A HISTORY
OF ARCHITECTURE
HARPER'S FINE ARTS SERIES
Edited by
GEORGE HENRY CHASE, Ph.D.
JOHN E. HUDSON PROFESSOR OF ARCHAEOLOGY HARVARD UNIVERSITY ,
A new series embodying the latest results of archaeology and critical
study of the Fine Arts in themselves and in their relation to the evolution
of civilization. These books are prepared with reference to class use in
the higher institutions of learning, and they also provide authoritative,
comprehensive, and interesting histories for the general reader. Each
volume will contain an unusual number of carefully selected illustrations.
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BY FISKE KIMBALL, M. Arch., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Architecture, University of Michigan
and
GEORGE HAROLD EDGELL, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Fine Arts, Harvard University
In Preparation
A HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
BY PROF. GEORGE HENRY CHASE
and
PROF. CHANDLER RATHFON POST
Harvard University
A HISTORY OF PAINTING
BY PROF. ARTHUR POPE
Harvard University
HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK
[ESTABLISHED 1817]
HARPER S FINE ARTS SERIES
A HISTORY OF
ARCHITECTURE
BY
FISKE KIMBALL, M.ARCH;, PH.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
AND
GEORGE HAROLD EDGELL, PH.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ILLUSTRATED
HARPER y BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Decimal Classification, 720.9
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Copyright, 1918, by Harper & Brothers
Printed in the United States of America
Published March, 1918
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xvii
AUTHORS' PREFACE xxi
I. THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE i
II. PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE 8
III. PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE u
IV. GREEK ARCHITECTURE 49
V. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 103
VI. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 159
VII. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 183
VIII. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 217
IX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 275
X. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 344
XI. POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 401
XII. MODERN ARCHITECTURE 460
XIII. AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 524
XIV. EASTERN ARCHITECTURE 572
GLOSSARY 589
INDEX 605
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG- 0 PAGE
1. STONEHENGE. (RESTORED BY HARTMANN) 9
2. GIZEH. THE PYRAMIDS OF KHAFRE AND KHUFU (RESTORED
BY HOLSCHER) I4
3. BENI HASAN. PORTICO OF A TOMB ........ 17
4. DER-EL-BAHRI. MORTUARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT. (RE-
STORED BY BRUNET) jg
5. KARNAK. PLAN OF PRINCIPAL TEMPLES. (BAEDEKER) . 19
6. KARNAK. CENTRAL AISLES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL OF THE
GREAT TEMPLE OF AMON. MODEL IN THE METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM 20
7. DUR-SHARRUKIN (KHORSABAD). THE PALACE OF SARGON
(RESTORED BY PLACE) 27
8. DUR-SHARRUKIN. THE PALACE OF SARGON. PLAN. (PLACE) 28
9. BABYLON. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF NINMAH. (AFTER
KOLDEWEY) 31
10. PERSEPOLIS. PLAN OF THE PALACE PLATFORM 34
11. PERSEPOLIS. TOMB OF DARIUS, NAKSH-I-RUSTAM. QACKSON) 35
12. KNOSSOS. PLAN OF A PART OF THE PALACE. (EVANS) . 38
13. TIRYNS. PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS. (RODENWALDT) ... 40
14. MYCENAE. GATE OF LIONS 41
15. MYCEN.E. PORTAL OF THE "TREASURY OF ATREUS."
(RESTORED BY SPIERS) . . 43
16. ATHENS. THE PARTHENON, FROM THE NORTHWEST ... 53
17. ATHENS. THE PARTHENON. (RESTORED TO ITS CONDITION
IN ROMAN TIMES. MODEL IN METROPOLITAN MUSEUM) . 53
1 8. ATHENS. THE ERECHTHEUM, FROM THE WEST 54
19. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER 59
20. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER, WITH A RETRANSLATION INTO
WOOD. (AFTER DURM) 61
21. PROFILES OF GREEK DORIC CAPITALS, ARRANGED IN CHRONO-
LOGICAL ORDER < 63
22. IONIC ENTABLATURE, RETRANSLATED INTO WOOD. (AFTER
DURM) 66
23. MAGNESIA. TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS. DETAILS. (HUMANN) . 67
24. EPIDAURUS. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE THOLOS ... 68
25. ATHENS. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES 69
26. AKRAGAS. TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. (RESTORED BY E. H.
TRYSELL, AFTER KOLDEWEY) 7°
27. GREEK AND ROMAN MOLDINGS. (REYNAUD) 72
viii ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
28. P/ESTUM. THE GREAT TEMPLE, SO-CALLED "TEMPLE OF
NEPTUNE." (CHIPIEZ) 75
29. VARIETIES OF THE GREEK TEMPLE PLAN 77
30. ATHENS. PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS. (KAUPERT) .... 81
31. MAGNESIA. THE AGORA AND SURROUNDING BUILDINGS.
(HUMANN) 88
32. EPHESUS. THEATER DURING THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD.
(RESTORED BY FIECHTER) 90
33. PRIENE. " HOUSE XXXIII." (WIEGAND) 93
34. DELOS. HOUSE OF THE TRIDENT. (P. PARIS) 94
35. DELPHI. TEMPLE AND PRECINCT OF APOLLO. (RESTORED BY
R. H. SMYTHE) 96
36. PRIENE. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. (RESTORED BY ZIPPELIUS) . . 97
37. AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE. (RESTORED BY HULSEN) . . . . 106
38. PERUGIA. "ARCH OF AUGUSTUS" ' 108
39. TIVOLI. "TEMPLE OF VESTA" . no
40. ROME. THE COLOSSEUM in
41. NlMEs. "THE MAISON CARREE" 116
42. ROME. INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON (RESTORED BY ISA-
BELLE), SHOWING THE CONDITION AFTER THE RESTORATION
OF SEVERUS 117
43. ROME. THE FORUM ROMANUM 119
44. ROME. THE FORUM ROMANUM AND THE FORA OF THE EM-
PERORS. PLAN. (RESTORED BY GROMORT) . . . . . 121
45. ROME. BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS, OR CONSTANTINE. (RE-
STORED BY D'ESPOUY) 123
46. SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ROMAN THEATER. (FIECHTER) 125
47. OSTIA. THE THEATER. (RESTORED BY ANDRE) .... 126
,48. ROME. THERMAE OF CARACALLA. PLAN. (RESTORED BY
BLOUET) 129
49. ROME. THERMS OF DIOCLETIAN. TEPIDARIUM. (RESTORED
BY PAULIN) 130
50. N!MES. THE "PONT DU GARD" 132
51. THE ARCH OF TITUS 134
52. TRIER. PORTA NIGRA 135
53. ROME. MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. (RESTORED BY VAUD-
REMER) 136
54. POMPEII. HOUSE OF PANSA. PLAN 138
55. TIVOLI. VILLA OF HADRIAN. PLAN. (RESTORED BY G. S.
KOYL) 140
56. ROME. PALACES OF THE CESARS. PLAN. (RESTORED BY
DEGLANE) 141
57. SPALATO. PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. (RESTORED BY HEBRARD) 142
58. ROME. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND ENTABLATURE FROM THE
TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX. (RESTORED CAST IN
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM) 145
59. DEVELOPMENT IN THE RELATIONS OF ARCH AND COLUMN IN
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 147
ILLUSTRATIONS ix
PAGE
60. ROMAN CELLULAR VAULT. (CHOISY) ........ 151
61. ROMAN LAMINATED VAULT. (Cnoisv) ........ 151
62. MOUSMIEH. PR^TORIUM. (DE VOGUE) ....... 153
63. PLANS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCHES ....... 160
64. ELEVATIONS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCHES ..... 162
65. ROME. SAN CLEMENTE. PLAN SHOWING THE ATRIUM . . 164
66. ROME. SAINT PAUL'S OUTSIDE-THE-WALLS. INTERIOR SEEN
FROM THE ENTRANCE ...... ....... 167
67. ROME. SAN LORENZO FUORI-LE-MURA. EXTERIOR . . . 167
68. ROME. SAN LORENZO FUORI-LE-MURA. INTERIOR . . . 169
69. RAVENNA. SANT' APOLLINARE Nuovo. INTERIOR .... 169
70. ROME. SAN STEFANO ROTONDO. INTERIOR ...... 170
71. ROME. SANTA COSTANZA. SECTION SHOWING THE CONSTRUC-
TION ................... 171
72. TOURMANIN. THE BASILICA RESTORED ........ 172
73. KALAT-SEMAN. THE BASILICA OF SAINT SIMEON STYLITES 173
74. BERLIN MUSEUM. THE FRIEZE FROM MSCHATTA. (STRYZ-
GOWSKI) .................. 175
75. RAVENNA. THE MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA PLACIDIA. DRAWING
OF THE EXTERIOR .............. 178
76. RAVENNA. SAN VITALE. EXAMPLES OF BYZANTINE CAPITALS 185
77. CONSTANTINOPLE. SAINTS SERGIUS AND BACCHUS. PLAN . . 187
78. CONSTANTINOPLE. SAINT IRENE. PLAN ........ 188
79. PLANS OF BYZANTINE CHURCHES .......... 189
80. SECTIONS OF BYZANTINE CHURCHES ......... 190
81. CONSTANTINOPLE. HAGIA SOPHIA. EXTERIOR ..... 191
82. CONSTANTINOPLE. HAGIA SOPHIA. INTERIOR LOOKING TOW-
ARD THE APSE ......... . ..... 192
83. ROME. THE VATICAN. MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION SHOWING
THE INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES AT
CONSTANTINOPLE. (DIEHL) ........... 194
84. CONSTANTINOPLE. THE HOLY APOSTLES. PLAN, RESTORED 195
85. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. CHARLEMAGNE'S CHAPEL. INTERIOR . . 196
86. CONSTANTINOPLE. THE KILISSEDJAMI. VIEW FROM THE EAST.
(EBERSOLT) ........... ...... J99
87. STIRIS (PHOCIS). MONASTERY OF SAINT LUKE. VIEW FROM
THE EAST SHOWING THE Two CHURCHES. (SCHULTZ AND
BARNSLEY) ................. 2O°
88. VENICE. SAINT MARK. PLAN ........... 201
89. VENICE. SAINT MARK. VIEW FROM THE PIAZZA .... 202
90. VENICE. SAINT MARK. INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE 203
91. AKTHAMAR (LAKE VAN). THE CHURCH SEEN FROM THE
SOUTHEAST. (LYNCH) ............. 204
92. MANASSIA (SERBIA). (POKRYCHKIN) ......... 206
93. CONSTANTINOPLE. PLAN OF THE SACRED PALACE, RESTORED.
(EBERSOLT) ................ 2°9
94. HA'IDRA. THE FORTIFICATIONS, RESTORED. (DIEHL) . . . 211
95. PLAN OF SAINT GALL. REDRAWN FROM THE NINTH CENTURY
MANUSCRIPT. (PORTER) ............ 222
x ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
96. LORSCH. ONE BAY OF THE BASILICAN GATE 223
97. EARL'S BARTON. THE TOWER 224
98. SANTA MARIA DE NARANCO. PLAN 225
99. PLANS OF ROMANESQUE CHURCHES . 227
100. ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS OF ROMANESQUE CHURCHES . . 229
101. MILAN. SANT' AMBROGIO. DRAWING OF ONE BAY, SHOWING
VAULT RIBS AND SUPPORTS. (MOORE) 230
102. MILAN. SANT' AMBROGIO. INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD THE
APSE 231
103. MILAN. SANT' AMBROGIO. EXTERIOR 232
104. VERONA. SAN ZENO. GENERAL VIEW 233
105. PISA. THE CATHEDRAL AND LEANING TOWER, SEEN FROM
THE SOUTHWEST 235
1 06. PISA. CATHEDRAL. PLAN 236
107. PISA. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING TOW-
ARD THE APSE 237
108. CEFALU. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE WEST END .... 239
109. MONREALE. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE 240
no. MONREALE. CATHEDRAL. SYSTEM OF THE NAVE AND THE
EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR 241
in. COLOGNE. SAINT MARY OF THE CAPITOL. PLAN .... 242
112. PAULINZELLE. PLAN 242
113. SYSTEMS OF GERMAN ROMANESQUE CHURCHES 243
114. DRUBECK. DRAWING OF ONE BAY, SHOWING THE SYSTEM 244
115. SPEYER. PLAN . 245
116. SYSTEMS OF RHENISH ROMANESQUE CATHEDRALS .... 246
117. SPEYER. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE 247
118. MAINZ. CATHEDRAL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH 248
119. ARLES. SAINT TROPH!ME. THE MAIN PORTAL 248
120. CLERMONT-FERRAND. NOTRE DAME DU PORT. TRANSVERSE
SECTION, SHOWING HALF-BARREL VAULT OVER THE AISLE 249
121. CLERMONT-FERRAND. NOTRE DAME DU PORT. VIEW OF
THE EAST END 250
122. TOULOUSE. SAINT SERNIN. THE INTERIOR SEEN FROM THE
WEST 251
123. PERIGUEUX. SAINT FRONT. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE
SOUTHEAST 252
124. POITIERS. NOTRE DAME LA GRANDE. VIEW OF THE WEST
END 253
125. VEZELAY. CHURCH OF THE MADELEINE. THE INTERIOR
SEEN FROM THE VESTIBULE 254
126. ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT 255
127. JUMIEGES. ABBEY CHURCH. THE SYSTEM 256
128. CAEN. THE ABBEY CHURCHES. SYSTEM OF THE INTERIORS 257
129. CAEN. SAINT ETIENNE. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE 258
130. IFFLEY. PARISH CHURCH. VIEW OF THE WEST END . . . 259
ILLUSTRATIONS xi
*1C- PAGE
131. DURHAM. CATHEDRAL. PLAN 260
132. DURHAM. CATHEDRAL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE SOUTHEAST 261
133. BEAUVAIS. SAINT ETIENNE. DRAWING OF ONE OF THE
AISLE VAULTS AND ITS SUPPORTS. (MOORE) .... 262
134. MORIENVAL. PARISH CHURCH. VIEW OF THE NORTH AISLE 263
135. COMPOSTELA. SANTIAGO. PLAN 264
136. LEON. SAN ISIDORO. PLAN AND SYSTEM 265
137. AVILA. GENERAL VIEW OF THE FORTIFICATIONS .... 269
138. COMPARATIVE PLANS OF GOTHIC CATHEDRALS IN FRANCE,
GERMANY, ITALY AND ENGLAND 276
139. PLANS OF GOTHIC BUILDINGS 278
140. SECTIONS ABD SYSTEMS OF GOTHIC BUILDINGS 280
141. AMIENS. WEST FRONT OF THE CATHEDRAL 281
142. AMIENS. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR, LOOK-
• ING INTO THE APSE 283
143. EXAMPLES OF MEDIEVAL VAULTS 286
144. REIMS. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE VAULTS AFTER
THE FIRST BOMBARDMENT IN 1914, SHOWING THE LEVEL
CROWNS OF DEVELOPED GOTHIC VAULTS 287
145. GOTHIC VAULTING CONOID, SHOWING THE DIRECTIONS OF
THE THRUSTS AND THEIR ABUTMENT. (MOORE) . . . 288
146. SAINT LEU D'ESSERENT. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR, SHOWING
THE VAULTS AND, THROUGH THE WINDOWS, THE FLYING
BUTTRESSES . . . 289
147. ARRANGEMENT OF MONUMENTS AND DETAILS TO ILLUSTRATE
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BUTTRESS AND THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE FACADE 290
148. PARIS. THE SAINTE CHAPELLE. TRANSVERSE CUT ... 291
149. PLANS OF THE EAST ENDS OF FIVE GOTHIC CHURCHES, IL-
LUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEVET .... 292
150. PLANS ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOTHIC PIER 293
151. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WINDOW OPENING. EXAMPLES
OF PLATE AND BAR TRACERY 294
152. CHARTRES. THE SOUTHERN SPIRE 296
153. SENLIS. THE SPIRE 297
154. REIMS. THE CATHEDRAL VIEWED FROM THE NORTH BEFORE
THE BOMBARDMENT OF 1914 3°°
155. CHARTRES. CATHEDRAL. PLAN .301
156. SALISBURY. THE CATHEDRAL, SEEN FROM THE NORTHEAST 302
157. SALISBURY. INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, LOOKING TOWARD
THE EAST END 3°3
158. LINCOLN. THE CATHEDRAL. THE ANGEL CHOIR .... 304
159. YORK. THE SYSTEM OF THE CHOIR . .
1 60. LONDON. WESTMINSTER ABBEY. HENRY VII. 's CHAPEL .
161. GLOUCESTER. THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF THE CLOISTERS 307
162. ROUEN. SAINT OUEN. SYSTEM .
163. ABBEVILLE. SAINT VULFRAM. THE WEST PORTALS ... 309
164. ROUEN. SAINT MACLOU. VIEW OF THE WEST FRONT AND
SPIRE 3io
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
165. BAMBERG. CATHEDRAL. PLAN AND SYSTEM . . . . . 311
1 66. MUNSTER. CATHEDRAL. SYSTEM 312
167. FREIBURG. THE MINSTER, SEEN FROM THE SOUTHEAST . . 313
1 68. FREIBURG. THE MINSTER. SYSTEM 314
169. MARBURG. SAINT ELIZABETH. THE INTERIOR, LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE 315
170. SYSTEMS OF HALLENKIRCHEN 316
171. TOLEDO. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR, LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE 317
172. SEVILLE. THE CATHEDRAL AND GIRALDA TOWER, SEEN
FROM THE SOUTHWEST 318
173. ASSISI. SAN FRANCESCO. PLAN 319
174. FLORENCE. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR,.
LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE . 320
175. ORVIETO. THE CATHEDRAL FRONT, SEEN FROM THE SOUTH-
WEST '. ... 321
176. MILAN. EXTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL 322
177. AlGUES-MORTES. GENERAL VlEW OF THE ClTY AND FORTIFI-
CATIONS 324
178. CARCASSONNE. LA CITE. VIEW OF THE FORTIFICATIONS . 325
179. COUCY. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CASTLE GROUNDS, SHOWING
THE DONJON BEFORE ITS DESTRUCTION IN 1917 . . . 326
1 80. A MEDIEVAL TOWN HOUSE. (VIOLLET-LE-DUC) .... 327
181. THE COUNTRY DWELLING OF A MEDIEVAL PEASANT. (VIOL-
LET-LE-DUC) 328
182. SAINT MEDARD-EN-JALLE. SKETCH OF THE MANOR. (VIOL-
LET-LE-DUC) 329
183. YPRES. THE CLOTH HALL AS IT APPEARED BEFORE THE
BOMBARDMENT OF 1914 330
184. BOURGES. MAISON DE JACQUES QEUR 331
185. FLORENCE. THE PALAZZO VECCHIO 332
1 86. SIENA. THE PALAZZO PUBBLICO 333
187. VENICE. THE PALAZZO DUCALE 334
1 88. CAHORS. THE PONT VALENTRE 336
189. FLORENCE. CATHEDRAL FROM THE SOUTHEAST 347
190. FLORENCE. INTERIOR OF SAN LORENZO 348
191. FLORENCE. PAZZI CHAPEL 349
192. FLORENCE. PALAZZO MEDICI-RICCARDI 350
193. FLORENCE. PALAZZO RUCELLAI 351
194. MANTUA. SANT' ANDREA. INTERIOR 352
195. THE CERTOSA NEAR PA VIA. FACADE 353
196. VENICE. PALAZZO VENDRAMINI 354
197. ROME. LOGGIA OF THE CHURCH OF SAN MARCO .... 355
198. ROME. "TEMPIETTO" AT SAN PIETRO IN MONTORIO . . 356
199. ROME. SAINT PETER'S. INTERIOR 357
200. ROME. PALACE OF RAPHAEL. (RESTORED BY HOFFMANN) . 358
201. ROME. LOGGIA OF THE VILLA MADAM A. INTERIOR . . . 359
202. ROME. PALAZZO DELL' AQUILA. (RESTORED BY GEYMULLER) 360
203. ROME. MASSIMI PALACES. PLAN 362
ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
FIG' PAGE
204. FLORENCE. MEDICI CHAPEL AT SAN LORENZO 363
205. VENICE. PALAZZO GRIMANI .364
206. VENICE. LIBRARY OF SAINT MARK 365
207. THE DEVELOPMENT OF RENAISSANCE CHURCHES OF CENTRAL
TYPE 367
208. ROME. PALAZZO FARNESE . 369
209. ROME. PALAZZO FARNESE. PLAN • • • 37i
210. EARLY RENAISSANCE DETAILS. (AFTER GROMORT) . . . 373
211. "HIGH RENAISSANCE" DETAILS. (AFTER GROMORT) ... 375
212. BLOIS. COURT OF THE CHATEAU, SHOWING WINGS OF
Louis XIII (AT BACK) AND FRANCIS I. (AT LEFT) . 381
213. PARIS. COURT OF THE LOUVRE. (ORIGINAL CONSTRUC-
TIONS OF LESCOT AND GOUJON) 383
214. PARIS. THE TUILERIES. (DE L'ORME'S PLAN) 385
215. PARIS. DETAIL FROM THE TUILERIES. (PLANAT) . . . 387
216. SEVILLE. TOWN HALL 388
217. GRANADA. PALACE OF CHARLES V. COURT 389
218. HEIDELBERG. WING OF OTTO HEINRICH IN THE CASTLE 390
219. NURNBERG. PELLER HOUSE 391
220. MONTACUTE HOUSE. (GOTCH) 393
221. HATFIELD HOUSE 394
222. ROME. PLAN OF SAINT PETER'S AND THE VATICAN. (GROMORT) 404
223. ROME. SAINT PETER'S DOME FROM THE EAST 405
224. ROME. THE CAPITOL 406
225. VICENZA. THE BASILICA 407
226. VICENZA. VILLA ROTONDA 408
227. MILAN. PALAZZO MARINO. COURT 410
228. VENICE. SANTA MARIA DELLA SALUTE 413
229. ROME. SAN CARLO A' CATINARI. CHAPEL OF SANTA CECILIA.
(Ricci) 415
230. BAGNAIA. VILLA LANTE. PLAN. (TRIGGS) 417
231. THE ESCURIAL. PLAN 420
232. THE ESCURIAL 421
233. SEVILLE. ALTAR OF THE CHURCH OF EL SALVADOR. (SCHU-
BERT) ..... 422
234. BLOIS. WING OF GASTON D'ORLEANS 425
235. PARIS. COLONNADE OF THE LOUVRE 427
236. VERSAILLES. THE PALACE FROM THE PLACE D'ARMES . . . 428
237. VERSAILLES. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL FLOOR OF THE PALACE.
(GROMORT) 429
238. VERSAILLES. THE GALERIE DES GLACES 43 *
239. PARIS. PLACE DE LA CONCORDE 432
240. VERSAILLES. PETIT TRIANON 433
241. PARIS. PORTE ST. DENIS. PRINCIPAL FRONT .... 437
242. VERSAILLES. DETAIL OF THE APARTMENTS OF Louis XV. 437
243. LONDON. THE BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL 439
244. LONDON. SAINT PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PLAN 44°
245. LONDON. SAINT PAUL'S CATHEDRAL 441
246. BLENHEIM PALACE FROM THE FORE-COURT 443
xiv ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
247. PRIOR PARK NEAR BATH . 445
248. CLIFFORD CHAMBERS 446
249. LONDON. SAINT MARY-LE-BOW 449
250. DRESDEN. CENTRAL PAVILION OF THE ZWINGER .... 450
251. DRESDEN. FRAUENKIRCHE 451
252. PARIS. CHURCH OF SAINTE GENEVIEVE. (THE PANTHEON) 465
253. BERLIN. BRANDENBURG GATE 466
254. PARIS. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'F/TOILE ....... 467
255. KEDLESTON. THE DOMED SALOON 468
256. LONDON. THE BANK OF ENGLAND, LOTHBURY ANGLE.
(RICHARDSON) 468
257. EDINBURGH. THE HIGH SCHOOL. (RICHARDSON) .... 470
258. BERLIN. ROYAL THEATER 470
259. LONDON. OLD NEWGATE PRISON. (RICHARDSON) . -. . . 473
260. LIVERPOOL. SAINT GEORGE'S HALL. (RICHARDSON) . . . 475
261. EATON HALL, BEFORE ALTERATION IN 1870. (EASTLAKE) . 479
262. LONDON. HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT 481
263. PARIS. SAINTE CLOTILDE 485
264. DRESDEN. OLD COURT THEATER. (SEMPER) 489
265. LONDON. NEW ZEALAND CHAMBERS. (MUTHESIUS) . . . 491
266. LONDON. WESTMINSTER .CATHEDRAL 492
267. FLETE LODGE, NEAR HOBLETON. (MUTHESIUS) .... 493
268. HOARCROSS. CHURCH OF THE HOLY ANGELS 494
269. PARIS. BIBLIOTHEQUE SAINTE GENEVIEVE 495
270. PARIS. OPERA HOUSE 496
271. PARIS. CHURCH OF THE SACRED HEART, MONTMARTRE . . 497
272. BRUSSELS. PALAIS DE JUSTICE 497
273. ROME. MONUMENT TO VICTOR EMMANUEL II. . . . . . 499
274. PARIS. READING-ROOM OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALS . 502
275. PARIS. OPERA HOUSE. PLAN 508
276. PARIS. GRAND BAZAR DE LA RUE DE RENNES. (LA CON-
STRUCTION MODERNE) 510
277. BERLIN. WERTHEIM STORE. FACADE TO THE LEIPZIGER
PLATZ. (MODERNE BAUFORMEN) 510
278. GARE DU QUAI D'ORSAY. INTERIOR. (L£ GENIE CIVIL) 511
279. BROADLEYS ON LAKE WINDERMERE. (MUTHESIUS) . . . 513
280. VIENNA. STATION OF THE METROPOLITAN RAILWAY. (Lux) 514
281. BERLIN. TURBINE FACTORY OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC
COMPANY (AEG). (HOEBER) 516
282. PALENQUE. SKETCH PLAN OF THE PALACE AND TEMPLES.
(HOLMES) 525
283. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A TYPICAL MAYA BUILDING.
(HOLMES) 526
284. MEXICO CITY. CATHEDRAL 528
285. SANTA BARBARA. MISSION AND FOUNTAIN 530
286. NEW ORLEANS. THE CABILDO 531
287. IPSWICH. WHIPPLE HOUSE 535
288. WESTOVER, VIRGINIA 537
289. NEW YORK. SAINT PAUL'S CHAPEL 539
ILLUSTRATIONS xv
FIG. PAGE
290. NEWPORT. REDWOOD LIBRARY 540
291. RICHMOND. VIRGINIA CAPITOL. ORIGINAL MODEL . . . 541
292. BOSTON. STATE HOUSE 543
293. NEW YORK. CITY HALL 544
294. PHILADELPHIA. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. (CUSTOM
HOUSE) 545
295. WASHINGTON. UNITED STATES CAPITOL 547
296. SALEM. FIERCE-NICHOLS HOUSE 548
297. WASHINGTON. WHITE HOUSE. (HOBAN'S ORIGINAL DESIGN) 549
298. NEW YORK. TRINITY CHURCH 551
299. BOSTON. TRINITY CHURCH, AS ORIGINALLY BUILT. (VAN
RENSSELAER) 553
300. BOSTON. PUBLIC LIBRARY 554
301. ROCKVILLE. GARDEN OF "MAXWELL COURT" 555
302. CHICAGO EXPOSITION. COURT OF HONOR 557
303. ASHMONT. CHURCH OF ALL SAINTS 559
304. BUFFALO. GUARANTY (PRUDENTIAL) BUILDING .... 561
305. NEW YORK. WOOLWORTH BUILDING 562
306. CHICAGO EXPOSITION. TRANSPORTATION BUILDING. DETAIL 563
307. OAK PARK. CHURCH OF THE UNITY 564
308. CTESIPHON. ROYAL PALACE. (DIEULAFOY) 573
309. CORDOVA. INTERIOR OF MOSQUE 575
310. CAIRO. MOSQUE OF AMRU. PLAN 576
311. GRANADA. THE ALHAMBRA. COURT OF LIONS .... 577
312. AGRA. THE TAJ MAHAL 578
313. KHAJURAHO. TEMPLE OF VISHNU 581
314. JAVA. THE CHANDI MENDOOT. (SCHELTEMA) 582
315. ANGKOR WAT. SOUTHWEST ANGLE OF THE PORTICOES . . 583
316. PEKIN. THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN 584
317. Uji. THE PHENIX-HALL. (CRAM) 585
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
Harper's Fine Arts Series is intended to provide for the
student and the general reader concise but authoritative
histories of architecture, sculpture, and painting. During
the last twenty years the study of the monuments of the past
has been pursued with constantly increasing thoroughness by
a great number of well-trained scholars. Hundreds of books
and articles devoted to individual artists, to single monu-
ments or groups of monuments, or to special periods have ap-
peared, which have greatly modified the generalizations and
theories of a generation or even a decade ago. The spade of
the excavator has added many new and important monu-
ments to those already known, and brought to light new
evidence on disputed points. Most of the older hand-
books, therefore, are ''out of date" in many respects, and some
of those more recently published repeat traditional statements
which have, in many cases, been proved incorrect. It has
been the endeavor of the writers of this series to consider all
the results of modern investigation and to summarize them
as clearly as possible. The need for such summaries of the
results of research seems to be better met by single volumes
than by more elaborate treatises, which can have no compen-
sating gain in authoritativeness unless they are the work of
many collaborators.
In every case of conflicting theories the writers have tried,
after weighing all the evidence, to present the view which
seems to them most probable, and then to give, in selected
bibliographies, the titles of books which will be found helpful
for further study. They have not attempted to discuss a
large number of monuments of any given period, but have
chosen rather to emphasize important and characteristic
works and to show their relation to the whole development.
In some cases, also, they have emphasized certain aspects of
xviii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
their subjects at the expense of others. The development of
American art has been discussed at rather greater length than
has been customary in similar books, since it seems to the
writers that American art merits fuller treatment than it has
usually received at the hands of critics and historians. As
the books are intended for Occidental readers, Eastern art, in
spite of its historical importance and intrinsic value, is treated
in a single chapter. Throughout, the endeavor has been to
consider the art of the past in the light of the present, to try
to show how modern art is related to that which has pre-
ceded it.
In the arrangement of the material the use of the books by
classes has been constantly kept in mind, and headings for
sections or paragraphs have been freely introduced throughout
the three volumes.
One other principle the writers have constantly kept before
them. The office of the historian is to trace development, to
show how the art of any period grew out of that of earlier
times and in turn conditioned that of later days. Too many
of the older histories were written to uphold a particular
system of aesthetics or to glorify a particular phase of artistic
development, frequently in a particular country. Many of
these books are valuable as expressions of the judgment of a
critic or as records of the taste of an age. But for the be-
ginner and the general reader they are often confusing.
They place him at an unfair disadvantage and tend to warp
his judgment. Discussions of aesthetic principles and state-
ments of the consensus of critical opinion may properly find
place in an elementary book, but expressions of purely per-
sonal judgments and theories which have not been generally
accepted should be eliminated so far as possible. The aim of
the writers of this series has been to point out the qualities in
the works of any period which have appealed most strongly to
the creators of those works and to endeavor to emphasize
what has enduring value. It is hoped that the resulting
"objectivity" of the books will add materially to their use-
fulness.
The problem of illustration is always difficult. In recent
years, histories of art and similar books have exhibited two
opposite tendencies, the one toward a large number of illus-
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xix
trations on a very small scale, the other toward few illustra-
tions, but those of large size. The former system has the
advantage of bringing before the reader most of the buildings
or statues or paintings mentioned in the text, the latter that
of showing more clearly the details of individual works. In
this matter the writers have tried, with the co-operation of
the publishers, to steer a middle course, providing a con-
siderable number of full-page illustrations for especially im-
portant monuments and a much larger number of small cuts
for others. They hope that they have ,hit upon a "golden
mean."
GEORGE H. CHASE.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
1917.
AUTHORS' PREFACE
During the last twenty years the origins of architecture
have been pushed back another millennium, and its later de-
velopment has been enriched by wholly new chapters. Minute
research on a multitude of special points has modified or over-
thrown generalizations of the nineteenth century which are
still too often repeated. Scholars have been forced, for
instance, to abandon the suppositions that Assyria and
Etruria made any advance over Egypt and Greece in the use
of the arch, that the proportions of the Greek orders evolved
uniformly in a given direction, that the characteristic feature
of Roman architecture was an inconsistent application of the
orders to arched constructions. Similar instances from
mediaeval and modern architecture could be cited, where new
agreements have been reached on questions of fact.
Equally important have been the changes of attitude on
many questions of interpretation. The part of spiritual in-
fluences and spontaneous creation in the formation of styles
is now emphasized, to balance the one-sided affirmation, by
nineteenth-century writers, of the influence of material
environment. The raison d'etre of many forms is sought in
a purely formal expressiveness, rather than in a supposed
structural necessity. The idea of an analogy between the
history of styles and the growth and inevitable decay of or-
ganic life is now generally abandoned, and it is understood
that the material must not be forced into conformity with
any other misleading analogy. Most important of all, it ?a
recognized that in the history of art, as in other branches of
history, subjective criticism must give way to the impartial
study of development — in which historical influence is the
criterion of importance. Freed from dogmatic appraisal,
Roman architecture, Renaissance and baroque architecture,
and, especially, modern architecture, can receive the exposi-
xxii AUTHORS' PREFACE
a
tion to which their influence and their diffusion entitle them.
The modern historian, like Chesterton's modern poet, gives
his subjects not halters and halos, but voices.
In the apportionment of space in this book there is a de-
parture from the tendency of older works to discuss ancient
styles at great length and pass over recent developments with
few words. Here it has been thought better to give progres-
sively greater emphasis and space as modern times are ap-
proached. No date is suggested as marking a supposed
death of traditional art; on the contrary, the development
is followed to the present day, in a belief in unending creative
vitality. Thus it is hoped that the professional architect and
others already familiar with the subject may still find new
matter of interest to them.
In accordance with the usage of most recent writers, the
term Renaissance architecture is confined to buildings of the
Renaissance in its more restricted sense (to about 1550 or
1600), and is not extended to cover the later developments
of classical forms. The need of a general designation for all
of the works of the following period, whether academic or
free in character, is a strong one. German and Italian
scholars have attempted to include them all by an extension
of the term baroque architecture, but such an extension is
a departure from the original sense of baroque and a viola-
tion both of French and of English usage. In consequence
the authors have ventured to propose a new term which is
self-explanatory : post-Renaissance architecture.
The attempt has been made to present each style as a thing
of growth and change, rather than as a formula based on the
monuments of some supposed apogee, with respect to which
the later forms have too often been treated as corrupt.
The general development of the style is first sketched
with little description of individual monuments, and these are
then illustrated and discussed more at length in sections
devoted to the development of single forms and types.
A chronological outline is added to each chapter, with a
bibliographical note, including references to more extended
guides to the literature of the subject.
The illustrations have been selected, in conformity with
recent tendencies both in architecture and in archaeology, to
AUTHORS' PREFACE xxili
show not merely isolated details and monuments, but the
ensemble. Those which are not from photographs are re-
produced, so far as possible, from the original sources, as
noted in the list of illustrations. To the owners of copy-
rights who have courteously permitted the use of their ma-
terial the authors extend cordial thanks; also to Messrs.
B. T. Batsford, Ltd., G. P. Putnam's Sons, Doubleday, Page
& Co., and the Macmillan Co., for permission to reproduce
other material. Messrs. Cram and Ferguson, Charles A.
Platt, and Frank Lloyd Wright, as well as the American
Academy at Rome and the Metropolitan Museum, have
kindly furnished photographs which would otherwise not have
been obtainable. Certain plates which could not be repro-
duced directly have been drawn by Mr. M. B. Gulick and
Mr. A. P. Evans, Jr.
The portion of the book which deals with the Middle Ages
(Chapters VI to IX) has been written by Mr. Edgell; the
portion which deals with ancient and modern times, together
with the chapters on Eastern architecture, by Mr. Kimball.
F. K.
G. H. E.
A HISTORY
OF ARCHITECTURE
A HISTORY
OF ARCHITECTURE
CHAPTER I
THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE
From the beginning of its history architecture has had a
threefold problem or aim: to build structures at once com-
modious, strong, and satisfying to the artistic sense. Each
of the phases of the problem offers its own possibilities and
difficulties, rooted in natural conditions and universal human
traits, and thus to a certain degree constant. As an intro-
duction to the study of the varied historical solutions of
the problem of architecture these constant factors deserve a
brief discussion.
The primary, compelling need, which brought and still
brings the majority of buildings into existence, is of course the
need of inclosed space sheltered from the weather. A roofed
area, surrounded by walls, requires also certain other elements
for practical usefulness — doors, windows, chimneys. In all
but the simplest buildings there must be interior partitions,
separating rooms intended for various uses, and accommodated
to these uses in their sizes and relationships. When these
rooms are numerous, or occupy several stories, the provision of
light and of intercommunication becomes complicated. To
secure good light throughout the interior, the masses of
building must be kept relatively thin or the rooms must be
grouped about interior courts of greater or less area. In
primitive buildings there may be no strict division of the
2 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
functions of different rooms and courts, and it may be neces-
sary to pass through a number intended for one use to reach
one intended for other uses. In more advanced construction
the functions become specialized, and a distinct class of ele-
ments of communication is created. Corridors and stair-
halls provide means of circulation which do not disturb
the privacy of individual apartments. The provisions for
the reception of strangers and for the carrying on of the
service of the establishment are then also separated from the
private portions of the building.
Like these gradations in complexity of function, there are
also gradations in geometrical organization, which affect
convenience as well as appearance. The elements of the
plan — rooms and courts — may be of quite irregular shape,
juxtaposed without attention to their mutual relationships
or to the resulting general outline. Elsewhere they may be
made predominantly rectangular, the outline may be brought
to some regular geometrical form, and communications be-
tween the elements may be provided at points on their
several axes. A further degree of organization may result
from the carrying through of a general axis of symmetry
common to the principal elements of the building, or possibly
from the establishing of two or more important axes, usually
at right angles. In the most highly developed buildings there
may be a multitude of minor axes, related to these main axes
and forming with them a complex but orderly system. Such
schemes permit a clear oversight of the components of the
whole, and a mental grasp of the arrangement, without which
it might prove only a confused labyrinth.
Essential even to mere provision of inclosed space, as well
as to resistance against the various forces of disintegration,
is a sufficient measure of strength. In the simplest of all
forms of construction, a solid wall, the only tendency is for
weight above to compress or crush the material below or to
force it out at the sides. The remedy is to increase the sur-
face over which a given pressure acts by thickening the wall
until safety is amply attained. With foundations, where the
soil is compressible, it is equally essential that the pressure
shall everywhere have the same relation to the bearing power
of the soil, otherwise unequal settlements and cracks will
THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE 3
result. As in any wall or pier the stones at the bottom have
manifestly more weight to sustain than those above, there is
a logical satisfaction and often a real necessity for making a
wall thicker at the bottom than at the top, either by occasional
increases or by a constant slope. Ordinarily the margin of
safety allowed is so great that the mere weight of the material
itself, except in very high walls, does not actually necessitate
a slope, and other considerations, practical or artistic, may
render it undesirable. Thus it is more usual to find vertical
surfaces with increases of thickness only where concentrated
weights, such as those of floors, must be upheld. Another
occasion for increasing the thickness occurs when a material
of greater compressive strength rests upon a weaker material,
as when a story of cut stone rests on a basement of rubble or
a foundation wall upon ordinary soil. These conditions are
frequently responsible for the existence and the forms of
horizontal moldings — string courses or belt courses as they
are called — at the level of floors or at the junction of different
materials and at the base.
Instead of a continuous wall there may be a series of isolated
supports — circular columns or piers of other forms. With
columns even more than with walls it is usual to find an
increase of diameter toward the base or a ' 'diminution" toward
the top. Here, also, it is common to find transitional mem-
bers, the capital supporting the load above, the base spread-
ing the weight on the substructure.
Where openings are to be spanned, either in a wall or be-
tween isolated supports, new problems arise. In a beam or
lintel supported only at its ends the action of gravity pro-
duces not only the usual crushing tendency upon those por-
tions which bear on its supports, and which must be made
large enough to resist this, but also produces a tendency to
shear the beam across just at the point where the support ceases
and a tendency to bend and finally to break it in mid-span.
Against both these tendencies, stone, with its crystalline or
granular structure, offers a resistance very feeble relatively
to its weight. The tendency to break increases much more
rapidly than the distance spanned, and the difficulty and cost
of getting larger blocks likewise increases beyond all pro-
portion. Thus stone lintels can be used but rarely for span-
4 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ning intervals of more than ten feet, and a clear span of
twenty-four feet is the extreme instance. The lightness and
fibrous nature of wood, on the contrary, make it well fitted to
span long distances, provided the weight above be not too
great. Iron and steel have in modern times made possible
beams of immensely greater strength and span at relatively
small cost.
When masonry is to be used to bridge wide openings, or in
any case when only small stones or brick are at command, some
form of arch must be employed, and a new element of dis-
integration, horizontal thrust, appears. A rudimentary
form of arch is the corbeled arch, built up in horizontal
courses, each projecting somewhat in front of the course
below, finally meeting over the center of the opening. The
true arch differs from this in having radiating joints, being
composed, in principle, of wedge-shaped blocks called vous-
soirs. It may be semicircular, elliptical, or pointed — of tall
or squat proportions. The weight of the crown of the arch
tends to push the two sides apart with a force which is rela-
tively greater in broad, low arches than in tall, narrow ones.
The sides require to be abutted by masses of earth or masonry,
to be brought into equilibrium by the counter thrust of other
arches, or, failing these methods, to be connected by a tie-
rod. In a continuous arcade, or series of arches resting on
piers or columns, the thrusts neutralize each other and pro-
duce merely vertical pressure on all the intermediate supports.
A massive abutment is thus needed only at the ends, and the
intervening piers may be more slender.
Covering the spaces inclosed by the walls are the roofs,
which take on a multitude of forms influenced by the climate,
the materials, and the shapes below. Only in a rainless
climate can roofs be perfectly flat and joints penetrate them
without any overlapping protection. Under all other con-
ditions there must be a slope of greater or less degree to
carry off the water from rain or melting snow. If there is a
continuous impervious covering like clay, tar, or soldered
metal, the slope may be almost imperceptible, and the roof
may still form a terrace, reasonably flat. If the covering
material is of small, overlapping pieces like shingles, slate,
or tiles, the roof, to insure the shedding of water, must have a
THE ELEMENTS OP ARCHITECTURE 5'
pronounced inclination. Where there is a deep fall of snow
it is necessary either to make the roofs strong enough to sup-
port a great weight or steep enough to throw off the snow
before it accumulates dangerously. To assume merely that
southern climates demand flatter roofs and northern ones
steeper roofs is obviously too inaccurate a generalization.
The climate, in most cases, is a less important factor than the
covering material. The form of the roof may also be in-
fluenced by the shape of the areas to be covered or, con-
versely, the form of roof once adopted may govern the ar-
rangement of the plan. A pitched or sloping roof requires
relatively narrow and uniform buildings if the ridge is not to
rise wastefully high and the form is not to become over-
complex. A terraced roof permits the masses of building to
be of any shape and size. In either case there are practical
as well as artistic reasons for a special treatment where roof
and wall meet With a terraced roof there is need of a
parapet, breast-high; with a sloping roof there is need of a
projecting cornice, to support a gutter or to keep the drip
from the eaves clear of the walls.
The support of the roof and its form on the interior raise
further questions. If the width is small, beams may span
directly from wall to wall, or two sets of inclined rafters,
resting on the walls, may meet at the ridge. With greater
widths there must either be intermediate supports, or trusses
of wood or metal members so framed and braced as to be self-
supporting over a wide span; or else, instead of either, there
must be vaults of arched masonry. Vaults have the advantage
of resisting fire, but they have horizontal thrusts which re-
quire suitable abutment. Vaults of continuous hemispherical
or semi-cylindrical form — domes or barrel vaults — necessitate
a continuous abutment by thick walls. Vaults composed of
intersecting surfaces or resting on arches, however, may
have their thrusts concentrated at a few points, where they
may be met by walls or projecting buttresses which are more
efficiently disposed. Sometimes there is but a single covering
to the building: a roof construction of beams and trusses
appears on the interior, or vaults show their forms directly
on the exterior. More often, however, greater freedom is
desired to adapt exterior and interior coverings to their dif-
6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ferent functions. Thus ceilings may be introduced below the
roof beams, or independent roofs constructed above the
vaults.
Along with the desire for strength and practical usefulness
goes often a conscious striving for artistic effect. Even in the
most utilitarian buildings, indeed, there must always be a
certain measure of choice in the selection of materials or of
forms. Thus there is inevitably some expression of prefer-
ences which are, consciously or unconsciously, artistic. It
is the sum of such expressions, partly of conscious preference,
partly of traditional usage, partly of natural conditions and
practical necessity, which constitutes the artistic character of a
structure.
The artistic ideas which may be thus expressed are of many
different sorts. The adaptation of the building to its practical
functions, the purpose and relationships of its various parts,
may be made clear. The specific character — religious, civic,
military, commemorative — may be emphasized. The nature
of the environment may be mirrored in picturesqueness or
formality of design. The size or "scale" of the building may
be unmistakably declared through features the size of which
bears a necessary relation to the materials used or to the
human figure. The treatment of the materials themselves
may be such as to bring out all their characteristic possibilities
of color, texture, or veining. The principles of the structural
system may be revealed and the raison d'etre of every detail
made evident. Finally there are the ideas of pure form,
expressed in the mere sizes, shapes, colors, and light and
shade. This domain of pure form is the one which archi-
tecture shares with painting and sculpture. In architecture,
however, the forms are not representative, but abstract and
geometrical, and there is, besides, one possibility which none
of the other arts possesses. It is that of creating forms of
interior space, within which the observer stands. In all these
architectural expressions and in their mutual relationships
there may be a greater or a less degree of consistency, har-
mony, and interest. Certain expressions are even incom-
patible with others, and each fusion of expressions in a single
building involves the sacrifice of many others, and is a unique
creation.
THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE 7
At a given period or in a given region, however, many of
the elements remain constant. The use of certain materials
or constructive systems may be imposed by the geologic
formation, by climatic conditions, or by the isolation of the
inhabitants. Even if there are few restrictions of this sort,
there will be the force of custom, perpetuating a thousand
peculiarities and methods of varied origin. Often there will
be also the influence of older and of neighboring civilizations,
steadily exercised in definite directions. Thus it comes about
that, in the expression of their artistic instincts, the men of
one time and one place have a common vocabulary of forms
and tend to speak a common architectural language, in the
same way that they tend to employ a common spoken lan-
guage. It is these architectural languages, varying in every
country and province and in every generation, which we mean
when we speak of the historic styles of architecture.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Works dealing with the elements and theory of architecture
A popular work in English is J. Belcher's Essentials in Architecture,
1907. Others addressed to a more professional audience are J. B.
Robinson's Architectural Composition, 1908, and J. V. Van Pelt's
Essentials of Composition, 26. ed., 1913. Systematic and fundamen-
tal discussions occur in J. Guadet's Elements et theorie de /' architecture,
4 vols., 3d ed., 1909, and L. Cloquet's Traite d' architecture, 5 vols.,
1898-1901. The Handbuch der Architektur contains similar material:
pt. I, vol. 2, Die Bauformenlehre by J. Biihlman, 2d ed., 1901;
and pt. IV, vol. i, Architektonische Komposition by H. Wagner and
others, 3d ed., 1904.
2
CHAPTER II
PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE
Prom the origins of mankind in the mists of the preglacial
period down to the beginnings of recorded history there was
a gradual development lasting over great periods of time.
The steps in the development were much the same among dif-
ferent peoples, although their degrees of advancement at a
given time varied greatly. Men passed through successive
ages in which stone, bronze, and iron were used for tools and
weapons, and in which corresponding advances were made
in other branches of culture. The Egyptians and the peoples
of Mesopotamia had already completed this development
while the inhabitants of central Europe were still in the stone
age, and Europeans in their turn have found the American
Indians and other peoples still ignorant of bronze and iron.
It is thus in central Europe that we are best able to trace the
changes which, in more favored regions, took place at a much
earlier time, and which in less favored regions are still in-
complete.
The stone age. During the earlier stone age, the paleo-
lithic period, when instruments were still crudely chipped,
men lived by hunting and fishing. They dwelt in caves or
dugouts, or in tents of poles and hides. In the later stone
age, or neolithic period, when they had learned to polish
stone implements, to raise cattle, and till the soil, new methods
of housing were added. Huts were built of poles and reeds
plastered with clay, with thatched roofs. Sometimes the
floors of these were raised above the ground on piles, for
protection against hostile attack, as well as against animals
and vermin. Sometimes the huts were, even built on piles
over the water. In the Swiss and Italian lakes there were
whole villages of these pile dwellings, the remains of which
PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE
show the rudimentary beginnings of carpentry. The dwell-
ings were already surpassed in importance at this time, how-
ever, by sepulchers of the dead and religious monuments.
These were of stone, usually not composed of many small
pieces, but "megalithic" — of enormous blocks which singly
sufficed for a wall or roof. Tomb chambers were made of a
pair of such blocks with a covering slab — constituting what
\fflff
K"
&l
'
FIG. I — STONEHENGE. (RESTORED BY HARTMANN)
are called dolmens. Sometimes these were buried beneath
a mound of earth, or were preceded by a covered corridor.
Other monuments, which may well have had a religious
significance, are the menhirs, or single standing pillars, and
the cromlechs, or circles of stones. A menhir in Brittany had
the extreme height of seventy feet. The most famous of the
cromlechs is at Stonehenge near Salisbury in England (Fig. i).
It had two concentric circles of tall standing stones, with
lintels resting on them, minor circles of smaller stones just
inside of each, and a great "altar stone" within.
The ages of bronze and iron. With the discovery of the art
of working metals began the bronze age, which made possible
more advanced works of carpentry and masonry. This oc-
io A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
curred in central Europe about 2000 B.C. Following villages
of improved pile dwellings on land, such as the terramare
of Italy with their walls and moats, came huts once more
resting on the ground. These were at first circular or oval,
but they gradually assumed a rectangular shape. The
conical or domical roofs of the earliest huts were later re-
placed, in northern climates, by a pitch roof with a longi-
tudinal ridge. The introduction of iron, which took place
in central Europe about the seventh century B.C., made but
little change in the manner of building. Architecture there
remained essentially primitive until it was influenced by off-
shoots of the highly developed styles which grew up about the
eastern Mediterranean. To study their rise will be the
object of the following chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
A comprehensive and authoritative work on prehistoric architect-
ure is lacking. Monographs on individual sites and monuments
abound, too numerous to be listed here. Reference must be made
to certain general works covering the prehistoric period, such as
Sir John Lubbock's Prehistoric Times, 7th ed., 1913; M. Hoernes's
Primitive Man, English translation, 1900 (Temple Primers); and
Urgeschichte der Kultur, 3 vols., 1912 (Sammlung Goschen); or to
works which cover limited regions. Hoernes's Urgeschichte der
bildenden Kunst, 26. ed., 1915, and E. A. Parkyn's Prehistoric Art,
1915, unfortunately do not include architecture. For the develop-
ment in prehistoric Europe, principally dealt with in this chapter,
see, above all, J. Dechelette's Manuel d'archeologie pr6historique,
celtique et romaine, 2 vols., 1908 ff. (primarily devoted to France,
but with some references to other countries and full bibliographical
notes), and S. Muller's Urgeschichte Europas: Grundzuge einer pra-
historischen Archaologie, translated from the Danish, 1905; French
translation: L' Europe prehistorique, 1907. For England consult
R. Munro's Prehistoric Britain, 1914 (Home University Library),
T. R. Holmes's Ancient Britain, 1907, or B. C. A. Windle's Remains
of the Prehistoric Age in England, 1904. On the pile dwellings see
R. Munro's The Lake Dwellings of Europe, 1890.
CHAPTER III
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
EGYPT
The first notable development of architecture was reached
in the fertile valley of the Nile. At the beginning of the
third millennium before Christ, when the earliest of the great
Egyptian royal tombs were building under a strong central-
ized rule, the valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates seems
not yet to have possessed any monuments comparable to
them in workmanship or magnitude. The Great Pyramid,
built by Khufu as his own burial-place in the years following
2800 B.C., is not only the most considerable of all architectural
works in bulk, but one of the most perfect in execution.
Although over seven hundred and fifty feet on a side, it was
laid out with such accuracy that Petrie reports its diver-
gencies from exactness in equality of sides, in squareness, and
in level, no greater than his own probable error in measuring
it with the most modern surveying instruments.
General characteristics. The course of excavations has re-
vealed a variety in Egyptian art, during its three thousand
years of active life, quite different from the uniformity which
was at first supposed to exist, yet it is possible to summarize
certain enduring characteristics of its architecture. This
was largely conditioned by religious beliefs, which demanded
the utmost grandeur and permanence for tombs and temples,
the residences of the dead and of the gods, in contrast with the
light and relatively temporary houses which sufficed for even
the greatest of the living. Such permanence was sought by
the almost exclusive employment of fine stone, which the
cliffs of the Nile Valley furnished in abundance, and by the
adoption, as the dominant constructive types, of the simple
12 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
mass, and of the column and the lintel. The arch, occasion-
ally used from the earliest times, was confined to substructures
where it had ample abutment and was little in view. The
architectural members, moreover, were generally of great
size and massiveness, although sometimes of extreme refine-
ment and in certain cases even of delicacy. Traditional ele-
ments of composition in plan recurred in many types of
buildings. These were the open court, often surrounded by a
continuous interior colonnade or peristyle, and the rectangular
room opening on its broader front, with its ceiling supported
by columns. With the flat roofs which the rainless climate
permitted, rooms could be juxtaposed without any other
restraint than the necessity of light. Partly as a consequence
of religious beliefs, partly doubtless from natural preference,
the architectural members were usually covered with sculpture
in relief, everywhere blazing with harmonious color. Archi-
tecture formed an equal union with sculpture and painting.
The rich flora of the Nile, especially the lotus and the papyrus,
furnished the principal motives of ornament, and even sug-
gested the form of structural members.
Development. The architecture of Egypt, from its earliest
traces to the Christian era, shows a continuity of character
never destroyed and scarcely interrupted by any foreign in-
fluence. The early Semitic invasion from Asia by which the
structure of the Egyptian language is explained must have
taken place long before our remotest knowledge. The varied
development of Egyptian art was essentially a native one,
resulting from the interaction and successive supremacy of a
number of local schools, raised to prominence by the political
importance of their centers.
Thinite period. The earliest of these schools to attain a
general predominence was that of This, a city about two-
thirds of the way from the Delta to the First Cataract. This
became the capital of Menes, who first succeeded in bringing
under one rule the earlier kingdoms of the north and the
south about 3400 B.C. His successors of the First and
Second Dynasties, so-called, lived here for perhaps four
hundred years. The slight remains of architecture preserved
from this period indicate a primitive condition. Sun-dried
brick was the principal material, although stone masonry and
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 13
even the arch were soon introduced. The rudimentary forms
of the tomb and of the temple display a similarity to the form
of the house which persists fundamentally even in later times
and indicates a common derivation from the simple dwellings
of the people.
Memphite period, or "Old Kingdom.'1 With the transference
of the seat of government to Memphis, a little south of modern
Cairo, began the first of the great flowerings of Egyptian art.
Under the kings of the Third Dynasty the royal tombs grad-
ually took the form of pyramids, and with the first king of the
Fourth Dynasty, Khufu, came the culmination of Memphite
architecture in the Great Pyramid at Gizeh (Fig. 2). The
buildings of this king and his immediate successors of the
"Old Kingdom" set a standard of size and workmanship
never afterward equaled. The architectural forms, though
simple, were of the greatest refinement. The colonnade was
employed in the courts and the halls of temples, and the
characteristic and beautiful "papyrus" or "lotus bud" column
first made its appearance. After a gradual decline Memphis
lost its importance with the close of the Sixth Dynasty. A
period of relative barrenness ensued, from which emerged
about 2160 B.C. the powerful monarchs of the eleventh and
later dynasties whose reigns constitute the "Middle King-
dom." Their seat was Thebes, again in Upper Egypt, a little
south of This.
Theban period: "Middle Kingdom" and "Empire" With
them began the long supremacy of Theban art, which domi-
nated the development of Egyptian architecture, directly or
indirectly, to the end of its history under the Romans. The
invasion of the Asiatic "Hyksos" who overran the country
caused an interim from about 1675 to 1575, but the empire
which followed picked up the thread almost at the point
where the Middle Kingdom had dropped it. Though the
buildings previous to the invasion have been mostly swept
away by subsequent rulers, they apparently furnished the
prototypes of the temple and other buildings in their later
form. On the expulsion of the invaders followed the age of
greatest splendor, under the monarchs of the Eighteenth and
Nineteenth Dynasties, whose monuments, reaching from the
Fourth Cataract to the Euphrates, furnish the usual idea, of
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE i$
Egyptian architecture. In the three hundred and fifty years
following 1500 B.C. were built the great temples of Der-el-
Bahri, of Abu Simbel, and of Medinet Habu, the delicate
shrines of Elephantine, the superb halls and courts of Karnak
and Luxor, the tombs of the valleys behind Thebes — half,
perhaps, of all that has been saved of Egyptian architecture.
Columnar architecture was magnified to a scale seldom equaled.
Columns sixty to seventy feet high in a few instances, with
lintels of a clear span of twenty-four feet, were among the
structural triumphs of this relatively brief period of world
empire and artistic magnificence. At its close the artistic
impulse had spent itself. The buildings of Ramses III.,
last of the great imperial Pharaohs, already show heaviness of
design and carelessness of execution. Under the kaleidoscopic
usurping dynasties that shortly followed — Tanite, Libyan, and
Nubian — only an isolated monarch now and then had power
to attempt a revival of the splendors of the imperial ar-
chitecture.
Saite period. In the midst of political decadence, however,
a new artistic fermentation was beginning. After the ex-
pulsion of Assyrian conquerors, about 660 B.C., under the rulers
of Sais in the Delta, art sprang again into vigorous activity
such as it had not known for five hundred years. Although
the policy of these astute monarchs was everywhere to restore
the Theban culture, even to revert to the style of the Old
Kingdom, the originality of their artists was not to be denied,
and new and beautiful modifications resulted. Persian
domination followed, and the architecture of the period suf-
fered almost complete destruction; but we can trace its
innovations in the elaborate and diverse columns of the tem-
ples built by the Ptolemies and the Romans.
Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It was the character im-
pressed upon it by the Saite builders that Egyptian architect-
ure retained till it finally succumbed before the advent of
Christianity. Greeks and Romans alike brought their own
national forms, but these were unable to effect any sub-
stantial change outside of the cities of the Delta. The native
architecture was adopted by the conquerors themselves, at
least for the temples of the traditional religion. Under the
prestige of Alexandria, Egyptian dispositions, clothed in
1 6 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
Greek detail, spread beyond the boundaries of Egypt. The
peristylar court and hall, the clerestory, and other charac-
teristic elements, became henceforth international.
The tombs. Throughout this long history the most im-
portant monuments were the tombs and the temples. Egyptian
religious beliefs demanded shelter and sustenance for the
dead as well as for the living. Hence, in the tomb, elaborate
precautions were taken for the preservation of the body, and
for the nourishing of the "ka," or vital force, now dissociated
from it. The forms of the tomb varied in different districts,
though they tended in every period to take the form custom-
ary in the region which was dominant politically. In Lower
Egypt the preference was for masonry structures erected on
the plain; in Upper Egypt, for chambers and passages
excavated in the rock of the valley walls. The masonry
tombs were alike in presenting on the exterior a simple mass
rectangular in plan and almost unbroken by openings^ they
differed in geometrical form and in interior arrangement.
Mastabas. The form of most frequent occurrence in the
Old Kingdom was the one employed for the Memphite nobles,
the so-called "mastaba." It was a low, flat-topped mass,
varying in size with the importance of the occupant, and hav-
ing its faces sloped back at an angle of about seventy-five
degrees. The solid bulk of the mastaba contained at first
merely the filled-up shaft to the tomb chamber below, and a
small chapel for offerings. Later the upper chambers were
multiplied for ceremonial and for the storage of provisions
and household utensils.
Pyramids. From the beginning of the Memphite dynasties
the kings adopted distinctive forms which approached the
pyramid. The first king of the Third Dynasty, Zoser, built
his tomb at Sakkara in seven great receding steps; its last
king, Snefru, erected one at Medum in three steps, another
at Dahshur in true pyramidal shape, fixing the type for the
rest of the period. The most striking group of the pyramids
is that of the Fourth-Dynasty necropolis at Gizeh. Here
stands the familiar group of three built by Khufu, Khafre,
and Menkure — the Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus of
classical writers. Around them are the smaller pyramids of
royalty and serried lines of mastabas built by the nobles. In
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 17
the pyramids, as in the mastabas, the interior arrangements
differ. They are alike in having the tomb chamber elabo-
rately safeguarded by granite portcullises and misleading pas-
sages. These, however, uniformly failed to protect the bodies
against despoilers, often only a few generations later. The
pyramids were preceded by massive chapels for services and
offerings and approached by causeways of stone leading up
FIG. 3 — BENI HASAN. PORTICO OF A TOMB
from the river. By size and by the very simplicity of their
form these greatest of Egyptian monuments make an un-
rivaled impression of grandeur and power.
Rock-cut tombs. Under the Theban monarchs of the
Middle Kingdom the existing local types of Middle and
Upper Egypt were developed — the pyramid-mast aba, a mas-
taba with a small pyramid on top; and the tomb cut in the
western cliffs (Fig. 3). Under the Empire this last type,
adopted by the kings, became by far the most employed.
Every wealthy Theban family had its concealed vault, pre-
ceded by a small rock-cut chapel. To protect their bodies,
the Pharaohs carried passages, gradually descending and
interrupted by small chambers, for hundreds of feet into the
cliffs. Their funerary chapels, however, became separated
from the tombs themselves. They were erected on the plain
before the cliffs fronting the river, and in time became com-
parable to the temples of the gods on the opposite bank.
i8
A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
The first of such chapels, built by Queen Hatshepsut in the
years from 1500 to 1480, is one of the most original and most
refined of all Egyptian monuments (Fig. 4). It lies in the
valley known as Der-el-Bahri, and rises in three great colon-
naded terraces to the sanctuaries cut in the rock. The
architectural forms are of the simplest — square or sixteen-
FIG. 4 — DER-EL-BAHRI. MORTUARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT.
(RESTORED BY BRUNET)
sided columns in long ranks — but the proportions are so just,
the effect so pure, as to suggest Greece in the days of Pericles.
The temples. In the form finally reached under the Rames-
sid Pharaohs of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties,
the mortuary temples closely resembled the temples of the
gods, likewise the product of a long evolution. The gods,
like the dead, required shelter and food. They were housed
with solidity and splendor, and served by the provision of
meat and drink and diversion, all presented with increasing
ceremonial. As it was the Pharaoh who provided the revenue
for all this, so it was he who in theory made the presentation.
It was made, in fact, by the priests, his representatives, the
people participating only when, on feast-days, the offering
GREAT TEMPLE OF AM M ON
1 ;"'.ri
j ;
f
20 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
was distributed in the temple court after being presented to
the god. Though many of the elements of the temple seem
to have been in use from the time of the Old Kingdom, and,
already in the Middle Kingdom to have assumed somewhat
their final relations, it is only the temples of the Empire and
later times that are sufficiently preserved to give a visual idea
of the whole.
Imperial temples. At the great national center of Amon-
worship at Karnak in Thebes (Fig. 5) there are many temples,
the product of long growth. Several of the relatively smaller
FIG. 6— KARNAK. CENTRAL AISLES OF THE HYPOSTYLE HALL OF THE
GREAT TEMPLE OF AMON. MODEL IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
ones well display the similarities, as also the minor diver-
sities, found in the temples of the Theban period. Each con-
sists essentially of a small sanctuary at the back, flanked by
cells for the minor divinities of the religious triad, by chapels
and store chambers, and preceded by a colonnaded hall, the
so-called "hypostyle hall" (Fig. 6) which turned its broad
side to a square court surrounded by columns. The facade
was composed of a great doorway between two tall quad-
rangular towers, their faces sloping back from the perpendic-
ular, together constituting a "pylon." Before the pylon
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 21
stood obelisks, colossal statues of the king or the divinity,
and wooden masts carrying long streamers; before these,
again, were often long avenues of approach, lined with sculp-
tured rams or sphinxes. As one passed inward from the sun-
lit court, through halls successively smaller and lower, the
light diminished till the sanctuary was in almost total dark-
ness, admirably calculated to heighten the effect of religious
mystery and awe.
Special types. At the most important temples, such as those
of Amon at Karnak and Luxor, successive monarchs vied in
multiplying the elements. They built new and larger hypostyle
halls and courts in front of the earlier pylons, until in the
great temple at Karnak, under the Ptolemies, a seventh
pylon was under construction. In a similar way at Philse,
their favorite shrine, the Ptolemies and the Roman monarchs
built many courts, pavilions, and the accessory buildings de-
manded by the late religious cults. Here the irregularity of
the island site forced departures from the usual formality,
but, as elsewhere in Egypt in such cases, ingenious adaptation
produced a composition of the greatest charm. An effect
still further removed from the heaviness and solemnity usually
associated with Egyptian architecture is found in the smallest
temples. One of these, built by Amenhotep III. at Elephan-
tine, now destroyed, is especially famous for beauty of pro-
portion and dignified grace.
Dwellings. The Theban palace is still too little known for
cafe generalization. The Pharaohs seem to have preferred
not to live in dwellings previously occupied, and the practice
of abandoning old palaces for new ones, hastily improvised,
led to the employment of a construction which has left but
few remains. The villa of Amenhotep III. at Thebes has a
rectangular outer wall inclosing a labyrinth of small courts,
columned rooms, and dark cells, all built of sun-dried brick,
plastered and richly painted. Wall paintings elsewhere show
the houses of the wealthy, surrounded by shaded gardens.
The quarters of the poorer classes were closely built in blocks,
often on a regular plan. Their houses, reduced to lowest
terms, comprised a small, square court, along the back of
which lay a rectangular room with the entrance on its broad
side.
22 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The column: origins. Interest in the details of Egyptian
architecture centers in the development of the column, which
the Egyptians were the first to employ, and which they
treated with great mechanical skill and artistic taste. In the
Fourth Dynasty we find square monolithic piers, without
division or ornament of any kind — the system of support and
lintel at its lowest terms. The so-called Temple of the
Sphinx, a waiting-hall at the foot of the causeway leading to
the pyramid of Khafre, thus constructed, is effective by its
proportio'ns and by the perfection of its workmanship. By
the Fifth Dynasty we find the first circular columns, of
types common throughout later Egyptian architecture.
The motives of their designs were taken from the palm and
from the papyrus or the lotus, palm leaves being carved up-
right about the top of the shaft, bending gracefully under the
weight of the abacus, or the shaft itself being made in the
form of several lotus or papyrus stems bound together, the
buds swelling at the top to form the capital.
Later forms. Under the Middle Kingdom the most popu-
lar form was a column abstractly geometrical — polygonal in
plan, or with concave vertical flutings. In either case it was
crowned by a simple square abacus. Such columns, as at
Beni Hasan and later Der-el-Bahri, have a rough resemblance
to the Doric columns of Greece, which, however, seem to
have been derived independently. Under the Empire all
these types were still employed, the papyrus or lotus-bud
form leading in popularity, but a new type was given the
place of honor in the tall central aisles of the hypostyle halls
(Fig. 6) . This was the column with a capital like an inverted
bell, imitative of the flower of the lotus. A capital with heads
of the cow-goddess, Hathor, was used in her shrines, and
piers fronted by standing colossi were frequent, especially
under the great Ramessids. The Saite and Ptolemaic archi-
tects elaborated the capitals, especially the bell capital, by
applying to the smooth surfaces motives drawn from native
flora — leaves, flowers, buds, in gracefully ordered profusion.
They even employed different varieties in the same colonnade,
though always in pairs, placed at equal distances on either
side of tne axis. No attempt was made to develop a separate
system of forms to accompany each type of column. The
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 23
same type of cornice is found with all, a quarter-hollow, or
cavetto, making transition from the vertical members to the
horizontal projecting line of the roof.
The peristyle. Although many Egyptian halls were sub-
divided by ranges of columns extending the full depth of
the room, an equally characteristic arrangement was that
of an interior peristyle, or continuous surrounding file of
columns. This arrangement, which was preferred in the
case of open colonnaded courts, is a typically oriental dis-
position, being found also in Mesopotamia and through-
out the East. Owing perhaps to the guarded nature of
Egyptian life and Egyptian cults, a similar surrounding
peristyle was rare on the exterior. A single instance was
the little temple of Elephantine.
The arch. The arch form was used sometimes in tombs
and notably in the sanctuaries of the temple of Seti I. at
Abydos, but in all such important works it was merely a
corbeled arch, cut out of projecting stones in horizontal
courses. True arches abound in subterranean tomb chambers
from the time of the Third Dynasty, apparently as early as
any in Mesopotamia. The store chambers of the Ramesseum,
the mortuary temple of Rameses II. at Thebes, present an
extensive series of parallel barrel vaults resting on light in-
termediate walls. For use in the superstructure, however,
the true arch seems to have been thought too insecure.
The clerestory. A device first invented by the Egyptians,
destined to play an important r61e in later architecture, is the
clerestory, introduced under the Empire. To light the wide
hypostyle halls, unprovided with windows at the outside,
the roof was raised over the three central aisles, admitting
light through grated openings over the lower roofs at the
sides (Fig. 6).
Methods of construction. The Egyptian roofs were flat, as
the rainless climate permitted. Those of the temples were
constructed of slabs of stone resting directly on the lintels,
dispensing with all wood. The compact soil rendered deep
foundations unnecessary. Piers and columns, originally
monolithic, were perforce, in the largest examples, built up
like towers with rough filling, often none too solid. The
masonry gradually lost the precision of the earliest monu-
24 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ments in the vast and hasty erections of the later Empire, but
the constructive methods remained nearly constant.
Decoration. The elements of decorative expression likewise
remained substantially the same in different periods. They
were based on natural forms, like the lotus and palm, or on
conventional geometric lines, such as the spiral. The god's
house, conceived as the world, had its walls painted with con-
ventional landscapes, its ceiling spangled with stars. The
legends of the gods and the exploits of the kings filled every
available space, proclaiming in no modest way the glories
of the builders, of the restorers, and of usurping monarchs who
wished to shine by reflected light.
The architect. During the whole of Egyptian history the
architect was a man of importance, as might be expected when
building formed so large a part of the monarch's activity.
Inscriptions in tombs of the Fifth Dynasty show that in two
cases, at least, the functions of prime minister, chief judge,
and royal architect were combined. The mortuary inscrip-
tion of the prime minister of Thothmes III., in recounting his
duties, includes personal inspection of monuments under con-
struction. Whoever the real designers were, they were far
from being mere slaves of tradition, and some of them, like
Sen-Mut, the architect of Der-el-Bahri, showed themselves
men of the highest genius.
It is to its strength and dignity, above all, that Egyptian
architecture owes its effect. Less structural than sculptural
in many of its forms, it nevertheless has breadth and monu-
mental quality. At its best pure and subtle, it is seldom lack-
ing in magnificence or even in some touch of sublimity, which
is universally recognized in its major creations.
MESOPOTAMIA
The Tigris and the Euphrates supported a civilization per-
haps even more ancient than that of Egypt. It is impossible
to date the most primitive monuments of either country ac-
curately enough to decide priority of origins. In the forma-
tion of a developed style and the execution of monuments of
the first magnitude, however, the peoples of the Mesopo-
tamian valley lagged many centuries behind the Egyptians.
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 25
Natural conditions and modes of construction. The natural
conditions were in many respects less favorable than in
Egypt. The absence of any good native building-stone or
abundance of wood left sun-dried mud brick the best ma-
terial available in large quantities. Torrential rains and
frequent floods rendered constructions relatively imperma-
nent, even though the walls were faced with burnt brick and
the buildings were raised on huge platforms. In Babylonia
in early times stone was almost impossible to secure. Even
in Assyria the difficulty of bringing it from the mountains was
so great as to prevent its being used ordinarily even for lintels.
Wood, itself hard to obtain, had to' be used for columns and
for ceiling beams, to support the thick roofs of clay. With
the materials available, the only device which could have
furnished a permanent covering of voids with great weight
above was the arch. Its principle was known in Mesopo-
tamia from the earliest times, and was employed frequently
in subterranean vaults, in gateways and doors, where there
was no lack of abutment. Whether spanned by wooden
beams or by barrel vaults, the rooms were given by prefer-
ence a long, rectangular form. Tradition dictated, as in
Egypt, that the entrance to such rooms should be on the
longer side; in other words, the rooms were broad and shal-
low, rather than narrow and deep. Terraced roofs per-
mitted the rooms to be massed in any convenient ar-
rangement, without complicating the disposal of rain-
water. Thus, as in Egypt, great aggregations of rooms
and courts, rather than isolated blocks, were the rule. The
ornamentation of buildings, like the construction, had to be
largely of clay.
Prevailing types. As with most early peoples, the temples
were of great importance. A rather gloomy view of a future
life, on the other hand, gave no encouragement to the build-
ing of elaborate tombs. The palaces of the Assyrian kings
were more massive in construction than those of Egypt, as
befitted the greater relative importance of the life on earth.
Constant exposure to invasion gave military architecture a
development for which there was no occasion in Egypt.
Development. In the history of Mesopotamian architecture
four principal periods of activity may be distinguished, sue-
26 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
cessively in Chaldea, in the "Old Babylonian" kingdom, in
Assyria, and in reincarnated Babylon.
Origins. The earliest Mesopotamian culture seems to have
developed near the mouths of the rivers, in Chaldea, spreading
over the lower half of the valley to embrace what later be-
came Babylonia. The struggle between the primitive city
states lasted much longer in this region than in Egypt, and
unification was postponed till a full millennium after Menes
had brought about the union of the Two Lands of the Nile.
A difference of language in the cuneiform script has lent color
to ancient tradition of a native Sumerian population, grad-
ually giving way before an invading Semitic people which
borrowed its civilization and its arts. The two existed side
by side in the formative period and possibly may be but two
branches of a single stem.
Chaldea. Remains at the Sumerian center of Lagash, the
modern Tello, include a building of the king Ur-Nina — the
oldest structure yet found in Mesopotamia which can be dated
—built perhaps 3000 years before Christ. There is also a
fragment of the staged tower built by Gudea about 2450 B.C.
incorporated in a later palace. The early Semitic religious
center was at Nippur, where the ruins of the temple precinct
include superposed remains of several staged towers, dating
from the very earliest times. The general similarity of these
buildings to the later buildings of Assyria and Babylon es-
tablishes the essential continuity of Mesopotamian archi-
tecture.
Old Babylonian Kingdom. Although as early as 2650 B.C.
the Semitic kings of Agade had extended their rule to the
Mediterranean, the internal consolidation of Babylonia itself
was not accomplished till about 2100, under the great king
Khammurabi of Babylon. His city, hitherto relatively un-
important, now became the center of a powerful state, the so-
called Old Babylonian Kingdom. Plans of dwelling-houses
from this period show already the characteristic Babylonian
scheme of a square court with the principal room along its
southern side. The streets and blocks then established re-
mained unchanged throughout the history of the city. The
kingdom flourished till about 1750 B.C., when it was over-
run by Kassite invaders.
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 27
Assyrian supremacy. The leadership next fell to Assyria,
the northern half of the valley, which had been colonized by
the Semites of the south about 2000, and which now began
an independent career. The Asiatic conquests of Thothmes
III. and his great successors in the fifteenth and fourteenth
centuries brought both Assyria and Babylon in contact with
Egypt, to which their kings sent gifts. By noo Assyria was
strong enough to eject the Kassites from the south and for a
FIG. 7 — DUR-SHARRUKIN (KHORSABAD) THE PALACE OF SARGON.
(RESTORED BY PLACE)
brief period to rule over a united country. After an interrup-
tion of two centuries she again assumed her aggressive policy,
and under a series of strong kings had conquered all western
Asia by 700. The capital, first at Ashur, was later more usu-
ally at Calah, though royal residences were often maintained
in both places and in Nineveh as well. Sargon II., who
ruled from 722 to 705, founded for his capital a new city,
Dur-Sharrukin, the modjern Khorsabad. His successor, Sen-
nacherib, raised Nineveh to the primacy, which it retained to
the downfall of the Empire. He was driven to destroy re-
bellious Babylon, which, however, was restored by his son,
Esarhaddon. Under Esarhaddon even Egypt was brought
28 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE]
beneath the Assyrian yoke for a brief period. The culmination
followed in the peaceful days of Ashurbanipal (668-626). His
palace at Nineveh, inferior only to that of Sennacherib, was
FIG. 8— DUR-SHARRUKIN. THE PALACE OF SARGON. PLAN. (PLACE)
adorned with bas-reliefs of remarkable animation and natur-
alness.
Dur-Sharrukm. The best preserved of all Mesopotamian
monuments, the one which gives the most vivid idea of Assy-
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 29
rian architecture in its maturity, is the palace of Sargon at
Dur-Sharrukin, the modern Khorsabad (Figs. 7 and 8). The
city, of which it was an integral part, formed a rectangle a little
over a mile on each side, inclosed by a wall one hundred and
fifty feet wide and sixty feet high, with battlements, towers,
and outworks. Like most Mesopotamian structures, it had
its corners toward the points of the compass, contrary to the
practice in Egypt, where the sides faced the cardinal points.
The palace of Sargon. The palace itself, on a huge plat-
form in the middle of the northwest wall, covered an area
of twenty-five acres. The platform was faced with massive
blocks of limestone, here accessible, and limestone was also
used as a plinth for the crude brick walls. A ramp and a
monumental staircase led up from the city, through arched
and towered gateways, to two great courts, about which the
main divisions of the palace were grouped. The state apart-
ments in the center, and the khan, or service, division at the
eastern corner, can be identified with certainty. The walls
were very thick, one story high, and at right angles. The
rooms were relatively small and dark, opening through one
another to minor courts, irregularly placed. Although the
plan was very complex, and its chief quarters were kept
separated, it lacked any highly organized system of com-
munications and any extended symmetry or expression of the
internal arrangements.
The temples. On the same platform with the palace stood
a second block of buildings, a group of temples, in close asso-
ciation with the eiggurat, or lofty staged tower, "the link of
heaven and earth," which was the most striking feature of
Mesopotamian religious groups. In the temple block are three
distinct suites, dedicated evidently to different divinities,
each suite consisting essentially of a square court, a broad
vestibule, and a long hall with a cell at the end, apparently
the sanctuary proper. In these suites the household of the god
was established, here sacrifices were offered, and here the
most valuable votive offerings of the kings were deposited.
The ziggurat. The special residence of the god himself and
his consort was the chamber which crowned the ziggurat,
"the house of the mountain." At Dur-Sharrukin the tower
which supported this was formed of a single continuous ramp,
30 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
square in plan, rising like a screw with seven turns. The
walls were enameled successively white, black, purple, blue,
vermilion, silver, and gold, symbolizing the heavenly bodies.
The mass was one hundred and forty feet square at the base
and rose twenty feet at each turn. Some Assyrian ziggurats
seem to have had three or five stages; sometimes each of
these was a level terrace connected with the others by stairs.
The plans were now square, now rectangular.
New Babylonian Kingdom. Within twenty years of the
death of Ashurbanipal his empire had succumbed to the
Medes. Babylon, which had assisted them, was left in-
dependent and entered on a splendid renaissance. In the
reign of her great king, Nebuchadnezzar, especially, from
604 to 561, were built the magnificent walls, the temples, the
palaces, the so-called "Hanging Gardens" which excited the
admiration of Herodotus and other travelers, and the great
ziggurat. The wealth of the Babylonian kings enabled them
to burn brick and to bring stone from a distance, yet the
fundamental constructive system remained unchanged. The
palace plans show a somewhat more regular disposition than
those of Assyria, with recurring suites of similar form for the
living-apartments and access facilitated by corridors. The
temples, which are square or nearly square in plan, have a
central court, with the sanctuary and its vestibule lying
usually along the southern side (Fig. 9) , much as in the plan
of the Babylonian dwelling. The ziggurat of Babylon, like
the one at Nippur, stands in a vast walled inclosure, pre-
ceded by minor courts. In the palace of the citadel is a
massive substructure with two series of parallel rooms, which
retain unmistakable traces' of having been vaulted in brick.
The excavators have sought to recognize in this unfamiliar
arrangement the foundation of the Hanging Gardens, which
would accordingly have obtained their sobriquet through
astonishment at a method of support so novel to its observers.
The revival of Babylonian glory was brief. In 538 the city
fell before the all-conquering Persian, Cyrus, and the su-
premacy of its native art came to a close.
Roofs and vaulting. Throughout ancient times, as now, the
normal method of roofing in Mesopotamia was by wooden
beams supporting a mat of reeds, and then a thick bed of
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
clay graded with a slight inclination to permit water to run
off. Inscriptions tell of the bringing of beams of cedar, pine,
and oak from Amanus and Lebanon to form the ceilings of
temples and palaces. The earliest investigators made the
unwarranted as-
sumption that
barrel vaults were
employed in most
of the rooms of the
Assyrian palaces,
an inference from
their generally
elongated shape
and thick walls, and
from the absence of
any vestige of ceil-
ing beams. A
famous bas - relief
at Nineveh, further-
more, shows houses
covered externally
with egg-shaped
domes, similar to
those of the Sassa-
nian buildings of
Persia many cen-
turies later. Re-
mains of at least
one such dome have
been found which is
thought to date
from Sumerian
times. It is now
generally admitted,
however, that even single vaulted rooms in Mesopotamian
buildings were exceptional, and that the group of free-standing
vaults in the palace at Babylon is, as far as we know, unique
in the country. On the other hand, vaulted drains below-
ground abound in both Assyrian and Babylonian times.
These, which are sometimes semicircular, sometimes pointed
FIG. 9 BABYLON. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF
NINMAH. (AFTER KOLDEWEY)
32 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in section, are remarkable in being built in successive rings,
which are not vertical, but inclined. By means of this in-
clination the builders were enabled to carry their vault along
over the void, without any necessity for wooden false-work or
centering. Each course adhered to the preceding, one and
was supported by it. It was merely necessary to have a wall
or arch to start against.
Columns. Columns were used but sparingly, as supports
for light, isolated structures, and in porticos along the sides of
a court. They were, for the most part, apparently, of wood,
painted or covered with metal plates. Some fragments of
stone columns have been found in Assyria with carved capitals
and bases, usually of cushion form. A relief from Nineveh
shows a small columned shrine having capitals with two pairs
of scrolls or volutes, one above another. These are very
similar to those of the later Ionic capital of the Greeks, and
doubtless exercised an influence on it.
Ornament. Winged bulls of stone carved in high relief
were used to decorate the jambs of arched gateways and., the
bases of towers. Friezes in low relief representing historical
subjects or hunting scenes ornamented the state apartments
of the palaces. Brick enameled in colors was also a favorite
mode of surface decoration. At Dur-Sharrukin broad bands
were placed around the arches; at Babylon a frieze of stalk-
ing lions followed the processional street and representations
of columns lined the walls of the palace.
The assumption of all credit for Mesopotamian buildings
by the monarch has kept in obscurity the men who built
them. Their work is indeed less individual than official in
character. By the very repetition of the great rectangular
masses with their endless towers and battlements it gives a
powerful expression of the size and grandeur of the Oriental
monarchies*
PERSIA
The architecture of the Persians, who next succeeded to
the domination of western Asia under Cyrus and other
Achaemenian kings, borrowed certain forms from the con-
quered regions — Mesopotamia, Ionia, and Egypt. Never-
theless, it retained a large native element, suggestive of a
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 33
primitive columnar architecture of wood. Similar reminis-
cences of wooden construction can be traced in Ionia and es-
pecially in Lycia, but it seems less probable that the Persian
forms were merely imitative of these than that all were
descended from a more or less common type, the product of
similar conditions. Wood and stone were both obtainable
on the plateau of Iran, as on the coast of Asia Minor; wood
was naturally used in early days, stone after the growth of
wealth and power. In Persia the entablatures and roof
framing remained of wood throughout the Achaemenian period,
making possible the unusual slenderness and the wide spacing
of the columns. As in Assyria and early Greece, the roof it-
self was a thick mass of clay, terraced, with a very slight in-
clination. Though the Persians drew some decorative forms
from other countries, their chief source for them was Assyria.
The winged bulls and bas-reliefs are but clumsily imitated;
and even the polychrome friezes of enameled brick from Susa,
the masterpieces of Persian art, are relatively crude beside
their prototypes at Babylon.
Development. The development of Achaemenian art follows
the dramatic history of the dynasty. It appeared suddenly
with Cyrus about 550 B.C., absorbing Mesopotamian and
Ionian elements as he conquered those countries, and Egyptian
motives a.fter the conquests of Cambyses. It disappeared as
suddenly before Greek civilization on the collapse of the vast
empire in its struggle with Alexander.
Types of buildings. Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of
Persia, had no images and required neither true temples nor
sepulchers. The Achaemenian kings, however, did not ob-
serve the custom of exposing their bodies after death, as pre-
scribed by the Avesta, and their monumental tombs are
among the chief remains of Persian architecture. Still more
important are the palaces, which reflect the proud absolutism
of the Great King.
Palaces. The Persian palaces at Pasargadse and Persepolis
stood on great platforms like those of Assyria. Here these
were built of stone and served at once to give military security
and monumental setting (Fig. 10) . At Persepolis a vast double
staircase leads up from the plain, giving access to the platform
through a tall columnar porch flanked with winged bulls,
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 35
On low platforms resting on the larger one stand three palaces,
those of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III. They are similar
in general arrangement, with a large, square, columned hall,
preceded by a deep portico and surrounded by minor rooms.
Audience-halls. Independent of the palaces are the mag-
nificent audience-halls of Darius and of Xerxes, each cover-
Copy right, by Macmillan & Co.
FIG. II — PERSEPOLIS. TOMB OF DARIUS, NAKSH-I-RUSTAM. (JACKSON)
ing more than an acre. In disposition they reproduce the
central feature of the palaces, but on a greater scale. The
hall of Darius has ten columns each way, inclosed by massive
36 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
walls. A portico eight columns wide and two deep is flanked
by colossal winged bulls. The hall of Xerxes has but six
columns each way in the central portion, but has porticos
the full width of this on three sides. With its columns thirty
feet apart and almost seventy feet high, this building takes
rank with the greatest columnar buildings of Egypt and of
Greece.
Tombs. The earliest royal tomb, supposed to be that of
Cyrus — a small gable-roofed cella mounted on seven great
steps — is obviously imitative of Ionian architecture. Those
of later monarchs seem to have been inspired by the rock-cut
tombs of Egypt. They are found in the cliff at the back of
the palace platform at Persepolis, and near by in the rock now
known as Naksh-i-Rustam (Fig. n). All are substantially
similar, with a portico of four engaged columns carved about
the door, a great bas-relief above, and a blank space of equal
size below. Their chief interest lies in their representation of
the Persian entablature of wood. With its architrave of three
superposed bands, its projecting beam-ends above, this is
clearly related in its origin to the forms of the Ionic entablature
in Greece.
Religious buildings. Though the ancient Persians had no
true temples, their sacred fire needed a small inclosed shrine
where it could be kept continually burning, and altars in the
open air where it could be occasionally kindled for sacrifice.
These may be recognized, perhaps, in the small square towers
with blank windows, still preserved near Pasargadae and
Persepolis, and in the altars of uncertain date at the rock of
Naksh-i-Rustam and elsewhere.
Columns. The Persian columns were slender, and crowned
with a peculiar capital in which the heads and forequarters
of two bulls are united back to back in the direction of the
architrave. Beneath these in some examples were placed
multiplied pairs of volutes on end, and then bells, upright
and inverted, in incoherent sequence. Thus the capital
became long out of all usual proportion to the shaft below.
In its problems of the column and lintel Persian architecture
was related to the classic architecture of Greece, which was
roughly contemporary with it, and which carried its solutions
much further in technical facility and refinement.
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 37
THE AEGEAN
The direct forerunners of the classic races of Greece, in
civilization and in architecture, were the early inhabitants of
the islands and coasts of the ^Egean, whom the later tribes
with their iron swords deprived of their birthright. Con-
trary to earlier belief, it now seems clear that civilization
developed almost simultaneously all about the eastern Mediter-
ranean, and remains have been found in Crete and Asia Minor
contemporary with the earliest monuments of Egypt, though
less advanced in artistic character.
Development. Two principal periods may be recognized
which show considerable differences in their types of archi-
tecture. The earlier, during which Crete, in close touch
with Egypt and Syria, was the leader, has been called the
Minoan period, from the legendary sea king, Minos. The
later period, the so-called Mycenaean, was that in which the
inhabitants of the mainland cities, Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos,
and others — probably the Achaeans of the Homeric poems —
continued the culture of Crete after overthrowing its political
supremacy. The long development of Minoan art, following
the introduction of bronze about 3000 B.C., was cut off with
the destruction of Knossos about 1400. Costumes sewed and
fitted, plumbing scarcely rivaled again till the last half of the
nineteenth century, are evidences of a surprisingly luxurious
civilization. Its continuation on the mainland, somewhat
less refined in life and art, lasted till the dark ages following
the Dorian invasion, about noo.
Types. In the patriarchal monarchies of the time the
palaces were naturally the chief buildings. In Crete, where
dominion rested on sea power, these were quite unfortified;
at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Troy they were walled strongly and
ingeniously against land attacks. Religious ceremonies do
not seem to have required any highly specialized construc-
tions. Interment was the ordinary funeral custom, but
certain tombs excavated in the hillsides were given a monu-
mental character. Building materials and climate placed
little restriction on the choice of forms ; the column and lintel
and the corbeled arch were employed exclusively.
Oriental and European elements. Besides many peculiar na-
38 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
tive elements, among which the entrance-portico opening on
two adjacent sides is one of the most striking, Cretan
architecture shows a number of features of Oriental character.
FIG. 12 — KNOSSOS. PLAN OF A PART OF THE PALACE. (EVANS)
These include the flat roof, with the complex juxtaposition of
rooms which it permits, and the court surrounded by a con-
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 39
tinuous peristyle. The architectural dispositions of the main-
land, on the other hand, show signs of a European origin;
they can be traced without a break from the primitive hut com-
mon to northern races. The isolated position of the prin-
cipal rooms, with entrances only on one end, suggests that
they were covered with gable roofs. The court, instead of
forming a homogeneous ensemble, was a resultant of the
surrounding units, with walls or porticos independent of one
another. Although the dispositions in the two regions thus
differ markedly, the decorative forms are largely the same,
borrowed by the mainland, with the minor arts, from Crete.
Crete. The palace at Knossos, the greatest of the Cretan
centers (a portion of which is shown in Fig. 12), is in very
truth a "labyrinth" which might well have given rise to the
classic legend. About a long rectangular paved court are
grouped rooms and tortuous passages in the greatest con-
fusion. On the eastern side they were superposed in two
stories, at least, the lower ones taking what light they have
from narrow light-wells. The functions of many of the parts
are still uncertain, but they seem never to have been logically
grouped. The more important rooms were preceded by the
characteristic corner- wise porticos already mentioned. The
great staircase running through three stories, with its ramping
colonnade, is a notable feature. Another is the "theatral
area," a paved space with banks of steps on two adjoining
sides, evidently intended for spectators. One of these is also
found at the similar palace of Phaistos, which has its own
features of special interest, among them the monumental
flight of sixteen broad steps before the main entrance. At
Gournia a whole city was unearthed, with simple houses of
stone and baked brick, narrow, winding streets, and a small
central palace and altar.
The mainland. The citadel-palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns
(Fig. 13), and other cities of later importance are irregular in
plan, like the fortified summits which they crown, but they
show certain recurring elements of similar form. Chief of
these was the megaron, or men's hall, a square room with a
hearth in the center and a vestibule and colonnaded portico
in front, opening on the main court. Access to this court, as
to the forecourt which might precede it, was obtained through
3
40 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
monumental gateways or propylaea. Each of these had a door
which was protected, inside and out, by small porticos between
flanking walls, or antae.
Walls, openings, and vaults. The walls were sometimes of
the finest cut stone, sometimes of sun-dried brick. Stone was
FIG. 13 — TIRYNS. PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS. (RODENWALDT)
used for fortress and retaining- walls, and for the base, at least,
of the walls of dwellings. In the palace at Tiryns sun-dried
brick bonded with wooden beams seems to have been used
for the superstructure. The fortress walls were sometimes
built of irregular blocks, the huge size of which gained them the
name of Cyclopean. Sometimes they were of dressed stone, with
either polygonal or rectangular blocks, as the natural cleavage
of the stone suggested. Though they often used them, the
Mycenaean builders were evidently doubtful of the strength
of large stone lintels, and, not knowing the true arch, they
were led to give an unparalleled development to the corbeled
arch and vault, built of flat stones projecting over one another
till they finally met. The lintel of the "Gate of Lions" at
Mycenae, for instance, is relieved of any considerable weight by
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 41
a corbeled arch (Fig. 14). Corbeled vaults were used over the
narrow galleries in the walls of Tiryns and they were the
favorite means of covering the chambers of important tombs.
At Isopata in Crete the chambers are rectangular, and the
FIG. 14 — MYCEN^E. GATE OF LIONS
two long sides curve together above to form the vault. The
superior strength of a circular form was realized, and in some
of the later tombs of Mycenae and Orchomenos there are
" beehive" vaults nearly fifty feet in diameter.
Column and lintel. The columns and architraves, both in
Crete and elsewhere, were of wood, and have for the most
part disappeared. The columns of the " Treasury of Atreus"
show that stone was sometimes employed as well as wood;
and that, in addition to cylindrical columns and columns of
the usual type, larger at the base than at the top, there were
42 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
also columns larger at the top than at the base. These
contradict the structural tendency, yet the enlargement is so
slight that they do not lack grace and piquancy. The stone
capitals preserved have a square abacus supported by a
circular cushion or torus, sometimes with a quarter-hollow
beneath. The stone entablatures are evidently imitative of
wooden construction, for the ends of round beams are repre-
sented above the architrave. With mud-brick walls, wood
was apparently used for facing the openings, as well as the
ends of walls, or antae.
Decoration. The fundamental elements of decoration were
the spiral, the chevron, and the rosette, employed in bands
or friezes. Another characteristic type of frieze was one
consisting of pairs of palmetto ornaments back to back with
a rectangular space between. In the triangular space above
the lintel of the ''Gate of Lions" was a sculptured relief repre-
senting a column, or altar, flanked by two lions (Fig. 14).
Similar reliefs are thought to have occupied the corresponding
spaces in other gateways and doorways, such as that of the
'"Treasury of Atreus" (Fig. 15).
Relation to Doric architecture. Many of the Mycenasan
forms recur in the architecture of historic Greece, especially
in the buildings of the Doric style, which was developed by the
conquerors of the Peloponnesus. The plan of the propylasa
is the same; the plan of the temple preserves the form of the
Mycenasan megaron, with its arrangement -of columns in antis.
;The Doric capital, the antae, the high wall base of upright
stones, all show reminiscences of the earlier forms which in-
dicate close imitation, if not actual continuity. As in so
many instances, the arts of the conquered took captive the
conquerors, though new vigor and new needs modified exist-
ing types and produced new ones. The prehistoric architect-
ure of the ^Egean is not, however, to be considered merely as
a barbarous stage in the development of Greek classic archi-
tecture. It was itself complete, adapted to the needs of
contemporary civilization, with its structural and decorative
systems thoroughly established. If it was surpassed in ex-
pressiveness and organization by architecture of the classic
period, it was not the less superior to the clumsy experiments
of the dark ages which intervened.
<•>&•
FIG. 15— MYCEN.E. PORTAL OF THE "TREASURY OF ATREUS.
(RESTORED BY SPIERS)
44
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The preclassical styles which had their seats in the Levant
and western Asia developed in three main currents largely
native and independent of one another. In their continuous
life of two or three thousand years and more, it is a few brief
periods to which we owe the vast proportion of enduring
monuments. The Fourth and Eighteenth Dynasties in
Egypt, the Assyrian culmination and the Babylonian renais-
sance, the palace-building periods of Knossos and Mycenae,
are some of the moments for which long centuries of political
upheaval and artistic groping had prepared. In the first
millennium before Christ their influence focussed on Greece,
where was evolved a style destined to stamp indelibly the
later architecture of Europe.
PERIODS OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
Centers
This
Memphis
Thebes
Fayum
I. Prehistoric period, to 3400 B.C.1
II. Thinite period, 3400-2980. Dynasties I. -II.
III. Old Kingdom, about 2980-2475. Dynasties
III.-VI.
The pyramids — Khufu, Khafre, Men-
kure.
First transitional period — decline of the king-
dom. Dynasties VII. -X.
IV. Middle Kingdom, about 2160-1788. Dynas-
ties XI.-XIL
Early halls at Karnak. Tombs at Beni
Hasan. Pyramids at Lisht.
Second transitional period— Hyksos invasion.
V . Empire , about 1 5 80- 1 090 . Dynasties X VII I .-
XX.
Formative period, to Thothmes III. and
Hatshepsut (1501-1447).
Mortuary temple at Der-el-Bahri.
" Processional Hall" at Karnak.
Central period, culminating under
Amenhotep III. (1411-1375).
Court and Hypostyle Hall at Luxor.
Temple at Elephantine.
1 In the earlier periods, where there is still some uncertainty, the dating follows the
" Berlin " system, the one most widely accepted.
Thebes
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 45
PERIODS OF EGYPTIAN 'ARCHITECTURE— Continued
VI.
VII.
Revolution under Ikhnaton (Amenhotep
iv.) (1375-1358).
Restoration under Dynasty XIX. Seti
I., Ramses II. (1313-1225).
Great Hall at Karnak. Temple at
Abu-Simbel.
Ramessid period. Dynasty XX. Ramses
III. (about 1198-1167).
Mortuary temple at Medinet-Habu.
Third transitional period. Decadence
under Libyan and Nubian em-
perors. Assyrian conquest and
supremcy, about 670-660.
Renaissance, about 663-525. Dynasty XXVI.
Psamthik. Fourth transitional period.
Persian conquest.
Graeco-Roman period, after 332 B.C.
Ptolemaic period, to 30 B.C.
Temples at Denderah, Edfou, and
Philae.
Roman imperial domination, to 395 A.D.
Later buildings at Philae.
Centers
El Amarna
Thebes
Sais
Alexandria
PERIODS OF MESOPOTAMIAN AND PERSIAN
ARCHITECTURE
I. Prehistoric period, to about 3000 B.C.
II. Primitive period — development and
struggle of city states in Baby-
lonia, about 3000-1900.
Palace of Gudea at Lagash,
about 2450.
Ziggurats at Nippur.
III. Old Babylonian Kingdom, about 2100-1750.
Kh ammurabi .
Main lines of Mesopotamian architect-
ure established.
Kassite domination in Babylonia, about
1750-1100,
Lagash (Tello)
Sumerian: Lagash
Semitic: Agade, Nippur
Babylon
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
PERIODS OF MESOPOTAMIAN AND PERSIAN
ARCHITECTURE— Continued
IV. Rise of Assyria, about 1650-1100, culminat-
ing in first conquest of Babylonia.
Assyria overrun by Aramean nomads, about
1050-900.
V. Assyrian Empire, about 885-607.
Conquest of western Asia completed by
700.
Palace of Sargon at Dur-Sharrukin,
722-705.
Destruction and rebuilding of Babylon.
Conquest of Lower Egypt. Sennacherib,
Esarhaddon.
Palaces at Nineveh.
Culmination under Ashurbanipal, 668-
626.
Palaces at Nineveh.
Destruction of Nineveh by Medes and
Babylonians, about 607.
VI. New Babylonian Kingdom, about 607-538.
Nebuchadnezzar II.
Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, King of Per-
sia, 538.
VII. Persian Empire, about 550-330. Achaeme-
nian Dynasty.
Period of Ionian and Mesopotamian in-
fluence. Cyrus.
Tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadse.
Period of Mesopotamian and Egyptian
influence. Darius, Xerxes.
Palaces and tombs at Persepolis.
Conquest of Persia by Alexander.
Centers
Ashur
Nineveh
Babylon
Persepolis
PERIODS OF ^GEAN ARCHITECTURE
I. Prehistoric period, Stone Age, to about
3000 B.C.
II. Early Minoan, about 3000-2200. Beginnings
of Bronze. Crete
Second or burnt city on site of Troy.
PRECLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 47
PERIODS OF ^GEAN ARCHITECTURE— Continued
III.
Middle Minoan I., about 2200-2000.
Earlier palaces at Knossos and Phaistos.
Middle Minoan II., about 2000-1850.
First culmination, ending with first de-
struction of Knossos.
Middle Minoan III., about 1850-1600.
Later palace at Knossos built.
Late Minoan I. and II., about 1600-1400.
Later palace at Phaistos built, palace at
Knossos remodeled. Rise of
Mycenae, Tiryns, and other
mainland cities. Fall of Knos-
sos, about 1400.
Mycenaean period, about 1400-1100.
Megaron-palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns,
Troy (sixth, or Homeric, city),
etc.
Dorian invasion of Peloponnesus. Ionian
settlement of Asia Minor. Transi-
tion to iron.
Centers
Crete
Greek
mainland
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Of G. Perrot and C. Chipiez's monumental Histoire de Vart dans
Vantiquite, the first six volumes, 1882-1894, deal with preclassical
architecture (English translation by W. Armstrong, 1883-1894).
Though superseded in many particulars, these volumes are still
valuable, especially for their graphic restorations in perspective.
The history of excavations is summarized in H. V. Hilprecht's
Excavations in Bible Lands, 1903, which covers Egypt as well as
Mesopotamia and Palestine. A special study of the columnar
building, based on the latest researches, is G. Leroux's Les origines
del'edifice hypostyle en Grece, en Orient et chez les Romains, 1913.
Egypt. The only general work in English wholly devoted to
Egyptian architecture is E. Bell's The Architecture of Ancient Egypt:
a li historical outline" 1915. Another authoritative account ap-
pears in G. Maspero's Art in Egypt, 1912, arranged chronologically,
and including concise bibliographies of the individual periods and
monuments. The same author's Manual of Egyptian Archeology,
translated by A. B. Edwards, 6th ed., 1913, treats architecture
systematically, by types of monuments. J. Capart's Vart egyptien,
4S A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
2 vols., 1909-1911, is an excellent collection of illustrations, accom-
panied by bibliographical references. For the monuments in their
historical setting see J. H. Breasted's A History of Egypt, 2d ed.,
1909; for a topographical treatment see the guides of Baedeker,
1914, or Cook, 1911, as well as A. E. P. Weigall's A Guide to the
Antiquities of Upper Egypt, 1910. A special study of constructive
methods is A. Choisy's L'art de bdtir chez les egyptiens, 1904.
Mesopotamia. The most recent general treatment is in P. S. P.
Handcock's Mesopotamian Archeology, 1912, which also gives a brief
history of the excavations. An earlier handbook, including also
neighboring countries, is E. Babelon's Manual of Oriental Antiquities,
translated by B. T. A. Evetts, new ed., 1906. The section of.Hil-
precht's work already cited which deals with Mesopotamia, espe-
cially with the monuments of Nippur, has been reprinted as The
Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia, 1904. For the complementary
work at Babylon see R. Koldewey's The Excavations at Babylon, 1914,
translated by A. S. Johns, 1915. For the cultural background see
M. Jastrow's The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, 1915.
Persia. Babelon's Manual is supplanted by A. V. W. Jackson's
Persia Past and Present, 1906.
The dZgean. H. R. Hall's JEgean Archaeology, 1915, gives a com-
prehensive view. Among the many special studies devoted to
Cretan monuments, R. M. Burrows' The Discoveries in Crete, 1907
(reprinted with addenda, 1908), may be named as a scholarly sum-
mary, to its date; J. Baikie's The Sea Kings of Crete, 1910, as a good
popular exposition. C. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt's The Mycenaan
Age, 2nd ed., 1916, is the standard work on its period. For a sum-
mary of the excavations aside from Crete see C. Schuchhardt's
Schliemann's Excavations, translated by E. Sellers, 1891, and H. C.
Tolman and G. C. Scoggin's Mycencean Troy, 1903.
CHAPTER IV
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
The Greek architects devoted themselves above all to the
problems of the column and lintel, creating forms which no
later Western people has ever wholly forgotten. The open-
air life which the climate invited, the simplicity of Greek
ideals, made no demands for the covering of large spaces
which the lintel could not meet, and the arch remained con-
fined to minor uses. Respect for tradition kept the essential
form of certain types relatively constant, and gave oppor-
tunity for study of the more delicate problems of expression.
Two separate systems of columnar forms, the Doric and the
Ionic, were perfected in long development by the two prin-
cipal branches of the Greek race. When these forms came
to be common property, their details were not mingled, but
kept distinct, as recognized "orders." A third order, the
Corinthian, was a relatively late artistic creation.
Natural conditions and materials. In Greece there was
less external compulsion in the formation of the architectural
style than there was in Egypt or Babylonia, where climatic
conditions were extreme and the choice of building materials
was restricted. Neither drought nor floods were customary;
wood and stone were both available. Natural conditions
still made themselves felt, of course, but in a more subtle
way. The proportions of the structural members were in-
fluenced by the strength and fineness of the stone available.
In the West, and on the Greek mainland in early days, it was
a coarse, porous limestone. In Ionia it was marble, rela-
tively fine-grained and strong. At Athens marble came into
general use in the fifth century. Even in early days, how-
ever, the materials everywhere left a wide freedom in the
choice of forms.
So A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
Personality and ideals of Greek architects. It is in Greece
that the personality of individual architects first becomes clear,
in spite of the limitations laid on them by tradition. They
knew and discussed what they were about, as the titles of a
long series of technical writings attest. Their underlying
theory was a formal one, which hoped to have exhausted the
significance of beauty in the phrase " unity in variety." The
favorite instance of beauty was musical harmony with its
physical laws. This found its closest analogy, among all the
arts, in architecture. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
quality sought among all others was symmetry, in a broad
sense. The Roman writer, Vitruvius, who drew his material
from Greek sources, defines symmetry as "the proper agree-
ment of the same members of a work, and the proportional
correspondence of the several parts to the form of the whole
object." The Greeks kept units for different purposes dis-
tinct, and could impress on each a homogeneous form, sym-
metrical also in the modern restricted sense of having corre-
sponding halves. They studied proportions to secure not
only a general harmony in the relative massiveness or slen-
derness of all the parts, but also a mathematical relation be-
tween their dimensions — an equality of ratios, or a common
dividing module. The application of these unifying prin-
ciples however, was not mechanical. Subtle modifications
were introduced for the purpose of securing a still higher de-
gree of organization, and sometimes for the sheer avoidance
of too monotonous uniformity.
Development. The development of the architecture of
Greece was from uncertainty to extreme refinement, and then
to a less restrained magnificence. The elements of the early
monuments were gradually co-ordinated and harmonized,
until the central moment was reached in Periclean Athens
in the fifth century B.C. Then ensued a diffusion of energy
in elaboration and variation of the accepted themes, a search
for novel motives, accompanied by the solution of the new
problems created by wealth and luxury.
Periods. The chief races of historic Greece first appear
about 1 100 B.C., on the ruins of the older ^gean civilization.
The archaic or formative period of their characteristic styles
began roughly with the beginning of the Olympic games, in
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 51
776, the first expression of national unity. It closed with the
final repulse of the Persian and Carthaginian attacks in 480-
479, which left the Greeks conscious of their powers and
stimulated the production of their maturer works of art.
The period of native development extended roughly till the
Macedonian conquest of Greece and Asia, 338-323. The
splendid expansion known as Hellenistic art, in which the
Greek inheritance was modified by Asiatic influences, con-
tinued until the Roman conquest, in the second century B.C.,
gave a new direction to Greek energies.
Relation of Doric and Ionic architecture. Doric architecture
and Ionic were at first distinct styles, and their subsequent
intermingling should not obscure their separate origin and
different fortunes. At the opening of the historic period the
Dorians occupied the Peloponnesus and central Greece, hav-
ing repressed certain of the earlier tribes and forced others to
an eastward migration. The lonians occupied Attica, the
central islands of the ^Egean, and the coast of Asia Minor
opposite, called specifically Ionia; the ^Eolians the Asiatic
coast to the north. It was in Ionia and the ^Eolian towns,
under the influence of Asiatic models, that the style called
Ionic had its rise, and to this territory and the neighboring
islands it remained almost confined until late in the fifth
century. All the rest of Hellas, including Attica, meanwhile,
was engaged in developing another style, called by contrast
the Doric, which had its roots in the national inheritance
from native civilization. The Ionic might have been called
provincial had not Ionia then stood in the lead in civilization,
wealth, and art. She held firmly to her own style, so that
but a single Doric temple is to be found on Asiatic soil. It
was not until after the Athenian naval confederacy brought
the two shores into more intimate relations that Ionic forms
began to penetrate continental Greece to any considerable
extent or to be influenced by those of Doric architecture.
Archaic period, 776-479. The leaders in artistic productive-
ness during the formative period in Greece were the Ionian
cities of Asia Minor and the newly founded colonies, mostly
Dorian, of southern Italy and Sicily. Their lands were more
fertile, their inhabitants more enterprising, than those of
Greece itself, so that they early attained a wealth and culture
52 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
quite beyond the general simplicity of the mainland cities.
Among the more important centers in Ionia may be mentioned
Ephesus and Samos, with their gigantic early temples; in
the west, Selinus, Akragas, Syracuse, Tarentum, and Paestum.
On the mainland Athens alone, under the wise rule of Pisis-
tratus, gave brief promise of taking rank with these. Aside
from buildings of practical utility such as , fortifications and
fountain houses, almost the only public monuments were the
temples. Singly, or impressively grouped on the acropolis
or in a sacred inclosure, they dominated the modest houses
of the city. In harmony with the materials available, the
Ionic forms were delicate, slender, and graceful, the Doric
generally heavy — both with full and sweeping curves in the
capital. The adjustment of various details was still subject
to great uncertainty, especially in the Doric order, with its
unconquered difficulties and its local varieties in colonies
under Achaean or ^olian influence. Only in the last years
of the sixth century was a final solution approached.
Central period: fifth century. The awakening of national
consciousness after the Persian wars, and the fifty years of
comparative peace that followed, inaugurated what has
usually been considered the great period of Greek art. The
rebuilding of the ruined monuments of northern and central
Greece stimulated a rapid development to maturity during
the fifth century. Ionia, to be sure, was slow in recovering,
and built little; but elsewhere throughout Hellas there was
the greatest activity. Though the western colonies retained
their prosperity, the mainland now rapidly took the lead in
art and culture. The spoils of victory contributed to the
development of the great national sanctuaries, such as Delphi,
Olympia, and Delos, with their temples, their propylaea, and
their treasuries (Fig. 35). The evolution of the drama now
first added the theater to the architectural problems. The
forms of the Doric order assumed their normal relations,
which imposed themselves wherever the style was used.
Athens under Pericles, 461-430. At Athens, where the
destruction had been most complete and the subsequent
victory most fruitful, a happy combination of circumstances
produced buildings of unique refinement. At precisely the
moment when naval supremacy and Asiatic conquests were
FIG. 1 6— ATHENS. THE PARTHENON, FROM THE NORTHWEST
FIG. 17 — ATHENS. THE PARTHENON. (RESTORED TO ITS CONDITION IN
ROMAN TIMES. MODEL IN METROPOLITAN MUSEUM)
54 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE -
placing Athens in close touch with the rich art of her Ionian
kinsmen, all of her sanctuaries were to be rebuilt. The
marble of Mount Pentelicus, now first appreciated, furnished
a worthy medium, permitting more slender forms. Ionic
fervor infused the stately forms of Doric architecture with a
new spirit of grace. The Ionic forms themselves were even
employed, although radically modified by Doric traditions.
The full advantage of the moment would not have been seized
FIG. 1 8 — ATHENS. THE ERECHTHEUM, FROM THE WEST
had not the Athenian democracy been dominated by a man
of the insight of Pericles. His diversion of the Delian treasure
to the adornment of Athens won for him the denunciation of
contemporaries, but made his city the admiration of the world.
The Parthenon (Figs. 16 and 17), the Propylaea of the Acropo-
lis, the temple of Athena Nike, and the Erechtheum (Fig 18),
show the extreme refinement which Greek art maintained for
a few years before seeking other less subtle expressions.
The collaboration of Phidias and his school gave a noble and
appropriate sculptured decoration. At the Piraeus, where
Pericles had almost a free hand, he brought the whole city
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 55
into architectural composition, according to a rectangular
street plan made by Hippodamus of Miletus.
Central period: fourth century. The fourth century found
the mainland exhausted by civil war, which continued with
brief intervals till the Macedonian conquest, and gave little
encouragement to building. At defeated Athens, especially,
means were lacking for anything but immediate practical
needs. It was from Athens, however, with her daring inno-
vations, her wonderful monuments of the preceding period,
that the other cities took their inspiration. Sparta and
Thebes, which the turn of events successively brought to
power, gave signs of entering on the patronage of art, although
time did not permit them to accomplish much. The new
cities of the Peloponnesus, Mantinea, Megalopolis, and
Messene, are typical of the period. In the west, the Cartha-
ginian destruction of Greek cities in Sicily in 409-406 was fol-
lowed by a long paralysis, during which the palace of the
tyrant Dionysius at Syracuse was almost the only important
production. With the civic revival there toward the end of
the fourth century some temple-building once more began.
It was in the cities of Asia Minor, though they were again
partly under Persian rule, that the greatest and most char-
acteristic monuments of the time were erected. The re-
building of the temples, many of which had lain in ruins for
more than a hundred years, was commenced on a scale that
overshadowed everything in the mother country. The Ionic
temples at Ephesus and Priene were completed by the time
of Alexander's invasion, 334; the temple at Didyma, near
Miletus, the greatest of all, was begun immediately after.
For the half-independent rulers of Caria, Greek artists laid
out the city of Halicarnassus, and built there the colossal
tomb of Mausolus which has given its name permanently
to funerary architecture.
Types of buildings in the central period. The temple still
retained first place in importance, though not in the same
degree as formerly. In Greece as well as in Asia, at the
national religious centers, notably Olympia and Delos, im-
portant monuments were added, and Epidaurus took rank
with these through a group of new buildings designed by the
sculptor Polyclitus the younger. In Asia the early native
56 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
forms of the Ionic order were matured and developed. In
Greece, the Doric, Athenian in proportion, remained most
usual on the exterior. The atticized Ionic and the Corinthian
were now used also, in interiors, and, above all, in the beautiful
circular temples which became popular. In the west the
traditional Doric was still used exclusively, with but little
modification. Greater independence appears in the new
types, responding to new requirements. Every city and every
great sanctuary now aspired to have its theater in stone, a
new monumental problem typical of rising standards of
luxury and convenience. By the time of Alexander the
stadion also was lined with stone. At Megalopolis a 'great
covered assembly-hall was built by the Arcadians, with
terraced seats for six thousand men. On the other hand,
architecture entered the service of individuals, wealthy
citizens vying with the princes of the monarchical states in
the erection of elaborate houses and tombs.
Hellenistic period. The years 334 to 323 witnessed Alexan-
der's brilliant conquests, which opened the east to Greek in-
fluence, not without a certain reaction on the art of Greece
itself. Outer circumstances were never more favorable to
art than in the new empires of his successors, where all was
to be created, yet where every means was at hand. The new
capitals, Alexandria, Antioch, and, later, Pergamon, became
the centers of artistic activity, though Rhodes and the Ionian
cities pressed them closely. In Greece itself the great heritage
of earlier monuments and the prevailing financial exhaustion
were unfavorable to building. The aspect of Athens, Delphi,
and Olympia, for instance, remained practically unchanged.
Only in regions now first raised to importance, such as yEtolia
and Epirus, were many considerable monuments erected.
In Sicily official art had its last after-glow under the later
tyrants of Syracuse.
Changes in problems. Everywhere architecture had to con-
cern itself with problems in the design of whole cities. It fol-
lowed the precedents earlier set by Hippodamus in the wide-
spread adoption of a rectangular plan. Traffic and hygiene
were considered, as well as appearance. At Alexandria the
two chief streets had a breadth of over a hundred feet, with
sewers and water-mains beneath, The city took on some of
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 57
the many aspects of a modern metropolis, with its museum
and library, its great park, its vast harbor with the mole, and
the great lighthouse called the Pharos. The embellishment of
these cities gave opportunities which the architects employed
in striving to outdo all previous works in splendor and mag-
nificence. The execution of the great temples at Miletus and
Magnesia, the gigantic altars of Pergamon and of Syracuse,
the Serapeion at Alexandria within its vast colonnaded court,
all fell in this period. Still more characteristic were the
sumptuous palaces of the rulers and even of private citizens,
the public buildings of every kind, council-houses, and gym-
nasia. Philanthropy sometimes gave architecture a new direc-
tion, as when parks and gymnasia were established to keep
some benefactor of the city in grateful remembrance, the
tomb or a commemorative monument being a central but
subordinate feature. The market-places were surrounded by
porticos and the chief streets even were lined with colon-
nades.
Changes in detail. Amid all this lavishness something was
inevitably lost. The extreme refinements of form, the subtle
curves, were succeeded by a richer ornament and a bolder
membering. The result was technically more facile, more
easily appreciated, and by these very qualities it was fitted
to the needs of a sophisticated and complex civilization. The
Ionic order, changed by return influences from Athens into
its final shape, was now the favorite; the Corinthian order
became more and more common. As the interchange of
ideas increased, the form of the column was no longer de-
pendent on racial tradition. Instead there grew up a prin-
ciple by which the traditional forms, though kept distinct,
were objects of free choice according to appropriateness of
character. The arch and the barrel vault were used oftener
and with greater boldness, but never without irreproachable
abutment by solid masses of masonry or earth. It was at
this time, above all, that theoretical writings multiplied,
and mathematical formulation made the Greek system
imitable in the barbarian world. Beyond the borders even
of Hellenistic Greece, Parthia imitated her clumsily and Rome
became her most faithful pupil.
Graco-Roman period. Under the domination of the Ro-
58 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
man Empire, the architecture of old Greek lands never wholly
lost its individuality, although Roman emperors and con-
noisseurs delighted to adorn Athens with new monuments.
The transformations which continued to take place in Greece
and Asia Minor were rather native developments, copied and
domesticated at Rome, than importations from the capital.
A thousand years after the age of Pericles, we shall see that
Greek genius, rejuvenated by fresh influences from the
Orient, had still vitality to produce a new architecture on the
shores of the Bosphorus, after Rome itself had fallen in
decay.
Forms of detail. In Greek architecture great attention
was directed to the form of individual details, to those of
the columnar systems, above all, and knowledge of these and
their relations is correspondingly necessary for intelligent
study of buildings.
Doric forms. The Doric forms show a fixity in their main
lines that is not less surprising than the incredibly painful
experimentation by which the precise canonical relations were
finally evolved (Fig. 19). The constant elements which dis-
tinguish the style are the capital, with its cushion or echinus,
its heavy, square projecting abacus; the frieze, interposed
between cornice and architrave, with its alternation of re-
cessed metopes and fluted triglyphs; and the muiules or
hanging plates on the under side of the cornice. The shaft
of the column tapered from bottom to top, diminishing a
fifth to a third of its lower diameter, usually with a slight
curve or swelling, called the entasis. The line of the shaft
was emphasized by vertical flutings, normally twenty in
number during the central period, meeting on a sharp edge
or arris. Until after the Periclean age the column remained
comparatively stout, ranging in height between four and six
times its lower diameter. Such a massive support could rest
directly on a platform without seeming to need a transition,
and a separate molded base was, in fact, added only in a very
few exceptional cases. A common base, or stylobate, was
always furnished, however, by raising any Doric portico at
least one step above its surroundings.
Formal relationships in the Doric order. Critics have been
unanimous in recognizing in the mature Doric system an
F1G jg — THE GREEK DORIC ORDER
6o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
organic whole of the most expressive character. Its prin-
ciple consists, above all, in the masterly balance of the vertical
and the horizontal tendencies established by the columns
and the entablature, and in the management of the transition
between them. The vertical "movement" of the fluted
column is arrested, and the horizontal movement of the
entablature is foreshadowed, by the horizontal abacus.
This is itself prepared for by the spreading echinus with its
encircling bands at the base, and by the incision creating a
neck below. The vertical lines of the columns are again taken
up by the triglyphs, less strongly emphasized, but twice as
numerous; once more arrested by their little cap, and finally
echoed in the low mutules, doubled to form almost a con-
tinuous line, in* which the transition is completed. Even the
guttcs or "drops" beneath the triglyphs and mutules —
thought to be descendants of pins in primitive wooden fram-
ing— have equally their function in the stone entablature.
They are ultimate mediating elements between horizontal
and vertical.
Structural expressions in the Doric order. Coupled with all
these purely spatial relationships are equally subtle expres-
sions of structural functions. The echinus seems to give
elastic support; the triglyphs to act as a series of posts bearing
the cornice, with the metopes as filling-plates between. In
many cases, to be sure, such members fulfilled these functions
only in appearance. The projection of the capital was re-
lieved of any actual load by a slightly raised surface over
the shaft. Triglyphs and metopes, instead of being articulate,
were often cut on a single block. It was the visual emphasis
on structure which was valued.
The problem of the angle. The inherent difficulty of the
mature Greek Doric system appeared when it was used in a
colonnade turning at right angles, such as the temple peristyle
which was its principal application. Since the thickness of
the column and the architrave was greater than the width of
the triglyph, some adjustment was necessary to bring the
triglyph at the corner of the frieze, where it was felt to be
needed both as a structural expression and as a musical
cadence. The problem was variously solved: by widening
the metopes near the corner; by spacing the triglyphs equally
Doric Entablature
From Ihe Parthenon
Doric Entablature
Retranslated into wood construction
FIG. 2O — THE GREEK DORIC ORDER, WITH A RETRANSLATION INTO
WOOD. (AFTER DURM)
62 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
from one corner of the frieze to the other and abandoning
exactitude of axial relation of columns and triglyphs ; by con-
tracting the spacing of the corner columns; and by various
combinations of these methods. The adjustments neces-
sary were so complex that it may well have been from this
cause that noted architects of the fourth century, familiar
with the Athenian solutions, but preferring a simpler arrange-
ment, stigmatized the Doric style as unfit for the building of
temples.
Doric origins. The origin of many forms has been sought
in a wooden construction which was superseded by the one of
stone. Elements apparently imitative of the ends of wooden
beams occur in the entablature (Fig. 20). The complete
absence of any fragments of entablature among the ruins of
certain monuments leads to the conclusion that entablatures
of wood, sometimes incased in terra-cotta, were indeed oc-
casionally preserved throughout the classical period. Classic
writers mention also wooden columns in some buildings,
notably the temple of Hera at Olympia. Here the testimony
is confirmed by the remains, which show columns of every
period in the same building, presumably inserted one by one
as the wooden columns decayed. Columns of wood, however,
can scarcely have suggested the form of the massive Doric
column. The wooden supports which it replaced must have
been of some different proportions and detail, now uncertain.
For the capital, at least, Mycenaean forms furnished the pro-
totype (cf. Figs. 15 and 21), as they did for the plan of the
temple and its early mode of construction. Only certain
minor motives of ornament can have been derived from
outside of Greece, and these were forms like the fret, or
meander, current in most primitive art, which the Greeks
may well have invented independently.
Doric development. The substitution of stone for wood and
terra-cotta did not at once produce the consistent normal
arrangement which has already been described. A long de-
velopment preceded the central moment, and continued after
this moment was past. This development proceeded steadily
toward higher organization in such technical matters as the
jointing of the stones, such problems as those presented by
the corner triglyph, the profiling of the capital, the membering
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 63
of the entablature, and the carrying through of a module or
common divisor of the dimensions; but it left great local
freedom in the choice of proportions. Such matters as the
ratio of diameter to height in the column, of diameter to inter-
columination, of lower diameter to upper diameter, which
were formerly thought to have evolved uniformly in the
direction of increasing slenderness, openness, and vertically,
are now seen to vary far more according to local traditions
which remained relatively stable, influenced in part by the
building material available. The idea of a universal trend
in matters of proportion was one arising from the greater
number of early monuments preserved from regions and cities
where heavy proportions prevailed, and from the number and
prominence of later monuments from regions like Attica, with
their slender columns of marble. The later temples of the
west, however, kept the massiveness of their columns along
with their coarser material; those of the east likewise show
no positive tendency.
Archaic period. During the archaic period the capital
retained the wide and bulging echinus of its Mycenssan
ancestor, as well as the hollow beneath (Fig. 21). The
architrave was narrow, flush with the upper face of the
T of Demeter at Paestum T at ;Egina Parthenon
Drawn with upper diameters equal
T at Nemea
FIG. 21— PROFILES OF GREEK DORIC CAPITALS, ARRANGED IN CHRONO-
LOGICAL ORDER
column or even set back from it; the triglyphs were broad,
with the result that corner triglyphs could still be nearly on
the axes of the columns. The resulting metopes, however,
were scanty, so that the mutules over them had often to be
less broad than those over the triglyphs. Little attention
was paid to the ordering of the stone joints, which were,
to be sure, covered by the coating of stucco always used with
64 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the porous limestone then employed. The search for a
module began certainly by the middle of the period, although
it was still tentative. Architects hesitated between the
lower diameter and the mean diameter of the columns for its
unit, and employed an independent system for the frieze.
Central period. With the central period the hollow of the
capital disappeared and the echinus took on a steeper, hyper-
bolic profile of the utmost subtlety. The architrave lost the
narrowness reminiscent of wooden origins, but, in widening,
made the problem of a corner triglyph a serious one. In the
solution adopted, a contraction in the spacing of the columns
at corners became universal. The entablature took on its
normal form, and the stone-jointing, exposed when marble was
used, became regular, bearing an organic relation to the
architectural forms. A single module based on the mean
diameter of the column seems to have been applied throughout
the columnar system, including the entablature.
Late period. The forms thus fully established in the fifth
century suffered but little subsequent change. Except in the
west, to be sure, the Doric style was almost abandoned by the
middle of the fourth century. It is perhaps due to influence
from Ionic forms that a late Doric example on the mainland,
in the temple at Nemea, shows such slender proportions —
the height of the column six and one-half times its lower
diameter. Late capitals generally lack the subtlety of line
of the mature form; their echinus is either almost straight
or rounded into a quadrant.
Ionic forms. The characteristic features of the Ionic
columnar system, the enduring elements of contrast with the
Doric, are especially the volute capital, the molded base, and
the cornice, with its blocks or dentils. Unlike the Doric
capital, the Ionic projects on two sides only, in the direction
of the architrave. A pair of spiral scrolls or volutes forms a
seemingly resilient intermediate between shaft and load. In
the more customary form which became universal, these
volutes were united across the top by a band, resting on a
circle of leaves which later took the form of an echinus deco-
rated with "egg and dart." The abacus consisted only of a
narrow molded band. The slender shaft of the Ionic column
always received an individual base. Among many forms,
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 65
the most widely adopted in later times was the Attic base —
two convex moldings or toruses, with a hollow or scotia be-
tween. The shaft itself ranged from seven and one-half to
ten lower diameters in height, with a slight entasis, and with
twenty-four flutes, normally separated by small, flat fillets.
The architrave was divided into three faces, each projecting
slightly over the one below. The typical cornice was dis-
tinguished by a row of small projecting blocks, which took the
name of dentils from their suggestion of teeth. When a
frieze was introduced between architrave and cornice it had
no subdivision into isolated panels like the metopes, and was
usually decorated with a continuous band of sculpture.
Formal relationships in the Ionic order. The Ionic system,
especially in the examples without a frieze, presents a har-
monization of horizontals and verticals analogous to that of the
Doric order, though not carried into such fine detail. The
dentils correspond both to triglyphs and mutules, and serve
the artistic functions of both. The capital is in some respects
even better fitted than the Doric for the task of carrying a
transverse lintel, for its projections are limited to the sides
where support appears to be needed. The difference between
its faces creates a difficulty, however, when a corner is to be
turned — a difficulty no less real than that created in the Doric
order by the triglyphs. The usual solution adopted was to
place pairs of scrolls on the two adjacent exterior faces, mak-
ing the corner on which they met project diagonally, and
letting the rear faces intersect in the interior angle.
Ionic origins. The Ionic structural forms seem to have
followed wooden prototypes still more closely than the Doric,
even in the column and the capital (Fig. 22). The columns
are relatively very slender; their capitals suggest the saddle-
piece still found in heavy wooden framing. Indeed the oldest
capitals show a simple block, rounded at the lower corners,
with scrolls merely painted on the faces. The beam-ends in
the entablature are unmistakable. The decorative forms,
among which the scrolls of the capital are the most note-
worthy, can be traced to origins in the interior of Asia.
Ionic development. The Ionic development, like the Doric,
was less a change of proportions in a definite direction than a
change of character. The exuberance of the early examples
66
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
was transformed into sleekness, coherence, and elegance,
simultaneously with the taking up of Doric elements. The
volutes of the early capital were widely projecting, leaving
the echinus below exposed for its full circumference; later
they were drawn in and reduced in relative importance.
The frieze was first introduced into the entablature by the
Athenian architects of the time of Pericles, as a result partly
of their desire for richer sculptured decoration, partly of their
Ionic entablature translated into wood consl ruction
FIG. 22 — IONIC ENTABLATURE, RETRANSLATED INTO WOOD. (AFTER
DURM)
Doric training. With a fine appreciation of structural expres-
sions as well as of artistic suitability they suppressed the dentils
when they used the frieze, since these would have no longer
come opposite the ceiling beams, and would have seemed to
crush the delicate figure sculpture employed. Later archi-
tects were not so scrupulous, and Hermogenes, who trans-
planted the Athenian innovations to Asia in the third century,
used heavy dentils over a frieze of small figures (Fig. 23).
The final harmonization was reached in the great temple at
Pidyma, where the frieze was brought into scale with the
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
67
dentils by a repeating decoration of large Medusa-heads
with garlands festooned between.
Corinthian forms. The Corinthian forms did not compose
in Greece a system completely distinct. They were essentially
independent inventions, by which one or another of the
traditional Doric
or Ionic forms
could be replaced,
and which their
common tendency
to richness fitted
for use in com-
bination. Earliest
and most char-
acteristic was the
capital, consisting
essentially of an
inverted bell, sur-
rounded by rows of
acanthus leaves,
with pairs of scrolls
or volutes support-
ing the corners of
the abacus. The
example from
Epidaurus (Fig.
24) shows the type
which later be-
came normal, with
two rows of eight
leaves each, placed
alternately, exe-
cuted with a sharp-
ness and delicacy in which Greek carving is seen at its best.
Further elements which, through association, contributed to
the development of a new order, were the curved frieze, and
the cornice with supporting brackets — consoles, or modillions,
as they are called. The ripened product of this development
had a harmonious luxuriance and an adaptability to varied
uses which gave it the advantage over the Doric and Ionic
FIG. 23 — MAGNESIA.
DETAILS.
TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS.
(HUMANN)
68 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
forms. Here there was neither the problem of a corner
triglyph nor that of an angle capital.
Formal relationships in the Corinthian order. As in the
Ionic examples in which a plain frieze reinforced the tendency
of the architrave, vertical and horizontal lines were strongly
opposed rather than blended, but the capital, by its bell and
FIG. 24 — EPIDAURUS. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE THOLOS
silhouette, carried the line of the shaft over into the en-
tablature in a way which was none the less adequate.
Corinthian development. The name Corinthian comes from
Vitruvius, who relates the famous myth of the invention of
the capital by Callimachus at Corinth, on a suggestion from
acanthus leaves growing about a basket, with tendrils curling
beneath a tile laid over it. As a matter of fact, the earliest
example preserved is the single capital employed by Iktinos
at Bassse, about 420, inspired very possibly by the later loti-
form capital of the Egyptians, with whom the Athenians were
in close touch in the middle of the fifth century. At Bassa3
the Corinthian column is simply a variant employed side by
side with the Ionic, under the same entablature of Attic-Ionic
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
69
form. At Epidaurus and elsewhere, in the fourth century,
it was often employed independently for an interior colonnade,
and in 334 it was used on an exterior for the first time we
know, in the delicate Monument of Lysicrates in Athens
(Fig. 25). The earliest building still preserved in which
Corinthian ordonnance was employed throughout on large
scale is again at
Athens, the gi-
gantic temple of
Zeus, carried up
in the second cen-
tury B.C. on the
foundations laid
long before by
Pisistratus. As
the work was
done at the
charge of the
Sele'ucid em-
peror, Antiochus
IV., it may well
be questioned
whether the lost
monuments of
Antioch may not
have afforded still
earlier examples
of a monumental
use of Corinthian
forms. These
reached their greatest vogue and highest development under
such Hellenistic sovereigns and their successors the Romans.
Figure supports. In exceptional cases figures of men or of
women were used as supports — Atlantes or caryatids, as they
are called — with rich and graceful results. This was notably
so in the " Porch of the Maidens" of the Erechtheum at
Athens (Fig. 18).
Size and proportion of members of the columnar orders.
The size of members in all the orders varied greatly without
much affecting their form. Examples of all three occur in
FIG. 25 — ATHENS. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES
70 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
which the columns are over fifty feet in height, as well as
others in which they are less than fifteen. The distance from
axis to axis of the columns ranged from five feet two inches
in the temple of Athena Nike to twenty-one feet nine inches
in the temple of Apollo at Selinus. The relation between
height and spacing was for the most part an arbitrary and
FIG. 26 — AKRAGAS. TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. (RESTORED BY E. H.
TRYSELL, AFTER KOLDEWEY)
formal one, rather than a variable one determined by the
ultimate bearing power of the materials. In temples, the
spacing of Doric columns was in general about one-half their
height, that of Ionic columns about one-third their height.
If structural considerations had been dominant the length
of the lintels would have remained more nearly fixed, and the
ratios would have tended to vary inversely as the height of
the columns. The proportions of architraves are likewise not
strictly dependent on any statical law, though marble archi-
traves, and late architraves generally, are relatively somewhat
thinner than the early ones of coarse limestone. Doric
architraves of the mature period, whether of stone or marble,
have a height of about one-third of their length; Ionic archi-
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 71
traves of the Hellenistic period, about one-quarter. Among
the other factors involved there would seem thus to have been
an increasing structural boldness. The variety in the propor-
tions of constructive forms of different orders, the identity
of proportions in the same order at different scales, are inr
dications, however, of a wide margin of safety, a habitual
generosity of strength.
Walls. Aside from the employment of the column with its
rich apparatus, Greek buildings were simple almost to bareness.
The Greeks ordinarily applied no relief ornament to walls,
but gained their effect by the regular jointing of finely coursed
masonry. Smooth-faced blocks were used for the best work;
but in heavy walls blocks dressed only at the edges, or with
the joints emphasized by marginal draftings, were employed,
a practice increasing as time went on. In cases where a wall
and a colonnade were fused, with the columns attached or
engaged to the wall, as in the west facade of the Erechtheum
(Fig. 1 8) or the "Temple of the Giants" at Akragas (Fig. 26),
this was usually due to exceptional causes, which over-
balanced the Greek tendency toward simplicity of structural
expression. Where the end of a wall had to support an
architrave it was treated as a special member, the anta, with
its own capital and base, differing from those of the column.
Moldings. The base and the crown of the wall, the transi-
tion between horizontal and vertical, were emphasized and
rendered less abrupt by special members, ranging from a
simple vertical plinth or fascia to an elaborate suite of carved
moldings. These moldings (Fig. 27), of which we have
already seen examples in the Doric echinus and the Ionic base,
are among the most enduring of Greek creations. Based
on the simple and universal forms of the convex, concave,
and reverse curves, they attained distinction by subtle variety
of contour, never following an obvious circular arc, and by
judicious selection for the different functions of crowning,
support, and footing. A characteristic instance is the em-
ployment of the reverse curve, or cyma. The cyma recta,
in which the thin concave portion projects, was ordinarily
used only as a free crowning feature; whereas the curve in
its other position, the cyma reversa, was used when strength
was required. For the base of the wall in Doric buildings, a
4
A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
:YMA
high course of stones standing vertically, with a projecting
plinth below, was used; in Ionic buildings, molded bases
analogous to those of the antse, having as their most frequent
constituents a torus or a reversed cyma, and a plinth. For
the support of projecting beams or cornices the Doric builders
used a characteristic
hooked beak-molding,
the Ionic builders the
ovolo — like the
echinus in profile — or
the cyma reyersa.
Richer combinations
show a studied flow
and contrast of line,
punctuated by narrow
flat fillets or half-
round beads.
Ornament. Empha-
sis on the structural
anatomy was also
C^ v \tu-U % gained by carving and
I painting. These were
usually confined to
restricted fields, as in
the Doric and Ionic
friezes, contrasting
with the simplicity of
the wall surfaces.
Moldings themselves
FIG. 27— GREEK AND ROMAN MOLDINGS. were thus enriched by
(REYNAUD) painting in the Doric
order, by carving, re-
inforced by color, in the Ionic marble. The greatest judg-
ment was exercised in the selection of motives of orna-
mentation to accentuate rather than disguise the form of
surface to which they were applied. Thus the fret, with its
severe rectangularity, was reserved for flat bands. Curved
moldings were decorated with motives having lines which
were parallel or perpendicular to elements of the surface, or
which repeated its profile — the egg and dart for the ovolo, a
7'ORUS
FASCIA
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 73
heart-shaped leaf for the cyma reversa — thus harmonizing
from every point of view.
Doors. Doors and windows were always square-headed
when used monumentally in mature Greek times. They had
their jambs sometimes vertical, but frequently inclined some-
what inward, a device recognized by Hellenistic architects as
increasing the apparent height. Important openings were em-
phasized by a casing of bronze, or by projecting moldings
similar to those of an Ionic architrave. These were carried
not merely across the top, but down the sides as well, or even,
in the case of windows, completely around. The ear, pro-
duced by making the lintel project beyond the jambs, was a
characteristic instance of Greek structural emphasis.
Arches and vaults. In less highly finished constructions,
such as town walls and substructures, corbelled arches and,
later, true arches were often used. The oldest arched gate-
ways preserved, in Acarnania, do not date before the fifth
century. In the fourth century the barrel vault was used for
certain subterranean tomb chambers. In the second cen-
tury, among a number of vaults at Pergamon, occurs an
arched bridge of the bold span of twenty-seven feet. Thus
the arch, which was scarcely an element of Greek architecture
in its first prime, was handled in Hellenistic times with
steadily increasing technical mastery.
Ceilings, roofs, gables, acroteria. The roofs of Greek build-
ings were of tile, supported by wooden beams, which usually
rested on intermediate walls or columns. A knowledge of
the truss is not proved. In most cases the beams must have
remained visible from below, though in some examples wooden
ceilings with panels or coffers are possible. Where marble was
at command its strength made stone ceilings over the temple
porticos technically possible. In the north porch of the
Erechtheum there are marble beams twenty feet in length.
The gable roof, traditional from Mycenaean days, was usual;
hip-roofs, with four slopes, were rare. The gables formed tri-
angular pediments, with the cornice carried up the slope, and
its members, except the crowning cyma, or gutter, running
across horizontally also. The pediments were often filled with
sculpture in relief or in the round, and the corners of the gable
were accentuated by sculptured ornaments called acroteria.
74 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Larger elements of composition. In the larger elements of
composition Greek architecture showed the same conservatism
as in the details. At the basis of the chief national forms lay
the megaron, which remained the essential element of the
Greek house after the Dorian invasion, as it had been in
Mycenaean times. The long, narrow hall, either with a single
nave or divided by longitudinal ranges of columns into two
or three aisles, remained the most characteristic element of
Greek plans, capable of varied applications. It was em-
ployed for the temple, for the stoa, the most typical of
Greek secular buildings, and commonly for any buildings
which might be required for extraordinary purposes, such as
the Athenian arsenal at the Piraeus. During the periods of
native development the model was scarcely abandoned except
under compulsion, in cases when it would have had disad-
vantages too serious to be overlooked. Such cases occurred
when a large company were to assist at a spectacle, as in cer-
tain halls of mysteries, the theater, and the odeion, the forms
of which were suggested directly by the practical require-
ments. The exterior peristyle, a continuous enveloping colon-
nade first adopted in the temples (Fig. 28), was the most
striking element of exterior effect, finding later applications
in tombs and monuments. The peristylar court and the
square hall with an interior peristyle — essentially Oriental
motives — became acclimated in Greece in Hellenistic times.
Types of buildings. As the first people of democratic
institutions, intellectual freedom, and athletic life, the
Greeks first met and solved the architectural problems which
these involve, creating the council-house, the theater, the
stadium, and other persistent European types. Private
life was relatively subordinate and domestic architecture
was simple. Sepulchral monuments, in the best Greek
time, were modest works of sculpture. All the resources
of the state during its prime were lavished on the public
buildings, above all, on the temples, the centers of civic
life. Rising perhaps on the very site of a Mycenaean palace,
the temple, open to every citizen, symbolized the new
social order with its rich consequences for art.
Religious buildings. The forms of the religious buildings
were in part conditioned by the nature of the Greek cults,
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
75
in part by traditions of primitive origin. In the worship
of the chief gods, such as Zeus, Apollo, Athena, and Artemis,
the principal ceremony was a sacrifice performed, not in a
closed room, but on a great altar in the open air. A sanc-
tuary of relatively small size sufficed for the house of the god,
giving shelter to an image and to the more perishable or
FIG. 28 — P^ESTUM. THE GREAT TEMPLE, SO-CALLED "TEMPLE OF
NEPTUNE." (CHIPIEZ)
more valuable offerings. Though almost always open to
the people, it was not intended for the assemblage of devo-
tees. In the worship of certain infernal gods the ceremonies
were performed behind closed doors, but in most of these
mystery-cults the number of the initiated was small.
The temple: essential elements. Under these circum-
stances there was usually no difficulty in adopting the form
76 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of the house, the deep and narrow rectangular megaron, as
the fundamental element of the temple — namely, the cella
or naos (Fig. 29 [i]). This was normally either undivided
or divided into a central nave and narrow side aisles.
Usually the cella was preceded by a vestibule or pronaos,
with columns in antis (Fig. 29 [3], [6], etc.); less often it
had a closed vestibule (Fig. 29 [i], [2], [5]) or none at all.
The temple: normal form. Though this simple form alone
sufficed for temples of minor importance, the type which
became normal (Fig. 28) was elaborated by the addition
of two other elements. The opisthodomos (Fig. 29 [6], [.8])
— an addition at the rear corresponding to the pronaos, but
ordinarily not communicating with the cella— was obviously
introduced in the interest of formal balance. The peristyle,
a colonnade completely surrounding the ensemble so far
described (Fig. 29 [5]-[8]), had no practical function suf-
ficiently important to account for its origin. The origin
should perhaps be sought in an open canopy supported by
columns, like that over the early Christian altar. This may
well have sufficed at first to shelter the image, and then
have been magnified to cover an inclosing cell. Certain it
is that in the temples of Doric style, in which the arrange-
ment seems to have originated, the peristyle had an almost
accidental connection with the cella. Although in front it
had generally one column to correspond to each of the sup-
ports behind, these columns stood in no exact relationship
of position either to the walls or to the columns of the
pronaos.
The temple: other features. Other elements occasionally
appeared in the temple, not limited to any special region
or period. There might be an inner room of special sanc-
tity, the adyton, housing the image and opening toward the
cella (Fig. 29 [i], [2], [5]). A room similarly placed, but
opening to the rear, was introduced in several temples,
notably the Parthenon, to serve as a treasury under the pro-
tection of the god. Intermediate between the simple cella
and the peristylar temple were the prostyle temple, with
columns running across the front, and the amphiprostyle
form, where they were repeated at the rear as well. These
were sometimes used as the best substitute for the peristylar
.
4
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0
1!! ^ III6
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FIG. 29 VARIET
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GREEK TEMPLE
*
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; •
PLANS OF GREEK TEMPLES
<i>Selinus Me^aron of Demeter C.59ODC
<2iLocri Primiiive cella C.575BC.
c3>Rhamnus Temple oT Themis C.5OORC
c4>Alhens Temple of Athena Nike C.435D.C
c5>5elinus Temple "C" C.57OB.C..
<.6>Olympid Temple of Zeus C.470D.C.
c7)Faeslum 5o called 'Ba.3iUca' c 57ODC.
c8)MevQnesm Tern pie of Artemis c 22OB.C
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78 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
arrangement when a rich effect was desired in a narrow
space, as in the precinct of Athena Nike on the Acropolis
at Athens (Fig. 29 [4]).
The outer wall or colonnade of the temple was supported
on a massive substructure, in the form of steps, three being
the most common number (Fig. 28). These steps, propor-
tioned to the size of the temple, were often too high to be
climbed, and this necessitated a special flight of practicable
steps or a ramp opposite the entrance (Fig. 26). Cella
and peristyle together were covered by a simple gable roof,
the gables or pediments serving as appropriate fields for
sculptured decoration (Fig. 17). The temple was usually
lighted only through its great door at the east, although a
few Ionic temples, like the Erechtheum, certainly had
windows as well (Fig. 18). Some others are known to have
been "hypaethral," or without a roof over the cella, but
this is now thought to have been due to incompleteness or
to difficulties in the construction.
The temple: size, proportions. In frontage few temples
exceeded eighty to one hundred feet, although a half-dozen
giants form a class by themselves with dimensions nearly
equal, about one hundred and sixty by three hundred and
fifty feet. Some peristylar temples are as narrow as forty-
five or even thirty-five feet, while the temples without a
peristyle, like the temple of Athena Nike, are sometimes
but twenty feet or less. The normal "hexastyle" Doric
fagade, of six columns, itself showed the most surprising
elasticity; the Metroon with a width of thirty-four feet,
and the temple of Zeus, with ninety-one feet, stand side by
side at Olympia — a disregard for relations of scale which
was very characteristic of Greek architecture. Beyond one
hundred feet the number of columns had to be multiplied,
reaching eight in the Parthenon and in the great temple of
Selinus, and ten in the Ionic temple of Apollo at Didyma.
Even the smaller late Ionic temples have eight columns on
the front on account of the width of their outer corridors.
The length of the peristylar temples varied from a little
more than twice the width to a little less than three times,
no chronological tendency being traceable in this propor-
tion. The ratio between the number of columns on the
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 79
flank and on the front also varied according to no general
law, though such high ratios as 6 117 and 6 : 16 occur only
in the oldest Doric temples, and the low ratio of 6 : n
only in the most recent. The height of the temple facade
usually ranged about half its width — more for the temples
with six columns, and less for those with more than six-
more in any case for the Ionic than for the Doric.
Development of the temple: archaic period. In the early
stages of the development of the temple there was much
local variety, not only in the columnar system, but in the
general arrangement. In Greece proper the oldest temples
of which the plans can be studied — the Heraion at Olympia
from before 700 B.C., the temple at Corinth from before 600
— already show the opisthodomos and the triple division
of the interior, as well as the contraction of the corners of
the Doric peristyle. In other parts of Hellas, however,
many less sophisticated forms occur even at a much later
time, which may well represent a more primitive stage of
development adhered to through provincial conservatism.
Early temples in Ionic regions frequently lacked the
peristyle, which seems to have been developed in the
mother country after the Ionian emigration, and to have
been carried over afterward into Asia. Such great monu-
ments as the archaic Artemision at Ephesus and the temple
of Hera at Samos, both built in the sixth century, show the
elaboration which the peristyle soon received on Ionic soil.
In the colonies of the West, though they were founded later,
the single-ended cella prevailed till the fifth century, and
the problems of the peristyle were solved somewhat clumsily.
A sharp difference in the diameter and in the spacing of the
columns of the front and of the flank, sometimes found in the
mother country, was here the rule during the archaic period;
and the normal solution with sides and front spaced alike,
and a contraction at the corners due to the triglyphs, does
not come in until its close. In several outlying regions
temples occur with the cella divided into two aisles by a
single line of columns (Fig. 29 [2], [7]) — obviously a more
primitive device to support the ridge over a wide span than
the division by two lines (Fig. 29 [6], [8]) which commended
itself to more expert constructors as leaving an axial place
8o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
for the image. This latter arrangement appears very rarely
in the West, most of the cellas there being undivided.
Local traditions in temple design. An extreme instance of
adherence to local traditions can be seen at Selinus, the out-
post of Greece in western Sicily. Here were two primitive
closed megarons, each with its adyton; and no less than
seven peristylar temples in which the adyton is preserved,
in three of them even after they had otherwise become com-
pletely assimilated to the normal type. Two of the seven
retained the closed vestibule as well, and all of the four
archaic ones had an elaboration of the entrance front,
either by a second transverse line of columns or by a
prostyle development of the cella, which has few examples
elsewhere. Partly as a result of this multiplication of
features, the temples were all beyond the average propor-
tion in length. Excepting one of the megaron-cellas which
had a single division, only the gigantic temple of Apollo
had interior colonnades.
Temples of the central period. The fifth century saw the
victory of the normal Doric arrangement for all peristylar
temples. A pronaos and an opisthodomos in antis, a cella
undivided or with three aisles, were everywhere adopted.
The plans of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the great
temple at Paestum in southern Italy, and the little temple at
^Egina off the coast of Attica, all three-aisled, are distin-
guishable only by minor details. The same holds even
more strongly for the temples with a single nave, such as
the later temples at Akragas and the so-called Theseum at
Athens. The great temple at Paestum is well enough pre-
served to permit a reconstruction of substantially all its
parts (Fig. 28). The interior colonnades, as in other con-
temporary temples, were made by superposing two ranges
of small columns. The lower range was united merely
with an architrave, and the columns of the upper range con-
tinued the taper of those below.
Athens. The Athenian architects of the second half of
the century began a series of unexampled innovations
which, after raising the Doric temple to its greatest richness,
ultimately set the Ionic in its place. With Pericles as the
leader of the democracy, and the great sculptor Phidias in
FIG. 30 — ATHENS. PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS. (KAUPERT)
(i) Theater of Dionysus (19) Temple of Athena Nike
(9) Stoa of Eumenes (20) Propylaea
(10) Odeion of Herodes Atticus (28) Parthenon
(39) Old Temple of Athena
(40) Erechtheum
82 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the r61e of a minister of public works, the most cosmopolitan
city in Greece infused new life into the temple form just
as it was stiffening into a formula. The elements intro-
duced were not from Ionia only. They include features
directly reminiscent of Egypt — the fruit perhaps of the
Athenian expedition to Egypt in 454 — as well as others
essentially new.
The Parthenon. The Parthenon (Figs. 16 and 17), which
superseded a more conventional temple projected before
the Persian wars, was designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates,
and erected between 447 and 432. It had an exceptionally
wide cella (Fig. 30 [28]) to give space for the colossal statue
of Athena by Phidias. The interior colonnades of the cella
were turned across behind the image, making the first
peristylar hall in Greece. In the rear chamber the super-
posed Doric ranges were replaced by Ionic columns, the
greater relative height of which enabled a single support
to reach the roof without too great diameter. On the ex-
terior the Doric order was retained, with prostyle porticoes
of six columns for pronaos and opisthodomos, and a peri-
style of eight by seventeen columns. The use of marble
made possible a ceiling of coffered stone, instead of wood,
over the vestibules and outer corridors, and a richness of
sculptured decoration hitherto unknown.
Architectural refinements. A subtle upward curvature of
the stylobate, early employed in the Heraion at Olympia
and the temple at Corinth, was used in the Parthenon and
in the smaller temple known as the Theseum, as part of
an elaborate series of modifications in the horizontal and
vertical members. The lines of the entablature were also
curved upward in the center, as well as inward in plan.
The columns were inclined backward toward the walls of
the cella, those at the corner sloping diagonally. The
walls themselves inclined, in sympathy with the pyramidal
effect of the whole. The corner columns were,, moreover,
slightly thicker than the others, giving a definite end to
the colonnade. All these variations — although very slight,
like the entasis — sufficed to recognize in the most delicate
way every possibility of finer organization, and to give
the work of art something of the character of a living thing.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 83
Temple of Athena Nike. In the later temples of the
Acropolis the Doric order was abandoned completely for
the Ionic, which had newly become familiar. The first
of these was the little temple of Athena Nik£, the so-
called "Temple of the Wingless Victory," built about
435 by Kallikrates on the southwest bastion. It has a
shallow cella with prostyle porticoes of four columns at
each end (Fig. 30 [19]). Although it is the smallest of
all Greek temples, its magnificent situation, its harmony
of proportion with the substructure, its perfection of de-
tail, enable it to hold its own worthily with its great
neighbors.
The Erechtheum. Another Ionic temple, dedicated to
Athena and Erechtheus (Fig. 18), was built at intervals
from 435 to 404 to take the place of the old temple north
of the Parthenon. It was irregular in plan, corresponding
to the variety of cults which it sheltered and the unevenness
of the ground on which it stood (Fig. 30 [40]). It had a
cella with a prostyle portico of six columns on the east,
minor porches to north and south, and a wall with engaged
columns on the west. In the famous Porch of the Maidens
to the south, the sculptured supports show a masterly
adaptation to their architectural functions. The six
figures, four in front, stand all with their backs to the
building. They rest easily on one foot, with the supporting
leg, always the one on the outside, enveloped in vertical
folds of drapery which serve the same artistic function as
the flutes of a column. In the North Porch is the richest
of all Ionic capitals, having a double spiral, and a carved
necking of honeysuckle, or anthemion. The superb north
doorway with its molded architrave enriched by carved
rosettes is another striking feature. The columns of the
north and west rise from levels different from the features
of the east and south. The north portico, moreover, pro-
jects beyond the corner of the cella, and includes a door to
the sacred inclosure west of the building. Although the
junctions show some lack of facility, the very attempt to
combine a variety of forms in a building for complex uses
was a novelty. The features evolved in the course of the
attempt, such as the portico or porch used independently
84 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of the main facade, became favorite devices in the sub-
sequent development of architecture.
The temple at Basses. Beyond the borders of Attica,
Iktinos was employed about 420 to design the temple of
Apollo at.Bassae in the Arcadian mountains. It surpassed
even the buildings of his native city in the novelty of its
arrangements. Not only were both the Doric and the
Ionic orders used, but for the first time that we know the
rich Corinthian appeared as a third. The Ionic order was
used for the interior of the cella, with columns the full
height of the room, as it had been used in the treasury of the
Parthenon. A change from free-standing columns to en-
gaged columns in the interior was also begun, by attaching
the columns to the wall by short cross walls. The Ionic
capitals themselves are unlike any previously seen in Greece.
They have volutes on all three exposed faces, permitting the
colonnade to be turned across the cella without requiring
a special corner capital. The nearest prototypes for the
form of their volutes are in certain Egyptian scrolls. Egyp-
tian models may also have suggested the single Corinthian
capital, which crowns a column at the end of the cella
under the same entablature with the Ionic columns.
Sculptured decoration in Athenian temple design. The
fifth-century Athenian temples also set new precedents in
richness of sculptural features and in modes of introducing
them. Hitherto decoration by figure sculpture had scarcely
been employed, in Doric temples, except in the triangular
fields of the two pediments, and in the series of metopes on
the ends. The characteristic mode of decoration for Ionic
buildings had been by continuous bands or friezes of
figures, running around the external wall of the cella or
its substructure. Now, in the design of the Parthenon, all
the metopes of the external Doric order were filled with
sculpture, and a continuous Ionic frieze was added around
the cella just below the ceiling of the peristyle. In the
Ionic temple of Athena Nike with its prostyle arrangement,
whereby, cella and portico were united by a single cornice,
Kallikrates did not confine the sculptured frieze to the
cella, but carried it along above the architraves of the two
porticoes. This first use of a sculptured frieze in the en-
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 85
tablature of the Ionic order, immediately followed by a
similar use in the Erechtheum and in the interior of the
temple at Bassae, soon influenced all current practice.
Fourth-century temples. The revolutionary designs of the
Athenian architects did not produce an instant or complete
reformation in the temple elsewhere. The temples of the
West remained little affected by them. At Segesta, and
in the great temple at Paestum, built soon after 430, curva-
tures and inclinations analogous to those of the Parthenon
occur, but the Ionic order found no favor, even for in-
teriors. In continental Greece the universal adoption of
marble resulted in the use of stone ceilings for the peristyle,
and of general proportions similar to those of the Attic
buildings. The sculptor Skopas, in the temple of Athena
Alea at Tegea, followed the lead of Iktinos by employing
both the Ionic and the Corinthian columns as well as the
Doric. The principal use of these, however, was in the
new circular temples, or tholoi — at Epidaurus, Olympia, and
Delphi.
Late temples in Ionia. The great temples of the Ionian
renaissance naturally reverted to the early national types
represented by the temple of Hera at Samos and the Arte-
mision at Ephesus. With eight and sometimes ten columns
on the front, they had two rows along the sides or else a
width of corridor which would have sufficed for two (Fig. 29
[8]). The columns were aligned with the antae both on front
and sides, making possible a regularity in the ceiling beams
which had never been attained in Doric temples. The
curvature of the stylobate was taken over from Doric
buildings in the Ionic temples of Priene and Pergamon;
the use of half columns of Corinthian order for the interior
of the cella was adopted in the temple of Apollo at Didyma.
An element increasingly used was the podium or pedestal
for the whole structure, with base and crowning moldings,
which tended to take the place of the stylobate.
Mystery temples. The hall-temples of cults which included
initiation into certain mysteries were multiplied chiefly during
the late period, though a few examples have come down from
a much earlier time. For some of these, the conventional
megaron-cella sufficed, either undivided or with longitudinal
86 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
colonnades as at Samothrace. The peristyle could also be
appropriated to mystic uses by the building of screen walls
between the columns for a part of the height, as in one of the
temples at Selinus. From this it was but a step to the
arrangement of the Olympieum at Akragas, in which these
screens were carried the full height, and the cella thus extended
to the outer engaged colonnade (Fig. 26). The huge size of
this temple and the consequent desire for an intermediate
support, furnished by colossal male figures between the
columns, may have been responsible for this complete closing of
the peristyle. For the great hall of mysteries at Eleusis-, the
traditional temple scheme was already abandoned in the time
of Pisistratus for one which gave a greater capacity and a
view of the ceremonies from all sides. A square room divided
by seven rows of columns in each direction, with tiers of seats
about the walls, served to house a large number of spectators,
though the forest of columns left most of them but scant
glimpses of the central space.
Altars. The sacrificial altars before the great temples, at
first of relatively small size, became, in Hellenistic times,
monumental constructions, surpassing the temples them-
selves in area and magnificence. In essence they comprised
a platform for the sacrificants and a raised hearth above this
for the burning of the offering. Especially noteworthy were
the altars at Parion, over six hundred feet on a side, at Syra-
cuse, almost the same distance in length, and at Pergamon,
with a sculptured podium and a U-shaped Ionic colonnade
surrounding the platform of sacrifice.
Treasuries. In the pan-Hellenic religious centers the
temple cellas could not hold a tithe of the offerings showered
upon the gods, and the practice early grew up of erecting
individual treasuries in which the gifts of each city might be
deposited. These took the form of small temples, usually
with two columns in antis, although occasionally prostyle.
Each bore the stylistic impress of its city and of its time of
origin. Ranged on their terrace at Olympia, or picturesquely
disposed along the winding sacred way at Delphi (Fig. 35),
they were among the most interesting features of the national
sanctuaries.
Temple inclosures, propyl&a. Monumental gateways, or
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 87
propylaea, with porticoes inside and out, gave access to the
temple inclosures, and stoas for the shelter of pilgrms ran
along the inner face of the walls. A fusion of these elements,
unprecedented in its unified complexity, was attempted by
Mnesicles in the propylaea of the Athenian acropolis (437-
432). Though religious conservatism prevented the complete
realization of his design, the part still standing shows its
monumental qualities (Fig. 30 [20]). The greater temple
precincts, often with many temples and altars, with groves
of olive and ilex, with a forest of statues and ex-votos, formed
ensembles -of grandiose effect (Fig. 35).
Civil buildings. Special buildings for civil purposes were
evolved relatively late in Greece, where assemblage in the
open air was feasible, and where the temples served many
civic functions. The most universal of the forms employed
was the stoa, a long narrow hall like the megaron or the
temple cella, but, unlike the cella, having an open colonnade
in place of one of the side walls. In the varied uses of the stoa
as shelter, market, and exchange, subdivision by a single
range of columns did not present the same artistic and practical
disadvantages as in the temple, and it remained the most usual
interior arrangement. Stoas with a triple division, or in two
stories, however, were not uncommon. Doric columns
carrying stone architraves usually formed the outer colonnade ;
Ionic columns taller and less closely spaced supported the
wooden beams of the roof. In two-storied stoas the Ionic
order was placed above the Doric, each having its full
entablature.
Agora. The agora, or market-place, originally serving po-
litical functions also, was an open place of no fixed form, bor-
dered on one or more sides by stoas. It was frequently placed
in the angle of two principal streets, which passed through it
along the sides. The several stoas were thus at first inde-
pendent. Only in later days, in Ionia, was a closed area of
regular plan with continupus surrounding colonnades adopted,
following the Oriental type of a peristylar court. The agoras
at Megalopolis, at Priene (Fig. 36), and at Magnesia (Fig. 31)
show successive steps in this process of higher organization.
Frequent adjuncts to the agora were shops at the back of the
porticoes, and a temple or fountain in the central space;
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 89
near it were the bouleuterion or council-house and the other
civic buildings * Often subsidiary markets for the sale of
special classes of goods supplemented the principal agora.
Council-houses. The bouleuterion, like so many other
Greek buildings, was in origin a megaron. In the one at
Olympia the older portion even conserved the primitive form
of house, with an apsidal end and a single longitudinal
colonnade. Later examples, such as the Phokikon at Daulis,
were like the mature cella in having two rows of columns.
Banks of seats were added between them and the lateral
walls. The problem was essentially similar to that of the
mystery temples and led ultimately, as in them, to abandon-
ment of a longitudinal scheme and adoption of a concentric
arrangement of seats facing a speaker's platform. At Priene,
in the second or third century B.C., the seats paralleled three
walls and the roof was carried by an interior peristyle — a
solution unified and technically satisfactory. At Miletus the
seats were made semicircular, on the model of a theater,
though the building itself was rectangular and the interior
supports bore no relation to the seating plan. A monumental
court and propylaea were added. None of these buildings
accommodated more than a few hundred at most. A special
problem was presented by the hall of the Arcadians at
Megalopolis where several thousand were to be housed. The
architect adopted a series of concentric colonnades and seats
about three sides, but avoided obstructing 'the view as badly
as in the hall of mysteries at Eleusis by placing the columns
in lines radiating from the central point. The roof was of
course of wood, and the solution, though practically satis-
factory, was neither permanent nor monumental.
Theaters. The Greek theater was a natural growth, corre-
sponding to the growth of the drama from the primitive cult
of Dionysus. The choral songs and dances from which the
drama took its departure preserved their place in the ' later
development, and were responsible for the importance of
the original element of the theater — the orchestra, or circle
of the dance, in the center of which stood the altar. The
other ultimate elements were the seats rising in concave tiers,
the skene, opposite them, containing the dressing-rooms for
the participants, and the proskenion, a platform before the
90 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
skene, on which certain of the actors, or all of them, made their
appearance. An early stage of development may be surmised
in which a convenient hillside served for the auditorium, at
first without any architectural features, later with seats of
wood. In the fifth century, coincident with the dramatic
reforms of ^Eschylus, the skene was introduced. In the
time of Sophocles it still remained of wood with walls of
painted canvas. Before long, however, monumental materials
were substituted, and the elements were elaborated into the
theater of the fourth century, which remained much the same
FIG. 32 — EPHESUS. THEATER DURING THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD.
(RESTORED BY FIECHTER)
in Hellenistic days. Even then the components were but
loosely juxtaposed, not welded into a single unit. Greek
modes of design were too naive to seek the union of parts
having forms and functions so distinct.
A typical Hellenistic theater. The theater at Ephesus
(Fig. 32) shows the form which became customary in the later
Hellenistic period. The orchestra was still laid out so as to
include a complete circle, although the circle itself was no
longer marked with a curbing, as in earlier examples. Around
it were the stone seats, occupying somewhat more than a
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 91
semicircle, and resting directly on the hillside. They were
divided concentrically at half their height by a passage, as
well as radially by flights of steps, and were stopped at the
sides by oblique walls. Between these and the buildings of
the stage were passages for the entrance of the spectators and
for the chorus when it was supposed to come from a distance.
Tangent to the orchestra, opposite the auditorium, was the
proskenion, about ten feet high, with small engaged columns,
three doors for the entrance and exit of the chorus, and the
remaining openings closed by wooden panels. The skene
itself was a long narrow building, two stories high, with a
series of large openings in the side toward the proskenion,
three of them containing doors. The large openings, which
in earlier days had framed somewhat naturalistic stage settings,
were now given a more conventional filling of slender columns,
the ancestors of the grouped decorative columns of the Roman
stage backgrounds (cf. Fig. 47).
Variety in theater designs. In other examples there was
abundant variety. The site available did not always permit
the auditorium to be regularly geometrical as at Ephesus;
it was frequently irregular in its outer boundary and some-
times in the layout of the seats themselves. The conformation
of the ground often permitted subordinate entrances to the
intermediate circular passage. Seats of honor might be
provided about the orchestra, like the beautiful marble thrones
of the theater of Dionysus at Athens. A stoa in which people
could seek shelter, or promenade, might also be added some-
where in the neighborhood of the skene.
Size of theaters. In accommodation these open-air theaters
far exceeded the theaters of modern times. At Athens there
was room for 30,000 spectators; at Megalopolis for 44,000.
Those in the rear rows were also much farther from the
actors, but, in compensation, saw them from a lower angle
than those in our upper galleries. The diameter of the
auditorium ranged from two hundred to five hundred feet.
Odeions. Related to the theater both in purpose and in
the step-like arrangement of the auditorium was the odeion,
a covered building for musical and oratorical contests. The
first of the sort was the one built by Pericles in Athens. It
seems to have had a conical roof, with interior supports. In
92 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Graeco-Roman times buildings for such purposes became
customary in cities of any considerable size. The smaller
ones were rectangular, with curving stepped seats like a
modern lecture or recital hall ; the larger ones were essentially
covered Roman theaters, the most famous being the odeion
built by Herodes Atticus against the Acropolis at Athens, in
the second century after Christ (Fig. 30 [10]).
Stadions. The athleticism of the Greeks did not fail to create
its share of their monumental architecture. For foot-races
the stadion was evolved, taking its name from the Greek
furlong. It was laid out where the topography favored, with
seats sometimes in a single bank, but preferably in two long
parallel banks close together, connected by a semicircle.
Where necessary the seats were built up artificially, either by
walls or by mounds of earth, as at Olympia. Seats of stone
or marble were a late addition, at Athens not until Roman
times. The capacity varied from twelve thousand to fifty
thousand. Hippodromes were also laid out on a similar plan
but with a wide turn. Means scarcely sufficed for executing
these in monumental materials during Greek times. The
division in the center of the course remained a simple bank
of earth, the starting barriers of wood.
Other athletic buildings. The gymnasium and the pal&stra
served for general exercise and preparation for the great games.
Originally, and in strictness, the palaestra was the place for
boxing and wrestling, but the two terms are often used inter-
changeably. In primitive days a simple inclosure sufficed;
later a stoa was added along one side; then others, backed by
rooms. The arrangement was simplified in Hellenistic times
by the substitution of a homogeneous colonnaded court', as at
Olympia and Epidaurus. The side of the court facing the
south was usually doubled in depth. The surrounding rooms
furnished places for instruction, or for the assemblage of
friends for readings or conversation. In one of them was the
bath, with a simple tank or trough. Separate bathing
establishments were not frequent or extensive until late
Hellenistic times, when a luxurious elaboration ensued which
furnished the prototypes for the great Roman thermae.
Domestic architecture; the megaron house. The private house
remained of secondary importance until well into the central
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 93
period, as a result of the almost exclusively political and
public life of the men. It seems normally to have included a
modest hall, the descendant of the megaron, and a court closed
toward the street, besides minor rooms. The houses of Priene
in the fourth century still show an ever-recurring type of
megaron-house, with a portico in antis before the hall, dominat-
ing the court as in Mycenaean times (Fig. 33). The entrance
>S T R E L
FIG. 33 — PRIENE. "HOUSE xxxn". (WIEGAND)
from the street was at one side, opening into a narrow corridor
continued along the side of the court by a colonnade. Most
of the rooms, however, could only be reached by passing
through the open court.
The house with a peristylar court. In the third century this
type began to be superseded by one in which the court had a
continuous peristyle, the Oriental arrangement. The megaron-
hall was given up for a broad hall lying -along one side, as is
seen especially at Delos (Fig. 34). The peristyle was the
characteristic central feature of the kingly residences of the
Hellenistic period like those of the Acropolis at Pergamon.
All these dwellings alike turned a simple wall to the exterior,
with few windows or none, and rarely a portico over the door.
A second story over some portions was not uncommon. Wall
94
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
painting is first mentioned in the time of Alcibiades, who is
said to have confined a painter in his house until he decorated
the walls. Later it became usual for the decoration of the
interior, as at Pompeii in the Graeco-Roman period.
Funerary architecture. Interment of the dead was the usual
custom in Greece, although incineration was not unknown.
The burial was for the most part in cemeteries on the plain
outside the city gates. Democratic feeling demanded ' sim-
plicity in the marking of the grave, so that, except for those
FIG. 34 — DELOS. HOUSE OF THE TRIDENT. (P. PARIS)
of a few traditional heroes, the most elaborate monuments are
to be found outside of Greece proper, in the late period when
foreigners appreciated and employed Greek architects. At
Athens an unpretentious slab, or stele, was the favorite type,
carved with honeysuckle or acanthus ornament, and often
decorated with symbolic sculptured reliefs. Toward the end
of the fourth century the stone sarcophagus, already used in
the Orient, appeared in Greece. The most famous examples
are those of the group for the Hellenized rulers of Sidon, in
which the details of the house or temple are imitated, as a
setting for relief sculpture. The temple form was also
employed at a larger scale for actual sepulchral chambers or
chapels to the memory of a hero. These multiplied, from the
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 95
end of the fifth century, in Asia Minor, culminating about 350
in the gigantic monument of the Carian King Mausolus.
This had a peristylar cella supported on a lofty podium, or
basement, and crowned by a pyramid of twenty-four steps
bearing a quadriga, or four-horse chariot. Pliny gives the
total height as one hundred and forty feet and the perimeter
as four hundred and forty. Specially famous was the richness
of its sculptured decoration, with no less than three friezes in
relief, besides many free standing figures. The arrangement
of a peristyle on a podium, made notable by this building,
became a typical form for later monuments.
Commemorative monuments. Similar forms were used in
commemorative monuments, as in the monument of Lysicrates
at Athens, erected in 335~334(Fig. 25). Here a circular super-
structure was placed for the first time over a square base.
The larger votive offerings at the national sanctuaries em-
braced monuments of a variety of forms. A column was
often used as the support for a figure, and monumental settings
were created for groups of statues in hemicycles or exedra.
All these are seen in rich array at Delphi (Fig. 35).
Ensembles. The pan-Hellenic centers such as Delphi
(Fig. 35), Olympia, and Delos included not merely religious
buildings. Like the cities, they show Greek architecture in
its ensemble. At Delphi the theater and the stadion were
adjuncts of the sacred inclosure of Apollo; at Olympia a vast
complex of athletic buildings grew up, with a council-house for
the officials, lodgings for distinguished guests, fountains,
stoas, and later even private residences. Delos was a port
as well as a sanctuary, and had, besides its temples, its ware-
houses, commercial clubs, and exchanges. On such ancient
and sanctified ground — above all at a site like Delphi, which
owed its choice to a mountain fissure — no great formality of
arrangement could be expected. Great skill was shown,
however, in adapting new buildings to the irregular disposition
of the old, and there was a responsiveness to the topography
which resulted in great picturesqueness.
The cities. The same qualities distinguish the older cities,
where the sites were chosen for military strength, and changes
were made difficult by inherited restrictions. These cities
were the work of time; their plans were the image of their
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 97
history. Although their domestic quarters remained poorly
and closely built, the centers of civic life were enriched until
they rivaled or surpassed the national places of pilgrimage.
This was true; above all at Athens, where the Acropolis gave
an unrivaled setting to a group of superb works, rich in
Citadel
Temple of Athena
Theater
Upper Gymnasium
Agora
Lower Gymnasium
Bouleuterion
Stadium
FIG. 36 — PRIENE. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW. (RESTORED BY ZIPPELIUS)
material, unique in perfection of workmanship and subtlety
of form. The approach was from the west, the rock rising
steeply on the other sides, with the theaters clinging to its
southern flank (Fig. 30). In classic times a winding road led
up, past the bastion of Athena Nike, to the Propylaea. Passing
its porticoes and its central wall with the five huge gates, one
came out on the summit of the rock, before the colossal statue
of Athena Promachos. To the right was the Parthenon; to
the left, differently turned to the light, the Erechtheum—
their simplicity and richness serving as mutual foils. Winding
98 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
between them was the processional roadway, decked with
hundreds of statues and offerings of the highest artistic merit.
Town planning. The later cities show the influence of the
Greek tendency to rationalize all things, to reduce them to
universal and geometrical types. After the success of Hippo-
damus with the regular plan of the Piraeus, he was employed
at Thurii and Rhodes. Rectangular plans, at least for the
principal streets, were adopted in most Hellenistic cities.
Sometimes there were two main intersecting arteries, some-
times several in each direction. No general rectangular
outline of the whole city seems to have been sought. Though
Aristotle notes that Hippodamus made provision for the
proper grouping of dwelling-houses, it seems that this
consideration remained subordinate, in Greek cities, to the
spectacular grouping of public buildings. In the application
of the newly discovered formulas the architects were not
always scrupulous in regarding topographical conditions.
At Priene (Fig. 36) the rectangular street plan was forcibly
imposed on a steep hillside site, where the transverse streets
became veritable stairways. Well preserved and conscien-
tiously excavated, however, it gives us our best evidence of
the aspect of a late Greek city, distantly suggesting the lost
magnificence of Antioch and Alexandria.
Like the Greek city-state, Greek architecture rested on the
synthesis of a few elements only. Animated first by a simple
adaptation to nature, later by self-confident reason, it sought
and attained supreme clarity of expression within the restricted
field which modest needs had suggested.
PERIODS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Magna Grcecia and „ r • j A •
<>• ., Greece proper Ionia and Asia
I. PRIMITIVE PERIOD, about 1 100-776 B.C.
II. ARCHAIC PERIOD, about 776-479 B.C.
Earliest peristylar
, temple at Seli-
nus, c. 575.
Temple of Hera at
Olympia, eighth
century.
Temple at Corinth,
before 600.
Athens under Pisistra-
tus.
Predominance of Ionia,
to c. 550.
Temple of Hera at
Samos, c. 600.
Older temple of Ar-
temis at Ephe-
sus, c. 560.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
99
Magna Gr&cia and
Sicily
II. ARCHAIC
"Basilica" at Paes-
tum, c. 560.
Predominance of western
colonies, c. 550-480.
Great temple of
Apollo at Seli-
nus, begun after
540.
Canonical temples at
Selinus, c. 500-
480.
Carthaginian war, 480.
Greece proper
Ionia and Asia
PERIOD, 776-479 B.C. — Continued
Persian conquest of Jo-
Temple of Olympian
Zeus begun, c. nia, 546.
530.
Earlier Hall of Mys-
teries, at Eleusis.
Earlier temple of
Apollo at Del-
phi, c. 530-5I4-
Persian wars, awaken-
ing of continental
Greece, 400-470.
Older Parthenon at
Athens, c. 490-
480.
Temple of Aphaia at
^Egina, c. 490-
480.
in. CENTRAL PERIOD, about 479-330 B.C.
Prosperity in Sicily,
480-465.
Temple of Olympian
Zeus at Akra-
gas, after 480.
Temple of Apollo at
Selinus com-
pleted.
'Civil war and war with
Sicels, 465-444.
Renewed prosperity in
Sicily, c. 444-409.
Great temple at Paes-
tum, c. 430.
Temple at Segesta, c.
430-420.
Temple of Concord
at Akragas.
National Unity, c. 470-
460.
Embellishment of Olym-
pia, Delphi, and
Delos.
Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, c. 468-
56-
Trophy of Plataea at
Delphi.
Athenian supremacy,
age of Pericles, c.
461-430.
The Parthenon, 447-
432.
The Propylaea, 437-
432.
Temple of Athena
Nike, c. 435.
"Theseum," c. 430.
Later Hall of Mys-
teries at Eleusis.
Laying out of the
Piraeus.
100 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Ionia and Asia
Ma.gn* Gratia and
in. CENTRAL PERIOD, about 479-330 B.C. — Continued
Peloponnesian war; po-
litical downfall of
Athens, 431-404.
The Erechtheum, c.
435-404-
Spread of Athenian in-
fluence.
Temple of Apollo at
Bassae, c. 420.
Fall of western Sicily be-
fore Carthage, 400-
406.
Temple of Castor and
Pollux at Ak-
ragas, after 338.
Temple of Athena
Alea at Tegea, c.
390-
Temple, tholos, and
theater at Epi-
daurus, c. 350.
Rebuilding of Man-
tinea; building of
Megalopolis and
Messene, 370 ff .
Macedonian conquest of
Greece, 357-33$-
Philippeion at Olym-
pia, c. 336.
Ionian renaissance,
from c. 350.
Mausoleum at Hali-
carnassus, after
353-
Later temple of Ar-
temis at Ephe-
sus, 356-334.
Temple of Athena at
Priene, dedicat-
ed 334-
Conquest of the Persian
Empire by Alex-
ander, 334-330.
IV. HELLENISTIC PERIOD, about 330-146 B.C.
Altar of Hieron at
Syracuse, 276-
215.
Roman conquest of Mag-
no, Grcecia by 272,
of Sicily by 241.
Temple of Asklepios
at Akragas, be-
fore 210.
Temple "B" at Seli-
nus.
Administration of Ly-
curgus at Athens,
338-322.
Theater lined with
stone.
Stadion built, c. 330.
Arsenal of Philon, c.
330.
Portico of Philon,
Eleusis, 311.
Adornment of Athens by
Asiatic rulers.
Temple of Olympian
Zeus rebegun,
174.
Stoa of Attalos, be-
tween i 59 and
138.
Destruction of Corinth
by the Romans, 146.
Spread of Greek in-
fluence.
Alexandria founded,
332.
Antioch founded,3Oi.
Ephesus refounded,
290.
Pergamon, flourished
esp. 241-138.
Palace of Eumenes,
197-159.
Altar of Zeus, c. 180.
Council-house at Pri-
ene, c. 200.
Bouleuterion at Mile-
tus, between 175
and 164.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
101
Magna Gratia and
Greece proper
Ionia and Asia
v. GR^CO-ROMAN PERIOD, after about 146 B.C.
Corinthian- Doric
temple at Paestum,
second century
B.C.
1 'Tower of the
Winds" at Ath-
ens, first cen-
tury B.C.
Adornment of Athens
by Roman emperors
and citizens.
Arch of Hadrian, c.
135 A.D.
Buildings of Herodes
Atticus : Seats
of Stadion, c.
i40A.D.,Odeion,
c. 1 60.
Exedra of Herodes
at Olympia, 156
A.D.
Roman province of Asia
organized, 133 B.C.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers's The Architecture of Greece and
Rome, 26. ed., 1907, gives a consecutive historical account; A. Mar-
quand's Greek Architecture, 1909, a technical analysis. More de-
tailed and authoritative, with full bibliographical references, is
J. Durrn's Baukunst der Griechen, 3d ed., 1910 (Handbuch der Archi-
tectur, pt. II, vol. i). Perrot and Chipiez's Histoire de I' art dans
Vantiquite, vol. 8, 1903, which includes the archaic architecture of
Greece, with illuminating restorations. R. Koldewey and O. Puch-
stein's Die griechischen Tempel von Unteritalien und Sicilien, 2 vols.,
1899, remains the final authority for the temples of the West. H.
d'Espouy's Monuments antiques, vol. i, 1910, and Fragments dj archi-
tecture antique, vol. i, 1896, pis. 1-25, vol. 2, 1905, pis. 1-30, contain
a choice of the superbly presented restorations of Greek architecture
made by pensioners of the French Academy at Rome, ensembles and
details, respectively. Many of these drawings, however, involve a
large measure of conjecture and embody architectural theories now
abandoned. F. Noack's Die Baukunst des Altertums, 1910, includes
very fine photographs of the Greek monuments, with brief text
embodying the results of the latest researches. A topographical
102 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
treatment is Pausanias's Description of Greece, translated with a com-
mentary by J. G. Frazer, 6 vols.. 1898, reprinted 1913. Detailed
lists of works covering individual sites and regions are given in
K. Sittl's Archaologie der Kunst, 1895 (Handbuch der klassischen
Altertums-Wissenschaft, vol. 6). Among studies of special topics
may be noted W. H. Goodyear's Greek Refinements, 1912; G. Le-
roux's Les origines de ly edifice hypostyle en Grece, etc., 1913; B. C.
Rider's The Greek House: Its History and Development, 1916; and
E. R. Fiechter's Die baugeschichtliche Entwicklung des antiken
Theaters, 1914. On the planning of cities, see F. Haverfield's
Ancient Town Planning, 1913, chapters 3 and 4.
CHAPTER V
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Between Greek architecture and Roman architecture there
is no such sharp distinction as between the various preclassical
styles, which developed for the most part independently in
regions relatively little in contact with one another. From the
very beginning of Greek civilization Italy fell within the sphere
of its influence, which was too potent to permit another
independent beginning. The character of the Italian peoples,
moreover, especially that of the Romans, who became
dominant, was not such as to promise much initiative in the
field of the arts. It was primarily political, war-like, common-
sense, practical — better adapted to receive than to create in
matters aesthetic, though capable of remarkable developments
in the science of planning and construction. At first Spartanly
ascetic, the Romans became, as conquerors of the world, rich
and luxurious, superposing on the admirable organization of
their material life a culture derived from Greece and from
the Orient.
Relation to Greek forms. As they came in direct contact with
the Greeks, by the conquest first of Southern Italy and
Sicily, then of Greece and western Asia, the Romans realized
the superior advancement of Greek architecture, as of Greek
literature and sculpture, and sought to adapt its forms to
their own monuments. In this adaptation the original
structural significance tended to be lost, as in the later and
more sophisticated days of Greece itself. Columns and en-
tablatures were used as decorative adjuncts to a wall or to
an arch, where they had no structural functions, but where
they served both to give visible expression to the classical
cultivation of their builders and to make a majestic and
rhythmical subdivision of surface. First accepting the forms
5
io4 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of the columnar orders as they found them in Hellenistic
Greece, the Romans proceeded to enrich them still further in
ornamentation and in scale. The arch received a formal
accentuation with moldings, to harmonize with the other
members of the system.
Importance of types of buildings. Among the Romans, how-
ever, it was not so much the individual forms of detail which
were significant as the many functional types developed in
response to the varied needs of their more complex civiliza-
tion, and in accordance with a logical analysis of its problems.
First came an extraordinary expansion of engineering works,
civil and military — roads, bridges, drains, aqueducts, harbor-
works, fortifications — frankly adapted to their utilitarian
functions, yet artistically satisfactory in expression of struct-
ure, in broad handling of materials, in proportion. In the
train of an active political and commercial life came more
extended and magnificent solutions of the problems of the
assembly-place and the market — the forum and the basilica.
For military and monarchical glorification the monumental
types already employed by the Greeks were seized on and
magnified, and a new type, the commemorative arch, was
added to them. To provide an architectural setting for
favorite amusements — comedy, gladiatorial combats, races —
the Greek form of auditorium received diverse applications in
theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, often built regardless of
expense, whether the topography favored or no. To minister
to increasing wealth, domestic architecture abandoned its
early republican austerity for an Oriental luxury and splendor,
culminating in the palaces and villas of the emperors. Their
counterpart for the masses lay in the public bathing-estab-
lishments or thermae, in which every form of refreshment and
recreation was made accessible to thousands.
Construction. In construction the Romans adapted their
methods with great ingenuity and skill to operations on a
large scale and to the problem of placing great numbers under
cover from the weather. Taking up the arch and vault in a
condition still rudimentary and cumbersome, they followed
out its form through the elementary geometric possibilities
and combinations, at the same time freeing themselves from
bondage to the difficulties of cut-stone work. Building in
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 105
concrete enabled them to extend their undertakings and to
deploy upon the surfaces of walls rich materials which could
never have been obtained in sufficient quantity for con-
structive uses. It also permitted them to vault great spans
without interior supports, securing a new range of interior
spatial effects, specifically Roman.
Planning. In disposing the numerous units which manifold
requirements called into being, the Romans progressed from a
naive irregularity, like that of the early Greeks, through pro-
gressively higher degrees of organization. Ultimately they
far surpassed in this respect the Hellenistic Greeks who were
their teachers. The functions of different rooms were
specialized, their sequence carefully considered both from the
practical standpoint and from the standpoint of spatial
diversity and climax. Not content with establishing formal
symmetry on a single axis, the architects introduced trans-
verse axes and a variety of minor axial lines parallel to both
the major ones, producing a highly complex unity of subor-
dinated parts, with the greatest variety of effect. They ac-
complished this not merely on level ground, but also on the
most irregular sites, making a merit of difficult topographic
conditions or artfully concealing the irregularities which re-
sulted from them.
Universality. Roman architecture became, like the Roman
Empire, something universal. Race and climate were not
greatly determining, for these were diverse, yet the official
art, in spite of minor differences conditioned by local traditions
and building materials, was surprisingly uniform. Itself
largely adopted from the Greeks, it was imposed on other sub-
ject peoples, and practised by artists of many racial stocks,
who themselves contributed to its general development.
Forms much the same were repeated, without sense of incon-
gruity, in the sands of Africa, the foothills of the Alps, the
forests of Germany. In this, as in so many other points,
Roman architecture was like modern architecture — material
and urbane, frequently lacking in delicacy and imagination in
detail, while preoccupied with larger questions of planning,
construction, and mass.
Periods of- development. In the development of Roman ar-
chitecture three periods may be distinguished, in which, side
io6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
by side with native developments, Greek influence made itself
felt in three different ways. Until about 300 B.C. the Romans
shared with the Etruscans a diluted Hellenism mingled with
Italic elements. From then till near the end of the republic,
about two hundred and fifty years, they were absorbing from
the western Greek colonies and from Greece itself the grammar
FIG. 37 — AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE. (RESTORED BY HULSEN)
of the orders, and struggling with the new problem of the
arch. From the establishment of the empire to its fall they
drew more and more on the Orientalized Hellenism of Asia,
while making their own most important contributions.
Earliest monuments to 300 B.C. The character of the earliest
monuments of Rome must be deduced principally from con-
temporary Etruscan works, which are known traditionally to
have furnished their prototypes. The principal types are
fortification walls with polygonal or ashlar masonry, accord-
ing to the material available; gates, drains, and bridges, with
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 107
simple arches between generous abutments, as in contemporary
Greece; temples with columnar porticoes and lintels of wood
(Fig. 37) ; houses and tombs of a variety of native forms.
The house. The most individual and most influential of
these types was the dwelling, the ancestor of the Roman
house of classic times. After the seventh century there are
but few vestiges of houses of a northern character, similar to
the primitive forerunners of the megaron in Greece. The
characteristic form was one distinct from these, seemingly of
Oriental origin — the house with an atrium, having a central
opening in the roof (cf. Fig. 54 [A]). The temple, on the other
hand, was strongly influenced from Greece in at least two of
its three forms. The first of these, the circular temple, has
evident traditional relations with the circular hut, although it
later received a peristyle in the manner of Greek examples.
The second form, with a single rectangular cella, reproduced
the typical Greek arrangement with few changes: the portico
in front was made deeper and the colonnade was frequently
omitted from the sides and always from the rear. The third
form, with three parallel cellas (Fig. 37), may be looked on less
as a new creation than an adaptation of the Greek scheme to
the exigencies of a new cult. To constitute it, it sufficed to
place prostyle cellas side by side, and to give their porticoes
somewhat more depth.
Arched construction. The arches and vaulted drains, such
as the gateways at Perugia (Fig. 38), and the Cloaca Maxima
in Rome — formerly thought to descend from the legendary
Roman kings and to antedate Greek examples of the arch —
are now placed in the fourth century at earliest. They repre-
sent no constructive advance on the Greek arches, but show
an effort to give architectural expression to the functions of
the parts by a decorative emphasis on the keystone and
springing stones, or by projecting members below the spring-
ing and around the voussoirs — the impost and label molding.
Columnar system. The architectural forms of the columnar
system reflected those of Greece, all three orders finding crude
counterparts. Most important was the derivative of the
Doric, which had always remained dominant in western
Greece. It recurs in both of its later Greek forms: with the
profile of the echinus reduced to a straight line and with it
108 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
rounded into a quadrant ; without a base and with a molded
base simplified from the Ionic order. It was the latter of
these two forms, with rounded echinus and bases, which came
to be regarded as specifically Tuscan, though Vitruvius, writ-
ing in the time of Augustus, recognized that it was but a
variety of the Doric. The triglyph frieze was sometimes cop-
FIG. 38 — PERUGIA. "ARCH OF AUGUSTUS"
ied, though more usually the order had no frieze. Instead
there were widely projecting eaves formed by the wooden
beams and rafters, which, like the architraves themselves, were
often cased in richly decorated terra-cotta plates (Fig. 37).
A steep gable imitated the pediment, sometimes with figure
sculpture.
Republican developments, to about 50 B.C. Greek influence.
In the later and more powerful days of the republic, con-
structive and formal developments went on simultaneously.
In the first aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C.,
in the bridge of ^milius across the Tiber, 179-142 B.C., a
series of arches was built side by side, their thrusts balancing
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 109
on the supporting piers. The revival of this principle, applied
long before in the store-chambers of the Ramesseum at
Thebes and in the great substructure at Babylon, was to
prove of uncommon fruitfulness in later Roman architecture.
Meanwhile Greek monuments were becoming directly ac-
cessible to the Romans. Magna Graecia was conquered by
272 B.C., Sicily by 241; Greece was taken under Roman
protectorate in 196; Asia Minor became a province in 133.
The spoils of Syracuse in 212, of Tarentum in 209, of conti-
nental Greece in 196 and 167, and above all in 146, after the
destruction of Corinth, opened the eyes of the Romans to the
riches of Hellenic art and awakened a desire for imitation.
Greek captives, and other Greek artists attracted by wealth
and opportunity, furnished the requisite knowledge and skill.
By the middle of the second century B.C. most of the archi-
tects active in Rome were Greeks.
Forms of detail. Their influence soon made itself visible
in more authentic forms of detail and in a more sophisticated
application of the orders generally. As early as 250 B.C.
Greek details, individually correct, and effective in spite of
their uncanonical combinations, appear in the sarcophagus of
Scipio Barbatus. By the first century B.C. the use of con-
ventional detail was universal, the forms of the orders were
naturalized, so that conformity with Greek standards need
no longer be taken as their criterion. The membering, as
exemplified in the Tabularium in Rome, in the so-called temple
of Fortuna Virilis, the circular temples of Rome and of
Tivoli (Fig. 39), all from the first century B.C., may be exam-
ined for characteristics specifically Roman. The peculiarities
lie first in the freedom of combination of parts, the original
significance of which was now long forgotten. There is, to
be sure, always the canonical subdivision of the entablature
into architrave, frieze, and cornice, even the Ionic order having
uniformly a frieze. In general, the triglyphs are confined to
the Doric order and its derivatives, though in certain cases
they occur with the Ionic capital and even the Corinthian.
Less striking forms, such as dentils, however, were transposed
at will. If arbitrary canons were violated, reasonable dis-
tinctions were not ignored, and the wealth of detailed forms
liberated from inherited prescriptions was applied with un-
no A HISTORY OP ARCHITFCTURE
failing respect for appropriateness to position and expressive
functions.
Applications of the orders. A more characteristic feature
lay in the freedom with which the columnar system as a whole
was combined with the wall. The forms of the free-standing
columns of the temple portico were repeated along the walls
FIG. 39 — TIVOLI. "TEMPLE OF VESTA"
of the cella, to give the effect of a full peristyle (see Fig. 41).
A similar unstructural use of the columnar forms had not
been unknown even in the Greece of the fifth century and had
since become frequent. Its adoption as the normal treatment
of the temple, the outcome of a wish to secure a columnar
effect in spite of the breadth of the Roman cella, was a wide
extension of its use.
The "Roman arch order." A still further extension lay in
the use of columns on a wall with arches, or rather on the
piers of a continuous arcade, usually in several stories, a scheme
which became so common as to receive a special name, the
Roman arch order. The Tabularium, the archive building of
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE m
the Capitol (78 B.C.), furnishes the first dated example. This
scheme, which was later to find its most noted exemplification
in the Colosseum (Figs. 40, 59) consisted of the application,
to the piers of the arcade and to the horizontal bands opposite
the floors, of the columns and entablatures of a Greek stoa
with superposed orders. The mere superposition of ranges of
FIG. 40 — ROME. THE COLOSSEUM
arches was itself almost if not quite as novel as the use of
orders with them. It is really better justified to look on the
arrangement as the strengthening of a Greek stoa to support
vaulting, thickening the supports and building up arches
between the columns — a process similar to that by which the
first engaged columns in Greece were produced. The neces-
sity for greater strength lay in the desire to span the passage
behind the facade by a more permanent means than the
wooden ceilings and roofs of the Greeks, usually by a barrel
vault, which sprang from above the crowns of the external
arches across to the inner wall. This was indeed a notable step
ii2 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in construction, for the outward thrust had no such unim-
peachable abutment as had the subterranean vaults of the
Orient or the ends of the arcades in aqueducts and bridges.
The experiment succeeded, nevertheless ; the resistance of the
heavy outer wall proved more than sufficient. From the
purely formal standpoint the arch order was equally success-
ful, in spite of certain difficulties. The longitudinal vaults,
being semicircular, rose perforce even higher than the top of
the entablature in front of them, but this was overcome by
the insertion of an attic with pedestals between the stories.
The calm and dignified repetition of horizontals and verticals,
mastering and co-ordinating the freer lines of the arches, the
consistent molded treatment of entablature, impost, and
pedestal, combine to form a system of powerful effect, in-
dependent of the character of the individual details or of the
contradiction of the structural expressions of lintel and arch.
Domestic architecture. The private houses, which from the
fourth century were built wall to wall in close blocks, followed
the Etruscan model in having a central atrium with surround-
ing rooms. At the rear was a small garden. Later a more
elaborate inner portion, built about a court with a colonnade,
the so-called peristylium, was added under Greek influence
(Fig. 54 [C]). By the second century B.C. this composite type
was the model for the ordinary dwellings of the well-to-do;
from early in the first century the wealthy began to elaborate
them into veritable palaces, with marble columns and pave-
ments. On the other hand, the pressure of metropolitan life
now forced the erection of tenements for the poor, in three
or four stories.
Other types. Throughout this period the principal monu-
mental type remained the temple. Civil buildings, in Italy
as in Greece, were late in developing. Political assembly and
commercial intercourse alike took place at first in the open
air. The senate, to be sure, which in the beginning met out
of doors or in some temple, was housed at an early date in a
special building, the Curia, which seems to have followed the
scheme of the temple cella. By about 200 B.C. began the
construction of basilicas, exchanges for the merchants, which
became the seat of tribunals and gradually accumulated other
uses. The first of which we know was built by Cato the Cen-
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 113
sor, in 184 B.C., and others quickly followed. Regarding the
original form of these and, indeed, of all the basilicas of Rome
prior to the days of Caesar, we have no certain knowledge.
Grouping: town planning. The grouping of public buildings,
such as the temples and basilicas which fronted the forum,
the principal open space of the city, was an1 irregular and
accidental one, like that of the great sanctuaries of early
Greece. Only in a town essentially Hellenistic, like Pompeii,
was there a more uniform treatment such as that of the Ionian
agoras, resulting from the inclosing of the forum, shortly be-
fore 100 B.C., by columnar porticoes forming a long rectangle.
Although the city of Rome, with its unexpected growth, con-
formed to no regular plan, many towns showed in their general
layout common characteristics derived from a principle con-
secrated in Italy from the earliest times, division by two axes
which crossed at right angles. Parallel to the principal
streets which marked these axes were minor streets delimiting
the house blocks; in one of the angles was frequently the
forum, as at Pompeii.
Imperial architecture, c. 50 B.C. to 350 A.D. Development.
The transformation of Roman architecture to its imperial
scale and splendor began with the buildings of Pompey and of
Julius Caesar, in the middle of the first century B.C. Pompey
erected in 55 the earliest stone theater, built up from the plain
on an arched substructure ; Caesar did not content himself with
adding a new basilica to the forum, and providing better
quarters for the senate and other assemblies, but initiated
the custom of adding an entirely new forum, beyond the time-
honored buildings which prevented any enlargement of the old
Forum Romanum. The buildings and rebuildings of Augus-
tus were so numerous as to justify his boast that he found
Rome of brick and left it of marble. Most noteworthy, per-
haps, was the forum which bears his name (Fig. 44 [C]), with
its octastyle Corinthian temple of Mars. Agrippa, his ablest
minister, gave great attention to the aqueducts, and built the
first of the great thermae. In Augustus's reign also the
architect Vitruvius compiled, largely from Greek sources, his
compendium of rules and maxims, designed to assist in the dif-
fusion of correct principles. Under Nero the destruction of
crowded quarters by fire gave opportunity for rebuilding them
ii4 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
on a regular plan, with better materials, lower houses, and
wider streets. With the Flavian emperors, 69-96 A.D., the
tendencies toward regal luxury of accommodations and toward
elaboration of detail reached their height. Their palace on
the Palatine hill with its magnificent vaulted halls, their
temples and fora, in the entablatures of which there was
scarcely a member left undecorated, the "Composite" capital,
in which elements of the Ionic and Corinthian were combined,
attest their striving for enrichment of form. Under Trajan,
Hadrian, and the Antonines, while the magnitude of con-
structive undertakings increased still further, there was a
reaction in favor of Hellenic forms. In the gigantic Forum of
Trajan (Fig. 44 [F]) — itself composed on Oriental principles —
the great basilica dispenses with the vaulted arcades of earlier
works, and employs a purely Greek system of column and
lintel. The temples of the time bear entablatures in which
the multiplicity of ornament is much reduced — in some cases
even to the point of austerity.
Constructive advances. At the same time, however, Roman
constructive science was proceeding with rapid stride, con-
quering successively the difficulties of vaulting semicircular
apses, circular rooms, and rectangular rooms requiring lateral
openings. In the Pantheon of Hadrian, the halls of the
imperial thermae of Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, these
elements attained vast size and monumental effects hitherto
unattainable. In the thermae also Roman architecture
achieved some of its greatest triumphs of logical planning at a
great scale. The laying out of new towns gave opportunity
to extend its principles, as in Hellenistic Asia, to the whole city.
Prevalent types. The temples no longer appeared as the
sole or even as the chief monuments. In spite of vast size
and costly materials they had become secondary in importance,
as an expression of the national life, which was administrative,
commercial, pleasure-loving, and egoistic. Besides luxurious
palaces and temples for self-deification, the emperors erected
triumphal columns and arches, mausolea surpassing the
original at Halicarnassus in size and magnificence, and in-
dulged the populace with buildings for their favorite amuse-
ments.
Late imperial architecture. In the later monuments a new
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 115
logic gradually shows itself in the relations of arch and column,
coincident with a fresh wave of Oriental influences sweeping
over construction and detail alike. In the Pantheon and the
thermae the arches are not framed in by entablatures and
columns, but rest frankly on them; in the second century
monuments of Syria and the palace of Diocletian on the
Adriatic, at the beginning of the fourth century, further steps
are taken in the elimination of the entablature and the bringing
down of the arch directly on the head of the column (Fig. 58).
Thus at the very end of its development Roman architecture
attained, by the abandonment of its formal canons, the
solution of the difficulties of expression which confronted it,
laying the foundation for the development of the Middle
Ages.
Artistic centers. Throughout this long history the center of
artistic activity had remained the city of Rome, which
focussed the influences of Greece and the Orient. In the last
days of the empire the balance of power inclined more and
more to the east, and under Constantine, 306-337, the seat of
administration was removed thither, to Byzantium or Con-
stantinople, on the shores of the Bosphorus. The wealth and
population of Rome rapidly fell away. The adoption of
Christianity as the state religion in 330 caused the temples to
fall gradually into disuse, and temples and public buildings
alike were plundered for materials to build the great Christian
basilicas, the only important fresh undertakings of the time.
With the sack of Rome by the Goths in 410 and the Vandals
in 455 the last vestiges of its imperial power were broken,
and the abdication of Romulus Augustulus on demand of the
barbarian chieftain Odoacer in 476 marked the end even of the
nominal existence of the Roman Empire in the west.
Character of important types. Whereas in Greece it is the
development of the forms of detail, to which the Greeks gave
the most scrupulous attention, which is of primary importance,
in Rome it is rather the development of the great functional
types which demands an intensive study.
Temples. In Rome the temple was no more intended than
in Greece for congregational worship, and the great size to
which it ultimately grew was rather the result of a desire for
imposing effect. The ritual, influenced by that of the Greeks,
n6 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
left considerable liberty in form and orientation, though the
image was preferably at the east. In matters of disposition
the development was toward a steadily closer approximation
to the Greek scheme with a continuous exterior peristyle.
The Etruscan temples had never a colonnade at the rear, the
Roman cellas, as early as republican times, were provided
with a decorative disguise of engaged columns on the rear as
well as on the sides, and this was retained in early imperial
FIG. 41 — NIMES. "THE MAISON CARREE"
times. The best preserved and most famous example is the
so-called Maison Carree at Nimes in southern France (Fig. 41),
a hexastyle temple of rich Corinthian order, which shows that
the Romans were not behind the Greeks in mastery of propor-
tions and subtlety of form. The delicate curvatures of line
and surface which relieved the regularity and varied the play
of light and shade in Greek monuments recur in its plan.
Other temples, like that of Mars in the Forum of Augustus,
perpetuate a type already found in Etruscan times, and
approaching the peristylar arrangement more nearly — having
a free-standing colonnade along the sides as well as the front,
but not across the rear. The tendency was more and more
toward a complete peristyle, still in use in half-Greek Pompeii
FIG. 42 ROME. INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON (RESTORED BY ISABELLE),
SHOWING THE CONDITION AFTER THE RESTORATION OF SEVERUS
n8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in the second century B.C. before the establishment of the
Roman colony there, and appearing in Rome with the temple
completed by Augustus in the Forum of Caesar. One of the
most notable examples was the double temple of Venus and
Rome built by Hadrian near the Forum. It had fronts of
ten columns, and a cella with two chambers back to back,
which were for the first time vaulted with barrel vaults. A
magnificent decoration of half columns and statued niches
along the interior walls is the lineal descendant of the interior
colonnades of the early Greek cellas, through the temple at
Bassae and the temple of Apollo at Didyma. A few temples,
though rectangular, varied from the traditional arrangement
in having the portico built against the long side, but this -was
only from special exigencies. Both stylobate and podium
were used as substructures; the roof remained steadily a
gabled one, fronted by a pediment. In a few instances only
were temples left roofless.
Circular temples. A class of considerable importance was
that of the round temples. The two well-known republican
examples, in Rome and Tivoli (Fig. 39), do not differ greatly
from similar buildings in Greece. Both are of the Corinthian
order, with unvaulted cellas. The first Pantheon in Rome,
built by Agrippa, must have been similar in principle, though
on a far larger scale. The Pantheon which stands to-day,
rebuilt by Hadrian (12 0-124 A. D.) and restored under Severus
(202 A.D.), shows, on the contrary, an application of the new
Roman constructive methods (Fig. 42). A single hemispher-
ical dome spans the circular interior of over one hundred and
forty feet diameter, its crown at just an equal height above
the pavement. Light comes through a single eye at the top,
through which rain may fall without causing any incon-
venience, thanks to the area and volume of the interior. The
massive walls are pierced by eight niches, alternately square
and semicircular, originally arched across, with screens of
Corinthian columns; the vault is deeply recessed with coffers
diminishing as they ascend, and once decorated with bronze
rosettes. A rich veneer of marble slabs over the constructive
brickwork of the walls complements the unrivaled abstract
unity of the general form.
Temple inclosures. Although many early temples in Rome,
120 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
and their successors on the same sites, stood directly on the
borders of the Forum, it was preferred in later days to follow
the practice of Hellenistic Greece and place the temple in a
colonnaded inclosure, serving both to give shelter to the
worshippers who watched the sacrifice and to heighten the
architectural effect. At Pompeii, in the precinct of Apollo,
this arrangement was a legacy from the Greek days of the
town; in Rome it came in, with the peripteral temple, in the
Forum of Caesar, which was at the same time a temple
inclosure (Fig. 44 [B]). Later architects were not contented
with the simple rectangular plan. In the Forum of Augustus
they introduced great segmental exedrae to right and left;
in the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek in Syria they added a
second, hexagonal court in front of the principal one.
Size of temples. In size the temples varied as much as those
of Greece, and within much the same limits. No Greek
temple, however, rivaled the one at Baalbek in the complexity
and extent of its accessories, with which it covered in all a
space a thousand by four hundred feet.
Fora. The forum served at first for all forms of trade as
well as for political assembly, and this remained true in the
smaller towns. In the cities, and especially in Rome, the
volume of trade forced the institution of subordinate fora for
various classes of goods, leaving the forum civile for the bankers
and for general business intercourse. About it were grouped
the principal public buildings (Fig. 43). Thamugadi (Tim-
gad), a colony planted by Trajan in Africa, shows the form
which might be selected for the forum in imperial times, in a
case where all was planned from the beginning — a square
court surrounded by an unbroken peristyle. In Rome, the
supplementary fora civilia built by the emperors culminated
in that of Trajan, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus,
which included a vast complex of buildings for varied uses
(Fig. 44 [F]). It followed in disposition, as has been recog-
nized, the Egyptian temple scheme. First came a broad court,
the forum proper, surrounded on three sides by a colonnade,
on the flanks of which were enormous exedrae bordered with
shops. Across the further side of the court, like the hypostyle
hall of the Egyptian temple, lay a basilica of unequaled
extent; beyond it, like the Egyptian sanctuary, was the temple
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FIG. 44 — ROME. THE FORUM ROMANUM AND THE FORA OF THE
EMPERORS. PLAN. (RESTORED BY GROMORT)
(A) Forum Romanum
(B) Forum of Julius Caesar
(C) Forum of Augustus
(D) Forum of Vespasian
(E) Forum Transitorium
(F) Forum of Trajan
(G) Area Capitolina
(H) Comitium
(1) Tabularium
(2) Curia
(3) Basilica Julia
(4) Basilic^ /Emilia
(5) Basilica of Maxentiu.?
(Constantine)
(6) Temple of Venus Genetrlx
(7) Temple of Mars the
Avenger
(8) Basilica Ulpia
122 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of Trajan, surrounded by a second, oblong inclosure. Even
the pylon and the obelisk had their counterparts in the monu-
mental arch which gave access to the first court and the
triumphal column which stood at the entrance to the second.
There was a variety and technical dexterity of planning
which the Egyptian prototypes had lacked.
Adjuncts of the forum. As adjuncts to the Forum Romanum,
which remained the political center, were the Curia or senate
house, the Comitium for the meeting of the assembly, and the
Rostrum from which orators addressed the populace. This
platform, which stood at the end of the principal space toward
the Capitol, was richly decorated with sculptured parapets
and small commemorative columns, as well as with the ships'
prows which gave it its name. On the pavement of the forum
itself was a forest of statues, and such triumphal arches and
columns as could find place, making, with the fagades of
temples and basilicas, an effect as rich as those of the national
sanctuaries of Greece.
Basilicas. The basilicas, which served the varied neces-
sities of intercourse under cover, were not uniform in plan,
but were in general buildings of spacious interior, with col-
umnar supports, not narrow and open on one side like a
gallery or stoa, but broad and inclosed, like a hall. In Greece
there were already a few buildings which fall under this
definition, though they were not designated by the same name.
They belonged both to the Greek type of plan, a deep hall
with longitudinal colonnades, and an apse opposite the
entrance, and to the Oriental type, a broad hall with an
interior peristyle. In Rome the existing monuments also
include examples of both types, to neither of which can a
chronological priority be assigned. The Oriental type counted
among its representatives two of the most conspicuous build-
ings, the Basilica Julia in the Forum Romanum and the Basil-
ica Ulpia in the Forum of Trajan (see Fig. 44 [3] and [8]). The
Basilica Julia turned its long, principal facade to the Forum
and was lined on the rear by a range of shops. Between was
an oblong hall surrounded by two concentric vaulted corri-
dors in two stories, of an ordonnance similar to that of the
Tabularium. The impossibility of securing sufficient light in
the central hall through the lateral openings gives rise to the
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 123
assumption that its ceiling was raised on a clerestory with
windows above the flat roofs of the aisles, as in the Egyptian
temples and in certain late Greek buildings which show
Egyptian influence. The building was exceptional in having
such an open treatment of the exterior, arising partly, doubt-
less, from a desire for a rich effect suitable to its conspicuous
position. Similar in its general plan to the Basilica Julia was
the Basilica Ulpia, in spite of its having columns and lintels in-
stead of piers and an arch order. The central space, although
over eighty feet in span, was doubtless covered by a wooden
FIG. 45— ROME. BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS, OR CONSTANTINE. (RESTORED
BY D'ESPOUY)
roof. A unique addition was that of the great apses at
either end. The Basilica ^Emilia, which forms a pendant to
the Basilica Julia by its position in the Forum, and owes its
existing form to much the same time, seems to show the con-
trary plan of a narrow and deep hall, turning its flank to the
Forum, and having its galleries along two sides only. The
same variety could be traced through the provincial examples.
The basilica of Maxentius. Unique in its structure among the
124 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
basilicas was one in the Sacred Way begun by Maxentius and
completed by Constantine (Figs. 44 [5] and 45). A vault was
substituted for the wooden roof over the nave, the vaulting
system being taken over almost intact from its earliest repre-
sentatives, the great halls of the baths in which we shall
study it. There are but three bays in a length of nearly two
hundred feet, and the clear span of the nave is over seventy-
five feet. In spite of the considerable modifications necessary
in the form of the points of support and of the clerestory, the
essential scheme of the basilica is recognizable. It belonged
originally to the Greek type, with aisles along two sides only,
the entrance on one of the narrow ends, and an apse opposite.
As completed by Constantine it had a second entrance in
the center of the broad side toward the Forum, and a second
apse opposite this, producing a hybrid plan. In the adoption
of the fire-proof and permanent methods of covering which had
been developed in other classes of buildings the Basilica of
Maxentius marks a notable progress, prophetic in many ways
of the development of the Christian basilica into the mediaeval
vaulted church.
Theaters. The preconditions of the development of the
Roman theater, in its differences from the Greek theater, are
to be found in the native Italic drama and the method of its
presentation in early Rome. As the audience at first stood on
level ground during the performance, the stage had to be of a
moderate height. As there was no chorus there was no
necessity for an open space or orchestra before the stage.
The first inclosed theaters were of wood, doubtless rectangular,
•with seats parallel to the stage and soon arranged in ascend-
ing tiers (Fig. 46). Stage and auditorium were easily brought
into architectural unity and under a single roof. No great
change in principle was involved in the substitution, within the
rectangular building, of segmental or circular seats, as seen
in the small theater at Pompeii, built soon after 80 B.C., under
the influence of the existing Hellenistic theater close by.
As the dimensions increased, an awning or velarium had to be
substituted for a wooden roof, but the walls of the building re-
mained of equal height, and the one at the rear of the stage,
the seance frons, decorated with columns in imitation of the
background of the Greek stage, had to be treated in two or
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
125
three stories. This was the state of the Roman theater
when, just before the end of the republic, a single building
established the final form.
Stone theaters in Rome. The theater of Pompey, the first
stone theater in Rome, built in 55 B.C., is stated to have fol-
lowed the model of the theater at Mitylene. The features de-
rived from this prototype, however, can have been merely
FIG. 46 — SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ROMAN THEATER. (FIECHTER)
(B) Stage (S) Senatorial seats (C) Cavea (P) Passages (T) Tribunalia
the general idea of the building, with a vast colonnaded court
for promenading, and, especially, the dominating circular form
of the auditorium. With this came the orchestra, which,
however, was reduced as much as possible, to a semicircle.
The Roman element retained was the close structural union
of the auditorium with the stage, the walls of which doubtless
rose to the full height of the seats. A necessary prerequisite
for the execution of the auditorium in stone, on a plain, was
the development of the Roman technique of vaulting, by
which the seats were supported far above the ground, and by
which radial openings were left for passages and stairs to
the upper ranges. For the facade the scheme of the Tabula-
rium, with arches and columnar decoration, was adopted, as
later in the Colosseum (Fig. 40). Thus whereas in Greece
orchestra and circle of seats were the primitive elements and
126 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the stage with its accessory buildings was a later development,
in Rome the stage was the original component, and the
orchestra and circular auditorium were additions taken over
from Greece. The product of the synthesis, as exemplified in
the three great theaters of the city of Rome — those of Pompey,
Marcellus, and Balbus — or in the theater at Ostia (Fig. 47),
was a creation which had its own merits, not only in adaptation
FIG. 47 — OSTIA. THE THEATER. (RESTORED BY ANDRE)
to the requirements of the Roman drama, but in unity of
design and splendor of external and internal effect.
Theaters in the provinces. In the provinces the same scheme
was repeated, although less ample means usually resulted in
the use of convenient hillsides to support at least a part of the
auditorium, as at Verona, and at Orange in France. In most
of the eastern examples the looseness of connection in plan
persisted in spite of the adoption of a high stage background.
At Aspendos in Asia Minor, however, the interior shows the
full Roman type, with one of the richest developments of the
sc&na frons. In contrast to most Augustan and later western
stage backgrounds, which show an ever greater elaboration of
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 127
three great niches enframing the doors, this shows the ten-
dency of the east to multiply openings and columnar subdi-
visions while retaining the flat wall surface. In both cases the
scasncB frons was no longer a resultant, a means, but an end in
itself, resulting only 'remotely from suggestions from the
drama, treated rather in accordance with the general decora-
tive conceptions of imperial architecture.
Amphitheaters. Among the Romans the drama was second-
ary to the more exciting amusement of gladiatorial com-
bats, introduced from Campania in the third century and
held at first in the forum or the circus. In the provision of
special architectural arrangements for such contests Rome was
also behind Campania, for in Pompeii an elliptical arena with
stepped seats was begun soon after 80 B.C., whereas in Rome it
was not until 58 B.C. that two theater audit oria of wood, facing
each other, were built to form the first amphitheater of the
city. The games of Caesar were still celebrated within
wooden stands, and it was not until the time of Augustus,
29 B.C., that Rome had its amphitheater in stone. Although
in Pompeii, however, the arena was largely excavated in the
earth, and the rear seats were supported on solid masonry,
in Rome the amphitheater was built up from the plain like
the theaters, with a richly arcaded exterior.
The Colosseum. The Flavian amphitheater, known as the
Colosseum, which succeeded that of Augustus in the years
70-82 A.D., shows this arrangement in its final and most
splendid form (Fig. 40) . About the elliptical arena rose three
successive tiers of seats separated by high parapets, and
crowned, very probably, by an encircling colonnade. On the
exterior were, first, three stories of open arcades decorated
with the arch order, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. A fourth-
story wall, perhaps originally of wood, was treated with
Corinthian pilasters. Corbels near the top carried wooden
masts which probably supported the immense velarium, and
formed the necessary visual crown for the uniformly repeated
orders below. The regular spacing of the tiers, diminishing
rhythmically in perspective, and the unbroken sweep of the
cornices about such a vast surface, gave an unequaled majesty
and dignity, which justified the identification of the Colosseum
with the power of Rome itself. Structurally the triumph was
128 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
no less remarkable. The elliptical plan required every one of
the radial passages and every foot of the concentric vaults to
differ from its neighbors, yet much was executed in stone, ac-
curately cut to the most difficult geometrical shapes. In the
third arcade, where practical necessities prevented the carry-
ing of a concentric barrel vault above the arches of the facade,
as had been done in the previous stories, the vault was dropped
to the same level as the arches and penetrated by continua-
tions of them. The resulting form, the groined vault, here
appearing for the first time in Italy, had general advantages
which were soon manifest, in that it required for its support,
not a continuous massive abutment, but isolated piers on
which the thrusts were concentrated. After the form of the
amphitheater in the capital, others were erected in the Italian
and provincial cities, notable remains existing at Verona,
Nimes, Aries, and many other places. These had seats for
twenty to twenty-five thousand spectators, while the greatest,
in Rome and Campania, had a capacity of twice that number.
Circuses. Mightier still were the circuses for chariot-racing,
the oldest of Roman amusements, first held in the^ valley
between the Palatine and the Aventine hills, where in the
course of years was built the Circus Maximus, with seats
ultimately for two hundred thousand spectators. The course
was long and narrow, with a sharp turn like that of the Greek
stadion, to the seating arrangements of which those of the
circus also conformed. Down the center of the course was the
barrier, or spina, separating the stretches, adorned with
obelisks and monuments; at the end opposite the turn were
the starting arrangements, with individual cells for each
chariot, in a segment focussing on the first corner. The
exterior was on a system like that of the theaters and amphi-
theaters.
Baths and therma. The Roman bathing establishments
progressed from the simplest utilitarian structures to luxurious
institutions, offering facilities not only for bathing and physical
exercise, but for the social intercourse of a modern cafe or
club. Examples from the later days of the republic at
Pompeii show, at a small scale, the typical complement of
rooms and their arrangement. A court, or palaestra, for ex-
ercise was accompanied by a series of rooms in which dif-
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 129
ferent temperatures were maintained: the frigidarium, the
tepidarium, the caldarium. The frigidarium contained the
cold plunge bath, the caldarium the hot baths, the tepidarium
served to lessen the shock in passing from one to the other and
FIG. 48 — ROME. THERMAE OF CARACALLA. PLAN. (RESTORED BY BLOUEX)
(A) Entrance
(B, B) Porticoes
(C, C) Private baths?
(D, D) Vestibules
(E, E) Apodyteria
(F, F) Peristyles
(G) Tepidarium
(H) Caldarium
(J) Frigidarium
(M)
(N)
Halls for exercise
Stadium
Reservoirs and aqueduct
also might contain basins for those who found the cold bath
too severe. A dressing-room — the apodyterium — and a steam
bath — the laconicum — were further desirable features. In
baths intended for both men and women two suites of these
rooms were provided, their caldaria abutting near the furnace,
with the other rooms successively more distant from it.
The thermos of Caracalla, 2/7 A. D. In the thermae of im-
i3o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
penal times, initiated by Agrippa, all these features were
magnified to enormous scale and combined with those of the
Greek gymnasium. The bathing establishments proper were
surrounded by vast inclosures with shaded walks, exedrae, and
areas for various games. Among the dozen thermae in which
successive emperors tried to outdo one another, those of
Caracalla are distinguished both by their fair preservation
and by the logic and the formal interest of their plan (Fig. 48).
The three principal elernents, each unique, were placed on the
FIG. 49 — ROME. THERMS OF DIOCLETIAN. TEPIDARIUM. (RESTORED
BY PAULIN)
main axis in an ascending series, the frigidarium with flat
ceiling or open to the sky, the tepidarium with groined vaults,
the caldarium with a dome and niches like those of the Pan-
theon. To left and right were vestibules and dressing-rooms,
with two great peristylar palaestras surrounded by minor
rooms, still of large size. The tepidarium, as the room of
medium temperature, was seized on as the key to the circula-
tion of people, and its axis was taken as the principal trans-
verse line of the plan, prolonged through the peristyles and
their exedras. Separate access to the courts was provided from
both front and side, and the rooms of the rear were opened
freely to the gardens by means of colonnades. The gardens
themselves had their axes emphasized by the stands opposite
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 131
the projecting caldarium, and by subordinate exedrae. The
variety of form of the units and the rich interplay of the axes
have been an inspiration for the complex and elaborate plans
of modern t'mes.
The tepidarium. Most fruitful for later developments was
the typical form of the tepidarium, repeated in the baths of
Diocletian (Fig. 49) for the caldarium as well. Its length was
divided into three bays marked by enormous columns, each
with a fragment of entablature which served as impost for
the groined vaults. These had the form of a longitudinal
cylinder intersected by three transverse cylinders, spaced a
short distance apart and projecting slightly beyond the inter-
sections. The square mass of masonry between the diago-
nally descending groins rested on the entablatures of the col-
umns. The entire outward thrust of the vaults, concentrated
on these points, was sustained by the deep transverse walls
behind them, which were carried up as visible buttresses high
above the roofs of the neighboring rooms. These struck in
at the height of the spring of the vaults, leaving the semi-
circular spaces beneath the crown free for great clerestory
windows in each bay and at the ends. The spaces between the
buttress walls were filled with barrel-vaulted niches, across
which were carried screens of relatively smaller .columns which
emphasized the great scale of the main order. As in the
Pantheon the vaults were richly coffered, the walls incrusted
with marble.
Aqueducts. Bridges. The aqueducts which furnished the
water supply necessary for the baths and for the general use
of a Roman city were for the most part not on a pressure sys-
tem, but were carried into the city at a high level after being
brought with a gradual fall from elevated sources. For a city
in the midst of a- plain, like the metropolis, this necessitated
the support of a great length of the water channel at a con-
siderable height above the ground. The uniform ranges of
arches on tall piers, by which this necessity was met, show
construction in stone or concrete devoid of every extraneous
ornament, yet impressive by the ruggedness of the material
and the straightforwardness with which constructive methods
are confessed. Where the aqueduct had to be carried across
a deep valley there was an added interest due to the varied size
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of the arches which frankly took advantage of the best footing.
The most famous instance is the Pont du Gard at Nimes
(Fig. 50), where there are three ranges of arches one above
another, the whole a sixth of a mile long and over a hundred
and fifty feet above the stream in the valley. Of the heavy
voussdired arches of stone in the two lower ranges, the pair
over the river are distinguished by a visibly greater width than
the others, those next the slopes by a corresponding reduction.
FIG. 5O — NIMES. THE " PONT DU CARD"
The imposts are placed freely at whatever heights the spans
demanded. The upper range of uniform smaller arches leads
up to the quiet cadence of the sky-line, like Doric triglyphs
intermediate between columns and cornice." Much the same
problems as in the aqueducts recur in the highway bridges,
and the same division of types recurs. The bridges over wide
rivers with low banks have a uniform series of arches, some-
times with the piers lightened by minor arches supporting
the roadway, as in the Pons Mulvius at Rome; those over
deep ravines have a single arch or several of sharply graded
size, as at Narni. The ends of the principal pier might be
decorated with a monumental arch or a small shrine.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 133
Monuments: the column; the trophy. The desire of the
Romans for military glorification early caused them to
appropriate the Greek votive column for monumental use.
To commemorate a naval victory, Duilius, in 260 B.C., erected
a column decorated with the prows of captured ships, a rostral
column, as it was called. The greatest of the columnar
monuments were those of Trajan and of Marcus Aurelius and
Faustina, each consisting of a marble Doric shaft on a square
sculptured pedestal. They carried, at a height of over one
hundred feet, gilded statues of their founders, and were
decorated with continuous spiral reliefs celebrating their
campaigns. From the Greeks also came the custom of erecting
on the battlefield a trophy of victory, composed of armor and
weapons, or imitated from them in stone. The possibility
of a further monumental development of the trophy lay in its
pedestal, which was elaborated to an even greater extent than
in the Hellenistic examples. In the trophy of Augustus, near
Monaco, a circular peristyle in two stories on a tall square
basement, and with a steep conical roof, supports the trophy
proper at a great height.
The arch. A more characteristically native monumental
type was the commemorative or "triumphal" arch, originally
of temporary character and perishable materials, erected to
welcome a returning victor as he passed through Rome in
triumphal procession. In the imperial period such arches,
made permanent in stone, were used for various commemora-
tive purposes, in all parts of the empire. The earliest
examples, from the time of Augustus, show the arch framed,
as in the Tabularium and the theaters, by two columns and
an entablature, perhaps with a pediment. In any case there
was a pedestal or attic above, serving as a support for statues.
Soon a second column was added on either side of the original
pair, inclosing a rectangular field — the classic instance being
the Arch of Titus in Rome (Fig. 51). The columnar
apparatus, here frankly decorative, is handled with the greatest
mastery of form. Emphasis is given the central opening by
the projecting architrave, uniting the inner columns and
casting a deep shadow over the relief sculpture in the triangular
spandrels below. The silhouette is enriched by the breaking
of the entablature about the corner columns, while they are
134 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
united with their neighbors by the simple pedestal which quiets
the variety above and rests firmly on the earth. As the
necessary completion above, one must imagine the quadriga,
a bronze chariot with four horses and sculptured figures. A
further development of the monumental arch was the widening
of the side bays and the insertion of subordinate arches in
them, as in the Arch of Domitian, near the Colosseum, later
appropriated by Constantine. Here pedestal and entablature
FIG. 51— THE ARCH OF TITUS
break about all four columns, and the unity depends on the
rhythmical symmetry of the arches. Later, and in the
provinces, the designers of arches sought to exhaust the
possibilities of combination of the arch and column.
Gates. The motives of the triumphal arch were also carried
over to the city gates, which had often in the days of the
Roman peace rather a symbolical than a military significance.
Even a gate which retained its fortified character, like the
Porta Nigra in Trier on the German frontier, was given a
monumental expression by columnar adornment (Fig. 52).
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
The main openings and the windows of towers and galleries
are enframed as in the Colosseum, but with greater sternness
and sobriety.
Grave monuments. The same instinct that created the
commemorative columns and arches shows itself in the grave
FIG. 52 — TRIER. PORTA NIGRA
monuments, which in imperial times took on a magnificence
even greater than in Hellenistic Greece. Both burial and
incineration were practised, and richly decorated urns and
sarcophagi were employed. These were but secondary in
many cases, however, to large constructions containing the
tomb chamber, and taking the most varied forms. Patrons
and artists drew their suggestions from the tombs of every
people with whom the Romans had come in contact — the
Asiatic and Etruscan tumulus, the Egyptian pyramid, the
Greek peristylar monument and exedra, the temple, both
6
1 36 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
rectangular and circular. All these appeared in rich array
lining the streets which led across the Campagna from
the gates of the city. Only in special cases, such as
those of the emperors, was interment within the walls
permitted.
The tumulus type. It was the tumulus, the primitive mound
of earth, girt at the base by a circular wall of stone, which
FIG. 53 ROME. MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. (RESTORED BY VAUDREMER)
was selected by Augustus for his mausoleum, erected on the
Campus Martius in 28-26 B.C. In this and other Roman
examples, however, the cylindrical substructure is developed
into the principal member, and itself raised on a massive square
pedestal after the manner of the Hellenistic circular monu-
ments. The mausoleum of Augustus had a marble drum of
three hundred feet diameter, bearing a cone of earth planted
with cypress trees and crowned with a colossal statue of the
emperor. Even more splendid was the mausoleum of Hadrian
(Fig. 53), which still subsists in the Castle of Sant' Angelo.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 137
Its wall was decorated with an order, its cone was of marble
steps surmounted by a quadriga.
The temple type. In the erection of tombs of temple form
the rectangular type was less employed than the circular.
The most elaborate was the mausoleum of Diocletian in his
palace at Spalato, about 300 A.D., the domed interior richly
membered with superposed columns, the octagonal exterior
with a peristyle and a projecting portico. As in other tombs
of this class, the cella was used for memorial services, the
sarcophagus was deposited in a second chamber below. A
notable step was taken in the tomb of Constantia, the daughter
of Constantine the Great, who died in 354. The wall on
which the dome rests is broken through, and instead of the
arched niches there are deep arches supported on pairs of
columns united in the thickness of the wall by an entablature.
The central space is surrounded by a continuous aisle, the
clerestory of the basilica is carried over into a circular building,
creating new spatial effects of which Christian architecture
was to make great use (Fig. 71).
Domestic architecture. The Roman town house may best
be studied at Pompeii, where the debris of the eruption of
Vesuvius, 79 A.D., has preserved almost intact a great number
of dwellings of every class, ranging over a period of three
hundred years. The type of plan was already essentially
fixed in the second century B.C., and varied less with time than
with the means of the owner and the exigencies of the site.
The poorer folk, many of whom in Rome were crowded in high
tenements, here lived over their shops along the street, or had
a small atrium and a couple of rooms of their own. The
middle class had still to content themselves with the arrange-
ments which served for the best in the earlier days of the
republic — an atrium and surrounding rooms with a small
walled garden at the rear. The entrance was by a narrow
passage between rented shops. The atrium was a large
oblong room with a roof sloping inward to a central opening,
generally of the Tuscan type, supported on beams from wall
to wall. Primitively this had been the principal living-room,
containing the hearth, the smoke of which escaped through a
small opening in the roof. With the transition to urban
conditions the size of the opening was increased to light the
138 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
surrounding rooms, with the result that more sheltered living-
rooms had to be provided. To left and right of the atrium
were small sleeping-rooms, cubicula, opening from it. Behind
these, forming lateral extensions of the atrium, were two
alcoves or ales, put to various uses, survivals perhaps of the
day when the house stood
isolated, and light could be
introduced from the sides.
At the rear was the tablinum,
the reception-room, used
also in smaller houses as a
family living-room. A
second story, with minor
rooms, was sometimes added.
Larger houses. In the
houses of a wealthier class
not only was the atrium en-
larged, but the entire ap-
paratus of a Hellenistic
house on the Delian model,
with peristyle, exedras, and
triclinium, or dining-room
with three couches, was
added to the rear. Four
columns were often added
at the corners of the atrium
opening, creating the tetra-
style type of which Vitruvius
speaks, or even more than
four, making the room like
a Greek court, as appears
FIG. 54 — POMPEII. HOUSE OF PANSA. in the name, Corinthian
PLAN atrium, then applied to it.
The family came more to
leave the original atrium to
clients and visitors, and to withdraw to the rooms surround-
ing the peristyle, which were supplemented perhaps by a
second atrium, beside the first, about which the domestic
apartments were grouped. The most elaborate houses filled
an entire block, with a more extensive garden behind the
(A) Atrium
(B) Impluvium
(C) Peristyle
(D) (Ecus
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 139
peristyle. Such a one, showing a high development of the
Pompeian house in differentiation of functions and guarding
of privacy, is the so-called House of Pansa (Fig. 54).
Decoration of houses. To the exterior the houses turned a
blank, plastered wall, with few small windows, perhaps a
richer door frame. The interior walls, on the other hand,
where they could not be of costly marbles, were richly painted,
at first in imitation of these, later with mythological scenes,
in a setting of attenuated architectural forms which were
suggested in the first instance by the architectural decorations,
of the stage.
Villas. In more intimate relation to the landscape were the
villas on the outskirts of the city, with terraced courtyards,
gardens, and orchards. Others, less formal, served as retreats
in the country or by the seaside. The larger villas went far
beyond the satisfaction of practical needs, with luxurious
provision for dining, bathing, exercise, and amusement.
Especially was this true of the imperial villas, of which the
villa of Hadrian at Tivoli gives the best idea (Fig. 55). It
included, besides the living quarters and festal suites, reproduc-
tions of the most famous buildings of Greece and of the Orient,
capriciously strewn over a picturesque topography. There
were two theaters, libraries, a stadium, thermae, a so-called
academy, and a long canal, bordered by porticoes and
terminated by a great niche, in imitation of Canopus, a suburb
of Alexandria. The imitations seem to have been less literal
than suggestive, however, as all was executed in Roman
technique of brick and concrete and designed with a facility
in the combination of vaults and the composition of plans
which is purely Roman.
The palaces of the C&sars. The palaces of the emperors in
Rome, established on the Palatine Hill (Fig. 56), owe less to
the Roman house than to the palaces of eastern capitals such
as Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamon. Begun by Augustus,
they were extended by Tiberius and many later emperors,
especially Domitian, who built the great series of state apart-
ments in the center. Caligula sought to connect the Palatine
with the Capitol by a bridge, to secure easier access to the
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus; Nero united the imperial
gardens on the Esquiline with the Palatine by building in the
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 141
intervening valley, where the Colosseum later stood, his
Golden House with its luxurious park. Though these exten-
sions were not permanent, the Palatine itself was covered with
magnificent buildings, including several temples. The state
H --
..;br4-,..;
••-t,-,-l.^.-,1: :r
"
FIG. 56 ROME. PALACES OF THE CAESARS. PLAN. (RESTORED BY
DEGLANE)
apartments formed an oblong block fronted with a long
colonnade toward the central area. In the center of the fagade
was the audience-room, having a barrel vault a hundred feet
in span, the walls richly adorned with columns and niches.
To right and left were the basilica or imperial tribunal, the
lararium or private chapel. Behind this suite lay a square
peristyle, at the rear a triclinium, opening into supplementary
1 42 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
rooms. The private apartments of the emperor occupied
another block centering on a court ; beyond them was the so-
called Stadium, an inclosed garden surrounded by porticoes
and dominated by a great vaulted exedra.
The palace of Diocletian at Spalato. A very different
arrangement is that of the Palace of Diocletian (Fig. 57) at
Spalato in Dalmatia, on the shores of the Adriatic, to which
the emperor retired in 305 on laying down his authority. The
FIG. 57 — SPALATO. PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. (RESTORED BY HEBRARD)
security of the empire was no longer certain, the palace followed
the lines of a fortified camp. It forms a rectangular walled
inclosure quartered by two colonnaded streets at right angles,
with gates and towers at the middle points of the landward
sides. Along the seaward face runs a long colonnade behind
which are the imperial apartments, also reached from a
monumental vestibule at the head of the longitudinal street.
Next them, fronting each other in balancing inclosures which
filled the remainder of this half of the palace, are a temple,
serving as the imperial chapel, and the mausoleum for the
emperor. Beyond the transverse streets are quarters for
service and for the guards; around the outer walls are store-
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 143
chambers, reached from a passage which makes the circuit.
In the forms of detail eastern influence is seen, and the develop-
ments of late Roman architecture in new relations of arch and
column appear most clearly (Fig. 59).
Ensembles, town planning. The Romans of imperial times
were not satisfied even with the extended and complex
symmetry which they had given to individual units such as
the palaces, thermae, and fora, but sought to organize their
relations to one another and to give the whole city a coherent
plan. Rome as a whole was too vast and too consecrated
for this, but in certain portions a unification was effected.
Thus a splendid fagade, ingeniously planned, was built before
the irregular buildings of the Palatine, to give them a sym-
metrical aspect from the Circus Maximus. More fundamental
was the consistent treatment of the island in the Tiber, to
suggest a vast galley, with prow and stern. Its buildings
were disposed about a series of connected courts, artfully
devised to mask the actual irregularity of the plan. On a far
greater scale were the harbor works and warehouses of Ostia,
at the mouth of the Tiber, of which the hexagonal Port of
Trajan surrounded by uniform buildings was the most
systematic. Newly founded towns, especially those of a
semi-military character like Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), in the
foothills of the Alps, and Thamugadi (Timgad) in Africa were
laid out in rectangular form bisected by the principal streets
with others parallel to them. They marked a formal progress
over Hellenistic towns in the regularity of their outline as well
as of their minor subdivisions.
Individual forms. Although the individual forms of Roman
architecture fall behind their combinations in interest, as
behind the forms of the Greeks in originality, they were
by no means slavish imitations. In many instances a
further formal development took place, in others, new
structural functions produced new or modified expressions.
For purely utilitarian purposes, post, lintel, and arch were
used without ornament in a manner as simple and as
effective as the primitive system of the waiting-hall of the
pyramid of Khafre in Egypt. In Roman Africa and Syria
are many instances of square monolithic piers with square
lintels, repeated perhaps in several stories, which, like the
i44 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
arches of the aqueducts, have no other treatment than the
constructive membering.
Walls, doors, windows. The problems of a richer expression
for the wall and for the post and lintel had already been solved
in an exemplary way by the Greeks, whose solutions were too
accessible and too authoritative to be ignored. In these
features the innovations of the Romans were relatively minor.
They made more frequent employment of grooved or rusticated
joints, of cap and base moldings, following the Hellenistic
tendencies. The profiles of their moldings were less studied
and subtle, conforming more closely to arcs of circles than to
elliptical arcs and other conic sections. Doors and windows
followed late Greek examples in having a molded architrave
of stone. A frieze and cornice were often added, sometimes
elaborated by the addition of curved brackets or consoles, or
of a pediment. For windows and niches an even richer treat-
ment was devised, the tabernacle of two free standing columns
with an entablature and pediment — triangular or segmental —
best seen in the interior of the Pantheon (Fig. 42).
The Doric order. The Doric order, whether in its Greek or
its Tuscan form, was little used in imperial times, except in the
lower stories of buildings with superposed orders, where its
relative massiveness still gave it the preference. An occasional
example shows the echinus of the capital ornamented with
egg and dart and the other members multiplied and enriched.
The difficulties created by the corner triglyph were overcome
in imperial times by placing it on the axis of the column in
spite of its leaving a fragment of metope beyond, thus
sacrificing functional expression to formal regularity. In the
amphitheaters, with their continuous unbroken sweep, this
problem did not arise.
The Ionic order. The Ionic order followed the precedents
of Hermogenes in having always a frieze, and a capital with
relatively small volutes and a low connecting band, which in
Roman examples finally lost all its curvature. The Attic base
was preferred. The angular capital originated by Iktinos,
with volutes on all four sides projecting diagonally, was
frequently employed where the colonnade had corners to
turn.
The Corinthian order. The Corinthian order was the one
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
which comported best with the love of magnificence which
the imperial Romans shared with the Hellenistic monarchs,
and was used almost exclusively in the later monuments.
The scheme of capital generally preferred was that of the
example from Epidaurus,
with two alternating
rows of eight leaves each,
but the spirit of the ex-
ecution was bolder, the
leafage more luxuriant.
Each building still fur-
nished a problem for it-
self and showed its own
design of capital. Among
the many superb ex-
amples, that of the
temple of Castor and
Pollux in the Forum
Romanum may be given
as representative (Fig.
58). A second common
type was that of the
Temple of Vesta at
Tivoli, with the upper
leaves close down on the
lower, and with a
crinkled, parsley -like
serration. A variant of
the Corinthian was the
so-called Composite
capital in which the
echinus and diagonal
scrolls of an angular
Ionic capital were placed above the rows of leaves, as in the
Arch of Titus. This attempt to secure still greater richness in-
volved a sacrifice of the organic connection of scrolls and leaf-
age in the original. In the Corinthian entablature the dentils
became secondary to great brackets or modillions, sometimes
treated as molded blocks, sometimes as scrolls decorated with
leafage, as in the Temple of Castor and Pollux. In the temples
FIG. 58 — ROME. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL
AND ENTABLATURE FROM THE TEMPLE
OF CASTOR AND POLLUX. (RESTORED
CAST IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM)
i46 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
at Baalbek there are consoles in the frieze as well. Entablature
and capital alike took part in the stylistic developments of
the imperial period — the passion for decoration of the Flavians,
the puristic reaction under Hadrian and the Antonines. The
temple of Antoninus and Faustina, 141 A.D., has neither
modillioGB nor dentils.
Pilasters. The Roman counterpart of the anta was the
pilaster, which, instead of being studiously distinguished from
the column in width of side and profile of capital, was imitated
directly from it. Late Hellenistic and republican buildings
show the pilaster used not only to respond to the columns of a
temple portico but to form a similar termination at the rear
corners of the cella, and to continue the rhythm of the spacing
between in the same manner that engaged columns were used.
Pilasters were used also, instead of engaged columns, in various
buildings of the empire where lack of means or a desire for less
accentuation suggested the substitution.
The arch. In the formal elaboration of the arch and its
combination with the column the Romans had new problems,
the solution of which, as we have seen, occupied the whole
course of their history. After the simple treatment of republi-
can times in which a projecting molded course of stone was
added at the outside of the voussoirs, the voussoirs themselves
were rpslded to form an archivolt, a ring having a section
like thaft Aof the columnar architrave. In a similar way the
impost was given a form like a capital or bed molding, with
members suited to the function of support, and the keystone
was often treated as a console. The enframement of the arch
by column and lintel, although characteristic of the central
period of Roman art, was not the final scheme. In the
Pantheon the entablature itself was used as the impost of an
arch; at Palmyra it was bent into an archivolt spanning the
wide central opening of a portico. In the thermse a fragment
of entablature served to lengthen the column and give a larger
bearing for the springing of a vault ; in Syria and at Spalato
this fragment was reduced to a mere molded stilt-block, and
finally omitted altogether, so that the arches came down
directly on the heads of the columns (Fig, 59). The column
thus gradually attained a relation with the arch as structural
as its original relation with the lintel.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE i47
Wall membering. The relation of the columnar form to
wall membering proceeded in the opposite direction from the
common starting-point; the contradiction of expressions was
reconciled by removing every structural suggestion and
leaving the decoration undisguised. In the arch of Domitian
(Constantine) and in the Forum Transitorium, begun by
Colosseum Pa.n1heon Thermee SpaUto SpeJolo Spalalo
Roman arch order Cenr^l niche ofCamcalia. Cerrtral arch PorUx evurca Street arovdc,
c/OAJX C.125AJ). O.E.15A.D. C.500AJ)
FIG. 59 DEVELOPMENT IN THE RELATIONS OF ARCH AND COLUMN IN
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Domitian, the columns, instead of being engaged against the
wall, stand free in front of it, supporting merely an end of
entablature and an attic or a statue over it. In the free
composition of the stage backgrounds this tendency went still
further; the whole apparatus of colonnettes and tabernacles
was obviously a mere decorative application. Tabernacle
work of this sort came more and more to supersede, for the
enrichment of fagades, the treatment with engaged columns
of the full height of the wall. In the north gate at Spalato,
finally, the niches and colonnettes are no longer carried down
to the ground, but are supported merely on projecting brackets
or corbels. Meanwhile other forces had been at work. The
fondness for Greek art in the second century led to the omission
of any columnar subdivision of the wall in certain cases. The
temple of Antoninus and Faustina, although prostyle, has
pilasters only at the corners of the cella. The use of brick and
concrete, plastered over with stucco, in vast constructions
148 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
such as the thermae and the Villa of Hadrian, encouraged the
limitation of membering to the openings, where columns and
pilasters fulfilled their original functions. The tendency was
thus, by various paths, toward frankness of constructive ex-
pression, in spite of conditions far more complex than those in
which the Greeks had achieved their early structural purism.
Elements of plan and space. For elements of plan and space
the Romans drew both on Greece and on the Orient ; they later
made important contributions of their own. The temple
cella and the basilica with longitudinal colonnades, the
exterior peristyle, were of Greek origin ; the peristylar hall and
court, the clerestory, of Oriental origin. On the other hand,
the forms suggested by vault construction, the apse, the circle,
or polygon, with abutting niches, the groin-vaulted rectangle
with side compartments, were Roman in development. In
one or two cases a dome was placed over a square room, in the
form of a circumscribed hemisphere intersected by the planes
of the four walls in the manner later familiar in the Byzantine
domical vaults. The forms of vaults were ordinarily kept
rigidly geometrical, and, in consequence; they often determined
the precise proportions of the rooms below. Thus with
groined vaults, in which cylindrical surfaces were employed,
the line of intersection fell in a plane only when the two
cylinders were of equal diameter. As a result the Romans
employed them by preference only over square bays. The
vaults first made possible a plastic handling of interior space,
in which wall and ceiling blend in coherent unity, and adjacent
elements open freely into one another. It was characteristic
of the Romans to emphasize strongly the predominance of
the central element of a group, the surrounding units being
rather shallow bays than long arms, having themselves but
minor subdivisions. A favorite treatment was with niches
alternately square and semicircular in plan.
Architectural treatment of vaults. The vaulted interior
involved new problems in detail and exterior treatment as
well as in construction. The vault, like the arch, usually
received an impost which was either a full entablature,
supported by an order which enriched the wall below, or else
a string course composed somewhat on the lines of a cornice.
The vaultmg surfaces themselves were generally unbroken by
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 149
any projecting ribs, having merely a recessed pattern of
coffers (Fig. 42). Externally, barrel vaults were generally
covered by gable roofs. Groined vaults at large scale, as in
the tepidaria, had lateral gables over each bay, intersecting
the main longitudinal roof and producing valleys by which
the rain was discharged over each pier. The tendency was
increasingly to rest the tiles of the roofs directly on the massive
shell of the vaults, fashioned in inclined planes to receive them.
In the case of large domes, like that of the Pantheon, the curved
form was retained on the exterior, the upper portion being a
saucer-like zone girded by several monumental steps, which
carried the visual support to the high exterior wall.
Construction in brick and concrete. For the vast under-
takings at the capital, and in other parts of the empire where
stone was not rendered by natural conditions the inevitable
building material, methods of construction were developed
which lent themselves admirably to the scale of operations
and to the character of the labor supply. A building of the
extent of the thermae of Caracalla could not be erected wholly
by skilled craftsmen as, relatively, the Parthenon had been,
nor could it be built wholly of marble. The methods used in
the mass of the construction had to be adapted to large forces
of slaves and unskilled men, directed by trained superin-
tendents. These conditions were happily fulfilled by the
employment of brick, with mortar often so thick as to produce
practically a concrete, or of concrete in which the cement
itself was the essential element, binding an aggregate of loose
and small materials into a monolith. The volcanic pozzolana
furnished a cement which left nothing to be desired in strength
and quickness of setting.
Wall construction. The Roman bricks were very large,
usually square, about a foot on a side, but often triangular,
to secure a better bond between face and backing. In some
walls the bricks were left to form the final exterior surface, but
more usually they were covered with a coating of stucco or
a veneer of marble slabs. Walls of concrete were constructed
by depositing or pouring the mixture, in a semi-liquid state,
into temporary forms built of wood, which were devised so
that as much as possible of the lumber could be used repeatedly.
They were usually faced with brick or stone fragments in
150 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Some form, and then generally coated or veneered in the same
manner as brick walls. The kinds of facing received special
names according to the pattern produced on the surface —
opus reticulatum for small squares of stone standing on their
corners in diagonal lines, opus spicatum for kernel-shaped
fragments in herringbone pattern — while the general name of
opus incertum was reserved for a treatment with fragments
of no regular form. Bonding courses of brick .were often laid
at intervals to tie the facings firmly to the body of the wall,
and angles were sometimes reinforced with brick or stone in
the form of quoins, or blocks of alternating length toothed
into the mass.
Vault construction. In the construction of vaults the use
of small materials in thick mortar presents constructive
advantages greater even than in the construction of walls, for
it obviates greater difficulties in the individual shaping of the
elements. A vault of concrete alone, however, lacks any
arching action until it has set, and bears with its full weight
on the temporary wooden form or centering, which has to be
correspondingly cumbersome and wasteful. The Romans
worked to avoid this by constructing first, over light centering,
a framework of brick arches, with projections or cells to secure
a good bond with the concrete, a great part of the weight of
which was thus removed from the wooden supports (Fig. 60) .
In groined vaults of this sort ribs of brick reinforced the chief
constructive lines; in domes they followed principally the
elements of the surface. Once the concrete had thoroughly
hardened, of course, such ribs of brick had fulfilled their
purpose and no longer served any special structural function,
being merged in the mass of the vault. Coffers were even cut
through them without affecting stability. A second principle
was sometimes followed which did not demand even an
unbroken surface in the centering, but required merely a light
form of slats spaced openly. Over these was laid a layer of
flat tiles, touching each other only at their edges yet strongly
cemented; over these another and perhaps another, forming
a skin of no great thickness but of surprising strength (Fig. 61).
This supported the concrete placed upon it until it had
hardened, and formed a permanent interior facing to the
vault.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Ornament. In their enrichment of moldings and surfaces
the Romans followed, as in so many other matters, the
tendencies initiated by the Asiatic Greeks. The moldings,
like those of the Greek Ionic order, were carved in marble with
decorative forms suggested by their profiles. The egg and
dart and other familiar forms recur, made fuller and rounder
in harmony with the moldings themselves, and more luxuriant
FIG. 6O — ROMAN CELLULAR VAULT.
(CHOISY)
FIG. 6l — ROMAN LAMINATED
VAULT. (CHOISY)
in accordance with Roman taste. In place of the painted
polyChromy of the Greeks came a polychromy of richly
colored marbles, especially in interiors, which was more
sumptuous and had the advantage of permanence. Shafts of
columns, pavements and walls, exhibited variegated and
precious materials employed not only with mastery of pattern
and color, but with discriminating avoidance of structural
pretense. Dark and richly veined shafts were left unfluted to
exhibit the beauty of their material. For the veneering of
brick or concrete walls marble blocks were sawn thin to make
the most of limited material, and large slabs were applied with
a freedom of jointing and an absence of bond that gave no
false suggestion of ashlar masonry.
Local variety. Although the official art of the capital was
diffused through the empire in much the same way as the
official Latin tongue, this did not preclude the existence of
provincial varieties or dialects, or the maintenance in the more
civilized East of a Greek tradition which held its own with
Roman developments.
The West. Provence. Germany. In the West it was less
152 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
any survival of pre-existing styles than the influence of the
available materials which resulted in special characteristics
in certain localities, and these were naturally rather in matters
of construction than in matters of form. Thus in Provence,
the Rhone valley region in the south of France, an abundance
of fine limestone and an absence of clay gave rise to many
technical expedients. In the lower arcade of the amphitheater
at Aries a flat ceiling of long slabs is substituted for the usual
concentric barrel vault; in the upper arcade radial barrel
vaults are supported on stone beams spanning the corridor.
The barrel vaults, in this and other instances, do not have
their stones bonded together lengthwise, but are made up of
independent rings of voussoirs side by side, which could be
erected one by one on a movable centering used over and over.
In the so-called Baths of Diana at Nimes the rings are not kept
in a single cylindrical surface, but the alternate ones rest on
those between, and could thus be laid on them afterward
without any centering of their own. In Germany the more
severe climate led to a greater degree of inclosure and the
adoption of devices for artificial heating. The thermae and
the palace of Constantine at Trier are lacking in colonnaded
openings to the exterior, and have double outer walls with
exceptional facilities for circulating warm air in the cavities.
Although late constructive developments in general were
tending to require massive outer walls as a support for vaults,
it is not fanciful to suppose in these instances an influence from
climate also.
The East. Syria. The East had itself furnished the
originals for many Roman forms and types, and continued to
contribute to them during the imperial period. On the other
hand certain arrangements of Roman origin, like the closed
theater with its union of seats and stage, found their way
eastward. Besides buildings purely * Greek, like many of the
temples, and purely Roman, like the Odeion of Herodes
Atticus in Athens, every degree of mixture appears, as in the
Greek theaters to which Roman stages were added. In
Egypt the ancient native art still persisted for religious
buildings, as in Hellenistic days. A hotbed of eastern develop-
ments was Syria, in touch with the interior of Asia where a
new artistic fermentation was beginning. Of the cities which
FIG. 62— MOUSMIEH. PR^TORIUM. (DE VOGUE)
154 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
reflected Hellenistic architecture, Palmyra, the flourishing
caravan station of the oasis in the Syrian desert, still gives a
vivid picture. The principal, streets are lined from end to
end with tall Corinthian columns, forming porticoes on either
side with richly profiled arches at the intersections and
termini. The details of the temples there and at Baalbek
show the new spirit that, coming from the Orient and
spreading westward, broke through the clas'sical canons.
At Palmyra the entablature springs as an arch over the
wide central opening of the portico; at Baalbek the carv-
ing loses the projection and play of surface always char-
acteristic of Greek and Graeco-Roman ornament and tends
to be incised below the plane of the surrounding sur-
face— the background plane disappears. In other Syrian
buildings, especially in the woodless Hauran district, the
departures from the style of the capital are still more
marked. The praetorium or guard -house at Mousmieh
(Fig. 62) has vaults resting on columns with only a block,
instead of a classic entablature, above them; the basilica
at Chaqqua is roofed entirely with stone slabs resting on
arches as devoid of extraneous adornment and as freely
adapted to their constructive functions as those of the
bridges and aqueducts.
Influence of Roman architecture. The wide diffusion of
Roman architecture, its magnificent associations, and its
flexibility in meeting new and complex problems makes it
easy to understand the wide influence which it exercised, both
on the peoples who immediately succeeded to the Roman
possessions and on those who sought, many centuries later,
to revive Roman culture. Under the Byzantine rulers of
the East the empire still lived on, and its architecture -
had a direct continuance, though its forms were rapidly
modified by forces already at work there. In the West
the Christian monuments of the last emperors furnished
the point of departure for the architecture of the Teutonic
invaders, the indebtedness of which to Rome is well sug-
gested by the name Romanesque.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 155
PERIODS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
All buildings are in the city of Rome unless otherwise stated.
Early republican period, to about 300 B.C. Etruscan influence-
First temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, dedication ascribed to
510 B.C.
Sack of Rome by the Gauls, 390 B.C.
"Wall of Servius."
Cloaca Maxima.
Fourth century B.C.?
"Arch of Augustus" at Perugia.
Aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 312 B.C.
II. Later republican period, about 300 B.C. to 50 B.C. Greek
influence.
Conquest of Magna Graecia by 272, Sicily by 241; destruction
of Corinth, 146; Province of Asia organized, 133 B.C.
Rostral column of Duilius, 260 B.C.
Basilica of Cato the Censor, 184 B.C.
Bridge of ^milius, 179-142 B.C.
Pons Mulvius, rebuilt no B.C.
Porticoes of Forum at Pompeii, before 100 B.C.
Temple of Hercules at Cori, soon after 100 B.C.
Basilica at Pompeii, before 80 B.C.
Small theater at Pompeii, 80 B.C.
Amphitheater at Pompeii, after 80 B.C.
Tabularium, 78 B.C.
Temple of "Fortuna Virilis." 1 Toward middle of the first
Circular temple at Tivoli. J century B.C.
First amphitheater in Rome (of wood), 58 B.C.
Theater of Pompey, 55 B.C.
III. Imperial period, about 50 B.C. to 350 A.D. Oriental influence.
Basilica Julia and Forum of Julius, dedicated (unfinished)
46 B.C.
Amphitheater of Statilius Taurus, 30-29 B.C.
Augustus, 27 B.C.-I4 A.D.
Mausoleum of Augustus, 28-26 B.C.
"Baths of Diana," Nimes, 25 B.C.
Theater of Marcellus, dedicated n B.C.
Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars the Avenger,
dedicated 2 B.C.
"Maison Carree," Nimes, 4 A.D.
Thermae of Agrippa.
Pont du Gard, Nimes.
156 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Nero, 54-68 A.D.
Burning of Rome, 64 A.D.
" Golden House" of Nero, 64 /.
Flavian emperors (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian), 69-96 A.D.
Greatest richness of detail.
Colosseum, 70-82 A.D.
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 79 A.D.
Temple of Vespasian, 80 A.D.
Arch of Titus, dedicated 81 A.D.
Palace of the Flavians on the Palatine.
Arch of Domitian.
Forum Transitorium, completed by Nerva, 98 A.D.
"Good emperors."
Nerva, 96-98 A.D.
Trajan, 98-117 A.D.
Thamugadi (Timgad) founded 100 A.D.
Forum of Trajan and Basilica Ulpia, dedicated 113 A.D.
Column of Trajan, 113-117 A.D.
Thermae of Trajan.
Port of Trajan at Ostia.
Hadrian, 117-138 A.D. Return to Hellenism in details.
Pantheon, 120-124 A.D., modified 202 A.D.
Mausoleum of Hadrian.
Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
Temple of Venus and Rome.
Temple of Castor and Pollux.
Antoninus Pius, 138-61 A.D.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, 141 A.D.
Buildings of Herodes Atticus in Greece, c. 140-160 A.D.
Principal group at Baalbek.
Marcus Aurelius, 161-80 A.D.
Column of Marcus Aurelius/
Septimius Severus, 193-211 A.D.
Arch of Severus.
Caracalla, 211-17 A-D-
Thermae of Caracalla.
Gallienus, 260-68 A.D.
Porta Nigra, Trier, c. 260.
Aurelian, 270-75 A.D.
Wall of. Aurelian.
Diocletian, 284-305 A.D.
Thermae of Diocletian.
Palace of Diocletian at Spalato.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 157
Maxentius, 306-312 A.D.
Basilica of Maxentius (Constant! ne).
Constantine, 306-337 A.D.
Arch of Domitian rebuilt, 312 A.D.
Christianity made the state religion, 330 A.D.
Capital removed to Constantinople (Byzantium).
Tomb of Constantia (died 354 A.D.).
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
The most authoritative general account of Roman architecture
is J. Durm's Baukunst der Etrusker und Romer, 2d ed., 1905 (Hand-
buck der Architektur, pt. II, vol. i), which also supplies references to
discussions of individual questions and monuments. Anderson and
Spiers's Architecture of Greece and Rome, 2d ed., 1907, and F.
Noack's Baukunsi des Altertums, 1910, are richly illustrated, both
arranged primarily by classes of buildings. General works containing
measured drawings of Roman buildings are A. Desgodetz's Les
edifices antiques de Rome, first published 1682 and several times re-
issued; G. L. Taylor and E. Cresy's The Architectural Antiquities of
Rome, 2 vols., 1821-22; Restaurations des monuments antiques, 8 vols.,
1877-90; H. d'Espouy's Fragments d' architecture antique, 2 vols.,
1896-1905; Monuments antiques, vols. 2 and 3, 1910—12.
Among studies of special types or problems may be mentioned
G. Leroux's Les origines de V edifice hypostyle, 1913 (for the basilicas);
E. R. Fiechter's Die baugeschichtliche Entwicklung des antiken Thea-
ters, 1914; A. Choisy's L'art de bdtir chez les Romains, 1873 (for
constructive methods); P. Gusman's Uart decoratif de Rome, 1908;
F. Haverfield's Ancient Town Planning, 1913. A. Mau's Pompeii,
translated by F. W. Kelsey, 2d ed., 1902, is especially important for
Roman domestic architecture and interior decoration.
The unique importance of the city of Rome and the wide geo-
graphical distribution of Roman architecture makes topographical
works of special importance. Detailed lists of those published down
to its date are contained in K. Sittl's Archdologie der Kunst, 1895
(Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft, vol. 6). Recent
works covering the city of Rome are H. Jordan and Chr. Hiilsen's
Topographie der Stadt Rom, 2 vols. in 4, 1871-1907 (the most au-
thoritative work for the sections covered by the latest volume);
and S. B. Platner's Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome,
2d ed., 1911. The panorama published by J. Buhlmann and
H. Wagner, Das alte Rom, 1892, gives a graphic idea of the city in the
time of Constantine. For the other principal regions see A. L.
1 58 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Frothingham's Roman Cities in Italy and Dalmatia, 1910; T. A.
Cook's Old Provence, 2 vols., 1905; Lancoronski's Stadte Pamphyliens
und Pisidiens, 2 vols., 1890-92 ; H. C. Butler's Architecture in Northern
Central Syria and the Djebel-Hauran, 1903; A. Graham's Roman
Africa, 1902; and S. Gsell's Les monuments antiques de VAlgerie,
2 vols., 1901.
Of the Roman treatises on architecture preserved from antiquity
the most useful editions in English are Vitruvius's Ten Books on
Architecture, translated by M. «H. Morgan, 1914; and Frontinus's
Two Books on the Water Supply of the City of Rome, translated, with
explanatory chapters, by C. Herschel, 1899.
CHAPTER VI
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE
The medieval point of view. As we approach the study of
early Christian architecture, and indeed of all medieval
architecture, we must note at the outset a change in the point
of view of the designer and builder which strongly impresses
the finished work. Medieval architecture, compared with
earlier and later styles, represents the spontaneous expression
of the artistic ideals of a community rather than the genius
of an individual or a number of architects. This does not mean
that the individual lost all importance, but that his importance
varied more, and was never so great as in earlier and later
periods. Moreover ecclesiastical architecture is of strongly
predominant importance. Again, this does not mean that
medieval secular architecture may be neglected, for at certain
times and in certain places it rivals contemporary ecclesiastical
architecture in interest, but on the whole the main interest of
medieval architecture is in the ecclesiastical work, and the
student is justified in devoting the major part of his time to
the study of the churchly rather than the secular buildings of
the Middle Ages.
Classification. Early Christian and Byzantine architecture.
The earliest of what are generally classed as the medieval
styles are the early Christian and the Byzantine, the former
perhaps slightly antedating the latter. Historians have
tended to make a sharp division between the two, and to treat
them as distinct and independent movements. The early
Christian, frequently also called the Christian-Roman, is
regarded as the typical style of the early Christian Church;
the Byzantine is considered a very different organic style,
forming a link between classic architecture and the flexible
vaulted styles of the Romanesque period, This classification,
Bo^ra - Stefano Rptondo 5. Pietro in
Kpine Viacoli - £pme
FIG. 63 — PLANS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 161
to obtain a superficial clearness, often engenders a profounder
confusion. On account of it one is apt to forget that early
Byzantine is ipso facto early Christian architecture, that its
roots go back as far as those of the architecture of Christian
Rome and indeed coincide with them, in short that the two
styles are roughly contemporary, frequently interacting, and
really somewhat variegated manifestations of the same artistic
movement. These facts understood, however, the separate
classification of the two styles will be found useful. Taken
together the two might be called the medieval architecture of
Rome and the East.
Lack of self-consciousness in the early Christian style. The
absence of self-consciousness in medieval architecture was
never more marked than in the early Christian style. No art
was ever a more direct result of environment and need.
During the period of gestation, so to speak, of Christian art
the Roman Empire was hastening toward disintegration. In
other words, classical authority was weakening. At the same
time the old Latin stock was being transformed by fresh blood
from the East and West into a race barbaric, perhaps, but
susceptible to new ideas and ideals. From the West came
energy; from the East thought. By far the most significant
importation from the East was Christianity itself. At home
in the East, at Rome it was at first only one of the weaker
Eastern sects. The beginnings of its art, therefore, like the
beginnings of its ritual, are wrapped in a baffling obscurity.
To conquer, it had to struggle fiercely, and it learned to be not
only ruthless but infinitely adaptable. These characteristics,
impressed upon the early religion, became marked in the
architecture, and never more so than after 330 when the Chris-
tian religion emerged triumphant. In the East, however, as
one might expect, the struggle was less violent, and the archi-
tecture was therefore at once more spontaneous and more
suited for subsequent development.
Weakening of classical authority. From the very beginning,
both in East and West, the weakening of classical authority
was of the highest importance. The Romans, in combining
the trabeated architecture of Greece with the arch, had used
both elements according to consciously formulated, if varying,
canons. With the decline of the empire these canons became
rtl
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 163
first ignored, then forgotten. The result was decadence from
the Roman point of view, but possibility of infinite develop-
ment from the Christian. One of the first results was the free
combination of the column and the arch, anticipated in late
Roman imperial work. Set rules once removed, these elements
could not only be subjected to many combinations, for example
the springing of an arch direct from a capital without the
intervening entablature, but could also be varied in scale,
shape, and manner of use. From this the invention of new
forms was a logical step, and flexibility, the keynote of medieval
architecture, was obtained. The inevitability of this tendency
in Christian architecture is proved by the same tendency in
late classical work.
Basilican and central types. The way being paved by
classical building of this sort, Christianity soon evolved a new
architecture adapted to its needs and incidentally expressive
of its ideals. In general the buildings thus produced may be
divided into two classes, according to whether they were
designed with reference to a longitudinal or a central vertical
axis. The former we may call the basilican, the latter the
central type. The basilica, with its long lines centering atten-
tion on the apsidal end of the church, the altar, the pulpits,
the bishop's chair, and the chancel reserved for the clergy, is
perfectly adapted for the ordinary ritual of the Christian
church. Every detail of such a building, invented or
borrowed, is a direct result of the needs of the service. Receiv-
ing its first development in Rome, the basilican ideal persisted
in the West, and it is significant that from the liturgical point
of view the finished Gothic cathedral is but a vastly
complicated and organized ramification of the basilican type.
The central type received its greatest development in the
East. In plan it might be circular, polygonal, or in the form
of a cross with equal arms. Buildings of such character
concentrated attention on the central vertical axis and were
best adapted for tombs, baptistries, and inclosures of sacred
spots. Although not so well suited for the needs of the
Christian liturgy as the' basilican, this type was frequently
designed with only a liturgical purpose in view, and at times,
especially in the East, the two types were combined in a man-
ner which makes classification difficult. Thus the domed
1 64 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
basilicas of Anatolia partake of elements of both schemes,
and Hagia Sophia at Constantinople itself might be classified
under both heads.
Material and construction. In material and construction
the Western buildings were the lighter. Brick was the usual
material in Rome, and vaulting was confined to the apse.
Nave and aisles were wooden-roofed. In the East vaulting
was the rule, and the use of heavy cut stone, .brick, and terra
cotta was common, though the timber roof often appears as
well. The Eastern buildings were more pretentious on the
exterior than the Roman. The drab brick and the .plain
walls of the latter made the exteriors unobtrusive if not actually
unsightly. The interiors, on the other hand, were lavishly
decorated.
Conservatism and possibilities of development. The Roman
type of building crystallized early, and gives the impression of
a finished product. The Eastern type, perpetually changing,
FIG. 65 — ROME. SAN CLEMENTE. PLAN SHOWING THE ATRIUM
on the whole represents a step in the development to some-
thing new. From the Eastern style the Byzantine could
develop. The Western, though offering suggestions of un-
limited value to the Romanesque and Gothic styles, remained
for centuries self-sufficient.
The Christian-Roman basilica. Turning to concrete exam-
ples, let us examine first the buildings in Rome. The ideal
Christian-Roman basilica is easy to describe. In plan
it was an oblong rectangle, divided into three or five aisles,
and provided at the end with a semicircular apse. In the
finished examples, such as old Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 165
Outside-the- Walls, a rudimentary transept, or bema, slightly
salient at the sides, was introduced between the rectangular
building and the apse, giving the plan a form approximating
that of the Latin cross. In front of the building was a covered
vestibule, or "narthex," and before that a peristylar "atrium,"
open to the sky, with a font in the center. The atrium, an ex-
ample of which may be seen at San Clemente (Fig. 65), was for
penitents and the unbaptized, and it gave at the same time a
dignified seclusion to the church. Penitents might also enter
the narthex. The rear of the nave was reserved for the cate-
chumens, or neophytes, while the faithful generally took their
places in the side aisles. The apse, bema, and often the upper
nave were reserved for the officiating clergy. This space was
inclosed by a railing, the "chancel," which frequently ran far
down into the nave. At the very back of the apse, facing the
congregation and on the longitudinal axis, was the bishop's
chair, or cathedra. Before it, usually at the intersection of the
apse and the bema, was the altar of marble, covered with a
simple marble canopy, the ciborium. Flanking the chancel
were two pulpits, or ambones, from which the gospels were
read and the sermons preached. The common material for
all this church furniture was marble, inlaid with mosaic, which
has been given the suggestive name of opus Alexandrinum.
Occasionally two rooms, the diaconicon and the prothesis, were
placed on either side of the apse.
Elevation. In elevation the nave of the basilica was much
higher than the side aisles, permitting a broad clerestory
through which light was admitted by windows, fitted with
wooden grilles, thin, perforated, marble screens, or even oiled
cloth. The aisles were covered with slanting roofs, usually
hidden from the floor by flat ceilings. The triangular space
thus obtained between the aisle ceiling and roof constituted the
"triforium." At times the triforia were sufficiently roomy to
permit the superimposition of galleries on the aisles, and these
were reserved for the catechumens or for the segregation of
women (gynac&a). The clerestory walls were carried on
columns, generally antique, which separated the nave from the
aisles. Sometimes the system was trabeated ; sometimes, as
in old Saint Peter's, the columns bore archivolts on which the
walls were set. Nave and bema were covered with gable roofs,
1 66 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
reinforced with trusses, and generally, though frequently at a
period later than the original building, hidden from the floor
by richly coffered and gilded ceilings. The semicircular apse
alone was vaulted.
Decoration. Ample compensation for the dull exterior of
the basilica was made by the gorgeous polychromatic decora-
tion of the interior. The pavement consisted of marble flags
and tesserae, in divers brilliant colors and ingeniously compli-
cated geometric designs. The columns were of precious
marbles, fluted or unfluted, varying even in scale according to
whether or not the builders could steal, for the greater glory of
God, a homogeneous set from some pagan building. In like
manner the capitals varied, frequently not even fitting the
columns that bore them, and the entablature above was often
composed of unrelated pilfered classical fragments. That such
an apparently accidental hodge-podge should form an
extremely harmonious and decorative whole testifies strongly
to the underlying good taste of the Christian builder. Finally
the wall spaces, and especially the concave surfaces of the
apsidal semi-domes, were covered with glass mosaic, gold-
backed and flashing with brilliant color. Sacred personages,
especially the Saviour, were thus portrayed, and eventually
whole cycles of biblical history were taught by means of
pictured mosaic. This mosaic, like the opus Alexandrinum,
was in origin essentially Eastern.
Origin of the Christian-Roman basilica. The origin of the
Christian basilica is somewhat obscure. Superficially the
type seems to have sprung into completed being with the reign
of Constantine, but this merely proves that the preliminary
steps in its development have been lost. The most obvious
theory of the creation, dating back to Leon Battista Alberti, is
that the Christian architects merely took over and copied the
ancient Roman classical basilica. The ancient civil basilicas,
however, were of two sorts, one Eastern in origin and the other
Western, or Hellenic. The plan of the latter strongly suggests
the Christian basilica, and it is reasonable to suppose that the
later building was derived from the Greek civil basilica of the
classic times. . The Christian building seems to have been
modified in detail, however, by the imitation of some of the
forms of the Roman house, wherein the early Christians were
FIG. 66 — ROME. SAINT PAUL'S OUTSIDE-THE-WALLS. INTERIOR SEEN
FROM THE ENTRANCE
FIG. 67 — ROME. SAN LORENZO FUORI-LE-MURA. EXTERIOR
7
1 68 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
wont to worship, and by the invention of new forms for bettef
fulfilment of liturgical needs.
Variations. Within the fixed limits of the type thus set
there was room for considerable individual deviation. Indeed
no two of the many basilicas in Rome are precisely the same.
Some, like old Saint Peter's (Fig. 63), had five aisles; others,
like Santa Maria Maggiore, had but three. At times, as in
Santa Maria Maggiore, the architrave appears; at times the
archivolt takes its place, as in Saint Paul's Out side-t he- Walls
(Figs. 64 and 66). In general as time went on the archivolt
more and more took the place of the architrave. In many
of the smaller buildings, like the eighth century church
of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, the bema was omitted. An-
other remarkable deviation appears in the same building,
where the colonnade is broken and piers are inserted at
regular intervals. Occasionally the side aisles were finished
with smaller salient apses suggesting Syriac or Egyptian
influence. Such an arrangement appears in San Pietro in
Vincoli (Fig. 63). Galleries above the aisles, more typical
of the Orient than the Occident, are to be found in San-
t'Agnese fuori-le-mura (Fig. 64).
Orientation of the Christian church. An interesting, if
freakish, variation occurs in San Lorenzo fuori-le-mura (Figs.
63, 67, and 68). Here two churches, an early one and a later,
oriented in opposite directions and juxtaposed apse to apse,
have been joined into a single building. In early times,
especially in buildings constructed under the influence of
Constantine (Saint Peter's, Saint Paul's, the Lateran, San
Lorenzo), the facade and not the apse was placed to face the
east. Soon, however, the orientation was fixed with the apse
to face the east, and this scheme was followed whenever
possible throughout the Middle Ages.
The Christian-Roman basilica in Italy outside of Rome. The
Christian-Roman basilica is best studied at Rome, but is
found throughout the empire frequently alongside of, and
contemporaneous with, buildings of a different style. Only
in Rome, however, did it show so completely the conservatism
which is one of its most marked characteristics. In Ravenna,
for example, we find the sixth century church of Sant' Apolli-
nare Nuovo (Fig. 69) essentially basilican in form, yet so
FIG. 68 — ROME. SAN LORENZO FUORI-LE-MAURA. INTERIOR
FIG. 69 — RAVENNA. SANT* APOLLINARE NUOVO. INTERIOR
i;o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Byzantine in detail that the work might be classified under
either head.
The Roman building of the central type. In Rome buildings
of the central type, though they are to be found, never attained
anything like the importance of the basilicas. The most
characteristic example of the type in Rome is the church of
San Stefano Rotondo (Figs. 63, 64, and 70). This structure,
FIG. 7O — ROME. SAN STEFANO ROTONDO. INTERIOR
consecrated in 468, had originally the form of two concentric
aisles inclosing a cylinder raised above them to form a clere-
story. The whole was wooden-roofed, and in cross-section
would have precisely the appearance of a basilica. Designed
as a church, the ineptitude of this form of building from the
ritualistic point of view is eloquently voiced by its centuries
of almost complete disuse. That buildings of the central
type, vaulted throughout, were constructed in Rome is proved
by the church of Santa Costanza (Fig. 71). Outside of Rome
the buildings of the central type are generally so obviously
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 171
Oriental in inspiration that they are best discussed under
the diffusion of Eastern influence.
The East. Geographical divisions. The study of Eastern
architecture offers a very different problem. In the nearer
Orient one finds no conservative, well-developed style awaiting
definition. Generally speaking, the early Christian architect-
ure of Rome was static, that of the East dynamic. In the
East architecture was in a state of flux, or rather progression, a
style changing almost as one seeks to fix its type. Moreover,
FIG. 71 — ROME. SANTA COSTANZA. SECTION SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION
local variations were striking, and the first step toward clear-
ness involves a subdivision of the East into three distinct
regions; Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt. The first, in the north,
corresponds to Asia Minor, and its artistic center was Ephesus.
The second, farther south and including Palestine, was
guided artistically by Antioch. Alexandria controlled the
third. A fourth broad division might be made of northern
Africa, not so important historically, yet affording many
examples of early Christian art.
The Syrian basilica. Beginning with Syria, let us first
consider the basilica. Here, besides examples very like the
Roman buildings, other structures appear, absolutely new in
i72. A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the history of art. Only within comparatively recent times
has attention been directed to Antioch and the so-called
"dead cities" of Syria, where receding civilization has left
ruins, and often well-preserved buildings, as impressive as any
to be found in Pompeii. In the typical Syrian basilica the
atrium was abandoned and a covered porch, flanked by two
monumental towers, was substituted for the narthex. A
unique fagade, very suggestive of later medieval architecture,
FIG. 72 — TOURMANIN. THE BASILICA RESTORED
was thus obtained. In the interior, generally three-aisled, the
Greek colonnade gave way to great piers, bearing an arcade,
sometimes 'double and wide of span, giving an impression of
great space. Between the clerestory windows corbels often
bore colonnettes which ran up to receive the transverse beams
of the timber roof and gave the structure something of the
feeling of logical articulation so commonly associated with the
organic Romanesque and Gothic styles. There were generally
three apses at the east end, usually round, though occasionally
square, in plan, and at times horseshoe-shaped.
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 173
Examples. Good examples of Syrian basilicas may be seen
at Ruweiha, at Mchabbak, and at Tourmanin (Fig. 72).
Perhaps the finest example of the Syrian facade is that of
Tourmanin, and the most complete, and probably the best
single example of Syrian architecture, is the church of Khalb-
Louzeh (Fig. 63). In the Hauran, on account of the scarcity
of wood, an even more remarkable development took place,
FIG. 73 — KALAT-SEMAN. THE BASILICA OF SAINT SIMEON STYLITES
and one finds buildings constructed entirely of monumental
cut stone. Transverse arches were thrown across the naves,
and these supported roofs of stone flags laid parallel to the main
axis of the building. The timber roof then entirely disappeared.
The originality of these buildings really indicates a reversion
of the Orient to its native genius.
Buildings of the central type in Syria. The buildings of the
central type in Syria were equally important. Const antine
himself set the style with the famous church of the Holy
Sepulchre, crowned with a dome supported on an interior
174 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
colonnade, and surrounded by a circular aisle carrying a
gallery above it. Two buildings of capital importance in the
history of architecture are the churches of Ezra and Bosra
(Figs. 63 and 64) in Syria. The former is in plan an octagon
inscribed in a square. The octagon drum is covered by an
egg-shaped dome, the transition from the drum to the dome
being made by squinches. A salient apse, semicircular within
and three-sided without, appears at the east end. The system
of Bosra is even more ingenious. The plan is' that of a circle
inscribed within a square. The great central dome was
carried on eight pillars, andMto neutralize its thrust, was sur-
rounded by an annular barrel vault, fortified by four semi-
circular exedrae at the angles of the square. Three apses were
placed at the east end. Perhaps the most perfect of the
Syrian buildings of the central type was the monastery of
Saint Simeon Stylites (Fig. 73). Round an octagonal court,
in the center of which was the column of the famous ascetic,
four great three-aisled basilicas were placed to form a gigantic
Greek cross. The eastern arm, finished with three apses, was
the church proper; the others were reserved for pilgrims.
The extraordinary fertility of invention in these buildings
shows the beginning of an attempt to produce a satisfactory
ecclesiastical building of the central type. The architects of
Byzantium were to be preoccupied largely with this problem.
Syrian decoration. The Mschatta frieze. Not less significant
was the decoration of the Syrian building. We have seen at
Spalato, imported from Syria, the modification and free use
of classic detail to embellish the exterior of an edifice. The
same procedure was maintained with infinite variations in
Syria proper. Moreover, the Syrians evolved a new scheme
of sculptured decoration, superbly shown in the frieze from
Mschatta (Fig. 74) now in the Berlin museum, wherein classic
and Oriental motives are combined in the richest of patterns
and crisply cut in low relief. Polychromatic decoration, too,
was common in Syria. In short, the region showed, at an
early date, new developments in architecture which unques-
tionably aided in paving the way for the* Byzantine style, and
perhaps even for the remote Romanesque of Europe.
Early Christian architecture of Egypt. In plan and con-
struction the buildings of Egypt show far less ingenuity than
FIG. 74 — BERLIN MUSEUM. THE FRIEZE FROM MSCHATTA. (STRYZ-
GOWSKl)
1 76 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
those of Syria. An interesting class of Egyptian monuments
is marked by the use of an immense trefoil-shaped sanctuary,
divided from the three-aisled nave by a wide transept. The
trefoil sanctuary, however, may well be an importation from
Syria. One Alexandrian invention, the cistern with its cover
supported on columns, was caused by local needs and destined
to exert a strong influence in Constantinople. The special
importance of Egypt lay in the decorative schemes evolved
there. For centuries Alexandria had been the center of a
school of lively pictorial decoration. To this was added in the
early Christian centuries brilliant work in glass mosaic and
inlaid marble. Thus equipped, Egypt was able to dower both
Byzantium and Italy with the rich polychromatic interior
decoration which became the vogue practically throughout
Christendom.
The basilica in Anatolia. In Anatolia the architects proved
themselves structurally the most inventive of all. The con-
trolling city was Ephesus, but the sites where the architecture
may be studied are very numerous, the best perhaps being
Bin-bir-Kilisse (the thousand and one churches), in the plain
of Konieh in southeastern Anatolia. Here the majority of
the basilicas recall the buildings of Syria. They are generally
three-aisled with a single strongly salient apse, either circular
or polygonal. At the entrance to the nave is a porch flanked
by two towers. All this might be Syrian, but the Anatolian
strikes his special note by vaulting his structure, and numbers
of these buildings have heavy barrel vaults over nave and
aisles. An excellent example of this type of building may be
seen at Daouleh. Side by side with these vaulted structures,
however, may be seen the Grasco-Roman type, with atrium,
brick walls, and timber roof.
The central type in Anatolia. Anatolia, too, abounded in
buildings of the central type. We have an interesting descrip-
tion of a Martyrium, written in the fourth century by Gregory
of Nysa. The monument was to be cruciform, the arms of the
cross bound at their intersection by semicircular niches, and
a conical dome was to cover the crossing. The use of the
conical dome suggests the influence of Persia, and indeed
the most significant element in Anatolian architecture is the
Persian. The Syrian conical-domed buildings, like the
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 177
churches of Ezra and Bosra, may have been copied from
Anatolia or themselves inspired direct from Persia. Many
variations of Gregory's scheme may be seen to-day, especially
at Bin-bir-Kilisse.
The Anatolian domed basilica. Historically the most inter-
esting of the types evolved in Anatolia, however, is what has
been called the domed basilica. The first step in its develop-
ment was made by placing a square bay before the apse to
enlarge the presbyterium, and adding galleries above the aisles
for the faithful. To give a lighter effect to buildings of such
large dimensions, without weakening the barrel vaults by
piercing them with windows, the architects hit on the scheme
of breaking the barrel vault with a dome, and thus the domed
basilica, destined to exercise an enormous influence on later
architecture, came into being. A perfect example of the type
may be seen at Kodja-Kalessi (Fig. 63), where the dome oc-
cupies two bays of the nave. The same type, constructed
in brick, occurs in Saint Clement's at Ancyra. In both the
dome is carried on squinches. On the other hand, at Saint
Nicholas of Myra, and at Dehr-Ahsy in Syria, we find domed
basilicas with the domes carried on pendentives.
The problem of the dome. Many and ingenious were the
solutions of the problem of the dome in Anatolia. Materials
were varied, and bricks and terra-cotta, adopted from neighbor-
ing Persia, were used to reduce the thrusts of heavy domes. To
make the transition from the square or polygon below to the
round dome above, the architects adopted many methods.
Squinches were commonest, sometimes merely of flat stones
laid across the angles of the square, reducing it to a polygon,
and then other stones laid across the angles of the polygon,
making them still more obtuse, until in successive courses the
mass was coaxed into the roughly circular form necessary to
receive the base of the dome. Sometimes arches were thrown
across the angles of the square or polygon, and again, when
the dimensions were sufficiently small, single blocks at the
angles were hollowed out in pendentive form.
The pendentive. By far the most important solution of the
problem, however, was the true pendentive. In mathematical
terms a pendentive is a segment of a hollow hemisphere, the
diameter of which is equal to the diagonal of the square to be
J78 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
.covered. In non-technical language, however, the member
is not so easy to describe. Imagine a square to be covered by
a dome of such dimensions that its edge would touch the
square only at the four corners. Obviously the dome would
project beyond the four sides of the square. Imagine all
portions of the dome projecting beyond the sides of the square
to be shaved off vertically, and the result would be a penden-
tive dome, or, technically, a continuous dome on pendentives.
FIG. 75 — RAVENNA. THE MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA PLACIDIA. DRAWING
OF THE EXTERIOR
Imagine then the top of the pendentive dome to be sliced off
horizontally at a point just above the crowns of the lateral
arches caused by the vertical cuts. The result would be four
spherical triangles or pendentives, segments of a sphere, the
diameter of which would equal the diameter of the square
below. On these a true dome could be placed, producing a
dome on pendentives (Fig. 64).
The origin of the pendentive. The pendentive was destined
to become one of the most marked characteristics of Byzantine
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 179
architecture. Though its origin is open to dispute, it must
have been the logical outgrowth of the Persian vaults of light
material without centering. The strong probability is that
the architects of Anatolia, in close contact with the Orient,
independently created this most important member.
Diffusion of Oriental influence in the West. Buildings at
Ravenna. Through the influence of commerce and monas-
ticism the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries were marked by a
widespread diffusion of Oriental influence in the West. Al-
though it appears, as we have noted, in the fourth century
palace of Diocletian in Spalato, and again later in R,ome in the
decorations of the basilicas, and especially in the buildings
of the central type, its full force in Italy is best judged in the
architecture of Ravenna. Here two buildings of the mid-
fifth century, the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (Figs. 63 and
75) and the so-called Baptistry of the Orthodox, attest the
almost complete domination of Oriental inspiration in this
Western city. The former, now the church of Santi Nazzaro e
Celso, is Greek cruciform in plan, the crossing being covered
with a continuous dome on pendentives, ingeniously con-
structed of hollow terra-cotta amphorae inserted one within
another. The material alone establishes the influence of the
Orient, especially of Persia. The exterior is plain, the brick
walls being lightened somewhat by blind arcades. Externally
the dome appears as a square. The interior shows a com-
plete incrustation of precious glass mosaic in the Alexandrian
manner. The Baptistry of the Orthodox (San Giovanni in
Fonte) is a polygonal structure, with a dome constructed like
that of the tomb of Galla Placidia.
Mingling of early Christian and Byzantine elements. Al-
though in point of time such works fall within the early
Christian period, to classify them merely as early Christian
would produce a deep misconception of their architectural
significance. Already they anticipate so many elements of
the Byzantine style that they might as justly be called By-
zantine. This does not mean that they were importations
from Constantinople. On the contrary, they were Italian
products of the same Eastern influences that were already at
work in Constantinople to produce the Byzantine style.
Conclusion. Early Christian architecture may, therefore,
180 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
be regarded from two points of view. From one it is a self-
sufficient style, amply providing the early Church with build-
ings beautiful in themselves and even finer in their complete
fulfilment of the needs for which they were designed. Re-
garded from this point of view, the Christian-Roman basilica is
the supreme product of early Christian architecture. From
the other and broader point of view, the early Christian style
is a link in the great architectural chain, connecting the weak-
ening classic art with the vigorous new style of Byzantium.
Especially the buildings of Eastern Christianity, experimental,
lawless in their disregard of classic tradition, at times even
crude though always full of promise, herald in no uncertain
tone the advent of the art so soon to appear in Constantinople.
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EARLY CHRISTIAN
MONUMENTS
It must be noted that it is often impossible to date medieval monu-
ments exactly, and we must frequently be satisfied with the half
century or century in which a building was erected. A single date,
without qualification, refers to the beginning of the portion of a
building referred to in the text. In general it is always well to
remember that an error in dating a medieval monument is apt to
give the monument greater antiquity than it deserves.
ITALY
Rome, Old Saint Peter's. — Consecrated 326.
Rome, Santa Costanza. — Built 323-337; rebuilt 1256.
Rome, Saint Paul's Outside-the- Walls. — Founded 386, but rebuilt
1823.
Rome, Santa Maria Maggiore. — Rebuilt 432-440.
Rome, San Pietro in Vincoli. — Founded ca. 450.
Ravenna, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. — Ca. 450.
Ravenna, Baptistry of the Orthodox. — Mid-fifth century.
Rome, San Stefano Rotondo. — 468-483.
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo. — Soon after 500.
Rome, San Lorenzo Fuori - le - Mura. — Rebuilt 578; remodeled
1216-27.
Rome, Sant' Agnese, Fuori-le-Mura. — Rebuilt 625-638.
Rome, San Clemente. — Rebuilt 1108.
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 181
THE EAST
Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulchre. — 312-337.
Ruweiha. — Fourth century.
Kodja-Kalessi. — Fourth or possibly fifth century.
Mschatta Frieze. — Possibly fourth, possibly sixth century.
Mchabbak. — Fifth century.
Daouleh.— Fifth century (?).
Saint Simeon Stylites. — End of fifth century.
Ancyra, Saint Clement. — Fifth century (?).
Myra, Saint Nicholas. — Fifth century (?).
Bosra. — 512.
Ezra. — 515.
Tourmanin. — Sixth century.
Khalb-Louzeh. — Sixth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
A. Michel's Histoire de Vart, vol. i, pt. i, 1905, contains valuable
articles by Andre Perate and Camille Enlart summarizing early
Christian art, including architecture. H. Marucchi's Basiliques et
eglises de Rome, 1002, is an authoritative work, forming vol. 3 of the
author's series, Elements d'archeologie chretienne. A. Venturi's
Storia dell'arte italiana, vols. i and 2, 1901 and 1902, contain an
account of early Christian architecture in Italy. G. T. Rivoira's
Le origini delta archittetura lombarda, vol. i, 1901, is an exhaustive
study of the origins of Italian medieval architecture by an eminent
scholar, who believes that these origins, whether they involve early
Christian or Byzantine architecture, are Occidental rather than
Oriental. G. Leroux's Les origines de V edifice hypostyle en Grece, en
Orient, et chez les Remains, 1913, is a scholarly work, important for the
light it throws on the origin of the Christian-Roman basilica. W.
Lowrie's Monuments of the Early Church, 1906, is a skilfully arranged
hand-book of early Christian art, with architecture soundly treated.
A. L. Frothingham's Monuments of Christian Rome, 1908, is another
hand-book with good summaries of the histories of the monuments.
M. de Vogue's Syrie centrale, 1865-77, a monumental and ground-
breaking piece of scholarship, now somewhat out of date, is the
most important of the author's many publications dealing with
early Christian architecture and other arts in Syria. By H. C.
Butler are two works — Architecture and Other Arts, 1903, and Ancient
Architecture in Syria, 1907. The former is the publication of an
American expedition to Syria in 1899; the latter is the second divi-
1 82 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
sion of the "Publications of the Princeton Expedition to Syria, in
1904-1905." Both works present masses of new material in the
most elaborate way, and are worthy successors of the publications of
de Vogiie. J. Stryzgowski's Orient oder Rom, 1901, Kleinasien, ipoj,
and Byzantinische Denkmaler are publications, the last a series of pub-
lications, by an original scholar of encyclopedic information. Though
the works deal more with Byzantine than early Christian monu-
ments, they are important for both, especially on account of the
author's thesis, successfully defended, that the creative impulse in
early Christian and Byzantine art came from .the Orient. C.
Diehl's Manuel d'art byzantin, 1910, is a highly authoritative synthe-
sis of the history of Byzantine art, with a valuable discussion of the
early Christian architecture of the East as an introduction/ O.
Wulff's Altchristliche Kunst, 1914 (Handbuch der Kuntwissenschaft),
ch. 4, Die altchristliche Baukunst, is the most recent summary of all,
with exhaustive references to the latest discussions of individual
points.
CHAPTER VII
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
Origins. Byzantine architecture came, like the Wise Men,
out of the East, the roles of the Magi being played by the
three great cities : Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus. From the
first of the three came the polychromy which remained a char-
acteristic of the style from beginning to end. The second sup-
plied the Byzantine ideal of sculptured decoration, flat, crisply
cut relief and an all-over covering of the surface. The third,
most important of all, gave the structural elements which the
Byzantine architects fused, systematized, and developed for
ten centuries.
Centralization. Although the style was diffused over a vast
area, from Armenia to France and from Russia to Africa, the
nerve center remained practically always at Constantinople.
To this centralization are due the main characteristics and
general homogeneity of the style. Byzantium took the ideas
of the Orient, handled them with the lavish means and broad
conceptions of Rome, and welded them with a refinement
literally neo- Attic. The result was a new art, but, like the
Roman, a distinctly imperial one. Architecturally as well as
politically, Constantine supplanted imperial Rome by im-
perial Constantinople.
Ecclesiastical and secular work. Byzantine architecture was
primarily ecclesiastical, but this generalization must often be
qualified. During the reigns of important emperors, such as
Constantine (323-337), Justinian (527-565), and Basil I. (867-
887), civil architecture played an extremely important part.
The churches exercised a greater influence on other styles than
civil buildings, and were often preserved when the civil build-
ings were destroyed, but this fact should not blind us to the
importance of the non-ecclesiastical work.
1 84 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Lack of self-consciousness of the style. Whether lay or ec-
clesiastical, however, Byzantine architecture was on the
whole unself conscious. Lavish as the decoration might be
in church or palace, the important consideration was always a
satisfactory solving of structural needs, and this became the
real, if unconscious, canon of Byzantine esthetic, theory.
Moreover, the style tended to be corporate rather than in-
dividual, though not to nearly so complete an extent as the
medieval styles of western Europe. Especially in the earlier
period individuals were apt to dominate the works, but later
craftsmen and obscure architects were given very free rein,
and even in the earliest times the individual appears as the
voice of the civilization rather than its teacher.
Conservatism and development. Byzantine art has generally
been considered rigidly conservative. It was, in truth, con-
servative, yet only in so far as conservatism was not incon-
sistent with development. Nothing could be more mistaken
than the too common conception of the Byzantine style as one
which crystallized in the sixth century and continued as a
chain of monotonous repetitions until the fifteenth. The art
was always conscious of and taught by its past, but it never
slavishly copied its past, and development was none the less
steady for being slow.
Materials. The materials used in Byzantine architecture
were very varied. Brick and mortar were commonest and
most expressive of the ideals of the style. By means of
light, porous material the architect got his most striking
effects, and mortar joints were frequently increased to the
width of the bricks bonded. Concrete was used for cores,
but the rigid concrete vaults of the Romans disappeared.
Cut stone was used freely, but nearly always as an adjunct
to other material. A homogeneous use of ashlar was prac-
tically unknown in Byzantine architecture outside of cer-
tain restricted regions, notably Greece and Armenia. For
purposes of decoration the Byzantine architects used mosaic
and marble, the latter sometimes carved in flat, tapestry-
like relief, sometimes applied as a veneer. In the later style
decoration in brick became common, and wall surfaces were
enriched with an infinity of patterns in brick, or brick alter-
nating with cut stone. The absence of formulated esthetic
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 185
criteria gave full play to the . invention and good taste of
the designers.
Structure. The originality and fertility of the Byzantine
architect never shows more happily than in the solving of
problems of structure. The style was essentially a vaulted
one, and the most important form of vault was the dome.
Wood being scarce, the problem of centering was serious, and
the architects, taking their cues from Anatolia and Persia,
soon learned to construct important vaults without centering.
FIG. 76 — RAVENNA. SAN VITALE. EXAMPLES OF BYZANTINE CAPITALS
To that end they developed the lightest and most durable ma-
terials, bound by thick, adhesive mortar joints. Then by
completing the vaults in successive, concentric, self -sustaining
rings, by slanting brick courses so as to require little or no sup-
port from below, and by the invention of ingenious devices for
the definition of vault surfaces during the process of construc-
tion, the architects succeeded almost entirely in eliminating
the necessity* for centering. Moreover, the stability of the
finished structure was further insured by an equilibrium of
thrusts. Domes and vaults were grouped compactly and
logically, their thrusts opposing one another, and the thrusts
of a great central dome were neutralized and carried off by a
1 86 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
number of subordinate domes grouped round it. The style
thus had, especially in the later period, a large measure
of that structural logic which one associates with Gothic
architecture.
Supports. The same logic was shown admirably in the use
of supports. The use of squinches for the support of domes
was inherited from the East and continued with variations
throughout the entire development of the style. Far more
important in the history of architecture was the use of the
pendentive. To the Byzantines belongs the credit of recog-
nizing the full possibilities of the pendentive, and the use of
these members as a support for a superimposed dome was in-
augurated in Byzantium (Fig. 64).
Capitals. Moreover, the logic of the architects was not
confined solely to the immediate supports of the dome. The
capitals, which carried the weight of the vault, were of an
entirely new and logical design. Unlike the Roman entabla-
ture with its merely crushing weight, the mass which the By-
zantine capital had to carry was heterogeneous and exercised
a variety of thrusts in many directions. To meet this mass
the architects first designed a sturdier Corinthian capital,
with a wider abacus. Next they added a heavy thrust block,
like an inverted, truncated pyramid, to make the transition
from the capital to the mass above. Capitals of this sort
may be seen in the Eski-djouma in Salonica. The idea of the
impost came from Syria, where the use of such members was
current in the fifth century, the Syrians in turn having prob-
ably received it from Persia. A further step was taken in
San Vitale at Ravenna (Fig. 76), when the Corinthian char-
acter of the capital was almost abandoned, and it was shaped
like a richly ornamented impost block. Finally, at Hagia
Sophia at Salonica, the form appears on which all Byzantine
capitals were, based, an impost block, carried on a broad, thin
abacus, whence the load is transmitted to a high, convex bell,
broad at the top and slender at the base where it meets the
slender shaft. The form thus invented combines elements of
the three Greek classic forms, and is both apt and beautiful.
It was, moreover, flexible, and capable of infinite variety,
from the stern simplicity of the rudimentary capitals in the
cistern of Bin-bir-direk to the rich profusion of the melon, bird
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
187
acanthus capitals of the fully
and basket, and wind-blown
developed style.
Types of ecclesiastical buildings. Since the Byzantine ec-
clesiastical buildings surpass all other sorts in importance,
we must devote most of our study to them. The types
created were diverse. In the earlier period the type developed
from the domed basilica of
Anatolia was the favorite,
the most famous example
being Hagia Sophia at
Constantinople. In the
so - called second golden
age, in the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh centuries,
the Greek-cross plan be-
came the fashion, although
both types existed in both
periods. Sometimes the
plan was that of a Greek
cross inscribed within a
square, the cross marked
in the actual building only
by the clerestory. At
other times a true Greek
cross was designed on plan.
In the beginning the so-
called triconch or " three-
shell" plan, with a trefoil
division of the apsidal
end, was popular, and this
type persisted, with modifications, throughout the history of
the style. The true basilican plan, though not wholly for-
gotten, was never popular. Circular and polygonal buildings
were also designed, but by far the most popular form of build-
ing of the central type was the Greek cross.
Churches earlier than Hagia Sophia of Constantinople. Al-
though Hagia Sophia may be regarded almost as the proclama-
tion of Byzantine architecture, it was preceded by a number of
buildings outside of as well as within Constantinople that
heralded the approaching style. We have already noted
FIG. 77 — CONSTANTINOPLE.
SERGIUS AND BACCHUS.
SAINTS
PLAN
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Ravennate buildings which might well be called Byzantine.
Similarly the Stoudion basilica, built in Constantinople in
463, although it conforms to the Hellenistic type and retains
the post and lintel system, is Byzantine in spirit, and the
purely Byzantine church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus in
Constantinople (Fig. 77) slightly antedates Hagia Sophia.
This building recalls the churches
of Ezra and Bosra (Figs. 63 and
64) in Asia Minor, but is more
skilfully planned and executed.
Saint Irene, Constantinople. In
532 Justinian caused the building
of another church, Saint Irene, in
Constantinople (Fig. 78), which
brings us still nearer the full-
fledged Byzantine style. The
architect of Saint Irene was prob-
ably inspired by the church of
Hagia Sophia at Salonica, a build-
ing which probably antedates
somewhat its great namesake in
Constantinople. Both Saint
Irene and Hagia Sophia at
Salonica are variants of the
Anatolian - domed basilica. In
Saint Irene the domes are abutted
2oMtr. by barrel vaults grouped about
FIG. 78 — CONSTANTINOPLE, them in the shape of a cross, and it
SAINT IRENE. PLAN seems possible that we have here
the germ of the Greek-cross form.
Hagia Sophia. All these buildings appear insignificant,
however, beside the "Great Church," the church of the
Divine Wisdom, Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. This build-
ing embodies more fully than any other the full-fledged
Byzantine style of the first golden age. Justinian began it in
532, to replace a Constantinian church of the same name which
had been destroyed in the Nika sedition. Anthemius of
Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus were the architects, both of
Anatolian origin. The church was completed in five years and
dedicated with the most impressive ceremonies and amid
BIN II IU ILL
KILIJSE-DJAMI CONSTANTINOPLE. MANASSIA
SAN VlTALL TlAVENNA
LlTTLtMETROPOUi
ATMEJSS
Are LA CHAPLLLE.
FIG. 79 — PLANS OF BYZANTINE CHURCHES
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
191
general thanksgiving December 27, 537, by Justinian. In
558 the central dome fell, but a nephew of Anthernius rebuilt it
according to a somewhat less ambitious design, and the church
was reconsecrated by the Emperor in 562.
Plan and construction. In plan (Fig. 79) Hagia Sophia
occupies a great square which, excluding the apse and the
narthex, measures about 250 by 240 feet. A double narthex,
galleries, and an atrium precede the nave. In the center is
FIG. 8 1 — CONSTANTINOPLE. HAGIA SOPHIA. EXTERIOR
reared a great dome on pendentives, 107 feet in diameter,
carried on four huge piers, 25 feet square, and abutted east and
west by two half-domes of the same diameter as the central
dome (Fig. 80). These mark the longitudinal axis of the
building. Abutment to the north and south is supplied by
four tremendous buttresses of marble-faced rubble. The half-
domes are in turn abutted at the springing by paired smaller
half -domes, and thus, partly by opposing thrust to thrust and
partly by carrying off the thrust of the great dome in descend-
ing stages to the outer wall and the ground, the whole struct-
ure is admirably stabilized. At the east end a salient apse,
1 92 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
polygonal on the exterior, opens into the eastern half-dome.
Right and left of the central dome and its half-domes are
aisles, groin-vaulted, and surmounted by galleries which are
covered with domical vaults. At present four minarets of an
incongruous Turkish design stand free at the four corners of
the building.
Exterior. Although the apex of the dome is 180 feet above
the pavement, the external appearance of the building is
FIG. 82 — CONSTANTINOPLE. HAGIA SOPHIA.
TOWARD THE APSE
INTERIOR LOOKING
squat (Fig. 81). The Byzantine architect of the first golden
age fully appreciated the difficulty of properly abutting a lofty
dome, and seldom sought to make the dome a striking feature
externally. The dome of Hagia Sophia, less than a semicircle
in cross-section, is in height from springing to crown but 47
feet. The external effect, however, is none the less fine,
combining monumentality with compactness and a strong
feeling for the esthetic value of sturdy, frankly safe con-
struction.
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 193
Interior. The interior, on the other hand, gives a strong
impression of height (Fig. 82). The ring of small openings
piercing the base of the dome lightens the whole structure,
so that the dome appears almost miraculously suspended over
the great central void. Moreover, the columns of various
proportions in ground story and galleries give a much-needed
scale, which permits the eye easily to grasp the monumental
proportions of the building.
A domed basilica. Although Hagia Sophia is roughly square,
it is not properly of the central type, but is planned with refer-
ence to a longitudinal axis, and therefore fulfils the liturgical
ideal of the early Christian basilica. It may be regarded as
the supreme Byzantine development of the Anatolian domed
basilica.
Decoration. The decoration of Hagia Sophia, true to the
ideals of the first golden age, is drab on the exterior, but
brilliant on the interior. The exterior is now painted in
horizontal black bands, but in the original design there was no
attempt at enlivening the wall surfaces with colors or even
patterns in the material used. The interior, on the other
hand, was gorgeously decorated with veneered marbles and
glass mosaic. The marble, sawn thin, was highly polished
and skilfully placed so that reversed patterns from the veining
of a single block were juxtaposed. Above the ground story
the interior was crusted with gold-backed, glass mosaic, now
unfortunately whitewashed by the Turks. The capitals and
some of the surfaces were decorated with crisp carving in flat
relief, suggesting the art of Syria. Occasionally the interstices
of the carving were filled with black marble, further accenting
the already sharp impression of light and shade.
The Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Although Hagia Sophia
was the greatest and most typical building of the first golden
age, many other buildings were constructed during this period,
some of them of the greatest importance historically. The
most significant building after Hagia Sophia was another
work of Anthemius and Isidorus, the church of the Holy
Apostles in Constantinople (Figs. 83 and 84), destroyed by the
Turks to make way for the mosque of Mohammed II. This
building, known to us by descriptions and a manuscript
illumination (Fig. 83), was in the form of a Greek cross obtained
i94 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
by the intersection of two basilican naves, vaulted and aisled
(Fig. 84). Over the crossing was a dome pierced with
windows, and over each arm another dome, probably blind.
The type thus suggested was never received with much favor
in the first golden age, but it unquestionably formed the basis
for numerous
churches which
were erected in
later Byzantine
architecture.
Saint Mark's in
Venice is but a de-
velopment of the
lost church of the
Holy Apostles.
Building of Jus-
tinian's age outside
of Constantinople.
The important
architecture of
Justinian's time
was not, however,
confined to Con-
stantinople or
even to the East.
At Parenzo in
Istria Bishop Eu-
FIG. 83 — ROME. THE VATICAN. MANUSCRIPT
ILLUMINATION SHOWING THE INTERIOR OF THE
CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES AT CONSTAN-
TINOPLE. (DIEHL)
phrasius raised an
important church
in the beginning
of the sixth cen-
tury, basilican in
form, but Byzantine in spirit and decoration. Italy played a
still more important r61e in this period, and the buildings
at Ravenna scarcely yield in beauty and creative genius to
those of Constantinople.
Buildings at Ravenna. Two buildings in Ravenna, the
churches of Sant' Apollinare in Classe and Sant' Apollinare
Nuovo (Fig. 69), are of basilican plan and Byzantine detail
and decoration. The latter was commenced under Theodoric
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 195
(493-526)> but was decorated by Byzantine workmen. The
former was consecrated in 549. By far the most important
Ravennate church of the period, however, was San Vitale
(Figs. 79 and 80), begun between 526 and 534 and finished in
547, a building showing great originality and destined to exer-
cise strong influence on subsequent architecture. It is in the
form of an octagon crowned with a dome on a drum, carried
by eight stout pillars.
These pillars are bound
one to another by an
ingenious system of
exedrae similar to those
of vSaints Sergius and
Bacchus. To diminish
the thrust, the dome
is constructed as in the
tomb of Gal la Placidia,
of long terra cotta
amphorae, fitted one
into another. Each
pier is bound to the
external wall by an
arch, and each salient
angle is strengthened
with a pier buttress.
Later architecture of the first golden age. The death of
Justinian did not interrupt the architectural activity which
his reign initiated. The art continued to show both vitality
and originality. At Constantinople the mosque of Kalender-
hane-djami, probably once the Diaconessa, built by the
Emperor Maurice, dates at the latest from the seventh century,
and shows a reversion to the domed basilican type. From the
same period comes the ancient church of Saint Andrew — now
the mosque of Hodja-Moustapha-pasha — with a great central
dome, abutted like Hagia Sophia's by half domes.
Development in Armenia. Outside of Constantinople the
art flourished in this period, and especially showed originality
in Armenia. The cathedral of Etschmiadzin (Fig. 79), with
its Greek cross inscribed in a square and the four arms
terminated by salient apses, certainly influenced the tenth
FIG. 84— CONSTANTINOPLE. THE HOLY
APOSTLES. PLAN, RESTORED
i96 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
century churches of Mount Athos, and appears to be imitated
in the ninth century French church of Germigny-les-Pres. In
its present form Etschmiadzin dates from the seventh century.
The seventh century architecture of Armenia showed so much
vitality that there is little doubt that it strongly influenced
FIG. 85 — AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. CHARLEMAGNE'S CHAPEL. INTERIOR
Constantinople itself, as well as Byzantine architecture out-
side of the central city.
The Iconoclastic controversy. Diffusion of the Byzantine
style in Europe. In 726 the development of Byzantine art
was impeded, though not arrested, by the beginning of the
Iconoclastic controversy. Though Leo the Isaurian's decree
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 197
was directed against images, all the arts were affected, and
architecture in Constantinople went through a period of semi-
stagnation which was not relieved until Theodora's restoration
of image worship in 842, and not really removed until the
accession of the Macedonian dynasty in 867. Nothing better
illustrates the vitality of Byzantine architecture than its
diffusion in this dark period. The very throttling of the art
at home tended to spread it abroad, and what Constanti-
nople lost the Occident of the Carolingian Renaissance gained.
From the very beginning of the ninth century dates Charle-
magne's fine chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle (Figs. 79, 80, and 85), a
direct imitation of San Vitale. Somewhat later Germigny-
les-Pres was planned on lines suggested, as we have seen, by
the Armenian architecture of the seventh century. Byzantine
architecture was, therefore, not arrested,' but merely tempo-
rarily ceased to center in Constantinople.
The second golden age. With the accession of the Mace-
donian dynasty Constantinople resumed her sway, and there
began what is generally known as the second golden age of
Byzantine art. Prosperity came once more to the empire,
power to the ruling house. Fresh Oriental influence vivified
the art, and architects sought inspiration in the monuments of
the past. Inspiration was, however, far removed from
imitation. The architecture of the second golden age differs
widely from that of the first, and ably demonstrates the
dynamic power of the art.
Changes in plan. In the second golden age the basilican
plan entirely disappeared. The octagon went with it, and the
triconch type occurred only in a radically modified form.
Even the domed basilican type became very rare, although the
ninth century church of Saint Theodosius (now the Gul-
djami) at Constantinople shows it.
The Greek cross plan of the second golden age. By far the
favorite plan was the Greek cross, but this differed essentially
from the earlier Greek cross as seen in the mausoleum of Galla
Placidia and the church of the Holy Apostles. In the older
form the arms of the cross appear in the contours of the plan,
and subordinate domes are placed on each arm of the cross.
In the latter, the re-entrant angles are filled on plan, the ground
story plan being square and the cross appearing only in the
i98 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
upper stories. The arms of the cross are covered with barrel
vaults, and the subordinate domes are placed in the angles
between the arms. The plan is thus a Greek cross inscribed
within a square, with a central dome and four domes, often
hidden, at the angles. The thrusts of the subordinate domes
and barrel vaults tend to neutralize one another, and all
oppose the thrusts of the central dome. Thus the whole
system is so logical and organic that one is reminded of the
organic systems of Romanesque architecture. . The germ of
the typical Greek cross building of the second golden age is to
be found, therefore, not in the classic example of the Greek
cross of the first golden age, the church of the Holy Apostles,
but in the domed basilica, and especially in such a building as
Saint Irene at Constantinople (Fig. 78).
Changes in expression. Along with this change in. plan there
came a change in architectural expression. The vertical line
was accented. The height of the building became greater in
proportion to its breadth. Domes were constantly raised upon
drums, and became striking features externally. The logical
spirit of the construction was reflected in the lines of the
exterior. Thus a curved vault in the interior was represented
on the exterior not by a gable, but by a curved line. As the
construction became more daring the scale decreased, and the
buildings of the second golden age were, in general, much
smaller than those of the first. Finally, the whole exterior
was regarded as suitable for decoration, polychromy was
applied to it, and the texture of the wall received especial care.
Bricks of various shapes and colors were used and ingenious
patterns devised, so that the exterior of a twelfth century
Byzantine church bears but slight resemblance to that of one
of the sixth.
La Nea. La Nea (Fig. 79), the "new church" of Basil I.
(d. 886) , was to the second golden age what Hagia Sophia was
to the first. Unfortunately it has been destroyed, but we
know its plan from descriptions. It was in the form of a
Greek cross, with a central dome and four smaller domes set
in the angles between the arms of the cross. Unquestionably
this building set the type for the majority of the churches
that followed.
Evolution of the type. The evolution of the type can be
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 199
traced in extant monuments. It appears in a rudimentary
form in a church at Skripou in Bceotia, dated 874, which lacks
subordinate domes, and is heavy in construction, but which
shows the Greek cross plan with barrel- vaulted arms. It may
be seen fully developed in the Kilisse-djami (formerly the
FIG. 86 — CONSTANTINOPLE. THE KILISSEDJAMI. VIEW FROM THE EAST.
(EBERSOLT)
Theotokos) in Constantinople (Figs. 79 and 86), dating from
the first half of the tenth century. Here appear both barrel-
vaulted arms and angle domes. The exterior lines are
harmoniously curved, and the surfaces finely treated in alter-
nate bands of brick and ashlar.
Examples. The Greek cross within a square continued the
favorite church plan throughout the Macedonian and
Comnenian dynasties. One sees it in the small church of
Saint Luke at Stiris in Phocis (Figs. 84 and 87), dating from
the second half of the eleventh century, and later, in the
epoch of the Comnenes, it appears finely developed in the triple
church of the Pantocrator, built about 1124 in Constantinople
8
200 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
by Irene, empress of John Comnenus. Of the three buildings
which form this work two, those on the north and south, are
perfect examples of the classic plan of the second golden age.
The central church has but two domes.
Variations. It must not be supposed, however, that the
favorite type was slavishly copied everywhere in the later
period. The commonest variation was the omission of the
FIG. 87 — STIRIS (PHOCIS), MONASTERY OF SAINT LUKE. VIEW FROM
THE EAST SHOWING THE TWO CHURCHES. (SCHULTZ AND BARNSLEY)
four subordinate domes, and some of the most beautiful
Byzantine churches are of this form. The finely composed
Nea Moni at Nauplia is of this type, as well as the better
known churches of Saint Theodore and the Little Metropolis
(Figs. 79 and 80) at Athens. All of these date from the
twelfth century.
The squinch group. Another variation in the churches of
this period might be called the squinch group. In these the
dome is broader in diameter and is carried on a sixteen-sided
drum, and the proportions are squatter than in the other
churches of the period. To this genre belong the monastery
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 201
of Saint Luke at Stiris (Fig. 87), the Nea Moni of Chios, and
the fine church at Daphni, near Athens.
Churches at Athos. The churches of Athos and the vicinity*
with their semicircular apses terminating the lateral arms of
the cross, form another group. One, the catholicon of Lavra,
deserves special mention. It is a three-aisled building, the
FIG. 88 — VENICE. SAINT MARK. PLAN
three-fold division being indicated on the exterior by arcades,
and it thus appears to combine the types of the Greek cross
and the domed basilican churches.
Saint Mark's, Venice. By far the most important example
of a variation from the favorite plan of the second golden age
occurs in the famous church of Saint Mark in Venice (Fig.
88), begun in 1063. This building is a frank reversion to the
plan of Anthemius' church of the Holy Apostles at Constanti-
nople. The plan is that of a Greek cross defined on the ground
story, with a dome on pendentives in the center and a
smaller dome on pendentives over each arm of the cross. A
202 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
galleried narthex embraces three sides of the western arm of
the cross. The great piers which carry the dome are pierced
to give greater space in the ground story, and are connected
by galleries, the width of the piers, carried on marble columns.
Light is admitted through rings of openings round the bases
FIG. 89 — VENICE. SAINT MARK. VIEW FROM THE PIAZZA
of the domes, which are less than semicircular. On the
exterior (Fig. 89) the domes are masked by false domes of
wood, lead covered, which form a striking feature of the church
as seen from the Piazza. Within (Fig. go), the decoration is
extremely rich, veneered marbles and precious mosaics being
used as freely as in Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. The
exterior, with its clustered marble columns, polychrome
marble veneer, and flashing mosaic, is as lavishly decorated as
the interior. The building as it stands is by no means homo-
geneous. There are many Gothic details in the facade, and
some of the mosaics date from the Renaissance and even
from modern times.
Byzantine influence in Aquitaine. Saint Mark's, or its
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
203
prototypes, appears strongly to have influenced Occidental
architecture. In France the twelfth century church of Saint
Front at Perigueux (Fig. 99) repeats almost verbatim the plan
FIG. QO VENICE. SAINT MARK. INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE
of Saint Mark's, though then arthex and all the polychrome
decoration within and without are omitted. Many other
buildings of Aquitaine were similarly constructed, so that the
architecture of that region might be classified alike under the
headings of Byzantine and French Romanesque.
Georgia and Armenia. Among the most original buildings
204 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of the second golden age are those of Georgia and Armenia.
Some are very early in date, for example the church of
Pitzounda on the Black Sea, probably of the tenth century,
and that of Akthamar on Lake Van (Fig. 91), surely of the
tenth. In these
buildings the
Greek cross form
was used most
freely, though
older forms such
as the domed
basilica and the
three shell type
survived. In
other respects,
however, these
buildings showed
striking original-
ity. The central
dome, raised on a
lofty, ashlar-built,
many-sided drum,
became almost a
tower. On the
exterior it often
appeared, as at
Akthamar, as a
sharply pointed
cone. The apse
often ceased to be
salient, and be-
came but a tri-
angular cut in the thickness of the wall. The use of brick at
times disappeared entirely, and the buildings were constructed
of homogeneous cut stone, even the roof tiles being of this
material. The exteriors, in a manner hitherto unknown in
Byzantine architecture, were decorated with crisp cut relief,
suggesting the earlier art of Syria. So great was the origi-
nality of this Georgian and Armenian architecture that of late
a theory has been advanced, not without plausibility, that
FIG. 91 — AKTHAMAR (LAKE VAN).
SEEN FROM THE SOUTHEAST.
THE CHURCH
(LYNCH)
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 205
from this region came the creative geniu% which controlled
all the Byzantine architecture of the second golden age.
The "Byzantine Renaissance." Byzantium's brilliant pros-
perity under the Macedonian and Comnene dynasties and the
second golden age came to an end in 1204, when the disgraceful
fourth crusade was diverted to Constantinople and the city
sank into ruins. Not even this great disaster, however, could
utterly crush the Byzantine spirit or the vitality of Byzantine
art. Culture rose again on the ashes of the city and in the
later thirteenth, the fourteenth, and the early fifteenth centu-
ries came the period known as the "Byzantine Renaissance."
Constantinople, however, was weak. Her scientists and men
of letters were eminent, but she lacked money for architect-
ural enterprises. Thus we find the more important buildings
of the last Byzantine period outside of Constantinople, in
Greece, in the Balkan states, in Asia Minor. Divergences
occur in these buildings, caused by local taste and material,
but the style still has strong unity. Moreover, the art
continued to develop and never sank to mere repetition of
earlier works.
Plans. The Greek cross plan continued to be, on the whole,
the favorite. At the same time there was a frequent reversion
to the old domed basilican type. Especially at Trebizond,
in such churches as Hagia Sophia and the Chrysokephalos,
the western arm of the cross was lengthened, aisles were added,
and the longitudinal axis of the building emphasized. At
Athos a development suggesting the ancient Syrian three-
shell plan occurred.
Elevations. In elevation the churches of this last period
showed striking changes. The vertical line was unsparingly
accented. Frequently, as at Manassia in Serbia (Figs. 79
and 92), the ground story was made very high, and sub-
divided by thin vertical engaged columns suggesting narrow
pilaster strips. The drum became startlingly elongated, and
the dome, for safety's sake, made smaller. In some Serbian
buildings, for example Ravanitsa (Fig. 80), Manassia (Fig. 92),
and the church of the Archangel s near Uskub, the dome is almost
invisible and the drum has the appearance of a slender tower.
In other cases the drum is lowered, the diameter of the dome
widened, and the whole surmounted with a cone. The massy
206 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
appearance of this form, as at Hagia Sophia at Trebizond,
makes it still a striking — almost donjon-like — feature of the
exterior.
Decoration. Decoration as well underwent a change.
Mosaic, being very costly, was less freely used, and the cheaper
medium of fresco
came into great
vogue. Some of
the frescoes, for
example those at
Mistra (the Perib-
leptos) , bear com-
parison with those
of contemporary
Italy. On the ex-
terior polychrome
marble was almost
completely aban-
doned, to give
place to the richest
decoration in mul-
ticolored and pat-
terned brick that
the style ever in-
vented. At times
even glazed tiles
were intermingled
with the brick,
and the exterior
of such a church
as Saint Basil's at
Arta is a brilliant
example of the beautiful effects which the later Byzantine
artist could get by the refined color and texture of his
surfaces.
Inspiration. Of late years several theories have been
advanced to explain the inspiration of this extraordinary last
burst of activity in Byzantine art. By far the most plausible
is that western Europe at last paid off a part of its heavy debt,
and returned to Byzantium something in the way of in-
FIG. 92 — MANASSIA (SERBIA). (POKRYCHKIN)
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 207
bpiration. The prevalence of the three-aisled building in
Byzantium, the almost Gothic emphasis on the vertical line,
the resort to fresco such as was common in Italy, all support
a theory suggested by the close political and cultural ties
which bound fourteenth and fifteenth century Constantinople
to western Europe. On the other hand it is as reasonable to
suppose that the creative genius and vitality which Byzantine
art showed in its first two great periods also produced the
third, and remained at work down to the fateful year of 1453,
when the weakened city, abandoned by Christian Europe,
surrendered to the Turk.
Secular building. The early palace. Albeit the historical
importance of Byzantine architecture lies primarily in the
ecclesiastical buildings, the style also showed great originality
and activity in its secular works. The building of great palaces
accompanied the building of great churches. Constantine
set the example by raising a magnificent palace in the new
city, of which now there is no trace, but which must have
followed the general lines laid down by Diocletian at Spalato.
We know the appearance of an early Byzantine palace from
the mosaic in Sant' Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna, representing
the palace of Theodoric, now destroyed. This mosaic
shows us a long, arcaded structure composed of a central porch
with a gable and two wings. The wings are two-storied,
with square windows in the second story arcade. Apparently
exigencies of space suppressed the Syrian court, and the
colonnade opened directly on the street.
Secular building in Justinian's time. Shortly afterward,
the reign of Justinian produced a great burst of secular building
in Constantinople. At this time the Senate was built, all in
white marble, the baths of Zeuxippus were splendidly decorated
in marble polychrome, the baths of Arcadius were restored,
and aqueducts were raised which rivaled those of the
Roman Campagna.
The cistern. The need for storing water produced a unique
type of civil building in Constantinople: the cistern. The
earliest was apparently the Cisterna Maxima, constructed
under the forum in 407. As the size of these cisterns increased
they became really important monuments of architecture,
daring in plan and delicate in detail. The cistern called
208 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Pulcheria, built in 421, had a surface of over 1000 square
metres and the vault was carried on thirty granite columns.
In less than a century, however, the ambitions of the architects
produced such tremendous works as the cistern of Bin-bir-
direk (the thousand and one columns) with a surface of over
3500 square metres. The idea of these colossal works came
from Alexandria, but their development in Constantinople was
absolutely unprecedented. They prove the engineering genius
of the Byzantines to have been no whit inferior to that of the
Romans.
Palaces of the second golden age. In the second golden age
the activity in secular building was as great as in the first.
Basil I. ushered in the age by building a new palace, the
Cenourgion, to the splendor of which many writers have
testified. To this he added many buildings, the Pentacou-
bouclon, the so-called Pavilion of the Eagle, the treasury, and
others. Later Nicephorus Phocas raised the Boucoleon on
the shore of the Sea of Marmora. Starting with a small
building already on the site, this Emperor produced a palace
at once lavish in its appointments and donjon-like in its
strength. Each generation added something to the Sacred
Palace or other imperial residences. In the twelfth century
the Sacred Palace was somewhat neglected, and the Comnenes
built the Blachernae, a palace at the end of the Golden Horn.
Enthusiastic accounts of crusaders attest the beauty of this
building, and in the graceful architectural fragment which
the Turks call the Tekfour-Serai we probably have an extant
part of the original. This ruin shows a refined pattern and
surface texture in brick and ashlar similar to that of the
churches of this period.
The Sacred Palace. Much has been written about the
appearance of the Sacred Palace (Fig. 93), yet archeologists
are still disputing as to its plan. Indeed the term "Sacred
Palace," indicating as it does a single building, is confusing.
The work was a conglomeration of buildings, lay and ecclesi-
astical, heterogeneous in plan, dimensions, and date, covering
a total area, roughly triangular in shape, of over 400,000
square yards. One side was bounded by the Sea of Marmora,
and one by the Hippodrome, a gigantic structure 1400 feet
in length, easily capable of holding 80,000 persons. The
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 209
third side faced the city, but was protected from the poorer
quarters by terraces and gardens. Within were churches,
fora, schools, council chambers, gardens, and even a private
FIG. 93 — CONSTANTINOPLE. PLAN OF THE SACRED PALACE, RESTORED.
(EBERSOLT)
hippodrome. The general effect must, therefore, have been
bewilderingly complicated, and not wholly'unlike that of the
Kremlin to-day. Both to the complication of the plan and
the unbelievable richness of the decoration numerous descrip-
2io A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
tions of visitors testify. The complexity of the plan served
to exaggerate the tremendousness of the site. Recognizing
this the emperors were wont to have visiting ambassadors
led through hall and court, where luxury succeeded luxury
and richness surpassed richness, until they finally reached
the royal presence in the Chrysotriclinium, an octagonal
domed hall, decorated, if accounts of eye-witnesses can be
believed, in gold, enamel, and precious stones beyond the
wildest dreams of the Thousand and One Nights.
Later palace building. After the sack of the city in 1204
the Sacred Palace never recovered its pristine splendor.
Palace building received a fatal set-back. At the same time
numerous Prankish chateaux sprang up in Byzantine territory
and influenced Byzantine civil architecture. The latest
Byzantine palaces partake, therefore, more of the fortification
than of the palace proper.
Fortifications. It must not be supposed, however, that
warlike architecture had been neglected in the earlier periods
of the Byzantine style. The willingness of the Byzantine
architect to suppress, for reasons of defense, the graceful in
favor of the strong is well proved by the great enceinte of
Constantinople, much of which dates back to the reign of
Theodosius II. (408-450). Africa especially retains monu-
ments of early Byzantine military architecture which were,
in their day, absolutely impregnable. Of such a type are
the citadels of Lemsa in Tunisia, and of Haidra (Fig. 94). In
the second golden age the still extant works of Manuel
Comnenus at Constantinople show the same power of military
design at home.
The ensemble. In the period of Constantine and Justinian
the general appearance of Constantinople must have been,
aside from topographical variations, not unlike that of Rome.
The Roman constructive sense and broad grasp of the essen-
tials of city planning were inherited by the Byzantines. In
the later period, however, the city must have assumed an
appearance of inchoate complexity. Within the inclosure of
the Sacred Palace, building after building was added, until
all semblance of -a synthetic plan was lost. Without, the
same lack of a logical scheme prevailed and, except for differ-
ences in architectural detail and material, the Constantinople
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 211
of Basil 1 1. must have looked much like the Stamboul of to-day.
Streets had become narrow and irregular, houses crowded,
and the broad planning of classical antiquity had given way
to the apparently thoughtless and illogical grouping of houses
characteristic of so much of the building of the Middle Ages.
The dwellings of the rich. No examples of the less palatial
Byzantine habitations remain, but illuminated manuscripts
FIG. 94 — HAIDRA. THE FORTIFICATIONS, RESTORED. (DIEHL)
give us some idea of the appearance of the houses of the
wealthy. They were apparently not unlike those still to be
found in the "dead cities" of Syria. The houses were of two
or three stories, 'the facades ornamented with porticoes.
From the ninth to the twelfth century open loggias decorated
the upper stories and towers or lateral pavilions often flanked
the main building. Balconies projected over the street, and
the roofs were sometimes steep, sometimes terraced, and some-
times ornamented with small domes. Windows were square,
with small squares of glass set in grilles. The prevailing
materials were brick and marble. The fagades were generally
of combined brick and marble, and the floors of one or the
other material. The outer doors were of nail-studded iron;
212 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the inner of wood, carved, paneled and inset with plaques.
The better dwellings were, therefore, both luxurious anil
graceful.
The poorer quarters. If, however, the public buildings and
habitations of the rich were splendid, the dwellings of the
poor were of the meanest, and the parts of the city used by the
common citizens ill built, vilely planned, and worse kept. If
we may believe contemporary accounts, such as that of Eudes
de Deuil, who visited the city in 1147, in the common quarters
the housetops often met above the streets, and the streets
themselves were indescribably filthy, at times even barred
by pools of mud in which men and beasts were drowned.
The odors were noisome, and the streets unlighted at night,
so that from sundown to sunup they were wholly given over to
thieves, cutthroats, and yammering scavenger dogs like those
which infest Constantinople to-day. If the reader could, by
some strained flight of fancy, imagine a combination of present
day Stamboul, the Campo Marzo region in Rome, and the
Tatar city in Pekin, he would probably have a not inaccurate
idea of the ensemble of twelfth century Constantinople.
The influence of Byzantine architecture. No discussion of the
Byzantine style would be complete without a word about the
powerful influence which the art exerted on contemporaneous
and subsequent architecture. At times, as in Aix-la-Chapelle
(Figs. 79, 80 and "85) and Germigny-les-Pres, as in Saint Front
de Perigueux (Fig. 99) and many of the churches of Norman
Sicily, this influence showed itself as little more than imita-
tion. A subtler influence is recorded in the acceptance by the
West of the unformulated principles which underlay both the
forms of detail and the constructive scheme of the Byzantine
building. The Byzantine architect, rejecting all single forms
of the classic capital, evolved by a gradual combination of all
the elements of the classic capital a new form suited to new
needs. The Gothic capital is but a refinement of the
Byzantine, or rather a further development along the lines laid
down by the Byzantine. The Romanesque and Gothic
development of the vault, too, was made possible by the flexible
treatment of the vault inaugurated by the Byzantines. Even
the basic Gothic principle, the stabilizing of a complex vaulted
system by means of an equilibrium of opposing thrusts, finds
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 213
its antecedent, as we have seen, in the Byzantine architecture
of the second golden age.
Influence on later styles. Moreover, Byzantine influence on
other styles was not confined to the contemporary Middle
Ages. We shall see that Renaissance and modern architecture
are largely indebted to Byzantium. In the Balkans, in
southern Russia, and in Greece, where the style was native,
the recurrence to it has been constant, and such a building as
the New Metropolis at Athens, though a debased imitation of
older work, has the merit of being a wholly natural reversion
to a native art. Finally, even Saracenic architecture must
acknowledge a great debt to Byzantine.
Significance of Byzantine architecture. The importance of
Byzantine architecture is, therefore, threefold. It may be
regarded as an important link between the Roman and
Romanesque styles, as a source of inspiration in contemporary
and subsequent architecture, and finally as a powerful and
self-sufficient art in itself. On the whole, writers have tended
to emphasize the first two points of view at the expense of the
third. The result has been a stressing of the architecture of
the first golden age before the development of the great
medieval styles of western Europe, and a neglect of the equally
important Byzantine architecture which postdates the Icono-
clastic controversy. The dynamic quality of the art has
largely been overlooked, and the style invested with a false
conservatism which recent writers on Byzantine architecture
are only beginning to dispel. It is well, therefore, especially
in a general history of architecture, to emphasize the fact that
the Byzantine style was not only an architecture of transition,
but especially an independent, self-sufficient art which showed
ever new vitality from the age of the first Constantine in the
fourth century to that of the last in the fifteenth, and, in a
sense, shows it even to-day.
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MONUMENTS
Early Period, to the Accession of Justinian in 527
Constantinople, Palace of Constantine. — 323~337-
Constantinople , Senate . — 3 23-337.
Constantinople, Cisterna Maxima. — 407,
2i4 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Constantinople, Cisterna Pulcheria. — 421.
Constantinople, Walls of Theodosius. — First half of fifth century.
Constantinople, Eski-djouma. — First half of fifth century.
Constantinople, Stoudion basilica. — 463.
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe. — Begun before 526.
Ravenna, Palace of Theodoric. — Begun before 526.
First Golden Age, Inaugurated by Justinian, 527-726
Constantinople, Bin-bir-direk cistern. — 528.
Ravenna, San Vitale. — 526 or 534-547.
Salonica, Hagia Sophia. — C. 530.
Constantinople, Saint Irene. — 532.
Constantinople, Hagia Sophia — 532-562.
Cathedral of Parenzo (Dalmatia). — 540.
Constantinople, Holy Apostles. — 536-546.
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo. — 549.
Constantinople, Saints Sergius and Bacchus. — First half of sixth
century.
Constantinople, Baths of Zeuxippus. — First half of sixth century.
Lemsa (Africa), Fortifications. — Sixth century.
Haidra (Africa), Fortifications. — Sixth century.
Saint Gregory, near Etschmiadzin (Armenia). — 640-666.
Constantinople, Kalender-hane-djami (the Diaconessa of Emperor
Maurice?). — Seventh century.
Constantinople, Hodja - moustapha - pasha (Saint Andrew's).—
Seventh century.
Cathedral of Etschmiadzin (Armenia). — Begun in fifth, restored
in seventh century.
Age of Iconoclasm, 726-842
Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's Chapel. — 796-804.
Germigny-les-Pres (France). — Ninth century.
Second Golden Age, Inaugurated by Basil I., 867-1204
Constantinople, "La Nea" (Basil I.).— Before 886.
Constantinople, Cenourgion (Basil I.). — Before 886.
Constantinople, Pentacoubouclon (Basil I.). — Before 886.
Constantinople, Gul-djami (Saint Theodosius). — Second half of
ninth century.
Skripou (Boeotia). — 874.
Constantinople, Boucoleon (Nicephorus Phocas, Emperor). — 963-
969.
Akthamar, Lake Van (Armenia). — Tenth century.
Pitzounda (Armenia). — Tenth century.?
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 2 1 5
Lavra, Catholicon. — End of tenth or beginning of eleventh century.
Stiris (Phocis), Great Church of Saint Luke.— Beginning of eleventh
century.
Chios, Nea Moni. — Mid-eleventh century.
Venice, Saint Mark's. — Begun 1063.
Stiris (Phocis), Theotokos (Small Church of Saint Luke).— Second
half of eleventh century.
Constantinople, Kilisse-dj ami .—Second half of eleventh century.
Daphni. — End of eleventh century.
Perigueux (France), Saint Front. — 1120.
Constantinople, Pantocrator. — 1 1 24.
Nauplia, Nea Moni. — 1144.
Athens, Saint Theodore. — Mid-twelfth century.
Athens, Little Metropolis. — Mid-twelfth century.
Constantinople, Palace of the Blachernae (Manuel Comnenus).—
Soon after 1143.
Constantinople, Walls of Manuel Comnenus. — Soon after 1143.
Byzantine Renaissance, mid-thirteenth century — 1453
Arta, Saint Basil.— Thirteenth century.
Trebizond, Hagia Sophia. — Thirteenth century.
Trebizond, Chrysokephalos. — Thirteenth century.
Ravanitsa (Serbia). — 1381.
Uskub (Serbia), Church of the Archangels. — Fourteenth century.
Mistra, Peribleptos. — End of the fourteenth century.
Manassia (Serbia). — 1407.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
A. Michel's Histoire del'art, 1905, vol. i, pt. i, contains a brilliant
summary of the history of Byzantine art, by Gabriel Millet. C.
Texier and R. P. Pullan's Byzantine Architecture, 1864, is a monu-
mental work, now out of date, with excellent text and superb litho-
graphic plates of a wide range of Byzantine monuments and details.
A. Choisy's L'art de bdiir chez les Byzantins, 1883, is an old but au-
thoritative work, well illustrated and especially important for Byzan-
tine construction. J. Stryzgowski's Kleinasien, 1003, and Byzanti-
nische Denkmaler are important recent publications of research,
already noted, emphasizing the Eastern origin of Byzantine art.
C. Diehl's Manuel d'art byzantin, 1910, an authoritative, scholarly,
up-to-date handbook, embodies the results of ancient and modern
research in the Byzantine field. T. G. Jackson's Byzantine and
Romanesque Architecture, 1913, is an up-to-date, scholarly, and
216 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
readable work, liberally illustrated. Charles Bayet's Uart byzantin,
1884, is a handbook of Byzantine art, of great range and catholicity,
though out of date. G. T. Rivoira's Le origini delta architettura lom-
barda, 1901-07, already noted, is even more important for Byzantine
than for early Christian art. A. Venturi's Storia dell' arte italiana,
vol. 2, 1902, is a scholarly and well-illustrated volume on Italian
art from the sixth to the eleventh centuries, publishing much original
material and important for Byzantine architecture in Italy. F.
de Verneihl's L' architecture byzantine en France, 1851, though out
of date, discusses in an able way the churches' of Byzantine
character in central France. W. Salzenberg's Altchristliche Bau-
denkmaler wn Konstantinopel vom 5. bis 12. Jahrhundert, 1854, is
an out-of-date but authoritative and interesting work. A. van
Millingen's Byzantine Churches in Constantinople, 1912, is a scholarly,
readable, and well-illustrated volume on the churches of Constan-
tinople; the same author's Byzantine Constantinople, 1899, is an
interesting work on the Byzantine monuments of the city of Con-
stantinople. L. de Beylie's L'habitation byzantine, 1902, with a
Supplement in 1903, is a monumental and superbly illustrated work
on the Byzantine dwelling. W. R. Lethaby and H. Swainson's
Sancta Sophia, 1894, an exhaustive monograph on the most important
monument of the earlier Byzantine period, is here mentioned on ac-
count of the light it throws on Byzantine architecture as a whole.
J. Ebersolt's Le grand palais de Constantinople, 1910, a modern and
ingenious monograph on the Sacred Palace at Constantinople, is
important for an attempted historical arrangement of the many
buildings in the inclosure. It is the last, but perhaps not the final,
word on the subject. E. A. Grosvenor's Constantinople, 1900, is
a popular and readable book on the city, with fine reproductions and
interesting accounts of the monuments. G. Barker's The Walls of
Constantinople, 1910, is an interesting history and description, well
illustrated, of the defenses of the city. J. B. Bury's A History of
the Eastern Roman Empire, 1912, a history of the empire, will be
useful for those who need to acquire the proper historical back-
ground for a study of Byzantine art.
CHAPTER VIII
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
Definition. A discussion of Romanesque architecture
inevitably begins with a definition of the term Romanesque.
The name, though an accepted one, and apt when understood,
is nevertheless confusing to the beginner. Comprehension
comes most quickly when we compare Romanesque architect-
ure to the Romance languages. After the break-up of the
Roman Empire there ensued a period of cultural confusion.
From this confusion homogeneous nationalities slowly emerged.
Based on Latin civilization, quickened oy northern energy,
modified and differentiated one from another by conditions
of race and geography, nations arose. These nations possessed
each a speech also based upon Latin yet differing from the
speech of other nations similarly based. Thus the Romance
languages, reminiscent of Rome, yet individual and national
in character, came into being. Precisely the same phenomena
appear in architecture, based upon Roman as a point of
departure, but differing from it, each school being individual
and expressive of the peculiar genius of the race which pro-
duced it, yet all bound by a common root and thus included
in a common classification: Romanesque.
Date. This much understood, new difficulties begin. From
the break-up of Roman civilization in the fifth century to the
clearly defined rise of the nations about 1000 there occurred
a formative period in which chaos was more frequent than
order, yet in this period language was spoken and written,
buildings erected. At times, as during the reign of Charle-
magne (the Carolingian Renaissance), civilization in this
period was even brilliant. Should one call the speech of this
period Romance; its architecture Romanesque? In very
218 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
general classifications all west-European architecture, outside
of mere Byzantine imitation, roughly from 500 to 1 150, is called
Romanesque. The field may then be subdivided, the period
of later development from 1000 to 1150 placed by itself, and
the earlier architecture classified as Carolingian, Carolingian
and Ottoman, or even pre-Romanesque. Once the distinction
is comprehended the danger disappears.
Relation of Romanesque to Gothic. The comprehension and
appreciation of Romanesque architecture has been more
hindered, albeit innocently, by writers on Gothic architecture
than by anything else. One of the most brilliant, Quicherat,
summed up the style in the clever yet misleading definition
that has appeared in every subsequent book on the subject.
According to the French archeologist, Romanesque is an
architecture that, retaining elements of Roman, has ceased to
be Roman, and anticipating elements of Gothic, is not yet
Gothic. Every phrase of this definition is true, yet its total
is pernicious, as it overlooks the self-sufficiency of the Roman-
esque style and relegates it to the position of a mere architect-
ure of transition. Nothing more clearly shows its weakness
than its over-emphasis of organic Romanesque styles, such as
Lombard, which led up to Gothic, and its utter inapplicability
to some of the most monumental, if inorganic, styles such as
the Tuscan.
Organic and inorganic architecture. The distinction between
what is called an organic and an inorganic style of architecture
may well be made here. An organic architecture is a vaulted
one, the vaults supported by ribs, buttresses, and piers, and
the latter deliberately arranged with sole reference to the needs
of supporting the vault and opposing its thrusts. Such an
architectural system, so often compared to the bony structure
of a living organism, deserves the adjective organic. An
architectural system may, however, be more or less convincingly
organic. The omission of one or more structural ribs in a
vault, the maladjustment of one or more supports to the
thrusts which they are designed to meet, may mar the organic
feeling of the system but not destroy it. On the other hand
a very splendid building may be completely inorganic, like the
cathedral of Pisa, which is covered with a timber roof carried
on a simple wall. Romanesque architecture must, therefore,
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 219
be studied for itself alone and not as a result of what has gone
before or as an excuse for what is coming after.
National feeling. This point must be insisted upon the more
strongly, since so much of the charm of the study of
Romanesque comes from the variety of the style. The causes
of these variations were, of course, historical and geographical.
In the early period, so often called pre-Rornanesque, from 500
to 1000, European architecture showed considerable homo-
geneity, but naturally with the growth of separate nations
came a growth of national styles; and within the nations,
often sharply divided into districts which were themselves
regna in regno, there grew up local styles of great individuality
and charm. Thus Romanesque is, outside of France where
organic Gothic developed, perhaps the most distinctly national
of each country's architectural styles.
Ecclesiastical interest. The study of Romanesque is much
simplified by one fact. In no other style, not even Gothic, is
the interest so confined to ecclesiastical architecture. So true
is this that in a brief discussion of medieval architecture,
secular architecture is most profitably studied in its Gothic
aspects, leaving the student free in the Romanesque period to
concentrate on the vastly more important church and monastic
buildings.
Corporate quality. The style was not only a natural and
religious expression, it was an expression of the common ideals
of the whole people. In other words it was distinctly
corporate. A magister operarius directed the works, but great
freedom was allowed his swarms of assisting craftsmen. The
result was variation and inequality of workmanship, but for
that very reason a freshness lamentably lacking in many an
otherwise impeccable modern work.
Architectural refinement. This freshness, which seems to
invest Romanesque, and indeed all medieval buildings, may
come partly as well from the assymmetrical quality of the work.
Whether or not the variations in plan, in the heights of columns
and of arches and the like, which may be observed in practi-
cally all medieval buildings, is the result of inaccurate measure-
ments, settling of members, or deliberate design after the
manner of Greek architectural refinements, the result is a
living quality, a sense of movement and picturesqueness that
$20 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
banishes all monotony and keeps the building vitally
interesting when more painstaking and elaborate works seem
dry as dust.
General characteristics. Though the plans of Romanesque
churches are widely diverse (Fig. 99), all are a development of
the arrangement with special reference to liturgical needs
embodied in the Christian-Roman basilica. In general,
buildings of the central type were confined to baptistries
and tombs, and when churches of this type occur, they
represent Byzantine influence. The round arch, as opposed
to the Gothic pointed arch, is a general characteristic
of Romanesque, though many examples of pointed arches
occur in the style.
Classification. Although many classifications of Roman-
esque have been offered, the main divisions of the movement
at the period of its great development in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries are fairly clear. Italy had a style of her own,
subdivided roughly into the northern, central, and southern.
Germany, too, had an individual style, on the whole semi-
organic in the Rhine Valley and inorganic elsewhere. France
offers the most complicated problem of classification, with no
less than six main subdivisions in her Romanesque art. In the
south we find a distinct Provengal style, highly classic in
feeling. Farther north we find the Auvergnat, most precocious
of the French schools, which may be classified with that of
Languedoc, the artistic center of the latter being at Toulouse.
In Aquitaine another school grew up, showing marked Byzan-
tine affiliations, although some modern writers have urged an
autochthonous growth for the Aquitanian churches. Still
another subdivision may be made of Burgundy, with its
emphasis on monastic architecture. In the north two highly
organic styles developed, the most precocious being the
Norman, the most finished that of the district around Paris
called the He de France. England afforded a very homo-
geneous type of Romanesque, which may be regarded as
an offshoot of Norman, and Spain had an individual style
largely imported from Languedoc, though influenced, espe-
cially in the south, by Eastern architecture.
Carolingian architecture. A closer examination of the style
in its various manifestations must begin of course with the
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 221
art which we have called Carolingian or pre-Romanesque, or
which might perhaps better be called by a more neutral and
less descriptive term — the art of the dark ages. This art,
though occasionally it takes on something of a national aspect,
as in the Saxon architecture of England, was European rather
than national. Moreover, some of the most important
monuments of the style, like Charlemagne's chapel at Aix-la-
Chapelle (Figs. 79 and 85) or the church of Germigny-les-Pres,
we may pass over lightly, since they only emphasize how
closely at times Byzantine architecture was copied.
New developments. There was, on the other hand, much
building in the period which strikes a new note. The basilican
plan was not merely used, it was developed. Apses were often
added at the west end, free-standing towers or turrets were
included, and often the bema was exaggerated to produce
the T form of plan so common in German architecture of the
Carolingian epoch (Salvatorskapelle, Frankfort). With the
accumulation of relics, the need for more altar space led to a
multiplication of chapels, in the form of absidioles. Sometimes
these radiated from the rounded east end of the church (Saint
Martin, Tours), sometimes they were given a place in the
T-shaped bema. With the elaboration of the liturgy,
ceremonial demanded an ambulatory for processions round the
apsidal end, and this important member was included. The
diaconicon and prothesis of the early Christian basilica soon
became the sacristy and vestry of the later works.
Saint Gall. By far the most illuminating example of
Carolingian architecture is the ninth century monastery of
Saint Gall (Switzerland) known to us by a manuscript plan
(Fig. 95). This drawing shows the main characteristics of
the projected monastic church and the subordinate buildings
about it. The church itself is of the modified basilican plan,
with three aisles, an eastern and a western apse, two flanking
western towers, an exaggerated bema, ambulatory about the
eastern apse, and flanking vestry and secretary's room. The
complicated plan of Saint Gall is useful, too, in emphasizing
the importance of the monastery and, indeed, the strength of
the monastic system in this period. The church is but the
most prominent building among a host of others. About it
are packed separate structures, shops, baths, kitchens, stables,
222 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
hospitals, servants' and guests' quarters, vegetable and flower
gardens, in fact everything which could contribute to make
the monastery a self-sufficient, self-sustaining community.
COW ,bA>Ct
d D
— ]
b
Existing monuments. We are not, however, confined to
plans for our knowledge of the architecture of the dark ages.
Many extant monuments, though usually damaged and
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 223
marred by alteration, remain to show us what the original
work was like. In France at Beauvais the so-called Basse-
ceuvre is one of the best known examples of the architecture
of the dark ages, though the building is so severe in design,
with its plain walls and timber roof, that it aids little in the
study of Carolingian buildings. Perhaps the most highly
developed type of Carolingian
church is that of Montier-en-
Der (Upper Marne), where a
large proportion of the tenth
century building is preserved
for the student. Among the
many German examples of this
art perhaps the one most
worth emphasizing is Lorsch
(Rhine Valley, near Worms,
Fig. 96). Here the facade of
the basilican gate is preserved
in its original form.
Carolingian decoration.
These fragments show us other
innovations and contributions
made to architecture by this
style, the most striking being
the triangular decoration, an
easily recognized characteristic
of the architecture all over
Europe. Windows were framed
in triangles, gable -like trian-
gular decoration applied in re-
lief to the walls, and the walls
themselves composed of lozenges, sometimes vari-hued, with
the emphasis on triangular form. The important billet mold
appeared for the first time, and the window design of two
lights, separated by a column and embraced by an arch, is
reiterated and handed on to Romanesque and Gothic. This
form may well have originated, in the campanili of Carolingian
Italy.
Pre-Romanesque architecture of England. On account of
geographical conditions, the pre-Romanesque architecture of
FIG. 96 — LORSCH. ONE BAY OF
THE BASILICAN GATE
224 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
England shows an individualistic tendency. Such monuments
as Earl's Barton (Fig. 97) are not to be confused with con-
temporary continental monuments, though they were founded
on Roman traditions, modified by barbarian ideas. Towers
were frequent, the angles re-enforced by the very characteristic
Saxon long-and-short work,
of stone slabs embedded al-
ternately horizontally and
vertically. Walls were also
decorated with strongly
salient strips of stone, some
placed vertically and running
from the ground to the sum-
mit, some banded horizon-
tally round the building.
Openings were divided by
clumsy wall shafts, almost
barrel-shaped and strongly
suggesting wooden forms.
The masonry handling in
the Saxon buildings was ex-
tremely rude, but the style
was sturdy and might well
have developed into one of
great beauty had its evolu-
tion not been arrested by
the Norman conquest.
Pre-Romanesque architecture of Spain. Geography affected
the Carolingian architecture of Spain as well. The peninsula,
like the island of Sicily, was always a battle-ground between
races and civilizations, and a bridge over which Oriental
influence entered Europe. The Spanish architecture of the
dark ages, like that of the north, developed the basilican
plan, but showed decidedly individualistic tendencies in
arrangement of detail and especially in decoration. Barbaric
elements came with the Visigothic occupation, and to them
were soon added a decided Oriental influence, especially in
decoration. Sassanian ideas crossed the straits of Gibraltar
as easily as Tarik himself. As a result we find horseshoe
arches, fluted scallop shells, and other details which give the
FIG. 97 — EARL'S BARTON. THE TOWER
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 225
architecture a semi-exotic character. Extant monuments are
abundant. Among the most interesting may be named the
church of Santullano (Oviedo), San Miguel de Linio (near
Oviedo), and Santa Maria de Naranco (Fig. 98), near San
Miguel.
Architectural activity about 1000 A.D. Although undue
importance has been given to the effect on building of the safe
FIG. 98 — SANTA MARIA DE NARANCO. PLAN
passage of the year 1000, when so many people, relying on a
passage in the Apocalypse, oelieved the end of the world was
at hand, the date is, in round numbers, a good one for the
beginning of Romanesque architecture proper. Building
received an extraordinary impetus about that time. The fact
may be accounted for in many ways, but chiefly by the growth
of the individual nations and the economic prosperity which
their comparatively orderly governments insured.
Priority. In this later Romanesque, Italy, Germany, and
France each claims priority for its own style, and the contro-
versy is complicated by the fact that almost all the monuments
have suffered from repair, restoration, addition, and alteration
more or less complete. The majority cannot be dated by
documents and the minority which can may have suffered
from a subsequent, undated alteration. In general Brutail's
rule is excellent: a documented building cannot be earlier
than the date of its document, but may be, and generally is,
226 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
later. The critic must proceed with extreme caution, checking
documentary against internal evidence, and vice versa,
avoiding as far as possible the mistakes which come from pre-
conceived ideas, and above all steeling himself against the
appeals of a patriotic bias.
Lombard Romanesque. On weighing the evidence, the
oldest theory seems not only the most convenient but the
most plausible, and we may assume the priority of Lombard
Romanesque and begin our discussion with that style. This
gives the credit of creative genius to Italy, but insists upon the
necessity of Germanic (Lombard) blood to quicken this genius.
Opponents of the theory call attention to the fact that Lombard
architecture as designed in the eleventh century is highly
organic, that the style soon lost this organic quality, that the
movement died prematurely, and that Italian architecture has
always been distinguished from northern by its fondness for
inorganic forms, but all these phenomena may be explained
by the weakening of the Lombard stock and the commercial
decline of Lombardy coincident with the struggle between
the empire and the papacy.
Characteristics. The ribbed vault. What then were the main
characteristics of this architecture? Since it was organic it-
was, of course, vaulted, the favorite form being the domical
groin vault. This form we have seen developed in Byzantine
architecture, as in the vaults over the aisles of Hagia Sophia,
from the heavy concrete vaults of the Romans. To the simple
groin vault the Lombard architecture added strongly salient
ribs, reinforcing the groin angles and binding the vault sides.
They thus created a set of six ribs in all: two longitudinal or
wall ribs; two transverse which crossed the nave at right
angles to the long axis of the building; and two diagonal or
groin ribs, which met in the center of the vault and divided
it into four cells. The advantage of these ribs can hardly be
exaggerated. They could be built separately and act as
centering for the construction of the web. They were inde-
pendent of the latter, which rested largely upon them, and
thus the web could be thinned and the vault shell made much
lighter. They concentrated the vault thrusts at, or near, the
springing of the ribs, where the architects contrived to meet
them with salient pier buttresses, and they divided the whole
MORJENVAU
MAINZ
FIG. 99 — PLANS OF ROMANESQUE CHURCHES
228 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
vault of a building into separate compartments or bays, so
that a crack or fault in one bay was not liable to spread to
another.
Compound supports. Such a modified vault demanded a
modified support. An aggregate of ribs of different sizes,
springing in different directions, could be gathered only
clumsily on a round column or a square pier. A compound
pier was needed and produced. In Santl Ambrogio at Milan
(Fig. 10 1), for example, we find a pier compounded with an
engaged pilaster on the nave side to bear the transverse rib,
flanked by two engaged shafts to carry the diagonal ribs- On
the northern and southern faces an engaged pilaster carries
the longitudinal rib, and against it an engaged column bears
the arches of the ground story archivolt. On the aisle side
an engaged pilaster and shaft carry respectively the transverse
and diagonal ribs of the aisle vaults. The capitals of these
shafts face in the direction in which the ribs spring, hence the
capitals of the shafts which carry the diagonals are set obliquely
to the main axis of the building. In short, logic appears in
every member, and structural logic, a term we shall often be
forced to use, is emphasized.
The alternate system. The same structural logic inspired
another characteristic of Lombard architecture, destined to
have far-reaching influence on later styles: the alternate
system. On plan the naves were roughly twice the width of
the aisles. It occurred logically to the architects that by
having two bays in the aisles to balance one in the nave they
could make their vaults square (Sanf Ambrogio, Fig. 99).
This necessitated, however, an intermediate pier to carry the
ribs of the aisle, vaults where their springing did not meet
those of the nave vaults. Obviously this intermediate pier
did not need the complicated form or the robustness of the main
piers, hence smaller and simpler piers alternated between
larger and more complicated ones, and the alternate system
of vaults and piers was created. This system was used with
great success in Romanesque and Gothic architecture when two
bays of the aisle balanced one bay of the nave.
The pilaster strip. A new structural system required new
members, therefore the pilaster strip, whether against a pier
to receive a member of the vaulting system, or appearing on
230 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the exterior as a buttress, received unprecedented develop-
ment.
Decoration. Aside from the fundamentally organic quality of
the Lombard building, which is its most important character-
istic, the style developed a very original decorative scheme.
Corbels were used unsparingly. Arched corbel tables were
run under the eaves and following the rake of the pitched gable
roofs. Decoration was attained by means of arcades, some-
times open, but mpre often blind.
Doors were enriched with porches,
covered with gables supported by
columns, which were themselves
carried on the backs of sculpt-
ured lions. Sculpture, some-
times of a very rude sort, some-
times with Byzantine refinement,
played a not unimportant part,
but it was chiefly confined to
portals, lintels, capitals, and the
like. On the exterior color was
generally eschewed. For decora-
tive effect on the exterior the
builders relied on architectural
detail, carving, and differentia-
tion of textures in the arrange-
ment of fairly monochromatic
material. Mosaic and marble
veneer were excluded from the
interiors, but these were enlivened
with painting, now almost wholly
gone, which must, in the original,
have been garish. Further enlivenment of the interior was
obtained by rich church furniture, sometimes of carved
marble, or backed with ivory, sometimes of exquisitely
modeled stucco, and at times even incrusted with silver,
gold, and enamel.
San? Ambrogio at Milan. Turning to the monuments
which exhibit the style, we find the best known and most
perfect example in Milan in the church of Sant' Ambrogio
(Figs. 99, 100, 101, 102, and 103). This building has of late
Copyright by Macmillan & Co.
FIG. 101 — MILAN. SANT' AM-
BROGCO. DRAWING OF ONE
BAY SHOWING VAULT RIBS AND
SUPPORTS. (MOORE)
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
231
years figured largely in archeological dispute. It, and the
neighboring and equally typical San Michele of Pavia, were
long considered to date from the mid-eleventh century,
but modern archeology tends to date the vaults of- Sant'
FIG. 102 — MILAN. SANT* AMBROGIO. INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD
THE APSE
Ambrogio from the second quarter of the twelfth. They
would thus be antedated by Romanesque monuments of
Normandy. The point is not as important as at first appears,
for the form of the vaults would have been determined by the
time the first tier of stones in the piers was placed. The piers
themselves reveal this. Moreover, such finished monuments
could not spring spontaneously into being, but would imply
a long development of experimental building before them,
and modern research has revealed a number of examples of
ribbed vaults of the eleventh century in Lombardy, some
of them even constructed in the second quarter of the
century.
9
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Plan and elevation. In plan (Fig. 99) Sant' Ambrogio is
basilican, with three groin vaulted bays in the nave, a crossing
with an octagonal lantern, and a short choir of half a bay.
Two bays in the aisles correspond to one in the nave. The
eastern termination has a great semicircular apse, flanked by
two smaller apses of the same shape, on the axis of the aisles.
FIG. 103 — MILAN. SANT AMBROGIO. EXTERIOR
This form, typically Carolingian, surely belongs to the ninth
century building. There is no clerestory, the space being
occupied by a large triforium gallery, the vaults of which
receive the thrusts of the nave vaults and transmit them to
the salient pier buttresses attached to the walls. The nave
vaults (Fig. 100), very domical, have a full complement of
transverse longitudinal and diagonal ribs. The aisle vaults
are groined without diagonal ribs. The facade shows an open
narthex, with an open gallery above it. The first story is
divided from the second by a horizontal string-course, with an
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 233
arched corbel table, and a similar corbel table follows the
rake of the gable. Pilaster strips to the first story, and
engaged shafts to the roof, divide the facade vertically into
five sections. The octagonal lantern is decorated with two
open galleries, and attached to the church is a square campanile
reinforced at the angles by pilaster strips, divided horizontally
by string-courses with corbel tables, and vertically by engaged
FIG. 104 — VERONA. SAN ZENO. GENERAL VIEW
columns. The church has an atrium with vaulted portico
which prevents a distant view of the fagade.
Architecture outside of Milan. The farther removed it was
from Milan the less organic Lombard architecture tended to
become. San Michele of Pavia, to be sure, exhibits an
organic feeling fully the equal of Sant' Ambrogio. Perhaps
the most original church after these two was Sant' Abondio at
Como, which affords one of the most pleasing and monumental
designs of the style. This building has a fivefold vertical
division of the facade, corresponding to the five aisles of the
234 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
interior, a well-proportioned clerestory, and fine twin campanili
symmetrically arranged. It is, however, unvaulted.
The Maestri Comacini. One might expect monumental
architecture at Como and, indeed, throughout Lombardy, on
account of the Maestri Comacini, a famous band of workmen
first mentioned by the Lombard King Rotari (636-652), the
name of which suggests an origin on a little island, "Isola
Comacina, " in Lake Como. The importance of this myste-
rious band has probably been exaggerated, but there seems
little doubt that it was largely influential both in the creation
and in the spreading abroad of the Lombard style.
Reversion to inorganic type. Throughout northern 'Italy
the Lombard style held sway, stretching west into Piedmont
and east into Emilia and the Veneto. In later monuments,
however, as well as in those distant from Milan, there was a
reversion to an inorganic type. At the same time the works
tended to become more monumental, more showy. Parma
cathedral (1117), with its lofty if inept vaults bound with
tie-rods, its broad facade, its soaring campanile, has, at least,
a superficial impressiveness that is denied the more organic
but less obtrusive Sant' Ambrogio. Similarly Modena (conse-
crated 1184), on account of well-proportioned facade and
profuse sculpture, is more monumental in effect than the
Milanese building.
San Zeno, Verona. Perhaps the most pleasing and the
least organic of all Lombard Romanesque buildings is San
Zeno at Verona (consecrated 1138, Fig. 104). This church
has probably the most satisfactory proportions of any building
of its class. Its portal is ennobled by a gabled porch of the
type popular in this style, and quite probably invented in
Verona. The exterior is further enhanced by a free-standing
campanile, decorated with vertical pilaster strips and hori-
zontal strips of alternating red and white marble. The
interior with its great height and raised crypt is impressive,
but the inorganic quality of the building is revealed by its
timber roof, trussed after the manner of the frame of a ship,
and still retaining faint traces of its original painted
decorations.
Tuscan Romanesque. Farther south we next come to the
architecture of central Italy which, for convenience, we may
236 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
call Tuscan, though it overstepped the limits of what is now
the Tuscan province/. The student will at once be struck with
the inorganic quality of the style. The plans are chiefly
basilican, and the architects strongly preferred the timber roof
to a vaulted structure. At the same time the buildings were
often extremely monumental in size and striking in decoration.
In lieu of organic originality the Tuscan Romanesque offered
a gorgeousness in striking contrast to the comparatively drab
appearance of the art of the north.
Decoration, general character. This effect was obtained
principally by means of polished marble panels, and a. pro-
fusion of arcades, blind and open, applied to the exterior. The
exterior of such a building as the cathedral of Pisa is covered
FIG. IO6 — PISA. CATHEDRAL. PLAN
with arcades, and the material used is colored marble applied
in panels, squares, lozenges, and all manner of pure design,
so brilliant in color as literally to be dazzling (Fig. 105).
Interiors were generally basilican, the walls enlivened with
horizontal strips of light and dark. Domes over the crossing
were common, but nave vaults rare. At times one feels a
certain amount of Lombard influence in central Italy, as at
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 237
Toscanella and Montefiascone, but in general the style k
very individual.
The group at Pisa. The cathedral. The best point of
departure for a study of Tuscan Romanesque monuments is,
of course, the cathedral group at Pisa (Figs. 100, 105, 106, and
FIG. IO7 — PISA. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE
107), where the cathedral, the leaning tower and baptistry
offer the most resplendent examples of the style. The
cathedral is five aisled basilican (Figs. 100 and 106). Its
exterior arcades vary slightly in height and spacing, looking
almost as though they were drawn and constructed free-hand.
The building is wooden-roofed, but over the crossing is an
egg-shaped dome curiously small for so large a nave. The
wide transepts afford a striking feature. The effect of the
exterior (Fig. 105) is one of rich color and interesting design.
The interior (Fig. 107), however, is decorated with the typical
238 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
bands of light and dark marble, the contrasts being so strong
as to shock the eye rather than please it.
The Leaning Tower. The same decorative system, open
arcades with colored marble veneer, is applied in concentric
rings to the campanile (Fig. 105). Though there is still dispute
as to whether the lean of this famous monument is caused by
settling of the foundation or was included in the original de-
sign, the latter explanation seems the better attested, and there
is little doubt that the builders chose to make one of Italy's
most beautiful towers into architecture's most famous freak.
The Baptistry. The baptistry is not so important for pur
study as the other two monuments of the group, since it
belongs partly to the Gothic period. The peculiar shape of
the roof is caused by a unique system of doming, the building
being first covered with a cone of masonry, exerting slight
thrust, and then the superficial effect of a dome attained by
springing a segment of an annular vault over the aisle, from
the cornice, or upper string-course, to a point about two-thirds
the way up the masonry cone.
Buildings at Florence. Florence affords a local variation
of the style, the best example being the church of San Miniato
al Monte. This building follows the general scheme of decora-
tion of the style, with a variant in the emphasis on the square
in pure design. It also emphasizes another element noticeable
in Tuscan Romanesque: the imitation of classical form.
Some of the columns and pilasters follow the Corinthian order
so closely that they look almost like pilfered fragments of
ancient structures, and we can understand why the term
"proto-Renaissance" has been applied to the age which pro-
duced such works. In another Florentine building, in the
same style, the baptistry of San Giovanni, this classic feeling
is still stronger, and has led some authorities even to consider
the reconstruction of about 1200 less important than is gener-
ally supposed, and to argue that the present structure dates
back to the late classical period. The ingenious doming of
the building, with its double shell and stiffening barrel vaults
between the ribs, influenced Brunelleschi in his design for
the dome of the cathedral of Florence.
South Italian Romanesque. Finally, in the third subdivision
of Italian Romanesque, that of southern Italy and Sicily, or
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 239
of the Two Sicilies, as the region is generally called, geography
plays an important part. Since the beginning of Medi-
terranean history this region has been fought over by con-
flicting races. Here barbarian, Greek, Phoenician, Roman,
Goth, Byzantine, Italian, Moslem, and Norman battled,
prevailed, succumbed, and disappeared. The result was a
FIG. 1 08— CEFALU. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE WEST END
lawless and confused society, and an art that combined
Oriental and Occidental ideas. Although a hybrid, it actually
succeeded in blending harmoniously the ideals of a half-
dozen races, and we may find in a single building Lombard
corbel tables, Norman interlacing arches, classic capitals,
Byzantine mosaics, and Saracenic domes. If one's idea of
Italian Romanesque is confused, it is a correct one.
The style in Sicily. In general the admixture of styles shows
more clearly in Sicily than in southern Italy. At Cefalu
(Fig. 1 08), for example, we find the Norman flanking towers
240 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
embracing the facade, the Norman interlacing arches, and the
Moslem dome. One need not, however, leave Palermo, and
its suburb, Monreale, to study Sicilian Romanesque in its
most typical form. The cathedral, to be sure, is almost
wholly spoiled by baroque alteration, but in the Cappella
Palatina in the royal palace south Italian Romanesque appears
in its most harmonious blend. The plan of this chapel is
FIG. IO9 — MONREALE. CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE
basilican, its pavement is of marble inlay, and its walls are
covered with precious Byzantine mosaics. The modified
Corinthian columns which divide the nave from the aisles
are low, the archivolts which they support are lofty with
pointed arches, here surely of Saracenic origin. The interior,
completely incrusted with marble and mosaic, gives an
impression of unsparing richness.
Monreale. Probably the finest example of the style, how-
ever, is the cathedral of Monreale (Figs. 99, 109, and no),
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 241
some five miles from Palermo, founded in 1176. This church
is of Latin cross plan and wooden roofed. The pavement is
marble, the dadoes are marble veneered, and the upper walls are
incrusted with mosaic. The arches of the main archivolts
are much stilted and pointed. The exterior shows Norman
FIG. IIO — MONREALE. CATHEDRAL. SYSTEM OF THE NAVE AND THE
EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR
fagade towers and interlacing, Saracenic decoration and
construction. Adjoining the church is a cloister, with a portico
carried on a series of paired columns richly carved in shaft
and capital, and adorned with glass and marble mosaic.
Such cloisters form specially charming features in many south
Italian Romanesque churches, though they are to be found
elsewhere in Romanesque work.
242 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
German Romanesque. The Romanesque of Germany is,
on the whole, much more homogeneous than Italian, and the
most distinctly national of the country's styles. The Roman-
esque style there was exceedingly prolific, and lingered longer
FIG. Ill — COLOGNE. SAINT MARY OF THE CAPITOL. PLAN
than in any other country. Its unity and strength may be
explained by the unity and political power of Germany
beginning in 919 with the reign of Henry the Fowler and
lasting through the period of the Ottos and the later Henrys.
FIG. 112 — PAULINZELLE. PLAN
In studying it we must seek to distinguish the Germanic
elements from those which represent importation from out-
side. The former came from a development of the native
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 243
Carolingian style ; the latter appear in the increasing tendency
to use an organic Lombard structural system, and in a certain
amount of Byzantine imitation. The last was not nearly so
common in the later Romanesque as in the Carolingian epoch,
though certain buildings, especially those at Cologne, with
-f,
? ] ] ? ? Tn>r.
Saint Michael, Hildesheim
FIG. 113 — SYSTEMS OF GERMAN ROMANESQUE CHURCHES
their apse-like transepts recalling the triconch churches of
Syria and Egypt, seem surely to represent Oriental influences.
General characteristics. The most striking and typically
German characteristic of the style is its complexity and
picturesqueness, acquired by a multiplication of architectural
members. Apses were placed at the west as well as the east.
Lanterns not only covered the crossing, but were placed at
the west end of the building. Towers, and especially turrets,
at both ends were common. These elements, as we have seen,
are of Carolingian derivation. Even the churches which seem
to reflect most clearly Oriental influence develop the complexi-
ties of Carolingian prototypes, which were themselves
influenced by the East. Thus the Holy Apostles at Cologne
244 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
is but a development of Saint Mary of the Capitol (Fig. in),
and combines Germanic complexity with the main dispositions
of an Oriental plan. The earliest German Romanesque
buildings are generally basilican
and tended to retain the timber
roof; the later are partially or
even completely organic. Gen-
erally, however, the organism
of a church is marred by the
omission of one or more struct-
ural members. This organic
quality, appearing late as it
does, may be explained as an
imitation of Lombard work.
In general the more organic as
well as the more monumental
churches are to be found in the
valley of the Rhine.
Basilican churches. Turning
first to the basilican churches
we find them all alike in this
lack of organic feeling, but dif-
fering widely in the disposition
of detail. Thus the Collegiate
Church of Paulinzelle (Figs.
112 and 11-3) shows a blind
triforium and a uniform system of massive columns divid-
ing the nave from the aisles. The Collegiate of Gernrode
has a triforium gallery, reduced clerestory windows, and an
alternation of a column with a square pier in the ground story
arcade. Further variety is offered by Saint Michael, Hildes-
heim (Figs. 99 and 113), which reverts to the blind triforium,
but places two columns between the square piers in the main
arcade. At Driibeck (Fig. 114) we note the simpler alterna-
tion of single column and pier, but the arches from pier to
column are embraced by great blind arches of double width
and height which spring from pier to pier. Variation is,
therefore, almost infinite in these churches, but all are alike in
the heaviness of their systems, the massiveness of their walls,
and in their simple wooden roofs supported on trussed timbers.
Rhr.
FIG. 114 — DRUBECK. DRAWING OF
ONE BAY, SHOWING THE SYSTEM
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 245
The organic architecture of the Rhine. As a foil to these
basilican churches one may turn to the great vaulted churches
of the Rhine Valley: Speyer, Worms, and Mainz. These
combine most happily the Lombard vaulted system with
German picturesqueness. Speyer (Figs. 100, 115, 116, and
117) has an organic vaulted system, complete but for the
missing diagonal ribs. It has a lantern over the crossing, two
square towers at the east end, two more at the west, a western
transept and a western lantern. Despite its complexity the
FIG. 1 1 5 — SPEYER. PLAN
building is compactly arranged and monumental in effect.
Worms (Fig. 116) shows as great complexity as Speyer, and
moreover has a full complement of ribs. Both exhibit the
alternate system, the intermediate piers on the nave side
having engaged shafts which support an archivolt embracing
the clerestory windows. Later than either of the preceding,
and perhaps most imposing of all, is the cathedral of Mainz
(Figs. 99, 1 1 6, and 118). Here the arches are freely pointed,
and complexity is carried to the extreme, the church having its
full complement of turrets, western lantern, western apse,
and the like. The western apse adds picturesqueness, but
mars the design of the facade, as the flanking doors are mere
insignificant inlets for worshippers as compared to the wel-
coming portals of French .churches.
Summary of German Romanesque. To understand German
Romanesque, therefore, one must above all keep in mind the
two divisions of elements: those developed from the Caro-
1
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 247
lingian, and those which are imported; the latter may be sub-
divided roughly into Byzantine and Lombard. At times all
three may combine in a single building, as in the church of the
Holy Apostles at Cologne, where we find a semi-organic
system, native picturesqueness, and a three shell east end
which suggests Syria, but by keeping the main divisions in
mind we may analyze and
comprehend the host of
Romanesque monuments
which Germany offers.
Approach to the study of
French Romanesque. As we
approach the discussion of
French Romanesque, clear-
ness suggests that we begin
with the southern styles and
work toward the northern.
This will, at times, falsify
chronology, but the pro-
vincial styles of France are
so nearly contemporaneous
that the fault is not a seri-
ous one, and the advantages
of examining the southern
styles first are great. The
southern and central styles
have one important com-
mon characteristic: predi-
lection for the barrel vault
and consequently inorganic
feeling.
Provence. One may characterize Provencal Romanesque
as the most classic of all Romanesque styles. It was in-
evitable in a district which still preserves the Pont-du-Gard,
the Baths of Diana at Nimes, the amphitheater at Aries, the
triumphal arch at Orange, and countless other monuments of
Roman antiquity, that architects should be influenced strongly
by the examples constantly before their eyes. The result was
not only a predilection for the barrel vault, especially the
barrel vault supported on transverse semicircular arches, as
FIG. 117 — SPEYER. CATHEDRAL. VIEW
OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD
THE APSE
FIG. Il8 — MAINZ. CATHEDRAL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH
FIG. 119 — ARLES. SAINT TROPHIME. THE MAIN PORTAL
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
249
in the Baths of Diana, but also for detail strongly classical
in feeling.
Monuments. An examination of the monuments emphasizes
this fact. The fagade of Saint Trophime at Aries (Fig. 119)
has capitals which are almost true Corinthian and a suggestion
of entablature that is modified, not debased, classic Roman.
The interior is barrel vaulted, with transverse arches, but the
barrel vault is pointed in cross section. Saint Gilles (Gard)
boasts a fagade similar to Saint
Trophime, but more elaborate.
Here even the masonry recalls classic
Rome, and the main portal is flanked
by channeled pilasters of almost
deceptively classic character. Some
of the Corinthian columns, too, need
only a delicate entasis to appear
stolen from a classic edifice. These
are well-known examples, and the
more obscure reiterate the same
effects. The word "Romanesque"
in its literal sense applies more
aptly to the Provengal style than
to any other.
Auvergne. Farther north and
west a somewhat different develop-
ment was taking place. In Auvergne
we find the same predilection for
barrel vaults, but new dispositions
in plan. The Auvergnat churches,
as one would expect in the earliest
of the French Romanesque styles, TRANSVERSE SECTION, snow-
have a Carolingian affiliation and ING H^LF - BARREL VAULT
• . OVER THE AISLE
something of the picturesqueness
of the Romanesque of the Rhine.
Apses are provided with ambulatories and radiating absidioles,
and absidioles are often added to the eastern walls of the
transepts. At the same time the barrel vault is treated
with more freedom. The nave is usually covered with a
barrel vault, but the aisles are often provided with but
half -barrel vaults which thrust inward and counteract
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the thrust of the vault of the nave (see Fig. 120). An in-
evitable result of this arrangement was inadequate lighting.
Light was admitted through the ground story windows,
and through windows in the trif orium gallery beneath the half-
barrel vaults, but by the time it had filtered into the nave it
was much weakened, and most Auvergnat churches give one
the sensation of a black
cloud overhanging the nave,
an effect which, if not cheer-
ful, is at least impressive.
The individual members and
general construction of the
Auvergnat church, according
with its early date, are gen-
erally very massive, another
fact which again makes the
churches impressive, if some-
times ungraceful. The ex-
terior is lightened by the
absidioles, stepped lanterns,
arcades, and general multipli-
cation of members, which give
the building picturesque-
ness.
Monuments. The best
known and historically most
interesting of Auvergnat
churches is N6tre Dame du Port at Clermont-Ferrand (Figs.
120 and 121). It is a heavy, barrel- vaulted, ill-lighted but
impressive church, with a multiplication of absidioles and the
general picturesqueness which well typifies the style. Other
monuments, as illuminating if less famous, are numerous.
Among them we must mention Saint Saturnin, and Orcival
(Puy-de-D6me).
Languedoc. Closely allied to the style of Auvergne is that
which we may call, for want of a better name, the school of
Languedoc, though the district involved embraces a vast
territory from Auvergne to the Pyrenees. The styles of
Auvergne and Languedoc have often with reason been classi-
fied together, but the latter tends to a more monumental
FIG. 121— CLERMONT-FERRAND. NOTRE
DAME DU PORT. VIEW OF THE EAST END
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 251
scale, and greater delicacy in single members and sculptured
detail. The most prominent example of this style is, of course,
Saint Sernin at Toulouse (Figs. 100 and 122), a five aisled!
barrel-vaulted structure with a lofty and very graceful lantern
over the crossing. The building is on so elaborate a scale, and
exhibits so great delicacy of material and detail, that one does
not at first identify it as a
close relative of the buildings
of neighboring Auvergne, yet
such it is. The architectural
sculptures alone of Lan-
guedoc would differentiate
the buildings of that district
from those of Auvergne.
Aq^litaine. Byzantine
character of the building.
North of Languedoc and
west of Auvergne we find a
very vigorous and distinct
school flourishing in Aqui-
taine. The Aquitanian
buildings have generally been
characterized as the most
Byzantine of French Ro-
manesque churches. Saint
Front at Perigueux (Figs. 99
and 123) has repeatedly been
called a direct copy of Saint Mark's at Venice, and the numer-
ous other churches of the district, with their domes on penden-
tives so unique in French Romanesque, have been said to be
inspired by Saint Front. To this theory a reaction has lately
set in. Saint Front postdates many of the buildings in the
neighborhood with the same characteristics, and there are great
differences between the so-called Byzantine details of these
buildings and the details of the real Byzantine buildings
whence they are supposed to be derived. These facts have led
certain scholars to conclude that the domed churches of
Aquitaine owe no more to Byzantium than the Romanesque
of the rest of France, but convincing as these arguments at
first seem, they can be overthrown by the juxtaposition of the
FIG. 122 — TOULOUSE. SAINT SERNIN.
THE INTERIOR SEEN FROM THE WEST
252 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
plans of Saint Mark's and Saint Front (Figs. 88 and 99).
We note the salient Greek cross, the barrel vaults, the central
dome on pendentives, and the four subordinate domes on the
arms of the cross. Such similarities are not coincidences.
Probably Saint Front is not a copy of Saint Mark's; surely,
however, the two are inspired by a Byzantine original, quite
FIG. 123 — PERIGUEUX. SAINT FRONT. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE
SOUTHEAST
possibly the church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople.
Certainly it is correct to classify the Romanesque of Aquitaine
as most Byzantine in character.
Originality of Aquitanian architecture. Not all the churches
of Aquitaine, however, have the Greek cross plan or even the
domes on pendentives which mark the style as Byzantine in
character. In the cathedral of Angouleme, for example (Fig.
99), the dome vaults are arranged in the form of a Latin cross,
and at Notre Dame la Grande at Poitiers (Fig. 124) the dome
on pendentives is abandoned in favor of the barrel vault.
The churches of the region are, nevertheless, bound into one
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 253
style by the system of decoration, curious cone-shaped turrets
with scale-like tiles, bossy masonry, and a unique inter-
mingling of architectural and figure sculpture as ornament
over portals and windows.
Burgundy. We may conclude our examination of southern
and central French Romanesque with a brief review of the
Burgundian style.
As might be ex-
pected from geo-
graphical consid-
erations, this style
is the most or-
ganic of the south-
ern-central group,
and therefore
makes a good
transition to the
study of the art
of Normandy and
the He de France.
The characteris-
tics most worthy
of emphasis are its
accent on monas-
tic architecture,
its increasingly
organic quality in-
volving frequent
use of the groin FIG. 124 — POITIERS. NOTRE DAME LA GRANDE.
vault, its original- VIEW OF THE WEST END
ity in the hand-
ling of the barrel vault, and its vigorous, racy sculptured
decorations, especially as applied in the vestibule or narthex,
a feature which received unprecedented development at the
hands of the Burgundian architects.
Cluny. The abbey of Cluny (Figs. 99 and 100) was,
perhaps, the most typical Burgundian church. It was
founded in 1089, destroyed in 1125, and rebuilt in 1130.
Unfortunately it was razed during the French Revolution, but
we know it by drawings and descriptions. It was five-aisled,
254 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the nave covered with a barrel vault and the aisles with groin
vaults. Its transepts were double, those to the east smaller
than those to the west, giving the plan the archiepiscopal-
cross form so common in English Gothic buildings. Round
the ambulatory were five absidioles, and others were added
on the eastern faces of the transepts. The nave was preceded
by an elaborate narthex of five bays. There was a lantern
FIG. 125 — VEZELAY. CHURCH OF THE MADELEINE. THE INTERIOR SEEN
FROM THE VESTIBULE
over the crossing, towers over the transepts, and towers were
placed at the west end. The impression of the building must
have been not unlike that of a Rhenish church of the period,
and, indeed, a connection between the two has often been
urged.
Extant Burgundian monuments. Burgundy possesses, how-
ever, many extant monuments in which the style may be
judged. The cathedral of Autun, for example, exhibits an
elaborately ornamented narthex, and a nave in the form of a
pointed barrel vault. An ingenious variant in the treatment
of the barrel vault may be seen at Saint Philibert at Tournus.
The gravest fault of the longitudinal barrel vault over a nave
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 255
is its tendency to suppress, usually entirely, the window
openings in the clerestory. In Saint Philibert this difficulty
is avoided by roofing the nave with a series of sections of barrel
vaults, placed at right angles to the long axis of the building.
These sections mutually abut one another, and their wall
arches leave ample room for clerestory openings, but the
esthetic effect of the series of transverse arches is unhappy,
and the experiment was not copied in other buildings.
Vezelay. The best known and the most interesting his-
torically of the Burgundian buildings is the abbey church of
FIG. 126 — ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT
Vezelay (Fig. 125). Here we find the Burgundian narthex,
with its richly sculptured decoration, but the barrel vault
disappears entirely, even the great bays of the nave being
covered with groin vaults. The groins lack ribs, so that the
system is only partially organic, but despite the lack we feel
an increase in organic interest which signals the approach of
the northern styles.
Northern French Romanesque. Normandy. As we have
seen, northern French Romanesque falls naturally into two
divisions, the Norman and that of the He de France. We
shall begin with the former. The most marked characteristics
of fully developed Norman Romanesque are its strong sense
of structural logic and its inventiveness. No style which we
have examined, except the Lombard, has been marked so
strongly by the former, and it seems clear that Lombard
architecture exercised a strong influence on the Romanesque
of Normandy. Those who urge an autochthonous growth for
256 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the Norman style run counter to what we know of Norman
history. Lanfranc, for example, one of the most famous of
Lombards, established himself successively at Bee, Caen, and
Avranches, and, after the Conquest, became archbishop of
Canterbury. He was followed in the same places by Anselm
__ of Aosta, afterward canonized.
Unquestionably such men as these
carried Lombard influence into
Normandy, though this fact
should not blind us to the pre-
cocity and inventiveness of the
Norman style.
Norman originality. Ribbed
vaulting, the alternate system,
compound piers, are features com-
mon both to Lombard and Nor-
man. To the latter, however,
belongs the credit of inventing a
new vault form, specially adapted
to the alternate system. In the
nave of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes
(Saint Etienne) at Caen (Figs. 99,
128, and 130), it occurred to the
builders to throw an intermediate
transverse rib from the inter-
mediate pier, dividing the vault
surface into six cells instead of
four. In this system the crowns
of the lateral cells run obliquely,
instead of at right angles to the long axis of the building.
The vault surfaces are somewhat distorted, but the win-
dow space was enlarged, and the aptitude of the form to
the alternate system is attested by the number of Gothic
buildings in which the two are combined (see plan of Paris
cathedral, Fig. 139). Normandy also developed a number of
decorative motives. The billet mold was adopted from
Carolingian architecture, and new forms such as the dog-tooth,
zigzag, and interlacing arcade were invented (Fig. 126). The
technique of stone cutting and stone fitting, too, was notably finer
in Normandy than in contemporary schools of Romanesque,
0 t 1 i * 3 ion-
FIG. 127 — JUMIEGES. ABBEY
CHURCH. THE SYSTEM
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 257
Jumieges. The earliest important extant example of Nor-
man Romanesque is the abbey church of Jumieges (Fig. 127).
In this building, now a ruin, we find the alternate system.
Although the church was designed for a timber roof, a com-
pound engaged shaft runs from the main piers, through the
clerestory, to the level of the cross beams of the roof. It is
• t i » «
Abbaye-aux-Dames
FIG. 128 - CAEN. THE ABBEY CHURCHES.
Abbaye-aux-Hommes
SYSTEM OF THE INTERIORS
probable that we have here a reminiscence of the early
Lombard wooden-roofed church in which the roof was sup-
ported, at least partially, by stone arches thrown across the
nave.
The Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen. Sexpartite 'vaults. At
Caen the so-called Abbaye-aux-Hommes (Figs. 99, 128, and
129), built and dedicated to Saint Stephen by William the
Conqueror, gives us the most complete example of the style.
Though the church was founded in the eleventh century, the
258 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
vaults are a reconstruction of the first half of the twelfth.
The original building was wooden-roofed but had the inter-
mediate engaged shaft, which occurs in Lombardy, and there
supports only the corbel table of the triforium string. It is
reasonable to suppose that the presence of the intermediate
shaft suggested
the intermediate
rib, and the Nor-
man invention of
the sexpartite
vault (Figs.. 99,
128, and 129) was
the result. In the
Abbaye - aux-
Hommes there
are also numerous
passageways in
the thickness of
the walls, which
give access to the
clerestory win-
dows and other
parts of the
church, and an
open lantern over
the crossing.
These features
are almost surely
Norman innova-
tions.
The Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen. Rudimentary flying but-
tresses. As a pendant to the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, William's
wife, Matilda, built the church of the Trinity, called the
Abbaye-aux-Dames (Figs. 100 and 128). This church, on a
smaller scale than Saint Etienne, is more compactly composed
and more profusely and delicately ornamented. The archi-
tects of La Trinite invented one feature of the greatest signifi-
cance. In the Abbaye-aux-Hommes the builders had tried
to abut the thrust of the nave vaults by a half-barrel vault
over the triforium galleries, a system which we have already
FIG. 129 CAEN. SAINT ETIENNE. VIEW OF THE
INTERIOR LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 259
noted in Auvergne and Languedoc (Notre Dame du Port,
Clermont-Ferrand; Saint Sernin, Toulouse). The thrust of such
a half-barrel vault, being continuous, well meets the con-
tinuous thrust of the barrel vault of the nave, but the thrusts
of a groin vault, like that of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, are
not continuous. They are concentrated at the intersection
of the ribs, and the half -barrel
vault is, therefore, useless,
except at and near points
coinciding with the intersec-
tion of the ribs. Recognizing
this fact, the builders of the
Abbaye-aux-Dames omitted
all portions of the half-barrel
vault where it was not needed
to abut the thrusts of the
nave vault. The result was
a series of arches, hidden
under the lean-to aisle roof,
which carried the thrusts of
the nave vaults over to the
pier buttresses set against
the outer walls of the aisles
(Fig. 100). Hidden and rudi-
mentary as these members
are, they are nevertheless
embryonic flying buttresses,
and to Norman Romanesque
belongs the credit of invent-
ing this important feature.
Romanesque architecture of England. English originality.
Before passing on to the architecture of the He de France we
must pause to note the Romanesque architecture of England.
The transition is wholly logical, for, although England and
Normandy are now politically divided, during the later Roman-
esque period they were one. Naturally the architects of
William the Conqueror created buildings of the same style in
England a few years after the Conquest as they had in Nor-
mandy a few years before. It must not be supposed, however,
that Norman Romanesque underwent no modifications in
FIG. I3O — IFFLEY. PARISH CHURCH.
VIEW OF THE WEST END
260
A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
England. England often borrowed, but seldom slavishly
copied. Norman Romanesque in England became more
massive, as though the heavy Saxon architecture which it
superseded had influenced it. Sometimes this massiveness
was emphasized by extreme bareness and absence of decora-
tion, as in Saint John's chapel in the Tower of London; some-
times it was disguised by a luxuriant profusion of Norman
FIG. 131 — DURHAM. CATHEDRAL. PLAN
decorative motives, as in the parish church of Iffley (Fig. 130).
In general the style tended to abandon the structural logic of
Normandy and to revert to wooden roofs. Even in vaulted
Durham (Figs. 131 and 132), the finest and most homogeneous
of the Anglo-Norman cathedrals, the alternate system was
used with an illogical, if ingenious, vault system. No trans-
verse ribs are thrown from the intermediate piers and the
latter have no engaged shafts. Extra diagonals, however,
spring from corbels above the intermediate piers, and the
result is what one might call either two imperfect quadri-
partite vaults or a single septapartite one. The transverse
arches of Durham are pointed, a phenomenon quite common
in later Anglo-Norman churches. English Romanesque does,
therefore, show originality, despite its close relation to Norman.
Romanesque of the lie de France. Returning to France, we
may now take up the most completely organic of all Roman-
esque styles: that of the lie de France. One may think of
it as the most, or the least, finished of styles, according to
whether one thinks of it as completed Romanesque or rudi-
mentary Gothic. The problem is greatly complicated by the
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 261
fact that in this region Gothic architecture developed, and the
Romanesque buildings from which it sprang were usually
either altered during the later Gothic period or modified by
the architectural experiments by means of which finished
Gothic was reached. Much that might otherwise come under
the head of Romanesque architecture of the He de France must
be discussed in connectipn with developing Gothic, and may,
FIG. 132 — DURHAM. CATHEDRAL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE SOUTHEAST
therefore, be omitted here. In general the Romanesque
monuments of the region are not large in scale or striking in
esthetic effect. To an even greater degree than in the build-
ings of Lombardy their greatest interest is historical, in the
light they shed on future organic styles, and this impression
is greatly exaggerated by the destruction and alteration of so
many of the finest buildings.
Earlier and later buildings. The earlier buildings of the
He de France were not organic, and inorganic buildings were
erected even contemporaneously with those of the budding
Gothic style. Such a church as Vignory, for example, is
timber-roofed, with massive piers, plain walls, and no organic
structure whatever. In the second half of the eleventh
262 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
century, however, a highly organic style appeared. The idea
of organic vaulting, with logical piers, probably came from
Normandy, though the Norman alternate system was not
taken over and does not appear in the He de France till the
Gothic period. Ideas of plan, notably in the ambulatories,
and decoration were borrowed from the south.
Development of the style. The development of the style was
one of increasing delicacy and nicety of adjustment of load to
shaft. At times, as at Saint-Loup-de-Naud, the vaults and
piers are massive and clumsy
in appearance, but always
exactingly logical in arrange-
ment. In finished examples,
as at Saint Remi, Reims, the
shafts are slender, delicately
cut, and delicately adjusted
to the load they bear.
Full development. Saint
Remi, however, like most
examples of the style, is not
homogeneous. The fine
Romanesque shafts and piers
carry not Romanesque but
Gothic vaults, which really
emphasize the structural
good taste of the former, so
well do the two harmonize.
In like manner the church
of Saint Etienne, Beauvais,
FIG. 133— BEAUVAIS. SAINT ETiENNE. one of the most famous
DRAWING OF ONE OF THE AISLE VAULTS Romanesque monuments of
AND ITS SUPPORTS. (FROM MOORE) the ^^ ig finished with
Gothic vaults. The elegance of the Romanesque portions,
however, especially the side aisles (Fig. 133), shows the ad-
vanced point which the style reached in the district.
Morienval. The beginnings of Gothic. One of the best
known examples of the style is the little church of Morienval
(Fig. 99). The nave is covered with an early Gothic vault,
but the north aisle (Fig. 134) retains its Romanesque vault,
lacking diagonal ribs, though the diagonals are supported by
Copyright by Macmillan & Co.
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 263
a pilaster strip in the pier. In the same aisle one may note
a tendency to stilt the transverse rib in order to raise its crown
nearer the level of the crown of the vault, a tendency which
we might also have noted in the aisle vaults of Saint Etienne
at Beauvais (Fig. 133). Here we reach a limbo in which
organic Romanesque and the most rudimentary Gothic meet.
If we but walked from the
north aisle of Morienval to
the apsidal ambulatory of
that church we might see a
transverse arch not only
stilted that its crown may
approach the crown of the
vault, but also for the same
reason pointed. With this
observation we should pass,
however, from the consider-
ation of Romanesque to that
of Gothic architecture.
Spanish Romanesque.
Before bringing to a close
the discussion of the schools
of Romanesque architect-
ure, a word is necessary
with regard to Spain. In
general Spanish Roman-
esque represents an impor- FIG. 134— MORIENVAL. PARISH
tation of the styles of Au- CHURCH' VIEW OFTHE NORTH AISLE
vergne and Languedoc.
The most famous of the Spanish churches, that of Santiago
at Compostela (Fig. 135), strikingly resembles Saint Sernin
of Toulouse. Just as the English modified the Norman, so
the Spanish modified the southern French, and impressed
it with their own nationality. In a temperate climate
roofs became flatter, so that at times the triforium space
was practically eliminated and its openings made into win-
dows, as in the Colegiata of San Isidore at Leon (Fig.
136). Forms specially characteristic of Spain, such as the
so-called Visigothic horseshoe arch, were used, and above all
sculptured decoration became profuse. Undercutting was
10
264 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
deepened, edges sharpened, forms crowded, until the decora-
tion attained that sparkling character so typically Spanish.
The common phenomenon, therefore, of Spanish naturaliza-
tion of immigrant forms never appears more strikingly than
in the case of Romanesque architecture.
Development of single features . Obviously in an architecture
so heterogeneous as Romanesque it is impossible to trace a
strictly chronological
development of any
single feature, or
group of features.
Nevertheless, at the
risk of repetition, it
will be well to note
the progress made by
the style in the devel-
opment and adapta-
tion of certain details
or features of churchly
architecture.
Plans. The discus-
sion of the plan may
be dismissed sum-
marily with the state-
ment that the style
offered material for
almost all subsequent
types of church plans.
The prototype of the
finished French
Gothic building, with
its complicated
chevet, ambulatory,
and radial chapels, is to be found in southern French Roman-
esque, just as the favorite English archiepiscopal-cross plan
is to be found in Burgundy.
Vaults. The progress in vault forms was as marked.
Besides innovations and modifications of barrel vault forms,
such as pointed barrel vaults and cross barrel vaults, we find
Lombardy and Normandy developing the Byzantine domed
M ni-
135— COMPOSTELA. SANTIAGO. PLAN
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 265
vault into the organic, domical groin vault of quadripartite
or sexpartite form, and handing on to Gothic the ideas neces-
sary for its future development. Ingenuity and originality
were shown even in the trussed wooden roof, and it was given
new and interesting forms, as at San Zeno in Verona.
Supports. Corresponding to the ribbed vaults, we find the
supports developing, with compound members for a compound
0 5 to 2QV\- 01 2 » * SHI-
FIG. 136 — LEON. SAN ISIDORO. PLAN AND SYSTEM
rib system. We find the Lombard alternate system brought
into accord with the sexpartite vault, and the shaft capitals
signaling the direction of the springing of the ribs. Chrono-
logically we may note a steady refining of the proportions of
the supports, suggesting approaching Gothic, which culminates
in the delicate proportions of the best Romanesque of the
He de France.
Buttresses. The progress of the buttress was no less
remarkable. Lombardy supplied the pilaster strip against
266 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the outer wall, used as a buttress, which was the germ of all
future development. This pilaster or pier buttress was
steadily deepened and strengthened. At the same time
numerous solutions of the problem of carrying the thrusts of
the nave vaults to the aisle walls and the buttresses were
made. In Lombardy this was done by omitting the triforium
and carrying the thrusts of the nave vaults over to the gallery
vaults, and thence to the outer wall. In Auvergne and else-
where the same problem was solved by barrel vaults and half-
barrel vaults over a triforium gallery, binding in the great
vault of the nave. Finally, at the Abbaye-aux-Dames, the
continuous half-barrel1 vault, illogical for the abutment of a
groin vault, was cut into sections, and these sections, or
rudimentary flying buttresses, were placed under the aisle
roofs to neutralize and carry off the concentrated thrusts of
the groin vaults of the nave.
Construction. With the refinement and development of
details went a lightening of the building as a whole. As the
parts became more slender, the whole became less massy.
This development did not proceed equally in all regions, nor
did it even proceed chronologically. There were, as we have
seen, massy, inert buildings in the He de France. The
tendency was, however, to convert the heavy early type into
a lighter one presaging the Gothic building.
Fa^a(^s.\ The design of the fagade progressed notably in
this period. In spite of their organic structure, the Lombard
buildings were masked behind illogical and often unsightly
fagades, though some of the later Lombard churches, like San
Zeno, have well-proportioned facades which reveal the inner
structure of the building. Logical fagade composition re-
ceived its fullest Romanesque development in Normandy
where, as in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, the vertical divisions
of the interior are marked on the exterior by pilasters, the
horizontal by rows of windows, the pitched roof revealed by a
gable, and the whole flanked by two monumental towers. All
the germs are here which were developed into the complete
Gothic facade. At the same time facades which lacked
organic expressiveness and logic, but added other beauties,
were being designed in other styles of Romanesque. Thus the
Tuscans designed rich polychromatic fagades, adorned with
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 267
arcades, and the Germans picturesque ones with a profusion
of turrets, apses, and the like.
Lanterns and towers. Meanwhile lavish invention was
devoted to lanterns and especially to bell towers. In Italy the
latter were constructed at a very early date round and free-
standing. In the north these turret-like members, even in
Carolingian times, were incorporated with the building.
Eventually the square or angular tower became the favorite,
and infinite variations were played on it. At times the tower
was merely carried up in a series of stepped squares and
topped by a pyramid as at Morienval. Again it was square,
but its pointed roof polygonal, the angles being filled with
little polygonal members, themselves covered with peaked
roofs, as at Beaulieu-les-Loches. A variant of this type
appears at Auxerre, where the square tower is surmounted by
a polygon, and the tapering roof springs from that. Some-
times the round tower, ornamented with blind and open
arcades, is used in France (Uzes) ; sometimes the round turret
above a square and crowned with a cone appears (Saint Front,
Perigueux). In the most elaborate examples stepped square
is placed on square, stepped polygon on polygon, until as at
Jumieges, the towers produce an aspiring effect very suggestive
of Gothic.
Openings. In openings we must note a constant elaboration
of the splaying characteristic of Carolingian architecture. In
the latter a splay to aid in the distribution of light was intro-
duced by means of a simple chamfer. In later Romanesque
the splay was deepened, and was obtained frequently in
window and door by means of multiple orders. It was thus
given architectural dignity as well as utility. Compound
openings, too, were evolved, sometimes of two lights, some-
times of two lights embraced by a blind arch, and in variants
of this motive. At the same time portals were ennobled by
elaborate porches, the finest being those of Lombardy and
Burgundy.
Decoration. New decorative schemes also came into being.
Figure and foliate sculpture was applied to the exterior, at
times haphazardly as in Lombardy, at times with extraor-
dinary subservience to architectural expression, as in Pro-
vence and Languedoc. In addition, new motives in pure
268 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
design, like the Norman zigzag and dog-tooth, were applied
to the exterior and the interior. For the interior new sculpt-
ured capitals were invented, some of them modified classic or
Byzantine, some in original foliate designs, and many more of
the "storied capital" type in which the purpose was didactic
as well as decorative and the sculptures represented ecclesiasti-
cal, mythological, and unidentifiable scenes of the greatest
raciness and originality. Polychromy was obtained in the
interiors by means of paint. On the exterior its use varied
with the style. The Tuscan architects got fine exterior
effects by the use of polychromatic marble veneer. Outside
of Tuscany polychromy played a less important part on the
exterior, though fine effects were obtained by the use of several
sorts of stones (Sicily), by patterned brick (Languedoc) and
the like.
Secular architecture. The ensemble. For several reasons we
may omit almost entirely any consideration of the secular
architecture and the ensemble in the Romanesque period.
In the first place the extant Romanesque secular monuments
are few, and nearly all altered. In the second place they
differ slightly, except in the application of detail, from the
much more numerous Gothic buildings of the same type.
This does not mean that there are no monuments by which
we may judge Romanesque secular architecture. One needs
but look at the enceinte of Avila (Castile, Fig. 137) to see
Romanesque secular building, and get an idea of the
appearance of a Romanesque city seen from without. The
impression will, however, be very much like that obtained from
a similar town, say Carcassonne (Fig. 178), of the Gothic
period. Single secular monuments, in whole or in part,
notably castles such as the Wartburg at Eisenach, exist
for the archeologist, and show distinctive arrangements
especially in the court and court facades, but it seems
more sensible to discuss the whole question of medieval
civil and domestic architecture in connection with the Gothic
period.
The influence of Romanesque. Finally, something should
be said about the influence of Romanesque architecture on
subsequent styles. The influence of organic Romanesque on
organic French Gothic has, of course, always been emphasized,
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 269
but other equally significant examples of the influence of this
architecture on later art have been overlooked. Few people,
as they admire the gorgeously polychromatic Gothic cathedrals
of Tuscany with their striped interiors, realize that these
buildings are comparatively slight modifications of the Tuscan
Romanesque style. In England the massive Norman con-
FIG. 137— A VILA. GENERAL VIEW OF THE FORTIFICATIONS
struction was handed down to the Gothic style, though it was
disguised by what was, after all, but an applique" of pointed
detail. In German Gothic, where it is not mere imitation
of French work, we note the picturesqueness of Rhenish
Romanesque.
Self-sufficiency of the style. Although at the conclusion of
our study we are led inevitably to assert the influence of
Romanesque on later architecture, we should be at the greatest
pains to avoid the common error of thinking of the architecture
merely as one of transition. It was a heterogeneous art, and
consequently well able aptly to express the genius of not one
but many races. Nevertheless, whatever its subdivisions,
270 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
it was primarily a self-sufficient, independent style. To re-
gard it in any other light is wholly to miss its meaning.
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MONUMENTS
For convenience monuments of a single country are grouped
together, with the exception of Saint Gall (Switzerland), which is
placed under Germany. When a date is given exactly and without
qualification, it refers to the beginning of the portion of the building
referred to in the text. Often round numbers, half centuries or
centuries, are all that are possible or necessary, and at times, when a
building has been remodeled in the period under discussion, several
dates are given. In general it will be well to call to mind again that
an error in dating a monument usually tends to give it greater an-
tiquity than it deserves.
ITALY
Milan, San Satiro. — Eighth century.
Como, Sant' Abondio. — C. 1035-95.
Toscanella, San Pietro. — 1039-93.
Pisa, Cathedral. — Begun 1063.
Milan, Sant' Ambrogio. — 1098 to mid-twelfth century.
Modena. — Begun 1099; consecrated 1184.
Florence, San Miniato. — 1013 and later.
Parma. — 1117.
Pa via, San Michele. — 1127 (?).
Palermo, Cappella Palatina. — Before 1132.
Verona, San Zeno. — Begun 1138.
Cefalu. — 1145.
Pisa, Baptistry. — 1153-78.
Pisa, Campanile. — Begun 1174.
Monreale. — 1 1 74-89.
Florence, Baptistry. — Founded seventh or eighth century; re-
modeled c. 1 200.
GERMANY
Lorsch (porch). — 774.
Aix-la-Chapelle (Charlemagne's chapel). — 796-804.
Frankfort, Salvatorskapelle. — 8 5 2 .
Saint Gall (Switzerland). — Ninth century.
Cologne, Saint Mary of the Capitol. — After 1000. (Founded 700.)
Cologne, the Holy Apostles. — Eleventh to thirteenth century.
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 271
Eisenach, Wartburg. — Built 1067; rebuilt 1130-50; remodeled 1190.
Hildesheim, Saint Michael. — Built 1001-33; remodeled 1186.
Speyer. — Founded 1030; remodeled twelfth century.
Drubeck. — Early twelfth century.
Gernrode. — Founded ninth century; rebuilt twelfth century.
Paulinzelle. — Twelfth century.
Worms. — Twelfth century.
Mainz. — Begun 978; largely thirteenth century.
FRANCE
Beauvais, Basse-GEuvre. — Eighth century (?).
Germigny-les-Pres. — 801-806.
Montier-en-Der. — 960-998.
Vignory. — 1050-52.
Jumieges. — Begun 1040; consecrated 1067.
Clermont-Ferrand, Notre Dame du Port. — Mid-eleventh century.
Toulouse, Saint Sernin. — Begun 1080; worked on in twelfth and
thirteenth centuries.
Cluny. — 1089.
Poitiers, Notre Dame la Grande. — End eleventh century.
Tournus, Saint Philibert. — Eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Beaulieu-les-Loches. — Eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Angouleme. — 1 105-28.
Perigueux, Saint Front. — C. 1120.
Vezelay. — Rebuilt 1132.
Caen, Saint Etienne. — Begun 1064; vaults c. 1135.
Caen, La Trinite. — Begun 1062; remodeled c. 1140.
Reims, Saint Remi.: — Romanesque parts mo.
Morienval. — Older part c. 1080; later 1122.
Auxerre, Saint Germain. — Tower, early twelfth century.
Autun. — First half of the twelfth century.
Beauvais, Saint Etienne. — Vaults 1180, but building planned earlier.
Saint Gilles. — Late twelfth century.
Saint Saturnin. — Twelfth century.
Uzes. — Tower, twelfth century.
Aries, Saint Trophime. — Nave, first half of the eleventh century;
porch second half of the twelfth.
ENGLAND
Earl's Barton. — Early eleventh century (?).
London, The Tower, Saint John's Chapel.— End of the eleventh
century.
2 72 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Durham. — C. 1096-1133.
Iffley. — Late twelfth century.
SPAIN
Santullano. — Ninth century.
San Miguel de Linio. — Ninth century.
Santa Maria de Naranco. — Late ninth century.
Avila, the Walls. — 1090-99.
Compostela, Santiago. — Begun 1075; finished 1128.
Leon, San Isidore. — End of the eleventh, beginning of the twelfth
century.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
A. Michel's HistoiredeVArt, vol. i, pt. 2, 1905, contains a brilliant
and authoritative summary, by Camille Enlart, of Romanesque
architecture. F. von Reber's History of Medieval Art, 1886, is a
general history, now out-of-date, but still useful, and especially
good on German medieval architecture. E. E. Viollet-le-Duc's
Dictionnaire raisonne de V architecture, 1884-88, although in dictionary
form, is a history of architecture in many volumes, profusely illus-
trated, and representing probably the most monumental piece of
research in the field of medieval archeology. G. Dehio and G. von
Bezold's Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes, 1892-1901, is a
scholarly and comprehensive work, with many plates useful for the
architect and student. J. A. Brutail's Uarcheologie du moyen age,
1900, is a cautious and shrewd study in medieval archeology, tending
to correct the mistakes and exaggerations of earlier and more monu-
mental works. A. Marignan's Les methodes du passe dans Parche-
ologie franqaise, 1911, on the other hand, is an iconoclastic book
attacking the so-called orthodox school of medieval archeology in
France. It is interesting as representing a healthy reaction against
dogmatism, but not convincing. J. Quicherat's Melanges d'arche-
ologie, vol. 2, Moyen age, 1886, is one of the earlier synthetic books
on medieval architecture, important at the time of publication and
not to be neglected to-day. Anthyme Saint-Paul's Les ecoles romanes
(Annuaire d'archeolo^ie francaise, 1878) is a similar early work of
research, by one of the most brilliant of the French archeologists.
L. Courajod's Origines de Vart romane et gothique, 1889, a scholarly
work, is more important for Gothic than for Romanesque art, but
valuable for the study of either. T. G. Jackson's Byzantine and
Romanesque Architecture, 1913, already cited, devotes more space to
Romanesque than to Byzantine architecture. F. M. Simpson's A
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 273
History of Architectural Development, vol. 2, Medieval, 1909, presents
a summary of medieval architecture, especially clear in the study of
the development of details. C. H. Moore's The Character and
Development of Gothic Architecture, 1906, is a powerful study in Gothic
architecture, with some treatment of Romanesque in the early
chapters. A. K. Porter's Medieval Architecture, 1909, in two large
volumes, lavishly illustrated, represents painstaking research in the
field. It is important, however, only for organic architecture.
R. Cattaneo's L ' architettura in Italia dal secolo VI. al mille circa,
1889, is a profound piece of research in the field of Italian medieval
architecture, especially important for Lombard Romanesque. F. de
Dartein's L' architecture lombarde, 1865-82, is an early but profound
study of Lombard Romanesque architecture. G. T. Rivoira's
Le origini delta architettura Lombarda, 1901-7, already cited, is of
great importance for the study of Lombard Romanesque. A.
K. Porter's four-volume work, Lombard Architecture, 1917, including
an exhaustive portfolio of splendid illustrations, is the most modern
work on the subject, and by a scholar of universally recognized au-
thority. A. Ventures Storia delVarte Italiana,vol§. 2 and 3, 1902 and
1 904, are subdivisions of an encyclopedic history of Italian art, already
cited, important for the publication of new material and profuse
illustrations. E. Bertaux's L'art dans Vltalie meridionale, 1904,
presents an exhaustive publication of research in the field of south
Italian medieval architecture. It was followed in 191 1 by A. A vena's
Monumenti deiritalia meridionale, covering all the monuments of
the district, but especially important, both in text and superb illustra-
tions, for Romanesque architecture. C. A. Cummings's A History
of Architecture in Italy, 1901, is a popular, accurate, and well-illus-
trated work on Italian medieval architecture. There are two volumes,
the first important for Romanesque architecture.
H. Otte's Geschichte der romanischen Baukunst, 1874, though old,
is an exhaustive and scholarly work on German Romanesque archi-
tecture. A. von Haupt's Die Baukunst der Germanen von der Volk-
erwanderung bis zu Karl dem Grossen, 1909, is a modern work by a
profound student of the architecture of the dark ages, using the
term "German" in the broadest sense, and discussing the architect-
ure ^.throughout Europe. R. Adamy's Die frankische Thorhalle zu
Lorsch, 1891, an exhaustive work on a single monument, is here
mentioned on account of the light it throws on the whole move-
ment of the architecture of the dark ages. B. Ebhardt's Deutsche
Bur gen, 1901, is an illuminating work on the German medieval
castle.
C. Enlart's V architecture religieuse en France, 1902, is an exhaus-
tive study of French medieval church architecture, really carrying
274 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
on the work of Viollet-le-Duc. The same author's L' architecture
civile et militaire en France, 1904, is a similar work on medieval
secular architecture. R. de Lasteyrie's L 'architecture religieuse a
I'epoque romane, 1912, is the most up-to-date and authoritative
work on Romanesque architecture, devoted principally to the style
in France. J. Baum's Romanesque Architecture in France, 191 2, pre-
sents a collection of excellent reproductions of French Romanesque
buildings, with an introduction (translated) by Dr. Julius Baum.
F. de Verneihl's L' architecture byzantine en France, 1851, gives the
old point of view of Aquitanian architecture in a scholarly way.
H. . Revoil's L 'architecture romane dans le midi de la France, 1873, is
an old but exhaustive work on the Romanesque architecture of south-
ern France. V. Mortet's Recueil de textes relatif a V architecture en
France, 1911, presents a collection of original documents, relating to
the nth and i2th century architecture of France, in an illumi-
nating way. V. Ruprich-Robert's L 'architecture normande, 1884-89,
is a monumental book of research on French and English Norman
Romanesque architecture, lavishly illustrated.
T. Rickman's An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in
England, 1881, a work now out of date and more important for
Gothic than for Romanesque architecture, is significant as a step in
the analysis of English church architecture. Similarly, E. Sharpe's
The Seven Periods of English Architecture, 1871, a more elaborate
classification of English medieval architecture, is more important
for Gothic than for Romanesque. G. G. Scott's English Church
Architecture, 1881, is a synthetic work by a learned author, devoted
primarily to Gothic architecture, but treating Romanesque. C. H.
Moore's The Medieval Church Architecture of England, 1912, is a
broad elaboration of the point of view toward English medieval
architecture revealed in the author's Gothic Architecture. It is a
somewhat biased but up-to-date and scholarly book. F. Bond's
An Introduction to English Church Architecture, 1913, is an exhaustive,
scholarly, and up-to-date work, lavishly illustrated, on English church
architecture from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. J. D.
Mackenzie's The Castles of England, 1887, an exhaustive, elaborate,
and richly illustrated volume, is excellent for the study of the English
medieval castle. »
V. Lamperez y Romea's Historia de la Arquitectura Cristiana Es-
panola en la Edad Media, 1909, is by far the most original and exhaus-
tive work on medieval Spanish architecture. A. G. B. Schayes's
Histoire de V architecture en Belgique, 1850-60, a work of several
volumes, now out of date, is still the important authority on the
medieval architecture of Flanders.
CHAPTER IX
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
Origin of the term. The word "Gothic," applied to art,
originated as a term of opprobrium. From the beginning of
the Renaissance to the romantic revival in the nineteenth
century medieval art was regarded as barbaric. The most
striking as well as the most numerous monuments of medieval
architecture were those of the pointed style, and these came to
be called "Gothic" as a synonym for "barbaric." It is in
this sense that Moliere speaks of
. . . Le fade gout des monuments gothiques
Ces monstres odieux des siecles ignorants
Que de la barbaric ont vomis les torrents. . . .*
Boileau, La Bruyere, Rousseau, attacked Gothic art with a
violence at once bitter and illuminating. By the time taste
changed the word was fixed. Now the oblivion which
generally shrouds the origin of the name is perhaps the best
proof of the vindication of the art.
Priority of France. At the period of its development,
Gothic architecture was generally called "French work"
(opus francigenum) and the priority of France in the style is
thus attested. For this reason some writers have urged that
the style be called not Gothic, but French. Such a change
would be, however, not only impractical but misleading. As
a variant of this classification, it has been suggested that the
word Gothic be retained, but that it be applied only to the
1 The rank taste of Gothic monuments,
These odious monsters of the ignorant centuries,
Which the torrents of barbarism spewed forth.
FLORENCE,
SALISBURY
FIG. 138 — COMPARATIVE PLANS OF GOTHIC CATHEDRALS IN FRANCE,
GERMANY, ITALY AND ENGLAND
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 277
architecture of the He de France, and that the contemporary
styles outside of France be called merely "pointed architect-
ure." In support of this attitude it has been pointed out
that fundamentally organic architecture was developed in the
He de France, and the so-called Gothic styles of other countries
either consisted of imitation of this or of a superficial applica-
tion of pointed or Gothic detail to buildings which were con-
structed according to Romanesque principles.
Definition of organic Gothic. There are, however, grave
objections to this point of view. Regarded strictly from the
point of view of organic structure, Gothic is a system of vaults,
supports, and buttresses, the supports being strong enough to
bear the crushing weight of the vaults only, and the stability
of the structure maintained chiefly by an equilibrium of
counterthrusts. Such a system is to be found perfected only
in the He de France or in imitations of the architecture of
that district. Many buildings of the same age, however,
though they lack the complete organism of the French, display
the same characteristics, especially the consistent use of the
pointed arch. In France the systematic use of the pointed
arch became general for structural reasons. In other countries
that member was used unstructurally, apparently for esthetic
reasons, but this does not justify the argument, which so often
appears in books, that the use of the pointed arch outside of
the He de France represents but a superficial application of
French detail to Romanesque building by architects who did
not understand the structural reasons which underlay the use
of this detail in France. As we have seen, the pointed arch
was used in the Romanesque period, and its use for esthetic
purposes in England developed synchronously with its use
for structural reasons in prance.
French the great organic Gothic, but not the only Gothic style.
Use of the term. We must, therefore, avoid the mistake of
calling Gothic architecture solely French, or French Gothic
the only Gothic. Aside from the futility of tilting at firmly
established terms, a broader application of the term is more
convenient. We may consider Gothic architecture that style,
specially marked by the general use of the pointed arch, which
in all European countries succeeded the Romanesque style,
and flourished until it was in turn superseded by the style of
S. ELISABETH AURBwo
FIG. 139 — PLANS OF GOTHIC BUILDINGS
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 279
the Renaissance. We may then subdivide the field and
examine the characteristics of the art in any one region. In
so doing, however, we must inevitably emphasize the struct-
ural superiority and priority of the organic architecture of
the lie de France.
Esthetic effect of revealed structure. So true is this of the
Gothic of the lie de France that the chief esthetic effect of
the buildings of that district is felt in the logical expression
of the structure. Outside of France this is not true, except
in works clearly under French influence.
Lack of self -consciousness . Whether governed by structural
or esthetic considerations, the Gothic style was developed
inarticulately. Its architects did not seek to formulate, at
least in writing, the ideas which their buildings expressed.
Though the pointed arch almost completely superseded the
round one, there was no audible condemnation of the Roman-
esque art of the past, as the Gothic art was later condemned
in the period of the Renaissance.
Socialistic character. This naivete may well have been
caused by the corporate quality of the work, for the Gothic
cathedral, like the Romanesque, was the expression not of
an architect, or a patron, but of a community. It is signifi-
cant that, though archeology has often published the names
of the architects, or magistri operarii, of the great Gothic
cathedrals, these names are almost universally unfamiliar
and unnoted. The cathedrals of Amiens and Reims are as
well known as those of Florence and Rome, yet people who
would be ashamed not to know about Brunelleschi or Bramante
would look blank at the mention of Robert de Luzarches or
Jean-le-Loup. In a sense Gothic art is strongly socialistic.
Ecclesiastical and secular interest. Although the main
interest in the Gothic period is in ecclesiastical building, it is
not so completely so as in the Romanesque period preceding
it. Especially in late Gothic times civil and military buildings
attained great importance. The scholar must, therefore,
examine not only churches and monasteries, but town and
guild halls, castles, manors, farms, city houses, and even well
heads and gibbets to gain anything like a complete acquaint-
ance with the style. Moreover it must not be assumed that
the craftsmen employed even on the churches in the Gothic
0
0
0
SEVILLE
R> 80 OO 100
FLORENCE
SALISBURY AMIENS
FIG. 140 SECTIONS AND SYSTEMS OF GOTHIC BUILDINGS
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
281
period were ecclesiastics. Great bands of lay builders, like
the maestri comacini, traveled from place to place as they
were employed successively on one great building after another.
This fact, and the frequent presence of blasphemous and
obscene carvings in Gothic churches, has given rise to a theory
that Gothic architecture is essentially a style of lay construc-
tion, and repre-
sents a revolt
against the monk-
ish domination of
an earlier age.
The facts do not
bear out such a
theory, nor does
the profoundly
religious expres-
sion of the fin-
ished building.
Gradual em-
phasis on revealed
structure. Though
in France the most
important expres-
sion of the devel-
oped cathedral lay
in the self -revela-
tion of its struct-
ure, the realiza-
tion of the esthetic
importance of re-
vealed structure FIG.
did not come to
the builders im-
mediately. In the beginning such essential structural mem-
141 — AMIENS. . WEST FRONT OF THE
CATHEDRAL
bers as flying buttresses, which later came to be one of the
most important features externally, were concealed. The
evolution of Gothic from Romanesque may be traced by the
gradual acceptance of revealed structure as the most im-
portant aid to esthetic effect.
Aspiring quality. The aspiring quality of the art has often
282 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
been noted. The emphasis on the vertical line, the soaring
expression of the architecture, inevitably suggest all that was
finest in the religious ideals of the Middle Ages. To see,
however, in the vertical lines and branching ribs of the Gothic
church a reflection of the poetic sylvan setting of primitive
pagan ceremonies is to wander in the realms of pure fancy.
Aside from the source of inspiration, however, the Gothic
architect was very clever at gaining the effects he sought.
Desiring height, above all, he narrowed his naves and tapered
his piers to exaggerate this effect. The desired impression
of size he got by including and multiplying small members
admirably adapted to give scale.
Date. In date the Gothic period extended roughly from
1150 to 1550. Certain indications of the approaching style
do, of course, antedate the mid-twelfth century, just as certain
isolated structures in the Flamboyant Gothic style postdate
the mid-sixteenth, but in general the four centuries indicated
compass the style.
Homogeneity. Gothic architecture had a national homo-
geneity much greater than Romanesque. Though there are
local schools of Gothic in France, they do not differ one from
another so markedly as did the Romanesque, nor are they as
numerous. This fact is precisely what history would lead us
to expect. In the later Middle Ages nations themselves had
become more homogeneous. Central authority became
stronger, language purer, and individuals more conscious of
their own nationality. In districts where less federal authority
was felt and where national consciousness was less awakened,
as in southwestern France, it is significant that local schools
of architecture differed especially from the national style. As
always, we find architecture recording history, and history
impressing architecture.
General development. Before attempting even a classifica-
tion, it will be well to say a word about the development of
the style as a whole. Our point of departure must clearly be
the transitional architecture of the He de France. Although
many English writers have called attention to the early use
of the pointed arch in England, the English buildings can,
nevertheless, be regarded as Romanesque and not transitional
Gothic. Subsequent variations of the style sometimes neglect-
FIG. 142 — AMIENS. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR, LOOKING
INTO THE APSE
284 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ed organic structure, but organic structure plays so funda-
mental a role in the art that to the country which developed
it belongs priority in the style. The late twelfth century and
the early thirteenth saw the transition and development of
the organic Gothic style in the He de France. By 1220 (the
date of the foundation of Amiens cathedral) the style was well
understood, and the thirteenth century is the age of early but
fully developed Gothic. Building in this style, with refine-
ment and superficial modification, continued in France through
the fourteenth century, but toward the close of the period a
radical change came over the art. Flamboyant architecture
was developed, having been introduced from England. •
Development in England. Origin of continental Flamboyant
architecture. England, as we have seen, used the pointed
arch at an early period, but the first truly Gothic buildings on
British soil represent French influence. The early style,
called early English, or Lancet, coincided with the thirteenth
century. The form of English Gothic, however, soon changed.
The Englishmen in power in the late Middle Ages were scarcely
more than naturalized Frenchmen and inevitably borrowed
from France. Quite as inevitably, however, they changed
what they borrowed and impressed it with their own genius.
In the fourteenth century, therefore, the English Gothic style
assumed a new expression, and the Decorated style came into
being. Toward the end of the century Decorated details
were copied in France, and the fifteenth century Flamboyant
(or flaming) style was developed along lines suggested by the
late Decorated or Curvilinear style in England. This Flam-
boyant style spread from France all over the continent, and
is characteristic of fifteenth and sixteenth century architecture
outside of England. England, once more asserting her
originality, developed in the fifteenth century the Perpendicu-
lar style which flourished there until the advent of the
Renaissance.
Classification. France. With this general development in
mind, we may attempt a fuller classification, and number the
various centers of activity in the Gothic period. France we
have put at the head, and in France we must give priority
to the He de France. Normandy nearly kept pace with the
He de France in creative activity, and Picardy and Artois can
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 285
scarce be classified apart from these two. Together these
districts formed the home of developing organic Gothic. Other
divisions are less important. Burgundy had a style of its own,
retaining the porches, often the square ends, and other feat-
ures reminiscent of Burgundian Romanesque. Another divi-
sion might be made of Champagne, midway between Bur-
gundy and the He de France, though approaching so close to
the latter architecturally that the subdivision is hardly neces-
sary. A very original style, the so-called Plantagenet, flour-
ished in southwestern France, and was marked by the use of
aisles the height of the nave, by unusual domed vaults, and
other peculiar features, showing strong English affinities.
Still another style developed in the south, bare in decoration
and characterized by a free use of terra cotta. Further divi-
sions might be made of Brittany, architecturally as well as
geographically close to Normandy, and central France, where
flourished a hybrid partaking of the characteristics of many
styles. We must, therefore, note that, though Gothic archi-
tecture had more national homogeneity in France than Ro-
manesque, it did vary decidedly according to the district, and
the point must be more insisted upon, since we must concen-
trate attention on the structurally important architecture of
the north and are in danger of forgetting the divergences of
the style in other parts of the country.
England, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Outside of France
the problem is simpler and the style varied with the period
rather than the district. In England, for example, though
the Perpendicular style differed widely from the Lancet, each
is found throughout the country during its period. In Ger-
many we find generally an imitation of French work. At
times this imitation is almost slavish, as in the cathedral of
Cologne; at times it is very free, as in the so-called Hallen-
kirchen. One may, therefore, subdivide the German buildings
into two groups, the one imitative, the other with a strongly
native flavor. In Italy Gothic architecture began as an
importation of the French Cistercian style, but was almost
immediately modified to suit the esthetic demands of the
Italians. Here geography played some part, as in Tuscany,
where the Tuscan Romanesque so stamped the Gothic art of
the district, but the chief variation was caused by the
286 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
individual source of inspiration and by date. In Spain the
style was generally homogeneous. In the beginning it was an
importation from Languedoc and Auvergne, soon modified,
especially in the south, however, by Moorish detail and
Spanish taste.
Gothic in other countries. In the Low Countries Gothic was
imported from France and shows little originality except in
secular architecture. The town halls and guild halls of
Flanders, however, show an originality which gives the district
real importance. Finally, attention must be called to the
DOMICAL RIBBED VAULT DEVELOPED GOTHIC VAULT
FIG. 143 — EXAMPLES OF MEDIEVAL VAULTS
important architecture which was built, and much of which
still remains, in the Holy Land, in Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete,
and other islands of the Mediterranean. For these monuments
we have, of course, to thank the crusaders.
Importance of the development of details. Unfortunately for
the logical student, one cannot select a number of buildings
which exhibit in chronological order the steps in the develop-
ment of organic Gothic architecture. Progress was so rapid and
buildings so seldom homogeneously completed that the ad-
vance, of the style may best be illustrated by selecting one or
more details from many buildings. One may then arrange
these details to show the steps in the development of organic
Gothic, even though the arrangement be not necessarily
chronological. Archeologists may dispute as to the locality
and date of the first single flying buttress, but for us it will be
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
287
enough to recognize that the single flying buttress, occurring
as it does in many buildings, represents a structural step
between the hidden flying buttress and the double one.
With a grasp of the development of the important Gothic
features, we are
then in a position
to reconstruct a
fully developed
organic Gothic
building, or, if we
prefer concrete
examples, to un-
derstand why the
naves of Amiens
(Figs. 138 and
142) and of Reims
(Fig. 144) have
been considered
perfect examples
of the fully devel-
oped early style.
The vault. The
most important
single feature of
the Gothic build-
ing is, of course,
the vault. Indeed
the whole study of
Gothic architect-
ure hinges upon FIG j^ — REIMS. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW OF
the treatment of THE VAULTS AFTER THE FIRST BOMBARDMENT IN
the vault and its J914' SHOWING THE LEVEL CROWNS OF DEVELOPED
, T GOTHIC VAULTS
abutment. In
connection with
the Romanesque architecture of the He de France we
have seen that architects came to realize that the vault
with level crowns could be made lighter and constructed
more flexibly than the domical vault. To make the
crowns of the vault level it was necessary obviously to
raise the crowns of the transverse and longitudinal arches.
288 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
This could be done either by stilting or by pointing these
arches or by doing both. When the pointed arch was
thus structurally used for the first time transitional Gothic
began. Just where or just when this first occurred it is im-
possible to say. That the process was slow and experimental
can be proved by many monuments, like the churches of
Creil, Langres, and Morien-
val, where the transverse
arches are not sufficiently
pointed, and are pieced out
by flat walls built above
them, which raise the crowns
of the arches to a point level,
or nearly level, with the point
of intersection of the diagonal
ribs or, in other words, the
crown of the vault. Once this
plan was tried and found suc-
cessful, the advantages of the
level - crowned vault were
realized and the use of this
graceful, essentially Gothic
form became the rule (Figs.
140, 143, and 144).
The abutment. With the
copyright by Macmiiian & Co. creation of a lighter, loftier
FIG. 145— SECTION OF GOTHIC VAULT- form Qf ft came a more
ING CONOID, SHOWING THE DIREC- , . . . .,
TIONS OF THE THRUSTS AND THEIR searching study of its abut-
ABUTMENTS ment. Even when the hid-
den flying buttress was used in Norman Romanesque the
thrusts of the vault were but partially concentrated on
it, and much of the resistance to them was supplied by a
sturdy wall. The Gothic architect was slowly feeling his way
toward a complete elimination of the wall, the place of which
was ultimately to be taken by stained glass, and his greatest
problem was the concentration of the vault thrust on the
buttress which was to oppose it.
Stilting of the longitudinal rib. The solution of the problem
came in the stilting of the longitudinal ribs. In Romanesque
architecture all ribs sprang from the same level. A horizontal
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
289
section of the vault and its infilling some feet above the
springing, at a point where the ribs had had a chance to
spread, would be square. The whole mass exerted a thrust
outward, however, so that a buttress to oppose it had to have
a face as broad as one side of the square, or as the distance
from one diagonal
at the given level
to the other at the
same level. By
the stilting of the
longitudinal rib
all this was
changed. While
the diagonal ribs
began to spread
at the main im-
post the two long-
itudinals ran up
vertically some
distance before
springing, thus
pinching in the
vault on the wall
side. A cross-
section of the
vault and its in-
filling, or vaulting
conoid as we may FIG. ^5 — SAINT LEU D'ESSERENT. VIEW OF THE
call it at a point INTERIOR, SHOWING THE VAULTS AND, THROUGH
some distance THE WINDOWS' THE FLYING BUTTRESSES
above the main
impost, would be not square, but triangular, one angle
of the conoid touching the wall (Fig. 145). The oblique
thrusts of the diagonal ribs thus met and pushed out at right
angles to the long axis of the building in the direction of the
thrust of the transverse rib, and all these thrusts were con-
centrated on a narrow surface against which the narrow face
of an opposing buttress could be placed. The stilting of
the longitudinal rib thus accomplished what the architect
most desired — a perfect concentration of the vault thrusts
2 go
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
against a narrow surface. Such a form involved a warping of
the vault web, and its surface now took on the peculiar, plow-
share form, difficult if not impossible to describe geometri-
cally, but which the builders soon learned to construct with
remarkable skill (Figs. 142 and 146).
Flying buttresses. While the vault with its concentrated
thrusts was being evolved, architects were no less busy in
SE.TIENNE CAEN .SEMJS
PARIS
ABBEVILLE
5-AMBROGIO
S.GEHJMEU DE FLY S .GERMAIN DE.S PRES
REIMS
FIG. 147 — ARRANGEMENT OF MONUMENTS AND DETAILS TO ILLUSTRATE THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BUTTRESS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACADE
developing buttress forms to stabilize it. The hidden flying
buttress, designed to carry the thrust over the aisle roofs to
pier buttresses on the outer wall, was to hand in Norman
Romanesque, and though this type was wofully inadequate, it
was adopted in a modified and refined form in the transitional
church of Saint Germer-de-Fly. Obviously such buttresses
touched the wall at a point too low properly to meet the thrusts
of the nave vault, and the architects soon raised them above
the aisle roof, as at Saint Germain-des-Pres, Paris, where they
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
291
appear on the exterior as genuine flying buttresses. A virtue
was then made of necessity, and the flying buttresses were
soon one of the most esthetically expressive as well as struct-
urally important features of the building.
Their development. Structural logic ruled their develop-
ment. Architects, knowing that the chief points of thrust of
an arch or vault were at the
springing and at the haunch,
soon abandoned the single but-
tress, with its single arch, and
composed a double one, with an
arch to oppose the thrust of the
vault at the springing and an-
other for that at the haunch.
When the buttresses sprang
over a single aisle this form was
adequate; when the aisles were
double the first pair of arches
came to an end between the
inner and outer aisles, where a
pier was placed, and two more
arches, repeating the first two,
carried the thrusts to the outer
wall. The former system may
be seen in the nave of Amiens,
the latter in the apsidal end of
Reims (Fig. 147). When there
were no aisles, as in the Sainte
Chapelle in Paris, the pier but-
tress was adequate and was re-
tained (Figs. 139 and 148).
Their form and decoration. At the same time the forms of
the buttresses were refined. Their regular pitch was estab-
lished, and they were made to carry, by means of covered
channels, the water which gathered on the nave roofs. At the
extremity of the buttresses this water was thrown clear of
the face of the wall from the mouths of widely projecting
gargoyles, grotesquely carved. The backs of the buttresses
were decorated with crockets, and the tops of the great pier-
buttresses, to which the arches sprang, were weighted with
FIG. 148 — PARIS. THE SAINTE
CHAPELLE. TRANSVERSE CUT
2 92 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
pinnacles. The outer side of these great piers was given
many set-offs, which tended to resist the weather and carry
off the vault thrusts more easily to the ground.
The apse. After one has grasped the development of the
vault and the abutment, that of other features is easy to
understand. A single principle holds for all: the fulfilment
CHARTRES
FIG. 149 — PLANS OF THE EAST ENDS OF FIVE GOTHIC CHURCHES, ILLUS-
TRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEVET
of structural needs and the recognition of the esthetic value
of such a fulfilment frankly revealed. Let us examine, for
example, the development of the apse. Nothing is more
characteristically Gothic than the tremendously complicated
chevet or east end of the French Gothic building, yet it was
attained simply and logically (Fig. 149). The primitive form
of apse, as we have seen it in early Christian times, was a
semicircular wall covered with a half -dome. At the period
of the earliest transitional Gothic, the form of the half -dome
was changed and the vault given cells resembling the gores of
a melon, which were carried on ribs in harmony with the other
vaults. Such a form, though not necessarily the oldest
example, appears at Saint Martin-des-Champs, Paris. The
process then became one merely of deepening the cells, or
raising their crowns, until eventually they reached the level
of the intersection of their ribs. An intermediate stage may
be seen at Saint Germer-de-Fly, a fully developed example at
Amiens.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 293
Arrangement of the apsidal ribs. At first the intersection of
the apsidal ribs came at a point touching the last transverse
rib of the choir, as at Saint Germer. This gave the ribs the
dangerous appearance of all thrusting against the last trans-
verse arch of the choir. The defect was remedied in many
ways, but most successfully at Amiens, where the apse was
made more than semicircular, and two ribs sprang obliquely
from the last choir imposts to meet the apsidal ribs at their
intersection. All the ribs were then radii of a circle (Fig. 149).
The ambulatory and apsidal chapels. Meanwhile the
ambulatory and apsidal chapels developed apace. The vaults
of the former, being not rectangular but trapezoidal, offered
some difficulty, since the diagonal ribs would not meet at the
center of the vault. This was remedied by breaking these
PAWS o1h PIER PARIS 71h PIER AMIENS BEAUVALS
FIG. I5O — PLANS ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOTHIC PIER
ribs at the intersection and thus forcing them to meet at the
vault center. A similar arrangement sufficed for the ribs of
the irregularly shaped apsidal chapels (Fig. 149).
The pier. The common sense of the Gothic architect and
his willingness even to compromise never show more clearly
than in the treatment of the piers. The most logical arrange-
ment was to give each member in the vault a place in the
compound pier, and carry all to the ground. Such a cluster
of supports, however, took up much floor space and obstructed
the view of the worshipper. Accordingly the builder first
grouped all his shafts at the ground story impost, and gave
his main pier a semicircular form. Feeling, however, that
more support was needed, he first added (at the sixth pier of
the nave of Paris) a single engaged shaft on the nave side to
294 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
carry the weight of the nave ribs to the ground. At the
seventh pier of the same building he added three more engaged
shafts on the three remaining sides of the round pier, and the
fully developed Gothic form was created and needed only
refinement (Fig. 150). The old Romanesque system of each
rib being represented to the ground in the pier recurred,
50J5&OM&
AMIENS
FIG. 151 — THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WINDOW OPENING.
PLATE AND BAR TRACERY
EXAMPLES OF
however, in French Flamboyant Gothic and in English
Perpendicular.
The opening. Plate tracery. The Gothic system of construc-
tion tended inevitably toward the suppression of the wall.
With the perfect concentration of thrust, the function of the
wall became one merely of excluding the weather, and this
could be done as adequately by glass as by stone. Moreover
the northern builder desired glass, as the southern fresco, for
story-telling and didactic purposes. The result was an almost
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 295
complete substitution of stained glass for stone wall, and the
building became as it were a vaulted glass cage. The unit for
the development of the opening was the window of two lights,
separated by a column and embraced by an arch. In
Romanesque, and even in Byzantine, architecture the stone
tympanum above the lights had been pierced with a third
opening. In early Gothic these openings received complicated
geometric forms, and plate tracery, a tracery consisting of
openings in geometric design pierced in a thin plate of stone,
was the result.
Bar tracery. While the architecture was still developing,
however, architects gradually discovered that a more compli-
cated and beautiful tracery could be designed if the system
of merely piercing a stone tympanum were abandoned, and
a new tracery of thin stone bars, ingeniously interlocking on
the principle of the arch, were substituted. The substitution
of bar for plate tracery became general in the later transitional
period, and remained constant in Gothic architecture. The
stone bars, or mullions, were cut very thinly and delicately, and
were merely an enframement for the glass. The bits of glass,
in the thirteenth century scarcely ever more than six inches
long, were joined by leads which at once bound them and
supplied most of the drawing in the design. The whole was
then set in the tracery. The swiftness with which bar tracery
was accepted is proved in the cathedral of Paris by the juxta-
position of windows with plate and bar tracery in bays differing
only slightly in date. Good examples of plate tracery may be
seen at Soissons, and of bar tracery at Amiens and later
buildings (Fig. 151).
Wheel and rose windows. Bar tracery also made possible
the enormous wheel or rose windows which commonly occurred
in the west end of the churches of the He de France. At first
the designs for these were severely geometric, but later,
especially in the Flamboyant period, the lines were freer and
bewilderingly complicated. Chartres and Reims afford good
examples of the early wheel window; the later rose may be
seen at Amiens (Fig. 141) and elsewhere. As the style
developed, the passion of the builders for lightness caused
them to fill even the triforium with glass. This space,
generally blind on account of the lean-to roof over the aisle,
ii
296 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
was opened by covering the aisle with a gable instead of a
lean-to. In fourteenth century buildings, as at Troyes, the
triforium is, therefore, lighted like the clerestory.
The facade. The development of the design of the west
front kept pace with that of the other elements of the building.
Logic demanded a preservation of the
tripartite division of the facade, both hori-
zontally and vertically, to indicate the in-
terior division of the nave and aisles and
the three stories. Development was in the
direction of refinement and expressiveness.
The splaying of the openings was deepened,
and porches with a deep splay and covered
with canopies were placed in front of
portals. Openings were enlarged until
they took up practically all the space be-
tween the buttresses which marked the
vertical division of the building. In time,
as at Reims and later buildings, the bases
of these buttresses were lost in the splay-
ing of the porches, and the gables in the
porch roofs were increased in size and im-
portance until they became striking archi-
tectural features. Flanking western towers
increased in size, and were bound by a
stone gallery, open, which revealed the
gable roof of the nave. To understand
the development of the west front, one
needs but examine the fronts of the Abbaye-
aux-Hommes at Caen, of the cathedrals of
Senlis, Paris, Amiens, and Reims in that
order. Add a later work, like the west
front of Abbeville, as an example of the
Flamboyant development, and the progres-
sion will be self -revealed (Fig. 147).
The spire. The spire developed in like manner. Roman-
esque architecture had shown many complicated forms of
spires. The Gothic development was merely toward the
substitution of the pointed arch, with its vertical accent, for
the round one, and in general toward a more skilful suppression
FIG. 152 — CHARTRES.
THE SOUTHERN SPIRE
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
297
of all horizontal lines which might hamper the eye from being
led upward (Fig. 152). In some of the most perfect examples,
as at Senlis (Fig. 153), the transition between the square tower
and the octagonal spire is made with great subtlety, the angles
being filled with miniature towers and spires, and the vertical
lines of these re-echoed and carried up by gables set against
the faces of the sloping octagonal spire above. Although the
spire changed in detail, and in later works we find extreme
delicacy and openwork
treatment, the ideal and the
general tendency remained
the same. In addition to
the western towers and
spires, tower -like lanterns
were often placed over the
crossing, though this detail
is niuch more characteristic
of England than of France.
In France the crossing was
more often marked by a
slender Jleche of stone, or of
wood and lead.
Capitals and their decora-
tion. The development of
other details in the building
harmonized with that of
those which we have studied.
New loads demanded new
capitals, and forms were developed, based essentially on Byzan-
tine types, but none the less original. The capital was given
greater height, greater slenderness below, and greater breadth
above. It was decorated with foliate and animal sculpture,
more generally the former, carefully studied from nature. In
the early work, unfolding, bud-like forms were preferred, and we
find the young water-cress or unfolding fern carrying the four
angles of the abacus. As the style progressed the sculpture
became more naturalistic and less expressive functionally.
Still later the forms became brittle, suggestive of the withered
leaf, but at all times the carving was crisp and delicate.
Esthetically the foliate work gave infinite life and vitality to
FIG. 153 — SENLIS. THE SPIRE
298 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
a style which might otherwise have been but logically
satisfactory.
The use of sculpture. The didactic as well as the esthetic
value of sculpture was fully recognized and, as a result, carving
was profuse all over the building. It is not mere rhetoric
to say that the Gothic cathedral summed up all the learning,
all the science, of the Middle Ages. The decorative purpose
of the sculpture was, however, never lost. With all the
freedom and naturalism of single details the whole, whether
on porch, gallery, or roof, was designed with strict reference
to esthetic effect. At times all didactic purpose appears to
have been lost, and we find sculptures, like the grotesques and
gargoyles, which are the result of a free play of the carver's
fancy and joy of creation. These works give the impression
of a building always peopled. On account of them the Gothic
cathedral is never empty, never dead.
Moldings. As one would expect, such a completely new
system of architecture exhibited a completely new system of
moldings. Since he was not bound by precedent, the
architect studied and conventionalized nature, and created
moldings which gave the most masterly effects of light and
shade. The general system was that of the inclosure of convex
curves within concave ones, and the resultant profiles remind
one of vegetable forms such as fruits in a pod, or buds in a
calix. Sculpture and molding appeared, of course, on the
exterior as well as on the interior. Parapets were evolved, to
serve the crowning function of the classic cornice, and pinnacles
were applied to many parts of the building, especially the
buttress piers. The latter were decorated with bud-like forms
called crockets, and were topped with ornate finials.
Polychromy and stained glass. Polychromy played a much
more important part than is generally recognized in Gothic
architecture. Of course, the most gorgeous polychromatic
effects were obtained by a complete infilling of window space
with rich stained glass. An infinity of subjects was repre-
sented, but representation wa's always subordinated to pure
design. Some of the most masterly of the world's designs in
color may still be seen in the interior of Chartres. The color,
sometimes flaming, sometimes hushed, played vividly upon the
religious imagination. How much is lost with the destruction
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 299
of stained glass may be gauged by comparing the interior of
Chartres, where the glass is largely preserved, with that of
Amiens. Although the latter is probably the more perfect
building architecturally, its effect, as the cold light streams in
from the white glass of the windows, is vastly less impressive
than that of Chartres. The rich polychromy of the stained
glass was fortified by painting the stone members of the
interior. Almost all traces of the original painting of medieval
interiors is lost, and modern attempts to restore it, as in the
Sainte Chapelle at Paris, have generally been gaudy and
displeasing.
Fourteenth century Gothic in France. By the end of the
thirteenth century, with the raising of such structures as
Amiens and Reims (Figs. 141, 142, and 154), Gothic architect-
ure in France attained a full development. The architecture
of the succeeding century may be sketched summarily. The
fourteenth century in France was a period of refinement rather
than of change. Vaults and ribs became lighter, foliate
sculpture unfolded and further accented the vertical tendency,
and tracery became so frailthat long bars were made mono-
lithic for safety's sake. In some churches, as at Chartres
(Fig. 155), the chapel of the Virgin at the end of the
chevet took on especial importance and became almost
a separate little church. In general, however, the plan
of the buildings remained the same, and no decided change
occurred until the fifteenth century. Before we examine
the later art, we must take up the Gothic architecture of
England.
English Gothic. General characteristics. Gothic architect-
ure in England may be subdivided into three styles, corre-
sponding to the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
Before we examine individually any one of these, how-
ever, it will be well to note certain main characteristics of
the art as a whole. These will show how widely divergent,
even at an early period, English Gothic was from French.
First and foremost one must notice a difference in structural
principle. Organic Gothic, in the sense that we have studied
it in France, was not developed in England. There is, for
example, hardly a fully developed flying buttress system on
the island. To the end the Englishmen depended on Roman-
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
301
esque sturdiness for structural safety, and this inevitably gave
a different expression to the building.
The plan. In the plan the English building was long, or
rather appears to be long on account of its narrowness (Fig.
157). Though Salisbury and Amiens are approximately the
same in length, the former appears much longer. The English
building was given boldly projecting transepts, and the
transepts were generally doubled, the shorter east of the
longer, giving the church the archiepiscopal-cross form which
FIG. 155 — CHARTRES. CATHEDRAL. PLAN
we have met in Burgundian Romanesque. The east end of
the English church was almost invariably square, and this,
like the archiepiscopal cross, seems surely to represent a
Cistercian influence. The same phenomenon may be observed
earlier in English Romanesque, as at Durham. In elevation
the English building was much lower than the French (Fig.
140), though the same narrowness which increased the im-
pression of length increased the impression of height. The
English works abounded in towers, and a very striking feature
was early made of a great square stone lantern above the
crossing.
The vaulting system. Facades. The English vaulting system,
except in a few early instances, was more complicated, if less or-
ganic, than the French. Ribs soon came to be used even more
for decorative than for structural purposes and applied from
the point of view of pure design. Fagades became decorative
302 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
screens, hiding rather than revealing the arrangement behind
them. Though sometimes extremely effective, these facades
suffered as entrances, and portals shrank to comparatively
tiny openings, mere possibilities of ingress rather than portals.
Although occasionally the fagades were adorned with sculpt-
ures, as at Wells, in general sculpture played a far less
FIG. 156 — SALISBURY. THE CATHEDRAL, SEEN FROM THE NORTHEAST
important part in England than in France. Even in the
interiors sculpture was scant, and the result was a certain
bareness and less vitality than in French work.
The site. To make up for this the English building was, on
account of its complicated plan, extremely picturesque, and
was almost invariably placed on a fine site, which was cared
for at the time the building was erected and has been cared for
ever since. Whether or not this may be accounted for by the
fact that so many of the English churches were of monastic
foundation is unimportant. To any one who has seen the finest
buildings of France masked by the unsightly structures which
are permitted to crowd about them, the beautiful placing of
the English buildings will come as a great relief.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
The Early English style. French influence. We may now
take up the various styles of English Gothic. As we have
seen, in the beginning French importation plays an important
part, though at times it is, so to speak, once removed. Thus
even the dependence of English Gothic on English Romanesque
is ultimately a dependence on Norman Romanesque. In
other cases, as at Canterbury, the influence is much more
FIG. 157 — SALISBURY.
INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, LOOKING TOWARD
THE EAST END
concrete. Here William of Sens, a Frenchman as his name
reveals, was called to build the church, and on his death an
Englishman, taught by him, took up the work. The building
of Lincoln was ordered by Bishop Hugh, a Frenchman, and the
architect was Geoffrey de Noyers, whose name proves his
extraction, even though he may have been born in England.
In short we may say that in origin the Early English style is
a combination of French and Anglo-Norman influences.
Character of Early English architecture. The most striking
characteristic of the style is its simplicity. Sculpture is
scant, decoration restrained, and the effect of the building
depends on fine proportion and severe dignity. The openings
304 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
are generally high and narrow, or lancet-shaped, and are so
characteristic that the style is frequently called the Lancet
style. The construction is very sturdy. Frequently shafts
were not brought down even to the main impost. The
massiveness of the round piers was frequently disguised, how-
ever, by clusters of shafts, engaged or free, about them.
These shafts were often
made of the dark Purbeck
marble which was the de-
light of the English builder.
The Early English 'style
may be studied in the more
important parts of Canter-
bury, Lincoln, and Wells,
and in other monuments.
Salisbury, however, which
was begun in 1220, the year
of the foundation of Amiens,
and was practically finished
by 1258, is the most homo-
geneous building in the style
(Figs. 138, 140, i56,andi57).
The Decorated style. By
the end of the thirteenth
century the severity of the
Early English style was
abandoned and the Dec-
orated style, sometimes called the Geometric, and, in its
later aspect, the Curvilinear, took its place. It was marked
by a profusion of ornament. Ribs were multiplied, and
liernes and tiercerons, or intermediate ribs, were run from rib
to rib, or from rib to impost. Arches received many orders,
and were enriched with complicated moldings. Above all,
openings were enlarged and fitted with elaborate tracery design.
This tracery, profuse as it was, at first followed severe geo-
metric patterns, but later it grew more riotous, and eccentric
curves were introduced. In time the wavy-lined tracery
became the rule, arid interlaced arcades with ogee curves
became common. The general effect was richer and less
orderly than that of : the Early English style. There are no
FIG. 158 — LINCOLN. THE CATHEDRAL.
THE ANGEL CHOIR
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
305
homogeneous Decorated cathedrals, but large portions of
buildings, like the famous angel choir of Lincoln (Fig. 158),
the nave of Lincoln, and the west front of York Minster,
exhibit the style.
The Perpendicular style. Despite its richness the Decorated
style was destined to be driven out in the fifteenth century by
the Perpendicular, the last, and in some
respects the most original, of the English
styles. In this style unsparing emphasis
was laid on the vertical line. This is
well seen in one of the earliest works of
the style, the choir at Gloucester (Fig.
159). Ribs were brought direct to the
pavement. Openings were tremendously
enlarged, and filled with tracery com-
posed of vertical bars, which ran from
top to bottom, joined at intervals by
shorter horizontal members. The effect
was to emphasize not only the perpen-
dicular but the rectangle.
Vaults and supports. Vaults received
the most complicated treatment in the
history of Gothic. Liernes and tiercerons
were multiplied until it became almost
impossible to distinguish the functional
ribs from the decorative. Indeed there
scarcely were functional ribs, for the
vaults were practically homogeneous,
with an applique of decorative ribs. At
the same time the "fan vault" (Fig. 161)
was developed — the most famous vault
form of the style. The name is both
descriptive and misleading. In a fan
vault the ribs radiate fanwise from the main impost. The
vaulting conoid is, however, nearly circular, so the ribs
branch to follow roughly the lines of an inverted concave
cone. The effect from below is very like that of the branch-
ing foliage of a tree, and the form is one of the most beau-
tiful in English Gothic. With the complication of the ribs
FIG. 159
GLOUCESTER. THE
SYSTEM OF THE CHOIR
3o6 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
came further ramifications. Keystones, for example, were
designed as large pendent stones, safe, since monolithic.
Openwork, too, in the members of vault and support, be-
came common.
Arches. Arches were given new forms. They were flattened,
struck from several centers and sometimes came to a flattened
point like a depressed ogee.
The flattened, so-called
"Tudor" arch became a
great favorite at a later
date. At the same time
the square east ends were
finished with tremendous
windows, filled with Perpen-
dicular tracery,
Examples. Examples of
the Perpendicular style are
more numerous than those
of the Decorated. One of
the best is Henry VII. rs
chapel, Westminster (Fig.
1 60), and an equally fine
and consistent specimen is
Saint George's chapel,
Windsor. Perhaps the fin-
est of all is Gloucester,
where transept, choir, and
cloisters (Fig. 161) are in
the Perpendicular
style. The last named
offer some of the most perfect specimens of the fan vault in
England.
Flamboyant Gothic. The style in France. Turning to France
we may now study the Flamboyant style. No new construc-
tive principle is here involved, the style being one merely of
a new arbitrary decorative system, the basis of which is an
opposition of curve to counter-curve. All the germs of French
Flamboyant are to be found in English Curvilinear. French
vaults became complicated. Liernes and tiercerons were intro-
duced, although the tendency was to join rib to rib, rather than
FIG. 1 6O — LONDON. WESTMINSTER
ABBEY. HENRY VII. *S CHAPEL
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
307
rib to impost. Above all, the lines were wavy and the ogee arch
common. The pointed arch, especially in the interlaced arcade,
had an alternate concave and convex profile. Openwork,
whether in porch gable, spire, or abutment, became common,
and extraordinary lace-like effects were obtained. The
expression was one of delicacy rather than strength, and a
certain nervous restlessness is added. The flattened arch
FIG. l6l — GLOUCESTER. THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF THE CLOISTERS
became very common. Local differences broke down, and
the same Flamboyant style was applied in all localities of
France. It was a unified France which saw the elements of
the style and accepted them from England.
Examples. The first clearly Flamboyant building in France
is the chapel of Saint John in Amiens cathedral, built from 1337
to 1375. Thence the style spread abroad, good examples
being the cathedrals of Quimper, Nantes, and Chambery,
Saint Ouen at Rouen (Fig. 162), and the church of Saint
Vulfram, Abbeville (Fig. 163). These are all of the fifteenth
century, but the style continued vigorous until long into the
sixteenth. Saint Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 164), one of the
finest of French Flamboyant buildings, was not completed until
3o8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
1541, and the Flamboyant south transept of Beauvais dates
from 1548. The dates of these later buildings are especially
interesting, since they coincide with what is generally con-
sidered the Renaissance in France.
German Gothic. Original and imitative
qualities. When we approach the sub-
ject of German Gothic we find that dif-
ferent conditions produced different re-
sults. The Germans accepted Gothic
with reluctance. They already had a
vigorous, highly original style in their
Romanesque, which expressed their na-
tional genius. The Gothic movement in
Germany was, therefore, a late one, and
the period of transition, when Gothic
was being accepted, was long. Ger-
many generally owed her Gothic to
France, and we are even indebted to a
German for the phrase "opus franci-
genum' ' as a description of Gothic. This
does not mean, however, that the Ger-
man style does not show originality, and
frequently differ widely from the French.
For purposes of classification, as already
suggested, one may divide the German
Gothic buildings into two classes, original
and imitative, according to the degree
of originality in the work.
Early monuments. As one would ex-
pect, the early German Gothic buildings
showed a high degree of originality.
They represent a reminiscence of Ger-
man Romanesque with a free applica-
FIG. 162— ROUEN. SAINT tion of French Gothic detail. Such a
OUEN. SYSTEM cathedral as Bamberg (Fig. 165), for
example, shows a clear compromise be-
tween two architectural styles, the Gothic character showing
only in the consistently pointed vaults and arches and in the
moldings. Nor is Bamberg an isolated example. Many
other churches of approximately the same date, among them
ttf
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
309
the cathedrals of Naumburg and Minister (Fig. 166), exhibit
the same compromise between French Gothic and German
Romanesque, though they differ in detail, as German Roman-
esque buildings differ one from another. As time went on
the tendency to
imitate French
forms became
more marked.
Imitative works.
By far the best
known of the so-
called imitative
monuments are
copies, more or
less free, of the
churches of north-
ern France. What
has often been
called the first
purely Gothic
church of Ger-
many was built
between 1227 and
1243, at Treves,
in fairly faithful
imitation of the
church of Saint
Yved at Braisne.
The minsters of
Strasburg and
Freiburg (Figs. 167 and 168) soon followed it, the latter
largely dependent on the former, but both harking back to
the abbey of Saint Denis as a prototype, though in neither
building do we meet mere copyism. Perhaps the most
imitative of all the German cathedrals is Cologne (Fig. 138),
reproducing the system of Amiens with great fidelity and
possibly even begun by a Frenchman. This cathedral has,
however, more homogeneity than Amiens, and diverges from
it in many minor details.
The Hallenkirchen. Probably the least imitative and most
FIG. 163 — ABBEVILLE. SAINT VULFRAM.
WEST PORTALS
THE
3io A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
native Gothic churches of Germany were the Hallenkirchen,
or hall churches. These were three-aisled buildings, with
domical vaults, the aisle vaults being as high as those of the
nave, and the building thus having the appearance of a great
hall. It is probable that they were originally inspired by the
churches of much the same sort characteristic of southwestern
France. However this may
be, the Hallenkirchen were
developed in Germany and
increased in popularity from
the early Gothic through the
Flamboyant period, and be-
came the most character-
istically German of all the
Gothic types. The first
frankly Gothic example
seems to have been the
church of Saint Elizabeth at
Marburg (Figs. 139, 169, and
170), erected between 1235
and 1283. Here, as though
to emphasize the native Ger-
man quality of the type, the
plan is made three shelled,
with a polygonal apse the
breadth of the aisleless choir,
and transepts of the same
size with polygonal .ends.
This type was later extensively followed, as in the Wiesen-
kirche at Soest, and the church of Saint George at Nordlingen
(Fig. 170), and on account of its simplicity it found particular
favor in districts where brick was the chief building material.
Fourteenth century Gothic in Germany. In the fourteenth
century Gothic art, so reluctantly accepted in Germany,
expanded prodigiously. Fourteenth century German Gothic
did not, however, show great originality. The period was one
of expansion rather than progress. As in France, progress was
in the direction of lightness, and forms at times became almost
emaciated. Sculpture aped the prevailing French mode,
exaggerating the French grimace, and foliate carving flung
FIG. 164 — ROUEN. SAINT MACLOU.
VIEW OF THE WEST FRONT AND SPIRE
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
off all restraint. On the other hand the plans were kept
simple and the Hallenkirche was a great favorite. Among the
most original monuments of the period may be mentioned the
cathedral of Ulm, built in 1377. As types of the fourteenth
century Hallenkirchen we may mention the church of the
X' :>'•-. .'"lf>N
•j^/MS?
01 I 1 * 5
FIG. 165 — BAMBERG. CATHEDRAL. PLAN AND SYSTEM
Holy Cross at Gmund, and that of Saint Lawrence at
Nurnberg.
Fifteenth century Gothic in Germany. The fifteenth century
Gothic of Germany, except for the importation of some Flam-
boyant French details, developed from that of the fourteenth.
The style was in large measure independent, and was able to
influence even Italy and France. In general the art was a culmi-
nation of the lightness aimed at in the fourteenth century.
Columns were simplified to the point of nudity, forms thinned,
but combinations of members became extraordinarily complex.
Thus without direct imitation the style approached the
character of English Perpendicular Gothic. Vaults, for
example, were often merely barrel vaults interpenetrated at
3i2 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
right angles by other barrel vaults of less height, and the inner
surfaces of both covered with a network of decorative ribs. At
the same time a decorative system of lozenge-like paneling
was developed which bears the closest analogy to the English
Perpendicular paneling. The Hallenkirche, always popular,
now received its greatest development. At the same time
the technique of the builders and carvers became very skilful,
and they were generally
regarded in other coun-
tries as the equals if not
the superiors of the
French.
The fifteenth century
Hallenkirche. As ex-
amples of the Hallenkirche
in the fifteenth century
one may cite the five-
aisled Liebfrauenkirche of
Mulhausen, the cathedral
of Munich, and many
others. Even where the
clerestory is preserved,
however, the fifteenth
century building appears
scarcely less distinctively
German, and one would
never mistake the vaults
FIG. I66-MUNSTER. CATHEDRAL. SYSTEM of Saints peter
at Gorlitz (1423 — 97)
or those of the church of Saint Mary at Halle (1535-54),
with their thinned members and lozenge decoration, for any-
thing but German.
Spanish Gothic. The history of the Gothic in Spain is
analogous to that of the style in other countries outside of
France. There occurred the same importation of French
detail, the same modification of the art according to local
needs, climate, and national taste. In the beginning the
importation from France and especially from Auvergne and
Languedoc was very marked, but soon inspiration came from
all over France,
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 313
General characteristics. Many special characteristics, how-
ever, differentiated the Spanish church from its French model,
and gave it originality. Exigencies of climate as well as the
abundance of classical monuments suggested a flattening of
roofs and an accenting of the horizontal. Large window space
was not needed in a sunny climate, and often the clerestory
almost disappeared. The triforium was frequently suppressed,
as suggested by the almost
flat aisle roofs. With the
accent on the horizontal
line and the contraction of
openings, came inevitably
broad wall surfaces, which
increased the classic feeling
of the edifice. There is a
diminishing of Gothic rest-
lessness and an increase of
classic repose in the Spanish
work. Decoration, on the
other hand, took on a char-
acteristically Spanish
sparkle. Undercutting was
deep, edges crisp, contrast
strong, and broad contrasts
arranged between profusely
decorated and wholly bare
surfaces. Carving became
especially exuberant during
the Flamboyant period, and
a steadily increasing Saracenic influence tended to exaggerate
the already exotic quality of the forms.
The interior. The interior of the Spanish church was
generally dark and roomy. Piers were widely spaced and
massy, vaults lower than in France. , Peculiarities of the
Spanish buildings were the capilla mayor and the coro. The
former was the apsidal chapel, bounded by the ambulatory,
almost completely screened from the rest of the church. The
latter was an equally screened choir, arranged west of the
crossing. These features tended to break up the interior and
render its size more difficult to appreciate (Fig. 171).
FIG. 167 — FREIBURG. THE MINSTER,
SEEN FROM THE SOUTHEAST
314 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Twelfth century Spanish Gothic. As one might expect, the
twelfth century Spanish buildings are somewhat chaotic. In
Catalonia, for example, the abbeys of Poblet and Santa Creus
were founded by monks from near Narbonne, and show the
influence of the architecture of Langue-
doc. On the other hand, the Cistercian
churches of Alcobaza (Portugal) and
Las Huelgas, near Burgos, display the
strongly domical vaults and nave and
aisles of equal height which south-
western France gave alike to them and
to Germany.
Thirteenth century Spanish Gothic.
In the thirteenth century inspiration
came from northern France, and Span-
ish architecture, without losing its own
identity, rivaled French. The best
known and finest works of the period
are the cathedrals of Burgos, Toledo
(Fig. 171), and Leon. The inspiration
for the first two came from Bourges;
that of the last from buildings farther
north in the He de France and Cham-
pagne. Burgos and Toledo resemble
each other closely. The former was
founded in 1226, the latter somewhat
later, and the same architects may
well have worked upon both. Leon
cathedral is more eclectic than Burgos
Oor Toledo, though it shows the influ-
lii f ? t ftttr. ence 0£ Chartres more than that of
any other single French building. It
does not suggest any dry eclecticism,
however, but father has the spon-
taneity of its great French prototypes,
and seems to spring, as they do, from fine models only
slightly earlier in date.
Fourteenth century Spanish Gothic. In the fourteenth
century Gothic of Spain there appeared the same tendencies
as in France, although refinement never went so far in the
FIG. 168 — FREIBURG
THE MINSTERS SYSTEM
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
former country as in the latter. The influence of northern
France weakened somewhat, and we find such works as the
cathedral of Gerona, begun in 1316, inspired once more by the
architecture of southern France.
Fifteenth century Spanish Gothic. The prosperity of Spain
during the fifteenth century favored architectural develop-
ment. As in Ger-
many, we feel
much originality
in the later work.
This is attained by
an emphasis on
the qualities which
we have called
characteristically
Spanish. Flat
roofs became more
common, carving
more sparkling,
buildings more
spacious. The
octagonal lantern
came to be a very
prominent feature,
as at Barcelona
and Valencia.
The openwork
detail of French
Flamboyant was
specially suited to
Spanish taste, and
was very characteristic of late Spanish Gothic. The best
known examples are the openwork spires of Burgos, begun in
1442, imitated not from a French work but a German one, the
cathedral of Cologne. The most ambitious church of fifteenth
century Spain, the cathedral of Seville (Figs. 139, 140, and 172),
was begun in 1401. Here the warm climate of Andalusia and
the Moorish influence of a country long under Moslem domina-
tion exaggerated the typically Spanish characteristics of the
architecture. Roofs are never so flat, piers never so widely
FIG, 169 — MARBURG. SAINT ELIZABETH. THE
INTERIOR, LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE
3i6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
spaced, interiors never so gloomy, as at Seville. The detail
has a specially Moorish eccentricity. Indeed the Spaniards
combined Moorish and Christian detail so skilfully that
buildings like the famous Sevillan Giralda (Fig. 172) present
Marburg, Saint Elizabeth Nordlingen, Saint George
FIG. I/O SYSTEMS OF HALLENKIRCHEN
a harmonious whole when actually constructed in several
different and seemingly antagonistic periods.
Origin of the Gothic style in Italy. In no country were the
fundamentals of the Gothic structural systems as completely
disregarded as in Italy, nevertheless the style attained there
a strong position and produced monuments of great charm.
It was, however, purely adventitious. Italy was the home
of classical Roman architecture. It received Romanesque
readily, but gave it so strong a flavor of classic art that the
style, as we have seen, has often been called that of the proto-
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
317
Renaissance. Italy had always been prone to classic
revivals, and in the Romanesque period showed signs of being
ready for the greatest of them all— the Renaissance— when
the peninsula was overwhelmed by the wave of Gothic fashion,
and for two centuries the pointed style was supreme. It
was, however, an imported,
foreign fashion, just as
fashion in dress at the same
time was imported from
Paris. It arrived in almost
complete purity, at the
hands principally of the
Cistercians, who settled at
Fossanova in Latium (1187),
and thence spread to Casa-
mari near Rome (1217), San
Galgano in Tuscany (soon
after 1217), and other sites.
These monks built Cistercian
Gothic churches of an early
but monumental sort, and
roused the Italian taste for
the pointed style, but Italian
taste promptly modified the
style imported.
General character of Italian
Gothic. The Italian archi-
tects had little sense of
logical structure, and thus
produced buildings which
included meager buttress
systems, tied vaults, and
lacked all that the French considered most important
in the Gothic style. Along with this lack of structural
sense went a disguised but recognizable classical feeling.
Classical detail gave way, but classical arrangements and
emphasis were retained. The horizontal line, as in Spain,
was emphasized. Intercolumniations were broadened, with
a consequent loss of scale. Wall spaces were broad, openings
small, and interiors gave an impression of roominess which
FIG. 171 — TOLEDO. CATHEDRAL.
VIEW OF THE INTERIOR, LOOKING
TOWARD THE APSE
3i8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
frequently went over into bareness. Climate, as well as
classical reminiscence, played a large role in these changes.
Since openings were small and wall spaces broad, stained glass
was neglected. Its place was taken by mosaic, and especially
by fresco, or painting in water color on wet plaster, which
began as a cheap substitute for mosaic. The timber roof was
FIG. 172 — SEVILLE. THE CATHEDRAL AND GIRALDA TOWER, SEEN FROM
THE SOUTHWEST
often substituted for the vault. Facades became gorgeous
screens, richly decorated in carved marble and glass mosaic,
behind which the church often seemed vainly to attempt to
conceal itself. The Italian Gothic style varied geographically,
being simpler in the north, and emphasizing polychromy in
central Italy. It also varied chronologically. We find very
simple buildings in the early Cistercian period, and very
ramified ones when Flamboyant Gothic came into vogue.
Early Gothic architecture in Italy. Perhaps the best example
of the early Cistercian building in Italy is the church of San
Martino, near Viterbo, built in the mid-thirteenth century.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
About the same time the church of Saint Francis was built
at Assisi (Fig. 173), and the Italian modification of French
structure began. In proportion and general external effect
this building might be Romanesque. In the second half of
the century many Gothic buildings were raised, the most
interesting of which is the cathedral of Siena. Here one sees
FIG. 173 — ASSISI. SAN FRANCESCO. PLAN
a good example of the Italian screen-like facade, decorated in
carved marble and pplychromy, and the striped marble interior
characteristic of Tuscan architecture. Many minor churches
were constructed in imitation of the cathedral buildings. In
the north an architecture with more organic feeling was
developed at Bologna, where the church of Saint Francis
(1236-40) shows a real buttress system. In the south
Cistercian ideas were mingling with architectural ideas from
the Latin Orient, and, as always in southern Italy, the result
was an interesting architectural hybrid.
Fourteenth century Italian Gothic. Fourteenth century
Gothic in Italy, as elsewhere, developed chiefly from the local
architecture of the preceding century. In Florence we find
the cathedral (1296-1367) exaggerating the Italian trend
toward wide intercolumniations, bare interiors, and the
320 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
Tuscan violent polychromy applied to the facade (Figs.
138, 140, 174, and 189). The triforium was omitted, the
clerestory reduced, and the openings greatly diminished in
size. The plan was given a trefoil shape which reveals Ger-
manic influence (compare Figs, in and 138). The free
standing clock tower, Giotto's "Lily Campanile," is one of
the most graceful
examples of the
Italian polychro-
matic pointed
style. In Umbria
the cathedral of
Orvieto (Fig.
175), dating from
the end of the
thirteenth and
the beginning of
the fourteenth
century, shows an
imitation of Siena.
The wooden roof
was frankly used
here, however,
and the contrast
of interior stripes
is less violent
than in Siena.
The body of the
church is unob-
trusive, the facade
one of the most
gorgeous and
least spoiled by modern restoration. The combination of
the two is marred by inevitable incongruity. In the north
important Gothic work was done in Venice, in the church of
Saints John and Paul, and in other towns. At the very end of
the century the graceful Carthusian abbey of Pavia was begun,
with its triconch ending, lanterns, and exterior galleries, which
reveal the influence of Germany once more.
Fifteenth century Italian Gothic. This influence becomes
FIG. 174 — FLORENCE. THE CATHEDRAL. VIEW
OF THE INTERIOR, LOOKING TOWARD THE APSE
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
321
most important in the fifteenth century. Important secular
architecture in Flamboyant Italy is seen in many buildings,
but the ecclesiastical architecture of the period is best summed
up in the cathedral of Milan (Fig. 176). In this work Italian,
French, and German influences mingle. The Italian lofty
ground story and wide intercolumniation were retained.
The triforium disappeared and the clerestory was reduced.
Windows were kept small and tie-rods were used to hold in
the vaults. The workman-
ship is German, the Flam-
boyant detail French, modi-
fied by Germans. On the
exterior the vertical line was
unsparingly emphasized, as
in English Perpendicular,
though the detail is Ger-
man in character. Pitched
roofs were abandoned in
favor of flat ones, but the
Consequent horizontal lines
were disguised by a multi-
tude of pinnacles. The
material was fine marble
throughout, and the carv-
ing was so delicate and
profuse in figure work, pin-
nacle, and detail that a very
lace-like effect was obtained.
Long before the completion of Milan cathedral the Renais-
sance was in full sway in Florence, and it is to the credit of
the Milanese that they finished a structure so harmoniously
at so late a date.
Gothic architecture of the Latin Orient and elsewhere. There
are many subdivisions of the Gothic style which we have had
time merely to mention in connection with our classification,
and the discussion of which we shall have to omit. It will
be well, however, at least to call attention to the fact that
Gothic architecture of real interest was produced in Austria,
Scandinavia, Switzerland, and elsewhere. The regret is
especially keen that we have thus summarily to dismiss the
FIG. 175 — ORVIETO. THE CATHEDRAL
FRONT, SEEN FROM THE SOUTHWEST
322 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Gothic architecture of the Latin Orient. The crusaders
carried their builders with them, set up Western civilization
in the nearer East, and the result was a series of imposing
Gothic monuments, ecclesiastical and secular, in Palestine and
Syria and in the Mediterranean islands. Even when the tide
of conquest turned and the Occidental invaders were being
FIG. 176 — MILAN. EXTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL
driven out, they carried on their building operations, as at
Gaza, until the last days of their occupation. The turning
of this tide meant, however, that Gothic buildings were to be
rare in Palestine and on the mainland, and frequent and more
complete on the islands where the Occidentals held longer
sway.
Secular architecture. As always in the Middle Ages, ecclesi-
astical architecture is more important than secular in the
Gothic period, but this very fact has caused writers to over-
emphasize medieval ecclesiatical art at the expense of secular.
At times the secular monuments rival the ecclesiastical in
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 323
importance. In every period, of course, the character of the
detail of the secular buildings corresponded to that of the
ecclesiastical buildings. Quite as obviously the progression
from early to late date was one from 'comparative simplicity
to greater complication. Different sorts of secular works
received greater emphasis according to the period. In the
Romanesque and early Gothic periods interest centers almost
entirely on buildings, public or private,. of a military character.
In the later periods, especially in the latest Flamboyant, when
civic order was the rule and the individual felt himself secure,
lay monuments largely lost their military character, and one
finds the greatest development of the medieval town and
guild hall, and the slightly fortified palace of the petty noble
or merchant prince. The powerful nobles continued to build
well-nigh impregnable castles until the centralization of power
in the king forbade such monuments. We shall be able to
give only the main characteristics of each type of secular
monument, with the mention of a few distinctive examples,
and point out roughly the periods in which each type attained
its greatest importance.
The fortified town. The most imposing secular monuments,
and of course among the earliest, are the fortified towns. The
fortifications of a town were so composed with a view to defense
that the whole became a unit, and it is not fanciful to think of
the town as a single monument. The principle was that of
surrounding the town with walls, especially strong wherever
the town was unprotected by natural defenses such as cliffs
or rivers, and of fortifying angles of the walls by salient towers
which provided for enfilading fire on besiegers attacking the
curtain wall between the towers. We have already noted
such a system at Avila, in the Romanesque period, and
Variations were infinite. Secondary walls of defense were
built outside the stronger inner walls. Beyond the outer walls
moats were dug, and frequently filled with water. Access to
the space between the inner and outer walls was provided by
drawbridges, ramps, and triple or quadruple gates, covered
with stone galleries, pierced with openings, through which
missiles might be dropped on the heads of invaders. Once an
entrance had been forced within the outer wall, the invader
found himself in a cul-de-sac, exposed to the fire of the inner
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
defenders until such time as he could pierce the vastly stronger
inner fortifications. If at last he succeeded in winning the
inner works he might take the town, but had yet to besiege the
citadel, a strong fortress placed in the strongest position in
the town, into which the defending military retreated.
Aigues-Mortes and Carcassonne. Examples of fortified
towns are to be found in most European countries, though the
FIG. 177 — AIGUES-MORTES. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CITY AND FORTI-
FICATIONS
finest and most complete are in France. Here two examples
far surpass the others: the towns of Aigues-Mortes and
Carcassonne. The former (Fig. 177), founded in 1246 by
Saint Louis, presents fortifications in the form of a rectangle
roughly 600 by 150 yards, with twenty well-preserved towers,
some square and some round. The moat has disappeared,
but the machicolations and inner galleries for defensive fire
may still be studied, as well as the defenses of the ten gates.
The monotonous regularity of the plan shows that the pictu-
resque irregularity of most medieval secular building was the
result of the architect's adapting himself to eccentricities in
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
325
site or warping his building to take military advantage of such
eccentricities. Where the site is a plain, architectural irregu-
larities disappear. For an example of the picturesque and
irregular town site, the Cite of Carcassonne (Fig. 178) will
serve our need. Here the fortifications date in part to the
Visigothic period in the fifth century and were frequently
reconstructed up to the four-
teenth century. They were
skilfully restored in the mid-
nineteenth century by
Viollet-le-Duc. The site was
by nature lofty and inacces-
sible, and man exaggerated
this inaccessibility to a pict-
uresque degree. No one
part of the fortification re-
peats any other part.
Ramp, curtain-wall, turret,
and cul-de-sac all conform
so skilfully to the natural
advantages of the terrain
that human handiwork ap-
pears part of bed-rock, or
bed-rock part of the human
structure. The outer en-
ceinte is more than 1600
yards in circumference, and
the^ inner more than 1200.
The walls are fortified by
fifty round .towers and the whole dominated by the citadel.
The major portion of the work dates from the late twelfth
and the thirteenth centuries. The whole affords the most
imposing, and in some respects the most interesting, secular
monument of the Gothic period which has come down to us.
The castle. The chief characteristics of the castle coincide
with those of the fortified town. In the fully developed
examples one finds the outer and inner walls, the towers
fortifying the wall angles, the moats, machicolations, corbelled
galleries, and ramps, such as the towns afforded. Even the
town citadel is reflected in the donjon. This, however, was
FIG. 178 — CARCASSONNE. LA CITE.
VIEW OF THE FORTIFICATIONS
326 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
placed either at the least accessible part of the site or at the
weakest, the idea in the latter case being further to strengthen
the weakest part. Not all castles have this completeness. In
the Romanesque period castles were simpler than in the Gothic,
and even before the Romanesque period there were castle-
FIG. 179 — COUCY. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CASTLE GROUNDS, SHOWING
THE DONJON BEFORE ITS DESTRUCTION IN IQI7
like defenses, mounds protected by earthworks, ditches, and
palisades. These mounds and ditches often became part of the
system of defenses of castles subsequently raised upon the
sites. Some castles lacked donjons; some retained the square
keep in preference to the round. In the earlier castles the
systems of defense were single ; later they became concentric.
Diversity was great, but fundamental characteristics were the
same.
Examples of Gothic castles. Coucy. Many countries exhibit
important and well-preserved examples of the medieval cas-
tle. In England there are many, both of the Norman and
of later periods, among which we may emphasize the castle
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
327
of Harlech, one of the most stupendous fortresses of the Middle
Ages. The medieval builders learned much of fortress
building in the crusades, and the Latin Orient contains
some of the most impressive remains of military architect-
ure. As so frequently in medieval architecture, France
offers perhaps the finest monuments of all, especially good
examples being the castles
of Pierrefonds and Coucy
(Figs. 139 and 179). Pierre
fonds has been restored by
Viollet-le-Duc, and, though
in a sense a false document,
presents a most vivid recon-
struction, on the part of a
profound medievalist, of a
Gothic castle. The more
impressive Coucy, blown up
by Mazarin, is in ruins. Its
donjon, 210 feet in height,
with walls in some places 34
feet thick, still stands. 1 Such
a building, before the days
of gunpowder, was literally
impregnable, and Coucy was
never taken. To understand
the spirit which dominated FIG- l8°— A MEDIEVAL TOWN HOUSE.
... , ,, , , * (VIOLLET-LE-DUC)
the medieval castle, and the
consequent architectural ex-
pression which it attained, one needs but read the motto of
the Sieurs de Coucy: "Roi ne suys, ne prince, ne due, ne
comte aussi; je suys le Sire de Coucy."'
So superbly insolent a motto was justified by the lordship
of such a building.
Later castles. As time went on the nobles lightened the
appearance of their dwellings and sacrificed somewhat, though
never to a dangerous extent, the defensive character of the
!It is reported (April, 1917) that the retreating Germans have razed
completely this famous monument.
2 1 am not king, nor prince, nor duke, nor even count; I am the Lord
of Coucy.
12
328 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
work. For instance the castle of Jean-de-Berry at Mehun-
sur-Y&vre, built in 1386 and known to us by an illumina-
tion, succeeded in combining late Gothic delicacy with
adequate defense. Defense was, however, still the underly-
ing idea.
The town house. The need of defense lay like a shadow
athwart all civil architecture. The town house (Fig. 180) was
arranged for de-
fense, not against
soldiers but against
roisterers and
ruffians. The en-
trance was raised
well above the
street and the
stairs arranged
along the flank of
the wall. Before
reaching the plat-
form on which the
door opened, the
way was blocked
by an open grille,
through which a
pike could be
thrust to repel un-
desirables. In the
town house exi-
gencies of space caused the upper story to expand, and,
carried on beams or corbels, to overhang the street in the
manner already noted in medieval Constantinople. This
scheme was followed whether the house were of stone or
of wood.
The peasant's house. The country peasant's house (Fig.
181) commonly had the same raised doorway, flanking stair-
way, and platform for defense as the city house. There was
generally no connection between the upper story and the
ground story, the latter being used for the animals. The walls
and gable ends were often of monumental cut stone ; the roofs
usually steeply pitched and thatched. Such peasant houses
FIG. l8l — THE COUNTRY DWELLING OF A MEDI
EVAL PEASANT. (VIOLLET-LE-DUC)
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
329
had all the charm of picturesqueness, honesty, and directness
in fulfilling architectural needs.
The fortified manor. Of more ambitious dimensions and
defenses were the country fortified manors. These were
generally square, with turrets at the corners, reaching to the
ground or carried on corbels. The manor was surrounded by
a moat, and the approach to the small gate made by means of
a draw. Within was an open court. Such a type of dwelling
may be seen at Saint Medard-
en-Jalle (Fig. 182), near
Landes, and at Camarsac
(Gironde) .
Municipal and corporation
halls. Especially in the later
Middle Ages the municipal
and corporation halls at-
tained great importance.
The Hotel de Ville of France
and Flanders, the Palazzo
Pubblico of Italy, the
Rathaus of Germany, re-
ceived monumental treat-
ment. Of the same sort were
the guild halls, semi -com-
munistic in character, which
were common in free towns
all over Europe, but especi-
ally in Flanders. The hall
survived or fell with the town, and was not intended to
resist assault if the town were taken, consequently plans were
more regular, esthetic considerations were more emphasized.
The buildings lacked the frowning character of fortified works,
were more delicate, more profusely ornamented, and better
mirrored the contemporary style. This is especially true in
the buildings of late date, and the finest belong to the Flam-
boyant period.
The town and guild halls of Flanders. The town halls were
generally of fairly regular plan. The lower story was usually
the record office. In Flanders a bejfroi, or clock tower, with a
bell for summoning the citizens, was a common adjunct. The
FIG. 182 — SAINT MEDARD-EN-JALLE.
SKETCH OF THE MANOR. (VIOLLET-
LE-DUC)
330 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
buildings were usually two or more stories in height, with the
central portion carried up as a tower which started square and
became octagonal. Roofs were very steep, and generally
supplied with picturesque dormers. Among the fine Flemish
halls we may mention those of Ghent (1481), Brussels (1401-
FIG. 183 — YPRES. THE CLOTH HALL AS IT APPEARED BEFORE THE BOM-
BARDMENT OF 1914
55), and Louvain. The trade and guild halls of Flanders
usually differed only in interior arrangement from the town
hall, and were frequently taken over at a later date, and used
as town halls. The finest of all the Belgian trade halls was the
so-called Cloth Hall of Ypres (Fig. 183), dating from the
thirteenth century, but almost wholly destroyed by shell
fire in 1914.
Halls and mansions of France. In France we find the same
types of monuments, especially important in the Flamboyant
period. These buildings were erected as town halls, as trade
halls, or often merely as private residences of the very wealthy
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 331
bourgeois. The private mansion usually lacked the beffroi
of the town hall, otherwise the buildings were similar. The
main unit was the bay of two or more stories. Tiers of
windows were divided by buttresses with Flamboyant detail,
the Flamboyant arch, with delicate and eccentric curves,
being used throughout. The favorite form of window was the
transom or cross window, the light being divided by an up-
right mullion in the center, and a cross-bar of stone one-
FIG. 184 — BOURGES. MAISON DE JACQUES COEUR
third of the distance from the top. Each window was thus a
rhythmic reproduction of the one below. Roofs were very
steeply pitched, and provided with dormers which repeated
the motifs of the windows perpendicularly below them. In the
courtyard the ground story arcade was usually open. Plan
and skyline were broken by pavilions, and by elaborate
chimneys. The whole effect was delicate, orderly, yet
picturesque. Good examples of this Flamboyant French
secular architecture may be seen at Paris in the H6tel Cluny,
332
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
at Rouen in the Palais de Justice, and at Bourges in the
Maison de Jacques Coeur (Fig. 184).
Domestic architecture in England. In England, as in France,
domestic architecture followed civil architecture in detail. At
first the mansions were built around a court, but the entrance
side of the square came to be omitted, and irregularities were
soon introduced. The trend was toward picturesqueness, irregu-
FIG. 185 — FLORENCE. THE PALAZZO VECCHIO
larity, and small scale, so that the Tudor houses give a greater
impression of intimacy than any works on the continent. The
Middle Ages thus prepared the way for later English domestic
work, and such a building as Compton Wynyates, though
medieval in detail, is Renaissance in spirit.
Secular architecture in Italy. Municipal individuality. In
Italy, as in Flanders and France, there was little difference
architecturally between the town hall, the ducal palace, and
the private residence of the wealthy citizen, and the same
building often combined two or more functions, Differ-
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
333
ences came from date, and above all from geography.
Nothing more clearly shows the independence and self-
sufficiency of the Italian medieval civic spirit than the way in
which each city arrogated to itself a peculiar type of secular
architecture, a fact which held true when towns were near
together and in constant communication. In certain general
ways all Italian medieval
mansions resembled one an-
other. They were usually
regular in plan, built round
a court, and provided with
a campanile incorporated or
free standing. Divergence
occurred principally in the
arrangements of details in a
bay, in the treatment of de-
tail, and in the general ex-
pression of the building.
Domestic architecture of
Florence and Siena. In Flor-
ence, as we may see by the
Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 185)
or the Bargello, the appear-
ance of the building was for-
bidding. There was no di-
vision of the exterior into
bays, and the stone used
was dark and roughly rusticated. The characteristic window
had two lights, separated by a mullion and embraced by a
pointed arch, the intrados and extrados of which were not con-
centric but wider apart at the crown than at the springing. On
the other hand, the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena (Fig. 186) shows
that the Sienese architect, like the Sienese painter, sought
more graceful and less forbidding forms. The material
received a finer finish, and the use of brick was common. The
campanile was made more slender and loftier. The window
form was a design of three lancet-like lights, with very pointed
arches and delicate cusps, embraced by a single highly pointed
arch with concentric intrados and extrados. Each town thus
sought a native form, especially of window opening, for its
FIG. 1 86— SIENA. THE PALAZZO
PUBBLICO
334 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
own, and originality is always found except where one city was
able to force its ideas upon another.
Secular buildings of Venice. The most famous, and in many
ways the most charming and original Italian secular buildings
of the Middle Ages were those of Venice. These, like so much
secular work, attained greatest heights during the Flamboyant
period, and the secular buildings were new in general expres-
1 1 1 i i
I I II ! 1 1
FIG. 187 — VENICE. THE PALAZZO DUCALE
sion as well as detail. Ground story arcades were almost
invariably left open, and, as the eye ascended, the building
became less broken, so that the effect was to reduplicate by
the reflection of the canals the most complicated parts of the
architecture. Rich but harmonious polychromy was used to
fortify crisp carving. Sometimes exteriors were veneered with
polished marble, sometimes terra cotta, or smaller stones in
two colors giving the impression of terra cotta, were used.
The most sinuous and graceful of ogee curves was used for
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 335
openings and arches, the curves counterpoised by delicate
cusps, giving the actual opening a pointed trefoil form. Such
arches were commonly interlaced, and the consequent quatre-
foils between them were cusped and given round or slender
pointed form. Roofs, like all Italian palace roofs, were kept
flat. In lieu of cornices the roof edges were decorated with
conventionalized spiny battlements, of colored stone or even
wood, which added to the piquancy of the effect. In a sense
all the Venetian medieval palaces were offshoots of the
Palazzo Ducale (Fig. 187). This most monumental of secular
buildings in Venice set the fashion which was followed with
delicate variation and refinement in many other buildings, and
from Venice the style spread over the Venetian contado.
Other Gothic monuments. Though we must here bring to a
close our discussion of medieval secular architecture, it is
necessary to point out the existence of numerous monuments
of medieval art, usually wholly forgotten, which aid in a com-
prehension of the style. Bridges, such as that at Avignon or
the Pont Valentre (Fig. 188) at Cahors, are often really great
monuments of Gothic architecture, combining the needs of
defense with logical construction and fine proportions.
Sirnilarly much can be learned from boundary monuments,
lanternes des morts (monuments to signalize the presence of
a cemetery), well heads, dove-cotes, and even latrines. In
short the mass of material is enormous, and a little explored
field is open to the student of medieval secular architecture.
The medieval ensemble. P-icturesqueness and its cause. As
one would expect, the ensemble in medieval times is note-
worthy for its irregularity and picturesqueness. Buildings
as a group were not planned in an orderly way, except in the
case of buildings for defense, when everything gave way to
a definite scheme. Even here, as we have seen, the result was
generally asymmetrical, except where the terrain was abso-
lutely without variety. The picturesqueness of the medieval
ensemble was not, however, the result of mere haphazard
grouping. It came principally from a logical conformity to
the peculiarities of the site, and is allied to the structural logic
which produced the Gothic cathedral. For example, if a
Gothic architect were designing a bridge he would not design
a symmetrical one with an even rise and fall, and force his
336 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURK
workmen to place it across a river of any sort of bottom. He
would consider first the river bottom, discover the position of
the channel, and then design the bridge with the arch of
longest span over the channel. If this were toward one
bank, as it frequently was, the result was asymmetry and
picturesqueness, but picturesqueness created and governed by
FIG. 1 88— CAHORS. THE PONT VALENTRE
structural good sense. The picturesqueness of the ensemble
was similarly governed. Those who regard the medieval town
plan as merely haphazard have as their ideal a construction
which, by means of leveling, grading, and difficult engineering,
oftentimes destroys the local flavor of the site in order to pre-
pare for an artificial grouping. The medieval architect, from
whatever motive, preferred to harmonize buildings to site
rather than vice versa, and as a result the medieval ensemble
more frequently looks as though it belonged properly to the
country than the ensemble at an earlier or a later date.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 337
The influence of Gothic structural principles. The in-
fluence of Gothic architecture on later styles was of many
sorts. The subtlest, and perhaps the most important, was the
influence of Gothic structural principles. These, once learned,
could never wholly be forgotten. Even at a period when
Gothic itself was despised, Gothic structural designs lived,
were freely applied, and, it must be confessed, were often
wofully misunderstood. Even the Gothic details, moldings,
carving and the like, left their impress on later detail, especially
in the early Renaissance.
Influence of Flamboyant Gothic in France. Turning to more
concrete examples of Gothic influence, the importance of the
Flamboyant style in the history of architecture has never
properly been emphasized. Outside of Italy, where, the
Renaissance was a natural classical revival, Flamboyant
Gothic determined the most significant expression of later
architecture. In the early Renaissance the system was but
one of a superficial application of imported Italian Renaissance
detail to a structure fundamentally and in significant motifs
Flamboyant Gothic. One need only compare the Hotel
Cluny with the Chateau de Chenonceau to prove this. Even
much later, when the Renaissance in France became more
formal, essentials of Flamboyant Gothic remained. If we
analyze, say the formal portions of the Louvre, and ask our-
selves what gives the building its peculiarly French flavor
despite its classic detail, we shall be forced to reply the steep
roofs, the dormers, the broken skyline, the pavilions. All of
these are of native medieval French origin, and withstood the
assaults of Italian classicism.
Influence of fifteenth century Gothic elsewhere. What is true
in France is true elsewhere. The Perpendicular Tudor house
determined the form of the Early English Renaissance dwell-
ing. The picturesqueness, the irregularity, the small scale
which we associate with English domestic architecture, is of
medieval origin, and the modern Englishman reverts to it as his
national style. In Germany and the Low Countries the stepped
gables and picturesqueness of medieval architecture were but
overlaid with classical detail. In Spain the Plateresque style
was the freest warping of classic detail to make it fit the lines
of Flamboyant Spanish Gothic. Flamboyant Gothic was,
338 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
therefore, one of the most influential of the world's styles, and
its power is by no means spent.
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MONUMENTS
FRANCE AND FLANDERS
Morienval. — Earlier parts c. 1080; later c. 1120.
Saint Germer de Fly. — 1130-60.
Paris, Saint Martin des Champs. — c. 1136.
Creil. — c. 1140.
Senlis. — c. 1155-91.
Paris, Saint Germain des Pres. — Dedicated 1163; some parts con-
siderably earlier.
Paris, Cathedral. — 1163-1235.
Avignon, Pont Saint Benezet. — 1177-85.
Langres. — Twelfth century.
Carcassonne, Fortifications. — Chiefly late twelfth and thirteenth
centuries.
Soissons. — Choir finished 1212; rest mid-thirteenth century; spire
c. 1160.
Chartres. — Facade c. 1145; rest chiefly 1194-1260; earlier spire c.
1250; later spire 1507-14.
Reims. — 1 2 1 1-90.
Amiens. — 1 2 20-88.
Coucy. — Early thirteenth century.
Aigues-Mortes. — -Town founded 1246; fortifications begun
Paris, Sainte Chapelle. — Dedicated 1248.
Saint Medard-en-Jalle. — First half of the thirteenth century.
Ypres, Cloth Hall.— Thirteenth century.
Camarsac. — Late thirteenth or early fourteenth century.
Rouen, Saint Ouen. — 1318-39 and later.
Amiens Cathedral, Chapel of Saint John. — 1373-75.
Mehun sur Yevre, Castle of Jean de Berry. — 1386.
Pierrefonds. — c. 1390.
Cahors, Pont Valentre". — Fourteenth century.
Brussels, Hotel de Ville. — 1401-55.
Louvain, Hotel de Ville. — 1448-59.
Abbeville, Saint Vulfram. — Begun 1480.
Ghent, Hotel de Ville.— 1481.
Paris, Hotel Cluny. — 1490.
Quimper. — Chiefly fifteenth century.
Nantes.— Chiefly fifteenth century.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 339
Chambery. — Chiefly fifteenth century.
Bourges, Maison de Jacques Cceur. — End of the fifteenth century.
Rouen, Saint Maclou. — Finished 1541.
Beauvais Cathedral, Flamboyant transept. — 1548.
Troyes. — Sixteenth century.
ENGLAND
Canterbury. — Begun 1175.
Lincoln. — Early English Work. — 1185-1200.
Salisbury. — 1 2 20-58.
Wells.— Dedicated 1239.
Lincoln Cathedral, Angel Choir. — 1255-80
York, choir and west front. — 1261-1324.
Harlech Castle. — c. 1300.
Gloucester. — transepts and choir 133 1-3 7 ; cloisters 135 1-1412.
Windsor, Saint George's Chapel. — 1481-1537.
London, Westminster Abbey, Henry VII. 's Chapel. — 1500-12.
Compton Wynyates.- — 1520.
GERMANY
Bamberg. — 1185-1274.
Miinster. — 1 2 2 5-6 1 .
Marburg, Saint Elizabeth. — 1235-83.
Naumburg. — Nave before 1249; choir 1250-1330.
Cologne. — Begun 1248; choir consecrated 1322; much work modern.
Strasburg. — 1250-75; facade 1275-1318.
Freiburg. — Nave 1260; choir 1354.
Treves. — Remodeled thirteenth century.
Soest, Wiesenkirche. — Founded 1314.
Ulm. — Begun 1377; finished sixteenth century.
Gmtind, The Holy Cross. — Fourteenth century.
Miilhausen, Liebfrauenkirche. — Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
Niirnberg, Saint Lawrence. — Begun end of the thirteenth century;
nave 1403-45; choir 1445-72.
Gorlitz, Saints Peter and Paul. — 1423-97.
Nordlingen, Saint George. — 1427-1505.
Munich, Frauenkirche. — 1468-88.
Halle, Saint Mary.— 1535-54.
ITALY
Fossanova . — 1187.
Casamari . — 1217.
San Galgano. — c. 1220.
340 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Assisi, Saint Francis. — 1228-53.
Venice, Santi Giovanni e Paolo. — Begun 1234.
Bologna, Saint Francis. — 1236-40.
Siena. — c. 1245-84.
Viterbo, San Martino. — Mid-thirteenth century.
Florence, Bargello. — Begun 1255.
Siena, Palazzo Pubblico. — 1289-1309.
Florence, Cathedral. — 1296-1367.
Orvieto. — End of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth
centuries.
Florence, Giotto's Campanile. — Designed 1334-36.
Venice, Palazzo Ducale. — Founded 814; outer walls rebuilt 1340;
west facade early fifteenth century.
Milan. — Founded 1386; finished sixteenth century.
Pavia, Abbey Church. — Begun 1396; finished in the Renaissance.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
Alcobaza (Portugal). — 1148-1222.
Santa Creus. — 1157.
Seville, Giralda. — 1184-96; remodeled 1568.
Las Huelgas en Burgos. — 1187-1214.
Poblet. — Second half of the twelfth century.
Burgos. — Founded 1226.
Toledo.— c. 1236.
Barcelona. — 1 298-1420.
Leon. — c. 1300.
Gerona. — 1316.
Seville. — Begun 1401.
Burgos Cathedral, spires. — Begun 1442.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
In A. Michel's Histoire de I' Art, vol. 2, pts. i and 2, and vol. 3,
pt. i, 1906-07, are excellent and authoritative accounts of the de-
velopment of Gothic architecture, and of the character of the art
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and the Flamboyant period.
The bibliographies are especially valuable. E. E. Viollet-le-Duc's
Dictionnaire raisonne de V architecture, 1884-88, already quoted, cov-
ers much more than Gothic, but, in dictionary form, is one of the most
monumental pieces of research in Gothic. As an original source
Villard de Honnecourt's Album, 1906, and earlier editions (written in
the thirteenth century), is the most interesting and important. K.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 341
Schnaase's Geschichte der bildenden Kunst, 1866-76, presents two vol-
umes on medieval architecture, out of date but important. One of the
most illuminating and best illustrated general works, G. Dehio and
G. von Bezold's Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes, 1884-99, has
already been quoted. Similarly B. and B. F. Fletcher's History of
Architecture, 1905, has been quoted, and is specially useful for English
Gothicv F. vom Reber's History of Medieval Art, 1886, covers the whole
field but emphasizes German architecture. F. M. Simpson's History of
Architectural Development, vol. 2, 1909, is useful for the study of details
of structure. C. H. Moore's Gothic Architecture, 1906, is one of the
most important and profound works on the subject, tending, however,
to over-emphasize structural logic, and cursory and unsympathetic
in the treatment of the art outside of thirteenth-century France.
A. K. Porter's Medieval Architecture, 1912, already cited, treats the
subject frankly from the structural point of view and is a monumental
and up-to-date piece of. scholarship. J. Quicherat's Melanges
d'archeologie, vol. 2, Moyen-dge, 1886, is one of the most important
early studies of the Romanesque and Gothic styles. It was followed
by L. Courajod's Origines de Vart roman et gothique, 1889, a shrewd
though out-of-date analysis of the origin of the styles. Both works
emphasize the art in France. L. Gonse's Uart gothique, 1890, is a
monumental volume covering all Gothic art, but specially useful
for the study of French Gothic. J. A. Brutails' Uarcheologie du
moyen-dge, 1900, has already been quoted as a clever study of the
methods of medieval archaeology, as well as A. Marignan's Les
methodes du passe dans Varcheologie franqaise, 1911, the most extreme
though somewhat discredited work on the subject.
E. Corroyer's Architecture gothique, 1891, is an out-of-date but
compact and interesting little volume on Gothic architecture in
France and Flanders. The best modern histories of medieval, and
especially Gothic, architecture in France are C. Enlart's Architecture
riligieuse en France, 1902, and Architecture civile et militaire en
France, 1903, encyclopedic works of research which are worthy
successors to the publications of Viollet-le-Duc. For the thirteenth
century E. Male's Uart religieux en France au XIII. siecle, 1902, is
especially fine. The Abbe Bossebceuf's U Architecture Plantagenet,
1897,' affords an interesting study of a specially significant local
variety of the style. G. H. West's Gothic Architecture in England
and France, 1911, is a small but well-arranged and fair-minded study
of the architecture in both countries.
Although wofully out of date, J. Britton's The Cathedral Antiquities
of Great Britain, 1836, is a five-volume work of real value for the
study of English Gothic. E. Sharpe's The Seven Periods of English
Architecture, 1871, and T. Rickman's An Attempt to Discriminate the
342 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Styles of Architecture in England, 1881, cited under Romanesque, are
immensely more important works of research in the styles of English
Gothic. G. G. Scott's English Church Architecture, 1881, despite its
date, is a valuable work on the English style. E. S. Prior's A History
of Gothic Art in England, 1900, is a valuable and modern synthetic
work. R. and J. A. Brandon's An A nalysis of Gothic A rchitecture, 1903 ,
is a profusely illustrated work, especially useful for the study of detail.
F. Bond's Gothic Architecture in England, 1905, is one of the most
scholarly of the modern books on the style, and it was succeeded by
the author's English Church Architecture, 1913, the most modern and
probably the most valuable work to-day on English medieval archi-
tecture. C. H. Moore's Medieval Church Architecture of England,
1912, is an important book by the great Gothic scholar amplifying and
modifying somewhat the author's views on English Gothic expressed
in earlier publications. G. H. Polley & Co.'s English Gothic Archi-
tecture and Ornament, 1897, presents a valuable collection of plates
for the study of the style. G. T. Clark's Medieval Military Archi-
tecture in Great Britain, 1884, though out of date, is a scholarly work
in a special field. Bell's Cathedral Series will be found useful as
presenting a long series of monographs on single buildings.
W. Liibke's Geschichte der deutschen Kunst, 1880, is a monumental
work, out of date but authoritative in the treatment of German
Gothic. H. Otte's Handbuch der kirchlichen Kunst-Archdologie des
deutschen Mittelalters, 1883, though very general and old-fashioned,
is still useful for the student. H. Bergner's Kirchliche Kunstal-
tertiimer in Deutschland, 1905, is an encyclopedic and modern work
covering the German field of ecclesiastical architecture. Burger -
liche Kunstaltertumer in Deutschland, 1906, by the same author,
discusses the secular art. C. Schaefer and 0. Stiehl's Die muster-
gUtigen Kirchbauten des Mittelalters in Deutschland, 1901, is a superbly
illustrated folio. An equally valuable folio is H. Hartung's Motive
der mittelalterlichen Baukunst in Deutschland, 1904. B. Ebhardt's
Deutsche Bur gen, 1901, already cited, is useful for the study of
castellan architecture.
C. E. Street's Gothic Architecture in Spain, 1865, is one of tne first
great works of research in Spanish Gothic. V. Lamperez y Romea's
Arquitectura Cristiana en la Edad Media, 1909, already cited as the
most valuable work on Spanish medieval architecture, is as authori-
tative on Gothic as on the earlier styles.
C. E. Boito's Archittetura del medio evo in Italia, 1880, is an ancient
and limited but still useful work on the Italian medieval field. C. C.
Gumming 's A History of Architecture in Italy, 1901, treats the Gothic
architecture in as popular and able a way as the earlier styles.
C. Enlart's Origines }ran$aises de V architecture gothique en Italie, 1894,
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 343
is still the most important and illuminating book on the origins of
Italian Gothic. G. E. Street's Brick and Marble in the Middle Ages,
1874, is an interesting volume on the medieval architecture of Italy,
with some discussion of the northern styles. G. R. de Fleury's
La Toscane au moyen dge, 1873, is a superbly illustrated folio work on
medieval Tuscan architecture. C. E. Norton's Church Building in
the Middle Ages, 1902, itself a work of art on account of the author's
style, presents an interesting description of the building of the
cathedrals of Venice, Siena, and Florence. E. Bertaux's Vart dans
I'ltalie meridionale, 1904, covers the monuments of southern Italy
in an interesting and scholarly way.
A. G. B. Schayes's Histoire de V architecture en Belgique, 1850-60,
already quoted, is of great value for the study of Gothic architecture
in Flanders. C. Enlart's Vart gothique en Chypre, 1899, is a scholarly
work illuminating as a study of the Gothic architecture built in the
East by the crusaders.
CHAPTER X
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of the period of the Renaissance was,
in a greater measure than any other art, veritably a rebirth
of the forms of classical antiquity. This involved, however,
neither a sharp interruption of the developments of the Middle
Ages nor a negation of originality and modernity. Most of the
forces which tended to bring about the new era in Europe were
already at work in the later Middle Ages and were thus not
primarily results of the revival of classical learning. The
decay of the medieval church and empire, the decline of the
feudal system and the rise of nationalities and languages, were
movements which appeared everywhere in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, along with a more human and a more
naturalistic view of life. The growing tendency nowadays to
regard Dante, Giotto, and the sculptors Pisani as true men of
the Middle Ages — essentially at one with the poets of Provence,
the painters of Burgundy, and the carvers of the portals at
Reims — emphasizes the continuity of the Renaissance with
medievalism. In many of these men there mingled with the
Christian and northern tendencies other tendencies which
were pagan and classical, forming a steady undercurrent
throughout the Middle Ages. It needed merely a change in
the relative strength of these tendencies to bring the classical
current to the surface. By the early years of the fifteenth
century this change was accomplished in Italy, and art and
literature alike were profoundly influenced. The humanists,
who tried to reconstitute a free and natural life by the aid of
Greek and Roman literature, had their counterparts in
Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Masaccio, who enriched the arts
not only by observation of nature but by study of the works
of ancient Rome.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 345
Retrospective, traditional, and original elements. In architect-
ure there resulted an imitation of the Roman vocabulary of
architectural forms, employed in part for the translation of
ideas fundamentally medieval, in part for the expression of
ideas essentially novel. Medieval dispositions clothed in
details of the classic orders, medieval craftsmanship exercised
in the application and variation of classical motives of orna-
ment, are characteristic of much Renaissance work, especially
work that is early or removed from the center of origin. Even
more characteristic, however, are the new conceptions in the
composition of space and in the modeling of surface, which
are embodied both in some of the earliest productions and in
many mature ones. These conceptions, although likewise
realized in forms inspired by antiquity, were themselves quite
modern. Even the forms of detail, supposedly classical,
differed inevitably in a hundred respects from those which
furnished their ideals. The uses to which buildings and forms
necessarily correspond were likewise different in many respects
from those of preceding periods. The relative importance of
the various types of buildings was radically changed, the
church, though still of great importance, being rivaled by the
luxurious private dwellings of merchant princes, churchmen,
and nobles. Thus, in spite of retrospective and traditional
elements, it was the novel elements which predominated in
the new architectural synthesis.
Contrasts with medieval architecture. Compared with the
medieval architecture which preceded it, Renaissance archi-
tecture was less concerned with problems of structure and
more with those of pure form. As in the case of Roman
architecture, the forms of detail were sometimes used as
trophies of classical culture, with relative indifference to their
original structural functions. The forms were not merely ends
in themselves, however, but means for a rhythmical subdi-
vision of space, more complex and more varied than either
ancient or medieval times had known. A further contrast
between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, though one
which has often been exaggerated, lay in the relation of the
designer to his work. The architect, in the ancient and in
the modern sense, reappeared. We now realize that in both
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance the general design was
346 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
controlled by a single mind, and that in both periods there
were sculptured details of which the design was left to the
initiative of individual sculptors. Unlike the medieval master-
builder, however, the Renaissance architect did not himself
work on the scaffold, whereas he did dictate, in a greater
measure than his predecessors, the form of many uniform
details.
Centers and diffusion. The center of the new movement was
Italy, where the forces everywhere at work had their effect
earlier than in countries less richly endowed with the heritage
of antiquity. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
Florence was the intellectual capital of the peninsula, as well
as one of the greatest commercial powers in Europe. It was
in Florence that the Renaissance in architecture had its birth,
and it was the Florentine school which dominated the style
down to the year 1500. With the beginning of the sixteenth
century papal Rome, now fully recovered from the exile of
the popes and the schism of the church, assumed the leader-
ship which it retained to the end of the Renaissance period.
By the same time the new architectural forms had been
adopted, with characteristic local modifications, throughout
Italy, and had begun to penetrate France, Germany, and
Spain. In these countries and in England, where the introduc-
tion came still later, it was many years before the transition
from medieval forms was effected. Thus the phases of
Renaissance architecture in different lands do not coincide in
time, and, 'outside of Italy, forms of later origin sometimes
mingle with those of truly Renaissance character. Both for
these reasons, and because of strongly marked national
differences, the several countries may best be considered
successively.
Italy. The soil in Italy was particularly favorable for a
revival of the forms of classic architecture. The remains of
ancient buildings existed on every hand, in far greater com-
pleteness than they do to-day. They still served, as they had
in the time of Constantine, as sources from which not only
stone and lime but also columns, entablatures, and archi volts
could be obtained ready made. Partly for these reasons,
partly because of racial inheritance, the feeling for classical
architecture had never wholly died out in Italy, and Gothic
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 347
forms had been employed only with radical modifications which
brought them nearer to the classic spirit. All this was
especially true in Florence, which prided itself on direct de-
scent from Etruria and Rome. The buildings of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries — the Baptistry, San Miniato — are so
classical in their
details as to have
been described
as " proto-
Renaissance."
Even during the
Gothic period —
in the cathedral
and the Loggia
dei Lanzi —
there was a lar-
geness of scale
and of interior
space which is
more classic
than medieval.
The round arch
and other clas-
sical details and
forms of orna-
ment still per-
sisted.
The early Re-
naissance. Bru-
nelleschi's dome.
FIG. 189 — FLORENCE. CATHEDRAL
SOUTHEAST
, FROM THE
It involved no
break with
Florentine medieval traditions when Filippo Brunelleschi
(1379-1446) made his proposal, in 1406, to vault the
central octagon of the cathedral" of Florence, which the
builders had long feared to attempt. Although he had
astonished his contemporaries by studying and drawing the
ancient buildings of Rome, there was little in his solution which
was not medieval in inspiration, except the boldness of span
which he had observed in the Pantheon. His direct prototype
348 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
was the dome oft he baptistry of Florence, also octagonal,
with intermediate ribs on each face and arches spanning
between them. He proposed a dome in two shells with
segment al arches in each of the eight faces, and ribs with iron
anchors supporting the inner shell. By giving a steep curve
to the dome he
was enabled to
construct it, as
Byzantine vaults
had been con-
structed, without
centering. The
whole was raised
on a high drum
with circular
windows, and
surmounted by a
lantern — feat-
ures in them-
selves not new,
but carried out
on a larger scale
and with some-
what more classi-
cal details (Fig.
189).
Brunelleschi's
other works. The
first true, monu-
ments of the Re-
FIG. 190 — FLORENCE. INTERIOR" OF SAN LORENZO
naissance were
the other works which Brunelleschi undertook while the
dome was progressing. In these from the beginning, with
no period of transition or hesitancy, appeared the classical
forms of columns, pilasters, entablatures, all very clearly
understood, though used with a freedom like that of late
Roman architecture. In front of the Spedale degli Innocenti,
the foundling hospital, he constructed in 1421 a portico with
circular archivolts descending on the heads of Corinthian
columns. The end bays are enframed by pilasters in the
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
349
manner of the Roman arch order, and the windows of the upper
story, in the axis of each bay, have architraves and pediments
of classical form. In the church of San Lorenzo (begun about
FIG. 191. — FLORENCE. PAZZI CHAPEL
1425) Brunelleschi reverted to the type of the early Christian
basilica, using a wealth of classical detail (Fig. 190). The aisle
walls and chapel openings are treated with an arch order ; the
nave arches descend on fragments of entablature which re-
spond to the entablature in the aisle. The aisles are covered
350 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
with domical vaults and the crossing with a dome on penden-
tives. The Pazzi chapel at the church of Santa Croce, like
the sacristy of San Lorenzo (both from about 1429), has a
membering of the wall by pilasters and entablatures (Fig. 191).
They carry pendentives and a dome, which, however, is
constructed
like the apse
vaults of a
Gothic church.
In the portico
before the
chapel reap-
pears for the
first time the
colonnade with
a horizontal
entablature.
Another of
Brunelleschi's
designs, Santa
Maria degli
Angeli (1434),
is the first
building of
modern archi-
tecture to fol-
low the mode
of composition
about a central
vertical axis, so
common in late
Roman and
early medieval times (Fig. 207). It initiates the long series
of experiments in the combination of different forms of in-
terior space, free from practical or liturgical restrictions.
Palace designs. Brunelleschi's palace designs are relatively
less classical, except in their strict balance and the vertical
alignment of their windows. His Palazzo Pitti has a range
of vast rusticated arches reminiscent of the Roman aqueducts.
The typical palace of the time is the Palazzo Medici (now
FIG. 192 — FLORENCE. PALAZZO MEDICI-RICCARDI
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 351
Palazzo Riccardi) by Michelozzo, begun in 1444 (Fig. 192).
Its unbroken rusticated wall with windows of paired arches
resting on colonnettes are features of medieval derivation,
whereas the emphasis laid on the horizontal divisions and the
details of the
colonnettes and
the cornice are
inspired by an-
tiquity.
Alberti. A
more strictly
classical t e n -
dency was intro-
duced by Leon
Battista Alberti
(1404-72), a
gifted Floren-
tine humanist,
long in exile. In
his paganization
of the church of
San Francesco
at Rimini (1447)
he adopted, for
the flank, a mas-
sive range of
classic piers and
arches, for the
facade, the triple
motive of a
Roman tri-
umphal arch with engaged columns and a broken entab-
lature. He also projected, as a termination for the build-
ing, a circular domed room of the proportions of the
Pantheon, a form which he later emphasized in the church
of the Annunziata in Florence (1451). For the facade of the
Palazzo Rucellai in Florence (1451-55) he imitated for the
first time the superposed engaged orders of the Tabularium
and the Roman amphitheaters (Fig. 193). Pilasters and
entablatures were applied to the typical rusticated wall with
FIG. 193 — FLORENCE. PALAZZO RUCELLAI
352 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
grouped windows. The main cornice was still strongly
emphasized in relation to those between the stories. Another
time-honored scheme which Alberti revived was the Greek-
cross plan, with four equal arms, in the church of San Sebas-
tiano at Mantua (1459). In Sant' Andrea at Mantua, begun in
1472, he again made use of the triumphal arch motive, not
only in the porch, but also on the interior walls of the nave,
FIG. 194— MANTUA. SANT' ANDREA. INTERIOR
where a rhythmic alternation of broad arched chapels and
narrow bays bordered by pilasters was introduced (Fig. 194).
For the first time in a Renaissance church the nave itself was
vaulted in a classical manner, with an unbroken coffered
barrel vault. First in modern times also were Alberti's
writings on architecture, which have fundamentally influenced
both theory and practice even to the present day.
Other Florentines. The followers of Brunelleschi and Alberti
in Florence — Simone del Pollaiuolo, called Cronaca, Giuliano
da San Gallo and his brother Antonio, with many others — -
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
353
employed the new classical forms expertly, but without con-
tributing many elements which were new. They were
occupied rather with making new combinations with the
elements already created. Thus in the octagonal sacristy of
Santo Spirito in Florence, by Giuliano da San Gallo and
FIG. 195 — THE CERTOSA NEAR PA VIA.. FACADE
Cronaca (1489-96), a rhythmical grouping is introduced in a
building of the centrally balanced type, by an alternation of
niches and shallow recesses. Giuliano created the first of
the monumental country villas, the Villa Poggio at Cajano
(1485), with a great barrel-vaulted hall which was then a
novel feature in domestic architecture. On the exterior this
came to expression through a pedimented portico imitating
the classic temple front, though not projecting before the plane
of the wall. In Cronaca' s church of San Francesco al Monte
in Florence (1487) the tendency to rhythmical grouping led
to an alternation of triangular and segmental pediments in
the enframements of the clerestory windows,
354
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Other schools. Lombardy. Outside of Tuscany, except for
isolated works of the Florentine school, the new forms were
only adopted gradually after the lapse of some time, and then
often for their more superficial decorative qualities. In north
Italy, smallness of scale, freedom in modifying the forms and
proportions of the orders, and richness of sculptured orna-
FIG. 196 — VENICE. PALAZZO VENDRAMINI
mentation are the outstanding features. In Lombardy, where
the Florentine details first found a wide application, they
remained for the most part, throughout the fifteenth century,
a mere clothing for medieval dispositions. In the facade of
the Certosa at Pavia, begun probably in 1493, the details are
of a lavishness and multiplicity elsewhere unequaled, smother-
ing the architectonic outlines (Fig. 195). About 1490 began
a change, under the leadership of Donate Bramante (1444-
1514). Inspired by the works of Brunelleschi and Alberti,
he took up the main thread of development. In the sacristy
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
355
of Santa Maria near San Satiro in Milan and other churches
he made important contributions to the problem of buildings
composed about a central axis. At Abbiate Grasso (1497)
he prefixed to the church a great arched porch, recalling an
ancient exedra. It was supported on pilasters which here,
for the first time,
were coupled or
grouped in pairs.
Venice. Venice
scarcely took up
the new forms be-
fore 1470, when
the family of
architects called
Lombardi began
their work there.
In general their
work is a transla-
tion of the local
Byzantine and
Gothic motives
into pseudo-classic
forms, carried out
with rich marble
incrustation. The
Palazzo Vendra-
mini'(i48i) is per-
haps its best repre-
sentative (Fig.
196). As in the
Palazzo Rucellai,
the facade is dec-
orated with superposed orders; but here engaged columns,
resting on pedestals in the lower stories, are elements of closer
similarity to ancient examples. On the other hand the arches
are subdivided by tracery, which is essentially medieval in
spite of its classic details. As usual in Venice, the retention
of a threefold subdivision of the width results in a com-
plicated rhythmical grouping of the supports.
Rome. Rome first experienced an artistic revival during
FIG. 197 — ROME. LOGGIA OF THE CHURCH OF
SAN MARCO
Copyright by the American Architect and Building News Co.
FIG. 198— ROME. "TEMPIETTO" AT SAN PIETRO IN MONTORIO
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
357
the papacy of the humanist, Nicholas V. (1447-55). He began
a rebuilding of the Vatican and proposed to replace the
crumbling basilica of Saint Peter by a new edifice. The monu-
ments which followed, such as the Palazzo Venezia and the
vestibule of the church of San Marco (Fig. 197), although they
retain medieval elements, include also the most literal repro-
ductions of the antique yet attempted. "Their superposed
FIG. 199 — ROME. SAINT PETER'S. INTERIOR
porticoes in the Roman arch order successfully imitate
Roman examples in their proportions as well as in their break-
ing of the entablatures and pedestals at each engaged column.
In the Palazzo Cancelleria (1486-95), where the system of the
Palazzo Rucellai, with its slighter relief, was followed, elements
of novelty were introduced. A continuous alternation of wide
and narrow spaces between the pilasters — the "rhythmical
358 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
bay" which Albert! had employed in an interior — was em-
ployed on the fagade, and terminal masses of slight projection,
"end pavilions," appear for the first time.
The "High Renaissance." Bramante. The second, mature
period of the Renaissance, the "High Renaissance" as it is
sometimes termed, began at Rome with the papacy of Julius
II. (1503-13) and Leo X. (1513-21). Their lavish court and
FIG. 2OO — ROME. PALACE OF RAPHAEL. (RESTORED BY HOFFMANN)
great undertakings attracted to the city the finest talent of
all Italy, -including Bramante, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci,
and Michelangelo. Bramante was the moving spirit in the
creation of the new Roman school of architecture, as Brunelles-
chi had been of the Florentine school. In his first attested
design in Rome, the shrine at the place of Saint Peter's martyr-
dom, Bramante outvied all his predecessors in classical ardor,
by adopting the scheme of a Roman circular temple with
its peristyle (Fig. 198). This so-called "Tempietto," at the
church of San Pietro in Montorio, is surmounted by a dome on
a tall drum, and was intended to be surrounded by a circular
colonnaded court.
Bramante' s later works. Bramante was soon intrusted with
the two most ambitious schemes of Julius, the extension of the
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 359
Vatican and the rebuilding of Saint Peter's, so long proposed.
To unite the Vatican with the Belvedere he designed a court
almost a thousand feet in length, surrounded by superposed
galleries with the rhythmical triumphal-arch motive, and
terminated by a vast semicircular niche like those of the
Roman thermae
(Fig. 222). The
rise of the
ground within
the court was
given a novel
treatment by
high terrace
walls and balus-
traded flights of
steps. In the
new Saint Pe-
ter's Bramante
thought less of
meeting tradi-
tional liturgical
requirements
than of creating
a monument to
the glory of
God, the found-
er, and the
church. For
this purpose he
chose his favor-
ite form of the
centrally composed building, magnified and elaborated. He
proposed, in the words of his own metaphor, to raise the
Pantheon above the vaults of the Basilica of Maxentius (Fig.
199). His studies for the building involved new solutions of
a great number of current problems, and were a school for the
whole younger generation of architects. Toward the end of
his life he also gave new suggestions for palace design in the
projected building for the papal courts of justice, with its
gigantic rusticated blocks in the ground story.
13
FIG. 2OI — ROME.
LOGGIA OF THE VILLA MADAMA.
INTERIOR
360 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
Raphael and Peruzzi. The principal followers of Bramante,
although strongly influenced, likewise made new contributions
to the general development. Raphael (1483-1520), Bra-
mante's nephew and protege, embodied some of Bramante's
•FIG. 2O2 — ROME. PALAZZO DELL* AQUILA. (RESTORED BY GEYMULLER)
ideas for Saint Peter's in the little Chigi chapel at the church of
Santa Maria del Popolo. His own palace (Fig. 200), executed
with Bramante's aid, had the ground story treated as a heavy
rusticated basement, and the principal story — the piano nobile
— emphasized by coupled engaged columns. On Bramante's
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 361
death in 1514 Raphael succeeded to the architectural dictator-
ship. In executing the loggias of the Court of San Damaso at
the Vatican, he revived the stuccoed decorations of the Roman
interiors, then recently discovered. Thus arose the graceful
compositions of leafage, figures, and small medallions imitated
by his pupils at the Villa Madama (Fig. 201) and elsewhere.
In the Palazzo dell' Aquila similar decorations were applied to
a facade, in which there was also a rich alternation of niches
and pedimented tabernacles (Fig. 202). The large engaged
column, there restricted to the shop fronts of the basement
story, disappears entirely in Raphael's design for the Palazzo
Pandolfini in Florence. With its tabernacles relieved against
a stuccoed wall having angle quoins, this was the model for
many later Roman palaces. The Villa Madama, begun from
Raphael's designs and left unfinished, had for the first time an
intimate architectural connection between house and gardens.
This was achieved not only by elaborate axial relationships,
but by terraces, stairs, and niches recalling the Villa of Hadrian
at Tivoli. Peruzzi, who outlived the youthful Raphael by
sixteen years, continued the development in the direction of
greater freedom in plan and in fagade. The Villa Farnesina,
which seems probably to be his design, has end pavilions
suggested by those of the Cancelleria, but projecting two bays,
so as to inclose a U-shaped court. His plan for the two
palaces for the Massimi in Rome (1529), on an irregular site,
shows a remarkable facility in the adaptation of classical
elements (Fig. 203). In one the fagade is curved to follow the
line of the street, and a multitude of consoles in the enframe-
ment of windows and doors begin to relieve the strictly geo-
metrical lines of earlier architectural forms. All these
tendencies find their strongest expression in Michelangelo,
and doubtless depend, in large measure, on his earliest archi-
tectural designs, which had been for the fagade of San Lorenzo
in Florence (1514) and for the Medici chapel there (1521-29,
Fig. 204). These, however, with his other buildings, form
the point of departure of the following phase of style, the
baroque, and thus must be discussed later.
Other schools. Venetia. The architects of the High Renais-
sance in the rest of Italy took their inspiration from Rome, as
those of the early Renaissance had from Florence. The
362 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
grammar of classical forms was now everywhere understood,
and thus local differences are less marked, but characteristic
schools nevertheless existed. Most notable of these was that
of Venetia, headed by two other disciples of Bramante,
Sanmicheli (1484-1559) and Sansovino (1486-1570). These
men followed the more robust use of the orders in the work of
FIG. 203 — ROME. MASSIMI PALACES. PLAN
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 363
Bramante and Raphael. Thus in Sanmicheli's Palazzo Pom-
pei in Verona (1530) and Sansovino's Palazzo Cornaro della
Ca' Grande in Venice (1530), we have a reminiscence of
Raphael's own palace. Sanmicheli initiated a long series of
designs of a still more rugged character by his notable city
gates for Verona (1533 /.), with rusticated columns which
FIG. 204 — FLORENCE. MEDICI CHAPEL AT SAN LORENZO
are the embodiment of military strength. In the Palazzo
Grimani at Venice (Fig. 205) he restudied the scheme of the
earlier Palazzo Vendramini, eliminating the medieval sur-
vivals and endowing all the forms with a truly classical spirit.
Sansovino took the Tabularium of the Capitol in Rome as
his model for the Library of Saint Mark (Fig. 206), which gives
the effect of an open arcade in two stories. The employment
of subordinate engaged columns to support the imposts of the
364 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
upper story, and the wealth of ornamental sculpture, are
features of this extreme yet characteristic product of the
Renaissance.
Types of buildings. Churches. The longitudinal type. As
strands in the general tendency in matters of style ran the
individual developments of single types of buildings, which
FIG. 205 — VENICE. PALAZZO GRIMANI
offer some further points of importance. The churches here
fall into two groups, those composed about a longitudinal
axis and those composed about a central axis. It was the
former of these groups which represented the continuance of
medieval tradition and thus offered less of novelty. Brunelles-
chi contributed to it by reviving the basilican scheme of
Constantine's day, with a flat ceiling in the nave and the
addition of domical vaults over the aisle bays. Although in
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
365
San Lorenzo (1425) the T-shaped plan of the first basilicas
was adhered to, in Santo Spirito (1435) the full Latin cross
of the Middle Ages was adopted, with square ends to the arms
and the aisles carried completely around them. A vaulting
of the nave with a barrel vault, then considered the most
FIG. 206 — VENICE. LIBRARY OF SAINT MARK
classical, was possible only with suppression of the aisles. A
membering of the nave walls and a richer spatial effect was
furnished in such cases by lateral chapels. This was the case
in Brunelleschi's church of the Badia at Fiesole, completed in
1463, where the chapels were all alike, and in Alberti's Sant'
Andrea at Mantua, which initiated the rhythmical system of
piers. In San Salvatore in Venice (1506) this rhythmical
scheme was applied to a three-aisled church by the employ-
ment of the vaulting scheme of Saint Mark's. Already in these
366 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
churches appeared the characteristic tendency of the later
long-naved churches. This was toward a development of
the crossing, choir, and transepts on the lines of a building of
central type with equal arms.
Basilican facades. The facades of the basilican churches
also presented a problem. Those of the earliest architects
remained in crude brickwork awaiting some ambitious com-
pletion. Alberti was the one who established the general
type: an order or superposed orders, with the doors and
windows in the intervals. Usually there was a pediment and
often there were great volutes opposite the aisle roofs, uniting
the aisles with the clerestory. In some cases an arcaded
portico was prefixed, with the inevitable Roman arch order.
Churches of the central type. The church composed on a
central axis was perhaps the most characteristic problem of
the Italian Renaissance (Fig. 207). The solutions were based
either on a central octagon with an octagonal dome or cloister
vault, or on a square central space with a dome on pendentives.
In the first example — Brunelleschi's Santa Maria degli Angeli
(1434) — the eight subordinate spaces are of equal importance.
They themselves have minor elements in the form of niches,
which are connected by unimportant doors. Similar in their
co-ordination of the subordinate spaces are the churches of
Greek cross type, beginning with Alberti's San Sebastiano
(1459) and finding their ultimate expression in churches by
the elder San Gallo. Beginning with the sacristies by San
Gallo and by Bramante, however, there is usually an alterna-
tion in the subordinate spaces, which tend to become more
elaborate, but in general have no connection with one another
except through the central space. An intermediate between
the square and octagonal schemes was created by Bramante's
cutting off the corners below the pendentives in the crossing
of Saint Peter's. His further innovations were anticipated
somewhat in manuscript studies of Leonardo da Vinci, where
he attempted to canvass systematically all possible combina-
tions of domes and subordinate spaces. Here Leonardo
progressed to centrally composed buildings of the second
degree, that is, to groups in which the subordinate spaces are
themselves composed of minor features about a central axis.
It was a still more elaborate composition of this sort which
ROME
BRAMANTEi FIR3T
STUDY
FIG. 207 — THE DEVELOPMENT OF RENAISSANCE CHURCHES OF
CENTRAL TYPE
3 68 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Bramante undertook in Saint Peter's. Between the four arms
of a great Greek cross he placed four smaller Greek crosses
opening into the arms of the larger one, and having themselves
a minor zone of niches. Although a means of circulation
about the central space was incidentally provided, it was not
in an aisle of co-ordinated bays, but involved periodic emer-
gence into the arms of the great cross. The variety of spatial
effects was thus greatly increased, while each portion of the
church retained a strong individual unity.
Palaces. The characteristic problem of the Renaissance in
domestic architecture was the town palace of the merchant
prince, the petty tyrant, or the dignitary of the church. Such a
building had to rise in several stories on a limited site, bounded
by one or more streets and usually by party walls, and had to
offer security against the turbulent factions of the city. Like
its predecessors of the medieval towns, it had thus to open
about a court, and to be closed on the exterior. In the typical
plan the court was rectangular, with surrounding arcades
which gave a covered communication at least between the
rooms of the ground story. In general, no one of the rooms
greatly surpassed the others in size and importance, although
toward the end of the period there was a tendency to introduce
a principal hall or gallery. The fagade even then took no
cognizance of the internal divisions but retained a uniform
spacing of the axes. All these qualities are summarized in the
largest of the Roman palaces, the Palazzo Farnese by Antonio
da San Gallo the younger (c. 1520-80). Without embodying
any radical innovations, it had a wide influence in the diffusion
of the type (Figs. 208, 209). It stands free on all sides, with
passages to the court at the center of each face, the principal
one having a barrel vault with colonnaded aisles. The square
court itself has the scheme of the Colosseum in three stories,
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, the two lower ones with the arch
order, the upper one with pilasters and pedimented windows.
On the facade the scheme of Raphael's Palazzo Pandolfini was
adopted, but with an additional story and a strong emphasis
on the central axis. In the Roman palaces from the time of
Bramante the stories of minor importance began to secure
recognition in the facade. A low uppermost story for the
servants was given small windows beneath the entablature
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 369
of the upper order, as in the Cancelleria, or in the frieze of
the main cornice, as in the Farnesina. In stories of which
the full height was needed only for certain larger rooms, it
became customary to halve the height for the smaller rooms,
securing over them a half story or mezzanine. The windows
of such mezzanines, which first appear, much subordinated,
FIG. 2O8 — ROME. PALAZZO FARNESE
in the palaces of Raphael, tended to attain increasing inde-
pendence. In Venice, as we have seen, the inherited palace
type was an exception to the rule which prevailed elsewhere.
Instead of a monumental court there was a large principal
room in the center of the front, extending deep into the
building. At the sides were minor suites, and the threefold
division was characteristically expressed on the facade.
Villas. The increasing security of the country permitted,
even in the early days of the Renaissance, the erection of villas
outside the city walls. The earliest of these, near Florence.
Villa Carregi by Michelozzo, is still somewhat irregular
370 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in plan, but has projecting loggias which are suggestive of
later developments in the union of house and garden. Such
projections, however, were relatively infrequent. The house
tended to remain a unity by itself, as at Cajano, and the
gardens were laid out without much reference to the axis of
the building. Only at the end of the period, in the Villa
Madama, does the architectural scheme tend to assert itself
also in the garden, in the manner so characteristic of the later,
baroque villas.
Public buildings. Some further important types were the
municipal palaces and the public hospitals. An open loggia
on the exterior, as in Brunelleschi's Spedale degli Innocenti,
was the symbol that such buildings belonged to the public. An
early Renaissance example outside of Florence is the Loggia
del Consiglio at Verona, attributed to Fra Giocondo (1476).
It has arches descending on small columns, and an upper
story of typical north Italian richness of detail. In the
Palazzo Comunale at Brescia a similar scheme is realized with
more classical forms, the arch order with projecting half-
columns below, a second story with pilasters and tabernacle-
like window enframements. The series really includes the
library in Venice (Fig. 206), where the upper story is also
arcaded. A final solution, in which open loggias in two stories
completely surround the building — Palladio's "Basilica" at
Vicenza (Fig. 225) — stands at the threshold of the following
period (1549)^
Town planning. The town planning of the Renaissance was
limited for the most part to the leveling and straightening of
streets in existing towns, with the sweeping away of booths and
minor constructions which encumbered the surroundings of
churches and public buildings. Open squares before important
new buildings, which would permit an appreciation of their
symmetry, were early desired, but were obtained in few
instances. Where a square was bordered by porticoes these
were kept distinct, and were not continuous as they had been
in Hellenistic and late Roman times. The buildings them-
selves formed the unities, and not the square. In the rare
cases where new towns or quarters were to be laid out,
regularity and symmetry were preferred. The civic group
at Pienza (1460-63) is the most notable of the schemes which
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 371
came to execution. Here the episcopal palace and the palace
of the Piccolomini balance on either side of the cathedral
piazza, which has its sides converging toward the spectator,
as in some of the most famous of the baroque squares.
Individual forms. The forms of Renaissance architecture
(Figs. 210, 211), although inspired by those of Rome, were
no more literal
imitations of them
than the Roman
forms themselves
had been imita-
tions of Greek
forms. Partly be-
cause of medieval
survivals, partly
because of inade-
quate knowledge
of antiquity,
partly even in
criticism of the
antique, the archi-
tects of the Re-
naissance modified
the classical forms
so that they are
unmistakably
theirs. In simpler
buildings, to be
sure, there was
sometimes scarce-
ly a detail which
would betray the
dependence of the
period on Rome.
The facade of the
Palazzo Pitti might seem suggested merely by material and
function. In later and richer buildings there is still always
some nuance, even aside from the fresh combinations, in which
is visible the originality of the Renaissance.
Walls. The continuous wall received much characteristic
FIG. 2O9 — ROME. PALAZZO FARNESE. PLAN
372 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
treatment both in the early and in the High Renaissance.
During the early phase the usual method was that of rustica-
tion— an artistic modification of the medieval practice of
leaving the stones quarry-faced, with merely the joints
dressed. In the Palazzo Pitti there is a gradation in the
projection of the stones in successive stories, the lower ones
reaching in extreme cases a projection of over two feet. In
the Palazzo Medici (Riccardi) there is a more pronounced
gradation, with rough blocks in the lower story, rectangular
grooving, like that of some Roman examples, in the inter-
mediate story, and smooth ashlar in the upper story (Fig.
192) — a system considerably imitated in later Florentine
structures. The buildings mentioned have courses of irregu-
lar height and stones of differing lengths. Not until toward
1500, in the Cancelleria and other buildings of the time, was
a perfectly uniform system of jointing adopted. Meanwhile
another system of exterior wall treatment had been gaining
ground, the use of stucco for the main surface, as it had been
used from the beginning in interiors. Against this stuccoed
surface was contrasted the stonework about the openings, and,
later, tiers of rusticated blocks or quoins at the angles of the
building. In the Palazzo Pandolfini and the Palazzo Farnese
angle quoins were made of alternating lengths, bonding into
the wall. In late works of Raphael and his school the stucco
itself was modeled into festoons and medallions, still subordi-
nate, however, to the window enframements.
Moldings. As in Roman architecture, the foot and the
crown of the wall, as well as minor divisions, were marked by
horizontal moldings. The machicolated and battlemented
cornices of the Middle Ages gave place to cornices with a bed
molding, corona, and cyma on Corinthian lines (Fig. 211).
Between the stories were carried string-courses, likewise made
up of classical elements. As time went on there was an
increasing approximation to the full membering of the orders.
Thus, whereas the Palazzo Medici has a cornice only, the
Palazzo Strozzi (1489-1507) has also a frieze, and many later
buildings, even without columns or pilasters, have a full
entablature of classic type. In the same way it became
customary to employ in the arch order, in tabernacle windows,
and elsewhere, a pedestal with its own cap and base moldings,
FIG. 2IO — EARLY RENAISSANCE DETAILS. (AFTER GROMORT)
I. Cornice of the Palazzo Medici (Riccardi), Florence. 2. Cornice of the Palazzo
Strozzi, Florence. 3. Faience medallion by Delia Robbia. 4. Flagstaff bracket from
Palazzo del Magnifico, Siena. 5, 6. Capitals from the porch of the Cathedral at Spoleto.
7. Lantern from the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence. 8. Capital and entablature from a tomb
in the Badia, Florence. 9. Window from the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence. 10. Cornice of
the Palazzo Pitti, Florence.
374 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
like those in the upper stories of the Colosseum. The profiles
of individual moldings increase in delicacy of line and truth
to antique principles until in the works of Raphael and
Peruzzi there is a refinement suggestive of Greek models.
Openings. The openings at first were predominantly
arched. Medieval traditions preserved a strong influence in
the retention of a ring of deep voussoirs, the sinking of the
profile in the wall, and the persistence of a central colonnette
with tracery-like arches (Fig. 210). In walls of stucco and
in interiors, however, the projecting classical architrave early
asserted itself, and rectangular and circular-headed windows
without subdivisions made their appearance. A more elabo-
rate treatment, which was destined to become normal, was the
enframement of openings by an order, often with a pediment.
This had been revived during the Middle Ages in the baptistry
of Florence and was employed by Brunelleschi in the doors of
the sacristy of San Lorenzo. For its use about a window or
niche, the tabernacles of the interior of the Pantheon, with
their common pedestal, gave the model followed in the Palazzo
Pandolfini and others of its type (Fig. 211). The use of ears
on an architrave began with Raphael, and consoles to support
the cornice in doors and windows came with Michelangelo
and Peruzzi.
The orders. The men of the Renaissance distinguished
five orders, elaborating the vague suggestions of Vitruvius
regarding an Etruscan or "Tuscan" and a composite order.
The favorite order of the early Renaissance was the Corinthian.
The smaller capitals in this order, although more classical
than those of the Middle Ages, were still greatly modified
in comparison with ancient examples. Especially frequent
was a capital with but a single row of leaves, often with
dolphins or other fantastic substitutes for the volutes. In a
series of such capitals each one was often individually designed,
as in medieval composition (Fig. 210). With Alberti came a
wider use of the other orders, due to their superposition as in
the amphitheaters, although the strict sequence of Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian was not always followed. From the
time of Bramante the Doric order obtained the preference, and
the forms of all the orders became more strictly classical.
There was also a tendency to increase the scale of the orders
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
375
and to subsume more than a single story in the height of one
order. In the interior of churches the use of a single order
reaching to the spring of the vaults was a legacy from medieval
churches with their vaulting shafts. It persisted when, in
Bramante's studies for Saint Peter's, he introduced subordi-
FIG. 211-
DETAILS. (AFTER GROMORT)
-"HIGH RENAISSANCE
1. Cornice of the Palazzo Farnese, Rome.
2. Window of the Palazzo Pandolnni, Florence.
Corner of the Library of Saint Mark, Venice.
376 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
nate superposed orders, and it appeared on the exterior as well.
In civil architecture, also, the employment of a single inclusive
order was approached, although during the Renaissance
proper there was scarcely more than a mezzanine combined
with the principal story. At the other extreme from the
employment from these "colossal" orders was the use of
miniature columns to carry the coping of a parapet (Fig. 210).
In the villa at Cajano and later buildings, however, these
colonnettes were replaced by the vase-like forms known as
balusters (cf. Fig. 211), creations of the Renaissance, which
have ever since retained their importance.
Arch, lintel, and column. The architects of the Renaissance
rarely made use of the free horizontal lintel, except in loggias
where there was no vaulting or superincumbent wall. They
preferred at first to spring arches from column to column, later
to enframe the arch by an order with pilasters or engaged
columns. In this they reversed the sequence of development
in Roman architecture. In the last years of the period,
however, the desire for richness led them to substitute an
entablature for the impost in the arch order and place a minor
column below it. Thus was devised the so-called "Palladian
motive" of a central arch resting on the entablatures of lateral
square-headed bays, which first appeared in the Pazzi Chapel
and found its definitive use in Palladio's Basilica at Vicenza
(Fig. 225).
Wall membering. In the use of columnar forms for the
membering of a wall, the tendency of development was in the
same direction as in Roman architecture. Whereas, beginning
with Alberti, a subdivision by pilasters and entablatures was
usual, after 1500 there was a reversion to wall surfaces without
other orders than those of the window enframements. In
Bramante's palaces the order is omitted in the ground story,
which once more has merely a frank rustication; and in the
Pandolfini and many later palaces the effect is dependent
entirely on tabernacle-work, as it had been in the late Roman
stage backgrounds. In High Renaissance palaces, to be sure,
the engaged column was often substituted for the pilaster, but
this was followed by the use of columns standing quite free of
the wall and thus clearly betraying their decorative character.
The scheme of the arch of Domitian (Constantine) was thus
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 377
repeated in a playful manner in Sansovino's Logetta in
Venice (1540).
Proportions. With the revival of classical forms came a
revival of classical proportions, and still more of the classical
system of proportions. Alberti and others inculcated the
use of integral ratios, and the modular system of Vitruvius
for determining the members of the orders. However much
the architects of the period felt free to depart from such
mathematical proportions in actual practice, there can be no
question that they gave great attention to geometrical
similarity in the designing of masses and openings. There
results in many works a musical harmony of forms like that of
Periclean architecture.
Ornament. The love of ornament, both in sculpture and in
color, which was characteristic of Italy throughout the Middle
Ages, persisted in the Renaissance. Classical models were
here taken up even more readily than for the larger forms of
architecture. Garlands, rosettes, arabesques, candelabra, and
acanthus foliage were carved with a knowledge and freedom
which showed them to have become true possessions of the
Renaissance artist (Fig. 210). Notwithstanding their own
abilities as sculptors and ornamentalists, the early Florentine
architects kept the carved detail strictly subordinate to the
architectural forms. In Lombardy this was less often the
case. There even the pilaster itself was paneled to receive
an arabesque. In Rome under Bramante the abstract archi-
tectural forms tended to supersede floral ornament altogether.
The Tempietto of Bramante shows not a leaf on the exterior.
Under Raphael and Michelangelo, on the other hand, decora-
tive features once more reasserted themselves in the fagade
(Fig. 202), and in the loggias of the Villa Madama and of the
Vatican they reached perhaps their highest development
(Fig. 201).
Spatial forms. The same preoccupation with proportions
which appeared in the study of facades showed itself in the
determination of the forms of interior space. Except in
churches, rectangular shapes were almost the only ones em-
ployed. Simple integral ratios were recommended for the
relations of the length and height of rooms to their width. In
general each element formed a unit completely independent,
378 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
without any spatial connection with others. The stairs,
which might have furnished such a connection, were either
based on the spiral stairs of the Middle Ages or were in narrow
runs inclosed between walls.
Vaults. The technical difficulties of vaulting, after the
vast experience of the Middle Ages, troubled the men of the
Renaissance but little. They were free to choose those forms,
whether classical or medieval, which comported best with their
feeling for the composition of space. The one most preferred
was the dome. Except in the attempts of Alberti to imitate
Roman examples, this was usually employed over a square
plan — either as one of a series of domical vaults supported on
cross-arches or as a dome on pendentives at the central point
of a plan. From the time of Bramante's studies for Saint
Peter's his solution of the problem of a dome on pendentives —
with an enlargement of the central space by short diagonal
faces below the pendentives — was widely adopted. The barrel
vault, which frequently appeared over the arms of cross-plans
and elsewhere, was likewise seldom given its unbroken con-
tinuity but was banded with cross-arches at each bay after the
medieval fashion. Penetrations of the vaulting surface, which
might have given light directly in the vault, were as rare as
in Roman architecture. The groined vault, too, was little
favored, appearing almost solely in the interior arcades of
courts, where it was necessary to have a concentrated thrust
which might be met by iron rods at each bay. On the other
hand the cloister vault, a square or octagonal dome, was widely
used, as well as the apse, which might be either semicircular
or semi-octagonal. A rich combination of vault forms with
supporting members perfectly adapted to them occurs in the
loggia of the Villa Madama (Fig. 201), in which appears also
a characteristic decoration of arabesques in stucco.
External treatment of the dome. The only one of the vaults
which rose above the roofs, and thus required an external
expression, was the central dome, usually on pendentives. In
the cathedral of Florence this already dominated the exterior
in a way which set the model for all the great domes of the
period. In minor buildings like the Pazzi chapel the dome
might still spring directly from the pendentives and be in-
closed in a conical roof, but in more important examples a
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 379
drum was unfailingly introduced, lighting the space below and
raising the dome into prominence. The curve of the dome was
then shown on the exterior. Bramante, in his Tempietto,
treated the drum with pilaster-like panels inclosing windows
and niches alternately. For Saint Peter's he placed around
the drum a full exterior peristyle. This rose above the center
of the curve, and was surmounted by a pedestal and steps, so
that the dome has the saucer-effect of the Pantheon and other
Roman examples. This form, however, remained without
imitators, for the tendency was rather to increase both the
steepness of the curve and the height of the drum. Thus the
model made by San Gallo for the dome of Saint Peter's had
its base encircled by a Roman arch order in two receding
stories, and was crowned with a vast lantern which gave the
whole mass an almost conical aspect.
Roofs. The roofs in Italy had relatively little importance
in the composition of individual buildings, being either low
in pitch or else quite flat and bordered with balustrades. In
the general effect of town and landscape, however, their red
tiles made a striking contrast with the prevailing whiteness
of the walls.
General character of Renaissance forms. Through the spatial
forms of the Renaissance, the massing, the forms of detail,
runs a consistent character, which might be expressed as the
internal unity of each element and the unchangeableness of its
impression on the observer. The isolation of each spatial
element by bounding arches, the preference for self-centered
domical forms and for centrally composed buildings, the self-
sufficiency of each story and each bay, the unbroken enframe-
ment of openings and gables, the lack of projecting masses
which might make transition between a building and its
surroundings, and render its effect changeable with changing
points of view — all these are manifestations of a definite
feeling regarding form, which distinguishes the Italian Renais-
sance from both preceding and following periods.
France. The country outside of Italy which was earliest
and most deeply affected by the Renaissance was France.
The Latin element in the population was here predominant,
and Latin culture was reassimilated with such readiness as to
find a new home. The centralized power of the crown gave
38o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
opportunity for undertakings on a scale unrivaled elsewhere
outside of Rome, and for the calling from Italy of artists of the
first class. At the same time it determined the character of
the predominant architectural type, the chateau of the king
or the court noble.
Development. Transitional period, 1495-1515. It was the
claims of the French kings to Italian territory, leading to a
series of invasions by Charles VIII. , Louis XII. , and Francis I.,
which revealed to them the splendor and luxury of Italian art,
and led to the successful establishment of Renaissance forms
in France. The process was a gradual one, occupying a period
of twenty years from the return of Charles VIII. in 1495.
During this time the predominant character of the buildings
remained Gothic, but Renaissance details mingled with the
Gothic forms in ever increasing proportions. An early
instance of such a mixture is the wing built by Louis XII. in
the chateau of Blois (1503, Fig. 212). Here the classical
influence appears in little else but the elliptical form of the
arches and the delicate arabesque panels which decorate the
piers. At the chateau of Gaillon pilasters and entablatures
imitate the arch order and other classical features.
Early Renaissance, 1515-45. Francis 7. With the reign
of Francis I. (1515—47) coincides the early Renaissance, in
which, although the structure and disposition of buildings
were still fundamentally Gothic, they were completely clothed
in a garb of pseudo-classical forms. The irregular plans,
round towers, and high, steep roofs with dormers persisted,
but the stories were treated with superposed orders of delicate
pilasters and entablatures, the main cornices were emphasized
with an aggregation of Italian elements. The center of
activity remained in the royal residences of the Loire valley.
The earliest phase of the style is well illustrated in the wing of
Francis I. at Blois (1515-19), with the magnificent spiral stair-
way in classical masquerade (Fig. 212). At the chateau of
Chambord, constructed in 1526-44, the detail was similar,
but the plan was for the first time rigidly symmetrical. In the
chateau of Ecouen (1531-40), likwise symmetrical, square
towers or angle pavilions took the place of round ones, and the
Chateau Madrid near Paris was lent a truly Italian air by its
graceful exterior arcades resting on columns like those of a
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
381
Florentine court. Owing to the conquest of Milan by Francis
and to his patronage of north Italian artists, it was the
influence of Lombardy which predominated in the detail. The
paneled pilasters and florid ornament of the Loire chateaux
are the descendants of those at San Satiro and the Certosa
(Fig. 195)-
The High Renaissance, 1545-70. Henry II. In the last
years of Francis and the following 'reign of Henry II. came a
FIG. 212 — BLOIS. COURT OF THE CHATEAU, SHOWING WINGS OF
LOUIS xii (AT BACK) AND FRANCIS i (AT LEFT)
change, due to the assimilation of the style and to the influence
of the Roman school of Bramante. The Italian masters now
brought to France represented this tradition — Serlio the
pupil of Peruzzi, Primaticcio the pupil of a disciple of Raphael.
For the first time, also, Frenchmen assumed the r61e of archi-
tect in the modern sense. Jean Goujon, Pierre Lescot,
Philibert de TOnne, Jacques Androuet du Cerceau, and Jean
Bullant were not mere master builders. Most, if not all, of
them had been in Italy and had studied the designs of the
Roman masters; some of them held high court appointments.
Their buildings show a mastery of the grammar of classical
382 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
forms and an ability to use them freely to secure new effects
which were characteristically national. These depended
partly on differing climatic conditions, which required lower
rooms, larger windows, and tall chimney stacks, and partly
on tradition, which still caused the retention of projecting
pavilions with high individual roofs.
First designs. The earliest work to show the characteristics
of the High Renaissance is the H6tel de Ville in Paris, begun
from a model by Domenico of Cortona (called Boccador) in
1531. The motive was suggested by Raphael's Palazzo dell'
Aquila, with a Roman arch order below and niches between
the windows of the main story. By 1 535 a Frenchman himself
had caught the spirit of classicism, as Goujon showed in his
tomb for Louis de Breze at Rouen. At Ancy-le-France
(1538-46) Primaticcio regularized the scheme of the French
chateau, not only in the strictly rectangular plan but in the
uniform intercolumniations of the exterior and the rhythmical
bay treatment of the court. At the same time De rOrme, in
Saint Maur-les-Fosses, introduced the rusticated orders of
Sanmicheli. At Bournazel in the south, about 1545, the
neighboring classical monuments stimulated a treatment of
the triumphal arch motive with engaged columns, which was
truly classical in its monumentality. The most characteristic
design of all was that for the rebuilding of the Louvre in Paris,
the work of Lescot and Goujon (Fig. 213). Here there was
the subtlest mingling of French and Italian traditions. The
lower stories — with their superposed orders, their pedestals
and pedimented windows — recall Bramante and Raphael.
The projecting motives which mark the end bays and the
center suggest those of the Cancelleria, as well as the French
tower-pavilions. The delicacy of profiling rivals that of
Peruzzi. The great size of the windows, the pediments which
terminate the attic, are of northern origin, while the emphasis
which results from the use of both pilasters and engaged
columns is a novel contribution by Lescot.
Later developments. Still more advanced developments,
parallel with contemporary movements in Italy, were the later
designs of Primaticcio, Bullant, De 1'Orme, and Du Cerceau.
In the chateau of Monceaux the Italian master employed for
the first time in France — in the same year that Michelangelo
FIG. 213 — PARIS. COURT OF THE LOUVRE. (ORIGINAL CONSTRUCTIONS
OF LESCOT AND GOUJON)
384 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
designed his palaces on the Capitol (1547)— the "colossal
order" rising through two stories to the main cornice. A
similar use of free standing columns occurs in the monumental
frontispiece erected by Bullant at Ecouen (about 1564) and
elsewhere. Domed chapels were built by De rOrme at Anet
(1548) and by Primaticcio at Saint Denis (1559^.)- Finally
came the vast symmetrical plans grouped about a multitude
of courts, designed by de FOrme for the Tuileries (1564, Fig.
214), and by Du Cerceau for Charleval (1572), which surpassed
anything projected in Italy.
Types of buildings. Chateaux. The Renaissance chateau
developed, as its name implies, from the fortified castle of
the Middle Ages. Although no longer planned to withstand
a siege, it was still made secure against marauders by a moat
and gate-house, and preserved the arrangement about a court
and at least a reminiscence of the earlier fortified towers at
the angles. The staircases, at first spiral like those of the
Middle Ages, were later arranged in straight flights. Access
^ to individual rooms could usually be obtained only by passing
through others, for even the open air circulation provided by
the arcades of an Italian courtyard was usually absent. • A
principal hall or gallery for functions of state was provided,
often monumental in its size and treatment, like the gallery
rof Henry ID at Fontainebleau. A forecourt outside the moat
accommodated the service functions.
City hotels. Although at this time the court still resided
mostly in the country, town houses of some pretensions were
built by officials and wealthy merchants. These, such as the
H6tel d'Asaezat at Toulouse, were unlike the Italian town
houses which faced directly on the street. They followejLthe:
larger medieval houses of France in facing on a court which
was separated from trie street by a screen wall with an arched
carriage entrance.
Churches. During the early Renaissance church architect-
ure remained fundamentally Gothic, with a mere substitution
of classical details, poorly understood. Saint Eustache in
Paris, a typical example, still has a plan like that of Notre
Dame, with groined vaults and flying buttresses. Many of
these buildings are not the less effective from their combina-
tion of supposedly incongruous elements, The same character
f
10 «? 0 10 20 }0 40 50
100
-'METRES
FIG. 214 — PARIS. THE TUILERIES. (DE L'ORME's PLAN)
386 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
persists in most churches of the High Renaissance, but the
few designed by the court architects show the new spirit.
Thus the facade of Saint Nizier at Lyons (1542) has a great
niche with massive half-columns, and the Mausoleum Chapel
at Anet (1566) is classical both in its simple rectangular plan
and its front with pilasters and attic. De l'Orme's chapel
in the park of Villers-Cotter£ts had a circular dome with three
semicircular chapels and a free-standing pedimented portico —
the earliest in France, more advanced in classical character
than most Italian designs. His Palace Chapel for Anet had
again a circular central space, but with the arms of a Greek
cross. For the Mausoleum of the Valois at Saint Denis,
Primaticcio adopted a plan like that of Brunelleschi's Santa
Maria degli Angeli, with six niched chapels and a gallery about
a central dome. The architectural membering here, both
inside and out, was of the richest and purest classical forms,
and the building ranks among the most important of all the
centrally composed buildings of the Renaissance.
Details. In France where the climate scarcely permitted
the open loggias of Italy, the free-standing column with either
lintel or arch was very rare. So too, during the Renaissance,
was the simple wall, for columns and entablatures were
indispensable elements of decoration. The membering of the
wall, perhaps in combination with rustication, was the major
problem of the time among questions of detail. In the solu-
tion of it, alternation in some form was the favorite device.
The earlier chateaux, treated with pilasters, had windows over
one another in one bay, then blank panels in the next bay.
Later the true rhythmical bay scheme in all its variants was
adopted. The rusticated column introduced by De 1'Orme
was exalted by him into a sixth order, which he called the
"French order" (Fig. 215). Unlike most of the Italian
examples, some of the French ones are of the greatest delicacy
of carved enrichment. In the early Renaissance the Corin-
thian order had the same preference which it enjoyed in Italy;
later no one order was specially favored. The low ceilings
usual in France, with the prevailing secular character of
French architecture, gave little opportunity for a development
of vaulting. The flat ceilings were treated as in Italy with
elaborate coffering. A striking feature of contrast with Italian
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 387
architecture was the high roof with its dormers, gables, and
chimneys. The dormer was treated first with pilasters bearing
pinnacles, and with elaborate gables and finials; later it was
given merely the form of a pedimented window. The balus-
trade above the cornice gave place to an ornamental cresting.
A common feature making transition be-
tween the wall and the roof was a row of
pediments which crowned repeating mo-
tives below, as in the Louvre. Such ele-
ments were sufficient by themselves to
endow French buildings, no matter how
strictly classical in their ordonnance, with
a characteristically national aspect.
Spain. In Spain, as in France and other
countries outside of Italy, there was a
mingling of Italian forms with those al-
ready existing in the native medieval archi-
tecture. Here, however, the medieval
style itself included a large admixture of
Moorish forms. Moriscoes, until their ex-
pulsion in 1610, remained prominent
among artificers, and thus had their in-
fluence on the Renaissance forms as well.
Thus arose the Plateresque or silversmith's
style, so called from the intricate and deli-
cate ornament abounding in it. This,
which corresponds with the early Renais-
sance, extended from about 1500 to 1560.
A notable example is the Town Hall at
Seville (Fig. 216), built in 1527-32. Here
there is an application of engaged orders
in two stories which in its main lines is
thoroughly grammatical, but which has pilasters, columns,
window enframements, and panels alike covered with the
richest arabesques and candelabra-like forms. Even more
characteristic in its mode of composition is the doorway of the
University at Salamanca. Here the ornament is massed in a
great panel above the opening, which contrasts with the
broad neighboring surfaces of unbroken masonry. Other
notable features of the style are open arcaded loggias which
FIG. 2 1 5 — PARIS. DE-
TAIL FROM THE TUI-
LERIES. (PLANAT)
388 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
often terminate a fagade, as in the Casa de Monterey at
Salamanca (1530), and the courts or patios surrounded by
galleries which are found in all important buildings. Forms
like those of the High Renaissance in Italy first appeared in
the palace begun for Charles V. in the Alhambra (1527), by
Pedro Machuca. This building is square in plan with a circular
' FIG. 2l6 — SEVILLE. TOWN HALL
colonnaded court having superposed orders, Doric and Ionic
(Fig. 217). In purity and classical quality the building holds
its own with contemporary monuments of Italy. From this
time occasional buildings continued the stricter classical
tendency, the most famous examples of which really belong to
the succeeding period.
Germany and the Low Countries. In Germany the multitude
of small states resulted in great variety in the degree to which
Renaissance principles were assimilated, and in the stage of
advancement in different regions. The Belvedere built at
Prague about 1536 shows a full exterior peristyle with arches
descending on columns, all of Florentine aspect. Such designs
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
389
were but isolated exceptions, however. In most buildings
the Italian forms were strongly modified, and the medieval
element was much more persistent than in France. The
wing built by the Elector Otto Heinrich (1556-59) in the
castle at Heidelberg shows a combination of elements derived
linn
FIG. 217 — GRANADA. PALACE OF CHARLES V. COURT
from Bramante and his school with other elements from
Lombardy (Fig. 218). Three superposed orders, the two lower
ones with pilasters, recall the Cancelleria, but every second
support is replaced by a corbel and a statued niche like those
introduced by Raphael. In the lower story the pilasters are
rusticated, in the following story they have arabesque panels.
The window enframements with their candelabra mullions
recall the Certosa at Pavia. A similar character prevailed
in most buildings of the later sixteenth century, which began
to be influenced by the baroque movement in Italy. The
A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
baroque spirit, as we shall see, was indeed akin to that of the
German Renaissance craftsmen, as their ready assimilation
of the forms of herms, "cartouches," and broken pediments
reveals. The wing at Heidelberg built by Friedrich IV.
(1601-07), where such features appear, shows at first glance
FIG. 2l8— HEIDELBERG.
WING OF OTTO HEINRICH IN THE
CASTLE
but little difference from its predecessor. The Peller house
at Niirnberg (1625) shows the continued vitality of the
Renaissance as applied to one of the most common problems
in Germany, the dwelling of the wealthy town merchant
(Fig. 219). Its superposed orders, enframing the windows,
run up continuously into the great stepped and ornamented
gable, which still proclaims a descent from the Middle Ages.
In Flanders and Holland, except for the more frequent use of
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 39i
brick, the general character of the work is similar to that
of Germany.
England. Development. The latest of the great Western
nations to feel the effects of the Renaissance in architecture
was England, isolated and always conservative. Italian
sculptors were employed by Wolsey and Henry VIII., and their
FIG. 219 — NURNBERG. PELLER HOUSE
influence made itself felt, as at Hampton Court (1515-40),
in the carved details of many buildings which remained
essentially Gothic. Meanwhile the spirit of classical sym-
metry was appearing in the plans, and shortly before the
accession of Elizabeth in 1558 the forms of the orders began
to be imitated and applied to the facades of buildings. The
Italians had meanwhile gradually departed, but Flemings and
Germans began to take their places, and at least one English-
39* A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
man, John Shute, went to Italy to study architecture (1550).
His First and Chief Grounds of Architecture (1563) was based
on Vitruvius and gave diagrams of the orders. Sir Thomas
Gresham secured from Flanders the design of the Royal
Exchange (1567-70), which had a court of Florentine aspect,
with arches resting on columns below, 'pilasters and statued
niches above. In Longleat House (1567-80) the whole ex-
terior, in three stories, was treated with superposed orders of
grammatical form and proportions, and many porches and
doorways from less elaborate houses of just this period show
that the classical forms were well understood. It. is this
phase of style, lasting but a very few years, which really
corresponds to the High Renaissance in Italy and France.
The tide of baroque ornament which was already inundating
the Continent swept over England also before either the
medieval or the Renaissance currents had spent their force.
The architectural books of De Vries (1559-77) and other
Flemings and Germans — full of the new and bizarre combina-
tions of classical elements, scrolls, cartouches, and "strap-
work," imitating cut leather — were widely followed.
Types. While in its details the architecture of Elizabeth
and James I. thus passed from medieval to post-Renaissance,
in its practical problems and types it forms unmistakably a
unit, governed by the life of the Renaissance itself— the pe-
riod of Spenser, Shakespeare, and Raleigh. Although the
monarchy was powerful enough to insure peace, the landed
aristocracy remained of great wealth and importance. The
country houses of nobles and gentlemen, often on a vast scale,
were the principal creations of the period. These men were
less interested in religious than in mundane things, so that new
churches were few and they remained almost purely Gothic.
The house. The Elizabethan and Jacobean houses were
developed from the medieval fortified manors by making them
more symmetrical and more open, and by ornamenting or over-
laying certain portions with classical details. The basic
arrangement was a square court, on one side of which, opposite
the gate-house, was the great hall, where master and servants
ate and mingled. At one end of the hall was the entrance
passage or ''screens," at the other the dais for the high table,
with its fireplace and bay window. Beyond, in either direc-
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
393
tion, were the kitchens and the private apartments, respec-
tively, and along the sides of the court were lodgings reached
only by passing through those intervening or through the
open air. In the second story, approached by the principal
staircase near the dais, was the long gallery, a luxurious feature
first introduced at
Hampton Court.
This often at-
tained a length of
over two hundred
feet, with a width
of but sixteen to
twenty - five. In
the earlier ex-
amples there was
no attempt to
secure formal
symmetry either
in plan or in eleva-
tion. At Sutton
Place (1523-25)
the court was
made for the first
time rigidly sym-
metrical, and this
later became the
rule also for the
external fagades,
so far as they could
be appreciated in
any single view.
The gate - house
and "screens"
were centered on
the main axis, the bay window of the dais was repeated on
the other side of the court. At Montacute (1580) and many
later houses, the lodgings inclosing the court were omitted
and the house was opened freely in all directions. With the
porch and with projections on the garden side the plan thus
became E or H-shaped (Fig. 220). Medieval elements re-
FIG. 220 — MONTACUTE HOUSE. (GOTCH)
i. Hall. 2. Drawing-room. 3. Large dining-room. 4. Small
dining-room. 5. Smoke-room. 6. Pantry. 7. Kitchen. 8. Ser-
vants' Hall. 9. Porch. 10. Garden house.
394 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
mained important in the aspect as well as in the plan, for a
multitude of high roofs, gables, dormers, turrets, chimney
stacks, and bay windows diversified the skylines and the wall
surfaces. Even at Longleat, the most classical of all the
houses, the mullioned bays still tell more powerfully than the
FIG. 221 — HATFIELD HOUSE
engaged orders. In others which were more typical, like
Hatfield House (1611, Fig. 221), the elements are almost
purely medieval, and what has transformed the whole into
something new and characteristic is only the classical spirit
of symmetry and order.
PERIODS OF RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
ITALY
I. Early Renaissance, c. 1420-1500.
Florentine school.
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1379-1446.
Spedale degli Innocent i, 1421.
San Lorenzo, begun about 1425.
Pazzi Chapel and Sacristy of San Lorenzo,
c. 1429.
Centers
Florence
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 395
ITALY— (Continued)
Santa Maria degli Angeli, 1434.
Santo Spirito, 1435.
Palazzo Pitti, c. 1440 (?).
Michelozzo di Bartolommeo, 1396-1472.
Palazzo Medici (Riccardi), begun 1444.
Leon Battista Alberti, 1404-72.
San Francesco at Rimini, 1447.
SS. Annunziata at Florence, 1451.
Palazzo Rucellai at Florence, 1451-55.
San Sebastiano at Mantua, 1459.
Sant' Andrea at Mantua, 1472.
Giuliano da San Gallo, 1445-1516.
Villa Poggio at Cajano, 1485.
Sacristy of Santo Spirito at Florence
(with Cronaca), 1489-96.
Palazzo Strozzi at Florence (with others),
1489-1507.
Simone del Pollajuolo (called II Cronaca),
1457-1508.
San Francesco al Monte at Florence, 1487.
Antonio da San Gallo the elder, 146 1(?)-
1534-
San Biagio at Montepulciano, 1518-37.
Luciano da Laurana, d. c. 1482.
Ducal Palace at Urbino, 1468-82.
Venetian school.
Pietro Lombardo, c. 1435-1512.
Palazzo Vendramini, 1481.
Santa Maria dei Miracoli, 1481-87.
Lombard school.
Fra Giocondo, c. 1433-1515.
(?) Loggia del Consiglio at Verona, begun
1476.
Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, 1 44 7- 1 5 2 2 .
Facade of the Certosa at Pavia (with
others), begun 1493.
Donato Bramante, 1444-1514.
Sacristy of Santa Maria near San Satiro,
Milan, 1489-98.
Choir of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan,
1492-99.
Santa Maria at Abbiate Grasso, 1497.
Centers
Florence
3g6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ITALY — (Continued)
Rome.
Palazzo Venezia and Church of San
Marco, 1455-66.
Palazzo Cancelleria, 1486-95.
II. "High Renaissance," c. 1500-40.
Roman school.
Donato Bramante (1444-1514), from 1499.
Cloister of Santa Maria della Pace,
1504.
Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio,
1500-02.
Court of the Belvedere at the Vatican,
begun 1506.
Saint Peter's, begun 1506.
Palazzo Caprini,
Raphael, 1483-1520.
Saint Peter's, 1514-20.
Loggias of the Court of San Damaso at
the Vatican.
Palazzo delF Aquila.
Villa Madama, begun 1520.
Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence, begun
c. 1520.
Baldassare Peruzzi, 1481-1536.
Villa Farnesina in Rome, 1509-11.
Palazzo Albergati in Bologna, 1522.
Palazzi Massimi at Rome, 1531.
Antonio da San Gallo the younger, 1482-
1546.
Palazzo Farnese in Rome, c. 1520-80.
Venetian school.
Michele Sanmicheli, 1484-1559.
Gates of Verona, 1533 /.
Palazzo Pompei at Verona, 1530.
Palazzo Grimani at Venice, completed
1539-
Jacopo Sansovino, 1486-1570.
Palazzo Cornaro della Ca' Grande at
Venice, 1530.
Library of Saint Mark's at Venice, 1536.
Logetta of the Campanile at Venice,
1540.
Centers
Florence.
Rome
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
397
FRANCE
I. Transitional period, c. 1495-1515.
Invasions of Italy by Charles VIII., 1494-
95, and by Louis XII. , 1499-1504.
Wing of Louis XII. at Blois, 1503.
Chateau of Gaillon, 1497-1510.
II. Early Renaissance, c. 1515-45 (Francis I., 1515-
47).
Wing of Francis I. at Blois, 1515-19.
Chateau of Chambord, 1526-44.
Chateau of Ecouen, 1531-40.
Chateau Madrid near Paris, 1528-0. 1565.
Saint Pierre at Caen, 1518-45.
Saint Eustache at Paris, begun 1532.
III. "High Renaissance, "c. 1545-70.
Domenico of Cortona (Boccador), d. 1549.
Hotel de Ville at Paris, begun 1531.
Jean Goujon, d. between 1564 and 1568.
Tomb of Louis de Breze at Rouen, 1535.
Pierre Lescot, 1510 (?)~78.
Court of the Louvre (with Goujon),
1546-76.
Francesco Primaticcio, 1490-1570.
Chateau of Ancy-le-France, 1538-46.
Chateau of Monceaux-en-Brie, i547~55-
Tomb of the Valois at Saint Denis, 1559 jf.
Philibert de 1'Orme, b. between 1510 and
1515; d. 1570.
Chateau of Saint Maur-les-Fosses, c. 1545.
Chateau d'Anet, 1548-54.
Tuileries at Paris, begun 1564.
Jean Bullant, c. 1525 (?)~78.
Chateau d'Ecouen, porticoes, c. 1564.
Jacques Androuet du Cerceau, b. c. 1510;
d. after 1584.
Chateau of Verneuil, 1 565 jf.
Chateau of Charleval, 1572-74.
Centers
Loire valley
Paris
I.
SPAIN
Early Renaissance, "Plateresque," c. 1480-1530.
Enrique de Egas, c. I455~i534-
Portal of the Hospital of Santa Cruz, before 1514.
Portal of the University in Salamanca, 1515-3°'
398 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
SPAIN — ( Continued)
Alonso de Covarrubias, c. 1488-1564.
Archiepiscopal palace in Alcala de Henares, 1534.
North facade of the Alcazar in Toledo, 1537.
Palacio Monterey in Salamanca.
Town Hall in Seville, 1546-64.
II. High Renaissance, c. 1530-70.
Diego de Siloe, c. 1500-63.
Cathedral of Granada, 1528 jf.
Pedro Machuca.
Palace of Charles V. in Granada, 1526-33.
GERMANY
I. Early Renaissance, c. 1520-50.
Belvedere at Prague, 1534^.
Palace at Landshut, 1536-43.
Portal of the Castle at Brieg, 1552.
II. High Renaissance, c. 1550-1600.
Otto Heinrichsbau at Heidelberg, 1556-63.
Portico of the Rathaus in Cologne, 1569-71.
Rathaus in Liibeck, 1570 jf.
Rathaus in Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, 1572 Jf.
Friedrichsbau at Heidelberg, 1601-07. | With baroque feat-
Peller House in Nurnberg, 1605. J ures.
ENGLAND
Henry VIII., 1509-47. Isolated examples of Italian ornament.
Hampton Court, 1515-40.
Palace of Nonesuch, c. 1537-50.
Screen in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 1532-36.
Elizabeth, 1558-1603.
Burghley House, dormers, 1556 Jf.
Royal Exchange in London, 1566-70.
Longleat, 1567-80.
Kirby Hall, 1570-1640.
Montacute House, 1580-1610.
Wollaton, 1580-88.
James I., 1603-25.
Bramshill, 1605.
Hatfield House, 1611.
Audley End, 1616.
Blickling Hall, 1619-20,
With baroque features.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 399
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Renaissance architecture in general. Aside from series of which
the individual volumes are listed below there may be mentioned es-
pecially P. FrankPs Die Entwicklungsphasen der neueren Baukunst,
1914 (a study of development), and C. H. Moore's Character of
Renaissance Architecture, 1905 (an unsympathetic estimate).
Italy. The most recent and authoritative works are almost ex-
clusively in foreign languages. Scholarly general works are H.
Willich's Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien, 1914 (Handbuch der
Kunstwis sens chaff) , J. Burckhardt's Geschichte der Renaissance in
Italien (Geschichte der neueren Baukunst}, 5th ed., 1912 (both with
emphasis on development), and J. Durm's Baukunst der Renaissance
in Italien (Handbuch der Architektur} , 2d ed., 1914 (with emphasis
on technical analysis) . A competent brief sketch of the development
is P. FrankPs Die Renaissance- Architektur in Italien, vol. i, 1912
(Aus Natur und Geisteswelt} . W. J. Anderson's The Architecture
of the Renaissance in Italy, 4th ed., 1909, and G. Gromort's Histoire
abrege de ^architecture de la renaissance en Italie, 1913, are richly
illustrated works, which, however, repeat many statements now
generally considered erroneous. Among numerous monumental il-
lustrated folios covering special regions may be mentioned: P.
Letarouilly's Edifices de Rome moderne, 3 vols., 1868-74, the engrav-
ings of which are supplemented by photographs in H. Strack's
Baudenkmdler Roms des XV. -XIX. Jahrhunderts, 1891; C. Stegmann
and H. von Geymuller's Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana,
ii vols., 1885-1908; and R. Reinhardt, RaschdorfT, and others'
Palast- Architektur von Ober-Italien und Toscana vom XV. bis XVII.
Jahrhundert, 5 vols., 1886-1911. H. Strack's Central-und Kuppel-
kirchen der Renaissance in Italien, 2 vols., 1882; W. Limburger's
Die Gebaude von Florenz, 1910, and B. Patzak's Die Renaissance-und
Barock-Villa in Italien, vols. 2 and 3, 1908-12, are careful monographs.
France. The fundamental works are W. Lubke's Geschichte der
Renaissance in Frankreich, 2d ed., 1885 (Geschichte der neueren
Baukunst}, and H. von Geymuller's Die Baukunst der Renaissance
in Frankreich (Handbuch der Architektur}, 2 vols., 1898-1901. W. H.
Ward's The Architecture of the Renaissance in France, 2 vols., 1911,
embodies Geymuller's researches in English, with numerous illus-
trations. R. Blomfield's History of French Architecture, 1498-1661,
2 vols., 1911, suffers from failure to employ the discussions in Ger-
man. C. T. Mathew's The Renaissance under the Valois, 1893, is
still valuable for its fine illustrations. Among the many collections
of measured drawings may be mentioned those of Berty, Rouyer
and Darcel, Daly, and Sauvageot. Large photographs are provided
400 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
by C. Martin's La Renaissance en France, 2 vols., 1910-12, and the
relevant section of C. Gurlitt's Die Baukunst Frankreichs, 4 vols.,
1896-1900. The chateaux are treated specifically in two works by
Victor Petit (lithographs), in H. Saint Saveur's Chateaux de France
(photographs), and, for the smaller buildings, in L. C. NewhalPs
The Minor Chateaux and Manor Houses of France of the XV. and XVI.
Century, 1914. Urban dwellings are covered by P. Vitry's Hotels
et maisons de la renaissance franQaise, 2 vols., 1911-12. The field
of biography is particularly rich, in the works of Berty (1860),
Destailleur (1863), Lance (1872), Bauchal (1887), and Vachon (1910).
Spain and Portugal. A. Byne and M. Stapley's Spanish Architect-
ure of the Sixteenth Century, 1917, chiefly devoted to the Plateresque,
may be supplemented by the sketch prefixed to O. Schubert's Ge'schich-
te der Barock in Spanien, 1908. Further illustration is furnished by
M. Junghandel's Die Baukunst Spaniens, 3 vols., 1889-98; C. Uhde's
Baudenkmaler in Spanien und Portugal, 2 vols., 1892; and A. Haupt's
Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal, 2 vols., 1890-95. The
Monumentos arquitectonicos de Espana, 1859-81, is a vast series pub-
lished at the expense of the state.
Germany. The two fundamental accounts are W. Liibke's Ge-
schichte der Renaissance in DeiJschland (Geschichte der neueren Bau-
kunst}, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1882, and G. von Bezold's Die Baukunst der
Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland, Belgien und Ddnemark (Hand-
buch der Architektur} , 2d ed., 1908. Monumental folios of illus-
trations are A. Ortwein and A. Scheffer's Deutsche Renaissance, 9
vols., 1871-88; K. E. O. Fritsch's Denkmdler deutscher Renaissance,
4 vols., 1891; and A. Lambert and E. Stahl's Motive der deutschen
Architektur des XVI., XVII., und XVIII. J ahrhunderts , vol. i,
1890. A work in briefer compass is J. Hoffman's Baukunst und
dekorative Skulptur der Renaissance in Deutschland, 1909.
England. For the Renaissance proper the principal account is
J. A. Gotch's Early Renaissance Architecture in England, 2d ed.,
1914. R. Blomfield's History of Renaissance Architecture in Eng-
land, 1500-1800, 2 vols., 1897, includes a briefer discussion of the
period in question. An abridged edition in one volume was issued
in 1904. Large photographs are furnished by Gotch's Architecture
of the Renaissance in England, 2 vols., 1894; C. Uhde's Baudenkmdler
in Gross Britanien, 2 vols., 1894; and T. Garner and A. Stratton's
The Domestic Architecture of England During the Tudor Period,
3 vols., 1908-11. Other discussions of the domestic architecture of
the Renaissance in England occur in Gotch's The Growth of the
English House, 1909, and H. Muthesius's Das englische Haus,
vol. i, 1904. The Renaissance garden is covered by H. I. Triggs's
Formal Gardens of England and Scotland, 1902.
CHAPTER XI
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
By the middle of the sixteenth century the spiritual forces
of the Renaissance in Italy were exhausted, and new forces
began to determine the cultural development. Men no longer
dreamed of a literal resurrection of pagan Rome, but were
confronted by the revival of militant Christianity in the
Reformation and the counter-Reformation. With the growth
of centralized states came absolutism on the part of the
monarchs, elaboration of their courts, and the final establish-
ment of domestic security and of modern city and country
life.
Architectural changes. Simultaneously with the beginning
of these cultural changes, architecture also underwent changes
which were not less fundamental. Classic forms, indeed,
still remained elements of the design, and conformity to
classical canons still remained the ideal in some quarters. The
feeling as to what constitutes a classical character, however,
was changed, the elements became materials which could be
recombined or played with freely, and emphasis was trans-
ferred to other qualities than purity of detail and geometrica^
simplicity, ^Hrst among these qualities was a heightened
unity in the composition of single buildings, and extension of
the scope of the composition to include their surroundings, or
even whole quarters or whole towns. There was a correspond-
ing decrease in the isolation and self-sufficiency of individual
parts of a composition: the subdivisions of interior space
tended to melt away; the lines of cornices and string-courses
were interrupted, or architraves, pediments, and orders were
broken by rustic blocks. Facades no longer conformed to a
single plane, but had a boldness of relief which resulted in an
aspect varying with every movement of the observer. Practi-
402 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
cal requirements became more specialized and the forms of
rooms began to be differentiated so as to stand in an organic
relation with their functions.
Academic and baroque tendencies. Sharing these qualities,
which give the fundamental unity to the style of the time, are
buildings of two diverse tendencies, opposed to each other in
their relations to classical architecture. On one hand was the
academic tendency, which perpetuated the striving of the
Renaissance for accurate reproduction of classical features
and for the establishment of mathematical canons of pro-
portion. On the other hand was the so-called baroque
tendency, which was to disregard classical dispositions ' and
theoretic rules alike, and to use the forms of the orders as
elements of a plastic modeling of masses. Such tendencies
to strictness and to freedom -within a style offered nothing new
in principle, having been indeed always present in greater or
less measure. Only the sharpness of their antithesis was
hitherto unusual, and even this did not prevent a great variety
of compromises both in individual buildings and in the work
of national schools.
An inclusive term. In English the designation baroque has
always been applied only to the works of the freer tendency,
and not, as in German and Italian, to all the works of the
period. The other works, considered as still belonging to the
Renaissance, have thus too often been separated from those
which were not only contemporary with them, but shared
with them most of their fundamental qualities. It has here
been thought better to preserve the historical unity of the
period, and to adopt a name for it — post-Renaissance — which
expresses merely its chronological position and its artistic
patrimony.
Centers and diffusion. As in the Renaissance, the new
movements first acquired form and momentum in Italy. In
northern lands, where the Renaissance itself was associated
with the Reformation, they scarcely appeared until the time
of the wars of religion. Unlike the Renaissance, however, they
produced results elsewhere equal in importance to those in
Italy. Spain, France, and England had meanwhile become
highly centralized nations, which successively attained world
power, while Italy and Germany remained torn by internal
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTUR)
struggles. During the central years of the period!
dominated European politics and European culture, anu *,
thus the French version of contemporary ideas which, in
later years, had the greatest influence.
Italy. Academic origins. The germs of both academic and
baroque tendencies existed in Italy well within the Renais-
sance period. The forerunners of academicism were Alberti
and the early editors and commentators of Vitruvius. All
these were concerned largely with the fixing of normal forms
and proportions for individual architectural members. After
1500 the editions and translations of Vitruvius multiplied
rapidly, and belief in the infallible authority of the Roman
writer increased to a fantastic extent best seen in passages in
the writings of Serlio, appearing 1537-75. The rules were to
be followed even when they were in conflict with the teachings
of ancient monuments. By 1542 the adherents of formal
theory were sufficiently numerous and self-conscious to found
a Vitruvian academy in Rome.
Baroque origins. Michelangelo. Against this academic ten-
dency there arose a powerful champion in Michelangelo.
He boldly proclaimed his ambition "to burst the toils and
chains" which architecture had suffered to be laid upon itself
and his intention to hold himself bound by no rule ancient
or modern. Already, in his designs for the facade of San
Lorenzo (1514) and for the interior of the Medici chapel in
Florence (1521-34, Fig. 204), he had shown a new freedom.
In one it was the richer relief of free-standing columns and
sculpture, here used for the first time as decorative forms in a
Renaissance fagade. In the other it was the unconventional
use of classical details in the filling of the main architectural
framework. Entablatures were broken, architraves and friezes
omitted at will, proportions were modified, and a multitude
of consoles were introduced. Within the tabernacles above
the doors the inner enframement penetrates even the hori-
zontal cornice and rises into the tympanum of the pediment.
In the sarcophagi of the Medici chapel Michelangelo even
gave a suggestion for breaking the upper cyma of a pediment,
which he and others soon proceeded to do. Similar liberties
of detail appear in another of his designs at this period, not
completed after his death — the vestibule of the Laurentian
ti a .'. '$"15* VT\ \-%\V~
MftW^
m^x w* JTI^y^Vy. •* \W- •.••.•••:::•:.••••.•.•
,•::>•/'•• ^ • Jr '; x* *\J^% A'- &/'• .•:••:.••.•.••;?••.•:.•..
R :/
IpT 12— :ii:i-^
IJfl^;} M» •*.;.•-..,
FIG. 222 — ROME. PLAN OF SAINT PETER'S AND THE VATICAN. (GROMORT)
A. Basilica of Saint Peter
B. Piazza of Saint Peter
C. Court of the Belvedere
D. Court of San Damaso (with the
Loggias of Raphael)
E. Villa Pia
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 405
Library in Florence. An even more striking innovation here
was the placing of the stairs, free on all sides, in the center of a
room which rose through two stories.
Michelangelo's later work. Saint Peter's. The second and
more important period of Michelangelo's architectural work
began on the death of Antonio da San Gallo (1546), when he
succeeded to the direction of Saint Peter's and the papal build-
FIG. 223 — ROME. SAINT PETER'S DOME FROM THE EAST
ings generally. He was already seventy-one years of age, yet
he survived and continued to develop for eighteen years
more. In Saint Peter's (Fig. 222) he reverted to the centrally
composed scheme of Bramante which had been modified as a
result of liturgical considerations He omitted the outer
aisles and chapels hitherto proposed and restored the single
colossal order on the exterior. For the domes proposed by
Bramante and San Gallo he substituted one of his own design,
embodying many novel features (Fig. 223). It followed the
dome of Brunelleschi in having more than a single shell and in
4o6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
having a system of deep ribs with lighter filling. Michel-
angelo, however, took advantage of the multiplicity of shells
to give the exterior of the dome a steeper pitch than the in-
terior, and he gave the ribs a visible expression both inside
and out. Instead of a continuous exterior peristyle he placed
around the drum a series of buttress-like masses, one at
FIG. 224. ROME. THE CAPITOL
each rib. The result was a dome of new and more soaring
aspect, which has remained an almost universal model for the
following centuries.
The Capitol. Of scarcely less influence was Michelangelo's
work on the Capitoline Hill in Rome (begun 1546). Here on
the saddle between the two summits he created a monumental
group hitherto unrivaled in its unity (Fig. 224). Taking a
suggestion, perhaps, from the square at Pienza, he made the
sides of his square diverge toward the Palazzo del Senatore
which formed the background for a rich display of ancient
sculpture. To right and left were palaces identical with
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 407
each other, harmonious with the principal one, yet subordi-
nated to it in height and scale. In these, for the first time in a
secular building of the Renaissance, the fagade was conceived
as a whole in the manner of a Roman building, with podium,
columns, and entablature. The stories are not individual
units superposed on one another, but are created by the divi-
sion of the larger unity. The horizontal subdivisions are in-
FIG. 225 — VICENZA. THE BASILICA
terrupted by the continuous vertical lines of the great pilasters.
Another notable feature of the whole composition is the
emphasis on the central axes given by features of greater size
and relief, or by progressive increase in size. The great
double stair of the Palazzo del Senatore which contributes so
much to this emphasis was itself novel and influential.
Establishment oj ike tendencies. Palladia. In the younger
generation which surrounded and succeeded Michelangelo
the dual tendencies of the day became firmly established.
Although the free or baroque tendency had the greater fol-
lowing, the stricter or academic tendency did not yield until
4o8 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
its greatest master had created models which later had wide
influence. This master was Andrea Palladio of Vicenza
(1518—80). He had in his youth given to the Roman remains
the most intensive study so far attempted. His earliest
building, the Palazzo della Ragione, or Basilica, at Vicenza
(Fig. 225), although continuing certain traditions of the
FIG. 226 — VICENZA. VILLA ROTONDA
Renaissance, closely approximates a basilica of Roman times.
There is no doubt that he chose this as his model precisely
because of the identity in the uses of the buildings. In his
subsequent designs there can be traced the influence of
Michelangelo as well as of the antique. In some palaces he
employed the colossal order, in others, where he still retained
an order for each story, he omitted the pedestal between and
allowed the lines of the balustrade to be interrupted by the
columns. In either case he frequently added an upper story,
treated as an attic like those of the Roman triumphal arches.
He carried the interruption of the architectural lines even
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 409
farther than Michelangelo, permitting the windows of the
upper story to penetrate into the main entablature, and
breaking the entablature at each bay of the great order.
While he thus reduced the independence of individual mem-
bers, he tended to decrease the isolation of the whole building.
Instead of emphasizing the corner of the building he often
weakened the expression there, making the work not a mi-
crocosm, like the Renaissance palaces, but a fragment of the
cosmos. Something of the same character appears in Palla-
dio's designs for churches and villas. In the villas, for in-
stance, he treated the service buildings surrounding the house
as wide-flung colonnaded wings which unite house and land-
scape. In both churches and villas Palladio made an attempt
to imitate the ancient pedimented temple front. The Villa
Almerigo or "Villa Rotonda" near Vicenza has even free-
standing porticoes with a front of six columns (Fig. 226).
This villa, composed about a central axis, with a domed central
salon, served as a prototype for many others in northern lands.
Palladia's writings. Palladio's influence was exercised
chiefly through his Four Books on Architecture (1570). In
these he not only gave a codification of the orders which was
widely adopted, but furnished the first considerable body of
measured drawings of ancient buildings, and instituted a new
custom by publishing engravings of his own works.
Vignola, Vasari, Alessi. Other men who aided in the es-
tablishment and diffusion of the new tendencies were Vignola,
Vasari, and Alessi, all disciples of Michelangelo. Vignola,
who measured ancient fragments in the interest of the Vitru-
vian academy, and who published perhaps the most in-
fluential canon of the orders, showed in his buildings great
freedom of invention. At Caprarola (1547) he took a sug-
gestion from new methods of fortification to build a five-
sided castle, with a circular court. In the Villa di Papa
Giulio (1550) he made a rich use of semicircular forms, and
in the church of Sant' Andrea he employed an elliptical dome.
Vasari, best known for his biographies of artists, also created
in his buildings many new spatial effects. His court of the
Uffizi in Florence, built to house the officials of the ducal ad-
ministration, was opened freely at one end, and partially at
the other, in contrast to the inclosed courts of earlier palaces.
410 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Alessi began the creation of modern Genoa by his palaces with
their arcaded courts and their elaborate stairways. His
Palazzo Marino in Milan (Fig. 227), with its lavish use of
panels, masks, garlands, and consoles to organize and enliven
the wall surfaces, had the widest influence on Renaissance
architecture north of the Alps. In the works of these three
FIG. 227 — MILAN. PALAZZO MARINO. COURT
men rustication commenced to attack the orders and the
window enframements. It broke through the shafts and
architraves, which appeared only at the capitals and bases,
in the corners, or between the blocks. Sculptured figures, or
herms with a sculptured bust and tapering shaft, began to
replace pilasters and enframements, although geometrical
forms and classical dispositions still dominated.
Baroque supremacy. The years from 1580 to 1730 in Italy
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 411
were years of undisputed supremacy for the baroque. Build-
ings in which classical forms were strictly followed did indeed
appear occasionally, even among the works of the great mas-
ters of the free tendency, but they were exceptional. In
general the greatest liberty was assumed in planning and in
membering. This liberty, which has so often been conceived
as mere caprice or license, resulting in a dissolution or degenera-
tion of Renaissance forms, may better be looked on as a
positive, constructive process. It was an effort, thoroughly
conscious of its aims and studious of its means, to follow to
extreme consequences the search for those qualities of molten
unity and variety of aspect which were ideals of the period as
a whole. In this striving, geometrical complexity took the
place of simplicity, ever-varying diagonal views resulted from
curvatures in plan, ever- varying silhouettes resulted from
curves and projections in elevation. The substitution of
swelling, leather-like cartouches for simple shields and panels,
the appearance of twisted columns, the overflowing of archi-
tectural lines by sculpture, or the substitution of sculptural
forms for the architectural frames themselves, the use of
richly veined and colored marbles and of gilding are but several
manifestations of a consistent tendency. The aim of the
academists was never to surprise; the aim and the achieve-
ment of the baroque masters was to surprise continually.
Delia Porta, Maderna. Among the first constructions to
feel the new spirit were those of the villa gardens, where long
before the end of the sixteenth century the architecture lost
its formality in a riot of sculpture, artificial rock-work, and
broken silhouettes. The penetration of similar motives into
monumental architecture soon followed. In the fagade of the
church of the Gesu in Rome, designed by Delia Porta (c. 1573),
there are pediments one within another on the same entabla-
ture. In the terminal fountain of the Acqua Paola, not-
withstanding its severe classical models, the outline is boldly
animated by consoles and finials. The fagade of Saint Peter's
added by Maderna (1606-26) has a graduated increase of re-
lief toward the center and a complexity of rhythm in the setting
out and subdivision of its bays which defies any casual analysis.
Its skyline dissolves in balustrades, statuary, and cartouches.
Bernini, Borromini. The many-sided artist who dominated
4i2 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the later years of the baroque movement was Gian Lorenzo
Bernini (1598-1680). Equally distinguished in sculpture and
in architecture, he broadened the scope of architectural ex-
pression to a range hitherto unknown. The canopy over the
altar of Saint Peter's (1624-33) with its twisted and floriated
columns, its crown of consoles and its bronze hangings (Fig.
199), is at the opposite pole from his colonnades of the square
in front (1656-63), unrelieved in their Doric simplicity. A
common quality is present, however, in the conception of
every part as a fragment, requiring the others to complete it.
No part by itself is symmetrical. The twisted columns turn
in opposite directions, one half -ellipse of the colonnades de-
mands the other (Fig. 222). Rarely are opposite sides of a
motive in a single plane or parallel. The colonnades converge
toward the square of Saint Peter's, the faces of the Palazzo
Ludovisi (Montecitorio) recede equally on each side, the
lines of the Scala Regia of the Vatican converge toward a
single vanishing-point. Similar devices appear also in the
work of Bernini's contemporary, Francesco Borromini. His
fagade for Sant' Agnese in the Piazza Navona at Rome
(1645-50) has all its lines curved in plan; his plan for Sant'
Ivo (1660) is a combination of triangles and arcs which con-
tinually presents something unexpected.
The baroque supremacy outside of Rome. Although Rome
itself was the center of the baroque movement, other Italian
cities were quick to feel its influence. The extent to which it
was welcomed varied greatly with the local traditions or lack
of traditions. Thus in Piedmont, in Genoa, and in the south,
where the school of Bramante had never become firmly es-
tablished, the baroque was unrestrained. In Turin especially
the works of Guarino Guarini, such as the Palazzo Carignano
(1680) with its double reverse curve in facade, went to ex-
tremes. In Florence, on the other hand, the baroque scarcely
obtained a foothold, and in Venice the tradition of Sansovino
restricted it to a few examples. The most notable of these,
the church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631-82) by Lon-
ghena, by its position at the head of the Grand Canal, has,
however, a high importance in the aspect of the city (Fig. 228).
Eight-sided, with its central dome buttressed by great scrolls
carrying statues, and with a second large dome over its choir,
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 413
it has captivated successive generations of artists by its ever-
changing perspectives.
Compromise: Juvara, Galilei, Vanvitelli. In the eighteenth
century the academic tendency in Italy was strengthened by
return influences from France and from England. A touch
of this appears in the work of Filippo Juvara (1685-1735),
FIG. 228 — VENICE. SANTA MARIA DELLA SALUTE
whose buildings in Turin include the great domed church of the
Superga (1706-20). Another of the leading Italian architects
of the eighteenth century was Alessandro Galilei (1691-1737),
who had worked in England under Vanbrugh and represented
the same compromise between academic and baroque ten-
dencies. His facade for the church of the Lateran in Rome is
strict in its use of classical elements and in its geometrical
regularity, but has a free skyline and complicated grouping.
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The splendor of Versailles under Louis XIV. tempted Italian
princes to imitation. The most notable of the resulting coun-
try palaces is that of Caserta near Naples by Luigi Vanvi-
telli, begun in 1 7 5 2 . The plan of building and gardens embodies
French elements, the membering of the long facades is dryly
Palladian. The cycle through freedom back to strictness was
soon to be completed.
Types of buildings. Churches. The Counter Reformation
was a period of feverish building of churches, and of a return
to a more liturgical conception in their design. The longitud-
inal type of plan was once more preferred, as in the Middle
Ages. Naves were added to some Renaissance churches 'of
central type as ultimately to Saint Peter's itself (Fig. 222).
The crossing of nave and transept tended to lose its inde-
pendence. In new designs the central type was rarely adopted
except for votive churches like the Superga and the Salute.
In the Salute the radial chapels were no longer isolated,
but united to form a single encircling aisle, the first of its kind
since Byzantine days. Throughout the churches the self-
centered domical vaults gave place to groined vaults with
their centrifugal tendency, barrel vaults were interrupted by
penetrations, galleries tended to unite the bays at the aisles
and even to project into the nave. A broad nave and shallow
transepts gave space for a congregation corresponding to the
increased importance of the sermon. The whole plan tended
increasingly to conform to a single rectangle, usually sub-
divided, to be sure, but into parts having no strong unity of
their own. The facades, too, were treated as units, with
little precise relation to the subdivision of the interior. The
Renaissance scheme of using superposed orders in the center
with consoles to make transition from the lower order at the
sides was adhered to in many cases. Even more character-
istic, however, was the employment of a single order the
full height of the nave, masking the unequal heights of nave
and aisles. The bell tower was no longer designed as a separate
unit, but was combined with the facade and repeated on
either side as in northern church fronts. In the treatment of
fagades and still more of interiors there was often a lavishness
of figure sculpture and of painting which was mundane and
theatrical, perhaps, but remarkably facile and decorative
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 415
(Fig. 229). The Jesuits, who led in the reactionary religious
movement, adhered to florid Italian models in their churches
in other countries, and thus gave the baroque an international
character as the "Jesuit style."
Palaces. In the town palaces the principal innovations of
the post-Renaissance period lay in planning. Vestibule,
FIG. 229 — ROME. SAN CARLO A' CATINARI. CHAPEL OF SANTA CECILIA-
(RICCI)
court, and stairs were no longer isolated, but combined in a
suite which gave unity to the entire building. Genoese
examples, like the University (1623), are the most notable.
Many palaces, such as that of the Barberini in Rome, have
more than a single file of rooms in a block and a multitude of
stairways which permit independent access and privacy. The
stereotyped plan with a single central court was no longer
followed exclusively, and the courts were no longer always
inclosed, but opened on one side toward either street or
4i 6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
garden. This was the case, for instance, with the court of
the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, executed by Ammanati in 1 526.
Villas. The characteristic creation of the period in domestic
architecture was the villa, in which house and garden were now
inextricably combined. Usually on hillside sites, and with an
abundant supply of water, the villas included a series of
terraces, steps, pools, and fountains, all highly organized in
accordance with a unified axial system. The house or casino
might be either at the top or at the bottom of the slope, or
even part way between; there might be a level parterre of
flowers, or terraces only, as the ground permitted. A char-
acteristic example of artful variety within modest dimensions
is the Villa Lante near Viterbo, designed by Vignola (begun
1566, Fig. 230). Here a parterre with a central fountain and
basins occupies the lower third of the length. To left and
right of the first ascent stand the two casinos which provide
the living quarters, and above rise terraces of differing widths
and heights, connected on the main axis by features in which
steps and falling water are ingeniously intermingled. Ramps
and stairs offer numerous alternative means of ascent and
descent. The Villa Pia in the gardens of the Vatican, with its
oval court and curved ramps, is another such unexampled
background for the art of living (Fig. 222 E).
Fountains. Fountains occurred not only in the villas but
everywhere in the cities, multiplied and diversified as never
before. For large volumes of water or small, for high pressures
or low alike, treatments were found which gave the water
itself the chief place in the design, however rich and free the
architecture or sculpture.
Theaters. A novel problem in modern times was to give
an architectural treatment to the theater. The classical
precedents suggested to Palladio, for his Teatro Olimpico in
Vicenza (1580), a close imitation of the interior of a Roman
theater, with cavea, encircling colonnade at the rear, and
architectural sccence frons. An addition quite in the spirit of
the time was that of constructed architectural perspectives
visible through openings of the stage. The theater at Parma
(1618) has a deeper auditorium and a single wide opening to
a stage for movable scenery. Equally significant is the
replacing of the rear colonnade by arcades in two stories.
4i8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
From these grew in the eighteenth century the tiers of indi-
vidual loges which still form the characteristic treatment
of the Italian theater interior. No attempt to secure an
•exterior expression was yet made.
Town planning. An ultimate extension of baroque prin-
ciples was the inclusion of the whole city in a single architect-
ural composition. Efforts of the sort had mostly to remain
in the ideal stage, like the Citta Ideate of Bartolomeo
Ammanati (1511—92) whose Ponte Santa Trinita in Florence
inaugurated a new lightness and grace in bridge building.
Less fantastic than the cities on paper, but still ambitious,
were the corrections undertaken in existing cities, above all in
Rome. These, which had been begun in a small way by Julius
II., were continued on a vast scale by his successors. They
included the Piazza of Saint Peter's and the Piazza del Popolo,
both begun by Bernini about 1656, the Spanish Steps, and the
port of Ripetta on the Tiber. In all these there appear the
grandiose unity and variety of form so characteristic of the
period.
Individual forms. The governing conception of the post-
Renaissance period in Italy was that each individual element
was but a fragment, and that a high degree of unity in the
parts was damaging to the unity of the whole. This concep-
tion was essentially in conflict with the antique conception
of unity, which did not preclude parts sufficient unto them-
selves. It thus came about that the structural expressiveness
of many forms had to yield to the imperative demand for
dismemberment and coalescence. Thus as in Roman archi-
tecture, by comparison with Greek, purity of detail was
rendered less important by the mode of composition.
Walls. The period in Italy was distinguished by a wide use
of stucco, not only for wall surfaces, as in the Renaissance,
but for all the members of openings and orders. This
extension of its use resulted in the first instances from economy,
but it was turned to advantage in the execution of luxuriant
modeled decoration. Rustication was rarely used except in
quoins or about the openings. In interiors the incrustation
of walls with marble veneering was revived, inlaid patterns
giving a striking contrast.
Openings. In the enframement of the openings few Italian
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 419
designers followed the practice of Palladio in retaining a
simple rectangular architrave, perhaps with a frieze and
cornice. Even Palladio himself multiplied ears and consoles
and employed a bulging or pulvinated frieze. His con-
temporaries were already elaborating enframements with
rusticated architraves, broken pediments, and herms or
figure sculpture, which soon became the rule.
Columns and wall membering. The general relations of
column, arch, and wall remained much the same as in the
Renaissance period, except for the frequent use of a "colossal"
engaged order. Free-standing colonnades with horizontal
lintels appear but seldom, although notably in the Piazza of
Saint Peter's. Columns bearing arches remained in favor for
courtyards, but the supports were now usually grouped in
pairs, a motive especially favored by Alessi. In the membering
of fagades the tendency toward grouping the members, which
had begun with the coupled columns of Bramante, was carried
much further. The pilaster was reinforced by slight breaks
in the wall at either side, or groups of shafts and pilasters
were composed, like the grouped piers of the Middle Ages.
In interiors these once more gave individual support to the
various members of a vault, on exteriors they served, with
the corresponding breaks in entablatures and balustrades, to
enliven the silhouette.
Stairs. A special production of the period was the monu-
mental stairway, either inside a building or outside. Michel-
angelo's stairways at the Laurentian Library and at the Capitol
gave the suggestion, which was quickly taken up in many
different ways. Thus, in the Villa d'Este at Tivoli (about
1550), the two arms of a symmetrical stairway are bent into
semicircles; at the Villa di Papa Giulio, into quadrants.
Then followed the stairs with two arms side by side, and with
three arms winding up against the walls of a rectangular
room as in the Palazzo Barberini (about 1630). Further
possibilities lay in a symmetrical doubling of these schemes,
first attempted in the cloister of San Giorgio Maggiore in
Venice by Longhena ( 1 644) . In the Genoese palaces the stairs
through several stories were brought into a single composition
by the breaking through of all surrounding walls, and the
carrying of the upper flights on bridge-like vaults.
420 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Spain. Academic architecture. The conquest of the Indies
made Spain, by the middle of the sixteenth century, the
greatest power in Europe. Philip II. gave expression to this
FIG. 231 — THE ESCURIAL. PLAN
power by the building of the Escurial (1563-84), comprising
a votive church and mausoleum, monastery, and palace, with
every needful dependency for the service of both church and
state (Figs. 231, 232). Its building lay chiefly in the hands of
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 421
Juan de Herrera (1530-97), whose work, severely academic
in its forms, established the post-Renaissance tendencies in
Spain. In the Patio of the Evangelists, to be sure, he em-
ployed the Roman arch order with equal bays and unbroken
entablatures, but elsewhere the membering abounds in the
FIG. 232 — THE ESCURIAL
complex grouping of supports, the breaking of horizontal
members, the uniting of interior spaces by penetrating vaults,
and the multiplication of aspects in perspective by the com-
bination of dome and towers.
Baroque supremacy. Herrera' s sobriety was soon super-
seded by baroque freedom, which ultimately in the hands of
Joce Churriguera (1650-1723) became the boldest license.
The national traditions of the Plateresque were reflected in
the " Churrigueresque " style, which paid less attention to the
422 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
creation of new forms of plan and space than to the luxuriant
elaboration of detail. It reached its fullest development in
the great portals and altar-pieces, such as the high altar of
the church of El Salvador in Seville (Fig. 233).
Reaction. The accession of the Bourbons in 1714, which
marked the end of Spanish domination in politics, brought
also a subordination
of Spanish tenden-
cies in art. The
palaces of the new
rulers at La Gran j a
and Madrid imitated
not only the world-
liness of Versailles
but its architectural
formalism. The
baroque tendency,
which comported so
well with national
sympathies, per-
sisted nevertheless,
now creating novel
forms of interior
space, and still fill-
ing the framework of
the orders with an
exuberance of orna-
ment.
France. In France
there came first a
brief period of
baroque supremacy.
This was of rela-
tively short duration, however; a compromise was soon
reached, and the ultimate victory of the academic ten-
dency camel earlier than in Italy and was more complete.
Even during the years of compromise the academic ten-
dency predominated, although in the later of them the
freer tendency once more asserted itself vigorously, in the
phase known as the rococo. The conventional subdivision
FIG. 233 — SEVILLE. ALTAR OF THE CHURCH
OF EL SALVADOR. (SCHUBERT)
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 423
of the period in France into phases designated by the names
of the kings conforms tolerably well with this development,
although the duration of the phases by no means corresponds
exactly to that of the reigns. In general the baroque su-
premacy may be identified with the style of Henry IV. and
Louis XIII. ; the compromise, in its earlier and stricter form,
with the style of Louis XIV., in its later and freer form, with
that of Louis XV.; the ultimate victory of the academic,
with the style of Louis XVI.
Establishment of academic and baroque tendencies. Already
in the later work of native masters of the High Renaissance,
as we have seen, there were signs of the appearance of post-
Renaissance tendencies. On one hand De 1'Orme and Bullant
had written treatises discussing the proper form and propor-
tions of classical members. On the other hand De TOrme
and Du Cerceau had employed at the Tuileries and at Charle-
val many of the forms of the school of Michelangelo, such as the
herm, the rusticated architrave, and the broken pediment.
Baroque supremacy. Henry IV. With the resumption of
building under Henry IV. after the religious wars (about 1600),
the strict classical forms had everywhere yielded to those of
the triumphant baroque of the day in Italy. It was rarely,
however, that baroque principles governed the whole composi-
tion. In the typical buildings of the time of Henry IV., only
the details of the baroque were applied to the simplest
rectangular masses. A combination of brick and stone came
in through the close affiliation with Protestant Holland.
Examples of these characteristics are Henry IV.'s additions
to Fontainebleau, as well as his buildings about the Place
Royale and the Place Dauphine in Paris. All these have a
simple treatment of rusticated quoins at the corners and at
the openings, with occasional use of consoles, rusticated archi-
traves, and broken pediments at small scale. The internal
decoration went much further toward Italian freedom. In the
treatment of doors and chimneys, enframements were doubled,
members broken and interwoven, consoles and cartouches
multiplied. Other developments which recall contemporary
Italian movements lay in planning. At Saint Germain,
Du Perac built for Henry a series of vast terraces and steps
recalling those of the Villa d'Este. For the improvement
424 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of Paris, which henceforth became the focus of national life,
the king laid out the two great squares already mentioned.
They were surrounded by buildings of unified design — the
first of a long series of similar enterprises in town planning.
Louis XIII. Under Louis XIII. (1610-43) the baroque
influence still preponderated, although to a degree which
gradually decreased. A more frequent use was again made of
the orders, and the baroque elements were confined within the
fields marked out by them. The leading architect of the
earlier years of the reign was Salomon de Brosse (d. 1626).
For Catherine de' Medici he built the Luxembourg Palace
(1616-20), which she wished to resemble the Pitti Palace in
Florence. The drawings which she secured from Italy did
indeed have their influence, for there were many points of simi-
larity between the work of De Brosse and that of Ammanati.
The open court, the superposed rusticated orders, the
rusticated arches, flat and semicircular, as well as the rigidity
of the architectural framework, all reappeared. The general
grouping and the broken silhouette of the palace, with its
many pavilions and high roofs, were, of course, wholly French.
In De Brosse's facade for the Gothic church of Saint Gervais
he also showed the influence of the freer Italian tendency as
exemplified in the Gesu, which furnished the model for most
later French church facades. The conservative French
tendencies were represented by the earlier designs of Jacques
Lemercier (1585-1654). His enlargement of the court of the
Louvre (1624—30) was on the system established by Lescot,
with the addition of a few baroque elements; his vast sym-
metrical chateau of Richelieu depended solely, for its wall
treatment, on rusticated enframements with a filling of stucco.
Reaction. In the later years of the reign of Louis XIII.
there was already a strengthening of the academic tendency
which resulted in compromise. That this should have been so
at the very moment when the baroque in Italy was receiving
its greatest development was due to several causes. Among
these perhaps the strongest was the growing tendency of
France toward absolutism and organization in every field —
the monarchy, the church, the arts in general. An instance
was the founding of the French Academy (1635), having for
its object "to give certain rules to our language and to render
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 425
it pure." Similar in its direction was the fundamental French
belief in ''reason" and "good sense," more sympathetic with
the logic of the Italian academists than with the emotional
liberty of the baroque masters. The renewed imitation of
classical models in the drama, beginning with Corneille about
1635, coincides with the return to the stricter following of
classical forms in architecture. The Frenchmen who went to
Rome no longer studied contemporary architecture so much as
FIG. 234 — BLOIS, WING OF GASTON D'ORLEANS
the work of the High Renaissance masters, with whom they
shared a direct interest in Roman buildings. The academic
writings of the Italians were diligently read and compared.
Freart de Chambray, who had been sent to Rome in 1640,
published the first complete translation of Palladio (1650),
and also a parallel of the canons of ten of the principal theorists.
Compromise. Frangois Mansart. Style of Louis XIV . The
leader in the return to academic purity in architectural prac-
tice was Frangois Mansart (1598-1666). His wing for Gaston
d'Orleans in the chateau of Blois (1635-40) depends for its
426 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
effect almost solely on the proportions and the sober member-
ing of the superposed orders (Fig. 234). Except for an
increase in the height of the entrance pavilion and for the
I single cartouche in the center, all the architectural lines, even
those of the roofs, carry through without interruption. Rusti-
cation and dormers are alike absent, and baroque influence
appears only in the decorative carving. Mansart's purism
in the use of the orders persisted in his work at the church of
the Val-de-Grace in Paris (begun 1645), although the general
scheme is that of the baroque churches of Italy, and baroque
consoles occur both in the facade and in the dome. Hence-
forth, throughout the reign of Louis XIV., the compromise
between academic and baroque tendencies prevailed on much
the same terms. On the exterior, and even in the larger
membering of the interior, the academic framework dominated
the design; baroque forms were confined to the decoration.
Le Vau. A step beyond Mansart in the direction of
pronounced post-Renaissance character was taken by Louis
Le Vau (1612-70) who was the court architect after the death
h of Lemercier. Whereas Mansart used always an order to
each story, Le Vau rarely failed to introduce a " colossal
order," rising from a low plinth to the main cornice. This
was, indeed, no new thing in French architecture, but it was
a feature which had fallen into disuse during the baroque
supremacy. Le Vau employed it in the chateau of Vaux-le-
Vicomte, in the south facade of the Louvre (1664), and in the
College des Quatre Nations (1660-68). In all these cases,
however, only one or more pavilions have the large order and
the rest of the building is treated with superposed orders or
no order at all.
The Louvre. Perrault. For the principal front of the
Louvre it was felt that something grander was necessary.
After the rejection of many designs by native architects, it
was finally decided to summon Bernini from Rome. His
design, produced in 1665, involved the destruction of much of
the existing building. It proposed the rebuilding of the court
with a single gigantic order rising from the ground, and the
treatment of the exterior with an order of equally large scale,
raised on a rusticated basement. The execution of this
scheme was soon abandoned as impossibly extravagant, and
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 427
a new design was prepared by Claude Perrault, a savant who
had turned his attention to architecture. He profited by the
lesson Bernini had given in unity of design and largeness of
scale, but adapted his fagade better to the existing work and
gave it a more uniform membering and proportions (Fig.
235). Like Bernini he placed a large Corinthian order, in-
FIG. 235 — PARIS. COLONNADE OF THE LOUVRE
eluding the two upper stories, over a basement the height of
the ground story, and used a flat roof behind a balustrade.
Unlike Bernini, however, and indeed for the first time in
modern architecture, he did not merely decorate the wall with
an engaged order, but employed a free standing colonnade in
front of it, like -that of a peristylar temple. He followed De
Brosse and Mansart in employing coupled columns, but gave
them larger scale and more Roman detail. He also gave a
new impress to the five-part scheme for long facades. This
had grown up in France from the medieval castle with its
corner towers and central gate-house, and had so far pre-
served a medieval massing. Perrault treated it with but
428 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
slight projection to all the pavilions, and with a pediment over
the central one — a formula which has remained usual to
this day.
The academies. The predominance of principles of law and
order based upon the antique was fortified by the formation
in 167 1 of the Academy of Architecture, to complete the system
of organization begun in literature by the founding of the
Academic Frangaise. A further reinforcement of classical
FIG. 236 — VERSAILLES. THE PALACE FROM THE PLACE D'ARMES
influence came through the establishment on a regular footing
of the custom of sending promising artists to complete their
studies in Rome. Thus arose the French Academy in Rome,
chartered in 1677.
Versailles. J. H. Mansart. From the commencement of
his personal administration in 1661, Louis XIV. began the
development of the chateau built for his father at Versailles,
for which he had a special preference. Ultimately he made it
his permanent residence and the seat of his government. The
original chateau, a simple structure of brick and stone, had to
be many times enlarged, although it retained much of its
original aspect toward the fore-court, and inevitably had an
influence on the scale of the later work (Fig. 236). The
extensions, begun by Le Vau, were completed by Jules
Hardouin Mansart, a great-nephew_oJ_Frangois. The system
of membering finally adopted for the long unbroken facades
1
430 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
toward the garden was that of a rusticated basement, an order,
and an attic with balustrade. The interest of the building,
however, lies less in the architectural treatment of the exterior
than in the plan, with its multiplicity of functions (Fig. 237).
The problem was to provide quarters not only for the king and
the princes of the blood, but also for the entire court, with
offices for the ministers, provisions for service, immense
stables, a chapel, and ultimately a theater. In addition there
were, on one side, the garden and park, on the other side, the
town, newly founded — both alike symmetrical on the main
axis of the palace. Never before, even at the Escurial, had
there been a single composition on such a vast scale. The
interior decoration was of a corresponding richness. Here,
more than on the exterior, appeared the baroque elements
which still characterized contemporary architecture. Thus in
the ceiling of the long Galerie des Glaces, decorated by Charles
Le Brun (Fig. 238), there was an abundance of broken pedi-
ments, consoles, and free sculpture. In extent and luxurious-
ness alike, Versailles established an ideal which every prince
in Europe soon dreamed of realizing.
Outbreak of the free tendency. Louis XV. Rococo. The
extreme formality imposed on life and art by Louis XIV.
provoked a new outbreak of the free tendency under his
successor. It took many suggestions from the late ' Italian
baroque of Borromini and his followers, which had hitherto
been little favored in France. The earliest and most pro-
nounced manifestations of the movement occur in interior
decoration. Curves were multiplied both in plan and in
elevation; architectural lines were broken and were over-
flowed by sculpture. The pompous apparatus of column and
entablature was banished from interiors, arid replaced by a
more delicate and intimate treatment with panels, cartouches,
and floriated scrolls (Fig. 242). The prevalence of shell-woiK
or rocaille led to the designation rococo, applied loosely to all
the work of free tendencies which resulted from the new
movement. Efforts were not wanting to remodel external
architecture on similar lines. In many of the designs of
J. A. Meissonier (1693-1750) vertical and horizontal members
are alike abandoned in favor of flowing reverse curves. In
France, however, this extreme was not reached in the exterior
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 431
of any building actually executed. The orders were retained
on the facade, with only a slightly greater liberty of detail.
The spirit of freedom showed itself on the exterior mainly by
an increased use of curved and angular elements of plan, and
by an exuberance of ornament within the bays and above the
cornice. All these characteristics are specially well exemplified
FIG. 238 — VERSAILLES. THE GALERIE DBS GLACES
in the notable group of buildings erected for Stanislas, Duke of
Lorraine, at Nancy (1750-57).
Academic victory. Louis XVI. Contemporary with the
lr. er years of the rococo and well within the reign of Louis XV.
there was a new reaction against the extravagance of the free
tendency, associated with the name of his successor. The
design of Servadony for the fagade of Saint Sulpice in Paris
(1732-45) showed in its two lower stories of columns and arches
a classical strictness and majesty unusual at the time, and a
similar character appeared in the Hdtel Dieu by Soufflot at
Lyons (1737). In the work of Jacques Anges Gabriel, falling
in the years 1752 to i77o,the tendency won a complete victory,
432 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
and the academic system received its ultimate development.
Gabriel's designs for the Place de la Concorde (Fig. 239),
for the Ecole Militaire in Paris, the Palace at Compiegne, the
Theater at Versailles, and the Petit Trianon (Fig. 240) form
a body of work unrivaled for the purity of academic detail
and ornament. In most of them he followed the scheme
consecrated by Perrault — an order embracing two stories
FIG. 239 — PARIS. PLACE DE LA CONCORDE
above a high basement. In the handling of the order itself,
in some cases, he secured Perrault's touch of Roman magnifi-
cence. Often he restricted the order to the principal pavilion,
and left the remaining walls unbroken except by the slender
and elegant window enframements. Before the accession
of Louis XVI. even the interiors of buildings had lost their
luxuriant freedom. At the same time there began a change
in character, both within and without, due to the literal
imitation of classical motives, which brought rococo and
academic movements alike to an end.
Types of buildings. Chateaux. The close of the religious
wars once more made it safe to live in the country, and per-
mitted a new and freer development of the chateau. From this
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 433
time until Louis XIV. made constant residence at court a
necessity, the nobility built many chateaux which correspond
to the countless manor houses of England. While some of
the larger of these retained the inclosed court, the tendency
was to omit the block on the fourth side and to shorten the
arms, so that in many of the smaller examples only the main
FIG. 240 — VERSAILLES. PETIT TRIANON
block was left. On the other hand the main block itself was
made thicker, with a double file of rooms, so that it was no
longer necessary to traverse private apartments. The main
staircase, which in Francois Mansart's designs still occupied
the center, was pushed to one side in favor of a monumental
vestibule. The functions of rooms became increasingly
specialized. The salon or reception-room now made its
appearance, and was accorded the place of honor in the center,
facing the gardens. From the time of Le Vau it was given an
elliptical form, projecting so that it commanded a view to the
sides as well. The regime established by Louis XIV. affected
434 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
chateaux in two opposite ways. On one hand, at Versailles,
it magnified the chateau into the modern palace. On the
other hand it produced in the neighborhood of the palace a
number of small but elegant chateaux serving as retreats for
recreation or privacy, like the casinos of the Italian villas.
Marly, the Grand Trianon, and the Petit Trianon (Fig. 240)
are examples showing the increasing desire for intimacy, which
ultimately resulted in the rustic hamlet of Marie Antoinette.
Gardens. The gardens themselves were given a new and
magnificent treatment. This was inaugurated by Andre le
N6tre at Vaux and developed by him at Versailles and the
other royal residences. It involved a general increase in
scale, the introduction of canals, basins, cascades, and foun-
tains of great size, and an extension of the garden scheme over
all the neighboring countryside by means of a system of
radiating and intersecting allees. The reaction from splendor
apparent in the building of the Trianon had later its expression
in the gardens. The informal or landscape garden of England
was adopted, as a more fitting milieu for the playful phases
of court life.
Hotels. The development of Paris into a national metrop-
olis gave an impetus to the development of the city resi-
dence or hotel, which often rivaled a chateau in the extent
of its court and gardens. The ambitious examples, large and
small alike, preserved the fore-court and screen toward the
street, with the living-rooms in a block facing the garden at
the rear. The same internal changes in the direction of
greater convenience took place in the hdtel as in the chateau.
Great ingenuity was exercised in making separate provision
for all the varied functions of the establishment, often on
limited and irregular sites. Stables and service quarters were
provided with subsidiary courts of their own, where the
dimensions at all permitted. The minor houses on narrow lots
were also given the architectural expression in classic forms
which has governed the aspect of cities to this day. Some-
times whole ranges of houses were treated uniformly as the
surrounding walls of a monumental square ; at other times
there was but a single facade, usually of three bays. In
either case the favorite division of height, a basement story
with two others above, corresponding to an order, was adopted.
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 435
As land values rose, apartment houses in four and more stories
were built, conforming to the same architectural scheme, but
with mezzanines and attics.
Churches. The church in France during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries was less significant than either the
state or society, yet a certain number of notable religious
buildings were undertaken. The parish churches had the
basilican plan, as well as the facade in two stories with consoles
or twin towers, characteristic of contemporary basilican
churches in Italy. The more important churches of the time
were those which either had a votive character, like the Val-de-
Grace (begun 1645), or were chapels attached to an institution,
like the churches of the Sorbonne (1635-53), the College des
Quatre Nations (1660-68), and the Hopital des Invalides
(1692-1704). They were thus relatively free from liturgical
restrictions and could fulfil their monumental functions
through the adoption of a dome. All four of these just
mentioned have the high drum and external silhouette in-
augurated by Saint Peter's. The Sorbonne and the Val-de-
Grace, both of which have basilican naves, have two-storied
facades like those of the basilican churches. In the new
chapel of the Invalides this scheme was retained even though
the church was a composition of purely central type, without
aisles or galleries. Only at the College des Quatre Nations
was the single order employed. The plans of all these domed
churches offer interesting examples of the tendencies of post-
Renaissance days toward the multiplying of interrelations
between the parts, rather than the preserving of their indi-
vidual unity. At Versailles there were special reasons why
a dome could not be introduced. The palace chapel had to
yield the axial position to the state bedroom of the king, and
thus could not receive a development which would injure too
much the symmetry of the whole group. The solution adopted
by Mansart, a basilican plan, with galleries treated as tall
colonnades above the low arcaded aisles, was novel in church
design, yet quite in accordance with the general formulae of
the period.
Ensembles. Planning. The design of vast unified en-
sembles, which had begun in French architecture with De
rOrme, was even more characteristic of the post-Renaissance
i
436 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
period. The great chateaux like Versailles and the Louvre
were not the only examples. The H6pital des Invalides in
Paris, which furnished accommodation for six thousand dis-
abled soldiers, and the Ecole Militaire, also on an enormous
scale, were symmetrical compositions about a series of courts.
The systems of subordinated axes reached a high degree of
organization, as in the vast Roman ensembles. An equal
skill was shown in the handling of diagonal axes, and in the
union of elements in irregular plans by means of circular and
elliptical features.
Town planning. The creation of squares surrounded by
private buildings of uniform design, begun by Henry IV., was
continued under his successors. His Place Royale and Place
Dauphine were both rectangular in plan. A project of his
which was never realized, however — the Place de France —
involved a semicircular space at the entrance to the city, with
avenues radiating to every quarter. A similar conception was
embodied by Louis XIV. in the circular Place des Victoires
(1684-86). The Place Louis le Grand or Place Vendome was
a rectangle diversified by the cutting off of the corners diago-
nally, and ornamented by engaged columns and pediments at
the axial points. The Place Louis XV., or Place de la Con-
corde, was conceived, like these last two, primarily as a setting
for a monument. Its buildings occupy only one side, but with
their free standing colonnades like those of the Louvre they
have a richness unapproached in the other examples. In the
provincial towns squares and quais were also treated as unified
compositions; at Nancy even a whole series of squares was
brought into one design, comparable in extent and complexity
to the greatest of the Roman fora. Thus was expressed the
fondness of the time for order and subordination, as well as
for the absorption of individual unities in a larger unity.
Construction. Except for the period of Henry IV., when
Dutch influence caused the adoption of brick even in some
regions where stone was more easily obtainable, stone was
used almost exclusively in monumental constructions. The
softness and fine texture of the French limestone permitted'
carving almost as free and delicate as if in marble. Marble
itself was used but seldom, and then only as a precious adorn-
ment, for instance, in the shafts which distinguish the central
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 437
blocks at Versailles and Trianon. The ease of working the
stone, as well as the geometrical skill of the French builders,
resulted in the use of cut stone for vaulting to an extent no-
where else approached. The science of stone-cutting or
stereotemy was thus developed to the highest point.
Details. The conception of general unity in exterior treat-
ment was not often pushed, as in Italy, to the destruction of
the unity of single details such as the enframements of doors
FIG. 241 — PARIS. PORTE SAINT
DENIS. PRINCIPAL FRONT
FIG. 242 — VERSAILLES. DE-
TAIL OF THE APARTMENTS
OF LOUIS XV.
and windows. After the brief period of baroque supremacy
such details followed classical or Palladian models with but
little modification, and equaled them in harmony of propor-
tion and profiling. The spirit of the time appeared, never-
theless, in the fondness for the use of ears and consoles, and
for the coupling and grouping of supports. It appeared also
in the frequent use of transitional members. Thus in the
facade of the Petit Trianon (Fig. 240) a subordinate break
was introduced on either side of the main projecting portico,
and a similar though minute break was made in the architraves
of the side windows. The same rationalistic sentiment which
found interrupted pediments repugnant sometimes demanded
the omission of the orders altogether where the column would
438 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
not fulfil its original function as an isolated support. An
example is the Porte Saint Denis in Paris (Fig. 241), in which
the Roman scheme of triumphal arch was expurgated by
substituting for the columns large tapering panels decorated
with sculptured trophies. This distinctively national
tendency, which gradually gained strength during the
eighteenth century, was one which bore much fruit in the
following period.
Interiors. In interiors the unity of design between wall
treatment and furniture was a novel and striking feature.
During the prevalence of the rococo, indeed, interior unity was
carried to the extreme — the shape of the room, the motives of
its paneling and the lines of the furnishings being all based
on similar curves, which precluded any individual self-suffi-
ciency in the parts (Fig. 242). Under Louis XV. and Louis
XVI. the desire for intimacy led to a reduction in the size and
height of the rooms, in which elegance was sought rather
than splendor.
England: baroque supremacy. Jacobean architecture. The
first of the post-Renaissance forms to reach England were the
baroque cartouches and strap-work from Germany, which, as
we have seen, were lavished on buildings still fundamentally
Gothic in their disposition (Fig. 218). The reign of James I.
(1603-25) thus constitutes a period of baroque supremacy,
analogous to that of Henry IV. in France. As in France, also,
this baroque predominance was brief, and was soon succeeded
by a compromise in which academic elements predominated.
Introduction of academic forms. Inigo Jones. The intro-
duction of academic forms into England was essentially the
work of one man, Inigo Jones (1573-1652). His architectural
career began after a journey to Italy in 1613 and 1614 in which
he visited Rome and Vicenza, studied the writings of Palladio
and others, and became acquainted with Maderna and the
other foremost contemporary architects of Rome. He was
thus subjected both to the academic influence and to the
baroque, and both affected his work. The resulting com-
promise, however, was not, as in France, one based on the
forms already in use in the country, but one based directly on
the forms current in Italy. Thus England was endowed, as
early as 1620, with buildings more advanced in point of style
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 439
than those of any other country than Italy itself. The most
noted of Jones's designs was for the palace at Whitehall (1619),
a vast composition resembling De FOrme's for the Tuileries.
The only portion executed, the Banqueting Hall (Fig. 243),
had a characteristic Palladian facade with orders in two stories,
a flat balustraded roof and an entablature broken about the
FIG. 243— LONDON. THE BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL
supports. Jones's free-standing Tuscan portico of Saint
Paul's, Covent Garden, his "Queen's House" at Greenwich,
as well as his gigantic portico for the old Cathedral of Saint
Paul, represent his academic side. His design for King
Charles's block at Greenwich Hospital, however, closely follows
Maderna's facade of Saint Peter's, and the gate at York Stairs,
with other minor works and interior designs, shows pronounced
baroque characteristics.
Sir Christopher Wren. Until after the Civil Wars Jones's
work remained almost isolated. With the Restoration,
however, began the activity of Christopher Wren (1632—1723),
a distinguished mathematician, whose chief training in archi-
tecture was derived from books and from a visit to Paris in
1665, the very year of Bernini's triumphant reception there.
440 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
It was natural that in him, as in Inigo Jones, academic and
baroque influence should mingle, the baroque element being
even stronger than in his predecessor. In certain designs, to
be sure, such as the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge,
with its reminiscence of the Library of Saint Mark, he re-
mained strictly academic; and in the Monument in London,
commemorating the great fire of 1666, he anticipated later
classical movements by an imitation of the column of Trajan.
FIG. 244 — LONDON. SAINT PAUL S CATHEDRAL. PLAN
In his towers and spires, however, in his fondness for the
combination of brick and stone, and above all in the luxuriant
detail of his interiors, he shows the influence of contemporary
Italy and the Low Countries.
Saint Paul's. Wren's most important commission was the
rebuilding of Saint Paul's, 1668—1710. His first design for it
was a great octagonal domed church with an encircling aisle,
like Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, but with even greater
multiplicity of connections and variety of spatial effect. This
proved too radical for the clergy, as Bramante's and Michel-
angelo's central schemes for Saint Peter's had proved, and a
longitudinal scheme had to be substituted (Fig. 244). The
dome, however, remained a dominant feature, including the
whole width of both nave and aisles as in the cathedral of
i
By courtesy of London Stereoscopic and Photograph Co.
FIG. 245 — LONDON. SAINT PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
442 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Florence. Its external form in the earlier projects seems to
have been derived from San Gallo's model for Saint Peter's,
but in its final form (Fig. 245) it was influenced rather by
Bramante's designs. Like Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro
in Montorio, it has a peristyle of free-standing columns with
a balustrade, a paneled drum, and flat ribs on the dome
proper. The vastly larger scale of Saint Paul's gives the
composition a new majesty. For the facade Wren adopted the
two-storied scheme of most of the Italian churches of the time,
with twin towers similar in composition to those of Sant'
Agnese at Rome and other baroque examples. The super.-
posed porticoes of coupled columns in the center, however,
had more of the academic dignity of Palladio and Perrault.
The basilican arrangement of the interior, with the flying
buttresses made necessary by the clerestory, Wren felt it
necessary to mask by carrying his second story order around
the exterior. The interior dome also fell far below the
exterior one, which was formed of timber framework over a
cone of brick supporting the lantern. Thus frankness of
construction was • sacrificed to gain the complete liberty of
design which the post-Renaissance artist demanded for both
interior and exterior.
Vanbrugh. The dual tendencies of the period appear in
heightened contrast in the work of Sir John Vanbrugh, who
took up architecture at thirty-five, after a brilliant success as
a writer of comedies. In his vast designs for Castle Howard,
Blenheim Palace (Fig. 246), and other houses of the aristoc-
racy, he carried to the limit the scale of orders and rooms, the
picturesque composition of masses, and the support of the
main mass by subordinate colonnades and dependencies.
Baroque features abound in the treatment of the cupolas and
the skyline generally, whereas the porticoes and colonnades
are often of strictly classical ordonnance. A classical portico
of this sort, without any combinations with baroque elements,
appears in the Clarendon Press building at Oxford, designed
by Vanbrugh and his pupil Nicholas Hawksmoor about 1710.
Academic supremacy. ' ' The Palladian style. ' ' The influence
of the universities, indeed, was squarely on the side of the
classical and academic, and the same was true of the noble
amateurs for whose schooling the "grand tour" to Italy had
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 443
become indispensable. The most influential of these was
Lord Burlington (1695-1753) who purchased Palladio's draw-
ings in Vicenza, issued an edition of his writings in 1715-16,
and of his restorations of ancient buildings in 1730. He also
assisted the architects of Palladian tendencies — Colin Camp-
bell, William Kent, and others — by commissions and by help-
no. 246 — BLENHEIM PALACE FROM THE FORE-COURT
ing in the publication of their designs. Burlington House in
London by Campbell, 1716-17, shows direct following of
Palladio's designs. The favorite of these was his Villa
Rotonda, which was reproduced both by Campbell and by
Burlington himself. For the .assembly rooms at York,
Burlington adopted an imitation of Palladio's " Egyptian
Hall," surrounded by colonnades in two stories. The free-
standing portico as used by Palladio became the rule for the
great houses of the nobility (Fig. 247) and for churches as
well. Henceforth throughout the century in England academic
purity of detail was carried to the point of banishing all
decorative sculpture from the facades, which depended for
444 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
their effect solely on abstract composition and proportion.
Thus England anticipated by a generation or more the victory
of academism and the advent of classicism in other countries,
and was in a position to exercise on them a powerful return
influence.
Domestic architecture. The great houses. The post-Renais-
sance period after the Restoration was the heyday of the
English landed aristocracy, and it was natural that the
.characteristic type of the period should have been the great
country house. The royal palaces scarcely surpassed many
other seats in size and splendor and may well be considered
with them. In the development considerations of form took
first place, and the interior was arranged as well as possible
without disturbing the facades. The first building of the new
order was the Queen's House at Greenwich, designed in 1617.
It was a solid rectangular block, with a central colonnaded
loggia over a high basement, and with a flat roof and balus-
trade— a revolutionary contrast to the typical Jacobean house,
its tall wings, bays, and gables. In his designs for Whitehall,
Jones employed superposed orders; in those for the later
buildings at Greenwich, a colossal order and attic. In Somer-
set House, as executed, he adopted pilasters running through
two stories, over an arcaded basement. The plans made
certain advances in the direction of convenience and privacy —
the files of rooms were doubled in many of the blocks, and
corridors were often added. Palladio's scheme of dependencies
on either side of the fore-court, connected with the house by
colonnades, was also adopted. Of the Italian formulas for
facades introduced by Jones, the favorite was the one which
had the added prestige of its adoption in the Louvre — the tall
order over a basement story. This was used by Wren at
Hampton Court (1689-1700), and was reverted to (after
Vanbrugh's preference for the colossal order) by the later
Palladians. In the larger houses of Vanbrugh, there was a
modification of the block-like mass of the main house by wings
providing long suites of state apartments toward the gardens,
on the model of those at Versailles. At Blenheim, indeed,
these wings were also turned forward along the sides of the
house; and the kitchens and stables were pushed still farther
forward, and grouped about independent courts on either
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 445
side of a second fore-court like the Cour Roy ale at Versailles.
Unlike Versailles, however, Vanbrugh's houses had an emphasis
on the central and terminal masses which makes them much
more lively in silhouette (Fig. 246). With the return to
Palladianism came the adoption of the great free-standing
pedimented portico, often of six Corinthian columns, as at
FIG. 247 — PRIOR PARK NEAR BATH
Prior Park near Bath, built in 1734 (Fig. 247). In other
Palladian houses the arrangement was still more schematic —
even symmetrical on both axes — sometimes with four outlying
blocks, as at Holkham. The service quarters were now
provided for in the basement story, less frankly confessed but
more convenient in their relation to the living-rooms.
Smaller houses. Besides the multitude of great houses with
their weight of academic apparatus, there was an even greater
number of unpretentious houses in many of which no orders
at all were used. Even those attributed to Jones and Wren are
446 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
merely straightforward compositions of wall and openings —
of stone, of brick, or of brick and stone — sometimes with
classical architraves, but sometimes without even these.
Leaded and mullioned windows were abandoned for painted
wooden sashes, and classical detail was restricted to the
pilastered doorway and main cornice. In the simpler examples
there might even be nothing specifically classical except the
general regularity and symmetry, as, for instance, in Clifford
FIG. 248 — CLIFFORD CHAMBERS
Chambers (Fig. 248), where the "vernacular" style is seen in
a typically cultivated and luxuriant natural setting.
Gardens. The earlier gardens of the period in England were
under foreign influence — successively Italian, with terraces,
statues, and fountains; Dutch, with yews clipped in fantastic
shapes; and French, with the long allees and canals of Le
Notre. In the early years of the eighteenth century, under
the leadership of writers like Shaftesbury, Addison, and Pope,
began the modern appreciation of natural landscape, and in
its wake came the creation of the informal landscape garden — •
a new type, specifically English. The great formal gardens
were gradually remodeled until the houses stood immediately
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 447
in naturalesque grounds, where every stratagem was employed
to create pleasing vistas and a constant variety of character.
A multitude of minor decorative structures, among which
playful reproductions of classical temples began to appear,
served still further to diversify and enliven the grounds.
Parish churches. Church building was uncommon in Eng-
land during the post-Renaissance period, except in London.
There the vast growth of the city and the havoc wrought by
the great fire of 1666 made many new structures necessary.
They presented a problem, which even the established church
in England shared with the Protestants of France and Ger-
many: to build in Renaissance forms a church primarily
adapted for preaching. In the first example, the church of
Saint Paul's, Covent Garden (1631), Jones came nearer the
Palladian ideal of a reproduction of the classic temple than
had Palladio himself. It proved an isolated exotic. Wren
solved the problem, by the adoption of broad and compact
plans, little encumbered by columns, yet of the greatest
variety and ingenuity of forms. A basilican arrangement
with a barrel-vaulted nave, as in Saint Bride's, is not un-
common in them, and a dome supported on columns and
diagonal arches is occasionally found, as at Saint Stephen's,
Walbrook. Galleries were frequently added to increase the
seating capacity. On the exterior Wren usually retained the
bell tower and subordinated the architectural treatment of the
rest of the church to the rich development of its upper portion.
He sought to retain the expressive effect of the Gothic spire by
facile combinations of classical elements in decreasing stages.
The first and most influential of these steeples was that of
Saint Mary-le-Bow (Fig. 249), which has the transition from
the square belfry stage masked by angle finials, and the further
reduction in diameter accomplished by a range of consoles.
The later development of the type took place through the
elimination of Gothic or baroque elements in the steeple and
through the addition of a portico and other classical members
to the body of the edifice. All these changes best appear in
the churches of James Gibbs, whose church of Saint Mary-le-
Strand has a treatment of the exterior by superposed orders
based on that of Saint Paul's. His design for Saint Martin-
in-the-Fields' has a hexastyle Corinthian portico and a steeple
448 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in which the transition from square to octagonal is even more
subtly accomplished than in those of Wren. It became the
prototype of many others.
Town planning. The unified planning of many buildings,
so characteristic of the period, began in England with Inigo
Jones's design for Covent Garden — a square surrounded by
open arcades, which are treated as the basement for pilasters
running through two stories above. For the rebuilding of
London after the great fire of 1666, Wren prepared a plan
based on the radiating principle already adopted in France,
but the multitude of private interests affected prevented its
execution. Unified streets and squares, however, continued
to be built by the great landed proprietors, whose system of
ground rent favored this method. The ultimate scope of
such enterprises is best seen outside of London, at Bath, where
the architect John Wood created not only squares, but also
"circuses" and "crescents" with coherent academic fagades
treated with pilasters or superposed columns.
Details. The period of compromise between academic and
baroque tendencies in England was generally marked by strict
following of the forms and proportions of the orders themselves,
but by considerable license in the other details, especially in
interiors. Thus, although twisted columns, for example,
appear in but few instances (as in the porch of Saint Mary's
Church, Oxford, attributed to Inigo Jones), broken and scroll
pediments, architraves with rusticated key-blocks, and free
combinations of consoles often occur. In the interiors by
Wren, such features are combined with the most lavish and
exuberant carving, the work of Grinling Gibbons, a spiritual
descendant of Bernini and the Italian decorators. In all this
work appears the characteristic post-Renaissance feeling for
interdependence, transition, and fusion of the parts in an
indissoluble whole. With the Palladian movement in the
eighteenth century, however, came a tendency to abandon
this mode of composition, even to expurgate the works of
Palladio himself, who had followed it so far as academic forms
permitted. Thus the use of pavilions, the breaking of cornices
at engaged columns, the use of ears and consoles, and of string-
courses interrupted by pilasters was gradually abandoned.
Unbroken cornices and self-sufficient doors and windows
•
By courtesy of London Stereoscopic and Photograph Co,
FIG. 249 — LONDON. SAINT MARY-LE-BOW
450 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
tended to rule in buildings themselves standing proudly self-
sufficient, with little transition to their environment.
Academism thus here first gave place to the new classicism
which was destined to succeed it.
Germany. Baroque architecture: c. 1580-1730. In Ger-
many, after the introduction of baroque forms from Italy,
about i 580, the
baroque spirit main-
tained a complete
ascendancy. At
first it was the in-
fluence of Alessi and
of north Italy which
dominated, and
which, united with
survivals of medi-
evalism, produced
such characteristi-
cally German build-
ings as the Fried-
richsbau at Heidel-
berg (1601-07), and
the Rathaus at
Augsburg (1614-
20). The Thirty
Years' War (1618-
48) with its unpar-
alleled devastation,
however, brought
all building in Ger-
FIG. 250 — DRESDEN. CENTRAL PAVILION OF many to a stand-
THE ZWINGER ^ ^ destroyed
architectural tradi-
tion itself. Meanwhile, in the south, the Catholic princes
had summoned to their aid the Jesuits of Italy, bring-
ing with them Italian architects and their maturer baroque.
Thus in 1606 Vincenzo Scamozzi, a disciple of Palladio,
prepared a plan for the cathedral of Salzburg, which was
executed in 1614-34, with forms reminiscent of II Gesu in
Rome. Italian architects built at Prague the Waldstein
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 451
Palace (1623-29) with its great garden loggia of arches on
coupled columns; and later, in Munich, the Theatine Church
(1663-75) with its two-story facade, its tall dome and Western
towers with multiplied consoles. An independent German
version of the baroque did not flourish until after 1700, when
a group of masters arose
who showed a facility in
this medium of expression
scarcely equaled even in
Italy. Andreas Schluter
imbued the royal palace in
Berlin with the exuberant
decorative spirit of his
sculptures, Matthaus Pop-
pelmann attained in the
Zwinger at Dresden (1711—
22) the ultimate fusion of
all the elements through the
incompleteness and mutual
dependence of every one
(Fig. 250). Georg Bahr
brought to a brilliant culmi-
nation the development of
the Protestant auditorium-
church by his Frauenkirche
at Dresden (Fig. 251), with
its rotunda and storied in-
terior galleries, its unique
and successful transition
from mass to dome. In
Vienna, Johann Fischer von
Erlach, the pioneer historian
of architecture, showed a more eclectic spirit — as in the employ-
ment of a classical portico, and of imitations of the column of
Trajan, as elements in his church of San Carlo Borromeo —
but in general baroque conceptions dominate wholly.
Rococo. French influence: c. 1730-70. From about 1730,
this native growth was submerged, thanks to the overpower-
ing prestige of France, by an influx of French architects and.
French influence. These men were adepts in the free rococo
FIG. 251 — DRESDEN. FRAUENKIRCHE
452 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
decorations of Louis XV. and, unlike their fellow extremists
who remained in France, were not restrained by academic
tradition from carrying over their curvilinear style to exteriors.
On the contrary the prevailing native baroque encouraged
them to indulge their tendencies in graceful chateaux like the
Amalienburg by Francois de Cuvillies, which have no counter-
part outside of Germany.
Rise of academism. English influence. Frederick the
Great (1740-86) turned not only to France but to England,
which in the later eighteenth century began to set the mode
even for France itself. The Royal Opera House in Berlin
(1743) has a pedimented Corinthian portico of six columns,
severe classical niches, and almost complete absence of
sculpture. The final victory of this academic tendency,
presaging that of classicism itself, appears in the decorative
towers of the Gendarmenmarkt in Berlin (i 780^.) by Karl von
Gontard, in which are mingled reminiscences of the tall domes
of Wren and SoufHot.
PERIODS OF FOST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
ITALY
I. Establishment of academic and baroque tendencies, c. 1540-80.
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475-1564.
Studies for the facade of San Lorenzo at Florence, 1514^.
New Sacristy of San Lorenzo (Medici Chapel), 1521-34.
Laurentian Library at Florence, 1524-71.
Saint Peter's at Rome, 1546-64.
Palaces and square of the Capitol at Rome, 1 546 jf.
Santa Maria degli Angeli at Rome, 1559.
Porta Pia at Rome, 1559.
Andrea Palladio, 1518-80.
Basilica at Vicenza, 1549.
Palazzo Valmarana at Vicenza, begun 1556.
San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice, 1565.
II Redentore at Venice, 1577.
Villa Almerigo (Villa Rotonda) near Vicenza, 1570-89.
Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, 1580-84.
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 1507-73.
Palace at Caprarola, 1547.
Villa di Papa Giulio at Rome, 1550.
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 453
Sant' Andrea at Rome, 1550.
Villa Lante near Viterbo, begun 1566.
II Gesu at Rome, 1568.
Giorgio Vasari, 1511-74.
Court of the Uffizi irl Florence, 1560-80.
Galeazzo Alessi, 1512-72.
Palazzo Sauli at Genoa, c. 1550.
Santa Maria di Carignano at Genoa, begun c. 1552.
Palazzo Marino at Milan, 1568.
Bartolomeo Ammanati, 1511-92.
Ponte Santa Trinita at Florence, 1567-70.
II. Baroque supremacy, c. 1580-1730.
Giacomo della Porta, 1541-1604.
Design for facade of II Gesu at Rome, c. 1573.
Domenico Fontana, 1543-1607.
Acqua Paolina, 1585-90.
Carlo Maderna, 1556-1639.
Facade of Saint Peter's at Rome, 1606-26.
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, 1598-1680.
Baldachino of Saint Peter's at Rome, 1624-33.
Colonnades of Saint Peter's, 1656-63.
Scala Regia in the Vatican, 1663-66.
Palazzo Ludovisi (Montecitorio) , 1642-1700.
Francesco Borromini, 1599-1667.
Remodeling of Palazzo Spada at Rome, 1632.
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, 1640.
Sant' Agnese at Rome, 1645-50.
Guarino Guarini, 1624-83.
Palazzo Carignano at Turin, 1680.
Baldassare Longhena, 1604-82.
Santa Maria della Salute, 1631-82.
III. Compromise, c. 1730-80.
Filippo Juvara, 1685-1735.
The Superga near Turin, 1706-20.
Palazzo Madama at Turin, 1718.
Alessandro Galilei (1691-1737).
Facade the Church of the Lateran, 1 734.
Luigi Vanvitelli, 1700-73.
Palace at Caserta, 1752 Jf.
SPAIN
I. Academic architecture, c. 1570-1610.
Juan de Herrera, c. 1530-97.
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The Escurial, 1563-81.
Cathedral in Valladolid, 1585 /.
Exchange in Seville, 1584-98.
II. Baroque supremacy, c. 1610-1750.
Juan Gomez de Mora, d. 1647.
Jesuit college and church in Salamanca, 1614 (-1750).
Jose Churriguera, 1650-1723.
Catafalque for Queen Maria Luisa, 1689.
Town Hall of Salamanca.
Pedro Ribera.
Facade of the Hospicio Provincial in Madrid, 1772 (-1799).
Ventura Rodriquez, 1717-85.
San Marcos in Madrid, 1749-53.
San Francisco el Grande in Madrid, 1761.
III. Reaction, c. 1730.
Filippo Juvara and Giovanni Battista Sacchetti, d. 1766.
Royal Palace at La Granja, 1721-23.
Royal Palace at Madrid, i734jf.
Pedro Caro, d. 1732.
Palace at Aranjuez, 1727 (-78).
FRANCE
I. Baroque supremacy, c. 1590-1635.
Henry IV., 1589-1601.
Etienne du Perac, c. 1540-1601.
Palace and Gardens at Saint Germain, 1594.
Claude Chastillon, 1547-1616.
Place Royale at Paris, 1604.
Louis XIII., 1610-43.
Salomon de Brosse, b. between 1552 and 1562, d. 1626.
Luxembourg Palace, 1616-20.
Facade for Saint Gervais in Paris, 1616-21.
Jacques Lemercier, 1585-1654.
Enlargement of the Court of the Louvre, 1624-30.
Chateau de Richelieu, 1627-37.
Church of the Sorbonne, 1635-53.
II. Compromise, c. 1635-1745.
Stricter phase, c. 1635-1715.
Francois Mansart, 1598-1666.
Wing of Gaston d'Orleans at Blois, 1635-40.
Chateau of Maisons near Paris, 1642-51.
Church of the Val-de-Grace in Paris, begun 1645.
Louis XIV., 1643-1715.
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 455
Louis le Vau, 1612-70.
Chateau of Vaux-le-Vicomte, c. 1656-60.
College des Quatre Nations at Paris, 1660-68.
Continuation of the Louvre, 1664-70.
Remodeling of Versailles (Cour de Marbre), 1665-70.
Claude Perrault, 1613-88.
Colonnade of the Louvre, 1665.
Jules Hardouin Mansart, 1646-1708.
Second remodeling of Versailles, 1678-88; chapel,
1699-1710.
Dome of the Invalided at Paris, 1692-1704.
Francois Blondel, 1618-86.
Porte Saint Denis at Paris, 1672.
Freer phase, rococo, c. 1715-45.
Louis XV., 1715-74.
J. Aubert, d. 1741.
Stables at Chantilly, 1719-35.
Hotel Biron at Paris, 1728.
Girardini, dates uncertain.
Palais Bourbon at Paris, 1722.
Germain Boffrand, 1667-1754.
Hotel d'Amelot at Paris.
Emmanuel Here de Corny, 1705-63.
New quarter at Nancy, 1750-57.
III. Academic victory, 1745-80.
Louis XVI., 1774-92.
Jean Nicholas Servadony, b. 1695 or 1696, d. 1766.
Facade of Saint Sulpice in Paris, 1732-45.
Jacques Germain Soufflot, 1709-80.
Facade of the Hotel Dieu at Lyons, 1737.
Saint Genevieve (the Pantheon) at Paris, 1757-90 (see
Chapter XII).
Jacques Anges Gabriel, 1698-82.
Ecole Militaire in Paris, 1652 jf.
Palace at Compiegne, 1652-72.
Theater, etc., at Versailles, 1753-70.
Petit Trianon, 1762-68.
Palaces of the Place de la Concorde in Paris, 1762-70.
Jacques Denis Antoine, 1733-1801.
The Mint in Paris, 1771-75.
ENGLAND
16
Baroque supremacy, c. 1600-20.
(See English Renaissance architecture, under James I.)
456 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
II. Compromise, c. 1620-1720.
Inigo Jones, 1573-1652.
Queen's House in Greenwich, 1617-35.
Whitehall Palace in London, 1619-22.
Square and church of Saint Paul, Covent Garden, 163-1.
Portico of old Saint Paul's Cathedral in London, 1633 /.
King Charles's Block at Greenwich, 1637.
Somerset House in London, 1636-38.
Wilton House, 1647.
Sir Christopher Wren, 1632-1723.
Sheldonian Theater at Oxford, 1663-68.
Plan for the rebuilding of London, 1666.
Saint Paul's Cathedral in London, 1668-1710.
The Monument in London, 1671.
Temple Bar in London, 1671.
City churches in London, 1670-1711.
Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, 1672-79.
Saint Mary-le-Bow, 1680.
Saint Bride's, 1680-1702.
Buildings at Greenwich, 1676-1716.
Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1678.
Hampton Court, 1689-1703.
William Talman, fl. 1670-1700.
Chatsworth, 1681.
Sir John Vanbrugh, 1666-1726.
Castle Howard, 1702-14.
Blenheim Palace, 1705-24.
Nicholas Hawksmoor, 1661-1736.
Clarendon Press at Oxford (with Vanbrugh), c. 1710.
III. Academic supremacy, c. 1720-70.
Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington, 1695-1753.
General Wade's house in Bath, 1723.
Villa at Chiswick, 1729.
Assembly rooms at York, 1730-36.
Colin Campbell, c. 1729.
Burlington House in London, 1717.
Wanstead, 1720.
Mereworth Castle, 1723.
James Gibbs, 1628-1754.
Saint Martin-in-the-Fields' in London, 1721-26.
Radcliffe Library at Oxford, 1737-47.
William Kent, 1684-1748.
Holkham, 1734.
Horse Guards in London, begun 1742.
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 457
John Wood, c. 1704-54.
Prior Park near Bath, 1734.
The Circus at Bath, I754jf
George Dance the elder, 1698-1768.
Mansion House in London, 1739-53.
James Paine, 1725-89.
Worksop Manor House, 1763.
Sir William Chambers, 1726-96.
Rebuilding of Somerset House in London, 1776-90.
GERMANY
I. Baroque architecture, c. 1580-1730.
Michaelskirche in Munich, 1583-97.
Friedrichsbau at Heidelberg, 1601-07.
Elias Holl, 1573-1646.
Rathaus in Augsburg, 1614-20.
Vincenzo Scamozzi.
Design for the Cathedral of Salzburg, 1606, executed
1614-34.
Antonio and Pietro Spezza.
Loggia of the Waldstein Palace at Prague, 1629.
Enrico Zuccali, 1643-1724.
Theatine Church in Munich, 1663-75.
Andreas Schliiter, 1622-1714.
Royal Palace in Berlin, 1699 jf.
Johann Bernard Fischer von Erlach, 1650-1723.
Palace of Prince Eugene at Vienna, 1703.
Church of San Carlo Borromeo in Vienna, 1716-37.
Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann, 1662-1736.
Zwinger in Dresden, 1711-22.
Georg Bahr, 1666-1738.
Frauenkirche in Dresden, 1726-40.
Balthasar Neumann, 1687-1753.
Schloss Bruchsal, 1722-43 (partly rococo).
II. Rococo, c. 1730-70.
Francois de Cuvillies the elder, 1698-1768.
Amalienburg near Munich, 1734-39.
Pierre de la Guepiere.
Schloss Monrepos near Ludwigsburg, 1760-67.
Schloss Solitude near Stuttgart, 1763-67.
Georg von Knobelsdorff, 1699-1753.
Neues Schloss at Charlottenburg, 1740-42.
Sanssouci, begun 1745.
458 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
III. Rise of academism, c. 1740-80.
Georg von Knobelsdorff, 1699-1753.
Royal Opera House at Berlin, 1743.
Karl von Gontard, 1738-1802.
Commtms at Potsdam, 1765-69.
Towers in the Gendarmenmarkt in Berlin, 1780.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
General works covering the period are G. Ebe's Die Spat-Renais-
sance, 2 vols., 1886; C. Gurlitt's Geschichte des Barockstiles, des Rococo
und des Klassizismus (Geschichte der neueren Baukunsf), 3. vols.,
1887-89, of which the individual volumes are listed below, and
P. Frankl's Die Entwicklungsphasen der neueren Baukunst, 1914.
Further illustrations are provided by R. Dohme's Barock- und Rococo-
Architektur, 3 vols., 1892. Books dealing with but one of the com-
plementary tendencies of the times are P. Klopfer's Von Palladia bis
Schinkel: eine Charakteristik der Baukunst des Klassizismus (Geschichte
der neueren Baukunst}, 1911, and M. S. Briggs's Baroque Architecture,
1914. Discussions of the relation of the tendencies are H. Wolfflin's
Renaissance und Barock, 1888, 2d ed., 1907; A. Schmarzow's
Barock und Rokoko, 1897, and K. Escher's Barock und Klassizismus,
1910.
Italy. Gurlitt's volume, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien,
1887, is still the principal historical account, which may be supple-
mented by the Italian sections of the other general works, and by the
photographs reproduced in C. Ricci's Baroque Architecture and Sculpt-
ure in Italy, 1912. Specially concerned with Rome are A. RiegPs
Die Entstehung der Barockkunst in Rom, 1908, and Escher's Barock
und Klassizismus. For the villas and gardens see M. L. Gothein's
Geschichte der Gartenkunst, 2 vols., 1914, .Chapter VII; H. I. Triggs's
The Art of Garden Design in Italy, 1906, and G. Lowell's Smaller
Italian Villas and Farmhouses, 1916.
France. The work of Ward on Renaissance architecture and (to
a less degree) the works of Geymuller and Blomfield cover the post-
Renaissance period as well. Two works by H. Lemonnier, Uart
franqais au temps de Richelieu et de Mazarin, 1893, and L'art franqais
au temps de Louis XIV., 191 1, include architecture with the other arts.
Topographical works with large photographic reproductions include
those of L. Deshairs on Bordeaux, Dijon, and Aix, and those of R. le
Nail and C. Gurlitt on Lyons. F. Contet's Les meux hotels de Paris,
10 vols., 1908-14, partially covers Paris in a similar way, while each
of the great royal palaces has several works devoted especially to it.
POST-RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE 459
Three works by P. Planat: Le style Louis XIV., Le style Louis V.y
and Le style Louis XVI., 1907, give similar plates for the periods
indicated by their titles. Garden architecture is treated in M.
Fouquier's De I'art des jardins du XVe au XXe siecle, 1911, and in
H. Stein's Les jardins de France. The general biographical works
covering French architects are supplemented by E. F. Dilke's French
Architects and Sculptors of the XVIII. Century, 1900.
England. The principal work is R. Blomfield's History of Renais-
sance Architecture in England, 1500-1800, 2 vols., 1897, of which the
major part is devoted to the period after 1615. It includes a full
bibliography of contemporary and modern works. A series of large
photographs and measured drawings is furnished by J. Belcher
and M. E. Macartney's Later Renaissance Architecture in England,
2 vols., 1897-1901. Domestic architecture is specially treated in
M. E. Macartney's English Houses and Gardens in the 17 th and i8th
Centuries, 1908; H. Field and M. Bunney's English Domestic Archi-
tecture of the XVII. and XV III. Centuries, 1905 (smaller buildings) ;
T. V. Sadlier and P. L. Dickinson's Georgian Mansions in Ireland,
1915; M. A. Green's The Eighteenth Century Architecture of Bath,
1904; and A. E. Richardson and C. L. Gill's London Houses from
1660-1820. For individual biography see E. B. Chancellor's The
Lives of the British Architects, 1909.
Spain. O. Schubert's Geschichte des Barock in Spanien (Geschichte
der neueren Baukunst), 1908, is the authoritative discussion. Further
illustrations are furnished by the works of Uhde, Junghandel, and
others listed under the Renaissance in Spain.
Germany. Ample illustration is furnished by Dohme's work,
mentioned above; by Lambert and Stahl's Motive der deutschen Archi-
tektur, vol. 2, 1892; P. Schmoll and G. Staehelin's Barockbauten in
Deutschland, 1904; O. Aufleger's Silddeutsche Architektur . . . im
XVIII. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., 1891-95; and, in more convenient
compass, in H. Popp's Architektur der Barock und Rokokozeit in
Deutschland und der Schweiz, 1914. P. Schumann's Barock und
Rokoko, 1885, is specially devoted to Dresden. J. Braun's Die
Kirchenbauten der deutschen Jesuiten, 2 vols., 1908-10, covers a
notable series of churches. C. Gurlitt's Historische Stadtebilder ,
ii vols., 1901-09, is largely devoted to German cities important in
this period.
CHAPTER XII
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
The mid-eighteenth century witnessed the beginnings of a
series of changes, political and cultural, scarcely less important
than those of the fifteenth century. Although many of these
movements were extensions or logical consequences of those
of the Renaissance, their importance and approximately
simultaneous appearance justify the idea that they constitute
the beginning of a new era, specifically modern. The freedom
of inquiry applied in the Renaissance to letters and art, and
in the Reformation to religion, was now applied to history,
politics, and science. A multitude of individual tendencies
combined to initiate the age of archeological discovery and
historical research, of revolution and democracy, of natural
science and invention, of capitalism and colonial empire.
These were destined to affect not only the stylistic aspect of
architecture, but equally the nature of the prevailing types of
buildings and methods of construction, as well as the extent
to which these were diffused over the world.
General characteristics. Although the kaleidoscopic inter-
play of forces makes it difficult to generalize regarding the
architectural characteristics of the period, they may be con-
ceived broadly as the result of a synthesis of retrospective
and progressive tendencies, which exist side by side, not
unlike the academic and baroque tendencies in the previous
period. In matters of form and detail it is the newly won
historical understanding of previous styles which has been
chiefly influential, resulting in a series of attempted revivals
followed by a season of eclecticism. In matters of plan
and construction, however, the growth of material civilization
and the development of new forms of government and com-
merce have produced a multitude of novel types of buildings
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 461
as well as constant changes in the form and importance of
the old types, making every supposed revival unconsciously
a new creation. Finally there has begun a conscious move-
ment to give the new functional types and structural systems
an expression that shall also be novel and entirely charac-
teristic.
Complexity of development. It thus comes about that,
within a century and a half of coherent development in
practical matters, there is a series of subordinate phases
distinguished by very different forms of detail. Although a
greater or less number of these phases might be distinguished,
the principal ones may be considered as four, corresponding
generally to literary and cultural phases: classicism, roman-
ticism, eclecticism (all outgrowths chiefly of the historical
attitude), and functionalism (primarily an outgrowth of
natural science). As each of these phases, like the academic
and baroque movements, varies in character and duration in
different countries, it becomes even more difficult to preserve
a strictly chronological and local order during the discussion
of the most modern architecture than it is during the dis-
cussion of the architecture immediately preceding. In view
of the fundamentally international character of the archi-
tectural tendencies, and their uniform order of predominance
in all countries, it is more fruitful to consider the individual
movements in their general sequence rather than individual
countries one by one. The continuity of development in
any given individual type, and the simultaneous existence and
interplay of movements in any given country, scarcely less
characteristic, may be indicated by the way.
Classicism: study of classical 'monuments. The first of the
modern movements to affect architectural forms was the
flood of archeological discovery and publication in the middle
of the eighteenth century. Hitherto the fund of knowledge
concerning ancient buildings, aside from the details of the
orders, was surprisingly small. Writers and engravers, in
general, had been chiefly concerned with the construction of
academic theories, or the representation of the buildings of
their own day — both supposedly based on the antique, but
really departing from it with the greatest freedom. Palladio,
to be sure, had published rationalized restorations of the
462 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Roman temples as early as 1570, and in 1682 Desgodetz had
issued his far more accurate drawings of the monuments of
the city of Rome. These were but isolated forerunners, how-
ever, of the multitude of works which now commenced to
appear, many of them illustrating buildings hitherto unre-
garded or entirely unknown. In 1730 Lord Burlington
brought out many of Palladio's drawings of Roman buildings
which had lain a century and a half in manuscript. In 1741
the engraver Piranesi issued his first plates, the commence-
ment of a colossal series of views of ancient ruins and frag-
ments, which placed before the public the great wealth of
Roman architecture in Italy, and, with their striking artistic
qualities, powerfully stimulated the vogue of the antique.
In the fifties there began to appear illustrated works dealing
with Herculaneum, and later with Pompeii, the boiried Cam-
panian cities which exhibited Roman art in a way so much
more lively and intimate than the ruined and despoiled monu-
ments of the capital. The knowledge of Roman architecture
was further enriched by the study and publication of the
temples at Palmyra and Baalbek by Wood and Dawkins
(1753 and 1757) and of the palace at Spalato by Robert Adam
and Clerisseau (1764) — buildings differing widely in com-
position and detail from the conventional conceptions of the
academic theorists. Scarcely later came the revelation of
Greek monuments, hitherto known only by the vague ac-
counts of a few travelers. In 1750 and 1751 Cochin and
SoufHot were drawing and measuring at Paestum; Stuart and
Revett were at Athens. A few years later publications re-
garding these and other sites began to pour forth. Leroy's
Athens appeared in 1758, the first volume of Stuart and
Revett 's Antiquities of Athens in 1762, Major's P cesium in
1768, Chandler's Ionia in 1769, with a stream of successors
of the same character reaching well into the nineteenth
century. At the same time the Comte de Caylus and Winckel-
mann were laying the foundations of archeology and of the
history of art, Winckelmann asserting for the first time the
superiority of Greek architecture and sculpture over those of
the Romans.
Reaction against the baroque and against academic formula.
The increasing appreciation of antiquity was coincident with
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 463
independent tendencies, already visible in contemporary
architecture. The rationalistic advocacy of the primitive
orders by Laugier in 1752, the appeal for a "noble simplicity
and quiet grandeur" which Winckelmann made in 1755, were
based rather on antithesis to contemporary art than on a real
knowledge of the art of the ancients. The reaction from the
extreme crescendo of the baroque had already begun, even in
Italy, in such works as the Superga and the facade of the
Lateran. In France the manner of Servadony prevailed over
the rococo, while in England the reversion from Wren and
Vanbrugh to strict Palladianism was universal. It was felt
that, in the striving for animation, picturesqueness, and
originality, dignity and earnestness had been lost. It was
these sober qualities, which so many were seeking, that were
now found superlatively exemplified in certain of the works of
antiquity.
Characteristics and development of classicism. The result
was that the current of practice was turned toward the closer
imitation of classical forms, and ultimately even of classical
dispositions and ensembles. Architects approached the
antique directly, and not through Palladio or Vitruvius.
Hitherto the orders had been used principally in the decoration
of wall surfaces ; columns and pilasters had been freely grouped
and often placed above a high basement. The temple por-
tico, except in England, where the example of Palladio was
directly followed, had been used very rarely or not at all.
Now, on the other hand, it became almost essential, its
columns closely and equally spaced, rising directly from the
ground. The membering of walls was renounced in favor of
the simplest jointing or rustication. Forms like those of the
rectangular temple and the Pantheon, determined for the
most part in advance, had now to be employed to meet not
only the traditional problems of the church, the school, and
the dwelling, but also a multitude of new problems in the
legislative and other governmental buildings, the banks,
exchanges, and commercial structures, the museums and
theaters, assembly and concert halls, the prisons and institu-
tions which great political, economic, and social changes were
bringing into being. Academic conservatism, especially in
France, however, hindered the literal imitation of ancient
464 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
precedent, just in proportion as it differed from the currently
accepted canons. Thus, although the Roman and the Greek
tendencies ran side by side almost from the beginning, the
Roman remained predominant until shortly before 1820.
Even then, when Greek forms surpassed the Roman in
popular favor, important monuments of Roman character
still continued to be built.
Roman supremacy. The beginnings in France. The clas-
sical reform of architecture began coincidently in France and
England about 1760. In Sainte Genevieve, in Paris (1759-90),
Soufflot thought to imitate the portico and dome of the
Pantheon in Rome (Fig. 252). For the first time in France
there is a free-standing portico of the full height of the facade,
its Corinthian columns no less than sixty-two feet high.
This soon had its successors in such buildings as the Grand
Theatre at Bordeaux (1777-80), by Victor Louis, with its co-
lossal portico of twelve columns, and in the urban dwellings of
Roman cast. The characteristic features of these houses, a
peristylar cour d'honneur with a triumphal arch at the grille,
a temple portico at the door, and a saucer dome over the
circular projecting salon toward the garden, are well com-
bined in the H6tel de Salm (1782-86), now the Palace of the
Legion of Honor. The interiors lost the flowing lines of the
rococo and turned to the delicate, simple paneling and refined
imitation of antique motives which mark the style of Louis
XVI.
The beginnings in England. In England Robert Adam and
his brothers (1760^.), although they created no building of
such monumental quality as Sainte Genevieve in Paris, gave a
powerful stimulus to the employment of more strictly Roman
forms, especially for the treatment of interiors. Free-standing
columns, coffered vaults and domes, statued niches and bas-
reliefs marked the principal rooms even of private dwellings
(Fig. 255), while a delicate surface decoration of vases,
griffins, and garlands in stucco, with Wedgwood medallions
and slender furniture designed in harmony, lent the rest an
air of unusual distinction. Although Piranesi and others had
anticipated many of these features or assisted the brothers
Adam with them, it was the skill of the Adams which first
welded them into a coherent style. Almost simultaneously
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 465
came the first work inspired by Greek models, in a few designs
by Stuart and by Revett. These for the most part, however,
were composed on traditional Palladian lines, the details of the
orders, the employment of antae and anthemia, the purity of
decoration, being the principal innovations. This refinement
FIG. 252— PARIS. CHURCH OF SAINTE GENEVIEVE. (THE PANTHEON)
and severity, with a preference for the heavier orders, grad-
ually permeated the academic style of building, which still
long continued.
Literal imitation of classical models. Monuments. Mean-
while, however, a more strict imitation of classical examples
was beginning, extending not merely to individual details and
elements, but to whole monuments. This appeared first in
the sentimental or landscape gardens, which were decorated
with miniature classic temples and ruins. Stuart enriched the
repertoire with the Monument of Lysicrates and other Athen-
ian types. Ledoux, in his octroi gates and stations for
Paris (1780-88), made liberal use of classical motives — the
466 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
triumphal column, the exterior peristyle, the circular temple —
even using the Greek Doric column without a base. Lang-
hans took the Propylaea at Athens as his model for the Brand-
enburg Gate in Berlin (1788-91), although he used a more
Roman type of column and introduced other notable changes
which resulted in an original creation (Fig. 253). The French
FIG. 253 — BERLIN. BRANDENBURG GATE
Republic and its successors, with their studied imitation of
Rome, naturally reproduced its monuments also; and Na-
poleon outdid all others with the column of the Place Venddme
(1805-10), modeled on that of Trajan, the Arc du Carrousel
(1806), modeled on the Arch of Domitian (" Const antine"), and
finally the colossal Arc de 1'Etoile by Chalgrin (Fig. 254). In
contrast to most of its predecessors this showed great freedom
in the rendering of the antique motive, with a puristic tendency
very characteristic of French architects of the revival period.
Other literal imitations. Even in buildings intended for
practical use, the literal following of classical prototypes began,
on the initiative of rulers and statesmen. Catharine II.
commissioned Clerisseau in 1780 to design her a dwelling
which should be strictly Roman. For his Temple of Glory,
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 467
now the church of the Madeleine, Napoleon insisted on the
selection of the design by Vignon (1807), a peristylar Corinthian
temple with its interior treatment suggested by the halls of
the thermae. The design of the Bourse ( 1 808-2 7 ) also included
an external peristyle, but its great breadth did riot permit a
pediment. In all these works Roman forms were- employed,
FIG. 254 — PARIS. ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE I/ETOILE
although in the interiors of the Empire style — developed by
Percier and Fontaine on the lines of the Adams and Louis
XVI. — Greek decorative elements were abundant, and even
Egyptian forms became popular as a result of Napoleon's
Eastern campaign.
The Greek supremacy. The Greek supremacy began after
the Napoleonic wars, with important works first in England
but later especially in Germany. Again, as in the case of
the Roman revival, the use of Greek orders and larger ele-
ments preceded the bodily imitation of the temple. Among
British buildings the high school at Edinburgh (1825-29), by
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 469
Thomas Hamilton, is especially noteworthy, no less for its
plastic handling of Greek forms in the wings and terraces than
for its reproduction of the portico of the Theseum in the
central feature (Fig. 257). In Germany a great personality,
Friedrich Schinkel, succeeded in combining classical spirit
with modern requirements in a series of works of which the
Royal Theater in Berlin (1818-21) is perhaps the most
notable (Fig. 258). Later, under the patronage of Ludwig I.
of Bavaria, Leo von Klenze carried still further the imitation
of classical ensembles, culminating in the Walhalla at Regens-
burg (1830-42), a reproduction of the Parthenon, raised on a
mighty terraced substructure. The idea of such a reproduc-
tion had long captivated designers: Gilly had proposed it as
early as 1797 for a memorial to Frederick the Great; the
National Monument in Edinburgh had been begun in accord-
ance with it in 1829.
Reaction from literal classicism. With these buildings, most
of them, to be sure, commemorative monuments without
exacting practical functions, the high tide of classicism was
reached, and a reflux set in toward more rationalistic use of
classical forms. The temple portico was abandoned, and the
Greek suggestion appeared only in the fondness for the Doric
order, the delicacy of the projections, the elegance of the
profiles. In France, where the Roman tendency was strongest
and the academic resistance to actual copying was most
tenacious, this last phase of the classical movement was the
first in which Greek influence was really much felt, and it thus
received the name of neo-grec. By other tendencies which
they incorporate, however, as well as by their date, the neo-
grec buildings belong, in spite of the name applied to them,
less with the revivalist movement than with the following
phases of eclecticism and functionalism.
Types of buildings during the classical movement: adminis-
trative. Counter to the extreme formal tendency of classicism
—to assimilate all buildings to a single classical type — there
had constantly been the utilitarian tendency to differentiate
types of buildings more and more in accordance with their
increasingly specialized functions. This had already begun
under the old regime, but it was powerfully stimulated by the
Revolution, which detached many governmental functions
FIG. 257 — EDINBURGH. THE HIGH SCHOOL. (RICHARDSON)
FIG. 258— BERLIN. J ROYAL THEATER
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 471
from the palace, and threw theaters and museums open to all.
The earliest of modern administrative buildings, distinct from
the palace, were developed in Great Britain, where the Ad-
miralty, Somerset House, and a number of other buildings
fall quite within the period of academic supremacy. Even in
France, however, specialized governmental functions had also
commenced to find monumental expression, in the Mint (1771-
75) and in the rebuilding of the Palace of Justice after 1776.
All of these buildings, however, are essentially on the scheme
of the palace, as their multitude of small rooms permits; and
even the latest of thenr have merely a Doric solidity and
earnestness to suggest this specific character. A more pro-
nounced suggestion of governmental functions was first given
in the grandiose fagade of the Four Courts in Dublin, with its
commanding portico and classical dome, built by James
Gandon in 1784-96.
Legislative buildings. Such a new expression for govern-
mental functions was soon found also in legislative buildings,
where one or more large deliberative halls forced the adoption
of a great scale. The Parliament House at Dublin had led
the way as early as 1730—39, with an arcaded portico and a
domed hall suggested by the Pantheon, but carried out with
Palladian forms. The seats were arranged in a semicircle
in one-half the octagonal room. For the meeting of the States-
General at Versailles in 1789, an impressive basilican room
with Doric columns was improvised within an indifferent
building. Here at first the throne was at one end, the seats
along the other three sides; but when the body was recon-
structed as the National Assembly the chair was moved to
the center of a long side and the seats arranged in a double
horseshoe. The hall with semicircular form, on the lines of a
Roman theater, was afterward developed in the deliberative
halls of the Palais Bourbon in Paris, 1795-1833, and was
widely followed on the Continent. For the unicameral
legislative building a powerful external expression was found
in the Corinthian portico of twelve columns prefixed to the
Palais Bourbon in 1807.
Prisons. Related to political movements was the agitation
for the reform of methods of punishment, first by the substitu-
tion of imprisonment for the death penalty in many cases,
472 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
and later by the improvement of the prisons which this new
order had caused to multiply. Characteristic of the first phase
was Newgate Prison in London (1770-82), designed by George
Dance, which, with its vast rusticated walls and narrow door-
ways, was the very embodiment of force (Fig. 259). Hu-
manity, sanitation, or reformation of the prisoners, however,
had little consideration until well into the nineteenth century,
and the form of prison which then resulted was very different.
Ideas of correction through solitary confinement or disciplined
labor ultimately caused, about 1835, the universal adoption of
individual cells and of a highly organized system of separate
workrooms and yards for various classes of prisoners.
Banks, exchanges, and commercial structures. Other novel
structures were called into being by the commercial and
capitalistic developments of the age, and proved to find con-
genial garb in the prevailing classical mode. The monumental
portico placed before the bank or exchange suggested the power
of finance or the stability of credit, while the blank walls
which classical purism had made its own exactly met the
necessities of vast docks and warehotises. In the rebuilding
of the first and greatest of the modern financial institutions,
the Bank of England (1788-1835), Sir John Soane had to
design a windowless exterior, with a multitude of great halls
and light courts. Although the general external treatment
with columns and blank windows is less frank than some other
solutions of similar problems, certain features, like the Loth-
bury Angle (Fig. 256) or the Lothbury Courtyard, are master-
pieces of free composition with classical forms, while the
interiors are full of dignity. The Bourse in Paris and the
Royal Exchange in London (1840-44), with their colossal
porticoes, continued the monumental tradition. The utili-
tarian side of commerce had its most notable embodiment in
the Halle au Ble in Paris (1783), a circular, domed market-
hall, destitute of extraneous adornment, but effective by its
very simplicity and adaptation to purpose.
Theaters. Not less novel were the theaters, museums, and
concert-halls, which responded to the growth of democracy
as well as to the development of music and of archeology.
Such features had hitherto usually been adjuncts of the palace ;
now they became detached, and subjects for special treat*
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 473
ment. The first of the independent theaters to receive a
monumental exterior had been the Royal Opera in Berlin
(1741-42), for which Frederick the Great had insisted on an
English Palladian form. The Grand Theatre at Bordeaux
(1777-80), with its still more classical treatment, was followed
in the Odeon in Paris (i 799-1802) and in many others, especial-
ly in France and England. All these were cubical masses, into
FIG. 259 — LONDON. OLD NEWGATE PRISON. (RICHARDSON)
which stage, auditorium, foyer, and vestibule were fitted.
A more varied form made its appearance in Schinkel's Royal
Theater in Berlin (1818-21), with which a concert-room, ball-
room, and refreshment-rooms had also to be incorporated
(Fig. 258). Wings containing these adjuncts were added to
the main mass, which dominates them by its high-gabled
clerestory, its monumental steps, and its Ionic portico, all
treated with Hellenic forms of slight relief and with severely
classical ornaments. The ultimate classical solution of the
theater problem in Germany was a different one, for which,
not the temple portico, but the ancient theater itself served as a
model. In this scheme the circular end of the auditorium,
with its surrounding corridor, formed the fagade, clearly in-
dicating the nature of the building, but involving considerable
474 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
sacrifices in the vestibules, foyers, and stairs which had
become such prominent features of the modern theater. The
most notable example, the old Court Theater in Dresden
(1838-41), shows the persistence of this type even when strict
classical forms were not employed (Fig. 264).
Museums and concert-halls. In giving the museum an in-
dependent form Germany led the way, even in the eighteenth
century. In the early nineteenth it created two notable
monuments, the Glyptothek in Munich by Von Klenze
(1816-30) and the Old Museum in Berlin by Schinkel (1824-
28). These were both severe compositions in the Greek
Ionic order, which was used also in the British Museum
(1825-47), designed by Sir Charles Barry. For the problem
of the concert-hall, Schinkel had given a solution of the
greatest elegance in connection with the theater in Berlin.
An auditorium for vast popular concerts is the principal
feature of Saint George's Hall in Liverpool (183 8-5 4) 'which in-
cludes also a smaller recital-hall, two court-rooms, and public
offices. The exterior — by the gifted and youthful Elmes —
with its two vast Corinthian porticoes, its commanding attic,
its magnificent terraces and approaches, is justly famous as
among the most monumental of all modern structures (Fig.
260).
Other types. Churches. For the problems already conse-
crated by time — the church, the college, the house, or palace —
classicism did not achieve new solutions of the same impor-
tance. This was partly because the satisfactory solutions al-
ready attained in the previous period tended to be followed,
partly because the problems themselves were becoming
secondary to the new ones of the age, and partly because
other forces tended before long to take these very problems
entirely out of the hands of the classical architects. In the
church, as elsewhere, the imitation of classical models was
attempted, both the rectangular-temple type and the Pantheon
type being followed. One of the most notable of the re-
vivalist churches was Saint Pancras in London, in which the
beautiful details of the Erechtheum were imitated — the North
Porch for the entrance portico, the Porch of the Maidens for
the sacristies, with the Athenian Tower of the Winds, twice
repeated, for the steeple. Chalgrin, in the church of Saint
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
475
Philippe du Roule in Paris, was inspired by the Christian-
Roman basilica, initiating a notable series. Others, however,
followed the established academic types, with a tall central
dome or two western towers, merely adopting a more classical
portico and details.
Domestic architecture. Few palaces were built during the
period which classicism shared with revolution. Even Na-
poleon contented himself with remodeling the interiors of
three among the many palaces left by the old regime. The
FIG. 260— LIVERPOOL. SAINT GEORGE'S HALL. (RICHARDSON)
great country mansions henceforth likewise multiplied less
rapidly, although magnificent town houses continued to be
built. Like the hotels under Louis XVI., already described,
all these had usually a portico of Roman or Greek detail, and
often a circular salon suggested by the Pantheon. The less
ambitious town houses, solidly built up in blocks, had usually
a most restrained treatment, depending on the proportions of
stories and openings alone. Often the town-planning tradi-
tions of the previous period were continued by the unified
design of the houses in whole streets and squares, as in the
Adelphi and Regent's Quadrant in London, or the Rue de
Rivoli in Paris. Colonnades or arcades were now sometimes
476 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE -
adopted in the lower story, to shelter the foot passengers and
to increase the effect of Roman magnificence. In the minor
European country houses, a type most frequent in England,
there was some attempt, about 1820, to imitate the temple,
although not without breaking its unity by projections or
wings. All these types of domestic architecture, however,
as well as the classical types of churches, were gradually swept
away by the rise of romanticism, which for a time even bade
fair to prevail in modern architecture as a whole.
Romanticism: cultural changes. Romanticism in architect-
ure, like classicism, had its precursors and companions in
cultural and literary movements. Their origins in some
cases were quite as early as those of the neo-classical tendency.
The modern appreciation of landscape and the idea of the
landscape garden had begun early in the eighteenth century.
Sentimentalism came in toward the middle of the century with
Richardson and Gray, and on the Continent, in the sixties, with
Rousseau, who also transplanted and quickened the cult of
nature. At the same time England and Germany awakened
to an appreciation of their northern, national heritage, the
mythology and legend, the history and art of the Middle
Ages. The importance of the Goths for the cultural develop-
ment of Europe was affirmed in the dialogues of The Investi-
gator in 1755; the principle of nationalism in history, litera-
ture, and art was announced by Herder and his friends in
Von detitscher Art und Kunst in 1773. The ideas thus im-
planted, however, did not bear their full fruit, even in litera-
ture, until the beginning of the nineteenth century, with
Wordsworth and Coleridge, Byron and Scott, with the Ger-
man romanticists who influenced Madame de Stael, and,
through her, made way for Hugo and the French of the
thirties. With all these men the emotion and enthusiasm of
the individual, rather than the following of academic rules,
were proclaimed as the springs of artistic success. The emo-
tional upheaval was naturally accompanied by a revival of
religious faith, which found its expression both in the glori-
fication of traditional Christianity by Chateaubriand and in
the preaching of a personal and naturalistic belief by Schleier-
macher.
The medieval revival in architecture. Picturesqueness and
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 477
naturalness, nationality and religion, all seemed embodied,
not in classic architecture, but in Gothic, then a synonym for
the art of the Middle Ages. A revival of medieval architecture
in northern lands thus grew out of racial and contemporary
conditions, as the renaissance of classic architecture had
developed in the Italy of the fifteenth century. Moreover,
just as classic architecture had never quite died out in Italy
during the Middle Ages, but had lingered to provide a con-
genial soil for the revival, so Gothic architecture had never
quite ceased to be practised, especially in England. Traditional
survivals of Gothic had continued in country churches and in
the Oxford colleges until the time of the Restoration, and the
reconstruction and repair of buildings in the old style went on
under Sir Christopher Wren and even in the middle of the
eighteenth century. At the same time a historical interest
in the heritage of medieval monuments was evidenced by
antiquarian works such as the Monasti on Anglicanum (1655-
73) and publications dealing with individual towns and
cathedrals. Neither the books nor the buildings show any
very accurate knowledge of medieval forms of detail or prin-
ciples of construction, yet they furnished a living stock on
which the romantic idea could be grafted. It thus came
about that England, where the romantic movement in litera-
ture was earliest and strongest, was also essentially the home of
romanticism in architecture.
Origins. Pseudo-Chinese and Gothic designs. The earliest
purely voluntary departures from classical architecture in the
eighteenth century had scarcely the serious motives of later
efforts, being suggested rather by search for novelty and
modishness, in the sportive, trivial structures which the taste
of the time demanded for garden shelters and the assemblage
of intimate parties. The reports of Eastern travelers had
aroused enthusiasm for things Chinese, and as early as 1740
designs for porticoes and pavilions supposedly Chinese were
being executed side by side with miniature classic temples,
both in France and England. By 1750 others supposedly
Gothic appeared in England, as similar to the pseudo-Chinese
in their fantastic flourishes as they were dissimilar to their
prototypes, still so imperfectly understood. In the land-
scape gardens which were already universal in England, such
478 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
buildings now began to acquire a 'sentimental significance, as
expressing to the beholder different moods which the scenes
were designed to evoke. The Gothic, symbolizing the ideals
of rusticity and unworldliness which were then fashionable,
rapidly gained ground.
The Gothic revival in England. First phase, c. 1760-1830.
The castellated style. The first to extend the imitation of
Gothic to a building of more important type was Horace
Walpole, in the remodeling of his villa, Strawberry Hill
( 1 7 53-76) . He was inspired by the same enthusiastic admira-
tion of the Middle Ages which appears in his pioneer historical
romance The Castle of Otranto (1764), and he hoped to
give a model of pure Gothic in contrast to the ignorant per-
versions which were in vogue. With this idea he imitated
porches and battlements, doors, ceilings, and chimney-pieces
from old work, but with complete unconsciousness of their
inconsistency in periods of origin, and even with utter disregard
for the original purposes of the designs. The resulting "castel-
lated style," as it was called, was widely adopted in country
seats, on many of which such well-known academic architects
as George Dance and Sir William Chambers were employed.
At the same time the first churches with similar forms were
undertaken.
Ecclesiastical influence. In the last quarter of the eighteenth
century new. forces furthered the movement, while giving it
a more ecclesiastical cast. A new generation of antiquaries
poured forth works on the medieval churches, at once more
numerous and more adequately illustrated than those of a
century earlier. Attention was attracted to the repair of the
structures themselves, and restorations were attempted,
although with insufficient knowledge and often with disastrous
results. James Wyatt, the chief of the restorers, had also a
great vogue as an architect of domestic buildings. Ecclesi-
astical names were often given to these, and the details of their
windows, buttresses, and towers were derived rather from
churches than from the old manorial halls. Fonthill Abbey
(1796-1814), the extravagant creation of the romancer William
Beckford, was the most famous of these; Eaton Hall (1803-
14) was another noteworthy example (Fig. 261). Although
religious feeling in England at this time was still at a low ebb,
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
479
and new churches were few, an increasing number of these
followed the Gothic style, as it was then understood.
Literal imitation of medieval models. A great improvement
in grammatical accuracy of detail, as well as an appreciation
of chronological consistency of style, followed the publication,
in 1819 and 1820, of Rickman's Attempt to Discriminate the
Styks of English Architecture, and of Pugin and Willson's
FIG. 26l — EATON HALL BEFORE ALTERATION IN 1870. (EASTLAKE)
Specimens of Gothic Architecture. These books, which
provided for the first time a tolerable historical account of the
development of the style, and accurate geometrical drawings
of its examples, opened an era of literal copying of whole
features, conscientiously culled from this or that period, most
frequently the later Perpendicular. The inclusion of drawings
of domestic work helped bring about an abandonment of the
ecclesiastical forms previously adopted for dwellings, in favor
of a domestic treatment dependent on the grouping of masses,
gables, and chimneys — the so-called " baronial style." In
planning, which was still dominated unconsciously by classical
480 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ideals, a strict symmetry was preserved; while in construction
and decoration lack of means and of sympathetic craftsmen
prevented a reproduction of the spirit of the rich medieval
work chosen for imitation.
Second phase, 1830-70. Pugin. The second and far more
important phase of the revival opened with the work of
Augustus Welby Pugin, a son of the elder Pugin. He displayed
at once a freedom and fertility of invention with Gothic forms
which had hitherto been unknown, and a zeal for their ex-
clusive adoption which had the force of religious fanaticism.
In his designs, 1830-52, he sought and attained a medieval
picturesqueness of plan and mass; in his studios he trained
carvers and metal-workers to execute the details of his facile
designs; in his writings he preached the revival of Christian
architecture, as he called it, for civil as well as for religious
and domestic buildings. At the same time began the revival
of ritual in the Anglican church, and the study of church
architecture in relation to ritual arrangements. As a result
of all this, Gothic became the accepted style not only for
country residences but for churches, which recovered alike
their medieval functions and their medieval form. Archi-
tects, many of whom henceforth devoted themselves exclusive-
ly to Gothic, began to design, within the accepted English
Gothic modes, with greater confidence in themselves.
The Houses of Parliament. Simultaneously with the first
of Pugin's publications (1836), the cause of medievalism
achieved a triumph in the retention of the Gothic style in the
rebuilding of the palace at Westminster — the new Houses of
Parliament, executed between 1840 and 1860 (Fig. 262). The
architect, Sir Charles Barry, was a man experienced in design
with classical as well as with Gothic forms, and the building
was currently described as having Tudor details on a classic
body. The emphasis in massing, however, is by no means of a
classical type, for it is laid not on the essential components of
the plan, the two chambers, but on towers which mark the
royal entrance and support the clock. Notable qualities of
the design are the practical solution of extremely complex
problems in plan, including accommodation to portions of
the old structure still remaining, and the picturesque employ~
ment of the magnificent river site. The employment of
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 481
medieval forms in a national monument of such importance,
of course, gave the revival another great impetus.
Ruskin. An impulse of different sort, yet equally or more
powerful, was given meanwhile by the writings of John Ruskin.
In his Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and his Stones of
Venice (1851) he urged a return to the methods as well as the
forms of the Middle Ages, and this not simply on grounds of
religion or of ritual, but even of morality. The emancipation
FIG. 262— LONDON. HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT
of the individual craftsmen from the modern industrial system
was to be at once an end in itself and a means to the attainment
of true beauty in architecture. This was proclaimed to lie
not in abstract qualities, such as proportion, but in honesty
of materials and of structure, and in evidence of human
devotion and thought, appearing above all in the sculptured
and painted details. Such an animation of detail and color
he found especially in the marble capitals and polychrome
walls and mosaics of Italy, to which his admirers soon turned
for inspiration. It was at the moment when architects were
wearying of the restrictions of antiquarian national precedent,
and seeking a greater liberty of invention. Thus many who
482 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
were impatient with Ruskin's principles took advantage of
this or that individual suggestion.
Victorian Gothic. The result of all these forces was the so-
called Victorian Gothic, distinguished by great elaboration of
detail, polychromy of materials, including marble, brick, and
encaustic tiles, and a leaning toward Italian forms of "surface
Gothic" rather than the northern "linear Gothic." Among
the leading exponents of the style were Sir Gilbert Scott
(1811-78) and his pupil George Edmund Street (1824-81),
who in long and active careers ran through a number of its
phases; and William Butterfield (1814-1900) who strove to
create a novel development with a variety of Gothic . and
modern elements. Scott and others of the group even ex-
tended their practice beyond the bounds of England by success-
ful competition against Continental architects of all schools.
" The battle of the styles" By 1855 the adherents of Gothic
were strong enough to challenge the supremacy of classic
architecture in secular buildings generally. To the growing
conviction that each style was exclusively appropriate to
certain uses — the Gothic to churches, colleges, and rural
architecture, the classic to public buildings and urban dwell-
ings— they opposed the traditional belief that a single style
must prevail, and maintained that the Gothic was superior for
all purposes. Thus the "battle of the styles," which had,
enkindled over the Houses of Parliament, continued to be
fought in a wider field, and with a zeal unknown outside of
England. The Gothicists were not without their successes,
for although Lord Palmerston finally forced Scott to substitute
a classical scheme for his accepted Gothic design for the
Foreign Office (1858-73), victories soon followed in the
Manchester Assize Courts (1859-64) and Town Hall (1868-
69), both by Alfred Waterhouse. In the sixties the influence
of Viollet-le-Duc and of French Gothic, with its greater
structural logic, gave the movement a fresh element .of strength
as well as fresh material. With the adoption of Street's
design for the national Law Courts in 1868, the adherents of
Gothic felt their cause vindicated. The building proved,
however, to mark the end of their supremacy. By the time
of its completion, 1884, it met little but condemnation, and
the conclusion was outspoken that Gothic was unfit for public
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 483
buildings. The fundamental cause lay less in certain defects
in the building than in the gradual change of public taste.
The belated enthusiasm of the revivalists could no longer
withstand the eclecticism which elsewhere prevailed so widely,
and which had steadily gained strength even in England.
Romanticism in Germany; Gothic and Romanesque. On the
Continent the medieval revival was most vital in Germany,
where, as in England, it was associated with a nationalistic
movement. Goethe's youthful panegyric on the cathedral
of Strasburg (1773) long remained alone, however, and it was
not until after the Wars of Liberation that the brothers
Boisseree awakened a general interest in the artistic monu-
ments of the German past. Pseudo-Gothic buildings had
appeared as accessories to the landscape gardens on English
models since their introduction about 1770, but the Gothic
style was not seriously considered for important buildings
before the time of Schinkel, who made a Gothic project for
the cathedral of Berlin in 1819. Of his two projects for the
Werderkirche (1825), the Gothic and not the classical one was
chosen. The exterior, as was to be expected, was Gothic
rather in detail than in spirit and constructive principle. The
interior was conceived with an insight in advance of the day.
Henceforth the style was frequently employed, with steadily
increasing knowledge, in the building of churches, and
occasionally in other buildings, although it never became
universal, and even as the medium of romantic expression had
to share honors with the still more national Romanesque.
The strongest supporter of the Romanesque was Friedrich
von Gartner in Munich (1792-1847), whose buildings, how-
ever, show a large measure of Italian influence. The most
notable modern Gothic church in German lands, which may
still be considered an outgrowth of the revival, is the Votive
Church in Vienna, built by Ferstel in 1853-79, on the scheme
of a cathedral with western towers and spires.
Romanticism in France. In France before the romantic
outburst of the thirties the strength of classical architecture
was so great that, although the "hamlets" of Trianon and
Chantilly initiated, as early as 1775, garden architecture on
English models in a style supposedly Gothic, the mode long
remained without serious adoption. Meanwhile, however,
484 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the Musee des Monuments Francais, collected by Alexandre
Lenoir from the churches and chateaux destroyed by the
Revolution, was revealing to the French the glories of their
own medieval art; and the Histoire de Vart of Seroux d'Agin-
court (1811-23), the first general work devoted to the arts
of the Middle Ages, registered a new appreciation of them.
By 1825 such a work as the chapel at Les Herbiers in Vendee
could be constructed, with tolerable knowledge of the details
of French Gothic, although still with rigid classical symmetry.
A more popular appreciation was stimulated by Victor Hugo's
Notre-Dame de Paris in 1831, and a more scientific under-
standing was created by the archeologists De Caumont and
Lassus, and above all by the architect Viollet-le-Duc (1814-
79), who developed, in the years following 1840, a wide
activity as a restorer of medieval buildings and as a writer on
the art of the Middle Ages. In his great Dictionnaire de
r architecture fran$aise du XI. au XVI. siecle (1854-68) he
emphasized the idea that the principles of Gothic architecture
were essentially structural, and thus his influence tended to
make current designs in the style more logical and organic.
By Louis Napoleon's appointment of Viollet-le-Duc to a
professorship at theEcole des Beaux- Arts the Gothic movement
received an official sanction in the very citadel of the academic
forces, but the opposition was so strong that even the Emperor
was forced to abandon his attempt. On the whole, few new
buildings resulted from the Gothic movement, and these were
almost exclusively churches. The most striking of them is
Sainte Clotilde in Paris (Fig. 263), built in 1846-59 by the
architects Gau and Ballu, with twin spires and fourteenth
century detail. This church, however, is relatively frigid
compared with some examples from the last days of the
movement, after 1860.
Influence of the romantic movement on the development of
types of buildings. The types of buildings to which the
romantic movement contributed were almost exclusively those
having direct precedents in the Middle Ages — such as churches,
schools, town halls, and dwellings. Even in these types the
development was largely a formal one, the dispositions remain-
ing close to those of medieval times, as the national character
of the precedents and the relative stability of the problems
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
485
permitted. It was, indeed, precisely the superiority of
medieval dispositions in fulfilling the needs of modern life
which the Gothicists maintained as one of their chief theses.
Their innovations respecting plan and structure were thus,
for the most part, novel only in relation to the classical forms
which had immediately
preceded them, since
medieval dispositions
and modes of construc-
tion were generally fol-
lowed as well as medieval
forms of detail. So in
the church Catholic, and
even beyond it, the long
aisled naves and chancels
of the Middle Ages sup-
planted the domes and
halls of the Renaissance
and of Protestantism.
Other types were influ-
enced in certain lands
only. In England the
flexible scheme of the
Tudor or Elizabethan
manor, with its freedom
in the fenestration and
in the treatment of ser-
vice quarters, replaced
the strict symmetry of
the Palladian house. FIG- 263— PARIS. SAINTE CLOTILDE
The old residential col-
leges of Oxford and Cambridge were followed in the further
development of these institutions and of the English board-
ing schools. In Germany the late Gothic town halls and
guild halls of the country and of Flanders were taken as
models for new constructions devoted to similar uses.
Eclecticism: conditions and ideals. Long before the force
of the romantic movement had spent itself, it had become
but one of many forces influential in architectural style,
united only as emanations of a general eclecticism. This
486 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
freedom of selection from a number of styles was just as surely
grounded in the conditions of the time as the uniform adherence
to a single style had been in some earlier times. A choice
between two styles, to be sure, had often been offered to
architects before, as when Gothic art was introduced into
Italy in the thirteenth century or Renaissance art into the
north in the sixteenth. The mere alternative of neo-classic
or revived Gothic was thus of itself nothing new in kind; the
novelty was that the struggle between them did not end, as it
had always done before, in the triumph of either one, but that
both continued, subdivided further, and received the addition
of still others. The reason lay in the growth of historical
knowledge, one of the most characteristic creations of
modernity, which, for the first time, made the forms of many
styles thoroughly familiar to a single generation. This had
already contributed largely to the growth of classicism and
romanticism, and to their increasing differentiation into Greek
and Roman phases, Gothic and Romanesque phases, with
further alternatives offered by subordinate chronological and
local varieties — constituting in themselves a field for the
exercise of a certain measure of eclecticism. To these the
historical spirit now added other styles unconnected with the
neo-classic and romantic programs, and soon created among
designers the conscious principle of complete freedom of
choice between the various historical styles. This expressed
itself first in the sheer desire to create a collection of historical
imitations; it passed to the adoption of a given style on
grounds of personal preference or supposed appropriateness to
the problem in hand, later sometimes to the combination of
elements from a number of styles and the creation of a hybrid
which might serve as a personal medium of expression.
Origins of eclecticism in architecture. The beginnings of this
wider knowledge and wider eclecticism themselves can be
found quite early in the eighteenth century, when the Viennese
architect, J. B. Fischer von Erlach, published his pioneer
Entwurff einer historischen Architektur, 1721, including illustra-
tions, systematically arranged, of pre-classical, Eastern, and
Greek buildings, as then understood, besides those of Rome and
of contemporary France and Germany. The eighteenth-
century gardens at Kew and elsewhere contained imitations
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 487
of Moorish pavilions and Turkish mosques, as well as their
Greek, Roman, Gothic, and Chinese structures. Such exotic
models were obviously unsuited for any wide adoption,
however, and the same was true of the Egyptian motives
made popular by Napoleon's Eastern campaigns.
The "Italian style." Serious productions outside the
classical and romantic movements resulted first from the study
of the Italian styles of the Renaissance. Appreciation of
these was a by-product of the Italian sojourn which formed
part of the traditional education for clients as well as for
architects. The classicists appreciated first the buildings of
the High Renaissance, at once most classical and most in view
in the tourist centers, Rome and Venice. Percier and Fontaine,
in two works devoted to the Roman palaces (1798) and villas
(1809), were among the earliest to call attention to the style
and to make drawings available for imitation. The romanti-
cists, a little later, extended their admiration from the medieval
buildings of Italy to those of the earliest Renaissance in
Florence. Fruits of these appreciations were as usual a
decade or two in appearing in current practice. By 1820,
however, the old Opera House in Paris was built in the style
of the Basilica at Vicenza, and numerous other buildings
recalled the arch orders or columnless facades of the Italian
palaces. Germany took the lead in 1825-30, with buildings
by Klenze and Gartner in Munich — the Pinakothek with its
pilastered arches, the Konigsbau, the Ministry of War, and the
Royal Library, with their novel suggestion of the Pitti Palace
and other Florentine designs. In England the Italian manner
came in with Barry, who adopted it as the most suitable ex-
pression for the London clubs, of which his Travelers' Club,
1829-31, initiated a long series.
Later developments. With the advent of the "Italian"
style, as it was called, the field was open for imitations and
inspirations of the greatest variety. The material was
furnished not only by individual observation but by a multi-
tude of special publications concerning monuments of the
most diverse styles. In practice a general tendency to
follow more and more recent styles, like the baroque, aca-
demic, and rococo, may perhaps be discerned — following the
repetition of history already begun by the successive imita-
17
488 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
tion of classic, Gothic, and Renaissance; but the development
is neither a universal nor a regular one. It thus becomes
necessary to sketch the trend of subsequent developments in
each country singly, rather than to seek to follow this or that
stylistic thread, often confusedly interwoven with others even
in the work of an individual architect. Although manifesta-
tions of the eclectic movement appear in all countries, there
are marked differences in its strength. Germany, whose
scholars took the lead in historical study of architecture, gave
itself freely to experiment with varied historic modes of
expression, whereas England, torn by its furious struggle
between classicism and romanticism, came late to a really
eclectic standpoint, and France, more than the others, re-
mained true to the classical tradition. In proportion to the
adoption of eclectic practice there appeared another general
phenomenon which may be noted here once for all. This was
the increasing gulf between the few designs of trained archi-
tects and the great mass of buildings erected by men who
were no longer sustained by a traditional knowledge of any
one or even two sets of forms, and who could not adequately
master others even if they would.
Germany: Munich. In Germany, eclecticism dominated
architectural practice from 1825 to 1890. Within this time
falls the phenomenal growth of German cities, which thus
bear deeply the impress of the movement. The first of them
to receive it was Munich, essentially the creation of Ludwig I.
(1825-48), under whose personal inspiration Klenze and
Gartner turned now to Greece, now to Italy, now to the Mid-
dle Ages. Ludwig's successor, Maximilian II. (1848-64), gave
his eclecticism a different form, wishing to create a new style
by a combination of elements from the older ones. The task
fell to the architect Burklein, whose buildings are effective in
their balanced yet picturesque composition and in their
rhythmical subdivision into bays, but suffer so much from their
poverty of execution as to have discredited the attempt.
Dresden and Vienna. A man of powerful personality,
Gottfried Semper (1804-79), nacl meanwhile turned the scale
in favor of the Italian Renaissance by his buildings in Dresden,
especially the Court Theater (1838-41, Fig. 264). Semper
was also one of the creators of modern Vienna, in the vast
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
489
buildings of the magnificent Ringstrasse on the lines of the
fortifications removed in 1858-60. A beginning had been
made in Ferstel's Votive Church and in the Opera House
built by Van der Null and Siccardsburg in 1861-69, with forms
reminiscent of the French Renaissance under Francis I.
Semper, in his designs for the extension of the Imperial Palace,
with the Court Theater (1871-89) and the Museums of Art
and of Natural History (1870-89), continued to draw his
FIG. 264— DRESDEN. OLD COURT THEATER. (SEMPER)
suggestion from the Italian styles, but now with a strong
leaning toward the grandiose effects of the baroque. Among
the later buildings of the Ringstrasse are the Rathaus (1873-
83), built by Friedrich Schmidt with German Gothic forms,
the University and the Palace of Justice, with a mixture of
French and Italian Renaissance forms, and the Houses of
Parliament (1874-83) with the forms of neo-Hellenism.
Berlin, Leipzig, and Strasburg. With the founding of the
German Empire began a period of predominance for Berlin,
distinguished especially by the building for the Reichstag
(1882-94) by Wallot, and of the cathedral (1888-95) bY
Raschdorff. The architectural forms adopted as a basis,
4Qo A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
sometimes academic, sometimes Renaissance, were as a rule
greatly modified by the influence of the baroque, and showed
the study of German even more than of Italian examples.
This style, backed by the influence of the court, has remained
in favor for governmental buildings in spite of the efforts of
the modernists. One of its principal contemporary adherents
is Ludwig Hoffmann, who achieved success with the Imperial
Supreme Courts in Leipzig (1884-95) and still retains the
leadership of the conservatives. A third monumental creation
of the new German Empire is the imposing group of buildings
erected in Strasburg about 1890, in academic and baroque
forms. For religious buildings the medieval styles' have
continued to be generally preferred, while for town halls late
Gothic or German Renaissance forms have been frequently
employed.
Eclecticism in England. In England eclecticism remained
for a long time less the result of conscious tolerance than the
unintentional product of warring factions, each of which
insisted on the universal superiority of its chosen style. The
classical side was chiefly maintained, after 1840, by adherents
of a somewhat free rendering of antique or Italian motives,
allied to the French neo-grec. Their principal representatives
were Cockerell, best known for his restrained designs for
branches of the Bank of England, and Pennethorne, whose
University of London (1869), originally designed in Gothic
forms, retains a vertical movement in its rich Venetian garb.
Although Victorian Gothic also had its wide variety of proto-
types, final acceptance of the principle of general liberty of
choice scarcely came before 1870. The style which then
obtained the preference was no one of those previously favored,
but the so-called " Queen Anne." This took its suggestion
from the vernacular, half -classic English domestic architecture
of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, but
sought a free adaptation to practical requirements and left
considerable liberty to the personality of the individual
architect. Such individuality was also exercised in certain
experiments with other styles, while the Gothic, on the whole,
remained the rule for churches, as it remains in England even
to the present day.
"Queen Anne" and ''Free Classic." The creators of the
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
491
Queen Anne were Eden Nesfield, in his lodges at Regent's
Park (1864) and Kew (1866), and Norman Shaw in his office
building, New Zealand Chambers (1873, Fig. 265). These
buildings had the frank expression of a variety of materials
which the Gothic school had initiated, forms recalling the
Dutch character which reigned in the English architecture of
William and Anne, and an individuality of combination which
was modern. The union was timely, and buildings in the same
general manner multiplied. They included not only residences,
to which the founders of the style and many others devoted
themselves with results of uncommon
livableness, but also more ambitious
buildings such as banks and theaters,
in which its residential origin and
smallness of scale rendered it less
monumental th.an picturesque. A
higher degree of monumentality be-
gan to be sought during the nineties
through the reintroduction of Palla-
dian elements. Thus was produced
the so - called ' ' Free Classic " — a
species of baroque in which individual
liberty continued to hold a large
place — which has dominated the
public and urban architecture of
England until very recently. Among
its adherents may be mentioned John
Belcher, whose Institute of Chartered
Accountants, 1895, was the manifesto
of the school, and Sir Aston Webb.
Within the last five years a tendency
has been visible to return to more
strictly academic forms, encouraged
by the teaching of the Ecole des
Beaux- Arts and the reversion to clas-
sical architecture in America. The fagade of the Royal Auto-
mobile Club (191 1), modeled on the buildings of the Place de la
Concorde, is one of the earliest and most striking instances.
Other styles. Beside this main tide of eclecticism in England
has run a continuance of the medieval tradition — now no longer
FIG. 265 — LONDON. NEW
ZEALAND CHAMBERS.
(MUTHESIUS)
492 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
regarded as a counter-current — in the building of country
houses and churches. Here Sedding, Bodley, Pearson, and
others have worked within a chosen range of historic national
forms, scrupulously respecting honesty of materials and work-
manship. They have contrived to give their designs a personal
impress and at the same time to come nearer the spirit of the
old masters than had
their predecessors
whose imitations were
more literal (Fig. 267).
The simple country
parish churches es-
pecially they have en-
dowed with a devo-
tional character and a
suitability to the land-
scape which had
hitherto escaped
modern architecture
(Fig. 268). As the
Anglican church has
appropriated the
medieval architecture
of England, the
Roman church there
has turned to other
styles. Thus, since
1895, in the cathedral
of Westminster, J. F.
Bentley has employed forms predominantly Byzantine, securing
an interior of vast spatial effect and deeply religious character
(Fig. 266). The various dissenting sects have continued their
traditions by following mainly the current classical or baroque
styles. Until recently it was not wholly unusual to find more
exotic styles essayed in secular architecture as well as in re-
ligious. Thus Alfred Waterhouse employed a personal variety
of Romanesque in his monumental Museum of Natural History
at South Kensington, and Aston Webb and Ingress Bell made
use of a modified French Renaissance in the Law Courts at
Birmingham. Of late years, however, eclecticism in England
FIG. 266 — LONDON. WESTMINSTER CATHEDRAL
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 493
has become less personal, and the individualists are to be found
rather among those who abjure all historic forms.
Eclectic-ism in France, Secular buildings. In France, where
congruity with a taste developed on classical architecture is
the criterion of every experiment in other styles, eclecticism
FIG. 267 — FLETE LODGE, NEAR HOBLETON. (MUTHESIUS)
was relatively a matter of nuances, except in churches and
country villas. The Italian manner of the thirties was
followed by a mingling of Italian and Greek influences in the
so-called neo-grec. Labrouste, Due, and Duban, the first
pensioners of the French Academy to study the temples of
Paestum and other Greek monuments, were the leaders of the
movement in France. It found expression in Duban's
Bramantesque work at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts (1832-62)
and Labrouste' s refined facade of the Library of Sain.te Gene-
vieve (1843-50, Fig. 269), where Greek delicacy of profiling
was employed in a facade reminiscent of the Tuscan palaces.
The contemporary interest in things romantic and national
led to a revival of the style of the French Renaissance, stimu-
494 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
lated especially by the enlargement of the Hotel de Ville in
Paris (1836-54) and its rebuilding after the Commune. Under
the Second Empire a powerful impulse toward the baroque,
which so well expressed a luxurious society, was given by a
genius of the first order, Charles Gamier. In the Paris
Opera (1861-74, Fig. 270) he took suggestions from the late
Venetian forms, in the Casino at Monte Carlo, from the
FIG. 268 — HOARCROSS. CHURCH OF THE HOLY ANGELS
Roman baroque, employed with a technical facility and a
orofusion of detail which were his own. In the widened
conception of the classic which still dominated French archi-
tecture on its formal side, the influence of Gamier has long
continued to be felt. Thus the Musee Galliera by Ginain,
the Petit Palais des Beaux- Arts by Girault (1900), in the main
perpetuate his traditions.
Churches. In the building of churches the identification of
Christianity with the Middle Ages led to wider departures
from the classic than in secular buildings, even where romanti-
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 495
cism did not dictate the adoption of Gothic. The Romanesque
was chosen as a compromise even before 1840, and after that
date churches in that style multiplied in the metropolis as
well as in the provinces. The variant which came to be
preferred was one reminiscent of the buildings of Angouleme
and Aquitaine, with their suggestion of Byzantine forms.
The most conspicuous example is the great church of the
FIG. 269 — PARIS. BIBLIOTHEQUE SAINTE GENEVIEVE
Sacred Heart at Montmartre by Abadie and Daumet, begun
in 1873 (Fig. 271). Its elevated site, lofty domes, and gleam-
ing whiteness make it a striking object in the panorama of
Paris. In other churches of the latter half of the century,
such as Saint Augustin and Sainte Trinite, Renaissance forms
have reasserted themselves, although rarely without being
tinged by Byzantine or other medieval influences. Finally
in the commemorative chapel for the victims of the Charity
Bazaar fire, Guilbert has expressed the devotions of the
fashionable world in the facile modern baroque.
Domestic architecture. Domestic architecture has also had
its experiments with Gothic and other styles, but, so far as
urban dwellings are concerned, has tended to revert to the
French urban architecture par excellence, that of the eighteenth
496 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
century, which still responds almost completely to needs
which have changed but little. The small country villa or
cottage, however, has presented a problem relatively new to
the French, which they have tried, with less success, to solve
by picturesque designs suggested by English or Swiss examples.
FIG. 270 — PARIS. OPERA HOUSE
Other European countries. Belgium. Italy. In other Euro-
pean countries there are certain buildings which must not be
overlooked, the products of national movements of importance.
Thus in Belgium the prosperity experienced under Leopold II.
(1865-1909) resulted in a sumptuous rebuilding of Brussels.
The most notable of the new constructions was the huge
Palais de Justice (1866-83), by Poelaert. Here an eclectic
modification of classic forms by an admixture of elements
suggesting the Orient has produced effects of the most monu-
mental character (Fig. 272). Italy, on its achieving liberty
and unity in 1861, entered a period of development which had
also its consequences in the arts. The monument to Victor
Emmanuel II. in Rome by Count Giuseppe Sacconi, begun in^
!> O
S
T I
498 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
1884 and dedicated in 1911, was designed to symbolize the
triumph of Italian nationality. Rivaling the work of Poelaert
in vastness, it also shows his influence in the forms of detail,
at once classic and novel (Fig. 273). The two buildings are
the most notable examples of the younger phase of eclecticism,
which, not content to adopt historical styles in their integrity,
has wished to make new syntheses of historical elements.
Contributions of the eclectic movement to the development of
types of buildings. The specific contributions of the eclectic
movement to the development of types of buildings were
necessarily formal, and, to a large degree, second-hand. Thus
the movement in general placed the seal of its approval on the
types already created by the classical movement for govern-
ment buildings, banks, exchanges, and theaters, on the types
created by the romantic movement for churches, town halls,
and rural dwellings. In such buildings the changes introduced
by eclecticism were relatively slight, such as the tingeing of
classicism by Palladian or baroque forms, or the replacing of
Gothic forms by those of the northern Renaissance. For
certain types, to be sure, these eclectic molds have become
very firmly established. The French town hall has become
almost uniformly an adaptation of national Renaissance forms
as found in the old Hotel de Ville of Paris. Administrative
buildings for government departments, which have multiplied
during the period all over the world, have acquired an inter-
national physiognomy of Renaissance or post-Renaissance
motives. Many types but newly created, such as modern
universities, public libraries, baths and welfare institutes,
railway stations and hotels, received their first treatment in
these preferred styles of eclecticism, and have tended to retain
the impress. In one young and notable group, the museums
of history and art, a peculiar appropriateness has been felt in
employing forms characteristic of the age or region from which
objects exhibited come, and the same tendency has manifested
itself in the national and local buildings at international
expositions. In buildings, the exteriors of which are clothed
in one or another garb of historic form, the plans often show,
of course, the most novel adaptation to purely modern require-
ments. The striving to make this adaptation and to bring it
to expression in the massing and subdivision of the exteriors
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
499
is, however, really opposed to the underlying ideas of eclecti-
cism and may best be considered as manifestations of the
movement toward functionalism.
Functionalism. Fundamentally different in direction from
the eclectic movement, which forms part of the historical
tendency of modern times, there has developed in architecture
another movement, which is part of the tendency toward
FIG. 273 — ROME. MONUMENT TO VICTOR EMMANUEL II.
natural science. It is at one with the biological concept of
the adaptation of form to function and environment. Adapta-
tion in both these respects conforms to the philosophical con-
cept of function — the dependence of a variable trait on other
variables. The conscious endeavors in modern architecture
to make the forms of individual members correspond to their
structural duties, to make the aspect of buildings characteristic
of their use and purpose, to make the style of the time expres-
sive of the distinguishing elements in contemporary and
national culture, may thus be inclusively designated by the
name functionalism.
500 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Early structural purism. In its narrower meaning, as a
striving for truth and frankness of expression in structure, the
functionalist tendency has been present in many earlier styles,
like the Greek and Gothic. It is thus not incompatible with
the modern use of historic forms. Such a structural purism
indeed has been, as we have seen, a notable characteristic of
French architecture since the seventeenth century — a rule of
"reason " and "good sense." It manifested itself in the restric-
tion of the column by Soufnot and Chalgrin to its original
function as an isolated support, in rationalization of the
Roman triumphal arch at the Porte Saint Denis and the Arc
de 1'Etoile. The same tendency appeared among the partisans
of Gothic architecture, who claimed a superiority for their
style in functional expressiveness. The writings of Pugin,
indeed, state the structural theory in completeness: "There
should be no features about a building which are not necessary
for convenience, construction, or propriety," and "All orna-
ment should consist of enrichment of the essential construction
of the building." The conclusion drawn by Pugin, however,
was that Gothic forms should be employed, and this was the
burden also of the early rationalistic writings of Viollet-le-Duc.
Likewise content with an inspiration from historical forms
were Gottfried Semper and William Morris, although their
writings were contributing powerfully to the idea of a purely
modern style based on considerations of material and
technique.
The theories of environment and evolution. Reaction against
historical tendencies. For the development of such a modern
style a broader cultural foundation had gradually been in
process of creation since the later days of the eighteenth
century. Herder and Madame de Stael enunciated the
principle of national individuality and organic evolution in
literature; Hegel generalized the doctrine into a philosophy of
history and art; Schnaase made concrete application of it
in his Geschichte der bildenden Kunste (1843-64), where he
traced for the first time the relation of the art of different
countries to environment, race, and beliefs. Taine gave the
idea its ultimate formulation and a wide popularity. Parallel
with all this there came recognition of the importance of
evolution and environment in the natural world, culminating
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 501
in the biological theories of Darwin, and also the application
of the principle of nationalities in .political affairs, in the
unification of Italy and Germany. The reaction against
historical tendencies of all sorts showed itself likewise in
creative art, in the radicalism of Nietzsche, Zola, Ibsen, and
Tolstoi in literature, of Millet, Manet, and Chavannes in
painting, of Meunier and Rodin in sculpture, and Wagner
in music.
Modern material civilization. At the same time came the
marvelous material development of the nineteenth century,
depending on utilitarianism and applied science, which has
changed with ever increasing rapidity the existing social
conditions, the prevailing types of buildings, the materials,
and the structural systems. Everything has contributed to
the concentration of population in cities, which, especially
in America and in Germany, have had the most fabulous and
sudden growth. While the middle class has multiplied and
reached a degree of comfort hitherto unknown, there has
developed on the one hand an aristocracy of wealth and on the
other an organized proletariat. Capitalism has brought with
it vast factories, stores, and office buildings, steam transport
has created railroad and dock buildings, palatial hotels for
travelers, and great international expositions. Sanitation and
altered social theories have revolutionized the building of
schools, hospitals, asylums, and prisons, as well as the housing
of the working classes. Philanthropy has endowed free
libraries, settlements, and welfare institutions of all sorts.
Economic pressure has led to a striving for the most efficient
employment of space, time, and technical resources. The
generous excess of strength characteristic of most earlier styles
has become often impractical. The employment of iron and
steel has brought new possibilities in the spanning of openings
and interior space, and a new statical theory, which has fun-
damentally altered esthetic principles as well. Other new
materials have multiplied daily, while cheap transportation
has made them available everywhere and tended to break
down local peculiarities.
Characteristics of functionalism in architecture. Since the
middle of the nineteenth century all these forces have produced
a body of architecture which, in spite of its variety, has a
502 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
fundamental unity in its striving for functional expression.
Sometimes the attempt has been to give to new materials like
steel or glass, or new systems of construction like reinforced
concrete, a form suggested by their own properties. Some-
times the effort has been to express on the exterior of buildings
the function of each of their component elements, and to
endow each building as a whole with a specific character in
FIG. 274 — PARIS. READING-ROOM OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALS
conformity with its purpose. More recently there has been
a tendency not to remain satisfied unless all the forms em-
ployed, even in the solution of time-honored problems, owe as
little as possible to the historic styles, and thus are peculiarly
and emphatically modern.
Development of functionalism. Expression of structure. At
the outset of the development of functionalist architecture its
principles were broadly stated, but the application made of
them was relatively limited. With the conviction that the
historic styles of architecture were outgrowths of contemporary
conditions of race, climate, religion, and society, there had
arisen a belief that imitation of those styles in modern build-
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 503*
ings was inappropriate, and that a wholly new style must be
developed, suggested by modern conditions and modern
problems. This was the later gospel of Viollet-le-Duc in his
Entretiens sur V architecture (1863-72), and of Fergusson in
his History of Architecture (1865-67). The scientific and
utilitarian tendency of the day, however, made the criterion
of style primarily a matter of structural system, and the hope
of the advocates of modernity of style thus lay in the effort to
find suitable expression for new methods of construction.
Construction in iron. The novel constructive material of
the day was, of course, iron, whether cast or wrought, which
had been coming into use for utilitarian constructions since
the early years of the century. The dome of the Halle au
Ble in Paris had been reconstructed in iron in 1811, the Menai
Suspension Bridge, with its unprecedented span, had been
built in 1819-26. Although the elaborate mathematical
calculations of strength in the new material tended to with-
draw such constructions from the architect's domain, efforts
were not lacking on the part of architects, even before the
theoretical writings just mentioned, to employ iron in a
manner at once frank and artistically satisfactory. The most
notable instances of this were the great reading-rooms of the
Library of Sainte Genevieve (1843-50) and of the Biblio-
theque Nationale (1855-61, Fig. 274) where Labrouste
employed iron columns, very slender and widely spaced, sup-
porting spherical vaults of metal plates. In these buildings
the facades were of masonry, with no exterior expression of
the iron work. In the great market buildings known as the
Halles Centrales, by Ballu (1851-59), the exterior also dis-!
played its construction of iron columns covered with zinc.
It was arid, yet in harmony with the practical character of
the buildings. Of metal alone, and only made possible by
metal, have been the more recent suspension, arch, and canti-
lever bridges, with their enormous spans, as well as the
gigantic Eiffel Tower in Paris (1889), which, like many of the
bridges, combines grace with absolutely frank confession
of structure.
Glass and iron. For inclosed buildings wider possibilities
were secured by the use of glass as a filling between the
supports. Structures of glass and iron had early been intro-
504 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
duced for the cultivation of plants, and a similar structure was
suggested by the horticulturist Paxton for the international
exposition at London in 1851. There resulted a sort of vast
conservatory, which was made permanent in the Crystal
Palace at Sydenham, 1852-53, and was widely influential in
stimulating construction in glass and iron or steel. In some
later buildings the roof only was of glass, as at the Palais de
T Industrie for the Paris Exposition of 1855 and a multitude of
later museum buildings, consisting in effect of vast covered
courts. In other buildings the roof was largely solid, the walls
almost entirely of glass, as in the buildings of the Paris Exposi-
tion of 1878. There has been a general tendency, owing to
excess of sunlight, heat and cold, to recede from the extreme
areas of glass at first employed, but in urban shop fronts where
light and exhibition space are naturally the great desidera-
ta, the glass has been kept at a maximum. A notably suc-
cessful solution of such a problem with visible structural steel
work is the Grand Bazar de la rue de Rennes, in Paris (Fig.
276).
Stone and iron. Experiments to devise novel structural
systems with materials long in use, or with a combination of
old and new materials, have also not been wanting. In the
Vestibule de Harley (1857-68) at the Palais de Justice in
Paris, J. L. Due employed a system of ribbed stone vaulting
which was neither Gothic nor classical, but resulted from an
independent analysis of his structural problem. Viollet-le-
Duc himself made designs showing the frank employment of
iron in connection with walls and vaults of masonry and tile,
which were a good deal followed, although mainly in utilitarian
constructions.
Ferro-concrete. A further application of steel has been in
connection with concrete. The employment of Portland
cement as a building material, which rapidly increased in the
later years of the nineteenth century, gave to concrete a much
greater compressive strength. During the same time inventors
were attempting to strengthen the concrete still further by
building in a network of iron rods. This composite construc-
tion, popularized by the Frenchman Joseph Monier after 1868,
has received the names ferro-concrete, armored concrete, or
reinforced concrete. Its merit consists in that, it .employs steel
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 505
and concrete in such a way that each material contributes the
elements of strength for which it is best fitted — the concrete,
compressive strength and indifference to fire, the steel, tensile
strength and resistance to shearing. Theoretical study and
practical experience have kept pace in the design and construc-
tion of piers, girders, floor slabs, and arches of the new material,
which combines the possibility of wide spans with cheapness
and security. The method of execution is the pouring of the
freshly mixed, semi -liquid concrete in temporary forms of
wood or metal, within which have first been placed the rein-
forcing bars, in the position where tensile or shearing stresses
may occur. The temporary forms constitute one of the
greatest items of expense, and, since they cannot be eliminated,
current experiments are now directed to the devising of forms
which may be used over and over. Owing to the fact that the
steel reinforcement of each member is already incorporated
in a protecting mass of concrete, and owing to the difficulty of
casting thin walls of the material, there is less temptation with
ferro-concrete than with other fireproof systems to disguise the
essential members of the framework with enveloping walls.
Aside from this frank articulation of structure, a variety of
characteristic decorative treatments has been devised, such as
the embedding of tile patterns in the surface of the concrete,
and the creation of grooves by blocks nailed inside the forms.
Thus, especially for utilitarian buildings, some highly interest-
ing results have already been attained both in light and in
massive construction.
Other materials. Independent of the novel structural
systems, and earlier than the latest developments just
described, came a revival of certain neglected materials,
especially brick and terra cotta. Philip Webb initiated the
movement by using brick in William Morris's ''Red House"
at Bexley Heath (1859). In the architecture of England and
America during the following period it has received a variety
of interesting treatments through the use of different bonds,
the varying of the width, depth, and color of the mortar
joints, and the employment of a variety of colors and patterns.
Terra cotta, hitherto used mainly for friezes and ornamental
detail, became available, as a result of improved methods of
manufacture, for whole buildings, the Museum of Natural
506 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
History at South Kensington (1868-80) being a notable early
example. The possibilities ultimately reached — impervious
white structural terra cotta, besides a wide range of permanent
colors— with the advantages of cheapness, resistance to fire,
and ease of reproducing ornament — have given the material
an ever increasing popularity. Efforts to give it also a
characteristic expression, through frank recognition of its
differences from stone masonry, have produced many interest-
ing results.
Expression oj use and character. Deeply rooted, like the
striving for structural expression, has been the attempt to
secure expression for the use and character of buildings.
Goethe had praised the expression of character as the highest
merit in architecture; the Italian critic Milizia, with Ruskin
and Viollet-le-Duc, had applied this principle specifically to
the expression of the central purpose and determining condi-
tions of the building in hand. The eclectics already recognized
the principle in part when they chose for different types of
buildings the several historic styles which seemed most
appropriate to their general purposes. The pioneers of
structural functionalism inevitably gave to many types of
structures, especially those with exacting utilitarian require-
ments, an impress which was characteristic of their uses. The
desire for expression of function has gone much farther, how-
ever, influencing the plan and massing as well. It has become
the object of architects not merely to make the interior ele-
ments adapted to their purpose in extent, in height, and in
relation to one another, but also to emphasize the existence
of each of these elements on the exterior and to indicate their
nature and relationships in such a way that the purpose and
arrangement of the building might be unmistakable. For the
functionalist movement the practical development and the
formal development of types of buildings have thus become
logically inseparable.
Contributions of the functionalist movement to the development
of types. Theaters. With the multiplication and specializa-
tion of requirements and types of buildings, it becomes im-
possible even to mention all those of importance. It must
suffice to discuss one or two which are representative of the
transformations which have taken place in types already
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 507
existing and of the creation of wholly new ones. The the-
ater is a type which, already highly developed during the
classical movement, has retained its importance and under-
gone characteristic modifications. The first of these was in
external expression. Semper felt that the stage, with its
fundamental importance and immense extent, should no
longer be kept under a single roof with the auditorium, but
deserved independent recognition, which the growing practical
necessity for great height has made permanent. In the
Paris Opera (1861—74) Garnier carried still further the idea
of characterization, emphasizing on the exterior the form of
the auditorium as well, so that foyer, auditorium, and stage
form an ascending series, while the stage entrance, dressing-
rooms, and administrative offices are all given a frank and
suitable expression (Figs. 270 and 275).
Inner modification of the theater. The internal elements, the
auditorium and the stage, have likewise been modified, espe-
cially in those theaters unconnected with court functions and
not intended for the production of operas of a conventional
sort. Democratic conditions have here tended to do away
with the tiers of private loges grouped in a horseshoe, and to
make the house more nearly fan-shaped, so as to give all as
favorable a view as possible of the stage. A similar arrange-
ment has been introduced, for somewhat different reasons, in
the theaters specially built for performance of the music-
dramas of Richard Wagner at Bayreuth and Munich. In
these, as in an ancient theater, the seats rise in a single slope.
The technical apparatus of the stage, where traditional arrange-
ments had retained their hold until the last quarter of the
nineteenth century, was suddenly transformed by the substi-
tution of metal for wood and of electric motive power for
manual strength. The revolving stage has rnade possible a
hitherto unhoped for rapidity in the change of scenes, while
electric lighting has opened the way for a thousand new optical
effects.
Railway stations. Railway stations had their origin only
in the thirties; they at once assumed, of necessity, the two
fundamental forms which still exist — terminal stations and
way stations. For both, if they were of sufficient importance,
a single train-shed spanning tracks and platforms was soon
FIG. 275 — PARIS. OPERA HOUSE. PLAN
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 509
adopted, and, with the multiplication of tracks and the
employment of iron trusses, spans of over two hundred feet
were reached early in the fifties. The part of the station
containing the waiting-rooms and offices gave opportunities
for monumental treatment which architects were quick to
realize, as in the classic hall of Euston Station in London,
built by Hardwick in 1847. In the Gare de 1'Est in Paris
(1847-52) a great gable containing a single arched window
expressed on the facade the form of the train-shed behind, and
a similar motive received magnificent treatment on a larger
scale in the Gare du Nord (1862-64). At terminal stations
with the main building at the head of the tracks the two sides
have generally been used in Europe for arrival and departure,
respectively, with specialized conveniences for passengers of
a number of different classes. In way stations, and in terminal
stations where space has not permitted the main building to
be at the end, a depression or elevation of the tracks has made
possible direct access to all the platforms. Where steam is the
motive power the smokiness of the inclusive train-sheds has
led increasingly to the substitution of low individual "umbrella-
sheds" with long narrow slots close above the stacks. Where
electric power has been adopted, on the other hand, there has
been a reversion to the more monumental single hall, as in
che Gare du quai d'Orsay, Paris, opened in 1901 (Fig. 278).
In the giving of expressive form to such practical requirements,
often far from the traditional domain of architecture, lie a
great number of the problems presented by the multiplicity
of modern types of buildings.
Expression of modernity and nationality. Although the
endeavor to find appropriate expression for new types and
new systems of construction has inevitably given a modernity
of character to much current architecture, the forms of detail
in traditional materials have long continued to be drawn from
historical precedent, and many conventional types have
retained a historical imprint — whether classical, medieval,
or Renaissance. The broad principle enunciated by Semper,
"The solution of modern problems must be freely developed
from the premises given by modernity,'* has not yet been
pushed, any more than it was by its author, to its ultimate
conclusions. During the last decade of the nineteenth
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
century, however, the conviction has deepened that, as Otto
Wagner has expressed it, "Modern art must yield us modern
ideas, forms created by us, which represent our abilities, our
acts, and our preferences."
In forms based on material and structure. Within the move-
ment there are two diverse tendencies, having otherwise little
FIG. 278 — GARE DU QUAI D'ORSAY. INTERIOR. (LE GENIE CIVIL)
in common. One, represented by Wagner and his followers
in Germany, by Sullivan in America, and by the spiritual
descendants of Morris and Viollet-le-Duc in England and
France, holds to the belief that "The modern architecture of
our time seeks to derive form and motives from purpose, con-
struction, and materials. If it is to give clear expression to
our feelings it must also be as simple as possible. Such
simple forms are to be carefully weighed against one another, so
as to secure beautiful proportions, on which almost solely
the effect of our architectural works depends." In the works
5i2 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of these men only the traditional emphasis on base and
cornice is retained. The enframement of windows and the
demarcation of individual stories is generally avoided, and
the forms of detail at the bases and crowns of the piers, at the
doors and cornices, are individual ones suggested by the
natural properties and technical treatment of the materials.
In plastic forms to which construction is subservient. The
other modernist school holds quite a different view. Its
fundamental theory, stated by L. A. Boileau as early as 1889,
is that, "instead of constructing first, without preoccupation
with the final appearance, promising oneself to utilize the
ingeniousness of the construction as the decoration, one should
relegate the ingenuities of structure to a position among the
secondary means, unworthy of appearing in the completed
work." This school attributes to a material a degree of artis-
tic value in proportion as it is more plastic, more susceptible
of receiving the impress of 'the personal sentiment of the
artist. To this branch of modernism belonged the early
phase known specifically as Van nouveau, in which curved
lines suggested by plant forms played so great a role. To it
belong also the current works of Van de Velde and others,
who treat their forms almost like flesh, with cartilage-like
formations at the points of junction. These might be de-
scribed as baroque without the classical elements. At the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, although classical forms are
retained, much sympathy prevails for the scenic theory of this
school of modernists, with which, indeed, most modern classic
architecture has really much in common. Thus at the Paris
Exposition of 1900 the bizarre masking of the structural forms,
which at earlier French expositions had themselves been taken
as the basis for decorative treatment, was less a retrograde
movement, from the modernist standpoint, than the triumph
of a different phase of modernism.
Besides the consistent followers of these two systems there
is, as always, a multitude of practitioners whose convictions
are a mixture of elements not wholly concordant, and who
are united only in the rebellion against historical forms.
Development of modernist forms. The origins. England.
The forerunners of modern individual treatment in architect-
ure were the disciples of Morris in England, who in 1888
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
instituted the Arts and Crafts Exhibition for the display of
works of handicrafts and interior decoration in forms created
by their own makers. The first attempts to make use of
original forms on the exterior of buildings were made almost
simultaneously in 1892 and 1893 by C. Harrison Townsend
in London, Paul Hankar and Victor Horta in Brussels, and
FIG. 279 — BROADLEYS ON LAKE WINDERMERE (MUTHESIUS)
Louis Sullivan in Chicago. Townsend took his departure
from the Romanesque forms of the American, Richardson,
and transformed them by novel treatment of the projections,
by fertile original ornament, and by a rich use of color. In
England the new departure has proved too radical for popular
taste, in spite of the preparation made by the craft guilds, and
few architects have pursued its ideals. The chief of them,
C. F. A. Voysey, however, has had much success in his chosen
field of the dwelling (Fig. 279), in which he has adhered most
strictly to the idea of economy, yet has secured interesting
effects by his employment of rough cast, woodwork painted
5i4 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
in broad but unhackneyed colors, and individual designs for
hangings, furniture, and hardware.
Belgium and France. The Belgians introduced somewhat
fantastic combinations of curved lines, and experimented at
the same time with steel work in connection with brick,
concrete, mosaic, and colored glass. They gave the first
impulse in both France and Germany, although English models
FIG. 280 — VIENNA.
Copyright by Delphin-Verlag
STATION OF THE METROPOLITAN RAILWAY. (LUX)
were followed in rural domestic architecture and independent
creations soon outweighed all external contributions. The
Belgian influence made its way to France about 1896 under
the name of Vart nouveau. First felt in the minor arts, it
soon invaded architecture in the light and graceful structures
of glass and steel designed since 1898 by Hector Guimard to
serve as entrances to the Paris underground — "the Metro."
After the first enthusiasm for the new forms, however, few
buildings in France have shown so pronounced a break with
tradition. The new leaven appears mainly in a greater
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 515
freedom within the academic style itself, which France, with
its Latin elements and its faithfulness to classical tradition
during the nineteenth century, regards, not without some
reason, as a national style of its own.
Germany: Vienna. It is in Germany that the movement
has taken deep root, so that, in spite of its foreign origins, it is
already regarded by artists, if not by the government, as an
expression of the Teutonic spirit in rebellion against the Latin
domination of classic architecture. The pioneer has been
Otto Wagner in Vienna, whose inaugural address as professor
at the Academy in 1894 was a declaration of independence
from the historical styles. His stations for the Metropolitan
Railway (1894-97) were frankly developed from purpose, en-
vironment, and modern materials, with little ornament, and
that freely invented (Fig. 280) . The formation of the Viennese
"Secession" in 1897, for which Wagner's pupil, Joseph
Olbrich, designed an exhibition building of novel type and
fresh decorative conception, inaugurated an analogous ten-
dency in painting and in handicraft, which gave the archi-
tectural movement much support. Joseph Hoffman, another
pupil, founded in 1903 the '-Viennese Workshops" on the
lines of Morris's establishment, and has had wide influence in
domestic architecture and interior decoration. Although
Wagner achieved in the Postal Savings Bank (1905) a notable
expression of steel construction and marble veneering, official
conservatism has prevented the execution of other monumental
projects of the first order, and the buildings in Vienna which
are most advanced in functionalist tendencies have hitherto
been due to private initiative.
North Germany. The same has been generally true in
North Germany, where the first striking success of the move-
ment was in the Wertheim department store in Berlin, built
by Alfred Messel at intervals from 1896 to 1904 (Fig. 277).
Although historic forms — at first baroque, later Gothic — here
furnished the suggestions, all have been so transformed that
the impression is predominantly modern. Active official en-
couragement was first given the movement by Grand Duke
Ernst Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, who called Olbrich, Peter
Behrens, and others to Darmstadt, and gave them a free hand.
Their initial exposition of domestic architecture and handi-
5i6 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
craft in i go i was the beginning of a widespread reform in these
fields, largely on English lines, but less affected by medieval-
ism and saturated with new decorative conceptions. Free
from historic suggestion, and thus pronounced in its mo-
dernity, is the expression of the nature of the factory found
in 1909 by Behrens in his turbine factory for the General
Copyright by G. Muller & E. Rentsch
FIG. 28l — BERLIN. TURBINE FACTORY OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC COM-
PANY (AEG). (HOEBER)
Electric Company (AEG) in Berlin (Fig. 281). The single
vast hall has its great areas of glass confined between angular
masses of concrete, and the forms of its trusses and steel
columns are expressed with unusual frankness and skill.
With the great majority of professional architects in Germany
now participating in the modernist movement, only the per-
sonal intervention of the Emperor in the case of public works
has prevented it from prevailing there almost universally.
At the moment of cessation of architectural activity in
Europe due to the great war, two contrary tendencies were
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 517
struggling for mastery in matters of style. One emphasizes
the elements of continuity with the past, the other the ele-
ments of novelty in modern civilization. In the Germanic
countries it is the radical emphasis on novel elements which
has secured the advantage, in France and England it is the
conservative emphasis on continuity which on the whole
retains the supremacy. In view of the currently intensified
nationalism, it is natural to expect that these national dif-
ferences will be cultivated and perpetuated at least for a time.
The underlying elements of internationalism existing in the
community of practical problems, materials, and structural
systems, and. the essentially international character of both
the conservative and the radical movement, however, would
seem to indicate that this particularism will be relatively
temporary. Whether the present conservative or the present
radical tendency may ultimately be victorious, we may be sure
that change in architectural style is bound to be constant,
and that architecture will remain a living art, not less expres-
sive of the complicated texture of modern life than it has been
of the life of earlier and simpler periods.
PERIODS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE
FRANCE
Classicism, c. 1780-1830.
Tacques Germain Soufflot, 1709-80.
Sainte Genevieve (the Pantheon) at Paris, 1757-90.
Victor Louis, 1736-1802.
Grand Theatre at Bordeaux, 1777-80.
Colonnades of the Palais Royal in Paris, 1781-86.
Charles Nicholas Ledoux, 1736-1806.
Gates of Paris, 1780-88.
Pierre Rousseau, b. 1750, d. after 1791.
Hotel de Salm (Palace of the Legion of Honor) in Paris,
1782-86.
Jean Francois Therese Chalgrin, 1739-1811.
Saint Philippe du Roule in Paris, 1769-84.
Arc de 1'Etoile, 1806-36.
Barthelemy Vignon, 1762-1829.
Madeleine at Paris, 1807-42.
5i8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Alexandra Brongniart, 1739-1813.
Bourse in Paris, 1808-27.
Charles Percier, 1764-1838, and Pierre Fontaine, 1762-
1853-
Arc du Carrousel in Paris, 1806.
Chapelle Expiatoire in Paris, 1815-26.
II. Romanticism, c. 1830-65.
Chapel of Les Herbiers in Vendee, 1825.
Francois Christian Gau, 1790-1854.
Sainte Clotilde in Paris, 1846-59 (with Theodore Ballu,
1817-85).
Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, 1814-79.
Restoration and fleche of Notre Dame in Paris, 1857 Jf.
III. Eclecticism, c. 1820-1900.
Italian phase.
Old Opera House in Paris, 1820.
Neo-grec phase.
Jacques Felix Duban, 1797-1870.
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 1832-62.
Theodore Labrouste, 1799-1875.
Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve in Paris, 1843-50.
Joseph Louis Due, 1802-79.
Completion of the Palais de Justice at Paris, 1857-68.
French Renaissance phase.
Jean Baptiste Leseur, 1794-1883.
Enlargement of the Hotel de Ville at Paris, 1836-54.
Baroque phase.
Charles Gamier, 1825-98.
Opera House in Paris, 1861-74.
Casino at Monte Carlo.
Paul Ginain, 1825-98.
Musee Galliera in Paris, 1878-88.
Charles Girault, 1851-.
Petit Palais des Beaux- Arts in Paris, 1900.
Byzantine phase.
Paul Abadie, 1812-84.
Church of the Sacred Heart, Paris, i873~date.
IV. Functionalism, c. i85o-date.
Theodore Labrouste, 1799-1875.
Reading-rooms of the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve,
1843-50, and Bibliotheque Nationale, 1855-61.
Joseph Louis Due, 1802-79.
. Vestibule de Harley in the Palais de Justice at Paris,
1857-68.
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 519
Victor Baltard, 1805-74.
Halles Centrales in Paris, 1852-59.
Buildings of the Paris Expositions of 1878 and 1889.
Alexandra Eiffel, 1832-.
Eiffel Tower at the Paris Exposition of 1889.
Hector Guimard, 1867-.
Stations of the Paris Underground Railway ("Metro"),
1898 /.
Auguste Perret, 1874-, and Gustave Perret, 1876-.
Theatre des Champs Elysees, 1912.
ENGLAND
I. Classicism, c. 1760-1850.
Roman phase.
Robert Adam, 1728-92, and James Adam, d. 1794.
Screen for the Admiralty in London, 1760.
Remodeling of Kedleston, 1761-65.
Record Office in Edinburgh, 1771.
The Adelphi in London, 1772.
University Buildings in Edinburgh, 1778^.
Sir John Soane, 1753-1837.
Bank of England in London, 1788-1835.
Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, 1814-47.
Saint George's Hall in Liverpool, 1814-54.
Greek phase.
James Stuart, 1713-88.
Chapel at Greenwich Hospital.
Thomas Harrison, b. 1744.
"The Castle" at Chester, 1793-1820.
Thomas Hamilton, 1785-1858.
High School at Edinburgh, 1825-29.
Sir Robert Smirke.
British Museum in London, 1825-47.
II. Romanticism, c. 1760-1870.
First phase, c. 1760-1830.
Strawberry Hill, 1753-76.
Fonthill Abbey, 1796-1814.
Eaton Hall, 1803-14.
Second phase, c. 1830-70.
Augustus Welby Pugin, 1813-52.
!8 Church of Saint Augustine, Ramsgate, 1842.
520 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
Sir Charles Barry, 1795-1860.
Houses of Parliament in London, 1840-60.
Sir Gilbert Scott, 1811-78.
Church of Saint Giles in Camberwell, 1842-44.
William Butterfield, 1814-1900.
All Saints', Margaret Street, in London, 1849.
George Edmund Street, 1824-81.
Law Courts in London, 1868-84.
Alfred Waterhouse, 1830-1905.
Assize Courts in Manchester, 1859-64.
Museum of Natural History in London, 1868-80.
III. Eclecticism, c. i83o-date.
Italian and neo-grec phase.
Sir Charles Barry, 1795-1860.
Travelers' Club in London, 1829-31.
Charles Robert Cockerell, 1788-1863.
Taylor and Randolph Buildings, Oxford, 1840-45.
Branch Bank of England, Liverpool, 1845.
Sir James Pennethorne, 1801-71.
University of London, 1866-70.
Queen Anne phase.
Eden Nesfield, 1835-88.
Lodges at Regent's Park, 1864, and Kew, 1866.
R. Norman Shaw, 1831-1912.
New Zealand Chambers in London, 1873.
IV. Functionalism, c. 1850 to date.
Sir Joseph Paxton, 1803-65.
Crystal Palace in London, 1851.
C. Harrison Townsend.
Bishopsgate Institute in London, 1893-94.
Horniman Museum in London, 1900-01.
C. F. A. Voysey, 1857-.
GERMANY
I. Classicism, c. 1770-1840.
Roman phase, c. 1770-90.
Abbey Church at Saint Blasien, 1770-80.
Deutschhauskirche in Niirnberg, 1785.
Greek phase, c. 1790-1840.
Karl Gottfried Langhans, 1733-1808.
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, 1788-91.
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 521
Friedrich Gilly, 1771-1800.
Proposed memorial for Frederick the Great in Berlin,
1797.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1781-1841.
Royal Theater in Berlin, 1818-21.
Old Museum in Berlin, 1824-28.
Leo von Klenze, 1784-1864.
Glyptothek in Munich, 1816-30.
Walhalla at Regensburg, 1830-42.
II. Romanticism, c. 1825-50.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1781-1841.
Gothic project for the Cathedral of Berlin, 1819.
Werderkirche in Berlin, 1825.
Friedrich von Gartner, 1792-1847.
III. Eclecticism, c. 1830-1900.
Italian Renaissance phase.
Leo von Klenze, 1784-1864.
Pinakothek in Munich, 1826-33.
Konigsbau in Munich, 1826-35.
Friedrich von Gartner, 1792-1847.
Royal Library in Munich, 1832-43.
Gottfried Semper, 1804-79.
Old Court Theater in Dresden, 1838-41.
Gothic and northern Renaissance phase.
Heinrich von Ferstel, 1828-83.
Votive Church in Vienna, 1853-79.
Friedrich von Schmidt, 1825-91.
Rathaus in. Vienna, 1873-83.
Baroque phase.
Gottfried Semper, 1804-79.
Extension of the Imperial Palace in Vienna, 1870 jf.
Court Theater in Vienna, 1871-89.
Paul Wallot, 1841-1912.
Reichstag Building in Berlin, 1882-94.
Ludwig Hoffmann, 1852—.
Imperial Supreme Courts at Leipzig, 1884-95.
IV. Functionalism, c. i85o-date.
Otto Wagner, 1841-.
Stations of the Stadtbahn in Vienna, 1894-97.
Postal Savings Bank in Vienna, 1905.
Alfred Messel, 1853-1909.
Wertheim store in Berlin, 1896-1907.
522 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Joseph Olbrich, 1867-1908.
Secession gallery in Vienna, 1897.
Tietz store in Diisseldorf, 1906-08.
Peter Behrens, 1868.
House in Darmstadt, 1901.
Turbine factory in Berlin, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
The two final volumes of D. Joseph's Geschichte der Baukunst, 1902,
bear the title Geschichte der Baukunst des XIX. Jahrhunderts, and
constitute the only historical work devoted to modern architecture as
a whole. One may also consult the modern section of K. O.'Hart-
mann's Die Baukunst in ihrer Entwicklung . . . bis zur Gegenwart,
vol. 3, 191 1. Both of these are naturally fullest on work in Germany.
L. Magne's L 'architecture franqais du siecle, 1889, covers France to
its date. For the development of special types, in general, or in
single countries, see A. G. Meyer's Eisenbauten: ihre Geschichte und
^Esthetik, 1907; H. Muthesius's Das englische Haus, 3 vols., 1904-05,
and his Die neuere kirchliche Baukunst in England, 1906.
Classicism. P. Klopfer's Von Palladia bis Schinkel (Geschichte der
neueren Baukunst), 1911, gives a general survey of the movement,
with accounts of the development of individual types of buildings.
L.Hautecoeur's Rome et la renaissance de I'antiquite a la fin du XVI He
siecle, 1912, which discusses the genesis of the movement, and its
beginnings in France, may be supplemented by F. Benoit's L'art
franqais sous la revolution et I'empire, 1897. A. E. Richardson's
Monumental Classic Architecture in Great Britain and Ireland During
the XVIII. and XIX. Centuries, 1914, covers the period in England;
and P. Mebes's Um 1800. Architektur und Handwerk . . ., 2 vols.,
1908, gives a partial survey of the work in Germany.
Romanticism. The history of the romantic movement in archi-
tecture has received special treatment only in the case of England,
in C. L. Eastlake's History of the Gothic Revival, 1972; in H. Muthe-
sius's Die neuere kirchliche Baukunst, Das englische Haus, vol. i,
1904, and Die englische Baukunst der Gegenwart, 1900, vol. i. The
early transplantation of the movement to the Continent best appears,
although incidentally, in M. L. Gothein's Geschichte der Gartenkunst,
1914, vol. 2, chap. 15. For its later progress there one must turn to
the general histories of Hartmann and Joseph.
Eclecticism. Two works devoted to illustrations of German build-
ings of this phase are H. Licht's Architektur Deutschlands . . . der Neu-
zeit, 2 vols., 1882, and H. Rtickwardt's Faqaden und Details moder-
MODERN ARCHITECTURE 523
tier Bauten, 1892. A similar work for England is Muthesius's Die
englische Baukunst der Gegenwart, 2 vols., 1800, supplemented by
his other works listed above. For France one may consult the
works of Cesar Daly or R. Self ridge's Modern French Architecture,
1899, a collection of photographs of buildings from the period, largely
domestic.
Functionalism. The theories of "character" and structure de-
veloped by Ruskin, Viollet-le-Duc, and others are discussed, although
rather unsympathetically, in G. Scott's The Architecture of Hu-
manism, 1914. Some of the applications made in practice appear in
F. Billerey's paper, Modern French Architecture, in the Journal of
the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1912—13, 3d series, vol. 20,
pp. 317-45. The influence of iron in architecture is most fully
discussed in A. G. Meyer's Eisenbauten: ihre Geschichte und ^Esthetik,
1907. The pioneer works of "modernist" character in England and
Belgium are described in Muthesius's Die englische Baukunst der
Gegenwart and in H. Fierens-Gervaert's Nouveaux essais sur I' art con-
temporain, 1903. The manifesto of the movement in Germany was
Otto Wagner's Moderne Baukunst, translated by N. C. Ricker, 1901.
Its later development there may be traced in Karl Scheffler's Moderne
Baukunst, 2d ed., 1908, and in the biographies of Wagner, by J. A.
Lux, 1914, and of Peter Behrens, by F. Hoeber, 1913. For the work
in America see the note to Chapter XIII.
CHAPTER XIII
/
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
Pre-colonial architecture. Yucatan. Long before European
explorers and colonists crossed the Atlantic there flourished in
America civilizations which, although still ignorant of iron
or even of bronze, had a highly developed architecture. The
first, and in some respects the greatest, of these was that of
the Maya, whose center was in modern Yucatan. They
flourished in the early centuries of the Christian era, and
their great buildings were in ruins long before the arrival of the
Spanish conquerors. Their colossal structures at Palenque
(Fig. 282), Chichen Itza, and elsewhere reveal an ability to
transport and work stones of great size, to employ the column
and the corbeled vault, and to devise symmetrical plans of
some complexity. Religious structures came first in impor-
tance; even the royal palaces were secondary. A character-
istic feature was the raising of all buildings of importance on
great substructures, often with sloping faces or in the form
of a stepped pyramid. A broad and steep staircase on the
principal face led to the upper platform. Here stood the
building proper, of massive rubble-concrete faced with stone
(Fig. 283). The arrangement of the plan was conditioned by
the use of the corbeled vault to cover all interior spaces.
This resulted in narrow rooms which could be extended in-
definitely in length, but which had to be multiplied one behind
the other to secure greater depth. Openings to the exterior
or between the chambers were spanned with lintels of wood
or stone, or by smaller corbeled arches. On the exterior a
belt course marked the line of the impost within, and the
space opposite the tall vault was often treated as a broad
frieze with relief decoration. A unique feature was the "roof
comb," a long pierced wall rising along the center of the ter-
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
525
raced roof. Most of the principal buildings were temples,
although monasteries and palaces on a large scale were also
erected.
Mexico. Successive invading tribes, less civilized than the
Maya, fell heir to their art, and diffused their own versions of
FIG. 282 — PALENQUE. SKETCH PLAN OF THE PALACE AND TEMPLES.
(HOLMES)
it throughout Mexico. The buildings of the Toltec and later
the Aztec were on an equal scale with those of the older civiliza-
tion, but show less refinement and constructive skill. The
terrace and pyramid substructures, the relief decoration, the
526 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
general types of plan with long, narrow rooms, were retained.
Often the building or rooms were grouped around quadrangles
and courts. In general the corbeled vault was abandoned,
and the terrace roofs of concrete were supported by wooden
FIG. 283 — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A TYPICAL MAYA BUILDING.
. (HOLMES)
The upper part of the pyramid is shown with the stairway at the left. a. Lower wall-zone
pierced by a plain doorway, b. Doorway showing squared and dressed stones of jamb.
c. Wooden lintels cut midway in length, d. Doorway connecting front with back chamber
and showing position of cord holders, e. Inner face of arch dressed with the slope. /. Ceil-
ing, or cap-stones of arch. g. Lower line of molding, a survival of the archaic cornice.
h. Decorated entablature zone. *'. Upper moldings and coping. j, k. False front with
with "
decorations, (occasionally added). /. Roof -crest
decorations, (occasionally added).
beams. The varied character of the materials available re-
sulted in many local differences in construction. At Mitla,
for instance, large stones could be had for columns and lintels;
in some other places stone could scarcely be found suitable for
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 527
facing, and mud brick or adobe had to be used, decorated with
stucco and color. These native developments came to an end
with the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards beginning in 1 5 19.
Peru. In Peru the Spaniards, on their conquest of the
Inca empire in 1532, found another well-developed style of
architecture, with an independent development of many
centuries. Palaces, fortresses, and cities rivaled one another
in importance. Polygonal walls of vast blocks, rising in many
terraces, guarded the pass of the Andes at Ollentaitambo.
Houses and palaces were built around courts, sometimes with
a second story receding from the first and supported on
corbeled vaults. Windows and niches with inclined jambs
were notable features.
Colonial architecture. With the coming of the European
colonists to the New World a problem new and unique in
modern times was created for architecture ; civilized men had
to face conditions which were absolutely primitive and to
struggle against odds for the attainment of traditional ideals
of building. As a result there was everywhere a pioneer stage,
in which the settlers seized the first means at hand — adobe,
logs, or even turf — and built as simply as. would serve primary
needs of shelter and worship. Later they sought to replace
such modes of building by those of their mother country, but
these were inevitably modified to a greater or less degree by
differences in the materials available, and in economic and
social conditions. The duration of the pioneer period itself
varied greatly with the character and support of the colonists,
and with the resources and climate of the country.
Spanish colonial architecture. Development. In the con-
quered empires of Mexico and Peru, where wealth and a
large civilized native population already existed, the Spanish
were soon able to establish their own architecture, and even to
erect monuments rivaling those of the mother country in size
and number. Desire to implant the Catholic faith gave
prominence from the very beginning to churches. The ear-
liest ones, including doubtless the small church erected in
1524 on the foundations of the great Aztec temple in Mexico
City, showed reminiscences of the Plateresque and even of
Gothic and Moorish details. Such buildings were soon re-
placed by more elaborate structures, designed either by the
528 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
court architects in Spain or by others of scarcely less ability
who emigrated to the New World. Thus, for the cathedral
of Mexico, two successive designs were sent from Spain, in
1573 and 1615, the second by Juan Gomez de Mora (Fig. 284).
The cathedral at Lima (1573) and many other buildings were
designed on the spot by Francisco Becerra, a disciple of
Herrera. The successive transformations of style in Spain
FIG. 284 — MEXICO CITY. CATHEDRAL, WITH SACRISTY (RIGHT)
were faithfully reflected in the Spanish colonies, usually a few
years later, with baroque tendencies naturally predominating.
In 1749, when Lorenzo Rodriguez began the great sacristy of
the cathedral of Mexico, he employed a most luxuriant agr
gregation of baroque details for the facades (Fig. 284). By
1797, however, when the towers of the cathedral were added,
the academic reaction was supreme; and the work of the last
of the great colonial architects, Francisco Eduardo Tres-
guerras (1745-1833), shows a handling of academic elements
reminiscent of that of Chalgrin.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 529
Types of buildings. The dominant type of church was the
basilican, as in the cathedral of Mexico — a solid rectangle with
a barrel-vaulted nave and transepts, having penetrations at
each bay, domed compartments in the aisles, and chapels be-
tween the buttresses. Twin western towers, as here, were
frequent elsewhere, and a dome over the crossing was a
general feature. Domed churches of central type were also
not wanting. A special development of the central type
occurs in the sacristy of the cathedral of Mexico, the Sagrario
Metropolitan. This consists of a Greek cross inscribed in a
square, with an octagonal dome over the crossing, barrel-
vaulted arms, and minor domes in the angles of the cross.
Secular and domestic buildings followed those of the mother
country in being composed about an arcaded court or patio.
Florida. The outpost of Spain in North America, Saint
Augustine, founded in 1565, was not without structures of some
architectural pretensions, although these were of relatively
utilitarian character. The old fort, with its rusticated bas-
tions, and the molded and paneled posts of the city gate still
stand, as well as a simple house or two with whitewashed
walls and wooden balconies.
New Mexico. In the remote interior of New Mexico archi-
tecture was still more primitive. Here the native popula-
tion was sparse and relatively poor, so that little tempted the
Spaniards to the region except missionary zeal. The first
mission church, at San Juan de los Caballeros, was built in
1598, and the country was well covered by 1630. These
buildings were merely cubical structures of adobe, or mud
brick, perhaps with a simple belfry, built by the natives under
supervision of the Franciscan fathers. Even the cathedral
of Saint Francis at Santa Fe (1713-14) differed from these
chiefly by its larger scale. Its doorway and its twin western
towers were alike destitute of classical details, and ornament
was reserved for the altar, a distant reminiscence of the
lavish examples of Spain and Mexico.
California. In Alta California colonization was not at-
tempted until 1769, when Padre Junipero Serra established at
San Diego the first of the series of missions which ended in
1823 with San Francisco Solano, north of San Francisco Bay.
The first chapels of brush and the wooden frames for bells
53o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
were soon replaced by adobe structures of a single nave, with
roofs of poles covered with clay or reeds. As the missions
flourished and the number of Indian converts who worked
under the direction of the fathers increased, larger and more
imposing buildings replaced these. Thus at Santa Barbara
the first chapel, dedicated in 1787, was enlarged in 1788, re-
built in 1793 and again in 1815-20, when the present church,
FIG. 285 — SANTA BARBARA. MISSION AND FOUNTAIN
the largest and best constructed in the province, was built
(Fig. 285). In it the baroque survivals which appear in the
crude fagades of the earlier churches are superseded by an
attempt at classical elegance — the low pediment with the six
engaged Ionic columns. Single or twin towers, pierced belfry
walls, as at San Gabriel, long arcaded corridors or cloisters,
as at San Juan Capistrano, are characteristic features of the
California buildings, which are otherwise dependent for their
effect on the broad surfaces and massive buttresses of their
walls.
French and Spanish colonial architecture in Canada and
Louisiana. The French pioneers in North America were in
general hunters and traders rather than settlers, and they built
correspondingly little. At Quebec, which was founded in
1608, a considerable town gradually developed, however,
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
with churches, monastic and collegiate buildings, arid palaces
for the intendant and the archbishop. These had for the
most part the simple wall surfaces and detail of the period
of Louis XIII., although in the more elaborate interiors there
was the rich pilaster treatment of the following reign. New
Orleans was not founded until 1718. The typical house
Copyright, American Architect and Building News Co.
FIG. 286 — NEW ORLEANS. THE CABILDO
there was one surrounded by roofed verandas with light sup-
ports, sometimes in a single story, sometimes in two stories.
The cession of Louisiana to Spain in 1764, almost simultaneous
with the loss of Canada to England, made the later architect-
ure of these French colonies fall under foreign domination.
Thus in New Orleans after the great fire of 1788 the buildings
about the Place d'Armes were rebuilt on a coherent plan, in
the contemporary style of Spain. The Cabildo or city hall
(1795, Fig. 286) had two stories of open arcades, with the
arch order and a pediment, all originally of quite a classical
aspect.
Dutch colonial architecture in New Netherlands. 1624-64.
532 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
The Dutch, who founded Albany in 1624 and settled on Man-
hattan Island in 1626, naturally tended to follow the mode of
building of their mother country, still full of medieval reminis-
cences. Although the majority of buildings long remained of
wood, thatched with reeds, a few houses of stone were soon
built, and later bricks were frequently used. In these ma-
sonry structures the stepped gable toward the street, so com-
mon in Holland, was adopted, as well as the tile roof. The
most conspicuous building, the "Stadt-Huis" — erected for the
city tavern in 1642 and converted into a city hall in 1653 —
conformed to this type. It had vertical banks of small
segment al-headed windows in pairs, and a simple 'open
cupola to contain the bell. Although architecture had thus
made little progress before the English conquest of 1664, there
were the seeds of an independent growth which developed
later under English rule.
Architecture in the English colonies. Seventeenth century.
The English colonies in America were at first widely separated,
as well as very different in their character and purposes, so
that there was much diversity of architecture even in those
where the settlers were mainly of English birth. Certain
general characteristics hold for all, however, among them the
essentially medieval nature of all the buildings of the seven-
teenth century. This could scarcely have been otherwise,
in view of the fundamental medievalism of most building in
England during the century, outside of London and of court
circles. England had been the last country to adopt Renais-
sance forms of detail, and was much later still in adopting
classical types of plan and mass. Throughout the seventeenth
century in England the country churches built were Gothic,
and the rural cottages and minor country seats were medieval
in all but a few applied details and a tendency to symmetry.
Even in London, we may recall, the first classical church was
not built until 1630, and it had no imitators until after 1666.
Small wonder, then, if the colonists, themselves largely from
the rural districts, erected buildings which, stripped of almost
every detail not structurally indispensable, revealed their
basic medievalism. A corollary of this, and of the relatively
primitive state of society, was the general absence of profes-
sional architects and the dependence of the craftsmen builders
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 533
on tradition in matters of style and workmanship. Another
general trait in the seventeenth century was the almost uni-
versal prevalence of wood as a building material, even in
regions where the later monuments which are preserved are
of masonry. In contrast, with England the new continent was
densely forested, so that in clearing land for cultivation timber
was felled ready to hand. The immediate introduction of saw-
mills in populous centers made plank still less expensive than
otherwise, so that for years, and even to this day, brick and
stone have stood at a disadvantage in cost far greater than
anywhere in Europe.
Virginia and the South. Virginia had at the start the back-
ing of a powerful trading company and the advantage of a
unique staple crop, tobacco, which soon became enormously
valuable for export. With the outbreak of the civil war in
England, the colony, with Maryland, became a refuge for the
royalists, many of them possessing some means. Neverthe-
less architectural progress was very slow. From the founding
of Jamestown in 1607 the home authorities made constant
efforts to establish towns and require buildings of brick.
The absolute necessity of a plantation system, however,
forced the inhabitants to scatter along the navigable rivers
and made mechanics of any kind scarce. Framed houses
only began about 1620 and were still uncommon in 1 63 2 . Clay
and some brick makers there were, yet the first house wholly
of brick does not seem to have been built until 1638. The
typical Virginia house of the seventeenth century was a
rectangular framed building of very moderate size, devoid of
any architectural ornaments, and with a great chimney of
brick at each end. The buttress-like form of these chimneys,
with the steepness of the roof, proclaimed the medieval basis
of the design. This is even more pronounced in the oldest of
the Virginia churches still remaining, Saint Luke's, Smithfield,
which includes some bricks of 1631, although it is very doubt-
ful if the whole fabric was built so early. With its pointed
and mullioned windows this is unmistakably an English parish
church of the outgoing Gothic, in spite of the quoins of its
tower. In Maryland and Carolina the same general history
was later repeated, bricks of local manufacture being gradu-
ally adopted by the wealthier planters. Although Carolina
534 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
was not settled until after 1660, and large houses were not
built until near 1700, one or two of them still show the fan-
tastic curved gables of the Jacobean manors.
New England. In New England buildings entirely of brick
and stone were especially rare, but permanent framed build-
ings of wood were erected almost immediately after the found-
ing of Plymouth (1620), Boston (1630), and Hartford (1636),
with no long period of makeshifts. The earliest settlers in-
cluded carpenters, and, under the conditions of town life
which prevailed, artisans were numerous throughout the
colonial period. They brought with them the medieval Eng-
lish traditions of framing houses with overhanging upper
stories, and of filling up the frame, where possible, with brick.
The changeable climate did not favor the exposure of such
half -timber work to the weather, and from the start, in most
instances at least, the exteriors were covered with clap-
boards. The windows were small leaded casements, essen-
tially medieval, as were the clustered form of the chimneys
and the ornamental drops at the corners of the overhangs.
Several different types of plan may be distinguished, each
characteristic of certain localities. In Massachusetts Bay and
the Connecticut colony the usual type was one having two
rooms upstairs and down, with an entry and a great chimney
between, and often with a lean-to added at the back. Later
the lean-to was included from the start, as in the Whipple
house at Ipswich, Massachusetts (Fig. 287), well preserved
and restored. The typical house in Providence Plantation
was one of a single room below, with a great chimney at one
end, creating the " stone-end house." Occasionally, as in the
Theophilus Eaton house at Hartford, Connecticut, the
Elizabethan U or H plan, with a central "hall," was pre-
served. In interiors the cavernous fireplaces, the wainscot
sheathing, and the occasional paneling were devoid of any
Renaissance detail. Toward 1700 the framed overhang was
abandoned, but medieval details and methods lingered well
into the eighteenth century. The churches or "meeting-
houses" in New England likewise retained survivals of
medieval forms, but their disposition was fundamentally
affected by the extreme Protestantism of the settlers there.
After the passing of the earliest simple cabins they tended
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
535
to conform to the prevailing Protestant type of England and
the Continent — a squarish, hall-like room, with galleries
around three sides arid the pulpit against the fourth, which
was generally one of the longer sides. There was no tower;
the belfry was merely placed astride the ridge at one end or
FIG. 287 — IPSWICH.
Courtesy of the White Pine Bureau
WHIPPLE HOUSE
on a deck in the center when the roof was hipped, as in the
"Old Ship" Meeting House at Hingham, Massachusetts.
Pennsylvania. Philadelphia was not founded until 1682, so
that colonial architecture in Pennsylvania has mostly the post-
Renaissance detail of the eighteenth century. Before leaving
the medieval survivals, however, one must consider the build-
ings of the German sects of Pennsylvania, although the earliest
of any pretensions were not built until well after 1700, and
others not until about 1750. The monastic halls of religious
communities like that at Ephrata, with their whitewashed
walls and small windows, their steep roofs and ranges of little
536 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
dormers, are unmistakable offshoots of the Middle Ages in
Germany.
Eighteenth-century colonial architecture. With the eigh-
teenth century came greater means and comfort, wider use of
permanent materials, and the adoption of classical forms of
detail. The whole seaboard was now under English rule, and
local diversity was subject to uniform English influence. By
this time in England the style of Jones and Wren was every-
where established, and the small provincial towns abounded
with doorways and interior woodwork in which the favorite
post-Renaissance motives of broken pediments, consoles, and
rich carving were conspicuous. Still more important for the
colonies was the codification of current architecture in books,
great and small, which reproduced both formulae for the orders
and other details and designs for whole buildings. These
were imported very freely and will be found to have had the
greatest influence on single buildings and on the prevailing
style. In the early part of the century the colonists merely
adopted classical details for the individual features of their
buildings — the cornice, the doorway, and perhaps a cupola —
without any general classical treatment beyond a symmetrical
arrangement. Later the churches and public buildings, and
finally even the dwellings, began to assume a monumental
character. During the later years of the colonial regime
there also appeared some tendency toward the Palladian
strictness which had carried the day in England, and had
dominated the later architectural publications. In these
movements, as was also the case in England, cultivated ama-
teurs played the leading role, although the builders them-
selves were quick to master the teaching of the books and to
assume also the functions of architects.
Houses. The first signs of the transition at the opening of
the eighteenth century were the adoption of less steep roofs,
the substitution of sash windows for the leaded casements,
and the tendency to employ a uniform cornice with a hip roof,
or a pedimented gable instead of a gable of medieval type.
When cornice and door were given rich detail — of modillions
and of pilasters with a pediment — one had the scheme ex-
emplified about 1730 in Westover, Virginia (Fig. 288), and in
the finest houses of that day throughout the colonies. The
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
537
ample and symmetrical dependencies seen at Westover were
characteristic of Virginia and of Maryland and were sometimes
seen at Philadelphia. Frequent use of the curved and the
broken pediment and of rusticated enframements shows that
the baroque element of Wren's work was still current. In a
few instances, beginning about 1735, tall pilasters were applied
FIG. 288— WESTOVER, VIRGINIA
to the corner of the house. As these were only associated
with an individual pedestal and a fragment of entablature,
however, they create no general architectonic treatment. The
earliest important house in which a more academic scheme was
attempted was Mount Airy in Virginia (1758), where two
loggias — one arched, the other colonnaded — were the axial
features of a group with balanced outbuildings, taken
apparently from James Gibbs's published designs. It was not
until 1760 or later that the free-standing portico with a
pediment was applied to dwellings, and this did not become at
all common until after the Revolution. In a few instances,
53 8 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
notably the Miles Brewton house in Charleston, South Caro-
lina (c. 1765), there were superposed porticoes on the general
scheme of many of Palladio's villa designs, although with
much freedom in proportions and detail. Strict following of
Palladian canons in residence work only began with Thomas
Jefferson's design for Monticello in 1771, on the very eve of
the Revolution. The interior of houses, owing partly to
the prevalence of wooden paneling, was much richer and often
more coherent in architectural treatment than the exterior.
The subdivision of walls by pilasters was by no means un-
common, although more often, as in the Brewton house, each
essential element, such as a doorway or chimney piece, 'was
elaborated individually. Baroque features persisted even
after they had vanished from the exterior.
Churches. The buildings in which the more advanced
tendencies were first manifested were the churches. Old
Saint Philip's, Charleston, consecrated in 1723, had a portico
of four columns in front of its tower, only a few years after the
great London churches with a similar general parti. The
nave of Christ Church, Philadelphia, built 1731-44 under the
direction of Dr. John Kearsley, has an architectonic treatment
of the Roman arch order with pilasters in two stories. Both
of these buildings had the basilican interior treatment of
Saint Bride's and other London churches, which became the
favorite system for the more elaborate colonial examples.
The exterior portico, which in Saint Philip's had only the width
of the tower, was enlarged in Saint Michael's, Charleston
(1752-61), and in Saint Paul's Chapel, New York (1764-66,
Fig. 289), to embrace almost the full width of the church.
The steeples followed English examples, among which that of
Saint Martin-in-the-Fields' and other designs reproduced in
Gibbs's published works attracted the most imitators.
Public buildings. The earliest public buildings of any pre-
tensions, such as the older New York City Hall (c. 1700) and
the old Virginia Capitol at Williamsburg (1702-04), still be-
trayed a lingering medievalism in their H plans, in spite of the
round arches or the columns of the connecting loggias. Even
in buildings where all medieval character has vanished, like
the old State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia
(1732-52), the architectural character remains fundamentally
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 539
domestic, and the public functions are suggested on the
exterior only by the greater size of the building and its posses-
sion of a cupola. In the interior of Independence Hall, indeed,
there is a monumental treatment by an arch order with
engaged columns, which was almost unique in the colonial
FIG. 289 — NEW YORK. SAINT PAUL'S CHAPEL
period. The first attempt at academic design was Faneuil
Hall in Boston (1742), by the painter Smibert, with the arch
order in two stories, the lower one forming an open market.
A series of buildings of unique architectonic character was
designed by Peter Harrison of Newport, Rhode Island, who,
whether or not he had professional training in England,
540 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
deserves the distinction of being the first professional architect
in North America. His Redwood Library in Newport (1748-
50) has a Roman Doric portico of four columns, united to the
body of the building by a single unbroken entablature (Fig.
290). Originally only the small wings flanking the fagade
prevented the building from conforming entirely to the temple
FIG. 290 — NEWPORT. REDWOOD LIBRARY
type, already imitated in the garden temples in England.
The Market at Newport, 1761, represents a more advanced
academic phase than Faneuil Hall, in that it involves an
engaged order running through two stories, over an arched
basement. This was the characteristic motive of the more
ambitious buildings on the eve of the Revolution, such as the
Pennsylvania Hospital, the Exchange in Charleston, and
others. The greater number even of public buildings, how-
ever, still retained not only the modest materials, brick and
wood, but also the simple wall surfaces and isolated details
of the early part of the century.
Architecture of the national period. Its origins. During the
Revolution (1775-83) building was almost completely sus-
pended. At its close, although some craftsmen continued
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 541
their work in the same style as before, the leaders were inspired
by very different ideals. They recognized that the colonial
style, whatever its merits, was provincial, and they sought to
establish an architecture worthy of the new, sovereign,
republican States and of the great nation soon welded from
them. In all types of buildings connected with political and
social institutions, moreover, the republican and humani-
tarian ideals of America demanded solutions very different
FIG. 291 — RICHMOND. VIRGINIA CAPITOL. ORIGINAL MODEL
from those which were traditional in Europe. For govern-
ment buildings, prisons, asylums, and other types new dis-
positions had to be found. The pioneer in both these
movements was Thomas Jefferson, whose political career gave
him an unexampled opportunity for the realization of his
architectural conceptions. He felt that even the forms of
detail should not be borrowed from contemporary European
styles, although they should command the respect of foreign
observers. In this situation he turned to what he felt to be
the unimpeachable authority of the ancients, in whose republics
the new States were felt to have their closest analogy. In his
design for the Capitol of Virginia at Richmond (1785, Fig.
542 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
291), the first of modern republican government buildings,
he boldly took as his model the Maison Carree at Nimes. The
Ionic order was substituted to save expense, windows were
necessarily pierced in the cella walls, and the interior was
subdivided in conformity with the balance of legislative and
judicial functions, if not exactly in accordance with the ex-
pression of the exterior. It is little realized that this design
considerably antedated anything similar abroad. Classical
examples had indeed been imitated in garden temples and
commemorative monuments, but never on such a large scale
and never in a building intended for practical use. Even
Gilly's proposed temple to Frederick the Great (1791) and
Vignon's Napoleonic Temple of Glory (1807) were rrionuments
simply, and not until the Birmingham Town Hall (1831) was
there anything in Europe really analogous to this first monu-
ment of American national architecture.
Academicism and classicism. Public buildings. The seed
of a literal classic revival thus implanted required time to bear
its fruit. Meanwhile many buildings of less advanced
character evidenced none the less the change from colonial
ideas. Engineers, builders, and amateurs, both of native and
of foreign birth, united to infuse them with largeness of scale
and academic character. James Hoban of Dublin, in his
South Carolina Capitol at Columbia (1786—91), and L'Enfant,
the French military engineer, in his remodeling of Federal
Hall in New York, the first Capitol of the United States (i 789),
both employed the favorite academic formula of a columnar
central pavilion over a high basement. William Thornton's
Philadelphia Library (1789), and Samuel Blodget's marble
fagade of the Bank of the United States (Girard's Bank) in
Philadelphia (1795), had similar frontispieces rising the full
height of the building. The competitive drawings for the
Capitol at Washington (1792-93) showed a determined effort
to secure a monumental result. The design of Thornton,
which received first prize, was based on the great Palladian
layouts of England. More advanced still were the competitive
designs of Stephen Hallet, a French architect of the highest
professional training, who was placed in charge of the work.
In his first study he had adopted the scheme, since so popular
in legislative buildings, of a tall central dome with balancing
FIG. 292 — BOSTON, STATE HOUSE
544 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE-
wings, similar in form to the College des Quatre Nations in
Paris. Various later studies, under Jefferson's influence, were
based on the peristylar temple, the Pantheon in Paris, and the
motive of the Pantheon in Rome, which remained the accepted
central feature. In these studies, also, Hallet anticipated the
foreign instances of legislative halls of semicircular form.
Charles Bulfmch showed both the classical and the academic
influences, in the Beacon column in Boston (1789), based on
Copyright by the American Architect and Building News Co»
FIG. 293 — NEW YORK. CITY HALL
Roman examples, and in the Massachusetts State House
(J 795~Q8), with its tall dome and its colonnade above an arched
basement (Fig. 292). Pure French academism of the mid-
eighteenth century appears in the New York City Hall
(1803-12, Fig. 293), designed by the French engineer, Joseph
Mangin, in partnership with John McComb. Here for the
first time in America appears an academic facade with angle
pavilions, with a sophisticated wall treatment of superposed
orders, of archivolts and rustication. The complete victory
of classicism, even in its Roman phase, did not ensue until
after 1815. It was Jefferson, the initiator of the movement,
who crowned its triumph with the design of the University
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
545
of Virginia group. Here long colonnades connecting classical
pavilions of varied design lead up to the central Rotunda or
library, based on the Roman Pantheon.
The Greek revival. Latrobe. Long before classicism had
carried the day the Roman revival had been reinforced by a
Creek revival. The introduction of Greek forms, already used
in England and Germany, was due to Benjamin Henry Latrobe,
FIG. 294 — PHILADELPHIA. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES (CUSTOM HOUSE)
an architect who had the professional training of both these
countries. He came to America in 1796, and in his first
monumental work, the Bank of Pennsylvania, 1799, employed
a Greek Ionic order in, two hexastyle porticoes which gave
access to the domed banking-room. In the conduct of the
work on the national Capitol, with which he was charged from
1803—17, his principal opportunities lay in the interior, where
he created the great semicircular Hall of Representatives
(now Statuary Hall) , with its Corinthian colonnade employing
546 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Greek capitals of the Lysicrates type. His last design was
for the second Bank of the United States in Philadelphia
(1819-24), in which — encouraged doubtless by the philhellene
Nicholas Biddle, later its president — he adopted the octastyle
Doric form of the Parthenon itself (Fig. 294). The need for
additional space in the interior, indeed, led to the suppression
of the side colonnades, but even then the building approached
the ultimate Athenian ideal more nearly than any modern
building which had so far been erected in Europe.
The later classicists. Hellenic influence dominated American
architecture until nearly 1850. A pupil of Latrobe, Robert
Mills, rivaled his master in advanced classicism by employing
a Greek Doric column, nearly a hundred feet in height, as the
motive of his Washington Monument in Baltimore (1815),
and an obelisk of five hundred feet in the Washington Monu-
ment in Washington (1836^.)- The temple form was followed
in a series of State capitols, and notably in the one-time
Custom House of New York (1834-41), now the Sub-Treasury
— another and more literal version of the Parthenon. The
latest and richest example was the main building of Girard
College in Philadelphia (1833-47), for which Nicholas Biddle
forced the adoption of the temple form, carried out with
the Corinthian order of the Lysicrates type by Thomas U.
Walter. For State capitols, however, the type having a
dome and wings, with the prestige given it by the completion
of the national Capitol (1829), found thenceforth more
adherents. Another favorite motive was the long unbroken
colonnade, as used in the original (Fifteenth Street) facade of
the Treasury in Washington by Robert Mills (1836-39), and
in the Merchants' Exchange in New York (now forming the
lower story of the National City Bank), by Isaiah Rogers
(1835-41). A novelty was the great semicircular portico of
the Merchants' Exchange in Philadelphia, by William Strick-
land. When the Capitol at Washington was enlarged to its
present form (Fig. 295) by Walter in 18151-65, he had naturally
to follow the academic-Roman ordonnance of the exterior,
and thus helped to give the later buildings of the classical
movement a less Hellenic stamp. By all these designs, the
States and the nation were endowed with a tradition of
monumental and dignified government architecture which has
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
547
been continued with but slight interruptions to the present
day.
Domestic architecture. In domestic architecture after the
Revolution the colonial style was resumed by the craftsmen
with little change, so that a large group of buildings may well
be described as " post-colonial." An early example is the
Fierce-Nichols house in Salem (c. 1790), by Samuel Mclntire.
Copyright by the American Architect and Building News Co.
FIG. 295 — WASHINGTON. UNITED STATES CAPITOL
The facade differs little from that of the Royall house in
Medford, built fifty years earlier, except in the substitution of
a heavy Doric order in the corner pilasters and in the bolder
treatment of the doorway (Fig. 296). Classical influence soon
showed itself in two quite different ways. One, which still
involved no break with the past, was the employment of Adam
forms of detail, both in exteriors and interiors. Thus were
developed the attenuation of proportions and the delicacy of
ornament so characteristic of the later work of Mclntire in
Salem, typical of New England in the early nineteenth
century, and occasionally seen elsewhere. The appropriate-
ness of these forms to execution in the prevailing material,
wood, lent them a special attraction. The other classical
548 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
tendency, which dominated the States farther south, was quite
different in its inspiration and direction. It took its departure
from Palladianism and from French models, and ultimately
sought to assimilate the house also to the ideal form of the
temple. From the start the portico or frontispiece of tall
columns was common, a prominent example being the White
FIG. 296 — SALEM. FIERCE-NICHOLS HOUSE
House in Washington (1792 /., Fig. 297). The tall portico
became especially popular in Virginia and the South through
Jefferson's numerous designs, in which he sought, where
possible, to give the effect of a single story, as in the French
houses of supposedly Roman cast. In remodeling his own
house, Monticello (1796-1809), he introduced a dome over the
projecting salon, to secure a still further resemblance to such
buildings as the H6tel de Salm in Paris. The professors'
houses of the University of Virginia, which he designed as
"specimens for the architectural lecturer," included imitations
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 549
of the prostyle temple, and these were widely copied where
there were no didactic motives. Nicholas Biddle, with his
customary enthusiasm for things Greek, adopted a model of
the Theseum, peristyle and all, for his country seat "Anda-
lusia" on the Delaware. Even in New England the prostyle
temple with Greek forms finally carried the day, while in the
South the peristyle, with its manifest suitability to the climate,
was widely adopted. Such magnificent specimens as Arling-
fof, tetlllt
I III" *
FIG. 297 — WASHINGTON. WHITE HOUSE. (HOBAN'S ORIGINAL DESIGN)
ton in Virginia, where the ponderous columns of the great
temple of Paestum were imitated, as the Bennett house in
New Bedford, with its hexastyle Ionic main portico and
tetrastyle wings, as Berry Hill in Virginia, with two octastyle
Greek Doric porticoes and balancing outbuildings of the same
order, or as the Hill House in Athens, Georgia, with a Corin-
thian peristyle eight columns wide in front, show extremes of
classicism which have no parallel abroad. City houses in
blocks showed the same tendencies as houses which stood
isolated. In 1 793 Bulfinch erected for the first time in America
a block of unified design, the Franklin Crescent in Boston,
with pavilions of academic scheme and Adam detail. Some
coherent treatment of the block remained an ideal, although
one seldom realized. The most notable later example was
Colonnade Row in Lafayette Place, New York (1827), which
had a free-standing Greek Corinthian order carried throughout
its length. The interiors of the classical houses lost in richness
through the abandoning of paneling, and through the chaste
550 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
purism which confined all detail to essential structural ele-
ments. The tall, cool rooms, with their occasional screens of
columns, served now as neutral backgrounds to rich furniture
and hangings.
Churches. Post-colonial buildings, differing but little from
the more advanced buildings erected before the Revolution,
were also common among the churches of the early republic.
Here also slender proportions came in with Adam detail.
Nevertheless more monumental effects, parallel to those at-
tained in public buildings, made their appearance soon after
the opening of the nineteenth century. The fundamental
work was Latrobe's Catholic Cathedral in Baltimore (1805-
21), the first cathedral undertaken in the United States — where
it was as novel in its size and ritualistic arrangement as in its
classical forms. The plan was a Latin cross, vaulted through-
out, with a low dome over the crossing, a western portico of
Greek detail, and twin belfries, Hellenized as best they might
be. In 1816 Latrobe employed the Greek cross form for
Saint John's Episcopal Church in Washington. Robert Mills
developed the auditorium type of octagonal or circular form
in the Monumental Church in Richmond, Virginia (begun
1812), and others. The temple form was only adopted later,
for instance in Saint Paul's Church, Boston (1820), with an
Ionic prostyle portico of six columns.
Prisons and asylums. With its new departures in all
branches of government, America soon took the lead in the
reform of methods of punishment and of the treatment of the
insane. The New York State Prison, built by Joseph Mangin
in 1796—98, included provision for the separation of the sexes
and of classes of criminals, and the Virginia Penitentiary,
built by Latrobe in 1797-1800, was based on the principle of
solitary confinement. Later these ideas were more fully
applied, and embodied in radial plans, by the architect John
Haviland, of English birth. By 1835 the American prisons
were so favorably known that commissions from England,
France, and other European countries came to study them
and to introduce their principles abroad.
The Gothic revival in America. Although Jefferson, with his
underlying vein of romanticism, had proposed imitations of
Gothic models as early as 1771, Latrobe was the first to
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
execute a Gothic design, in Sedgeley, a country house near
Philadelphia (1800). For the cathedral in Baltimore he
submitted an alternative scheme which was the first Gothic
church design in America. In 1807 Godefroi, a French
engineer and architect, carried out the chapel of Saint Mary's
Seminary in Baltimore with Gothic forms. Other architects
soon essayed occasional buildings in Gothic, still inspired less
by a conscious prin-
ciple of eclecticism
than a romantic in-
terest in the style, of
which neither the
structural principles
nor the decorative
forms were much un-
derstood. A new
period in the Gothic
revival was opened by
the building of Trinity
Church in New York,
by Richard Upjohn
(1839-46, Fig. 298).
Here the design was
carefully studied from
English examples.
These long remained
the favorite models,
although James Ren- FIG. 298 — NEW YORK. TRINITY CHURCH
wick in Saint Patrick's
Cathedral, New York (1850-79), adopted the traditional
French scheme with twin western towers. In the sixties
the influence of Ruskin led to the adoption of Italian
Gothic detail, and to a moral fervor in the advocacy of
medievalism which had hitherto been absent in America.
Meanwhile, in the forties, the imitation of temples in
domestic architecture had been attacked as absurd and
impractical, and cottages and villas of Gothic, Elizabethan,
Swiss, or ''Italian" style had taken their places, as more flexible
and convenient, more domestic, and more in harmony with
the landscape. Individual Greek forms, however, had con-
19
552 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
tinued to be employed for the details of other houses, especially
in the towns, and thus both romanticism and classicism were
gradually replaced by an eclecticism which chose for each
building the style which seemed most appropriate to its use
and surroundings.
Eclecticism. In America, where there were so few trained
architects or accessible models, the supplanting of traditional
knowledge of forms by unrestrained eclecticism had even more
disastrous results for the common run of buildings than it had
in Europe. The Civil War (1861-65), with the materialism of
the resulting era of economic reconstruction, accentuated the
difficulty, and subjected government architecture to a mechani-
cal system. Nevertheless there was no period of years in
which competent and thoughtful men did not seek to uphold
the ideals of their art, in buildings which worthily represented
contemporary movements in Europe. Most notable of the
earlier men was Richard Morris Hunt (1828-95), the first
American to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, who
brought with him to New York in 1855 the rationalistic train-
ing of the school and a preference for French Renaissance
forms, then dominant under the Second Empire. In the
Lenox Library, New York (1870-77), he followed the tendencies
of Labrouste ; while in the houses for the Vanderbilts in New
York and at Biltmore, in the Astor residence, and in "cottages "
at Newport, he exploited every phase of his favorite style, only
adopting a more classical tendency in the last years of his
life, under the influence of younger men. The older archi-
tects of English training, meanwhile, were attempting to
establish the supremacy of Victorian Gothic, and in churches,
at least, medieval forms were employed as a matter of course.
Richardson and the Romanesque. When Henry Hobson
Richardson, another American of French academic training,
chose the Romanesque style for his accepted project for
Trinity Church in Boston (1872), he was influenced primarily
by the slight depth of the site, which was unfavorable to a
Gothic nave. He clothed the broad cruciform naves and
great central tower with a rugged mantle of polychrome sand-
stone reminiscent of Auvergne and Salamanca (Fig. 299). By
the time the building was completed in 1877, however, he saw
in Romanesque forms a far-reaching adaptability to American
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
553
needs, which would permit the development of a truly
national style. Their simplicity and ruggedness seemed suited
alike to materials readily available, to the general limitation
of funds, and to the relative lack of skilled carvers. In
subsequent buildings, like the Allegheny Court House at
FIG. 299 — BOSTON. TRINITY CHURCH, AS ORIGINALLY BUILT. (VAN
RENSSELAER)
Pittsburgh (1884), he expressed freely, with a personal vocabu-
lary of Romanesque elements, the ideal character and prac-
tical conditions of a great number of contemporary types —
the town library, the country railroad station, even the vast
warehouse. Richardson's mannerisms, however, such as the
fondness for towers and for broad low arches, were more
easily acquired by others than his power of picturesque yet
logical composition. Thus, after his untimely death in 1886,
his style was quickly discredited by imitators, while the abler
architects continued their independent development.
"Queen Anne" and the beginnings of the colonial revival.
Simultaneously with the building of Trinity had come the
founding of the Queen Anne movement in England, with its
554 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
wide program of frankness and colloquialism, and the revela-
tion of foreign arts and crafts to America through the Centen-
nial Exposition in 1876. These inspired many attempts at
imitation, and some free and original creations, such as the
Casino at Newport, built in 1881 by the firm of McKim, Mead,
and White. The attention of these men and some others,
hitherto attracted by the French Renaissance or the Roman-
by the American Architect and Building News Co.
FIG. 3OO — BOSTON. PUBLIC LIBRARY
esque, was naturally drawn to the American buildings of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries which correspond to the
prototypes of the Queen Anne style abroad. Thus began a
direct revival of colonial architecture, in many houses of the
eighties, with a richness of delicate detail on the exterior
very different, to be sure, from the general simplicity of the
old examples.
The adoption of Renaissance forms. It was this adaptation
of native Renaissance forms which prepared McKim, Mead,
and White for the adoption of those of the Italian Renaissance.
These were employed for the first time by one of their
associates, Holden Wells, in the Villard houses in New York
(1885), where the arched windows of the Cancelleria furnished
the motive. The decisive work, however, was the Boston
Public Library (1888-95, Fig. 300), in which McKim, taking
his departure from the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, gave the
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
555
scheme the warmer and more robust character of Albert! 's
San Francesco at Rimini. In the interior each element of the
building was sympathetically studied from Italian examples
which showed the structural use of classical elements, and
executed with a characteristic treatment of each material and
a harmony of decoration hitherto unknown in America.
FIG. 3OI — ROCKVILLE. GARDEN OF "MAXWELL COURT"
McKim's purism of detail in the library was complemented
by the luxurious elaboration of Renaissance ornament by
White and Wells in the Century Club and Madison Square
Garden in New York (1891). The effect on current practice
was electrical. Almost overnight Romanesque and Queen
Anne gave way to Renaissance forms, which more nearly
approached universal acceptance than those of any style since
the Greek revival. There were variants, to be sure,. Fresh
.arrivals from the Ecole des Beaux- Arts tended to follow French
Renaissance and academic architecture rather than Italian.
556 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
For domestic buildings many preferred more literal imitations
of the "Georgian" houses of the colonies in the eighteenth
century. The Italian tendency received a powerful reinforce-
ment, however, in the work of Charles A. Platt, who intro-
duced the Italian formal garden into America (Fig. 301), and
has steadily widened the scope of his architectural activity
without departing far from his favorite style. It still counts
many adherents.
Neo-classicism. The Chicago Exposition. The crucial test
between the partisans of a free and modern interpretation of
motives chiefly medieval and the partisans of a strict following
of some form of classic architecture came in the buildings of
the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. The studies of
John W. Root, the original consulting architect of the exposi-
tion, were of a free semi-Romanesque character, with some
recognition of the steel construction and the temporary nature
of the buildings. These conceptions might well have
dominated the ensemble had not the death of Root on the eve
of the undertaking left the group of Eastern architects, headed
by Hunt, to whom he had confided the buildings of the Court
of Honor, free to carry out their own ideas. These were that
the mutual dependence of their buildings, and the formal
character of the court, demanded a consistent style of generally
Roman classical character, with a uniform cornice height
fixed at sixty feet. This did not preclude a treatment of
merely academic cast, with details tinged by Italian or Spanish
influence, so that within the classical scheme there was a
considerable diversity of style. The buildings which attracted
the most admiration, however, were those in which the main
cornice was reached by a single order of strictly Roman
character — namely, the Agricultural Building by McKim,
the Fine Arts group and the " Peristyle" toward the lake, both
by Charles B. Attwood (Fig. 302). Attwood, in the Fine Arts
Building, followed Besnard's project for the Grand Prix de
Rome, with its central portico with an attic and a saucer dome
behind; McKim was also greatly influenced by the same
design, although he followed it much less closely. True to the
hopes of their designers, the classical buildings produced a
cumulative effect of harmony and magnificence which was
deeply stamped on the memory of the whole nation.
558 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Neo-classicism. Later developments. Although the leading
architects of the exposition had hoped to give a striking object-
lesson of the value of classical and academic formulae, they
hardly expected the result which ensued. Whereas, earlier,
there had been one or two isolated experiments with strictly
classical forms, such as the Grant Mausoleum in New York
(1891), the whole public architecture of the country was now
turned into a monumental and classical channel. The first
fruit of the movement was McKim's unified classical design
for Columbia University in New York, with its great domed
library (1895). A fresh impulse came through the restoration
of the University of Virginia by White after the fire of 1901 , and
the activity of McKim — with D. H. Burnham, Olmsted, and
Saint-Gaudens — on the commission for the improvement of
Washington. The character of the early buildings of the
republic thus gave a nationalistic sanction to the classical
tendency, and the style of new government buildings was
henceforth established. Milestones in the progress of the move-
ment are the Knickerbocker (Columbia) Trust Company
in New York, with its single rich Corinthian order including
the whole height of the building, and the Pennsylvania
Terminal Station, with its long Doric facades, and its great
hall, literally copied from the Roman thermae, almost devoid
of practical functions. From the start the orders used
frequently included Greek forms, and these have been em-
ployed increasingly. A notable recent instance is the Lincoln
Memorial in Washington, a peristylar cella in which the old
revivalist enthusiasm for an abstract architectonic ideal has
prevailed over any suggestion of individual character. The
current tendency to employ Adam or Louis XVI. forms in
residences and hotels shows the extension of the movement to
fields where more monumental treatment would be out of place.
This second classical revival in America has little contemporary
parallel abroad except in England, which has itself been
influenced in the matter by developments across the ocean.
While the rest of the world is seeking," in one way or another,
new forms expressive of the novel elements of modern life,
this insistence on the traditional authority of the past can be
adequately explained only by the unparalleled heritage of
classical monuments from the formative period of the nation.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
559
Thus the founders of the republic might seem for the moment
to have achieved their aim of establishing classical architecture
as a permanent national style.
Gothic survivals. In spite of the overwhelming victory of
classical forms, the Gothic tendency has been kept alive, largely
through the enthusiasm and artistry of two men, Ralph Adams
FIG. 303 — ASHMONT. CHURCH OF ALL SAINTS
Cram and Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, who practised in
partnership for many years. Their initial success was the
church of All Saints, Ashmont, Massachusetts (1892, Fig.
303), which embodied the same free tendencies as the designs
of Sedding in England. These tendencies have been per-
petuated in Goodhue's later work, such as the chapel and other
buildings of the Military Academy at West Point, with their
picturesque adaptation to the rugged site. Cram has tended
to follow precedents more strictly, and to range more widely
among the medieval styles, as in his "Early English " Calvary
56o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Church at Pittsburgh, and the late Byzantine administration
building for the Rice Institute at Houston, Texas. Even in its
last strongholds, ecclesiastical and collegiate architecture, the
Gothic has had to yield ground, especially to the colonial
revival. Nevertheless, although both the Protestant sects and
the Roman Catholic church now prefer the styles unequivo-
cally associated with their past, the preference of the Anglican
episcopate for Gothic forms, and the personal prestige and
ability of the Gothic leaders, have still maintained the Gothic
tendency.
Functionalism. The striving for characteristic expression,
which is the principle of functionalism in architecture, appeared
subordinately — in America as in Europe — in all the movements
of the nineteenth century. Structural purism was a quality
of Latrobe's designs, as it was, more pronouncedly, of those of
the Gothicists. The lessons of Ruskin and Viollet-le-Duc were
not forgotten in the early years of the Renaissance revival
and of neo-classicism, when it was felt that the column must
be used only in its original function of an isolated support.
Even in the later years of these movements, when structural
purism has yielded to the expression of monumental character,
this very character itself is felt to be but one of a number of
ideals which govern the different phases of architecture —
civic, religious, and domestic. Moreover, in spite of eclectic
inclination — so strong in America, especially in McKim's
work — to model the exterior of a building on an individual
prototype selected in advance, there has been a steady de-
velopment of logical planning and expression of plan, under
the leadership of the Beaux-Arts men. McKim and White
themselves were the pioneers in a characteristic use of materials
which has produced such interesting results as the ''Harvard"
and "tapestry" brickwork, the modeled and polychrome terra
cotta, and the local ledge-stone revival of Philadelphia.
Expression of structure. A new problem. In the expression
of structure a new problem has been presented by the steel-
frame building. The absence of legal restriction permitted
real estate owners in the crowded districts of New York and
Chicago, about 1889, to increase the number of stories in new
office buildings by supporting the floors entirely on iron or
steel columns, leaving the wall with only its own weight to
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 561
carry. The development of elevators or lifts made the upper
stories as desirable as the lower ones, and made possible
"skyscrapers" like the World Building in New York, with a
height of three hundred and seventy-five feet. Here, however,
the self-supporting walls reached a thickness of nine feet at the
base, and injured the value of the lower stories. It soon
Copyright by the American Architect and Building News Co.
FIG. 304 — BUFFALO. (PRUDENTIAL) GUARANTY BUILDING
occurred to the designers that the wall itself might be supported
on the steel frame at intervals, and be reduced to a mere veneer,
with great resulting economy. Thus buildings of twelve to
twenty stories have become commonplace in every con-
siderable city, and such extreme heights as that of the Wool-
worth Building in New York (779 feet) have been reached.
The retention of a shell of masonry, which differentiates these
buildings from the steel and glass shop fronts abroad, was
originally due to a natural adherence to tradition. It has
been perpetuated for a far more vital reason — the extreme
necessity of rendering such tall buildings secure against fire,
562 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
before which exposed steel work proved to twist and bend
with disastrous results. The only adequate protection proved
to be that furnished by casing all the structural members in
masonry, preferably
brick or terra cotta,
which had already been
through fire. Aided by
experience in the great
conflagrations in Balti-
more (1904) and San
Francisco (1906), the
technique of such- fire-
proof construction has
developed so that with
the aid of metal interior
trim, wire glass, com-
posite floors resting on
steel beams, and other
devices, a building can
now be made not only
non - combustible, but
absolutely proof against
fire, whether arising
within or sweeping the
surroundings without.
The manifest practical
advantages of the sys-
tem have led to world-
wide adoption of many
of its features. Its em-
ployment in fagades,
however, involves a new
and delicate problem of
expression.
The solutions. A
visual indication that
the masonry was no
longer self - supporting
FIG. SOS-NEW YORK. wooLwoRTH but depended on the steel
BUILDING frame, was achieved
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
S63
about 1895 by Louis Sullivan, notably in the Guaranty
(Prudential) Building in Buffalo (Fig. 304). He abandoned
a wall surface of ashlar in favor of a simple casing of the
members of the frame, with glass filling the whole of the space
between. The greater weight carried by the vertical members
he recognized by emphasizing the vertical lines. To avoid
any structural suggestion in the casing he used terra cotta
having a delicate surface pattern. The principle of his
designs has been widely fol-
lowed by architects of tall
buildings, irrespective of the
style employed, although few
have carried it through with
such logical completeness.
To Cass Gilbert trie emphasis
on the vertical lines sug-
gested the employment of
Gothic forms, which the
eclat of his employment of
them in the Woolworth
Building (Fig. 305) has
popularized to some extent.
In many very recent build-
ings, however, a reactionary
tendency, based on the over-
whelming predominance of
classicism in other depart-
ments of architecture, has
resulted in a reversion to
plain wall surfaces and ap-
plications of the orders.
Modernist forms. The
origins. America, with its
freedom from the restraint
of tradition, was also natu-
rally one of the first coun-
tries to experiment with
novel forms, consciously pre-
ferred to those of the past as expressive of modernity. The
old desire for an "American style" could not be satisfied
FIG. 306 — CHICAGO EXPOSITION.
TRANSPORTATION BUILDING.
DETAIL
564 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
merely by the general adoption of any group of historic forms,
even if, as in the case of Richardsonian Romanesque, its
adoption was purely an American movement. In Richardson's
work itself there was, as we have noted, a strong tendency to
modification and originality of detail, and this tendency was
taken up with special aptitude by Harvey Ellis, Root, and
FIG. 307— OAK PARK. CHURCH OF THE UNITY
others in the Middle West. The manifesto of a truly inde-
pendent progressive tendency was the Transportation Building
of the Chicago Exposition by Louis Sullivan (1893, Fig. 3°6)»
contemporary with the earliest similar attempts abroad. Here,
side by side with the first monuments of neo-classicism, was
a building in which there were indeed some reminiscences of
Romanesque and Saracenic motives, but in which the essential
effort was to express the modernity and novelty of the type of
building, its materials, and its structural system. The plain
stuccoed wall surfaces, with their unbroken, block-like cornices
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 565
enriched by bands of fertile original relief ornament, the arch
and column with novel yet expressive forms, anticipated by
many years corresponding treatments in the German " Seces-
sion." In spite of the overpowering influence of the classical
ensemble of the exposition on America at large, this building
made some converts, chiefly in Chicago itself. Through Sulli-
van's pioneer expression of the veneered steel frame the move-
ment had an influence far beyond its own circle of devotees.
Later developments. That participation in the movement did
not involve mere imitation of its leader was early established
by one of Sullivan's pupils, Frank Lloyd Wright. In his
designs for residences he has employed broad ramified plans,
wide eaves, novel fenestration, and a harmonious use of
abstract motives of ornament, which have a suggestion of the
Japanese. The appropriateness of these houses to the land-
scape of the lakes and the plains has been widely recognized,
and they have profoundly influenced the architecture of the
Middle West. More ambitious applications of similar forms
have not been wanting. In the Midway Gardens in Chicago
Wright has embodied the spirit of gaiety in forms of exuberant
yet delicate fantasy. In his Church of the Unity at Oak Park
(Fig. 307), he has evolved a monumental and characteristic
house of worship for disciples of modern rationalism. To the
present time, however, the movement has received more
appreciation abroad than at home.
It remains to be seen whether the wide acceptance and
nationalistic basis of the neo-classical tendency will enable it to
surmount the elements of weakness which aided the downfall
of the earlier classical revival, or whether the international
forces of functionalism will ultimately cause a wider adoption
of modernist forms.
PERIODS OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES
I. Colonial period, to 1776 (or later in Spanish colonies).
Spanish colonies.
Florida (Saint Augustine founded 1565).
Fort San Marco (Fort Marion) at Saint Augustine,
completed 1756.
Cathedral at Saint Augustine, begun 1793 (rebuilt 1887).
5 66 A HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE
New Mexico (Santa Fe founded 1605).
Cathedral of Saint Francis at Santa Fe, 1713-14.
California (San Diego founded 1769).
San Carlos Mission, present church, 1793-97.
San Juan Capistrano Mission, later church, begun 1797.
San Gabriel Mission, present church, begun 1812.
Santa Barbara Mission, present church, 1815-20.
Louisiana (under Spain 1764-1800).
Cathedral at New Orleans, 1792-94.
Cabildo at New Orleans, 1795.
Dutch colonies, 1624-64.
"Stadt Huis" at New Amsterdam, 1642 (demolished).
English colonies.
Seventeenth century.
Virginia (Jamestown founded 1607).
Thoroughgood house, Princess Anne Co., c. 1640.
Saint Luke's, Smithfield, after 1631.
Massachusetts (Plymouth founded 1620; Boston, 1630).
Fairbanks house in Dedham, 1636.
Whipple house in Ipswich, c. 1650.
"Old Ship" Meeting House in Hingham, 1681.
Carolina (Charleston established on its present site 1680).
Yeoman's Hall, Goose Creek, c. 1693.
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia founded 1682).
William Penn (Letitia) house in Philadelphia, 1683 (?).
Eighteenth century.
Houses.
Mulberry Castle, South Carolina, 1714.
Westover, Virginia, c. 1730.
Royall house in Medford, Massachusetts, c. 1737.
Mount Airy, Virginia, 1758.
Whitehall, Maryland, c. 1760.
Mount Pleasant in Philadelphia, c. 1761.
Brewton house in Charleston, c. 1765.
Monticello, Virginia (Thomas Jefferson), begun 1771.
The Woodlands, near Philadelphia, c. 1775 (?).
Churches.
Old Saint Philip's, Charleston, 1723 (since rebuilt).
Christ Church, Philadelphia (John Kearsley), 1727-44.
King's Chapel, Boston (Peter Harrison), 1749-54,
portico 1790.
Saint Michael's, Charleston, 1752-61.
Saint Paul's Chapel, New York (McBean), 1764-66,
steeple 1794.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 567
Public buildings.
Old City Hall in New York, 1700 (demolished).
Old Virginia Capitol in Williamsburg, 1702-04
(demolished) .
Andrew Hamilton (1676-1741).
Old State House (Independence Hall) in Philadel-
phia, 1732-52.
John Smibert (1684-1751).
Faneuil Hall in Boston, 1742 (since twice rebuilt).
Peter Harrison (1716-75).
Redwood Library in Newport, R. I., 1748-50.
Brick Market in Newport, R. I., 1761.
II. National period, i776-date.
Classicism, c. 1785-1850.
Thomas Jefferson, 1743-1826.
Virginia Capitol at Richmond, 1785-98 (remodeled).
Remodeling of Monticello, 1796-1808.
University of Virginia, 1817-26.
Pierre Charles L'Enfant, 1754-1825.
Federal Hall in New York, 1789 (demolished).
Plan of the city of Washington, 1791.
Robert Morris house, Philadelphia, 1792-95 (demolished).
Stephen Hallet.
Designs for the Capitol at Washington, 1792-94.
James Hoban, c. 1762-1831.
South Carolina Capitol at Columbia, 1789 (destroyed).
White House in Washington, 1792-1829.
William Thornton, 1761-1828.
Philadelphia Library, 1789 (demolished).
Designs for the Capitol at Washington, 1793-1802.
Charles Bulfinch, 1763-1844.
Beacon column in Boston, 1789.
Massachusetts State House in Boston, 1795-98.
Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, 1818-21.
Completion of the Capitol at Washington, 1818-29.
Samuel Blodget, 1759-1814.
Bank of the United States (Girard's Bank) in Phila-
delphia, I795-97-
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1766-1820.
Bank of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, 1799 (demolished).
Works at the Capitol at Washington, 1803-17.
Cathedral in Baltimore, 1805-21.
Exchange, Bank, and Custom House at Baltimore (with
Gpdefroi), 1815-20 (demolished).
5 68 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
(Second) United States Bank at Philadelphia, 1819-24.
Joseph Mangin, and John McComb, 1763-1853.
New York City Hall, 1803-12.
Saint John's, Varick Street, New York, 1803-07.
Robert Mills, 1781-1855.
Washington Monument in Baltimore, 1815-29.
East colonnade of the Treasury in Washington, 1836-39.
Washington Monument in Washington, 1836-77.
William Strickland, 1787-1854.
Merchants' Exchange in Philadelphia, 1832-34.
Tennessee Capitol at Nashville, begun c. 1850.
Ithiel Town.
Former Connecticut Capitol at New Haven, 1829 (demol-
ished).
Custom House (Sub-Treasury) in New York (with A. J.
Davis), 1834-41.
Isaiah Rogers.
Merchants' Exchange (Old Custom House) in New York,
1835-41 (remodeled).
Thomas U, Walter, 1804-88.
Girard College in Philadelphia, 1833-47.
Wings and dome of Capitol in Washington, 1851-65.
Romanticism, c. 1800-50.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1766-1820.
Sedgeley near Philadelphia, 1800 (demolished).
Gothic project for cathedral in Baltimore, 1805.
Maximilian Godefroi.
Chapel of Saint Mary's Seminary in Baltimore, 1807.
Richard Upjohn, 1802-78.
Trinity Church in New York, 1839-46.
James Renwick.
Grace Church in New York, 1843-46.
Saint Patrick's Cathedral in New York, 1850-79.
Eclecticism, c. i85o-date.
French Renaissance phase.
Richard Morris Hunt, 1828-95.
Residence of W. K. Vanderbilt in New York, 1883.
Lenox Library in New York, 1870-77 (demolished).
Biltmore, North Carolina.
Romanesque phase.
Henry Hobson Richardson, 1838-86.
Trinity Church in Boston, 1872-77 (west towers with
porch, 1896-98).
Allegheny County buildings in Pittsburgh, 1884.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 569
Classical phase.
Charles B. Attwood, 1849-95.
Fine Arts Building, Chicago Exposition, 1893.
Charles F. McKim, 1847-1909; William R. Mead, 1846-,
and Stanford White, 1853-1906.
Casino at Newport, 1881.
Residence of Henry Villard in New York, 1885.
Boston Public Library, 1888-95.
Agricultural Building, Chicago Exposition, 1893.
Columbia University Library in New York, 1895.
Pennsylvania Station in New York, completed 1910.
John M. Carrere, 1858-1911, and Thomas Hastings, 1860-.
Ponce de Leon Hotel at Saint Augustine, 1887.
New York Public Library, 1897-1910.
Cass Gilbert, 1859-.
Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul, 1898-1906.
Woolworth Building in New York, 1911-13.
Charles A. Platt, 1861-.
Larz Anderson Garden at Brookline.
Leader Building at Cleveland, 1912.
Gothic phase.
Ralph Adams Cram, 1863-; Bertram Grosvenor Good-
hue, 1869-.
All Saints', Ashmont, Massachusetts, 1892.
United States Military Academy at West Point, 1903.
Saint Thomas's, New York, 1906.
Calvary Church in Pittsburgh, 1907.
Rice Institute in Houston, 1909.
Functionalism, c. i893~date.
Louis Sullivan, 1856—.
Transportation Building, Chicago Exposition, 1893.
Prudential (Guaranty) Building in Buffalo, c. 1895.
Frank Lloyd Wright.
Larkin Building in Buffalo, 1904.
Church of the Unity in Oak Park, Illinois, 1908.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Pre-colonial architecture. A general view of the major part of the
field is afforded by three handbooks by T. A. Joyce: South American
Archeology, 1912; Mexican Archeology, 1914; and Archeology of
Central America and the West Indies, 1916. For North America see
S. D. Peet's Prehistoric America, 5 vols., 1890-1905. Among im-
570 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
portant works on special regions are W. H. Holmes's Archaological
Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico , 1895-97, and H. J.
Spinden's Maya Art, 1913. For others consult the bibliographies in
Joyce's handbooks and, on Mexico, in W. Lehmann's Methods and
Results in Mexican Research, 1909.
Colonial architecture: Spanish colonies. S. Baxter's Spanish-
Colonial Architecture in Mexico, 10 vols., 1901, is an elaborate work;
L. LaBeaume and W. B. Papin's The Picturesque Architecture of
Mexico, 1915, a slighter book, composed primarily of views. For
California see especially P. Elder's The Old Spanish Missions of
California, 1913, and R. Newcomb's The Franciscan Mission Architect-
ure of Alia California, 1916; for New Mexico, L. B. Prince's Spanish
Mission Churches of New Mexico, 1915.
English colonies. A popular general survey is afforded by H. D.
Eberlein's Architecture of Colonial America, 1915. General collec-
tions of drawings and photographs are The Georgian Period, 3 vols.,
1898-1902; Frank E. Wallis's Old Colonial Architecture and Furniture,
1887, and American Architecture, Decoration, and Furniture, 1896;
G. H. Policy's The Architecture, Interiors, and Furniture of the Amer-
ican Colonies During the XVIII. Century, 1914; and D. Millar's
Measured Drawings of some Colonial and Georgian Houses, 2 vols.,
1916. Among regional works with important texts are N. M. Isham
and A. F. Brown's Early Rhode Island Houses, 1895, and their Early
Connecticut Houses, 1900; H. C. Wise and H. F. Biedleman's Colonial
Architecture . . . in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, 1913;
R. A. Lancaster's Historic Virginia Homes and Churches. Regional
works of large photographs are J. E. Chandler's Colonial Architecture
of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, 1882; J. M. Corner and E.
Soderholz's Domestic Colonial Architecture in New England, 1891,
Domestic Colonial Architecture in Maryland and Virginia, 1892;
E. A. Crane and E. Soderholz's Examples of Colonial Architecture in.
South Carolina and Georgia, 1898. Regional works of measured
drawings are W. D. Goforth and W. J. McAuley's Old Colonial
Architectural Details in and around Philadelphia, 1890; L. L. Howe
and C. Fuller's Details from Old New England Houses, 1913; R. C.
Kingman's New England Georgian Architecture, 1913; J. P. Sims and
C. Willing's Old Philadelphia Colonial Details, 1914; H. F. Cunning-
ham and others' Measured Drawings of Georgian Architecture in the
District of Columbia, 1914. Among the works treating generally of
single classes of buildings are A. Embury's American Churches, 1914;
F. R. Vogel's Das amerikanische Haus, 1910; and J. E. Chandler's
The Colonial House, 1916.
National architecture: United States. No adequate general work
has hitherto been attempted. Brief sketches which supplement one
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 571
another are those of H. Van Brunt: Development and Prospects of
Architecture in the United States (in N. S. Shaler's United States of
America, 1894, vol. 2, pp. 425-51) and C. F. Bragdon: Architecture
in the United States, in the Architectural Record, 1909, vol. 25, p. 426,
and vol. 26, pp. 38, 84. The development of certain types through
the successive periods may be followed in A History of Public Build-
ings Under the Control of the Treasury Department, 1901; in F. R.
Vogel's Das amerikanische Haus, 1910; and in J. W. Dow's American
Renaissance: a Review of Domestic Architecture, 1904. For the post-
colonial and classical period see M. Schuyler's The Old Greek Revival,
in the American Architect, 1910-11, vol. 98, pp. 121, 201; vol. 99,
pp. 81, 161. This may be supplemented by G. Brown's History of the
United States Capitol, vol. i, 1900; and the biographies Thomas
Jefferson, Architect, 1916, by F. Kimball; The Life and Letters of
Charles Bulfinch, 1896, by E. S. Bulfinch, and the Journal of Latrobe,
1905. For the later periods there is little besides the individual
studies of Richardson by M. G. Van Rensselaer, 1888; of McKim
by A. H. Granger, 1913; and of Wright by C. R. Ashbee, 1911.
CHAPTER XIV
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
The East is a world which, as we now realize, long surpassed
Christian Europe in enlightenment, as well as in wealth and
extent. With its great religions and philosophies, there have
flourished architectural styles of corresponding duration and
complexity. In comparison with Western styles generally,
these have been less concerned with problems of structure and
more with abstract problems of repetition and combination
of forms. A notable characteristic is the degree to which
each Eastern people has held fast to its own artistic traditions
under the most varied political and religious supremacies.
Nevertheless artistic influences have not failed to pass back
and forth between the Eastern peoples, as well as between
the Orient and the Occident, so that there has been everywhere
a varied historical development. Two main currents may be
distinguished, one in the Far East embracing India, China,
and their dependent countries, the other in the Near East,
embracing Persia and the other countries which ultimately
came under the sway of Mohammedanism.
Development, of architecture in ike Near Easi. Sassanian art.
In return for its heritage from the preclassical civilization of
the Levant, Greece endowed the Asiatic empires of Alexander
and his successors with a Hellenistic art, which extended even
beyond their borders. When the Parthian rulers (130 B.C. —
226 A.D.) overran Mesopotamia, they adopted the Greek
columnar system. With the rise of the new Persian empire
under the Sassanian dynasty (227-641 A.D.), however, the tide
of art once more began to flow from East to West. The
subterranean vaults and occasional domes of ancient Mesopo-
tamia were taken as the basis of a consistently vaulted style.
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
573
In such instances as the palace at Ctesiphon (Fig. 308), with
its great elliptically arched hall and facade of blank arcades,
this achieved new effects both monumental and decorative.
In other cases the dome, supported over a square room by
means of diagonal arches or squinches, was a notable feature.
In its westward expansion this virile art contributed largely,
FIG. 308 — CTESIPHON. ROYAL PALACE. (DIEULAFOY)
as we have seen, to the formation of the Byzantine systems of
construction and ornament.
Mohammedan architecture. General development. The
Sassanian empire was brought to an end by the sudden expan-
sion of Mohammedanism. In a few years from the flight of its
prophet from Mecca (622), his followers, obeying his injunc-
tion to spread their faith by the sword, conquered Mesopo-
tamia (637), Egypt (638), Persia (642), northern Africa and
Spain (711). At first Mohammedan architecture in these
regions was little else than the art of the different conquered
peoples adapted to the worship and the customs of the
conquerors. In Syria, in Egypt, and in Spain the Romano-
Byzantine column and arch were employed for the construction
574 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
of buildings such as the mosque of Amru at Cairo (642), or
the great mosques of Damascus and Cordova (785-848). In
Mesopotamia and Persia the domed and vaulted halls of the
Sassanians were adopted as prominent features of the designs.
Besides the uniformity of the programs, however, a certain
community of artistic character between different regions soon
developed — a character pronouncedly Oriental. This was due
in part to the taste and the traditions of the Arabs themselves,
but more largely to the earlier conquest of the Eastern lands,
the prestige of these as the seat of the early caliphates of
Damascus and Bagdad, and the vitality of Eastern art as the
general source of inspiration in the early Middle Ages. Thus
the lace-like incised carving of Mschatta in Syria, which had
earlier contributed to Byzantine development, now appeared
in the earliest Arab monuments of Africa and Spain. Thus,
too, the pointed arch, common in Persia from the eighth
century, appeared in Syria and Egypt from the beginning of
the ninth. The tall dome of pointed silhouette, and the court
with vaulted halls abutting it — also Persian features — pene-
trated Egypt in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The
conquest of northern India and its conversion to Mohamme-
danism opened the way for Persian influence there in the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries, while Persia itself then borrowed
from India the ogee arch and the bulbous dome. With the
conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453),
finally, began a new return influence of Byzantine architecture
in their Oriental empire, through the imitation of Hagia Sophia,
which became the chief mosque of the Turkish caliphs. The
development of the various schools which resulted from the
mingling of local traditions and distant influences continued
uninterruptedly until the eighteenth and even the nineteenth
century, and has been checked only by internal disorganization
and by the conquests of European powers.
Mosques. The outward observances of the Mohammedan
religion are simple — prayer, made facing in the direction of
Mecca, and preceded by purifying ablution. For their formal
places of worship, the mosques, the early believers naturally
adopted the peristylar court — the universal scheme of the
Levant — the porticoes of which furnished shelter from the
tropical sun. The mirhab, a small niche in the outer wall,
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
575
indicated the direction of Mecca, and on this side of the court
the porticoes were deepened and multiplied. This funda-
mental scheme is seen in the first great mosque built after the
conquest of Egypt, the mosque of Amru at Cairo (Fig. 310).
FIG. 309 — CORDOVA. INTERIOR OF MOSQUE
The tendency was to develop the deeper side of the court into
an inclosed building — often of vast extent, as at Cordova
(Fig. 309) — with aisle after aisle of columns and arcades,
carrying wooden beams and a terrace roof. In later western
mosques the aisle leading to the mirhab was widened, and a
special sanctuary was created in front of it. In Persia a great
domed sanctuary preceded by a vast open nave or niche was
576 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
early adopted, and corresponding features were introduced at
the other cardinal points of the court. The Egyptian mosques
based on Persian models, such as the mosque of Sultan
Hassan (1377), have a court so reduced that these features
occupy the greater part of each side, and the scheme becomes
M
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il ii
. V ,..'»«,•,
k it ft ft tf ii i! ii
it
FIG. 310 — CAIRO. MOSQUE OF AMRU. PLAN
cruciform. On the capture of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia —
with its atrium, its main building to the east, its great central
nave, and its eastern apse — was found perfectly adapted to
Mohammedan worship. It was copied almost literally in the
Mosque of Suleiman at Constantinople (1550). In other
Ottoman mosques the possible variants were used, especially
the scheme of a central dome with four abutting half domes,
which the Byzantines themselves had not developed. Among
minor elements of the mosques, which are yet among their
most striking features, are the minarets, or slender towers,
with corbeled balconies from which the muezzin gives the
Copyright by H. C. White Co.
FIG. 311 — GRANADA. THE ALHAMBRA. COURT OF LIONS
578 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
call to prayers. These were erected at one or more of the
corners of the buildings, ingeniously incorporated with it.
Their forms varied much in different regions, the Ottoman
form, with a very tall cylindrical shaft ending in a slender
cone, being especially daring.
Palaces. The enjoyment of worldly goods and pleasures
was not despised by Mohammedanism, and the absolute power
FIG. 312— AGRA. THE TAJ MAHAL
and vast revenue of the caliphs enabled them to gratify their
taste for splendor and luxury by the construction of magnificent
palaces. In these the customs of the Orient demanded a
jealous seclusion from the outer world, and a strict separation
of the men's quarters and reception-rooms from the private
apartments of the women and children, the harem. The
rooms were distributed about one or more courts, the fagades
made as blind as possible, except for loggias and balconies
high above the ground and guarded by latticed screens. To
relieve the heat of the climate, the courts were surrounded by
shady porticoes and provided with basins and fountains. A
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE 579
complex axial system governed the relations of the principal
rooms and the courts. The luxurious elegance sometimes
attained is well seen in the Alhambra at Granada, built by the
last Mohammedan rulers of Spain, chiefly in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. The Court of Lions (Fig. 311), with
its slender columns, its delicate stalactite decoration in stucco,
colored and gilded, shows Mohammedan architecture in the
final development of one of its local schools, when the elements
of diverse origin had been fused in a characteristic whole.
Tombs. In Egypt, in Persia, and especially in India, the
tombs of great monarchs rival the palaces and mosques. The
Indian type was a domed mausoleum, set in the midst of a
garden. The most noted example is the Taj Mahal at Agra
(Fig. 312), built by Shah Jahan in 1630, in which the central
dome is flanked by four smaller domes, and the principal,
minor, and diagonal axes are marked on the exterior by great
arches expressively and harmoniously proportioned.
Forms of detail. The Mohammedan builders were con-
fronted by few structural problems for which solutions had
not already been found by late Roman, Byzantine, and
Sassanian architecture. At first, like the early Christian
builders, they employed borrowed classical columns and
capitals, supporting impost blocks and stilted arches. Their
early domes rested on squinches. Later their treatment of
fundamental structural elements, such as the arch and the
vault, was governed by decorative conceptions. In Spain
and Africa arches were given a horseshoe shape or were cusped ;
in Persia, Egypt, and Spain vaults were treated with a
multitude of small squinches resembling stalactites. Stalac-
tite motives were also used in some capitals, although in others
modified Corinthian motives were used, much as in the most
expressive Gothic examples. The ornamentation depended
little on effects of bold relief, but greatly on effects of line, of
material, and, above all, of color. The prohibition against
representing man and animals, with the mathematical bent of
the Arabs, resulted in a geometrical ornament of interlacing
figures, extraordinarily fertile and intricate. Precious
materials were freely used; in Persia whole buildings were
faced with colored and glazed faience in patterns suggested
by rugs and textiles.
58o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Development of architecture in the Far East. Long before the
Christian era, the Chinese and the Aryan population of India
had each adopted the basic constructive elements and the
religious symbolism of architectural systems, which persistent
conservatism, coupled in China with ancestor-worship, has
preserved to this day. Each employed at the start a structure
of wood, with posts, beams, and brackets — the Indian roofs
being of thatch, the Chinese roofs of curved tile. In China
wooden construction has remained typical; in India there
early developed a stone construction, likewise based on the
beam and bracket, with the similar devices of the corbeled
arch and vault. Characteristic of both countries was the
multiplication of similar decorative elements, graduated in
size and subtly varied in arrangement, in combinations of
overwhelming decorative effect. As dynasties rose and fell,
as foreign conquerors of less developed culture established
themselves, as religious systems — Brahmanist, Jain, and
Buddhist in India, or Confucianist, Taoist, and Buddhist in
China — succeeded or transformed each other, the native
architectural systems were steadily adapted to the prevailing
programs, without fundamental changes of style. Inner
historical growth there was, indeed, and influence of one
system or another. Mohammedan India adopted the pointed
arch with radiating joints from Persia, and China modified the
pagoda, in some instances, on suggestions from the Indian
spire or sikhara. In the main, however, these changes and
influences were not bound by creed or dynasty, so that shrines
of different sects were built simultaneously and side by side,
in a style essentially one — not Buddhist, Brahmanist, or
Mohammedan, but Indian or Chinese. The outlying regions
were dominated by the influence of the great cultural centers.
Thus Java developed in the eighth to the thirteenth centuries
a notable art based on Indian models, and had its own influence
on the art of the Khmers in Cambodia. Japan was inspired
by China, and, undisturbed by invasion, carried on and
preserved tendencies which succumbed in China itself.
India. The basic feature of Indian religious buildings was
the stupa, a hemispherical tumulus or dome, which was first
used as a grave monument and thus gained religious associa-
tions. In the early Buddhist chapter-houses at Ajanta (second
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE 581
and first centuries B.C.), the stupa served as an altar or
reliquary, standing in the apse-like end of a hall, with a
colonnade following the sides and encircling the apse. The
domical form of the stupa was also employed as the crowning
feature of the shrines of Siva, the destructive aspect of the
Brahmanist trinity, while for those of the complementary
FIG. 313 — KHAJURAHO. TEMPLE OF VISHNU
preservative aspect, Vishnu, the form adopted was the spire-
like sikhara. These are the principal elements of the great
medieval temples of India, of which the shrine of Vishnu at
Khajuraho (Fig. 313) with its vast bud-like sikhara, its vesti-
bule and symbolic porches, its wealth of .carved ornament, IP
a typical example. When the Mohammedans conquered In-
dia their art had already absorbed Indian elements, and no
radical change was necessary in methods of construction and
composition. The Siva dome, stripped of its sculptured
symbolism, became the dome of the mosque. The temple
platform was preserved, and the small sikharas which marked
582 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
its corners became minarets, as in the Taj Mahal. Thus the
traditions of Indian craftsmanship remained unbroken until
the importation of European ideals by the English.
Java. Java felt the influence of Indian movements at later
dates than India itself, so that its Buddhist monuments date
FIG. 314— JAVA. THE CHANDI MENDOOT. (SCHELTEMA)
from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, its Brahmanist
shrines mostly from the subsequent period. Both were com-
posed of the typical Indian elements. Sometimes the ensemble
was also of Indian character, as there was a pyramidal chapel
with a porch in front, like the Chandi Mendoot (Fig. 314).
Sometimes, however, the general arrangement was more
characteristically Javan, depending on the repetition, around
a central monument, of small shrines all alike, often in great
numbers. This was the system at the great temple of Boro-
Budur (ninth century), where the large central stupa, of bell
shape, was surrounded by smaller bells in three terraces,
themselves supported on a pyramid of six steps with many
hundreds of niche-like shrines.
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
583
Cambodia. In Cambodia there arose, under Indian and
Javan influence, the civilization of the Khmers, whose empire
flourished especially from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries.
Although it borrowed certain forms, such as the Javanese
system of an assemblage of satellite shrines, its developed
architecture was markedly different from anything in India
and Java. As seen in the city and palace of Angkor Thorn or
FIG. 315— ANGKOR WAT. SOUTHWEST ANGLE OF THE PORTICOES
in the temple of Angkor Wat (Fig. 315), the style involved vast
ensembles governed by an elaborate system of rectangular axes,
with lakes and moats, causeways of approach, tall straight
stairways leading to elaborate gateways flanked by long
porticoes, and a multiplication of sikhara-like towers with rich
pointed silhouettes. The fine limestone freely available was
laid up with exquisite precision, without mortar, and carved
with endless sculptures in relief and in the round, in which
the serpent-head motive was conspicuous. Especially charac-
teristic was the fine restraint and sense of structural fitness in
20
584 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
the piers and capitals of porticoes and gateways, which accord
with the classical canons of the West as do few other structures
of the Orient.
China. Unlike the West, and even unlike India, China has
steadily retained wood as a material for monumental struct-
ures. The single hall of wood has remained the fundamental
element of even the
largest temples. As a
result China has car-
ried construction in
wood to a degree of
elaboration and expres-
siveness comparable
with that of the great
systems of masonry
construction elsewhere.
The essential scheme
consists of columns,
with arm-like brackets,
supporting a beam sys-
tem and widely over-
hanging hip-roof, which
by the mode of its con-
struction acquires nat-
urally a slight upward
curve at the angles.
If the span is great,
one or more lines of
interior supports are
introduced, creating an encircling aisle or series of aisles,
each with its own roof and section of vertical wall (Fig.
316). A similar effect was produced by buildings in more
than one story, for each story was shaded by overhanging
eaves. When the stories were multiplied there was produced
the pagoda, often erected as a feature of a temple, but usually
as a commemorative monument. Pagodas were also built of
stone, in which case the roofs between the stories were reduced-
to decorative string-courses, and sometimes the whole struct-
ure was given more the character of an Indian sikhara. The
Chinese houses and palaces, of isolated halls grouped in an
FIG. 316— PEKIN. THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN
586 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
inclosure, were accompanied by gardens of a naturalistic
style, with miniature mountains, lakes, and bridges. Note-
worthy also are the vast works of fortification, the walls and
gates of the cities, and, above all, the Great Wall of China,
twelve hundred miles long, first erected as an earthen rampart
in the third century B.C., and rebuilt in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries with walls and towers of stone.
Japan. Chinese architecture was brought to Japan by the
Buddhist missionaries of the seventh century. The hall and
pagoda of the period at Horiuji are purely Chinese. Soon,
however, the Japanese were able to make characteristic modifi-
cations, in the direction of greater discretion and elegance. In
the Fujiwara period (898-1186), these qualities were at their
height, as may be seen in the subtle and delicate Phenix-hall
at Uji with its sanctuary flanked by porticoes and pavilions
(Fig. 317). Later the system of bracketing became more
complex, but carving was still almost wholly absent until the
Tokugawa period (1587-1867), when ostentatious exuberance
replaced the simplicity and dignity of earlier times. Sculpture,
lacquered and gilded, disguised the structural members; the
roofs were given fantastic curvatures and loaded with orna-
ment. Such was the prevailing style when the opening of the
ports to European trade (1854) brought the flood of Western
artistic ideas, which have tended, for the moment at least,
to submerge the native art of Japan.
PERIODS OF EASTERN ARCHITECTURE
The Near East.
Sassanian architecture, 227-641 A.D.
Palace at Firouzabad.
Palace at Sarvistan.
Palace at Ctesiphon.
Mohammedan architecture, 622 A.D.-date.
Syria and Egypt.
Mosque of Amru at Cairo, 642.
Mosque at Damascus, begun 707.
Mosque of Ibn Touloun at Cairo, 878.
Mosque of Sultan Hassan at Cairo, 1356.
Tomb of Kait Bey at Cairo, 1472-76.
EASTERN ARCHITECTURE 587
Spain.
Great mosque at Cordova, begun 770.
Alcazar at Seville, 1199-1200, restored 1353.
Alhambra at Granada, begun 1230: Gate of Justice, 1337;
Court of Lions, 1354.
Mesopotamia and Persia.
Cathedral mosque at Ispahan, 760-70, remodeled in sixteenth
century.
Tomb of Zobeide at Bagdad, 831.
Imperial Mosque at Ispahan, 1612-28.
India.
Qutb Minar at Delhi, c. 1200.
Buildings at Fathpur-Sikri, 1560-1605.
Taj Mahal at Agra, 1630.
Ottoman Empire.
Mosque of Suleiman at Constantinople, 1550.
Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. at Constantinople, 1608-15.
Mosque of Mehemet Ali at Cairo, 1815.
The Far East.
Indian architecture.
Cave temples at Karle and Ajanta, second and first centuries
B.C.
Kailasa temple, Ellora, eighth century after Christ.
Temples at Khajuraho, tenth and eleventh centuries.
Javan architecture.
Temple of Boro-Budur, ninth century.
Cambodia, Khmer architecture.
City and palace of Angkor Thorn, ninth century.
Temple of Angkor Wat, twelfth century.
Chinese architecture.
Great Wall, third century B.C., rebuilt in fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries.
Rock temples of Lungmen, seventh century.
Pagoda of Porcelain at Nankin, 1412-31.
Temple of Heaven, Pekin, eighteenth century, rebuilt in
nineteenth century.
Japanese architecture.
Early temple buildings at Horiuji, beginning of seventh
century.
Phenix-hall at Uji, eleventh century.
Temple of lyeasu, Nikko, seventeenth century.
5 88 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
The most comprehensive general work on Eastern architecture is
F. Benoit's Ly architecture: V orient medieval et moderne, 1912, which
is provided with very full bibliographical lists. H. Saladin's volume,
L' architecture, 1907, in the Manuel d'art musulman (vol. i), covers
Mohammedan architecture in more detail. Works in English cover-
ing Mohammedan architecture in special regions are S. L. Poole's
The Art of the Saracens in Egypt, 1886; A. F. Calvert's Moorish
Remains in Spain, 1906, and The Alhambra, 1904; and E. B. Havell's
Indian Architecture . . . from the First Mohammedan Invasion to
the Present Day, 1913. The art of the Far East is dealt with generally
in J. Fergusson's History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, revised
by J. Burgess and R. Phene Spiers, 2 vols., 1910. This should be
supplemented by special works embodying more recent views, such
as E. B. Havell's The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India,
1915; 0. Miinsterberg's Chinesische Kunstgeschichte, 2 vols., 1910-12,
and Japanische Kunstgesckichte, 3 vols., 1904-07; J. F. Scheltema's
Monumental Java, 1912; and R. A. Cram's Impressions of Japanese
Architecture, 1905.
GLOSSARY
Abacus. The chief or uppermost member of a capital.
Absidiole. A small, apse-like structure frequently used as a chapel.
Acanthus. An ornament derived from the conventionalized leaves
of the acanthus plant.
/^, Acroterion. In classic architecture, an ornament placed upon the
corners and the peak of a pediment.
Adobe. Unburnt, sun-dried brick.
Adyton. An inner sanctuary in some Greek temples, housing the
image.
Agora. A Greek public square or market-place.
Aisles. One of the divisions in a building divided longitudinally
by colonnades or lines of piers, especially one of the side divisions,
often lower than the central division.
Allee. A garden path or avenue, usually bordered by trees.
Alternate system. A term applied to an architectural system wherein
a simpler pier alternates with a more complex one.
Ambone. A pulpit, especially that found in basilican churches.
Ambulatory. A passageway in a building, especially the passageway
around the apse.
Amphiprostyle. A term applied to a temple having columns across
both front and rear, but not along the sides.
Amphora. A long pot with a narrow neck, usually of terra cotta.
Annular vault. A ring-shaped vault.
Anta (pi. antes). The end of a wall which carries a lintel, treated
with a pilaster-like projection.
Anthemion. The Greek honeysuckle ornament.
Apodyterium. The dressing-room of a Roman bathing-establish-
ment.
Apse. A recess of semicircular or polygonal plan, covered by a semi-
dome or other vault; especially the semicircular termination of
the choir of a church.
Aqueduct. A conduit or channel for conducting water, especially
one supported on masonry arches.
Arabesque. An ornament of a capricious or fanciful character, con-
sisting of foliage, flowers, figures, etc.
59o A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Arcade. A series of arches resting on piers or columns.
Arch. A structural device to span an opening by means of small
stones or brick. In the "true" arch these are wedge-shaped
blocks, or voussoirs.
" A rch order. ' ' In classic architecture, the system of enframing arches
by columns and entablatures.
Archiepiscopal cross. A cross with two transverse arms, the longer
one nearer the center.
Architrave. A lintel, usually with horizontal bands or moldings.
Archil) ol t. A molded band like an architrave, carried around a
curved opening.
Ashlar. Squared and finished building-stone.
Atlas (pi. Atlantes}. A male figure used as a support.
Atrium. In Roman architecture, the principal room in the -early
house. In more elaborate buildings, a court partly open to the
sky. In Christian ecclesiology, the open court before the nar-
thex of a basilica.
Attic. A pedestal-like feature or story above the cornice of a building.
Attic base. A molded column base consisting of two convex moldings,
or toruses, with a hollow, or scotia, between.
Axis. The central line of a symmetrical or other balanced com-
position.
Baluster. An upright member used to support a railing; usually
urn-shaped or with some other swelling contour.
Bar tracery. Tracery composed of thin bars of stone, joined together
on the principle of the arch.
Barrel vault. A semi-cylindrical vault, or one approaching this shape.
(^/Basilica. In Roman architecture, an oblong covered hall, often sub-
divided by columns or piers, devoted to the transaction of busi-
ness and the administration of justice. In Christian architect-
ure, an early Christian church of similar form, composed with
reference to a longitudinal axis.
BasUican. Like a basilica in having longitudinal rows of columns,
or a raised clerestory.
Battlement. An indented parapet behind which archers could shelter
themselves.
Bay. Originally an opening between two columns or piers. By
extension one compartment or division of a building which con-
sists of several such divisions.
Bed-molding. The molding or suite of moldings supporting a cornice.
Be/roi. In France and Flanders, the civil or communal bell tower
as opposed to the clocher of the church. In medieval military
parlance the term is sometimes applied to the movable towers
used in attacking walled fortifications.
GLOSSARY 591
Belt-course. See String-course.
Bema. The rudimentary transept which gave the T-shaped form to
the early Christian basilica.
Billet mold. A. molding consisting of short, broken, cylindrical
members, arranged with their axes parallel to that of the molding.
Especially common in Norman Romanesque architecture.
Blind arcade. An arcade applied to the face of the wall so that no
actual openings appear.
Bouleuterion. The Greek council-house.
Broken pediment. A pediment in which the raking cornice is broken
through.
Buttress. A support against lateral thrust; especially, a member
projecting at right angles to a wall, designed to receive such a
thrust.
Caldarium. The hot-room in a Roman bathing-establishment.
Campanile. A word applied in Italy to a bell tower, engaged or free
standing.
Capilla mayor. The great chapel, nearly filling the apse and block-
ing the view of the ambulatory, commonly found in Spanish
churches.
Capital. The topmost member of a column, distinguished from the
shaft by distinct architectural treatment.
Cartouche. An ornament of irregular or fantastic form, inclosing a
field sometimes decorated with armorial bearings, etc.
Caryatid. A female figure used as a support.
Casino. A small pleasure-house, especially in an Italian villa.
Catacombs. Extensive underground burial passages and vaults.
Cathedra. The bishop's chair in the early Christian church, com~
monly placed at the back of the apse on the longitudinal axis
of the building.
Catholicon. In Greek, a bishop's cathedral church.
Cavetto. A molding having the form of a quarter-hollow.
Cella. The essential or principal chamber of a temple.
Centering. A timber framework on which the masonry of an arch
or vault is supported until the key is in place, rendering the whole
self-supporting.
Chamfer. The cutting away of the square edge of an ordinary
architectural member.
Chancel. The portion of a church in the east end, railed, and set
apart for the use of the clergy.
Chapel of the Virgin. A chapel, dedicated to the use of the Virgin, and
usually extending beyond the apse on the long axis of the church.
Chevet. A term applied to the complicated east end of the French
cathedral.
592 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Chevron. A V-shaped, or zigzag ornament.
Choir. Primarily the part of the church where the singers are ac-
commodated. The arm of the cross between the transept and
the apse.
Ciborium. A canopy, generally of marble and supported on columns,
over the altar of an early Christian church. The term is often
applied in Italy, however, to the chiseled receptacle in which
the consecrated wafers are kept.
Circus. In Roman architecture, a course for horse and chariot
races; in England a circular or semicircular open space sur-
rounded by houses.
(^Clerestory. A part of a building which rises above the adjacent
roofs, permitting it to be pierced with window openings. .
Cloister. A court surrounded by an ambulatory, usually arcaded.
Cloister vault. A square or polygonal dome.
Coffer. A sunk panel or compartment in a ceiling, vault, or soffit.
Collegiate church. A church that has a college or chapter, with a
dean, but not a bishop's see.
Colonnade. A series or range of columns, usually connected by
lintels.
Colonnette. A diminutive column.
' ' Colossal order. ' ' An order running through mof e than one story of a
building.
Column. A circular supporting member, usually with a base and
capital.
Concrete. An artificial stone composed of an aggregate of broken
stone or other small materials, held together by a binding
material or cement.
Console. A bracket or corbel, usually in the form of a scroll of re-
verse curvature.
Corbel. A bracket of masonry, projecting from a wall and used as a
support.
Corbel table. A projecting course of masonry carried on corbels,
often connected by arches.
Corbeled arch. An arch built up of horizontal courses, each project-
ing over the one below.
Cornice. A projecting horizontal member which crowns the wall of a
building; any molded projection of similar form.
Coro. The elaborate choir, at times almost an independent building,
commonly placed to the west of the transept in a Spanish
cathedral.
Coupled. A term applied to columns or pilasters grouped in pairs.
Cour d'honneur. An entrance court, open on one side.
Court. An inclosed space within a building or connected with it.
GLOSSARY 593
Crocket. A projecting piece of carving, usually foliate, commonly
used to decorate the edge of a gable or the sloping ridges of a
spire in Gothic architecture.
Cromlech. A type of prehistoric monument composed of a circle of
stones.
Crossing. The space in a cruciform church at the intersection of
nave and transepts.
Crypt. A story beneath the pavement of a church, commonly used
for the keeping of relics.
Cupola. A dome or lantern.
Curia. The building in which the Roman Senate held its delibera-
tions.
Cusp. A point of the small arcs or foliations decorating the intrados
of an arch, or of tracery.
Cyclopean. A term applied to early masonry of very large blocks,
unhewn or irregular.
Cyma. A molding having a reverse curve in profile. In the cyma
recta the thin concave portion projects; in the cyma re versa,
the convex portion.
Dado. A continuous pedestal or wainscoting around the base of a wall.
Dentils. Small projecting blocks, suggesting teeth, forming part of
the support of a cornice.
Diaconicon. Originally the place where the deacons kept the vessels
for the church service. A room on the south side of the building
which became the sacristy of the later church.
Dog-tooth. An angular, tooth-like molding, commonly found in
Norman Romanesque architecture.
Dolmen. A pair of stone blocks with a covering slab, used of pre-
historic monuments.
Dome. A hemispherical vault; an exterior feature based on such a
vault.
Domed basilica. The term applied to the form of basilica, especially
in the East, when one or more bays are covered with a dome.
Donjon. A tower-like structure, usually free standing, the strongest
part of the European medieval castle.
Dormer. A window projecting from the slant of a roof.
Drum. .The cylindrical or polygonal vertical wall on which a dome
or cloister vault frequently is placed.
Ear. A projecting corner of a molded architrave.
Echinus. The convex member of a capital, supporting the abacus
and having a parabolic or hyperbolic profile.
Enceinte. In military architecture, the wall or rampart, usually
with bastions or towers and curtain walls, which surrounds a
fort or city.
594 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Engaged column. A column-like member projecting from a wall and
frequently actually a part of the wall masonry.
Entablature. That part of a lintel construction which rests on the
columns and extends upward to the roof or to the beginning of
a story or attic above.
Entasis. A slight swelling in the profile of a column.
Exedra. In classical architecture, an open platform, often semi-
circular, provided with seats: in Christian architecture an
apse or niche.
Extrados. The external surface of the voussoirs or stones composing
an arch or vault.
Facade. One of the fronts of a building, especially the principal
front.
Fascia. A long flat band or belt, usually forming part of a suite
of moldings, of which it is usually the widest member.
Fan vault. The vault, in English Perpendicular Gothic, shaped like
an inverted, concave cone, and suggesting by its spreading ribs
the appearance of an open fan.
Fenestration. The disposition of windows in a building.
Fillet. A narrow flat member accompanying a molding or suite of
moldings.
Finial. In Gothic architecture, the bossy, knob-like ornament, of
foliate design, usually placed at the point of a spire or pinnacle.
Fleche. A very lofty and slender spire-like structure, used especially
in France to mark important parts of a building, like the crossing.
Flute. A groove, usually segmental or semicircular in plan.
Flying buttress. A buttress composed of an arch or a series of arches,
which carries the thrust of a vault over the aisle or aisles of a
church to a solid pier built at the outer wall.
Forum. The market-place of a Roman city.
Foyer. A lobby or saloon for promenade in a theater.
"French order." An order with rusticated, fluted columns.
Fresco. Wall painting, in mineral colors, applied to a plaster wall
while the plaster is still moist, and permitted to dry in with the
plaster.
Fret. An ornament of continuous bands or fillets arranged in rect-
angular forms.
Frieze. A longitudinal band of extended length, often decorated with
sculpture; specifically, such a band in an entablature, between
the architrave and cornice.
Frigidarium. The cool-room of a Roman bathing-establishment, con-
taining the cold plunge-bath.
Gable. The end of a ridged roof, with the generally triangular wall
between its eaves and the apex.
GLOSSARY 595
Gargoyle. A water spout, usually grotesquely carved, designed to
carry water from the gutter and throw it clear of the wall of the
building.
Greek cross. A cross of four equal arms meeting at right angles.
Grille. A grating of any sort, but most commonly of iron work or
perforated stone slabs.
Groin. The edge, or arris, formed by the intersection of two barrel
vaults.
Groin vault. A compound vault, in which two barrel vaults inter-
sect, forming edges or arrises which are called groins.
Gutta. A drop; one of a series of pendent ornaments generally in
the form of a frustum of a cone, but sometimes cylindrical, at-
tached to the under side of a mutule or other architectural
feature.
Gynaccea. The galleries, usually in the triforium, commonly ar-
ranged in basilicas of Eastern character, for the segregation of
women.
Half-limber. A type of construction consisting of a framework of
timber with a filling of brick or clay.
Hallenkirche. A type of German Gothic church in which the aisles
are as high as the nave, eliminating the clerestory and giving the
building the appearance of a great hall.
Herm. A head or bust supported on a quadrangular base corre-
sponding roughly in mass to the absent body.
Hexastyle. Having six columns across the front.
Hippodrome. In Greek architecture, a place in which horse and
chariot races were run.
Hip-roof. A roof in which the ends as well as the sides are inclined,
so that its planes meet in diagonal lines or hips.
Hypathral. Roofless — a term applied to some temple cellas.
Hypo style. Having its ceiling supported by columns.
Impost. A horizontal member at the springing of an arch or vault.
^ In anils. A term applied to columns embraced between the ends of
two walls or antae.
Intercolumniation. The space or distance between two columns of a
colonnade.
Interlacing arches. Two series of arches arranged to intersect each
other.
Intrados. The inner face of an arch or vault.
Keystone. The term applied to the topmost, wedge-shaped stone
or voussoir in an arch, usually the last to be placed, which ren-
ders the whole secure.
Khan. The service quarters of an Oriental dwelling; also an Oriental
inn.
596 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Laconicum. A vapor bath in a Roman bathing-establishment.
Lantern. A cupola or tower-like structure rising above a dome or the
roof of a building, and having openings in its faces 'by which the
interior is lighted.
Lanterne des marts. An ornamental stone shaft erected in the Middle
Ages to signalize the presence of a cemetery.
Lararium. A small shrine in a Roman dwelling where the Lares, or
household gods, were worshiped.
Latin cross. The commonest form of cross, in which one arm is con-
siderably longer than the other three.
Lierne. A small subordinate rib, inserted between two main ribs
of a vault.
Lintel. A horizontal beam spanning an opening.
Loge. A box or compartment in the auditorium of a theater.
Loggia. A gallery in a building open on at least one side, on which
side is an arcade or colonnade.
Machicolation. An opening in the floor of a projecting gallery for
the purpose of dropping missiles, etc.
Mastaba. A flat-topped, bench-like Egyptian tomb used by the
nobles of the Old Kingdom.
Mausoleum. A large and elaborate tomb.
Meander. See Fret.
Megalithic. Composed of very large stones.
Megaron. The large hall of an ^Egean or Greek dwelling, generally
oblong in shape and sometimes subdivided by one or more longi-
tudinal ranges of supports.
Menhir. A single standing pillar of stone, used of prehistoric
monuments.
Metope. The space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze.
Mezzanine. A story of diminished height introduced between two
higher stories or created by subdividing a high story.
Minaret. In Mohammedan architecture, a slender and lofty turret,
having one or more projecting balconies.
Mirhab. The niche in a mosque which indicates the direction of Mecca.
Modillion. A bracket, often carved with spiral scrolls, serving to
support a cornice.
Module. A unit or common divisor of the dimensions of a building.
Monolithic. Composed of a single stone.
Mosaic. Decoration composed of tesserae or cubes of glass or
marble, set in mortar, in geometric or pictorial designs.
Mosque. A Mohammedan place of worship.
Mullion. A slender, vertical, intermediate upright, forming part
of a framework, dividing an opening, and commonly helping to
support the glass.
GLOSSARY 597
Mutule. A projecting block on the soffit of a Doric cornice.
Naos. The essential or principal chamber of a Greek temple; the
cella.
Narthex. A covered vestibule of one or more stories, usually open
and colonnaded at the front, placed before a building, and
especially common in the early Christian period.
Nave. That part of a church nearest the entrance, constituting
the long arm in a Latin cross, appropriated to the laity. The
chief central division of the building, the central space between
the colonnades, as opposed to the aisles.
Niche. A recess in a wall, usually semicircular and semicircular-
headed, often used for the reception of statuary.
Obelisk. A tapering shaft of rectangular plan, generally with a
pyramidal apex.
Octastyle. Having eight columns across the front.
Odeion. In Greek architecture, a covered building for musical and
oratorical contests.
Ogee curve. A double S curve especially common in Flamboyant
Gothic architecture.
Opisthodomos. An open vestibule at the rear of a temple cella.
Opus alexandrinum. An elaborate geometrical mosaic of marble
slabs and tesserae.
Opus francigenum. "French work," the word first applied by the
Germans to Gothic architecture.
Opus incertum. A Roman method of facing concrete walls with
irregular fragments.
Opus reticulatum. A Roman method of facing concrete walls with
small square blocks standing on their corners in diagonal
lines.
Opus spicatum. A Roman method of facing concrete walls with
kernel-shaped fragments laid in herring-bone pattern.
Orchestra. In Greek theaters, the circle of the dance; in modern
theaters, the space for the musicians, or the parquet.
"Order." In classical architecture, a recognized system of forms for
the column and entablature.
' ' Organic architecture.'' ' A vaulted architecture in which the vaults are
supported by ribs, piers, and buttresses arranged with direct
reference to the needs of supporting the vaults and opposing their
thrusts.
Ovolo. A convex molding approaching a quarter-circle in profile.
Pagoda. In Chinese and Japanese architecture, a sacred tower in
several stories.
Palastra. A building or inclosure devoted to wrestling, boxing, and
kindred gymnastic exercises.
598 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Palladian motive. A central arch resting on the entablatures of lat-
eral square-headed bays.
Parapet. A breast wall placed at the edge of a platform, terrace,
balcony, etc.
Parterre. A garden of beds with intervening gravel or turf.
Patio. In Spain or Spanish America, a court in a house, open to the
sky.
Pavilion. A central, flanking, or intermediate subdivision of a
monumental building or facade, accented architecturally by
projection or otherwise.
Pedestal. A base or support for a column or building, usually having
its own capital and base moldings.
Pediment. A low triangular gable bounded by a horizontal cornice
and raking cornices.
Pendentwe. An inverted, triangular, concave piece of masonry,
placed upon a pier to support a section of a dome. In
mathematical terms, a segment of a hemisphere the diameter
of which is equal to the diagonal of the square or polygon
to be covered.
Penetration. In vaulting, a surface intersecting the main vaulting
surface to permit lateral openings to be raised above the line of
its springing.
A Peristyle. A continuous surrounding colonnade, either around the
exterior of a building or the interior of a court.
Piano nobile. The principal floor of an Italian house, above the
ground story.
Pier. A masonry member acting as a support, distinguished from a
column by greater massiveness, by a shape other than circular,
or by being built of coursed masonry.
Pier buttress. A solid pier of masonry built immediately adjacent to
a vault to resist its thrust.
pilaster. A flat rectangular member, projecting slightly from the
face of a wall, and furnished with a capital, base, etc., in the
manner of a column.
Pilaster strip. A slender engaged pier-like member in a wall, used
in medieval architecture as a stiffener or rudimentary buttress.
Pillar. A loosely used term denoting an isolated vertical mass of
masonry, used as a support. In architecture, applied to a sup-
port which is neither a pier nor a column in the strict sense of
those words.
Plate tracery. Tracery composed of openings pierced in a thin
tympanum of stone, as contrasted with bar tracery.
Plinth. A rectangular block usually serving as a base.
Podium. A continuous pedestal.
GLOSSARY 599
Portcullis. A sliding barrier or grating to cut off access to a gate or
passage.
Portico. An open porch or vestibule having its roof supported by
columns or piers.
Presbyterium. That part of a church devoted to the clergy, in which
the high altar is placed and which forms the eastern termination
of the choir. It is generally raised a few steps above the rest of
the church.
Pronaos. A vestibule in front of the cella of a Greek temple.
Propylceum (pi. propylcea). In Greek architecture, an elaborate en-
trance gateway with a portico or porticoes.
Proskenion. In the Greek theater, a wall or series of piers before
the skene, carrying a platform which served as a stage for some
or all of the actors.
Prostyle. A term applied to a temple or pavilion having columns
across the front only.
Prothesis. A chapel or room on the north side of the early Christian
church; the prototype of the vestry.
Puhinated. Swelling or bulging out; a term applied to a frieze of
curved section.
Pylon. A monumental gateway to an Egyptian temple; any gate-
tower of classical design.
Pyramid-mastaba. An Egyptian tomb having the form of a mastaba
with a small pyramid on top.
Quadriga. A chariot drawn by four horses.
Quadripartite vault. A groin vault, generally ribbed, composed of
four cells.
Quoins. Stones or blocks reinforcing the angle of a building.
Raking cornice. The sloping moldings of a pediment.
Ramp. An inclined plane rising from a lower to a higher level, taking
the place of steps.
" Rhythmical bay." A term applied to a continuous alternation of
wide and narrow bays.
Rib. A masonry arch, generally salient from the vault surface and
molded, forming part of the skeleton structure on which the vault
rests.
Ribbed vault. A vault of masonry with a comparatively thin web
supported by ribs.
Rocaille. The shell-work or scroll ornament characteristic of rococo
decoration.
Roof comb. In Maya architecture, a pierced screen-wall rising above
the roof of a building.
Roundel. A circular medallion.
Rubble. Masonry of stones irregular in shape and size.
6oo A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Rusticated stone. Stone masonry distinguished from smooth ashlar
by having the joints sunk, and sometimes the surface of the
stone roughly or bossily finished.
Sarcophagus. A stone coffin, usually ornamented with sculpture.
Saucer-dome. A dome showing on the exterior only the upper zone
of its surface.
Scana frons. The front wall of the skene, forming the background
of the stage, usually decorated with columns.
Scale. The effect of size produced by a building or its members.
Scotia. A concave molding of circular plan.
"Screens." The passage across one end of the hall in an English
manor house.
Sex partite vault. A groin vault, usually ribbed, and provided with a
transverse rib to the crown of the vault, which divides the whole
into six cells.
Shaft. The main, cylindrical member of a column. An upright
member, tall and comparatively small in horizontal dimensions,
engaged or free standing, and generally used as a support.
Short and long work. Stones embedded alternately horizontally and
vertically in the masonry at a wall angle, used to reinforce the
angle and especially common in early Saxon architecture.
Sikhara. An Indian spire, used in the shrines of Vishnu.
Skene. In the Greek theater, the building containing the dressing-
rooms, the front of which served as a background for the action.
'offit. The under side of an architectural member, such as a lintel
or arch.
Spina. The barrier dividing a race-course longitudinally into two
tracks.
Spire. A lofty, slender, generally octagonal member used to crown
a medieval tower.
Splay. A sloped surface, which makes an oblique angle with another,
a large chamfer.
Squinch. A slab or small arch thrown across the angle of a square or
polygon to render its shape more nearly round, to receive the
base of a dome.
Stadion. A course for foot racing, six hundred Greek feet in length.
Staged tower. A tower built in several receding platforms or stages.
Stalactite vaulting. Vaulting composed of small squinches one above
another, giving the appearance of stalactites.
Steeple. A lofty structure attached to a church or other building.
Stele. An upright stone employed as a monument.
Step-pyramid. A pyramidal structure consisting of diminishing ter-
races, forming a series of large steps.
Stereotomy. The science of stone-cutting.
GLOSSARY 601
Stilt. To raise the point of springing of an arch above the level
of a capital or impost.
Stilt-block. A block above a capital serving to support an arch or
vault.
Stoa. In Greek architecture, a long, narrow hall, usually divided
longitudinally by columns, and having an open colonnade in
place of one of the side walls.
Strap-work. Ornament consisting of fillets, or bands, imitating
leather, folded or interlaced.
String-course. A horizontal course of masonry, usually molded,
marking an architectural subdivision of a building.
Stucco. Plaster or cement used as a coating for walls.
Stupa. A hemispherical tumulus or dome characteristic of Indian
architecture.
Stylobate. A continuous plinth or step serving as a common base to
columns, especially those of the Greek Doric order.
Tabernacle. A pedimented or canopied niche.
Tablinum. A recess or apartment at the back of the atrium in a
Roman house.
Tepidarium. An apartment in a Roman bathing-establishment in-
termediate in temperature between the caldarium and the
frigidarium.
Terrace-roof. A roof either flat or with barely perceptible inclination.
Tessera. Small cubes of marble or glass, used in the composition of
designs in mosaic.
Tholos. In Greek architecture, a circular structure or temple.
Thrust. The outward horizontal force exerted by an arch or
vault.
Tie-rod. A rod, usually of iron, set in the masonry of an arch or vault
to resist its outward thrust.
Tierceron. A secondary or intermediate rib in a vault, springing
from the pier on either side of the diagon.?,! rib.
Torus. A molding of convex profile, approaching a semicircle, used
especially in bases.
Trabeated architecture. Literally, beamed architecture, the term is
applied to the post and lintel or horizontal architectural system,
as opposed to the arched or arcuated system.
Transept. A large division of a church lying at right angles to the
long axis of the building. It developed probably from the early
Christian bema.
Transom window. A window divided horizontally by a bar of stone
or iron.
Triclinium. In Roman architecture, the dining-room, furnished with
three couches.
602 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Triconch plan. A plan ending in a trefoil or clover-leafed shape,
common in Syria, and later in Carolingian and German archi-
tecture.
Triforium. A blind space between the ceiling and the lean-to roof
over an aisle; any corresponding division below a clerestory.
Triglyph. A projecting block in a Doric frieze, marked by vertical
grooves.
Trophy. A monument or memorial of victory, especially one con-
sisting of arms and other spoils, or sculptures representing them.
Truss. A combination of timbers or ironwork so arranged as to
constitute an unyielding frame for spanning an opening, etc.
Tudor arch. A four-centered, pointed arch, common in English
Tudor architecture.
Tumulus. A sepulchral mound.
Vault cell. A subdivision of a vault, the part denned by adjacent
groins or ribs.
Vault web. The thin infilling of masonry composing the main ex-
panse of a rib-vault, supported by ribs.
Velarium. An awning stretched over the seats of a Roman theater or
amphitheater.
Veneer. A thin facing of wood or other material which has or-
namental qualities and overlays the structural material of a
building.
Volute. A spiral scroll.
Voussoir. One of the wedge-shaped stones used in the construction
of an arch or vault.
Wall shaft. A shaft, in the thickness of a wall, dividing an opening
into two or more parts. Characteristic of early Saxon architect-
ure.
Wheel, or rose, window. The circular window, divided by tracery,
which was commonly placed in the west end of a Gothic cathedral.
Ziggurat. A Mesopotamian religious structure, consisting of a tall
staged tower or stepped pyramid, with ramps giving access to
the top.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
GENERAL WORKS RELATING TO THE' HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
(For works covering special periods see the note at the end of each chapter.}
Among earlier comprehensive histories of architecture may be
mentioned especially the following:
F. Kugler's Geschichte der Baukunst, 5 vols., 1859-72. Continued
GLOSSARY 603
by J. Burkhardt, W. Liibke, and C. Gurlitt as Geschichte der neuern
Baukunst, 4 vols. in 6, 1887-1911.
J. Fergusson's History of Architecture, 2 vols., 1865-67; 2d ed.,
4 vols., 1873-76; 3d ed., revised by R. P. Spiers and R. Kerr, 5 vols.,
1891-93.
J. Durm's Handbuch der Architektur, Teil II: Die Baustile, 7 vols.
in 12, 1881 to date.
A. Choisy's Histoire de I' architecture, 2 vols., 1899. (A study of the
history of constructive methods.)
For the monuments in their geographical setting see the guide-
books of Baedeker, Murray, etc For the history of the excavations,
etc., see A. Michaelis's A Century of Archaological Discoveries, 1908.
The best general guide to the literature of the subject is furnished
by the references in historical works such as those just named,
especially the Handbuch der Architektur. Mention may also be made
of the classified catalogues of special libraries or general libraries
having large collections on architecture, especially those of the
Royal Institute of British Architects, London, with supplement,
1898; the libraries of Manchester and Salford (by H. Guppy and G.
Vine), 1909; and the Boston Public Library, 2d ed., 1914. The
most complete collection of books on architecture is that of the
Avery Library of Columbia University, New York, of which an
alphabetical catalogue was published in 1895. Similar works for
Continental libraries, fuller on the work of their respective countries,
are E. Vinet's Catalogue de la bibliotheque de VEcole de Beaux-Arts,
Paris, 1873; C. v. Liitzow's Katalog der Blbliothek der Akademie der
bildenden Kunste in Wien, 1876; Dobbert and Grohmann's Katalog
der Bibliothek der Kgl. Akademie der Kunste zu Berlin, 1893.
INDEX
Note: The index covers references in the text and illustrations, the presence of an
illustration being indicated by a page reference in Italic type. All buildings are listed
alphabetically under the towns and cities -where they are located.
Abacus, 58, 60, 64, 67
Abadie, Paul, 495
Abbeville, 200, 296, 307, 309
Abbiate Grasso, 355
Abydos, temple of Seti I., 23
Abutment, in Egyptian architecture, 72;
in Mesopotamia, 25; in Roman archi-
tecture, 112; in Romanesque architect-
ure, 265 ff.; in Gothic architecture, 200,
291, 292
Academic architecture, in Italy, 402, 403,
407-410, 413; in Spain, 420-421, 422;
in France, 422, 423, 424-430, 431-432,
437; in England, 438-444, 448; in Ger-
many, 452; survivals of, 465; revival of,
487, 490, 491; in America, 536-540, 542-
545, 555
Academies, Vitruvian, 403; French, 424;
of architecture, 428; French, in Rome,
428
Acanthus, 67, 68, 94, 377
Acarnania, 73
Achaeans, 37
Achaemenian architecture, 32-36
Acroteria, 73
Adam, Robert, 462, 464
Adam style, in America, 558, 547, 550
Administrative buildings, 469-471, 498,
Adobe, 526, 527, 529, 530
Adyton, 76, 80
architecture, 37-42
, temple of Aphaia, 63, 80
ns, 51'
, 56
Africa, Roman architecture in, 143; Mo-
hammedan architecture in, 573
Agade, 26
Agorae, 87
Agra, Taj Mahal, 578, 579
Agrigentum, see Akragas
Aigues-Mortes, 324, 325
Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's Chapel,
189, 190, 196, 197, 212, 221
Akragas, 52; temples at, 80; temple of
Zeus, 70, 71, 86
Akthamar, 204
Alas, 138
Albany, 532
Alberti, Leon Battista, 351-352, 366, 374,
376, 377, 378, 403
Alcibiades, 94
Alcobaza, 314
Alessi, Galeazzo, 409-410, 419
Alexander the Great, 33, 56
Alexandria, 56-57; Pharos, 57; Serapeion,
Allees, 434, 446
Altars, 9, 75, 86, 165
Alternate system in Lombard Romanesque,
228; in Norman Romanesque, 256
Amalienburg, 452
Amateurs, 422-423, 536, 542
Ambones, 165
Ambulatories, 221, 293
Ameiihotep III., 21
American architecture, 524-571
Amiens, cathedral, 276, 280, 281, 283, 284,
287, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 299;
Saint John's Chapel, 307
Ammanati, Bartolomeo, 416, 418
Amon, temple at Karnak, 19, 20, 21; tem-
ple at Luxor, 21
Amphiprostyle temple, 76
Amphitheaters, 104, 127-128, 144
Anatolia, medieval architecture of, 171,
176-177
Ancy-le-France, chateau, 382
Ancyra, St. Clement's, 177
Andalusia, Gothic architecture of, 315
Andalusia, Pennsylvania, 549
Anet, Palace chapel, 384, 386; Mausoleum
chapel, 386
Angkor Thorn, 583
Angkor Wat, 583
Angouleme, 227, 252
Anselm, 256
Antae, 42, 71, 72, 76
Anthemion, 83
Anthemius of Tralles, 188
Antioch, 56, 69
Antiochus IV., 69
Antoninus Pius, 114
Aosta, 143
Apartment houses, 435
Apodyterium, 129
Apollodorus, 120
Appius Claudius, 108
Apse, 148, 292, 293, 294, 378
Apsidal chapels, 292
Aqueducts, 104, 108, 131-132
Aquitaine, Romanesque architecture in,
251 ff.; Byzantine influence in, 202,
251
Arabesques, 377, 380, 387, 389
Arch, types of, 4; in Egyptian architecture,
6o6
INDEX
12, 23; in Mesopotamia, 25; in Greek
architecture, 57, 73; in Roman archi-
tecture, 104, 107, 108-109, 115, 146, 747;
in early Christian architecture, 163; in
Romanesque, 220, 240, 260; in Gothic,
263, 288; in Renaissance architecture,
376
Arch, commemorative, 104, 122, 133-134;
imitation of, 35 1, 352, 438, 464, 466;
horseshoe, 264, 579; ogee, 574; pointed,
in Romanesque architecture, 240, 260;
in Gothic architecture, 263, 288; pointed,
in India, 586; pointed, in Mohammedan
architecture, 574; triumphal, see Arch,
commemorative
Arch order, in Roman architecture, no-
112, 122, 125, 127, 146; in Renaissance
architecture, 349, 351, 357, 366, 368, 370,
372, 376, 379; in America, 538, 539
Archeology, 460, 461-462
Architect, status in Egypt, 24; in Meso-
potamia, 32; in Greece, 50; in Rome,
109; in the Renaissance, 345-346
Architecture, elements of, 1-7
Architrave, Ionic, 65, 73
Archivolt, 146
Argos. 37
Aries, amphitheater, 128, 152, 247; St.
Trophime, 248, 249
Arlington, 549
Armenia, medieval architecture of, 195 ff.,
203 ff.
Arris, 58
Art nouveau, 512, 514
Arta, St. Basil's, 206, 215
Artaxerxes III., 35
Artois, Gothic architecture in, 284
Arts and Crafts Exhibition, 513
Ashmont, All Saint's, 559
Ashur, 27
Ashurbanipal, 28, 30
Asia Minor, Greek architecture in, 55-56,
58, 95; Roman conquest of, 109; see also
Anatolia; Ionia
Aspendos, theater, 126
Assisi, S. Francesco, 319
Assyria, 25, 27-30
Asylums, 501, 550
Athens, 50, 52-54. 55, 56, 58; Acropolis, 81,
97-98; Antiquities of Athens, 462;
Erechtheum, 54, 69, 71, 78, 83-84, 85;
imitation of, 474; Little Metropolis, 189,
i go, 200; Monument of Lysicrates, 69,
95; imitation of, 465, 546; Odeion of
Herodes Atticus, 92, 152; Odeion of
Pericles, 91; Parthenon, 53, 54, 61, 78,
of Athena Nike, 54, 70, 77, 78, 83, 84;
temple of Olympian Zeus, 69; theater
of Dionysus, 91; "Theseum," 80, 82;
• imitation of, 469, 549; Tower of the
Winds, imitation of, 474
Athens, Ga., Hill house, 549
Atlantes, 69
Atrium, in Roman architecture, 107, 112,
137, 138; in early Christian architecture,
165
Attic base, 63, 144
Attics, 408, 430, 435
Attwood, C. B., 556
Augsburg, Rathaus, 450
Augusta Praetoria, 143
Augustus, 113, 127, 136, 141
Austria, Gothic architecture in, 321
Autun, 254
Auvergne, Romanesque architecture in,
249^.
Auxerre, 267
Avila, fortifications, 268, 269, 323
Axial systems, 2, 105, 416, 436
Aztec architecture, 525-526
Baalbek, 145-146, 154, 462
Babylon, 26, 27, 30; "Hanging Gardens,"
30
Babylonian architecture, 26, 30-32
Bagdad, caliphate of, 574
Bagnaia, Villa Lante, 416, 417
Bahr, Georg, 451
Balbus, 126
Balconies, in Mohammedan architecture,
576, 578
Ballu, Theodore, 484, 503
Baltimore, cathedral, 550, 551; St. Mary's,
551; Washington Monument, 546
Balusters, 376
Balustrades, 408
Bamberg, 308, 311
Banks, 472, 491, 498, 542, 545, 546
Barcelona, 315
"Baronial style," 479
Baroque architecture, xxii, 361, 389, 392; in
Italy, 402, 403-407, 410-413; in Spain,
421-422; in France, 422, 423-424, 437;
in England, 438, 448; in Germany, 450-
451; in America, 528, 536, 537, 538;
revival of, 487, 489, 490, 491, 494,
495
Barry, Sir Charles, 474, 480,, 487
Base, 3; see also Attic base
Basil I., 183, 208
Basement, in Renaissance architecture,
360, 361; in Post-Renaissance architect-
ure, 426, 427, 430, 432, 434, 444; in
American architecture, 540, 542, 544
Basilican type of building, 163; in the
Renaissance, 348, 364-366; in post-
Renaissance architecture, 435, 442, 447;
in modern architecture, 475; in America,
529, 538
Basilicas, Roman, 104, 112, 120, 122, 141,
148, 154; Byzantine, domed, 163 ff; 177,
193
Bassae, temple of Apollo, 84, 118
Bath, England, 448
Baths, Greek, 92; Roman, 128-129; mod-
ern, 498; see also Thermae
"Battle of the styles," 482
Battlements, 29, 478
Bay windows, 392, 393, 394
Bayreuth, Wagner theater, 507
Beads, 72
Beak-molding, 72
Beaulieu-les-Loches, 267
Beauvais, Basse-CEuvre, 223; cathedral,
293; south transept, 308; St. Etienne,
229, 262, 263
Becerra, Francisco, 528
Beckford, William, 478
Beffroi, in medieval Flanders, 329
Behrens, Peter, 515, 516
Belcher, John, 491
Belgium, modern architecture in, 496, 514
Bell, Ingress, 492
INDEX
607
Bema, 1 65
Beni Hasan, tomb, 17, 22
Bentley, J. P., 492
Berlin, Brandenburg Gate, 466; cathedral,
489; Gothic project, 483; Old Museum,
474; Reichstag, 489; Royal Opera, 452,
473; Royal Palace, 451; Royal Theater,
469, 470, 473, 474; towers of the Gen-
darmenmarkt, 452; turbine factory, 516;
Werderkirche, 483; Wertheim store, 510,
515
Bernini, G. L., 411-412, 418, 426-427
Berry Hill, 549
Bexley Heath, Red House, 505
Biddle, Nicholas, 546, 549
Billet mold, 255, 256
Biltmore, 552
Bin-bir-Kilisse, 176, 17?
Birmingham, law courts, 492; Town Hall,
542
Blenheim Palace, 442, 443, 444
Blodget, Samuel, 542
Blois, chateau, 380, 381; Wing of Gaston
d'Orleans, 425
Boccador, 382
Bodley, G. F., 492
Boileau, L. A., 512
Boisseree, S., 483
Bologna, St. Francis, 319, 34O
Bordeaux, Grand Theatre, 464, 473
Boro Budur, 582
Borromini, Francesco, 412
Bosra, 760, 162, 174
Boston, 534; Beacon column, 544; Faneuil
Hall, 539; Franklin Crescent, 549; Pub-
lic Library, 554, 555; St. Paul's, 550;
State House, 543, 544; Trinity Church,
552, 553
Bouleuterion, see Council-house
Bourges, Maison de Jacques Coeur, 331, 332
Bournazel, chateau, 382
Brackets, in Far Eastern architecture, 580,
584, 586
Braisne, St. Yved, 309.
Bramante, Donato, 354-355, 358-361, 366,
374- 375-376, 377, 378, 379
Brescia, Palazzo Communale, 370
Brick, in Mesopotamia, 25; in Roman
architecture, 149-150; in post-Renais-
sance architecture, 423, 436, 440, 446;
in modern architecture, 482, 505; in
America, 532, 533, 540, 56o, 562
Brick, enameled, 32, 33
Brick, sun-dried, in Egypt, 21; in Meso-
potamia, 25; in ^Egean architecture, 40
Bridges, Greek, 73; Roman, 104, 108, 131-
132; medieval, 335 ff.; modern, 503
Brittany, Gothic architecture in, 285
Broadleys, 513
Bronze age, 9-10
Brosse, Salomon de, 424
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 344, 347-35O, 364-
365, 366
Brussels, Palais de Justice, 496, 497; Town
Hall, 330, 338
Buffalo, Guaranty (Prudential) Building,
561, 563
Bulfmch, Charles, 544- 549
Bullant, Jean, 381, 382, 383, 423
Bulls, winged, 32, 33, 36
Burgos, 314, 315
Burgundy, Romanesque architecture in,
253ff.; Gothic architecture in, 285
Burklein, 488
Burlington, Lord, 443, 462
Burnham, D. H., 558
Butterfield, William, 482
Buttress, in Roman architecture, 131; in
Romanesque architecture, 265 ff.; in
Gothic architecture, 290, 291, 392
Byzantium architecture, 183-216; influence
of, 213, 250, 574; revival of, 492, 495,
"Byzantine Renaissance," 205 ff.
Byzantine, 115; see also Constantinople
Caen, Abbaye-aux-Dames (La Trinite),
229, 257, 258, 266
Caen, Abbaye-aux-Hommes (St. Etienne).
227, 229, 256, 257, 258, 266, 20o, 296
Cahors, Pont Valentre, 336
Cairo, Mosque of Amru, 574, 575, 576;
Mosque of Sultan Hassan, 576
Calah, 27
Caldarium, 129, 130
California, 529-530
Caligula, 139
Callimachus, 68
Camarsac, 329
Cambodia, architecture in, 580, 583
Cambridge, colleges, 485; Trinity College
Library, 440
Campania, 127
Campaniform capital, 22
Campanili, 414
Campbell, Colin, 443
Canada, French architecture in, 530, 531
Canals, 434, 446
Candelabra, 377, 387
Canopus, 139
Canterbury, 303, 304
Capilla Mayor, 313
Capitals, Doric, 58-60, 62-64, &3; Ionic,
64-66; Corinthian, 67-69; Byzantine,
735, i86ff.; Romanesque, 268; Gothic,
297
Caprarola, castle, 409
Caracalla, 114, 130
.Carcassonne, La Cite, 325
Caria, 55
Carolina, 533
Carolingian architecture, 220 ff.; ornament,
213
Carthaginian wars, 51, 55
Cartouches, 390, 392, 411, 423, 426, 430,
438
Caryatids, 69
Casamari, 317
Cascades, 434
Casements, 533
Caserta, palace, 414
Casinos, 416
"Castellated style," 478
Castle Howard, 442
Castles, 325 ff.
Catharine II., 466
Cathedra, 165
Cato the Censor, 112-113
Caylus, Comte de, 462
Cefalfi, 23Q, 240
Ceilings, in Greek architecture, 73, 82;
coffered, 386
Cella, 76
Centering, 32, 150, 185
Central type of building, 163; in Rome,
*70 ff-,' in Syria, 173; in Anatolia, 176;
6o8
INDEX
in the Renaissance, 350, 353, 355, 359,
366-368, 386; in post-Renaissance ar-
chitecture, 405, 409. 414. 435; in Amer-
ica. 529
Certosa, see Pavia
Chaldsea, 26
Chalgrin, J. P., 466, 474. 5OO
Chambers, Sir William, 478
Chambery, 307
Chambord, chateau, 380
Champagne, Gothic architecture in, 285
Chancel, 165
Chandi Mendoot, 582
Chandler, Richard, 462
Chantilly, hamlet, 483
Chapel of the Virgin, in French Gothic, 229
Chaqqua, basilica, 154
Charles V. of Spain, 388
Charles VIII. of France, 380
Charleston, Exchange, 54°; Miles Brewton
house, 538; St. Michael's, 538; St.
Philip's, 538
Charleval, chateau, 384, 423
Charlottes ville. University of Virginia, 545,
548-549. 558
Chartres, cathedral, 292, 295, 296, 298,
299. 314
Chateaux, 384, 432-434
Cheops, 16; see also Khufu
Chephren, 16
Chevet, 292, 293, 294
Chicago, Exposition, 556, 557, 564-565;
Midway Gardens, 565; office buildings,
560
Chichen Itza, 524
Chimney pieces, 423, 478, 538; see also Fire-
places
Chimneys, 382, 394, 479, 533, 534
China, Great Wall, 586
Chinese architecture, 584-586; influence of,
476, 487, 580, 586
Chios, Nea Moni, 201
Christianity, adoption of, 115
Christian-Roman, 164-168
Churches, in the Middle Ages, 159; Renais-
sance, 345, 364-368, 384-385; post-
Renaissance, 409, 414-415, 435, 447-448;
modern, 474-475, 484-485, 490, 492,
494-495; American, colonial, 533, 534~
535, 536, 538; American, modern, 550,
551,552
Churriguera, Jose", 421
Churrigueresque, 421-422
Ciborium, 165
Circulation, elements of, 2
Circuses, 104, 128; in town planning, 448
Cistercian building, influence in Italy, 285,
317
Cisterns, in Alexandria, 176; in Constan-
tinople, 207 ff.
Civil War, American, 552
Clapboards, 534
Classic architecture, 49-158; influence of,
154. 161. 344-345, 461-462
Classicism, 444, 461-476; in Spanish
America, 528, 530; in the United States,
541-550
Clerestory, in Egyptian architecture, 23; in
Roman architecture, 123, 124, 131, 148;
in medieval architecture, 165
C16risseau, C. L., 462, 466
Clermont-Ferrand, Notre Dame-du-Port.
249, 250, 259
Clifford Chambers, 446
Cloister vault, 378
Cloisters, 530
Cluny, 227, 229, 253
Cochin, C. N., 462
Cockerell, C. R., 490
Coffers, 149, 150
Cologne, cathedral, 271$, 309, 315; Holy
Apostles, 243, 247; St. Mary of the
Capitol, 242, 244
Colonial architecture, 527-540; revival of.
554- 556, 560
Colossal order, 537, 542, 547, 548
Columbia, capitol, 542
Columns, 3; Egyptian, 13, 22-23; Meso-
potamian, 32; Persian, 36; ^Egean, 41-
42; Greek, 49
Columns, coupled, 355, 419. 427, 442, 451;
engaged, 71, 103, 355- 357, 361, 376, 539;
rostral, 133; rusticated, 363, 386, 401,
410, 424; triumphal, 114, 122, 133, 466,
544, 546; twisted, 411, 412, 448; see also
Orders
Commercial buildings, 472
Como, S. Abondio, 233
Compie'gne, palace, 432
Composite order, 114, 145, 374
Compostela, Santiago, 263, 264
Compton Wynyates, 332
Concert-halls, 474
Concrete, 149, ISO, 524, 526; reinforced,
504-505
Connecticut, colonial architecture, 534
Conservatories, 503-504 .
Consoles, in Greek architecture, 67; in
Roman architecture, 144, 145-146; in
Renaissance architecture, 361, 374; in
post-Renaissance architecture, 403, 410,
412, 419, 423, 435, 437, 447, 448; in
American architecture, 536
Constantia, 137
Constantine, 124, 137* 183
Constantinople, 115. 205, 574- 5?6; Baths
of Zeuxis, 207; Bin-bir-Direk cistern,
186, 208; Blachernae, 208; Cenourgion,
208; Cisterna Maxima, 207; Cisterna
Pulcheria, 207 ff.; fortifications of Man-
uel Comnenus, 210; Gul-djami (St.
Theodosius), 197; Holy Apostles, 193,
194, 195, 197, 201; Hagia Sophia, 187,
188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193; imitation
of, 574, 576; Hodja-Moustapha-pasha
(St. Andrew's), 195; Kalender-hane-
djami (the Diaconessa?) , 195; Kilisse-
djami, 189, 190; La Nea ("new church"
of Basil I.), 189, 198; mosque of Sulei-
man, 576; palace of Constantine, 207;
Pantocrator, 199; Pentacoubouclon, 208;
Sacred Palace, 208, 209; Chrysotriclin-
ium, 210; St. Irene, 188; SS. Sergius and
Bacchus, 187, 188; Stoudion basilica,
188; Tekfour-Serai, 209
Construction, in Egyptian architecture, 23-
24; in Roman architecture, 149-150; in
Byzantine architecture, 185; in Roman-
esque architecture, 266
Corbeled arch, 4; in Egypt, 23; in ^gean
architecture, 37, 40-41; in Greek archi-
tecture, 731 in Mexico, 524; in India,
580
Cordova, great mosque, 574- 575
Corinth, 108; temple, 79. 82
Corinthian order, Greek, 49, 56, 57. 67-69,
INDEX
609
84, 85; Roman, 100, 144-146; in the
Renaissance, 374, 386
Cornice, 5; Egyptian, 23; Doric, 58;
Ionic, 64-65
Coro, 313
Corridors, 444
Cortona, Domenico da, 382
Coucy, 278, 326, 327
Council-house, Greek, 57, 74, 89
Counter-Reformation, 401, 414
Cour d'honneur, 464
Courts, i; in Egypt, 12, 23; in Meso-
potamia, 25; in ^Jgean architecture, 38-
39; in Renaissance architecture, 359,
361, 368, 384, 392; in post-Renaissance
architecture, 415-416, 419, 424, 433, 434,
444
Courts, peristylar, 74, 93J in Egyptian
architecture, 12; in Greek architecture,
74; in Roman architecture, 120, 138; in
Mohammedan architecture, 574, 578
Craftsmanship, 481, 512, 532-533, 540-54*
Cram, R. A., 559
Creil, 288
Crescents, 448, 549
Crete, ^Egean architecture, 37-42; Gothic
architecture, 286
Cromlechs, 9
Cronaca, 352-353
Ctesiphon, palace, 573
Subiculce, 138
upolas, 442, 532, 536, 539
Curia, 112
Curvilinear Gothic in England, 284, 304.$".,
306
Cusping, 579
Cuvillies, Francois de, 452
Cyclopean masonry, 40
Cyma, 71, 72, 73
Cyprus, Gothic architecture in, 286
Cyrus, 30, 32, 33; tomb of, 36
Dahshur, pyramid at, 16
Dais, 392
Damascus, caliphate of, 574; Great Mosque,
574
Dance, George, 472, 478
Daouleh, 176
Daphni, 201
Darius, palace and hall of, 34, 35; tomb
of, 35
Darmstadt, Exposition of 1901, 515-516
Daulis, the Phokikon, 89
Daumet, Honore, 495
Dawkins, 462
De Caumont, Arcisse de, 484
Decorated Gothic in England, 284, 304^".,
Dehr-Ahsy, 177
Delia Porta, Giacomo, 411
Delorme, see L'Orme
Delos, 52, 55, 95; House of the Trident,
93, 94
Delphi, 52, 56; circular temple, 85;
precinct of Apollo, 95, g6; monuments,
95; treasuries, 86
Dentils, 65-67, 145
Der-el-Bahri, mortuary chapel of Hatshep-
sut, 18, 22, 24
Desgodetz, Antoine, 462
Diaconicon, 165, 221
Didyma, temple of Apollo, 55, 57, 66, 78, 85,
118
Diminution of columns, 3, 58
Diocletian, 114, 115, 142
Dog-tooth molding, 256
Dolmens, 9
Dome, in Assyria, 31; in Roman architect-
ure, 118, 148; in Anatolia, 163, 177-
179; in Byzantine architecture, 191; in
Renaissance architecture, 347-348, 358,
366, 378-379; in post-Renaissance period,
405-406, 409, 412, 413, 421, 435, 440-
442, 447, 451, 452; in modern architect-
ure, 464, 471, 472, 475, 495; in American
architecture, 542, 543, 545, 550, 556; in
Spanish colonial architecture, 529; in
Sassanian architecture, 572-573; in
Mohammedan architecture, 574, 575-
576, 579
Domestic architecture, Egyptian, 21;
Babylonian, 26; Greek, 74, 92-94;
Etruscan, 107; Roman, 112, 137-143;
Byzantine, 211 ff.; Gothic, 328, 333;
Renaissance, 368-370, 384, 390, 392-394;
post-Renaissance, 415-416, 432-435, 444-
446; modern, 475-476, 484-485, 491,
492, 495; American, colonial, 533, 534,
536, 538; post-colonial, 547; classical,
547-55O; modern, 556, 565
Domitian, 134, 137, 141
Doors, Greek, 73; Roman, 144
Dorians, 37, 51, 74
Doric order, Greek, 42, 49, 51, 52, 56,
58-64, 59, 61, 63, 70, 72, 74- 79-84. 466,
546; Roman, 107-108, 109, 144; in the
Renaissance, 374
Dormers, 387, 394. 535
Dresden, 488; Court Theater, 474, 488,
489; Frauenkirche, 451; Zwinger, 450,
451
Drops, 534
Driibeck, 244
Drum, 358, 379, 406, 435, 442
Duban, J. F., 493
Dublin, Four Courts, 471; Parliament
House, 471
Due, J. L., 493, 504
Du Cerceau, J. A., 381, 382, 383, 423
Duilius, 133
Du Perac, Etienne, 423
Durham, 22Q, 260, 267, 301
Dur-Sharrukin, 27, 28; palace of Sargon,
27, 28, 29-30
Dutch colonial architecture, 531-532
Earl's Barton, 224
Early English style of Gothic, 284, 303^".
Ears, 73, 374- 4*9, 437, 448
Eastern architecture, 572-588
Eaton Hall, 478, 470
Eaves, 108, 565
Ecclesiastical architecture, importance in
medieval art, 159; in Byzantine art, 183;
in Romanesque art, 219; in Gothic art,
219 ff.
Echinus, 58, 60, 63-64
Eclecticism, 460, 461, 485-499; in America,
552-560
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, see Paris
Ecouen, chateau, 380, 384
Edinburgh, high school, 467, 470; National
Monument, 469
Egg and dart, 64, 72, 144, 151
Egypt, Assyrian conquest, 15, 28; Persian
conquest, 33; Roman architecture in,
152; early Christian architecture in, 174-
6 ID
INDEX
176; medieval architecture of, Tj4 ff.;
Mohammedan architecture in, 573-574.
575-576, 579
Egyptian architecture. 11-24; influence of,
82, 84. 467. 48?
"Egyptian Hall," 443
Eisenach, the Wart burg, 268
Elephantine, 21, 23
Eleusis, Hall of Mysteries, 86
Elevators, 561
Elizabeth, 391
Elizabethan houses, 392-394, 485, 534
Ellis, Harvey, 564
Elmes, H. L., 474
Engineering, Roman, 104
England, pre-Romanesque architecture in,
2 13 JT.; Romanesque architecture in, 259;
Gothic architecture in, 285, 299 j^.,"
medieval domestic architecture in, 332;
Renaissance architecture, 346, 391-394;
post-Renaissance architecture, 402, 438-
450; Functionalism, 504, 505, 513-515;
Romanticism, 477-483; classicism in, 464,
465, 467, 469; eclecticism, 486-487, 490-
493
English colonial architecture, 532-540
Ensemble, in Greek architecture, 95; in
Roman architecture, 143; in Byzantine
architecture, 210 ff.; in the Romanesque
period, 268; in the Gothic period, 335
Entablature, Doric, 60, \6i; Ionic, 65-67,
66
Entasis, 58
Ephesus, temple of Artemis, 52, 55, 79, 85;
theater, 90, 91
Ephrata, 535
Epidaurus, 55; gymnasium, 92; Tholos,
67, 68, 69, 85, 145
Epirus, 56
Ernst Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, 515
Esarhaddon, 27
Escurial, 420, 421
Etruscan architecture, 106-108
Etschmiadzin, 189, 195, 106
European type of plan, 10, 39; see also
Greek type of plan
Exchanges, 472, 498
Exedrae, 95, 130, 131, 135
Expositions, 498, 501
Expression in architecture, 6; of character,
499, 502, 506-509; of culture, 499, 500-
501,502,509-516; 563-565; of structure,
279, 281, 500, 502-506, 511-512, 556,
560-563
Ezra, 174, 181
Facades, development of in Romanescue
architecture, 266 ff.; in French Gothic,
290, 296; in English Gothic, 301 ff.
Factories, 501, 516
Faience, 579
Fan vault in English Gothic, 305 ff.
Far East, architecture in, 580-586
Fergusson, James, 503
Ferro-concrete, 504-505
Ferstel, Heinrich von, 483, 489
Fiesole, Badia, 365
Fillets, 72
Fireplaces, 534; see also Chimneypieces
Fireproof construction, 505, 506; 561-562
Fisher von Erlach, J. B., 451, 486
Flamboyant Gothic, 284, 306 ff.; influence
of, 337
Flanders, Gothic secular architecture in,
329 ff.; Renaissance in, 390-391
Flavian emperors, 114, 146
Fleche, in Gothic architecture, 297
Florence, 346, 347 ff., 412 ; Annunziata, 351 ',
Badia, tomb, 373; Baptistry, 238, 270,
348, 374; Bargello, 334, 340; cathedral,
276, 280, 319, 320, 340, 347, 348, 378;
Giotto's campanile, 320, 340; Laurentian.
Library, 403-405, 419; Loggia dei Lanzi,
347; Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, 350, 351,
372, 373\ Palazzo Pandolfini, 361, 372,
374, 376, 375; Palazzo Pitti, 350, 371,
372; cornice, 373; court, 416; imitation
of, 424, 487; Palazzo Rucellai, 351, 352;
Palazzo Strozzi, details, 371, 373;
Palazzo Vecchio, 332, 333; Pazzi Chapel,
349, 378; Ponte Santa Trinita, 418;
S. Francesco al Monte, 353; S. Lorenzo,
348, 349-350, 365; old sacristy, 350;
fagade, 316; Medici chapel, 361, 363,
403; fagade, 403; Sta. Maria degli
Angeli, 350, 366, 367; S. Miniato al
Monte, 238, 270, 347; Sto. Spirito, 365;
sacristy, 353, 367; Spedale degli Inno-
centi, 348-349, 370; Uffizi, 409; Villa
Medicea, 369
Florida, 529
Flutes, 58, 65
Flying buttress, in Normandy, 258 ff.;
in Gothic architecture, 290, 291, 292;
in St. Paul's, London, 442
Fontaine, P. L., 467
Fontainebleau, 423; Gallery of Henry II.,
384
Fonthill Abbey, 478
Fora civilia, 120
Fore-courts, 384, 434
Forms for concrete, 505^
Fortification, see Military architecture
Fortified towns, in Romanesque period,
268; in Gothic period, 323^".
Forum, 104
Fossanova, 317
Fountains, 416, 434, 446, 578
Fourth crusade, 205
Foyers, 473, 474, 507
France, Roman architecture in, 152;
Romanesque architecture in, 247 ff.;
Gothic architecture in, 286 ff., 306 ff.;
Gothic secular architecture in, 330^".;
Renaissance architecture in, 346, 379-387 ;
post-Renaissance architecture in, 402,
422, 438; classicism in, 464, 465-467, 469;
Romanticism in, 483-484; eclecticism in,
487, 493-494; functic-ialism in, 500, 503,
504, 507, 514-515
Francis I., 380-381
Frankfort, Salvatorskapelle, 221
Freart de Chambray, Roland, 425
Frederick the Great, 452, 473; proposed
monument to, 469, 542
"Free Classic," 491
Freiburg, 309, 313, 314
French colonial architecture, 530-531
"French order," 386
Fresco, in late Byzantine architecture, 206;
in Italian Gothic architecture, 318
Fret, 62, 72
Friedrich IV., 390
Frieze, Corinthian, 67; Doric, 58, 60-62,
108; Ionic, 65-67, 84-85; pulvinated,
419
INDEX
611
Frigidarium, 129, 130
Functionalism, 461, 499-516; in America,
560-565
Gable roof, 39, 73, 78
Gables, 106, 387, 394, 479, 532, 536
Gabriel, J. A., 431-432
Gaillon, chateau, 380
Galilei, Alessandro, 413
Galleries, 368, 384, 393. 414, 447
Gandon, James, 471
Gardens, Renaissance, 370; post-Renais-
sance, in Italy, 411, 414, 416; in France,
43O, 434; in England, 446-447; in
America, 556; Mohammedan, 579;
Chinese, 586
Gargoyles, 291 f.
Gamier, Charles, 494, 507
Gartner, Friedrich von, 483, 487, 488
Gate-houses, 384, 392, 393
Gates, Roman, 134-135
Gau, F. C., 484
Gaza, 322
Genoa, baroque architecture in, 412; pal-
aces, 409, 419; university, 415
Geoffrey de Noyers, 303
Geometric Gothic in England, 304
Georgia, medieval architecture of, 203 ff.
German colonial architecture, 535
Germany, Roman architecture in, 105, 151-
152; Romanesque architecture in, 242 ff.;
Gothic architecture in, 285, 308 ff.;
Renaissance architecture in, 346, 388-
390; post-Renaissance architecture in,
402, 450-452; classicism in, 467, 468;
Romanticism in, 483; electicism in, 486,
487, 488-490; functionalism in, 514-516
Germigny-les-Pres, 196, 197, 212, 214, 221
Gerona, 315, 340
Gernrode, 244, 271
Ghent, Town Hall, 330, 338
Gibbons, Grinling, 448
Gibbs, James, 447-448; influence of 537,538
Gilly, David, 469
Ginain, Paul, 494
Giocondo, Fra, 370
Girault, Charles, 495
Girgenti, see Akragas
Gizeh, pyramids, n, 13, 14, 16-17; "Tem-
ple of the Sphinx," 22
Glass, use of in modern architecture, 502,
503-504, 561-563
Gloucester, cathedral, 306, 307, 339
Gmiind, the Holy Cross, 311, 339
Godefroi, Maximilian, 551
Goethe, 483, 506
Gontard, Karl von,
452
Goodhue, B. G., 559
Gorlitz, SS. Peter and Pau!, 312, 339
Gothic architecture, 262 ff., 275-343; later
opinion of, 275; priority in, 276; sur-
vivals of, in England, 477; in America,
532-534
Gothic revival, 477-485; in America, 550-
552, 559-560
Goths, 115
Goujon, Jean, 381, 382, 383
Gournia, 39
Government buildings, 469-472, 498, 541,
542-545, 552, 558
Graeco-Roman period, 57-58, 151, 152
Granada, Alhambra, 577, 579; palace of
Charles V., 388, 389
Grave monuments, see Tombs
Greece, ^Egean architecture in, 37-42;
Persian wars, 51, 52; Macedonian con-
quest, 51, 55; Roman conquest, 103, 106,
109
Greek architecture, 49-102; influence of,
58, 103-104, 572
Greek cross plan, 187, 197, 352, 366, 368,
529, 550
Greek revival, 464, 467-469, 488, 489; in
America, 545-547, 549, 558
Greek type of plan, 122, 124, 148
Greenwich, King Charles's block, 439;
Queen's House, 344, 439
Gregory of Nysa, description of a Martyr-
ium, 176
Gresham, Sir Thomas, 392
Groined vaults, in Roman architecture, 128,
131, 148, 149, 150; in medieval archi-
tecture, 226; in Renaissance architecture,
378,414
Guanni, Guarino, 412
Gudea, building at Lagash, 26
Guilbert, A. D., 495
Guild halls, in Gothic Flanders, 329 ff.
Guimard, Hector, 514
Guttae, 59
Gymnasia, 57, 92
Gynacaea, in early Christian architecture,
165
Hadrian, 114, 118, 136, 146
Haidra, 210, 211
Half-timber, 534
Halicarnassus, 55; Mausoleum, 55, 95
Hall, 534; in English house, 392
Halle, St. Mary, 312
Hallenkirchen in German Gothic, 309 ff.
Hallet, Stephen, 542-544
Hamilton, Thomas, 469
Hampton Court, 391, 393, 444
Hankar, Paul, 513, 514
Hardwick, Philip, 509
Harem, 578
Harlech, 326
Harrison, Peter, 539-540
", 534; Eaton He
Hatfield House, 394
Hartford, 534; Eaton House, 534
Hathor-head columns, 22
Hatshepsut, 18
Hauran, 154
Haviland, John, 550
Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 442
Heidelberg, chateau, 389, 3QO, 450
Hellenistic period, 51, 56-57
Henry II., of France, 381, 384
Henry IV., of France, 423-424, 436
Henry VIII., of England, 391
Henry the Fowler, 242
Herculaneum, 462
Herder, 476, 500
Hermogenes, 66, 144
Herms, 390, 410, 419, 423
Herrera, Juan de, 421
Hildesheim, St. Michael, 227, 243, 244, 271
Hingham, "Old Ship," 535
Hippodamus, 54-55, 98
Hippodromes, 92
Hip-roofs, 73, 584
Hoarcross, church, 494
Hoban, James, 542, 549
Hobleton, Flete Lodge, 493
Hoffman, Joseph, 515
6l2
INDEX
Hoffmann, Ludwig, 490
Holkham, 445
Holland, Renaissance in, 390
Holy Land, Gothic architecture in the,
286, 32 1 JT.
Horiuji, 586
Horta, Victor, 513, 514
Hotels, 498, 501
Hotels, French Renaissance, 384
House, see Domestic architecture
Housing, 98, 501
Houston. Rice Institute, 560
Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, 303
Hugo, Victor 484
Hunt, R. M., 552, 556
Hyksos, 13
Hypaethral temples, 78
Hypostyle hall, 20, 22, 23, 120
Iconoclastic controversy, 196
Iffley, 259, 260
Iktinos, 82, 84, 85, 144
lie de France, Romanesque architecture
of. 261 ff.; Gothic architecture of, 284,
286 ff.
Impost, 107, 146, 148
Inca architecture, 527
India, Hindu architecture, 580-582; in-
fluence of, 580, 582; Mohammedan ar-
chitecture in, 574, 579, 581-582
Interiors, 430, 432, 438, 439, 440; Empire,
467; colonial, 534, 538, 539; American,
classical, 549-550
Interlacing arcades, 239, 241, 256
Ionia, architecture in, 33, 51-52, 55, 56,
87
lonians, 51
Ionic angular capital, 144
Ionic base, 72
Ionic capital, origins of, 32, 65
Ionic order, Greek, 49, 51, 52, 56, 57, 64-67,
66, 70, 72, 79, 82-85; Roman, 109, 144
Ipswich, Whipple house, 534, 535
Irene, Empress, 200
Iron age, 10
Iron, use of in modern architecture, 501,
503-SOS, S6o; see also Steel
Isidorus of Miletus, 188
Isopata, 41
"Italian style," 487, 551
Italy, Greek architecture in, 51, 52; Roman
architecture of, 103-151; Romanesque
architecture of, 226 ff.; Gothic architect-
ure of, 285 ff.; medieval secular
architecture of, 332 ff.; Renaissance.
34.6-379; early Renaissance, 347, 358;
High Renaissance, 358-364; post-Re-
naissance architecture, 402, 403-419;
modern architecture in, 496-498
acobean houses, 392-394, 534
ahan, Shah, 579
ames I., 438
amestown, 533
apanese architecture, 580, 586
avan architecture, 580, 582; influence of,
58o, 583
Jean-de-Berry, 328
Jean-le-Loup, 279
Jefferson, Thomas, 538, 541-542, 544, 548,
550
Jerusalem, Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
173
esuits, 415, 450
umieges, 256, 257, 267
ustinian, 183, 191
ones, Inigo, 438-439, 444. 445, 447, 448
ulius II., 358, 418
ulius Caesar, 113, n8, 120, 127
uvara, Filippo, 413
Ka, 16
Kalat-Seman, St. Simeon Stylites, 160, 173,
174
Kallikrates, 82, 83, 84
Karnak, temples, 19, 20, 21
Kassites, 26, 27
Kearsley, John, 538
Kedleston, 468
Kent, William, 443
Kew, buildings at, 486-487, 491
Keystone, 107, 146
Khafre, 16
Khajuraho, Temple of Vishnu, 581
Khalb-Louzeh, 160, 173
Khammurabi, 26
Khan, 29
Khmer architecture, 580, 583
Khorsabad; see Dur-Sharrukin
Khufu, ii, 13, 16
Klenze, Leo von, 469, 474, 487, 488
Knossos, 37, 38, 39
Kodja-Kalessi, 160, 177
Label molding, 107
Labrouste, Theodore, 493, 503
Laconicum, 129
Lagash, 26
La Granja, palace, 422
Lake dwellings, 8-9
Lancet style of Gothic, 284, 303 Jf.
Landscape gardens, 434, 446-447, 475
Lanfranc, 256
Langres, 288, 338
Languedoc, Romanesque architecture of,
25off.
Lanternes des morts, 335
Lanterns, in Romanesque architecture, 267;
in French Gothic, 297; in English Gothic,
301; in Renaissance architecture, 348
Las Huelgas, 314, 340
Lassus, J. B. A., 484
Latin cross plan, 365, 550
Latrobe, B. H., 545-546, 550, 560
Lavra, the Catholicon, 201
Lean-to, 534
Le Brun, Charles, 430
Ledpux, C. N., 465
Legislative buildings, 471, 480, 541-543,
545, 546
Leipzig, Imperial courts, 490
Lemercier, Jacques, 424
Lemsa, 210
L'Enfant, P. C., 542
Lenoir, Alexandre, 484
Le Notre, Andre, 434
Leo X., 358
Leo the Isaurian, 196; cathedral, 314
Leon, S. Isidore, 263, 265
Leopold II., 496
Leroy, J. D., 462
Lescot, Pierre, 381, 382
Les Herbiers, chapel, 484
Le Vau, Louis, 426, 428, 433
Libraries, public, 498, 501, 503, 553, 554~
555
INDEX
613
Liernes, in English Gothic, 304^-; in
Flamboyant Gothic, 306
Lifts, 561
Light-wells, 39
Lima, cathedral, 528
Lincoln, cathedral, 304, 305
Lintels, 3; in Egypt, 15; in JEgean archi-
tecture, 40; in Renaissance architecture,
376, 386
Liverpool, St. George's Hall, 474. 475
Locri, temple, 77
Log-cabins, 527
Loges, 418, 507
Loggias, 361, 370, 387, 444. 45L 537,
538
Loire, chateaux of the, 380-381
Lombardi family, 355
Lombardy, Romanesque architecture in,
226 ff.\ early Renaissance in, 354-355.
London, Adelphi, 475; Admiralty, 471;
Bank of England, 468, 472; Burlington
House, 443; Co vent Garden, 448;
British Museum, 474; Crystal Palace,
504; Euston Station, 509; Exposition of
1851, 504; Foreign Office, 482; great fire,
447, 448; Houses of Parliament, 480,
481; Institute of Chartered Accountants,
491; Law Courts, 482-483; the Monu-
ment, 440; Museum of Natural History,
492, 505-506; Newgate Prison, 472, 47 3;
New Zealand Chambers, 4Q i; Regent's
Park, lodge, 491; Regent's Quadrant,
475; Royal Automobile Club, 491;
Royal Exchange, 392, 472; St. Bride's,
447; St. Martin-in-the-Fields', 447-448;
St. Mary-le-Bow, 447, 449; St. Mary-le-
Strand, 447; St. Pancras', 474; St. Paul's,
440, 441; St. Paul's (Old), 439; St. Paul's,
Covent Garden, 439, 447; St. Stephen's,
Walbrook, 447; Somerset House, 444,
471; the Tower, St. John's Chapel,
260; Travelers' Club, 487; University of
London, 490; Westminster Abbey,
Henry VI I. 's Chapel, 306; Westminster
Cathedral, 492; Whitehall Palace, 439;
Wren's plan for, 448; York Stairs, 439
Long and short work, 224
Longhena, Baldassare, 412, 419
Longleat, 3Q2, 394
L'Orme, Philibert de, 381, 382, 383, 386,
T 42\
Lorsch, 223
Lotus bud column, 13, 22
Lotus flower column, 22
Louis XII., 380
Louis XIII., 423, 424
Louis XIV., 423, 425-430
Louis XV., 423, 430-431, 438
Louis XVI., 423, 431-432, 438, 464
Louis, Victor, 464
Louisiana, 531
Louvain, Town Hall, 330
Low Countries, Gothic architecture of, 286
Ludwig I., 469, 488
Lycia, architecture in, 33
Lyons, H6tel Dieu, 431; St. Nizier, 386
McComb, John, 544
Mclntire, Samuel, 547
McKim, C. F., 554-555, 556, 558, 560
McKim, Mead, and White, 554
Machuca, Pedro, 388
Maderna, Carlo, 411
Madrid, palace, 422
Maestri Comacini, 234
Magister Operarius, 219
Magna Graecia, 109
Magnesia, agora, 87, 88; Temple of
Artemis, 57, 67, 77
Mainz, cathedral, 227, 245, 246, 248
Major, Thomas, 462
Manassia, 189, 205, 206
Manchester, Assize Courts, 482; Town
Hall, 482
Mangin, Joseph, 544, 550
Manors, fortified, 329, 392
Mansart, Francois, 425-426
Mansart, Jules Hardouin, 428-430, 435
Mantinea, 55
Mantua, S. Andrea, 352; S. Sebastiano,
352, 366, 367
Marble, in Greek architecture, 49, 54. 7O,
72, 73, 82; in Roman architecture, 113,
151; in English Gothic, 304; in Renais-
sance architecture, 355; in post-Renais-
sance architecture, 411, 418, 436; in
Victorian Gothic, 482; in American
architecture, 542
Marble veneering, 118, 131, 149-151, 4*8
Marburg, St. Elizabeth, 278, 310, 3/5, 316
Marcellus, 126
Marcus Aurelius, 133 ,
Marie Antoinette, 434
Markets, 539, 54O
Marly, 434
Martyrium, described by Gregory of
Nysa, 176
Maryland, colonial architecture, 533, 537
Massachusetts, colonial architecture, 534
Mastaba, 16
Mausolea, 55, 95, 114
Mausolus, 95
Maxentius, 123, 124
Maximilian II., 488
Maya architecture, 524, 526
Mazarin, 327
Mchabbak, 173, 181
Meander, 62
Mecca, 573
Medes, 30
Medford, Royall house, 547
Medici, Catherine de, 424
Medieval architecture, 159-343", influence
of, 344-345
Medieval revival, 476-485
Medieval survivals, 47'?, 532 - 534, 536,
538
Medum, pyramid at, 16
Meeting-houses, 534~535
Megalithic works, 9
Megalopolis, 55; agora, 87; hall of the
Arcadians, 56, 89; theater, 91
Megaron, 39, 42, 74, 76, 80, 89, 92-93
M6hun-sur-Y6vre, 328
Meissonier, J. A., 430
Memphis, 13
Memphite period, 13, 1 6
Menai suspension bridge, 503
Menes, 12
Menhirs, 9
Menkure, pyramid of, 16
Mesopotamia preclassical architecture, 24-
32; later styles, 572-574
Messene, 55
Metopes, 58, 60, 63, 84
Mexico City, cathedral, 527, 528
614
INDEX
Mexico, pre-colonial architecture, 524-526;
Spanish colonial architecture, 527-529
Mezzanines, 369, 376, 435
Michelangelo, 358. 374- 377, 403-407, 419
Michelozzo, 35 1, 369
"Middle Kingdom" in Egypt, 13, 17, 20, 22
Milan, cathedral, 321, 322; Palazzo
Marino, 410; S. Ambrogio, 227, 228,
229, 230, 231, 232, 233. 2Qo; Sta. Maria
della Passione, 367; Sta. Maria near
San Satiro, 355
Miletus, bouleuterion, 89; see also Didyma
Military architecture, Mesopotamian, 25, 29;
Mycenaean, 37; Roman, 104; Byzantine,
210; Gothic, 323-328, 329; Chinese, 586
Milizia, Francesco, 506
Mills, Robert, 546, 5SO
Minarets, 576-578
Minoan period, 37-42
Mirhab, 574-575
Missions, 529-530
Mistra. Peribieptos, 206
Mitla, 526
Mitylene, theater, 125
Mnesicles, 87
Moat. 384
Modena, 234
Modern architecture, 460-523
Modernism, 499, 5O2, 505-516, 563-565
Modillions, 67, 145
Module, in Greek architecture, 50, 63, 64
Mohammedan architecture, 573-579
Moldings, Greek, • 71, 72; Roman, 144;
Gothic, 298; Renaissance, 372-374
Moliere, opinion of Gothic, 275
- Monaco, Trophy of Augustus, 133
Monasticon Anglicanum, 477
Monceaux, chateau, 382-384
Monier, Joseph, 504
Monreale, 227, 240, 241
Montacute, 393
Monte Carlo, Casino, 494
Monticello, 548
Montier-en-Der, 223
Monuments, commemorative, Greek, 95;
Roman, 104, 133
Moorish architecture, influence in South
Italian and Sicilian Romanesque, 230 ff.;
in Spanish Gothic, 3 13 jr.; in Spanish
architecture, 387, 527
Mora, J. G. de, 528
Morienval, 227, 262, 263, 267, 288
Moriscoes, 387
Morris, William, 500, 505
Mosques, 574-578
Mount Airy, 537
Mousmieh, Praetorium, 153, 154
Mschatta frieze (Berlin Museum), 174, 775,
181, 574
Miilhausen, Liebfrauenkirche, 312, 339
Mullioned windows, 394, 533
Munich, 483, 487, 488; cathedral, 312,
339; Glyptothek, 474; Konigsbau, 487;
Ministry of War, 487; Pinakothek, 487;
Royal Library, 487; Theatine Church,
451; Wagner theater, 507
Miinster, 309, 312
Mural painting, 94, 139
Museums, 474, 498
Mutules, 58, 60, 63
Mycenae, 37; palace, 39; "Gate of Lions,"
40, 41, 42; "Treasury of Atreus," 41-
42, 43
Mycenaean period, 37-42
Mycerinus, 16
Myra, St. Nicholas, 177
Mystery temples, 74, 75, 85-86
Naksh-i-Rustam, 35, 36
Nancy, 431, 436
Nantes, 307
Naos, 76
Napoleon, 466-467, 475
Napoleon III., 484
Narni, bridge, 132
Narthex, in early Christian architecture,
165
Nationalism, 219, 344, 476, 501, 517
Naturalism, 476
Naumburg, 309
Nauplia, Nea Mpni, 200
Near East, architecture in, 572-579
Nebuchadnezzar, 30
Nemea, Doric capital, 63
Neo-classicism in America, 556-559. 563
Neo-grec, 469, 490, 493
Neolithic period, 8
Nero, 113, 139, 141
Nesfield, Eden, 491
New Bedford, Bennett house, 549
New England, colonial architecture, 534-
535! post-colonial architecture, 547, 549
New Mexico, 529
New Orleans, 531; Cabildo, 531
Newport, casino, 554; "cottages," 552;
Market, 540; Redwood Library, 540
New York, 532; Astor house, 552; Century
Club, 555; City Hall, 544; City Hall
(old), 538; Columbia University, 558;
... Custom House (Sub-Treasury), 546;
Federal Hall, 542; Grant's Tomb, 558;
Knickerbocker (Columbia) Trust Com-
pany, 558; Lafayette Place, 549; Lenox
Library, 552; Madison Square Garden,
555; office buildings, 560-563; Mer-
chants' Exchange (National City Bank),
546; Pennsylvania Station, 558; St.
Patrick's, 551; St. Paul's Chapel, 538,
539; Stadt-Huis, 532; State Prison, 550;
Trinity Church, 55 1; Woolworth Build-
ing, 561, 562, 563; World Building, 561;
Vanderbilt houses, 552; Villard houses,
554
Niches, 131, 148, 359, 361, 452, 464
Nicholas V., 357
Nika sedition, 188
Nimes, amphitheater, 128; "Baths of
Diana," 152,247; " Maison Carree," 116;
imitation of, 542; Pont du Gard, 132,
247
Nineveh, 27, 28
Nippur, 26
Nordlingen, St. George, 310, 316
Normandy, Romanesque architecture in,
255 ff-, 256; Gothic architecture in, 285
Niirnberg, Peller house, 390, 391; St.
Lawrence, 311
Oak Park, Church of the Unity, 565
Obelisks, 21
Odeions, 74, 91-92
Odoacer, 115
Office buildings, 501
Olbrich, Joseph, 515
"Old Babylonian kingdom," 26
"Old Kingdom" in Egypt, 13, 16, 20
INDEX
615
Ollentaitambo, 527
Olmsted, F. L., 558
Olympia, 52, 55, 56, 95; bouleuterion, 89;
circular temple, 85; gymnasium, 92;
Metroon, 78; stadion, 92; temple of
Hera, 62, 79, 82; temple of Zeus, 77,
78, 80; treasuries, 86
Olympic games, 50
Openings, in Greek architecture, 73; in
Roman architecture, 144; in early
Christian architecture, 165; develop-
ment of, in Romanesque architecture,
267; in Gothic architecture, 2Q4, 295, 296;
in Italian domestic architecture, 333 ff;'
in Renaissance architecture, 374, 382
Openwork, in late Gothic architecture, 307;
in Spanish Gothic, 315
Opisthodomos, 76, 80
Opus alexandrinum, 165
Opus francigenum, 275, 308
Opus incertum, 150
Opus reticulatum, 150
Opus spicatum, 150
Orange, theater, 126; triumphal arch, 247
Orchestra, 89, 91, 124, 125, 126
Orchomenos, 41
Orcival, 250
Orders, 49, 57; in Rome, 104, 107, 109-112;
in the Renaissance, 374~376, 377
Orders, colossal, 375-376; in Italy, 405,
407, 408, 419; in France, 426, 427,432,
434; in England, 439. 442- 444
Orders, superposed, in Roman architecture,
127; in Renaissance architecture, 351,
355, 357, 368, 374- 388, 392; in post-
Renaissance architecture, 408, 414, 426
439, 442, 444, 447, 448; in American
architecture, 538
Orders, see also Columns
Organic architecture, definition of, 218 ff.
Oriental influence, in Roman architecture,
106, 115, 143 in western Europe, 179
Oriental type of plan, 12, 25, 37~39, 87,93,
114, 148
Orientation of medieval churches, 168
Orleans, Gaston d', 425
Ornament, Egyptian, 24; Mesopotamian,
32; Persian, 33; ^Egean, 42; Greek, 72-
73; Roman, 151; in Christian-Roman
architecture, 166; in Syrian architecture,
174; in early Byzantine architecture,
184; in later Byzantine architecture,
198, 206; in Carolingian architecture,
223; in Lombard Romanesque, 230;
in Tuscan Romanesque, 266; in Sicilian
Romanesque, 240 ff.; in French Gothic,
-97 ff-; in Spanish Gothic, 313; Renais-
.ance, 377; in Mohammedan architect-
re, 579; in Far Eastern architecture,
,80, 581
y.vieto, 320, 321
Ostia, 143; theater, 126
Otto Heinrich, 389
Oval house, 10
Overhang, 534
Ovolo, 72
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 442; colleges,
477, 485; St. Mary's, 448
Paestum, 52, 462, 493; "Basilica," 77;
great temple, 75, 80, 85; imitation of,
549; temple of Demeter, capital, 63
Pagodas, 580, 584
21
Palaces, Egyptian, 21; Mesopotamian, 25,
28, 29, 30; Persian, 33-36, 34; ^gean,
37, 39-40; Roman, 104; Byzantine,
20Sff.; Renaissance, 345, 350-352, 355,
359, 360, 361. 368-369; post-Renaissance,
in Italy, 414, 415-416; in Spain, 420-
421, 422; in France, 433; in England,
439, 442, 444-445; Mohammedan, 578-
579; Chinese, 585
PalcBstras, 92, 130
Palenque, 524, 525
Paleolithic period, 8
Palermo, Cappella Palatina, 240; cathe-
dral, 240
Palladian motive, 376
"Palladian style," 442-444, 448-450, 465;
in America, 536, 538
Palladio, Andrea, 370, 408-409, 416, 419,
443, 461
Palm column, 22
Palmyra, 146, 154, 462
Paneling, 534, 538
Papyrus column, 13, 22
Parion, altar, 86
Paris, Arc du Carrousel, 466; Arc de
1'Etoile, 466, 467, 500; Bazaar de la
rue de Rennes, 504, 5/0; Biblioth£que
Nationale, 502, 503; BibliothSque
Sainte Genevieve, 493, 495, 503; Bourse,
467, 472; cathedral, 280, 200, 292,
203, 295, 296, 338; Chapelle Com-
memorative, 495; Chateau Madrid, 380;
College des Quatre Nations, 426, 435;
Ecole des Beaux- Arts, 484, 491, 493, 512;
influence, 552, 555, 560; Ecole Mili-
taire, 432, 436; Eiffel Tower, 503; Expo-
sition of 1855, 504; Exposition of 1878,
504; Exposition of 1900, 512; Gare
de 1'Est, 509; Gare du Nord, 509;
Gare du quai d'Orsay, 509, 5ii; Halle
au Ble, 472, 503; Halles Centrales, 503;
hotels, 434; Hotel Cluny, 331, 337, 338;
Hotel de Salm, 464; Hotel de Ville, 382,
495; Invalides, 435, 436; Louvre, 337,
382; colonnade, 426, 427, 428; court,
383, 424, 426; south facade, 426; Lux-
embourg, 425; Madeleine, 467, 542;
Metropolitan Railway stations, 514;
Mint, 471; Mus6e Galliera, 494; Musee
des Monuments Frangais, 484; octroi
gates, 465; Odeon, 473; Opera, 494, 406,
507, 508; Opera (Old), 487; Palais
Bourbon, 471; Palais de 1'Industrie, 504;
Palais de Justice, 471; Vestibule de Har-
ley, 504; Palace of the Legion of Honor,
464; Panth6on, see Sainte Genevieve;
Petit-Palais, 494; Place Dauphine, 423,
436; Place de la Concorde, 432, 436;
Place de France, 436; Place Royale, 423,
436; Place Vendome, 436; Place des
Victoires, 436; Porte St. Denis, 437, 438,
500; rue de Rivoli, 475; Sacred Heart,
495, 497 j St. Augustin, 495; Ste.
Chapelle, 278, 2Qi, 299, 338; Ste.
Clotilde, 484, 485; St. Eustache, 384;
Ste. Genevidve, 464, 465; imitation of,
§44; St. Germain-des-Pres, 290, 338;
t. Gervais, 424; St. Martin des Champs,
292, 338; St. Philippe du Roule, 474-
475; St. Sulpice, 431; Ste. Trinite, 495;
Sorbonne, chapel, 435; Tuileries, 384, 385,
387, 423; Val-de-Grace, 426, 43$;
Vend6me column, 466
6i6
INDEX
Parma, 234, 270; theater, 416
Parterres, 416
Parthia, 57, 572
Pasargadse, 33, 36
Patio, 529
Paulinzelle, 242, 243, 244, 271
Pa via, Certosa, 320, jjj, 354; San Michele,
231. 233. 270
Pavilions, 358, 361, 382, 426, 428, 432, 448,
544
Paxton, Sir Joseph, 504
Pearson, J. L., 492
Pediments, in Greek architecture, 73, 78,
84; in Roman architecture, 106; in
Renaissance architecture, 349, 366, 387;
in post-Renaissance architecture, 411;
broken, 390, 401, 403, 4*9, 423, 437,
448, 536
Pekin, Temple of Heaven, 584
Pendentive, 1 7 7 ff.
Penetrations, 378, 414, 421
Pennethorne, Sir James, 490
Pennsylvania, colonial architecture, 535
Percier, Charles, 467
Pergamon, 56, 73; Altar of Zeus, 57, 86;
palace, 93; Ionic temple, 85
Pericles, 54, 80
PeYigueux, St. Front, 212, 227, 251, 252,
267
Peristyle, exterior, in Egyptian architect-
ure, 23; in Greek architecture, 74, 76,
95; in Roman architecture, 107, 116;
in Renaissance architecture, 358, 379;
in post-Renaissance architecture, 442;
in modern architecture, 467; in Amer-
ican architecture, 544, 549, 558
Peristyle, interior, 74, 82, 89, 93, 148; see
also Courts, peristylar
Perisiylium, 112
Perpendicular Gothic, 284, 305^"., 312
Perrault, Claude, 427-428
Persepolis, 33-36; palace, 34; tomb of
Darius, 35
Persia, Mohammedan architecture in, 573-
574. 575-576, 579
Persian architecture, Achaemenian period,
32-36; Sassanian period, 572-573
Perspectives, constructed, 412, 416
Peru, 527, 528
Perugia, "Arch of Augustus," 108
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 360-361, 374
Phaistos, 39
Phidias, 54, 80, 82
"hiladelphia, 535, _
Pennsylvania, 545; Bank of the United
Bank
Bank),
Pennsylvania, 545; Bank of the 1
States (Custom House), 545, 546;
of the United States (Girard's ]
Philadelphia, 535, 537, 560; Bank of
ik of
545,
[Girai__ ,,
542; Centennial Exposition, 554; Christ
Church, 538; Girard College, 546; In-
dependence Hall, 538-539; library, 542;
Merchants' Exchange, 546; Pennsyl-
vania Hospital, 540; Sedgeley, 551;
State House, 538-539
Phils, 21
Philip II., 420
Piano nobile, 360
Picardy, Gothic architecture in, 284
Picturesqueness in medieval architecture,
335
Piedmont, baroque architecture, 412
Pienza, Piazza, 370
Pier, compound, in Lombard Romanesque
architecture, 228; in Gothic architecture,
293, 294
Pierrefonds, 327, 338
Pilaster strip, in Lombard Romanesque,
228
Pilasters, in Roman architecture, 127, 146;
paneled, 377
Pile dwellings, 8-9, 10
Pioneer architecture, 527
Piraeus, 54, 98,; arsenal, 74
Piranesi, G. B., 462, 464
Pisa, baptistry, 238; cathedral, 229, 235,
236, 237, 238; cathedral group, 235, 237;
Leaning Tower, 235, 238
Pisistratus, 52, 67, 86
Pittsburgh, Allegheny Court House, 553;
Calvary Church, 558
Pitzounda, 204, 214
Planning, 2; in Rome, 105; in France,
384, 435; irregular, 105, 361, 436
" Plantagenet " Gothic, 285
Plateresque, 387
Platt, C. A., 556
Plymouth, 534
Poblet, 314
Poelaert, Joseph, 496
Poggio a Cajano, Villa, 353, 37O, 3?6
Poitiers, Notre Dame la Grande, 252, 253
Pollaiuolo, Simone del, 352-353
Polychromy, in Egyptian architecture, 12;
in Mesopotamian architecture, 32; in
Greek architecture, 72; in Roman archi-
tecture, 151; in early Christian archi-
tecture, 166, 176; in Byzantium, 184,
198; in Lombard Romanesque, 230; in
Tuscan Romanesque, 236; in French
Gothic, 320
Polyclitus, 55
Gothic, 298; in Tuscan
Polygonal masonry, 40, 527
Pompeii, 113, 116-118, 120, 137-139, 462;
amphitheater, 127; House of Pansa, 138,
139; theaters, 124
Pompey, 113
Poppelmann, Matthaus, 451
Portico, in ^Egean architecture, 38-40; in
Greek architecture, 57, 83, 93; in Roman
architecture, 107, 118; in Renaissance
architecture, 386; in modern architect-
ure, 442, 443, 445, 447, 452, 463, 464,
469, 471, 472, 474, 475; in American
architecture, 537, 538, 540, 542, 545,
546, 548, 549, 550; see also Peristyle,
exterior
Post-colonial architecture, 547, 550
Post-Renaissance architecture, xxii, 401-
459; in America, 536-54°, 542-545
Pozzolana, 149
Prague, Belvedere, 388; Waldstein palace,
450
Preclassical architecture, 11-47
Prehistoric architecture, 8-10
Priene, 97; plan, 98; agora, 87; Council-
house, 89; "House XXXIII," 03; temple
of Athena, 55, 85
Primaticcio, Francesco, 381, 382, 383, 385
Prior Park, 445
Prisons, 471-472, 501, 541, 550
Pronaos, 76, 80
Proportions, in Renaissance architecture,
377; in post-Renaissance architecture,
402, 403, 444
Propylaea, 39-40, 42, 86-87
Proskenion, 89, 91
INDEX
617
Prostyle portico, 76, 82, 83
Protestantism, 447, 451, 485, 534~S3S
Prothesis, 165, 221
" Proto-Renaissance," 238
Provence, Roman architecture in, 151-152;
Romanesque architecture in, 247 ff.
Providence Plantation, 534
Ptolemaic period, 15, 22
Pugin, Augustus, 479
Pugin, A. W., 480, 500
Purbeck marble, 304
Pylon, 20
Pyramid-mastaba, 17
Pyramids, II, 13, 16-17, 135
Quadriga, 134, 13?
Quais, 436
"Queen Anne" style, 490-491; in America,
553-554
Quimper, 307
Quoins, 150, 423, 533
Radial plans, 434, 436, 448, 550
Railway stations, 498, 501, 507-508, 553
Ramesseum, 23, 109
Ramps, 416
Ramses III., 15
Raphael, 358, 360-361, 369, 374. 377
Raschdorff, J. C., 489
Ravanitsa, IQO, 205
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe, 194;
Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, 168, i6g, 194;
Baptistry of the Orthodox (S. Giovanni
in Fonte), 179; Mausoleum of Galla
Placidia (SS. Nazzaro e Celso), 160, 178,
179. 195. 197; palace of Theodoric, 207;
S. Vitale, 185, 186, i8g, 190, 195, 197
Refinements, in Greek architecture, 50, 82,
85; in Roman architecture, 116; in
medieval architecture, 219 ff.
Reformation, 401, 402
Regensburg, 469
Reims, cathedral, 287, 200, 291, 295, 296,
299, 300; St. Remi, 262
Renaissance architecture xxii, 344-400; re-
vival of, 487-489, 490, 492, 493; in Amer-
ica, 552, 554-556
Renwick, James, 551
Restoration, of Gothic buildings, 478
Revett, Nicholas, 462, 465
Revolution, French, 469, 484; American, 540
Rhamnus, temple of Themis, 77
Rhine valley, Romanesque architecture of,
245
Rhodes, 56; plan of, 98; Gothic architect-
ure in, 286
Rhythmical bay, 352, 357-358, 365, 386
Ribbed vaults, in Lombard Romanesque
- and Gothic, 226^.
Richardson, H. H., 552-553
Richelieu, chateau, 424
Richmond, capitol, 541, 542; Monumental
Church, 550; penitentiary, 550
Rickman, Thomas, 479
Rimini, S. Francesco, 35 1
Robert de Luzarches, 279
Rocaille, 430
Rockville, Maxwell Court, 555
Rock-work, 411
Rococo, 438; in Germany, 451; in France,
422, 430-43L 432
Rodriguez, Lorenzo, 528
Rogers, Isaiah, 546
Roman arch order, see Arch order
Roman architecture, 103-158; influence of,
154, 345; revival of, 464-467; in Amer-
ica, 541-542, 544^545
Romanesque architecture, 217-274; prior-
ity in, 225; influence of, 268 ff.
Romanesque revival, in Germany, 483; in
England, 492; in France, 495; in Amer-
ica, 552-553. 556
Romanticism, 461, 476-485
Rome, 57, H3-H5, 346, 357, 377, 412;
Aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 108;
"Arch of Constantino," 134, 147; Arch
of Domitian, 134, 147; Arch of Titus,
133; Basilica Emilia, 123; Basilica
Julia, 113, 122-123; Basilica of Maxen-
tius, 123-, 124; Basilica Ulpia, 122, 123;
Cancellaria, 357-358, 369, 372; Cap-
itol, 406, 407, 419; Castle of Sant'
Angelo, 136; Circus Maximus, 128; Co-
losseum, 777. 127-128; Column of
Duilius, 133; Column of Marcus Aure-
lius, 133; Column of Trajan, 133; Comi-
tium, 122; Curia, 122; Fora of the Em-
perors, 121; Forum of Augustus, 113,
120; Forum of Caesar, 113, 118, 120;
Forum Romanum, 113, HQ, 121, 122;
Forum of Trajan, 114, 120-122; Forum
Transitorium, 147; fountain of Acqua
Paola, 411; French Academy, 428; II
Gesu, 411; Golden House of Nero, 141;
Isola Tiberina, 143; Lateran, 168; facade,
413, 463; Mausoleum of Augustus, 136;
Mausoleum of Hadrian, 136; monument
to Victor Emmanuel II., 496, 4QQ;
palaces of the Caesars, 139-142, 747;
Palatine Hill, 114, 139-141, 143; Palazzo
dell' Aquila, 360, 361; Palazzo Barberini,
415; Palazzo Barberini, stairs, 419;
Palazzo Cancellaria, 357-358, 369, 372;
Palazzo Farnese, 368, 360, 371, 372;
cornice, 375; Palazzi Massimi, 361,
362; Palazzo Ludovisi (Montecitorio),
412; Palazzo Raffaello, 358, 360;
Palazzo del Senatore, 406-407; Pa-
lazzo Venezia, 357; Pantheon, 114,
115, 117, 118, 149; impost, 146, 147;
tabernacles, 144; imitation of, 351, 359,
463, 471, 474, 475, 544, 545; Piazza del
Popolo, 418; Piazza of Saint Peter, 412,
418, 419; Poris ^milius, 108; Pons
Mulvius, 132; Ripetta, 418; rostrum,
122; Sant' Agnese fuori-le-mura, 162,
1 68, 1 80; Sant' Agnese, Piazza Navona,
412; S. Andrea, 409; S. Carlo a' Cati-
nari, 415; S. Clemente, 163, 164, 180;
Sta. Costanza, 137, 170, 771, 180; S.
Giovanni in Laterano, 168; facade, 413,
463; S. Ivo, 412; S. Lorenzo fuori-le-
mura, 760, 767, 168, 169, 180; S. Marco,
355, 357', Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, 168;
Sta. Maria Maggiore, 168, 180; Sta.
Maria del Popolo, Chigi Chapel, 360;
St. Paul's Outside- the- Walls, 162, 164,
767, 168, 180; St. Peter's, 357, 359, 360,
366, 367, 368, 375-376, 378, 379, 404, 405;
baldachino, 412; colonnades, 411; dome,
495-496; fagade, 411; nave, 414; St.
Peter's (Old), 160, 164, 165, 168, 180;
S. Pietro in Montorio, "Tempietto,"
35<5, 358, 377, 379! S. Pietro in Vincoli,
160, 168, 180; S. Stefano Rotondo, 760,
762, 170, 180; Spanish Steps, 418;
6i8
INDEX
Tabularium, 109, iio-m; temple of
Antoninus and Faustina, 146, 147; tem-
ple of Castor and Pollux, 145; "Temple
of Fortuna Virilis," 109; temple of Mars
the Avenger, 113, 116; temple of Trajan,
122; temple of Venus and Rome, 118;
"Temple of Vesta," 118; theaters, 126;
theater of Pompey, 113, 125, 126;
thermae of Caracalla, 129, 130; impost,
147; thermae of Diocletian, 130; tomb
of Constantia, 137; see also Santa Cos-
tanza; Vatican, 357. 404', Court of the
Belvedere, 359; Court of San Damaso,
loggia, 361, 377; Scala Regia, 412;
Villa Farnesina, 361, 369; Villa Madama,
359, 36i, 370, 377. 378; Villa di Papa
Giulio, 409; stairs, 419; Villa Pia, 404,
416
Romulus Augustulus, 115
Roof-comb, 524
Roofs, 4; in Egypt, 23; in Mesopotamia,
25; in Persia, 33; in Crete, 38; in
Greece, 39, 73. 78; in Italian Renais-
sance, 379; in French Renaissance, 382,
387; in English Renaissance, 394; in
American architecture, 532, 533, 535, 536;
in India, 580; in China, 580, 584
Root, J. W., 556, 564
Rose windows, 295
Rostra, 122
Rouen, cathedral, Tomb of Louis de
Breze, 382; Palais de Justice, 332; St.
Maclou, 307, 310; St. Ouen, 307, 308
Rough cast, 513
Ruskin, John, 481, 506; influence of, 551
Rustication, in Roman architecture, 144;
in the Renaissance, 350, 351, 371, 376;
in post-Renaissance architecture, 401,
410, 418, 419, 423, 424, 448
Ruweiha, 173
Sacconi, Count Giuseppe, 496
St. Augustine, 529
St. Denis, 309; mausoleum of the Valois
384. 386
St. Gall (Switzerland), 221, 222
St.-Gaudens, Augustus, 558
St. Germain, 423
St. Germer de Fly, 290, 292, 293
St. Gilles, 249
St. Leu d'Esserent, 289
St. Loup-de-Naud, 262
St. Maur-les-Foss£s, chateau, 382
St. Medard-en-Jalle, 329
St. Saturnin, 250
Saite period, 15, 22
Sakkara, pyramid, 16
Salamanca, Casa de Monterey, 388;
university, 387
Salem. Pierce-Nichols house, 547, 548
Sahsbury, 276, 280, 301, 302, 303, 304
Salon, 433
Salonica, Eski-djouma, 186; Hagia Sophia,
Salzburg, cathedral, 450
Samos, 52; temple of Hera, 79, 85
Samothrace, Kabirion, 86
San Diego, 529
San Francisco Solano, 529
San Gabriel, 530
San Galgano, 317
San Gallo, Antonio da, the elder ^52-is^
366; the younger, 368, 379, 405
San Gallo, Giuliano da, 352-353
San Juan Capistrano, 530
San Juan de los Caballeros, 529
Sanmicheli, Michele, 362-363
San Miguel de Linio, 225
Sansovino, Jacopo, 362-364, 377
Santa Barbara, mission, 530
Santa Creus, 314
Santa F6, cathedral, 529
Santa Maria de Naranco, 225
Santullano, 225
Sarcophagi, 94, 109, 135, 4°3
Sargon II., 27, 29
Sash windows, 446, 536
Sassanian architecture, 572-573; in-
fluence of, 573, 574
Saucer dome, 379, 464, 556
Scana frons, 124, 126-127, 416
Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 450
Scandinavia, Gothic architecture in, 321
Schinkel, K. F., 469, 473, 474, 483
Schluter, Andreas, 451
Schmidt, Friedrich, 489
Schnaase, Karl, 500
Scipio Barbatus, sarcophagus, 109
Scotia, 65
Scott, Sir Gilbert, 482
"Screens," 392, 393
Sculpture, in Egyptian architecture, n;
in Mesopotamian architecture, 32; in
Greek architecture, 54, 78, 84-85; in
early Christian architecture, 174; in
Byzantine architecture, 184; in Lombard
Romanesque, 230; in Aquitanian Ro-
manesque, 253; in Spanish Romanesque,
263 ff.; in French Gothic, 298; in
English Gothic, 302; in German Gothic,
310; in Spanish Gothic, 313; in Italian
Renaissance architecture, 354, 377; in
Khmer architecture, 583; in Japanese
architecture, 586
Secession, see Modernism
"Second Golden Age" of Byzantine art,
197
Secular architecture, in Byzantium, 207 ff.;
in the Romanesque period, 268; in the
Gothic period, 322^.
Sedding, J. D., 492
Segesta, temple, 85
Selinus, 52, 80; megaron of Demeter, 77;
temple "C," 77; temple "F," 86; tem-
ple of Apollo, 70, 78, 80
Semper, Gottfried, 488-489, 500, 507, 509
Senlis, 290, 296, 207
Sen-Mut, 24
Sennacherib, 27, 28
Septapartite vaults in Durham cathedral,
260
Serlio, Sebastiano, 381, 403
Seroux d'Agincourt, 484
Serra, Junipero, 529
Servadony, J. N., 431, 463
Service quarters, 2, 29, 430, 434, 442, 444,
445. 537, 549
Severus, 118
Seville, cathedral, 27$, 280, 315, 316, 318;
Giralda Tower, 316, 318; El Salvador,
altar, 422; Town Hall, 387, 388
Seti I., temple at Abydos, 23
Sexpartite vaults, 257 /,
Shaw, Norman, 491
Shell-work, 430
Shop fronts, 504
INDEX
619
Shute, John, 392
Siccardsburg, A. S. von, 489
Sicily, Greek architecture in, 51, 52, 55, 56;
Roman conquest, 109; Romanesque
architecture in, 239 ff.
Sidon, sarcophagi from, 94
Siena, cathedral, 319; Palazzo del Mag-
nifico, flag holder, 373; Palazzo Pub-
blico, 333, S8o, 581
Site, adaptation in Greek architecture to,
95; in medieval architecture, 335 ff,
Siva shrines, 581
Skene, 89-91
Skopas, 85
Skripou, 199
Skyscrapers, 560-563
Smibert, John, 539
Smithfield, St. Luke's, 533
Snefru, pyramid of, 16
Soane, Sir John, 472
Soest, Wiesenkirche, 310
Soissons, 294, 295
Soufflot, J. G., 431, 462, 500
Spain, pre-Romanesque architecture of,
224; Romanesque architecture of, 363 ff.;
Gothic architecture of, 285, 312 ff.;
Renaissance architecture in, 346, 387-
388; post-Renaissance architecture in,
402-403, 420-422; Mohammedan archi-
tecture in, 573-574, 579
Spalato, palace of Diocletian, 115, 142, 143,
179, 462; arches, 146, 147; mausoleum,
137, 142; Porta Aurea, 147
Spanish colonial architecture, 527-531;
Sparta, 55
Spatial forms, in Roman architecture, 148,
345; in Renaissance architecture, 366-
368, 377-378, 379
Speyer, 229, 245, 246, 247
Spina, 128
Spire, development of, in Gothic architect-
ure, 296 ff.
Spoleto, cathedral, capitals, 373
Squares, 370, 423, 436, 448, 475
Squinches, 200 ff., 573»-579
Stables, 434, 444
Stadions, 56, 74,. 92
Stael, Madame de, 476, 500
Stage, Greek, 89-90, 91; Roman, 124;
modern, 507
Stained glass in Gothic architecture, 298
Stairs, in Assyria, 29; in Persia, 33; in
Crete, 39; in Renaissance architecture,
378, 380, 384; in post-Renaissance
architecture, 405, 410, 415, 419, 433; in
Maya architecture, 524
Stalactite vaulting, 579
Stanislas, 431
Steel, use of, in modern architecture, 501,
502, 503-505, 561-562; see also Iron
Steeples, 447-448, 538
Stele, 94
Stereotomy, 437
Stilt-blocks, 146, 579
Stilting in Gothic architecture, 288^".
Stiris, great church of St. Luke, 200, 201;
little church of St. Luke, 190, 199, 200
Stoas, 74, 87, Qif 92, in
Stone age, 8-9
Stonehenge, 9
Strap-work, 392, 438
Strasburg, cathedral, 309, 339, 483; modern
buildings, 490
Strawberry Hill, 478
Street, George Edmund, 482
Strickland, William, 546
Stuart, James, 462, 464
Stucco, in Roman architecture, 147; in
Renaissance architecture, 372, 378; in
post-Renaissance architecture, 418; in
American architecture, 527; in Moham-
medan architecture, 579; see also Rough
cast
Stupa, 580-581, 582
Sullivan, Louis, 511, 513, 563, 564-565
Sutton Place, 393
Switzerland, Gothic architecture in, 321
Syracuse, 109
Syria, Roman architecture in, 115, 143,
146, 152-154; early Christian architect-
ure in, 171-174; Mohammedan archi-
tecture, 573-574
Stylobate, 58
Sumerian architecture, 26
Susa, 33
Symmetry, 50
Syracuse, 52, 56; altar of Hieron, 86; palace
of Dionysius, 55
"T" form in Carolingian architecture, 221
Tabernacles, in Roman architecture, 144,
147; in Renaissance architecture, 361,
372, 374, 376
Tablinum, 138
Taine, Henri, 500
Tarentum, 52, 109
Tegea, temple of Athena Alea, 85
Tello, see Lagash
Temples, Egyptian, 18-21; Assyrian, 29;
Babylonian, 30, 31; Greek, 52, 75-86,
74-87; Etruscan, 107; Roman, 112, 114,
115-120; imitation of, 409, 447, 463,
467, 474, 475, 540, 541-542, 544, 546,
549, 55o; circular, 56, 85, 107, 109, 118;
imitation of, 358, 466
Tepidarium, 129, 130, 131
Terra-cotta, 62, 108, 505, 560, 562
Terramare, 10
Terraces, 359, 361, 416
Thamugadi, 143; forum, 120
Theaters, Greek, 52, 56, 74, 89-91; Roman,
124-127, 125; imitation of, 471, 473-474,
544, 545; post-Renaissance, 416-417;
modern, 472-474, 491, 498, 506-507
Theatral area, 39
Theban period, 13, 17, 20
Thebes (Egypt), 13
Thebes (Greece), 55
Theodoric, 195
Theodosius II., 210
Theoretical writings, Greek, 50; Roman,
113; Renaissance, 352; post-Renais-
sance, 392, 403, 409, 423, 425, 443;
modern, 461, 463, 480, 481, 484, 500,
503, 506, 509-511- 512
Thermae, 104, 114, 115, 128-131, 148
Thinite period, 12-13
Thirty Years' War, 450
This, 12
Tholoi, see Temples, circular
Thornton, William, 542
Thothmes III., 24, 27
Thurii, 98
Tiberius, 141
Tiercerons, in English Gothic, 304jf.; in
Flamboyant Gothic, 306
62O
INDEX
Tie-rods. 4, 378
Tile, 482, 504, SOS, 579
Timgad, 143; forum, 120
Tiryns, 37; palace, 39, 40
Titus, 133
Tivoli, "Temple of Vesta," 109, no, 118;
capital, 145; Villa d'Este, stairs, 419;
villa of Hadrian, 139, 140, 148
Toledo, 314- 317
Toltec architecture, 525
Tombs, Egyptian, 16-18; Persian, 36;
JEgean, 37, 41 ; Greek, 74, 94-95; Roman,
135-137; Mohammedan, 579
Torus, 65
Toulouse, Hotel d'Assezat, 384; St. Sernin,
22Q, 251, 259, 263
Tourmanin, 772, 173
Tournus, St. Philibert, 254, 255, 271
Tours, St. Martin, 221
Towers, in Romanesque, 267; in Gothic,
296^"., 301; in Renaissance architecture,
414; in post-Renaissance architecture,
414, 435, 442, 447; in modern architect-
ure, 475, 480, 503; in American archi-
tecture, 529, 530, 538, SSL 552, 553
Town halls, in Gothic Flanders, 329 ff.;
modern, 485, 498
Town planning, Greek, 54-55, 56, 95-98;
Roman, 113-114; Italian Renaissance,
370-371, 418; post-Renaissance, 423-
424, 448, 475
Townsend, C. H., 513
Tracery, plate, 204; bar, 294, 295
Trajan, 114, 120, 122, 133
Treasuries, 86
Trebizond, Chrysokephalos, 205
Trebizond, Hagia Sophia, 205, 206
Tresguerras, F. E., 528
Troves, 309, 339
Trianon, see Versailles, 483
Triclinium, 138
Trier, Porta Nigra, 134, 135; buildings of
Constantino, 152
Triforium, 165
Triglyphs, 58, 60-62, 63, 64; corner, 144
Triumphal arch, see Arch, commemorative
Trophies, 133, 438
Troy, 37
Troyes, 294, 206
"Tudor arch," 306
Tudor architecture, 480, 485
Tumulus, 135, 136-137
Turin, Palazzo Carignano, 412; Superga,
413, 414- 463
Turkish architecture, 574, 576; imitation
of, 487
Turrets, 394
Tuscan order, 108, 374, 439
Tuscany, Romanesque architecture in, 234;
Gothic architecture in, 319 ff.; early
Renaissance in, 347-353
Uji, Phenix-Hall, 585, 586
Ulm, 311
United States, architecture in, 540-565
Universities, 498
Upjohn, Richard, 557
Ur-Nina, building at Lagash, 26
Urns, cinerary, 135
Uskub, Church of the Archangels, 205
UzSs, 267
Vanbrugh, Sir John, 442, 444
Vandals, 115
Van de Velde, Henry, 512
Van der Null, 489
Vanvitelli, Luigi, 414
Vasari, Giorgio, 409
Vaults, 5; Egyptian, 23; Mesopotamian,
25, 30-32; ^Egean, 41; Greek, 57, 73;
Roman, 104-105, 124, 128, 131, 148-149,
150, 151, i$2, 154; in Romanesque
architecture, 264 ff.; in Gothic architect-
ure, 286, 287 'ff.; in English Gothic,
301 ff.; Renaissance, 378; post-Renais-
sance, 436; modern, 504; Sassanian, 572-
573; Mohammedan, 574, 579
Vaux-le-Vicomte, chateau, 426; gardens,
434
Velarium, 124
Veneering, marble, 118, 131, 149-151, 418
Venice, medieval secular building in, 334;
early Renaissance in, 355; High Renais-
sance in, 363-364; baroque arqhitecture
in, 412; Logetta, 376-377; Library of
St. Mark, 363-364, 365, 370; details, 375;
Palazzo Cornaro della Ca' Grande,
363; Palazzo Ducale, 334, 335, 340;
Palazzo Grimani, 363, 364; Palazzo
Vendramini, 354, 355; S. Giorgio Mag-
giore, stairs, 419; SS. John and Paul,
320; Sta. Maria della Salute, 412, 413,
414; St. Mark's, 207, 202, 203; S.
Salvatore, 365
Verandas, 531
Verona, amphitheater, 128; city gates, 363;
Loggia del Consiglio, 370; Palazzo
Pompei, 363; Roman theater, 126;
S. Zeno, 233, 234, 263
Versailles, 428, 420, 430; . apartments of
Louis XV., 437; chapel, 435; Galerie
des Glaces, 430, 431; gardens, 434;
Grand Trianon, 434; Hall of the States-
General, 471; hamlet of Marie Antoin-
ette, 434, 483; Petit Trianon, 432, 433,
434, 437; theater, 432
Vestibules, 415, 433
V6zelay, 254, 255 *
Vicenza, "Basiliza," 370, 376, 407, 408;
imitation of, 487; Teatro Olimpico, 416;
Villa Rotonda, 408, 409
Victorian Gothic, 482; in America, 552
Victor Emmanuel II., 496
Vienna, 488-489; Court Theater, 489;
Houses of Parliament, 489; Imperial
Palace, 489; Metropolitan Railway
stations, 514, 515; museums, 489; Opera,
489; Palace of Justice, 489; Postal
Savings Bank, 515; Rathaus, 489; Ring-
strasse, 489; S. Carlo Borromeo, 451;
"Secession," 515; university, 489; Vo-
tive Church, 483, 489
Viennese Workshops, 515
Vignola, G. B. da, 409, 416
Vignon, Barthe'lemy, 467
Vignory, 261
Villas, Roman, 139; Renaissance, 353, 361,
369-370; post-Renaissance, 409, 411,
416
Villers-Cotterets, chapel, 386
Vinci, Leonardo da, 358, 366
Viollet-le-Duc, E. E., 482, 484, 500, 503, 504,
506
Virginia, 548; colonial architecture, 533,
537
INDEX
621
Vishnu shrines, 581
Viterbo, S. Martino, 318
Vitruvian academy, 403, 409
Vitruvius, 50, 68, 108, 1 13, 374, 377, 392, 403
Volutes, 32, 36, 64-67, 84, 145, 366
C/. F. A.,
Voysey, C. F. A.
Vries, V. de, 392
SI3-5M
Wagner, Otto, 511, 515
Wagner, Richard, 501, 507
Wall membering, Greek, 71; Roman, 147-
148; in Renaissance architecture, 376-
377, 386; post-Renaissance, 419; in
American architecture, 544
Wallot, Paul, 489
Wall shafts, in Saxon architecture, 224
Walls, typical form of, 2
Walpole, Horace, 478
Walter, Thomas U., 546
Washington, 558; capitol, 542, 545-546,
547; Lincoln Memorial, 558; St. John's,
550; White House, 548, 549; Treasury,
546; Washington Monument, 546
Waterhouse, Alfred, 482, 492
Webb, Sir Aston, 491, 492
Webb, Philip, 505
Wedgwood, Josiah, 464
Wells, cathedral, 302, 304
Wells, Holden, 554, 555
West Point, 559
Westover, 536, 537
Wheel windows, 295
White, Stanford, 560
William of Sens, 303
William the Conqueror, 259
Williamsburg, capitol, 538
Willson, E. J., 479
Winckelmann, 462, 463
Windows, Greek, 73, 78; Roman, 144; in
medieval architecture, 165, 267, 294,
295, 296, 333 ff.; in Renaissance archi-
tecture, 374, 382; post-Renaissance, 419,
437
Windsor, St. George's Chapel, 306, 339
Wolsey, Cardinal, 391
Wood construction, imitation of, in Persia,
f3; in Doric architecture, 60, 62; in
onic architecture, 65
Wood, use of, in America, 532, 533, 534,
540, 547; in Indian architecture, 580;
in Chinese architecture, 580, 584
Wood, John, 448
Wood, Robert, 462
Worms, 245, 246
Wren, Sir Christopher, 439-442, 444, 445,
447, 448, 477
Wright, F. L., 565
Wyatt, James, 478
Xerxes, palace and hall of, 34, 35-36
York, assembly rooms, 443; cathedral, 305,
339
Ypres, Cloth Hall, 330, 338
Yucatan, 524-525
Ziggurat, 29-30
Zigzag molding, 255, 256
Zoroastrianism, 33
Zoser, pyramid of, 16
THE END
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