissance  (see  p.  276).  It 
is  not  known  how  Fr.  Ta/enti,  who  in  1357  enlarged  and 
vaulted  the  nave  and  planned  the  east  end,  proposed  to 
cover  the  great  octagon.  The  east  end  is  the  most  effec- 
tive part  of  the  design  both  internally  and  externally,  owing 
to  the  relatively  moderate  scale  of  the  15  chapels  which 
surround  the  apsidal  arms  of  the  cross.  In  S.  Petronio  at 
Bologna,  begun  1390  by  Master  Antonio ;  the  scale  is  better 
handled.  The  nave, 
300  feet  long,  is  divid- 
ed into  six  bays,  each 
embracing  two  side 
chapels.  It  is  46  feet 
wide  and  132  feet  high, 
proportions  which  ap- 
proximate those  of  the 
French  cathedrals,  and 
produce  an  impression 
of  size  somewhat  un- 
usual in  Italian  church- 
es. Orvieto  has  inter- 
nally little  that  sug- 
gests Gothic  archi- 
tecture ;  like  many 
Franciscan  and  Dominican  churches  it  is  really  a  timber- 
roofed,  basilica  with  a  few  pointed  windows.  The  mixed 
Gothic  and  Romanesque  interior  of  Sienna  Cathedral  (Fig. 
150),  with  its  round  arches  and  six-sided  dome,  unsym- 
metrically  placed  over  the  crossing,  is  one  of  the  most 
impressive  creations  of  Italian  mediaeval  art.  Alternate 
courses  of  black  and  white  marble   add  richness  but   not 


FIG.  I50. — INTERIOR  OF  SIENNA  CATHEDRAL. 


260  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

repose  to  the  effect  of  this  interior  :  the  same  is  true  of 
OrvietO,  and  of  some  other  churches.  The  basement  bap- 
tistery of  S.  Giovanni,  under  the  east  end  of  Sienna  Cathe- 
dral, is  much  more  purely  Gothic  in  detail. 

in  these,  and  indeed  in  most  Italian  interiors,  the  main 
interest  centres  less  in  the  excellence  of  the  composition 
than  in  the  accessories  of  pavements,  pulpits,  choir-stalls, 
and  sepulchral  monuments.  In  these  the  decorative  fancy 
and  skill  of  the  Italians  found  unrestrained  exercise,  and 
produced  works  of  surpassing  interest  and  merit. 

external  DESI0N>  The  greatest  possible  disparity  gen- 
erally exists  between  the  sides  and  west  fronts  of  the  Ital- 
ian churches.  With  few  exceptions  the  flanks  present 
nothing  like  the  variety  of  sky-line  and  of  light  and  shade 
customary  in  northern  and  western  lands.  The  side  walls 
are  high  and  flat,  plain,  or  striped  with  black  and  white 
masonry  (Sienna,  Orvieto),  or  veneered  with  marble  (Duomo 
at  Florence)  or  decorated  with  surface-ornament  of  thin 
pilasters  and  arcades  (Lucca).  The  clearstory  is  low  ;  the 
roof  low  -  pitched  and  hardly  visible  from  below.  Color, 
rather  than  structural  richness,  is  generally  sought  for  : 
Milan  Cathedral  is  almost  the  only  exception,  and  goes  to 
the  other  extreme,  with  its  seemingly  countless  buttresses, 
pinnacles  and  statues. 

The  facades,  on  the  other  hand,  were  treated  as  inde- 
pendent decorative  compositions,  and  were  in  many  cas 
remarkably  beautiful  works,  though  having  little  or  no  or- 
ganic relation  to  the  main  structure.  The  most  celebrate 
are  those  of  Sienna  (cathedral  begun  1243  ;  facade  1284 
Giovanni  Pisano  ;  Fig.  151)  and  Orvieto  (begun  1290  by 
renzo  Maitani  ;  facade  1310).  Both  of  these  are  sumptuoi 
polychromatic  compositions  in  marble,  designed  on  some 
what  similar  lines,  with  three  high  gables  fronting  the  thre 
aisles,  with  deeply  recessed  portals,  pinnacled  turrets  flanl 
ing  nave  and  aisles,  and  a  central  circular  window.     '11 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


201 


of  Orvieto  is  furthermore  embellished  with  mosaic  pictures, 
and  is  the  more  brilliant  in  color  of  the  two.  The  mediae- 
val facades  of  the  Florentine  Gothic  churches  were  never 
completed  ;  but  the  elegance  of  the  panelling  and  of  the 
tracery  with  twisted  shafts  in  the  flanks  of  the  cathedral, 
and  the  florid  beauty  of  its  side  doorways  (late  14th  cen- 
tury) would  doubt- 
less if  realized  with 
equal  success  on  the 
facades,  have  pro- 
duced strikingly  beau- 
tiful results.  The 
modern  facade  of  the 
Duomo,  by  the  late  De 
Fabris  (1887)  is  a  cor- 
rect if  not  highly  im- 
aginative version  of 
the  style  so  applied. 
The  front  of  Milan 
cathedral  (soon  to  be 
replaced  by  a  new 
facade),  shows  a  mix- 
ture of  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  forms. 
Ferrara  Cathedral,  al- 
though internally  transformed  in  the  last  century,  retains 
its  fine  13th-century  three-gabled  and  arcaded  screen  front ; 
one  of  the  most  Gothic  in  spirit  of  all  Italian  facades. 
The  Cathedral  of  Genoa  presents  Gothic  windows  and  deeply 
recessed  portals  in  a  facade  built  in  black  and  white  bands, 
like  Sienna  cathedral  and  many  churches  in  Pistoia  and  Pisa. 
Externally  the  most  important  feature  was  frequently  a 
cupola  or  dome  over  the  crossing.  That  of  Sienna  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned  ;  that  of  Milan  is  a  sumptuous  many- 
pinnacled  structure  terminating  in  a  spire  300  feet  high. 


FIG.    151. — FACADE   OF    SIENNA   CATHEDRAL. 


262 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Certosa  at  Pavia  (Fig.  152)  and  the  earlier  Carthusian 
church  of  Chiaravalle  have  internal  cupolas  or  domes  cov- 
ered externally  by  many-storied  structures  ending  in  a  tower 
dominating  the  whole  edifice.  These  two  churches,  like 
many  others  in  Lombardy,  the  ^Emilia  and  Venetia,  are 
built  of  brick,  moulded  terra-cotta  being  effectively  used  for 
the  cornices,  string-courses,  jambs  and  ornaments  of  the 


FIG.    !<;2.  —  FXTFNION    OF   THE    CF.R1 


exterior.  The  Certosa  at  Pavia  is  contemporary  with  the 
cathedral  of  Milan,  to  which  it  offers  a  surprising  contrast, 
both  in  style  and  material.  It  is  wholly  built  of  brick  and 
terra-cotta,  and,  save  for  its  ribbed  vaulting,  possessi 
hardly  a  single  Gothic  feature  or  detail.  Its  arches,  mouk 
ings,  and  cloisters  suggest  both  the  Romanesque  and  tl 
Renaissance  styles  by  their  semi-classic  character. 

PLAN8.     The  wide  diversity  of  local  styles  in  Italian  archi 
tecture  appears  in  the  plans  as  strikingly  as  in  the  details 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE  IN   ITALY. 


263 


In  general  one  notes  a  love  of  spaciousness  which  expresses 
itself  in  a  sometimes  disproportionate  breadth,  and  in  the 
wide  spacing  of  the  piers.  The  polygonal  chevet  with  its 
radial  chapels  is  but  rarely  seen  ;  S.  Lorenzo  at  Naples,  Sta. 
Maria  dei  Servi  and  S.  Francesco  at  Bologna  are  among  the 
most  important  examples.  More  frequently  the  chapels 
form  a  range  along  the  east  side  of  the  transepts,  especially 
in  the  Franciscan  churches,  which  otherwise  retain  many 
basilican  features.  A  comparison  of  the  plans  of  S.  An- 
drea at  Vercelli,  the  Duomo  at 
Florence,  the  cathedrals  of  Si- 
enna and  Milan,  S.  Petronio  at 
Bologna  and  the  Certosa  at 
Pavia  (Fig.  153),  sufficiently  il- 
lustrates the  variety  of  Italian 
Gothic  plan-types. 

ORNAMENT.  Applied  decora- 
tion plays  a  large  part  in  all 
Italian  Gothic  designs.  Inlaid 
and  mosaic  patterns  and  pan- 
elled veneering  in  colored  mar- 
ble are  essential  features  of 
the  exterior  decoration  of  most 
Italian  churches.  Florence  of- 
fers a  fine  example  of  this  treat- 
ment in  the  Duomo,  and  in  its  accompanying  Campanile  or 
bell-tower,  designed  by  Giotto  (1335),  and  completed  by  Gad- 
di  and  Talenti.  This  beautiful  tower  is  an  epitome  of 
Italian  Gothic  art.  Its  inlays,  mosaics,  and  veneering  are 
treated  with  consummate  elegance,  and  combined  with  in- 
crusted  reliefs  of  great  beauty.  The  tracery  of  this  monu- 
ment and  of  the  side  windows  of  the  adjoining  cathedral  is 
lighter  and  more  graceful  than  is  common  in  Italy.  Its 
beauty  consists,  however,  less  in  movement  of  line  than  in 
richness  and  elegance  of  carved  and   inlaid  ornament.     In 


FIG.    153. — PLAN   OF   CERTOSA   AT 
PAVIA. 


264  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  Or  San  Michele  —  a  combined  chapel  and  granary  in 
Florence  dating  from  1330  —  the  tracery  is  far  less  light 
and  open.  In  general,  except  in  churches  like  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Milan,  built  under  German  influences,  the  tracery  in 
secular  monuments  is  more  successful  than  in  ecclesiastical 
structures.  Venice  developed  the  designing  of  tracery  to 
greater  perfection  in  her  palaces  than  any  other  Italian 
city  (see  below). 

MINOR  WORKS.  Italian  Gothic  art  found  freer  expression 
in  semi-decorative  works,  like  tombs,  altars  and  votive  chap- 
els, than  in  more  monumental  structures.  The  fourteenth 
century  was  particularly  rich  in  canopy  tombs,  mostly  in 
churches,  though  some  were  erected  in  the  open  air,  like 
the  celebrated  Tombs  of  the  Scaligers  in  Verona  (1329-13K0). 
Many  of  those  in  churches  in  and  near  Rome,  and  Others  111 
south  Italy,  are  especially  rich  in  inlay  of  opus  Alexandrinum 
upon  their  twisted  columns  and  panelled  sarcophagi.  The 
family  of  the  Cosmati  acquired  great  fame  for  work  of  this 
kind  during  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  little  marble  chapel  of  Sta.  Maria  della  Spina,  on  the 
Arno,  at  Pisa,  is  an  instance  of  the  successful  decorative  use 
of  Gothic  forms  in  minor  buildings. 

TOWERS.  The  Italians  always  preferred  the  square  tower 
to  the  spire,  and  in  most  cases  treated  it  as  an  independent 
campanile.  Following  Early  Christian  and  Romanesque 
traditions,  these  square  towers  were  usually  built  with  plain 
Bides  unbroken  by  buttresses,  and  terminated  in  a  flat  roof 
or  a  low  and  inconspicuous  cone  or  pyramid.  The  Campa- 
nile at  Florence  already  mentioned  is  by  far  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  these  designs  (Fig.  154).  The  campaniles  of  Sienna, 
Lucca,  and  Pistoia  are  built  in  alternate  white  and  black 
courses,  like  the  adjoining  cathedrals.  Verona  and  Man- 
tua have  towers  with  octagonal  lanterns.  In  general,  these 
Gothic  towers  differ  from  the  earlier  Romanesque  models 
only  in   the  forms  of  their  openings.     Though  dignified  in 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY. 


265 


their  simplicity  and  size,  and  usually  well  proportioned,  they 
lack  the  beauty  and  interest  of  the  French,  English,  and 
German  steeples  and  towers. 
SECULAR  MONUMENTS.  In 
their  public  halls,  open  log- 
gias y  and  domestic  architec- 
ture the  Italians  were  able 
to  develop  the  application  of 
Gothic  forms  with  greater 
freedom  than  in  their  church- 
building,  because  unfettered 
by  traditional  methods  of  de- 
sign. The  early  and  vigorous 
growth  of  municipal  and  pop- 
ular institutions  led,  as  in  the 
Netherlands,  to  the  building 
of  two  classes  of  public  halls 
—  the  town  hall  proper  or 
Podesta,  and  the  council  hall, 
variously  called  Palazzo  Com- 
munal?, Pubblico,  or  del  Con- 
siglio.  The  town  halls,  as  the 
seat  of  authority,  usually 
have  a  severe  and  fortress- 
like character  ;  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  at  Florence  is  the 
most  important  example 
(1298,  by  Arnolfo  di  Cam- 
bio  ;  Fig.  155).  It  is  espe- 
cially remarkable  for  its  tow- 
er, which,  rising  308  feet  in 
the  air,  overhangs  the  street  nearly  6  feet,  its  front  wall 
resting  on  the  face  of  the  powerfully  corbelled  cornice  of 
the  palace.  The  court  and  most  of  the  interior  were  re- 
modelled in  the  sixteenth  century.     At  Sienna  is  a  somewhat 


FIG.    154. — UPPER    PART   OF   CAMPANILE, 
FLORENCE. 


266 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


similar  structure  in  brick,  the  Palazzo  Pubblico.  At  Pistoia 
the  Podesta  and  the  Communal  Palace  Stand  opposite  each 
other  ;  in  both  of  these  the  courtyards  still  retain  their  orig- 
inal aspect.  At  Perugia,  Bologna,  and  Viterbo  are  others  of 
some  importance  ;  while  in  Lom- 
bardy,  Bergamo,  Como,  Cremona, 
1'iacenza  and  other  towns  possess 
smaller  halls  with  open  arcades 
below,  of  a  more  elegant  and 
pleasing  aspect.  Mofe^uccessful 
still  are  the  open  loggias  or  trib- 
unes erected  for  the  gatherings  of 
public  bodies.  The  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi  at  Florence  (1376,  by  Benci 
di  done  and  Simonc  di  TaUnti] 
is  the  largest  and  most  famouj 
of  these  open  vaulted 
halls,  of  which  several 
exist  in  Florence  and 
Sienna.  Gothic  only 
in  their  minor  details, 
they  are  Romanesque 
or  semi  -  (lassie  in 
their  broad  round 
arches  and  strong 
horizontal  lines  and 
( orni<  i ■-  (  1  ijf.   1  56). 

PALACES  AND  H0U8ES :  VENICE.  The  northern  cities,  espe- 
cially Pisa,  Florence,  Sienna,  Hologna,  and  Venice,  are  ric 
in  medieval  public  and  private  palaces  and  dwellings  11 
brick  or  marble,  in  which  pointed  windows  and  open 
cades  are  used  with  excellent  effect.  In  Bologna  and  Sien- 
na brick  is  used,  in  conjunction  with  details  executed  in 
moulded  terra-cotta,  in  a  highly  artistic  and  effective  way. 
Viterbo,    nearer     Rome,    also    possesses    many    interestii 


JJL'  Mi, 

FIG.    IJj        IIMH    PART   09    tt  BIO| 

FLOKI 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


267 


houses  with  street  arcades  and  open  stairways  or  stoops 
leading  to  the  main  entrance. 

The  security  and  prosperity  of  Venice  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  the  ever  present  influence  of  the  sun -loving 
East,  made  the  massive  and  fortress-like  architecture  of  the 
inland  cities  unnecessary.  Abundant  openings,  large  win- 
dows full  of  tracery  of  great   lightness  and  elegance,  pro- 


FIG.    156. — LOC 


jecting  balconies  and  the  freest  use  of  marble  veneering 
and  inlay — a  survival  of  Byzantine  traditions  of  the  12th 
century  (see  p.  133) — give  to  the  Venetian  houses  and  pal- 
aces an  air  of  gayety  and  elegance  found  nowhere  else. 
While  there  are  few  Gothic  churches  of  importance  in 
Venice,  the  number  of  mediaeval  houses  and  palaces  is 
very  large.  Chief  among  these  is  the  Doge's  Palace  (Fig. 
157),  adjoining  the  church  of  St.  Mark.  The  two-storied 
arcades  of  the  west  and  south  fronts  date  from  1354,  and 
originally    stood    out   from    the    main    edifice,    which    was 


268 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


widened  in  the  next  century,  when  the  present  somewhat 
heavy  walls,  laid  up  in  red,  white  and  black  marble  in  a 
species  of  quarry-pattern,  were  built  over  the  arcades. 
These  arcades  are  beautiful  designs,  combining  massive 
strength  and  grace  in  a   manner  quite  foreign  to  Western 

Gothic  ideas.  Light- 
er  and  more  ornate 
is  the  Ca  d'Oro,  on  the 
Grand  Canal  ;  while 
the  Foscari,  Conta- 
rini  -  Fasan,  Cavalli, 
and  l'isani  palaces, 
among  many  others, 
are  admirable  exam- 
ples of  the  style,  [n 
most  of  these  a  tra- 
ceried  loggia  occu- 
pies the  central  part, 
flanked  by  walls  in- 
crusted  with  marble 
and  pierced  by  Gothic 
windows  with  carved 
mouldings,  borders, 
and  balconies.  The 
Venetian  Gothic  owes  its  success  largely  to  the  absence 
of  structural  difficulties  to  interfere  with  the  purely  deco- 
rative development  of  Gothic  details. 


ru..  157.   -west  ramrr  0*  DOGS'!  IALACE,  VENICE. 


MONUMENTS.  13th  Century  :  Cistercian  abbeys  FOMBDOVB  and 
mari,  dr.  1208;  S.  Andrea.  Vercelli.  1209;  S.  FfBDCCSOO,  Aadaf,  1228- 
53:  Church  at  .Wi.  1229;  Sienna  C,  1243-59  (cupola  1259-64;  facade 
1284);  S.  M.  Oloriosa  dd  Frari,  Venice,  1250-80  (finished  1388);  Sta. 
Chiara,  Assisi.  1250;  Sta.  Trinita.  Florence,  12:0;  S.  Antonio,  Pads 
begun  1256;  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Venice,  1260  (?)- 1400  ;  Sta.  Anas- 
t.isi.i,  Venma,  I20J  ;  Naples  <'.,  1272 -I ',14  (facade  129'):  portal  1407; 
much  altered  later)  ;  S.  Lorenzo,  Naples,  1275  ;  Campo  Santo,  I'isa,  1278 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALV.  269 

83;  Arezxo  C,  1278;  S.  M.  Novella,  Florence,  1278;  S.  Eustorgio, 
Milan,  1278;  S.  M.  sopra  Minerva,  Rome,  1280;  Orvieto  C,  1290  (fa- 
cade 1310;  roof  1330);  Sta.  Croce,  Florence,  1294  (facade  1863);  S. 
M.  del  Fiore,  or  C,  Florence,  1294-1310  (enlarged  1357  ;  E.  end 
1366;  dome  1420-64;  facade  1887);  S.  Francesco,  Bologna.  —  14th 
century:  Genoa  C,  early  14th  century;  S.  Francesco,  Sienna,  1310  ; 
San  Domenico,  Sienna,  about  same  date ;  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  Sienna, 
1317  ;  S.  M.  della  Spina,  Pisa,  1323;  Campanile,  Florence,  1335;  Or 
San  Michele,  Florence,  1337  ;  Milan  C,  1386  (cupola  16th  century  ;  fa- 
cade 1 6th -1 9th  century  ;  new  facade  building  1895)  ;  S.  Petronio,  Bo- 
logna, 1390  ;  Certosa,  Pavia,  1396  (choir,  transepts,  cupola,  cloisters,  15th 
and  16th  centuries)  ;  Como  C,  1396  (choir  and  transepts  15 13) ;  Lucca 
C.  (S.  Martino),  Romanesque  building  remodelled  late  in  14th  century  ; 
Verona  C;  S.  Fermo,  Maggiore  ;  S.  Francesco,  Pisa;  S.  Lorenzo,  Vi- 
cenza. — 15th  century  :  Perugia  C.  ;  S.  M.  delle  Grazie,  Milan,  1470 
(cupola  and  exterior  E.  part  later). 

Sit  tlar  Buildings  :  Pal.  Pubblico,  Cremona,  1245  ;  Pal.  Podesta 
(Bargello),  Florence,  1255  (enlarged  1333-45)  ;  Pal.  Pubblico,  Sienna, 
1289-1305  (many  later  alterations)  ;  Pal.  Giureconsulti,  Cremona,  1292  ; 
Broletto,  Monza,  1293;  Loggia  dei  Mercanti,  Bologna,  1294;  Pal. 
Vecchio,  Florence,  1298;  Broletto,  Como;  Pal.  Ducale  (Doge's  Palace), 
Venice,  1310-40  (great  windows  1404  ;  extended  1423-38  ;  courtyard  15th 
and  16th  centuries)  ;  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  Florence,  1335  ;  Loggia  del  Bi- 
gallo,  1337  ;  Broletto,  Bergamo,  14th  century  ;  Loggia  dei  Nobili,  Sienna, 
1407  ;  Pal.  Pubblico,  Udine,  1457  ;  Loggia  dei  Mercanti,  Ancona  ;  Pal.  del 
Governo,  Bologna  ;  Pal.  Pepoli,  Bologna  ;  Palaces  Conte  Bardi,  Davanzati, 
Capponi,  all  at  Florence  ;  at  Sienna,  Pal.  Tolomei,  1205  ;  Pal.  Saracini, 
Pal.  Buonsignori  ;  at  Venice,  Pal.  Contarini-Fasan,  Cavalli,  Foscari,  Pisani, 
and  many  others  ;  others  in  Padua  and  Vicenza. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

EARLY    RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 

Rooks  Recommended  :   Anderson,  Architecture  of  the  Re* 

naissance  in  Italy.  Rurckhardt.  The  Civilization  of  the  Renais- 
sance  ;  Geschichte  der  Renaissance  in  Italien  ;  Der  Cicerone. 
Cellesi,  Kei  Fibhrieke  iii  Firenze.  Cicognara,  Le  Fabbriche 
/>///  eospicue  iti  Venezia.  Durm,  Die  Baukunst  der  Renaissance 
in  Italien  (in  Hdbuch.  d.  Arch.).  Fergusson,  History  of  Mod- 
ern Architecture,  (leymiiller,  La  Renaissance  en  Toscane. 
Montigny  et  Famin,  Architecture  Toscane.  Moore,  Character 
of  Renaissance  Architecture.  Miintz,  La  Renaissance  en  Italie 
,t  en  France  a  Vepoque  de  Charles  VIII.  Palustre,  L' Architec- 
ture de  la  Renaissance.  Pater,  Studies  in  the  Renaissance. 
Symonds,  'The  Renaissance  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Italy.  Tosi  and 
Becchio,  Altars,  Tabernacles,  and  Tombs. 

THE  CLASSIC  REVIVAL  The  abandonment  of  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture in  Italy  and  the  substitution  in  its  place  of  tonus 
derived  from  classic  models  were  occasioned  by  no  sudden 
or  merely  local  revolution.  /The  Renaissance  was  the  re- 
sult of  a  profound  and  universal  intellectual  movement, 
whose  roots  may  be  traced  far  back  into  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  which  manifested  itself  first  in  Italy  simply  because 
there  the  conditions  were  most  propitious..  It  spread 
through  Europe  just  as  rapidly  as  similar  conditions  ap- 
pearing in  other  countries  prepared  the  way  for  it.  The  es- 
sence of  this  far-reaching  movement  was  the  protest  of  the 
individual  reason  against  the  trammels  of  external  and  ar- 
bitrary authority — a  protest  which  found  its  earliest  organ- 
ized expression  in  the  Humanists.  In  its  assertion  of  the 
intellectual  and  moral  rights  of  the  individual,  the  Renais- 
sance laid  the  foundations  of  modern  civilization.  The 
same  spirit,  in  rejecting  the  authority  and  teachings  of  the 


THE  EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  27 1 

Church  in  matters  of  purely  secular  knowledge,  led  to  the 
questionings  of  the  precursors  of  modern  science  and 
the  discoveries  of  the  early  navigators.  But  in  nothing 
did  the  reaction  against  mediaeval  scholasticism  and  asceti- 
cism display  itself  more  strikingly  than  in  the  joyful  en- 
thusiasm which  marked  the  pursuit  of  classic  studies.  The 
long  -  neglected  treasures  of  classic  literature  were  re- 
opened, almost  rediscovered,  in  the  fourteenth  century  by 
the  immortal  trio — Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio.  The 
joy  of  living,  the  hitherto  forbidden  delight  in  beauty  and 
pleasure  for  their  own  sakes,  the  exultant  awakening  to 
the  sense  of  personal  freedom,  which  came  with  the  burst- 
ing of  mediaeval  fetters,  found  in  classic  art  and  literature 
their  most  sympathetic  expression.  It  was  in  Italy,  where 
feudalism  had  never  fully  established  itself,  and  where  the 
municipalities  and  guilds  had  developed,  as  nowhere  else, 
the  sense  of  civic  and  personal  freedom,  that  these  symp- 
toms first  manifested  themselves.  In  Italy,  and  above  all 
in  the  Tuscan  cities,  they  appeared  throughout  the  four- 
teenth centuryin  the  growing  enthusiasm  for  all  that  re- 
called the  antique  culture,  and  in  the  rapid  advance  of  lux- 
ury and  refinement  in  both  public  and  private  life. 

THE  RENAISSANCE  OF  THE  ARTS.  Classic  Roman  architect- 
ure had  never  lost  its  influence  on  the  Italian  taste.  Gothic 
art,  already  declining  in  the  West,  had  never  been  in  Italy 
more  than  a  borrowed  garb,  clothing  architectural  concep- 
tions classic  rather  than  Gothic  in  spirit.  The  antique  mon- 
uments which  abounded  on  every  hand  were  ever  present 
models  for  the  artist,  and  to  the  Florentines  of  the  early 
fifteenth  century  the  civilization  which  had  created  them 
represented  the  highest  ideal  of  human  culture.  They 
longed  to  revive  in  their  own  time  the  glories  of  ancient 
Rome,  and  appropriated  with  uncritical  and  undiscriminat- 
ing  enthusiasm  the  good  ami  the  bad,  the  early  and  the  late 
forms  of  Roman  art.     Naiveiy  unconscious  of  the  disparity 


272  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITFXTURE. 

between  their  own  architectural  conceptions  and  those  they 
fancied  they  imitated,  they  were,  unknown  to  themselves, 
creating  a  new  style,  in  which  the  details  of  Roman  art 
were  fitted  in  novel  combinations  to  new  requirements. 
In  proportion  as  the  Church  lost  its  hold  on  the  culture  of 
the  age,  this  new  architecture  entered  increasingly  into  the 
service  of  private  luxury  and  public  display.  It  created,  it 
is  true,  striking  types  of  church  design,  and  made  of  the 
dome  one  of  the  most  imposing  of  external  features  ;  but 
its  most  characteristic  products  were  palaces,  villas,  coun- 
cil halls,  and  monuments  to  the  great  and  the  powerful. 
The  personal  element  in  design  asserted  itself  as  never  be- 
fore in  the  growth  of  schools  and  the  development  of 
styles.  Thenceforward  the  history  of  Italian  architecture 
becomes  the  history  of  the  achievements  of  individual  ar- 
tists. 

EAKLY  BEGINNINGS.  Already  in  the  13th  century  the  pul- 
pits of  Niccolo  Pisano  at  Sienna  and  l'isa  had  revealed 
that  master's  direct  recourse  to  antique  monuments  for  in- 
spiration and  suggestion.  In  the  frescoes  of  Giotto  and 
his  followers,  and  in  the  architectural  details  of  many  nom- 
inally Gothic  buildings,  classic  forms  had  appeared  with 
increasing  frequency  during  the  fourteenth  century.  This 
was  especially  true  in  Florence,  which  was  then  the  artistic 
capital  of  Italy.  Never,  perhaps,  since  the  days  of  1'eri- 
<  lea,  had  there  been  another  community  so  permeated  with 
the  love  of  beauty  in  art,  and  so  endowed  with  the  capac- 
ity to  realize  it.  Nowhere  else  in  Europe  at  that  time  ui> 
there  such  strenuous  life,  such  intense  feeling,  or  such  ft 
course  for  individual  genius  as  in  Florence.  Her  artist 
with  unexampled  versatility,  addressed  themselves  wit 
equal  success  to  goldsmiths'  work,  sculpture,  architecture 
and  engineering — often  to  painting  and  poetry  as  well  ;  and 
they  were  quick  to  catch  in  their  art  the  spirit  of  the  clas- 
sic revival     The  new  movement  achieved   its  first  archi- 


THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  273 

tectural  triumph  in  the  dome  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence 
(1420-64)  ;  and  it  was  Florentine — or  at  least  Tuscan — ar- 
tists who  planted  in  other  centres  the  seeds  of  the  new 
art  that  were  to  spring  up  in  the  local  and  provincial 
schools  of  Sienna,  Milan,  Pavia,  Bologna,  and  Venice,  of 
Brescia,  Lucca,  Perugia,  and  Rimini,  and  many  other  North 
Italian  cities.  The  movement  asserted  itself  late  in  Rome 
and  Naples,  as  an  importation  from  Northern  Italy,  but  it 
bore  abundant  fruit  in  these  cities  in  its  later  stages. 

periods.  The  classic  styles  which  grew  up  out  of  the 
Renaissance  may  be  divided  for  convenience  into  four  pe- 
riods. 

The  Early  Renaissance  or  Formative  Period,  1420- 
90  ;  characterized  by  the  grace  and  freedom  of  the  deco- 
rative detail,  suggested  by  Roman  prototypes  and  applied 
to  compositions  of  great  variety  and  originality. 

The  High  Renaissance  or  Formally  Classic  Period, 
1490-1550.  During  this  period  classic  details  were  copied 
with  increasing  fidelity,  the  orders  especially  appearing  in  al- 
most all  compositions  ;  decoration  meanwhile  losing  some- 
what in  grace  and  freedom. 

The  Decline  (called  also  the  Baroque),  1550-1600  ;  a 
period  of  classic  formality  characterized  by  the  use  of  co- 
lossal orders,  engaged  columns  and  rather  scanty  decora- 
tion. 

The  Rococo,  1600-1700  ;  a  period  marked  by  poverty 
of  invention  in  the  composition  and  a  predominance  of 
vulgar  sham  and  display  in  the  decoration.  Broken  pedi- 
ments, huge  scrolls,  florid  stucco-work  and  a  general  dis- 
regard of  architectural  propriety  were  universal. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a  reaction  from 
these  extravagances,  which  showed  itself  in  a  return  to  the 
servile  copyingof  classic  models, sometimes  not  without  a  cer- 
tain dignity  of  composition  and  restraint  in  the  decoration. 

By  many  writers  the  name  Renaissance  is  confined  to  the 
18 


274  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

first  period.  This  is  correct'  from  the  etymological  point 
of  view  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  dissociate  the  first  period 
historically  from  those  which  followed  it,  down  to  the  final 
exhaustion  of  the  artistic  movement  to  which  it  gave  birth, 
in  the  heavy  extravagances  of  the  Rococo. 

Another  division  is  made  by  the  Italians,  who  give  the 
name  of  the"  Quattrocento  to  the  period  which  closed  with 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Cinquecento  to  the  six- 
teenth cenury,  and  Seicento  to  the  seventeenth  century  or 
Rococo.  It  has,  however,  become  common  to  confine  the 
use  of  the  term  Cinquecento  to  the  first  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  DETAIL.  The  architects  of  the  Re- 
naissance occupied  themselves  more  with  form  than  with 
construction,  and  rarely  set  themselves  constructive  prob- 
lems of  great  difficulty.  Although  the  new  architecture 
began  with  the  colossal  dome  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence, 
and  culminated  in  the  stupendous  church  of  St.  IVtcr  at 
Rome,  it  was  pre-eminently  an  architecture  of  palaces  and 
villas,  of  facades  and  of  decorative  display.  Constructive 
difficulties  were  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms,  and  the 
constructive  framework  was  concealed,  not  emphasized,  by 
the  decorative  apparel  of  the  design.  Among  the  master- 
pieces of  the  early  Renaissance  are  many  buildings  of  small 
dimensions,  such  as  gates,  <  hapels,  tombs  and  fountains. 
In  these  the  individual  fancy  had  full  sway,  and  produced 
surprising  results  by  the  beauty  of  enriched  mouldings,  of 
carved  friezes  with  infant  genii,  wreaths  of  fruit,  griffins, 
masks  and  scrolls  ;  by  pilasters  covered  with  arabesques 
as  delicate  in  modelling  as  if  wrought  in  silver  ;  by  inlays 
of  marble,  panels  of  glazed  terra-cotta,  marvellously  carved 
doors,  fine  stucco-work  in  relief,  capitals  and  cornices  of 
wonderful  richness  and  variety.  The  Roman  orders  ap- 
peared only  in  free  imitations,  with  panelled  and  carved 
pilasters   for  the  most  part   instead  of  columns,  and  cap- 


TUB  EARLY   RENAISSAIsXE   IN   ITALY. 


275 


itals  of  fanciful  design,  recalling  remotely  the  Corinthian 
by  their  volutes  and  leaves  (Fig.  158).  Instead  of  the  low- 
pitched  classic  pediments,  there  appears  frequently  an 
arched  cornice  enclosing  a  sculptured  lunette.  Doors  and 
windows  were  en- 
closed in  richly  carved 
frames,  sometimes 
arched  and  sometimes 
square.  Facades  were 
flat  and  unbroken,  de- 
pending mainly  for 
effect  upon  the  dis- 
tribution and  adorn- 
ment of  the  openings, 
and  the  design  of 
doorways,  courtyards 
and  cornices.  Inter- 
nally vaults  and  flat 
ceilings  of  wood  and 
plaster  were  about 
equally  common,  the 
barrel  vault  and  dome 
occurring  far  more  frequently  than  the  groined  vault. 
Many  of  the  ceilings  of  this  period  are  of  remarkable  rich- 
ness and  beauty. 

THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  IN  FLORENCE :  THE  DTJOMO.  In 
the  year  141 7  a  public  competition  was  held  for  complet- 
ing the  cathedral  of  Florence  by  a  dome  over  the  immense 
octagon,  143  feet  in  diameter.  Filippo  Brunelleschi,  sculptor 
and  architect  (1377-1446),  who  with  Donatello  had  jour- 
neyed to  Rome  to  study  there  the  masterworks  of  ancient 
art,  after  demonstrating  the  inadequacy  of  all  the  solutions 
proposed  by  the  competitors,  was  finally  permitted  to  un- 
dertake the  gigantic  task  according  to  his  own  plans. 
These  provided  for  an  octagonal  dome  in  two  shells,  con- 


FIG.    158. — EARLY   RENAISSANCE   CAPITAL,  PAL.    ZORZI, 
VENICE. 


276 


HISTORY   OF   ARCIHTKCTURE. 


IS  • 

• 

V 

1® 

6 

©1 

1  \ 

n 

V 

ffl 

nected  by  eight  major  and  sixteen  minor  ribs,  and  crowned 
by  a  lantern  at  the  top  (Fig.  159).  This  wholly  original 
conception,  by  which  for  the  first  time  (outside  of  Mos- 
lem art)  the  dome  was  made  an 
external  feature  fitly  terminating 
in  the  light  forms  and  upward 
movement  of  a  lantern,  was  carried 
out  between  the  years  1420  and 
1464.  Though  in  no  wise  an  imi- 
tation of  Roman  forms,  it  was 
classic  in  its  spirit,  in  its  vastness 
and  its  simplicity  of  line,  and  was 
made  possible  solely  by  Brunel- 
leschi's  studies  of  Roman  design 
and  construction  (Kig.  160). 

OTHER  churches.  From  Bru- 
nelleschi's  designs  were  also  erect- 
ed the  Pazzi  Chapel  in  Sta.  Croce, 
a  charming  design  of  a  Creek  cross 
covered  with  a  dome  at  the  inter- 
section, and  preceded  by  a  vestibule  with  a  richly  decorated 
vault  ;  ami  the  two  great  churches  of  S.  Lorenzo  (1425)  and 
S.  Spirito  (1433-1476,  Fig.  161).  Both  reproduced  in  a 
measure  the  plan  of  the  I'isa  Cathedral,  having  a  three- 
aisled  nave  and  transepts,  with  a  low  dome  over  the  cross- 
ing. The  side  aisles  were  covered  with  domical  vaults  and 
the  central  aisles  with  flat  wooden  or  plaster  (filings.  All  the 
details  of  columns,  arches  and  mouldings  were  imitated  from 
Roman  models,  and  yet  the  result  was  something  entirely 
new.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  Brunelleschi  was  re- 
viving Byzantine  rather  than  Roman  conceptions  in  the 
planning  and  structural  design  of  these  domical  churches, 
but  the  ^arb  in  which  he  clothed  them  was  Roman,  at  least 
in  detail.  The  Old  Sacristy  of  S.  Lorenzo  was  another 
domical  design  of  great  beauty. 


ui    1.1 
duomo,  no 


THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY. 


277 


From  this  time  on  the  new  style  was  in  general  use  for 
church  designs.  L.  B.  Alberti  (1404-73),  who  had  in  Rome 
mastered  classic  details  more  thoroughly  than  Brunel- 
leschi,  remodelled  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  at  Rimini 
with  Roman  pilasters  and  arches,  and  with  engaged  orders 
in  the  facade,  which,  however,  was  never  completed.  His 
great  work  was  the  church  of  S.  Andrea  at  Mantua,  a  Latin 
cross  in»^)lan,  with  a  dome  at  the  intersection  (the  present 
high  dome  dating  however,  only  from  the  18th  century) 
and  a  facade  to  which  the  conception  of  a  Roman  tri- 
umphal arch  was  skilfully 
adapted*.  His  facade  of 
incrusted  marbles  for  the 
church  of  S.  M.  Novella 
at  Florence  was  a  less 
successful  work,  though 
its  flaring  consoles  over 
the  side  aisles  established 
an  unfortunate  precedent 
frequently  imitated  in 
later  churches. 

A  great  activity  in 
church-building  marked 
the  period  between  1475 
and  1490.  The  plans 
of  the  churches  erected 
about  this  time  through- 
out north  Italy  display  an 
interesting  variety  of  ar- 
rangements, in  nearly  all 
of  which  the  dome  is  combined  with  the  three-aisled  cruci- 
form plan,  either  as  a  central  feature  at  the  crossing  or  as 
a  domical  vault  over  each  bay.  Bologna  and  Ferrara  possess 
a  number  of  churches  of  this  kind.  Occasionally  the  basilican 
arrangement  was  followed,  with  columnar  arcades  separat- 


FIG.  160. — EXTERIOR  OF  DOME  OF  DUOMO, 
FLORENCE. 


278 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


ing  the  aisles.  More  often,  however,  the  pier-arches  were 
of  the  Roman  type,  with  engaged  columns  or  pilasters  be- 
tween them.  The  interiors,  presumably  intended  to  re- 
ceive painted  decorations,  were    in  most  cases  somewhat 

bare  of  ornament, 
pleasing  rather  by 
happy  proportions  and 
effective  vaulting  or 
rich  flat  ceilings,  pan- 
elled, painted  and  gild- 
ed, than  by  elaborate 
architectural  detail. 
A  similar  scantiness 
of  ornament  is  to  be 
remarked  in  the  ex- 
teriors, excepting  the 
facades,  which  were 
sometimes  highly  or- 
nate ;  the  doorways, 
with  columns,  pedi- 
ments, sculpture  and 
carving,  receiving  es- 
pecial attention.  High 
external  domes  did 
not  come  into  general 
use  until  the  next  period.  In  Milan,  Pavia,  and  some  other 
Lombard  cities,  the  internal  cupola  over  the  crossing  was, 
however,  i  overed  externally  by  a  lofty  structure  in  dimin- 
ishing stages,  like  that  <>f  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  (Fig.  152),  or 
that  erected  by  Bramante  for  the  church  of  S.  M.  delle 
Grazie  at  Milan.  At  Prato,  in  the  church  of  the  Madonna 
delle  Carceri  (1495-1516),  by  GiuUano  da  S.  Gallo,  the  type 
of  the  I'az/.i  chapel  reappears  in  ;i  larger  scale  ;  the'  plai 

is  cruciform,    with    equal    or    nearly    equal    arms    covert 
by  barrel  vaults,  at    whose  intersection    rises  a  dome 


FIG.    l6l. — INTERIOR   OK   S.    SPIRITO,    FLORENCE. 


THE   EARLY    RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY. 


279 


moderate  height  on  pendentives.  This  charming  edifice, 
with  its  unfinished  exterior  of  white  marble,  its  simple  and 
dignified  lines,  and  internal  embellishments  in  della-Robbia 
ware,  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  period. 

In  the  designing  of  chapels  and  oratories  the  architects 
of  the  early  Renaissance  attained  conspicuous  success, 
these  edifices  presenting  fewer  structural  limitations  and 
being  more  purely  decorative  in  character  than  the  larger 
churches.  Such  facades  as  that  of  S.  Bernardino  at  Peru- 
gia and  of  the  Frati  di  S.  Spirito  at  Bologna  are  among 
the  most  delightful  products  of  the  decorative  fancy  of  the 
15th  century. 

FLORENTINE  PALACES.  While  the  architects  of  this  period 
failed  to  develop  any  new  and  thoroughly  satisfactory  ec- 
clesiastical type,  they 
attained  conspicuous 
success  in  palace- 
architecture.  The 
Riccardi  palace  in 
Florence  (1430)  marks 
the  first  step  of  the 
Renaissance  in  this 
direction.  It  was  built 
for  the  great  Cosimo 
di  Medici  by  Miche- 
lozzi  (I397-M73),  a 
contemporary  of  Bru- 
nelleschi  and  Alberti, 
and  a  man  of  great 
talent.  Its  imposing 
rectangular  facade, 
with  widely  spaced 
mullioned  windows  in 
two  stories  over  a  massive  basement,  is  crowned  with  a 
classic  cornice  of  unusual  and   perhaps  excessive  size.     In 


FIG.    162. — COURTYARD    OF    RICCARDI    PALACE, 
FI.ORENCF.. 


28o 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


II 


19  II  II 


spite  of  the  bold  and  fortress-like  character  of  the  rusti- 
cated masonry  of  these  facades,  and  the  mediaeval  look  they 
seem  to  present  to  modern  eyes,  they  marked  a  revolution 
in  style  and  established  a  type  frequently  imitated  in  later 
years.  The  courtyard,  in  contrast  with  this  stern  exterior, 
appears  light  and  cheerful  (Fig.  162).  Its  wall  is  carried  on 
round  arches  borne  by  columns  with  Corinthianesque  cap- 
itals, and  the  arcade  is  enriched  with  sculptured  medal- 
lions.    The  Pitti  Palace,  by  Brunelleschi  (1435),  embodies 

the  same  ideas  on  a 
more  colossal  scale, 
but  lacks  the  grace  of 
an  adequate  cornice. 
A  lighter  and  more 
ornate  style  appeared 
in  1460  in  the  P.  Ru- 
cellai,  by  Alberti,  in 
which  for  the  first 
time  classical  pilas- 
ters in  superposed 
stages  were  applied 
to  a  street  facade. 
To  avoid  the  dilemma 
of  either  insufficiently  crowning  the  edifice  or  making  the 
cornice  too  heavy  for  the  upper  range  of  pilasters,  Alberti 
made  use  of  bra<  kets,  occupying  the  width  of  the  upper 
frieze,  and  converting  the  whole  upper  entablature  into  a 
cornice.  Hut  this  compromise  was  not  quite  successful,  and 
it  remained  for  later  architects  in  Venice,  Verona,  and  Rome 
to  work  OUt  more  satisfactory  methods  of  applying  the 
orders  to  many-storied  palace  fagades.  In  the  great  P. 
Strozzi  (Fig.  163),  erected  in  1490  by  Benedetto  ,/a  Majatld 
and  Croncua,  the  architects  reverted  to  the  earlier  type  of 
Riccardi,  treating  it  with  greater  refinement  and  pro- 
ducing one  of  the  noblest  palaces  of  Italy. 


HO.     l('S-  —  FAC.ADF.    OF    IIMtUI    FA  LACK,  FLORENCE. 


THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN    ITALY.  28 1 

COURTYARDS ;  ARCADES.  These  palaces  were  all  built 
around  interior  courts,  whose  walls  rested  on  columnar  ar- 
cades, as  in  the  P.  Riccardi  (Fig.  162).  The  origin  of  these 
arcades  may  be  found  in  the  arcaded  cloisters  of  mediaeval 
monastic  churches,  which  often  suggest  classic  models,  as 
in  those  of  St.  Paul-beyond-the-Walls  and  St.  John  Lateran 
at  Rome.  Brunelleschi  not  only  introduced  columnar  ar- 
cades into  a  number  of  cloisters  and  palace  courts,  but  also 
used  them  effectively  as  exterior  features  in  the  Loggia  S. 
Paolo  and  the  Foundling  Hospital  (Ospedale  degli  Inno- 
centi)  at  Florence.  The  chief  drawback  in  these  light  ar- 
cades was  their  inability  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the 
vaulting  over  the  space  behind  them,  and  the  consequent 
recourse  to  iron  tie-rods  where  vaulting  was  used.  The 
Italians,  however,  seemed  to  care  little  about  this  disfigure- 
ment. 

MINOR  WORKS.  The  details  of  the  new  style  were  devel- 
oped quite  as  rapidly  in  purely  decorative  work's  as  in 
monumental  buildings.  Altars,  mural  monuments,  taber- 
nacles, pulpits  and  ciboria  afforded  scope  for  the  genius  of 
the  most  distinguished  artists.  Among  those  who  were 
specially  celebrated  in  works  of  this  kind  should  be  named 
Lucca  della  Robbia  (1400-82)  and  his  successors,  Mino  da 
Fiesole  (1431-84)  and  Benedetto  da  Majano  (1442-97).  Pos- 
sessed of  a  wonderful  fertility  of  invention,  they  and  their 
pupils  multiplied  their  works  in  extraordinary  number  and 
variety,  not  only  throughout  north  Italy,  but  also  in  Rome 
and  Naples.  Among  the  most  famous  examples  of  this 
branch  of  design  may  be  mentioned  a  pulpit  in  Sta.  Croce 
by  B.  da  Majano  ;  a  terra-cotta  fountain  in  the  sacristy  of 
S.  M.  Novella,  by  the  della  Robbias;  the  Marsupini  tomb 
in  Sta.  Croce,  by  Desiderio  da  Settignano  (all  in  Florence)  ; 
the  della  Rovere  tomb  in  S.  M.  del  Popolo,  Rome,  by  Mino 
da  Fiesole,  and  in  the  Cathedral  at  Lucca  the  Noceto 
tomb   and  the  Tempietto,    by   Matteo   Civitali.     It  was   in 


282 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITKCTl  KK. 


works  of  this  character  that  the  Renaissance  oftenest  made 
its   first  appearance   in  a   new;  centre,  as   was  the  case  in 

Sienna,    Pisa,    Lucca, 
Naples,  etc. 

NOBTH  ITALY.  Be- 
tween 1450  and  1490 
the  Renaissance  pre- 
sented in  Sienna,  in  a 
number  of  important 
palaces,  a  sharp  con- 
trast to  the  prevalent 
Gothic  style  of  that 
city.  The  P.  Picco- 
lomini  —  a  somewhat 
crude  imitation  of  the 
P.  Riccardi  in  Flor- 
ence —  dates  from 
1463  ;  the  P.  del  Go- 
verno  was  built  1469, 
and  the  Spannoccl 
Palace  in  1470.  In 
1463  Ant.  Federighi 
built  there  the  Log- 
gia del  Papa.  About 
the  same  time  Bet 
north  H  Lorenzo  wsa 
building  for  Pope  Pius 
11.  (.l'.neas  Sylvius 
Piccolomini)   an    er 

«...  *. -, , M  mo ,.,  ..,„K,„.  ucol     tire,y  new  city> 

enza,    with    a   catht 
dral,  archbishop's    palace,    town   hall  and    Papal    residence 
(the  P.  Piccolomini),  which  are  interesting  if  not  strikingly 
original    works.      Pisa  possesses    tew    early    Renaissan<  I 
structures,  owing  to  the  utter  prostration  of  her  fortune 


THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  283 

in  the  15th  century,  and  the  dominance  of  Pisan  Gothic  tra- 
ditions. In  Lucca,  besides  a  wealth  of  minor  monuments 
(largely  the  work  of  Matteo  Civitali,  1435-1501)  in  various 
churches,  a  number  of  palaces  date  from  this  period,  the 
most  important  being  the  P.  Pretorio  and  P.  Bernardmi. 
To  Milan  the  Renaissance  was  carried  by  the  Florentine 
masters  Michelozzi and  Filarete,  to  whom  are  respectively  due 
the  Portinari  Chapel  in  S.  Eustorgio  (1462)  and  the  earlier 
part  of  the  great  Ospedale  Maggiore  (1457).  In  the  latter, 
an  edifice  of  brick  with  terra-cotta  enrichments,  the  windows 
were  Gothic  in  outline — an  unusual  mixture  of  styles,  even 
in  Italy.  The  munificence  of  the  Sforzas,  the  hereditary 
tyrants  of  the  province,  embellished  the  semi-Gothic  Certosa 
of  Pavia  with  a  new  marble  facade,  begun  1476  or  1491, 
which  in  its  fanciful  and  exuberant  decoration,  and  the  small 
scale  of  its  parts,  belongs  properly  to  the  early  Renaissance. 
Exquisitely  beautiful  in  detail,  it  resembles  rather  a  magni- 
fied altar-piece  than  a  work  of  architecture,  properly  speak- 
ing. Bologna  and  Ferrara  developed  somewhat  late  in  the 
century  a  strong  local  school  of  architecture,  remarkable 
especially  for  the  beauty  of  its  courtyards,  its  graceful  street 
arcades,  and  its  artistic  treatment  of  brick  and  terra-cotta 
(P.  Bevilacqua,  P.  Fava,at  Bologna ;  P.  Scrofa.  P.  Roverella,  at 
Ferrara).  About  the  same  time  palaces  with  interior  ar- 
cades and  details  in  the  new  style  were  erected  in  Verona, 
Vicenza,  Mantua,  and  other  cities. 

VENICE.  In  this  city  of  merchant  princes  and  a  wealthy 
bourgeoisie,  the  architecture  of  the  Renaissance  took  on  a 
new  aspect  of  splendor  and  display.  It  was  late  in  appear- 
ing, the  Gothic  style  with  its  tinge  of  Byzantine  decorative 
traditions  having  here  developed  into  a  style  well  suited  to 
the  needs  of  a  rich  and  relatively  tranquil  community.  These 
traditions  the  architects  of  the  new  style  appropriated  in  a 
measure,  as  in  the  marble  incrustations  of  the  exquisite 
little  church  of  S.  M.  dei  Miracoli  (1480-89),  and  the  facade 


284  HISTORY   OK  ARCIHTECTURK. 

of  the  Scuola  di  S.  Marco  (1485-1533),  both  by  Pietro  Lorn- 
bardo.  Nowhere  else,  unless  on  the  contemporary  facade 
of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  were  marble  inlays  and  delicate 
carving,  combined  with  a  framework  of  thin  pilasters,  finely 
profiled  entablatures  and  arched  pediments,  so  lavishly  be- 
stowed upon  the  street  fronts  of  churches  and  palaces. 
The  family  of  the  Lombardi  (Martino,  his  sons  Moro  and 
Pietro,  and  grandsons  Antonio  and  Tullio),  with  Ant.  Bregm 
and  Bart.  Buo/i,  were  the  leaders  in  the  architectural  Re- 
naissance of  this  period,  and  to  them  Venice  owes  her 
choicest  masterpieces  in  the  new  style.  Its  first  appear- 
ance is  noted  in  the  later  portions  of  the  church  of  S.  Zac- 
caria  (1456-1515),  partly  Gothic  internally,  with  a  facade 
whose  semicircular  pediment  and  small  decorative  arcades 
show  a  somewhat  timid  but  interesting  application  of  clas- 
sic details.  In  this  church,  and  still  more  so  in  S.  (iiobbe 
(1451-93)  and  the  Miracoli  above  mentioned,  the  decora- 
tive element  predominates  throughout.  It  is  hard  to  im- 
agine details  more  graceful  in  design,  more  effective  in  the 
suing  of  their  movement,  or  more  delicate  in  exe<  tit  inn 
than  the  mouldings,  reliefs,  wreaths,  scrolls,  and  capital 
one  encounters  in  these  buildings.  Vet  in  structural  inter 
est,  in  scale  and  breadth  of  planning,  these  early  Renail 
sauce  Venetian  buildings  hold  a  relatively  inferior  rank. 

palaces.  The  great  Court  of  the  Doge's  Palace,  begut 
1483  by  Ant.  Rizzio,  belongs  only  in  part  to  the  first  peril 
It  shows,  however,  the  lack  of  constructive  principle  am 
of  largeness  of  composition  just  mentioned,  but  its  decor 
tive  effect  and  picturesque  variety  elicit  almost  univer^ 
admiration.  Like  the  neighboring  facade  of  St.  Mark's, 
violates  nearly  every  principle  of  correct  composition,  anc 
yet  in  a  measure  atones  for  this  capital  defect  by  its  charm 
of  detail.  Far  more  satisfactory  from  the  purely  architect- 
ural point  of  view  is  the  facade  of  the  P.  Vendramini  (Ver 
dramin-Calergi),  by  Pietro   Lombardo  (1481).     The  simple, 


THE   EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  285 

stately  lines  of  its  composition,  the  dignity  of  its  broad 
arched  and  mullioned  windows,  separated  by  engaged  col- 
umns— the  earliest  example  in  Venice  of  this  feature,  and 
one  of  the  earliest  in  Italy — its  well-proportioned  basement 
and  upper  stories,  crowned  by  an  adequate  but  somewhat 
heavy  entablature,  make  this  one  of  the  finest  palaces  in 


FIG.    165. — VENDRAMINI    PALACE,    VENICE. 

Italy  (Fig.  165).  It  established  a  type  of  large-windowed, 
vigorously  modelled  facades  which  later  architects  devel- 
oped, but  hardly  surpassed.  In  the  smaller  contemporary, 
P.  Dario,  another  type  appears,  better  suited  for  small 
buildings,  depending  for  effect  mainly  upon  well-ordered 
openings  and  incrusted  panelling  of  colored  marble. 

ROME.  Internal  disorders  and  the  long  exile  of  the  popes 
had  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  reduced  Rome  to 
utter  insignificance.  Not  until  the  second  half  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  did  returning   prosperity  and  wealth  afford 


286  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  Renaissance  its  opportunity  in  the  Eternal  City.  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  had,  indeed,  begun  the  rebuilding  of  St.  l'eter's 
from  designs  by  B.  Rossellini,  in  1450,  but  the  project  lapsed 
shortly  after  with  the  death  of  the  pope.  The  earliest  Re- 
naissance building  in  Rome  was  the  P.  di  Venezia,  begun  in 
1455,  together  with  the  adjoining  porch  of  S.  Marco.  In 
this  palace  and  the  adjoining  unfinished  Palazzetto  we  find 
the  influence  of  the  old  Roman  monuments  clearly  mani- 
fested in  the  court  arcades,  built  like  those  of  the  Colosseum, 
with  superposed  stages  of  massive  piers  and  engaged  col- 
umns carrying  entablatures.  The  proportions  are  awk- 
ward, the  details  coarse  ;  but  the  spirit  of  Roman  classic- 
ism is  here  seen  in  the  germ.  The  exterior  of  this  palace 
is,  however,  still  Gothic  in  spirit.  The  architects  are  un- 
known ;  Giuliano  da  Majano  (1452-90),  Giacomo  di  Pietra- 
santii,  and  Meo  del  Capri no  (1430-1501)  are  known  to  have 
worked  upon  it,  but  it  is  not  certain  in  what  capacity. 

The  new  style,  reaching,  and  in  time  overcoming,  the  con- 
st rvatism  of  the  Church,  overthrew  the  old  basilican  tradi- 
tions. In  S.  Agostino  (1 479-83),  by  Putrasonta,  and  S.  M.  del 
Popolo,  by  Pintelli  (?),  piers  with  pilasters  or  half-columns 
and  massive  arches  separate  the  aisles,  and  the  crossing  is 
crowned  with  a  dome.  To  the  same  period  belong  the 
Sistine  chapel  and  parts  of  the  Vatican  palace,  but  the  in- 
terest of  these  lies  rather  in  their  later  decorations  than  in 
their  somewhat  scanty  architectural  merit. 

The  architectural  renewal  of  Rome,  thus  begun,  reached 
its  culmination  in  the  following  period. 

OTHER  MONUMENTS.  The  complete  enumeration  of  even 
the  most  important  Karly  Renaissance  monuments  of  Italy 
is  impossible  within  our  limits.  Two  or  three  only  can 
here  be  singled  out  as  suggesting  types.  Among  town 
halls  of  this  period  the  first  place  belongs  to  the  P.  del  Con- 

siglio  at  Verona,  by  /*'/./  Giocond*  (1435-1515)-  I"  llHS 
beautiful  edifice  the   facade  consists  of  a  light  and  graceful 


THE  EARLY   RENAISSANCE   IN   ITALY.  287 

arcade  supporting  a  wall  pierced  with  four  windows,  and 
covered  with  elaborate  frescoed  arabesques  (recently  re- 
stored). Its  unfortunate  division  by  pilasters  into  four 
bays,  with  a  pier  in  the  centre,  is  a  blemish  avoided  in  the 
contemporary  P.  del  Consiglio  at  Padua.  The  Ducal  Palace 
at  Urbino,  by  Luciano  da  Laurano  (1468),  is  noteworthy  for 
its  fine  arcaded  court,  and  was  highly  famed  in  its  day.  At 
Brescia  S.  M.  dei  Miracoli  is  a  remarkable  example  of  a  cru- 
ciform domical  church  dating  from  the  close  of  this  period, 
and  is  especially  celebrated  for  the  exuberant  decoration  of 
its  porch  and  its  elaborate  detail.  Few  campaniles  were 
built  in  this  period  ;  the  best  of  them  are  at  Venice.  Naples 
possesses  several  interesting  Early  Renaissance  monuments, 
chief  among  which  are  the  Porta  Capuana  (1484),  by  Giul. 
da  Majano,  the  triumphal  Arch  of  Alphonso  of  Arragon,  by 
Pietro  di  Martino,  and  the  P.  Gravina,  by  Gab.  d'Agnolo. 
Naples  is  also  very  rich  in  minor  works  of  the  early  Re- 
naissance, in  which  it  ranks  with  Florence,  Venice,  and 
Rome. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE     IN     ITALY— Continued. 

THE    ADVANCED    RENAISSANCE    AND    DECLINE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Burckhardt,  Cico- 
gnara,  Fergusson,  Palustre.  Also,  Gauthier,  Les  plus  beaux 
edifices  de  Genes,  (ieymiiller,  Les  projets  primitifs  pour  la 
basilique  de  St.  Pierre  de  Rome.  Gurlitt,  Geschichte  des  Ba- 
rockstiles  in  Italic  n.  Letarouilly,  Edifices  de  Rome  Mode  me  ; 
Le  Vatican.     Palladio,  The  Works  of  A.  Palladio. 

CHARACTER  OF  THJE  ADVANCED  RENAISSANCE.  It  was  inev- 
itable that  the  study  and  imitation  of  Roman  architecture 
should  lead  to  an  increasingly  literal  rendering  of  classic 
details  and  a  closer  copying  of  antique  compositions.  Tow- 
ard the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  symptoms  began 
to  multiply  of  the  approaching  reign  of  formal  classicism. 
Correctness  in  the  reproduction  of  old  Roman  forms  came 
in  time  to  be  esteemed  as  one  of  the  chief  of  architectural 
virtues,  and  in  the  following  period  the  orders  became  the 
principal  resource  of  the  architect.  During  the  so-called 
Cinquecento,  that  is,  from  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury to  nearly  or  quite  1550,  architecture  still  retained 
much  of  the  freedom  and  refinement  of  the  Quattrocento. 
There  was  meanwhile  a  notable  advance  in  dignity  and 
amplitude  of  design,  especially  in  the  internal  distribution 
of  buildings.  Externally  the  orders  were  freely  used  as 
subordinate  features  in  the  decoration  of  doors  and  win* 
'lows,  and  in  court  arcades  of  the  Roman   type.     The  I 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.  289 

tern-crowned  dome  upon  a  high  chum  was  developed  into 
one  of  the  noblest  of  architectural  forms.  Great  attention 
was  bestowed  upon  all  subordinate  features  ;  doors  and 
windows  were  treated  with  frames  and  pediments  of  ex- 
treme elegance  and  refinement ;  all  the  cornices  and 
mouldings  were  proportioned  and  profiled  with  the  utmost 
care,  and  the  balustrade  was  elaborated  into  a  feature  at 
once  useful  and  highly  ornate.  Interior  decoration  was 
even  more  splendid  than  before,  if  somewhat  less  delicate 
and  subtle  ;  relief  enrichments  in  stucco  were  used  with 
admirable  effect,  and  the  greatest  artists  exercised  their 
talents  in  the  painting  of  vaults  and  ceilings,  as  in  P.  del 
T6  at  Mantua,  by  Giulio  Romano  (1492-1546),  and  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel  at  Rome,  by  Michael  Angelo.  This  period  is 
distinguished  by  an  exceptional  number  of  great  architects 
and  buildings.  It  was  ushered  in  by  Bramante  Lazzari,  of 
Urbino  (1444-1514),  and  closed  during  the  career  of  Michael 
Angelo  Buonarotti  (1475-1564)  ;  two  names  worthy  to  rank 
with  that  of  Brunelleschi.  Inferior  only  to  these  in  archi- 
tectural genius  were  Raphael  (1483-15 20),  Baldassare  Pe- 
ruzzi  (1481-1536),  Antonio  da  San  Gallo  the  Younger  (1485- 
1546),  and  G.  Barozzi  da  Vignola  (1507-1572),  in  Rome  ; 
Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino  (1479-15 70),  in  Venice,  and  others 
almost  equally  illustrious.  This  period  witnessed  the  erec- 
tion of  an  extraordinary  series  of  palaces,  villas,  and 
churches,  the  beginning  and  much  of  the  construction  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  a  complete  transformation  in  the 
aspect  of  that  city. 

BRAMANTE'S  WORKS.  While  precise  time  limits  cannot  be 
set  to  architectural  styles,  it  is  not  irrational  to  date  this 
period  from  the  maturing  of  Bramante's  genius.  While  his 
earlier  works  in  Milan  belong  to  the  Quattrocento  (S.  M. 
delle  Grazie,  the  sacristy  of  San  Satiro,  the  extension  of  the 
Great  Hospital),  his  later  designs  show  the  classic  tendency 
very  clearly.  .The  charming  Tempietto  in  the  court  of  S. 
l9 


290 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Pietro  in  Montorio  at  Rome,  a  circular  temple-like  chapel 
(1502),  is  composed  of  purely  classic  elements.  In  the  P. 
Giraud  (Fig.  166)  and  the  great  Cancelleria  Palace,  pilas- 
ters appear  in  the  external  composition,  and  all  the  details 
of  doors  and  windows  betray  the  results  of  classic  study, 
as  well  as  the  refined  taste  of  their  designer.*  The  beauti- 
ful courtyard  of  the  Cancelleria  combines  the  Florentine 
system  of  arches  on  columns  with  the  Roman  system  of 

superposed  arcades 
independent  of  the 
court  wall.  In  1506 
Bramante  began  the 
rebuilding  of  St. 
Peter's  for  Julius  II. 
(see  p.  294)  and  the 
construction  of  a 
new  and  imposing 
papal  palace  adjoin- 
ing it  on  the  Vatican 
hill.  Of  this  colos- 
sal group  of  edifices, 
commonly  known  as 
the  Vatican,  he  ex- 


F1G.    166.— PARADE   OK   THE   GIRAUD    PALACE,    ROME. 


ecuted  the  greater 
Belvedere  court  (afterward  divided  in  two  by  the  Library 
and  the  Braccio  Nuovo),  the  lesser  octagonal  court  of  tl 
Belvedere,  and  the  court  of  San  Damaso,  with  its  arcade 
afterward  frescoed  by  Raphael  and  his  school.  Reside 
these,  the  cloister  of  S.  M.  della  Pace,  and  many  otlu 
works  in  and  out  of  Rome,  reveal  the  impress  of  Rraniantt 
genius,  alike  in  their  admirable  plans  and  in  the  harmoi 
and  beauty  of  their  details. 

FLORENTINE  PALACES.  The  P.  Riccardi  long  remauu 
the  accepted  type  of  palace  in  Florence.  As  we  have  set 
it  was  imitated  in  the  Strozzi  palace,  as  late  as   1489,  wit 

*  Sec  Appendix  <". 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.         291 

greater  perfection  of  detail,  but  with  no  radical  change  of 
conception.  In  the  P.  Gondi,  however,  begun  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo  (1445-1516),  a  more 
pronounced  classic  spirit  appears,  especially  in  the  court 
and  the  interior  design.  Early  in  the  16th  century  classic 
columns  and  pediments  began  to  be  used  as  decora- 
tions for  doors  and  windows  ;  the  rustication  was  confined 
to  basements  and  corner-quoins,  and  niches,  loggias,  and 
porches  gave  variety  of  light  and  shade  to  the  facades 
(P.  Bartolini,  by  Baccio  d'Agnolo  ;  P.  Larderel,  15 15,  by  Do- 
sio ;  P.  Guadagni,  by  Cronaca ;  P.  Pandolfini,  15 18,  attri- 
buted to  Raphael).  In  the  P.  Serristori,  by  Baccio  d'Ag- 
nolo (15 10),  pilasters  were  applied  to  the  composition  of  the 
facade,  but  this  example  was  not  often  followed  in  Flor- 
ence. 

ROMAN  PALACES.  These  followed  a  different  type.  They 
were  usually  of  great  size,  and  built  around  ample  courts 
with  arcades  of  classic  model  in  two  or  three  stories.  The 
broad  street  facade  in  three  stories  with  an  attic  or  mezza- 
nine was  crowned  with  a  rich  cornice.  The  orders  were 
sparingly  used  externally,  and  effect  was  sought  principally 
in  the  careful  proportioning  of  the  stories,  in  the  form  and 
distribution  of  the  square-headed  and  arched  openings,  and 
in  the  design  of  mouldings,  string-courses,  cornices,  and 
other  details.  The  piano  nobile,  or  first  story  above  the 
basement,  was  given  up  to  suites  of  sumptuous  reception- 
rooms  and  halls,  with  magnificent  ceilings  and  frescoes  by 
the  great  painters  of  the  day,  while  antique  statues  and  re- 
liefs adorned  the  courts,  vestibules,  and  niches  of  these 
princely  dwellings.  The  Massimi  palace,  by  Peruzzi,  is  an 
interesting  example  of  this  type.  The  Vatican,  Cancelleria, 
and  Giraud  palaces  have  already  been  mentioned  ;  other  not- 
able palaces  are  the  Palma  (1506)  and  Sacchetti  (1540),  by 
A.  da  San  Gallo  the  Younger  ;  the  Farnesina,  by  Peruzzi, 
with  celebrated  fresco  decorations  designed  by  Raphael ; 


292 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


and  the  Lante  (1520)  and  A 1  temps  (1530),  by  Pefuzzi.     Hut 
the  noblest  creation  of  this  period  was  the 

FABNESE  PALACE,  by  many  esteemed  the  finest  in  Italy. 
It  was  begun  in  1530  for  Alex.  Farnese  (Paul  III.)  by  A. 
da  San  Gallo  the  Younger,  with  Vignola's  collaboration. 
The  simple  but  admirable  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  167,  and 

the  courtyard,  the  most  impos- 
ing in  Italy,  in  Fig.  168.  The 
exterior  is  monotonous,  but  the 
noble  cornice  by  Michael  An- 
gelo  measurably  redeems  this 
defect.  The  fine  vaulted  col- 
umnar entrance  vestibule,  the 
court  and  the  salons,  make  up 
an  ensemble  worthy  of  the  great 
architects  who  designed  it. 
The  loggia  toward  the  rivet 
was  added  by  G.  delta  Porta 
in  1580. 
VILLAS.  The  Italian  villa  of 
"^  this  pleasure-loving  period  af- 
1  »knui  MI.MB.  forded  full  scope  for  the  most 
playful  fancies  of  the  architect,  decorator,  and  landscape 
gardener.  It  comprised  usually  a  dwelling,  a  casino  or 
amusement-house,  and  many  minor  edifices,  summer-houses 
arcades,  etc.,  disposed  in  extensive  grounds  laid  out  wit 
terraces,  cascades,  and  shaded  alleys.  The  style  was  grace- 
ful, sometimes  trivial,  but  almost  always  pleasing,  makinj 
free  use  of  stucco  enrichments,  both  internally  and  e> 
ternally,  with  abundance  of  gilding  and  frescoing.  The 
Villa  Madama  (15 16),  by  Raphael,  with  stucco-decorations 
by  Giulio  Romano,  though  incomplete  and  now  dilapidated, 
is  a  noted  example  of  the  style.  More  complete,  the  Villa 
of  Pope  Julius,  by  Vignola  (1550),  belongs  by  its  purity  of 
style  to  this  period  ;  its  facade  well  exemplifies  the  simplicity, 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY. 


293 


dignity,  and  fine  proportions  of  this  master's  work.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  Roman  villas  may  be  mentioned  the  V. 
Medici  (1540,  by  Annibale  Lippi ;  now  the  French  Academy  of 
Rome)  ;  the  Casino  del  Papa  in  the  Vatican  Gardens,  by  Pino 
Ligorio  (1560) ;  the  V.  Lante,  near  Viterbo,  and  the  V.  d'Este, 
at  Tivoli,  as  displaying  among  almost  countless  others  the 
Italian  skill  in  combining  architecture  and  gardening. 

CHURCHES  AND  CHAPELS.  This  period  witnessed  the  build- 
ing of  a  few  churches  of  the  first  rank,  but  it  was  especially 
prolific  in  memorial,  votive,  and  sepulchral  chapels  added 
to  churches  already  existing,  like  the  Chigi  Chapel  of  S.  M. 
del  Popolo,  by  Raphael.  The  earlier  churches  of  this 
period  generally  followed  antecedent  types,  with  the  dome 
as  the  central  feature  domi- 
nating a  cruciform  plan,  and 
simple,  unostentatious  and 
sometimes  uninteresting  ex- 
teriors. Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  :  at  Pistoia,  S.  M. 
del  Letto  and  S.  M.  dell' 
Umilta,  the  latter  a  fine  dom- 
ical rotunda  by  Ventura  Vitoni 
(1509),  with  an  imposing  ves- 
tibule ;  at  Venice,  S.  Salva- 
tore,  by  Tullio  Lombardo 
(1530),  an  admirable  edifice 
with  alternating  domical  and 
barrel-vaulted  bays  ;  S.  Geor- 
gio  dei  Grechi  (1536),  by 
Sansovino,  and  S.  M.  Formosa ; 
at  Todi,  the  Madonna  della  Consolazione  ( 1 5 1  o),  by  Cola  da 
Caprarola,  a  charming  design  with  a  high  dome  and  four 
apses  ;  at  Montefiascone,  the  Madonna  delle  Grazie.  by 
Sammichde  (1523),  besides  several  churches  at  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  Prato,  Sienna,  and  Rome  of  almost  or  quite  equal 


— ANGLE  OF  COURT  OF  FARNESE 
PALACE,  ROME. 


294 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


interest.  In  these  churches  one  may  trace  the  development 
of  the  dome  as  an  external  feature,  while  in  S.  Biagio,  at 
Montepulciano,  the  effort  was  made  by  Ant.  da  San  Gallo 
the  Elder  to  combine  with  it  the  contrasting  lines  of  two 
campaniles,  of  which,  however,  but  one  was  completed. 

ST.  PETER'S.  The  culmination  of  Renaissance  church  ar- 
chitecture was  reached  in  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome.  The  orig- 
inal project  of  Nicholas  V.  having  lapsed  with  his  death, 
it  was  the  intention  of  Julius  II.  to  erect  on  the  same 
site  a  stupendous  mausoleum  over  the  monument  he  had 
ordered  of  Michael  Angelo.  The  design  of  Bramante,  who 
began  its  erection  in  1506,  comprised  a  Greek  cross  with 
apsidal  arms,  the  four  angles  occupied  by  domical  chapels 
and  loggias  within  a  square  outline  (Fig.  169).  The  too 
hasty  execution  of  this  noble  design  led  to  the  collapse  of 
two  of  the  arches  under  the  dome,  and  to  long  delays  after 
Bramante's  death  in  15 14.  Raphael,  Giuliano  da  San  Gal- 
lo, Peruzzi,  and  A.  da 
San  Gallo  the  Younger 
successively  supervised 

the  works  under  the 
popes  from  Leo  X.  to 
Paul  III.,  and  devised  a 
vast  number  of  plans  U  >r 
its  completion.  Most 
of  these  involved  fun- 
damental alterations  of 
the  original  scheme,  and 
were  motived  by  the 
abandonment  of  the  pro- 
posed monument  of  Ju- 
lius   II.  ;    a   church,  and 

not  a  mausoleum,  being  in  consequence  required.  In  1546 
Michael  Angelo  was  assigned  by  Paul  III.  to  the  works, 
and  gave  final  form  to  the  general  design  in  a  simplified 


rlC,.   169. — ORIf.lNM.    PLAN  Of    ST.   I'F.TKK'1.,   BOMK. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


295 


version  of  Bramante's  plan  with  more  massive  supports,  a 
square  east  front  with  a  portico  for  the  chief  entrance,  and 
the  unrivalled  Dome,  which  is  its  most  striking  feature. 
This  dome,  slightly  altered 
and  improved  in  curvature 
by  della  Porta  after  M. 
Angelo's  death  in  1564, 
was  completed  by  D.  Fon- 
tana  in  1604.  It  is  the  most 
majestic  creation  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  architectural 
conceptions  of  all  history. 
It  measures  140  feet  in 
internal  diameter,  and  with 
its  two  shells  rises  from  a 
lofty  drum,  buttressed  by 
coupled  Corinthian  col- 
umns, to  a  height  of  405 
feet  to  the  top  of  the  lan- 
tern. The  church,  as  left 
by  Michael  Angelo,  was 
harmonious  in  its  propor- 
tions, though  the  single 
order  used  internally  and 
externally  dwarfed  by  its 
colossal  scale  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  edifice.  Un- 
fortunately in  1606  C.  Maderna  was  employed  by  Paul  V.  to 
lengthen  the  nave  by  two  bays,  destroying  the  proportions 
of  the  whole,  and  hiding  the  dome  from  view  on  a  near  ap- 
proach. The  present  tasteless  facade  was  Maderna's 
work.  The  splendid  atrium  or  portico  added  (1629-67),  by 
Bernini,  as  an  approach,  mitigates  but  does  not  cure  the 
Ugliness  and  pettiness  of  this  front. 

St.  Peter's  as  thus  completed  (Fig.  170)  is  the  largest 


# 


5  «fc  "&oft 


FIG.    I70. — PLAN    OF    ST.    PETER'S,     ROME,   AS 
NOW   STANDING. 

The  portion  below  the  line  A,  B,  and  the 
side  chapels,  C,  D,  were  added  by  Maderna. 
The  remainder  represents  Michael  Angelo's 
plan. 


2</>  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

church  in  existence,  and  in  many  respects  is  architecturally 

worthy  of  its  pre-eminence.  The  central  aisle,  nearly  600 
feet  long,  with  its  stupendous  panelled  and  gilded  vault,  83 
feet  in  span,  the  vast  central  area  and  the  majestic  dome, 
belong  to  a  conception  unsurpassed  in  majestic  simplicity 
and  effectiveness.  The  construction  is  almost  excessively 
massive,  but  admirably  disposed.  On  the  other  hand  the 
nave  is  tco  long,  and  the  details  not  only  lack  originality 
and  interest,  but  are  also  too  large  and  coarse  in  scale, 
dwarfing  the  whole  edifice.  The  interior  (Fig.  171)  is  want- 
ing in  the  sobriety  of  color  that  befits  so  stately  a  design  : 
it  suggests  rather  a  pagan  temple  than  a  Christian  basilica. 
These  faults  reveal  the  decline  of  taste  which  had  already 
set  in  before  Michael  Angelo  took  charge  of  the  work,  and 
which  appears  even  in  the  works  of  that  master. 

THE  PEEIOD  OF  FOEMAL  CLASSICISM.  With  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  the  classic  orders  began  to  dominate  all 
architectural  design.  While  Vignola,  who  wrote  a  tr< 
tise  upon  the  orders,  employed  them  with  unfailing  refine- 
ment and  judgment,  his  contemporaries  showed  less  dis- 
cernment and  taste,  making  of  them  an  end  rather  than  a 
means.  Too  often  mere  classical  correctness  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  fundamental  qualities  of  original  invention 
and  intrinsic  beauty  of  composition.  The  innovation  of 
colossal  orders  extending  through  several  stories,  while  it 
gave  to  exterior  designs  a  certain  grandeur  of  scale,  tended 
to  coarseness  and  even  vulgarity  of  detail.  Sculpture  and 
ornament  began  to  lose  their  refinement  ;  and  while  Street- 
an  hite<  ture  gained  in  monumental  scale,  and  public  squares 
received  a  more  stately  adornment  than  ever  before,  the 
facades  individually  were  too  often  bare  and  unin- 
teresting in  their  correct  formality.  In  the  interiors  of 
churches  and  large  halls  there  appears  a  struggle  between  a 
(old  and  dignified  simplicity  and  a  growing  tendency  tow- 
ard pretentious  sham,     but  these  pernicious  tendencies  did 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.         299 

not  fully  mature  till  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  and  the 
half-century  after  1540  or  1550  was  prolific  of  notable  works 
in  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular  architecture.  The  names 
of  Michael  Angelo  and  Vignola,  whose  careers  began  in  the 
preceding  period  ;  of  Palladio  and  della  Porta  (1541-1604) 
in  Rome  ;  of  Sammichele  and  Sansovino  in  Verona  and 
Venice,  and  of  Galeazzo  Alessi  in  Genoa,  stand  high  in  the 
ranks  of  architectural  merit. 

churches.  The  type  established  by  St.  Peter's  was 
widely  imitated  throughout  Italy.  The  churches  in  which 
a  Greek  or  Latin  cross  is  dominated  by  a  high  dome  rising 
from  a  drum  and  terminating  in  a  lantern,  and  is  treated 
both  internally  and  externally  with  Roman  Corinthian  pilas- 
ters and  arches,  are  almost  numberless.  Among  the  best 
churches  of  this  type  is  the  Gesil  at  Rome,  by  Vignola 
(1568),  with  a  highly  ornate  interior  of  excellent  propor- 
tions and  a  less  interesting  exterior,  the  facade  adorned 
with  two  stories  of  orders  and  great  flanking  volutes  over 
the  sides  (see  p.  277).  Two  churches  at  Venice,  by  Palladio — 
S.  Giorgio  Maggiore  (1560  ;  facade  by  Scamozzi,  1575)  and 
the  Redentore — offer  a  strong  contrast  to  the  Gesu,  in  their 
cold  and  almost  bare  but  pure  and  correct  design.  An  imi- 
tation of  Bramante's  plan  for  St.  Peter's  appears  in  S.  M.  di 
Carignano,  at  Genoa,  by  Galeazzo  Alessi  (1500-72),  begun 
1552,  a  fine  structure,  though  inferior  in  scale  and  detail  to 
its  original.  Besides  these  and  other  important  churches 
there  were  many  large  domical  chapels  of  great  splendor 
added  to  earlier  churches  ;  of  these  the  Chapel  of  Sixtus  V. 
in  S.  M.  Maggiore,  at  Rome,  by  D.  Fontana  (1543-1607),  is 
an  excellent  example. 

PALACES:  ROME.  The  palaces  on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  built 
at  different  dates  (1540-1644)  from  designs  by  Michael  An- 
gelo, illustrate  the  palace  architecture  of  this  period,  and 
the  imposing  effect  of  a  single  colossal  order  running 
through  two  stories.     This  treatment,  though  well  adapted 


300  HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

to  produce  monumental  effects  in  large  squares,  was  dan- 
gerous in  its  bareness  and  heaviness  of  scale,  and  was  bet- 
ter suited  for  buildings  of  vast  dimensions  than  for  ordi- 
nary street-facades.  In  other  Roman  palaces  of  this  time 
the  traditions  of  the  preceding  period  still  prevailed,  as  in 
the  Sapienza  (University),  by  della  Porta  (1575),  which  has 
a  dignified  court  and  a  facade  of  great  refinement  without 
columns  or  pilasters.  The  Papal  palaces  built  by  Domen- 
ico  Fontana  on  the  Lateran,  Quirinal,  and  Vatican  hills, 
between  1574  and  1590,  externally  copying  the  style  of  the 
Farnese,  show  a  similar  return  to  earlier  models,  but  are 
less  pure  and  refined  in  detail  than  the  Sapienza.  The 
great  pentagonal  Palace  of  Caprarola,  near  Rome,  by  Vig- 
nola,  is  perhaps  the  most  successful  and  imposing  produc- 
tion of  the  Roman  classic  school. 

VERONA.  Outside  of  Rome,  palace  building  took  on  vari- 
ous local  and  provincial  phases  of  style,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  the  closely  related  styles  of  Verona,  Venice, 
and  Vicenza.  Michdc  Sanimiihelr  (14S4-1549),  who  built 
in  Verona  the  Bevilacqua,  Canossa,  Pompei,  and  Verzi  pal- 
aces and  the  four  chief  city  gates,  and  in  Venice  the  P. 
Grimani,  his  masterpiece  (1550),  was  a  designer  of  great 
originality  and  power.  He  introduced  into  his  military 
architecture,  as  in  the  gates  of  Verona,  the  use  of  rusticated 
orders,  which  he  treated  with  skill  and  taste.  The  idea 
was  copied  by  later  architects  and  applied,  with  doubtful 
propriety,  to  palace-facades;  though  Ammanati's  garden- 
facade  for  the  Pitti  palace,  in  Florence  (cir.  1560),  is  an  im- 
HVe  and  successful  design. 

VENICE.  Into  the  development  of  the  maturing  class 
style  Giacopo  Tatti  Sansovino  (147 7-1 5 70)  introduced  in 
Venetian  buildings  new  elements  of  splendor.  Coupled 
columns  between  arches  themselves  supported  on  col- 
umns, and  a  profusion  of  figure  sculpture,  gave  to  his  pal- 
hitherto  unknown  magnificence  of  effect,  as 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY. 


30I 


in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark  (now  the  Royal  Palace,  Fig.  172), 
and  the  Cornaro  palace  (P.  Corner  de  Ck  Grande),  both 
dating  from  about  1530-40.  So  strongly  did  he  impress 
upon  Venice  these  ornate  and  sumptuous  variations  on 
classic  themes,  that  later 
architects  adhered,  in  a 
very  debased  period,  to 
the  main  features  and 
spirit  of  his  work. 

VICENZA.  Of  Palla- 
dia's churches  in  Venice 
we  have  already  spoken ; 
his  palaces  are  mainly 
to  be  found  in  his  native 
city,  Vicenza.  In  these 
structures  he  displayed 
great  fertility  of  inven- 
tion and  a  profound  fa- 
miliarity with  the  classic 
orders,  but  the  degener- 
ate taste  of  the  Baroque 
period  already  begins  to 
show  itself  in  his  work. 
There  is  far  less  of  archi- 
tectural propriety  and 
grace  in  these  preten- 
tious palaces,  with  their 
colossal  orders  and  their 
affectation  of  grandeur,  than  in  the  designs  of  Vignola  or 
Sammichele.  Wood  and  plaster,  used  to  mimic  stone,  in- 
dicate the  approaching  reign  of  sham  in  all  design  (P.  Bar- 
barano,  1570  ;  Chieregati,  1560  ;  Tiene,  Valmarano,  1556; 
Villa  Capra).  His  masterpiece  is  the  two-storied  arcade 
about  the  mediaeval  Basilica,  in  which  the  arches  are  sup- 
ported on  a  minor  order  between  engaged  columns  serving 


FIG.   172. — LIBRARY   OF   ST.    MARK,    VENICE. 


302 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


as   buttresses.     This  treatment  has    in  consequence   ever 
since  been  known  as  the  Palladia*  Motive. 

GENOA.  During  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
a  remarkable  series  of  palaces  was  erected  in  Genoa,  es- 
pecially notable  for  their  great  courts  and  imposing  stair- 
cases. These  last  were  given  unusual  prominence  owing 
to  differences  of  level  in  the  courts,  arising  from  the  slope 
of  their  sites  on  the  hillside.  Many  of  these  palaces  were 
by  (ialeazzo  Alessi  (1502-72)  ;  others  by  architects  of  lesser 
note  ;  but  nearly  all  characterized  by  their  effective  plan- 
ning, fine  stairs  and 
loggias,  and  strong  and 
dignified,  if  sometimes 
uninteresting,  detail  (P. 
Balbi.  Brignole,  Cambi 
asi,  Doria-Tursi  [or  Mu- 
nicipio],  Durazzo  [or 
RealeJ,  Pallavicini,  and 
University). 

THE  BAROQUE  STYLE. 
A  reaction  from  the  cold 
classic ismo  of  the  late  six- 
teenth century  showed 
itself  in  the  following 
period,  in  the  lawless 
and     vulgar    extrava- 

es  of  the  so-called 
Baroqmt  style.  The 
wealthy  Jesuit  order 
1  notorious  contrib- 
utor to  the  debasement 
of  architectural  tas 
Moat  of  the  Jesuit  churches  and  many  others  not  belong- 
ing to  the  order,  but  following  its  pernicous  example,  are 
monuments  of   bad    taste  and  pretentious  sham,     broken 


FIG.  173. — INTERIOR    OF    SAN   SKVP.RO,    H  I 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY. 


303 


and  contorted  pediments,  huge  scrolls,  heavy  mouldings, 
ill-applied  sculpture  in  exaggerated  attitudes,  and  a  general 
disregard  for  architectural  propriety  characterized  this 
period,  especially  in 
its  church  architect- 
ure, to  whose  style 
the  name  Jesuit  is 
often  applied.  Sham 
marble  and  heavy 
and  excessive  gild- 
ing were  universal 
(Fig.  173).  C.  Ma- 
derna  (1556- 1629), 
Lorenzo  Bernini 
( 1 589-1680),  and  F. 
Bo rromini  (1599— 
1667)  were  the  worst 
offenders  of  the  pe- 
riod, though  Bernini 
was  an  artist  of  un- 
doubted ability,  as 
proved  by  his  colon- 
nades or  atrium  in 
front  of  St.  Peter's. 
There  were,  howev- 
er, architects  of  purer  taste  whose  works  even  in  that  de- 
based age  were  worthy  of  admiration. 

BAROQUE  CHURCHES.  The  Baroque  style  prevailed  in 
church  architecture  for  almost  two  centuries.  The  major- 
ity of  the  churches  present  varieties  of  the  cruciform  plan 
crowned  by  a  high  dome  which  is  usually  the  best  part  of 
the  design.  Everywhere  else  the  vices  of  the  period  ap- 
pear in  these  churches,  especially  in  their  facades  and  in- 
ternal decoration.  S.  M.  della  Vittoria,  by  Maderna,  and 
Sta.  Agnese,  by  Borromini,  both  at  Rome,  are  examples  of  the 


FIG.  174. — CHURCH    OF   S.    M.    DELLA    SALUTE,    VENICE. 


304  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

style.  Naples  is  particularly  full  of  Baroque  chun  Kes  (li.u. 
173),  a  few  of  which,  like  the  Gesii  Nuovo  (1584),  are  dignified 
and  creditable  designs.  The  domical  church  of  S.  M.  della 
Salute,  at  Venice  (1631),  by  Longhena,  is  also  a  majestic  edi- 
fice in  excellent  style  (Fig.  174),  and  here  and  there  other 
churches  offer  exceptions  to  the  prevalent  basent 
architecture.  Particularly  objectionable  was  the  wholesale 
disfigurement  of  existing  monuments  by  ruthless  remodel- 
ling, as  in  S.  John  Lateran,  at  Rome,  the  cathedrals  of  Fer- 
rara  and  Ravenna,  and  many  others. 

PALACES.  These  were  generally  superior  to  the  churches, 
and  not  infrequently  impressive  and  dignified  structures. 
The  two  best  examples  in  Rome  are  the  P.  Borghese,  by 
Martino  Lunghi  the  Elder  (1590),  with  a  fine  court  arcade  on 
coupled  Doric  and  Ionic  columns,  and  the  P.  Barberini,  by 
Maderna  and  Borromini,  with  an  elliptical  staircase  by 
Bernini,  one  of  the  few  palaces  in  Italy  with  projecting 
lateral  wings.  In  Venice,  Longhena,  in  the  Rezzonico  and 
Pesaro  palaces  (1650-80),  showed  his  freedom  from  the  man- 
nerisms of  the  age  by  reproducing  successfully  the  ornate 
but  dignified  style  of  Sansovino  (see  p.  301).  At  Naples  I). 
Fontana,  whose  works  overlap  the  Baroque  period,  produced 
in  the  Royal  Palace  (1600)  and  the  Royal  Museum  (1586-16 15) 
designs  of  considerable  dignity,  in  some  respects  superior  to 
his  papal  residences  in  Rome.  In  suburban  villas,  like  the 
Albani  and  Borghese  villas  near  Rome,  the  ostentatious 
style  of  the  Decline  found  free  and  congenial  expression. 

LATER  MONUMENTS.     In  the  few  eighteenth-century  build- 
vhich  are  worthy  of  mention  there  is  noticeable  a  reac- 
tion  from  the  extravagances  of  the   seventeenth   century, 
shown  in  the  dignified  correctness  of  the  exteriors  and  the 
somewhat  frigid  splendor  of  the  interiors.      The  most  q< 
ble  work  of  this  period  is  the  Royal  Palace  at  Caserta, 
Win    Vitrlli  (1752),  an  architect   of  considerable  taste  a 
inventiv<  Dsidering  his  time.     This  great  palace, 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    ITALY.         305 

feet  square,  encloses  four  fine  courts,  and  is  especially  re- 
in, ukable  for  the  simple  if  monotonous  dignity  of  the  well 
proportioned  exterior  and  the  effective  planning  of  its  three 
octagonal  vestibules,  its  ornate  chapel  and  noble  staircase. 
Staircases,  indeed,  were  among  the  most  successful  features 
of  late  Italian  architecture,  as  in  the  Scala  Regia  of  the 
Vatican,  and  in  the  Corsini,  Braschi,  and  Barberini  palaces 
at  Rome,  the  Royal  Palace  at  Naples,  etc. 

In  church  architecture  the  east  front  of  S.  John  Lateran 
in  Rome,  by  Galilei  (1734),  and  the  whole  exterior  of  S.  M. 
Maggiore,  by  Ferd.  Fuga  (1743),  are  noteworthy  designs: 
the  former  an  especially  powerful  conception,  combining  a 
colossal  order  with  two  smaller  orders  in  superposed  loggie, 
but  marred  by  the  excessive  scale  of  the  statues  which 
crown  it.  The  Fountain  of  Trevi,  conceived  in  much  the 
same  spirit  (1735,  by  Niccola  Salvi),  is  a  striking  piece  of 
decorative  architecture.  The  Sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  by 
Marchionne  (1775),  also  deserves  mention  as  a  monumental 
and  not  uninteresting  work.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
present  century  the  Braccio  Nuovo  of  the  Vatican,  by  Stem, 
the  imposing  church  of  S.  Francesco  di  Paola  at  Naples,  by 
Bianclii,  designed  in  partial  imitation  of  the  Pantheon,  and 
the  great  S.  Carlo  Theatre  at  Naples,  show  the  same  coldly 
classical  spirit,  not  wholly  without  merit,  but  lacking  in 
true  originality  and  freedom  of  conception. 

campaniles.  The  campaniles  of  the  Renaissance  and 
Decline  deserve  at  least  passing  reference,  though  they  are 
neither  numerous  nor  often  of  conspicuous  interest.  That 
of  the  Campidoglio  (Capitol)  at  Rome,  by  Martino  Lunghi,  is 
a  good  example  of  the  classical  type.  Venetia  possesses  a 
number  of  graceful  and  lofty  bell-towers,  generally  of  brick 
with  marble  bell-stages,  of  which  the  upper  part  of  the 
Campanile  of  St.  Mark  and  the  tower  of  S.  Giorgio  Mag- 
giore are  the  finest  examples. 

The  Decline  attained  what  the  early  Renaissance  aimed 
20 


306  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

at — the  revival  of  Roman  forms.  But  it  was  no  longer  a 
Renaissance  ;  it  was  a  decrepit  and  unimaginative  art,  held 
in  the  fetters  of  a  servile  imitation,  copying  the  letter 
rather  than  the  spirit  of  antique  design.  It  was  the  mis- 
taken and  abject  worship  of  precedent  which  started  archi- 
tecture upon  its  downward  path  and  led  to  the  atrocious 
products  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

MONUMENTS  (mainly  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the  text).  15TH 
CXNtl  ky — Florence:  Foundling  Hospital  (Innocenti),  1421  ;  Old  Sac- 
risty and  Cloister  S.  Lorenzo  ;  P.  Quaratesi,  1440  ;  cloisters  at  Sta.  CfOOC 
and  Certosa,  all  by  Brunelleschi  ;  facade  S.  M.  Novella,  by  Alberti,  1456  ; 
Badia  at  Fiesole,  from  designs  of  Brunelleschi,  1462  ;  Court  of  P.  Vecchio, 
by  Michelozzi,  1464  (altered  and  enriched,  1565)  ;  P.  Guadagni,  by  Cro- 
naca,  1490;  Hall  of  500  in  P.  Vecchio,  by  same,  1495. — VBMK 
Zaccaria,  by  Martino  Lombardo,  1457-15 15  ;  S.  Michele,  by  Moro  I.om- 
bardo,  1466;  S.  If.  del  Orto,  1473;  S.  Giovanni  Crisostomo,  by  Mor<> 
Lombardo,  atrium  of  S.  Giovanni  Evangelista,  Procurazie  Vecchie,  all 
1481  ;  Scuola  di  S.  Marco,  by  Martino  Lombardo,  1490  ;  I'.  I  >ario  ;  P. 
Corner-Spinelli. — Ferrara  :  P.  Schifanoja,  1469  ;  P.  Scrofa  or  Costabili, 
1485  ;  S.  If.  in  Vado,  P.  dei  Diamanti,  P.  Bevilacqua,  S.  Franca 
Benedetto,  S.  Cristoforo,  all  1490-1500. — Milan:  Ospedale  Grande  (or 
Ifaggjore),  begun  1457  by  Filarete,  extended  by  Bramante,  cir.  1480-90 
(great  court  by  Richini,  17th  century);  S.  M.  delle  Grazie,  K.  end,  S.k - 
risty  of  S.  Satiro,  S.  M.  presso  S.  Celso,  all  by  Bramante,  1477-1499. — 
k<>MK:  S.  Pictro  in  Montorio,  1472;  S.  M.  del  Popolo,  1475?;  Sistine 
Chapel  of  Vatican,  1475  ;  S.  Agostino,  1483. — Siknna  :  Loggia  dd  Papa 
and  P.  Nerucci,  1460;  P.  del  Governo,  1469-1500  ;  P.  Spannocchi,  1470  j 
.'.  irina,  I4'><),  by  <li  iiastiano  and  Federighi,  church  later  by  Pcru/zi; 
library  in  cathedral  by  L.  Marina,  1497  ;  Oratory  of  S.  Bernardino,  by 
Turrapili,  1496. —  Piln/.\:  Cathedral,  Bishop's  Palace  (Vescovado),  P. 
I'ubblico,  all  dr.  1460,  by  1',.  di  I.orenzo  (or  Rosselini  ? ).  El  BKWHRRK  (in 
chronological  order)  :  Arch  of  Alplx.iis.,.  Naples,  1443,  by  P.  di  Martino  : 
Oratory  S.  Bernardino,  Perugia,  by  di  Duccio,  1461  ;  Church  over 
Santa,  I.oreto,  1465-1526;  P.  del  Consiglio  at  Verona,  by  Fra  Giocondo, 
1470;  Capella  Collconi,  BergaiUO,  1476  ;  S.  If.  in  Orjjano.  Verona,  1481  ; 
Porta  Capuana,  Naples,  by  Giul.  da  Majano,  14-4  ;  Madonna  della  CfOOC, 
Crema,  by  I?.  BattagH,  L40O-1556;  Madonna  di  (ampagna  and  S.  SiMo. 
Piacenza,  both  1492-1511;  P.  Uevilac  qua.  Pologna,  by  Nardi,  1402  (?)  ; 
P.    Gravina,  Napi'  1,  Bologna  J    P.    I'retorio,  Lucca  ;  S.    M.   «Iti 

Miracoli,  Brescia  ;  all  at  close  of  15th  century. 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   IN   ITALY.         307 

161 11  CENTURY — ROME  :  P.  Sera,  1501  ;  S.  M.  della  Pace  and  cloister, 
1504,  both  by  Bramante  (facade  of  church  by  P.  da  Cortona,  17th  cen- 
tury) ;  S.  M.  di  Loreto,  1507,  by  A.  da  San  Gallo  the  Elder;  P.  Vidoni, 
by  Raphael;  P.  Lante,  1520;  Vigna  Papa  Giulio,  1534,  by  Peruzzi ;  P. 
dei  Conservatori,  1540,  and  P.  del  Senatore,  1563  (both  on  Capitol),  by 
M.  Angelo,  Vignola,  and  della  Porta  ;  Sistine  Chapel  in  S.  M.  Maggiore, 
1590  ;  S.  Andrea  della  Valle,  1591,  by  Olivieri  (facade,  1670,  by  Rainaldi). 
— Florence  :  Medici  Chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo,  new  sacristry  of  same,  and 
l.aurentian  Library,  all  by  M.  Angelo,  1529-40;  Mercato  Nuovo,  1547, 
by  B.  Tasso ;  P.  degli  Uffizi,  1560-70,  by  Vasari  ;  P.  Giugni,  1560. — 
Venice  :  P.  Camerlinghi,  1525,  by  Bergamasco  ;  S.  Francesco  della  Vigna, 
by  Sansovino,  1539,  facade  by  Palladio,  1568;  Zecca  or  Mint,  1536,  and 
Loggetta  of  Campanile,  1540,  by  Sansovino  * ;  Procurazie  Nuove,  1584,  by 
Scamozzi. — Verona:  Capella  Pellegrini  in  S.  Bernardino,  1514;  City 
Gates,  by  Sammichele,  1530-40  (Porte  Nuova,  Stuppa,  S.  Zeno,  S. 
Giorgio). — Vicenza  :  P.  Porto,  1552  ;  Teatro  Olimpico,  1580  ;  both  by 
Palladio. — Genoa  :  P.  Andrea  Doria,  by  Montorsoli,  1529  ;  P.  Ducale, 
by  Pennone,  1550;  P.  Lercari,  P.  Spinola,  P.  Sauli,  P.  Marcello  Durazzo, 
all  by  Gal.  Alessi,  cir.  1550  ;  Sta.  Annunziata,  1587,  by  della  Porta  ;  Log- 
gia dei  Banchi,  end  of  16th  century. — Elsewhere  (in  chronological  order): 
P.  Roverella,  Ferrara,  1508  ;  P.  del  Magnifico,  Sienna,  1508,  by  Cozza- 
relli  ;  P.  Communale,  Brescia,  1508,  by  Formentone  ;  P.  Albergati,  Bo- 
logna, 1510;  P.  Ducale,  Mantua,  1520-40;  P.  Giustiniani,  Padua,  by 
Falconetto,  1524  ;  Ospedale  del  Ceppo,  Pistoia,  1525  ;  Madonna  delle 
Grazie,  Pistoia,  by  Vitoni,  1535  ;  P.  Buoncampagni-Ludovisi,  Bologna, 
1545  ;  Cathedral,  Padua,  1550,  by  Righetti  and  della  Valle,  after  M. 
Angelo;  P.  Bernardini,  1560,  and  P.  Ducale,  1578,  at  Lucca,  both  by 
Ammanati. 

17TH  Century  :  Chapel  of  the  Princes  in  S.  Lorenzo,  Florence,  1604, 
by  Nigetti  ;  S.  Pietro,  Bologna,  1605  ;  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte,  Rome, 
1612  ;  Villa  Borghese,  Rome,  1616,  by  Vasanzio  ;  P.  Contarini  delle  Scrig- 
ni,  Venice,  by  Scamozzi ;  Badia  at  Florence,  rebuilt  1625  by  Segaloni  ; 
S.  Ignazio,  Rome,  1626-85  !  Museum  of  the  Capitol,  Rome,  1644-50  ; 
Church  of  Gli  Scalzi,  Venice,  1649  ;  P.  Pesaro,  Venice,  by  Longhena, 
1650;  S.  Moise,  Venice,  1668  ;  Brera  Palace,  Milan  ;  S.  M.  Zobenigo, 
Venice,  1680;  Doganadi  Mare,  Venice,  1686,  by  Benone  ;  Santi  Apostoli, 
Rome. 

i8th  and  early  19TH  Century  :  Gesuati,  at  Venice,  1715-30  ;  S. 
Geremia,  Venice,  1753,  by  Corbellini ;  P.  Braschi,  Rome,  by  Morelli, 
1790;  Nuova  Fabbrica,  Venice,  1810. 

*  See  Appendix  B. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN   FRANCE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Fergusson,  Muntz, 
Palustre.  Also  Berty,  La  Renaissance  monumentale  en  France. 
Chateau,  Histoire  et  caracteres  tie  l' architecture  en  France. 
Daly,  Motifs  historic  ues  d' architecture  et  de  sculpture.  Dc 
Laborde,  La  Renaissance  des  arts  a  la  cour  de  France.  I  Hi 
Cerceau,  Les  plus  excellents  (>astinients  dc  France.  Liibke, 
Geschichte  der  Renaissance  in  Frankreich.  Mathews,  The 
Renaissance  under  the  Valois  Kings.  Palustre,  La  Renaissance 
en  France.  Pattison,  1  he  Renaissance  of  the  Fine  Arts  in 
France.  Rouyer  et  Darcel,  L'Art  architectural  en  France. 
Sauvageot,  Choix  de  palais,  chdteaux,  hotels,  et  maisons  dc 
France. 

ORIGIN  AND  CHAEACTER.  The  vitality  and  richness  of  the 
Gothic  style  in  France,  even  in  its  decline  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  long  stood  in  the  way  of  any  general  introduction 
of  classic  forms.  When  the  Renaissance  appeared,  it  came 
as  a  foreign  importation,  introduced  from  Italy  by  the  king 
and  the  nobility.  It  underwent  a  protracted  transitional 
phase,  during  which  the  national  Gothic  forms  and  tradi- 
tions were  picturesquely  mingled  with  those  of  the  Renais- 
sance. The  campaigns  of  Charles  VIII.  (1489),  Louis  XII. 
(1499),  am'  Francis  I.  (1515),  in  vindication  of  their  claims 
to  the  thrones  of  Naples  and  Milan,  brought  these  mon- 
arch* and  their  nobles  into  contact  with  the  splendid  mate- 
rial and  artistic  civilization  of  Italy,  then  in  the  full  tide  of 
the  maturing  Renaissance.  They  returned  to  France, 
filled  with  the  ambition  to  rival  the  splendid  palaces  an< 
gardens  of  Italy,  taking  with  them  Italian  artists  to  teacl 
their  arts  to  the  French.     But  while  these  Italians  success 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    FRANCE.        309 

fully  introduced  many  classic  elements  and  details  into 
French  architecture,  they  wholly  failed  to  dominate  the 
French  master-masons  and  tailleurs  de  pier  re  in  matters  of 
planning  and  general  composition.  The  early  Renaissance 
architecture  of  France  is  consequently  wholly  unlike  the 
Italian,  from  which  it  derived  only  minor  details  and  a 
certain  largeness  and  breadth  of  spirit. 

PERIODS.  The  French  Renaissance  and  its  sequent  de- 
velopments may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  periods, 
with  subdivisions  coinciding  more  or  less  closely  with  va- 
rious reigns,  as  follows  : 

I.  The  Valois  Period,  or  Renaissance  proper,  1483- 
1589,  subdivided  into  : 

a.  The  Transition,  comprising  the  reigns  of  Charles 
VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  (1483-15 15),  and  the  early  years  of 
that  of  Francis  I.  ;  characterized  by  a  picturesque  mixture 
of  classic  details  with  Gothic  conceptions. 

b.  The  Style  of  Francis  I.,  or  Early  Renaissance,  from 
about  1520  to  that  king's  death  in  1547  ;  distinguished  by  a 
remarkable  variety  and  grace  of  composition  and  beauty  of 
detail. 

c.  The  Advanced  Renaissance,  comprising  the  reigns 
of  Henry  II.  (1547),  Francis  II.  (1559),  Charles  IX.  (1560), 
and  Henry  III.  (1574-89)  ;  marked  by  the  gradual  adop- 
tion of  the  classic  orders  and  a  decline  in  the  delicacy  and 
richness  of  the  ornament. 

II.  The  Bourbon  or  Classic  Period  (1589-1715) : 

a.  Style  of  Henry  IV.,  covering  his  reign  and  partly 
that  of  Louis  XIII.  (1610-45),  employing  the  orders  and 
other  classic  forms  with  a  somewhat  heavy,  florid  style  of 
ornament. 

b.  Style  of  Louis  XIV.,  beginning  in  the  preceding 
reign  and  extending  through  that  of  Louis  XIV.  (1645- 
1715)  ;  the  great  age  of  classic  architecture  in  France,  cor- 
responding to  the  Palladian  in  Italy. 


3IO  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

III.  The  Decline  or  Rococo  Period,  corresponding 
with  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  (1715-74) ;  marked  by  pom- 
pous extravagance  and  capriciousness. 

During  this  period  a  reaction  set  in  toward  a  severer 
classicism,  leading  to  the  styles  of  Louis  XVI.  and  of  the 
Empire,  to  be  treated  of  in  a  later  chapter. 

THE  transition.  As  early  as  1475  the  new  style  made 
its  appearance  in  altars,  tombs,  and  rood-screens  wrought 
by  French  carvers  with  the  collaboration  of  Italian  arti- 
ficers. The  tomb  erected  by  Charles  of  Anjou  to  his  fa- 
ther in  Le  Mans  cathedral  (1475,  by  Francesco  Laurana),  the 
chapel  of  St.  Lazare  in  the  cathedral  of  Marseilles  (1483), 
and  the  tomb  of  the  children  of  Charles  VIII.  in  Tours  ca- 
thedral (1506),  by  Michel  Columbe,  the  greatest  artist  of  his 
time  in  France,  are  examples.  The  schools  of  Rouen  and 
Tours  were  especially  prominent  in  works  of  this  kind, 
marked  by  exuberant  fancy  and  great  delicacy  of  execu- 
tion. In  church  architecture  Gothic  traditions  were  long 
dominant,  in  spite  of  the  great  numbers  of  Italian  prelates 
in  France.  It  was  in  c/idtraux,  palaces,  and  dwellings  that 
the  new  style  achieved  its  most  notable  triumphs. 

early  CHATEAUX.  The  castle  of  Charles  VIIL,  at  Am- 
boise  on  the  Loire,  shows  little  trace  of  Italian  influence. 
It  was  under  Louis  XII.  that  the  transformation  of  French 
architecture  really  began.  The  Chateau  de  Gaillon  (of  which 
unfortunately  only  fragments  remain  in  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  at  Paris),  built  for  the  Cardinal  George  of  Am- 
boise,  between  1497  and  1509,  by  Pierre  Fain,  was  the 
masterwork  of  the  Rouen  school.  It  presented  a  curious 
mixture  of  styles,  with  its  irregular  plan,  its  moat,  draw- 
bridge, and  round  corner-towers,  its  high  roofs,  turrets, 
and  dormers,  which  gave  it,  in  spite  of  many  Renaissance 
details,  a  mediaeval  picturesqueness.  The  Chateau  de  Blois 
(the  east  and  south  wings  of  the  present  group),  begun  for 
Louis  XII.  about  1500,  was  the  first  of  a  remarkable  serie 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE.        31  I 


of  royal  palaces  which  are  the  glory  of  French  architect- 
ure. It  shows  the  new  influences  in  its  horizontal  lines 
and  flat,  unbroken  facades  of  brick  and  stone,  rather  than 
in  its  architectural  de- 
tails (Fig.  175).  The 
Ducal  Palace  at  Nancy 
and  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at 
Orleans,  by  Viart,  show 
a  similar  commingling 
of  the  classic  and  medi- 
aeval styles. 

STYLE  OF  FEANCI8  I. 
Early  in  the  reign  of 
this  monarch,  and  part- 
ly under  the  lead  of 
Italian  artists,  like  il 
Rosso,  Serlio,  and  Pri- 
maticcio,  classic  ele- 
ments began  to  domi- 
nate the  general  com- 
position and  Gothic 
details  rapidly  disap- 
peared. A  simple  and 
effective  system  of  ex- 
terior design  was  adopt- 
ed in  the  castles  and 
palaces  of  this  period. 
Finely  moulded  belt- 
courses  at  the  sills  and  heads  of  the  windows  marked  the 
different  stories,  and  were  crossed  by  a  system  of  almost 
equally  important  vertical  lines,  formed  by  superposed 
pilasters  flanking  the  windows  continuously  from  basement 
to  roof.  The  facade  was  crowned  by  a  slight  cornice 
and  open  balustrade,  above  which  rose  a  steep  and  lofty 
roof,  diversified  by  elaborate  dormer  windows  which  were 


FIG.    175. — BLOIS 


COURT   FACADE    OF    WING   OF 
LOUIS   XII. 


312  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

adorned  with  gables  and  pinnacles  (Fig.  178).  Slender 
pilasters,  treated  like  long  panels  ornamented  with  ara- 
besques of  great  beauty,  or  with  a  species  of  baluster  shaft 
like  a  candelabrum,  were  preferred  to  columns,  and  were 
provided  with  graceful  capitals  of  the  Corinthianesque  type. 
The  mouldings  were  minute  and  richly  carved  ;  pediments 
were  replaced  by  steep  gables,  and  mullioned  windows 
with  stone  crossbars  were  used  in  preference  to  the  simpler 
Italian  openings.  In  the  earlier  monuments  Gothic  details 
were  still  used  occasionally  ;  and  round  corner-towers,  high 
dormers,  and  numerous  turrets  and  pinnacles  appear  even 
in  the  chateaux  of  later  date. 

CHURCHES.  Ecclesiastical  architecture  received  but  scant 
attention  under  Francis  I.,  and,  so  far  as  it  was  practised, 
still  clung  tenaciously  to  Gothic  principles.  Among  the 
few  important  churches  of  this  period  may  be  mentioned 
St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  at  Paris  (1517-38),  in  which  classic 
and  Gothic  features  appear  in  nearly  equal  proportions  ; 
the  east  end  of  St.  Pierre,  at  Caen,  with  rich  external  carv- 
ing ;  and  the  great  parish  church  of  St.  Eustache,  at  Paris 
(1532,  by  Lemercier),  in  which  the  plan  and  construction  are 
purely  Gothic,  while  the  details  throughout  belong  to  the 
new  style,  though  with  little  appreciation  of  the  spirit  and 
proportions  of  classic  art.  New  facades  were  also  built 
for  a  number  of  already  existing  churches,  among  which 
St.  Michel,  at  Dijon,  is  conspicuous,  with  its  vast  portal  arch 
and  imposing  towers.  The  Gothic  towers  of  Tours  cathe- 
dral were  completed  with  Renaissance  lanterns  or  belfries, 
the  northern  in  1507,  the  southern  in  1547. 

PALACES.  To  the  palace  at  Blois  begun  by  his  prede- 
cessor, Francis  I.  added  a  northern  and  a  western  wing, 
completing  the  court.  The  north  win}/  is  one  of  the  mas- 
terpieces of  the  style,  presenting  toward  the  court  a  simple 
and  effective  composition,  with  a  rich  but  slightly  proje<  t- 
ing  cornice  anil  a  high  roof  with  elaborate  dormers.     This 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


3'3 


facade  is  divided  into  two  unequal  sections  by  the  open 
Staircase  Tower  (Fig.  176),  a  chef-d'oeuvre  in  boldness  of 
construction  as  well  as  in  delicacy  and  richness  of  carving. 
The  outer  facade  of  this  wing  is  a  less  ornate  but  more 
vigorous  design,  crowned 
by  a  continuous  open  loggia 
under  the  roof.  More  ex- 
tensive than  Blois  was  Fon- 
tainebleau,  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  king  and 
of  many  of  his  successors. 
Following  in  parts  the  ir- 
regular plan  of  the  convent 
it  replaced,  its  other  por- 
tions were  more  symmetri- 
cally disposed,  while  the 
whole  was  treated  external- 
ly in  a  somewhat  severe, 
semi-classic  style,  singular- 
ly lacking  in  ornament.  In- 
ternally, however,  this  pal- 
ace, begun  in  1528  by  Gilles 
Le  Breton,  was  at  that  time 
the  most  splendid  in  France, 
the  gallery  of  Francis  I.  be- 
ing especially  noted.  The 
Chateau  of  St.  Germain, 
near  Paris  (1539,  by  Pierre 
C/nimbiges),  is  of  a  very  dif- 
ferent character.  Built  largely  of  brick,  with  flatbalustraded 
roof  and  deep  buttresses  carrying  three  ranges  of  arches,  it 
is  neither  Gothic  nor  classic,  neither  fortress  nor  palace  in 
aspect,  but  a  wholly  unique  conception. 

The  rural  chateaux  and  hunting-lodges  erected  by  Fran- 
cis I.  display  the  greatest  diversity  of  plan  and  treatment. 


FIG.    I76. — STAIRCASE   TOWEF 


3M 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


attesting  the  inventiveness  of  the  French  genius,  express' 

ing  itself  in  a  new-found  language,  whose  formal  canons  it 
disdained.  Chief  among  them  is  the  Chateau  of  Chambord 
(Figs.  177,  178) — "a  Fata  Morgana  in  the  midst  of  a  wild, 

woody  thicket,"  to  use 
Liibke's  language.  This 
extraordinary  edifice, 
resembling  in  plan  a 
feudal  castle  with  cur- 
tain-walls, bastions, 
moat,  and  donjon,  is  in 
its  architectural  treat- 
ment a  palace  with  ar- 
cades, open-stair  towers, 
a  noble  double  spiral 
Staircase  terminating  in 
a  graceful  lantern,  and  a  roof  of  the  most  bewildering  com- 
plexity of  towers,  chimneys,  and  dormers  (1526,  by  Purr* 
le  Nepveii).  The  hunting-lodges  of  La  Muette  and  Chalvau, 
and  the  so-called  Chateau  de  Madrid — all  three  demolished 
during  or  since  the  Revolution — deserve  mention,  especially 


PIG.   177. — PLAN    OF    CHAMBORD. 


ill    I 


no.  17.V     \  n  '.-. 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IX    FRANCE. 


3'5 


the  last.  This  consisted  of  two  rectangular  pavilions,  con- 
nected by  a  lofty  banquet-hall,  and  adorned  externally  with 
arcades  in  Florentine  style,  and  with  medallions  and  reliefs 
of  della  Robbia  ware  (1527,  by  Gadyer). 

THE  LOUVRE.  By  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  ar- 
chitectural enterprises  of  this  reign,  in  ultimate  results, 
if  not  in  original  ex- 
tent, was  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  palace 
to  replace  the  old 
Gothic  fortified  pal- 
ace of  the  Louvre. 
To  this  task  Pierre 
Lescot  was  summoned 
in  1542,  and  the  work 
of  erection  actually 
begun  in  1546.  The 
new  palace,  in  a  sump- 
tuous and  remarkably 
dignified  classic  style, 
was  to  have  covered 
precisely  the  area  of 
the  demolished  fort- 
ress. Only  the  south- 
west half,  comprising 
two  sides  of  the  court, 
was,  however,  under- 
taken at  the  outset  (Fig.  179).  It  remained  for  later 
monarchs  to  amplify  the  original  scheme,  and  ultimately  to 
complete,  late  in  the  present  century,  the  most  extensive 
and  beautiful  of  all  the  royal  residences  of  Europe.  (See 
Figs.  181,  208,  209.) 

Want  of  space  forbids  more  than  a  passing  reference  to 
the  rural  castles  of  the  nobility,  rivalling  those  of  the  king. 
Among  them  Bury,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Bournazel,  and  es- 


^^^ _ 

r^KX^SxSTS 

p'f 

5    r 

jLJp^Jl 

■                           jbSHH^^H 

FIG.    179. — DETAIL   OF   COURT   OF    LOUVRE,    PARIS. 


3l6  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

pecially  Azay-le-Rideau  (1520)  and  Chenonceaux  (1515-23), 
may  be  mentioned,  all  displaying  that  love  of  rural  pleasure, 
that  hatred  of  the  city  and  its  confinement,  which  so  dis- 
tinguish the  French  from  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

other  buildings.  The  Hdtel  -  de  -  Ville  (town  hall),  of 
Paris,  begun  during  this  reign,  from  plans  by  Dovienico  di 
Cortona  (?),  and  completed  under  Henry  IV.,  was  the  most 
important  edifice  of  a  class  which  in  later  periods  numbered 
many  interesting  structures.  The  town  hall  of  Beaugency 
(1527)  is  one  of  the  best  of  minor  public  buildings  in  France, 
and  in  its  elegant  treatment  of  a  simple  two-storied  facade 
may  be  classed  with  the  Maison  Francois  I.,  at  Paris.  This 
stood  formerly  at  Moret,  whence  it  was  transported  to  Paris 
and  re-erected  about  1830  in  somewhat  modified  form.  The 
large  city  houses  of  this  period  are  legion  ;  we  can  men- 
tion only  the  Hotel  Carnavalet  at  Paris  ;  the  Hotel  Bourg- 
theroudeat  Rouen  ;  the  Hotel  d'£coville  at  Caen  ;  the  arch- 
bishop's palace  at  Sens,  and  a  number  of  houses  in  Orleans. 
The  Tomb  of  Louis  XII.,  at  St.  Denis,  deserves  especial 
mention  for  its  fine  proportions  and  beautiful  arabesques. 

THE  ADVANCED  EENAI8SANCE.  By  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  new  style  had  lost  much  of  its  earlier 
charm.  The  orders,  used  with  increasing  frequency,  were 
more  and  more  conformed  to  antique  precedents.  Facades 
were  flatter  and  simpler,  cornices  more  pronounced,  arches 
more  Roman  in  treatment,  and  a  heavier  style  of  carving 
took  the  place  of  the  delicate  arabesques  of  the  preceding 
age.  The  reigns  of  Henry  II.  (1547-59)  and  Charles  IX. 
(1560-74)  were  especially  distinguished  by  the  labors  of 
three  celebrated  architects:  Pierre  Lescot  (1515-78),  who 
continued  the  work  on  the  southwest  angle  of  the  Louvre  ; 
Yeti/i  Bullant  (1515-78),  to  whom  are  due  the  right  wing  of 
Kronen  and  the  porch  of  colossal  Corinthian  columns  in  the 
left  wing  of  the  same,  built  under  Francis  I.  ;  and,  finally, 
PhiUberi  de  f  Or  me  (1515-70).     yean  Goujon  (1510-72)  also 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   IN   TRANCE.       317 

executed  during  this  period  most  of  the  remarkable  archi- 
tectural sculptures  which  have  made  his  name  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  in  the  annals  of  French  art.  Chief  among 
the  works  of -de  l'Orme  was  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  built 
under  Charles  IX.  for  Catherine  de  Me^licis,  not  far  from 
the  Louvre,  with  which  it  was  ultimately  connected  by  a  long 
gallery.  Of  the  vast  plan  conceived  for  this  palace,  and 
comprising  a  succession  of  courts  and  wings,  only  a  part  of 
one  side  was  erected  (1564-72).  This  consisted  of  a  domical 
pavilion,  flanked  by  low  wings  only  a  story  and  a  half  high, 
to  which  were  added  two  stories  under  Henry  IV.,  to  the 
great  advantage  of  the  design.  Another  masterpiece  was 
the  Chateau  d'Anet,  built  in  1552  by  Henry  II.  for  Diane 
de  Poitiers,  of  which,  unfortunately,  only  fragments  sur- 
vive. This  beautiful  edifice,  while  retaining  the  semi- 
military  moat  and  bastions  of  feudal  tradition,  was  planned 
with  classic  symmetry,  adorned  with  superposed  orders, 
court  arcades,  and  rectangular  corner-pavilions,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  domical  cruciform  chapel,  the  earliest  of  its 
class  in  France.  All  the  details  were  unusually  pure  and 
correct,  with  just  enough  of  freedom  and  variety  to  lend  a 
charm  wanting  in  later  works  of  the  period.  To  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.  belong  also  the  chateaux  of  Ancy-le-Franc, 
Verneuil,  Chantilly  (the  "  petit  chateau,"  by  Bullant),  the 
banquet-hall  over  the  bridge  at  Chenonceaux  (1556),  several 
notable  residences  at  Toulouse,  and  the  tomb  of  Francis  I.  at 
St.  Denis.  The  chateaux  of  Pailly  and  Sully,  distinguished 
by  the  sobriety  and  monumental  quality  of  their  composi- 
tion, in  which  the  orders  are  important  elements,  belong  to 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  together  with  the  Tuileries,  al- 
ready mentioned. 

THE  CLASSIC  PERIOD :  HENRY  IV.  Under  this  energetic  but 
capricious  monarch  (1589-1610)  and  his  Florentine  queen, 
Marie  de  Medicis,  architecture  entered  upon  a  new  period 
of  activity  and  a  new  stage  of  development.     Without  the 


3i8 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


charm  of  the  early  Renaissance  or  the  stateliness  of  the 
age  of  Louis  XIV.,  it  has  a  touch  of  the  Baroque,  attribu- 
table partly  to  the  influence  of  Marie  <lc  MeMicis  and  her 
Italian  prelates,  and  partly  to  the  Italian  training  of  many 
of  the  French  architects.  The  great  work  of  this  period 
was  the  extension  of  the  Tuileries  by  jf.  B.  du  Cerceau,  and 
the  completion,  by  Metezeau  and  others,  of  the  long  gallery 


FIG.    l8o.—  THK    LUXEMBURG,    PARIS. 


next  the  Seine,  begun  under  Henry  II.,  with  the  view  of 
connecting  the  Tuileries  with  the  Louvre.  In  this  pari  of 
the  work  colossal  orders  were  used  with  indifferent  effect. 
Next  in  importance  was  the  addition  to  Fontainebleau  <>f  a 
great    COUIl    to   the   eastward,   whose   relatively   quiet   and 

dignified  style  offeni  less  contrast  than  one  might  expect  to 

the  Other  wings  and  courts  dating  from  Francis  I.  More 
■^fti!  architecturally  than  either  of  the  above  was  the 
Luxemburg  palace,  built  for  the  queen  by  Salomon  DeBrosst% 
in  r6l6  (Fig.  i.So).  Its  plan  presents  the  favorite  French 
arrangement  of  a  main  building  separated  from  the  street 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    IN    ERANCE.        319 

l)y  a  garden  or  court,  the  latter  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  low  wings  containing  the  dependencies.  Externally, 
rusticated  orders  recall  the  garden  front  of  the  Pitti  at 
Florence  ;  but  the  scale  is  smaller,  and  the  projecting  pa- 
vilions and  high  roofs  give  it  a  grace  and  picturesqueness 
wanting  in  the  Florentine  model.  The  Place  Royale,  at 
Paris,  and  the  chateau  of  Beaumesnil,  illustrate  a  type  of 
brick-and-stone  architecture  much  in  vogue  at  this  time, 
stone  quoins  decorating  the  windows  and  corners,  and  the 
orders  being  generally  omitted. 

Under  Louis  XIII.  the  Tuileries  were  extended  north- 
ward and  the  Louvre  as  built  by  Lescot  was  doubled  in 
size  by  the  architect  Le7tiercier,  the  Pavilion  de  l'Horloge  be- 
ing added  to  form  the  centre  of  the  enlarged  court  facade. 

CHURCHES.  To  this  reign  belong  also  the  most  impor- 
tant churches  of  the  period.  The  church  of  St.  Paul-St. 
Louis,  at  Paris  (1627,  by  Derrand),  displays  the  worst  faults 
of  the  time,  in  the  overloaded  and  meaningless  decoration 
of  its  uninteresting  front.  Its  internal  dome  is  the  earliest 
in  Paris.  Far  superior  was  the  chapel  of  the  Sorbonne,  a 
well-designed  domical  church  by  Le?nercier,  w;ith  a  sober 
and  appropriate  exterior  treated  with  superposed  orders. 

PERIOD  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  This  was  an  age  of  remarkable 
literary  and  artistic  activity,  pompous  and  pedantic  in  many 
of  its  manifestations',  but  distinguished  also  by  productions 
of  a  very  high  order.  Although  contemporary  with  the 
Italian  Baroque — Bernini  having  been  the  guest  of  Louis 
XIV. — the  architecture  of  this  period  was  free  from  the 
wild  extravagances  of  that  style.  In  its' often  cold  and  cor- 
rect dignity  it  resembled  rather  that  of  Palladio,  making 
large  use  of  the  orders  in  exterior  design,  and  tending 
rather  to  monotony  than  to  overloaded  decoration.  In  in- 
terior design  there  was  more  of  lightness  and  caprice. 
Papier-mache*  and  stucco  were  freely  used  in  a  fanciful  style 
of  relief  ornamentation  by  scrolls,  wreaths,  shells,  etc.,  and 


320  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

decorative  panelling  was  much  employed  The  whole  was 
saved  from  triviality  only  by  the  controlling  lines  of  the 
architecture  Which  framed  it.  Hut  it  was  better  suited  to 
cabinet-work  or  to  t lie  prettinesses  of  the  boudoir  than 
to  monumental  interiors.  The  Galerie  d'Apollon,  built 
during  this  reign  over  the  Petite  Galerie  in  the  Louvre, 
escapes  this  reproach,  however,  by  the  sumptuous  dignity 
of  its  interior  treatment. 

VERSAILLES.  This  immense  edifice,  built  about  an  already 
existing  villa  of  Louis  XIII.,  was  the  work  of  l.rrati  and 
J.H.  Mansart  (1647-1708).  Its  erection,  with  the  laving 
out  of  its  marvellous  park,  almost  exhausted  the  resources 
of  the  realm,  but  with  results  quite  incommensurate  with 
the  outlay.  In  spite  of  its  vastness,  its  exterior  is  common- 
place ;  the  orders  are  used  with  singular  monotony,  which 
is  not  redeemed  by  the  deep  breaks  and  projections  of  the 
main  front.  There  is  no  controlling  or  dominant  feature  : 
there  is  no  adequate  entrance  or  approach  ;  the  grand 
staircases  are  badly  placed  and  unworthily  treated,  and  the 
different  elements  of  the  plan  are  combined  with  singular 
lack  of  the  usual  French  sense  Of  monumental  and  rational 
arrangement.  The  chapel  is  by  far  the  best  single  feature 
in  the  design. 

Far  more  successful  was  the  completion  of  the  Louvre, 
in  1688,  from  the  designs  of  Clmude  Perfattlt,  the  court  phy- 
sician, whose  plans  were  fortunately  adopted  in  preference 
to  those  of  Bernini.  For  the  east  front  he  designed  a 
magnificent  Corinthian  colonnade  nearly  600  feet  long,  with 
coupled  columns  upOn  a  plain  high  basement,  and  with  a  cen- 
tral pediment  and  terminal  pavilions  (Fig.  181).  The  whole 
forms  one  of  the  most  imposing  facades  in  existence;  but 
it  is  a  mere  decoration,  having  no  practical  relation  to  Un- 
building behind  it.  Its  height  required  the  addition  of 
third  story  to  match  it  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  tht 
court,  which  as  thus  <  ompleted  quadrupled  the  original  art 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE. 


321 


proposed  by  Lescot.  Fortunately  the  style  of  Lescot's  work 
was  retained  throughout  in  the  court  facades,  while  exter- 
nally the  colonnade  was  recalled  on  the  south  front  by  a 
colossal  order  of  pilasters.  The  Louvre  as  completed  by 
Louis  XIV.  was  a  stately  and  noble  palace,  as  remarkable 
for  the  surpassing  excellence  of  the  sculptures  of  Jean 
Goujon  as  for  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  its  architecture. 


FIG.    l8l.  —COLONNADE   OF   LOUVRE. 


Taken  in  connection  with  the  Tuileries,  it  was  unrivalled 
by  any  palace  in  Europe  except  the  Vatican. 

OTHER  BUILDINGS.  To  Louis  XIV.  is  also  due  the  vast 
but  uninteresting  Hdtel  des  Invalides  or  veteran's  asylum, 
at  Paris,  by  J.  H.  Mansart.  To  the  chapel  of  this  institu- 
tion was  added,  in  1680-1706,  the  celebrated  Dome  of  the 
Invalides,  a  masterpiece  by  the  same  architect.  In  plan  it 
somewhat  resembles  Bramante's  scheme  for  St.  Peter's — a 
Greek  cross  with  domical  chapels  in  the  four  angles  and 
a  dome  over  the  centre.  The  exterior  (Fig.  182),  with 
the  lofty  gilded  dome  on  a  high  drum  adorned  with  en- 
gaged columns,  is  somewhat  high  for  its  breadth,  but  is  a 

21 


322 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


harmonious  and  impressive  design  ;  and  the  interior,  if 
somewhat  cold,  is  elegant  and  well  proportioned.  The 
chief  innovation  in   the  design  was  the  wide  separation  of 

the  interior  stone  dome  from 
the  lofty  exterior  decorative 
cupola  and  lantern  of  wood, 
this  separation  being  de- 
signed to  meet  the  conflict- 
ing demands  of  internal  and 
external  effect.  To  the  same 
architect  is  due  the  formal 
monotony  of  the  Place  Ven- 
dome,  all  the  houses  sur- 
rounding it  being  treated 
with  a  uniform  architecture 
of  colossal  pilasters,  at  once 
monumental  and  inappro- 
priate. One  of  the 
most  pleasing  designs 
of  the  time  is  the 
Chateau  de  Maisons 
(1658),  by  F.  MaiiHirt, 
uncle  of  J.  H.  Mansai  t. 
In  this  the  proportions 
of  the  central  and  ter- 
minal pavilions,  the 
mass  and  lines  of  the 
steep  roof  a  la  Ma/i- 
sarde,  the  simple  and 
effective  use  of  the  orders,  and  the  refinement  of  all  the  de- 
tails impart  a  grace  of  aspect  rare  in  contemporary  works. 
The  same  qualities  appear  also  in  the  Val-de-Grace,  by  F. 
Mansart  and  Lemercier,  a  domical  church  of  excellent 
proportions  begun  under  Louis  XIII.  The  want  of  space 
forbids  mention  of  other  buildings  of  this  period. 


THK    INVAI  IHKV 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN    FRANCE.        323 


THE  DECLINE.  Under  Louis  XV.  the  pedantry  of  the 
classic  period  gave  place  to  a  protracted  struggle  between 
license  and  the  severest  classical  correctness.  The  exte- 
rior designs  of  this  time  were  often  even  more  uninterest- 
ing and  bare  than  under  Louis  XIV.;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  interior  decoration  tended  to  the  extreme  of  extrava- 
gance and  disregard  of 
constructive  propriety. 
Contorted  lines  and 
crowded  scrolls,  shells, 
and  palm  -  leaves 
adorned  the  mantel- 
pieces, cornices,  and 
ceilings,  to  the  almost 
complete  suppression 
of  straight  lines. 

While  these  tenden- 
cies prevailed  in  many 
directions,  a  counter- 
current  of  severe  clas- 
sicism manifested  it- 
self in  the  designs  of 
a  number  of  important 

r  FIG.    183.. — FACADE    OF    ST.    SII.PICE,    PARIS. 

public     buildings,     in 

which  it  was  sought  to  copy  the  grandeur  of  the  old  Roman 
colonnades  and  arcades.  The  important  church  of  St.  Sulpice 
at  Paris  (Fig.  183)  is  an  excellent  example  of  this.  Its  inte- 
rior, dating  from  the  preceding  century,  is  well  designed,  but 
in  no  wise  a  remarkable  composition,  following  Italian  models. 
The  facade,  added  in  1755  by  Servandoni,  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  one  of  the  most  striking  architectural  objects  in  the 
city.  It  is  a  correct  and  well  proportioned  classic  composi- 
tion in  two  stories — an  Ionic  arcade  over  a  Doric  colonnade, 
surmounted  by  two  lateral  turrets.  Other  monuments  of 
this  classic  revival  will  be  noticed  in  Chapter  XXV. 


324  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE. 

PUBLIC  SQUARES.  Much  attention  was  given  to  the  em- 
bellishment of  open  spaces  in  the  cities,  for  which  the  clas- 
sic style  was  admirably  suited.  The  most  important  work 
of  this  kind  was  that  on  the  north  side  of  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde,  Paris.  This  splendid  square,  perhaps,  on  the 
whole,  the  finest  in  Europe  (though  many  of  its  best  feat- 
ures belong  to  a  later  date),  was  at  this  time  adorned  with 
the  two  monumental  colonnades  by  Gabriel.  These  colon- 
nades, which  form  the  decorative  fronts  for  blocks  of 
houses,  deserve  praise  for  the  beauty  of  their  proportions, 
as  well  as  for  the  excellent  treatment  of  the  arcade  on  which 
they  rest,  and  of  the  pavilions  at  the  ends. 

IN  GENERAL.  French  Renaissance  architecture  is  marked 
by  good  proportions  and  harmonious  and  appropriate  de- 
tail. Its  most  interesting  phase  was  unquestionably  that 
of  Francis  I.,  so  far,  at  least,  as  concerns  exterior  design. 
It  steadily  progressed,  however,  in  its  mastery  of  planning  ; 
and  in  its  use  of  projecting  pavilions  crowned  by  domi- 
nant masses  of  roof,  it  succeeded  in  preserving,  even  in  se- 
verely classic  designs,  a  picturesqueness  and  variety  other- 
wise impossible.  Roofs,  dormers,  chimneys,  and  staircases 
it  treated  with  especial  success;  and  in  these  matters,  as  well 
as  in  monumental  dispositions  of  plan,  the  French  have 
largely  retained  their  pre-eminence  to  our  own  day. 

MONUMENTS.  (Mainly  supplementary  to  text.  Ch.  =  chateau  ;  P.  = 
palace  ;   C.=s  cathedral  ;  Chu.=  church  ;  H.=  hotel  ;  T.  H.=  town  hal 

Tran-iii"n:   Plois,  E.  wing,  1499  ;  Ch.   Meillant  ;  Ch.  Chaumont ; 
H.  Amboise,  1502-05. 

FkANCH  I.  :  Ch.  Nantouillet,  1517-25  ;  Ch.  Plois,  W.  wing  (after 
demolished)  and  N.  wing,  1520-30;  H.   Lallemant,  BouqjM,    1520; 
Villers-Cotterets,   1520-59;    P,  of  Archbishop,  Sens,   1521-35;  P. 
tainebleau  (Cour  Ovale,    Cour  d'Adieux,    Gallery   Francis  I.,    1527-3 
Peristyle,  Chapel  St.   Saturnin,    1540-47,  by   GilUs  U  Breton ;   Cour 
Cheval  Plane,  1527-31,  by  P.  Chambiges) ;  H.  Pernuy,  Toulouse,  1528-3 
P.  Granvelle,  Besancon,  1532-40;  T.  H.  Nioit,  T.  H.  Loches,  1532-4 
II.  de  Ligeris  (Carna valet),  Paris,  1544,  by  /'.  I.escot ;  churches  of  Gi 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   FRANCE.        325 

nave  and  facade,  1530  ;  La  Dalbade,  Toulouse,  portal,  1530  ;  St.  Sympho- 
rien  Tours,  1531  ;  Chu.  Tillieres,  1534-46. 

Advanced  Renaissance  :  Fontaine  des  Innocents,  Paris,  1547-50,  by 
P.  Lescot  and  J.  Goujon ;  tomb  Francis  I.,  at  St.  Denis,  1555,  by  Ph. 
de  rOrme  ;  H.  Catelan,  Toulouse,  1555  ;  tomb  Henry  II.,  at  St.  Denis, 
1560  ;  portal  S.  Michel,  Dijon,  1564  ;  Ch.  Sully,  1567  ;  T.  H.  Arras, 
1573  ;  P.  Fontainebleau  (Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc  remodelled,  1564-66,  by 
P.  Girard ;  Gourde  la  Fontaine,  same  date)  ;  T.  H.  Besancon,  1582  ;  Ch. 
Charleval,  1585,  byy.  B.  du  Cerceau. 

Style  of  Henry  IV.  :  P.  Fontainebleau  (Galerie  des  Cerfs,  Chapel  of 
the  Trinity,  Baptistery,  etc.)  ;  P.  Tuileries  (Pav.  de  Flore,  by  du  Cerceau, 
1 590-1610  ;  long  gallery  continued) ;  Hotel  Vogue,  at  Dijon,  1607  ;  Place 
Dauphine,  Paris,  1608  ;  P.  de  Justice,  Paris,  Great  Hall,  by  S.  de  Brosse, 
161 8  ;  H.  Sully,  Paris.  1624-39  ;  P.  Royal,  Paris,  by  J.  Lemercier,  for 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  1627-39  >  P«  Louvre  doubled  in  size,  by  the  same  ;  P. 
Tuileries  (N.  wing,  and  Pav.  Marsan,  long  gallery  completed)  ;  H.  Lam- 
bert, Paris  ;  T.  H.  Reims,  1627  ;  Ch.  Blois,  W.  wing  for  Gaston  d'Orleans, 
by  F.  Mansart,  1635  ;  facade  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  Paris,  1610 ;  of  St. 
Gervais,  Paris,  1616-21,  by  S.  de  Brosse. 

Style  of  Louis  XIV.  :  T.  H.  Lyons,  1646  ;  P.  Louvre,  E.  colonnade 
and  court  completed,  1660-70 ;  Tuileries  altered  by  Le  Vau,  1664  ;  ob- 
servatory at  Paris,  1667-72  ;  arch  of  St.  Denis,  Paris,  1672,  by  Blondel ; 
Arch  of  St.  Martin,  1674,  by  Bullet ;  Banque  de  France,  H.  de  Luyne, 
H.  Soubise,  all  in  Paris ;  Ch.  Chantilly  ;  Ch.  de  Tanlay  ;  P.  St.  Cloud  ; 
Place  des  Victoires,  1685  ;  Chu.  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  by  Le  Vau  (facade, 
1755)  ;  Chu.  St.  Roch,  Paris,  1653,  by  Lemercier  and  de  Cotte ;  Notre 
Dame  des  Victoires,  Paris,  1656,  by  Le  Muet  and  Bruant. 

The  Decline:  P.  Bourbon,  1722;  T.  H.  Rouen;  Halle  aux  Bles 
(recently  demolished),  1748;  Ecole  Militaire,  1752-58,  by  Gabriel ;  P. 
Louvre,  court  completed,  1754,  by  the  same  ;  Madeleine  begun,  1764  ;  H. 
des  Monnaies  (Mint),  by  Antoine ;  Erole  de  Medecine,  1774,  by  Gon- 
douin ;  P.  Royal,  Great  Court,  1784,  by  Louis  ;  Theatre  Francais,  1784 
(all  the  above  at  Paris)  ;  Grand  Theatre,  Bordeaux,  1785-1800,  by  L.ouis  ; 
Prefecture  at  Bordeaux,  by  the  same ;  Ch.  de  Compiegne,  1770,  by 
Gabriel ;  P.  Versailles,  theatre  by  the  same  ;  H.  Montmorency,  Soubise, 
de  Varennes,  and  the  Petit  Luxembourg,  all  at  Paris,  by  de  Cotte  ;  public 
squares  at  Nancy,  Bordeaux,  Valenciennes,  Rennes,  Reims. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN 
AND   THE    NETHERLANDS. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Fergusson,  Palustre. 
Also,  Belcher  and  Macartney,  Later  Renaissance  Architecture 
in  England.     Billings,  Baronial  an</  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities 

of  Scotland.  Blomfield,  A  Short  History  of  Renaissance  Arc/i- 
itecture  in  England.  Britton,  Architectural  Antiquities  ot 
Great  Britain.  Hwerbeck,  Die  Renaissance  in  Belgien  und 
Holland.  Galland,  Geschichte  der  Hollandischen  Baukunst  ini 
Zeitalter  der  Renaissance,  (iotch  and  Brown,  Architecture  §f 
the  Renaissance  in  England.  Loftie,  Inigo  Jones  and  Wren. 
Nash,  Mansions  of  England.  Pap  worth,  Renaissance  and 
Italian  Styles  of  Architecture  in  Great  Britain.  Richardson, 
Architectural  Remains  of  the  Reigns  of Elizabeth  and  James  J. 
Schayes,  Hisloire  de  I* architecture  en  Belgit/ue. 

THE  TRANSITION.  The  architectural  activity  of  the  six- 
teenth  century  in  England  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  erec- 
tion of  vast  country  mansions  for  the  nobility  and  wealthy 
bourgeoisie.  In  these  seignorial  resiliences  a  degenerate  form 
of  the  Gothic-,  known  as  the  Tudor  style,  was  employed 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII,  and  Henry  VIII.,  and  they 
still  retained  much  of  the  feudal  aspect  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  This  style,  with  its  broad,  square  windows  and  am- 
ple halls,  was  well  suited  to  domestic  architecture,  as  w  11 
as  to  collegiate  buildings,  of  which  a  considerable  number 
were  erected  at  this  time.  Among  the  more  important  pal- 
aces and  manor-houses  of  this  period  are  the  earlier  parts 
of  Hampton  Court,  Haddon  and  Hengreave  Hails,  and  the 
now  ruined  <  asties  of  Raglan  and  Wolterton. 

ELIZABETHAN  STYLE.  I'nder  Elizabeth  (1558-1603)  the 
progress  of  classic  culture  and  the  employment  of  Dutch 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN.  327 

and  Italian  artists  led  to  a  gradual  introduction  of  Renais- 
sance forms,  which,  as  in  France,  were  at  first  mingled  with 
others  of  Gothic  origin.  Among  the  foreign  artists  in  Eng- 
land were  the  versatile  Holbein,  Trevigi  and  Torregiano 
from  Italy,  and  Theodore  Have,  Bernard  Jansen,  and  Ge- 
rard Chrlsmas  from  Holland.  The  pointed  arch  disappeared, 
and  the  orders  began  to  be  used  as  subordinate  features  in 


-Bl'RGHI.EV    HOUSE. 


the  decoration  of  doors,  windows,  chimneys,  and  mantels. 
Open-work  balustrades  replaced  externally  the  heavy  Tudor 
battlements,  and  a  peculiar  style  of  carving  in  flat  relief- 
patterns,  resembling  applique  designs  cut  out  with  the  jig- 
saw and  attached  by  nails  or  rivets,  was  applied  with  little 
judgment  to  all  possible  features.  Ceilings  were  com- 
monly finished  in  plaster,  with  elaborate  interlacing  pat- 
terns in  low  relief  ;  and  this,  with  the  increasing  use  of  in- 
terior woodwork,  gave  to  the  mansions  of  this  time  a  more 
homelike  but  less  monumental  aspect  internally.     English 


328  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

architects,  like  Smithson  and  Thorpe,  now  began  to  win 
the  patronage  at  first  monopolized  by  foreigners.  In 
Wollaton  Hall  (1580),  by  Smithson,  the  orders  were  used 
for  the  main  composition  with  mullioned  windows,  much 
after  the  fashion  of  Longleat  House,  completed  a  year  ear- 
lier by  his  master,  John  of  Padua.  During  the  following 
period,  however  (1590-1610),  there  was  a  reaction  toward 
the  Tudor  practice,  and  the  orders  were  again  relegated  to 
subordinate  uses.  Of  their  more  monumental  employment, 
the  Gate  of  Honor  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  is  one  of 
the  earliest  examples.  Hardwicke  and  Charlton  Halls,  and 
Burghley,  -Hatfield,  and  Holland  Houses  (Pig.  184),  are 
noteworthy  monuments  of  the  style. 

JACOBEAN  STYLE.  During  the  reign  of  James  I.  (1603- 
25),  details  of  classic  origin  came  into  more  general  use, 
but  caricatured  almost  beyond  recognition.  The  orders, 
though  much  employed,  were  treated  without  correctness 
or  grace,  and  the  ornament  was  unmeaning  and  heavy.  It 
is  not  worth  while  to  dwell  further  upon  this  style,  which 
produced  no  important  public  buildings,  and  soon  gave  way 
to  a  more  rigid  classicism. 

CLASSIC  PEEIOD.  If  the  classic  style  was  late  in  its  ap- 
pearance in  England,  its  final  sway  was  complete  and  long- 
lasting.  It  was  Imgo  Jours  (1572-1652)  who  first  intro- 
duced the  correct  and  monumental  style  of  the  Italian  mas- 
ters of  Classic  design.  For  PalladlO,  indeed,  he  seems  to 
entertained  a  sort  of  veneration,  and  the  villa  which 
Signed  at  Chiswick  was  a  reduced  copy  of  Palladio's 
Villa  Capra,  near  Vicenza.  This  and  other  works  of  his 
show  a  failure  to  appreciate  the  unsuitability  of  Italian  con- 
ceptions to  the  climate  and  tastes  of  Great  Britain  ;  his 
efforts  to  popularize  I'alladian  architecture,  without  the  re- 
sources which  Palladio  controlled   in  the  way  of  decorative 

sculpture    and    painting,   were   consequently   not    always 

happy  in  their   results.      His   greatest  work  was   the  design 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   I5RITAIN. 


329 


for  a  new  Palace  at  Whitehall,  London.  Of  this  colossal 
scheme,  which,  if  completed,  would  have  ranked  as  the 
grandest  palace  of  the  time,  only  the  Banqueting  Hall 
(now  used  as  a  museum)  was  ever  built  (Fig.  185).  It  is  an 
effective  composition  in  two  stories,  rusticated  throughout 
and  adorned  with  columns  and  pilasters,  and  contains  a 
fine  vaulted  hall  in  three  aisles.  The  plan  of  the  palace, 
which  was  to  have 
measured  1,152.x  720 
feet,  was  excellent, 
largely  conceived  and 
carefully  studied  in  its 
details,  but  it  was 
wholly  beyond  the  re- 
sources of  the  king- 
dom. The  garden- 
front  of  Somerset 
House  (1632  ;  demol- 
ished) had  the  same 
qualities  of  simplicity 
and  dignity,  recalling 
the  works  of  Sammi- 
chele.  Wilton  House, 
Coleshill,  the  villa  at 
C  his  wick,   and     St. 

Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  are  the  best  known  of  his  works, 
showing  him  to  have  been  a  designer  of  ability,  but  hardly  of 
the  consummate  genius  which  his  admirers  attribute  to  him. 
ST.  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL.  The  greatest  of  Jones's  succes- 
sors was  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (1632-1723),  principally 
known  as  the  architect  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London, 
built  to  replace  the  earlier  Gothic  cathedral  destroyed  in 
the  great  fire  of  1666.  It  was  begun  in  1675,  and  its  de- 
signer had  the  rare  good  fortune  to  witness  its  completion 
in  1 7 10.     The  plan,  as  finally  adopted,  retained  the  general 


FIG.    185. — BANQUETING    HALL,    WHITEHALL. 


33° 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


proportions  of  an  English  Gothic  church,  measuring  480 
feet  in  length,  with  transepts  250  feet  long,  and  a  grand 
rotunda  108  feet  in  diameter  at  the  crossing  (Fig.  186). 
The  style  was  strictly  Italian,  treated  with  sobriety  and 
dignity,  if  somewhat  lacking  in  variety  and  inspiration. 
Externally  two  stories  of  the  Corinthian  order  appear,  the 
upper  story  being  merely  a  screen  to  hide  the  clearstory 
and  its  buttresses.  This  is  an  archi- 
tectural deception,  not  atoned  for 
by  any  special  beauty  of  detail.  The 
dominant  feature  of  the  design  is  the 
dome  over  the  central  area.  It  con- 
sists of  ail  inner  shell,  reaching  a 
height  of  216  feet,  above  which 
rises  the  exterior  dome  of  wood, 
surmounted  by  a  stone  lantern,  the 
summit  of  which  is  360  feet  from 
the  pavement  (Fig.  187).  This  ex- 
terior dome,  springing  from  a  high 
drum  surrounded  by  a  magnificent 
peristyle,  gives  to  the  Otherwise 
Commonplace  exterior  of  the  cathe- 
dral a  signal  majesty  of  effect. 
Next  to  the  dome  the  most  suc- 
cessful part  of  the  design  is  the  west  front,  with  its  two- 
storied  porch  and  flanking  bell -turrets.  Internally  the 
excessive  relative  length,  especially  that  of  the  choil 
detracts  from  the  effect  of  the  dome,  and  the  poverty 
detail  gives  the  whole  a  somewhat  bare  aspect.  It  is  in- 
tended to  relieve  this  ultimately  by  a  systematic  use  of  mo- 
saic decoration,  especially  in  the  dome.  The  central  area 
itself,  in  spite  of  the  awkward  treatment  of  the  four  smaller 
arches  of  the  eight  which  support  the  dome,  is  a  noble  de- 
sign, occupying  the  whole  width  of  the  three  aisles,  like  the 
Octagon  at  Ely,  ami  producing  a  striking  effect  of  ampli- 


nc.   186. — PLAN    Off    ST.   W'L'\ 
LOHDOM. 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


331 


tude  and  grandeur.  The  dome  above  it  is  constructively  in- 
teresting from  the  employment  of  a  cone  of  brick  masonry 
to  support  the  stone  lantern  which  rises  above  the  exterior 
wooden  shell.  The  lower  part  of  the  cone  forms  the  drum 
of  the  inner  dome,  its  contraction  upward  being  intended 
to  produce  a  perspective  illusion  of  increased  height. 


FIG.    187. — EXTERIOR   OF   ST.    PAUl'-S   CATHEDRAL. 


St.  Paul's  ranks  among  the  five  of  six  greatest  domical 
buildings  of  Europe,  and  is  the  most  imposing  modern  edi- 
fice in  England. 

WREN'S  OTHER  WORKS.  Wren  was  conspicuously  success- 
ful in  the  designing  of  parish  churches  in  London.  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Walbrook,  is  the  most  admired  of  these,  with  a 
dome  resting  on  eight  columns.  Wren  may  be  called  the 
inventor  of  the  English  Renaissance  type  of  steeple,  in 
which  a  conical  or  pyramidal  spire  is  harmoniously  added 


3$2  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

to  a  belfry  on  a  square  tower  with  classic  details.  The 
steeple  of  Bow  Church,  Cheapside,  is  the  most  successful 
example  of  the  type.  In  secular  architecture  Wren's  most 
important  works  were  the  plan  for  rebuilding  London  after 
the  Great  Fire  ;  the  new  courtyard  of  Hampton  Court,  a 
quiet  and  dignified  composition  in  brick  and  stone  ;  the 
pavilions  and  colonnade  of  Greenwich  Hospital;  the  Shel- 
donian  Theatre  at  Oxford,  and  the  Trinity  College  Library 
at  Cambridge.  Without  profound  originality,  these  works 
testify  to  the  sound  good  taste  and  intelligence  of  their 
designer. 

THE  18TE  CENTURY.  The  Anglo-Italian  style  as  used  by 
Jones  and  Wren  continued  in  use  through  the  eighteenth 
century,  during  the  first  half  of  which  a  number  of  impor- 
tant country-seats  and  some  churches  were  erected.  Van 
BrttgA  (1666-1726).  Hawksmoor  (1666-1736),  and  Hibbs 
(1683-175 1 )  were  then  the  leading  architects.  Van  Brugh 
was  especially  skilful  in  his  dispositions  of  plan  and  mass, 
and  produced  in  the  designs  of  Blenheim  and  Castle  How- 
ard effects  of  grandeur  and  variety  of  perspective  hard- 
ly equalled  by  any  of 
his    contemporaries     in 


ig. 

illy 

palatial    aspect,    though 

the    striving    for    pictU- 

resqueness  is  carried  too 

far.      Castle    Howard    is 

simpler,  depending  largely  for  effect  on  a  somewhat  inap- 
propriate  dome.     To  Hawksmoor,   his  pupil,   are  due  St. 

Mary's,  Woolnoth   (1715).   at    London,   in   which   by  a  bold 
ition    of   the   whole  exterior   and  by  windows   set    in 


iSK.—  It.  IN     "(•     IIKM1KIM. 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


333 


large  recessed  arches  he  was  enabled  to  dispense  wholly 
with  the  orders  ;  St.  George's,  Bloomsbury  ;  the  new  quad- 
rangle of  All  Souls  at  Oxford,  and  some  minor  works. 
The  two  most  noted  de-  , 
signs  of  James  Gibbs  are 
St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields, 
at  London  (1726),  and  the 
Radcliffe  Library,  at  Ox- 
ford (1747).  In  the  for- 
mer the  use  of  a  Corinth- 
ian portico — a  practically 
uncalled-for  but  decora- 
tive appendage — and  of  a 
steeple  mounted  on  the 
roof,  with  no  visible  lines 
of  support  from  the 
ground,  are  open  to  criti- 
cism. But  the  excellence 
of  the  proportions,  and 
the  dignity  and  appropri- 
ateness of  the  composi- 
tion, both  internally  and 
externally,  go  far  to  re- 
deem these  defects  (Fig. 
189).  The  Radcliffe  Li- 
brary is  a  circular  domical  hall  surrounded  by  a  lower  circuit 
of  alcoves  and  rooms,  the  whole  treated  with  straightfor- 
ward simplicity  and  excellent  proportions.  Colin  Camp- 
bell, Flitcroft,  Kent  and  Wood,  contemporaries  of  Gibbs, 
may  be  dismissed  with  passing  mention. 

Sir  William  Chambers  (1726-96)  was  the  greatest  of  the 
later  18th-century  architects.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture,  and  the  extension  and  re- 
modelling of  Somerset  House,  in  which  he  retained  the  gen- 
eral   ordonnance  of  Inigo  Jones's  design,  adapting  it  to  a 


-ST.    MARTIN  S-1N-THE-FIELDS, 
LONDON. 


334  HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

frontage  of  some  600  feet.  Robert  Adams,  the  designer  of 
Keddlestone  Hall,  Robot  Taylor  (1714-88),  the  architect  of 
the  Hank  of  England,  and  George  Dance,  who  designed  the 
Mansion  House  and  Newgate  Prison,  at  London — the  latter 
a  vigorous  and  appropriate  composition  without  the  orders 
— close  the  list  of  noted  architects  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. It  was  a  period  singularly  wanting  in  artistic  creative- 
ness  and  spontaneity  ;  its  productions  were  nearly  all  dull 
and  respectable,  or  at  best  dignified,  but  without  charm. 

BELGIUM.  As  in  all  other  countries  where  the  late 
Gothic  style  had  been  highly  developed,  Belgium  was  slow 
to  accept  the  principles  of  the  Renaissance  in  art.  Long 
after  the  dawn  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Flemish  archi- 
tects continued  to  employ  their  highly  florid  Gothic  alike 
for  churches  and  town-halls,  with  whjch  they  chiefly  had  to 
do.  The  earliest  Renaissance  buildings  date  from  1530-40, 
among  them  being  the  Hotel  du  Saumon,  at  Malines,  at 
Bruges  the  Ancien  Greffe,  by  yean  ll'a/iot,  and  at  I. •• 
the  Archbishop's  Palace,  by  Jiorset.  The  last  named,  in 
the  singular  and  capricious  form  of  the  arches  and  balus- 
ter-like columns  of  its  court,  reveals  the  taste  of  the  age 
for  what  was  outre  iuu\  odd  ;  a  taste  partly  due,  no  doubt, 
to  Spanish  influences,  as  Belgium  wa>  in  reality  from  1506 
to  1712  a  Spanish  province,  and  there  was  more  or  less  in- 
terchange of  artists  between  the  two  countries.  The  Hotel 
de  Ville,  at  Antwerp,  by  Cornelius  it  I'rienJt  or  Floris 
(1518-75).  rrr<  ted  in  1565,  is  the  most  important  monument 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Belgium.  Its  facade,  305  feet  long 
and  102  feet  high,  in  four  stories,  is  an  impressive  creation 
in  spite  of  its  somewhat  monotonous  fenestration  and  the 
inartistic  repetition  in  the  third  story  of  the  composition 
and  proportions  of  the  second.  The  basement  story  forms 
an  open  arcade,  and  an  open  colonnade  or  loggia  runs 
along  under  the  roof,  thus  imparting  to  the  composition  a 
considerable  play  of  light  and  shade,  enhanced  by  the  pict- 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   HOLLAND. 


335 


uresque  central  pavilion  which  rises  to  a  height  of  six 
stories  in  diminishing  stages.  The  style  is  almost  Palla- 
dian  in  its  severity,  but  in  general  the  Flemish  architects 
disdained  the  restrictions  of  classic  canons,  preferring  a 
more  florid  and  fanciful  effect  than  could  be  obtained  by 
mere  combinations  of  Roman  columns,  arches,  and  entabla- 
tures. De  Vriendt's  other  works  were  mostly  designs  for 
altars,  tabernacles  and  the  like  ;  among  them  the  rood 
screen  in  Tournay  Cathe- 
dral. His  influence  may 
be  traced  in  the  Hotel  de 
Ville  at  Flushing  (1594). 

The  ecclesiastical  ar- 
chitecture of  the  Flemish 
Renaissance  is  almost  as 
destitute  of  important 
monuments  as  is  the  sec- 
ular. Ste.  Anne,  at  Bru- 
ges, fairly  illustrates  the 
type,  which  is  character- 
ized in  general  by  heavi- 
ness of  detail  and  a  cold 
and  bare  aspect  internally. 
The  Renaissance  in  Bel- 
gium is  best  exemplified, 
after  all,  by  minor  works 
and  ordinary  dwellings,  many  of  which  have  considerable 
artistic  grace,  though  they  are  quaint  rather  than  monumen- 
tal (Fig.  190).  Stepped  gables,  high  dormers,  and  volutes 
flanking  each  diminishing  stage  of  the  design,  give  a  cer- 
tain piquancy  to  the  street  architecture  of  the  period. 

HOLLAND.  Except  in  the  domain  of  realistic  painting, 
the  Dutch  have  never  manifested  pre-eminent  artistic  en- 
dowments, and  the  Renaissance  produced  in  Holland  few 
monuments  of  consequence.     It  began  there,  as  in  many 


FIG.    190. — RENAISSANCE    HOUSES,    BRUSSELS. 


336  HISTORY' OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

other  places,  with  minor  works  in  the  churches,  due  largely 
to  Flemish  or  Italian  artists.  About  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  two  native  architects,  Sebastian  van  Noye  and  Will- 
iam van  Noort,  first  popularized  the  use  of  carved  pilasters 
and  of  gables  or  steep  pediments  adorned  with  carved  scal- 
lop-shells, in  remote  imitation  of  the  style  of  Francis  1. 
The  principal  monuments  of  the  age  were  town-halls,  and, 
after  the  war  of  independence  in  which  the  yoke  of  Spain 
was  finally  broken  (1566-79),  local  administrative  buildings 
— mints,  exchanges  and  the  like.  The  Town  Hall  of  The 
Hague  (1565),  with  its  stepped  gable  or  great  dormer,  its 
consoles,  statues,  and  octagonal  turrets,  may  be  said  to  have 
inaugurated  the  style  generally  followed  after  the  war. 
Owing  to  the  lack  of  stone,  brick  was  almost  universally 
employed,  and  stone  imported  by  sea  was  only  used  in  edi- 
fices of  exceptional  cost  and  importance.  Of  these  the  Town 
Hall  at  Amsterdam  holds  the  first  place.  Its  facade  is  of 
about  the  same  dimensions  as  the  one  at  Antwerp,  but 
compares  unfavorably  with  it  in  its  monotony  and  want  of 
interest.  The  Leyden  Town  Hall,  by  the  Fleming,  Limn 
de  Key  (1597),  the  Bourse  or  Exchange  and  the  Hanse 
House  at  Amsterdam,  by  Hendrik  de  A'eyser,  are  also  worthy 
of  mention,  though  many  lesser  buildings,  built  of  brick 
combined  with  enamelled  terra -cotta  and  stone,  possi 
quite  as  much  artistic  merit. 

DENMARK.  In  Denmark  the  monuments  of  the  Renais- 
sance may  almost  be  said  to  be  confined  to  the  reign  of 
Christian  IV.  (1588-1648),  and  do  not  include  a  single 
church  of  any  importance.  The  royal  castles  of  the  Rosen- 
borg at  Copenhagen  (1610)  and  the  Fredericksborg  (1580- 
1624),  the  latter  by  a  Dutch  architect,  are  interesting  and 
picturesque  in  mass,  with  their  fanciful  gables,  mullioned 
windows  and  numerous  turrets,  but  can  hardly  lay  claim  to 
beauty  of  detail  or  purity  of  style.  The  Exchange  at  Co- 
penhagen, built  of   brick  and  stone    in   the    same    general 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   DENMARK.  337 

style  (1619-40),  is  still  less  interesting  both  in  mass  and 
detail. 

The  only  other  important  Scandinavian  monument  de- 
serving of  special  mention  in  so  brief  a  sketch  as  this  is  the 
Royal  Palace  at  Stockholm,  Sweden  (1698-1753),  due  to  a 
foreign  architect,  Nicodemus  de  Tessin.  It  is  of  imposing 
dimensions,  and  although  simple  in  external  treatment,  it 
merits  praise  for  the  excellent  disposition  of  its  plan,  its 
noble  court,  imposing  entrances,  and  the  general  dignity 
and  appropriateness  of  its  architecture. 

MONUMENTS  (in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  text).  England, 
Tudor  Style  :  Several  palaces  by  Henry  VIII.,  no  longer  extant  ;  West- 
wood,  later  rebuilt ;  Gosfield  Hall  ;  Harlaxton. — Elizabethan  :  Buck- 
hurst.  1565;  Kirby  House.  1570,  both  by  Thorpe;  Cains  College,  1570- 
75,  by  Theodore  Have;  "The  Schools,"  Oxford,  by  Thomas  Holt,  1600; 
Beaupre  Castle,  1600. — Jacobean  :  Tombs  of  Mary  of  Scotland  and  of 
Elizabeth  in  Westminster  Abbey;  Audsley  Inn;  Bolsover  Castle,  1613  ; 
Heriot's  Hospital.  Edinburgh,  1628.— Classic  or  Anglo-Italian  :  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford  ;  Queen's  House,  Greenwich  ;  Coleshill  ;  all  by 
Inigo  Jones,  1620-51  ;  Amesbury,  by  Webb  ;  Combe  Abbey  ;  Bucking- 
ham and  Montague  Houses  ;  The  Monument,  London,  1670,  by  Wren  ; 
Temple  Bar,  by  the  same  ;  Winchester  Palace,  1683  ;  Chelsea  College  ; 
Towers  of  Westminster  Abbey,  1696  ;  St.  Clement  Dane's  ;  St.  James's, 
Westminster  ;  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill,  and  many  others,  all  by  Wren. — 18TH 
Century  :  Seaton  Delaval  and  Grimsthorpe,  by  Van  Brugh  ;  Wanstead 
House,  by  Colin  Campbell ;  Treasury  Buildings,  by  Kent. 

The  most  important  Renaissance  buildings  of  Belgium  and  Holland 
have  been  mentioned  in  the  text. 
22 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY,  SPAIN, 
AND    PORTUGAL. 

Books  RECOMMENDED  :  As  before,  Fergusson,  Palustre. 
Also,  von  Bezold,  Die  Baukunst  der  Renaissance  in  Deutsch- 
land,  Holland,  Belgien  und  Ddnc»hirk  (in  Udbuch.  d.Arch.). 
Caveda  (tr.  Kugler),  Get  chic  lite  do  Baukunst  in  Spanien. 
Fritsch,  Denkmaler  der  deutschen  Renaissance  (plates).  Jung- 
handel,  Die  Baukunst  Spaniens.  I^ambert  und  Stahl,  Motive 
der  deutschen  Architektur.  Fiibke,  Geschichte  der  Renaissance 
in  Deutschland.  Prentice,  Renaissance  Architecture  and  Orna- 
ment in  Spain.  I'hde,  Baudenkmaler  in  Spauien.  Verdier  et 
Cattois,  Architecture  civiletet  domestii/ue.  Villa  Amil,  Hispania 
Ariistica  y  Monumental. 

AUSTRIA;  BOHEMIA-  The  earliest  appearance  of  the  Re 
naissance  in  the  architecture  of  the  German  states  was  in  the 
eastern  provinces.  Before  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  <  en- 
tury  Florentine  and  Milanese  architects  were  employed  in 
Austria,  Bohemia,  and  the  Tyrol,  where  there  are  a  number 
of  palaces  and  chapels  in  an  unmixed  Italian  style.  The 
portal  of  the  castle  of  Mahriseh-Triibau  dates  from  1492  ; 
while  to  the  early  years  of  the  16th  century  belong  a  cruci- 
form chapel  at  Gran,  the  remodelling  of  the  castle  at  Cra- 
-  ow,  and  the  chapel  of  the  Jagellons  in  the  same  city — the 
earliest  domical  structure  of  the  German  Renaissance, 
though  of  Italian  design.  The*  Schloss  Porzia  (1510),  at 
Spital  in  Carinthia,  is  a  fine  quadrangular  palace,  surround- 
ing a  court  with  arcades  on  three  sides,  in  which  the  open 
stairs  form  a  picturesque  interruption  with  their  rampant 
arches.  But  for  the  massiveness  of  the  details  it  might 
be  a  Florentine  palace.  In  addition  to  this,  the  famous  Ar- 
senal at   Wieuer-Neustadt   (1524),  the   portal   of   the   Impe 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN    GERMANY.  339 

rial  Palace  (1552),  and  the  Castle  Schalaburg  on  the  Dan- 
ube (1530-1601),  are  attributed  to  Italian  architects,  to 
whom  must  also  be  ascribed  a  number  of  important  works 
at  Prague.  Chief  among  these  the  Belvedere  (1536,  by 
Paolo  della  Stella),  a  rectangular  building  surrounded  by  a 
graceful  open  arcade,  above  which  it  rises  with  a  second 
story  crowned  by  a  curved  roof;  the  Waldstein  Palace 
(1621-29),  by  Giov.  Marini,  with  its  imposing  loggia; 
Schloss  Stern,  built  on  the  plan  of  a  six-pointed  star  (1459- 
1565)  and  embellished  by  Italian  artists  with  stucco  orna- 
ments and  frescoes  ;  and  parts  of  the  palace  on  the  Hrad- 
schin,  by  Scamozzi,  attest  the  supremacy  of  Italian  art  in 
Bohemia.  The  same  is  true  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  the 
Tyrol ;  e.  g,  Schloss  Ambras  at  Innsbruck  (1570). 

GERMANY:  PERIODS.  The  earliest  manifestation  of  the 
Renaissance  in  what  is  now  the  German  Empire,  appeared 
in  the  works  of  painters  like  Diirer  and  Burkmair,  and  in 
occasional  buildings  previous  to  1525.  The  real  transfor- 
mation of  German  architecture,  however,  hardly  began  un- 
til after  the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  in  1555.  From  that  time 
on  its  progress  was  rapid,  its  achievements  being  almost 
wholly  in  the  domain  of  secular  architecture — princely  and 
ducal  castles,  town  halls  or  Rathhauser,  and  houses  of 
wealthy  burghers  or  corporations.  It  is  somewhat  singular 
that  the  German  emperors  should  not  have  undertaken  the 
construction  of  a  new  imperial  residence  on  a  worthy  scale, 
the  palaces  of  Munich  and  Berlin  being  aggregations  of 
buildings  of  various  dates  about  a  nucleus  of  mediaeval  ori- 
gin, and  with  no  single  portion  to  compare  with  the  stately 
chateaux  of  the  French  kings.  Church  architecture  was 
neglected,  owing  to  the  Reformation,  which  turned  to  its 
own  uses  the  existing  churches,  while  the  Roman  Catholics  * 
were  too  impoverished  to  replace  the  edifices  they  had 
lost. 

The    periods  of  the  German  Renaissance  are   less  well 


340  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

in. irked  than  those  of  the  French  ;  hut  its  successive  devel- 
opments follow  the  same  general  progression,  divided  into 
three  stages  : 

I.  The  Early  Renaissance,  1525-1600,  in  which  the 
orders  were  infrequently  used,  mainly  for  porches  and  for 
gable  decoration.  The  conceptions  and  spirit  of  most 
monuments  were  still  strongly  tinged  with  Gothic  feeling. 

II.  The  Late  Renaissance,  1600-1675,  characterized 
by  a  dry,  heavy  treatment,  in  which  too  often  neither  the 
fanciful  gayety  of  the  previous  period  nor  the  simple  and 
monumental  dignity  of  classic  design  appears.  Broken 
curves,  large  scrolls,  obelisks,  and  a  style  of  flat  relief  carv- 
ing resembling  the  Elizabethan  are  common.  Occasional 
monuments  exhibit  a  more  correct  and  classic  treatment 
after  Italian  models. 

III.  The  DECLINE  or  Baroque  Period,  1675-1800,  em- 
ploying the  orders  in  a  style  of  composition  oscillating  be- 
tween the  extremes  of  bareness  and  of  Rococo  over-deco- 
ration. The  ornament  partakes  of  the  character  of  the 
Louis  XV.  and  Italian  Jesuit  styles,  being  most  successful 
in  interior  decoration,  but  externally  running  to  the  ex- 
treme of  unrestrained  fancy. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  In  none  of  these  periods  do  we  meet 
with  the  sober,  monumental  treatment  of  the  Florentine  or 
Roman  schools.  A  love  of  picturesque  variety  in  ma- 
and  sky-lines,  inherited  from  mediaeval  times,  appears  in 
the  high  roots,  stepped  gables  and  lofty  dormers  which  are 
universal.  The  roofs  often  comprise  several  stories,  and 
are  lighted  by  lofty  gables  at  either  end,  and  by  dormers 
carried  up  from  the  side  walls  through  two  or  three  stories. 
Gables  and  dormers  alike  are  built  in  diminishing  sta. 

1  step  adorned  with  a  console  or  scroll,  and  the  whole 
treated  with  pilasters  or  colonnettes  and  entablatures  break- 
ing over  each  support  (Fig.  191).  These  roofs,  dormers,  and 
gables  contribute  the  most   noticeable  element  to  the  gen- 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GERMANY. 


341 


eral  effect  of  most  German  Renaissance  buildings,  and  are 
commonly  the  best-designed  features  in  them.  The  orders 
are  scantily  used  and  usually  treated  with  utter  disregard 
of  classic  canons,  being  generally  far  too  massive  and  over- 
loaded with  ornament. 
Oriels,  bay-windows, 
and  turrets,  starting 
from  corbels  or  col- 
onnettes,  or  rarely 
from  the  ground,  di- 
versify the  facade,  and 
spires  of  curious  bul- 
bous patterns  give 
added  piquancy  to  the 
picturesque  sky-line. 
The  plans  seldom  had 
the  monumental  sym- 
metry and  largeness 
of  Italian  and  French 
models  ;  courtyards 
were  often  irregular 
in  shape  and  diversi- 
fied with  balconies 
and  spiral  staircase- 
turrets.  The  nation- 
al leaning  was  always 
toward  the  quaint  and 
fantastic,  as  well  in 
the   decoration  as  in  fig-  191.— schloss  hamelschenburg. 

the  composition.  Gro- 
tesques, caryatids,  galnes  (half-figures  terminating  below  in 
sheath-like  supports),  fanciful  rustication,  and  many  other 
details  give  a  touch  of  the  Baroque  even  to  works  of  early 
date.  The  same  principles  were  applied  with  better  suCt 
cess  to  interior  decoration,  especially  in  the  large  halls  of 


342  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  castles  and  town-halls,  and  many  of  their  ceilings  were 
sumptuous  and  well-considered  designs,  deeply  panelled, 
painted  and  gilded  in  wood  or  plaster. 

CASTLES-  The  Schloss  or  Burg  of  the  German  prince  or 
duke  retained  throughout  the  Renaissance  many  mediaeval 
characteristics  in  plan  and  aspect.  A  large  proportion  of 
these  noble  residences  were  built  upon  foundations  of  de- 
molished feudal  castles,  reproducing  in  a  new  dress  the 
ancient  round  towers  and  vaulted  guard-rooms  and  halls, 
as  in  the  Hartenfels  at  Torgau,  the  Heldburg  (both  in 
Saxony),  and  the  castle  of  Trausnitz,  in  Bavaria,  among 
many  others.  The  Castle  at  Torgau  (1540)  is  one  of  the 
most  imposing  of  its  class,  with  massive  round  and  square 
towers  showing  externally,  and  court  facades  full  of  pict- 
uresque irregularities.  In  the  great  Castle  at  Dresden  the 
plan  is  more  symmetrical,  and  the  Renaissance  appears  more 
distinctly  in  the  details  of  the  Georgenfliigel  (1530-50), 
though  at  that  early  date  the  classic  orders  were  almost 
ignored.  The  portal  of  the  Heldburg,  however,  built  in 
1562,  is  a  composition  quite  in  the  contemporary  French 
vein,  with  superposed  orders  and  a  crowning  pediment  over 
a  massive  basement. 

Another  important  series  of  castles  or  palaces  are  of  more 
regular  design,  in  which  the  feudal  traditions  tend  to  disap- 
pear. The  majority  belong  to  the  end  of  the  16th  and  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  centuries.  They  are  built  around  large 
rectangular  courts  with  arcades  in  two  or  three  stories  on 
one  or  more  sides,  but  rarely  surrounding  it  entirely.  In 
these  the  segmental  arch  is  more  common  than  the  semi- 
circular, and  springs  usually  from  short  and  stumpy  Ionic 
or  Corinthian  columns.  The  rooms  and  halls  are  arranged 
en  suite,  without  corridors,  and  a  large  and  lofty  banquet 
hall  forms  the  dominant  feature  of  the  series.  The  earliest 
of  these  regularly  planned  palaces  are  of  Italian  design. 
Chief  among  them  is  the  Eesidenz  at  Landshut  (1536-43), 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GERMANY.  343 

with  a  thoroughly  Roman  plan,  by  pupils  of  Giulio  Roma- 
no, and  exterior  and  court  facades  of  great  dignity  treated 
with  the  orders.  More  German  in  its  details,  but  equally 
interesting,  is  the  Furstenhof  at  Wismar,  in  brick  and  terra- 
cotta, by  Valentino  di  Lira  and  Van  Aken  (1553) ;  while  in 
the  Piastenschloss  at  Brieg  (1547-72),  by  Italian  architects, 
the  treatment  in  parts  suggests  the  richest  works  of  the 
style  of  Francis  I.  In  other  castles  the  segmental  arch  and 
stumpy  columns  or  piers  show  the  German  taste,  as  in  the 
Plassenburg,  by  Kaspar  Vischer  (1554-64),  the  castle  at 
Plagnitz,  and  the  Old  Castle  at  Stuttgart,  all  dating  from 
about  1550-55.  Heidelberg  Castle,  in  spite  of  its  mediaeval 
aspect  from  the  river  "and  its  irregular  plan,  ranks  as  the 
highest  achievement  of  the  German  Renaissance  in  palace 
design.  The  most  interesting  parts  among  its  various 
wings  built  at  different  dates — the  earlier  portions  still 
Gothic  in  design — are  the  Otto  Heinrichsbau  (1554)  and 
the  Friedrichsbau  (1601).  The  first  of  these  appears  some- 
what simpler  in  its  lines  than  the  second,  by  reason  of  having 
lost  its  original  dormer-gables.  The  orders,  freely  treated, 
are  superposed  fn  three  stories,  and  twin  windows,  niches, 
statues,  gaines,  medallions  and  profuse  carving  produce 
an  effect  of  great  gayety  and  richness.  The  Friedrichs- 
bau (Fig.  192),  less  quiet  in  its  lines,  and  with  high  scroll- 
gabled  and  stepped  dormers,  is  on  the  other  hand  more 
soberly  decorated  and  more  characteristically  German.  The 
Schloss  Hamelschenburg  (Fig.  191)  is  designed  in  some- 
what the  same  spirit,  but  with  even  greater  simplicity  of 
detail. 

TOWN  HALLS.  These  constitute  the  most  interesting  class 
of  Renaissance  buildings  in  Germany,  presenting  a  consid- 
erable variety  of  types,  but  nearly  all  built  in  solid  blocks 
without  courts,  and  adorned  with  towers  or  spires.  A  high 
roof  crowns  the  building,  broken  by  one  or  more  high  ga- 
bles or  many-storied  dormers.     The  majority  of  these  town 


344 


HISTORY    01    ARCHITECTURE. 


halls  present  facades  much  diversified  by  projecting  wings, 
as  at  Lemgo  and  Paderborn,  or  by  oriels  and  turrets,  as  at 
Altenburg  (1562-64);  and  the  towers  which  dominate  the 
whole  terminate  usually  in  bell-shaped  cupolas,  or  in  more 

capricious  forms  with 
successive  swellings 
and  contractions,  as  at 
Dan  tzic  (1587).  A  few, 
however,  are  designed 
with  monumental  sim- 
plicity of  mass  ;  of  these 
that  at  Bremen  (161 2) 
is  perhaps  the  finest, 
with  iN  beautiful  ex- 
terior arcade  on  strong 
Doric  columns.  The 
town  hall  of  Nuremberg 
is  one  of  the  few  with 
a  court,  and  presents  a 
facade  of  almost  Roman 
simplicity  (1613-  19)  ; 
that  at  Augsburg  (1615) 
is  equally  classic  and 
more  pleasing;  while 
at  Schweinfurt,  Rothen- 

bnrg(i57a),  Mulhausen, 

etc.,  are  others  worthy 
of  mention. 

CHURCHES.  St.  Mi- 
chael's, at  Munich,  is 
almost  the  only  important  church  of  the  first  period  in 
Germany  (1582),  but  it  is  worthy  to  rank  with  many  of 
the  most  notable  contemporary  Italian  churches.  A  wide 
nave  covered  by  a  majestic  barrel  vault,  is  flanked  by  side 
chapels,  separated  from  each  other  by  massive  piers  and 


FIG.     I  y2. —  THE    IKIKDKK  HSHAl',    HEII'I 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GERMANY. 


345 


forming  a  series  of  gallery  bays  above.  There  are  short 
transepts  and  a  choir,  all  in  excellent  proportion  and  treat- 
ed with  details  which,  if  somewhat  heavy,  are  appropriate 
and  reasonably  correct.  The  Marienkirche  at  Wolfenbiit- 
tel  (1608)  is  a  fair  sample  of  the  parish  churches  of  the  sec- 
ond period.  In  the  exte- 
rior of  this  church  point- 
ed arches  and  semi-Gothic 
tracery  are  curiously  asso- 
ciated with  heavy  rococo 
carving.  The  simple  rect- 
angular mass,  square  tow- 
er, and  portal  with  mas- 
sive orders  and  carving 
are  characteristic  features. 
Many  of  the  church-tow- 
ers are  well  proportioned 
and  graceful  structures  in 
spite  of  the  fantastic  out- 
lines of  their  spires.  One 
of  the  best  and  purest  in 
style  is  that  of  the  Uni- 
versity Church  at  Wiirz- 
burg  (1587-1600). 

HOUSES.  Many  of  the 
German  houses  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth 
centuries  would  merit  ex- 
tended notice  in  a  larger 

work,  as  among  the  most  interesting  lesser  monuments 
of  the  Renaissance.  Nuremberg  and  Hildesheim  are  par- 
ticularly rich  in  such  houses,  built  either  for  private  citi- 
zens or  for  guilds  and  corporations.  Not  a  few  of  the  half- 
timbered  houses  of  the  time  are  genuine  works  of  art, 
though  interest  chiefly  centres    in   the    more   monumental 


FIG.    193. — ZW1NGEK    PALACE,    DRESDEN. 


346 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


dwellings  of  stone.  In  this  domestic  architecture  the  pict- 
uresque quality  of  German  design  appears  to  better  advan- 
tage than  in  more  monumental  edifices,  and  their  broadly 
stepped  gables,  corbelled  oriels,  florid  portals  and  want  of 

formal  symmetry  im- 
parting a  peculiar  and 
undeniable  charm.  The 
Kaiserhaus  and  Wjede- 
kindsches  Haus  at  1 1  i  1- 
desheim  ;  Fiirstenhaus 
at  Leipzig;  Peller, 
Hirschvogel,  and  Funk 
houses  at  Nuremberg  ; 
the  Salt  House  at  Frank- 
furt, and  Ritter  House 
at  Heidelberg,  are  a  few 
of  the  most  noted  among 
these  examples  of  do- 
mestic architecture. 
LATEE   MONUMENTS. 

The  Zwinger  Palace  at 
Dresden  (Fig.  193),  is 
the  most  elaborate  and 
wayward  example  of  the 
German  palace  archi- 
tecture of  the  third  pe- 
riod. Its  details  are  of 
the  most  exaggerated 
rococo  type,  like  co 
fectioner's  work  done  in  stone  ;  and  yet  the  building  h 
an  air  of  princely  splendor  which  partly  atones  for  its  d 
tails.  Besides  this  palace,  Dresden  possesses  in  the  domical 
Harienkirche  (Fig.  194)  a  very  meritorious  example  of 
late  design.  The  proportions  are  good,  and  the  detail,  if 
not  interesting,  is  at  least  inoffensive,  while  the  whole  is 


:hi-rch  or  st.  mary  (marienkirche), 

DRESDEN. 


ed 

: 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   SPAIN.  347 

a  dignified  and  rational  piece  of  work.  At  Vienna  are  a 
number  of  palaces  of  the  third  period,  more  interesting  for 
their  beautiful  grounds  and  parks  than  for  intrinsic  archi- 
tectural merit.  As  in  Italy,  this  was  the  period  of  stucco, 
and  although  in  Vienna  this  cheap  and  perishable  material 
was  cleverly  handled,  and  the  ornament  produced  was  often 
quaint  and  effective,  the  results  lack  the  permanence  and 
dignity  of  true  building  in  stone  or  brick,  and  may  be  dis- 
missed without  further  mention. 

In  minor  works  the  Germans  were  far  less  prolific  than 
the  Italians  or  Spaniards.  Few  of  their  tombs  were  of  the 
first  importance,  though  one,  the  Sebald  Shrine,  in  Nurem- 
berg, by  Peter  Vischer  (1506-19),  is  a  splendid  work  in 
bronze,  in  the  transitional  style  ;  a  richly  decorated  canopy 
on  slender  metal  colonnettes  covering  and  enclosing  the 
sarcophagus  of  the  saint.  There  are  a  large  number  of 
fountains  in  the  squares  of  German  and  Swiss  cities  which 
display  a  high  order  of  design,  and  are  among  the  most 
characteristic  minor  products  of  German  art. 

SPAIN.  The  flamboyant  Gothic  style  sufficed  for  a  while 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  arrogant  and  luxurious 
period  which  in  Spain  followed  the  overthrow  of  the  Moors 
and  the  discovery  of  America.  But  it  was  inevitable  that 
the  Renaissance  should  in  time  make  its  influence  felt  in 
the  arts  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  largely  through  the  em- 
ployment of  Flemish  artists.  In  jewelry  and  silverwork, 
arts  which  received  a  great  impulse  from  the  importation 
of  the  precious  metals  from  the  New  World,  the  forms  of 
the  Renaissance  found  special  acceptance,  so  that  the  new 
style  received  the  name  of  the  Plateresque  (from  platero, 
silversmith).  This  was  a  not  inept  name  for  the  minutely 
detailed  and  sumptuous  decoration  of  the  early  Renais- 
sance, which  lasted  from  1500  to  the  accession  of  Philip  II. 
in  1556.  It  was  characterized  by  surface-decoration  spread- 
ing over  broad  areas,  especially  around  doors  and  windows, 


348  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

florid  escutcheons  and  Gothic  details  mingling  with  dell 
cately  chiselled  arabesques.  Decorative  pilasters  with 
broken  entablatures  and  carved  baluster-shafts  were  em- 
ployed with  little  reference  to  constructive  lines,  but  with 
great  refinement  of  detail,  in  spite  of  the  exuberant  profu- 
sion of  the  ornament. 

To  this  style,  after  the  artistic  inaction  of  Philip  II.'s 
reign,  succeeded  the  coldly  classic  style  practised  by  Ben  u- 
guete  and  Herrera,  and  called  the  Griego-Romano.  In  spite  of 
the  attempt  to  produce  works  of  classical  purity,  the  build- 
ings of  this  period  are  for  the  most  part  singularly  devoid  of 
originality  and  interest.  This  style  lasted  until  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  case  of  certain  works 
and  artists,  until  its  close.  It  was  followed,  at  least  in  eeele- 
siastieal  architecture,  by  the  so-called  Churrigueresque^  a 
name  derived  from  an  otherwise  insignificant  architect,  Chtn- 
rigtiera,  who  like  Maderna  and  Horromini  in  Italy,  discarded 
all  the  proprieties  of  architecture,  and  rejoiced  in  the  wildest 
extravagances  <>f  an  untrained  fancy  and  debased  taste. 

EARLY  MONUMENTS.  The  earliest  ecclesiastical  works  of 
the  Renaissance  period,  like  the  cathedrals  of  Salamanca, 
Toledo,  and  Segovia,  were  almost  purely  Gothic  in  style. 
Not  until  1525  did  tin-  new  forms  begin  to  dominate  in 
cathedral  design.  The  cathedral  at  Jaen,  by  Valdehira 
(1525),  an  imposing  structure  with  three  aisles  and  side 
chapels,  was  treated  internally  with  the  Corinthian  order 
throughout.  The  Cathedral  <>i  Granada  (1529,  by  Diego  de 
Si/oc)  is  especially  interesting  for  its  great  domical  sanctu- 
ary 70  feet  in  diameter,  and  for  the  largeness  and  dignity 
of  its  conception  and  details.  The  cathedral  of  Malaga, 
the  church  of  San  Domingo  at  Salamanca,  and  the  monas- 
tery of  San  Girolamo  in  the  same  city  are  either  wholly  or 
in  part  Plateresque,  and  provided  with  portals  of  especial 
richness  of  decoration.  Indeed,  the  portal  of  S.  Domingo 
practically  forms  the  whole  facade. 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN   SPAIN. 


349 


In  secular    architecture  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz  at 
Toledo,  by  Enrique  de  Egos  (1504   16),  is  one  of  the  earliest 
examples  of  the  style,     line,  as  also  in  the  University  at 
Salamanca  (Kig.  195),  the  portal  is  the  most  notable   feat- 
ure, suggesting  both 
Italian    and    French 
models  in  its  details. 
The  great  College  at 
Alcala  de  Henares  is 
another       important 
early    monument    of 
the   Renaissance 
(1500-17,    by    Pedro 
Gumiel).   In  most  de- 
signs the  preference 
was  for  long  facades 
of   moderate   height, 
with  a   basement 
showing    few    open- 
ings, and  a  bel  etage 
lighted  by  large  win- 
dows widely  spaced. 
Ornament  was  chief- 
ly concentrated  about 
the    doors    and   win- 
dows, except  for  the 
root    balustrades,       fig.  195. — door  of  the  university,  salamancai 
which  were  often  ex- 
ceedingly elaborate.     Occasionally  a  decorative  motive   is 
spread  over  the  whole  facade,  as  in  the  Casa  de  las  Conchas 
at  Salamanca,  adorned  with  cockle-shells  carved  at  inter- 
vals all  over  the  front — a  bold  and  effective  device  ;  or  the 
Infantada  palace  with  its  spangling  of  carved   diamonds. 
The  courtyard   or  patio  was  an   indispensable    feature   of 
these   buildings,   as   in    all    hot   countries,    and    was    sur- 


35o 


HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


rounded  by  arcades  frequently  of  the  most  fanciful  design 
overloaded  with  minute  ornament,  as  in  the  Iniantado  at 
Guadalajara,   the   Casa  de  Zaporta,   formerly  at  Saragossa 

|  now  removed  to  Paris  ; 
Fig.  196),  and  the  Lu- 
piana  monastery.  The 
patios  in  the  Arch- 
bishop's  Palace  at  Al- 
calade  Heflaresand  the 
Collegio  de  los  Irlande- 
ses  at  Salamanca  are  of 
simpler  design  ;  that  of 
the  Casa  de  Pilatos  at 
Seville  is  almost  pure- 
ly Moorish.  Salamanca 
abounds  in  buildings  of 
this  period. 

THE  GRIEGO-ROMANO. 
The  more  classic  treat- 
ment of  architectural 
designs  by  the  use  of 
the  orders  was  intro- 
duced by  Alonzo  BerrU' 
g ttete  (1480- 1 5 60  ?),  who 
studied  in  Italy  after 
1503.  The  Archbish- 
op's Palace  and  the 
Doric  Gate  of  San  Mar- 

►  n..   196.— CAM   i/F.  /aiokia:   (oikivaki).  tinO.      both      at     Toledo. 

were   his  work,  as   well 

as  the  first  palace  at  Madrid.     The    Palladio  of  Spain  was, 

However,  by  Juan  de  Hnrera  (died   1597),  the  architect  or 

Valladolid  Cathedral,  built  under  Philip  V.      This  vast  edi- 

•ilows  the  general  lines  of  the  earlier  cathedrals  of  Jaen 

and  Granada,  but  in  a  style  of  classical  correctness  almost 


THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   SI>AIN. 


351 


severe  in  aspect,  but  well  suited  to  the  grand  scale  of  the 
church.  The  masterpiece  of  this  period  was  the  monastery 
of  the  Escurial,  begun  by  Juan  Battista  of  Toledo,  in  1563, 
but  not  completed  until  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
later.  Its  final  architectural  aspect  was  largely  due  to 
Herrera.  It  is  a  vast  rectangle  of  740  X  580  feet,  compris- 
ing a  complex  of  courts,  halls,  and  cells,  dominated  by  the 
huge  mass  of  the 
chapel.  This  last  is 
an  imposing  domical 
church  covering  70,- 
000  square  feet,  treat- 
ed throughout  with 
the  Doric  order,  and 
showing  externally  a 
lofty  dome  and  cam- 
paniles with  domical 
lanterns,  which  serve 
to  diversify  the  oth- 
erwise monotonous 
mass  of  the  monas- 
tery. What  the  Es- 
curial lacks  in  grace 
or  splendor  is  at  least 
in  a  measure  re- 
deemed by  its  maj- 
estic scale  and  varied  sky-lines.  The  Palace  of  Charles  V. 
(Fig.  197),  adjoining  the  Alhambra  at  Granada,  though 
begun  as  early  as  1527  by  Machuca,  was  mainly  due  to 
Berruguete,  and  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  Spanish 
Palladian  style.  With  its  circular  court,  admirable  propor- 
tions and  well-studied  details,  this  often  maligned  edifice 
deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  successful  examples 
of  the  style.  During  this  period  the  cathedral  of  Seville 
received  many  alterations,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  adjoin- 


-PAI.ACE    OF   CHART. E? 


352  HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

in^  Moorish  tower  of  the  Giralda,  burned  in  1395,  was  re- 
built by  Fernando  Ruiz  in  the  prevalent  style,  and  with  con- 
siderable elegante  and  appropriateness  of  design. 

Of  the  Palace  at  Madrid,  rebuilt  by  Philip  V.  after  the 
burning  of  the  earlier  palace  in  1734,  and  mainly  the  work 
of  an  Italian,  /vara ;  the  Aranjuez  palace  (1739,  by  Fran* 
cisco  I/crrcra),  and  the  Palace  at  San  Ildefonso,  it  need  only 
be  said  that  their  chief  merit  lies  in  their  size  and  the  ab- 
sence of  those  glaring  violations  of  good  taste  which  gen- 
erally characterized  the  successors  of  Churriguera.  In 
ecclesiastical  design  these  violations  of  taste  were  particu- 
larly abundant  and  excessive,  especially  in  the  facades  and 
in  the  sanctuary  —  huge  aggregations  of  misplaced  and 
vulgar  detail,  with  hardly  an  unbroken  pediment,  column, 
or  arch  in  the  whole.  Some  extreme  examples  of  this 
abominable  style  are  to  be  found  in  the  Spanish-American 
churches  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  as  at  Chihuahua 
(Mexico),  Tucson  (Arizona),  and  other  places.  The  least 
offensive  features  of  the  churches  of  this  period  were  the 
towers,  usually  in  pairs  at  the  west  end,  some  of  them 
showing  excellent  proportions  and  good  composition  in 
spite  of  their  execrable  details. 

Minor  architectural  works,  such  as  the  rood  screens!  in 
the  churches  of  Astorga  and  Medina  de  Rio  Seco,  and 
many  tombs  at  Granada,  Avila,  Alcala,  etc.,  give  evidence 
of  superior  skill  in  decorative  design,  where  constructive 
considerations  did  not  limit  the  exercise  of  the  imagination. 

Portugal.  The  Renaissance  appears  to  have  produced 
few  notable  works  in  Portugal.  Among  the  chief  of  these 
are  the  Tower,  the  church,  and  the  Cloister,  at  Belem.  These 
display  a  riotous  profusion  of  minute  carved  ornament,  with 
a  free  commingling  of  late  Gothic  details,  wearisome  in  the 
end  in  spite  of  the  beauty  of  its  execution  (1500-40?). 
The  church  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Coimbra,  and  that  of  Luz, 
near    Lisbon,  an-    among    tli<-   most    noted    of   the   religious 


THE   RENAISSANCE    IN    PORTUGAL.  353 

monuments  of  the  Renaissance,  while  in  secular  architecture 
the  royal  palace  at  Mafra  is  worthy  of  mention. 

MONUMENTS.  (Mainly  supplementary  to  preceding  text)  Austria, 
BOOTHIA,  etc.  :  At  Prague,  Schloss  Stern,  1459-1565  ;  Schwarzenburg 
Palace,  1544  ;  Waldstein  Palace,  1629;  Salvator  Chapel,  Vienna,  1515  ; 
Schloss  Schalaburg,  near  Molk,  1530-1601  ;  Standehaus,  Gratz,  1625. 
At  Vienna  :  Imperial  palace,  various  dates  ;  Schwarzenburg  and  Lichten- 
stein  palaces,  18th  century. 

Germany,  First  Period  :  Schloss  Baden,  1510-29  and  part  1569-82; 
Schloss  Merseburg,  15 14,  with  late  16th-century  portals  ;  Fuggerhaus  at 
Augsburg,  1516  ;  castles  of  Neuenstein,  1530-64  ;  Celle,  1532-46  (and 
enlarged,  1665-70)  ;  Dessau,  1533  ;  Leignitz,  portal,  1533  ;  Plagnitz, 
1550;  Schloss  Gottesau,  1553-88;  castle  of  Gtistrow,  1555-65;  of  Oels, 
1 559-1616  ;  of  Bernburg,  1565  ;  of  Heiligenburg,  >56g-87  ;  Miinzhof  at 
Munich,  1575  ;  Lusthaus  (demolished)  at  Stuttgart,  1575  ;  Wilhelmsburg 
Castle  at  Schmalkald,  1584-90;  castle  of  Hamelschenburg,  1588-1612. — 
SfccOND  Period:  Zunfthaus  at  Basle,  1578,  in  advanced  style;  so  also 
Juleum  at  Helmstadt,  1593-1612  ;  gymnasium  at  Brunswick,  1592-1613  ; 
Spiesshof  at  Basle,  1600;  castle  at  Berlin,  1600-1616,  demolished  in  great 
part ;  castle  Bevern,  1603  ;  Dantzic,  Zeughaus,  1605  ;  Wallfahrtskirche  at 
Dettelbach,  1613  ;  castle  Aschaffenburg,  1605-13  ;  Schloss  Weikersheim, 
1600-83. — Third  Period  :  Zeughaus  at  Berlin,  1695  ;  palace  at  Berlin 
by  Schluter,  1699-1706  ;  Catholic  church,  Dresden.  (For  Classic  Revival, 
see  next  chapter.) — Town  Halls  :  At  Heilbronn,  1535  ;  Gorlitz,  1537  ; 
Posen,  1550;  Mulhausen,  1552;  Cologne,  porch  with  Corinthian  columns 
and  Gothic  arches,  1569;  Ltibeck  (Rathhaushalle),  1570;  Schweinfurt, 
1570;  Gotha,  1574;  Emden,  1574-76;  Lemgo,  1589;  Neisse,  1604; 
Nordhausen,   1610  ;  Paderborn,  1612-16  ;  Gernsbach,  1617. 

Spain,  i6th  Century  :  Monastery  San  Marcos  at  Leon  ;  palace  of 
the  Infanta,  Saragossa  ;  Carcel  del  Corte  at  Baez  ;  Cath.  of  Malaga, 
W.  front,  1538,  by  de  Siloe  ;  Tavera  Hospital,  Toledo,  1541,  by  de  Busta- 
mente  ;  Alcazar  at  Toledo,  1548  ;  Lonja  (Town  Hall)  at  Saragossa,  1551  ; 
Casa  de  la  Sal,  Casa  Monterey,  and  Collegio  de  los  Irlandeses,  all  at 
Salamanca  ;  Town  Hall,  Casa  de  los  Taveras  and  upper  part  of  Giralda, 
all  at  Seville. — 17TH  Century  :  Cathedral  del  Pilar,  Saragossa,  1677  ; 
Tower  del  Seo,  1685. — i8th  Century  :  palace  at  Madrid,  1735  ;  at  Aran- 
juez,  1739  ;  cathedral  of  Santiago,  1738  ;  Lonja  at  Barcelona,  1772. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE   CLASSIC   REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE. 

Books  Recommended:  As  before,  Fergusson.  Also  Cha- 
teau, Histoire  et  caracteres  de  V architecture  en  France  ;  and 
LUbke,  Geschichte der  Architektur.  (For  the  most  part,  how- 
ever, recourse  must  be  had  to  the  general  histories  of 
architecture,  and  to  monographs  on  special  cities  or  build- 
ings.) 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  By  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Renaissance,  properly  speaking,  had  run  its 
course  in  Europe.  The  increasing  servility  of  its  imitation 
of  antique  models  had  exhausted  its  elasticity  and  originality. 
Taste  rapidly  declined  before  the  growth  of  the  industrial 
and  commercial  spirit  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  fer- 
ment of  democracy  and  the  disquiet  of  far-reaching  political 
changes  had  begun  to  preoccupy  the  minds  of  men  to  the 
detriment  of  the  arts.  By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  extravagances  of  the  Rococo,  Jesuit,  and 
Louis  XV.  styles  had  begun  to  pall  upon  the  popular  taste, 
The  creative  spirit  was  dead,  and  nothing  seemed  more 
promising  as  a  corrective  for  these  extravagances  than  a 
return  to  classic  models.  Hut  the  demand  was  for  a  literal 
copying  of  the  arcades  and  porticos  of  Rome,  to  serve  as 
frontispieces  for  buildings  in  which  modern  requirements 
should  be  accommodated  to  these  antique  exteriors,  instead 
of  controlling  the  design.  The  result  was  a  manifest  gain 
in  the  splendor  of  the  streets  and  squares  adorned  by  these 
highly  decorative  frontispieces,  but  at  the  expense  of  con- 


THE   CLASSIC   REVIVALS   IK   EUROPE.  355 

venience  and  propriety  in  the  buildings  themselves.  While 
this  academic  spirit  too  often  sacrificed  logic  and  original- 
ity to  an  arbitrary  symmetry  and  to  the  supposed  canons 
of  Roman  design,  it  also,  on  the  other  hand,  led  to  a  stateli- 
ness  and  dignity  in  the  planning,  especially  in  the  design- 
ing of  vestibules,  stairs,  and  halls,  which  render  many  of  the 
public  buildings  it  produced  well  worthy  of  study.  The 
architecture  of  the  Roman  Revival  was  pompous  and  artifi- 
cial, but  seldom  trivial,  and  its  somewhat  affected  grandeur 
was  a  welcome  relief  from  the  dull  extravagance  of  the 
styles  it  replaced. 

THE  GREEK  REVIVAL.  The  Roman  revival  was,  however, 
displaced  in  England  and  Germany  by  the  Greek  Revival, 
which  set  in  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This 
was  the  result  of  a  newly  awakened  interest  in  the  long- 
neglected  monuments  of  Attic  art  which  the  discoveries  of 
Stuart  and  Revett — sent  out  in  1732  by  the  London  Society 
of  Dilettanti — had  once  more  made  known  to  the  world. 
It  led  to  a  veritable  furore  in  England  for  Greek  Doric 
and  Ionic  columns,  which  were  applied  indiscriminately  to 
every  class  of  buildings,  with  utter  disregard  of  propriety. 
The  British  taste  was  at  this  time  at  its  lowest  ebb, 
and  failed  to  perceive  the  poverty  of  Greek  architecture 
when  deprived  of  its  proper  adornments  of  carving  and 
sculpture,  which  were  singularly  lacking  in  the  British  ex- 
amples. Nevertheless  the  Greek  style  in  England  had  a 
long  run  of  popular  favor,  yielding  only  during  the  reign  of 
the  present  sovereign  to  the  so-called  Victorian  Gothic,  a 
revival  of  mediaeval  forms.  In  Germany  the  Greek  Revival 
was  characterized  by  a  more  cultivated  taste  and  a  more 
rational  application  of  its  forms,  which  were  often  freely 
modified  to  suit  modern  needs.  In  France,  where  the  Ro- 
man Revival  under  Louis  XV.  had  produced  fairly  satisfac- 
tory results,  and  where  the  influence  of  the  Royal  School  of 
Fine  Arts  {JZcole  des  Beaux-Arts)  tended  to  perpetuate  the 


356  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

principles  of  Roman  design,  the  Greek  Revival  found  no 
footing.  The  Greek  forms  were  seen  to  be  too  severe  and 
intractable  for  present  requirements.  About  1830,  how- 
ever, a  modified  style  of  design,  known  since  as  the  JV/o- 
Grecy  was  introduced  by  the  exertions  of  a  small  coterie  of 
talented  architects  ;  and  though  its  own  life  was  short,  it 
profoundly  influenced  French  art  in  the  direction  of  free- 
dom and  refinement  for  a  long  time  afterward.  In  Italy 
there  was  hardly  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  true  revival 
of  either  Roman  or  Greek  forms.  The  few  important  works 
of  the  late  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries  were 
conceived  in  the  spirit  of  the  late  Renaissance,  and  took 
from  the  prevalent  revival  of  classicism  elsewhere  merely 
a  greater  correctness  of  detail,  not  any  radical  change  of 
form  or  spirit. 

ENGLAND.  There  was,  strictly  speaking,  no  Roman  re- 
vival in  Great  Britain.  The  modified  l'alladian  style  of 
Wren  and  Gibbs  and  their  successors  continued  until  super- 
seded by  the  Greek  revival.  The  first  fruit  of  the  new 
movement  seems  to  have  been  the  Bank  of  England  at 
London,  by  Sir  John  Soane  (1788).  In  this  edifice  the 
Greco-Roman  order  of  the  round  temple  at  Tivoli  was 
closely  copied,  and  applied  to  a  long  facade,  too  low  for  its 
length  and  with  no  sufficient  stylobate,  but  fairly  effective 
with  its  recessed  colonnade  and  unpierced  walls.  The  Brit- 
ish Museum,  by  Robert  Smirke  (Fig.  198),  was  a  more  am- 
bitious essay  in  a  more  purely  Greek  style.  Its  colossal 
Ionic  colonnade  was,  however,  a  mere  frontispiece,  applied 
to  a  badly  planned  and  commonplace  building,  from  which 
it  cut  off  needed  light.  The  more  modest  but  appropriate 
columnar  facade  to  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge, 
by  Bassevi,  was  a  more  successful  attempt  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, better  proportioned  and  avoiding  the  incongruity  of 
modern  windows  in  several  stories.  These  have  always 
been  the  stumbling-block  of  the  revived  Greek  style.     The 


THE   CLASSIC   REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE.  357 

difficulties  they  raise  are  avoided,  however,  in  buildings 
presenting  but  two  stories,  the  order  being  applied  to  the 
upper  story,  upon  a  high  stylobate  serving  as  a  basement. 
The  High  School  and  the  Royal  Institution  at  Edinburgh, 
and  the  University  at  London,  by  Wilkins,  are  for  this  rea- 
son, if  for  no  other,  superior  to  the  British  Museum  and 
other  many-storied  Anglo-Greek  edifices.     In  spite  of  all 


FIG.    198. — BRITISH    MUSEl'M,    LONDON. 

difficulties,  however,  the  English  extended  the  applications  of 
the  style  with  doubtful  success  not  only  to  all  manner  of  pub- 
lic buildings,  but  also  to  country  residences.  Carlton  House, 
Bowden  Park,  and  Grange  House  are  instances  of  this 
misapplication  of  Greek  forms.  Neither  did  it  prove  more 
tractable  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  St.  Pancras's  Church 
at  London,  and  several  churches  by  Thomson  (1817-75),  m 
Glasgow,  though  interesting  as  experiments  in  such  adapta- 
tion, are  not  to  be  commended  for  imitation.  The  most 
successful  of  all  British  Greek  designs  is  perhaps  St.  George's 


358 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Hall  at  Liverpool  (Fig.  199),  whose  imposing  peristyle  ami 
porches  are  sufficiently  Greek  in  spirit  and  detail  to  elass 
it  among  the  works  of  the  Greek  Revival.  But  its  great 
hall  and  its  interior  composition  are  really  Roman  and  not 


FIG.    igq. — ST.    GEORGE'S    HALL,    LIVERPOOL. 

Greek,  emphasizing  the  teaching  of  experience  that  Greek 
architecture  does  not  lend  itself  to  the  exigencies  of  mod- 
ern civilization  to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  the  Roman. 

GERMANY.  During  the  eighteenth  century  the  classic  revi- 
val in  Germany,  which  at  first  followed  Roman  precedents 
(as  in  the  columns  carved  with  spirally  ascending  reliefs  in 
front  of  the  church  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  at  Vienna),  was 
directed  into  the  channel  of  Greek  imitation  by  the  literary 
works  of  Winckelmann,  I.essing,  Goethe,  and  others,  as  well 
ai  by  the  interest  aroused  by  the  discoveries  of  Stuart  and 
Kcvctt.  The  Brandenburg  Gate  at  Berlin  (1784),  was  the 
earliest  realization  in  architecture  of  this  revived  Hellen- 
ism, and  one  of  its  most  successful  applications  to  civic 
purposes.     Without  precisely  cop  f  Grei      structure, 

it  was  evidently  inspired  from  the    Athenian  a,  and 

nothing  in    its   purpose    is  foreign   to   the   style  employed. 
The  greatest  activity  in  the  style  came  I  iter,  however,  and 
irafl   greatly  stimulated  by  the  achievements  of  Fr.   Schinkel 
(1771-1S41).  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  Gem 


TIIH   CLASSIC   REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE. 


359 


tects.  While  in  the  domical  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at 
Potsdam,  he  employed  Roman  forms  in  a  modernized  Ro- 
man conception,  and  followed  in  one  or  two  other  buildings 
the  principles  of  the  Renaissance,  his  predilections  were 
for  Greek  architecture.  His  masterpiece  was  the  Museum 
at  Berlin,  with  an  imposing  portico  of  18  Ionic  columns 
(Fig.  200).  This  building  with  its  fine  rotunda  was  excel- 
lently planned,  and  forms,  in  conjunction  with  t.he  New 
Museum  by  Stiihler  (1843-55),  a  n°ble  palace  of  art,  to  whose 
monumental  requirements  and  artistic  purpose  the  Greek 
colonnades  and  pediments  were  not  inappropriate.  Schink- 
el's  greatest  successor  was  Leo  von  Klenze  (1 784-1864), 
whose  more  textual  reproductions  of  Greek  models  won 
him  great  favor  and  wide  employment.  The  Walhalla 
near  Ratisbon  is  a  modernized  Parthenon,  internally  vaulted 
with  glass  ;  elegant  externally,  but  too  obvious  a  plagiarism 
to  be  greatly  admired.  The  Ruhmeshalle  at  Munich,  a 
double  L  partly  enclosing  a  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  and 
devoted  to  the  commemoration  of  Bavaria's  great  men,  is 


FIG.    200. — THE    OLD    MUSEUM,    BERLIN. 


copied  from  no  Greek  building,  though  purely  Greek  in 
design  and  correct  to  the  smallest  detail.  In  the  Glypto- 
thek  (Sculpture  Gallery),  in  the  same  city,  the  one  distinc- 


360 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


tivuly  (ireek  feature  introduced  by  Klenze,  an  Ionic  portico, 
is  also  the  one  inappropriate  note  in  the  design.  The 
Propylaea  at  Munich,  by  the  same  (Fig.  201),  and  the  Court 
Theatre  at  Berlin,  by  Schinkel,are  other  important  examples 
of  the  style.  The  latter  is  externally  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  theatres  in  Europe,  though  less  ornate  than  many. 
Schinkel's  genius  was  here  remarkably  successful  in  adapt- 
ing Greejc  details  to  the  exigent  difficulties  of  theatre  de- 


lOTE  I 


Fin.    JOJ.— THE    FROPVI..«A,    Mt'NICH. 


sign,  and  there  is  no  suggestion  of  copying  any  known 
Greek  building. 

In  Vienna  the  one  notable  monument  of  the  Classic  Re- 
vival is  the  Reichsrathsgebaude  or  Parliament  House,  by 
Th.  Hansen  (1^4.?),  an  imposing  two-storied  composition 
with  a  lofty  central  colonnade  and  lower  side-wings,  har- 
monious in  general  proportions  and  pleasingly  varied  in 
outline  and  m 

In  general,  the  Greek  Revival  in  Germany  presents  the 

aspect  of  a  sincere  striving  after  beauty,  on  the  part  of  a 
limited  number  ^\  artist-,  ot  great  talent,  misled  by  the  idea 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS    IN   EUROPE. 


36l 


that  the  forms  of  a  dead  civilization  could  be  galvanized 
into  new  life  in  the  service  of  modern  needs.  The  result 
was  disappointing,  in  spite  of  the  excellent  planning,  ad- 
mirable construction  and  carefully  studied  detail  of  these 
buildings,  and  the  movement  here  as  elsewhere  was  fore- 
doomed to  failure. 

FRANCE.  In  France  the  Classic  Revival,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  made  its  appearance  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  in 
a  number  of  important  monuments  which  expressed  the 
protest  of  their  authors  against 
the  caprice  of  the  Rococo  style 
then  in  vogue.  The  colonnades 
of  the  Garde  -  Meuble,  the  facade 
of  St.  Sulpice,  and  the  coldly 
beautiful  Pantheon  (Figs.  202,  203) 
testified  to  the  conviction  in  the 
most  cultured  minds  of  the  time 
that  Roman  grandeur  was  to  be 
attained  only  by  copying  the  forms 
of  Roman  architecture  with  the 
closest  possible  approach  to  cor- 
rectness. In  the  Pantheon,  the 
greatest  ecclesiastical  monument 
of  its  time  in  France  (otherwise 
known  as  the  church  of  Ste.  Gene- 
vieve), the  spirit  of  correct  classicism  dominates  the  inte- 
rior as  well  as  the  exterior.  It  is  a  Greek  cross,  measur- 
ing 362  x  267  feet,  with  a  dome  265  feet  high,  and  in- 
ternally 69  feet  in  diameter.  The  four  arms  have  domical 
vaulting  and  narrow  aisles  separated  by  Corinthian  col- 
umns. The  whole  interior  is  a  cold  but  extremely  elegant 
composition.  The  most  notable  features  of  the  exterior 
are  its  imposing  portico  of  colossal  Corinthian  columns 
and  the  fine  peristyle  which  surrounds  the  drum  of  the 
dome,    giving    it    great    dignity    and    richness    of    effect. 


FIG.    20». — PLAN    OF    PANTHEON, 
PARIS. 


362 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITE4  TURE. 


The  dome,  which  is  of  stone  throughout,  has  three  shells, 
the  intermediate  shell  serving  to  support  the  heavy  stone 
lantern.  The  architect  was  Soufflot  (1713-81).  The  Grand 
Theatre,  at  Bordeaux  (1773,  by  Victor  Louis),  one  of  the 
largest  and  finest  theatres  in  Europe,  was  another  prod- 
uct of  this  movement,  its  stately  colonnade  forming  one 

of  the  chief  ornaments 
of  the  city.  Under 
Louis  XVI.  there  was 
a  temporary  reaction 
from  this  somewhat 
pompous     affectation 

of  antique  grandeur  ; 
but  there  were  few 
important   buildings 

erected  during  that 
unhappy  reign,  and 
the  reaction  showed 
itself  mainly  in  a  more 

delicate  and   graceful 

style  of  interior  dec- 
oration. It  wras  re- 
served  for  the  Empire 
to  set  tin-  seal  of  of- 
ficial approval  on  the 
Roman  Revival.  The 
An  li  of  Triumph  of 
the  Carrousel,  behind  the  Tuileries,  by  PercUr  ond  Fontaine, 
the  magnificent  Arcde  l'Ktoile,  at  the  summit  of  the  Avenue 
of  the  Champs    Kl\>ees,  by    CkaigrtH  ;  the   wing  begun    by 

Napoleon  to  connect  the  Tuileries  with  the  Louvre  on  the 

land    side,  and    the  church   of  the    Madeleine,    by     I'/'x'/on, 

erected  as  a  temple  to  the  heroes  of  the   Grande  Arm< 

were  all    designed,   in  lance   with    the   expressed    will 

of  the  Emperor  himself,  in  a  style  as  Roman  as  the  require* 


'  >3-~ »XTMIOI«    OF    I'ANTHrfoN,    PARIS. 


THE   CLASSIC   REVIVALS    IN    EUROPE. 


363 


ments  of  each  case  would  permit.  All  these  monuments, 
begun  between  1806  and  1809,  were  completed  after  the 
Restoration.  The  Arch  of  the  Carrousel  is  a  close  copy 
of  Roman  models; 
that  of  the  £toile 
(Fig.  204)  was  a 
much  more  original 
design,  of  colossal 
dimensions.  Its 
admirable  propor- 
tions, simple  com- 
position and  strik- 
ing sculptures  give 
it  a  place  among  the 
noblest  creations 
of  its  class.  The 
Madeleine  (Fig. 
205),  externally  a 
Roman  Corinthian 
temple  of  the  larg- 
est size,  presents 
internally  an  al- 
most Byzantine  conception  with  the  three  pendentive  domes 
that  vault  its  vast  nave,  but  all  the  details  are  Roman. 
However  suitable  for  a  pantheon  or  mausoleum,  it  seems 
strangely  inappropriate  as  a  design  for  a  Christian  church. 
To  these  monuments  should  be  added  the  Bourse  or  Ex- 
change, by  Brongniart,  heavy  in  spite  of  its  Corinthian  peri- 
style, and  the  river  front  of  the  Corps  Legislatif  or  Palais 
Bourbon,  by  Poyet,  the  only  extant  example  of  a  dodecastyle 
portico  with  a  pediment.  All  of  these  designs  are  character- 
ized by  great  elegance  of  detail  and  excellence  of  execution, 
and  however  inappropriate  in  style  to  modern  uses,  they  add 
immensely  to  the  splendor  of  the  French  capital.  Unques- 
tionably no  feature  can  take  the  place  of  a  Greek  or  Roman 


FIG.    204. — ARC    DE    l'eTOILE,    PARIS. 


3<54 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


colonnade  as  an  embellishment  for  broad  avenues  and  open 
squares,  or  as  the  termination  of  an  architectural  vista. 

The  Greek  revival  took  little  hold  of  the  Parisian  imag- 
ination. Its  forms  were  too  cold,  too  precise  and  fixed,  too 
intractable  to  modern  requirements  to  appeal  to  the  French 
taste.  It  counts  but  one  notable  monument,  the  church  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  by  Hittorff,  who  sought  to  apply  to  this 


Hi..    205.—  I  HE    MADELEINE,    PARIS. 

design  the  principles  of  Greek  external  polychromy  ;  but 
the  frescoes  and  ornaments  failed  to  withstand  the  Parisian 
climate,  and  were  finally  erased.  The  Neo-Grec  movement 
already  referred  to,  initiated  by  DttC,  Duban.and  Labrouste 
about  1830,  aimed  only  to  introduce  into  modern  design  the 
spirit  and  refinement,  the  purity  and  delicacy  of  Greek  art, 
not  its  forms  (Fig.  206).  Its  chief  monuments  were  the  re- 
modelling, by  />//,;  of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  of  which  the  new 
le  is  the  most  striking  single  feature;  the  beau 
tiful   Library  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,    by  Duban j  the 


THE   CLASSIC    REVIVALS   IN    EUROPE. 


365 


Library  of  Ste.  Genevieve,  by  Labrouste,  in  which  a  long  fa- 
cade is  treated  without  a  pilaster  or  column,  simple  arches 
over  a  massive  basement  forming  the  dominant  motive, 
while  in  the  interi- 
or a  system  of  iron 
construction  with 
glazed  domes  controls 
the  design  ;  and  the 
commemorative  Co- 
lonne  Juillet,  by  Due, 
the  most  elegant  and 
appropriate  of  all 
modern  memorial  col- 
umns. All  these  build- 
ings, begun  between 
1830  and  1850  and 
completed  at  various 
dates,  are  distin- 
guished by  a  remark- 
able purity  and  free- 
dom of  conception 
and  detail,  quite  un- 
fettered by  the  arti- 
ficial trammels  of  the 
official  academic  style 

th#»n   nrpvalpnt  fig.  206.— doorway,  ecole  des  beaix-arts,  paris. 

THE  CLASSIC  REVIVAL  ELSEWHERE.  The  other  countries 
of  Europe  have  little  to  show  in  the  way  of  imitations  of 
classic  monuments  or  reproductions  of  Roman  colonnades. 
In  Italy  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  di  Faola,  at  Naples,  in 
quasi-imitation  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  with  wing-col- 
onnades, and  the  Super  ga,  at  Turin  (1706,  by  /vara)  ;  the 
facade  of  the  San  Carlo  Theatre,  at  Naples,  and  the  Braccio 
Nuovo  of  the  Vatican  (181 7,  by  Stern)  are  the  monuments 
which  come  the  nearest  to  the  spirit  and  style  of  the  Roman 


366 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Revival.  Yet  in  each  of  these  there  is  a  large  element  of 
originality  and  freedom  of  treatment  which  renders  doubt- 
ful their  classification  as  examples  of  that  movement. 

A  reflection  of  the  Munich  school  is  seen  in  the  modern 
public  buildings  of  Athens,  designed  in  some  cases  by  Ger- 
man architects,  and  in  others  by  native  Greeks.  The  Uni- 
versity, the   Museum  buildings,  the  Academy  of  Art  and 

Science,  and  other  edifices 
exemplify  fairly  successful 
efforts  to  adapt  the  severe 
details  of  classic  Greek 
art  to  modern  windowed 
structures.  They  suffer 
somewhat  from  the  too 
liberal^  use  of  stucco  in 
place  of  marble,  and  from 
the  conscious  affectation 
of  an  extinct  style.  But 
they  are  for  the  most  part 
pleasing  and  monumental 
designs,  adding  greatly  to 
the  beauty  of  the  modern 
city. 

In  Russia,  during  and 
after  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  (i 689-1 725),  there  ap- 
peared a  curious  mixture  of  styles.  A  style  analogous  to  the 
Jesuit  in  Italy  and  the  (  hurrigueresque  in  Spain  was  gen- 
erally prevalent,  but  it  was  in  many  cases  modified  by 
Muscovite  traditions  into  nondescript  forms  like  thoi 
the  Kremlin,  at  Moscow,  or  the  less  extravagant  Citadel 
Church  and  Smolnoy  Monastery  at  St.  Petersburg.  Along 
with  this  heavy  and  barbarous  style,  which  prevails  gener- 
ally in  the  numerous  palaces  of  the  capital,  finished  in  stucco 

with  atrocious  details,  a  more  severe  and  classical  spirit  is; 

met  with.      The  church  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  St.    Peters* 


PIC  207. — ST.  ISAAC  S  CATHEDRAL,  ST.  PETERS- 
BURG. 


THE   CLASSIC   REVIVALS   IN   EUROPE.  367 

burg  combines  a  Roman  domical  interior  with  an  exterior 
of  the  Greek  Doric  order.  The  Church  of  Our  Lady  of 
Kazan  has  a  semicircular  colonnade  projecting  from  its 
transept,  copying  as  nearly  as  may  be  the  colonnades  in 
front  of  St.  Peter's.  But  the  greatest  classic  monument  in 
Russia  is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Isaac  (Fig.  207),  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, a  vast  rectangular  edifice  with  four  Roman  Corinthian 
pedimental  colonnades  projecting  from  its  faces,  and  a 
dome  with  a  peristyle  crowning  the  whole.  Despite  many 
defects  of  detail,  and  the  use  of  cast  iron  for  the  dome, 
which  pretends  to  be  of  marble,  this  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
pressive churches  of  its  size  in  Europe.  Internally  it  dis- 
plays the  costliest  materials  in  extraordinary  profusion,  while 
externally  its  noble  colonnades  go  far  to  redeem  its  bare, 
attic  and  the  material  of  its  dome.  The  Palace  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Michael,  which  reproduces,  with  improvements, 
Gabriel's  colonnades  of  the  Garde  Meuble  at  Paris  on  its 
garden  front,  is  a  nobly  planned  and  commendable  design, 
agreeably  contrasting  with  the  debased  architecture  of 
many  of  the  public  buildings  of  the  city.  The  Admiralty 
with  its  Doric  pilasters,  and  the  New  Museum,  by  von  Klenze 
of  Munich,  in  a  skilfully  modified  Greek  style,  with  effective 
loggias,  are  the  only  other  monuments  of  the  classic  revival 
in  Russia  which  can  find  mention  in  a  brief  sketch  like  this. 
Both  are  notable  and  in  many  respects  admirable  buildings, 
in  part  redeeming  the  vulgarity  which  is  unfortunately  so 
prevalent  in  the  architecture  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  MONUMENTS  of  the  Classic  Revival  have  been  referred 
to  in  the  foregoing  text  at  sufficient  length  to  preclude  the 
necessity  of  further  enumeration  here. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

RECENT    ARCHITECTURE    IN   EUROPE. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Chateau,  Fergusson. 
Also  Barqui,  L1  Architecture  moderne  en  France. — Berlin  und 
seine  Bauten  (and  a  series  of  similar  works  on  the  modern 
buildings  of  other  German  cities).  Daly,  Architecture  prive'e 
du  X/Xe  siecle.  Gamier,  Le  nouvel  Opera.  Gourlier,  Choix 
cTtdifices  publics.  Licht,  Architektur  Deutschlands.  Lubke, 
Den  kindle  r  der  Kunst.  Liitzow  und  Tischler,  Wiener  Neu- 
ha it ten.  Narjoux,  Monuments  elevespar  la  ville  de  Paris,  1850- 
>88o.  R i'uk ward t,  Facaden  und  Details  inodernei  Bauten. — 
Saminel  mappe  liervorragenden  Coiicurrenz-Bntn'urfeii.  Sedille, 
V  Architecture  modernc.  Self  ridge,  Modern  French  Archi- 
tecture. Statham,  Modern  Architecture.  Villars,  England, 
Scotland,  and  Belaud  (tr.  Henry  Frith).  Consult  also  Trans* 
actions  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  and  the 
leading  architectural  journals  of  recent  years. 

modern  conditions.  The  nineteenth  century  has  been 
pre-eminently  an  age  of  industrial  progress.  Its  most  strik- 
ing advances  have  been  along  mechanical,  scientific,  and 
commercial  lines.  As  a  result  of  this  material  progress  t  he 
general  conditions  of  mankind  in  civilized  countries  have 
undoubtedly  been  greatly  bettered.  Popular  education 
and  the  printing-press  have  also  raised  the  intellectual  level 
iety,  making  learning  the  privilege  of  even  the  poorest. 
Intellectual,  scientific,  and  commercial  pursuits  have  thus 
largely  absorbed  those  energies  which  in  other  ages  found 
exercise  in  the  creation  of  artistic  forms  and  objects.  The 
critical  and  sceptical  spirit,  the  spirit  of  utilitarianism  and 
realism,  has  checked  the  free  and  general  development  of 
the  creative  imagination,  at  least  in  the  plastic  arts.      While 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE.      369 

in  poetry  and  music  there  have  been  great  and  noble 
achievements,  the  plastic  arts,  including  architecture,  have 
only  of  late  years  attained  a  position  at  all  worthy  of  the 
intellectual  advancement  of  the  times. 

Nevertheless  the  artistic  spirit  has  never  been  wholly 
crushed  out  by  the  untoward  pressure  of  realism  and  com- 
mercialism. Unfortunately  it  has  repeatedly  been  directed 
in  wrong  channels.  Modern  archaeology  and  the  publica- 
tion of  the  forms  of  historic  art  by  books  and  photographs 
have  too  exclusively  fastened  attention  upon  the  details  of 
extinct  styles  as  a  source  of  inspiration  in  design.  The 
whole  range  of  historic  art  is  brought  within  our  survey, 
and  while  this  has  on  the  one  hand  tended  toward  the  con- 
fusion and  multiplication  of  styles  in  modern  work,  it  h^ 
on  the  other  led  to  a  slavish  adherence  to  historic  preced- 
ent or  a  literal  copying  of  historic  forms.  Modern  archi- 
tecture has  thus  oscillated  between  the  extremes  of  archaeo- 
logical servitude  and  of  an  unreasoning  eclecticism.  In  the 
hands  of  men  of  inferior  training  the  results  have  been  de- 
plorable travesties  of  all  styles,  or  meaningless  aggrega- 
tions of  ill-assorted  forms. 

An  important  factor  in  this  demoralization  of  architect- 
ural design  has  been  the  development  of  new  constructive 
methods,  especially  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel.  It  has 
been  impossible  for  modern  designers,  in  their  treatment 
of  style,  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  changes  in  the  struct- 
ural use  of  metal  in  architecture.  The  roofs  of  vast  span, 
largely  composed  of  glass,  which  modern  methods  of  truss- 
ing have  made  possible  for  railway  stations,  armories,  and 
exhibition  buildings ;  the  immense  unencumbered  spaces 
which  may  be  covered  by  them ;  the  introduction  and 
development,  especially  in  the  United  States,  of  the  post- 
and-girder  system  of  construction  for  high  buildings,  in 
which  the  external  walls  are  a  mere  screen  or  filling-in  ; 
these  have  revolutionized  architecture  so  rapidly  and  com- 
24 


370  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

pletely  that  architects  are  still  struggling  and  groping  to 
find  the  solution  of  many  of  the  problems  of  style,  scale* 
and  composition  which  they  have  brought  forward. 

Within  the  last  thirty  years,  however,  architecture  has, 
despite  these  new  conditions,  made  notable  advances.  The 
artistic  emulation  of  repeated  international  exhibitions,  the 
multiplication  of  museums  and  schools  of  art,  the  general 
advance  in  intelligence  and  enlightenment,  have  all  con- 
tributed to  this  artistic  progress.  There  appears  tc  be 
more  of  the  artistic  and  intellectual  quality  in  the  average 
architecture  of  the  present  time,  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, than  at  any  previous  period  in  this  century.  The  fu- 
tility of  the  archaeological  revival  of  extinct  styles  is  gen- 
erally recognized.  New  conditions  are  gradually  procuring 
the  solution  of  the  very  problems  they  raise.  Historic  pre- 
cedent sits  more  lightly  on  the  architect  than  formerly,  and 
the  essential  unity  of  principle  underlying  all  good  design 
is  coming  to  be  better  understood.* 

FRANCE.  It  is  in  France,  Germany  (including  Austria). 
and  England  that  the  architectural  progress  of  this  period 
In  Europe  has  been  most  marked.  We  have  already  no- 
ticed the  results  of  the  classic  revivals  in  these  three  coun- 
.  Speaking  broadly,  it  may  be  said  that  in  France  the 
influence  of  the  £cole  des  Beaux-Arts,  while  it  has  tended  to 
give  greater  unity  and  consistency  to  the  national  architect! 
ure,  and  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  behalf  of  re- 
finement of  taste  and  correctness  of  style,  has  also  stood  in 
the  way  of  a  free  development  of  new  ideas.  Fren<  h  archi- 
tectore  has  throughout  adhered  to  the  principles  of  the 
Renaissance,  though  the  style  has  during  this  century  been 
modified  by  various  influences.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
Neo-Grec  movement,  alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter,  which 
broke  the  grip  of  Roman  tradition  in  matters  of  detail  and 
gave  greater  elasticity  to  the  national  style.  Next  should 
be  mentioned  the  Gothic  movement  represented  by  Violleti 
*  See  Appendix  I). 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


371 


le-Duc,  I.assus,  Ballu,  and  their  followers.  Beginning  about 
1845,  it  produced  comparatively  few  notable  buildings,  but 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  study  of  mediaeval  archaeology 
and  the  restoration  of  mediaeval  monuments.  The  churches 
of  Ste.  Clothilde  and  of  St.  Jean  de  Belleville,  at  Paris,  and 
the  reconstruction  of  the  Chateau  de  Pierrefonds,  were 
among  its  direct  results.  Indirectly  it  led  to  a  freer  and 
more  rational  treatment  of  constructive  forms  and  mate- 
rials than  had  prevailed  with  the  academic  designers.  The 
church  of  St.  Augustin,  by  Baltard,  at  Paris,  illustrates  this 
in  its  use  of  iron  and  brick  for  the  dome  and  vaulting,  and 


FIG.    208. — PLAN    OF    LOUVRE   AND   TUILERIES,    PARIS. 

A,  A,  the  Old  Louvre,  so  called ;  B,  B,  the  New  Louvre. 


the  College  Chaptal,  by  E.  Train,  in  its  decorative  treat- 
ment of  brick  and  tile  externally.  The  general  adoption 
of  iron  for  roof-trusses  and  for  the  construction  of  markets 
and  similar  buildings  tended  further  in  the  same  direction, 
the  Halles  Centrales  at  Paris,  by  Baltard,  being  a  notable 
example. 

THE  SECOND  EMPIRE.  The  reign  of  Napoleon  III. 
(1852-70)  was  a  period  of  exceptional  activity,  especially  in 
Paris.  The  greatest  monument  of  his  reign  was  the  com- 
pletion  of  the  Louvre  and  Tuileries,    under   Visconti  and 


3/2 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


Lcfucl,  including  the  remodelling  of  the  pavilions  de  Flore 
and  de  Marsan.  The  new  portions  constitute  the  most  not- 
able example  of  modern  French  architecture,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  two  pal- 
aces were  united  deserves 
high  praise.  In  spite  of  cer- 
tain defects,  this  work  is 
marked  by  a  combination  of 
dignity,  richness, and  refine- 
ment, such  as  are  rarely 
found  in  palace  architect- 
ure (Figs.  208,  209).  The 
New  Opera  1S63-75  ,  by 
Gamier  d.  1 898  ,'tandsnexl 
to  the  Louvre  in  importance 
as  a  national  monument. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  sump- 
tuous building  for  amust 
nient  in  existence,  but 
purity  of  detail  and  in  tl 
balance  and  restraint  of  it 
n  it  is  inferior  to  tl 
work  of  VifiCOnti  and  I-efut 
(Fig.  210).  To  this  reij 
belong  the  Palais  de  I'll 
dustrie,  by  Vitl,  built  f< 
the  exhibition  of  1855,  and  several  great  railway  statioi 
((laic  dii    Nord,  by  Hitorff,  dare  de   l'Fst.  dare  d'Orleans, 

etc.),  in  which  the  modern  French  version  of  the  Renais- 
sance was  applied  with  considerable  skill  to  buildings  largely 
Constructed  of  iron  and  glass.  I  Own  halls  ami  theatres 
were  erected  in  great  numbers,  and  in  decorative  work* 
like  fountains  and  monuments  the  French  were  particular! 
successful.  The  fountains  of  St.  Michel,  duvier,  and  M< 
liere,  at  Paris,  and  of  Longchamps,  at    Marseilles  (Fig.  211J 


■  IF    Kl<  HKI.IHI 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


373 


illustrate  the  fertility  of  resource  and  elegance  of  detailed 
treatment  of  the  French  in  this  department.  Mention  should 
also  here  be  made  of  the  extensive  enterprises  carried  out 
by  Napoleon  III.,  in  rectifying  and  embellishing  the  street- 
plan  of  Paris  by  new  avenues  and  squares  on  a  vast  scale, 
adding  greatly  to  the  monumental  splendor  of  the  city. 

THE  republic.  Since  the  disasters  of  1870  a  number  of 
important  structures 
have  been  erected, 
and  French  architect- 
ure has  shown  a  re- 
markable vitality  and 
flexibility  under  new 
conditions.  Its  pro- 
ductions have  in  gen- 
eral been  marked  by 
a  refined  taste  and  a 
conspicuous  absence 
of  eccentricity  and  ex- 
cess ;  but  it  has  for 
the  most  part  trodden 
in  well  -  worn  paths. 
The  most  notable  re- 
cent monuments  are, 
in  church  architect- 
ure, the  Sacr6-Coeur, 
at  Montmartre,  by 
Abadie,  a  votive 
church  inspired  from 
the  Franco-Byzantine 
style  of  Aquitania  *  in  F,G-  2i°- — grand  staircase  ok  the  opera,  i-aris. 
civil  architecture  the 

new  Hotel  de  Ville,  at  Paris,  by  Ballu  and  DSpert/ies,  recall- 
ing the  original  structure  destroyed  by  the  Commune,  but 
in  reality  an  original  creation  of  great  merit  ;  in  scholastic 


374 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


architecture  the  new  Ecole  de  Medecine,  and  the  new  Sor- 
bonne,  by  Ntnot,  and  in  other  branches  of  the  art  the  metal- 
and-glass  exhibition  buildings  of  1878,  1889,  and  1900. 
In  the  last  of  these  the  striving  for  originality  and  the 
effort  to  discard  traditional  forms  reached  the  extreme, 
although   accompanied   by  much  very  clever  detail   and  a 


Fir;.   211.— POUNl 


MPS,   MARSEILLES. 


masterly  use  of  color-decoration.  To  these  should  be  added 
many  noteworthy  theatres,  town-halls,  court-houses,  and 
pr/fectures  in  provincial  cities,  and  commemorative  col- 
umns and  monuments  almost  without  number.  In  street 
architecture  there  is  now  much  more  variety  and  orig- 
inality than  formerly,  especially  in  private  houses,  and 
the  reaction  against  the  orders  and  against  traditional 
methods   of    design    has   of    late   been    growing    stronger. 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


375 


The  chief  excellence  of  modern  French  architecture  lies 
in  its  rational  planning,  monumental  spirit,  and  refinement 
of  detail  (Fig.  212). 

Germany  AND  AUSTRIA.  German  architecture  has  been 
more  affected  during  the  past  fifty  years  by  the  archaeolog- 
ical spirit  than  has  the  French.  A  pronounced  mediaeval 
revival  partly  accompanied,  partly  followed  the  Greek  re- 
vival in  Germany,  and  produced  a  number  of  churches  and 
a  few  secular  buildings  in  the  basilican,  Romanesque,  and 
Gothic  styles.  These  are  less  interesting  than  those  in  the 
Greek  style,  because 
mediaeval  forms  are 
even  more  foreign  to 
modern  needs  than 
the  classic,  being 
compatible  only  with 
systems  of  design  and 
construction  which 
are  no  longer  prac- 
ticable. At  Munich 
the  Auekirche,  by 
O/i/mi/l/er,  in  an  atten- 
uated   Gothic    style  ; 

the  Byzantine  Ludwigskirche,  and  Ziebland's  Basilica  follow- 
ing Early  Christian  models  ;  the  Basilica  by  Hubsch,  at 
Bulach,  and  the  Votive  Church  at  Vienna  (1856)  by  H. 
Von  Ferstel  (1828-1883)  are  notable  neo-mediaeval  monu- 
ments. The  last-named  church  may  be  classed  with  Ste. 
Clothilde  at  Paris  (see  p.  371),  and  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral 
at  New  York,  all  three  being  of  approximately  the  same  size 
and  general  style,  recalling  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen.  They  are 
correct  and  elaborate,  but  more  or  less  cold  and  artificial. 

More  successful  are  many  of  the  German  theatres  and 
concert  halls,  in  which  Renaissance  and  classic  forms  have 
been  freely  used.     In  several  of  these  the  attempt  has  been 


FIG.    212. — Ml'SEE   GALLIERA,    PARIS. 


376 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


made  to  express  by  the  external  form  the  curvilinear  plan  of 
the  auditorium,  as  in  the  Dresden  Theatre,  by  Semper  (1841  ; 
F'g-  213),  the  theatre  at  Carlsruhe,  by  Hiibsch,  and  the 
double  winter-summer  Victoria  Theatre,  at  Berlin,  by  Titz. 
But  the  practical  and  aesthetic  difficulties  involved  in  this 


f  I JSTLB rMpBifi 


■ 


FIG.    IIJ.—  THEATRE    AT    DRESDEN. 


treatment    have   caused    its    general    abandonment.      Tl 
Opera  House  at  Vienna,  by  Siccardsburg  and  Van  der  Nit 
(1S61-69),  is  rectangular  in  its  masses,  and  but  for  a  certain 
triviality  of  detail  would   rank  among  the  most  su<  < 
buildings  of  its   kind.     The  new  Burgtheater  in   the  s.uiic 
city  is  a  more  elaborately  ornate  structure  in   Renaissance! 
style,  somewhat  florid  and  overdone. 

Modern  German  architecture  is  at  its  best  in  acadet 
and  residential  buildings.  The  Bauschiile.  at  Berlin,  1>\ 
Schinkel,  in  which  brick  is  used  in  a  rational  and  dignified 
1  without  the  orders  :  the  Polytechnic  School,  at  Z(i- 
ri<  h,  by  Semper  ;  university  buildings,  and  especially  build- 
tor  technical  instruction,  at  Carlsruhe,  Stuttgart, 
Strasburg,  Vienna,  and   other   cities,  show  a  monumental 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


377 


treatment  of  the  exterior  and  of  the  general  distribution, 
combined  with  a  careful  study  of  practical  requirements. 
In  administrative  buildings  the  Germans  have  hardly  been 
as  successful  ;  and  the  new  Parliament  House,  at  Berlin,  by 
Wallot,  in  spite  of  its  splendor  and  costliness,  is  heavy  and 
unsatisfactory  in  detail.  The  larger  cities,  especially  Ber- 
lin, contain  many  excellent  examples  of  house  architecture, 
mostly  in  the  Renaissance  style,  sufficiently  monumental  in 
design,  though  usually,  like  most  German  work,  inclined  to 
heaviness  of  detail.  The  too  free  use  of  stucco  in  imita- 
tion of  stone  is  also  open  to  criticism. 


FIG.    214— BLOCK   OF    DWELLINGS   (MARIE-THERESIENHOK),    VIENNA. 


VIENNA.  During  the  last  thirty  years  Vienna  has  under- 
gone a  transformation  which  has  made  it  the  rival  of  Paris 
as  a  stately  capital.  The  remodelling  of  the  central  portion, 
the   creation   of   a   series   of   magnificent   boulevards   and 


37S  HISTORY  OK  ARCHITECTURE. 

squares,  and  the  grouping  of  the  chief  state  and  municipal 
buildings  about  these  upon  a  monumental  scheme  of  ar- 
rangement, have  given  the  city  an  unusual  aspect  of  splen- 
dor. Among  the  most  important  monuments  in  this  group 
are  the  Parliament  House,  by  Hansen  (see  p.  360),  and  the 
Town  Hall,  by  Schmidt.  This  latter  is  a  Neo-Gothic  edifice 
of  great  size  and  pretentiousness,  but  strangely  thin  and 
meagre  in  detail,  and  quite  out  of  harmony  with  its  sur- 
roundings. The  university  and  museums  are  massive  piles 
in  Renaissance  style;  and  it  is  the  Renaissance  rather  than 
the  classic  or  Gothic  revival  which  prevails  throughout  the 
new  city.  The  great  blocks  of  residences  and  apartments 
(Fig.  214)  which  line  its- streets  are  highly  ornate  in  their 
architecture,  but  for  the  most  part  done  in  stucco,  which 
fails  after  all  to  give  the  aspect  of  solidity  and  durability 
which  it  seeks  to  counterfeit. 

The  city  of  Buda-Pesth.  has  also  in  recent  years  undergone 
a  phenomenal  transformation  of  a  similar  nature  to  that 
effected  in  Vienna,  but  it  possesses  fewer  monuments  of  con- 
spicuous architectural  interest.  The  Synagogue  i>  the  most 
noted  of  these,  a  rich  and  pleasing  edifice  of  brick  in  a 
modified  Hispano-Moresque  style. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  During  the  closing  years  of  the  Angl 
Greek  style  a  coterie  of  enthusiastic  students  of  l!riti>h 
mediaeval  monuments — archaeologists  rather  than  architect! 
— initiated  a  movement  for  the  revival  of  the  national 
Gothic  architecture.  The  first  fruits  of  this  movement,  led 
by  Pugin,  Brandon,  Hickman,  and  others  (about  1830-40), 
were  seen  in  countless  pseudo-Gothic  structures  in  which 
the  pointed  arches,  buttresses,  and  clustered  shafts  of  med- 
iaeval architecture  were  imitated  or  parodied  according  to 
the  designer's  ability,  with  frequent  misapprehension  of  their 
proper  use  or  significance.  This  unintelligent  misapplica- 
tion of  Gothic  forms  was,  however,  confined  to  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  movement.     With   increasing  light  and  <\pe- 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


379 


rience  came  a  more  correct  and  consistent  use  of  the  med- 
iaeval styles,  dominated  by  the  same  spirit  of  archaeological 
correctness  which  had  produced  the  classicismo  of  the  Late 
Renaissance  in  Italy.  This  spirit,  stimulated  by  extensive 
enterprises  in  the  restoration  of  the  great  mediaeval  monu- 


FIG.    215.— HOUSES   OF    PARLIAMENT,    WESTMINSTER,    LONDON. 


ments  of  the  United  Kingdom,  was  fatal  to  any  free  and 
original  development  of  the  style  along  new  lines.  But  it 
rescued  church  architecture  from  the  utter  meanness  and 
debasement  into  which  it  had  fallen,  and  established  a 
standard  of  taste  which  reacted  on  all  other  branches  of 
design. 

THE  VICTORIAN  GOTHIC.  Between  1850  and  1870  the  striv- 
ing after  archaeological  correctness  gave  place  to  the  more 
rational   effort    to  adapt   Gothic  principles  to  modern  re- 


38o 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


quirements,  instead  of  merely  copying  extinct  styles.  This 
effort,  prosecuted  by  a  number  of  architects  of  great  intelli- 
gence, culture,  and  earnestness  (Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  George 
Edmund  Street,  William  Burges,  and  others),  resulted  in  a 
number  of  extremely  interesting  buildings.     Chief  among 

these  in  size  and  cost  stand 
the  Parliament  Houses  at 
Westminster,  by  Sir 
Charles  Barry  (begun 
1839),  in  the  Perpendicu- 
lar style.  This  immense 
structure  (tig.  215),  im- 
posing in  its  simple  ma 
and  refined  in  its  carefully 
studied  detail,  is  the  most 

t  ■  _JM*jSyWl|  successful    monument    of 

ffffff^^Sf^X  tne  Victorian  Gothic  style. 

It  suffers,  however,  from 
the  want  of  proper  rela- 
tion of  scale  between  its 
decorative  elements  and 
the  vast  proportions  of 
the  edifice,  which  belittle 
its  component  elements. 
It  cannot,  on  the  whole, 
be  claimed  as  a  successful 
vindication  of  the  claims  of 
the  promoters  of  the  style 

as  to  the  adaptability  of 

Gothic  forms  to  structures 
planned  and  built  after 
the  modern  fashion.  The 
Assize  Courts  at  Mam  luster  (Fig.  216),  the  New  Museum 
at  Oxford,  the  gorgeous  Albert  Memorial  at  London,  by 
Scott,    and  the  New  Law  Courts  at  London,  by   Street,  are 


FIG.    2l6.— ASSIZE    COURTS,    MANCHESTER. 
DETAIL. 


RECENT  ARCHITECTURE  IN  EUROPE. 


381 


all  conspicuous  illustrations  of  the  same  truth.  They  are 
conscientious,  carefully  studied  designs  in  good  taste,  and 
yet  wholly  unsuited  in  style  to  their  purpose.  They  are 
like  labored  and  schol- 
arly verse  in  a  foreign 
tongue,  correct  in 
form  and  language, 
but  lacking  the  nat- 
uralness and  charm  of 
true  and  unfettered 
inspiration.  A  later 
essay  of  the  same  sort 
in  a  slightly  different 
field  is  the  Natural 
History  Museum  at 
South  Kensington,  by 
Waterhouse  (1879),  an 
imposing  building  in 
a  modified  Roman- 
esque style  (Fig.  217). 
OTHER  WORKS.  The 
Victorian  Gothic  style 
responded  to  no  deep 
and  general  movement 
of  the  popular  taste, 
and,  like  the  Anglo- 
Greek  style,  was 
doomed  to  failure  from 
the  inherent  incon- 
gruity between  modern  needs  and  mediaeval  forms.  Within 
the  last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  quite  general  return 
to  Renaissance  principles,  and  the  result  is  seen  in  a  large 
number  of  town-halls,  exchanges,  museums,  and  colleges, 
in  which  Renaissance  forms,  with  and  without  the  orders, 
have  been    treated    with    increasing   freedom    and    skilful 


FIG.    217. — NATURAL    HISTORY    MUSEUM,    LONDON. 


3&2  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

adaptation  to  the  materials  and  special  requirements  of  each 
case.  The  Albert  Memorial  Hal!  (1S63,  by  General  Scott) 
may  be  taken  as  an  early  instance  of  this  movement,  and  the 
Imperial  Institute  (Colonial  offices),  by  Collcutt,  and  Oxford 
Town  Hall,  by  Aston  Webb,  as  among  its  latest  manifesta- 
tions. In  domestic  architecture  the  so-called  Queen  Anne 
style  has  been  much  in  vogue,  as  practised  by  Norman  Shaw, 
Krnest  George,  and  others.  It  is  really  a  modern  style,  origi- 
nating in  the  imitation  of  the  modified  Palladian  style  as  used 
in  the  brick  architecture  of  Queen  Anne's  time,  but  freely  and 
often  artistically  altered  to  meet  modern  tastes  and  needs. 

In  its  emancipation  from  the  mistaken  principles  of  ar- 
chaeological revivals,  and  in  its  evidences  of  improved  taste 
and  awakened  originality,  contemporary  British  architect- 
ure shows  promise  of  good  things  to  come.  It  is  still  in- 
ferior to  the  French  in  the  monumental  quality,  in  techni- 
cal resource  and  refinement  of  decorative  detail. 

ELSEWHERE  IN  EUROPE.  In  other  European  countries 
recent  architecture  shows  in  general  increasing  freedom 
and  improved  good  taste,  but  both  its  opportunities  and  its 
performance  have  been  nowhere  else  as  conspicuous  as  in 
France,  Germany,  and  England.  The  costly  Bourse  and  the 
vast  but  overloaded  Palais  de  Justice  at  Brussels,  by  I\>- 
/<////,  are  neither  of  them  conspicuous  for  refined  and  cul- 
tivated taste.  A  few  buildings  of  note  in  Switzerland, 
Russia,  and  Greece  might  find  mention  in  a  more  extended 
review  of  architecture,  but  cannot  here  even  be  enumer- 
ated. In  Italy,  especially  at  Rome,  Milan,  Naples,  and 
Turin,  there  has  been  a  great  activity  in  building  since 
1870,  but  with  the  exception  of  the  Monument  to  Victor 
Emmanuel  and  the  National  Museum  at  Rome,  monumen- 
tal arcades  and  passages  at  Milan  and  Naples,  and  Campi 
Sand  or  monumental  cemeteries  at  Bologna,  Genoa,  and 
one  or  two  other  places,  there  has  been  almost  nothing  of 
real  importance  built  in  Italy  of  late  years. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

ARCHITECTURE   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Books  Recommended  :  As  before,  Fergusson,  Statham. 
Also,  Chandler,  The  Colonial  Architecture  of  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Virginia.  Cleaveland  and  Campbell,  American 
Landmarks.  Corner  and  Soderholz,  Colonial  Architecture  in 
New  England.  Crane  and  Soderholz,  Examples  of  Colonial 
Architecture  in  Charleston  and  Savannah.  Drake,  Historic 
Eields  and  Mansions  of  Middlesex.  Everett,  Historic  Churches 
of  America.  King,  Handbook  of  Boston;  Handbook  of  New 
York.  Little,  Early  New  England  Interiors.  Schuyler, 
American  Architecture.  Van  Rensselaer,  H  H  Richardson 
and  His  Works.  Wallis,  Old  Colonial  Architecture  and  Furni- 
ture. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.  The  colonial  architecture  of  modern 
times  presents  a  peculiar  phenomenon.  The  colonizing 
nation,  carrying  into  its  new  habitat  the  tastes  and  practices 
of  a  long-established  civilization,  modifies  these  only  with 
the  utmost  reluctance,  under  the  absolute  compulsion  of 
new  conditions.  When  the  new  home  is  virgin  soil,  desti- 
tute of  cultivation,  government,  or  civilized  inhabitants, 
the  accompaniments  and  activities  of  civilization  intro- 
duced by  the  colonists  manifest  themselves  at  first  in  curi- 
ous contrast  to  the  primitive  surroundings.  The  struggle 
between  organized  life  and  chaos,  the  laborious  subjugation 
of  nature  to  the  requirements  of  our  complex  modern  life, 
for  a  considerable  period  absorb  the  energies  of  the  colo- 
nists. The  amenities  of  culture,  the  higher  intellectual  life, 
the  refinements  of  art  can,  during  this  period,  receive  little 


384  HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

attention.  Meanwhile  a  new  national  character  is  being 
formed  ;  the  people  are  undergoing  the  moral  training  upon 
which  their  subsequent  achievements  must  depend.  With 
the  conquest  of  brute  nature,  however,  and  the  gradual 
emergence  of  a  more  cultivated  class,  with  the  growth  of 
commerce  and  wealth  and  the  consequent  increase  of  leis- 
ure, the  humanities  find  more  place  in  the  colonial  life. 
The  fine  arts  appear  in  scattered  centres  determined  by 
peculiarly  favorable  conditions.  For  a  long  time  they  re- 
tain the  impress,  and  seek  to  reproduce  the  forms,  of  the 
art  of  the  mother  country.  But  new  conditions  impose 
a  new  development.  Maturing  commerce  with  other  lands 
brings  in  foreign  influences,  to  which  the  still  unformed  co- 
lonial art  is  peculiarly  susceptible.  Only  with  political  and 
commercial  independence,  fully  developed  internal  re- 
sources, and  a  high  national  culture  do  the  arts  finally 
attain,  as  it  were,  their  majority,  and  enter  upon  a  truly 
national  growth. 

These  facts  are  abundantly  illustrated  by  the  architect- 
ural history  of  the  United  States.  The  only  one  among 
the  British  colonies  to  attain  political  independence,  it  is 
the  only  one  among  them  whose  architecture  has  as  yet  en- 
tered upon  an  independent  course  of  development,  and  this 
only  within  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years.  Nor  has 
even  this  development  produced  as  yet  a  distinctive  local 
style.  It  has,  however,  originated  new  constructive  meth- 
ods, new  types  of  buildings,  and  a  distinctively  American 
treatment  of  the  composition  and  the  masses  ;  the  decora- 
tive details  being  still,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from  his- 
toric precedents.  The  architecture  of  the  other  British 
colonies  has  retained  its  provincial  character,  though  pro- 
ducing from  time  to  time  individual  works  of  merit.  In 
South  America  and  Mexico  the  only  buildings  of  itnpor- 
.ire  Spanish,  French,  or  German  in  style,  according  to 
the  nationality  of  the  architects  employed.     The  following 


ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES.  385 

sketch  of  American  architecture  refers,  therefore,  exclu- 
sively to  its  development  in  the  United  States. 

FORMATIVE  PERIOD.  Buildings  in  stone  were  not  under- 
taken by  the  early  English  colonists.  The  more  important 
structures  in  the  Southern  and  Dutch  colonies  were  of  brick 
imported  from  Europe.  Wood  was,  however,  the  material 
most  commonly  employed,  especially  in  New  England,  and 
its  use  determined  in  large  measure  the  form  and  style  of 
the  colonial  architecture.  There  was  little  or  no  striving 
for  architectural  elegance  until  well  into  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Wren's  influence  asserted  itself  in  a  modest  way 
in  the  Middle  and  Southern  colonies.  The  very  simple 
and  unpretentious  town-hall  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  and  St. 
Michael's,  Charleston,  are  attributed  to  him  ;  but  the  most 
that  can  be  said  for  these,  as  for  the  brick  churches  and 
manors  of  Virginia  previous  to  1725,  is  that  they  are  sim- 
ple in  design  and  pleasing  in  proportion,  without  special 
architectural  elegance.  The  same  is  true  of  the  wooden 
houses  and  churches  of  New  England  of  the  period,  except 
that  they  are  even  simpler  in  design. 

From  1725  to  1775  increased  population  and  wealth  along 
the  coast  brought  about  a  great  advance  in  architecture,  es- 
pecially in  churches  and  in  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy. 
During  this  period  was  developed  the  Coloiiial  style,  based  on 
that  of  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  the  first  two  Georges  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  church  architecture  on  the  models  set  by  Wren 
and  Gibbs.  All  the  details  were,  however,  freely  modified 
by  the  general  employment  of  wood.  The  scarcity  of  archi- 
tects trained  in  Old  World  traditions  contributed  to  this 
departure  from  classic  precision  of  form.  The  style,  es- 
pecially in  interior  design,  reflected  the  cultured  taste  of  the 
colonial  aristocracy  in  its  refined  treatment  of  the  wood- 
work. But  there  was  little  or  no  architecture  of  a  truly 
monumental  character.  Edifices  of  stone  were  singularly 
few,  and  administrative  buildings  were  small  and  modest, 
25 


386 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


owing  to  insufficient  grants  from  the  Crown,   as  well  as  Co 
the  poverty  of  the  colon  its. 

The  churches  of  this  period  include  a  number  of  interest- 
ing designs,  especially  pleasing  in  the  forms  of  their  steeples. 
The  "  Old  South  "  at  Boston  (now  a  museum),  Trinity  at 
Newport,  and  St.  Paul's  at  New  York — one  of  the  few  built 

of    stone     (1764)  —  are 
I.  good    examples   of    the 

*«S  style.     Christ  Church  at 

Philadelphia  (1727-35, 
by  1  hr.  Kearsley)  is  an- 
other example,  histori- 
cally as  well  as  archi- 
tecturally interesting 
(Fig.  218) ;  and  there  are 
scores  Of  other  churches 
almost  equally  note- 
worthy, scattered 
through  New  England, 
Maryland.  Virginia,  anil 

Middle  States. 
dwellings.  These 
reflect  better  than  the 
churches  the  varying 
tastes  of  the  different 
colonies  Maryland  and  Virginia  abound  in  fine  brick 
manor-houses,  set  amid  extensive  grounds  walled  in  and 
entered  through  iron  gates  of  artistic  design.  The  interior 
finish  of  these  houses  was  often  elaborate  in  conception 
and  admirably  executed.  Westover  (1737),  Carter's  Grove 
(1737)  in  Virginia,  and  the  Harwood  and  Hammond  Houses 
at  Annapolis,  Md.  (1770),  are  examples.  The  majority 
of  the  New  England  houses  were  of  wood,  more  compact 
in  plan,  more  varied  and  picturesque  in  design  than  those; 
of  the    South,  but    wanting  somewhat    of   their   stateliness. 


FIG.    2l8.— CHRIST   CHURCH,    PHILADKI.III  I  A. 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


337 


The  interior  finish  of  wainscot,  cornices,  stairs,  and  mantel- 
pieces shows,  however,  the  same  general  style,  in  a  skilful 
and  artistic  adaptation  of  classic  forms  to  the  slender  pro- 
portions of  wood  construction.  Externally  the  orders 
appear  in  porches  and  in  colossal  pilasters,  with  well 
designed  entablatures,  and  windows  of  Italian  model.     The 


*  • 


FIG.    219. — CRAIGIE    (l.ONGKELLOW)    HOUSE,    CAMBRIDGE. 


influence  of  the  Adams  and  Sheraton  furniture  is  doubt- 
less to  be  seen  in  these  quaint  and  often  charming  ver- 
sions of  classic  motives.  The  Hancock  House,  Boston 
(of  stone,  demolished)  ;  the  Sherburne  House,  Portsmouth 
(1730)  ;  Craigie  House,  Cambridge  (1757,  Fig.  219)  ;  and 
Rumford  House,  North  Woburn  (Mass.),  are  typical  ex- 
amples. 

In  the  Middle  States  architectural  activity  was  chiefly 
centred  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  one  or  two 
other  towns,   where   a   number  of  manor-houses,   still  ex- 


388  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

tant,  attest  the  wealth  and  taste  of  the  time.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  veranda  or  piazza  was  confined  to  the  South- 
ern States,  but  that  the  climate  seems  to  have  had  little 
influence  on  the  forms  of  roofs.  These  were  gambrelled, 
hipped,  gabled,  or  flat,  alike  in  the  North  and  South,  accord- 
ing to  individual  taste. 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS-  Of  public  and  monumental  archi- 
tecture this  period  has  little  to  show.  Large  cities  did  not 
exist ;  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  were  hardly 
more  than  overgrown  villages.  The  public  buildings — 
court-houses  and  town-halls — were  modest  and  inexpensive 
structures.  The  Old  State  House  and  Faneuil  Hall  at 
Boston,  the  Town  Hall  at  Newport  (R.  I.),  and  Indepen- 
dence Hall  at  Philadelphia,  the  best  known  of  those  now 
extant,  are  not  striking  architecturally.  Monumental  design 
was  beyond  the  opportunities  and  means  of  the  colonies. 
It  was  in  their  churches,  all  of  moderate  size,  and  in  their 
dwellings  that  the  colonial  builders  achieved  their  greatest 
successes  ;  and  these  works  are  quaint,  charming,  and  re- 
fined, rather  than  impressive  or  imposing. 

To  the  latter  part  of  the  colonial  period  belong  a  number 
of  interesting  buildings  which  remain  as  monuments  of 
Spanish  rule  in  California,  Florida,  and  the  Southwest.  The 
old  Port  S.  Marco,  now  Fort  Marion  (1656-1756),  and  the 
Catholic  cathedral  (1793;  after  the  fire  of  1887  rebuilt  in 
its  original  form  with  the  original  facade  uninjured),  both 
Augustine,  Fla.  ;  the  picturesque  buildings  of  the 
California  missions  (mainly  1 769-1 800),  the  majority  of 
them  now  in  ruins  ;  scattered  Spanish  churches  in  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona,  and  New  Mexico,  and  a  few  unimportant 
secular  buildings,  display  among  their  modern  and  Ameri- 
ttings  a  picturesque  and  interesting  Spanish  aspect 
and  character,  though  from  the  point  of  view  of  architect- 
ural detail  they  represent  merely  a  crude  phase  of  the  Chur- 
rigueresque  style. 


ARCHITECTURE   IX   THE   UNITED   STATES.  389 

early  REPUBLICAN  PERIOD.  Between  the  Revolution  and 
the  War  of  1812,  under  the  new  conditions  of  independence 
and  self-government,  architecture  took  on  a  more  monu- 
mental character.  Buildings  for  the  State  and  National  ad- 
ministrations were  erected  with  the  rapidly  increasing  re- 
sources of  the  country.  Stone  was  more  generally  used  ; 
colonnades,  domes,  and  cupolas  or  bell-towers,  were  adopted 


FIG.    220. — NATIONAL   CAPITOL,    WASHINGTON. 

as  indispensable  features  of  civic  architecture.  In  church- 
building  the  Wren-Gibbs  type  continued  to  prevail,  but  with 
greater  correctness  of  classic  forms.  The  gambrel  roof 
tended  to  disappear  from  the  houses  of  this  period,  and 
there  was  some  decline  in  the  refinement  and  delicacy  of 
the  details  of  architecture.  The  influence  of  the  Louis  XVI. 
style  is  traceable  in  many  cases,  as  in  the  New  York  City 
Hall  (1803-12,  by  McComb  and  Mangin),  one  of  the  very 
best  designs  of  the  time,  and  in  the  delicate  stucco-work 
and  interior  finish  of  many  houses.  The  original  Capitol 
at  Washington — the  central  portion  of  the  present  edifice — 
by  Thornton,  Hallet,  and  B,  If.  Latrobe  (1 793-1830  ;  Fig.  220), 


390 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECT  URE. 


the  State  House  at  Boston  (1795,  by  BulfiitcK),  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  at  Charlotteville,  by  Thomas  Jefferson 
( 1 8 1 7  ;  recently  destroyed  in  part  by  fire),  are  the  most  in- 
teresting examples  of  the  classic  tendencies  of  this  period. 
Their  freedom  from  the  rococo  vulgarities  generally  prev- 
alent at  the  time  in  Europe  is  noticeable. 

THE  CLASSIC  KEVIVAL.     The  influence  of   the  classic  re- 
vivals of  Europe  began   to  appear  before  the  close  of  this 

period,  and  reached 
its  culmination  about 
1830-40.  It  left  its 
impress  most  strong- 
ly on  our  Federal 
architecture,  al- 
though it  invaded 
domestic  archite<  t- 
ure,  producing  count- 
less imitations,  in 
brick      and      wooden 

houses,    of    Grecian 

colonnades  and  por- 
ticos. One  of  its 
first-fruits     was     the 

White  House,  or  Ex- 
ecutive Mansion,  at 
Washington,  by  Mo- 
han (1792),  recalling 
the  large  English  country  houses  of  the  time.  The  Treasury 
and  Patent  Office  buildings  at  Washington,  the  Philadelphia 
Mint,  the  Sub-treasury  and  Custom  House  at  New  York 
(the  latter  erected  originally  for  a  bank  ;  Fig.  221),  and  the 
Boston  Custom  House  are  among  the  important  Federal 
buildings  of  this  period.  Several  State  capitols  were  also 
d  under  the  same  influence  ;  and  the  Marine  Exchange 
and    Girard  College  at    Philadelphia  should    also  be  men- 


Ht..    Ml.-  CUSTOM    Hoi  sh,    m:w    yokk. 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.  39I 

tioned  as  conspicuous  examples  of  the  pseudo-Greek  style. 
The  last-named  building  is  a  Corinthian  dormitory,  its  tiers__ 
of  small  windows  contrasting  strangely  with  its  white  marble 
columns.  These  classic  buildings  were  solidly  and  carefully 
constructed,  but  lacked  the  grace,  cheerfulness,  and  appro- 
priateness of  earlier  buildings.  The  Capitol  at  Washington 
was  during  this  period  greatly  enlarged  by  terminal  wings 
with  fine  Corinthian  porticos,  of  Roman  rather  than  Greelf 
design.  The  Dome,  by  Walters,  was  not  added  until  1858- 
73  ;  it  is  a  successful  and  harmonious  composition,  nobly 
completing  the  building.  Unfortunately,  it  is  an  after- 
thought, built  of  iron  painted  to  simulate  marble,  the  sub- 
structure being  inadequate  to  support  a  dome  of  masonry. 
The  Italian  or  Roman  style  which  it  exemplified,  in  time 
superseded  the  less  tractable  Greek  style. 

THE  WAR  PERIOD.  The  period  from  1850  to  1876  was 
one  of  intense  political  activity  and  rapid  industrial  prog- 
ress. The  former  culminated  in  the  terrible  upheaval  of 
the  civil  war  ;  the  latter  in  the  completion  of  the  Pacific 
Railroad  (1869)  and  a  remarkable  development  of  the  min- 
ing resources  and  manufactures  of  the  country.  It  was  a 
period  of  feverish  commercial  activity,  but  of  artistic  stag- 
nation, and  witnessed  the  erection  of  but  few  buildings  of 
architectural  importance.  A  number  of  State  capitols,  city 
halls  and  churches,  of  considerable  size  and  cost  but  of  in- 
ferior design,  attest  the  decline  of  public  taste  and  archi- 
tectural skill  during  these  years.  The  huge  Municipal 
Building  at  Philadelphia  and  the  still  unfinished  Capitol  at 
Albany  are  full  of  errors  of  planning  and  detail  which 
twenty-five  years  of  elaboration  have  failed  to  correct. 
Next  to  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  completed 
during  this  period,  of  which  it  is  the  most  signal  architect- 
ural achievement,  its  most  notable  monument  was  the 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  at  New  York,  by  Renwick  ;  a  Gothic 
church  which,  if  somewhat  cold  and  mechanical  in  detail,  is 


392  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

a  stately  and  well-considered  design.  Its  west  front  and 
spires  (completed  1886)  are  particularly  successful.  Trinity 
Church  (1843,  by  Upjohn)  and  Grace  Church  (1840,  by  Ren- 
wick),  though  of  earlier  date,  should  be  classed  with  this 
cathedral  as  worthy  examples  of  modern  Gothic  design. 
Indeed,  the  churches  designed  in  this  style  by  a  few  thor- 
oughly trained  architects  during  this  period  are  the  most 
creditable  and  worthy  among  its  lesser  productions.  In 
general  an  undiscriminating  eclecticism  of  style  prevailed, 
unregulated  by  sober  taste  or  technical  training.  The  Fed- 
eral buildings  by  Mullett  were  monuments  of  perverted  de- 
sign in  a  heavy  and  inartistic  rendering  of  French  Renais- 
sance motives.  The  New  York  Post  Office  and  the  State, 
Army  and  Navy  Department  building  at  Washington  are 
examples  of  this  style. 

THE  ARTISTIC  AWAKENING.  Between  1870  and  1880  a 
remarkable  series  of  events  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  artistic  life  of  the  United  States.  Two  terrible  con- 
flagrations in  Chicago  (187 1)  and  Boston  (1872)  gave  unex- 
ampled opportunities  for  architectural  improvement  and 
greatly  stimulated  the  public  interest  in  the  art.  The  fev- 
erish and  abnormal  industrial  activity  which  followed  the 
war  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  parvenu  spirit  were 
checked  by  the  disastrous  "  panic  "  of  1873.  With  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Pacific  railways  and  the  settlement  of  new 
communities  in  the  West,  industrial  prosperity,  when  it  re- 
turned, was  established  on  a  firmer  basis.  An  extraordinary 
expansion  of  travel  to  Europe  began  to  disseminate  the  seeds 
of  artistic  culture  throughout  the  country.  The  suc< ■< 
establishment  of  schools  of  architecture  in  Boston  (1866)  and 
other  cities,  and  the  opening  or  enlargement  of  art  museums 
in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Detroit,  Mil- 
waukee, and  elsewhere,  stimulated  the  artistic  awakening 
which  now  manifested  itself.  In  architecture  the  personal 
influence  of  two  men,  trained  in  the  Paris  Ecole  des  Bcau> 


ARCHITECTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.  393 

Arts,  was  especially  felt — of  R.  M.  Hunt  (1827-95)  through 
his  words  and  deeds  quite  as  much  as  through  his  works  ; 
and  of  H  H  Richardson  (1828-86)  predominantly  through 
his  works.  These  two  men,  with  others  of  less  fame  but  of 
high  ideals  and  thorough  culture,  did  much  to  elevate  archi- 
tecture as  an  art  in  the  public  esteem.  To  all  these  influ- 
ences new  force  was  added  by  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at 
Philadelphia  (1876).  Here  for  the  first  time  the  American 
people  were  brought  into  contact,  in  their  own  land,  with 
the  products  of  European  and  Oriental  art.  It  was  to  them 
an  artistic  revelation,  whose  results  were  prompt  and  far- 
reaching.  Beginning  first  in  the  domain  of  industrial  and 
decorative  art,  its  stimulating  influence  rapidly  extended 
to  painting  and  architecture,  and  with  permanent  conse- 
quences. American  students  began  to  throng  the  centres 
of  Old  World  art,  while  the  setting  of  higher  standards  of 
artistic  excellence  at  home,  and  the  development  of  impor- 
tant art-industries,  were  other  fruits  of  this  artistic  awaken- 
ing. The  recent  Columbian  Exhibition  at  Chicago  (1893), 
its  latest  and  most  important  manifestation,  has  added  a 
new  impulse  to  the  movement,  especially  in  architecture. 

STYLE  IN  RECENT  ARCHITECTURE.  The  rapid  increase  in 
the  number  of  American  architects  trained  in  Paris  or 
under  the  indirect  influence  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts 
has  been  an  important  factor  in  recent  architectural  prog- 
ress. Yet  it  has  by  no  means  imposed  the  French  academic 
formulae  upon  American  architecture.  The  conditions,  ma- 
terials, and  constructive  processes  here  prevailing,  and 
above  all  the  eclecticism  of  the  public  taste,  have  prevented 
this.  The  French  influence  is  perceived  rather  in  a  grow- 
ing appreciation  of  monumental  design  in  the  planning, 
composition,  and  setting  of  buildings,  than  in  any  direct 
imitation  of  French  models.  The  Gothic  revival  which  pre- 
vailed more  or  less  widely  from  1840  to  1875,  as  already 
noticed,   and   of  which    the   State    Capitol    at    Hartford 


394 


HISTORY   OF   ARC  111  I  K<    TURK. 


(Conn.;  1S75-78),  ami  the  Fine  Arts  Museum  .it  Boston, 
were  among  the  last  important  products,  was  generally  con- 
fined to  church  architecture,  for  which  Gothic  forms  are 
still  largely  em- 
ployed, as  in  the 
Protestant  Ca- 
thedral of  All 
Saints  now  build- 
ing at  Albany 
(V  Y.),  by  an 
English     archi- 


I  MM  I  V    CHt'KCH,    I  ■ 


For  the  most  part  the  works  of  the  last  twenty  years 
show  a  more  or  less  judicious  eclecticism,  the   choi 

style  being  determined  partly  by  the  person  and  training 
of  the  designer,  partly  by  the  nature  of  the  building.  The 
powerfully  conceived  works  of  Richardson,  in  a  free  version 

of  the  French  Romanesque,  for  a  time  exen  ised  a  wide  in- 
fluence, especially  among  the  younger  architects.    Trinity 

Church,  l!ost<<n  (Fig.  ^-'-'J,  his  earliest  important  work; 
many    public    libraries  and    business    buildings,   and    finally 

the  impressive  County  Buildings  at   Pittsburgh  (l'a.),  all 


ARCHITFXTURE   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


395 


treated  in  this  style,  are  admirable  rather  for  the  strong  in- 
dividuality of  their  designer,  displayed  in  their  vigorous 
composition,  than  on  account  of  the  historic  style  he  em- 
ployed (Fig.  223).  Yet  it  appeared  in  his  hands  so  flexible 
and  effective  that  it  was  widely  imitated.  But  if  easy  to 
use,  it  is  most  difficult  to  use  well ;  its  forms  are  too  mas- 
sive for  ordinary  purposes,  and  in  the  hands  of  inferior  de- 
signers it  was  so  often  travestied  that  it  has  now  lost  its 
wide  popularity.  While  a  number  of  able  architects  have 
continued  to  use  it  effectively  in  ecclesiastical,  civic,  and 
even  commercial  architecture,  it  is  being  generally  super- 
seded by  various  forms  of  the  Renaissance.  Here  also  a 
wide  eclecticism  prevails,  the  works  of  the  same  architect 

often    varying    from    the 
gayest  Francis  I.  designs 
in  domestic   architecture, 
free     adaptations    of 


FIG.    223. — LIBRARY    AT   VVOBl'RN,  MASS. 


Quattrocento  details  for  theatres  and  street  architecture, 
to  the  most  formal  classicism  in  colossal  exhibition-build- 
ings, museums,  libraries,  and  the  like.  Meanwhile  there  are 
many  more    or  less    successful    ventures  in  other  historic 


39^ 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


styles  applied  to  public  and  private  edifices.  Underlying 
this  apparent  confusion,  almost  anarchy  in  the  use  of  his- 
toric styles,  the  careful  observer  may  detect  certain  tenden- 
cies crystallizing  into  definite  form.  New  materials  and 
methods  of  construction,  increased  attention  to  detail,  a 
growing  sense  of  monumental  requirements,  even  the  de- 
velopment of  the  elevator  as  a  substitute  for  the  grand 
staircase,  are  leaving  their  mark  on  the  planning,  the  pro- 
portions, and  the  artistic  composition  of  American  build* 
ings,  irrespective  of  the  styles  used.  The  art  is  with  us  in 
a  state  of  transition,  and  open  to  criticism  in  many  respects  ; 
but  it  appears  to  be  full  of  life  and  promise  for  the  future. 

COMMEECIAL  BUILDINGS.  This  class  of  edifices  has  in  our 
great  cities  developed  wholly  new  types,  which  have  taken 
shape  under  four  imperative  influ- 
ences. These  are  the  demand  for 
fire-proof  construction,  the  demand 
for  well-lighted  offices,  the  introduc- 
tion of  elevators,  and  the  concen- 
tration of  business  into  limited  areas, 
within  which  land  has  become  inor- 
dinately costly.  These  causeshave 
led  to  the  erection  of  buildings  of 
Bsive  height  (Fig.  224)  ;  the 
more  recent  among  them  construct- 
ed with  a  framework  of  iron  CM" Steel 
columns  and  beams,  the  visible  walls 
being  a  mere  filling-in.  To  render 
a  building  of  twenty  stories  attrac- 
tive to  the  eye,  especially  when  built 
on  an  irregular  site,  is  a  difficult 
problem,  of  which  a  wholly  satisfactory  solution  has  yet  to 
be  found.  There  have  been,  however,  some  notable  achieve- 
ments in  this  line,  in  most  of  which  the  principle  has  been 
clearly  recognized  that  a  lofty  building  should  have  a  well- 


u-jl 


ric.  224. 


ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.        397 

marked  basement  or  pedestal  and  a  somewhat  ornate  crown- 
ing portion  or  capital,  the  intervening  stories  serving  as  a 
die  or  shaft  and  being  treated  with  comparative  simplicity. 
The  difficulties  of  scale  and  of  handling  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  three  hundred  windows  of  uniform  style  have  been 
surmounted  with  conspicuous  skill  (American  Surety  Build- 
ing and  Broadway  Chambers,  New  York  ;  Ames  Building, 
Boston  ;  Carnegie  Building,  Pittsburgh  ;  Union  Trust,  St. 
Louis).  In  some  cases,  especially  in  Chicago  and  the  Middle 
West,  the  metallic  framework  is  suggested  by  slender  piers 
between  the  windows,  rising  uninterrupted  from  the  base- 
ment to  the  top  story.  In  others,  especially  in  New  York 
and  the  East,  the  walls  are  treated  as  in  ordinary  masonry 
buildings.  The  Chicago  school  is  marked  by  a  more  utili- 
tarian and  unconventional  treatment,  with  results  which  are 
often  extremely  bold  and  effective,  but  rarely  as  pleasing  to 
the  eye  as  those  attained  by  the  more  conservative  Eastern 
school.  In  the  details  of  American  office-buildings  every 
variety  of  style  is  to  be  met  with  ;  but  the  Romanesque  and 
the  Renaissance,  freely  modified,  predominate.  The  ten- 
dency towards  two  or  three  well-marked  types  in  the  external 
composition  of  these  buildings,  as  above  suggested,  promises, 
however,  the  evolution  of  a  style  in  which  the  historic  origin 
of  the  details  will  be  a  secondary  matter.  Certain  Chicago 
architects  have  developed  an  original  treatment  of  archi- 
tectural forms  by  exaggerating  some  of  the  structural  lines, 
by  suppressing  the  mouldings  and  more  familiar  historic  forms, 
and  by  the  free  use  of  flat  surface  ornamenc.  The  Schiller, 
Auditorium,  and  Fisher  Buildings,  all  at  Chicago,  Guaranty 
Building,  Buffalo,  and  Majestic  Building,  Detroit,  are  ex- 
amples of  this  personal  style,  which  illustrates  the  untram- 
melled freedom  of  the  art  in  a  land  without  traditions.* 

DOMESTIC   ARCHITECTURE.     It  is  in  this  field  that  the  most 
characteristic  and  original  phases  of  American  architecture 
*  See  Appendix,  D  and  E. 


398 


HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


are  to  be  met  with,  particularly  in  rural  and  suburban  resi- 
dences. In  these  the  peculiar  requirements  of  our  varying 
climates  and  of  American  domestic  life  have  been  studied 
and  in  large  measure  met  with  great  frankness  and  artistic 
appreciation.  The  broad  staircase-hall,  serving  often  as  a 
sort  of  family  sitting-room,  the  piazza,  and  a  picturesque 


ru:.    225.—  COfNTRV    llnfsp,    MASSACHfSF.TTS. 


massing  of  steep  roofs,  have  been  the  controlling  factors  in 
the  evolution  of  two  or  three  general  types  which  appear 
in  infinite  variations.  The  material  most  used  is  wood,  but 
this  has  had  less  influence  in  the  determination  of  form 
than  might  have  been  expected.  The  artlessness  of  the 
planning,  which  is  arranged  to  afford  the  maximum  of  con- 
venience rather  than  to  conform  to  any  traditional  type, 
b  i-  been  the  element  of  greatest  artistic  success.  It  has 
resulted   in   exteriors   which  are  the    natural    outgrowth  of 


ARCHITECTURE   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES.         399 

the  interior  arrangements,  frankly  expressed,  without  affec- 
tation of  style  (Fig.  225).  The  resulting  picturesqueness 
has,  however,  in  many  cases  been  treated  as  an  end  instead 
of  an  incidental  result,  and  the  affectation  of  picturesque- 
ness has  in  such  designs  become  as  detrimental  as  any 
affectation  of  style.  In  the  internal  treatment  of  American 
houses  there  has  also  been  a  notable  artistic  advance,  har- 
mony of  color  and  domestic  comfort  and  luxury  being 
sought  after  rather  than  monumental  effects.  A  number  of 
large  city  and  country  houses  designed  on  a  palatial  scale 
have,  however,  given  opportunity  for  a  more  elaborate 
architecture  ;  notably  the  Vanderbilt,  Villard,  and  Hunting- 
ton residences  at  New  York,  the  great  country-seat  of 
Biltmore,  near  Asheville  (N.  C),  in  the  Francis  I.  style  (by 
R.  M.  Hunt),  and  many  others. 

OTHER  BUILDINGS.  American  architects  have  generally 
been  less  successful  in  public,  administrative,  and  ecclesias- 
tical architecture  than  in  commercial  and  domestic  work. 
The  preference  for  small  parish  churches,  treated  as  audi- 
ence-rooms rather  than  as  places  of  worship,  has  interfered 
with  the  development  of  noble  types  of  church-buildings. 
Yet  there  are  signs  of  improvement  ;  and  the  new  Cathe- 
dral of  St.  John  the  Divine  at  New  York,  In  a  modified 
Romanesque  style,  promises  to  be  a  worthy  and  monu- 
mental building.  In  semi  -  public  architecture,  such  as 
hotels,  theatres,  clubs,  and  libraries,  there  are  many  notable 
examples  of  successful  design.  The  Ponce  de  Leon  Hotel 
at  St.  Augustine,  a  sumptuous  and  imposing  pile  in  a  free 
version  of  the  Spanish  Plateresco  ;  the  Auditorium  Theatre 
at  Chicago,  the  Madison  Square  Garden  and  the  Casino  at 
New  York,  may  be  cited  as  excellent  in  general  conception 
and  well  carried  out  in  detail,  externally  and  internally. 
The  Century  and  Metropolitan  Clubs  at  New  York,  the 
Boston  Public  Library,  the  Carnegie  Library  at  Pittsburgh, 
the  Congressional  Library  at  Washington,  and  the  recently 


4<X>  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

completed  Minnesota  State  Capitol  at  Minneapolis,  exem- 
plify in  varying  degrees  of  excellence  the  increasing  ca- 
pacity of  American  architects  for  monumental  design.  This 
was  further  shown  in  the  buildings  of  the  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion at  Chicago  in  1893.  These,  in  spite  of  many  faults  of  de- 
tail, constituted  an  aggregate  of  architectural  splendor  such 
as  had  never  before  been  seen  or  been  possible  on  this  side 
the  Atlantic.  They  further  brought  architecture  into  closer 
union  with  the  allied  arts  and  formed  an  object  lesson  in 
the  value  of  appropriate  landscape  gardening  as  a  setting  to 
monumental  structures. 

It  should  be  said,  in  conclusion,  that  with  the  advances 
of  recent  years  in  artistic  design  in  the  United  States  there 
has  been  at  least  as  great  improvement  in  scientific  con- 
struction. The  sham  and  flimsiness  of  the  Civil  War  period 
are  passing  away,  and  solid  and  durable  building  is  becom- 
ing more  general  throughout  the  country,  but  especially  in 
the  Northeast  and  in  some  of  the  great  Western  cities,  not- 
ably in  Chicago.  In  this  onward  movement  the  Federal 
buildings — post-offices,  custom-houses,  and  other  govern- 
mental edifices — have  not,  till  lately,  taken  high  rank.  Al- 
though solidly  and  carefully  constructed,  those  built  during 
the  period  1 875-1 895  were  generally  inferior  to  the  best 
work  produced  by  private  enterprise,  or  by  State  and 
municipal  governments.  This  was  in  large  part  due  to 
enactments  devolving  upon  the  supervising  architect  at 
Washington  the  planning  of  all  Federal  buildings,  as  well  as 
a  burden  of  supervisory  and  clerical  duties  incompatible 
with  the  h.ghest  artistic  results.  Since  1898,  however,  a 
more  enlightened  policy  has  prevailed,  and  a  number  of 
notable  designs  for  Federal  buildings  have  been  secured  by 
carefully -conducted  competitions. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ORIENTAL     ARCHITECTURE. 

INDIA,    CHINA,    AND    JAPAN. 

Books  Recommended  :  Cole,  Monographs  of  Ancient 
Monuments  of  India.  Conder,  Notes  on  Japanese  Architecture 
(in  Transactions  of  R.  I.  B.  A.,  for  1886).  Cunningham, 
Archceological  Survey  of  India.  Fergusson,  Indian  and  East- 
ern Architecture  ;  Picturesque  Illustrations  of  Indian  Archi- 
tecture. Le  Bon,  les  Monuments  de  Vlnde.  Morse,  Japanese 
Houses.  Stirling,  Asiatic  Researches.  Consult  also  the  "Jour- 
nal and  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTE.  The  architecture  of  the  non-Mos- 
lem countries  and  races  of  Asia  has  been  reserved  for  this 
closing  chapter,  in  order  not  to  interrupt  the  continuity  of 
the  history  of  European  styles,  with  which  it  has  no  affinity 
and  scarcely  even  a  point  of  contact.  Among  them  all,  India 
alone  has  produced  monuments  of  great  architectural  im- 
portance. The  buildings  of  China  and  Japan,  although  in- 
teresting for  their  style,  methods,  and  detail,  and  so  de- 
serving at  least  of  brief  mention,  are  for  the  most  part  of 
moderate  size  and  of  perishable  materials.  Outside  of 
these  three  countries  there  is  little  to  interest  the  general 
student  of  architecture. 

INDIA :  PERIODS.  It  is  difficult  to  classify  the  non-Mo- 
hammedan styles  of  India,  owing  to  their  frequently  over- 
lapping, both  geographically  and  artistically  ;  while  the  lack 
of  precise  dates  in  Indian  literature  makes  the  chronology 
of  many  of  the  monuments  more  or  less  doubtful.  The 
26 


402  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

divisions  given  below  are  a  modification  of  those  first 
established  by  Fergusson,  and  are  primarily  based  on  the 
three  great  religions,  with  geographical  subdivisions,  as 
follows  : 

iii!  BUDDHIST  style,  from  the  reign  of  Asoka,  cir.  250 
B.C.,  to  the  7th  century  A.u.  Its  monuments  occupy 
mainly  a  broad  band  running  northeast  and  southwest,  be- 
tween the  Indian  Desert  and  the  Dekkan.  Offshoots  of  the 
style  are  found  as  far  north  as  Gandhara,  and  as  far  south 
as  Ceylon. 

the  jaina  style,  akin  to  the  preceding  if  not  derived 
from  it,  covering  the  same  territory  as  well  as  southern 
India  ;  from  1000  a. p.  to  the  present  time. 

the  brahman  or  hindu  styles,  extending  over  the  whole 
peninsula.  They  are  sub-divided  geographically  into  the 
northern  BRAiiMw,  the  chalukyan  in  the  Dekkan,  and 
the  dravidian  in  the  south  ;  this  last  style  being  cotermi- 
nous with  the  populations  speaking  the  Tamil  and  cognat^ 
languages.  The  monuments  of  these  styles  are  mainly  sub- 
sequent to  the  10th  century,  though  a  few  date  as  far  back 
as  the  7th. 

The  great  majority  of  Indian  monuments  are  religious — 
temples,  shrines,  and  monasteries.  Secular  buildings  do  not 
appear  until  after  the  Moslem  conquests,  and  most  of  them 
arc  quite  modern. 

general  character.  All  these  styles  possess  certain 
traits  in  common.  While  stone  and  brick  are  both  used, 
sandstone  predominating,  the  details  are  in  large  measure 
derived  from  wooden  prototypes.  Structural  lines  are  not 
followed  in  the  exterior  treatment,  purely  decorative  con- 
siderations prevailing.  Ornament  is  equally  lavished  on  all 
parts  of  the  building,  and  is  bewildering  in  its  amount  and 
complexity.  Realistic  and  grotesque  sculpture  is  freely 
forming  multiplied  horizontal  bands  of  extraordinary 
richness  and  minuteness  of   execution.      Spacious  and  lofty 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE— INDIA.  403 

interiors  are  rarely  attempted,  but  wonderful  effects  are  pro- 
duced by  seemingly  endless  repetition  of  columns  in  halls 
ami  corridors,  and  by  external  emphasis  of  important  parts 
of  the  plan  by  lofty  tower-like  piles  of  masonry. 

The  source  of  the  various  Indian  styles,  the  origin  of  the 
forms  used,  the  history  of  their  development,  are  all  wrapped 
in  obscurity.  All  the  monuments  show  a  fully  developed 
style  and  great  command  of  technical  resources  from  the 
outset.  When,  where,  and  how  these  were  attained  is  as 
yet  an  unsolved  mystery.  In  all  its  phases  previous  to  the 
Moslem  conquest  Indian  architecture  appears  like  an  in- 
digenous art,  borrowing  little  from  foreign  styles,  and  hav- 
ing no  affinities  with  the  arts  of  Occidental  nations. 

BUDDHIST  STYLE.  Although  Buddhism  originated  in  the 
sixth  century  b.c,  the  earliest  architectural  remains  of  the 
style  date  from  its  wide  promulgation  in  India  under  Asoka 
(272-236  b.c).  Buddhist  monuments  comprise  three  chief 
classes  of  structures  :  the  sti/f>as  or  topes,  which  are  mounds 
more  or  less  domical  in  shape,  enclosing  relic-shrines  of 
Buddha,  or  built  to  mark  some  sacred  spot ;  chaityas,  or 
temple  halls,  cut  in  the  rock  ;  and  viharas,  or  monaster- 
ies. The  style  of  the  detail  varies  considerably  in  these 
three  classes,  but  is  in  general  simpler  and  more  massive 
than  in  the  other  styles  of  India. 

TOPES.  These  are  found  in  groups,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  at  or  near  Bhilsa  in  central  India,  at  Manik- 
yala  in  the  northwest,  at  Amravati  in  the  south,  and  in 
Ceylon  at  Ruanwalli  and  Tuparamaya.  The  best  known 
among  them  is  the  Sanchi  Tope,  near  Bhilsa,  120  feet  in 
diameter  and  56  feet  high.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  richly 
carved  stone  rail  or  fence,  with  gateways  of  elaborate 
workmanship,  having  three  sculptured  lintels  crossing  the 
carved  uprights.  The  tope  at  Manikyala  is  larger,  and 
dates  from  the  7th  century.  It  is  exceeded  in  size  by  many 
in    Ceylon,    that    at    Abayagiri    measuring    360    feet     in 


404  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


diameter.  Few  of  the  topes  retain  the  ice,  or  model  of  a 
shrine,  which,  like  a  lantern,  once  crowned  each  of  them. 

Besides  the  topes  there  are  a  few  stupas  of  tower-like 
form,  square  in  plan,  of  which  the  most  famous  is  that  at 
Buddh  Gaya,  near  the  sacred  Bodhi  tree,  where  Buddha  at- 
tained divine  light  in  588  B.C. 

CHAITYA  HALLS.  The  Buddhist  speos-temples — so  far  as 
known  the  only  extant  halls  of  worship  of  that  religion,  ex- 
cept one  at  Sanchi — are  mostly  in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
at  Ellora,  Karli,  Ajunta,  Nassick,  and  Bhaja.  The  earliest, 
that  at  Karli,  dates  from  78  b.c,  the  latest  (at  Ellora),  dr. 
600  a.d.  They  consist  uniformly  of  a  broad  nave  ending 
in  an  apse,  and  covered  by  a  roof  like  a  barrel  vault,  and 
two  narrow  side  aisles.  In  the  apse  is  the  dagoba  or  relic- 
shrine,  shaped  like  a  miniature  tope.  The  front  of  the  cave 
MM  originally  adorned  with  an  open-work  screen  or  frame 
of  wood,  while  the  face  of  the  rock  about  the  opening  was 
carved  into  the  semblance  of  a  sumptuous  structural  facade. 
Among  the  finest  of  these  caverns  is  that  at  Karli,  whose 
live  columns  and  impressive  scale  recall  Egyptian  mod- 
els, though  the  resemblance  is  superficial  and  has  no  historic 
significance.  More  suggestive  is  the  affinity  of  many  of  the 
columns  which  stand  before  these  caves  to  Persian  proto- 
types (see  Fig.  21).  It  is  not  improbable  that  both  Persian 
and  classic  forms  were  introduced  into  India  through  the 
Bactrian  kingdom  250  years  B.C.  Otherwise  we  must  seek 
for  the  origin  of  nearly  all  Buddhist  forms  in  a  pre-existing 
wooden  architecture,  now  wholly  perished,  though  its  tradi- 
tions may  survive  in  the  wooden  screens  in.  the  fronts  of 
the  caves.  While  some  of  these  caverns  are  extremely 
simple,  as  at  Bhaja,  others,  especially  at  Nassick  and 
Ajunta,  are  of  great  splendor  and  complexity. 

VIHARAS.  Kxcept  at  (iandhara  in  the  Punjab,  the 
structural  monasteries  of  t^e  Buddhists  were  probably  all 
of  wood  and  have  long  ago  perished.     The  (iandhara  mon- 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE— INDIA.  405 

asteries  of  Jamalgiri  and  Takht-i-Bahi  present  in  plan  three 
or  four  courts  surrounded  by  cells.  The  centre  of  one  court 
is  in  both  cases  occupied  by  a  platform  for  an  altar  or  shrine. 
Among  the  ruins  there  have  been  found  a  number  of  capi- 
tals whose  strong  resemblance  to  the  Corinthian  type  is 
now  generally  attributed  to  Byzantine  rather  than  Bactrian 
influences.  These  viharas  may  therefore  be  assigned  to  the 
6th  or  7th  century  a.d. 

The  rock-cut  viharas  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  chaityas  already  described.  Architecturally,  they  are 
far  more  elaborate  than  the  chaityas.  Those  at  Salsette, 
Ajunta,  and  Bagh  are  particularly  interesting,  with  pillared 
halls  or  courts,  cells,  corridors,  and  shrines.  The  hall  of  the 
Great  Vihara  at  Bagh  is  96  feet  square,  with  36  columns. 
Adjoining  it  is  the  school-room,  and  the  whole  is  fronted 
by  a  sumptuous  rock-cut  colonnade  200  feet  long.  These 
caves  were  mostly  hewn  between  the  5th  and  7th  centuries, 
at  which  time  sculpture  was  more  prevalent  in  Buddhist 
works  than  previously,  and  some  of  them  are  richly  adorned 
with  figures. 

JAINA  STYLE.  The  religion  and  the  architecture  of  the 
Jainas  so  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Buddhists,  that  re- 
cent authorities  are  disposed  to  treat  the  Jaina  style  as  a 
mere  variation  or  continuation  of  the  Buddhist.  Chrono- 
logically they  are  separated  by  an  interval  of  some  three 
centuries,  dr.  650-950  a.d.,  which  have  left  us  almost  no 
monuments  of  either  style.  The  Jaina  is  moreover  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Buddhist  architecture  by  the  great 
number  and  elaborateness  of  its  structural  monuments. 
The  multiplication  of  statues  of  Tirthankhar  in  the  cells 
about  the  temple  courts,  the  exuberance  of  sculpture,  the 
use  of  domes  built  in  horizontal  courses,  and  the  imitation 
in  stone  of  wooden  braces  or  struts  are  among  its  distin- 
guishing features.  \ 

jaina  temples.     The  earliest  examples  are  on  Mount  Abu 


4o6 


HISTORY    OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


in  the  Indian  Desert.  Built  by  Vimalafa  Sah  in  1032,  the 
chief  of  these  consists  of  a  court  measuring  140x90  feet, 
surrounded  by  cells  and  a  double  colonnade.  In  the  centre 
rises  the  shrine  of  the  god,  containing  his  statue,  and  ter- 
minating in  a  lofty  tower  or  sikhra.  An  imposing  columnar 
porch,  cruciform  in  plan,  precedes  this  cell  (Fig.  226).     The 


>K    TEMPLE    ON    M< 


intersection  of  the  arms  is  covered  by  a  dome  supported  OH 

eight  columns  with  stone  brackets  or  struts.  The  dome 
and  columns  are  covered  with  profuse  carving  and  sculpt- 
ured figures,  and  the  total  effect  is  one  of  remarkable 
dignity  and  splendor.  The  temple  of  Sadri  is  much  more 
extensive,  twenty  minor  domes  and  one  of  larger  size  form- 
ing cruciform  port  lies  on  all  four  sides  of  the  central  sikhra. 
The  cells  about  the  court  are  each  covered  by  a  small  sikhra, 
and  these,  with  the   twenty-one  domes  (four  of  which  are 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE— INDIA. 


407 


built  in  three  stories),  all  grouped  about  the  central  tower 
and  adorned  with  an  astonishing  variety  of  detail,  consti- 
tute a  monument  of  the  first  importance.  It  was  built 
by  Khumbo  Rana,  about  1450.  At 
Girnar  are  several  12th-century 
temples  with  enclosed  instead  of 
open  vestibules.  One  of  these,  that 
of  Neminatha,  retains  intact  its 
court  enclosure  and  cells,  which  in 
most  other  cases  have  perished.  The 
temple  at  Somnath  resembles  it,  but 
is  larger ;  the  dome  of  its  porch,  33 
feet  in  diameter,  is  the  largest  Jaina 
dome  in  India.  Other  notable  tem- 
ples are  at  Gwalior,  Khajuraho,  and 
Parasnatha. 

In  all  the  Jaina  temples  the  salient 
feature  is  the  sikhra  or  vimana.  This 
is  a  tower  of  approximately  square 
plan,  tapering  by  a  graceful  curve 
toward  a  peculiar  terminal  ornament 
shaped  like  a  flattened  melon.  Its 
whole  surface  is  variegated  by  hori- 
zontal bands  and  vertical  breaks, 
covered  with  sculpture  and  carving. 
Next  in  importance  are  the  domes, 
built  wholly  in  horizontal  courses 
and  resting  on  stone  lintels  carried 
by  bracketed  columns.  These  same 
traits  appear  in  relatively  modern 
examples,  as  at  Delhi. 

TOWERS.  A  similar  predilection  for  minutely  broken  sur- 
faces marks  the  towers  which  sometimes  adjoin  the  temples, 
as  at  Chittore  (tower  of  Sri  Allat,  13th  century),  or  were 
erected  as  trophies  of  victory,  like  that  of  Khumbo  Rana  in 


FIG.  227. — TOWER  OF  VICTORY, 
CHITTORE. 


408  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE* 

the  same  town  (Fig.  227).  The  combination  of  horizontal 
and  vertical  lines,  the  distribution  of  the  openings,  and  the 
rich  ornamentation  of  these  towers  are  very  interesting, 
though  lacking  somewhat  in  structural  propriety  of  design. 

HINDU  STYLES:  NORTHERN  BRAHMAN.  The  origin  of  this 
style  is  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem.  Its  monuments  were 
mainly  built  between  600  and  1200  a.d.,  the  oldest  being 
in  Orissa,  at  Bhuwanesevar,  Kanaruk,  and  Puri.  In  north- 
ern India  the  temples  are  about  equally  divided  between  the 
two  forms  of  Brahmanism — the  worship  of  Vishnu  or  Vaish- 
riavism,  and  that  of  Siva  or  Shaivism — and  do  not  differ 
materially  in  style.  As  in  the  Jaina  style,  the  vimana  is 
their  most  striking  feature,  and  this  is  in  most  cases  adorned 
with  numerous  reduced  copies  of  its  own  form  grouped  in 
successive  stages  against  its  sides  and  angles.  This  curious 
system  of  design  appears  in  nearly  all  the  great  temples, 
both  of  Vishnu  and  Siva.  The  Jaina  melon  ornament  is 
universal,  surmounted  generally  by  an  urn-shaped  finial. 

In  plan  the  vimana  shrine  is  preceded  by  two  or  three 
chambers,  square  or  polygonal,  some  with  and  some  with- 
out columns.  The  foremost  of  these  is  covered  by  a  roof 
formed  like  a  stepped  pyramid  set  cornerwise.  The  fine 
porch  of  the  ruined  temple  at  Bindrabun  is  cruciform  in 
plan  and  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  building,  the  shrine  at 
the  further  end  being  relatively  small  and  its  tower  un- 
finished or  ruined.  In  some  modern  examples  the  ante- 
chamber is  replaced  by  an  open  porch  with  a  Saracenic 
dome,  a- at  P.enares ;  in  others  the  old  type  is  completely 
abandoned,  as  in  the  temple  at  Kantonnuggur  (1704-22). 
This  is  a  square  hall  built  of  terra-cotta,  with  four  three- 
arched  porches  and  nine  towers,  more  Saracenic  than  IWali- 
man  in  general  aspect. 

The  Kandarya  Mahadeo,  at  Khajuraho.  is  the  most  noted 
example  of  the  northern  Brahman  style,  and  one  of  the 
most  splendid  structures  extant.     A   strong  and  lofty  base- 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE— INDIA.  4O9 

ment  supports  an  extraordinary  mass  of  roofs,  covering  the 
six  open  porches  and  the  antechamber  and  hypostyle  hall, 
which  precede  the  shrine,  and  rising  in  successive  pyramidal 
masses  until  the  vimana  is  reached  which  covers  the  shrine. 
This  is  116  feet  high,  but  seems  much  loftier,  by  reason  of 
the  small  scale  of  its  constituent  parts  and  the  marvellously 
minute  decoration  which  covers  the  whole  structure.  The 
vigor  of  its  masses  and  the  grand  stairways  which  lead  up 
to  it  give  it  a  dignity  unusual  for  its  size,  60  x  109  feet  in 
plan  {fir.  1000  a.d.). 

At  Puri,  in  Orissa,  the  Temple  of  Jugganat,  with  its  double 
enclosure  and  numerous  subordinate  shrines,  the  Teli-ka- 
Mandir  at  Gwalior,  and  temples  at  TJdaipur  near  Bhilsa,  at 
Mukteswara  in  Orissa,  at  Chittore,  Benares,  and  Barolli,  are 
important  examples.  The  few  tombs  erected  subsequent 
to  the  Moslem  conquest,  combining  Jaina  bracket  columns 
with  Saracenic  domes,  and  picturesquely  situated  palaces 
at  Chittore  (1450),  Oudeypore  (1580),  and  Gwalior,  should 
also  be  mentioned. 

CHALUKYAN  STYLE.  Throughout  a  central  zone  crossing 
the  peninsula  from  sea  to  sea  about  the  Dekkan,and  extend- 
ing south  to  Mysore  on  the  west,  the  Brahmans  developed  a 
distinct  style  during  the  later  centuries  of  the  Chalukyan 
dynasty.  Its  monuments  are  mainly  comprised  between  1050 
and  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in  1310.  The  most  nota- 
ble examples  of  the  style  are  found  along  the  southwest 
coast,  at  Hullabid,  Baillur,  and  Somnathpur. 

TEMPLES.  Chalukyan  architecture  is  exclusively  relig- 
ious and  its  temples  are  easily  recognized.  The  plans  com- 
prise the  same  elements  as  those  of  the  Jainas,  but  the 
Chalukyan  shrine  is  always  star-shaped  externally  in  plan, 
and  the  vimana  takes  the  form  of  a  stepped  pyramid  instead 
of  a  curved  outline.  The  Jaina  dome  is,  moreover,  wholly 
wanting.  All  the  details  are  of  extraordinary  richness  and 
beauty,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  surfaces  by  rectangular 


4io 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


projections  is  skilfully  managed  so  as  to  produce  an  effect 
of  great  apparent  size  with  very  moderate  dimensions.  AM 
the  known  examples  stand  on  raised  platforms,  adding  ma- 
terially to  their  dignity.  Some  are  double  temples,  as  at 
Hullabid  (Fig.  228);  others  are  triple  in  plan.  A  notice- 
____^__^  able    feature     of    the 

style  is  the  deeply  cut 
stratification  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  tem- 
ples, each  band  or  stra- 
tum bearing  a  distinct 
frieze  of  animals,  fig- 
ures or  ornament, 
carved  with  masterly 
skill.  Pierced  stone 
slabs  filling  the  win- 
dow openings  arc  also 

not  uncommon. 

The  richest  exem- 
plars of  the  style  are 
the  temples  at  Baillur 
and  Somnathpur,  and 
at  Hullabid  the  Kait 
Iswara  and  the  incom- 
plete Double  Temple. 

The  Kurti  Stainbha,  Of 
gate  at  Worangul,  and 

the  Great  Temple  at 

Hamoncondah  should  also  be  mentioned. 

DRAVIDIAN  STYLE.  The  Brahman  monuments  of  south- 
ern India  exhibit  a  style  almost  as  strongly  marked  as  the 
Chalukyan.  This  appears  less  in  their  details  than  in  their 
general  plan  and  conception.  The  Dravidian  temples  are 
not  single  structures,  but  aggregations  of  buildings  of  varied 
size  and  form,  covering  extensive  areas  enclosed  by  walls 


HO.  228.—  TEMPLE   AT    HI  I.I.AIlh).       DETAIL. 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE — INDIA.  41  I 

and  entered  through  gates  made  imposing  by  lofty  pylons 
called  gopuras.  As  if  to  emphasize  these  superficial  resem- 
blances to  Egyptian  models,  the  sanctuary  is  often  low  and 
insignificant.  It  is  preceded  by  much  more  imposing 
porches  {mantapas)  and  hypostyle  halls  or  choultries,  the 
latter  being  sometimes  of  extraordinary  extent,  though  sel- 
dom lofty.  The  choultrie,  sometimes  called  the  Hall  of 
1,000  Columns,  is  in  some  cases  replaced  by  pillared  corri- 
dors of  great  length  and  splendor,  as  at  Ramisseram  and 
Madura.  The  plans  are  in  most  cases  wholly  irregular,  and 
the  architecture,  so  far  from  resembling  the  Egyptian  in  its 
scale  and  massiveness,  is  marked  by  the  utmost  minuteness 
of  ornament  and  tenuity  of  detail,  suggesting  wood  and  stuc- 
co rather  than  stone.  The  Great  Hall  at  Chillambaram  is 
but  10  to  12  feet  high,  and  the  corridors  at  Ramisseram,  700 
feet  long,  are  but  30  feet  high.  The  effect  of  ensemble  of  the 
Dravidian  temples  is  disappointing.  They  lack  the  empha- 
sis of  dominant  masses  and  the  dignity  of  symmetrical  and 
logical  arrangement.  The  very  loftiness  of  the  gopuras 
makes  the  buildings  of  the  group  within  seem  low  by  con- 
trast. In  nearly  every  temple,  however,  some  one  feature 
attracts  merited  admiration  by  its  splendor,  extent,  or 
beauty.  Such  are  the  Choultrie,  built  by  Tirumalla  Nayak 
at  Madura  (1623-45),  measuring  t,ZZ  x  io5  feet  5  the  corridors 
already  mentioned  at  Ramisseram  and  in  the  Great  Temple 
at  Madura ;  the  gopuras  at  Tarputry  and  Vellore,  and  the 
Mantapa  of  Parvati  at  Chillambaram  (1595-1685).  Very 
noticeable  are  the  compound  columns  of  this  style^onsist- 
ing  of  square  piers  with  slender  shafts  coupled  tothem  and 
supporting  brackets,  as  at  Chillambaram,  Peroor,  and  Vel- 
lore; the  richly  banded  square  piers,  the  grotesques  of  ram- 
pant horses  and  monsters,  and  the  endless  labor  bestowed 
upon  minute  carving  and  ornament  in  superposed  bands. 

OTHER   MONUMENTS.     Other    important    temples   are    at 
Tiruvalur,  Seringham,  Tinevelly,  and  Conjeveram,  all  alike 


412 


HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 


in  general  scheme  of  design,  with  enclosures  varying  from 
300  to  1,000  feet  in  length  and  width.  At  Tanjore  is  a  mag- 
nificent temple  with  two  courts,  in  the  larger  of  which 
stands  a  pagoda  or  shrine  with  a  pyramidal  vimana,  unusual 
M  -^  ■«,..  m    Dravidian     tem- 

^^— ^  pies,  and    beside    it 

the  smaller  Shrine 
of  Soubramanya 
(Fig.  229),  a  structure 
of  unusual  beauty  of 
detail.  In  both,  the 
vertical  lower  story 
with  its  pilasters  and 


riC.    829. — SHRINK   OK   SOl'BRAMANVA,    TANJORE. 

windows  is  curiously  suggestive  of  Renaissance  design. 
The  pagoda  dates  from  the  14th,  the  smaller  temple  from 
the  15th  century. 

BOCK-CUT  RATHS  All  the  above  temples  were  built  sub- 
sequently to  the  12th  century.  The  rock-cut  shrines  date 
in  some  cases  as  far  ba<  It  as  the  7th  century  ;  they  are 
called  kylas  and  roths,  and  are  not  caves,  but  isolated  edi- 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE— CHINA.  413 

fices,  imitating  structural  designs,  but  hewn  bodily  from 
the  rock.  Those  at  Mahavellipore  are  of  diminutive  size  ; 
but  at  Purudkul  there  is  an  extensive  temple  with  shrine, 
choultrie,  and  gopura  surrounded  by  a  court  enclosure 
measuring  250  x  150  feet  (9th  century).  More  famous  still 
is  the  elaborate  Kylas  at  Ellora,  of  about  the  same  size  as 
the  above,  but  more  complex  and  complete  in  its  details. 

PALACES.  At  Madura,  Tanjore,  and  Vijayanagar  are 
Dravidian  palaces,  built  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest 
and  in  a  mixed  style.  The  domical  octagonal  throne-room 
and  the  Great  Hall  at  Madura  (17th  century),  the  most  fa- 
mous edifices  of  the  kind,  were  evidently  inspired  from 
Gothic  models,  but  how  this  came  about  is  not  known. 
The  Great  Hall  with  its  pointed  arched  barrel  vault  of  67 
feet  span,  its  cusped  arches,  round  piers,  vaulting  shafts, 
and  triforium,  appears  strangely  foreign  to  its  surroundings. 

CAMBODIA.  The  subject  of  Indian  architecture  cannot 
be  dismissed  without  at  least  brief  mention  of  the  immense 
temple  of  Nakhon  Wat  in  Cambodia.  This  stupendous  cre- 
ation covers  an  area  of  a  full  square  mile,  with  its  concen- 
tric courts,  its  encircling  moat  or  lake,  its  causeways, 
porches,  and  shrines,  dominated  by  a  central  structure  200 
feet  square  with  nine  pagoda-like  towers.  The  corridors 
around  the  inner  court  have  square  piers  of  almost  classic 
Roman  type.  The  rich  carving,  the  perfect  masonry,  and 
the  admirable  composition  of  the  whole  leading  up  to  the 
central  mass,  indicate  architectural  ability  of  a  high  order. 

CHINESE  ARCHITECTURE.  No  purely  Mongolian  nation 
appears  ever  to  have  erected  buildings  of  first-rate  impor- 
tance. It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  the  Chinese  are 
possessed  of  considerable  decorative  skill  and  mechanical 
ingenuity  ;  and  these  qualities  are  the  most  prominent  ele- 
ments in  their  buildings.  Great  size  and  splendor,  massive- 
ness  and  originality  of  construction,  they  do  not  possess. 
Built  in  large  measure  of  wood,  cleverly  framed  and  deco- 


414  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

rated  with  a  certain  richness  of  color  and  ornament,  with  a 
large  element  of  the  grotesque  in  the  decoration,  the  Chi- 
nese temples,  pagodas,  and  palaces  are  interesting  rather 
than  impressive.  There  is  not  a  single  architectural  monu- 
ment of  imposing  size  or  of  great  antiquity,  so  far  as  we 
know.  The  celebrated  Porcelain  Tower  of  Nankin  is  no 
longer  extant,  having  been  destroyed  in  the  Tapping  rebel- 
lion in  1850.  It  was  a  nine-storied  polygonal  pagoda  236 
feet  high,  revetted  with  porcelain  tiles,  and  was  built  in  141 2. 
The  largest  of  Chinese  temples,  that  of  the  Great  Dragon 
at  Pekin,  is  a  circular  structure  of  moderate  size,  though  its 
enclosure  is  nearly  a  mile  square.  Pagodas  with  diminish- 
ing stories,  elaborately  carved  entrance  gates  and  succes- 
sive terraces  are  mainly  relied  upon  for  effect.  They  show 
little  structural  art,  but  much  clever  ornament.  Like  the 
monasteries  and  the  vast  lamaseries  of  Thibet,  they  belong 
to  the  Buddhist  religion. 

Aside  from  the  ingenious  framing  and  bracketing  of  the 
Carpentry,  the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  Chinese  build- 
ings is  their  broad-spreading  tiled  roofs.  These  invariably 
slope  downward  in  a  curve,  and  the  tiling,  with  its  hip- 
ridges,  crestings,  and  finials  in  terra-cotta  or  metal,  adds 
materially  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  general  effect. 
Color  and  gilding  are  freely  used,  and  in  some  cases — as  in 
a  summer  pavilion  at  Pekin — porcelain  tiling  covers  the 
walls,  with  brilliant  effect.     The  chief  wonder    is    that    this 

iurce  of  the  architectural  decorator  has  no!  been  further 

developed  in  China,  where  porcelain  and  earthenware  are 
otherwise  treated  with  such  remarkable  skill. 

JAPANESE  ARCHITECTURE.  Apparently  associated  in  race 
with  the  Chinese   and   Koreans,  the   Japanese  are  far  more 

artistic  in  temperament  than  either  of  their  neighbors.   The 

refinement  and  originality  of  their  decorative  art  have 
given  it  a  wide  reputation.      Unfortunately  the    prevalence 

of  earthquakes  has  combined  with  the  influence  of  the  tra- 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE— JAPAN.  415 

ditional  habits  of  the  people  to  prevent  the  maturing  of  a 
truly  monumental  architecture.  Except  for  the  terraces, 
gates,  and  enclosures  of  their  palaces  and  temples,  wood  is 
the  predominant  building  material.  It  is  used  substantially 
as  in  China,  the  framing,  dovetailing,  bracketing,  broad 
eaves  and  tiled  roofs  of  Japan  closely  resembling  those  of 
China.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  greater  refinement 
and  delicacy  of  the  Japanese  details  and  the  more  monu- 
mental disposition  of  the  temple  terraces,  the  beauty  of 
which  is  greatly  enhanced  by  skilful  landscape  gardening. 
The  gateways  recall  somewhat  those  of  the  Sanchi  Tope 
in  India  (p.  403),  but  are  commonly  of  wood.  Owing  to 
the  danger  from  earthquakes,  lofty  towers  and  pagodas  are 
rarely  seen. 

The  domestic  architecture  of  Japan,  though  interesting 
for  its  arrangements,  and  for  its  sensible  and  artistic  use  of 
the  most  flimsy  materials,  is  too  trivial  in  scale,  detail,  and 
construction  to  receive  more  than  passing  reference.  Even 
the  great  palace  at  Tokio,*  covering  an  immense  area,  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  one-storied  buildings  of  wood, 
with  little  of  splendor  or  architectural  dignity. 

MONUMENTS  (additional  to  those  in  text),  buddhist  :  Topes  at 
Sanchi,  Sonari,  Satdara,  Andher,  in  Central  India  ;  at  Sarnath,  near  Be- 
nares ;  at  Jelalabad  and  Salsette  ;  in  Ceylon  at  Anuradhapura,  Tupara- 
maya,  Lankaramaya. — Grotto  temples  (chaityas),  mainly  in  Bombay  and 
Bengal  Presidencies  ;  at  Behar,  especially  the  Lomash  Rishi,  and  Cuttack  ; 
at  Bhaja,  Bedsa,  Ajunta,  and  Ellora  (Wiswakarma  Cave) ;  in  Salsette,  the 
Kenheri  Cave. — Viharas  :  Structural  at  Nalanda  and  Sarnath,  demolished  ; 
rock-cut  in  Bengal,  at  Cuttack,  Udayagiri  (the  Ganesa)  ;  in  the  west, 
many  at  Ajunta,  also  at  Bagh,  Bedsa,  Bhaja,  Nassick  (the  Nahapana, 
Yadnya  Sri,  etc.),  Salsette,  Ellora  (the  Dekrivaria,  etc.).  In  Nepal,  stupas 
of  Swayanbunath  and  Bouddhama. 

jaina  :  Temples  at  Aiwulli,  Kanaruc  (Black  Pagoda),  and  Purudkul  ; 

*  See  Transactions  R.  I.  B.  A.,  52d  year,  1886,  article  by  R.  J.  Conder, 
pp.  185-214. 


416  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

groups  of  temples  at  Palitana,  (lirnar.  Mount  Abu.  Somnath,  Parisn.uli  . 
Balm  at  Gwalior,  1093 ;  Parswanatha  and  Ganthai  (650)  at  Klia- 
juraho  ;  temple  at  (iyrasporc,  7th  cent u ry  ;  modern  temples  at  Ahmeda- 
bad(Ilutiising),  Delhi,  and  Sonagfaor  ;  in  the  south  at  Moodbidri,  Sravana 
Belgula  ;  towers  at  Chittore. 

nokthkrn  BRAHMAN:  Temples,  Parasumareswara  (500  A.D. ),  Muktes- 
wara.  and  C.reat  Temple  (600-650),  all  at  Bhuwaneswar,  among  many 
others  ;  of  I'apanatha  at  Purudkul  ;  grotto  temples  at  Dhumnar,  Ellora, 
and  I'oonah  ;  temples  at  Chandravati,  Udaipur,  and  Amritsur  (the  last 
modern)  ;  tombs  of  Singram  Sing  and  others  at  Oudeypore  ;  of  Rajah 
Baktawar  at  Ulwar,  and  others  at  Goverdhun  ;  ghats  or  landings  at  Benares 
and  elsewhere. 

oiaiikyan:  Temples  at  Buchropully  and  Hamoncondah,  1163  ;  ruins 
at  Kalvani  ;  grottoes  of  Hazar  Khutri. 

dkaviihan:  Rock-cut  temples  (raths)  at  Mahavellipore  ;  Tiger  Cave 
at  Saluvan  Kuppan  ;  temples  at  l'ittadkul  (Purudkul),  Tiruvalur.  Com- 
baconum,  Vellore,  Peroor,  V'ijayanagar ;  pavilions  at  Tanjore  and  \ija- 
yanagar. 

There  are  also  many  temples  in  the  Kashmir  Valley  difficult  of  asrign- 
ment  to  any  of  the  above  styles  and  religions. 


APPENDIX. 

A.  PRIMITIVE  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. — The  researches  of 
Schliemann  commented  by  Schuchardt,  of  Dorpfeld,  Sta- 
makis,  Tsoundas,  Perrot,  and  others,  in  Troy,  Mycenae,  and 
Tiryns,  and  the  more  recent  discoveries  of  Evans  at 
Gnossus,  in  Crete,  have  greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of 
the  prehistoric  art  of  Greece  and  the  Mediterranean  basin, 
and  established  many  points  of  contact  on  the  one  hand 
with  ancient  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  art,  and  on  the  other, 
with  the  art  of  historic  Greece.  They  have  proved  the 
existence  of  an  active  and  flourishing  commerce  between 
Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean  shores  and  Aegean  islands 
more  than  2000  B.C.,  and  of  a  flourishing  material  civiliza- 
tion in  those  islands  and  on  the  mainland  of  Greece, 
borrowing  much,  but  not  everything,  from  Egypt.  While  the 
origin  of  the  Doric  order  in  the  structural  methods  of  the 
pre-Homeric  architecture  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae,  as  set 
forth  by  Dorpfeld  and  by  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  can  hardly  be 
regarded  as  proved  in  all  details,  since  much  of  the  argument 
advanced  for  this  derivation  rests  on  more  or  less  conjec- 
tural restorations  of  the  existing  remains,  it  seems  to  be 
fairly  well  established  that  the  Doric  order,  and  historic 
Greek  architecture  in  general,  trace  their  genesis  in  large 
measure  back  in  direct  line  to  this  prehistoric  art.  The 
remarkable  feature  of  this  early  architecture  is  the  apparently 
complete  absence  of  temples.  Fortifications,  houses,  palaces, 
and  tombs  make  up  the  ruins  thus  far  discovered,  and  seem 
to  indicate  clearly  the  derivation  of  the  temple-type  of  later 
Greek  art  from  the  primitive  house,  consisting  of  a  hall  o~ 
megaron  with  four  columns  about  the  central  hearth  (whence 
27 


4I 8  APPKXIMX. 

no  doubt,  the  atrium  and  peristyle  of  Roman  houses,  through 
their  Greek  intermediary  prototypes)  and  a  porch  or  aithousa, 
with  or  without  columns  in  anlis,  opening  directly  into  the 
megaron,  or  indirectly  through  an  ante-room  called  the 
prodomos.  Here  we  have  the  prototypes  of  the  Greek 
temple  in  an/is,  with  its  naos  having  interior  columns, 
whether  roofed  over  or  hypaethral  (see  pp.  54,  55).  It  is 
probable  also  that  the  evidently  liberal  use  of  timber  for 
many  of  the  structural  details  led  in  time  to  many  of  the 
forms  later  developed  in  stone  in  the  entablature  of  the 
Doric  order.  But  it  is  hard  to  discover,  as  Dorpfeld  would 
have  it,  in  the  slender  Mycenaean  columns  with  their  in- 
verted taper,  the  prototype  of  the  massive  Doric  column 
with  its  upward  taper.  The  Mycenaean  column  was  evi- 
dently derived  from  wooden  models ;  the  sturdy  Doric 
column — the  earliest  being  the  most  massive — seems  plainly 
derived  from  stone  or  rubble  piers  (see  p.  50),  and  thus  to 
have  come  from  a  different  source  from  the  Mycenaean 
forms. 

The  gynecaum,  or  women's  apartments,  the  men's  apart- 
ments, and  the  bath  were  in  these  ancient  palaces  grouped 
in  varying  relations  about  the  megaton  :  their  plan,  purpose, 
and  arrangement  are  clearly  revealed  in  the  ruins  of  T\ryns, 
where  they  are  more  complete  and  perfect  than  either  at 
Troy  or  Mycenae. 

B.  campaniles  IK  ITALY. — Reference  is  made  on  page 
264  to  the  towers  or  campaniles  of  the  Italian  Gothic  style 
and  period,  and  six  of  these  are  specifically  mentioned  ; 
and  on  page  305  mention  is  also  made  of  those  of  the  Re- 
naissance in  Italy.  The  number  and  importance  of  the 
Italian  campaniles  and  the  interest  attaching  to  their  origin 
and  design,  warrant  a  more  extended  notice  than  has  been 
assigned  them  in  the  pages  cited. 

The  oldest  of  these  bell-towers  appear  to  be  those  adjoin- 


APPENDIX. 


4»9 


ing  the  two  churches  of  San  Apollinare  in  and  near  Ravenna 
(see  p.  114),  and  date  presumably  from  the  sixth  century. 
They  are  plain  circular  towers  with  few  and  small  openings, 
except  in  the  uppermost  story,  where  larger  arched  open- 
ings permit  the  issue  of  the  sound  of  the  bells.  This  type 
which  might  have  been  developed  into  a  very  interesting 
form  of  tower,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  imitated.  It 
was  at  Rome,  and  not  till  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  that 
the  campanile  became  a  recognized  feature  of  church  archi- 
tecture. It  was  invariably  treated  as  a  structure  distinct 
from  the  church,  and  was  built  of  brick  upon  a  square  plan, 
rising  with  little  or  no  architectural  adornment  to  a  height 
usually  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more,  and  furnished  with  but 
a  few  small  openings  below  the  belfry  stage,  where  a  pair 
of  coupled  arched  windows  separated  by  a  simple  column 
opened  from  each  face  of  the  tower.  Above  these  windows 
a  pyramidal  roof  of  low  pitch  terminated  the  tower.  In 
spite  of  their  simplicity  of  design  these  Roman  bell- towers 
often  possess  a  noticeable  grace  of  proportions,  and  furnish 
the  prototype  of  many  of  the  more  elaborate  campaniles 
erected  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  other  central  and  north 
Italian  cities.  The  towers  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  Sta. 
Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro  are  examples 
of  this  type.  Most  of  the  Roman  examples  date  from  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 

In  other  cities,  the  campanile  was  treated  with  some 
variety  of  form  and  decoration,  as  well  as  of  material.  In 
Lombardy  and  Venetia  the  square  red-brick  shaft  of  the 
tower  is  often  adorned  with  long,  narrow  pilaster  strips, 
as  at  Piacenza  (p.  158,  Fig.  91)  and  Venice,  and  an  arcaded 
cornice  not  infrequently  crowns  the  structure.  The  open- 
ings at  the  top  may  be  three  or  four  in  number  on  each 
face,  and  even  the  plan  is  sometimes  octagonal  or  circular. 
The  brick  octagonal  campanile  of  S.  Gottardo  at  Milan  is 
one  of  the  finest  Lombard  church  towers.     At  Verona  the 


420  APPENDIX. 

brick  tower  on  the  Piazza  dell  'Erbe  and  that  of  S.  Zeno  are 
conspicuous  ;  but  every  important  town  of  northern  Italy 
possesses  one  or  more  examples  of  these  structures  dating 
from  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  or  thirteenth  century. 

Undoubtedly  the  three  most  noted  bell-towers  in  Italy 
are  those  of  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Florence.  The  great  Cam- 
panile of  St.  Mark  at  Venice,  first  begun  in  874,  carried 
higher  in  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  finally 
completed  in  the  sixteenth  century  with  the  marble  bel- 
vedere and  wooden  spire  so  familiar  in  pictures  of  Venice, 
was  formerly  the  highest  of  all  church  campaniles  in  Italy, 
measuring  approximately  325  feet  to  the  summit.  But  this 
superb  historic  monument,  weakened  by  causes  not  yet 
at  this  writing  fully  understood,  fell  in  sudden  ruin  on  the 
14th  of  July,  1902,  to  the  great  loss  not  only  of  Venice,  but  of 
the  world  of  art,  though  fortunately  without  injuring  the 
neighboring  buildings  on  the  Piazza  and  Piazzetta  of  St. 
Mark.  Since  then  the  campanile  of  S.  Stefano,  in  the  same 
city,  has  been  demolished  to  forestall  another  like  disaster. 
The  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa  (see  p.  160,  Fig.  92)  dates  from 
1 1 74,  and  is  unique  in  its  plan  and  its  exterior  treatment 
with  superposed  arcades.  Begun  apparently  as  a  leaning 
tower,  it  seems  to  have  increased  this  lean  to  a  dangerous 
point,  by  the  settling  of  its  foundations  during  construction, 
as  its  upper  stages  were  made  to  deviate  slightly  towards 
the  vertical  from  the  inclination  of  the  lower  portion.  It 
has  always  served  rather  as  a  watch-tower  and  belvedere  than 
as  a  bell-tower.  The  Campanile  adjoining  the  Duomo  at 
Florence  is  described  on  p.  263  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  154, 
and  does  not  require  further  notice  here.  The  black-and- 
white  banded  towers  of  Sienna,  Lucca,  and  Pistoia,  and  the 
octagonal  lanterns  crowning  those  of  Verona  and  Mantua, 
also  referred  to  in  the  text  on  p.  264,  need  here  only  be 
mentioned  again  as  illustrating  the  variety  of  treatment  of 
these  Italian  towers. 


APPENDIX. 


421 


The  Renaissance  architects  developed  new  types  of  cam- 
panile, and  in  such  variety  that  they  can  only  be  briefly 
referred  to.  Some,  like  a  brick  tower  at  Perugia,  are  simple 
square  towers  with  pilasters  ;  more  often  engaged  columns 
and  entablatures  mark  the  several  stories,  and  the  upper 
portion  is  treated  either  with  an  octagonal  lantern  or  with 
diminishing  stages,  and  sometimes  with  a  spire.  Of  the  latter 
class  the  best  example  is  that  of  S.  Biagio,  at  Montepulci- 
ano, — one  of  the  two  designed  to  flank  the  facade  of  Ant. 
da  S.  Gallo's  beautiful  church  of  that  name.  One  or  two 
good  late  examples  are  to  be  found  at  Naples.  Of  the 
more  massive  square  type  there  are  examples  in  the  towers 
of  S.  Michele,  Venice  ;  of  the  cathedral  at  Ferrara,  Sta. 
Chiara  at  Naples,  and  Sta.  Maria  dell'  Anima — one  of 
the  earliest — at  Rome.  The  most  complete  and  perfect  of 
these  square  belfries  of  the  Renaissance  is  that  of  the 
Campidoglio  at  Rome,  by  Martino  Lunghi,  dating  from  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  groups  so  admirably 
with  the  palaces  of  the  Capitol. 

C.  BRAMANTE'S  WORKS. — A  more  or  less  animated  contro- 
versy has  arisen  regarding  the  authenticity  of  many  of 
the  works  attributed  to  Bramante,  and  the  tendency  has  of 
late  been  to  deny  him  any  part  whatever  in  several  of  the 
most  important  of  these  works.  The  first  of  these  to  be 
given  a  changed  assignment  was  the  church  of  the  Conso- 
lazione  at  Todi  (p.  293),  now  believed  to  be  by  Cola  di 
Caprarola  ;  and  it  is  now  denied  by  many  investigators  that 
either  the  Cancelleria  or  the  Giraud  palace  (p.  290)  is  his 
work,  or  any  one  of  two  or  three  smaller  houses  in  Rome 
showing  a  somewhat  similar  architectural  treatment.  The 
evidence  adduced  in  support  of  this  denial  is  rather  specu- 
lative and  critical  than  documentary,  but  is  not  without 
weight.  The  date  1495  carved  on  a  doorway  of  the  Can- 
celleria   palace    is    thought    to    forbid    its    attribution   tc 


422 


APPENDIX. 


Bramante,  who  is  not  known  to  have  come  to  Rome  till 
1503  ;  and  there  is  a  lack  of  positive  evidence  of  his  author- 
ship of  the  Giraud  palace  and  the  other  houses  which  seem 
to  be  by  the  same  hand  as  the  Cancelleria.  To  the  advocates 
of  this  view  there  is  not  enough  resemblance  in  style 
between  this  group  of  buildings  and  his  acknowledged  work 
either  in  Milan  or  in  the  Vatican  to  warrant  their  being 
attributed  to  him. 

It  must,  however,  be  remarked,  that  this  notable  group  of 
works,  stamped  with  the  marks  and  even  the  mannerisms  of 
a  strong  personality,  reveal  in  their  unknown  author  gifts 
amounting  to  genius,  and  heretofore  deemed  not  unworthy 
of  Bramante.  It  is  almost  inconceivable  that  they  should 
have  been  designed  by  a  mere  beginner  previously  utterly 
unknown  and  forgotten  soon  after.  It  is  incumbent  upon 
those  who  deny  the  attribution  to  Bramante  to  find  another 
name,  if  possible,  on  which  to  fasten  the  credit  of  these 
works.  Accordingly,  they  have  been  variously  attributed  to 
Alberti  (who  died  in  1472)  or  his  followers;  to  Bernardo  di 
Lorenzo,  and  to  other  later  fifteenth-century  artists.  The 
difficulty  here  is  to  discover  any  name  that  fits  the  condi- 
tions even  as  well  as  Bramante's  ;  for  the  supposed  author 
must  have  been  in  Rome  between  1495  and  1505,  and  his 
other  works  must  be  at  least  as  much  like  these  as  were 
Bramante's.  No  name  has  thus  far  been  found  satisfactory 
to  careful  critics  ;  and  the  alternative  theory,  that  there  ex- 
isted in  Rome,  before  Bramante's  coming,  a  group  of 
architects  unknown  to  later  fame,  working  in  a  common 
style  and  capable  of  such  a  masterpiece  as  the  Cancelleria, 
does  not  harmonize  with  the  generally  accepted  facts  of 
Renaissance  art  history.  Moreover,  the  comparison  of  these 
works  with  Bramante's  Milanese  work  on  the  one  hand  and 
his  great  Court  of  the  Belvedere  in  the  Vatican  on  the  other, 
yields,  to  some  critics,  conclusions  quite  opposed  to  those 
of  the  ad  of  another  authorship  thai)  Bramante's. 


APPENDIX. 


423 


The  controversy  must  be  considered  for  the  present  as 
still  open.  There  are  manifest  difficulties  with  either  of  the 
two  opposed  views,  and  these  can  hardly  be  eliminated, 
except  by  the  discovery  of  documents  not  now  known  to 
exist,  whose  testimony  will  be  recognized  as  unimpeachable. 

D.  L'AET  NOUVEAU. — Since  1896,  and  particularly  since 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  a  movement  has  manifested 
itself  in  France  and  Belgium,  and  spread  to  Germany  and 
Austria  and  even  measurably  to  England,  looking  towards 
a  more  personal  and  original  style  of  decorative  and  archi- 
tectural design,  in  which  the  traditions  and  historic  styles 
of  the  past  shall  be  ignored.  This  movement  has  received 
from  its  adherents  and  the  public  the  name  of  "  L'Art 
Nouveau,"  or,  according  to  some,  "L'Art  Moderne";  but 
this  name  must  not  be  held  to  connote  either  a  really  new 
style  or  a  fundamentally  new  principle  in  art.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  any  clearly-defined  body  of 
principles  whatever  underlies  the  movement,  or  would  be 
acknowledged  equally  by  all  its  adherents.  It  appears  to 
be  a  reaction  against  a  too  slavish  adherence  to  traditional 
forms  and  methods  of  design  (see  pp.  370,  375),  a  striving 
to  ignore  or  forget  the  past  rather  than  a  reaching  out 
after  any  well-understood,  positive  end  ;  as  such,  it  possesses 
the  negative  strength  of  protest  rather  than  the  affirmative 
strength  of  a  vital  principle.  Its  lack  of  cohesion  is  seen  in 
the  division  of  its  adherents  into  groups,  some  looking  to 
nature  for  inspiration,  while  others  decry  this  as  a  mistaken 
quest ;  some  seeking  to  emphasize  structural  lines,  and 
others  to  ignore  them  altogether.  All,  however,  are  united 
in  the  avoidance  of  commonplace  forms  and  historic  styles, 
and  this  preoccupation  has  developed  an  amazing  amount 
of  originality  and  individualism  of  style,  frequently  reaching 
the  extreme  of  eccentricity.  The  results  have  there- 
fore  been,   as    might    be   expected,   extremely   varied    in 


424 


APPENIUX. 


merit,  ranging  from  the  most  refined  and  reserved  in  style 
to  the  most  harshly  bizarre  and  extravagant.  As  a  rule, 
they  have  been  most  successful  in  small  and  semi-decorative 
objects  —  jewelry,  silverware,  vases,  and  small  furniture  ; 
and  one  most  desirable  feature  of  the  movement  has  been 
the  stimulus  it  has  given  (especially  in  France  and  Eng- 
land), to  the  organization  and  activity  of  "arts-and-crafts  " 
societies  which  occupy  themselves  with  the  encouragement 
of  the  decorative  and  industrial  arts  and  the  diffusion 
of  an  improved  taste.  In  the  field  of  the  larger  objects  of 
design,  in  which  the  dominance  of  traditional  form  and  of 
structural  considerations  is  proportionally  more  imperious, 
the  struggle  to  evade  these  restrictions  becomes  more  diffi- 
cult, and  results  usually  in  more  obvious  and  disagreeable 
eccentricities,  which  the  greater  size  and  permanence  of  the 
object  tend  further  to  exaggerate.  The  least  successful 
achievements  of  the  movement  have  accordingly  been  in 
architecture.  The  buildings  designed  by  its  most  fervent 
disciples  {e.g.  the  Pavilion  Bleu  at  the  Exposition  of  1900, 
the  Castel  Beranger,  Paris,  by  //.  Guimard,  the  houses  of 
the  artist  colony  at  Darmstadt,  and  others)  are  for  the  most 
part  characterized  by  extreme  stiffness,  eccentricity,  or 
ugliness.  The  requirements  of  construction  and  of  human 
habitation  cannot  easily  be  met  without  sometimes  using 
the  forms  which  past  experience  has  developed  for  the  same 
ends ;  and  the  negation  of  precedent  is  not  the  surest  path 
to  beauty  or  even  reasonableness  of  design.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  notice  that  in  the  intermediate  field  of  furniture- 
design  some  of  the  best  French  productions  recall  the  style 
of  Louis  XV.,  modified  by  Japanese  ideas  and  spirit.  This 
singular  but  not  unpleasing  combination  is  less  surprising 
when  we  reflect  that  the  style  of  Louis  XV.  was  itself  a 
protest  against  the  formalism  of  the  heavy  «  lattk  architec- 
ture of  preceding  reigns,  and  achieved  its  highest  successes 
in  the  domain  of  furniture  and  interior  decoration. 


APPENDIX. 


425 


It  may  be  fair  to  credit  the  new  movement  with  one  posi- 
tive characteristic  in  its  prevalent  regard  for  line,  especially 
for  the  effect  of  long  and  swaying  lines,  whether  in  the 
contours  or  ornamentation  of  an  object.  This  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  Belgian  work,  and  in  that  of  the  Viennese 
"  Secessionists,"  who  have,  however,  carried  eccentricity  to 
a  further  point  of  extravagance  than  any  others. 

Whether  "  L'Art  Nouveau  "  will  ever  produce  permanent 
results  time  alone  can  show.  Its  present  vogue  is  probably 
evanescent  and  it  cannot  claim  to  have  produced  a  style  ; 
but  it  seems  likely  to  exert  on  European  architecture  an 
influence,  direct  and  indirect,  not  unlike  that  of  the  Neo- 
Grec  movement  of  1830  in  France  (p.  364),  but  even  more 
lasting  and  beneficial.  It  has  already  begun  to  break  the 
hold  of  rigid  classical  tradition  in  design  ;  and  recent  build- 
ings, especially  in  Germany  and  Austria,  like  the  works  of 
the  brilliant  Otto  Wagner  in  Vienna,  show  a  pleasing  free- 
dom of  personal  touch  without  undue  striving  after  eccentric 
novelty.  Doubtless  in  French  and  other  European  archi- 
tecture the  same  result  will  in  time  manifest  itself. 

The  search  for  novelty  and  the  desire  to  dispense  wholly 
with  historic  forms  of  design  which  are  the  chief  marks 
of  the  Art  Noveau,  were  emphatically  displayed  in  many  of 
the  remarkable  buildings  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900,  in 
which  a  striking  fertility  and  facility  of  design  in  the  decor- 
ative details  made  more  conspicuous  the  failure  to  improve 
upon  the  established  precedents  of  architectural  style  in  the 
matters  of  proportion,  scale,  general  composition,  and  con- 
tour. As  usual  the  metallic  construction  of  these  buildings 
was  almost  without  exception  admirable,  and  the  decorative 
details,  taken  by  themselves,  extremely  clever  and  often 
beautiful,  but  the  combined  result  was  not  satisfactory. 

In  the  United  States  the  movement  has  not  found  a  firm 
foothold  because  there  has  been  no  dominant,  enslaving 
tradition  to  protest  ngainst.     Not  a  few  of  the  ideas,  not  a 


426  APPENDIX. 

little  of  the  spirit  of  the  movement  may  be  recognized  in 
the  work  of  individual  architects  and  decorative  artists  in 
the  United  States,  executed  years  before  the  movement 
took  recognizable  form  in  Europe  :  and  American  decora- 
tive design  has  generally  been,  at  least  since  1880  or  1885, 
sufficiently  free,  individual  and  personal,  to  render  unneces- 
sary and  impossible  any  concerted  movement  of  artistic 
revolt  against  slavery  to  precedent. 

E.  RECENT  AMERICAN  architecture.— Architectural  ac- 
tivity in  the  United  States  continues  to  share  in  the  general 
prosperity  which  has  marked  the  years  since  1898,  and  this 
activity  has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  industrial  and 
commercial  architecture.  Indeed,  while  the  erection  of  "sky 
scrapers  "  or  excessively  lofty  office-buildings  has  continued 
to  be  a  feature  of  this  activity  in  the  great  commercial 
centres,  the  most  notable  architectural  enterprises  of  recent 
years  have  been  in  the  field  of  educational  buildings,  both 
in  the  East  and  West.  In  1898  a  great  international  com- 
petition resulted  in  the  selection  of  the  design  of  Mr.  B, 
Bhiard  of  Paris  for  a  magnificent  group  of  buildings  for 
the  University  of  California  on  a  scale  of  unexampled  grand- 
eur, and  the  erection  of  this  colossal  project  has  been  begun. 
An  almost  equally  ambitious  project,  by  a  firm  of  Phila- 
delphia architects,  has  been  adopted  for  the  Washington 
University  at  St.  Louis  ;  and  many  other  universities  and 
colleges  have  either  added  extensively, .to  their  existing 
buildings  or  planned  an  entire  rebuilding  on  new  designs. 
Among  these  the  national  military  and  naval  academies  at 
West  Point  and  Annapolis  take  the  first  rank  in  the  extent 
and  splendor  of  the  projected  improvements.  Museums 
and  libraries  have  also  been  erected  or  begun  in  various 
cities,  and  the  NVw  York  Public  Library,  now  building,  will 
rank  in  cost  and  beauty  with  those  already  erected  in  Boston 
and  Washington. 


APPENDIX.  427 

In  other  departments  mention  should  be  made  of  recent 
Federal  buildings  (custom-houses,  post-offices,  and  court- 
houses) erected  under  the  provisions  of  the  Tarsney  act 
from  designs  secured  by  competition  among  the  leading 
architects  of  the  country ;  among  those  the  New  York 
Custom  House  is  the  most  important,  but  other  buildings, 
at  Washington,  Indianapolis,  and  elsewhere,  are  also  con- 
spicuous, and  many  of  them  worthy  of  high  praise.  The 
tendency  to  award  the  designing  of  important  public  build- 
ings, such  as  State  capitols,  county  court  houses,  city  halls, 
libraries,  and  hospitals,  by  competition  instead  of  by  per- 
sonal and  political  favor,  has  resulted  in  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  American  public  architecture. 

F.  THE  ERECHTHETTM:  RECENT  INVESTIGATIONS.— During 
the  past  two  years,  extensive  repairs  and  partial  restorations 
of  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens,  undertaken  by  the  Greek 
Archaeological  Society,  have  afforded  opportunities  for  a 
new  and  thoroughgoing  study  of  the  existing  portions  of 
the  building  and  of  the  surrounding  ruins.  In  these  inves- 
tigations a  prominent  part  has  been  borne  by  Mr.  Gorham 
P.  Stevens,  representing  the  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America,  to  whom  must  be  credited,  among  other  things, 
the  demonstration  of  the  existence,  in  the  east  wall  of  the 
original  structure,  of  two  windows  previously  unknown. 
Other  peculiarities  of  design  and  construction  were  also 
discovered,  which  add  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  build- 
ing. These  investigations  are  reported  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Archaeology,  Second  Series  ;  Journal  of  the 
Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  Vol.  X.,  No.  1,  et  sea. 
The  illustrations,  Figures  35  and  36,  are,  by  Mr.  Stevens' 
courtesy,  based  upon,  though  not  reproductions  of,  his 
original  drawings. 


GLOSSARY 

OF  TERMS  NOT  DEFINED  IN  THE  TEXT. 


Alcazar  (Span.,  from  Arabic  A I 
A'asr),  a  palace  or  castle,  especially 
of  a  governing  official. 

Archivolt,  a  band  or  group  of 
mouldings  decorating  the  wall-face 
of  an  arch  ;  or  a  transverse  arch 
projecting  slightly  from  the  sur- 
face of  a  barrel  or  groined  vault. 

Astylar,  without  columns. 

Balnea,  a  Roman  bathing  estab- 
lishment, less  extensive  than  the 
thermit. 

BEL  Etage,  the  principal  story  of  a 
building,  containing  the  reception 
rooms  and  saloons ;  usually  the 
second  story  (first  above  the  ground 
story). 

Broken  Entablature,  an  entabla- 
ture which  projects  forward  over 
each  column  or  pilaster,  returning 
back  to  the  wall  and  running  along 
with  diminished  projection  between 
the  columns,  as  in  the  Arch  of 
Constantine  (Fig.  63). 

Cantoned  Piers,  piers  adorned  with 
columns  or  pilasters  at  the  corners 
or  on  the  outer  faces. 

Cartouche  (Fr.),  an  ornament 
shaped  like  a  shield  or  oval.  In 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  the  oval 
encircling  the  name  of  a  king. 

Cavetto,  a  concave,  quarter-round 
moulding. 

CHEVRON,  a  V-shaped  ornament. 


Chryselephantine,  of  ivory  and 
gold  ;  used  of  statues  in  which  the 
nude  portions  are  of  ivory  and  the 
draperies  of  gold. 

Console,  a  large  scroll  -  shaped 
bracket  or  ornament,  having  its 
broadest  curve  at  the  bottom. 

Corinthianesque,  resembling  the 
Corinthian  ;  used  of  capitals  having 
corner-volutes  and  acanthus  leaves, 
but  combined  otherwise  than  in 
the  classic  Corinthian  type. 

Empaistic,  made  of,  or  overlaid 
with,  sheet-metal  beaten  or  ham- 
mered into  decorative  patterns. 

Exedr.'E,  curved  seats  of  stone ; 
niches  or  recesses,  sometimes  of 
considerable  size,  provided  with 
seats  for  the  public. 

Fenestration,  the  whole  system  or 
arrangement  of  windows  and  open- 
ings in  an  architectural  composi- 
tion. 

Four-part.  A  four-part  vault  is  a 
groined  vault  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  two  barrel  vaults.  Its 
diagonal  edges  or  groins  divide  it 
into  four  sections,  triangular  in 
plan,  each  called  a  compartment. 

Gigantomachia,  a  group  or  compo- 
sition representing  the  mythical 
combat  between  the  gods  and  the 
giants. 


430       GLOSSARY   OK  TERMS  NOT   DEFINED   IN  TEXT. 


ilAi.K-TiMHKKKD,  constructed  with  a 
timber  framework  showing  exter- 
nally, and  filled  in  with  masonry 
or  brickwork. 

Imaum,  imam,  a  Mohammedan  priest. 

Kaabah,  the  sacred  shrine  at  Mec- 
cah,  a  nearly  cubical  structure 
hung  with  black  cloth. 

Karafah,  a  region  in  Cairo  con- 
taining the  so-called  tombs  of  the 
Khalifs. 

Laconicum,  the  sweat-room  in  a 
Roman  bath  ;  usually  of  domical 
design  in  the  larger  thernuv. 

MEZZANINE,  a  low,  intermediate 
story. 

Mi  Ki>i)i.\,  a  Mohammedan  mosque- 
official  who  calls  to  prayer. 

NAk  i  HEX,  a  porch  or  vestibule  run- 
ning across  the  front  of  a  basilica 
or  church. 

Neo-GOTHIC,         )  in  a  style  which 

Nko-Mi  M  l  \  \I  .  J  M-i-ks  to  revive 
and  adapt  or  apply  to  modern  uses 
the  forms  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

OcULUS,  a  circular  opening,  espe- 
cially in  the  crown  of  a  dome. 

<  >.  .1  i  Am  1 1,  one  composed  of  two  jux- 
taiHised  S-shaped  "r  wavy  curves, 
meeting  in  a  point  at  the  top. 

;  k A,  an  establishment  EBXNBg 
the  ancient  Greeks  for  physical 
training. 
Pavilion  (Fr.  favi Hon),  ordinarily  a 
light  open  structure  of  ornate  de- 
sign. As  applied  to  architectural 
composition,  a  projecting  MCtloo 
of  a  facade,  usually  rectangular  in 


plan,  and  having  its  own  distinct 
mass  of  roof. 

Quarry  Ornamknt,  any  ornament 
covering  a  surface  with  two  series 
of  reticulated  lines  enclosing  ap- 
proximately quadrangular  spaces  or 
meshes. 

Quartrkkoii.,  with  four  leaves  ci 
foils;  composed  of  four  arcs  ot 
circles  meeting  in  cusps  pointing 
inward. 

Quoins,  slightly  projecting  blocks 
of  stone,  alternately  long  and 
short,  decorating  or  strengthening 
a  corner  or  angle  of  a  facade. 

REVETMENT,  a  veneering  or  sheath- 
ing. 

Rustication,  treatment  of  the  ma- 
sonry with  blocks  having  roughly 
broken  faces,  or  with  deeply 
grooved  or  bevelled  joints. 

SOFFIT,  the  under-side  of  an  archi- 
trave, beam,  arch,  or  corona.  i 

SFANDEIL,  the  triangular  wall-space 
between  two  contiguous  an  lies. 

SQUINCH,  a  bit  of  conical  vaulting 
Tilling  in  the  angles  of  a  square  I  > 
as  to  provide  an  octagonal  or  circu- 
lar  base  for  a  dome  or  lantern. 

STOA,  an  open  colonnade  for  public 
resort. 

TSFIOAEIUM,  the  hot-water  hall  or 
dumber  of  a  Roman  bath. 

I A  mi  \m  m,  the  flat  space  comprised 
between  the  horizontal  and  raking 
cornices  of  a  pediment,  or  between 
a  lintel  and  the  arch  over  it. 

V'.ismhk,  any  one  of  the  radial 
stones  composing  an  arch. 


INDEX   OF  ARCHITECTS. 

The  surname  is  in  all   cases  followed  by  a  comma. 


Abadik,  373 
Adam:-,  Robert  234 
Agnolo,  Baccio  d'  291 
Agnolo,  Gabriele  d'  287 
Alberti,  Leo  Battista  277,  280 
Alessi,  Galeazzo  299,  302 
Ammanati,  Bartolomeo  300 
Anselm.  Prior  219 
Anthemius  of  Tralles,.  127 
Antonio,  Master  259 
Arnold,  Master  243 
Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  162,  265 

Baccio  d'  Agnolo,  291 

Ballu,  371,  373 

Baltard,  Victor  371 

Barry,  Sir  Charles  380 

Bassevi,  356 

Battista,  Juan  351 

Benci  di  Cione,  266 

Benedetto  da  Majano,  280,  281 

Bernardo  di  Lorenzo,  282 

Bernini,  Lorenzo  295,  303,  319 

Berruguete,  Alonzo  348,  350 

Bianchi.  305 

Bondone,  Giotto  di  258,  263,  272 

Boromini,  Francesco  303,  304 

Borset,  334 

Bramante  Lazzari,  289,  290,  294,  295, 

321 
Brandon,  Richard  378 
Bregno,  Antonio  284 
Broagniart,  363 
Brunelleschi,    Filippo    275,    276,   280, 

281,  289 


Bullant,  Jean  316,  317 

Bulfinch,  Charles  390 

Buon,  Bartolomeo  284 

Buonarotti,  Michael  Angelo  289,  iiii2, 

294,  295,  296,  299 
Burges,  William  380 

Callicrates,  63 
Cambio,  Arnolfo  di  162,  265 
Campbell,  Colin  333 
Campello,  255 
Caprarola,  Cola  da  293 
Caprino,  Meo  del  286 
Chalgrin,  362 

Chambers,  Sir  William  333 
Chambiges,  Pierre  313 
Chrismas,  Gerard  327 
Christodoulos,  150 
Churriguera,  348,  352 
Cimabue,  258 
Civitale,  Matteo  281,  283 
Columbe,  Michel  310 
Cortona,  Domenico  di  316 
Cossutius,  68 
Cronaca,  280,  291 

Dance,  George  334 

De  Brosse,  Salomon  318,  319 

De  Fabris,  261 

De  Key,  Lieven  336 

De  Keyser,  Hendrik  336 

Delia  Porta,  Giacomo  292,  299,  300 

Delia  Robbia,  Luca  281 

De  l'Orme,  Phihbert  316,  317 

Deperthes,  373 


432 


INDEX    OF   ARCHITECTS. 


Deirand,  Francois  319 

Desiderio  da  Settignano,  281 

De  Tessin,  Nicodemus  337 

De  Vriendt  (or  Floris),  Cornelius  334, 

335 
Diego  de  Siloe,  348 
Domenico  di  Cortona,  316 
Donatello,  275 

Dosio,  Giovanni  Antonio  291 
Duban,  Felix  364 
Due.  364,  365 
Du  Cerceau,  Jean  Batiste  318 

Epington,  226 
Emerson,  William  382 
Enrique  de  Egaz,  349 
Krwin  von  Steinbach,  241 

Fain,  Pierre  310 

Federighi,  Antonio  282 

Ferstel,  H.  von  375 

Fiesole,  Mino  da  281 

Filarete,  Antonio  283 

Flitcroft,  333 

Floris  (De  Vriendt).  Cornelius 334,  335 

Fontaine,  362 

Fontana,  Domenico  295,  299,  300,  304 

Fra  Giocondo, 286 

Fra  Ristoro,  256 

Fra  Sisto,  256 

Fuga,  Ferdinando  305 

Gabriel.  Jacques  Ange  324.  367 

le  d'Agnolo,  287 
Gaddi,  Taddeo  263 
315 
Galilei.  Alessandro  305 
tiarnier,  Charles  372 
Gerhardt  von  Kiel.  243 
Giacomodi  Pietrasanta.  286 
Gibbs.  James  332.  333,  356,  385 
Giocondo.  Fra  286 
Giotto  di  Bondonc,  258.  263.  272 
Giuliano  da  Majano,  286,  287 
Giulio  Romano.  289,  292 


Goujon,  Jean  316,  321 
Gumiel,  Pedro  349 

Hai.lbt,  Stephen  (Etienne)  389 

Hansen,  Theophil  360 
Have,  Theodore  327 
Hawksmoor,  332 
Hendrik  de  Keyser,  336 
Henri  de  Narbonne,  249 
Henry  of  Gmiind.  255 
Herrera,  Francisco  352 
Herrera,  Juan  d'  348,  350,  35' 
Hitorff,  J.  J.  364,  372 
Hoban,  Thomas  390 
Holbein,  Hans  327 
Hubsch,  Heinrich  375,  376 
Hunt,  Richard  M.  393 

Ictinus,  62.  63,  65 
Isodorus  of  Miletus,  127 
Ivara,  Ferdinando  352,  365 

Jacobus  of  Meruan,  255 
Jansen,  Bernard  327 
Jefferson,  Thomas  390 
John,  Master  243 
John  of  Padua,  328 
Jones.  Inigo  328,  332,  333 
Juan  Battista,  351 
Junckher  of  Cologne,  241 

Kkarsi.ey.  Dr.  386 

Kent.  333 

Klenze.  Leo  von  359,  360,  367 

Labroiste.  Henri  364 
Lassus.  J.  B.  A.  371 
Latrobe.  Benjamin  H    389 
Laurana.  Francesco  310 
I-anrana.  Luciano  287 

Lc  Breton,  QfDei  313 

l.cfu«-l.  Hector  372 

I^mercier,  Jacques  312,  319,  32a 
I  -•  Nepveu,  Pierre  3^4 

1  Pierre  316  321 


INDEX   OF   ARCHITECTS. 


433 


Le  Vau  (or  Levau)  320 

Lieven  dc  Key,  336 

Ligorio,  l'irro  293 

Lippi,  Annibale  293 

Lira,  Valentino  di  343 

Lombardi,  Antonio  284 

Lombardi,  Martino  284 

Lombardi,  Moro  284 

Lombardi,  Pietro  284 

Lombardi,  Tullio  284,  293 

Longhena,  Baldassare  304 

Lorenzo,  Bernardo  di  282 

Louis,  Victor  362 

Luca  della  Robbia,  281 

Lunghi,  Martino  (the  elder)  304,  305 

Machuca,  351 

Maderna,  Carlo  295,  303 

Majano,  Benedetto  da  280,  281 

Majano,  Giuliano  da  286,  287 

Mansart,  Francois  322 

Mansart,  Jules  Hardouin  320,321,322 

Marchionne,  305 

Marini,  Giovanni  339 

Martino,  Pietro  di  287 

Matthew  of  Arras,  243 

Meo  del  Caprino,  286 

Meruan,  Jacobus  of  255 

Metezeau,  318 

Michelozzi,  Michelozzo  279,  283 

Mino  da  Fiesole,  281 

Mnesicles,  65 

Mullet,  A.  B.  392 

Narbonnk,  Henri  dk  249 
Nenot,  Henri  P.  374 

Ohlmuli.br,  375 

Palladio,   Andrea    299,   301,    319, 

328,  350 
Percier,  Charles  362 
Perrault,  Claude  320 
Peruzzi,  Baldassare  289,  291,  292,  294 
Phidias,  62 

28 


Philibert  de  l'Orme,  316,  317 
Pit- trasanta,  Giacomo  di  286 
Pintclli,  Baccio  286 
Pisano,  Giovanni  260 
Pisano,  Niccolo  272 
Polaert,  382 
Poyet,  363 

Pugin,  A.  Welby  378 
Pythius,  71 

Raphael  Sanzio,  289,  290,  291,  292, 

293 
Renwick,  James  391,  392 
Revett,  Nicholas  355,  358 
Richardson,  Henry  H.  393,  394 
Rickman,  Thomas  378 
Riel,  Gerhardt  von  243 
Ristoro,  Fra  256 
Rizzio,  Antonio  284 
Romano,  Giulio  289,  292 
Rossellini,  Bernardo  286 
Ruiz,  Fernando  352 

Salvi,  Niccola  305 
Sammichele,  Michele  293, 299,  300,  329 
San  Gallo,  Antonio  da  (the  Elder)  294 
San  Gallo,  Antonio  da  (the  Younger) 

289,  291,  294 
San  Gallo,  Giuliano  da  278,  291,  292, 

294 
Sansovino,   Giacopo    Tatti    289,    293, 

299,  300.  304 
Satyrus,  71 

Scamozzi,  Vincenzo  299,  339 
Schinkel,  Friedrich  358,  360,  376 
Schmidt,  F.  378 
Scott  (General)  382 
Scott,  Sir  Gilbert  380 
Semper,  Ottfried  376 
Sens,  William  of  219 
Servandoni,  323 
Settignano,  Desiderio  da  281 
Shaw,  Norman  382 
Siccardsburg,  376 
Smirke,  Robert  356 


434 


INDEX   OF   ARCHITECTS. 


Smithson,  Robert  328 
Sonne,  Sir  John  356 
Soufflot,  J.J.  362 
Sti-iiihaih.  Krwin  von  241 
Stella,  Paolo  della  339 
Stern,  Raphael  305,  365 
Street,  George  Edmund  380 
Stuart,  James  355,  358 
Stilhler,  359 

Tai.enti,  Francesco  di  259,  263 

Talenti,  Simone  di  266 

Taylor,  Robert  334 

Tessin,  Nicodemus  de  337 

Thomson,  Alexander  357 

Thornton,  389 

Thorpe,  John  328 

Tiu.  376 

Torregiano,  327 

Trevigi,  327 

Upjohn,  Richard  392 

Vai.  del  Vira,  348 
Valentino  di  Lira,  343 
Van  Aken.  343 
Van  Hrugh.  Sir  John  332 
Van  Noort,  William  336 
Van  Noye,  Sebastian  336 


Van  Vitelli,  304 

Vasari,  Giorgio  162 

Viart,  Charles  311 

Viel,  372 

Vignola,  Giacomo  Barozzi  da  289,  292, 

296,  299,  300,  301 
Vignon,  Pierre  362 
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene  Emmanuel  370, 

Vischer,  Kaspar  343 
Vischer,  Peter  347 
1  Visconti,  Louis  T.  J.  371,  372 
Vitoni,  Ventura  293 
Vitruvius,  56,  71,  77 
Von  der  Null,  376 

Wai.lot,  Pali,  377 
Wallot,  Jean  333 
Walter,  Thomas  Ustick  391 
Waterhouse,  Alfred  381 
Webb,  Aston  382 
Wilkins,  357 
William  of  Sens,  219 
William  of  Wykeham,  222,  226 
Wood,  333 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher  329,  331,  332, 
356,  385 

Zik.bi.AND,  37s 


INDEX. 


The  buildings  are  arranged  according  to  location.  Those  which  appear 
only  in  the  lists  of  monuments  at  the  ends  of  chapters  are  omitted. 
Numerals  in  parentheses  refer  to  illustrations. 


Abayagiri.     Tope,  403 
Abbeville.    St.  Wulfrand,  209,  213 
Abl-Seir.     Stepped  pyramid,  9 
Abydos.   Columns,  12.    Temple,  19, 

21.    Tombs,  11  (5) 
Addeh.     Grotto-temple,  22 
JEmUA.    Churches  in,  157,  262 
Agra,  149.    Pearl  Mosque,  148.   Taj 

Mahal,  148  (86) 
Agrigentum.    Temple  of  Zeus,  56, 

61  (33) 

Ahmedabad,  148 

Aix-la-Chapelle.  Minster  (Pala- 
tine Chapel),  172.  Palace  of  Char- 
lemagne, 176 

Aizanoi.  Temple  of  Zeus,  67. 
Theatre,  70 

Ajmir,  148 

Ajunta.  Brahman  chaityas,  404  ; 
viharas,  405 

Albano.    Tomb,  89 

Albany.  All  Saints'  Cathedral,  394. 
Capitol,  391 

Alby  Cathedral,  185,  205,  206,  212, 
249  (123) 

Alcala  de  HeSares,  352.  Arch- 
episcopal  Palace,  350.  College,  349 

Alcantara.   Bridge,  108 

Alencon  Cathedral,  209,  213 

Alexandria  Troas.     Palaestra,  71. 


Allahabad.     Akbar's  Palace,  148 
Altenburg  Cathedral,  242.    Town 

hall,  344 
Amada.     Columns,  12 
Amboise  Castle,  310 
Amiens  Cathedral,    189,    197,    201, 

203,    205,    206,    219,    232   (122)  ; 

west  front  of,  207,  208,  212,  227 
Amravati.     Topes,  403 
Amsterdam.      Bourse    (Exchange), 

Hanse  House,  Town  hall,  336 
Ancy  le  Franc.    Chateau,  317 
ANET.     Chateau,  317 
Angers.    Cathedral  S.  Maurice,  200. 

Hospital,  214 
Angora  (Ancyra),  118 
Angouleme  Cathedral,  164 
Ani,  134 

Annapolis.      Harwood   and   Ham- 
mond Houses,  386 
Antioch,  115 
Antiphellus.  Theatre,  7a   Tombs, 

72 
Antwerp  Cathedral,  190,  246,  247. 

Town  hall,  334,  336 
Aquitania.    Churches  of,  164,  167, 

168,  179,  373 
Aranjuez.     Palace,  352 
Arezzo  Cathedral,  257.    Sta.  Maria 

della  Pieve,  159 


43^ 


INDEX. 


AJtGOS.     dates,  45 

ARIZON  \.      Spanish  churches  in,  388 

Aki.ks.     St.  Trophime,  165 

Aschakkenburg.     Church,  243 

Asheville.     Biltmore  House,  399 

Am  \  Minor,  53,  55,  58,  62,  66,  122 

Amindis.     Theatre,  70 

A.SSISI.    Church   of   St.   Francis  (S. 
Francesco),  255,  256,  258 

AlSOS,  55.    Public  square,  69.  Tem- 
ple, 61 

Asti.     Church,  256 

hstorga.     Rood-screen,  352 

Athens.  Academy,  365.  Acropolis, 
65,  69.  Agora  Gate,  68.  Cathe^ 
dral,  134.  Choragic  Monument  of 
Lysicrates,  66  (30,  38).  Erech- 
theum,  64  (35,  36).  Museum, 
365.  Odeion  of  Regilla  (of  He- 
rodes  Atticus),  68,  69,  70.  Par- 
thenon, 56,  58,  63,  64,  131,  359 
(Frontispiece,  31  </,  34).  Pro- 
pylaea,  58,  65,  69,  358  (37).  Stoa 
of  Attalus,  67.  Temple  of  Nike 
Apteros,  64,  65.  Temple  of  Olym- 
pian Zeus,  68  (39).  Theatre  of 
Dionysus,  69,  70.  Theseum  (Tem- 
ple of  Theseus  or  Heracles),  62. 
■r  of  Winds  (Clepsydra  of 
Cyrrhestes).  53,07.  I  niversity,  365 

A  1  1  ica,  50,  55 

i  I  own  hall,  344 

1  KIA.  330 
Ai   lis  Cathedral,  166,  167 
Ai  VEkt.NK.    Churches,  204 

i  KRE  Cathedral,  J97,  201 
A vi<. son.     Notre    1  >aine  des   Doms, 

165 
Avil.A.       S.    Yincente,      ifeo,     247  ; 

tombs  in,  352 
Azav-i  .    316 


BAALBKC  (Heliopolis),  83.  Circular 
Temple,  94.       Temple  of  Sun,  92 

B  IB-l  1.-M01  <n  k,  14 

BAGDAD.     Tombs,  etc.,  145,  146 

Bagh.     Viharas,  Great  Vihara,  405 

Bailixr.    Temples,  409,  410 

Bamberg.     Church,  243 

Barcelona.  Cathedral,  189,  249. 
Sta.  Maria  del  Pi,  249 

Barolli.     Hindu  temple,  409 

Basle.    Spahlenthor,  246 

Bass/E  (Phigalrea).  Temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius,  65 

Batalha.    Church,  mausoleum,  251 

Bavaria,  342 

Bayeux  Cathedral,  197,  205 

Bayonne  Cathedral,  197 

Bealgency.    Town  hall,  316 

Pi  At  Ml  -MI  .     Chateau,  319 

Pi  vine.     Hospital,  214 

BeaUVAM  Cathedral,  189,  197,  211, 
219;  chapels,  205  ;  size,  206,  211, 
212,  243 

Beit-el-Wali.  Rock-cut  Temple, 
22 

Bei.em.  Church,  251,  352.  Clois- 
ter, tower,  352 

I '.I  I  i.HM,   334. 

Pknakks.     Hindu  temples,  408,  409 

P.im  ifAMAM.    Columns,  11,24,  50. 

Speos  Artemidos,  22.     Tombs,  1 1 

(6,7) 
BHtOAMO.    Town  hall,  206 
Berlin.    BaotcfatUe,    376.    Braoden- 
burg  Gate,  358.   ( )1<1  Museum,  359 
(200).      New  Museum,  359.      Par- 
liimeut     House,     377.      Theatres, 
360,  376 
Bl  nil  1  iikm.   Church  of  the  Nativity, 

i>5 
BHAJA.     (  haityas,  404 


INDEX. 


437 


Bhii.sa.     Topes,  403 
Bhuvvaneswar.       Hindu    temples, 
408 

BlDAR, 146 

Bijapur.  Tomb  of  Mahmud,  148, 
153  (85).  Jumma  Musjid,  148. 
Mogul  architecture,  149 

Bui  more  House,  399 

BlNDRABUN.     Ruined  temple,  408 

Birs  Nimroud.    Stepped   pyramid, 

31 
Blenheim  House,  332  (188) 
Blois.     Chateau   of,  216,  310,  313 

(i75,  176) 

Bohemia,  338 

Bologna,  157.  Brick  houses,  266. 
Campo  Santo,  382.  Frati  di  S. 
Spirito,  279.  Local  style,  283. 
Pal.  Bevilacqua,  Pal.  Fava,  283. 
Palazzo  Communale  (town  hall), 
266.  Renaissance  churches  in, 
277.  293-  S.  Francesco,  256,  263. 
S.  Petronio,  257,  258,  259,  263. 
Sta.  Maria  dei  Servi,  263 

Bonn.  Minster,  174.   Baptistery,  175 

Bordeaux.  Cathedral,  spires,  209. 
Grand  Theatre,  362 

Boston.  Ames  Building,  397.  Cus- 
tom House,  390.  Faneuil  Hall, 
388.  Fine  Arts  Museum,  394. 
Hancock  House,  387.  Old  State 
House,  388.  Old  South  Church, 
386.  Public  Library,  399.  State 
House,  390.  Trinity  Church,  394 
(222) 

Bourges  Cathedral,  189,  197,  199, 
202,  249  ;  chapels,  205  ;  size,  206  ; 
portals,  208.  House  of  Jacques 
Coeur,  215  (127) 

Bournazf.l.     Chateau,  315 

Bowdbn  Park,  357 

Bozrah  Cathedral,  117  (70) 


Brandenburg.     St.  Catherine,   St. 

Godehard,  244 
Bremen.     Town  hall,  246,  344 
Brescia.  Sta.    Maria  dei  Miracoli, 

287 
Brieg.     Piastenschloss,  343 
Bristol  Cathedral,  piers,  178 
Bruges.    Ancien  Greffe,  334.    Cloth 
hall,  247.    Ste.  Anne,  334.     Town 
hall,  247 
Brunswick.    Burg  Dankwargerode, 

176.     Town  hall,  246 
Brusa,  150 

Brussels.     Bourse,  382.     Cathedral 
(Ste.  Gudule),  246.     Pal.  de  Jus- 
tice,   382.      Renaissance    Houses, 
335  (x9°)-     Town  hall,  247 
Bubastis.     Temple,  13 
Buda-Pesth.     Synagogue,  378 
Buddh  Gaya.     Tope  or  stupa,  404 
Buffalo.      Guaranty  Building,  397 
Bulach.     Basilica,  375 
Burgundy.   Cathedrals  in,  197 

BURGHLEY  House,  328  (184) 

Bury.    Chateau,  315 

Burgos  Cathedral,  248,  249,  251  (145) 

Byzantium,  92  ;  see  Constantinople 

Caen.  Churches,  167, 178  ;  St.  Eti- 
enne  (Abbaye  aux  Hommes)  and 
Ste.  Trinite  (Abbaye  aux  Dames), 
168  ;  St.  Pierre,  312.  Hotel  d'Eco- 
ville,  316 

Cahors  Cathedral,  164 

Cairo.  Karafah  (Tombs  of  Kha- 
lifs),  137,  138,  139.  Mohamme- 
dan monuments  (list),  136,  153. 
Mosque  of  Amrou,  136  ;  of  Ibn 
Touloun,  136  ;  of  Barkouk,  137  ; 
of  Kalaoun,  137  ;  of  Sultan  Has- 
san, 137,  138  (80)  ;  of  El  Muayyad, 
137  ;  c  f  Kaid  Bey,  137  (81) 


438 


INDEX. 


California.  Spanish  missions  and 
churches,  388 

Cambodia.  Temple  of  Nakhon 
Wat,  413 

Cambray  Cathedral,  197 

Cambridge.  Caius  College,  Gate  of 
Honor,  328.  Fitzwilliam  Muse- 
um, 356.  King's  College  Chapel, 
223,  227,  234.  Trinity  College 
Library,  332 

Cambridge  (Mass.).  Craigie  (Long- 
fellow) House,  387  (219) 

CAMhkiii'KY  Cathedral,  219;  cen- 
tral tower  of,  228  ;  chapels,  231  ; 
transepts,  232;  minor  works  in, 
234 

Caprarola.     Palace  of,  300 

Capua.     Amphitheatre,  103 

Caria,  71  ;  see  Halicamassus 

("\KI.\IHI\,   338,   339 

Carlton  House,  357 

Carter's  Grove,  386 

<  w.kta.     Royal  Palace,  304 

('  in  i.k  Howard,  332 

C£risy-la-Foret.     Church,  178 

(  kvi'in.     Topes,  403 

Chaise-Dieu.     Cloister,  213 

ChIIjOMI  (Chilons-sur-Marne)  Ca- 
thedral, 205 

CHALVAU.     Ch4teau,  314 

Chambord.  Chateau,  314  (177, 
178) 

Chwiiii.y.      "  Petit  Chateau."  317 

Charleston.     St.  Michael's,  385 

Chari.oi  1  i- vii  1  k.  University  of 
Virginia,  390 

Charlton  Hall,  328 

Charlton-i.n-<  ixmhrk.  Plate  tra- 
cery (no) 

Chartrks  Cathedral,  197,  201,  203  ; 
chapels  of,  205  ;  size  of,  206  ;  W. 


front,  207  ;  transept  porches,  208  ; 
spires,  209  ;  capital  from  (126  c). 
Hospital,  214 
Chemnitz  Cathedral,  245 
Chenonceaux.     ChSteau,  316,  317 
.  Chiaravalle.     Certosa,  255 
CHICAGO.        Auditorium     Theatre, 
399.    Columbian  Exposition,  393, 
399.        Masonic     Building,     31/). 
Fisher    Building,  Schiller   Build- 
ing, 397 
Chichester  Cathedral,  spire,  229 
Chihuahua.     Church,  352 
Chili. ambaram.     Dravidian  temple, 

Mantapa  of  Parvati,  411 
Ciiiswk  k.     Villa,  328,  329 
Chittore.      Hindu    temples,    400. 
Palace,    409.      Towers.    407,    408 

(«7) 
Ci.KKMovi    (Clermont-Ferrand)    <  a- 

thedral,  197  ;  chapels  of,  205,  212. 

Notre- Dame-du- Port,     165,      204 

(96,  97) 
CLUNY.    Abbey  church,  [66.    Houses 

at,  214.     Hotel  de  (at  Paris),  216 
Cohi.kntz.     Church  of    St.   Castor, 

237 
Coimbra.     Sta.  Cruz,  352 
HULL.      House,  329 
COLOOMK,      Apostles'    Church,    174. 
243    (101).      Cathedral.    189.    102, 
205,   243,    249;    vaulting  of ,  239 ; 
spires,    240,   241  :   plan,  189,  20c, 
242  (141).     Church  of  St.   Marv- 
in-the-Capitol,     174-       (ireat    St. 
Martin's,    174,  243.      Romanesque 
houses,  etc.,  176 
Como.     Town  hall  (Broletto),  266 
ComOSTSLLA.      St.  lago,  180 
Conjkvkram.       Dravidian     temple, 
411 


INDEX. 


439 


Constantine.     Amphitheatre,  92 

Constantinople,  120.  Byzantine 
monuments  (list),  134.  Church  of 
Hagia  Sophia  (Santa  Sophia,  Di- 
vine Wisdom),  in,  123,  124,  127- 
131,  132, 133,  150,  151 (72,  75,  76, 
77).  Church  of  the  Apostles,  132. 
Early  Christian  monuments  (list), 
119.  Fountains,  Fountain  of  Ah- 
met III.,  152,  153.  Mosque  of 
Ahmet  II.  (Ahmediyeh),  151  (88)  ; 
of  Mehmet  II.,  150,  151  (87)  ;  of 
Osman  III.  (Nouri  Osman),  151  ; 
of  Soliman  (Suleimaniyeh),  151 
(89)  ;  of  Yeni  Djami,  151.  Pal- 
aces, 153.  St.  Bacchus,  127.  St 
John  Studius(Emir  Akhor  mosque), 
118.  St.  Sergius,  117,  127  (74). 
Tchinli  Kiosque  (Imperial  Muse- 
um), 153  ;  sarcophagi  in,  66. 
Tombs,  152.  Turkish  mosques,  150 

Copenhagen.  Exchange,  Frede- 
ricksborg,  336 

Cordova,  141  ;  Great  Mosque,  142, 

143  (83) 
Corinth.     Temple  of  Zeus,  60 
Coutances  Cathedral,  197  ;  chapels 

of,  205  ;  spires,  209 
Cracow  Castle,  338.    Chapel  of  Ja- 

gellons,  338 
Cremona.     Town  hall,  266 
Ctesiphon.     Tak-Kesra,  145 

Damascus,  Mosque  of  El-Waltd,  136 
Dantzic.     Town  hall,  344 
Dashour.     Pyramid,  9 
Deir-el-Bahari.    Tomb-temple   of 

Hatasu,  15,  21 
Deir  -  el  -  Medineh.     Temple     of 

Hathor,  19 
Delhi.     Jaina  temples,  407.     Jum- 


ma  Musjid,  148.     Mogul  architect- 
ure of,  149.    Palace  of  Shah  Jehan, 
148.     Pathan  arches,  etc.,  148 
Delos.     Gates,  45  ;  Portico  of  Phil- 
ip, 67 
Dknderah.      Temple    of    Hathor, 
17.      Group  of   temples,    22,    24. 
Hathoric  columns,  24 
Detroit.     Majestic  Building,  397 
Dieppe.    Church  of  St.  Jacques,  213 
Dijon.     St.  Michel,  312 
Dol  Cathedral,  east  end,  205 
Dresden.      Castle,    Georgenflugel, 
342.     Church  of  St.   Mary  (Mari- 
enkirche)  346  (194).     Theatre,  376 
(213).     Zwinger  Palace,  346  (193) 
Drugelte.     Circular  church,  175 
Durham   Cathedral,  177,  178,  220, 

221  (116);  central  tower  of,  228  ; 
Chapel  of  Nine  Altars,  232 

Earl's  Barton.     Tower,  176 

Ecouen.     Chateau,  316 

Edfou.     Great  Temple,  16,   17,   22 

(9,  10,  14).     Peripteral  temple,  22 
Edinburgh.     High    School,   Royal 

Institution,  357 
Egypt.     Early   Christian    buildings 

in,  118 
Elephantine.     Temple  of  Ameno- 

phis  III.,  22 
El   Kab.      Temple    of   Amenophis 

III.,  18 
Eleusis.     Propylsea,  69 
Ellora.     Chaityas,  404.    Dravidian 

Kylas,  413 
Elne.     Cloister,  170,  213 
Ely   Cathedral,    220 ;    choir    vault, 

222  ;  octagon,  224,  330  ;  clearstory, 
225  ;  towers,  228  ;  interior,  229  ; 
size,     232  ;     Lady   Chapel,    234 


44o 


INDEX. 


BpHBSUS.     Temple,  of  Artemis  (At- 
temisium),   66 ;    Ionic   order,    53. 
Palaestra,  71 
F.rk<h,  31 

Ks( trial.     Monastery,  351 
l&SNBH.       Hathoric     columns,     25. 
Temple,  23. 

Nun's  choir,  172 
Esslingen.     Church  spire,  240 
Kuhmiadzin.      Byzantine      monu- 
ments, 134 
Evrkux  Cathedral,  197 
Exeter  Cathedral,  221  (129) 
Ezra.     Church  of  St.  George,  117 


:  ■;.      Rock-COt  Temple,  22 
Ferrara       Cathedral,     261,     304. 

Churches,  277,  293.     Palaces  Scro- 

fa,  Roverella,  283 
Firouzabad.    Sassanian    buildings, 

144 
Florence.    Bopthfcery,  162.    Barto- 

lini,  Guadagni,  Larderel,  Pandol- 
fini,  Serristori  palaces,  291.  Cam- 
panile, 263,  264  (147  ,/).  Cathe- 
dral (Duomo,  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore),  257,  258,  263  ;  facade, 
261  ;  marble  incrustation 
done,  273-275    (147,   148,   159, 

160).  Church  of  San  Miniato,  115, 
I'll.  102  ;  of  Or  San  Michele,  264. 
Goodi  Palace,  291.  I-oggia  dei 
I  Oggtfl  di  San  Paolo. 
281.  Minor  works,  287.  <  k 
degli  Innocenti,  281.  Pala/ 
chio,  265.  Pitti  Palace,  280,  300, 
Kiccardi  I'alace.  279,  280, 
281,   290  (163).      Ruccllai    ! 

280,  282.    s 

Chapel    of,   276  ;  pulpit    in,    281  ; 


Marsupini  tomb,  2$  I.  San  Loren- 
zo, 276.  San  Spirito,  276  (1611. 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  256,  258  ;  fa- 
cade, 277  ;  fountain  in  sacristy  of. 
281.  *Strozzi  Palace,  280,  290 
(163) 
FLUSHING.      Town    hall    (Hotel   de 

Ville),  335 
Fontainebleau.     Palace.  313,  318 
1<>\  1 1  \  KAii.T.      Abbey,  164 
FOHl  1  koidk.     Cloister,  213 
Frame.    Romanesque     monuments 
(list),     170,     171  ;    Gothic     monu- 
ments  (list),     216,    217;     Renais- 
sance monuments  (list),  324,  325 
Frankfort.     Salt  House,  346 
Freibi  rg  Cathedral,  239,  24- 

spire,  240 
FkEIBKKO   IM  EUGKBULGK.     Golden 

portal,  242 
Frii/i.ak.     Church.  243 
1  ri.HA.      Monastery.  172,  173.  17: 
Firness.     Abbey,    pointed   arches, 

219 
1- 1  111  iii'ork  Sikhri.      Mosque    of 
Akbar,  148 

( i  WDii  \k  \.      Monasteries,  404 
G  ULLOM.      <  hatcau.  310 
GSLNHAQSSM.      Abbey  church,  243. 

■-tie  ruins,   1 

<  ampo  Santo,  382.  Cathe- 
dral,  west  front,  261.  PAJ  \>  1  - 
—  Balbi,  BrigBOtt,  Cambiasi,  I  >o- 
ria-Tursi  (  Municipio).  I)ura//o 
(Keale),  Pallavicini,  I  "niversity, 
302.  Sta.  Maria  <li  Carignano,  2<y) 
v.  Mcdi.rval,  172.  Roman- 
esque monuments  (list),  180. 
Gothk  monuments  (list),  252. 
Renaissance  monuments  (list),  353 


INDEX. 


441 


Gernrode.      Romanesque    church, 

173 
Gerona  Cathedral,  185.  249,  250 
Ghent  (Gand).     Cloth  hall,  247 
Gherf  Hossein.     Rock-cut  temple, 

22 
Ghertashi    (Kardassy).      Temple, 

23 

Ghizeh.  Pyramids,  4  ;  Pyramid  of 
Cheops,  7  (1,  2)  ;  of  Chephren,  8  ; 
of  Mycerinus,  8.  Sphinx,  Sphinx 
temple,  10  (3,  4) 

Girnar.  Jaina  temples,  407.  Tem- 
ple of  Neminatha,  407 

Glasgow.    Churches  in  Greek  style, 

357 

Gloucester  Cathedral,  178,  220, 
222  ;  cloisters,  222  ;  east  window, 
227  ;  central  tower,  228  ;  Lady 
Chapel,  234 

Goslar.    Palace  of  Henry  III.,  176 

Gournah.  Columns,  24.  Temple, 
21 

Gran.     Cruciform  chapel,  338 

Granada,  141.  Alhambra,  142, 
143,  144,  351  (84).  Cathedral, 
348,  350 ;  minor  works  in,  352. 
Palace  of  Charles  V.,  352  (197) 

Grange  House,  357 

Great  Britain.  Gothic  monuments 
(list),  235,  236.  Norman  monu- 
ments (list),  181.  Renaissance 
monuments  (list),  337 

Guadalajara.     Infantado,  350 

Gujerat,  146 

Gwalior.  Jaina  temples,  407.  Pal- 
ace, 409.     Teli-ka-mandir,  409 

Haddon  Hall,  326 

Hague,  The.     Town  hall,  336 

HAmelschenburg  Castle,  343(191) 


Cathedral,        244. 
Mausoleum,     4, 
Temple,  410 

92 


Hai.herstadt 

Town  hall,  245 
Halicarnassus. 

53.  7i.  72  (41) 
Hamoncondah. 
Hampton  Court,  326,  332 
Hartford.     State  Capitol,  393 
Hauran.      Roman   works   in, 

domestic  buildings,  118 
Hardwicke  Hall,  328 
Hatfield  House,  328 
Hecklingen.     Romanesque  church, 

173 

Heidelberg.  Castle,  343  (192). 
Ritter  House,  346 

Heilsberg  Castle,  245 

Heldburg  Castle,  342 

Hengreave  Hall,  326 

Herculanum,  86.  Amphitheatre, 
92.     Houses,  107.     Theatre,  (61) 

Hereford  Cathedral,  220 

Hierapolis.  Early  Christian  build- 
ings in,  118 

Hildesheim.  Kaiserhaus,  346.  Re- 
naissance houses,  345.  St.  Gode- 
hard,  173.  Town  hall,  245.  We- 
dekindsches  Haus,  346 

Holland  House,  328 

Howard  Castle,  332 

HullabId.  Temples,  409  ;  double 
temple,  410  (228)  ;  Kait  Iswara, 
410 

Iffley.     Church,  179  (104) 
India,    146-149.      Moslem     monu- 
ments   (list),    154-     Non-Moslem 
monuments   (list),  415 
Innsbruck,  Schloss  Ambras,  339 
Ipsamboul  (Abou  Simbel).     Grotto 
temples,  21,  22  (13) 


442 


INDEX. 


Ireland.     Celtic  towers,  176 
ISPAHAN.      Meidan    (Meidan-Shah), 
Mesjid-Shah,     Bazaar,     Medress, 
146 
Issoire.  Church  of  St.  Paul,  165,  204 
Italy.     Early  Christian  monuments 
(list),    119;    Romanesque    monu- 
ments  (list),   170 ;   Gothic   monu- 
ments    (list),    268-269 ;     Renais- 
sance monuments  (list),  306-307 

JAKM  Cathedral,  348,  350 
Jam\i.<;iki.      Monastery,  405 
JntUSAUM.     Church  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, 115.    Early  Christian  church- 
es, III.     Herod's  temple,  41,  83. 
Ifoaqoe   of  Omar   (Dome   of   the 
Kock.     Kubbet-es-Sakhrah),    Il6, 
136.     Octagonal  church  on  temple 
site,     115,    1X6.      Tombs   of    the 
Kings,  etc..  39.     Tomb  of  Absa- 
lom,  of    llciekiah,   Golden    Gate, 
Solomon's    temple,    40.       Wall   of 
Lamentations,    4:.      Zerubbabel's 
temple,  41 
J  u  KFOU,  146 

KaLAMHA.    Columns,  12.    Temple, 

Kai.h  LOCZEH.     Church,  117  (69) 

K  \i  I'.i  r*GAH,  146 

KANAKI  K.      Hindu  temples,  408 

K  INTOKNI  1. 1. ik.  Hindu  temple,  408 

Kardassv  (Ghcrtashi).      Temple,  23 

Kaki.i.     ('haityas,  404 

KARLSTSm  <  .iMlc.  245 

Karnak,     50.     Great     Temple    (of 

Amen    Ra)   and    Hypostyle   Hall. 

xxiii.,  17,  18,  19,  24,  36  (ii,  121. 

Ancient  temple,   13.       Temple  of 

Khonsu,  16,  20 


K  KS*  11  \t    Cathedral,  245 

Ka>k.      Mound,  31 

KKDDLKSTONB  Hall,   334 

K11  \i  Skman.     Church  of  St.  Sim 

eon  Stylites,  117 
Khaji  KAito.     Jaina    temples,    407. 

Kandarya  Mahadeo,  408 
KhOKSABAD.        Palace    of      S 

31,  32   (18).      City  Gate,  32,  33, 

(19) 
KlRKSTAi.1.  Abbey,  pointed  arches, 

219 
KONIGSBEKG.     Church  at,  244 
K<>\  1  NjiK.     Palaces  of  Sennacherib 

and  Assur-bani-pal,  31 

Ki  11 1  \i:i  rg.    <  hurch  of  St.   Bar- 
bam,  239,  240 

Laach.     Abbey  of,  174 
Labyrinth  (of  Moeris  or  Fayoum 

in  Egypt),  26 
I.  \  Mi  ill  1:.     Chateau,  314 
I.AM'sini.       Kesidenz,     342.       St. 

Martin's,  240,  244 
LaNGRSS  (.'athedral,  167 
LaON  'athedral,  l<>7,  205,  SO) 

porches,  208 
I. A  ROCHEFOUCAULD.    <  hateati,  315 

Laval  Cathedral  (La  Triahe),  201 
1  1    Mans  Cathedral,  n>7,  boo,  B05, 
B06  (118) ;  tomb  in,  310 

I  1  «.\.      Cathedral,    189    249.      I'an- 
ti  on  of  S.  MdorO,  I7<),  180 

(I'uv-en-Yelay).       Church, 
204  ;  cloister  of  same,  21 3 
LEIPZIG.      Hlrstenhaus,  346 

•  .       Town  hall,  344 
LeYDSN.       Town  hall,  336 
LH  111  II  I  l>       Cathedral,       225.      229 

(135)  :    aneaj    front,    22S    (134)  ; 

spin 


INDEX. 


443 


Liege.      Archbishop's   Palace,    334. 

Church  of  St.  Jacques,  247 
Limburg-on-the-Hardt.    Church, 

193 
Limburg-on-Lahn.  Abbey  Church, 
174.      Cathedral    of    St.     George, 

239  (139) 

Limoges  Cathedral,  197,  205,  212 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  219,  225,  229, 
232  ;  west  front,  227  ;  central  tow- 
er, 228  ;  chapter-house,  223 

Lisbon,  352 

Lisieux  Cathedral,  197 

Liverpool.  St.  George's  Hall,  358 
(i99) 

Loire  Valley.     Churches  of,  165 

Lombardy.  Romanesque  monu- 
ments in,  157 

London.  Albert  Memorial,  380. 
Albert  Memorial  Hall,  382.  Bank 
of  England,  334,  356.  British  Mu- 
seum, 356  (198)  ;  Elgin  marbles 
in,  57  ;  mausoleum  fragments  in, 
71.     Cathedral   (St.   Paul's),  329- 

331  (186,  187).  Chapel  Royal 
(Banqueting  Hall,  Whitehall),  329 
(185).    churches  : — Bow  Church, 

332  ;    St.    George's,    Bloomsbury, 

333  ;  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields, 
333  (189) ;  St.  Mary's,  Woolnoth, 
332  ;  '  St.  Pancras's,  357  ;  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  329-331  (186, 
187)  ;  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden, 
329 ;  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook, 
331  ;  St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  West- 
minster, 234 ;  Temple  Church, 
pointed  arches  in,  219  ;  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  220  (137)  ;  Henry 
VII. 's  chapel  in  same,  192,  223, 
227,  229,  234  (136).  Greenwich 
Hospital,  332.     Mansion    House, 


334.     Natural    History    Museum, 
South     Kensington,     381     (216). 
New  Law  Courts,  380.     Newgate 
Prison,  334.     Parliament  Houses, 
234,  380  (215).    Somerset  House, 
329,  333-     South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum,   new    building,    382.     Uni- 
versity, 357.    Westminster  Abbey, 
see  above.    Westminster  Hall,  233. 
Whitehall  Palace,  329  ;  Banqueting 
Hall  (Chapel  Royal)  in  same,  329 
(185) 
Longleat  House,  328 
Louvain  Cathearal,  246,  247.    Cloth 
hall,  247.     Town  hall,  248  (144) 
LUbeck..      City    Gates,    246.       St. 
Mary's,  242,  244.    St.  Catharine's, 
244.     Town  hall,  246 
Lucca.      Campanile,    264.      Cathe- 
dral (S.  Martino),  161,   257,  258, 
260(149) ;  tempietto  in  same,  281  ; 
tomb  of  P.  di  Noceto  in  same,  281 
(164).     S.    Frediano,  S.   Michele, 
161.       Minor    works,    282,    283. 
Palazzo  Pretorio,  Pal.  Bernardini, 
283 
Lupiana  Monastery,  350 
Luxor,  50.    Temple,  19,  20.    Osirid 

piers,  24 
Luz.     Church  at,  352 
Lycia.     Tombs,  37,  39,  52 

Madrid.  First  palace,  350.  New 
Palace,  352 

Madrid,  Chateau  de  (at  Boulogne), 
314 

Madura.  Choultrie  of  Tirumalla 
Nayak,  411.  Great  Temple,  cor- 
ridors, 411.     Palace,  413 

Mafra.     Palace,  353 

Magdeburg  Cathedral,  189,  242, 243 


444 


INDEX. 


Mahrisch  Trubau.  Castle  portal, 
338 

Maisons.     Chateau,  322 

Malaga.  Alcazar,  142,  143.  Ca- 
thedral, 348 

Malines  (Mechlin).  Cathedral  of 
St.  Kombaut,  246,  247.  Cloth 
hall,  247.      Hotel  du  Saumon,  324 

Mam  hkstkr.  Assize  Courts,  380 
(216) 

Manikyala.     Tope,  403 

Manresa.     Collegiate  Church,  249 

Mantinv.a.      Theatre,  6g 

Mantua.  Campanile,  264.  Church 
of  S.  Andrea,  279.  Early  Renais- 
sance palaces,  283.  Palazzo  del 
Te,  289 

Marhi  k<..  St.  Elizabeth,  240,  242 
(140) 

Marienburu  Castle,  Great  Hall,  245 

M  \kiknwkrdkr.     Castle,  245 

Marseilles.  Chapel  of  St.  I^zare. 
310.     Fountain   of    Longchamps, 

372  (a") 

M  whta.     Palace  of  Chosroes.  145 

Massachusetts.  Country  house  in 
(225) 

Maii.hronn.      Monaster)-,  176 

M  IYBM  I  Cathedral,  174 

Ml  VOX  Cathedral,  212 

Mn  \.      Kaabah,  136 

Mkiuna  dk  Ri<>  Seco.  Rood- 
screen,  352 

Mm>i\m    Abou.     Osirid   piers,    24 
(15).      Pavilion   of    Rameses    III.. 
26.    Peripteral  temple,  22.     Tomb- 
temple  of  Rameses    HI.,  15,  21 
Albrechtsburg,  245 

Mf.RoE.      Pyramids,  9 

Ml  1/  <  'athedral.  244 

Mkvi»'I  m.     Stepped  pyramid,  9 


Milan,  157.  Arcade,  382.  Cathe- 
dral, 243,  255,  257,  260,  261,  262, 
263,  264.  Domical  churches,  27^. 
Ospedale  Maggiore,  283.  S.  Am- 
brogio,  158,  159  (90).  S.  Eustor- 
gio,  Portinari  Chapel  in,  283.  S. 
Satiro,  sacristy  of,  289.  Sta.  Ma 
ria  delle  Grazic,  278,  289 

Miletus.  Temple  of  Apollo  Didy- 
ma?us,  53,  66  (28,  29) 

Minden  Cathedral,  244 

Minneapolis.    State  Capitol,  400 

M'KRis.      Labyrinth  of,  2(< 

Moissac     Cloister,  170,  213 

Monreale.  Churches,  cathedral. 
162 

Mons.    Cathedral,  St.  Wandru,  246, 

247 

MONTEPULCIANO.  Church  of  S. 
Biagio,  294 

MOMTMAJOVK.     Cloister,  170,  213 

MOVI  Si.  MJCRKL.  Abbey,  1  r>7. 
168,  213,  214;  cloister  of  same. 
213 

MOM  1.     House  of  Francis  I.,  316 

MOSCOW.     The  Kremlin,  366 

Mosul,  33 

Mm  m  Am  .  Jaina  temples.  Tem- 
ple of  Vimalah  Sah,  405,  406  (226) 

Motnn  Amos.    Monastery,  134 

Mi    .hur.     Temple  of  Sin  or  Hur- 

ki,  30 
Mi  ji  !  mm.      Mound,  31 


MVKTBStV  \k  \ 

409 
MOlh  a 
Mi  m<  11,  366. 

silica,   375. 


Hindu      temples. 


Town  hall.  344 
Auekirche,  375.  Ba- 
Cathedral.  240.  242. 
( ilyptothek,  359.  Ludwigsk'rch**, 
375.  I'ropybea,  360  (201).  Ruh- 
meshalle,  359.     St.  Michael's,  344. 


INDEX. 


445 


MrssiKR.     Church  at,  243.     Town 

hall,  245 
MONZBNBERG.     Castle  ruins,  176 
Mycen.h.     Fortifications,    44   (23). 

Lion   Gate,   44   (22).     Tholos  of 

Atreus,    45,    46,     148    (24,     25). 

Tombs,  4 
M  \  1  \ssa.     Tomb,  72 
Myra.     Theatre,  6g.     Tombs,  72 

Nakiion  Wat,  Temple  of,  413 
Naksh  -  1  -  Roustam      (Persepolis), 

36.     Tomb  of  Darius,  37 
Nancy.     Ducal  Palace,  216,  311 
Nankin.     Porcelain  Tower,  414 
Naples.    Arcade,  382.     Arch  of  Al- 
phonso,    287.       Church    of    Gesu 
Nuovo,  304  ;   of   S.  Francesco  di 
Paola,    305,  365  ;  of   S.   Lorenzo, 
263  ;   of  S.  Severo  (173)       Minor 
works,    281,   282.     Pal.    Gravina, 
Porta  Capuana,  287.     Royal  Mu- 
seum,  304.      Royal    Palace,   304, 
305.     Theatre   of   S.  Carlo,    305, 

365 

Narbonne  Cathedral,  197,  205,  211 

Nassick.     Chaityas,  404 

Naukratis,  44 

Naumburg.     Church  at,  243 

Netherlands,  146.  Gothic  monu- 
ments (list),  252-253. 

Neuweiler.  Church  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  243 

Nevers.     St.  Etienne,  165 

New  Mexico.  Spanish  churches, 
388 

Newport.  Town  hall,  388.  Trin- 
ity Church,  386 

New  York.  American  Surety 
Building,  Broadway  Chambers, 
397.  Casino,  399.  Cathedral  of 
St.  John  the  Divine,  399  ;  of  St. 


Patrick,  375,  391.  Century  Club, 
399.  City  Hall,  389.  Custom 
House,  390  (221).  Grace  Church, 
392.  Huntington  house,  399. 
Madison  Square  Garden,  Metro- 
politan Club,  399.  St.  Paul's,  386. 
Sub-Treasury,  390.  Times  Build- 
ing (224).  Trinity  Church,  392. 
Vanderbilt  and  Villard  houses,  399 

NtMES.  Amphitheatre,  92.  Maison 
Carree,  93,  94 

Nimroud.  Palaces  of  Assur-nazir- 
pal  and  Shalmaneser,  31,  32 

Nineveh,  31 

Nippur  (Niffer).     Ruins  of,  29,  31 

Normandy.  Romanesque  churches 
in,  167, 177;  cathedrals  in,  197,  213 

North  Germany.  Brick  churches 
in,  244 

North  Woburn.    Rumford  House, 

387 
Norwich  Cathedral,  177,  178,  220 
Noyon   Cathedral,    197,    200,    203, 

205,  246 
Nubia.  Early  Christian  buildings,  118 
Nuremberg,  238.     Churches  of  St. 

Sebald,   St.   Lorenz,  245.     Funk, 

Hirschvogel,   and   Keller  houses, 

346.      Renaissance    houses,    345. 

Town    hall,    344.      Shrine  of   St. 

Sebald,  347 

(Olympia.      Altis,    Echo   Hall,   69. 

Heraion,    50,   62.     Temples,  55  ; 

sculptures  from,    57.     Temple  of 

Zeus,  62 
Oppenheim.     St.    Catharine's,    239, 

242,  244 
Oudeypore. 

ace,  409 
Orance.     Theatre,  101 
Orchomenos.     Ceiling,  47 


Hindu  temples,    pal- 


44<> 


INDEX. 


Orleans.       Houses,     316.      Town 

hall  (hotel  de  ville),  31 1 
Okvieto   Cathedral,  257,  259,  261  ; 
f;i9ade  of  same,  260 

\bruck.     Church  at,  243 
On  marsmeim.     Church  at,  172 
( )i  dknariik.     Town  hall,  247 
OURSCAMF.      Hospital,  214 
Oxford.     All  Souls'  College,    333, 
Cathedral    (Christ    Church),    220 
222.      Christ    Church     Hall,    233 
234.    Merton  College  Chapel,  234 
Kadcliffe  Library,  333.     Sheldoni 
an  Theatre,  332 

Padf.rrorn.     Town  hall,  344 

Paula.     Arena  chapel,  258.    Palaz- 
zo del  Consiglio,  287 

PitsTUM.    Basilica,  69.    Temples,  61 

Pailly.     Chateau,  317 

PALERMO.     Churches  of   Eremitani, 
I. a  Martorana,  162 

Palmyra,  83.     Temple  of  the  Sun. 
92.     Ceiling  panels  (50  </) 

Parasnatma.     Jaina  temples,  407 

Paris.  Arch  of  Triumph  of  the  Car- 
rousel, 362,  363  ;  of  l'Etoile,  362, 
363  (204).  Bourse  (Exchange), 
363.  Cathedral  (Notre  Dame). 
189,  197-202,  249  (116,  117, 
124);  rose  windows,  203,  212; 
chapels,  205  ;  size,  206,  232  ;  west 
front,  207,  227  (124)  ;  capital 
from  (126  /')  ;  early  carving  (122). 
I  in  k<  UM  :  —  Chapel  and  Dome 
of  the  Invalides,  321  (182)  ;  Ma- 
deleine, 362,  363(205)  ;  Pantheon. 
301,  362  (202,203);  Sa<  p' 
at  Montmartre,  373  ;  Sainte  <"ha- 
pelle,  185,  203,  224(106,  121); 
capital    from    same  (126  a) ;    Sop 


bonne,  319;  St.  Augustin,  371; 
Ste.  (lothilde,  371,  375  ;  St. 
Etienne-du-Mont,  St.  Eustache, 
312  ;  St.  Jean  de  Belleville,  371  ; 
St.  Merri,  St.  Severin,  21-  ;  St. 
Paul -St.  Louis,  319;  St.  Sulpice, 
323,  361  (183)  ;  St.  Yinient-de- 
l'aul,  364  ;  Val-de-Grice,  322.  Col- 
lege Chaptal,  371.  Colonnades  of 
the  Carde-Meuble,  361,  367.  Col- 
umn of  July  (Colonne  Juillet),  365. 
Corps  Legislatif  (Palais  Bourbon), 
363.  Ecole  dec  Beaux-Arts,  355, 
37°.  392.  393 ;  library  of  same, 
364  ;  door  (206).  Ecole  de  Mede- 
cine,  new  buildings,  374.  Exhibi- 
tion buildings,  374.  foi  Nl 
— of  Cuvier,  Moliere,  St.  M 
372.  Halles  Centrales,  371.  H6- 
tel-de-Ville  (town  hall),  316  ;  new- 
building,  373.  II<*  I  ELS  : — (  arnava- 
let  (de  Ligeris),  316;  de  Cluny, 
216  ;  des  Invalides,  321.  II.. 11-  ! 
Erancis  I.  (Maison  Erancois  I,), 
316.  Library  of  the  Beaux-Arts, 
364  ;  of  Ste.  Genevieve,  365. 
Louvre  (see  palaces).  Museum 
(Musee)  Cialliera  (212).  Open 
House  (Nouvel  Opera),  372  (2101. 
PALACES: — l'alais  Bourbon  (I 
Legislatif),  363  ;  Palais  de  l'ln- 
dustrie,  364  ;  Pal.  de  Justice,  364  ; 
Ixmvre  and  Tuileries,  215,  315- 
319,  321,  362,  371,  372  (179,  208, 
209)  ;  Luxemburg  Palace,  318 
(180).  PLACE!  (Squares): — de  la 
le,  324  ;  Koyale,  319 ;  Ven- 
dome,  32  .  Railway  stations  (du 
Nord,  de  l'Est,  d"Orleans),  372. 
Sorbonne,  new  academic  build- 
ings, 374- 


INDEX. 


44/ 


Paulinzelle.    Romanesque  church, 

Pavi  \,  157.  Certosa,  255,  262,  263, 
278,  283,  284  (152,  153).  Church 
of  S.  Michele,  159.  Domical 
churches,  278 

I'kkin.  Summer  pavilion,  Temple 
of  Great  Dragon,  414 

PERGAMON  (Pergamus).  Altar  of 
Eumenes  II.,  67.  Christian  build- 
ings, 118 

Perk;ueux.    St.  Front,  164  (94,95) 

Peroor.     Temple,  411 

Persepolis,  145.  Columns,  37,  38 
(21).  Hall  of  Xerxes,  36,  37.  Pal- 
aces, 35,  69 

Persia.  Moslem  architecture,  145 
146  (list  154).  Sassanian  build- 
ings, 144,  145 

Perugia.  Oratory  of  San  Bernar- 
dino, 279.  Town  hall  (Pal.  Com- 
munale),  266.     Roman  Gates,  88 

Petkrborough  Cathedral,  178,  220  ; 
retro-choir,  222  ;  west  front,  227 

Phigal^ea  (Bassse).  Gate,  45. 
Sculptures  from,  57.  Temple  of 
Apollo  Epicurius,  65 

Philadelphia.  Christ  Church,  386 
(218).  Girard  College,  390,  391. 
Independence  Hall,  388.  Marine 
Exchange,  Mint,  390.  Municipal 
Building,  391 

Phil^.  Great  Temple,  22.  Perip- 
teral temple,  22 

Piacenza,  157.  Campanile,  159 
(91).  Cathedral  (91).  Town  hall, 
266 

Piastenschloss  at  Brieg,  343 

Pienza.  Palazzo  Piccolomini,  etc., 
282 

Pik.rrefonds.     Chateau,  371 


Pisa.  Churches  in,  115,  261  ;  minor 
works  in,  282  ;  early  Renaissance 
in,  282-283.  Baptistery,  160  (92). 
Cathedral  (Duomo),  159,  160,  276 
(92,  93).  Leaning  Tower,  160 
(92).    Sta.  Maria  della  Spina,  264 

Pistoia.  Campanile,  264.  Churches, 
161,  261.  Podesta,  Palazzo  Com- 
munale,  266.  Sta.  Maria  dell' 
Umilta,  293 

Pittsburgh.  Carnegie  Building, 
397.  Carnegie  Library,  399. 
County  Buildings,  394 

Plagnitz.     Castle,  343 

Plassenburg.     Castle,  343 

Poitiers  Cathedral,  197,  201,  205 

Pola.     Amphitheatre,  92,  102 

Pompeii.  Amphitheatre,  92.  Baths, 
86.  Houses,  72,  107,  108  ;  House 
of  Pansa  (65).  Theatre,  101. 
Tombs,  105 

Pont  du  Gard.     Bridge,  108 

Portsmouth.  Sherburne  House, 
387 

Portugal,  352.  Gothic  monuments 
(list),  253 

Potsdam.  St.  Nicholas  Church,  359 

Prague.  Belvedere,  339.  Cathe- 
dral, 239,  242,  244.  Palace  on 
Hradschin,  Schloss  Stern,  Wald- 
stein  palace,  339 

Prato.  Churches  in,  161,  293.  Ma- 
donna delle  Carceri,  278 

Prentzlau.     Church,  244 

Priene.  Ionic  order,  53  ;  Propylaea, 
69 

Provence,  164. 

Provins.     Houses  at,  214 

Purl  Temples,  408.  Temple  of 
Jugganat,  409 

Purudkul.     Rock-cut  raths,  413 


448 


INDEX. 


RANESSKBM  (Thebes).  Tomb-temple 

of  Kameses  II.,  15,  21,  24  (8) 
Ramisseram.    Temple, corridors. 4 i  1 
Ratisbon  (Regensburg)  Cathedral, 
239,   241,   244.     Town  hall,  245. 
Walhalla,  359 
Ravenna,    114.     Baptistery   of   St. 
John,  119.     Byzantine  monuments 
(list),  134.    Cathedral,  304.     Early 
Christian   monuments   (list),    119. 
S.  Apollinare  Nuovo,  S.  Apollinare 
in  Classe,  114.    S.  Vitale,  117,  122, 
127,  172  (73) 
Reugio.     Amphitheatre.  92 
Reims  Cathedral,  189,  197,  201,  202, 
203,  205  ;   size,  206  ;  west  front, 
207,  213,  227  ;  towers,  209  ;  por- 
tals, 208,  210 
Rimini.     S.  Francesco,  277 
Rochester  Cathedral,  220 
RODBZ  Cathedral,  197,  212 
ROME,     Ancient    monuments,    (list) 
108,  109      Amphitheatre  of  Statil- 
ius    Taurus,     102.     ar<  ties  : — in 
general,  77,  103  ;  of  Constantine, 
80,  103  (63)  ;  of  Septimius  Severus, 
103  ;  of   Titus,  0.2,  103  ;  of  Trajan, 
97,103.     i:\Mi  i<  \n  :— in  general, 
07,  98;   Basilica    .Emilia,  98;    of 
<  onstantine,  xxiii,  80,  82,  98,  99 
'5°  /'.    58,    59)  ;    Julian    BmIHw, 
98  ;    Sempronian,  98  ;   L'lpian,  97, 
98  (57)-    (FOT  Early  Christian  Ba- 
silicas,    see    Churches.)       baths 
(Thermae): — in    general,    71,    92, 
99;  of    Atfrippa.  91.    loo;   -,f   (  .,- 
racaJla,  87,  92  (60)  ;  of  I  >iocletian, 
92,    100,    KM  ;    of    Titus,   86,  91, 
lOOi,    10;.      ( "ampanile    of    <  "ampi- 
doglio  (Capitol).  305.    Capitol,  0.1  ; 
palaces    on,    2</>.      <  in  k<  I 


in  general,  293  ;    Church  of  (lesu, 
Sistine    Chapel    of   Vatican, 
285,  289  ;   Sta.   Agnese   (basilica), 
112     (modern     church),     303;    S. 
Agostino,  286;  S.  Clemente,  114; 
Sta.  Costanza,  in  (66);  St.  John 
I-ateran,  113,  251,  304,  305  ;  clois- 
ter   of    same,    281  ;    S.    Lorenzo, 
112;  S.  Lorenzo  in   Miranda,  93  ; 
Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli,  101  ;  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore,  113,  305  ;  Chapel 
of  Sixtus  V.   in  same,   299 ;  Sta. 
Maria  del  Popolo,  286,  287  ;  Chigi 
Chapel  in  same,  293  ;  Sta.    Maria 
della    Vittoria,    303 ;    Sta.    Mana 
sopra  Minerva,  256  ;  St.  I'aul-be- 
yond-the- Walls,  113,  2S1  (67,  681  ; 
St.  Peter's,  original   basilica,  113  ; 
existing  church  of,  274,  2S( 
290,  294-296,  299,  321  (169,  170, 
171) ;    colonnade    of   same,    295, 
303,  367  ;    sacristy  of   same. 
S.  I'ietroin  Montorio,  Tempi< 
court  of,  209.     CUtCCSES  :- 
mus,  103  ;  of  Caligula  and    v 
103,  113.    Cloaca  Maxima,  81,  90. 
CototOm   (Tlavian  amphitheatre; 

91,  92,    I02  (45,62).      <DI  I   \|\v  — 

103;  of  Marcus  Aurclius,  104; 
of  Trajan,  97,  104.  Early  Chris- 
tian monuments,  in  ;  (list).  118, 
119.  Eora  : — in  general,  97;  of 
Augustus,  91,  97  ;  of  Julius,  Ner- 
p.i^i.in.  07  ;  1  '.rum  koma- 
num  (Magnum),  97,  98  ;  Forum  of 
Trajan,  97,  98  (57).  Fountain  of 
Trevi,  305.  HorsES  : — in  general, 
105,  106,  108  ;  of  Vestals  (Atrium 
04.  lOfi  ;  of  I.ivia.  107. 
I.ateran,  carved  ornament  from 
Museum   of    (49);   pala«e   of,    300. 


INDEX. 


449 


Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  of  Hadri- 
an, 104.  Minor  Works  in  Rome, 
287.  Monument  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel, 3S2.  National  Museum, 
382.  palaces  (Ancient)  : — of  Cae- 
sars on  Palatine  Hill,  86,  91,  105  ; 
of  Nero  (Golden  House),  91,  92, 
100,  105  ;  Septizonium,  105.  pal- 
aces (Renaissance):  —  Altemps, 
292;  Barberini,  304,  305  ;.  Bor- 
ghese,  304 ;  Braschi,  305  ;  of 
Capitol,  299  ;  Cancelleria,  290, 
291  ;  Corsini,  305  ;  Farnese,  292 
(167,  168)  ;  Farnesina,  291  ;  Gi- 
raud,  290,  291  (166)  ;  Lante,  292  ; 
Massimi,  Palma,  291  ;  Quirinal, 
300;  Sacchetti,  291;  Vatican, 
Belvedere,  greater  and  lesser  court, 
Court  of  S.  Uamaso,  Loggie,  209, 
291;  Braccio  Nuovo,  305,  365; 
Casino  del  Papa  in  gardens,  293  ; 
papal  residence,  300  ;  Scala  Reg- 
gia,  305  ;  palazzo  di  Venezia,  286. 
Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  82,  91,  94- 
96,  100,  118,  122,  127,  365  (54, 
55,  56).  Pons  yElius  (Ponte  S: 
Angelo)  108.  Porta  Maggiore, 
108.  Portico  of  Octavia,  91. 
temples  : — Of  Castor  and  Pollux 
(Dioscuri),  84,  91,  94  (44)  ;  of 
Concord,  94 ;  of  Faustina,  93 ; 
of  Fortuna  Virilis,  89,  90,  93  ; 
of  Hercules  or  Vesta,  90  ;  of  Ju- 
lius, 94  ;  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus, 
68,  89,  91  ;  of  Jupiter  Stator,  so 
called  (see  Temple  of  Castor  and 
Pollux)  ;  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  91  ; 
of  Mars  Ultor,  91  ;  of  Minerva 
Medica,  127  ;  of  Peace,  98  ;  of 
Trajan,  97  ;  of  Venus  and  Rome, 
94  (53)  I  of  Vesta,  in  Forum,  94  ; 
29 


of  Vesta,  so  called,  or   Hercules, 

90.  theatres  : — Of   Marcellus, 

91,  ior  (42)  ;  of  Mummius,  of 
Pompey,  101.  tombs  : — 86,  104  ; 
of  Caius  Cestius,  of  Cecilia  Me- 
tella,  104  ;  of  Helena,  118 

Rosenborg  Castle,  336 
Rosheim.     Church  facade,  175 
Rothenburg.     Town  hall,  344 
Rouen,  310.     Cathedral,  192,  197, 
201,  202,  205  ;  size  of,  206  ;  west 
front,    207  ;     rose    windows,    212. 
Hotel  Bourgtheroude,  316.     Palais 
de  Justice,  214.     St.  Maclou,  209. 
St.  Ouen,  212,  213,  375  ;  rose  win- 
dow from  (112) 
Rouheiha.    Early  Christian  church, 

117 
Royal  Domain,  166,  167,  197 
Ruanwalli.     Topes,  403 
Russia,  367.     Byzantine  monuments 
(list),  134 

Sadri.     Temple,  406 
Sakkarah.     Pyramid,  9 
Salamanca.     Casa  de  las  Conchas, 

349.     Cathedral  (old),   180,    248  ; 

(new),  250,  348.     Monastery  of  S. 

Girolamo,  348.     S.  Domingo,  348. 

University,  349  ;  portal  of  (195) 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  219,  223,  225, 

229.  232  (128)  ;  west  front,  228  ; 

spire,  228,  229.    Market  cross,  234 
Salonica.     Church  of  St.  George, 

118.     Other  monuments  (list),  134 
Salsette.     Viharas,  405 
Salzburg.     Church  of  St.   Francis, 

242 
Samos.     Gate,  45 
Sanchi.      Brahman     temple,     404. 

Tope,  403 


45o 


INDEX. 


San  IlDKFOMSO.     Royal  Palace,  352 
JjABAGOSSA.     Casa  tie  Zaporta,  350 

tl96) 
Saxony,  173 

SCHALABURG.      Castle,  339 
S.  111.1.1  i>TADT  Cathedral,  239 
ScHLOSS     Hamklschenblkc;,     343 

(191) 
SCHLOSS  PORZIA  at  Spital,  338 
SCHL09S  STERN  at  Prague,  339 
S<  HWAkz-kiiKiNDoKK.    Church,  174 
S<  HWKiNKt'-kiii.     Town  hall,  344 
SCINDE,   14^ 

SCCUNDRA.  Tomb  Of  Akbar,  143 
SbDINGA.  Hathoric  columns,  24 
Si-'i  /  Cathedral,  197 

■  via      Cathedral,  190,  249,  348. 

Church  of  S.  Millan,  of  Templars, 

180 
Shunts.      Temples,   49;    northern 

temple,  60  ;  Temple  of  Zeus,  61 
Skmnk.H.      Pavilion,  20 
Skni.is  Cathedral,  197,  200,  209 

Archbishop's    palace,    317. 

Cathedral,  203,  219 
I  istan.      Sassanian    buildings, 

144 

tsar,  142,  143      Casa 

de   Pilato  (House  of  Pilate),  142, 

350      Cathedral,    244,    250,    257. 

351.      Giralda,  142,  143,  352 
sun  ikh  .     Patbaa  arches,  148 
SiKNN  \.      Prick  hoi;  1  am- 

panilc,  204.     Cathedral  (Duomo), 

-59.  263  (150)  ;  west  front, 
21.0(151).  Loggia  del  I'apa.  282. 
Minor  works,  2S2.     1  w  \ 

Del   Governo.    Piccolomini.    >pan- 
nocchi,    282  ;     Palazzo     Pubblico, 
ice  church' 
.vanni  in  Fonte 
SILSII.KH.     Grotto  temple,  22 


SOISSONS  Cathedral,    197,   200,  203. 

205,  243 
SOMNATH.     Jaina  temple,  407 
Somnaimi'I  R.     Chalukyan  temples, 

409.  410 
Soitiiuii.i.  Minster,  carving  from. 

(»5) 
Spain,  347.  Gothic  monument 

253.     Romanesque  churches 

180 
SpaJ-ato.     Palace  of  Dioclcti 

106,  113  (64) 
.  Sitiai..     Schloss  Porzia,  33? 
SPIRES      (Speycr)      Cathedral,      174 

(100) 

\ iiian's  Abt>ey,  tombs,  etc,  in, 

234 

ST.    AUGUSTWR.      Fort    Marion 
Marco),  388.     Ponce  del. eon  Ho 
tel,  399.     Roman    Catholic  cathe- 
dral, 388. 

St.     Benoit  -  sir  -  Loire. 
church,  177 

St.    Dents.      Abbey    church 

joo,  202,  203  (120)  ;  tomb  of 
I>ouis  XII.  in,  316  ;  of  Krai 

317 
ST.     <  .1  km  un-kn  I   v,  1  .       (bateau, 

313  ;  Royal  chapel  in,  2>>4 
Si.  Gills*.    Church,  165 
St,  Louis.    Union  Trust  M\ 
ST.  PETERSBURG,   366,  367.     Admi 
rait  v.  307.     Cathedral  of  St 
367    (207).      CHURCHES  :—  of    the 
Citadel,   <>f  the  (.reek    Kit- 
of  <  >ur  Lady  of  Kazan,  367 
Museum,    Palace    of    Grand   Duke 
Michael,    307.     Smolnoy 
t<ry,  366. 
Si .  IU'.my.     Tombs,  105 

Si  AIM   I 

STW  RHOLM.      Palace,  337 


INDEX. 


451 


Strasburg  Cathedral,    243 ;    spire 

of,  238,  240,  241,  243.     University 

Buildings,  376 
Stuttgart.  Old  Castle, 343.  Tech. 

nical  School,  376 
Styria,  339 
Sully.     Chateau,  317 
Sultaniyeh.     Tomb,  145 
SUNIUli.      Propylzea,  69 
SUSA,  145.      Palaces,  35 
Syracuse.     Theatre,  70 
Syria,  122;  early  Christian  churches 

in,  115,  116,  117  ;  (list),  119 

Tabriz.     Ruined  Mosque,  145 
Tafkhah.   Early  Christain  Church, 

"7 
Takht-i-Bahi.     Monastery,  405 
TangermUnde.     Church,  244 
Tanjore.    Great  temple,  412.     Pal- 
ace, 413.     Shrine  of  Soubramanya, 

412  (229) 
Tarputry.     Gopura,  411 
Teheran,  146 
Tel-el-Amarna,  27 
Tewkesbury  Abbey,  222  (130) 
Thebes.     Amenopheum,  15.    Ram- 

esseum,  15  (8) 
Thoricus.     Gate,  45  ;   Stoa  Diple, 

69 
Tinnevelly.      Dravidian    temples, 

411 
Tiruvalur.      Dravidian      temples, 

411 
Tiryns,  44 
Tivoli.     Circular  temple,   90,    356 

(52).     villas  : — D'Este,  293  ;  of 

Hadrian,  87,  106 
Tokio.     Great  Palace,  415 
Toledo.     Archbishop's  Palace,  360. 

Cathedral,  189,  248,  348.  Gate  of 


S.  Martino,  350.     Hospital  of  Sta. 
Cruz,  349.     S.  Juan  de  los  Reyes, 

251 
Tonnkrre.     Hospital,  214 
Torgau.     Hartenfels  Castle,  342 
Toro.     Collegiate  church,  180 
Toulouse  Cathedral,  212.     Church 

of  St.  Sernin,  204.     Houses,  317 
TOURNAY  Cathedral,  190,  197,  205, 

209  ;  rood-screen  in,  335 
Tours,    310.     Cathedral,   197,  205, 
209  ;  towers  of,  312  ;  tomb  of  chil- 
dren of  Charles  VIII.  in,  310,  342 
Trausmtz  Castle,  342 
Treves    (Trier).      Cathedral,    174. 
Frauenkirche     (Liebfrauenkirche, 
Church  of  Our  Lady),   189,  242, 
243  (142) 
Troyes  Cathedral,    197,  201,   205  ; 
size,  206  ;  west  portals,  209.     St. 
Urbain,  212 
Tucson.     Church,  352 
Tuparamaya.     Topes,  403 
Turin.     Church  of  La  Superga,  365 
Turkey,  149.  Monuments  (list),  154 
Tusculum.     Amphitheatre,  92 
Tyrol,  338,  339 

Udaipur  (near  Bhilsa).  Hindu  tem- 
ples, 409 

Ulm  Cathedral,  238,  239,  241,  243  ; 
spire,  241 

Ur,  30 

U  RBI  no.     Ducal  palace,  287 

Utrecht  Cathedral,  244 

Valencia  Cathedral,  249 
Valladolii>.  Cathedral,  350.  S.  Gre- 

gorio,  portal  (146) 
Vellore.     Gopura,  411 
Vend6me  Cathedral,  portal,  209 


452 


INDEX. 


Venetia,  157,  262,  305 

Venice,  300.  Campaniles  of  St 
Mark,  of  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore, 
305.  churches  : — Frari 
Cloriosa  dei  Frari),  256  ;  Reden- 
tore,  299  ;  S.  Giobbe,  284 ;  S. 
(iiorgio  dei  Grechi,  293  ;  S.  Gior- 
gio Maggiore,  299,  305  ;  SS.  Gio- 
vanni e  Paolo,  256  ;  Sta.  Maria 
Formosa,  293  ;  S.  If.  dei  Miracoli, 

283  ;  S.  II.  della  Salute,  304, 
(174)  ;  St.  Mark's,  132,  164  (78, 
79) ;  Library  of  same  (Royal  Pal- 
ate), 301  (172)  ;  S.  Salvatore, 
293  ;  S.  Zaccaria,  284.  Doge's 
I'alace,  267,  284  (157).  Minor 
works,  287.     palaces  : — 267,  283, 

284  ;  Ca  d'Oro,  Cavalli,  Contarini- 
Fasan,  268  ;  Cornaro  (Corner  de 
Ci  Grande)  301  ;  Dario,  285  ; 
Docak  (Doge's  I'alace),  267,  284 
(157)  ;  Foscari,  268  ;  Grimani, 
300 ;  Pesaro,  304  ;  Pisani,  20S  ; 
Rez/onico,  304  ;  Vendramini  (Yen- 
dramin-t'alergi),  284,  285  (165); 
Zoivi,  capital,  275  (158) 

I  i  1.     S.  Andrea,  256,  263 
1  II..      <  Iiatcau,  317 


Vienna,    347.      Arsenal  at    Wiener 
Neustadt,  338.      Burgtheater,  376. 
Cathedral  (St.  Stephen),  239,  840, 
241  ;  spire  of,  240,  241.     Church 
of    St.    Charles    Borromeo,    358. 
Imperial  Palace,  portal,  339.     Mu- 
seums,  37S.     Opera   House,   376. 
Parliament  House,  or  Keichsraths- 
gebaiide,    360,    378.        K. - 
block     (Maria- Thcrcsicnliof),    37S 
(214).     Sta.  Maria  in  <  lestade,  24- 
Town  hall,  University,  378.    ^Bi 
Kirche,  375 
Vijayanagar.     Palace,  413 
Vim  knnes.      Royal  chapel,  204 
VriEkiso.     Houses,  267.     Tow  i  ha" 
(Palazzo  Communale),  266.      V 
I. ante,  293 
Ydii  kka  (Volaternv).    Gate,  88 

Waltham.    Abbey,  178.     Flea 

C'lcivS,    234 

Wakiieid.     St.   Michael's,   window 

(in) 
Wakk All    (Freeh).    Palace  t< 

3» 
Waktiurc;  Castle,  176 
W amiim;-|(iv.       (  apitol,    389,     391 


\A,    157.      Amphitheatre,    92, 

102.     Campanile,  264.     Church  of 

\nastasi.i,    256,    258;  of    S. 

/•■•..    1  J  ,.  17:.      1AI  \<  Rfl  :-  j 

Pevilacqu.i  300  ;     del 

isiglio,     286;    Poni|R-ii,    Yer/i,  . 
300.     Tombs  of  Scaligcrs,  264 
\  eksaii  1  h  Palace,  320 
Vf/1'1  ay.     Abbey,  166,  198,  203 
/A,   300,    301.      Basilica,   301 
palaces: — 283;    Barbarano,   (hi 
eregati,    Tiene,    Valmarano,    301 
Villa  Capra,  30I,  328 


(220).      Congressional      I  ibnuy, 

2'/)-  l'atent  Office,  390.  State, 
Army,  and  Navy  Building,  392. 
White  I  louse,  390 

Willi  Cathedml,  222,  225,  232 

west  front,  228  ;   chapter  house  of 

223(131) 
Wi    1  miss  ikk.      See  LONDON 
WBST0NXOTLAMD.       Ceiling    of    St 

Marys  (138) 

.  i.k  House,  386 
WlENI  k-.\'i.iM  aim  .     See  Vll 

Williamsburg.     Town  hall,  385 


INDEX. 


453 


Wilton  House,  329 

Winchester  c^fchedral,  178,  220, 

222,  226,  229  (103);  tombs,  etc., 
in,  234 

Windsor.      St     George's     Chapel, 

223,  227,  234 

Wismar.     Castle  (FUrstenhof),  343. 

City  Gates,  246 
VVoi     RN.     Public  Library  (223) 
Wi.u.aton  Hall,  328 
Wol  i-enbuttei..    Marienkirche,  345 
Wo  terton  Castle.  326 
VVokANc.UL.     Kurti  Stambha,  410 
Worcester  Cathedral,  232 


Worms.     Minster  (Cathedral),    174 

(112) 
WCrzburg.    University  Church,  345 

Xanten.     Church,  242 
Xanthus.     Nereid  monument,  71 

York  Cathedral,  192,  225,  226  ; 
west  front,  227  ;  tower,  228  ;  mi- 
nor works  in,  234 

Yl'RES.     Cloth  hall,  247 

Zurich.     Polytechnic  School,  376 
Zwetti.  Cathedral,  242 


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